\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":45,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What 19th century African-American piano player has had his music revived by John Davis?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Thomas \"Blind Tom\" Wiggins"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["John Davis (pianist)\nJohn Davis (born October 22, 1957) is an American classical pianist, concert performer, recording artist, and historian. Born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina and raised in Providence, Rhode Island, Davis now lives in Brooklyn, New York. He has specialized in reviving the forgotten music of several 19th Century African-American pianists, including Blind Tom Wiggins and Blind Boone. He has recorded albums of works by both composers for the Newport Classic label.\nDavis has performed solo piano recitals across the United States, toured Asia and Eastern Europe by invitation of the US State Department, and created several theatrically driven programs entitled \"The John Davis Caravan: Standing at the Crossroads\", \"Will the Real Thomas Wiggins Please Stand Up!\", and \"Halley's Comet: Around the Piano with Mark Twain & John Davis.\"\n\"Time Out New York\" wrote that \"Davis has made a mission of uncovering music by 19th-century black pianists, including slaves, whose work had a direct impact on the blues, jazz, rock, and R&B artists that came in their wake.\" His research and performances have been featured on NPR and television broadcasts and in newspapers and magazines, including \"The New Yorker\" and \"Scientific American\". He has written articles on Blind Tom for several Oxford University Press books, including \"African American Lives\" (2004), \"Stress and Coping in Autism\" (2006), and \"African American National Biography\" (2008).\nSeveral recordings by Davis of Blind Tom compositions were used in the soundtrack of Lorna Simpson's 2003 film \"Corridor\".\nIn 2010, in commemoration of the 175th anniversary of the birth (and 100th anniversary of the death) of Mark Twain, Davis released \"Halley's Comet: Around the Piano with Mark Twain and John Davis\", an album of repertoire based around Twain's fondness for the piano. Composers featured on the album include Louis Moreau Gottschalk, Franz Schubert, Blind Boone, Blind Tom, and Ossip Gabrilowitsch.\nDavis studied at Brown University and received his Masters degree from Juilliard School. His teachers included Seth Carlin, Gabriel Chodos, Herbert Stessin, Aube Tzerko, and Beveridge Webster.","Louisa Melvin Delos Mars\nLouisa Melvin Delos Mars (c.1860 – after 1926) was a late 19th century African-American singer and composer who was active in Providence, Rhode Island and Boston, Massachusetts. She was one of the first black women to achieve recognition as a composer, and was one of the first black students to graduate from the New England Conservatory. She is best known for composing five full length operettas.\nBorn Louisa Melvin in Providence and later a resident of Boston, Melvin Delos Mars was one of the first black women to achieve recognition as a composer. She was one of the first black individuals to graduate from the New England Conservatory and first achieved notice in the 1880s singing alongside her sister, Carrie Melvin Lucas, who played cornet and violin. Her sister was the wife of vaudeville entertainer Sam Lucas, and their daughter and Louisa's niece, Maria Lucas, also became a popular trombonist, pianist, and conductor who eventually became the music director at the Howard Theatre in Washington, D.C.\nMelvin Delos Mars was the first African-American woman to have an opera she composed produced: \"Leoni, the Gypsy Queen\" in Providence, Rhode Island in 1889. She went on to compose and star in four more full length operettas which were staged in either Boston, Massachusetts or Providence, Rhode Island between 1880–1896, including \"Fun At A Boarding School\", and \"Love In Disguise; or, Things Are Not What They Seem\". None of her works survive.\nMelvin Delos Mars was married to William Delos Mars (1856–1927), and the couple had two sons who were born in Providence: Charles (born May 19, 1883) and Christian (born December 23, 1886). Not much is known about her activities or whereabouts after 1896.","Mr. Popper's Penguins (film)\nMr. Popper's Penguins is a 2011 American family comedy film distributed by 20th Century Fox, directed by Mark Waters, produced by John Davis, co-produced by Davis Entertainment Company and Dune Entertainment, written by Sean Anders, John Morris and Jared Stern with music by Rolfe Kent and starring Jim Carrey, Carla Gugino, Madeline Carroll, Maxwell Perry Cotton, Angela Lansbury, Desmin Borges, Philip Baker Hall, Dominic Chianese, Clark Gregg, Ophelia Lovibond, Jeffrey Tambor, David Krumholtz, Henry Keleman, Dylan Clark Marshall with Frank Welker and James Tupper. It was loosely based on the children's book of the same name. The film was originally slated for a release on August 12, 2011, but was moved up to June 17, 2011. The film received mixed reviews from critics and it earned $187.3 million on a $55 million budget.\nThomas Popper (Jim Carrey), is a divorced real estate entrepreneur whose father traveled around the world during his childhood in the 1970s. He learns that his father has died during an adventure to Antarctica. The following week, a crate containing a gentoo penguin, named Captain, shows up at his door as a souvenir from his father’s last adventure. A few days later, five more penguins arrive. Popper intends to give them away but changes his idea when his children, Janie (Madeline Carroll) and Billy (Maxwell Perry Cotton), think that the animals are Billy's birthday present.\nAt work, Popper is given the task of buying Tavern on the Green, the only privately owned real estate in Central Park that is an old restaurant where he used to eat with his father when he was a child. However, its elderly owner, Selma Van Gundy, will only sell it to a person of true value. Popper has unsuccessful meetings with her, and she refuses to sell the restaurant to him. Having the penguins around helps Popper become closer to his children. He also begins dating their mother, Amanda Popper again. The penguins lay three eggs. Two eggs hatch, and one doesn’t. Popper becomes obsessed with seeing the last egg hatch, losing his job.\nPopper realizes that the egg can’t be hatched so he decides to donate the penguins to the New York Zoo. Then, he is re-employed but his children and ex-wife are disappointed by his decision.\nPopper finds a lost letter from his father telling him to hold his children close and love them. Popper asks his children and ex-wife to help him get the penguins back from the zoo. They find the penguins, free them and they get away and flee to the tavern.\nUpon seeing how Popper had reunited his family and saved the penguins, Van Gundy sells him the restaurant. Popper decides to renovate and reopen the restaurant.\nPopper and his family travel to Antarctica with the penguins, allowing them to live with their own kind. Popper's first penguin, Captain, reveals to have laid another egg. Popper tells his children that they'll visit them when the baby is born.\nOriginally, Ben Stiller was supposed to play Mr. Popper, and Noah Baumbach was originally going to direct, but they dropped out. Owen Wilson, Jack Black, and Jim Carrey were all considered to replace Stiller, with the role eventually going to Carrey. Mark Waters was chosen to direct. Filming began in October 2010, and finished in January 2011. On September 21, 2010, it was confirmed that Carla Gugino joined the cast as Tom's former wife Amanda Popper. Rhythm and Hues Studios did the penguin animations for certain shots. The musical score was ambitious, with music playing nearly throughout. It was written by Rolfe Kent, and orchestrated by Tony Blondal. It was recorded at the scoring stage at 20th Century Fox in Century City, Ca. with a 78 piece orchestra. An online Museum Slide Game created by designer Mark Kavanaugh as promotional material for the film is still accessible.\nThe penguins portrayed in the film were a mix of real penguins and CGI.\nRolfe Kent scored the music for the film and on its soundtrack. The soundtrack also contains “Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds” written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, “Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!” written by Jule Styne and Sammy Cahn, “Sweet N' Lo” written by Erwin Lehn, “Doo Wah Dooh Wah” written and performed by Syd Dale, “Set 'Em Up Joe” written by Werner Tautz, “Spin Spin” written by Steve Sidwell, “Go Get It” written and performed by Jeff Cardoni, “Piano Lounge” written by Daniel May and Marc Ferrari, “Ice Ice Baby” performed by Vanilla Ice and music from the Charles Chaplin movies.\n\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\" was theatrically released on June 17, 2011 by 20th Century Fox.\n\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\" earned $6.4 million on opening day and $18.4 million over the three-day weekend, ranking in third place behind \"Green Lantern\" and \"Super 8\". The opening was at the high end of 20th Century Fox's expectations, which was predicting a mid to high teens opening. In its second weekend, the film faced competition from \"Cars 2\" and dropped 45% to $10.1 million and ranked in fifth place. Over the four-day Independence Day holiday weekend, it ranked in eighth place after dropping 34% to $6.7 million. The film has earned $68,224,452 domestically and $119,137,302 in foreign countries, grossing a total of $187,361,754 worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, with a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 48%, based on 136 reviews, as of August 2012. The site's consensus reads \"Blandly inoffensive and thoroughly predictable, \"Mr. Popper's Penguins\" could have been worse—but it should have been better.\"\n\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\" was released on Blu-ray and DVD on December 6, 2011. It includes a short film called \"Nimrod and Stinky's Antarctic Adventure\".","Fortepiano\nA fortepiano ] is an early piano. In principle, the word \"fortepiano\" can designate any piano dating from the invention of the instrument by Bartolomeo Cristofori around 1700 up to the early 19th century. Most typically, however, it is used to refer to the late-18th to early-19th century instruments for which Haydn, Mozart, and the younger Beethoven wrote their piano music. Starting in Beethoven's time, the fortepiano began a period of steady evolution, culminating in the late 19th century with the modern grand. The earlier fortepiano became obsolete and was absent from the musical scene for many decades. In the 20th century the fortepiano was revived, following the rise of interest in historically informed performance. Fortepianos are built for this purpose today in specialist workshops.\nThe fortepiano has leather-covered hammers and thin, harpsichord-like strings. It has a much lighter case construction than the modern piano and, except for later examples of the early nineteenth century (already evolving towards the modern piano), it has no metal frame or bracing. The action and hammers are lighter, giving rise to a much lighter touch, which in well-constructed fortepianos is also very responsive.\nThe range of the fortepiano was about four octaves at the time of its invention and gradually increased. Mozart (1756–1791) wrote his piano music for instruments of about five octaves. The piano works of Beethoven (1770–1827) reflect a gradually expanding range; his last piano compositions are for an instrument of about six octaves. (The range of most modern pianos, attained in the 19th century, is 7⅓ octaves.)\nFortepianos from the start often had devices similar to the pedals of modern pianos, but these were not always pedals; sometimes hand stops or knee levers were used instead.\nLike the modern piano, the fortepiano can vary the sound volume of each note, depending on the player's touch. The tone of the fortepiano is quite different from that of the modern piano, however, being softer with less sustain. Sforzando accents tend to stand out more than on the modern piano, as they differ from softer notes in timbre as well as volume, and decay rapidly.\nFortepianos also tend to have quite different tone quality in their different registers – slightly buzzing in the bass, \"tinkling\" in the high treble, and more rounded (closest to the modern piano) in the mid range. In comparison, modern pianos are rather more uniform in sound through their range.\nThe piano was invented by harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence around the turn of the 18th century. The first reliable record of a piano appears in the inventory of the Medici family (who were Cristofori's patrons), dated 1700. Cristofori continued to develop the instrument until the 1720s, the time from which the surviving three Cristofori instruments date.\nCristofori is perhaps best admired today for his ingenious piano action, which in some ways was more subtle and effective than that of many later instruments. However, other innovations were also needed to make the piano possible. Merely attaching the Cristofori action to a harpsichord would have produced a very weak tone. Cristofori's instruments instead used thicker, tenser strings, mounted on a frame considerably more robust than that of contemporary harpsichords. As with all virtually later pianos, in Cristofori's instruments the hammers struck more than one string at a time; Cristofori used pairs of strings throughout the range.\nCristofori was also the first to incorporate a form of soft pedal into a piano (the mechanism by which the hammers are made to strike fewer than the maximum number of strings; Cristofori's was a hand stop). It is not clear whether the modern soft pedal descends directly from Cristofori's work or arose independently.\nCristofori's invention soon attracted public attention as the result of a journal article written by Scipione Maffei and published 1711 in \"Giornale de'letterati d'Italia\" of Venice. The article included a diagram of the action, the core of Cristofori's invention. This article was republished 1719 in a volume of Maffei's work, and then in a German translation (1725) in Johann Mattheson's \"Critica Musica\". The latter publication was perhaps the triggering event in the spread of the fortepiano to German-speaking countries (see below).\nCristofori's instrument spread at first quite slowly, probably because, being more elaborate and harder to build than a harpsichord, it was very expensive. For a time, the piano was the instrument of royalty, with Cristofori-built or -styled instruments played in the courts of Portugal and Spain. Several were owned by Queen Maria Barbara of Spain, who was the pupil of the composer Domenico Scarlatti. One of the first private individuals to own a piano was the castrato Farinelli, who inherited one from Maria Barbara on her death.\nThe first music specifically written for piano dates from this period, the \"Sonate da cimbalo di piano\" (1732) by Lodovico Giustini. This publication was an isolated phenomenon; James Parakilas conjectures that the publication was meant as an honor for the composer on the part of his royal patrons. Certainly there could have been no commercial market for fortepiano music while the instrument continued to be an exotic specimen.\nIt appears that the fortepiano did not achieve full popularity until the 1760s, from which time the first records of public performances on the instrument are dated, and when music described as being for the fortepiano was first widely published.\nIt was Gottfried Silbermann who brought the construction of fortepianos to the German-speaking nations. Silbermann, who worked in Freiberg in Germany, began to make pianos based on Cristofori's design around 1730. (His previous experience had been in building organs, harpsichords, and clavichords.) Like Cristofori, Silbermann had royal support, in his case from Frederick the Great of Prussia, who bought many of his instruments.\nSilbermann's instruments were famously criticized by Johann Sebastian Bach around 1736, but later instruments encountered by Bach in his Berlin visit of 1747 apparently met with the composer's approval. It has been conjectured that the improvement in Silbermann's instruments resulted from his having seen an actual Cristofori piano, rather than merely reading Scipione Maffei's article. The piano action Maffei described does not match that found in surviving Cristofori instruments, suggesting that Maffei either erred in his diagram (he admitted having made it from memory) or that Cristofori improved his action during the period following Maffei's article.\nSilbermann is credited with the invention of the forerunner of the sustain pedal, which removes the dampers from all the strings at once, permitting them to vibrate freely. Silbermann's device was in fact only a hand stop, and thus could be changed only at a pause in the music. Throughout the Classical era, even when the more flexible knee levers or pedals had been installed, the lifting of all the dampers was used primarily as a coloristic device.\nThe fortepiano builders who followed Silbermann introduced actions that were simpler than the Cristofori action, even to the point of lacking an escapement (the device that permits the hammer to fall to rest position even when the key has been depressed). Such instruments were the subject of criticism (particularly, in a widely quoted 1777 letter from Mozart to his father), but were simple to make and were widely incorporated into square pianos.\nOne of the most distinguished fortepiano builders in the era following Silbermann was one of his pupils, Johann Andreas Stein, who worked in Augsburg, Germany. Stein's fortepianos had (what we, or Cristofori, would call) \"backwards\" hammers, with the striking end closer to the player than the hinged end. This action came to be called the \"Viennese\" action, and was widely used in Vienna, even on pianos up to the mid 19th century. The Viennese action was simpler than the Cristofori action, and very sensitive to the player's touch. According to Edwin M. Ripin (see references below), the force needed to depress a key on a Viennese fortepiano was only about a fourth of what it is on a modern piano, and the descent of the key only about half as much. Thus playing the Viennese fortepiano involved nothing like the athleticism exercised by modern piano virtuosos, but did require exquisite sensitivity of touch.\nStein put the wood used in his instruments through a very severe weathering process, and this included the generation of cracks in the wood, into which he would then insert wedges. This gave his instruments a considerable longevity, on which Mozart commented, and there are several instruments still surviving today.\nStein's fortepiano business was carried on in Vienna with distinction by his daughter Nannette Streicher along with her husband Johann Andreas Streicher. The two were friends of Beethoven, and one of the composer's pianos was a Streicher. Later on in the early 19th century, more robust instruments with greater range were built in Vienna, by (for example) the Streicher firm, which continued through two more generations of Streichers.\nAnother important Viennese builder was Anton Walter, a friend of Mozart's who built instruments with a somewhat more powerful sound than Stein's. Although Mozart admired the Stein fortepianos very much, as the 1777 letter mentioned above makes clear, his own piano was a Walter. The fortepianos of Stein and Walter are widely used today as models for the construction of new fortepianos, discussed below. Still another important builder in this period was Conrad Graf (1782–1851), who made Beethoven's last piano. Graf was one of the first Viennese makers to build pianos in quantity, as a large business enterprise.\nThe English fortepiano had a humble origin in the work of Johannes Zumpe, a maker who had immigrated from Germany and worked for a while in the workshop of the great harpsichord maker Burkat Shudi. Starting in the middle to late 1760s, Zumpe made inexpensive square pianos that had a very simple action, lacking an escapement, (sometimes known as the 'old man's head'). Although hardly a technological advancement in the fortepiano, Zumpe's instruments proved very popular (they were imitated outside England), and played a major role in the displacement of the harpsichord by the fortepiano. These square pianos were also the medium of the first public performances on the instrument in the 1760s, notably by Johann Christian Bach.\nAmericus Backers, with John Broadwood and Robert Stodart, two of Shudi's workmen, produced a more advanced action than Zumpe's. This \"English grand action\" with an escapement and check enabled a louder, more robust sound than the Viennese one, though it required deeper touch and was less sensitive. The early English grand pianos by these builders physically resembled Shudi harpsichords; which is to say, very imposing, with elegant, restrained veneer work on the exterior. Unlike contemporary Viennese instruments, English grand fortepianos had three strings rather than two per note.\nJohn Broadwood married the master's daughter (Barbara Shudi, 1769) and ultimately took over and renamed the Shudi firm. The Broadwood company (which survives to this day) was an important innovator in the evolution of the fortepiano into the piano. Broadwood, in collaboration with Jan Ladislav Dussek, a noted piano virtuoso active in London in the 1790s, developed pianos that gradually increased the range to six octaves. Dussek was one of the first pianists to receive a 5½ foot piano, and in 1793 he wrote the first work for piano \"with extra keys\", a piano concert (C 97). The firm shipped a piano to Beethoven in Vienna, which the composer evidently treasured.\nFrom the late 18th century, the fortepiano underwent extensive technological development and thus evolved into the modern piano; for details, see Piano. The older type of instrument ceased to be made. In the late 19th century, the early music pioneer Arnold Dolmetsch built three fortepianos. However, this attempted revival of the fortepiano was evidently several decades ahead of its time, and did not lead to widespread adoption of the instrument.\nIn the second half of the 20th century, a great upsurge of interest occurred in period instruments, including a revival of interest in the fortepiano. Old instruments were restored, and many new ones were built along the lines of the old. This revival of the fortepiano closely resembled the revival of the harpsichord, though occurring somewhat later in time. Among the more prominent modern builders have been (in the United States) Philip Belt, Margaret F. Hood and Rodney Regier; and (in the Czech Republic) Paul McNulty.\nThe reintroduction of the fortepiano has permitted performance of 18th- and early 19th-century music on the instruments for which it was written, yielding new insights into this music; for detailed discussion, see Piano history and musical performance.\nA number of modern harpsichordists and pianists have achieved distinction in fortepiano performance, including Susan Alexander-Max, Paul Badura-Skoda, Malcolm Bilson, Hendrik Bouman, Ronald Brautigam, Gary Cooper, Jörg Demus, Richard Egarr, Richard Fuller, Robert Hill, Geoffrey Lancaster, Gustav Leonhardt, Robert Levin, Steven Lubin, Bart van Oort, Trevor Pinnock, David Schrader, Peter Serkin, Viviana Sofronitsky, Andreas Staier and Melvyn Tan.\nPeople's opinions about fortepiano sound vary widely, both from person to person and from instrument to instrument. Here are three representative opinions about fortepianos:\n\"Fortepiano\" is Italian for \"loud-soft\", just as the formal name for the modern piano, \"pianoforte\", is \"soft-loud\". Both are abbreviations of Cristofori's original name for his invention: \"gravicembalo col piano e forte\", \"harpsichord with soft and loud\".\nThe term \"fortepiano\" is somewhat specialist in its connotations, and does not preclude using the more general term \"piano\" to designate the same instrument. Thus, usages like \"Cristofori invented the piano\" or \"Mozart's piano concertos\" are currently common and would probably be considered acceptable by most musicians. \"Fortepiano\" is used in contexts where it is important to make the precise identity of the instrument clear, as in (for instance) \"a fortepiano recital by Malcolm Bilson\".\nThe use of \"fortepiano\" to refer specifically to early pianos appears to be recent. Even the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary does not record this usage, noting only that \"fortepiano\" is \"an early name of the pianoforte\". During the age of the fortepiano, \"fortepiano\" and \"pianoforte\" were used interchangeably, as the OED's attestations show. Jane Austen, who lived in the age of the fortepiano, used \"pianoforte\" (also: \"piano-forte\", \"piano forte\") for the many occurrences of the instrument in her writings.","Blind Tom Wiggins\nThomas \"Blind Tom\" Wiggins (May 25, 1849June 14, 1908, age 59) was an African American musical prodigy on the piano. He had numerous original compositions published and had a lengthy and largely successful performing career throughout the United States. During the 19th century, he was one of the best-known American performing pianists. Although he lived and died before autism was described, he is now regarded as an autistic savant.\nWiggins was born on the Wiley Edward Jones Plantation in Harris County, Georgia. Blind at birth, he was sold in 1850 along with his enslaved parents, Charity and Domingo \"Mingo\" Wiggins, to a Columbus, Georgia lawyer, General James Neil Bethune. Bethune was \"almost the pioneer free trader\" in the United States and \"the first [newspaper] editor in the south to openly advocate secession\". General Bethune renamed the child Thomas Greene Bethune or Thomas Wiggins Bethune (according to different sources).\nBecause Tom was blind, he could not perform work normally demanded of slaves, his owners originally wanted to kill him since he had no economic value to them. Instead, he was left to play and explore the Bethune plantation. At an early age, he showed an interest in the piano after hearing the instrument played by Bethune's daughters. By age four he reportedly had acquired some piano skills by ear, and gained access to the piano. By age five Tom reportedly had composed his first tune, \"The Rain Storm,\" after a torrential downpour on a tin roof. With his skills recognized by General Bethune, Tom was permitted to live in a room attached to the family house, equipped with a piano. Neighbor Otto Spahr, reminiscing about Tom in the \"Atlanta Constitution\" in 1908 (as reproduced in \"The Ballad of Blind Tom\", by Deirdre O'Connell), observed: \"Tom seemed to have but two motives in life: the gratification of his appetite and his passion for music. I don't think I exaggerate when I state that he made the piano go for twelve hours out of twenty-four.\"\nAs a child, Tom began to echo the sounds around him, repeating accurately the crow of a rooster or the singing of a bird. If he was left alone in the cabin, Tom was known to begin beating on pots and pans or dragging chairs across the floor in an attempt to make any kind of noise. By the age of four, Tom was able to repeat conversations up to ten minutes in length but was barely able to adequately communicate his own needs, resorting to grunts and gestures.\nAnother example of Tom's extraordinary abilities was shown after he was taken to a political rally in 1860 in support of Democratic presidential candidate Stephen Douglas. Years after he attended this speech, he was still able to orate it while capturing the tone and mannerisms of Douglas. Additionally, he was able to recreate the heckles and cheers of the crowd with remarkable precision.\nBethune hired out \"Blind Tom\" from the age of eight years to concert promoter Perry Oliver, who toured him extensively in the US, performing as often as four times a day and earning Oliver and Bethune up to $100,000 a year, an enormous sum for the time, \"equivalent to $1.5 million/year [in 2004], making Blind Tom undoubtedly the nineteenth century's most highly compensated pianist\". General Bethune's family eventually made a fortune estimated at $750,000 at the hands of Blind Tom. Oliver marketed Tom as a “Barnum-style freak” advertising the transformation from animal to artist. In the media, Tom was frequently compared to a bear, baboon, or mastiff.\nBethune hired professional musicians to play for Tom, who could faithfully reproduce their performances, often after a single listening. Eventually he learned a reported 7,000 pieces of music, including hymns, popular songs, waltzes, and classical repertoire.\nThere are conflicting historical accounts of Blind Tom's first public performance, some indicating he was as young as three. One account from 1857 indicates that he had been performing publicly for several years. Newspaper reviews and audience reactions were favorable, prompting General Bethune to undertake a concert tour with Tom around their home state of Georgia. Tom later toured the South with Bethune or accompanied by hired managers, though their travels and bookings were sometimes hampered by the North-South hostilities which were drawing the nation towards Civil War. In 1860, Blind Tom performed at the White House before President James Buchanan; he was the first African-American to give a command performance at the White House. Mark Twain attended many of Blind Tom's performances over several decades and chronicled the proceedings.\nOn- and off-stage, Tom often referred to himself in the third person (e.g., \"Tom is pleased to meet you\"). His piano recitals were augmented by other talents, including uncanny voice mimicry of public figures and nature sounds. He also displayed a hyperactive physicality both onstage and off. A letter written in 1862 by a soldier in North Carolina described some of Tom's eccentric capabilities: \"One of his most remarkable feats was the performance of three pieces of music at once. He played 'Fisher's Hornpipe' with one hand and 'Yankee Doodle' with the other and sang 'Dixie' all at once. He also played a piece with his back to the piano and his hands inverted.\" At concerts, skeptics attempted to confirm if Tom's performance replications were mere trickery; their challenge took the form of having Tom hear and repeat two new, uncirculated compositions. Tom did so perfectly. The \"audience challenge\" eventually became a regular feature of his concerts.\nSupposedly, Tom's talents profited the Confederacy during the Civil War. His most famous song, \"The Battle of Manassas,\" is the story of the Confederate Army's 1861 victory at the Battle of Bull Run. As a result, many black newspapers refused to celebrate him, pointing out that he served to reinforce negative stereotypes about African-American individuals and that he was only a source of profit for slaveholders.\nIn 1866, at age 16, Tom was taken on a European concert tour by General Bethune, who collected testimonials about Tom's natural talents from composer-pianist Ignaz Moscheles and pianist-conductor Charles Hallé. These were printed in a booklet, “The Marvelous Musical Prodigy Blind Tom,\" and used to bolster Tom's international reputation.\nIn 1875, General Bethune transferred management of Blind Tom's professional affairs to his son John Bethune, who accompanied Tom on tour around the U.S. for the next eight years. Beginning in 1875, John brought Blind Tom to New York each summer. While living with John in a boarding house on the Lower East Side, Tom added to his repertoire under the tutelage of Joseph Poznanski, who also transcribed new compositions by Tom for publication. Many of these were, at Tom's insistence, published under such pseudonyms as Professor W.F. Raymond, J.C. Beckel, C.T. Messengale, and Francois Sexalise.\nTom's piano-playing behavior, both during practice and performance, was eccentric. \"We had two pianos in one room,\" Poznanski told the \"Washington Post\" in 1886 (as recounted in O'Connell's biography). \"I would play for him and he would get up, walk around, stand on one foot, pull his hair, knock his head against the wall, then sit down and play a very good imitiation of what I had played with additions to it. His memory was something prodigious. He never forgot anything.\" This led some critics to dismiss Tom as a novelty act, a \"human parrot.\" Novelist Willa Cather, writing in the \"Nebraska State Journal\", called Tom \"a human phonograph, a sort of animated memory, with sound producing power.\"\nJohn Steinbeck has compared the main character in his short story, “Johnny Bear” to Blind Tom.\nNo original recordings of Blind Tom appear to exist. His sheet music is available, but only a small number of musicians have ever recorded his original songs.\nIn 1882, John Bethune married his landlady, Eliza Stutzbach, who had demonstrated a knack for mollifying Tom's sometimes volatile temperament. However, shortly after their marriage, John Bethune embarked on an extended tour of the U.S. with Tom, in effect abandoning Eliza. When Bethune returned home eight months later, his wife filed for divorce. The couple split up—John took Tom—but a bitter legal squabble ensued, with Eliza hounding John for financial support, a claim that the courts usually adjudicated in John's favor. After John Bethune died in a railway accident in 1884, Tom was returned—over Eliza's objections—to the care of General Bethune (now living in Virginia). Eliza sued General Bethune for ownership, with Tom's elderly mother Charity enjoined by Eliza's attorney as a party in the plaintiff's suit. After a protracted custody battle in several courts, in August 1887 Tom was awarded to Eliza, who moved Tom back to New York. Charity accompanied them with the understanding that she would benefit financially from Tom's earnings. However, after it became apparent that Eliza did not intend to honor any financial obligations to Charity, Tom's mother returned to Georgia.\nTom continued performing and touring for a number of years under the management of Eliza and her attorney (and later husband) Albrecht Lerche. Tom was on tour in western Pennsylvania in May 1889 on the day of the Johnstown Flood, and rumor spread that he was among the casualties. Despite his continued appearances on the U.S. concert circuit, the rumor persisted for years, with some observers expressing skepticism that the Blind Tom who appeared in concert after 1889 was the \"real Blind Tom.\"\nIn this phase of his career, Tom usually introduced himself onstage in the third person, imitating the pronouncements of his various managers from years past. He talked about his mental state with a characteristic lack of self-awareness. He had been diagnosed as \"non compos mentis\" by a doctor, and in his foggy netherworld the phrase was a matter of personal pride. Willa Cather described the poignance of one such concert: \"It was a strange sight to see him walk out on stage with his own lips—another man's words—introduce himself and talk quietly about his own idiocy. There was insanity, a grotesque horribleness about it that was interestingly unpleasant. One laughs at the man's queer actions, and yet, after all, the sight is not laughable. It brings us too near to the things that we sane people do not like to think of.\"\nTom was still traveling, and presumably still performing, in 1894. On July 5 of that year, he arrived in Grand Junction, CO on his way eastward from California. The trainmen at that place were on strike against the railroads as part of the Pullman Strike, and Tom was stuck in town until July 9, when he continued eastward via the Colorado Midland Railroad.\nAfter being dogged by incessant legal challenges to her custodianship of Tom, Eliza took Tom off the concert circuit in the mid-1890s.\nTom spent the next ten years as a ward of Eliza and her husband, who divided their time between New York City and New Jersey's Navesink Highlands. In 1903 Eliza arranged for Tom to appear on the popular vaudeville circuit, beginning with Brooklyn's Orpheum Theater. He spent almost a year performing in vaudeville, before his health began to deteriorate. It is believed he suffered a stroke (described in some reports as \"partial paralysis\") in December 1904, which ended his public performing career.\nAfter the death of her husband, Eliza relocated to Hoboken, New Jersey, with Tom. They kept out of public view, though neighbors could hear Tom's piano playing at all hours of the day and night. Tom suffered a major stroke in April 1908, and died the following June. He was buried in the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn, New York.\nThe people of Columbus, Georgia, raised a commemorative headstone for him in 1976. He was the subject of a play titled \"HUSH: Composing Blind Tom Wiggins\", by Robert Earl Price, which was performed on the Atlanta stage with Del Hamilton as director.\nBetween 1970 and 2000, Dr. Geneva Handy Southall wrote a three-volume thesis titled \"Blind Tom: The Black Pianist Composer; Continuously Enslaved\"; it was published by Scarecrow Press in 2002.\nIn 1981 he was the subject of a film, \"Blind Tom: The Story of Thomas Bethune\", directed by Mark W. Travis.\nIn 1999 John Davis recorded an album of Tom's original compositions on a CD entitled \"John Davis Plays Blind Tom.\" The CD package included essays by Amiri Baraka, Ricky Jay and Oliver Sacks.\nIn 2006, Reagan Grimsley published an article about preserving the sheet music of Blind Tom for future Generations. Titled \"Discovering “Blind” Tom Wiggins: Creating Digital Access to Original Sheet Music at the Columbus State University Archives\", it appeared in Music Reference Quarterly.\nA full-length biography, \"The Ballad of Blind Tom\", by Deirdre O'Connell was published by Overlook Press in 2009.\nAndre T. Regan's 2013 documentary, The Last Legal Slave in America, documents the life and times of Blind Tom.\nThe Elton John song, \"The Ballad of Blind Tom\", from his 2013 album \"The Diving Board\", is about Blind Tom.\nBlind Tom Wiggins is the subject of a novel, \"The Song of the Shank\", (2014) by Jeffrey Reynard Allen.\nBlind Tom Wiggins is also the subject in a sequence of poems in \"Olio\" (2016) by Tyehimba Jess.","Ballet (music)\nBallet as a music form progressed from simply a complement to dance, to a concrete compositional form that often had as much value as the dance that went along with it. The dance form, originating in France during the 17th century, began as a theatrical dance. It was not until the 19th century that ballet gained status as a “classical” form. In ballet, the terms ‘classical’ and ‘romantic’ are chronologically reversed from musical usage. Thus, the 19th century classical period in ballet coincided with the 19th century Romantic era in Music. Ballet music composers from the 17th–19th centuries, including the likes of Jean-Baptiste Lully and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, were predominantly in France and Russia. Yet with the increased international notoriety seen in Tchaikovsky’s lifetime, ballet music composition and ballet in general spread across the western world.\nUntil about the second half of the 19th century the role of music in ballet was secondary, with the main emphasis on dance, while music was simply a compilation of danceable tunes. Writing \"ballet music\" used to be a job for musical craftsmen, rather than for masters. For example, critics of the Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky mentioned his writing of ballet music as something demeaning.\nFrom the earliest ballets up to the time of Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), the music of ballet was indistinguishable from ballroom dance music. Lully created a style that was separate, wherein the music told a story. The first ballet d'action was staged in 1717. This was a story told without any words. The pioneer was John Weaver (1673–1760). Both Lully and Jean-Philippe Rameau wrote opéra-ballets, where the story was partly danced and partly sung, but ballet music became gradually less important.\nThe next big step occurred in the early years of the nineteenth century, when principal dancers changed from using hard shoes to ballet pumps. This enabled a more free-flowing style of music to be used. Marie Taglioni (1804–1884) is credited with being the first ballerina to dance en pointe in \"La Sylphide\" in 1832. It was now possible to have music that was more expressive. Gradually, dancing became more daring, with men lifting the ballerinas into the air.\nUntil the time of Tchaikovsky, the composer of ballets was considered to be separate from the composer of symphonies. Ballet music was an accompaniment for the solo and ensemble dances. Tchaikovsky's \"Swan Lake\" was the first musical ballet piece to be created by a symphonic composer. Following the initiative of Tchaikovsky, ballet composers were no longer writing simple, easily danceable pieces. The focus of a ballet was no longer solely the dance; the compositions behind the dances began to take an equal prevalence. In the late 19th century, Marius Petipa, French ballet choreographer and dancer, worked with composers such as Cesare Pugni to create ballet masterpieces that boasted both complex dance and complex music. Petipa worked with Tchaikovsky as well, whether through collaboration with Tchaikovsky on his work \"The Sleeping Beauty\" and \"The Nutcracker\", or indirectly through revision of Tchaikovsky's \"Swan Lake\" after the composer’s death.\nIn many cases ballets were still short scenes within operas, to enable scenery or costume changes. Perhaps the best-known example of ballet music that is part of an opera is the \"Dance of the Hours\" from Amilcare Ponchielli's opera \"La Gioconda\" (1876). There was a violent change in mood when Igor Stravinsky's ballet \"The Rite of Spring\" (1913) was performed. The music was modernist and dissonant, and the movements were highly stylized. In 1924 George Antheil wrote \"Ballet Mécanique,\" which was actually for a film of moving objects, not for dancers, but it was pioneering in the use of jazz music. From this point dance music split into two directions: modern and jazz dance. George Gershwin attempted to bridge this gap with his ambitious score to the film \"Shall We Dance\" (1937), composing over one hour of music that spanned from the cerebral and technical to foot-stomping jazz and rumba. One scene, Hoctor's Ballet, was composed specifically for the ballerina Harriet Hoctor.\nAnother strand in the history of ballet music is the trend towards creative adaptations of old music. Ottorino Respighi took works by Gioachino Rossini (1792–1868) and strung them together into a ballet called \"La Boutique fantasque\", premiered in 1919. The audience for ballet generally prefers romantic music, so new ballets are confected from old works with new choreography. A well-known example is \"The Dream\" to the music of Felix Mendelssohn, arranged by John Lanchbery.\nThe following are some of the major ballet composers:","Gulliver's Travels (2010 film)\nGulliver's Travels is a 2010 American fantasy adventure comedy film directed by Rob Letterman, produced by John Davis and Gregory Goodman, written by Joe Stillman and Nicholas Stoller with music by Henry Jackman and very loosely based on Part One of the 18th-century novel of the same name by Jonathan Swift, though the film takes place in modern day. It stars Jack Black, Jason Segel, Emily Blunt, Amanda Peet, Billy Connolly, T. J. Miller, Chris O'Dowd, James Corden, and Catherine Tate and is distributed by 20th Century Fox. The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2010 in the US. The film earned $237.4 million on a $112 million budget. \"Gulliver's Travels\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on April 19, 2011, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.\nDeeply depressed at his dead-end job in the mail room of a New York City newspaper, Lemuel Gulliver decides to talk to journalist Darcy Silverman. He convinces her he could write a report about his (false) extensive world \"travels\" saying his dream is to become a writer. After suffering writer's block and thinking that Darcy will not want to hang out with a \"guy from the mailroom\", he plagiarises a report from other publications on the internet. The next day, Darcy, impressed by his writing, presents Gulliver with a new task – to travel to the Bermuda Triangle and write an article about the legends of ships mysteriously disappearing there.\nUpon arrival in Bermuda, Gulliver rents a boat and travels into the triangle. After falling asleep at the helm of his ship, he's caught in a freak storm and the boat is overwhelmed by a waterspout. He washes up unconscious on the shore of Lilliput, where he is immediately confirmed as a \"beast\" by the town's tiny people. After the citizens claim him to be dangerous because of his huge size, he is captured and imprisoned in a cave. Here, he meets another prisoner named Horatio who was jailed by General Edward because he loves Princess Mary of Lilliput, whereas Edward also wants her. After the island across from Lilliput, Blefuscia, infiltrates commandos to kidnap Princess Mary, Gulliver manages to break free of the plough-machine he is forced to work and then rescues the princess from being kidnapped. Gulliver also saves her father, King Theodore from a fire by urinating on it.\nGulliver is declared a hero by Lilliput's citizens and makes up a deal of lies saying he is the President of Manhattan, says Yoda is his Vice-President and a living legend in his homeland. Edward, however, becomes enraged due to the luxurious accommodations that have been built for him, and even being presented as an honorary general of the Lilliputian Army complete with uniform. When the townspeople find Gulliver's boat and his things, Gulliver gets angry voicemails from Darcy, saying she has to take his place and travel to Bermuda now, and also found out about his plagiarism and now hates him. The next day, chaos ensues as the Blefuscian Navy lay siege on the city when Edward shuts down its defense system as an act of revenge for Gulliver's treatment. Gulliver defeats the armada, invulnerable to the cannonballs being fired at him (although he receives numerous welts on his stomach). Embarrassed once more, and with Mary no longer wanting to do anything with him, Edward defects to the Blefuscians and brings with him blueprints of a robot coming from Gulliver's \"\" game manual. The Blefuscians secretly build the robot based on Gulliver's \"Guitar Hero III\" game manual, with Edward as the pilot.\nThe Blefuscians invade Liliput and the robot-wielding Edward makes Gulliver admit to the people that he is \"just the guy from the mail-room\" and nothing more. Edward banishes Gulliver on the shores of \"the island where we dare not go\" (Brobdingnag). There, he is snatched up by a \"little\" girl (Glumdalclitch) who towers over him. She captures him easily by trapping him inside a glass cup. When Gulliver wakes up, he finds himself dressed up in a pink dress and is played with by the \"little\" girl, which ends with him being tucked in bed. Horatio, who has gone to find Gulliver after being spurned by Mary, reveals to Gulliver that Darcy has been imprisoned by the Blefuscians when she is lost in the Bermuda Triangle in the same manner as Gulliver. Gulliver narrowly escapes with him, using a parachute that he took from a dead U.S. Air Force pilot sitting in the dollhouse.\nOnce again accepting a duel from Edward, this time not only for Lilliput's freedom but for its fate as well – as Edward threatens to destroy it should Gulliver fail – Gulliver ultimately defeats him with the assistance of Horatio, who disables the machine's electrocuting weapon. Horatio is hailed a hero and gets King Theodore's permission to court the princess. Edward, reaching the point of insanity, threatens to kill the princess, but the princess, finally having enough of Edward, beats the traitor up in frustration. Gulliver then helps to make peace between the rival island-nations by reciting Edwin Starr's \"War\" and he, along with Darcy, return to New York City on their repaired boat. The film ends with Gulliver, now a travel writer, taking Darcy to lunch while holding hands, after returning from another travel assignment.\nIn a January 2010 interview on \"The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson\", Segel explained his character spends most of the film in Black's shirt pocket. The film features 7.1 surround audio in select theaters. The name of Liliput's rival country, Blefuscu, was also changed to Blefuscia. Filming of the Lilliput royal palace was at Blenheim Palace. Miniature 1:12 scale dolls' house furniture and accessories from Derbyshire firm The Dolls House Emporium were used to bring the movie alive with less need for special effects. Jonathan Swift, the original author of the novel that the film was loosely based on, is not mentioned during the credits, despite the titles mentioning that the film is not an original piece. (i.e. \"Screenplay by...\" instead of \"Written by...\")\nThe official trailer for the film was released on June 3, 2010; and attached to \"Marmaduke\" a day after. The second trailer was released on November 5, 2010 and it is also attached with \"Megamind\". As a prize on the television show \"\", four of its contestants were able to watch the film before its release.\nOriginally scheduled for release on June 4, 2010, it was released on December 25, 2010. 20th Century Fox later announced on March 23, 2010 that the film would be converted to 3D. On December 13, 20th Century Fox announced that it would again move the release date, this time to December 25, 2010.\nA fourth \"Ice Age\" short, \"Scrat's Continental Crack-up\", was released with the film's theatrical release. The short is a parody of continental drift, and centers on a humorous alternative explanation for the creation of the continents (rather similar to the ending of the earlier \"Ice Age\" short, \"Gone Nutty\", where the continents split up into their modern-day forms). It also hints at the which was released in 2012.\n\"Gulliver's Travels\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on April 19, 2011 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.\nOn review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20% based on 118 reviews and an average rating of 3.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Though Jack Black is back doing what he does best, \"Gulliver's Travels\" largely fails to do any justice to its source material, relying instead on juvenile humor and special effects.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B-\" on an A+ to F scale.\n\"The Hollywood Reporter\" commented that \"any sense of fun slowly drains away as the movie insists on highlighting effects over character and story\" while \"Time Out\" gave it 2 out of 5 stars, commenting that the film \"veers between the very mildly chucklesome and plain not funny.\" \"The Christian Science Monitor\" called it \"a movie of such stupendous uninspiration\" that it was \"monumentally dreadful\" and the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" called it \"cute\" but \"sleep-inducing.\" \"Slant Magazine\" rated the film 1.5 out of 4 stars and \"Empire\" rated 2 out of 5 stars calling it \"a low-grade comedy that'll have Jonathan Swift turning in his grave.\"\nOther critics were less harsh, although still not praising of the film. Roger Ebert commented that knowing whom the film is for, and whom it is not for, might help viewers appreciate it. He awarded the film three out of four stars, saying \"I want to tread carefully here, and not because I might step on a Lilliputian and squish him.\"\n\"Gulliver's Travels\" opened to $6.3 million for its opening weekend, landing at #8 in the US; this ranks it as the 84th worst opening for a film with a wide release tracked by Box Office Mojo. The film grossed $42.8 million in the US and Canada and $194.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $237.4 million against a budget of $112 million.\nBlack was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor, only to lose to Ashton Kutcher's performances in \"Killers\" and \"Valentine's Day\".\nOn the other hand, Black received a Kids Choice Award nomination for favorite movie actor, only to lose to Johnny Depp's performance in \"Alice in Wonderland\".\n","Underground: Finding the Light to Freedom\nUnderground is a children's picture book written and illustrated by Shane W. Evans. It was published by Roaring Brook Press in 2011 and received the Coretta Scott King Award for Illustrators in 2012. The book depicts a 19th century African-American family of slaves as they escape from a plantation and navigate the Underground Railroad to freedom.","Beverly Jenkins\nBeverly Jenkins (born 1951, Detroit) is an American author of historical and contemporary romance novels with a particular focus on 19th century African-American life. Jenkins was a 2013 NAACP Image Award nominee and, in 1999, was voted one of the Top 50 Favorite African-American writers of the 20th century by the African American Literature Book Club. Jenkins's historical romances are set during a period of African-American history that she believes is often overlooked. This made it difficult to break into publishing because publishers weren't sure what to do with stories that involved African-Americans but not slavery.\nJenkins studied at Michigan State University as a Journalism and English Literature major. She lives in Southeastern Michigan.\nJenkins was born Brenda Hunter in Detroit in 1951 to her parents, a high school teacher and an administrative aide. Jenkins grew up surrounded by words. Her mother read to Jenkins while she was in the womb and bought her cloth books when she was a baby. Jenkins would chew on the cloth books while her mother encouraged her to \"Eat those words, baby. Eat those words.\" Jenkins read widely at her local library, everything from \"Alice in Wonderland\" to \"Dune\" to Zane Gray to early romance writers like Victoria Holt, Mary Stewart & Phyllis Whitney. Her early writing began when she became the editor of her elementary school newspaper. Jenkins attended Michigan State University in the Spring of 1969.\nJenkins worked full-time in the Michigan State University library's circulation department. Each lunch hour, she would read articles from \"The Journal of Negro History\" (now called \"The Journal of African American History\"). Eventually, Jenkins and her husband moved to Ypsilanti, where she worked at the Parke Davis Pharmaceuticals' reference desk and began writing romance novels for fun. At the suggestion of a colleague, Jenkins looked for an agent and publisher. Avon published her first novel, \"Night Song\", in 1994.\nThough Jenkins has published books in many romance sub-genres, the majority of her books are historical romances. Jenkins calls herself a \"kitchen table historian.\" She likens American history to a quilt with some pieces ripped out—the pieces belonging to minority history. Jenkins uses her books to weave the quilt back together by revealing patches of black history that are rarely taught in school. Slavery and the Civil Rights Movement are important pieces of African American history, but they aren't the only pieces. For example, her first three novels, \"Night Song\", \"Vivid\" and \"Indigo\", feature characters such as a schoolteacher, a calvary officer, a female doctor and an Underground Railroad heroes. They were all inspired by true history.\nJenkins found inspiration for \"Forbidden\" from two interesting bits of history. First, she read a news article about a high-end African American-run hotel that was uncovered during an archaeological dig in Virginia City. She also heard a story about a man seeing a black woman walking through the desert with a cook stove balanced on her head. Jenkins includes bibliographies with her historical romances so readers can read further, if they choose.","Louis Moreau Gottschalk\nLouis Moreau Gottschalk (<a href=\"New%20Orleans\">New Orleans</a>, May 8, 1829 – <a href=\"Rio%20de%20Janeiro\">Rio de Janeiro</a>, December 18, 1869) was an American <a href=\"composer\">composer</a> and <a href=\"pianist\">pianist</a>, best known as a <a href=\"virtuoso\">virtuoso</a> performer of his own <a href=\"romantic%20music\">romantic</a> <a href=\"piano\">piano</a> works. He spent most of his working career outside of the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>.\nGottschalk was born in <a href=\"New%20Orleans\">New Orleans</a> to a <a href=\"Jewish\">Jewish</a> businessman from <a href=\"London\">London</a> and a <a href=\"Creole%20peoples%23Caribbean\">Creole</a> mother. He had six brothers and sisters, five of whom were half-siblings by his father's mixed-race mistress (she would have been called <a href=\"mulatto\">mulatto</a> at the time). His family lived for a time in a tiny cottage at Royal and Esplanade in the <a href=\"Vieux%20Carr%C3%A9\">Vieux Carré</a>. Louis later moved in with relatives at 518 Conti Street; his maternal grandmother Bruslé and his nurse Sally had both been born in <a href=\"Saint-Domingue\">Saint-Domingue</a> (known later as <a href=\"Haiti\">Haiti</a>). He was therefore exposed to a variety of musical traditions, and played the <a href=\"piano\">piano</a> from an early age. He was soon recognized as a <a href=\"Child%20prodigy\">prodigy</a> by the New Orleans <a href=\"bourgeois\">bourgeois</a> establishment, making his informal public debut in 1840 at the new St. Charles Hotel.\nOnly two years later, at the age of 13, Gottschalk left the United States and sailed to <a href=\"Europe\">Europe</a>, as he and his father realized a <a href=\"classical%20music\">classical</a> training was required to fulfill his musical ambitions. The <a href=\"Conservatoire%20de%20Paris\">Paris Conservatoire</a>, however, rejected his application without hearing him, on the grounds of his nationality; <a href=\"Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume%20Zimmerman\">Pierre Zimmerman</a>, head of the piano faculty, commented that \"America is a country of steam engines\". Gottschalk eventually gained access to the musical establishment through family friends. At concert at the <a href=\"Salle%20Pleyel\">Salle Pleyel</a>, after which <a href=\"Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Chopin\">Frédéric Chopin</a> remarked: \"Give me your hand, my child; I predict that you will become the king of pianists.\" <a href=\"Franz%20Liszt\">Franz Liszt</a> and <a href=\"Charles-Valentin%20Alkan\">Charles-Valentin Alkan</a>, too, recognised Gottschalk's extreme talent.\nAfter Gottschalk returned to the United States in 1853, he traveled extensively; a sojourn in <a href=\"Cuba\">Cuba</a> during 1854 was the beginning of a series of trips to <a href=\"Central%20America\">Central</a> and <a href=\"South%20America\">South America</a>. Gottschalk also traveled to <a href=\"Puerto%20Rico\">Puerto Rico</a> after his <a href=\"Havana\">Havana</a> debut and at the start of his <a href=\"West%20Indian\">West Indian</a> period. He was quite taken with the <a href=\"music\">music</a> he heard on the island, so much so that he composed a work, probably in 1857, entitled \"Souvenir de Porto Rico; Marche des gibaros, Op. 31 (RO250)\". \"Gibaros\" refers to the <a href=\"j%C3%ADbaro\">jíbaro</a>s, or Puerto Rican peasantry, and is an antiquated way of writing this name. The theme of the composition is a march tune which may be based on a Puerto Rican <a href=\"folk%20song\">folk song</a> form. At the conclusion of that tour, he rested in New Jersey then returned to <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. There he continued to rest and took on a very young <a href=\"Venezuela\">Venezuela</a>n student by the name of <a href=\"Teresa%20Carre%C3%B1o\">Teresa Carreño</a>. Gottschalk rarely took on students and was skeptical of prodigies but Carreño was an exception and he was determined that she succeed. With his busy schedule, Gottschalk was only able to give her a handful of lessons yet she would remember him fondly and performed his music for the rest of her days. A year after meeting Gottschalk, she performed for <a href=\"Abraham%20Lincoln\">Abraham Lincoln</a> and would go on to become a renowned concert pianist earning the nickname, \"\"Valkyrie of the Piano\"\". By the 1860s, Gottschalk had established himself as the best known pianist in the <a href=\"New%20World\">New World</a>. Although born and reared in New Orleans, he was a supporter of the <a href=\"Union%20%28American%20Civil%20War%29\">Union</a> cause during the <a href=\"American%20Civil%20War\">American Civil War</a>. He returned to his native city only occasionally for concerts, but he always introduced himself as a New Orleans native.\nIn May 1865, he was mentioned in a <a href=\"San%20Francisco\">San Francisco</a> newspaper as having \"travelled 95,000 miles by rail and given 1,000 concerts\". However, he was forced to leave the United States later that year because of a scandalous affair with a student at the <a href=\"Oakland%20Female%20Seminary\">Oakland Female Seminary</a> in <a href=\"Oakland%2C%20California\">Oakland, California</a>. He never returned to the United States.\nGottschalk chose to travel to South America, where he continued to give frequent concerts. During one of these concerts, in <a href=\"Rio%20de%20Janeiro\">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <a href=\"Brazil\">Brazil</a>, on November 24, 1869, he collapsed from having contracted <a href=\"yellow%20fever\">yellow fever</a>. Just before his collapse, he had finished playing his romantic piece \"Morte!\" (translated from Brazilian Portuguese as \"Death\"), although the actual collapse occurred just as he started to play his celebrated piece \"Tremolo\". Gottschalk never recovered from the collapse.\nThree weeks later, on December 18, 1869, at the age of 40, he died at his hotel in <a href=\"Tijuca\">Tijuca</a>, Rio de Janeiro, probably from an overdose of <a href=\"quinine\">quinine</a>. (According to an essay by Jeremy Nicholas for the booklet accompanying the recording \"Gottschalk Piano Music\" performed by Philip Martin on the Hyperion label, \"He died ... of <a href=\"empyema\">empyema</a>, the result of a ruptured abscess in the abdomen.\")\nIn 1870, his remains were returned to the United States and were interred at the <a href=\"Green-Wood%20Cemetery\">Green-Wood Cemetery</a> in <a href=\"Brooklyn\">Brooklyn</a>, <a href=\"New%20York%20%28state%29\">New York</a>. His burial spot was originally marked by a magnificent marble monument, topped by an \"Angel of Music\" statue, which was irreparably damaged by vandals in 1959. In October 2012, after nearly fifteen years of fund raising by the <a href=\"Green-Wood%20Cemetery\">Green-Wood Cemetery</a>, a new \"Angel of Music\" statue, created by sculptors Giancarlo Biagi and Jill Burkee to replace the damaged one, was unveiled.\nHis grand-nephew <a href=\"Louis%20F.%20Gottschalk\">Louis Ferdinand Gottschalk</a> was a notable composer of <a href=\"silent%20film\">silent film</a> and <a href=\"musical%20theatre\">musical theatre</a> scores.\nGottschalk's music was very popular during his lifetime and his earliest compositions created a sensation in Europe. Early pieces like \"<a href=\"Bamboula%20%28Gottschalk%29\">Bamboula</a>,\" \"<a href=\"La%20Savane%20%28Gottschalk%29\">La Savane</a>,\" \"<a href=\"Le%20Bananier%20%28Gottschalk%29\">Le Bananier</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Le%20Mancenillier%20%28Gottschalk%29\">Le Mancenillier</a>\" were based on Gottschalk's memories of the music he heard during his youth in <a href=\"Louisiana\">Louisiana</a>. In this context, some of Gottschalk's work, such as the 13-minute <a href=\"opera\">opera</a> \"Escenas campestres\", retains a wonderfully innocent sweetness and charm. Gottschalk also utilized the \"Bamboula\" theme as a melody in his <a href=\"Symphony%20No.%201%20%28Gottschalk%29\">\"Symphony No. 1: A Night in the Tropics\"</a>.\nMany of his compositions were destroyed after his death, or are lost.\nVarious pianists later recorded his piano music. The first important recordings of his orchestral music, including the symphony \"A Night in the Tropics\", were made for <a href=\"Vanguard%20Records\">Vanguard Records</a> by <a href=\"Maurice%20Abravanel\">Maurice Abravanel</a> and the <a href=\"Utah%20Symphony%20Orchestra\">Utah Symphony Orchestra</a>. <a href=\"Vox%20Records\">Vox Records</a> issued a multi-disc collection of his music, which was later reissued on CD. This included world premiere recordings of the original orchestrations of both symphonies and other works, which were conducted by <a href=\"Igor%20Buketoff\">Igor Buketoff</a> and <a href=\"Samuel%20Adler%20%28composer%29\">Samuel Adler</a>. More recently, <a href=\"Philip%20Martin%20%28pianist%29\">Philip Martin</a> has recorded most of the extant piano music for <a href=\"Hyperion%20Records\">Hyperion Records</a>.\nAuthor <a href=\"Howard%20Breslin\">Howard Breslin</a> wrote a historical novel about Gottschalk titled \"Concert Grand\" in 1963.\n","Beveridge Webster\nBeveridge Webster (May 13, 1908, <a href=\"Pittsburgh%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a> – June 30, 1999, <a href=\"Hanover%2C%20New%20Hampshire\">Hanover, New Hampshire</a>) was an American pianist and educator.\nBeveridge Webster studied with his father, initially, and in 1921, at age 14, he began five years of study in Europe, first at the American Academy at Fontainebleau, then at the <a href=\"Paris%20Conservatory\">Paris Conservatory</a> with <a href=\"Isidor%20Philipp\">Isidor Philipp</a> and <a href=\"Nadia%20Boulanger\">Nadia Boulanger</a>. He also studied in <a href=\"Berlin\">Berlin</a> with <a href=\"Artur%20Schnabel\">Artur Schnabel</a>. He made his <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a> debut in November 1934 with the <a href=\"New%20York%20Philharmonic\">New York Philharmonic</a> performing <a href=\"Edward%20MacDowell\">Edward MacDowell</a>'s Piano Concerto No. 2.\nPerhaps best known as an interpreter of French composers, especially <a href=\"Maurice%20Ravel\">Maurice Ravel</a>, Webster gave premieres or made first recordings of many contemporary works, including pieces by <a href=\"Louise%20Talma\">Louise Talma</a>, <a href=\"Roger%20Sessions\">Roger Sessions</a>, <a href=\"Roy%20Harris\">Roy Harris</a>, <a href=\"Aaron%20Copland\">Aaron Copland</a> and <a href=\"Elliott%20Carter\">Elliott Carter</a>. In 1968, over a three-concert series at <a href=\"The%20Town%20Hall\">The Town Hall</a>, he commemorated the 50th anniversary of <a href=\"Claude%20Debussy\">Claude Debussy</a>'s death with the first complete survey of the composer's piano works in New York.\nA <a href=\"Time%20%28magazine%29\">\"Time\" magazine</a> article from 1937 said of Webster, \"Dark, well-knit, young Beveridge Webster is a good swimmer, takes pride in his tennis, likes to play poker or bridge with his great good friend <a href=\"Igor%20Stravinsky\">Igor Stravinsky</a>. He boasts of the little slam he once made against <a href=\"Sidney%20Lenz\">Sidney Lenz</a>.\"\nHe taught at <a href=\"New%20England%20Conservatory\">New England Conservatory</a> from 1940 to 1946 and at the Juilliard School from 1946 to 1990. His students include <a href=\"Michel%20Block\">Michel Block</a>, <a href=\"Robert%20McDonald%20%28pianist%29\">Robert McDonald</a>, Jahja Ling, Sylvia Glickman, <a href=\"Steven%20Graff\">Steven Graff</a> and <a href=\"Hao%20Huang\">Hao Huang</a>. He made a substantial series of recordings issued on <a href=\"LP%20album\">LP</a> by <a href=\"Dover%20Publications\">Dover Publications</a> and at least one, billed as the first installment in a complete traversal of <a href=\"Franz%20Schubert\">Schubert's</a> piano sonatas, for <a href=\"MGM%20Records\">MGM Records</a>, released as E3711.\nBeveridge Webster had two children. One of them is Michael Webster, former principal <a href=\"clarinet\">clarinet</a> of the <a href=\"Rochester%20Philharmonic%20Orchestra\">Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra</a>. He played under the baton of <a href=\"Aaron%20Copland\">Aaron Copland</a> for a performance of Copland's clarinet concerto. Michael Webster now teaches at the Shepherd School at <a href=\"Rice%20University\">Rice University</a> in <a href=\"Houston\">Houston</a>, Texas.\n","Ossip Gabrilowitsch\nOssip Gabrilowitsch (Осип Сoломонович Габрилович, \"Osip Solomonovich Gabrilovich\"; he used the German transliteration \"Gabrilowitsch\" in the West) (7 February [<a href=\"Old%20Style%20and%20New%20Style%20dates\">O.S.</a> 26 January] 1878 14 September 1936) was a <a href=\"Russia\">Russia</a>n-born <a href=\"United%20States\">American</a> pianist, conductor and composer.\nOssip Gabrilowitsch was born into a Jewish family in <a href=\"Saint%20Petersburg\">Saint Petersburg</a>. His parents were Salomon Gabrilowitsch and Rose Segall.\nHe studied the piano and composition at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, with <a href=\"Anton%20Rubinstein\">Anton Rubinstein</a>, <a href=\"Anatoly%20Lyadov\">Anatoly Lyadov</a>, <a href=\"Alexander%20Glazunov\">Alexander Glazunov</a> and <a href=\"Nikolai%20Medtner\">Nikolai Medtner</a> among others. After graduating in 1894, he spent two years studying piano with <a href=\"Theodor%20Leschetizky\">Theodor Leschetizky</a> in Vienna.\nIn July 1905 he recorded ten pieces for the <a href=\"Welte-Mignon\">Welte-Mignon reproducing piano</a>, one of the first pianists to do so. Between 1915 and 1927, he subsequently recorded at least fifteen more reproducing rolls for <a href=\"Duo-Art\">Duo-Art</a> and least five reproducing rolls for <a href=\"American%20Piano%20Company\">Ampico</a>.\nOn 6 October 1909, he married <a href=\"Mark%20Twain\">Mark Twain</a>'s daughter <a href=\"Clara%20Clemens\">Clara Clemens</a>, a singer who appeared with him in recital. On 18 August 1910, their only child, Nina, was born at Mark Twain's home in Stormfield, Connecticut.\nNina, the last known lineal descendant of Mark Twain, died on 16 January 1966 in a <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a> hotel. She had been a heavy drinker, and bottles of pills and alcohol were found in her room. Her death was ruled a suicide.\nFrom 1910 to 1914, he was conductor of the Munich Konzertverein (later known as the <a href=\"Munich%20Philharmonic\">Munich Philharmonic</a>). At the outbreak of World War I, he was arrested as an enemy national. Through the intervention of the <a href=\"Apostolic%20Nuncio%20to%20Bavaria\">nuncio to Bavaria</a>, Archbishop Eugenio Pacelli (later <a href=\"Pope%20Pius%20XII\">Pope Pius XII</a>), Gabrilowitsch was freed from jail, and then he headed to the United States via <a href=\"Z%C3%BCrich\">Zürich</a> in August 1914.\nHe settled in the US, and was offered the post of conductor of the <a href=\"Boston%20Symphony%20Orchestra\">Boston Symphony Orchestra</a>. In declining, he recommended that the Boston board appoint the recently arrived <a href=\"Sergei%20Rachmaninoff\">Sergei Rachmaninoff</a>. In 1918 he was appointed the founding director of the <a href=\"Detroit%20Symphony%20Orchestra\">Detroit Symphony Orchestra</a>, while still maintaining his life as a concert pianist. Before accepting the conductor's position, he demanded a new auditorium be built, and this was the impetus for the building of <a href=\"Orchestra%20Hall%20%28Detroit%2C%20Michigan%29\">Orchestra Hall</a>.\nGabrilowitsch composed a few works, primarily short piano pieces for his own use. He was a National Patron of <a href=\"Delta%20Omicron\">Delta Omicron</a>, an international professional music fraternity.\nHe died from <a href=\"stomach%20cancer\">stomach cancer</a> on September 14, 1936 in <a href=\"Detroit%2C%20Michigan\">Detroit, Michigan</a>. He is buried in the Langdon plot of the <a href=\"Woodlawn%20Cemetery%20%28Elmira%2C%20New%20York%29\">Woodlawn Cemetery</a> in <a href=\"Elmira%2C%20New%20York\">Elmira, New York</a>.","Lorna Simpson\nLorna Simpson (born 1960) is an African-American <a href=\"photographer\">photographer</a> and multimedia artist who made her name in the 1980s and 1990s with artworks such as \"Guarded Conditions\" and \"Square Deal\". She is one of the leading artists of her generation (to much critical acclaim), and her works have been included in numerous exhibitions both nationally and internationally.\nBorn in Brooklyn, New York in 1960, she attended the <a href=\"High%20School%20of%20Art%20and%20Design\">High School of Art and Design</a> and the <a href=\"School%20of%20Visual%20Arts\">School of Visual Arts</a> in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a> where she received a <a href=\"Bachelor%20of%20Fine%20Arts\">Bachelor of Fine Arts</a> in <a href=\"Photography\">Photography</a>. After receiving her BFA, she traveled to Europe and Africa, developing skills in documentary photography, her earliest works. While traveling, she became inspired to expand her work beyond the field of photography in order to challenge and engage the viewer.\nIt was these ideas that she worked on while earning her Master's of Fine Arts degree from the <a href=\"University%20of%20California\">University of California</a> at <a href=\"San%20Diego\">San Diego</a> in 1985. Her education in San Diego was somewhere between Photography and Conceptual art, and her teachers included conceptualist <a href=\"Allan%20Kaprow\">Allan Kaprow</a>, performance artist <a href=\"Eleanor%20Antin\">Eleanor Antin</a>, filmmakers <a href=\"Babette%20Mangolte\">Babette Mangolte</a> and <a href=\"Jean-Pierre%20Gorin\">Jean-Pierre Gorin</a> and poet <a href=\"David%20Antin\">David Antin</a>. What emerged was her signature style of \"photo-text\", in which graphic text is inserted into studio-like portraiture, bringing new conceptual meaning into the works. These works generally related to the perception of African-American women within American culture.\nThroughout the 1980s and 1990s, Simpson was showing work through solo exhibitions all over the country, and her name was synonymous with photo-text artworks. She was awarded a <a href=\"National%20Endowment%20for%20the%20Arts\">National Endowment for the Arts</a> Fellowship in 1985, and in 1990, she became the first African-American woman to exhibit at the <a href=\"Venice%20Biennale\">Venice Biennale</a>. In 1990, Simpson had one woman exhibitions at several major museums, including the <a href=\"Denver%20Art%20Museum\">Denver Art Museum</a>, Denver, Colorado, the <a href=\"Portland%20Art%20Museum\">Portland Art Museum</a>, Portland, Oregon, and the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\">Museum of Modern Art</a>, New York. Simpson has explored various media and techniques, including two-dimensional photographs as well as silk screening her photographs on large felt panels, creating installations, or producing as video works such as \"Call Waiting\" (1997).\nBy the 2000s she had started exploring the medium of <a href=\"Video%20installation\">video installations</a> in order to avoid a paralysis brought on by outside expectations. In 2001 she was awarded the <a href=\"Whitney%20Museum%20of%20American%20Art\">Whitney Museum of Art Award</a>, and in 2007, her work was featured in a 20-year retrospective at the Whitney Museum of Art in New York City.\nSimpson continues to influence the legacy of black artists today by speaking with artists and activists such as the Art Hoe Collective, a group of young women using social media to give marginalized groups a safe platform to broadcast their artwork.\nIn 2016 Simpson created the album artwork for \"<a href=\"Black%20America%20Again\">Black America Again</a>\" by <a href=\"Common%20%28rapper%29\">Common</a>. During the same year, she was featured in the book \"<a href=\"https%3A//www.workman.com/products/in-the-company-of-women-1\">In the Company of Women</a>\", \"Inspiration and Advice from over 100 Makers, Artists, and Entrepreneurs.\" In a 2017 issue of <a href=\"Vogue%20%28magazine%29\">Vogue Magazine</a>, Simpson showcased a <a href=\"http%3A//www.vogue.com/projects/13528952/american-women-in-art-female-artists-lorna-simpson/\">series of portraits</a> of 18 professional creative women who hold art central to their lives. The women photographed included <a href=\"Teresita%20Fern%C3%A1ndez\">Teresita Fernández</a>, <a href=\"Huma%20Bhabha\">Huma Bhabha</a>, and <a href=\"Jacqueline%20Woodson\">Jacqueline Woodson</a>. Inspired by their resilience, Simpson said of these women, \"They don't take no for an answer\".\nSimpson's work has been displayed at the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\">Museum of Modern Art</a>, the <a href=\"New%20Museum%20of%20Contemporary%20Art\">Museum of Contemporary Art</a>, the <a href=\"Miami%20Art%20Museum\">Miami Art Museum</a>, the <a href=\"Walker%20Art%20Center\">Walker Art Center</a>, the <a href=\"Minneapolis%20Institute%20of%20Art\">Minneapolis Institute of Art</a>, and the <a href=\"Irish%20Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\">Irish Museum of Modern Art</a>. In 2007, Simpson had a 20-year retrospective of her work at the <a href=\"Whitney%20Museum%20of%20American%20Art\">Whitney Museum of American Art</a> in her hometown of <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>.\nSimpson first came to prominence in the 1980s for her large-scale works that combined photography and text and defied traditional conceptions of sex, identity, race, culture, history, and memory. Drawing on this work, she started to create large photos printed on felt that showed public but unnoticed sexual encounters. Recently, Simpson has experimented with film as well as continuing to work with photography.\nSimpson's 1989 work, \"Necklines\", shows two circular and identical photographs of a black woman's mouth, chin, neck, and collar bone. The white text, \"“ring, surround, lasso, noose, eye, areola, halo, cuffs, collar, loop”\", individual words on black plaques, imply menace, binding or worse. The final phrase, text on red \"“feel the ground sliding from under you,”\" openly suggests lynching, though the adjacent images remain serene, non-confrontational and elegant.\n\"Easy for Who to Say\", Simpson's work from 1989, displays five identical silhouettes of black women from the shoulders up wearing a white top that is similar to women portrayed in other of Simpson's works. The women's faces are obscured by a white-colored oval shape each with one of the following letters inside: A, E, I, O, U. Underneath the corresponding portraits are the words: Amnesia, Error, Indifference, Omission, Uncivil. In this work Simpson alludes to the racialization in ethnographic cinema and the revocation of history faced by many people of color.\nSimpson's work \"Guarded Conditions,\" created in 1989, was one in a series in which Simpson has assembled fragmented Polaroid images of a female model whom she has regularly collaborated with. The body is fragmented and viewed from behind, while the back of the model's head is sensed as being in a state of guardedness towards possible hostility she can anticipate as a result of the combination of her sex and the color of her skin. The complex historical and symbolic associations of African-American hairstyles are also brought into play. The message of the text and the formal treatment of the image reinforce a sense of vulnerability. The fragmentation and serialization of bodily images disrupts and denies the body's wholeness and individuality. In attempting to read the work the viewer is provoked into confronting histories of appropriation and consumption of the black female body.\nSimpson's work often portrays black women combined with text to express contemporary society's relationship with race, ethnicity and sex. In many of her works, the subjects are black women with obscured faces, causing a denial of gaze and the interaction associated with visual exchange. Through repetitive use of the same portrait combined with graphic text, her \"anti-portraits\" have a sense of scientific classification, addressing the cultural associations of black bodies.\nIn a 2003 video installation, \"Corridor\", Simpson sets two women side-by-side; a household servant from 1860 and a wealthy homeowner from 1960. Both women are portrayed by artist <a href=\"Wangechi%20Mutu\">Wangechi Mutu</a>, allowing parallel and haunting relationships to be drawn. She has commented, \"I do not appear in any of my work. I think maybe there are elements to it and moments to it that I use from my own personal experience, but that, in and of itself, is not so important as what the work is trying to say about either the way we interpret experience or the way we interpret things about identity.\"\nSimpson lives in Brooklyn with her daughter Zora.\n\"lll (Three Wishbones in a Wood Box).\" 1994. wooden box containing three wishbones made of ceramic, rubber and bronze inserted in two felt pads. Minneapolis Institute of Art.\n\"Back.\" 1991. 2 colour Polaroids and 3 plastic plaques.\n\"Counting.\" 1991. photogravure and screenprint. Minneapolis Institute of Art.\n\"Five Day Forecast.\" 1991. 5 photographs, gelatin silver print on paper and 15 engraved plaques. Tate Modern, London. <a href=\"http%3A//www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/simpson-five-day-forecast-t13335\"></a>\n\"Untitled (What should fit here...)\". 1993. photo-etching, screenprint and hand-applied watercolor. Minneapolis Institute of Art.\n\"The Waterbearer\". 1996. silver print.\n\"Wigs (Portfolio)\". 1994. portfolio of twenty-one lithographs on felt with seventeen lithographed felt text panels. Museum of Modern Art, New York City.\nThe <a href=\"Whitney%20Museum%20of%20American%20Art\">Whitney Museum of American Art</a> in New York, NY, held a retrospective of Simpson's work in 2007.\nThe <a href=\"Elizabeth%20A.%20Sackler%20Center%20for%20Feminist%20Art\">Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art</a> at the <a href=\"Brooklyn%20Museum\">Brooklyn Museum</a> presented a solo exhibition of Simpson's work, \"Lorna Simpson: Gathered,\" in 2011.\nThe <a href=\"Galerie%20nationale%20du%20Jeu%20de%20Paume\">Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume</a> organized the first European retrospective of Simpson's work in 2013, which traveled to the <a href=\"Baltic%20Centre%20for%20Contemporary%20Art\">Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art</a> in 2014.\nBeginning in 2008, Simpson's work, \"Wigs (Portfolio)\", was included in the exhibition, \"30 Americans,\" which has toured eleven locations to date, including the Rubell Family Collection, Miami, <a href=\"North%20Carolina%20Museum%20of%20Art\">North Carolina Museum of Art</a>, <a href=\"Corcoran%20Gallery%20of%20Art\">Corcoran Gallery of Art</a>, <a href=\"Chrysler%20Museum%20of%20Art\">Chrysler Museum of Art</a>, <a href=\"Milwaukee%20Art%20Museum\">Milwaukee Art Museum</a>, <a href=\"Frist%20Center%20for%20the%20Visual%20Arts\">Frist Center for the Visual Arts</a>, <a href=\"Contemporary%20Arts%20Center%20%28New%20Orleans%29\">Contemporary Arts Center (New Orleans)</a>, <a href=\"Arkansas%20Arts%20Center\">Arkansas Arts Center</a>, <a href=\"Detroit%20Institute%20of%20Arts\">Detroit Institute of Arts</a>, <a href=\"Cincinnati%20Art%20Museum\">Cincinnati Art Museum</a>, and <a href=\"Tacoma%20Art%20Museum\">Tacoma Art Museum</a>.","Gabriel Chodos\nGabriel Chodos is an American pianist who has performed throughout the United States, Europe, Japan and Israel.\nChodos's principal teacher was Aube Tzerko, a student of <a href=\"Artur%20Schnabel\">Schnabel</a>. He also studied piano with <a href=\"Leonard%20Shure\">Leonard Shure</a> at the <a href=\"Aspen%20Music%20Festival\">Aspen Music Festival</a>, Josef Dichler in Vienna, and <a href=\"Carlo%20Zecchi\">Carlo Zecchi</a> in Salzburg.\nMr. Chodos holds a Master's degree in Music from <a href=\"UCLA\">UCLA</a> and a Diploma in Piano from the Akademie fur Musik and darstellende Kunst in Vienna.\nHe also studied theory with <a href=\"Leonard%20Stein\">Leonard Stein</a>, a former assistant of Schoenberg, and holds an undergraduate degree in Philosophy from the <a href=\"University%20of%20California\">University of California</a> at Los Angeles, being elected to <a href=\"Phi%20Beta%20Kappa\">Phi Beta Kappa</a>.\nChodos is a winner of the <a href=\"Concert%20Artists%20Guild\">Concert Artists Guild</a> competition in New York. Chodos also received a <a href=\"Fulbright%20Scholarship\">Fulbright Scholarship</a>, Martha Baird Rockefeller grants, and a Solo Recitalist grant from the <a href=\"National%20Endowment%20for%20the%20Arts\">National Endowment for the Arts</a>.\nHe has performed as soloist with the <a href=\"Chicago%20Symphony%20Orchestra\">Chicago Symphony Orchestra</a>, the Radio Philharmonic Orchestra of Holland, the <a href=\"Jerusalem%20Symphony%20Orchestra\">Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra</a>, and the Aspen Chamber Symphony. Mr. Chodos performed at the 92nd Street Y, Alice Tully Hall, Merkin Hall, Symphony Hall, and the <a href=\"Library%20of%20Congress\">Library of Congress</a>.\nIn recent years Chodos's performances of works by <a href=\"Schubert\">Schubert</a>, <a href=\"Brahms\">Brahms</a> and <a href=\"Chopin\">Chopin</a> have been broadcast nationwide by <a href=\"National%20Public%20Radio\">National Public Radio</a>. He has recorded for Fleur de Son, Victor/Japan, CRI, Orion, and Centaur.\nChodos is a member of the artist faculty of the <a href=\"New%20England%20Conservatory\">New England Conservatory</a> in Boston. Chodos was an artist-faculty member of the <a href=\"Aspen%20Music%20Festival\">Aspen Music Festival</a> for many years.\nHe has given master classes throughout the world, including the <a href=\"Guildhall%20School%20of%20Music\">Guildhall School of Music</a> in London, the <a href=\"University%20of%20Music%20and%20Theatre%20Leipzig\">Hochschule für Musik</a> in Leipzig, the <a href=\"Estonian%20Academy%20of%20Music%20and%20Theatre\">Estonia Music Academy</a> in Tallinn, the <a href=\"Toho%20Gakuen%20School%20of%20Music\">Toho Gakuen School of Music</a> and the <a href=\"Kunitachi%20College%20of%20Music\">Kunitachi School of Music</a> in Tokyo.\nHe is also a frequent guest artist and teacher at the Chautauqua Music Festival and the Rutgers Summerfest.","Halley's Comet\nHalley's Comet or Comet Halley, officially designated 1P/Halley, is a <a href=\"List%20of%20periodic%20comets\">short-period comet</a> visible from <a href=\"Earth\">Earth</a> every 74–79 years. Halley is the only known short-period <a href=\"comet\">comet</a> that is regularly visible to the <a href=\"naked%20eye\">naked eye</a> from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner parts of the <a href=\"Solar%20System\">Solar System</a> in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.\nHalley's returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers since at least 240 BC. Clear records of the comet's appearances were made by <a href=\"Chinese%20people\">Chinese</a>, <a href=\"Babylonia\">Babylonia</a>n, and <a href=\"Middle%20Ages\">medieval European</a> <a href=\"chroniclers\">chroniclers</a>, but were not recognized as reappearances of the same object at the time. The comet's periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer <a href=\"Edmond%20Halley\">Edmond Halley</a>, after whom it is now named.\nDuring its 1986 apparition, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by <a href=\"spacecraft\">spacecraft</a>, providing the first observational data on the structure of a <a href=\"comet%20nucleus\">comet nucleus</a> and the mechanism of <a href=\"coma%20%28cometary%29\">coma</a> and <a href=\"comet%20tail\">tail</a> formation. These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly <a href=\"Fred%20Whipple\">Fred Whipple</a>'s \"dirty snowball\" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of <a href=\"volatiles\">volatile ices</a> – such as <a href=\"water\">water</a>, <a href=\"carbon%20dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a>, and <a href=\"ammonia\">ammonia</a> – and <a href=\"cosmic%20dust\">dust</a>. The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.\nComet Halley is commonly pronounced , rhyming with \"valley\", or , rhyming with \"daily\". Spellings of Edmond Halley's name during his lifetime included \"Hailey, Haley, Hayley, Halley, Hawley\", and \"Hawly\", so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain.\nHalley was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by <a href=\"Aristotle\">Aristotle</a>, was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproved in 1577 by <a href=\"Tycho%20Brahe\">Tycho Brahe</a>, who used <a href=\"parallax\">parallax</a> measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the <a href=\"Moon\">Moon</a>. Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System.\nIn 1687, <a href=\"Sir%20Isaac%20Newton\">Sir Isaac Newton</a> published his \"<a href=\"Philosophi%C3%A6%20Naturalis%20Principia%20Mathematica\">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a>\", in which he outlined his laws of <a href=\"gravity\">gravity</a> and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see <a href=\"Newton%27s%20Comet\">Newton's Comet</a>), he was unable to completely reconcile comets into his model.\nUltimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, <a href=\"Edmond%20Halley\">Edmond Halley</a>, who, in his 1705 \"Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets\", used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits. This calculation enabled him, after examining historical records, to determine that the <a href=\"orbital%20elements\">orbital elements</a> of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by <a href=\"Petrus%20Apianus\">Petrus Apianus</a>) and 1607 (observed by <a href=\"Johannes%20Kepler\">Johannes Kepler</a>). Halley thus concluded that all three comets were, in fact, the same object returning about every 76 years, a period that has since been found to vary between 74–79 years. After a rough estimate of the <a href=\"Perturbation%20%28astronomy%29\">perturbations</a> the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758. Halley died in 1742 before he could observe this himself.\nHalley's prediction of the comet's return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by <a href=\"Johann%20Georg%20Palitzsch\">Johann Georg Palitzsch</a>, a German farmer and amateur astronomer. It did not pass through its <a href=\"periapsis\">perihelion</a> until 13 March 1759, the attraction of <a href=\"Jupiter\">Jupiter</a> and <a href=\"Saturn\">Saturn</a> having caused a retardation of 618 days. This effect was computed prior to its return (with a one-month error to 13 April) by a team of three French mathematicians, <a href=\"Alexis%20Clairaut\">Alexis Clairaut</a>, <a href=\"Joseph%20Lalande\">Joseph Lalande</a>, and <a href=\"Nicole-Reine%20Lepaute\">Nicole-Reine Lepaute</a>. The confirmation of the comet's return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of <a href=\"Newtonian%20physics\">Newtonian physics</a>, and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power. The comet was first named in Halley's honour by French astronomer <a href=\"Nicolas%20Louis%20de%20Lacaille\">Nicolas Louis de Lacaille</a> in 1759.\nSome scholars have proposed that first-century Mesopotamian astronomers already had recognized Halley's Comet as periodic. This theory notes a passage in the Bavli <a href=\"Talmud\">Talmud</a> that refers to \"a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err.\"\nResearchers in 1981 attempting to calculate the past orbits of Halley by <a href=\"numerical%20integration\">numerical integration</a> starting from accurate observations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could not produce accurate results further back than 837 due to a close approach to Earth in that year. It was necessary to use <a href=\"Historic%20comet%20observations%20in%20China\">ancient Chinese comet observations</a> to constrain their calculations.\nHalley's orbital period has varied between 74–79 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly <a href=\"elliptical\">elliptical</a>, with an <a href=\"orbital%20eccentricity\">orbital eccentricity</a> of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a <a href=\"parabolic%20trajectory\">parabolic trajectory</a>). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is just 0.6 <a href=\"Astronomical%20unit\">AU</a>. This is between the orbits of <a href=\"Mercury%20%28planet%29\">Mercury</a> and <a href=\"Venus\">Venus</a>. Its <a href=\"aphelion\">aphelion</a>, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 AU (roughly the distance of <a href=\"Pluto\">Pluto</a>). Unusual for an object in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is <a href=\"Retrograde%20and%20direct%20motion\">retrograde</a>; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the <a href=\"Sun\">Sun</a>'s north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the <a href=\"ecliptic\">ecliptic</a>, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. (Because it is retrograde, the true inclination is 162°). Due to the retrograde orbit, it has one of the highest velocities relative to the <a href=\"Earth\">Earth</a> of any object in the Solar System. The 1910 passage was at a <a href=\"relative%20velocity\">relative velocity</a> of 70.56 km/s (157,838 mph or 254,016 km/h). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two <a href=\"meteor%20showers\">meteor showers</a>: the <a href=\"Eta%20Aquariids\">Eta Aquariids</a> in early May, and the <a href=\"Orionids\">Orionids</a> in late October. Halley is the parent body to the Orionids. Observations conducted around the time of Halley's appearance in 1986 suggested that the comet could additionally perturb the <a href=\"Eta%20Aquarids\">Eta Aquarid</a> meteor shower, although it might not be the parent of that shower.\nHalley is classified as a \"periodic\" or \"<a href=\"short-period%20comet\">short-period comet</a>\"; one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less. This contrasts it with <a href=\"long-period%20comet\">long-period comet</a>s, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5 years, so Halley's orbit is atypical. Most short-period comets (those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 20–30 degrees or less) are called <a href=\"Jupiter-family%20comet\">Jupiter-family comet</a>s. Those resembling Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets. s of 2015 , only 75 Halley-type comets have been observed, compared with 511 identified Jupiter family comets.\nThe orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the <a href=\"Oort%20Cloud\">Oort Cloud</a>, a sphere of cometary bodies that has an inner edge of <a href=\"Oort%20Cloud%23Structure%20and%20composition\">20,000–50,000 AU</a>. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the <a href=\"Kuiper%20belt\">Kuiper belt</a>, a flat disc of icy debris between 30 AU (Neptune's orbit) and 50 AU from the Sun (in the <a href=\"scattered%20disc\">scattered disc</a>). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a <a href=\"trans-Neptunian%20object\">trans-Neptunian object</a> with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, , whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.\nHalley has probably been in its current orbit for 16,000–200,000 years, although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions, and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations. The non-gravitational effects can be crucial; as Halley approaches the Sun, it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface, which knock it very slightly off its orbital path. These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion of four days, average.\nIn 1989, <a href=\"Boris%20Chirikov\">Boris Chirikov</a> and Vitaly Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations. These studies showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales. Halley's projected lifetime could be as long as 10 million years. More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate, or split in two, within the next few tens of thousands of years, or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years. Observations by D.W. Hughes suggest that Halley's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80–90% over the last 2000–3000 revolutions.\nThe \"<a href=\"Giotto%20mission\">Giotto</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Vega%20program\">Vega</a>\" missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as <a href=\"water\">water</a>, <a href=\"carbon%20monoxide\">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href=\"carbon%20dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a> and other <a href=\"volatiles\">ices</a>) begin to <a href=\"Sublimation%20%28chemistry%29\">sublime</a> from the surface of its <a href=\"Comet%20nucleus\">nucleus</a>. This causes the comet to develop a <a href=\"Coma%20%28cometary%29\">coma</a>, or atmosphere, up to 100,000 km across. Evaporation of this dirty ice releases <a href=\"dust\">dust</a> particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as <a href=\"fluorescence\">fluorescence</a>, whereas dust particles <a href=\"scattering\">scatter</a> the solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible. As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are <a href=\"ionization\">ionized</a> by the solar <a href=\"ultraviolet%20radiation\">ultraviolet radiation</a>, pressure from the <a href=\"solar%20wind\">solar wind</a>, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long <a href=\"Comet%20tail\">tail</a>, which may extend more than 100 million kilometers into space. Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause <a href=\"disconnection%20event\">disconnection event</a>s, in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus.\nDespite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometers long, 8 kilometers wide and perhaps 8 kilometers thick. Its shape vaguely resembles that of a <a href=\"peanut\">peanut</a>. Its mass is relatively low (roughly 2.2 × 10 kg) and its average density is about 0.6 g/cm, indicating that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a <a href=\"rubble%20pile\">rubble pile</a>. Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's <a href=\"rotation%20period\">rotation period</a> was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell, suggested a period of 52 hours. Given the irregular shape of the nucleus, Halley's rotation is likely to be complex. Although only 25% of Halley's surface was imaged in detail during the flyby missions, the images revealed an extremely varied topography, with hills, mountains, ridges, depressions, and at least one crater.\nHalley is the most active of all the periodic comets, with others, such as <a href=\"Comet%20Encke\">Comet Encke</a> and <a href=\"Comet%20Holmes\">Comet Holmes</a>, being one or two <a href=\"orders%20of%20magnitude\">orders of magnitude</a> less active. Its day side (the side facing the Sun) is far more active than the night side. Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80% water vapor, 17% carbon monoxide and 3–4% carbon dioxide, with traces of hydrocarbons although more-recent sources give a value of 10% for carbon monoxide and also include traces of <a href=\"methane\">methane</a> and <a href=\"ammonia\">ammonia</a>. The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds common in the outer Solar System, and silicates, such as are found in terrestrial rocks. The dust particles decreased in size down to the limits of detection (~0.001 µm). The ratio of <a href=\"deuterium\">deuterium</a> to <a href=\"hydrogen\">hydrogen</a> in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth's ocean water, suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past. Subsequent observations showed Halley's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth's oceans, making such comets unlikely sources for Earth's water.\n\"Giotto\" provided the first evidence in support of <a href=\"Fred%20Whipple\">Fred Whipple</a>'s \"<a href=\"dirty%20snowball\">dirty snowball</a>\" hypothesis for comet construction; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System, causing ices on their surfaces to sublimate (change directly from a solid to a gas), and jets of volatile material to burst outward, creating the coma. \"Giotto\" showed that this model was broadly correct, though with modifications. Halley's <a href=\"albedo\">albedo</a>, for instance, is about 4%, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it; about what one would expect for coal. Thus, despite appearing brilliant white to observers on Earth, Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The surface temperature of evaporating \"dirty ice\" ranges from 170 K (−103 °C) at higher albedo to 220 K (−53 °C) at low albedo; <a href=\"Vega%201\">Vega 1</a> found Halley's surface temperature to be in the range 300–400 K (30–130 °C). This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat. Together, these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-<a href=\"volatiles\">volatile</a> materials, and thus more closely resembled a \"snowy dirtball\" than a \"dirty snowball\".\nHalley may have been recorded as early as 467 BC, but this is uncertain. A comet was recorded in ancient Greece between 468 and 466 BC; its timing, location, duration, and associated meteor shower all suggest it was Halley. According to <a href=\"Pliny%20the%20Elder\">Pliny the Elder</a>, that same year a meteorite fell in the town of <a href=\"Aegospotami\">Aegospotami</a>, in <a href=\"Thrace\">Thrace</a>. He described it as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load. Chinese chroniclers also mention a comet in that year.\nThe first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle \"<a href=\"Records%20of%20the%20Grand%20Historian\">Records of the Grand Historian</a>\" or \"Shiji\", which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north. The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, now owned by the <a href=\"British%20Museum\">British Museum</a>.\nThe apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen \"day beyond day\" for a month. This appearance may be recalled in the representation of <a href=\"Tigranes%20the%20Great\">Tigranes the Great</a>, an <a href=\"Armenia\">Armenia</a>n king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to <a href=\"Vahe%20Gurzadyan\">Vahe Gurzadyan</a> and R. Vardanyan, \"a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC.\" Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that \"Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC\" as the comet would have been a \"most recordable event\"; for ancient Armenians it could have heralded the New Era of the brilliant King of Kings.\nThe apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the \"<a href=\"Book%20of%20Han\">Book of Han</a>\" by <a href=\"Chinese%20astronomy\">Chinese astronomers</a> of the <a href=\"Han%20Dynasty\">Han Dynasty</a> who tracked it from August through October. It passed within 0.16 AU of Earth. Halley's appearance in 12 BC, only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned <a href=\"Chronology%20of%20Jesus%23Year%20of%20birth\">date of the birth of Jesus Christ</a>, has led some <a href=\"theologian\">theologian</a>s and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the <a href=\"Star%20of%20Bethlehem\">Star of Bethlehem</a>. There are other explanations for the phenomenon, such as <a href=\"planetary%20conjunction\">planetary conjunction</a>s, and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus' birth.\nIf, as has been suggested, the reference in the <a href=\"Talmud\">Talmud</a> to \"a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err\" (see <a href=\"%23Computation%20of%20orbit\">above</a>) refers to Halley's Comet, it may be a reference to the 66 AD appearance, because this passage is attributed to the Rabbi <a href=\"Joshua%20ben%20Hananiah\">Yehoshua ben Hananiah</a>. This apparition was the only one to occur during ben Hananiah's lifetime.\nThe 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles. It was also recorded in the <a href=\"Tamil%20language\">Tamil</a> work \"<a href=\"Purananuru\">Purananuru</a>\", in connection with the death of the south Indian <a href=\"Chera%20dynasty\">Chera</a> king <a href=\"Yanaikatchai%20Mantaran%20Cheral%20Irumporai\">Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai</a>.\nThe 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0.09 AU of Earth. The 684 AD apparition was recorded in Europe in one of the sources used by the compiler of the 1493 <a href=\"Nuremberg%20Chronicle\">Nuremberg Chronicle</a>s. Chinese records also report it as the \"broom star\".\nIn 837, Halley's Comet may have passed as close as 0.03 <a href=\"astronomical%20unit\">AU</a> (3.2 million miles; 5.1 million kilometers) from <a href=\"Earth\">Earth</a>, by far its closest approach. Its tail may have stretched 60 <a href=\"degree%20%28angle%29\">degrees</a> across the sky. It was recorded by astronomers in China, Japan, Germany, the Byzantine Empire, and the Middle East. In 912, Halley is recorded in the <a href=\"Annals%20of%20Ulster\">Annals of Ulster</a>, which state \"A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared.\"\nIn 1066, the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen: later that year <a href=\"Harold%20II%20of%20England\">Harold II of England</a> died at the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Hastings\">Battle of Hastings</a>; it was a bad omen for Harold, but a good omen for the man who defeated him, <a href=\"William%20the%20Conqueror\">William the Conqueror</a>. The comet is represented on the <a href=\"Bayeux%20Tapestry\">Bayeux Tapestry</a> as a fiery star, and the surviving accounts describe it as appearing to be four times the size of <a href=\"Venus\">Venus</a> and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the <a href=\"Moon\">Moon</a>. Halley came within 0.10 AU of Earth at that time.\nThis appearance of the comet is also noted in the \"<a href=\"Anglo-Saxon%20Chronicle\">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a>\". <a href=\"Eilmer%20of%20Malmesbury\">Eilmer of Malmesbury</a> may have seen Halley previously in 989, as he wrote of it in 1066: \"You've come, have you? ... You've come, you source of tears to many mothers, you evil. I hate you! It is long since I saw you; but as I see you now you are much more terrible, for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country. I hate you!\"\nThe Irish \"<a href=\"Annals%20of%20the%20Four%20Masters\">Annals of the Four Masters</a>\" recorded the comet as \"A star [that] appeared on the seventh of the <a href=\"Calends\">Calends</a> of May, on Tuesday after Little Easter, than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards.\" <a href=\"Chaco%20Culture%20National%20Historical%20Park\">Chaco</a> <a href=\"Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States\">Native Americans</a> in <a href=\"New%20Mexico\">New Mexico</a> may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs.\nThe 1145 apparition was recorded by the monk Eadwine. The 1986 apparition exhibited a fan tail similar to Eadwine's drawing. Some claim that <a href=\"Genghis%20Khan\">Genghis Khan</a> was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the 1222 apparition. The 1301 apparition may have been seen by the artist <a href=\"Giotto%20di%20Bondone\">Giotto di Bondone</a>, who represented the <a href=\"Star%20of%20Bethlehem\">Star of Bethlehem</a> as a fire-colored comet in the <a href=\"Nativity%20of%20Jesus%20in%20art\">Nativity</a> section of his <a href=\"Arena%20Chapel\">Arena Chapel</a> cycle, completed in 1305. Its 1378 appearance is recorded in the \"Annales Mediolanenses\" as well as in East Asian sources.\nIn 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the <a href=\"Ottoman%20Empire\">Ottoman Empire</a> invaded the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Hungary\">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, culminating in the <a href=\"Siege%20of%20Belgrade%20%281456%29\">Siege of Belgrade</a> in July of that year. In a <a href=\"papal%20bull\">papal bull</a>, Pope <a href=\"Calixtus%20III\">Calixtus III</a> ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the <a href=\"Renaissance%20humanism\">humanist</a> scholar <a href=\"Bartolomeo%20Platina\">Bartolomeo Platina</a> wrote in his \"<a href=\"Lives%20of%20the%20Popes\">Lives of the Popes</a>\" that,\nA hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the Christian name. He likewise ordered, to move God by continual entreaty, that notice should be given by the bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk.\nPlatina's account is not mentioned in official records. In the 18th century, a Frenchman further embellished the story, in anger at the Church, by claiming that the Pope had \"excommunicated\" the comet, though this story was most likely his own invention.\nHalley's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara, a Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir. He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al-Abidin (AD 1418/1420–1470).\nAfter witnessing a bright light in the sky which most historians have identified as Halley's Comet, <a href=\"Zara%20Yaqob\">Zara Yaqob</a>, Emperor of <a href=\"Ethiopia\">Ethiopia</a> from 1434 to 1468, founded the city of <a href=\"Debre%20Berhan\">Debre Berhan</a> (tr. City of Light) and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign.\nHalley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict its 1759 return. Streams of vapour observed during the comet's 1835 apparition prompted astronomer <a href=\"Friedrich%20Wilhelm%20Bessel\">Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel</a> to propose that the <a href=\"jet%20force\">jet force</a>s of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit.\nThe 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April and came to perihelion on 20 April, was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which <a href=\"spectroscopic\">spectroscopic</a> data were obtained. Furthermore, the comet made a relatively close approach of 0.15 AU, making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet. One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas <a href=\"cyanogen\">cyanogen</a>, which led astronomer <a href=\"Camille%20Flammarion\">Camille Flammarion</a> to claim that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas \"would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet.\" His pronouncement led to panicked buying of gas masks and quack \"anti-comet pills\" and \"anti-comet umbrellas\" by the public. In reality, as other astronomers were quick to point out, the gas is so diffuse that the world suffered no ill effects from the passage through the tail.\nThe comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of <a href=\"Xinhai%20Revolution\">Xinhai Revolution</a> that would end the <a href=\"Qing%20dynasty\">last dynasty</a> in 1911. As James Hutson, a missionary in <a href=\"Sichuan%20Province\">Sichuan Province</a> at the time, recorded,\nThe people believe that it indicates calamity such as war, fire, pestilence, and a change of dynasty. In some places on certain days the doors were unopened for half a day, no water was carried and many did not even drink water as it was rumoured that pestilential vapour was being poured down upon the earth from the comet.\"\nThe 1910 visitation is also recorded as being the travelling companion of the first known English Muslim to make the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. However, his explanation of its scientific predictability did not meet with favour in the Holy City.\nThe comet was also fertile ground for hoaxes. One that reached major newspapers claimed that the Sacred Followers, a supposed Oklahoma religious group, attempted to sacrifice a virgin to ward off the impending disaster, but were stopped by the police.\nAmerican satirist and writer <a href=\"Mark%20Twain\">Mark Twain</a> was born on 30 November 1835, exactly two weeks after the comet's <a href=\"perihelion\">perihelion</a>. In his autobiography, published in 1909, he said,\nI came in with Halley's comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: 'Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together.'\nTwain died on 21 April 1910, the day following the comet's subsequent perihelion. The 1985 fantasy film \"<a href=\"The%20Adventures%20of%20Mark%20Twain%20%281985%20film%29\">The Adventures of Mark Twain</a>\" was inspired by the quotation.\nHalley's 1910 apparition is distinct from the <a href=\"Great%20January%20comet%20of%201910\">Great Daylight Comet of 1910</a>, which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was actually visible in broad daylight for a short period, approximately four months before Halley made its appearance.\nHalley's 1986 apparition was the least favorable on record. The comet and Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun in February 1986, creating the worst viewing circumstances for Earth observers for the last 2,000 years. Halley's closest approach was 0.42 AU. Additionally, with increased <a href=\"light%20pollution\">light pollution</a> from urbanization, many people failed to even see the comet. It was possible to observe it in areas outside of cities with the help of binoculars. Further, the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April. Halley's approach was first detected by astronomers <a href=\"David%20Jewitt\">David Jewitt</a> and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5.1 m <a href=\"Hale%20telescope\">Hale telescope</a> at <a href=\"Mount%20Palomar%20Observatory\">Mount Palomar</a> and a <a href=\"CCD%20camera\">CCD camera</a>. The first person to visually observe the comet on its 1986 return was amateur astronomer Stephen James O'Meara on 24 January 1985. O'Meara used a home-built 24-inch telescope on top of <a href=\"Mauna%20Kea\">Mauna Kea</a> to detect the <a href=\"apparent%20magnitude\">magnitude</a> 19.6 comet. On 8 November 1985, Stephen Edberg (then serving as the Coordinator for Amateur Observations at <a href=\"NASA\">NASA</a>'s <a href=\"JPL\">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>) and Charles Morris were the first to observe Halley's Comet with the naked eye in its 1986 apparition.\nThe development of space travel gave scientists the opportunity to study the comet at close quarters, and several probes were launched to do so. The Soviet <a href=\"Vega%201\">Vega 1</a> started returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, and the first ever of its <a href=\"Comet%20nucleus\">nucleus</a>, and made its flyby on 6 March, followed by <a href=\"Vega%202\">Vega 2</a> making its flyby on 9 March. On 14 March, the <a href=\"Giotto%20%28spacecraft%29\">\"Giotto\" space probe</a>, launched by the <a href=\"European%20Space%20Agency\">European Space Agency</a>, made the closest pass of the comet's nucleus. There were also two Japanese probes, <a href=\"Suisei%20%28spacecraft%29\">\"Suisei\"</a> and \"<a href=\"Sakigake\">Sakigake</a>\". The probes were unofficially known as the <a href=\"Halley%20Armada\">Halley Armada</a>.\nBased on data retrieved by <a href=\"Astron%20%28spacecraft%29\">\"Astron\"</a>, the largest <a href=\"ultraviolet\">ultraviolet</a> space telescope of the time, during its Halley's Comet observations in December 1985, a group of Soviet scientists developed a model of the comet's <a href=\"Coma%20%28cometary%29\">coma</a>. The comet was also observed from space by the <a href=\"International%20Cometary%20Explorer\">International Cometary Explorer</a>. Originally International Sun-Earth Explorer 3, the probe was renamed and freed from its <a href=\"Lagrangian%20point%23L1\">L</a> <a href=\"Lagrangian%20point\">Lagrangian point</a> location in Earth's orbit to intercept comets <a href=\"21P/Giacobini-Zinner\">21P/Giacobini-Zinner</a> and Halley.\nTwo <a href=\"Space%20Shuttle\">Space Shuttle</a> missions – the ill-fated <a href=\"STS-51-L\">STS-51-L</a> (ended by the <a href=\"Space%20Shuttle%20Challenger%20disaster\">\"Challenger\" disaster</a>) and <a href=\"STS-61-E\">STS-61-E</a> – were scheduled to observe Halley's Comet from <a href=\"low%20Earth%20orbit\">low Earth orbit</a>. STS-51-L carried the Shuttle-Pointed Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN-203) satellite, also called the Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable (HCED). STS-61-E was a \"Columbia\" mission scheduled for March 1986, carrying the ASTRO-1 platform to study the comet. Due to the suspension of America's manned space program after the \"Challenger\" explosion, the mission was canceled, and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on <a href=\"STS-35\">STS-35</a>.\nOn 12 February 1991, at a distance of 14.4 AU from the Sun, Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months, releasing a cloud of dust 300,000 km across. The outburst likely started in December 1990, and then the comet brightened from magnitude 24.3 to magnitude 18.9. Halley was most recently observed in 2003 by three of the <a href=\"Very%20Large%20Telescope\">Very Large Telescope</a>s at Paranal, Chile, when Halley's magnitude was 28.2. The telescopes observed Halley, at the faintest and farthest any comet has ever been imaged, in order to verify a method for finding very faint <a href=\"trans-Neptunian%20object\">trans-Neptunian object</a>s. Astronomers are now able to observe the comet at any point in its orbit.\nThe next predicted perihelion of Halley's Comet is 28 July 2061, when it is expected to be better positioned for observation than during the 1985–1986 apparition, as it will be on the same side of the Sun as Earth. It is expected to have an <a href=\"apparent%20magnitude\">apparent magnitude</a> of −0.3, compared with only +2.1 for the 1986 apparition. It has been calculated that on 9 September 2060, Halley will pass within 0.98 AU of Jupiter, and then on 20 August 2061 will pass within 0.0543 AU of Venus. In 2134, Halley is expected to pass within 0.09 AU of Earth. Its apparent magnitude is expected to be −2.0.\nHalley's calculations enabled the comet's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record. The following table sets out the <a href=\"Comet%23Nomenclature\">astronomical designations</a> for every apparition of Halley's Comet from 240 BC, the earliest documented widespread sighting. For example, \"1P/1982 U1, 1986 III, 1982i\" indicates that for the perihelion in 1986, Halley was the first period comet known (designated 1P) and this apparition was the first seen in <a href=\"half-month\">half-month</a> U (the second half of October) in 1982 (giving 1P/1982 U1); it was the third comet past perihelion in 1986 (1986 III); and it was the ninth comet spotted in 1982 (<a href=\"provisional%20designation%20in%20astronomy\">provisional designation</a> 1982i). The perihelion dates of each apparition are shown. The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate, mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects. Perihelion dates of 1531 and earlier are in the <a href=\"Julian%20calendar\">Julian calendar</a>, while perihelion dates 1607 and after are in the <a href=\"Gregorian%20calendar\">Gregorian calendar</a>.\n"],"string":"[\n \"John Davis (pianist)\\nJohn Davis (born October 22, 1957) is an American classical pianist, concert performer, recording artist, and historian. Born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina and raised in Providence, Rhode Island, Davis now lives in Brooklyn, New York. He has specialized in reviving the forgotten music of several 19th Century African-American pianists, including Blind Tom Wiggins and Blind Boone. He has recorded albums of works by both composers for the Newport Classic label.\\nDavis has performed solo piano recitals across the United States, toured Asia and Eastern Europe by invitation of the US State Department, and created several theatrically driven programs entitled \\\"The John Davis Caravan: Standing at the Crossroads\\\", \\\"Will the Real Thomas Wiggins Please Stand Up!\\\", and \\\"Halley's Comet: Around the Piano with Mark Twain & John Davis.\\\"\\n\\\"Time Out New York\\\" wrote that \\\"Davis has made a mission of uncovering music by 19th-century black pianists, including slaves, whose work had a direct impact on the blues, jazz, rock, and R&B artists that came in their wake.\\\" His research and performances have been featured on NPR and television broadcasts and in newspapers and magazines, including \\\"The New Yorker\\\" and \\\"Scientific American\\\". He has written articles on Blind Tom for several Oxford University Press books, including \\\"African American Lives\\\" (2004), \\\"Stress and Coping in Autism\\\" (2006), and \\\"African American National Biography\\\" (2008).\\nSeveral recordings by Davis of Blind Tom compositions were used in the soundtrack of Lorna Simpson's 2003 film \\\"Corridor\\\".\\nIn 2010, in commemoration of the 175th anniversary of the birth (and 100th anniversary of the death) of Mark Twain, Davis released \\\"Halley's Comet: Around the Piano with Mark Twain and John Davis\\\", an album of repertoire based around Twain's fondness for the piano. Composers featured on the album include Louis Moreau Gottschalk, Franz Schubert, Blind Boone, Blind Tom, and Ossip Gabrilowitsch.\\nDavis studied at Brown University and received his Masters degree from Juilliard School. His teachers included Seth Carlin, Gabriel Chodos, Herbert Stessin, Aube Tzerko, and Beveridge Webster.\",\n \"Louisa Melvin Delos Mars\\nLouisa Melvin Delos Mars (c.1860 – after 1926) was a late 19th century African-American singer and composer who was active in Providence, Rhode Island and Boston, Massachusetts. She was one of the first black women to achieve recognition as a composer, and was one of the first black students to graduate from the New England Conservatory. She is best known for composing five full length operettas.\\nBorn Louisa Melvin in Providence and later a resident of Boston, Melvin Delos Mars was one of the first black women to achieve recognition as a composer. She was one of the first black individuals to graduate from the New England Conservatory and first achieved notice in the 1880s singing alongside her sister, Carrie Melvin Lucas, who played cornet and violin. Her sister was the wife of vaudeville entertainer Sam Lucas, and their daughter and Louisa's niece, Maria Lucas, also became a popular trombonist, pianist, and conductor who eventually became the music director at the Howard Theatre in Washington, D.C.\\nMelvin Delos Mars was the first African-American woman to have an opera she composed produced: \\\"Leoni, the Gypsy Queen\\\" in Providence, Rhode Island in 1889. She went on to compose and star in four more full length operettas which were staged in either Boston, Massachusetts or Providence, Rhode Island between 1880–1896, including \\\"Fun At A Boarding School\\\", and \\\"Love In Disguise; or, Things Are Not What They Seem\\\". None of her works survive.\\nMelvin Delos Mars was married to William Delos Mars (1856–1927), and the couple had two sons who were born in Providence: Charles (born May 19, 1883) and Christian (born December 23, 1886). Not much is known about her activities or whereabouts after 1896.\",\n \"Mr. Popper's Penguins (film)\\nMr. Popper's Penguins is a 2011 American family comedy film distributed by 20th Century Fox, directed by Mark Waters, produced by John Davis, co-produced by Davis Entertainment Company and Dune Entertainment, written by Sean Anders, John Morris and Jared Stern with music by Rolfe Kent and starring Jim Carrey, Carla Gugino, Madeline Carroll, Maxwell Perry Cotton, Angela Lansbury, Desmin Borges, Philip Baker Hall, Dominic Chianese, Clark Gregg, Ophelia Lovibond, Jeffrey Tambor, David Krumholtz, Henry Keleman, Dylan Clark Marshall with Frank Welker and James Tupper. It was loosely based on the children's book of the same name. The film was originally slated for a release on August 12, 2011, but was moved up to June 17, 2011. The film received mixed reviews from critics and it earned $187.3 million on a $55 million budget.\\nThomas Popper (Jim Carrey), is a divorced real estate entrepreneur whose father traveled around the world during his childhood in the 1970s. He learns that his father has died during an adventure to Antarctica. The following week, a crate containing a gentoo penguin, named Captain, shows up at his door as a souvenir from his father’s last adventure. A few days later, five more penguins arrive. Popper intends to give them away but changes his idea when his children, Janie (Madeline Carroll) and Billy (Maxwell Perry Cotton), think that the animals are Billy's birthday present.\\nAt work, Popper is given the task of buying Tavern on the Green, the only privately owned real estate in Central Park that is an old restaurant where he used to eat with his father when he was a child. However, its elderly owner, Selma Van Gundy, will only sell it to a person of true value. Popper has unsuccessful meetings with her, and she refuses to sell the restaurant to him. Having the penguins around helps Popper become closer to his children. He also begins dating their mother, Amanda Popper again. The penguins lay three eggs. Two eggs hatch, and one doesn’t. Popper becomes obsessed with seeing the last egg hatch, losing his job.\\nPopper realizes that the egg can’t be hatched so he decides to donate the penguins to the New York Zoo. Then, he is re-employed but his children and ex-wife are disappointed by his decision.\\nPopper finds a lost letter from his father telling him to hold his children close and love them. Popper asks his children and ex-wife to help him get the penguins back from the zoo. They find the penguins, free them and they get away and flee to the tavern.\\nUpon seeing how Popper had reunited his family and saved the penguins, Van Gundy sells him the restaurant. Popper decides to renovate and reopen the restaurant.\\nPopper and his family travel to Antarctica with the penguins, allowing them to live with their own kind. Popper's first penguin, Captain, reveals to have laid another egg. Popper tells his children that they'll visit them when the baby is born.\\nOriginally, Ben Stiller was supposed to play Mr. Popper, and Noah Baumbach was originally going to direct, but they dropped out. Owen Wilson, Jack Black, and Jim Carrey were all considered to replace Stiller, with the role eventually going to Carrey. Mark Waters was chosen to direct. Filming began in October 2010, and finished in January 2011. On September 21, 2010, it was confirmed that Carla Gugino joined the cast as Tom's former wife Amanda Popper. Rhythm and Hues Studios did the penguin animations for certain shots. The musical score was ambitious, with music playing nearly throughout. It was written by Rolfe Kent, and orchestrated by Tony Blondal. It was recorded at the scoring stage at 20th Century Fox in Century City, Ca. with a 78 piece orchestra. An online Museum Slide Game created by designer Mark Kavanaugh as promotional material for the film is still accessible.\\nThe penguins portrayed in the film were a mix of real penguins and CGI.\\nRolfe Kent scored the music for the film and on its soundtrack. The soundtrack also contains “Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds” written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, “Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!” written by Jule Styne and Sammy Cahn, “Sweet N' Lo” written by Erwin Lehn, “Doo Wah Dooh Wah” written and performed by Syd Dale, “Set 'Em Up Joe” written by Werner Tautz, “Spin Spin” written by Steve Sidwell, “Go Get It” written and performed by Jeff Cardoni, “Piano Lounge” written by Daniel May and Marc Ferrari, “Ice Ice Baby” performed by Vanilla Ice and music from the Charles Chaplin movies.\\n\\\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\\\" was theatrically released on June 17, 2011 by 20th Century Fox.\\n\\\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\\\" earned $6.4 million on opening day and $18.4 million over the three-day weekend, ranking in third place behind \\\"Green Lantern\\\" and \\\"Super 8\\\". The opening was at the high end of 20th Century Fox's expectations, which was predicting a mid to high teens opening. In its second weekend, the film faced competition from \\\"Cars 2\\\" and dropped 45% to $10.1 million and ranked in fifth place. Over the four-day Independence Day holiday weekend, it ranked in eighth place after dropping 34% to $6.7 million. The film has earned $68,224,452 domestically and $119,137,302 in foreign countries, grossing a total of $187,361,754 worldwide. The film received mixed reviews from critics, with a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 48%, based on 136 reviews, as of August 2012. The site's consensus reads \\\"Blandly inoffensive and thoroughly predictable, \\\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\\\" could have been worse—but it should have been better.\\\"\\n\\\"Mr. Popper's Penguins\\\" was released on Blu-ray and DVD on December 6, 2011. It includes a short film called \\\"Nimrod and Stinky's Antarctic Adventure\\\".\",\n \"Fortepiano\\nA fortepiano ] is an early piano. In principle, the word \\\"fortepiano\\\" can designate any piano dating from the invention of the instrument by Bartolomeo Cristofori around 1700 up to the early 19th century. Most typically, however, it is used to refer to the late-18th to early-19th century instruments for which Haydn, Mozart, and the younger Beethoven wrote their piano music. Starting in Beethoven's time, the fortepiano began a period of steady evolution, culminating in the late 19th century with the modern grand. The earlier fortepiano became obsolete and was absent from the musical scene for many decades. In the 20th century the fortepiano was revived, following the rise of interest in historically informed performance. Fortepianos are built for this purpose today in specialist workshops.\\nThe fortepiano has leather-covered hammers and thin, harpsichord-like strings. It has a much lighter case construction than the modern piano and, except for later examples of the early nineteenth century (already evolving towards the modern piano), it has no metal frame or bracing. The action and hammers are lighter, giving rise to a much lighter touch, which in well-constructed fortepianos is also very responsive.\\nThe range of the fortepiano was about four octaves at the time of its invention and gradually increased. Mozart (1756–1791) wrote his piano music for instruments of about five octaves. The piano works of Beethoven (1770–1827) reflect a gradually expanding range; his last piano compositions are for an instrument of about six octaves. (The range of most modern pianos, attained in the 19th century, is 7⅓ octaves.)\\nFortepianos from the start often had devices similar to the pedals of modern pianos, but these were not always pedals; sometimes hand stops or knee levers were used instead.\\nLike the modern piano, the fortepiano can vary the sound volume of each note, depending on the player's touch. The tone of the fortepiano is quite different from that of the modern piano, however, being softer with less sustain. Sforzando accents tend to stand out more than on the modern piano, as they differ from softer notes in timbre as well as volume, and decay rapidly.\\nFortepianos also tend to have quite different tone quality in their different registers – slightly buzzing in the bass, \\\"tinkling\\\" in the high treble, and more rounded (closest to the modern piano) in the mid range. In comparison, modern pianos are rather more uniform in sound through their range.\\nThe piano was invented by harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence around the turn of the 18th century. The first reliable record of a piano appears in the inventory of the Medici family (who were Cristofori's patrons), dated 1700. Cristofori continued to develop the instrument until the 1720s, the time from which the surviving three Cristofori instruments date.\\nCristofori is perhaps best admired today for his ingenious piano action, which in some ways was more subtle and effective than that of many later instruments. However, other innovations were also needed to make the piano possible. Merely attaching the Cristofori action to a harpsichord would have produced a very weak tone. Cristofori's instruments instead used thicker, tenser strings, mounted on a frame considerably more robust than that of contemporary harpsichords. As with all virtually later pianos, in Cristofori's instruments the hammers struck more than one string at a time; Cristofori used pairs of strings throughout the range.\\nCristofori was also the first to incorporate a form of soft pedal into a piano (the mechanism by which the hammers are made to strike fewer than the maximum number of strings; Cristofori's was a hand stop). It is not clear whether the modern soft pedal descends directly from Cristofori's work or arose independently.\\nCristofori's invention soon attracted public attention as the result of a journal article written by Scipione Maffei and published 1711 in \\\"Giornale de'letterati d'Italia\\\" of Venice. The article included a diagram of the action, the core of Cristofori's invention. This article was republished 1719 in a volume of Maffei's work, and then in a German translation (1725) in Johann Mattheson's \\\"Critica Musica\\\". The latter publication was perhaps the triggering event in the spread of the fortepiano to German-speaking countries (see below).\\nCristofori's instrument spread at first quite slowly, probably because, being more elaborate and harder to build than a harpsichord, it was very expensive. For a time, the piano was the instrument of royalty, with Cristofori-built or -styled instruments played in the courts of Portugal and Spain. Several were owned by Queen Maria Barbara of Spain, who was the pupil of the composer Domenico Scarlatti. One of the first private individuals to own a piano was the castrato Farinelli, who inherited one from Maria Barbara on her death.\\nThe first music specifically written for piano dates from this period, the \\\"Sonate da cimbalo di piano\\\" (1732) by Lodovico Giustini. This publication was an isolated phenomenon; James Parakilas conjectures that the publication was meant as an honor for the composer on the part of his royal patrons. Certainly there could have been no commercial market for fortepiano music while the instrument continued to be an exotic specimen.\\nIt appears that the fortepiano did not achieve full popularity until the 1760s, from which time the first records of public performances on the instrument are dated, and when music described as being for the fortepiano was first widely published.\\nIt was Gottfried Silbermann who brought the construction of fortepianos to the German-speaking nations. Silbermann, who worked in Freiberg in Germany, began to make pianos based on Cristofori's design around 1730. (His previous experience had been in building organs, harpsichords, and clavichords.) Like Cristofori, Silbermann had royal support, in his case from Frederick the Great of Prussia, who bought many of his instruments.\\nSilbermann's instruments were famously criticized by Johann Sebastian Bach around 1736, but later instruments encountered by Bach in his Berlin visit of 1747 apparently met with the composer's approval. It has been conjectured that the improvement in Silbermann's instruments resulted from his having seen an actual Cristofori piano, rather than merely reading Scipione Maffei's article. The piano action Maffei described does not match that found in surviving Cristofori instruments, suggesting that Maffei either erred in his diagram (he admitted having made it from memory) or that Cristofori improved his action during the period following Maffei's article.\\nSilbermann is credited with the invention of the forerunner of the sustain pedal, which removes the dampers from all the strings at once, permitting them to vibrate freely. Silbermann's device was in fact only a hand stop, and thus could be changed only at a pause in the music. Throughout the Classical era, even when the more flexible knee levers or pedals had been installed, the lifting of all the dampers was used primarily as a coloristic device.\\nThe fortepiano builders who followed Silbermann introduced actions that were simpler than the Cristofori action, even to the point of lacking an escapement (the device that permits the hammer to fall to rest position even when the key has been depressed). Such instruments were the subject of criticism (particularly, in a widely quoted 1777 letter from Mozart to his father), but were simple to make and were widely incorporated into square pianos.\\nOne of the most distinguished fortepiano builders in the era following Silbermann was one of his pupils, Johann Andreas Stein, who worked in Augsburg, Germany. Stein's fortepianos had (what we, or Cristofori, would call) \\\"backwards\\\" hammers, with the striking end closer to the player than the hinged end. This action came to be called the \\\"Viennese\\\" action, and was widely used in Vienna, even on pianos up to the mid 19th century. The Viennese action was simpler than the Cristofori action, and very sensitive to the player's touch. According to Edwin M. Ripin (see references below), the force needed to depress a key on a Viennese fortepiano was only about a fourth of what it is on a modern piano, and the descent of the key only about half as much. Thus playing the Viennese fortepiano involved nothing like the athleticism exercised by modern piano virtuosos, but did require exquisite sensitivity of touch.\\nStein put the wood used in his instruments through a very severe weathering process, and this included the generation of cracks in the wood, into which he would then insert wedges. This gave his instruments a considerable longevity, on which Mozart commented, and there are several instruments still surviving today.\\nStein's fortepiano business was carried on in Vienna with distinction by his daughter Nannette Streicher along with her husband Johann Andreas Streicher. The two were friends of Beethoven, and one of the composer's pianos was a Streicher. Later on in the early 19th century, more robust instruments with greater range were built in Vienna, by (for example) the Streicher firm, which continued through two more generations of Streichers.\\nAnother important Viennese builder was Anton Walter, a friend of Mozart's who built instruments with a somewhat more powerful sound than Stein's. Although Mozart admired the Stein fortepianos very much, as the 1777 letter mentioned above makes clear, his own piano was a Walter. The fortepianos of Stein and Walter are widely used today as models for the construction of new fortepianos, discussed below. Still another important builder in this period was Conrad Graf (1782–1851), who made Beethoven's last piano. Graf was one of the first Viennese makers to build pianos in quantity, as a large business enterprise.\\nThe English fortepiano had a humble origin in the work of Johannes Zumpe, a maker who had immigrated from Germany and worked for a while in the workshop of the great harpsichord maker Burkat Shudi. Starting in the middle to late 1760s, Zumpe made inexpensive square pianos that had a very simple action, lacking an escapement, (sometimes known as the 'old man's head'). Although hardly a technological advancement in the fortepiano, Zumpe's instruments proved very popular (they were imitated outside England), and played a major role in the displacement of the harpsichord by the fortepiano. These square pianos were also the medium of the first public performances on the instrument in the 1760s, notably by Johann Christian Bach.\\nAmericus Backers, with John Broadwood and Robert Stodart, two of Shudi's workmen, produced a more advanced action than Zumpe's. This \\\"English grand action\\\" with an escapement and check enabled a louder, more robust sound than the Viennese one, though it required deeper touch and was less sensitive. The early English grand pianos by these builders physically resembled Shudi harpsichords; which is to say, very imposing, with elegant, restrained veneer work on the exterior. Unlike contemporary Viennese instruments, English grand fortepianos had three strings rather than two per note.\\nJohn Broadwood married the master's daughter (Barbara Shudi, 1769) and ultimately took over and renamed the Shudi firm. The Broadwood company (which survives to this day) was an important innovator in the evolution of the fortepiano into the piano. Broadwood, in collaboration with Jan Ladislav Dussek, a noted piano virtuoso active in London in the 1790s, developed pianos that gradually increased the range to six octaves. Dussek was one of the first pianists to receive a 5½ foot piano, and in 1793 he wrote the first work for piano \\\"with extra keys\\\", a piano concert (C 97). The firm shipped a piano to Beethoven in Vienna, which the composer evidently treasured.\\nFrom the late 18th century, the fortepiano underwent extensive technological development and thus evolved into the modern piano; for details, see Piano. The older type of instrument ceased to be made. In the late 19th century, the early music pioneer Arnold Dolmetsch built three fortepianos. However, this attempted revival of the fortepiano was evidently several decades ahead of its time, and did not lead to widespread adoption of the instrument.\\nIn the second half of the 20th century, a great upsurge of interest occurred in period instruments, including a revival of interest in the fortepiano. Old instruments were restored, and many new ones were built along the lines of the old. This revival of the fortepiano closely resembled the revival of the harpsichord, though occurring somewhat later in time. Among the more prominent modern builders have been (in the United States) Philip Belt, Margaret F. Hood and Rodney Regier; and (in the Czech Republic) Paul McNulty.\\nThe reintroduction of the fortepiano has permitted performance of 18th- and early 19th-century music on the instruments for which it was written, yielding new insights into this music; for detailed discussion, see Piano history and musical performance.\\nA number of modern harpsichordists and pianists have achieved distinction in fortepiano performance, including Susan Alexander-Max, Paul Badura-Skoda, Malcolm Bilson, Hendrik Bouman, Ronald Brautigam, Gary Cooper, Jörg Demus, Richard Egarr, Richard Fuller, Robert Hill, Geoffrey Lancaster, Gustav Leonhardt, Robert Levin, Steven Lubin, Bart van Oort, Trevor Pinnock, David Schrader, Peter Serkin, Viviana Sofronitsky, Andreas Staier and Melvyn Tan.\\nPeople's opinions about fortepiano sound vary widely, both from person to person and from instrument to instrument. Here are three representative opinions about fortepianos:\\n\\\"Fortepiano\\\" is Italian for \\\"loud-soft\\\", just as the formal name for the modern piano, \\\"pianoforte\\\", is \\\"soft-loud\\\". Both are abbreviations of Cristofori's original name for his invention: \\\"gravicembalo col piano e forte\\\", \\\"harpsichord with soft and loud\\\".\\nThe term \\\"fortepiano\\\" is somewhat specialist in its connotations, and does not preclude using the more general term \\\"piano\\\" to designate the same instrument. Thus, usages like \\\"Cristofori invented the piano\\\" or \\\"Mozart's piano concertos\\\" are currently common and would probably be considered acceptable by most musicians. \\\"Fortepiano\\\" is used in contexts where it is important to make the precise identity of the instrument clear, as in (for instance) \\\"a fortepiano recital by Malcolm Bilson\\\".\\nThe use of \\\"fortepiano\\\" to refer specifically to early pianos appears to be recent. Even the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary does not record this usage, noting only that \\\"fortepiano\\\" is \\\"an early name of the pianoforte\\\". During the age of the fortepiano, \\\"fortepiano\\\" and \\\"pianoforte\\\" were used interchangeably, as the OED's attestations show. Jane Austen, who lived in the age of the fortepiano, used \\\"pianoforte\\\" (also: \\\"piano-forte\\\", \\\"piano forte\\\") for the many occurrences of the instrument in her writings.\",\n \"Blind Tom Wiggins\\nThomas \\\"Blind Tom\\\" Wiggins (May 25, 1849June 14, 1908, age 59) was an African American musical prodigy on the piano. He had numerous original compositions published and had a lengthy and largely successful performing career throughout the United States. During the 19th century, he was one of the best-known American performing pianists. Although he lived and died before autism was described, he is now regarded as an autistic savant.\\nWiggins was born on the Wiley Edward Jones Plantation in Harris County, Georgia. Blind at birth, he was sold in 1850 along with his enslaved parents, Charity and Domingo \\\"Mingo\\\" Wiggins, to a Columbus, Georgia lawyer, General James Neil Bethune. Bethune was \\\"almost the pioneer free trader\\\" in the United States and \\\"the first [newspaper] editor in the south to openly advocate secession\\\". General Bethune renamed the child Thomas Greene Bethune or Thomas Wiggins Bethune (according to different sources).\\nBecause Tom was blind, he could not perform work normally demanded of slaves, his owners originally wanted to kill him since he had no economic value to them. Instead, he was left to play and explore the Bethune plantation. At an early age, he showed an interest in the piano after hearing the instrument played by Bethune's daughters. By age four he reportedly had acquired some piano skills by ear, and gained access to the piano. By age five Tom reportedly had composed his first tune, \\\"The Rain Storm,\\\" after a torrential downpour on a tin roof. With his skills recognized by General Bethune, Tom was permitted to live in a room attached to the family house, equipped with a piano. Neighbor Otto Spahr, reminiscing about Tom in the \\\"Atlanta Constitution\\\" in 1908 (as reproduced in \\\"The Ballad of Blind Tom\\\", by Deirdre O'Connell), observed: \\\"Tom seemed to have but two motives in life: the gratification of his appetite and his passion for music. I don't think I exaggerate when I state that he made the piano go for twelve hours out of twenty-four.\\\"\\nAs a child, Tom began to echo the sounds around him, repeating accurately the crow of a rooster or the singing of a bird. If he was left alone in the cabin, Tom was known to begin beating on pots and pans or dragging chairs across the floor in an attempt to make any kind of noise. By the age of four, Tom was able to repeat conversations up to ten minutes in length but was barely able to adequately communicate his own needs, resorting to grunts and gestures.\\nAnother example of Tom's extraordinary abilities was shown after he was taken to a political rally in 1860 in support of Democratic presidential candidate Stephen Douglas. Years after he attended this speech, he was still able to orate it while capturing the tone and mannerisms of Douglas. Additionally, he was able to recreate the heckles and cheers of the crowd with remarkable precision.\\nBethune hired out \\\"Blind Tom\\\" from the age of eight years to concert promoter Perry Oliver, who toured him extensively in the US, performing as often as four times a day and earning Oliver and Bethune up to $100,000 a year, an enormous sum for the time, \\\"equivalent to $1.5 million/year [in 2004], making Blind Tom undoubtedly the nineteenth century's most highly compensated pianist\\\". General Bethune's family eventually made a fortune estimated at $750,000 at the hands of Blind Tom. Oliver marketed Tom as a “Barnum-style freak” advertising the transformation from animal to artist. In the media, Tom was frequently compared to a bear, baboon, or mastiff.\\nBethune hired professional musicians to play for Tom, who could faithfully reproduce their performances, often after a single listening. Eventually he learned a reported 7,000 pieces of music, including hymns, popular songs, waltzes, and classical repertoire.\\nThere are conflicting historical accounts of Blind Tom's first public performance, some indicating he was as young as three. One account from 1857 indicates that he had been performing publicly for several years. Newspaper reviews and audience reactions were favorable, prompting General Bethune to undertake a concert tour with Tom around their home state of Georgia. Tom later toured the South with Bethune or accompanied by hired managers, though their travels and bookings were sometimes hampered by the North-South hostilities which were drawing the nation towards Civil War. In 1860, Blind Tom performed at the White House before President James Buchanan; he was the first African-American to give a command performance at the White House. Mark Twain attended many of Blind Tom's performances over several decades and chronicled the proceedings.\\nOn- and off-stage, Tom often referred to himself in the third person (e.g., \\\"Tom is pleased to meet you\\\"). His piano recitals were augmented by other talents, including uncanny voice mimicry of public figures and nature sounds. He also displayed a hyperactive physicality both onstage and off. A letter written in 1862 by a soldier in North Carolina described some of Tom's eccentric capabilities: \\\"One of his most remarkable feats was the performance of three pieces of music at once. He played 'Fisher's Hornpipe' with one hand and 'Yankee Doodle' with the other and sang 'Dixie' all at once. He also played a piece with his back to the piano and his hands inverted.\\\" At concerts, skeptics attempted to confirm if Tom's performance replications were mere trickery; their challenge took the form of having Tom hear and repeat two new, uncirculated compositions. Tom did so perfectly. The \\\"audience challenge\\\" eventually became a regular feature of his concerts.\\nSupposedly, Tom's talents profited the Confederacy during the Civil War. His most famous song, \\\"The Battle of Manassas,\\\" is the story of the Confederate Army's 1861 victory at the Battle of Bull Run. As a result, many black newspapers refused to celebrate him, pointing out that he served to reinforce negative stereotypes about African-American individuals and that he was only a source of profit for slaveholders.\\nIn 1866, at age 16, Tom was taken on a European concert tour by General Bethune, who collected testimonials about Tom's natural talents from composer-pianist Ignaz Moscheles and pianist-conductor Charles Hallé. These were printed in a booklet, “The Marvelous Musical Prodigy Blind Tom,\\\" and used to bolster Tom's international reputation.\\nIn 1875, General Bethune transferred management of Blind Tom's professional affairs to his son John Bethune, who accompanied Tom on tour around the U.S. for the next eight years. Beginning in 1875, John brought Blind Tom to New York each summer. While living with John in a boarding house on the Lower East Side, Tom added to his repertoire under the tutelage of Joseph Poznanski, who also transcribed new compositions by Tom for publication. Many of these were, at Tom's insistence, published under such pseudonyms as Professor W.F. Raymond, J.C. Beckel, C.T. Messengale, and Francois Sexalise.\\nTom's piano-playing behavior, both during practice and performance, was eccentric. \\\"We had two pianos in one room,\\\" Poznanski told the \\\"Washington Post\\\" in 1886 (as recounted in O'Connell's biography). \\\"I would play for him and he would get up, walk around, stand on one foot, pull his hair, knock his head against the wall, then sit down and play a very good imitiation of what I had played with additions to it. His memory was something prodigious. He never forgot anything.\\\" This led some critics to dismiss Tom as a novelty act, a \\\"human parrot.\\\" Novelist Willa Cather, writing in the \\\"Nebraska State Journal\\\", called Tom \\\"a human phonograph, a sort of animated memory, with sound producing power.\\\"\\nJohn Steinbeck has compared the main character in his short story, “Johnny Bear” to Blind Tom.\\nNo original recordings of Blind Tom appear to exist. His sheet music is available, but only a small number of musicians have ever recorded his original songs.\\nIn 1882, John Bethune married his landlady, Eliza Stutzbach, who had demonstrated a knack for mollifying Tom's sometimes volatile temperament. However, shortly after their marriage, John Bethune embarked on an extended tour of the U.S. with Tom, in effect abandoning Eliza. When Bethune returned home eight months later, his wife filed for divorce. The couple split up—John took Tom—but a bitter legal squabble ensued, with Eliza hounding John for financial support, a claim that the courts usually adjudicated in John's favor. After John Bethune died in a railway accident in 1884, Tom was returned—over Eliza's objections—to the care of General Bethune (now living in Virginia). Eliza sued General Bethune for ownership, with Tom's elderly mother Charity enjoined by Eliza's attorney as a party in the plaintiff's suit. After a protracted custody battle in several courts, in August 1887 Tom was awarded to Eliza, who moved Tom back to New York. Charity accompanied them with the understanding that she would benefit financially from Tom's earnings. However, after it became apparent that Eliza did not intend to honor any financial obligations to Charity, Tom's mother returned to Georgia.\\nTom continued performing and touring for a number of years under the management of Eliza and her attorney (and later husband) Albrecht Lerche. Tom was on tour in western Pennsylvania in May 1889 on the day of the Johnstown Flood, and rumor spread that he was among the casualties. Despite his continued appearances on the U.S. concert circuit, the rumor persisted for years, with some observers expressing skepticism that the Blind Tom who appeared in concert after 1889 was the \\\"real Blind Tom.\\\"\\nIn this phase of his career, Tom usually introduced himself onstage in the third person, imitating the pronouncements of his various managers from years past. He talked about his mental state with a characteristic lack of self-awareness. He had been diagnosed as \\\"non compos mentis\\\" by a doctor, and in his foggy netherworld the phrase was a matter of personal pride. Willa Cather described the poignance of one such concert: \\\"It was a strange sight to see him walk out on stage with his own lips—another man's words—introduce himself and talk quietly about his own idiocy. There was insanity, a grotesque horribleness about it that was interestingly unpleasant. One laughs at the man's queer actions, and yet, after all, the sight is not laughable. It brings us too near to the things that we sane people do not like to think of.\\\"\\nTom was still traveling, and presumably still performing, in 1894. On July 5 of that year, he arrived in Grand Junction, CO on his way eastward from California. The trainmen at that place were on strike against the railroads as part of the Pullman Strike, and Tom was stuck in town until July 9, when he continued eastward via the Colorado Midland Railroad.\\nAfter being dogged by incessant legal challenges to her custodianship of Tom, Eliza took Tom off the concert circuit in the mid-1890s.\\nTom spent the next ten years as a ward of Eliza and her husband, who divided their time between New York City and New Jersey's Navesink Highlands. In 1903 Eliza arranged for Tom to appear on the popular vaudeville circuit, beginning with Brooklyn's Orpheum Theater. He spent almost a year performing in vaudeville, before his health began to deteriorate. It is believed he suffered a stroke (described in some reports as \\\"partial paralysis\\\") in December 1904, which ended his public performing career.\\nAfter the death of her husband, Eliza relocated to Hoboken, New Jersey, with Tom. They kept out of public view, though neighbors could hear Tom's piano playing at all hours of the day and night. Tom suffered a major stroke in April 1908, and died the following June. He was buried in the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn, New York.\\nThe people of Columbus, Georgia, raised a commemorative headstone for him in 1976. He was the subject of a play titled \\\"HUSH: Composing Blind Tom Wiggins\\\", by Robert Earl Price, which was performed on the Atlanta stage with Del Hamilton as director.\\nBetween 1970 and 2000, Dr. Geneva Handy Southall wrote a three-volume thesis titled \\\"Blind Tom: The Black Pianist Composer; Continuously Enslaved\\\"; it was published by Scarecrow Press in 2002.\\nIn 1981 he was the subject of a film, \\\"Blind Tom: The Story of Thomas Bethune\\\", directed by Mark W. Travis.\\nIn 1999 John Davis recorded an album of Tom's original compositions on a CD entitled \\\"John Davis Plays Blind Tom.\\\" The CD package included essays by Amiri Baraka, Ricky Jay and Oliver Sacks.\\nIn 2006, Reagan Grimsley published an article about preserving the sheet music of Blind Tom for future Generations. Titled \\\"Discovering “Blind” Tom Wiggins: Creating Digital Access to Original Sheet Music at the Columbus State University Archives\\\", it appeared in Music Reference Quarterly.\\nA full-length biography, \\\"The Ballad of Blind Tom\\\", by Deirdre O'Connell was published by Overlook Press in 2009.\\nAndre T. Regan's 2013 documentary, The Last Legal Slave in America, documents the life and times of Blind Tom.\\nThe Elton John song, \\\"The Ballad of Blind Tom\\\", from his 2013 album \\\"The Diving Board\\\", is about Blind Tom.\\nBlind Tom Wiggins is the subject of a novel, \\\"The Song of the Shank\\\", (2014) by Jeffrey Reynard Allen.\\nBlind Tom Wiggins is also the subject in a sequence of poems in \\\"Olio\\\" (2016) by Tyehimba Jess.\",\n \"Ballet (music)\\nBallet as a music form progressed from simply a complement to dance, to a concrete compositional form that often had as much value as the dance that went along with it. The dance form, originating in France during the 17th century, began as a theatrical dance. It was not until the 19th century that ballet gained status as a “classical” form. In ballet, the terms ‘classical’ and ‘romantic’ are chronologically reversed from musical usage. Thus, the 19th century classical period in ballet coincided with the 19th century Romantic era in Music. Ballet music composers from the 17th–19th centuries, including the likes of Jean-Baptiste Lully and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, were predominantly in France and Russia. Yet with the increased international notoriety seen in Tchaikovsky’s lifetime, ballet music composition and ballet in general spread across the western world.\\nUntil about the second half of the 19th century the role of music in ballet was secondary, with the main emphasis on dance, while music was simply a compilation of danceable tunes. Writing \\\"ballet music\\\" used to be a job for musical craftsmen, rather than for masters. For example, critics of the Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky mentioned his writing of ballet music as something demeaning.\\nFrom the earliest ballets up to the time of Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), the music of ballet was indistinguishable from ballroom dance music. Lully created a style that was separate, wherein the music told a story. The first ballet d'action was staged in 1717. This was a story told without any words. The pioneer was John Weaver (1673–1760). Both Lully and Jean-Philippe Rameau wrote opéra-ballets, where the story was partly danced and partly sung, but ballet music became gradually less important.\\nThe next big step occurred in the early years of the nineteenth century, when principal dancers changed from using hard shoes to ballet pumps. This enabled a more free-flowing style of music to be used. Marie Taglioni (1804–1884) is credited with being the first ballerina to dance en pointe in \\\"La Sylphide\\\" in 1832. It was now possible to have music that was more expressive. Gradually, dancing became more daring, with men lifting the ballerinas into the air.\\nUntil the time of Tchaikovsky, the composer of ballets was considered to be separate from the composer of symphonies. Ballet music was an accompaniment for the solo and ensemble dances. Tchaikovsky's \\\"Swan Lake\\\" was the first musical ballet piece to be created by a symphonic composer. Following the initiative of Tchaikovsky, ballet composers were no longer writing simple, easily danceable pieces. The focus of a ballet was no longer solely the dance; the compositions behind the dances began to take an equal prevalence. In the late 19th century, Marius Petipa, French ballet choreographer and dancer, worked with composers such as Cesare Pugni to create ballet masterpieces that boasted both complex dance and complex music. Petipa worked with Tchaikovsky as well, whether through collaboration with Tchaikovsky on his work \\\"The Sleeping Beauty\\\" and \\\"The Nutcracker\\\", or indirectly through revision of Tchaikovsky's \\\"Swan Lake\\\" after the composer’s death.\\nIn many cases ballets were still short scenes within operas, to enable scenery or costume changes. Perhaps the best-known example of ballet music that is part of an opera is the \\\"Dance of the Hours\\\" from Amilcare Ponchielli's opera \\\"La Gioconda\\\" (1876). There was a violent change in mood when Igor Stravinsky's ballet \\\"The Rite of Spring\\\" (1913) was performed. The music was modernist and dissonant, and the movements were highly stylized. In 1924 George Antheil wrote \\\"Ballet Mécanique,\\\" which was actually for a film of moving objects, not for dancers, but it was pioneering in the use of jazz music. From this point dance music split into two directions: modern and jazz dance. George Gershwin attempted to bridge this gap with his ambitious score to the film \\\"Shall We Dance\\\" (1937), composing over one hour of music that spanned from the cerebral and technical to foot-stomping jazz and rumba. One scene, Hoctor's Ballet, was composed specifically for the ballerina Harriet Hoctor.\\nAnother strand in the history of ballet music is the trend towards creative adaptations of old music. Ottorino Respighi took works by Gioachino Rossini (1792–1868) and strung them together into a ballet called \\\"La Boutique fantasque\\\", premiered in 1919. The audience for ballet generally prefers romantic music, so new ballets are confected from old works with new choreography. A well-known example is \\\"The Dream\\\" to the music of Felix Mendelssohn, arranged by John Lanchbery.\\nThe following are some of the major ballet composers:\",\n \"Gulliver's Travels (2010 film)\\nGulliver's Travels is a 2010 American fantasy adventure comedy film directed by Rob Letterman, produced by John Davis and Gregory Goodman, written by Joe Stillman and Nicholas Stoller with music by Henry Jackman and very loosely based on Part One of the 18th-century novel of the same name by Jonathan Swift, though the film takes place in modern day. It stars Jack Black, Jason Segel, Emily Blunt, Amanda Peet, Billy Connolly, T. J. Miller, Chris O'Dowd, James Corden, and Catherine Tate and is distributed by 20th Century Fox. The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2010 in the US. The film earned $237.4 million on a $112 million budget. \\\"Gulliver's Travels\\\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on April 19, 2011, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.\\nDeeply depressed at his dead-end job in the mail room of a New York City newspaper, Lemuel Gulliver decides to talk to journalist Darcy Silverman. He convinces her he could write a report about his (false) extensive world \\\"travels\\\" saying his dream is to become a writer. After suffering writer's block and thinking that Darcy will not want to hang out with a \\\"guy from the mailroom\\\", he plagiarises a report from other publications on the internet. The next day, Darcy, impressed by his writing, presents Gulliver with a new task – to travel to the Bermuda Triangle and write an article about the legends of ships mysteriously disappearing there.\\nUpon arrival in Bermuda, Gulliver rents a boat and travels into the triangle. After falling asleep at the helm of his ship, he's caught in a freak storm and the boat is overwhelmed by a waterspout. He washes up unconscious on the shore of Lilliput, where he is immediately confirmed as a \\\"beast\\\" by the town's tiny people. After the citizens claim him to be dangerous because of his huge size, he is captured and imprisoned in a cave. Here, he meets another prisoner named Horatio who was jailed by General Edward because he loves Princess Mary of Lilliput, whereas Edward also wants her. After the island across from Lilliput, Blefuscia, infiltrates commandos to kidnap Princess Mary, Gulliver manages to break free of the plough-machine he is forced to work and then rescues the princess from being kidnapped. Gulliver also saves her father, King Theodore from a fire by urinating on it.\\nGulliver is declared a hero by Lilliput's citizens and makes up a deal of lies saying he is the President of Manhattan, says Yoda is his Vice-President and a living legend in his homeland. Edward, however, becomes enraged due to the luxurious accommodations that have been built for him, and even being presented as an honorary general of the Lilliputian Army complete with uniform. When the townspeople find Gulliver's boat and his things, Gulliver gets angry voicemails from Darcy, saying she has to take his place and travel to Bermuda now, and also found out about his plagiarism and now hates him. The next day, chaos ensues as the Blefuscian Navy lay siege on the city when Edward shuts down its defense system as an act of revenge for Gulliver's treatment. Gulliver defeats the armada, invulnerable to the cannonballs being fired at him (although he receives numerous welts on his stomach). Embarrassed once more, and with Mary no longer wanting to do anything with him, Edward defects to the Blefuscians and brings with him blueprints of a robot coming from Gulliver's \\\"\\\" game manual. The Blefuscians secretly build the robot based on Gulliver's \\\"Guitar Hero III\\\" game manual, with Edward as the pilot.\\nThe Blefuscians invade Liliput and the robot-wielding Edward makes Gulliver admit to the people that he is \\\"just the guy from the mail-room\\\" and nothing more. Edward banishes Gulliver on the shores of \\\"the island where we dare not go\\\" (Brobdingnag). There, he is snatched up by a \\\"little\\\" girl (Glumdalclitch) who towers over him. She captures him easily by trapping him inside a glass cup. When Gulliver wakes up, he finds himself dressed up in a pink dress and is played with by the \\\"little\\\" girl, which ends with him being tucked in bed. Horatio, who has gone to find Gulliver after being spurned by Mary, reveals to Gulliver that Darcy has been imprisoned by the Blefuscians when she is lost in the Bermuda Triangle in the same manner as Gulliver. Gulliver narrowly escapes with him, using a parachute that he took from a dead U.S. Air Force pilot sitting in the dollhouse.\\nOnce again accepting a duel from Edward, this time not only for Lilliput's freedom but for its fate as well – as Edward threatens to destroy it should Gulliver fail – Gulliver ultimately defeats him with the assistance of Horatio, who disables the machine's electrocuting weapon. Horatio is hailed a hero and gets King Theodore's permission to court the princess. Edward, reaching the point of insanity, threatens to kill the princess, but the princess, finally having enough of Edward, beats the traitor up in frustration. Gulliver then helps to make peace between the rival island-nations by reciting Edwin Starr's \\\"War\\\" and he, along with Darcy, return to New York City on their repaired boat. The film ends with Gulliver, now a travel writer, taking Darcy to lunch while holding hands, after returning from another travel assignment.\\nIn a January 2010 interview on \\\"The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson\\\", Segel explained his character spends most of the film in Black's shirt pocket. The film features 7.1 surround audio in select theaters. The name of Liliput's rival country, Blefuscu, was also changed to Blefuscia. Filming of the Lilliput royal palace was at Blenheim Palace. Miniature 1:12 scale dolls' house furniture and accessories from Derbyshire firm The Dolls House Emporium were used to bring the movie alive with less need for special effects. Jonathan Swift, the original author of the novel that the film was loosely based on, is not mentioned during the credits, despite the titles mentioning that the film is not an original piece. (i.e. \\\"Screenplay by...\\\" instead of \\\"Written by...\\\")\\nThe official trailer for the film was released on June 3, 2010; and attached to \\\"Marmaduke\\\" a day after. The second trailer was released on November 5, 2010 and it is also attached with \\\"Megamind\\\". As a prize on the television show \\\"\\\", four of its contestants were able to watch the film before its release.\\nOriginally scheduled for release on June 4, 2010, it was released on December 25, 2010. 20th Century Fox later announced on March 23, 2010 that the film would be converted to 3D. On December 13, 20th Century Fox announced that it would again move the release date, this time to December 25, 2010.\\nA fourth \\\"Ice Age\\\" short, \\\"Scrat's Continental Crack-up\\\", was released with the film's theatrical release. The short is a parody of continental drift, and centers on a humorous alternative explanation for the creation of the continents (rather similar to the ending of the earlier \\\"Ice Age\\\" short, \\\"Gone Nutty\\\", where the continents split up into their modern-day forms). It also hints at the which was released in 2012.\\n\\\"Gulliver's Travels\\\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on April 19, 2011 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.\\nOn review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20% based on 118 reviews and an average rating of 3.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \\\"Though Jack Black is back doing what he does best, \\\"Gulliver's Travels\\\" largely fails to do any justice to its source material, relying instead on juvenile humor and special effects.\\\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating \\\"generally unfavorable reviews\\\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \\\"B-\\\" on an A+ to F scale.\\n\\\"The Hollywood Reporter\\\" commented that \\\"any sense of fun slowly drains away as the movie insists on highlighting effects over character and story\\\" while \\\"Time Out\\\" gave it 2 out of 5 stars, commenting that the film \\\"veers between the very mildly chucklesome and plain not funny.\\\" \\\"The Christian Science Monitor\\\" called it \\\"a movie of such stupendous uninspiration\\\" that it was \\\"monumentally dreadful\\\" and the \\\"San Francisco Chronicle\\\" called it \\\"cute\\\" but \\\"sleep-inducing.\\\" \\\"Slant Magazine\\\" rated the film 1.5 out of 4 stars and \\\"Empire\\\" rated 2 out of 5 stars calling it \\\"a low-grade comedy that'll have Jonathan Swift turning in his grave.\\\"\\nOther critics were less harsh, although still not praising of the film. Roger Ebert commented that knowing whom the film is for, and whom it is not for, might help viewers appreciate it. He awarded the film three out of four stars, saying \\\"I want to tread carefully here, and not because I might step on a Lilliputian and squish him.\\\"\\n\\\"Gulliver's Travels\\\" opened to $6.3 million for its opening weekend, landing at #8 in the US; this ranks it as the 84th worst opening for a film with a wide release tracked by Box Office Mojo. The film grossed $42.8 million in the US and Canada and $194.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $237.4 million against a budget of $112 million.\\nBlack was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor, only to lose to Ashton Kutcher's performances in \\\"Killers\\\" and \\\"Valentine's Day\\\".\\nOn the other hand, Black received a Kids Choice Award nomination for favorite movie actor, only to lose to Johnny Depp's performance in \\\"Alice in Wonderland\\\".\\n\",\n \"Underground: Finding the Light to Freedom\\nUnderground is a children's picture book written and illustrated by Shane W. Evans. It was published by Roaring Brook Press in 2011 and received the Coretta Scott King Award for Illustrators in 2012. The book depicts a 19th century African-American family of slaves as they escape from a plantation and navigate the Underground Railroad to freedom.\",\n \"Beverly Jenkins\\nBeverly Jenkins (born 1951, Detroit) is an American author of historical and contemporary romance novels with a particular focus on 19th century African-American life. Jenkins was a 2013 NAACP Image Award nominee and, in 1999, was voted one of the Top 50 Favorite African-American writers of the 20th century by the African American Literature Book Club. Jenkins's historical romances are set during a period of African-American history that she believes is often overlooked. This made it difficult to break into publishing because publishers weren't sure what to do with stories that involved African-Americans but not slavery.\\nJenkins studied at Michigan State University as a Journalism and English Literature major. She lives in Southeastern Michigan.\\nJenkins was born Brenda Hunter in Detroit in 1951 to her parents, a high school teacher and an administrative aide. Jenkins grew up surrounded by words. Her mother read to Jenkins while she was in the womb and bought her cloth books when she was a baby. Jenkins would chew on the cloth books while her mother encouraged her to \\\"Eat those words, baby. Eat those words.\\\" Jenkins read widely at her local library, everything from \\\"Alice in Wonderland\\\" to \\\"Dune\\\" to Zane Gray to early romance writers like Victoria Holt, Mary Stewart & Phyllis Whitney. Her early writing began when she became the editor of her elementary school newspaper. Jenkins attended Michigan State University in the Spring of 1969.\\nJenkins worked full-time in the Michigan State University library's circulation department. Each lunch hour, she would read articles from \\\"The Journal of Negro History\\\" (now called \\\"The Journal of African American History\\\"). Eventually, Jenkins and her husband moved to Ypsilanti, where she worked at the Parke Davis Pharmaceuticals' reference desk and began writing romance novels for fun. At the suggestion of a colleague, Jenkins looked for an agent and publisher. Avon published her first novel, \\\"Night Song\\\", in 1994.\\nThough Jenkins has published books in many romance sub-genres, the majority of her books are historical romances. Jenkins calls herself a \\\"kitchen table historian.\\\" She likens American history to a quilt with some pieces ripped out—the pieces belonging to minority history. Jenkins uses her books to weave the quilt back together by revealing patches of black history that are rarely taught in school. Slavery and the Civil Rights Movement are important pieces of African American history, but they aren't the only pieces. For example, her first three novels, \\\"Night Song\\\", \\\"Vivid\\\" and \\\"Indigo\\\", feature characters such as a schoolteacher, a calvary officer, a female doctor and an Underground Railroad heroes. They were all inspired by true history.\\nJenkins found inspiration for \\\"Forbidden\\\" from two interesting bits of history. First, she read a news article about a high-end African American-run hotel that was uncovered during an archaeological dig in Virginia City. She also heard a story about a man seeing a black woman walking through the desert with a cook stove balanced on her head. Jenkins includes bibliographies with her historical romances so readers can read further, if they choose.\",\n \"Louis Moreau Gottschalk\\nLouis Moreau Gottschalk (<a href=\\\"New%20Orleans\\\">New Orleans</a>, May 8, 1829 – <a href=\\\"Rio%20de%20Janeiro\\\">Rio de Janeiro</a>, December 18, 1869) was an American <a href=\\\"composer\\\">composer</a> and <a href=\\\"pianist\\\">pianist</a>, best known as a <a href=\\\"virtuoso\\\">virtuoso</a> performer of his own <a href=\\\"romantic%20music\\\">romantic</a> <a href=\\\"piano\\\">piano</a> works. He spent most of his working career outside of the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>.\\nGottschalk was born in <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans\\\">New Orleans</a> to a <a href=\\\"Jewish\\\">Jewish</a> businessman from <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a> and a <a href=\\\"Creole%20peoples%23Caribbean\\\">Creole</a> mother. He had six brothers and sisters, five of whom were half-siblings by his father's mixed-race mistress (she would have been called <a href=\\\"mulatto\\\">mulatto</a> at the time). His family lived for a time in a tiny cottage at Royal and Esplanade in the <a href=\\\"Vieux%20Carr%C3%A9\\\">Vieux Carré</a>. Louis later moved in with relatives at 518 Conti Street; his maternal grandmother Bruslé and his nurse Sally had both been born in <a href=\\\"Saint-Domingue\\\">Saint-Domingue</a> (known later as <a href=\\\"Haiti\\\">Haiti</a>). He was therefore exposed to a variety of musical traditions, and played the <a href=\\\"piano\\\">piano</a> from an early age. He was soon recognized as a <a href=\\\"Child%20prodigy\\\">prodigy</a> by the New Orleans <a href=\\\"bourgeois\\\">bourgeois</a> establishment, making his informal public debut in 1840 at the new St. Charles Hotel.\\nOnly two years later, at the age of 13, Gottschalk left the United States and sailed to <a href=\\\"Europe\\\">Europe</a>, as he and his father realized a <a href=\\\"classical%20music\\\">classical</a> training was required to fulfill his musical ambitions. The <a href=\\\"Conservatoire%20de%20Paris\\\">Paris Conservatoire</a>, however, rejected his application without hearing him, on the grounds of his nationality; <a href=\\\"Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume%20Zimmerman\\\">Pierre Zimmerman</a>, head of the piano faculty, commented that \\\"America is a country of steam engines\\\". Gottschalk eventually gained access to the musical establishment through family friends. At concert at the <a href=\\\"Salle%20Pleyel\\\">Salle Pleyel</a>, after which <a href=\\\"Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Chopin\\\">Frédéric Chopin</a> remarked: \\\"Give me your hand, my child; I predict that you will become the king of pianists.\\\" <a href=\\\"Franz%20Liszt\\\">Franz Liszt</a> and <a href=\\\"Charles-Valentin%20Alkan\\\">Charles-Valentin Alkan</a>, too, recognised Gottschalk's extreme talent.\\nAfter Gottschalk returned to the United States in 1853, he traveled extensively; a sojourn in <a href=\\\"Cuba\\\">Cuba</a> during 1854 was the beginning of a series of trips to <a href=\\\"Central%20America\\\">Central</a> and <a href=\\\"South%20America\\\">South America</a>. Gottschalk also traveled to <a href=\\\"Puerto%20Rico\\\">Puerto Rico</a> after his <a href=\\\"Havana\\\">Havana</a> debut and at the start of his <a href=\\\"West%20Indian\\\">West Indian</a> period. He was quite taken with the <a href=\\\"music\\\">music</a> he heard on the island, so much so that he composed a work, probably in 1857, entitled \\\"Souvenir de Porto Rico; Marche des gibaros, Op. 31 (RO250)\\\". \\\"Gibaros\\\" refers to the <a href=\\\"j%C3%ADbaro\\\">jíbaro</a>s, or Puerto Rican peasantry, and is an antiquated way of writing this name. The theme of the composition is a march tune which may be based on a Puerto Rican <a href=\\\"folk%20song\\\">folk song</a> form. At the conclusion of that tour, he rested in New Jersey then returned to <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. There he continued to rest and took on a very young <a href=\\\"Venezuela\\\">Venezuela</a>n student by the name of <a href=\\\"Teresa%20Carre%C3%B1o\\\">Teresa Carreño</a>. Gottschalk rarely took on students and was skeptical of prodigies but Carreño was an exception and he was determined that she succeed. With his busy schedule, Gottschalk was only able to give her a handful of lessons yet she would remember him fondly and performed his music for the rest of her days. A year after meeting Gottschalk, she performed for <a href=\\\"Abraham%20Lincoln\\\">Abraham Lincoln</a> and would go on to become a renowned concert pianist earning the nickname, \\\"\\\"Valkyrie of the Piano\\\"\\\". By the 1860s, Gottschalk had established himself as the best known pianist in the <a href=\\\"New%20World\\\">New World</a>. Although born and reared in New Orleans, he was a supporter of the <a href=\\\"Union%20%28American%20Civil%20War%29\\\">Union</a> cause during the <a href=\\\"American%20Civil%20War\\\">American Civil War</a>. He returned to his native city only occasionally for concerts, but he always introduced himself as a New Orleans native.\\nIn May 1865, he was mentioned in a <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco\\\">San Francisco</a> newspaper as having \\\"travelled 95,000 miles by rail and given 1,000 concerts\\\". However, he was forced to leave the United States later that year because of a scandalous affair with a student at the <a href=\\\"Oakland%20Female%20Seminary\\\">Oakland Female Seminary</a> in <a href=\\\"Oakland%2C%20California\\\">Oakland, California</a>. He never returned to the United States.\\nGottschalk chose to travel to South America, where he continued to give frequent concerts. During one of these concerts, in <a href=\\\"Rio%20de%20Janeiro\\\">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <a href=\\\"Brazil\\\">Brazil</a>, on November 24, 1869, he collapsed from having contracted <a href=\\\"yellow%20fever\\\">yellow fever</a>. Just before his collapse, he had finished playing his romantic piece \\\"Morte!\\\" (translated from Brazilian Portuguese as \\\"Death\\\"), although the actual collapse occurred just as he started to play his celebrated piece \\\"Tremolo\\\". Gottschalk never recovered from the collapse.\\nThree weeks later, on December 18, 1869, at the age of 40, he died at his hotel in <a href=\\\"Tijuca\\\">Tijuca</a>, Rio de Janeiro, probably from an overdose of <a href=\\\"quinine\\\">quinine</a>. (According to an essay by Jeremy Nicholas for the booklet accompanying the recording \\\"Gottschalk Piano Music\\\" performed by Philip Martin on the Hyperion label, \\\"He died ... of <a href=\\\"empyema\\\">empyema</a>, the result of a ruptured abscess in the abdomen.\\\")\\nIn 1870, his remains were returned to the United States and were interred at the <a href=\\\"Green-Wood%20Cemetery\\\">Green-Wood Cemetery</a> in <a href=\\\"Brooklyn\\\">Brooklyn</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20York%20%28state%29\\\">New York</a>. His burial spot was originally marked by a magnificent marble monument, topped by an \\\"Angel of Music\\\" statue, which was irreparably damaged by vandals in 1959. In October 2012, after nearly fifteen years of fund raising by the <a href=\\\"Green-Wood%20Cemetery\\\">Green-Wood Cemetery</a>, a new \\\"Angel of Music\\\" statue, created by sculptors Giancarlo Biagi and Jill Burkee to replace the damaged one, was unveiled.\\nHis grand-nephew <a href=\\\"Louis%20F.%20Gottschalk\\\">Louis Ferdinand Gottschalk</a> was a notable composer of <a href=\\\"silent%20film\\\">silent film</a> and <a href=\\\"musical%20theatre\\\">musical theatre</a> scores.\\nGottschalk's music was very popular during his lifetime and his earliest compositions created a sensation in Europe. Early pieces like \\\"<a href=\\\"Bamboula%20%28Gottschalk%29\\\">Bamboula</a>,\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"La%20Savane%20%28Gottschalk%29\\\">La Savane</a>,\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"Le%20Bananier%20%28Gottschalk%29\\\">Le Bananier</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Le%20Mancenillier%20%28Gottschalk%29\\\">Le Mancenillier</a>\\\" were based on Gottschalk's memories of the music he heard during his youth in <a href=\\\"Louisiana\\\">Louisiana</a>. In this context, some of Gottschalk's work, such as the 13-minute <a href=\\\"opera\\\">opera</a> \\\"Escenas campestres\\\", retains a wonderfully innocent sweetness and charm. Gottschalk also utilized the \\\"Bamboula\\\" theme as a melody in his <a href=\\\"Symphony%20No.%201%20%28Gottschalk%29\\\">\\\"Symphony No. 1: A Night in the Tropics\\\"</a>.\\nMany of his compositions were destroyed after his death, or are lost.\\nVarious pianists later recorded his piano music. The first important recordings of his orchestral music, including the symphony \\\"A Night in the Tropics\\\", were made for <a href=\\\"Vanguard%20Records\\\">Vanguard Records</a> by <a href=\\\"Maurice%20Abravanel\\\">Maurice Abravanel</a> and the <a href=\\\"Utah%20Symphony%20Orchestra\\\">Utah Symphony Orchestra</a>. <a href=\\\"Vox%20Records\\\">Vox Records</a> issued a multi-disc collection of his music, which was later reissued on CD. This included world premiere recordings of the original orchestrations of both symphonies and other works, which were conducted by <a href=\\\"Igor%20Buketoff\\\">Igor Buketoff</a> and <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Adler%20%28composer%29\\\">Samuel Adler</a>. More recently, <a href=\\\"Philip%20Martin%20%28pianist%29\\\">Philip Martin</a> has recorded most of the extant piano music for <a href=\\\"Hyperion%20Records\\\">Hyperion Records</a>.\\nAuthor <a href=\\\"Howard%20Breslin\\\">Howard Breslin</a> wrote a historical novel about Gottschalk titled \\\"Concert Grand\\\" in 1963.\\n\",\n \"Beveridge Webster\\nBeveridge Webster (May 13, 1908, <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a> – June 30, 1999, <a href=\\\"Hanover%2C%20New%20Hampshire\\\">Hanover, New Hampshire</a>) was an American pianist and educator.\\nBeveridge Webster studied with his father, initially, and in 1921, at age 14, he began five years of study in Europe, first at the American Academy at Fontainebleau, then at the <a href=\\\"Paris%20Conservatory\\\">Paris Conservatory</a> with <a href=\\\"Isidor%20Philipp\\\">Isidor Philipp</a> and <a href=\\\"Nadia%20Boulanger\\\">Nadia Boulanger</a>. He also studied in <a href=\\\"Berlin\\\">Berlin</a> with <a href=\\\"Artur%20Schnabel\\\">Artur Schnabel</a>. He made his <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a> debut in November 1934 with the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Philharmonic\\\">New York Philharmonic</a> performing <a href=\\\"Edward%20MacDowell\\\">Edward MacDowell</a>'s Piano Concerto No. 2.\\nPerhaps best known as an interpreter of French composers, especially <a href=\\\"Maurice%20Ravel\\\">Maurice Ravel</a>, Webster gave premieres or made first recordings of many contemporary works, including pieces by <a href=\\\"Louise%20Talma\\\">Louise Talma</a>, <a href=\\\"Roger%20Sessions\\\">Roger Sessions</a>, <a href=\\\"Roy%20Harris\\\">Roy Harris</a>, <a href=\\\"Aaron%20Copland\\\">Aaron Copland</a> and <a href=\\\"Elliott%20Carter\\\">Elliott Carter</a>. In 1968, over a three-concert series at <a href=\\\"The%20Town%20Hall\\\">The Town Hall</a>, he commemorated the 50th anniversary of <a href=\\\"Claude%20Debussy\\\">Claude Debussy</a>'s death with the first complete survey of the composer's piano works in New York.\\nA <a href=\\\"Time%20%28magazine%29\\\">\\\"Time\\\" magazine</a> article from 1937 said of Webster, \\\"Dark, well-knit, young Beveridge Webster is a good swimmer, takes pride in his tennis, likes to play poker or bridge with his great good friend <a href=\\\"Igor%20Stravinsky\\\">Igor Stravinsky</a>. He boasts of the little slam he once made against <a href=\\\"Sidney%20Lenz\\\">Sidney Lenz</a>.\\\"\\nHe taught at <a href=\\\"New%20England%20Conservatory\\\">New England Conservatory</a> from 1940 to 1946 and at the Juilliard School from 1946 to 1990. His students include <a href=\\\"Michel%20Block\\\">Michel Block</a>, <a href=\\\"Robert%20McDonald%20%28pianist%29\\\">Robert McDonald</a>, Jahja Ling, Sylvia Glickman, <a href=\\\"Steven%20Graff\\\">Steven Graff</a> and <a href=\\\"Hao%20Huang\\\">Hao Huang</a>. He made a substantial series of recordings issued on <a href=\\\"LP%20album\\\">LP</a> by <a href=\\\"Dover%20Publications\\\">Dover Publications</a> and at least one, billed as the first installment in a complete traversal of <a href=\\\"Franz%20Schubert\\\">Schubert's</a> piano sonatas, for <a href=\\\"MGM%20Records\\\">MGM Records</a>, released as E3711.\\nBeveridge Webster had two children. One of them is Michael Webster, former principal <a href=\\\"clarinet\\\">clarinet</a> of the <a href=\\\"Rochester%20Philharmonic%20Orchestra\\\">Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra</a>. He played under the baton of <a href=\\\"Aaron%20Copland\\\">Aaron Copland</a> for a performance of Copland's clarinet concerto. Michael Webster now teaches at the Shepherd School at <a href=\\\"Rice%20University\\\">Rice University</a> in <a href=\\\"Houston\\\">Houston</a>, Texas.\\n\",\n \"Ossip Gabrilowitsch\\nOssip Gabrilowitsch (Осип Сoломонович Габрилович, \\\"Osip Solomonovich Gabrilovich\\\"; he used the German transliteration \\\"Gabrilowitsch\\\" in the West) (7 February [<a href=\\\"Old%20Style%20and%20New%20Style%20dates\\\">O.S.</a> 26 January] 1878 14 September 1936) was a <a href=\\\"Russia\\\">Russia</a>n-born <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">American</a> pianist, conductor and composer.\\nOssip Gabrilowitsch was born into a Jewish family in <a href=\\\"Saint%20Petersburg\\\">Saint Petersburg</a>. His parents were Salomon Gabrilowitsch and Rose Segall.\\nHe studied the piano and composition at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, with <a href=\\\"Anton%20Rubinstein\\\">Anton Rubinstein</a>, <a href=\\\"Anatoly%20Lyadov\\\">Anatoly Lyadov</a>, <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Glazunov\\\">Alexander Glazunov</a> and <a href=\\\"Nikolai%20Medtner\\\">Nikolai Medtner</a> among others. After graduating in 1894, he spent two years studying piano with <a href=\\\"Theodor%20Leschetizky\\\">Theodor Leschetizky</a> in Vienna.\\nIn July 1905 he recorded ten pieces for the <a href=\\\"Welte-Mignon\\\">Welte-Mignon reproducing piano</a>, one of the first pianists to do so. Between 1915 and 1927, he subsequently recorded at least fifteen more reproducing rolls for <a href=\\\"Duo-Art\\\">Duo-Art</a> and least five reproducing rolls for <a href=\\\"American%20Piano%20Company\\\">Ampico</a>.\\nOn 6 October 1909, he married <a href=\\\"Mark%20Twain\\\">Mark Twain</a>'s daughter <a href=\\\"Clara%20Clemens\\\">Clara Clemens</a>, a singer who appeared with him in recital. On 18 August 1910, their only child, Nina, was born at Mark Twain's home in Stormfield, Connecticut.\\nNina, the last known lineal descendant of Mark Twain, died on 16 January 1966 in a <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a> hotel. She had been a heavy drinker, and bottles of pills and alcohol were found in her room. Her death was ruled a suicide.\\nFrom 1910 to 1914, he was conductor of the Munich Konzertverein (later known as the <a href=\\\"Munich%20Philharmonic\\\">Munich Philharmonic</a>). At the outbreak of World War I, he was arrested as an enemy national. Through the intervention of the <a href=\\\"Apostolic%20Nuncio%20to%20Bavaria\\\">nuncio to Bavaria</a>, Archbishop Eugenio Pacelli (later <a href=\\\"Pope%20Pius%20XII\\\">Pope Pius XII</a>), Gabrilowitsch was freed from jail, and then he headed to the United States via <a href=\\\"Z%C3%BCrich\\\">Zürich</a> in August 1914.\\nHe settled in the US, and was offered the post of conductor of the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Symphony%20Orchestra\\\">Boston Symphony Orchestra</a>. In declining, he recommended that the Boston board appoint the recently arrived <a href=\\\"Sergei%20Rachmaninoff\\\">Sergei Rachmaninoff</a>. In 1918 he was appointed the founding director of the <a href=\\\"Detroit%20Symphony%20Orchestra\\\">Detroit Symphony Orchestra</a>, while still maintaining his life as a concert pianist. Before accepting the conductor's position, he demanded a new auditorium be built, and this was the impetus for the building of <a href=\\\"Orchestra%20Hall%20%28Detroit%2C%20Michigan%29\\\">Orchestra Hall</a>.\\nGabrilowitsch composed a few works, primarily short piano pieces for his own use. He was a National Patron of <a href=\\\"Delta%20Omicron\\\">Delta Omicron</a>, an international professional music fraternity.\\nHe died from <a href=\\\"stomach%20cancer\\\">stomach cancer</a> on September 14, 1936 in <a href=\\\"Detroit%2C%20Michigan\\\">Detroit, Michigan</a>. He is buried in the Langdon plot of the <a href=\\\"Woodlawn%20Cemetery%20%28Elmira%2C%20New%20York%29\\\">Woodlawn Cemetery</a> in <a href=\\\"Elmira%2C%20New%20York\\\">Elmira, New York</a>.\",\n \"Lorna Simpson\\nLorna Simpson (born 1960) is an African-American <a href=\\\"photographer\\\">photographer</a> and multimedia artist who made her name in the 1980s and 1990s with artworks such as \\\"Guarded Conditions\\\" and \\\"Square Deal\\\". She is one of the leading artists of her generation (to much critical acclaim), and her works have been included in numerous exhibitions both nationally and internationally.\\nBorn in Brooklyn, New York in 1960, she attended the <a href=\\\"High%20School%20of%20Art%20and%20Design\\\">High School of Art and Design</a> and the <a href=\\\"School%20of%20Visual%20Arts\\\">School of Visual Arts</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a> where she received a <a href=\\\"Bachelor%20of%20Fine%20Arts\\\">Bachelor of Fine Arts</a> in <a href=\\\"Photography\\\">Photography</a>. After receiving her BFA, she traveled to Europe and Africa, developing skills in documentary photography, her earliest works. While traveling, she became inspired to expand her work beyond the field of photography in order to challenge and engage the viewer.\\nIt was these ideas that she worked on while earning her Master's of Fine Arts degree from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California\\\">University of California</a> at <a href=\\\"San%20Diego\\\">San Diego</a> in 1985. Her education in San Diego was somewhere between Photography and Conceptual art, and her teachers included conceptualist <a href=\\\"Allan%20Kaprow\\\">Allan Kaprow</a>, performance artist <a href=\\\"Eleanor%20Antin\\\">Eleanor Antin</a>, filmmakers <a href=\\\"Babette%20Mangolte\\\">Babette Mangolte</a> and <a href=\\\"Jean-Pierre%20Gorin\\\">Jean-Pierre Gorin</a> and poet <a href=\\\"David%20Antin\\\">David Antin</a>. What emerged was her signature style of \\\"photo-text\\\", in which graphic text is inserted into studio-like portraiture, bringing new conceptual meaning into the works. These works generally related to the perception of African-American women within American culture.\\nThroughout the 1980s and 1990s, Simpson was showing work through solo exhibitions all over the country, and her name was synonymous with photo-text artworks. She was awarded a <a href=\\\"National%20Endowment%20for%20the%20Arts\\\">National Endowment for the Arts</a> Fellowship in 1985, and in 1990, she became the first African-American woman to exhibit at the <a href=\\\"Venice%20Biennale\\\">Venice Biennale</a>. In 1990, Simpson had one woman exhibitions at several major museums, including the <a href=\\\"Denver%20Art%20Museum\\\">Denver Art Museum</a>, Denver, Colorado, the <a href=\\\"Portland%20Art%20Museum\\\">Portland Art Museum</a>, Portland, Oregon, and the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\\\">Museum of Modern Art</a>, New York. Simpson has explored various media and techniques, including two-dimensional photographs as well as silk screening her photographs on large felt panels, creating installations, or producing as video works such as \\\"Call Waiting\\\" (1997).\\nBy the 2000s she had started exploring the medium of <a href=\\\"Video%20installation\\\">video installations</a> in order to avoid a paralysis brought on by outside expectations. In 2001 she was awarded the <a href=\\\"Whitney%20Museum%20of%20American%20Art\\\">Whitney Museum of Art Award</a>, and in 2007, her work was featured in a 20-year retrospective at the Whitney Museum of Art in New York City.\\nSimpson continues to influence the legacy of black artists today by speaking with artists and activists such as the Art Hoe Collective, a group of young women using social media to give marginalized groups a safe platform to broadcast their artwork.\\nIn 2016 Simpson created the album artwork for \\\"<a href=\\\"Black%20America%20Again\\\">Black America Again</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Common%20%28rapper%29\\\">Common</a>. During the same year, she was featured in the book \\\"<a href=\\\"https%3A//www.workman.com/products/in-the-company-of-women-1\\\">In the Company of Women</a>\\\", \\\"Inspiration and Advice from over 100 Makers, Artists, and Entrepreneurs.\\\" In a 2017 issue of <a href=\\\"Vogue%20%28magazine%29\\\">Vogue Magazine</a>, Simpson showcased a <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.vogue.com/projects/13528952/american-women-in-art-female-artists-lorna-simpson/\\\">series of portraits</a> of 18 professional creative women who hold art central to their lives. The women photographed included <a href=\\\"Teresita%20Fern%C3%A1ndez\\\">Teresita Fernández</a>, <a href=\\\"Huma%20Bhabha\\\">Huma Bhabha</a>, and <a href=\\\"Jacqueline%20Woodson\\\">Jacqueline Woodson</a>. Inspired by their resilience, Simpson said of these women, \\\"They don't take no for an answer\\\".\\nSimpson's work has been displayed at the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\\\">Museum of Modern Art</a>, the <a href=\\\"New%20Museum%20of%20Contemporary%20Art\\\">Museum of Contemporary Art</a>, the <a href=\\\"Miami%20Art%20Museum\\\">Miami Art Museum</a>, the <a href=\\\"Walker%20Art%20Center\\\">Walker Art Center</a>, the <a href=\\\"Minneapolis%20Institute%20of%20Art\\\">Minneapolis Institute of Art</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Irish%20Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\\\">Irish Museum of Modern Art</a>. In 2007, Simpson had a 20-year retrospective of her work at the <a href=\\\"Whitney%20Museum%20of%20American%20Art\\\">Whitney Museum of American Art</a> in her hometown of <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>.\\nSimpson first came to prominence in the 1980s for her large-scale works that combined photography and text and defied traditional conceptions of sex, identity, race, culture, history, and memory. Drawing on this work, she started to create large photos printed on felt that showed public but unnoticed sexual encounters. Recently, Simpson has experimented with film as well as continuing to work with photography.\\nSimpson's 1989 work, \\\"Necklines\\\", shows two circular and identical photographs of a black woman's mouth, chin, neck, and collar bone. The white text, \\\"“ring, surround, lasso, noose, eye, areola, halo, cuffs, collar, loop”\\\", individual words on black plaques, imply menace, binding or worse. The final phrase, text on red \\\"“feel the ground sliding from under you,”\\\" openly suggests lynching, though the adjacent images remain serene, non-confrontational and elegant.\\n\\\"Easy for Who to Say\\\", Simpson's work from 1989, displays five identical silhouettes of black women from the shoulders up wearing a white top that is similar to women portrayed in other of Simpson's works. The women's faces are obscured by a white-colored oval shape each with one of the following letters inside: A, E, I, O, U. Underneath the corresponding portraits are the words: Amnesia, Error, Indifference, Omission, Uncivil. In this work Simpson alludes to the racialization in ethnographic cinema and the revocation of history faced by many people of color.\\nSimpson's work \\\"Guarded Conditions,\\\" created in 1989, was one in a series in which Simpson has assembled fragmented Polaroid images of a female model whom she has regularly collaborated with. The body is fragmented and viewed from behind, while the back of the model's head is sensed as being in a state of guardedness towards possible hostility she can anticipate as a result of the combination of her sex and the color of her skin. The complex historical and symbolic associations of African-American hairstyles are also brought into play. The message of the text and the formal treatment of the image reinforce a sense of vulnerability. The fragmentation and serialization of bodily images disrupts and denies the body's wholeness and individuality. In attempting to read the work the viewer is provoked into confronting histories of appropriation and consumption of the black female body.\\nSimpson's work often portrays black women combined with text to express contemporary society's relationship with race, ethnicity and sex. In many of her works, the subjects are black women with obscured faces, causing a denial of gaze and the interaction associated with visual exchange. Through repetitive use of the same portrait combined with graphic text, her \\\"anti-portraits\\\" have a sense of scientific classification, addressing the cultural associations of black bodies.\\nIn a 2003 video installation, \\\"Corridor\\\", Simpson sets two women side-by-side; a household servant from 1860 and a wealthy homeowner from 1960. Both women are portrayed by artist <a href=\\\"Wangechi%20Mutu\\\">Wangechi Mutu</a>, allowing parallel and haunting relationships to be drawn. She has commented, \\\"I do not appear in any of my work. I think maybe there are elements to it and moments to it that I use from my own personal experience, but that, in and of itself, is not so important as what the work is trying to say about either the way we interpret experience or the way we interpret things about identity.\\\"\\nSimpson lives in Brooklyn with her daughter Zora.\\n\\\"lll (Three Wishbones in a Wood Box).\\\" 1994. wooden box containing three wishbones made of ceramic, rubber and bronze inserted in two felt pads. Minneapolis Institute of Art.\\n\\\"Back.\\\" 1991. 2 colour Polaroids and 3 plastic plaques.\\n\\\"Counting.\\\" 1991. photogravure and screenprint. Minneapolis Institute of Art.\\n\\\"Five Day Forecast.\\\" 1991. 5 photographs, gelatin silver print on paper and 15 engraved plaques. Tate Modern, London. <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/simpson-five-day-forecast-t13335\\\"></a>\\n\\\"Untitled (What should fit here...)\\\". 1993. photo-etching, screenprint and hand-applied watercolor. Minneapolis Institute of Art.\\n\\\"The Waterbearer\\\". 1996. silver print.\\n\\\"Wigs (Portfolio)\\\". 1994. portfolio of twenty-one lithographs on felt with seventeen lithographed felt text panels. Museum of Modern Art, New York City.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Whitney%20Museum%20of%20American%20Art\\\">Whitney Museum of American Art</a> in New York, NY, held a retrospective of Simpson's work in 2007.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20A.%20Sackler%20Center%20for%20Feminist%20Art\\\">Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art</a> at the <a href=\\\"Brooklyn%20Museum\\\">Brooklyn Museum</a> presented a solo exhibition of Simpson's work, \\\"Lorna Simpson: Gathered,\\\" in 2011.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Galerie%20nationale%20du%20Jeu%20de%20Paume\\\">Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume</a> organized the first European retrospective of Simpson's work in 2013, which traveled to the <a href=\\\"Baltic%20Centre%20for%20Contemporary%20Art\\\">Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art</a> in 2014.\\nBeginning in 2008, Simpson's work, \\\"Wigs (Portfolio)\\\", was included in the exhibition, \\\"30 Americans,\\\" which has toured eleven locations to date, including the Rubell Family Collection, Miami, <a href=\\\"North%20Carolina%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">North Carolina Museum of Art</a>, <a href=\\\"Corcoran%20Gallery%20of%20Art\\\">Corcoran Gallery of Art</a>, <a href=\\\"Chrysler%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">Chrysler Museum of Art</a>, <a href=\\\"Milwaukee%20Art%20Museum\\\">Milwaukee Art Museum</a>, <a href=\\\"Frist%20Center%20for%20the%20Visual%20Arts\\\">Frist Center for the Visual Arts</a>, <a href=\\\"Contemporary%20Arts%20Center%20%28New%20Orleans%29\\\">Contemporary Arts Center (New Orleans)</a>, <a href=\\\"Arkansas%20Arts%20Center\\\">Arkansas Arts Center</a>, <a href=\\\"Detroit%20Institute%20of%20Arts\\\">Detroit Institute of Arts</a>, <a href=\\\"Cincinnati%20Art%20Museum\\\">Cincinnati Art Museum</a>, and <a href=\\\"Tacoma%20Art%20Museum\\\">Tacoma Art Museum</a>.\",\n \"Gabriel Chodos\\nGabriel Chodos is an American pianist who has performed throughout the United States, Europe, Japan and Israel.\\nChodos's principal teacher was Aube Tzerko, a student of <a href=\\\"Artur%20Schnabel\\\">Schnabel</a>. He also studied piano with <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Shure\\\">Leonard Shure</a> at the <a href=\\\"Aspen%20Music%20Festival\\\">Aspen Music Festival</a>, Josef Dichler in Vienna, and <a href=\\\"Carlo%20Zecchi\\\">Carlo Zecchi</a> in Salzburg.\\nMr. Chodos holds a Master's degree in Music from <a href=\\\"UCLA\\\">UCLA</a> and a Diploma in Piano from the Akademie fur Musik and darstellende Kunst in Vienna.\\nHe also studied theory with <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Stein\\\">Leonard Stein</a>, a former assistant of Schoenberg, and holds an undergraduate degree in Philosophy from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California\\\">University of California</a> at Los Angeles, being elected to <a href=\\\"Phi%20Beta%20Kappa\\\">Phi Beta Kappa</a>.\\nChodos is a winner of the <a href=\\\"Concert%20Artists%20Guild\\\">Concert Artists Guild</a> competition in New York. Chodos also received a <a href=\\\"Fulbright%20Scholarship\\\">Fulbright Scholarship</a>, Martha Baird Rockefeller grants, and a Solo Recitalist grant from the <a href=\\\"National%20Endowment%20for%20the%20Arts\\\">National Endowment for the Arts</a>.\\nHe has performed as soloist with the <a href=\\\"Chicago%20Symphony%20Orchestra\\\">Chicago Symphony Orchestra</a>, the Radio Philharmonic Orchestra of Holland, the <a href=\\\"Jerusalem%20Symphony%20Orchestra\\\">Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra</a>, and the Aspen Chamber Symphony. Mr. Chodos performed at the 92nd Street Y, Alice Tully Hall, Merkin Hall, Symphony Hall, and the <a href=\\\"Library%20of%20Congress\\\">Library of Congress</a>.\\nIn recent years Chodos's performances of works by <a href=\\\"Schubert\\\">Schubert</a>, <a href=\\\"Brahms\\\">Brahms</a> and <a href=\\\"Chopin\\\">Chopin</a> have been broadcast nationwide by <a href=\\\"National%20Public%20Radio\\\">National Public Radio</a>. He has recorded for Fleur de Son, Victor/Japan, CRI, Orion, and Centaur.\\nChodos is a member of the artist faculty of the <a href=\\\"New%20England%20Conservatory\\\">New England Conservatory</a> in Boston. Chodos was an artist-faculty member of the <a href=\\\"Aspen%20Music%20Festival\\\">Aspen Music Festival</a> for many years.\\nHe has given master classes throughout the world, including the <a href=\\\"Guildhall%20School%20of%20Music\\\">Guildhall School of Music</a> in London, the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Music%20and%20Theatre%20Leipzig\\\">Hochschule für Musik</a> in Leipzig, the <a href=\\\"Estonian%20Academy%20of%20Music%20and%20Theatre\\\">Estonia Music Academy</a> in Tallinn, the <a href=\\\"Toho%20Gakuen%20School%20of%20Music\\\">Toho Gakuen School of Music</a> and the <a href=\\\"Kunitachi%20College%20of%20Music\\\">Kunitachi School of Music</a> in Tokyo.\\nHe is also a frequent guest artist and teacher at the Chautauqua Music Festival and the Rutgers Summerfest.\",\n \"Halley's Comet\\nHalley's Comet or Comet Halley, officially designated 1P/Halley, is a <a href=\\\"List%20of%20periodic%20comets\\\">short-period comet</a> visible from <a href=\\\"Earth\\\">Earth</a> every 74–79 years. Halley is the only known short-period <a href=\\\"comet\\\">comet</a> that is regularly visible to the <a href=\\\"naked%20eye\\\">naked eye</a> from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner parts of the <a href=\\\"Solar%20System\\\">Solar System</a> in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.\\nHalley's returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers since at least 240 BC. Clear records of the comet's appearances were made by <a href=\\\"Chinese%20people\\\">Chinese</a>, <a href=\\\"Babylonia\\\">Babylonia</a>n, and <a href=\\\"Middle%20Ages\\\">medieval European</a> <a href=\\\"chroniclers\\\">chroniclers</a>, but were not recognized as reappearances of the same object at the time. The comet's periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer <a href=\\\"Edmond%20Halley\\\">Edmond Halley</a>, after whom it is now named.\\nDuring its 1986 apparition, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by <a href=\\\"spacecraft\\\">spacecraft</a>, providing the first observational data on the structure of a <a href=\\\"comet%20nucleus\\\">comet nucleus</a> and the mechanism of <a href=\\\"coma%20%28cometary%29\\\">coma</a> and <a href=\\\"comet%20tail\\\">tail</a> formation. These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly <a href=\\\"Fred%20Whipple\\\">Fred Whipple</a>'s \\\"dirty snowball\\\" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of <a href=\\\"volatiles\\\">volatile ices</a> – such as <a href=\\\"water\\\">water</a>, <a href=\\\"carbon%20dioxide\\\">carbon dioxide</a>, and <a href=\\\"ammonia\\\">ammonia</a> – and <a href=\\\"cosmic%20dust\\\">dust</a>. The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.\\nComet Halley is commonly pronounced , rhyming with \\\"valley\\\", or , rhyming with \\\"daily\\\". Spellings of Edmond Halley's name during his lifetime included \\\"Hailey, Haley, Hayley, Halley, Hawley\\\", and \\\"Hawly\\\", so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain.\\nHalley was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by <a href=\\\"Aristotle\\\">Aristotle</a>, was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproved in 1577 by <a href=\\\"Tycho%20Brahe\\\">Tycho Brahe</a>, who used <a href=\\\"parallax\\\">parallax</a> measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the <a href=\\\"Moon\\\">Moon</a>. Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System.\\nIn 1687, <a href=\\\"Sir%20Isaac%20Newton\\\">Sir Isaac Newton</a> published his \\\"<a href=\\\"Philosophi%C3%A6%20Naturalis%20Principia%20Mathematica\\\">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a>\\\", in which he outlined his laws of <a href=\\\"gravity\\\">gravity</a> and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see <a href=\\\"Newton%27s%20Comet\\\">Newton's Comet</a>), he was unable to completely reconcile comets into his model.\\nUltimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, <a href=\\\"Edmond%20Halley\\\">Edmond Halley</a>, who, in his 1705 \\\"Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets\\\", used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits. This calculation enabled him, after examining historical records, to determine that the <a href=\\\"orbital%20elements\\\">orbital elements</a> of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by <a href=\\\"Petrus%20Apianus\\\">Petrus Apianus</a>) and 1607 (observed by <a href=\\\"Johannes%20Kepler\\\">Johannes Kepler</a>). Halley thus concluded that all three comets were, in fact, the same object returning about every 76 years, a period that has since been found to vary between 74–79 years. After a rough estimate of the <a href=\\\"Perturbation%20%28astronomy%29\\\">perturbations</a> the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758. Halley died in 1742 before he could observe this himself.\\nHalley's prediction of the comet's return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by <a href=\\\"Johann%20Georg%20Palitzsch\\\">Johann Georg Palitzsch</a>, a German farmer and amateur astronomer. It did not pass through its <a href=\\\"periapsis\\\">perihelion</a> until 13 March 1759, the attraction of <a href=\\\"Jupiter\\\">Jupiter</a> and <a href=\\\"Saturn\\\">Saturn</a> having caused a retardation of 618 days. This effect was computed prior to its return (with a one-month error to 13 April) by a team of three French mathematicians, <a href=\\\"Alexis%20Clairaut\\\">Alexis Clairaut</a>, <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Lalande\\\">Joseph Lalande</a>, and <a href=\\\"Nicole-Reine%20Lepaute\\\">Nicole-Reine Lepaute</a>. The confirmation of the comet's return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of <a href=\\\"Newtonian%20physics\\\">Newtonian physics</a>, and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power. The comet was first named in Halley's honour by French astronomer <a href=\\\"Nicolas%20Louis%20de%20Lacaille\\\">Nicolas Louis de Lacaille</a> in 1759.\\nSome scholars have proposed that first-century Mesopotamian astronomers already had recognized Halley's Comet as periodic. This theory notes a passage in the Bavli <a href=\\\"Talmud\\\">Talmud</a> that refers to \\\"a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err.\\\"\\nResearchers in 1981 attempting to calculate the past orbits of Halley by <a href=\\\"numerical%20integration\\\">numerical integration</a> starting from accurate observations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could not produce accurate results further back than 837 due to a close approach to Earth in that year. It was necessary to use <a href=\\\"Historic%20comet%20observations%20in%20China\\\">ancient Chinese comet observations</a> to constrain their calculations.\\nHalley's orbital period has varied between 74–79 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly <a href=\\\"elliptical\\\">elliptical</a>, with an <a href=\\\"orbital%20eccentricity\\\">orbital eccentricity</a> of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a <a href=\\\"parabolic%20trajectory\\\">parabolic trajectory</a>). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is just 0.6 <a href=\\\"Astronomical%20unit\\\">AU</a>. This is between the orbits of <a href=\\\"Mercury%20%28planet%29\\\">Mercury</a> and <a href=\\\"Venus\\\">Venus</a>. Its <a href=\\\"aphelion\\\">aphelion</a>, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 AU (roughly the distance of <a href=\\\"Pluto\\\">Pluto</a>). Unusual for an object in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is <a href=\\\"Retrograde%20and%20direct%20motion\\\">retrograde</a>; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the <a href=\\\"Sun\\\">Sun</a>'s north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the <a href=\\\"ecliptic\\\">ecliptic</a>, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. (Because it is retrograde, the true inclination is 162°). Due to the retrograde orbit, it has one of the highest velocities relative to the <a href=\\\"Earth\\\">Earth</a> of any object in the Solar System. The 1910 passage was at a <a href=\\\"relative%20velocity\\\">relative velocity</a> of 70.56 km/s (157,838 mph or 254,016 km/h). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two <a href=\\\"meteor%20showers\\\">meteor showers</a>: the <a href=\\\"Eta%20Aquariids\\\">Eta Aquariids</a> in early May, and the <a href=\\\"Orionids\\\">Orionids</a> in late October. Halley is the parent body to the Orionids. Observations conducted around the time of Halley's appearance in 1986 suggested that the comet could additionally perturb the <a href=\\\"Eta%20Aquarids\\\">Eta Aquarid</a> meteor shower, although it might not be the parent of that shower.\\nHalley is classified as a \\\"periodic\\\" or \\\"<a href=\\\"short-period%20comet\\\">short-period comet</a>\\\"; one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less. This contrasts it with <a href=\\\"long-period%20comet\\\">long-period comet</a>s, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5 years, so Halley's orbit is atypical. Most short-period comets (those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 20–30 degrees or less) are called <a href=\\\"Jupiter-family%20comet\\\">Jupiter-family comet</a>s. Those resembling Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets. s of 2015 , only 75 Halley-type comets have been observed, compared with 511 identified Jupiter family comets.\\nThe orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the <a href=\\\"Oort%20Cloud\\\">Oort Cloud</a>, a sphere of cometary bodies that has an inner edge of <a href=\\\"Oort%20Cloud%23Structure%20and%20composition\\\">20,000–50,000 AU</a>. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the <a href=\\\"Kuiper%20belt\\\">Kuiper belt</a>, a flat disc of icy debris between 30 AU (Neptune's orbit) and 50 AU from the Sun (in the <a href=\\\"scattered%20disc\\\">scattered disc</a>). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a <a href=\\\"trans-Neptunian%20object\\\">trans-Neptunian object</a> with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, , whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.\\nHalley has probably been in its current orbit for 16,000–200,000 years, although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions, and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations. The non-gravitational effects can be crucial; as Halley approaches the Sun, it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface, which knock it very slightly off its orbital path. These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion of four days, average.\\nIn 1989, <a href=\\\"Boris%20Chirikov\\\">Boris Chirikov</a> and Vitaly Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations. These studies showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales. Halley's projected lifetime could be as long as 10 million years. More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate, or split in two, within the next few tens of thousands of years, or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years. Observations by D.W. Hughes suggest that Halley's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80–90% over the last 2000–3000 revolutions.\\nThe \\\"<a href=\\\"Giotto%20mission\\\">Giotto</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Vega%20program\\\">Vega</a>\\\" missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as <a href=\\\"water\\\">water</a>, <a href=\\\"carbon%20monoxide\\\">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href=\\\"carbon%20dioxide\\\">carbon dioxide</a> and other <a href=\\\"volatiles\\\">ices</a>) begin to <a href=\\\"Sublimation%20%28chemistry%29\\\">sublime</a> from the surface of its <a href=\\\"Comet%20nucleus\\\">nucleus</a>. This causes the comet to develop a <a href=\\\"Coma%20%28cometary%29\\\">coma</a>, or atmosphere, up to 100,000 km across. Evaporation of this dirty ice releases <a href=\\\"dust\\\">dust</a> particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as <a href=\\\"fluorescence\\\">fluorescence</a>, whereas dust particles <a href=\\\"scattering\\\">scatter</a> the solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible. As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are <a href=\\\"ionization\\\">ionized</a> by the solar <a href=\\\"ultraviolet%20radiation\\\">ultraviolet radiation</a>, pressure from the <a href=\\\"solar%20wind\\\">solar wind</a>, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long <a href=\\\"Comet%20tail\\\">tail</a>, which may extend more than 100 million kilometers into space. Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause <a href=\\\"disconnection%20event\\\">disconnection event</a>s, in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus.\\nDespite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometers long, 8 kilometers wide and perhaps 8 kilometers thick. Its shape vaguely resembles that of a <a href=\\\"peanut\\\">peanut</a>. Its mass is relatively low (roughly 2.2 × 10 kg) and its average density is about 0.6 g/cm, indicating that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a <a href=\\\"rubble%20pile\\\">rubble pile</a>. Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's <a href=\\\"rotation%20period\\\">rotation period</a> was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell, suggested a period of 52 hours. Given the irregular shape of the nucleus, Halley's rotation is likely to be complex. Although only 25% of Halley's surface was imaged in detail during the flyby missions, the images revealed an extremely varied topography, with hills, mountains, ridges, depressions, and at least one crater.\\nHalley is the most active of all the periodic comets, with others, such as <a href=\\\"Comet%20Encke\\\">Comet Encke</a> and <a href=\\\"Comet%20Holmes\\\">Comet Holmes</a>, being one or two <a href=\\\"orders%20of%20magnitude\\\">orders of magnitude</a> less active. Its day side (the side facing the Sun) is far more active than the night side. Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80% water vapor, 17% carbon monoxide and 3–4% carbon dioxide, with traces of hydrocarbons although more-recent sources give a value of 10% for carbon monoxide and also include traces of <a href=\\\"methane\\\">methane</a> and <a href=\\\"ammonia\\\">ammonia</a>. The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds common in the outer Solar System, and silicates, such as are found in terrestrial rocks. The dust particles decreased in size down to the limits of detection (~0.001 µm). The ratio of <a href=\\\"deuterium\\\">deuterium</a> to <a href=\\\"hydrogen\\\">hydrogen</a> in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth's ocean water, suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past. Subsequent observations showed Halley's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth's oceans, making such comets unlikely sources for Earth's water.\\n\\\"Giotto\\\" provided the first evidence in support of <a href=\\\"Fred%20Whipple\\\">Fred Whipple</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"dirty%20snowball\\\">dirty snowball</a>\\\" hypothesis for comet construction; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System, causing ices on their surfaces to sublimate (change directly from a solid to a gas), and jets of volatile material to burst outward, creating the coma. \\\"Giotto\\\" showed that this model was broadly correct, though with modifications. Halley's <a href=\\\"albedo\\\">albedo</a>, for instance, is about 4%, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it; about what one would expect for coal. Thus, despite appearing brilliant white to observers on Earth, Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The surface temperature of evaporating \\\"dirty ice\\\" ranges from 170 K (−103 °C) at higher albedo to 220 K (−53 °C) at low albedo; <a href=\\\"Vega%201\\\">Vega 1</a> found Halley's surface temperature to be in the range 300–400 K (30–130 °C). This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat. Together, these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-<a href=\\\"volatiles\\\">volatile</a> materials, and thus more closely resembled a \\\"snowy dirtball\\\" than a \\\"dirty snowball\\\".\\nHalley may have been recorded as early as 467 BC, but this is uncertain. A comet was recorded in ancient Greece between 468 and 466 BC; its timing, location, duration, and associated meteor shower all suggest it was Halley. According to <a href=\\\"Pliny%20the%20Elder\\\">Pliny the Elder</a>, that same year a meteorite fell in the town of <a href=\\\"Aegospotami\\\">Aegospotami</a>, in <a href=\\\"Thrace\\\">Thrace</a>. He described it as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load. Chinese chroniclers also mention a comet in that year.\\nThe first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle \\\"<a href=\\\"Records%20of%20the%20Grand%20Historian\\\">Records of the Grand Historian</a>\\\" or \\\"Shiji\\\", which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north. The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, now owned by the <a href=\\\"British%20Museum\\\">British Museum</a>.\\nThe apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen \\\"day beyond day\\\" for a month. This appearance may be recalled in the representation of <a href=\\\"Tigranes%20the%20Great\\\">Tigranes the Great</a>, an <a href=\\\"Armenia\\\">Armenia</a>n king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to <a href=\\\"Vahe%20Gurzadyan\\\">Vahe Gurzadyan</a> and R. Vardanyan, \\\"a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC.\\\" Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that \\\"Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC\\\" as the comet would have been a \\\"most recordable event\\\"; for ancient Armenians it could have heralded the New Era of the brilliant King of Kings.\\nThe apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Book%20of%20Han\\\">Book of Han</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Chinese%20astronomy\\\">Chinese astronomers</a> of the <a href=\\\"Han%20Dynasty\\\">Han Dynasty</a> who tracked it from August through October. It passed within 0.16 AU of Earth. Halley's appearance in 12 BC, only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned <a href=\\\"Chronology%20of%20Jesus%23Year%20of%20birth\\\">date of the birth of Jesus Christ</a>, has led some <a href=\\\"theologian\\\">theologian</a>s and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the <a href=\\\"Star%20of%20Bethlehem\\\">Star of Bethlehem</a>. There are other explanations for the phenomenon, such as <a href=\\\"planetary%20conjunction\\\">planetary conjunction</a>s, and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus' birth.\\nIf, as has been suggested, the reference in the <a href=\\\"Talmud\\\">Talmud</a> to \\\"a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err\\\" (see <a href=\\\"%23Computation%20of%20orbit\\\">above</a>) refers to Halley's Comet, it may be a reference to the 66 AD appearance, because this passage is attributed to the Rabbi <a href=\\\"Joshua%20ben%20Hananiah\\\">Yehoshua ben Hananiah</a>. This apparition was the only one to occur during ben Hananiah's lifetime.\\nThe 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles. It was also recorded in the <a href=\\\"Tamil%20language\\\">Tamil</a> work \\\"<a href=\\\"Purananuru\\\">Purananuru</a>\\\", in connection with the death of the south Indian <a href=\\\"Chera%20dynasty\\\">Chera</a> king <a href=\\\"Yanaikatchai%20Mantaran%20Cheral%20Irumporai\\\">Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai</a>.\\nThe 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0.09 AU of Earth. The 684 AD apparition was recorded in Europe in one of the sources used by the compiler of the 1493 <a href=\\\"Nuremberg%20Chronicle\\\">Nuremberg Chronicle</a>s. Chinese records also report it as the \\\"broom star\\\".\\nIn 837, Halley's Comet may have passed as close as 0.03 <a href=\\\"astronomical%20unit\\\">AU</a> (3.2 million miles; 5.1 million kilometers) from <a href=\\\"Earth\\\">Earth</a>, by far its closest approach. Its tail may have stretched 60 <a href=\\\"degree%20%28angle%29\\\">degrees</a> across the sky. It was recorded by astronomers in China, Japan, Germany, the Byzantine Empire, and the Middle East. In 912, Halley is recorded in the <a href=\\\"Annals%20of%20Ulster\\\">Annals of Ulster</a>, which state \\\"A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared.\\\"\\nIn 1066, the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen: later that year <a href=\\\"Harold%20II%20of%20England\\\">Harold II of England</a> died at the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Hastings\\\">Battle of Hastings</a>; it was a bad omen for Harold, but a good omen for the man who defeated him, <a href=\\\"William%20the%20Conqueror\\\">William the Conqueror</a>. The comet is represented on the <a href=\\\"Bayeux%20Tapestry\\\">Bayeux Tapestry</a> as a fiery star, and the surviving accounts describe it as appearing to be four times the size of <a href=\\\"Venus\\\">Venus</a> and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the <a href=\\\"Moon\\\">Moon</a>. Halley came within 0.10 AU of Earth at that time.\\nThis appearance of the comet is also noted in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Anglo-Saxon%20Chronicle\\\">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a>\\\". <a href=\\\"Eilmer%20of%20Malmesbury\\\">Eilmer of Malmesbury</a> may have seen Halley previously in 989, as he wrote of it in 1066: \\\"You've come, have you? ... You've come, you source of tears to many mothers, you evil. I hate you! It is long since I saw you; but as I see you now you are much more terrible, for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country. I hate you!\\\"\\nThe Irish \\\"<a href=\\\"Annals%20of%20the%20Four%20Masters\\\">Annals of the Four Masters</a>\\\" recorded the comet as \\\"A star [that] appeared on the seventh of the <a href=\\\"Calends\\\">Calends</a> of May, on Tuesday after Little Easter, than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards.\\\" <a href=\\\"Chaco%20Culture%20National%20Historical%20Park\\\">Chaco</a> <a href=\\\"Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">Native Americans</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20Mexico\\\">New Mexico</a> may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs.\\nThe 1145 apparition was recorded by the monk Eadwine. The 1986 apparition exhibited a fan tail similar to Eadwine's drawing. Some claim that <a href=\\\"Genghis%20Khan\\\">Genghis Khan</a> was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the 1222 apparition. The 1301 apparition may have been seen by the artist <a href=\\\"Giotto%20di%20Bondone\\\">Giotto di Bondone</a>, who represented the <a href=\\\"Star%20of%20Bethlehem\\\">Star of Bethlehem</a> as a fire-colored comet in the <a href=\\\"Nativity%20of%20Jesus%20in%20art\\\">Nativity</a> section of his <a href=\\\"Arena%20Chapel\\\">Arena Chapel</a> cycle, completed in 1305. Its 1378 appearance is recorded in the \\\"Annales Mediolanenses\\\" as well as in East Asian sources.\\nIn 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the <a href=\\\"Ottoman%20Empire\\\">Ottoman Empire</a> invaded the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Hungary\\\">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, culminating in the <a href=\\\"Siege%20of%20Belgrade%20%281456%29\\\">Siege of Belgrade</a> in July of that year. In a <a href=\\\"papal%20bull\\\">papal bull</a>, Pope <a href=\\\"Calixtus%20III\\\">Calixtus III</a> ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the <a href=\\\"Renaissance%20humanism\\\">humanist</a> scholar <a href=\\\"Bartolomeo%20Platina\\\">Bartolomeo Platina</a> wrote in his \\\"<a href=\\\"Lives%20of%20the%20Popes\\\">Lives of the Popes</a>\\\" that,\\nA hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the Christian name. He likewise ordered, to move God by continual entreaty, that notice should be given by the bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk.\\nPlatina's account is not mentioned in official records. In the 18th century, a Frenchman further embellished the story, in anger at the Church, by claiming that the Pope had \\\"excommunicated\\\" the comet, though this story was most likely his own invention.\\nHalley's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara, a Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir. He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al-Abidin (AD 1418/1420–1470).\\nAfter witnessing a bright light in the sky which most historians have identified as Halley's Comet, <a href=\\\"Zara%20Yaqob\\\">Zara Yaqob</a>, Emperor of <a href=\\\"Ethiopia\\\">Ethiopia</a> from 1434 to 1468, founded the city of <a href=\\\"Debre%20Berhan\\\">Debre Berhan</a> (tr. City of Light) and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign.\\nHalley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict its 1759 return. Streams of vapour observed during the comet's 1835 apparition prompted astronomer <a href=\\\"Friedrich%20Wilhelm%20Bessel\\\">Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel</a> to propose that the <a href=\\\"jet%20force\\\">jet force</a>s of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit.\\nThe 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April and came to perihelion on 20 April, was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which <a href=\\\"spectroscopic\\\">spectroscopic</a> data were obtained. Furthermore, the comet made a relatively close approach of 0.15 AU, making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet. One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas <a href=\\\"cyanogen\\\">cyanogen</a>, which led astronomer <a href=\\\"Camille%20Flammarion\\\">Camille Flammarion</a> to claim that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas \\\"would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet.\\\" His pronouncement led to panicked buying of gas masks and quack \\\"anti-comet pills\\\" and \\\"anti-comet umbrellas\\\" by the public. In reality, as other astronomers were quick to point out, the gas is so diffuse that the world suffered no ill effects from the passage through the tail.\\nThe comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of <a href=\\\"Xinhai%20Revolution\\\">Xinhai Revolution</a> that would end the <a href=\\\"Qing%20dynasty\\\">last dynasty</a> in 1911. As James Hutson, a missionary in <a href=\\\"Sichuan%20Province\\\">Sichuan Province</a> at the time, recorded,\\nThe people believe that it indicates calamity such as war, fire, pestilence, and a change of dynasty. In some places on certain days the doors were unopened for half a day, no water was carried and many did not even drink water as it was rumoured that pestilential vapour was being poured down upon the earth from the comet.\\\"\\nThe 1910 visitation is also recorded as being the travelling companion of the first known English Muslim to make the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. However, his explanation of its scientific predictability did not meet with favour in the Holy City.\\nThe comet was also fertile ground for hoaxes. One that reached major newspapers claimed that the Sacred Followers, a supposed Oklahoma religious group, attempted to sacrifice a virgin to ward off the impending disaster, but were stopped by the police.\\nAmerican satirist and writer <a href=\\\"Mark%20Twain\\\">Mark Twain</a> was born on 30 November 1835, exactly two weeks after the comet's <a href=\\\"perihelion\\\">perihelion</a>. In his autobiography, published in 1909, he said,\\nI came in with Halley's comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: 'Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together.'\\nTwain died on 21 April 1910, the day following the comet's subsequent perihelion. The 1985 fantasy film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Adventures%20of%20Mark%20Twain%20%281985%20film%29\\\">The Adventures of Mark Twain</a>\\\" was inspired by the quotation.\\nHalley's 1910 apparition is distinct from the <a href=\\\"Great%20January%20comet%20of%201910\\\">Great Daylight Comet of 1910</a>, which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was actually visible in broad daylight for a short period, approximately four months before Halley made its appearance.\\nHalley's 1986 apparition was the least favorable on record. The comet and Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun in February 1986, creating the worst viewing circumstances for Earth observers for the last 2,000 years. Halley's closest approach was 0.42 AU. Additionally, with increased <a href=\\\"light%20pollution\\\">light pollution</a> from urbanization, many people failed to even see the comet. It was possible to observe it in areas outside of cities with the help of binoculars. Further, the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April. Halley's approach was first detected by astronomers <a href=\\\"David%20Jewitt\\\">David Jewitt</a> and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5.1 m <a href=\\\"Hale%20telescope\\\">Hale telescope</a> at <a href=\\\"Mount%20Palomar%20Observatory\\\">Mount Palomar</a> and a <a href=\\\"CCD%20camera\\\">CCD camera</a>. The first person to visually observe the comet on its 1986 return was amateur astronomer Stephen James O'Meara on 24 January 1985. O'Meara used a home-built 24-inch telescope on top of <a href=\\\"Mauna%20Kea\\\">Mauna Kea</a> to detect the <a href=\\\"apparent%20magnitude\\\">magnitude</a> 19.6 comet. On 8 November 1985, Stephen Edberg (then serving as the Coordinator for Amateur Observations at <a href=\\\"NASA\\\">NASA</a>'s <a href=\\\"JPL\\\">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>) and Charles Morris were the first to observe Halley's Comet with the naked eye in its 1986 apparition.\\nThe development of space travel gave scientists the opportunity to study the comet at close quarters, and several probes were launched to do so. The Soviet <a href=\\\"Vega%201\\\">Vega 1</a> started returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, and the first ever of its <a href=\\\"Comet%20nucleus\\\">nucleus</a>, and made its flyby on 6 March, followed by <a href=\\\"Vega%202\\\">Vega 2</a> making its flyby on 9 March. On 14 March, the <a href=\\\"Giotto%20%28spacecraft%29\\\">\\\"Giotto\\\" space probe</a>, launched by the <a href=\\\"European%20Space%20Agency\\\">European Space Agency</a>, made the closest pass of the comet's nucleus. There were also two Japanese probes, <a href=\\\"Suisei%20%28spacecraft%29\\\">\\\"Suisei\\\"</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"Sakigake\\\">Sakigake</a>\\\". The probes were unofficially known as the <a href=\\\"Halley%20Armada\\\">Halley Armada</a>.\\nBased on data retrieved by <a href=\\\"Astron%20%28spacecraft%29\\\">\\\"Astron\\\"</a>, the largest <a href=\\\"ultraviolet\\\">ultraviolet</a> space telescope of the time, during its Halley's Comet observations in December 1985, a group of Soviet scientists developed a model of the comet's <a href=\\\"Coma%20%28cometary%29\\\">coma</a>. The comet was also observed from space by the <a href=\\\"International%20Cometary%20Explorer\\\">International Cometary Explorer</a>. Originally International Sun-Earth Explorer 3, the probe was renamed and freed from its <a href=\\\"Lagrangian%20point%23L1\\\">L</a> <a href=\\\"Lagrangian%20point\\\">Lagrangian point</a> location in Earth's orbit to intercept comets <a href=\\\"21P/Giacobini-Zinner\\\">21P/Giacobini-Zinner</a> and Halley.\\nTwo <a href=\\\"Space%20Shuttle\\\">Space Shuttle</a> missions – the ill-fated <a href=\\\"STS-51-L\\\">STS-51-L</a> (ended by the <a href=\\\"Space%20Shuttle%20Challenger%20disaster\\\">\\\"Challenger\\\" disaster</a>) and <a href=\\\"STS-61-E\\\">STS-61-E</a> – were scheduled to observe Halley's Comet from <a href=\\\"low%20Earth%20orbit\\\">low Earth orbit</a>. STS-51-L carried the Shuttle-Pointed Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN-203) satellite, also called the Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable (HCED). STS-61-E was a \\\"Columbia\\\" mission scheduled for March 1986, carrying the ASTRO-1 platform to study the comet. Due to the suspension of America's manned space program after the \\\"Challenger\\\" explosion, the mission was canceled, and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on <a href=\\\"STS-35\\\">STS-35</a>.\\nOn 12 February 1991, at a distance of 14.4 AU from the Sun, Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months, releasing a cloud of dust 300,000 km across. The outburst likely started in December 1990, and then the comet brightened from magnitude 24.3 to magnitude 18.9. Halley was most recently observed in 2003 by three of the <a href=\\\"Very%20Large%20Telescope\\\">Very Large Telescope</a>s at Paranal, Chile, when Halley's magnitude was 28.2. The telescopes observed Halley, at the faintest and farthest any comet has ever been imaged, in order to verify a method for finding very faint <a href=\\\"trans-Neptunian%20object\\\">trans-Neptunian object</a>s. Astronomers are now able to observe the comet at any point in its orbit.\\nThe next predicted perihelion of Halley's Comet is 28 July 2061, when it is expected to be better positioned for observation than during the 1985–1986 apparition, as it will be on the same side of the Sun as Earth. It is expected to have an <a href=\\\"apparent%20magnitude\\\">apparent magnitude</a> of −0.3, compared with only +2.1 for the 1986 apparition. It has been calculated that on 9 September 2060, Halley will pass within 0.98 AU of Jupiter, and then on 20 August 2061 will pass within 0.0543 AU of Venus. In 2134, Halley is expected to pass within 0.09 AU of Earth. Its apparent magnitude is expected to be −2.0.\\nHalley's calculations enabled the comet's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record. The following table sets out the <a href=\\\"Comet%23Nomenclature\\\">astronomical designations</a> for every apparition of Halley's Comet from 240 BC, the earliest documented widespread sighting. For example, \\\"1P/1982 U1, 1986 III, 1982i\\\" indicates that for the perihelion in 1986, Halley was the first period comet known (designated 1P) and this apparition was the first seen in <a href=\\\"half-month\\\">half-month</a> U (the second half of October) in 1982 (giving 1P/1982 U1); it was the third comet past perihelion in 1986 (1986 III); and it was the ninth comet spotted in 1982 (<a href=\\\"provisional%20designation%20in%20astronomy\\\">provisional designation</a> 1982i). The perihelion dates of each apparition are shown. The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate, mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects. Perihelion dates of 1531 and earlier are in the <a href=\\\"Julian%20calendar\\\">Julian calendar</a>, while perihelion dates 1607 and after are in the <a href=\\\"Gregorian%20calendar\\\">Gregorian calendar</a>.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["John Davis (born October 22, 1957) is an American classical pianist, concert performer, recording artist, and historian. Born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina and raised in Providence, Rhode Island, Davis now lives in Brooklyn, New York. He has specialized in reviving the forgotten music of several 19th Century African-American pianists, including Blind Tom Wiggins and Blind Boone. He has recorded albums of works by both composers for the Newport Classic label.","Thomas \"Blind Tom\" Wiggins (May 25, 1849June 14, 1908, age 59) was an African American musical prodigy on the piano. He had numerous original compositions published and had a lengthy and largely successful performing career throughout the United States. During the 19th century, he was one of the best-known American performing pianists. Although he lived and died before autism was described, he is now regarded as an autistic savant."],"string":"[\n \"John Davis (born October 22, 1957) is an American classical pianist, concert performer, recording artist, and historian. Born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina and raised in Providence, Rhode Island, Davis now lives in Brooklyn, New York. He has specialized in reviving the forgotten music of several 19th Century African-American pianists, including Blind Tom Wiggins and Blind Boone. He has recorded albums of works by both composers for the Newport Classic label.\",\n \"Thomas \\\"Blind Tom\\\" Wiggins (May 25, 1849June 14, 1908, age 59) was an African American musical prodigy on the piano. He had numerous original compositions published and had a lengthy and largely successful performing career throughout the United States. During the 19th century, he was one of the best-known American performing pianists. Although he lived and died before autism was described, he is now regarded as an autistic savant.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":46,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who starred as the fictional superhero whose power consists mainly of superhuman speed?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Kid Flash"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Flash (season 4)\nThe fourth season of the American television series \"The Flash\", which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin-off of \"Arrow\". The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.\nThe season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons.\nThe fourth season is set to begin airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW.\n<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>\n\nThe series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, \"The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season.\" In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons.\nIn March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, \"We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we’re going to focus on the present.\" In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / The Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode \"Abra Kadabra\" when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale \"Finish Line\" when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series' San Diego Comic-Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, \"With three Speedsters in a row, this year it's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive.\" He added that the writers were \"making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up\".\nRegarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that \"It's not something that's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for.\" With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying \"the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back.\" Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco's more lighthearted joking manner.\nCandice Patton explained Iris West's larger role within Team Flash as \"a way of distracting herself,\" adding that \"[Iris] is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris.\" Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that \"the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry\".\nIn July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of \"The Flash\" is \"going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons,\" and said that the show was likely \"done with Speedster villains\". Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth-2, saying that \"season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to The Thinker's plan,\" in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.\nIn September 2017, Helbing noted \"There's a lot of love in the air this season,\" and compared Barry and Iris' reunion to \"somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry didn't when he was gone, and it's really [about] the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they weren't together.\" Helbing also explained that the Speed Force \"let [Barry] deal with all of the baggage [from the past three seasons]. When he comes out, he's sort of left that all behind.\" That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since \"[they] keep comically clashing inadvertently because [both are] used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it.\" He added, \"The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship.\"\nMain cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth-2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, \"We're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season's gaps present themselves.\" Also returning from earlier in the series are Jessica Camacho as Gypsy, and Anne Dudek as Tracy Brand. Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, was revealed not to be returning to the series, although there is a possibility he could return if the storyline demanded it and Felton's availability permits. Julian's absence will be addressed \"pretty quickly — there's a reason why he's no longer with the team,\" said Helbing. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek-a-Boo in the first season and the web series \"The Chronicles of Cisco\", will reprise her role in the season premiere.\nIn July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, Devoe's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth-19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that \"should put the visual effects department to the test\", with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast-talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of metahuman supervillains.\nFilming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and is set to conclude on April 21, 2018.\nIn August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathan Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.\nIn May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four-show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series \"Supergirl\", \"The Flash\", \"Legends of Tomorrow\", and \"Arrow\". The crossover will begin with \"Supergirl\" and a special airing of \"Arrow\" on November 27, 2017, and conclude on \"The Flash\" and \"Legends of Tomorrow\" on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be \"a big life event for a few different people\" that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding \"There are many life events that happen.\" Emily Bett Rickards will appear as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season.\nThe season is set to begin airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada.\nIn July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic-Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the \"grim\" tone, there was \"some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without [Barry]... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you've got a good season of \"The Flash\" lined up.\" Ben Pearson with /Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was \"a nice change of pace for that character\", but anticipated that \"Barry [would] be back two or three episodes in at the latest.\" Collider.com's Allison Keene also noted Iris \"getting an actual storyline\" with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he \"[would] be back in the fold by the end of the first episode\" alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, \"There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech — it’s great!\"\n\n","Johnny Quick\nJohnny Quick is the name of two DC Comics characters, each with the power of superhuman speed. The first was a superhero who appeared mostly in \"More Fun Comics\" during the Golden Age. The other was a supervillain, an evil version of The Flash from Earth-Three, originally appearing during the Silver Age. The Golden Age hero has been mostly forgotten while versions of the Crime Syndicate Johnny Quick have continued to appear throughout the modern age.\nHe was a prominent member of the All-Star Squadron as well as husband to Liberty Belle. His daughter, Jesse Chambers, assumed his speed mantra and became Jesse Quick and served a short while with the Titans.\nAfter World War II, he periodically was active as a superhero, having encountered Savitar.\nHe ultimately entered the Speed Force, saving his daughter from Lady Flash - then called Lady Savitar.\nLater, he was \"seemingly\" reanimated during the 2009-10 DC comics \"Blackest Night\" story arc for a short time, but after his daughter Jesse Quick realized that the man in front of her was just an evil mockery of his former self and that his resurrection was a false one, he was forcibly laid to rest again.\nJohnny Quick was a supervillain on the alternate Earth designated as Earth-Three, but rather than being a counterpart of the Earth-Two Johnny Quick, he was a version of The Flash. He and the other members of the Crime Syndicate of America (all of whom were villainous counterparts of Justice League of America members) were Earth-Three's only superpowered beings, and had never been defeated by Earth-Three's primary hero, Alexander Luthor (a heroic counterpart to Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor). They travelled to Earth-1 as they were out of shape from inactivity, but were defeated by the JLA, Quick by Batman. They were defeated by the JSA, but using a trick imprisoned them and battled the JLA again, where the Flash defeated Quick by making him work up so much speed he couldn't control it and collapsed. The Crime Syndicate are imprisoned by Green Lantern in the vibratory barriers between Earth-1 and 2. Once they were released by time-traveling villain Per Degaton to help him change history and take over Earth-2, though they tried to overthrow him. They tried to get him, but he revealed he had made sure he and his Time Machine would vibrate at a different speed to them, meaning they couldn't touch him. They told him who they were, and he decided to use them. He then made them steal nuclear missiles from the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 on Earth-Prime and brought them back in time to Earth-Two's 1942 by towing them behind his time machine, not caring about the fact war would happen due to this. When they tried to defeat him, they were hurled into 1982 of Earth-1, as he had made sure this would happen if any of them touched him. They materialized on the JLA's satellite headquarters, and defeated the heroes. The JLA traveled to the past and teamed up with the JSA and All-Star Squadron to prevent Per Degaton's plan. When Per Degaton was defeated, these events were erased from existence. Like the rest of the Crime Syndicate, he perished during the \"Crisis\" at the hands of the Anti-Monitor when a wave of antimatter destroyed Earth-Three.\nDuring the \"Convergence\" storyline, Johnny Quick was with the Crime Syndicate when they planned to free Superwoman from death row.\nThe character was revived in the 1990s as a villain from the \"Anti-Matter Universe\", rather than being from Earth-Three. Unlike the Flash, Johnny receives his powers by injecting himself with a drug called \"Speed Juice\" (whether this is a variation of the super-speed inducing drug \"Velocity 9\" from the regular Flash's Earth is not known). This Johnny Quick is the counterpart of the Wally West Flash. According to Grant Morrison, who created this version of the character, he had a predecessor (corresponding to Barry Allen), whose blood was used to create the Speed Juice. A flashback to the early days of the Crime Syndicate showed this character as resembling the Pre-Crisis version. While Quick is part of that Earth's \"Ruling Elite\", he is hopelessly addicted to \"Speed Juice\" and goes into massive physical withdrawal without it. As part of the Tribute the world's leaders present the Crime Syndicate with on a regular basis, they supply Quick with fresh supplies of his drug, sometimes altered to be more euphoric.\nIn \"Justice League of America\" #51, Jesse Chambers says \"This Johnny Quick has my father's face\", implying that the name is more than coincidence and that the New Earth Johnny Quick, and the \"original\" (Barry Allen counterpart) Antimatter Johnny Quick are genetically the same person.\nIn \"52\" Week 52, an alternate version of Earth-Three (called Earth-3) was shown as a part of the new Multiverse. In the depiction were characters that are altered versions of the original Justice League of America, including the Flash. The names of the characters and the team are not mentioned in the two panels in which they appear, but the altered Flash is visually similar to the Crime Syndicate Johnny Quick.\nBased on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the pre-Crisis Earth-Three, making this a new character unrelated to previous versions. Earth-3 is a world populated by evil counterparts of Earth-2 heroes, where Johnny Quick is part of a \"Golden Age\" \"Crime Society\".\nIn The New 52, Johnny Quick is one of the members of the Crime Syndicate to arrive from Earth 3 at the conclusion of the \"Trinity War\" event. Johnny Quick, known as Jonathan Allen on Earth 3, works with Rhonda Pineda as professional thieves and killers. One night after killing two cops, \"Johnny and Rhonnie\", as they are known, end up cornered on the roof of S.T.A.R. Labs during a storm. Lightning hits a satellite, electrocuting Johnny, causing him to gain his powers, while Rhonda also gains hers by falling into the lab near Ray Palmer's Atomico work.\nDuring the \"Forever Evil\" storyline, Johnny Quick invades Iron Heights Penitentiary and frees its inmates at the time when the Rogues were in the middle of freeing Trickster. When Lex Luthor's team infiltrates the fallen Watchtower, Johnny Quick joins in the fight against them where Captain Cold uses his cold-gun to freeze Johnny Quick's leg and break it off. When Alexander Luthor of Earth-3 is freed and becomes Mazahs, he kills Johnny Quick and steals his powers.\nEach of the characters that were named Johnny Quick possess super-speed.\nThe Crime Syndicate version of Johnny Quick possesses the same abilities as Flash.","List of The Flash episodes\n\"The Flash\" is an American action television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, and Geoff Johns, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, a costumed crimefighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds. It is a spin-off from \"Arrow\", existing in the same fictional universe. The series follows Barry Allen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, a crime scene investigator who gains superhuman speed, which he uses to fight criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. \"The Flash\" was renewed in March 2016 for a third season, which premiered on October 4, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fourth season, which is scheduled to debut on October 10, 2017. s of 23, 2017, episodes of \"The Flash \" have aired, concluding the first half of the season.\n<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>\n","Gorilla City (The Flash)\n\"Gorilla City\" is a two-part story arc and the thirteenth and fourteenth episodes of the third season of the American television series \"The Flash\", based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash. A costumed superhero crime-fighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds, Barry is a crime-scene investigator who gains superhuman speed which he uses to fight criminals, including others who also have superhuman abilities. The series is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the television series \"Arrow\" and \"Legends of Tomorrow\". The storyline began on February 21, 2017 with \"Attack on Gorilla City\", and concluded on February 28 with \"Attack on Central City\". The first episode was written by Aaron Helbing and David Kob from a story by Andrew Kreisberg, and the second episode was written by Benjamin Raab and Deric A. Hughes from a story by Todd Helbing. Both episodes were directed by Dermott Daniel Downs.\nGrant Gustin portrays Barry Allen / Flash, joined by series regulars Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Tom Cavanagh, Jesse L. Martin and Keiynan Lonsdale and recurring cast members Tom Felton, Violett Beane, and Jessica Camacho. Keith David and David Sobolov guest star as the voices of Solovar and Grodd, respectively. In the first episode, Barry, Caitlin Snow, Cisco Ramon, and Julian Albert travel to Earth-2 to rescue Harry Wells from Gorilla City. They are captured and brought to Grodd, who says that he needs their help to stop Solovar. In the second episode, the Flash and his team must stop Grodd and his army of gorillas from destroying Central City.\nThe episodes originally aired on The CW. According to Nielsen Media Research, the first episode was seen by 2.78 million viewers and the second by 2.87 million viewers, consistent with ratings for the rest of the season. The episodes received generally-positive reviews from critics.\nHarry Wells, from Earth-2, is captured when he runs through the woods. Jesse Wells explains that he was leading an expedition to Gorilla City which was ambushed and killed while Wells disappeared. Barry Allen remembers that in the future, Central City will be attacked by gorillas. He, Julian Albert, Cisco Ramon, and Caitlin Snow try to rescue Wells and are captured by Grodd. Speaking through Wells, Grodd asks Barry to assassinate his master Solovar (leader of Gorilla City) to prevent a planned invasion of Central City. Barry agrees to fight Solovar in the arena for the lives of the others; defeating him, he spares his life.\nGrodd says that he used Barry's victory to convince the apes that humans are dangerous, and plans to force Cisco to open a portal for him to Earth-1. Grodd seizes control of Gorilla City and prepares an invasion of Earth-1. The team asks Caitlin to kill Cisco to prevent Grodd from using him to open a portal, but she refuses. Barry has Caitlin use her powers to fake his death, and Grodd removes him from his cage for disposal. After Grodd leaves, he resuscitates himself and frees the others; they escape, returning to Earth-1. Jesse and her father reunite, and Wally West and Jesse recommit to their relationship. Julian asks Caitlin out on a date. Grodd, in full armor, assembles his army with a brainwashed Gypsy at his side.\nThe personalities of Harry and H.R. clash. Jesse tells her father that she intends to stay on Earth-1 with Wally, which Harry initially tries to prevent. Harry subdues Gypsy when she ambushes and tries to kill Cisco and Barry, and the team realizes that Grodd and his forces have reached Central City. Gypsy is held captive for a short time before Cisco allows her to return to her earth. Using his powers, Cisco determines that the gorillas will attack the center of town. This turns out to be a distraction by Grodd, who uses telepathy to compel Joe West to commit suicide with his own gun; however, Barry pushes Joe out of the way in time. Grodd abducts a visiting army general. Barry considers killing Grodd the only way to stop him and change the future, but Harry encourages him to find a better way.\nControlling the general, Grodd attempts a nuclear-missile strike on the city. Barry prevents the attack, and Grodd and his gorilla army invade the city. Cisco travels to Earth-19 to ask Gypsy for help. The speedsters distract the soldiers while Cisco and Gypsy bring Solovar to Earth-1; Solovar defeats Grodd and assumes leadership again. All the gorillas return to Earth-2 except Grodd, who is turned over to A.R.G.U.S. Gypsy kisses Cisco before she returns home, and Barry proposes to Iris. When he picks up dinner for Jesse, Wally is confronted by Savitar.\nGrodd, first mentioned in the show's pilot, appeared in the first two seasons. At the end of the seventh episode of season two, \"Gorilla Warfare\", Team Flash lured Grodd to a dimensional breach and sent him to a jungle sanctuary on Earth-2 for gorillas who have been experimented on. In January 2016, executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said that he intended to wait to tell the next chapter of Grodd's story for a multi-episode arc. He compared Gorilla City to the storyline of Ra's al Ghul and Nanda Parbat from \"Arrow\", noting \"it's a long-term thing\". In August 2016, Kreisberg confirmed Grodd's return in the third season of \"The Flash\", saying, \"Yes, we’re going to be doing a two-part episode that takes place in Gorilla City.\"\nIn January 2017, it was announced that the two-part arc would air on episodes thirteen and fourteen of the series' third season. According to Kreisberg, \"One of the episodes will take place in Gorilla City and one of them will take place on Earth-1\". In February 2017, The CW said that the first part of the \"Gorilla City\" storyline would be entitled \"Attack on Gorilla City\" and would be written by Aaron Helbing and David Kob from a story by Andrew Kreisberg. The second part, \"Attack on Central City\", would be written by Benjamin Raab and Deric A. Hughes based on a story by Todd Helbing.\nDavid Sobolov, the voice of Grodd, said that the character evolved since he was last seen in season two, which \"makes the plot more interesting\". Sobolov said, \"I have a feeling that when he comes back, he's not going to be very giving or loving to the humans since they all betrayed him\", adding \"They do a great job of writing on [this] show and giving them a more intelligent gorilla gives them more possibilities\". Carlos Valdes called the episodes' tone \"one of fear, because when you suddenly find yourself in the cold African jungles of Earth-2 and you hear the sound of omnipresent gorillas roaring at you, it kind of makes you shake in your boots\".\nMain cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh and Jesse L. Martin appear in the episodes as Barry Allen / Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, H.R. Wells and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh also plays Harry Wells from Earth-2. The guest cast for the episodes includes Tom Felton as Julian Albert, Violett Beane as Jesse Chambers Wells / Jesse Quick and Jessica Camacho as Gypsy; all are recurring characters in the series. In January 2017, Keith David was cast to voice Solovar, a longtime ally of the Flash in DC Comics and the leader of Gorilla City. David Sobolov confirmed his return as the voice of Grodd. In \"Attack on Central City\", Sean Poague appears as Accelerated Man, a Speed Force Conduit and Earth-19's version of the Flash, and Paul Jarrett was General McNally; both received co-starring credit.\nThe episodes were filmed from December 2016 to January 18, 2017. Automated dialogue replacement took place in post-production at the beginning of February. Both episodes were directed by Dermott Daniel Downs, who directed the previous two Grodd-centric episodes \"Grodd Lives\" and \"Gorilla Warfare\". A placeholder for Grodd was used on-set to give the actors someone to react to, and Sobolov could see (and react to) their performances. Due to snow in Vancouver, filming of the \"Gorilla City\" scenes had to be moved south of the original site. Visual effects for both episodes were handled by Encore Post. According to post-production producer Jeff Garrett, episodes with Grodd cost 50 percent more than other Flash episodes.\nThe first part \"Attack on Gorilla City\" aired on February 21, 2017, and concluded with part two \"Attack on Central City\" on February 28, both on The CW. The event was simulcast with the US broadcast in Canada on CTV for the first part, after which the series moved to CTV Two for the second part and the rest of the season. Both episodes, along with the rest of \"The Flash\"' s third season, will be released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 5, 2017, including a behind-the-scenes featurette about the episodes. On May 31, 2017, the episodes became available for streaming on Netflix, along with the rest of the third season.\nScott Von Doviak of \"The A.V. Club\" wrote, \"The two-part Gorilla City adventure serves as a showcase for ambition outstripping budget and ingenuity. Berlanti and company clearly want to deliver on the goofy anything-goes appeal of DC’s Silver Age, and it’s to their credit that they keep trying to pull off these fan-friendly events. It’s a hit-and-miss proposition: for every giddy success, like the first visit to Earth-2, there’s a clunky outing like this one, where the limitations of weekly television are laid bare. Still, I’d never want the creative team to stop swinging for the fences, even if the result is a harmless pop-up to the infield\". Vinnie Mancuso of the \"New York Observer\" said that \"'Gorilla City' was some of the most fun TV in a long time ... This two-part tale of a psychic gorilla gone rogue isn’t going to win any Emmys—not even the CGI is that good—but it was a blast to experience\". Mancuso described it as \"somehow a perfect example of both High Art and Low Art. It was Exact Middle Art\".\nJesse Schedeen of IGN rated \"Attack on Central City\" 8.4 out of 10, saying that the episode \"didn't quite reach the heights of last year's \"Welcome to Earth-2\"\" but the episode \"was hardly lacking in entertainment value\" with \"plenty of CG gorilla goodness\" even if it was obvious \"where the crew was cutting corners\". He enjoyed the \"heavy dose of Harrison Wells and [the] new wrinkles to Barry's ongoing 'fight the future' mission\". Von Doviak graded the episode B+, saying that it \"was never going to deliver the full-on comic book version of the title location, so it's pointless to gripe about the weekly version of \"The Flash\" not having the budget of a \"Planet of the Apes\" movie. The closest it comes is the closing scene, with Grodd and his troops clad in full battle armor, having found a way to invade Central City after all. The story has not yet been fully told, and we’ll have to wait until next week to find out exactly how much ape mayhem this show is really prepared to deliver ... The episode has enough going for it that it's easy to forgive some of the visual shortcomings\".\nChancellor Agard of \"Entertainment Weekly\" also graded the episode B+, saying that it \"might not have been the most dramatic episode, since it was part one of a two-parter, it was still a very entertaining hour that benefited a lot from the change in scenery ... The trip to Earth-2 infuses The Flash with a level of suspense that's been missing for awhile, and it's clear from director Dermott Downs' many sweeping shots of the completely CGI'd Gorilla City that he's relishing the opportunity to transport viewers to this part of the DC Universe ... The Flash's battle against Solivar pushes the show's special effects budget to the limits. That being said, it doesn't make the fight any less entertaining\". Carla Day of Collider.com gave the episode four stars out of five, calling it \"a promising start\": \"Overall Grodd's plan was one of the strongest aspects of the episode and sets up next week's major gorilla vs. human battle on Earth-1. The letdown was the lack of intelligence shown by Team Flash at times ... The fight between Solovar and The Flash was impressive, especially for a CW show, as the stadium visuals reflected the epic scope of the event for Gorilla City\". Erik Kain of \"Forbes\" said that the episode \"was a lot of fun, with one of the best CGI fight scenes we've seen yet from the superhero show\". He praised the \"impressive fight scene\": \"For a TV show, the CGI was really pretty incredible ... [and] was a really entertaining fight\". He was \"less fond of the Wally/Jesse scenes\", noting that Team Flash had become \"too big\" and \"the show [felt] increasingly crowded\".\nGiving \"Attack on Central City\" 8.5 out of 10, Schedeen said: \"\"The Flash\" wrapped up an ambitious two-part storyline in fine form this week. Once again the show was forced to rely on Gorilla Grodd and his gorilla army sparingly, but the final showdown between Grodd and Solovar offered a truly epic finish to the conflict. And along the way, there was plenty of amusing character drama and a subtle focus on the growing pressure Barry faces as he tries to protect Iris\". Von Doviak graded the episode B-, calling it \"another downbeat, self-serious exploration of team dynamics and speedster soul-searching\"; \"the promised gorilla invasion of Central City plays more like Waiting For Grodd-o for most of\" the episode. He added, \"The slugfest between Grodd and Solovar up and down the side of a skyscraper plays a bit like a cut scene from a King Kong video game, but it comes as a relief after the largely action-free episode leading up to it\".\nAgard said that \"Attack on Central City\" wasn't \"as exhilarating\" as the first episode. However, he felt that it \"did a pretty good job of picking up the threads of part one, particularly when it came to the importance of hope. It's been a while since the show has embraced the optimism of its premise, so it was nice to see both Barry and Gyspy step up to the plate. Furthermore, I loved Harry and H.R.'s interactions, as Harry spent the entire episode reminding H.R. that he wasn't a genius. There was something weird about Tom Cavanagh's portrayal of Harry, who was grumpier than usual, but that's a quibble. Cavanagh is one of the show's best assets, and he makes H.R. work through sheer force of will\". Agard gave the episode a B grade. Collider.com's Evan Valentine said that the episode \"was an extremely solid episode of the Flash, one of the better installments of the season in fact. It managed to play well on the series strength, though it was also hampered by some pacing issues ... \"Attack on Central City\" was certainly ambitious. Dedicating an episode to the Flash team dealing with an army of sentient, super-powered apes from an alternate reality is a storyline that you'd expect from a comic book, but not so much from a prime time television show. Understandably, the show's budget didn't allow for the entire episode to be devoted to Flash fighting a telepathic gorilla twice his size, but thanks to the strength of the characters, we're able to forget about the special effect shenanigans and focus on the interactions they all have with one another\". He gave the episode four stars out of five, praising \"the 'balls to the wall' method that the creators have taken in attempting to bring a comic book to life here\".\n","Johnny Quick (Johnny Chambers)\nJohnny Quick is a Golden Age DC Comics character with the power of superhuman speed. He was a superhero who appeared mostly in \"More Fun Comics\" during the Golden Age. In the 1980s Johnny Quick's adventures were reconnected into the reality of DC Comics' Earth-Two; this was done in the pages of the comic book the \"All-Star Squadron\".\nJohnny Quick is in truth Mr. Johnny Chambers, a newsreel photographer for Sees-All/Tells-All News. He invokes his power by reciting a mathematical formula (\"3X2(9YZ)4A\") taught to him by his childhood guardian, Professor Gill, who had in turn derived it from inscriptions found in a Pharaoh's tomb. After learning the secret to gaining superhuman speed, Johnny chooses to work as a mystery-man.\nIn 1941 Johnny Chambers puts on his scarlet uniform for the first time. He works alone at first and then gains the help of his friend and newsreel assistant Tubby Watts. December of that same year, however, proves a turning point in Johnny’s life. While on assignment in Los Angeles, California, he is one of the last people to see the Flash before that mystery-man’s kidnapping at the behest of the time-travelling villain Per Degaton. Due to the time paradoxes inherent in Dr. Zee’s 1947 technology, the events of that first week of December, any and all which surround the villain’s intrusion from the future, become undone to one extent or another when Degaton returns to the future. Though Johnny Chambers loses his memory of the details of that week (along with the other heroes and Degaton himself), in the end he goes from lone mystery-man to member of President Roosevelt’s All-Star Squadron.\nThat pivotal adventure began with Johnny following the trail of the disappearing JSA members. He makes his way to Washington, D.C. and encounters, for the first time, Miss Libby Lawrence. As Johnny Quick he meets Liberty Belle, Plastic Man, Dr. Mid-Nite, the Hawkman, Robotman, and the Atom, and with these heroes meets with President Roosevelt. They are told of the Japanese attack on the American Fleet at Pearl Harbor. President Roosevelt announces to this handful his desire that the Justice Society of America mobilize all American costumed heroes into a single unit, an All-Star Squadron, responsible directly to the President. Their first mission is to fly to the west coast and search out any saboteurs and hopefully prevent any Japanese attack on the US mainland. (\"All-Star Squadron\" 1, 9.1981)\nThat very same day Johnny helps save San Francisco as well as the town of Monterey from Degaton’s hypnotized Japanese pilots and their fearsome Zeroes. He also helps his comrades while in Degaton’s super-submarine (before it winked out of existence). (\"All-Star Squadron\" 2-3, 1981). The assembled heroes then use their unique powers to travel to Hawaii and see the terrible consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor. They also see firsthand the supernatural effects of the Spear of Destiny and Holy Grail, and learn that even \"super\" men can become manipulated by magic. The Axis now has an invisible barrier about their tactical fronts that will snare any magical mystery-man and cause them to fight for tyranny. (\"All-Star Squadron\" 4, 1982)\nAs for Johnny and Libby, from their first meeting the tension between them is evident as they immediately enter into a flirtatious relationship. The relationship endures many hardships in the next few months especially when Libby takes on responsibilities as Chairwoman of the Squadron after being voted in by secret ballot, but nonetheless the relationship perseveres and the two wed on April 1, 1942.\nIn those first few months of the All-Stars Johnny and the Squadron are actively involved with President Roosevelt and the visiting Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill. Johnny not only protects Churchill from Nazis, the super-Nazi called Baron Blitzkrieg, and from brain-washed POWs (in the form of Commander Steel), he too saves the Statue of Liberty and the National Monument from attacks by Nazi sympathizers. He also travels to the Yucatán, Mexico, in the days before Christmas in order to help Carter Hall rescue his fiancee Miss Shiera Sanders. There, too, they fight Nazis and Mexican Nazi sympathizers. (\"All-Star Squadron\" 5-9, 1982)\nEarly January finds Johnny present when an eye-shaped craft flies over Washington D.C. From it there materializes a tall being who claims to be Akhet, an alien and representative of the space-faring Binary Brotherhood. This is all a trick orchestrated by Hath-Set (in his reincarnated identity of Dr. Anton Hastor). This \"alien\" and alien ship appear over various cities and locations the world over and the message is always the same: \"All Earth’s nations must surrender to Akhet, as emissary of the Brotherhood. All who resist will be obliterated\". For a brief moment in the history of the terrible World War, all the leaders become united against a common threat. Hitler, Mussolini, and Tojo all send word to Roosevelt and Churchill that they are ready to join in common defense against the alien. This union never comes about, however, for various heroes of the All-Star Squadron are able to discover the deception and defeat Hath-Set. (\"All-Star Squadron\" 10-12, 1982)\nIn early February the members of the disbanded JSA are missing...again. An emergency meeting of the All-Stars is called and the Tarantula is invited for the first time. The meeting is interrupted by an attack by a crazed 'Fairytales' Fenton and after he is dealt with, the All-Stars head over to the grounds of the 1939 New York World's Fair where a mysterious threat is being broadcast in Morse Code. This results in the All-Stars meeting, for the first time in combat, the Brain Wave. Within the Perisphere the group find the comatose bodies of the JSAers and are given an ultimatum – enter into the dream world crafted by the villain and save the heroes from within, or else be killed. Johnny and company enter into the dreamscape but they fail as quickly as did the JSAers. Only the timely intervention of the Green Lantern saves the heroes and destroys the dream machine. After Brain Wave’s defeat the group chooses the Perisphere and Trylon as their new HQ. (\"All-Star Squadron\" 18-21, 1983)\nThis adventure quickly leads into the next as Johnny finds himself with Danette Reilly when they are attacked by the man calling himself the Cyclotron, but Johnny can't keep Danette from being kidnapped. He joins with Robotman and Commander Steel and soon they discover that the Cyclotron is only a minion of the Ultra-Humanite. After yet another battle, Robotman is taken captive. In his civilian identity, Johnny is present at the \"Carole Lombard Memorial War Bond Drive\" in Manhattan. It just so happens that that is the site of the Ultra-Humanite’s next attack. Though he saves numerous lives, he also suffers grave injuries and is taken to the hospital. After leaving the hospital early, he makes his way to the Perisphere and meets up with a small group of mystery-men, including the Flash. The All-Stars have already traveled to three separate cities in danger of disaster at the hands of the Ultra-Humanite: Brooklyn, Detroit, Los Angeles, and suffered various defeats. Johnny joins with the groups and together they defeat the villain.\nDuring the War Johnny meets other speedsters, the Flash and Quicksilver (Max Mercury). Quicksilver becomes a mentor for Johnny, though the hotheaded Johnny does not always take his advice easily. In 1948 Quicksilver disappears and in the 1950s Johnny retires (for the most part) as a mystery-man. In the 1960s, however, Quicksilver reappears and saves Johnny from Savitar. The two together fight the villain with Quicksilver and Savitar disappearing in a flash of light and neither reappearing for decades. Johnny, for his part, rarely puts on his speedster’s uniform after that and concentrates on other aspects of his life.\nIn the 1950s, after committing to retirement, Johnny begins research on the formula that unlocks his speed. Quicksilver had told him that the formula was merely his way of tapping into the other-dimensional power known as the Speed Force. Scientists balk at the idea that the formula gives him power, and theorize that the power was genetic. Neither theory convinces Johnny, and he seeks his conclusions in the mystic arts, seeing the formula as a mantra, unlocking his potential.\nThis theory had an effect on Johnny, as he began lecturing at universities and delivering seminars, trying to preach this newfound philosophy to the world. To achieve this goal he founded Quickstart Enterprises, which created and endorsed products of potential-unlocking quality, as well as videotapes of Johnny's lectures. This led to his wife, Libby, leaving him, embarrassed.\nThanks to his abilities, Johnny's age was retarded, keeping his appearance younger and vigorous, despite his true age. After the Justice Society of America returned following a long absence, Johnny assisted them occasionally. Together with the Justice Society, Johnny would face the villain Extant during the time-event known as Zero Hour. Like the other heroes present, Johnny was aged considerably by the villain. Though he was now much older physically, he did not relinquish his hero-ing activities, and together with his daughter (now calling herself Jesse Quick) helped train the time-displaced Impulse.\nSome time afterwards, Johnny meets with Iris Allen, widow of Barry Allen, who warns him that trouble was forthcoming for users of the Speed Force. Johnny refuses to believe his power was not his own, till moments later he finds himself without his speed, thanks to the manipulations of the returned Savitar. Johnny is grudgingly forced to accept the Speed Force's existence.\nIn the final battle with Savitar, Johnny Quick sacrifices himself to save his daughter's life and runs into the Speed Force, merging with it. In \"Infinite Crisis\" #4, he assists Max Mercury and Bart Allen in confining the murderous Superboy-Prime by taking the villain into and past the Speed Force.\nDue to Professor Zoom's , Johnny Quick is later seen by his daughter, Jesse and her husband, the current Hourman begging Barry Allen to spare Jesse's life. It's then revealed that Professor Zoom altered the Speed Force and Barry to make the Silver Age Flash \"shift in reverse\", and cursed to kill every Speed Force user with a single touch. Zoom forces Johnny into touching Barry, making the former decay and crumble to dust in mere seconds. His daughter Jesse taking the mantle of Johnny's costume with Wally West uses his connection to the Speed Force to rejuvenate the speedsters and, in the process, repair Jesse's suits.\nIn the solicited tie-in \"Blackest Night\" storyline, Johnny was reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps. The scene where Liberty Belle is found by her father, Johnny Quick, who claims that Jesse's love for her father was the reason he came back. Jesse says that she has a uniform like his and quickly changes into it by reciting the mathematical formula that her father originally used and calls herself Jesse Quick. The two speedsters then run off. While, across the globe, Jesse Quick is running with her father Black Lantern Johnny Quick trying to enjoy the time she's spending with her father, while thinking that she must be with her husband, the modern-day Hourman. Jesse continues to run with her father, remembering her childhood memories of when they used to jog together around their neighborhood and Johnny would let her win, feeling thankful that she was able to spend only a few moments. Mr. Terrific had managed to create a one-time use machine which destroys all the Black Lanterns in New York city, Johnny included.\nJohnny Chambers had as his trusty assistant and confidant Tubby Watts (also of See-All-Tell-All News). He worked with, romanced and married Libby Lawrence aka Liberty Belle, and he also worked with all the members of the Wartime All-Star Squadron. During his time with the Squadron, Johnny met the members of the JSA and developed a strong but friendly rivalry with Jay Garrick, the first Flash.\nJohnny Quick reappeared briefly during the Infinite Crisis storyline with Max Mercury and Barry Allen to assist Bart Allen (the second Kid Flash) wrestle Superboy-Prime into the Speed Force.\n","Kid Flash\nKid Flash is the name of several fictional characters appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, originally created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, as a junior counterpart to DC Comics superhero The Flash. The first version of the character, Wally West, debuted in \"The Flash\" (vol. 1) #110 (1959). The character, along with others like the first Wonder Girl, Aqualad, and Speedy, was created in response to the success of Batman's young sidekick Robin. These young heroes would later be spun off into their own superhero team, the Teen Titans. As Kid Flash, Wally West made regular appearances in Flash related comic books and other DC Comics publications from 1959 through the mid-1980s until the character was reinvented as the new version of The Flash.\nLater, well after Wally West had made a name for himself as the new Flash, the character of Bart Allen, grandson of the second Flash Barry Allen, was brought into the past from his home in the future and served as the young hero Impulse. In 2003, with writer Geoff Johns' relaunch of a new \"Young justice\" volume, Bart donned the mantle of Kid Flash after being nearly killed by the assassin Deathstroke. As Kid Flash, Bart appeared in \"Teen Titans\" and \"The Flash\" (vol. 2) regularly until the \"Infinite Crisis\" event, where a disappearance of Wally West made Bart the fourth Flash. Apparently killed by the Rogues, Bart was resurrected in the 31st century by Legion of Super-Heroes member Brainiac 5 and retook the mantle of Kid Flash. Following a 2011 reboot, DC introduced a new interpretation of Wally West as its latest Kid Flash in 2014, later established as being the original Wally's younger cousin.\nOutside of Iris West, Kid Flash was the first person to whom Flash revealed the secret of his double-identity (\"Flash\" #120, May, 1961). In that story, the two speedsters were inadvertently thrown 25 million years into the past, where they battled a race of golden humanoids. It was only the first of many time-trips for the pair, who teamed up next to try out Flash's Cosmic Treadmill.\nShortly after meeting Flash's friend Elongated Man, Kid Flash received his own unique uniform. The Flash, who had been toying with a new design for Wally, was inspecting an alien mind over-matter machine when, in a burst of light, the new costume sprang from his mind and onto the body of his protégé. Since the new outfit exposed Wally's bright red hair, Flash provided his costume-storage ring with a special instant-dye spray with which he could easily change his hair color, as Wally, to brown.\nThe boy speedster first met Robin and Aqualad in \"The Brave and the Bold\" #54 (June–July, 1964), in an adventure that would predicate the formation of the Teen Titans shortly thereafter. Kid Flash remained a member in good standing of that team, though his participation limited his involvement in solo adventures considerably. At 18 Wally revealed his alter-ego to his parents Bob and Mary for the first time, chose his university (Taggart), and confided to the Flash his intentions to retire from super-heroing upon graduation from college so that he might live a normal life.\nAs it happened, he left his crime-fighting career behind even before that, when he retired from the third incarnation of the Teen Titans for personal reasons, including a desire to devote more time to studying, to his new girlfriend Frances Kane, and because, as a result of his changing metabolism, he was beginning to lose his powers.\nKid Flash came out of retirement to fight in the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\", and was hit harder than anyone when the heroes found Flash's costume and ring and realized that their compatriot was dead. However, even though a blast from the Anti-Monitor reduced Wally's top speed to that of sound, it cured him of his metabolic malady. This, combined with the desire to honor his mentor and friend, caused Wally West to discard his Kid Flash identity and, instead, adopt the name and costume of Flash. However, after fully accepting that Barry was not returning, West removed a mental block, unlocking his true powers. This made him just as fast as Barry Allen and at one point, even faster. He also acquired unique abilities such as sharing and stealing speed, and accessing the speed force itself, allowing time travel. When it was eventually discovered that Barry Allen was, in fact, alive, Wally took on his own version of the Flash costume, fighting alongside Barry Allen, Bart Allen (Impulse or for a time Kid Flash).\nIris West is the Kid Flash that originally appeared in \"Kingdom Come\", a story set in the \"near\" future of the DC Universe. While this story has been treated as a separate continuity from the main DC Universe, versions of the character have been featured in time travel and Hypertime related stories.\nBart, the child from the future known as the hero Impulse, After Max Mercury disappeared in the timestream, Bart took up residence in Keystone City with Jay Garrick, the original Flash, and Jay's wife Joan.\nWhen a mysterious android from the future known as Indigo attacked the Titans and Young Justice, it resulted in the apparent deaths of Donna Troy and Omen. At Donna's funeral, Nightwing disbanded the Titans. The members of Young Justice, especially Wonder Girl, felt responsible for the tragic deaths. This led Wonder Girl, Robin, Impulse and Superboy to form a new group of Teen Titans under the guidance of the more experienced Cyborg, Starfire and Beast Boy. Despite Wally West's misgivings, Bart accepted an invitation to join the new Teen Titans.\nBart was later injured when Deathstroke put a shotgun to his leg. Thankfully, his accelerated healing enabled a handful of surgeons to replace his kneecap with an artificial one, and Bart was back on his feet in a matter of hours, but the effects of this encounter were much more than physical. Feeling unsure and tired of being underestimated, Bart went to the local public library and read every single book in the building. He retained that knowledge and balanced it with lack of experience. With a renewed sense of confidence, Bart left his impulsive rep behind and returned to the team as Kid Flash.\nWhen Superboy-Prime ran amok during the \"Infinite Crisis\", Kid Flash and the super-speedsters raced to stop his rampage. While running to subdue the deranged Teen of Steel, Wally West disappeared in a burst of lightning (later to return). Meanwhile, the speedsters' combined might defeated Superboy-Prime, but severed their connection to the Speed Force in the process. Bart returned to warn the heroes of Superboy-Prime's escape. But while mere moments had passed in the present, Bart returned from his time-bending journey four years older. Bart handed his grandfather's costume to Jay Garrick, claiming he used up all his speed powers during the final battle.\nBart still had his powers, but faced with the guilt over Superboy-Prime's escape, he initially decided to retire his costume. He took a job as a factory worker in Keystone City, but soon realized he must use his abilities to protect innocents. Although Bart found new challenges in harnessing the speed force, he accepted his destiny as the latest Flash in the Allen family tradition. In his efforts to tame the speed force inside him, Bart turned to S.T.A.R. Labs intern, Valerie Perez, and their relationship quickly blossomed into a full-blown romance.\nOnce accepting the mantle of the Flash, Bart moved to Los Angeles, California and enrolled in the Police Academy. Robin asked him to join the Titans but Bart declined, saying he’d rather work towards membership in the Justice League of America. Shortly after resuming the mantle, Iris Allen warned Bart that if he fought the newly formed league of Rogues, he would not survive. Inertia, in a plan to steal the speed force energy for himself, manipulated the Rogues into battle with Bart. As a depowered Bart fought valiantly against the combined might of the Rogues, he saw the spectre of the Black Flash, and died as Iris Allen and Valerie Perez were left to mourn him.\nLater on New Earth, during the \"Final Crisis\" storyline, Superman was called to the thirty-first century to assist the Legion of Super-Heroes in fending off Superboy-Prime, who was thrown to the future in the aftermath of the destruction of Earth-51 and the \"Sinestro Corps War\". Prime, raging about his minor place in history as a Superman rival, released the entire Legion of Super-Villains from the prison planet Takron-Galtos and waged war on Earth and the Legion. In response to this, Brainiac 5 summoned the Legions of Three Worlds (alternate earths) to combat Prime's forces. Revealing that the Legion had captured \"living lightning\" in the Legion's last trip to present Earth in \"The Lightning Saga\", Brainiac 5 had Legionnaire XS run on the cosmic treadmill while the three Lightning Lads activated the \"lightning rod\" to release the living lightning. Although he tried to stop them, Superboy-Prime was unable to stop the lightning from being unleashed. A fully formed alive-and-well Bart Allen, in his Kid Flash uniform, appeared before him.\nWhen the New 52 universe began, the Kid Flash working with the Titans was known as Bart Allen. He ended up with a different backstory, and eventually was written out of the storyline. He was later replaced as Kid Flash by the New 52 version of Wally West.\nWally West II is the third and current Kid Flash of the main DC Comics Universe. He first appeared in \"The Flash Annual\" (Vol. 4) #3. He is the son of the fifth Reverse Flash, Daniel West, and cousin of the first Kid Flash and third Flash, Wally West.\n","Sport bike\nA sportbike, or sports bike, is a motorcycle optimized for speed, acceleration, braking, and cornering on paved roads, typically at the expense of comfort and fuel economy by comparison with other motorcycles. Soichiro Honda wrote in the owner's manual of the 1959 Honda CB92 Benly Super Sport that, \"Primarily, essentials of the motorcycle consists in the speed and the thrill,\" while \"Cycle World's\" Kevin Cameron says that, \"A sportbike is a motorcycle whose enjoyment consists mainly from its ability to perform on all types of paved highway – its cornering ability, its handling, its thrilling acceleration and braking power, even (dare I say it?) its speed.\"\nMotorcycles are versatile and may be put to many uses as the rider sees fit. In the past there were few if any specialized types of motorcycles, but the number of types and sub-types has proliferated, particularly in the period since the 1950s. The introduction of the Honda CB750 in 1969 marked a dramatic increase in the power and speed of practical and affordable sport bikes available to the general public. This was followed in the 1970s by improvements in suspension and braking commensurate with the power of the large inline fours that had begun to dominate the sport bike world. In the 1980s sport bikes again took a leap ahead, becoming almost indistinguishable from racing motorcycles. Since the 1990s sport bikes have become more diverse, adding new variations like the naked bike and streetfighter to the more familiar road racing style of sport bike.\nWith the emphasis of a sport bike being on speed, acceleration, braking, and maneuverability, there are certain design elements that most motorcycles of this type will share. Rider ergonomics favor function. This generally means higher foot pegs that move the legs closer to the body and more of a reach to a lower set of hand controls, such as clip on handlebars, which positions the body and weight forward and over the tank. Sport bikes have comparatively high-performance engines resting inside a lightweight frame. High tech and expensive materials are often used on sport bikes to reduce weight.\nBraking systems combine higher performance brake pads and disc brakes with multi-piston calipers that clamp onto oversized vented rotors. Suspension systems are advanced in terms of adjustments and materials for increased stability and durability. Front and rear tires are larger and wider than tires found on other types of motorcycles to allow higher cornering speeds and greater lean angles. Fairings may or may not be used on a sport bike; when used, fairings are shaped to reduce aerodynamic drag as much as possible and provide wind protection for the rider.\nThe combination of rider position, location of the engine and other heavy components, and the motorcycle's geometry help maintain structural integrity and chassis rigidity, and determine how it will behave under acceleration, braking, and cornering. Correct front-to-rear weight distribution is of particular importance to the handling of sport bikes, and the changing position of the rider's body dynamically changes the handling of the motorcycle. Because of the complexity of modeling all the possible movements of different sized riders, to approach perfect tuning of a motorcycle's weight distribution and suspension is often only possible by having a bike customized or at least adjusted to fit a specific rider. Generally, road racing style sport bikes have shorter wheelbases than those intended for more comfortable touring, and the current trend in sport bike design is towards shorter wheelbases, giving quicker turning at the expense of a greater tendency for unintentional wheelies and stoppies under hard acceleration and braking, respectively.\nThere is no universal authority defining the terminology of sport bikes or any other motorcycle classes. Legal definitions are limited by local jurisdiction, and race sanctioning bodies like the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) and the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) set rules that only apply to those who choose to participate in their competitions. Nonetheless, by present day standards in Europe, North America and the rest of the developed world, sport bikes are usually divided into three, four, or five rough categories, reflecting vaguely similar engine displacement, horsepower, price and intended use, with a good measure of subjective opinion and simplification. Marketing messages about a model from the manufacturer can diverge from the consensus of the motorcycling media and the public. Sometimes the classes used in motorcycle racing are approximated in production models, often but not always in connection with homologation.\nThe sport bike classes in common usage are:\nThe terms supersport and superbike are sometimes applied indiscriminately to all high-performance motorcycles. Categorization by engine displacement alone is a crude measure, particularly when comparing engines with different numbers of cylinders like inline or V fours with parallel and V twins, not to mention the greater power for a given displacement of two-stroke engines over four strokes.\nIn the less developed world, smaller engine sizes are the norm, and relative terms like small, mid-sized and large displacement can have different meanings. For example, in India in 2002 there were about 37 million two-wheelers, but as of 2008, there were only about 3,000 motorcycles, or fewer than one in 12,000, of displacement 1000 cc or more. Similarly, the perception of relative sizes has shifted over time in developed countries, from smaller to larger displacements. When the original superbike, the Honda CB750, appeared in 1969, it was called a \"big four,\" while today an inline four of 736.5 cc would be classed in the middle range.\nBesides having product lines that span from entry level through high end sport bikes, many manufacturers add depth to that line by having pairs, or several pairs, of similar sport bikes aimed at riders of different levels. These are designed to appeal to riders seeking more or less extreme performance features. The more expensive model will be in the vein of a race replica, offering the latest technology updated with frequent design revisions, while the lower cost model typically relies on older technology, can have a more relaxed riding position, and is generally more practical for non-road racing tasks such as urban commuting and carrying passengers or baggage, and offering lower fuel, insurance and maintenance costs. Examples of these paired models are Buell's Firebolt and Lightning, Ducati's 916/748 through 1198/848 paired series, Honda's CBR600RR and F4i middleweights and RC51 and CBR1000RR liter-class, several different concurrent models in Kawasaki's Ninja line, and Yamaha's R6 and 600R.\nSport touring motorcycles share many features of sport bikes, but they are generally considered a class all their own. These are mid- to large-sized motorcycles that offer more carrying capacity, more relaxed ergonomics, and more versatility than specialized sport bikes, while being lighter and more agile than touring motorcycles. Some sport bikes are marketed as race replicas, implying that the model sold to the public is identical to the one used in racing, or at least is closer to the racing version than non-replica models. Suffixes \"R\" or \"RR\" applied to model codes can be interpreted as standing for replica or race replica.\n\"Race Replica\" was used in the late 1970s UK where 250 cc models customized with full bodykits providing race-styling in factory team colors themed to the top-level of sponsored riders of the time were available marketed towards 'learner' riders who had not passed a driving test enabling their progression to large-capacity machines. In 1982 Yamaha described their 1983 RD350 YPVS launched at the Cologne motorcycle show as \"the nearest thing to a road going racer ever produced\".\nThe term race replica was then also used to distinguish the period of sport bike production from Japan and Europe since the mid-1980s having integrated race-styled bodywork, representing an evolution from the superbike period that began in 1969. The sport bike, or race replica, era began with the 1983 Suzuki RG250 Gamma, the 1984 Honda VF750F and the 1985 Suzuki GSX-R750, and had full fairings. Sport bikes with small or no fairings have proliferated since the mid-1990s. These are called naked bikes or streetfighters, and they retain many of the performance features of other sport bikes, but besides abbreviated bodywork, they give the rider a more upright posture by using, for example, higher handlebars instead of clip ons. The streetfighter name, associated with motorcycle stunt riding and perhaps hooliganism on public roads, can imply higher performance than the sometimes more tame naked bike, which in some cases is a synonym for a standard motorcycle. Others define naked bikes as equal in power and performance to sport bikes, merely absent the bodywork.\nThe same period that saw the naked and streetfighter variants of the sport bike theme also had a resurgence of the versatile standard in response to demand for a return of the Universal Japanese Motorcycle. Supermoto-style street bikes, constructed with a completely different set of priorities than a road racing style sport bike, have also entered the mainstream, offering another option for riders seeking a spirited riding experience. The nickname muscle bike has been applied to sport bikes that give engine output a disproportionate priority over braking, handling or aerodynamics, harking back to the Japanese superbikes of the 1970s. A similar sensibility drives the so-called power cruiser motorcycles, based on cruiser class machines but with horsepower numbers in league with superbikes.","Silver Streak (comics)\nSilver Streak is a fictional superhero character created by Joe Simon that first appeared in \"Silver Streak Comics\" #3 (cover-dated March 1940), from Lev Gleason Publications. He is believed to be the second-ever comic book superhero whose primary power is speed; All-American Publications' The Flash preceded him by two months. However, Silver Streak beat out National Allied Publications' Johnny Quick (who debuted in 1941) as the first superhero whose two powers were speed and flight. Silver Streak has a kid sidekick called \"Mercury\" (soon changed to \"Meteor\"); he is also assisted by a hawk named \"Whiz\".\n\"Silver Streak Comics\" was originally published by Arthur Bernhardt’s Rhoda Publications, and the title was inspired by Bernhardt's car, a Pontiac Silver Streak. With issue #3, the title was taken over by Lev Gleason Publications and Silver Streak himself first appeared.\nSilver Streak appeared in \"Silver Streak Comics\" until issue #19 (March 1942); the title itself ended with #22, and was renamed \"Crime Does Not Pay\". Also during this run, Silver Streak appeared in Lev Gleason's \"Daredevil\" #1.\nIn 1945, Silver Streak appeared in the one and only issue of \"Dime Comics\", and then in the 23rd and final issue of the briefly revived \"Silver Streak Comics\". Since then, this character has fallen into the public domain. In 2008, he appeared in issue #141 of \"The Savage Dragon\", along with a score of other Golden Age heroes.\nIn 2008, Silver Streak appeared in flashbacks in issue #0 of Dynamite Entertainment’s \"Project Superpowers\", a title that uses mostly public domain Golden Age characters. In the one-shot \"Project Superpowers: Chapter Two Prelude\". He later appeared in the related Dynamite miniseries \"The Death-Defying ’Devil\".\nEditor Erik Larsen's \"Next Issue Project\" (Image Comics) published \"Silver Streak Comics\" \"#24\" (Dec. 2009). Silver Streak = appeared in one story, written and illustrated by Paul Grist.\nIn 1940, a taxicab driver (name unknown) was hypnotized by a mysterious swami (name unknown) into working for him as a race car driver; all of the swami’s previous drivers had been killed by giant insects, sent by a mad scientist named Dr. Katan. The cab driver was killed as well, but the swami used his mystical powers to bring him back to life, after which he gave the resurrected driver an injection of a “secret fluid” that gave him super-speed and the power of flight. Motivated by a strong desire to make the world a better place, he donned a colorful costume and fought against crime, Nazi spies, and The Claw, calling himself “Silver Streak” after the race car he was killed in. He had changed costumes a few times over the years, but one detail that remained constant was the arrowhead-shaped emblem on his chest with the shape-fitting “SS” inside it. (Curiously, most of his costumes had no silver coloring anywhere on them.)\nHe later learned that anyone who receives a transfusion of his blood gains super-speed; he gave this gift to a pet hawk named Whiz, and to a kid sidekick named Mickey O’Toole who first called himself \"Mercury\" but quickly changed it to \"Meteor.\"\nIn \"Silver Streak Comics\" #5 (June, 1940), Jack Cole, who by this time was writing and drawing the character's adventures, directly addressed the readers and explained the hero’s motivations:\nAt some point after World War II, Silver Streak and other heroes were imprisoned in the mystical Urn of Pandora by the misguided Fighting Yank. Decades later the Urn was broken and the heroes released; Silver Streak emerged (wearing a red and silver costume similar to his original one) just in time to aid his former ally The Death-Defying ’Devil against a terrorist attack. Exactly what part this hero will play in the modern world remains to be seen.\nThe Metahuman Press serial \"Living Legends\" has introduced a new version of Silver Streak. This character is an Asian female, native to the fictional city of Riccapoor, home of The Claw.","Speedster (fiction)\nA speedster is a superhero whose powers primarily relate to super-speed. Primary abilities shared by all speedsters include running at speeds far in excess of human capability (to varying degrees) and resistance to the side effects (air resistance, inability to breathe, dynamic shock resulting from contact with objects at high speed, etc.) that result from such velocity. In almost all cases, speedsters are able to physically attack opponents by striking them while at high speed to impart huge amounts of kinetic energy without suffering harm, although this has on rare occasion been lampshaded by characters discovering that they cannot do this and suffering severe injury from the attempt. A variety of other powers have been attributed to speedsters depending on the story, the origin of the power, and the established continuity and rules of a given universe.\nThe use of speedsters in non fiction requires artistic license due to the laws of physics that would prohibit such abilities. Moving at the speed of sound, for example, would create sonic booms that are usually not heard in such stories. An enormous amount of energy would be required to achieve such speeds, and as some speedsters can actually move close to or at the speed of light, this would cause them to gain near-infinite mass, according to the laws of relativity.\nFor example, the \"Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe\" states that the character Nova maintains speeds which can be considered \"modest,\" especially when carrying a passenger. The Handbook also concedes that a solid object moving in the Earth’s atmosphere at one times the speed of several times faster than the speed of sound which would wreak havoc on the planet and that moving at such speeds would prohibit Northstar from breathing, while the generated wind/friction would ravage his body. On the other hand, the Handbook states that the character Quicksilver was born with adaptations that make higher speeds possible, such as enhanced cardiovascular, respiratory, musculature, and digestive systems, a more efficient metabolism, better lubricated joints, tendons with the tensile strength of spring steel, unidentified bone composition that can withstand the dynamic shock of his touching the ground at speeds over 100 miles an hour, and a brain that can process information fast enough for him to react to his surroundings at high speed.\nDC Comics dispenses with such explanations with its Flash family of speedsters, who instead derive their abilities from an extradimensional energy source known as the Speed Force, which not only grants them super speed, but protects them from the ravages that would be suffered by their bodies, and grants them various other related abilities as well. (\"See Speed Force Powers section.\") However, the Speed Force is not the source from which other DC characters with super speed such as Superman or Shazam derive their powers, although Superman is capable of using them without harm.\nWriter John Byrne maintained modest abilities for the speedster character Danny Hilltop in his series \"John Byrne’s Next Men\". Although Danny can keep pace with a race car, the friction generated by his speed melts any footwear he wears, burning his feet. Thus he runs barefoot, having toughened the soles of his feet through a regimen of pounding increasingly harder materials (sand, gravel and then broken rock). The costume he wears has a built-in guidance system.\nOther writers choose not to offer any scientific explanations for the questions raised by the actual use of such abilities.\nComic book writer Peter David, whose run on the series \"Young Justice\" included the junior speedster Impulse, has opined that speedsters are inherently difficult to write, saying:\nSome speedsters may also end up destroying their surroundings or entire astronomical structures around them by their sheer speed alone if they are not careful enough. For example, Saitama from \"One-Punch Man\" accidentally destroyed at least 40% of the Moon when he jumped back to Earth from it within ten seconds during his battle with Boros, after calculating how much force would be required to safely land back, and combined with the fact that Boros confirmed that Saitama was holding back, the latter is indeed capable of travelling faster than light without any harm.\nSome speedsters can emit so much power that they can literally resist time manipulation and attain immeasurable speed (here one always remains above all multiversal time and space, literally surpassing the concept of infinite speed, since this involves moving indefinitely where time is frozen or moving infinite distances instantly via sheer willpower and without teleportation, while having immeasurable speed means moving beyond the concepts of time and space themselves by using the same principles of attaining infinite speed, albeit on a far more powerful level). One such example is in \"Dragon Ball Super\", where Goku uses the Super Saiyan Blue Kaio-Ken x10 in order to resist Hit's Time Stop ability in the Universe 6 Saga.\nSpeedsters in other media include Daphne Millbrook (played by Brea Grant), a character in the NBC television superhero drama \"Heroes\". Daphne first appeared in that series' third season in 2008, initially as a villain.\nIn addition, many characters exist in other media such as film, video games, anime and manga who possess the abilities to perform feats at incredible speeds that exceed the abilities of those around them. Examples include the video game character Sonic the Hedgehog, and the animated cartoon characters Speedy Gonzales, the Road Runner, Morton of \"Horton Hears A Who!\", several Ben 10 Aliens including XLR8, Jetray,and Fasttrack, (and in one case, Pinkie Pie taking on the an alter ego called 'Filisecond') from \"\", Saitama, Speed o' Sound Sonic, Flashy Flash and several other characters of \"One-Punch Man\", Goku, Vegeta, Frieza, Beerus, Whis and practically every single character in the entire \"Dragon Ball\" franchise and Dash Parr of \"The Incredibles\".\nכ","Felicity Smoak\nFelicity Smoak is a <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a> character. Her first appearance was in \"The Fury of Firestorm\" #23 (May 1984), created by writer <a href=\"Gerry%20Conway\">Gerry Conway</a> and artist <a href=\"Rafael%20Kayanan\">Rafael Kayanan</a>. She was originally the manager of a computer software firm who opposed the superhero <a href=\"Firestorm%20%28comics%29\">Firestorm</a> because of his recklessness, eventually becoming the second wife of Edward Raymond and stepmother to Ronnie Raymond, one-half of the integrated dual identity of the superhero.\nA re-imagined <a href=\"Jews\">Jewish</a> version of the character is portrayed by <a href=\"Emily%20Bett%20Rickards\">Emily Bett Rickards</a> in the <a href=\"television%20series\">television series</a> \"<a href=\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\">Arrow</a>\", who later operates under the alias Overwatch, with a similar version of Felicity introduced briefly as <a href=\"the%20New%2052\">the New 52</a> incarnation of the character in \"<a href=\"Green%20Arrow\">Green Arrow</a>\" (vol. 5) #35.\nPortrayed as the supervisor of a New York computer software firm in her 1984 debut appearance, Firestorm first encounters her in the course of one of his battles with a villain, where he inadvertently magnetizes and effectively destroys several of the computers storing the software programs in development. This results in millions of dollars in property damage, which threatens to ruin the software firm and leads to a heated confrontation between Felicity and Firestorm where she threatened to organize a class action lawsuit against him. Felicity would make recurring appearance, often taking an adversarial role against Firestorm and making a point of explaining what the collateral damage of his battles cost her and other civilians. On one occasion, a frustrated Firestorm lashes out against Felicity's confrontational behavior by using his molecular transmutation powers to transform her clothes to soap suds, a tactic he previously used on the supervillain <a href=\"Plastique%20%28comics%29\">Plastique</a>. Humiliated from being rendered nude in public, Felicity retaliates by filing a lawsuit against him.\nAt some point, Felicity develops a romantic relationship with Ed Raymond. She has no idea that Ed's son Ronnie is the other half of Firestorm. When Ronald discovers that Felicity is seeing his father, he is uncertain how to treat her due to their past interactions. Over time, Felicity and Ed fall deeply in love and are married. After the wedding Felicity learns the truth about Ronnie's secret dual identity, but by this point she had forgiven him for his past transgressions and stopped berating him, although she would still insist on reminding him about the importance of using his superpowers in a responsible manner.\nDC Comics rebooted its comic properties in 2011 as part of a relaunch entitled <a href=\"The%20New%2052\">The New 52</a>, which led to the character of Felicity Smoak being brought back in a fashion similar to the version seen on \"Arrow\". The New 52 version of Felicity Smoak is introduced in 2014 in \"Green Arrow\" #35, the first issue of that book to be written by \"Arrow\" showrunner <a href=\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\">Andrew Kreisberg</a>. In #35, she is introduced in an end-of-issue cliffhanger as an assassin out to kill Oliver, but quickly explains that while she is a hacker-for-hire who has \"done questionable things\" in her past, \"leading a hero to his death isn't one of them\", explaining she did not know her target was the Green Arrow when she accepted the job. After proving her hacker credentials by explaining to him that she knows his secret identity, as well as highly specific details from his superhero, personal, professional and family lives, she offers to become a part of his team out of a desire to help him save the city. Surmising that whoever hired her to kill Oliver has extremely evil plans, she teams up with Green Arrow to track down her client's other target, a woman named <a href=\"Mia%20Dearden\">Mia Dearden</a>, who they soon discover is being pursued by the deadly archer <a href=\"Merlyn%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Merlyn</a>.\nLater in the same storyline, Felicity is arrested and placed in a Supermax facility for her many cybercrimes, where she shares a cell with <a href=\"Cheetah%20%28comics%29\">Cheetah</a>; it is established that Felicity had once been hired to <a href=\"doxing\">dox</a> Cheetah, putting the villain and her loved ones in added danger. Oliver saves her from Cheetah with some help from <a href=\"Steve%20Trevor\">Steve Trevor</a> of <a href=\"ARGUS%20%28comics%29\">A.R.G.U.S.</a> Ultimately, Oliver saves Mia from the man pursuing her and her father John King. Oliver also exposes him as a murderer who used bribery and corruption to control Seattle. Felicity is then invited by Trevor to join A.R.G.U.S., but appears to reject his offer in favour of working with Oliver.\nIn an alternate history version of <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a> depicted in \"<a href=\"DC%20Comics%20Bombshells\">DC Comics Bombshells</a>\", a young Felicity and her family were evicted from their house in <a href=\"Gotham%20City\">Gotham City</a> by their landlord because they violated the law by taking care of some relatives, who have fled the horrors of Europe. The landlord tries to take some of their personal belongings, justifying as taking back rent. Felicity argues with him, saying she won't turn her back to her own family. Fortunately, a team of Batgirls come to the rescue, saving the Smoak family and all their belongings. Felicity and her family are later moved to a safe house by the young heroines. Smoak eventually joins the Batgirls and dons a costume herself.\nFelicity Smoak appears in the television series \"<a href=\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\">Arrow</a>\", a reimagining of the <a href=\"Green%20Arrow\">Green Arrow</a> mythos, portrayed by <a href=\"Emily%20Bett%20Rickards\">Emily Bett Rickards</a>. The character also makes appearances in \"Arrow\" spin-offs \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\">The Flash</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Legends%20of%20Tomorrow\">Legends of Tomorrow</a>\".\nIn season one, Felicity is a computer genius IT worker at Oliver's father's company who is recruited to work on technical matters for Oliver in his vigilante quest. She was originally introduced in the third episode of season one, \"Lone Gunman\", as a one-off character, Rickards went on to recur across season one as a result of positive reactions both from co-star <a href=\"Stephen%20Amell\">Stephen Amell</a>, and <a href=\"Warner%20Brothers\">Warner Brothers</a> producer <a href=\"Peter%20Roth%20%28executive%29\">Peter Roth</a>. Felicity quickly deduces the nature of her assignments for Oliver and becomes a willing assistant to Oliver. As time develops, she becomes command central for Oliver and his small band of fellow vigilantes, and takes the codename Overwatch. From season two onwards, the show begins exploring Oliver and Felicity's romantic potential, and the two elope at the end of season three. In season four, they are engaged, but break up due to Oliver lying about having a son. The show also reveals that Felicity's father is <a href=\"Calculator%20%28comics%29\">Noah Kuttler</a>, a career cyber-criminal. After breaking up with Oliver, Felicity remains a vital part of the team. She also occasionally provides assistance to <a href=\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\">Barry Allen</a>, her and Oliver's friend in Central City who operates as the Flash, appearing on the show \"The Flash\".\nThe character features in the tie-in comics, \"Arrow Season 2.5\", which bridge the gap between the second and third seasons of the television show.\nShe also features in the tie-in novels published for the series, \"Arrow: Vengeance\", written by Oscar Balderrama and Lauren Certo, \"The Flash: The Haunting of Barry Allen\" written by Susan and Clay Griffith, and its sequel \"Arrow: A Generation of Vipers\" from the same authors.\nRickards provides the voice for the character on seasons 1 and 2 of the web-series \"<a href=\"Vixen%20%28web%20series%29\">Vixen</a>\".\nThe character also appears as a character in \"\" as part of the \"<a href=\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\">Arrow</a>\" DLC pack.\n","Abra Kadabra (comics)\nAbra Kadabra (Citizen Abra) is a magical supervillian appearing in <a href=\"American%20comic%20book\">American comic book</a>s published by <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a>.\nCreated by <a href=\"John%20Broome%20%28writer%29\">John Broome</a> and <a href=\"Carmine%20Infantino\">Carmine Infantino</a>, the character made his first appearance in \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20%28comic%20book%29\">The Flash</a>\" #128 (May 1962).\nCitizen Abra is from the 64th century, at a time when science has made <a href=\"Magic%20%28illusion%29\">stage magic</a> obsolete. However, he desires a career as a performing magician, so he goes back in time to find an audience to entertain after stealing a time machine and inventing a device to paralyze the guards, and soon clashes with the Flash (<a href=\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\">Barry Allen</a>). He has a hypnotic device that makes people clap regardless of their thoughts, which he uses to force applause from audiences even when they don't applaud his magic tricks. He finds his magic is being overlooked, so decides to involve himself in important events. When the Flash tries to stop a crime he is committing, he makes the Flash clap, enabling him to escape. He is able to send the Flash into space after challenging him to a fight at the theatre, but the Flash is able to change the course of the planetoid he is on so he is sent back to Earth, and finds Kadabra took his left-behind costume, meaning he can follow the impulses, and Kadabra is jailed. But he hypnotizes the Governor using a ray from a device made out of pots and pans, to let him out, and starts staging a puppet show where the Flash is defeated by a puppet called Captain Cream-Puff. When the Flash passes a poster advertising Kadabra, he is turned into a puppet and used in the performance. But the Scarlet Speedster is able to restore himself slightly using the organic matter in his brain, which was not transformed, and then reverse Kadabra's ray so he is restored completely. He again defeats Kadabra.\nIn one of his many confrontations with the Flash, Abra Kadabra's technology is damaged and his body becomes insubstantial and wraith-like. After his body is returned to normal, he is captured by a bounty hunter named Peregrine, and returned to his native century to serve a death sentence, although he is saved by the Flash before he can be executed. Shortly after returning to the 21st century, during the \"<a href=\"Underworld%20Unleashed\">Underworld Unleashed</a>\" storyline, he forgoes his technological implements and tricks five <a href=\"Rogues%20%28comics%29\">Rogues</a> into selling their souls to <a href=\"Neron%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Neron</a> so he can gain genuine magical powers. Abra Kadabra later kidnapped <a href=\"Linda%20Park%20%28comics%29\">Linda Park</a>, the girlfriend of <a href=\"Wally%20West\">Wally West</a> (Barry Allen's protégé and successor), during their wedding and erases her from history, though he is ultimately defeated with the help of <a href=\"Dark%20Flash\">Walter West</a>, Wally's counterpart from an alternate dimension.\nAbra Kadabra is mentioned in <a href=\"Neil%20Gaiman\">Neil Gaiman</a>'s \"<a href=\"Books%20of%20Magic\">Books of Magic</a>\" mini-series. In the fourth issue <a href=\"Timothy%20Hunter\">Timothy Hunter</a>, escorted by <a href=\"Mister%20E\">Mister E</a>, visits the 64th century, described by E as a time when the differences between magic and technology have become blurred. The inhabitants tell them they have selected their \"date-line\" to send the \"Madchild Abhararakadhararbarakh\". Timothy Hunter responds \"Abracadabra?\" and Mister E tells him not to talk to the inhabitants of this time, and so they then continue their path into the future.\nIn \"<a href=\"Infinite%20Crisis\">Infinite Crisis</a>\", Abra Kadabra became a member of the <a href=\"Secret%20Society%20of%20Super%20Villains\">Secret Society of Super Villains</a>.\nIn \"<a href=\"One%20Year%20Later\">One Year Later</a>\", he and several other Rogues are approached by <a href=\"Inertia%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Inertia</a> with a plan to kill the Flash (then <a href=\"Bart%20Allen\">Bart Allen</a>). Though Inertia is defeated, Kadabra and the other Rogues successfully beat Bart to death, though not before Kadabra recognizes that Bart is too young to be the Flash they are used to dealing with.\nAbra Kadabra is one of the exiled villains featured in <a href=\"Salvation%20Run\">Salvation Run</a> along with his fellow Rogues: <a href=\"Captain%20Cold\">Captain Cold</a>, <a href=\"Heat%20Wave%20%28comics%29\">Heat Wave</a>, <a href=\"Weather%20Wizard\">Weather Wizard</a>, and <a href=\"Mirror%20Master%23Evan%20McCulloch\">Mirror Master</a>. Upon coming across the planet's local pygmies, Abra Kadabra deciphers its language and uses it to locate a \"safe zone\" for himself and the other Rogues before leading the other villains dispatched there to it.\nHe was a member of the <a href=\"Rogues%20%28comics%29\">Rogues</a> who joined <a href=\"Libra%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Libra</a>'s Secret Society of Super Villains, however the rest of the Rogues left the Society.\nHe was last seen in \"\" off-panel, being attacked by Professor Zoom. In the final issue of the mini-series, Abra is seen to have survived Zoom's attack and says Zoom should have made sure he was dead.\nAbra Kadabra makes his post-DC Rebirth debut in the \"Titans\" series. He first appears as a bumbling and terrible party magician known as Mister Hocus Pocus. When <a href=\"Lilith%20Clay\">Lilith</a> forms a psionic link with <a href=\"Wally%20West\">Wally West</a> to try and uncover who or what <a href=\"The%20New%2052\">removed 10 years of history from everyone's memories</a>, she accidentally awakens Abra Kadabra from within Mister Hocus Pocus. Abra Kadabra reveals he is the one who made Wally disappear and he will now destroy him.\nAbra Kadabra creates younger puppet duplicates of the Titans and has them fight the Titans. When the puppet Lilith finds <a href=\"Linda%20Park%20%28comics%29\">Linda Park</a> and tells Abra Kadabra of her importance to Wally, Abra Kadabra realizes that history is broken, knowing that Wally and Linda will not meet years from now. Abra Kadabra realizes that his plans must be speed up, and before he can contemplate even further, he is attacked by <a href=\"Garth%20%28comics%29\">Garth</a>. He tries to kill him but only succeeds in injuring Garth due to Wally's interference. Abra Kadabra reveals to Wally that he removed the latter from time and recollection because he always managed to thwart Abra Kadabra's plans, and disappears with his puppet Titans afterwards. At the theater, Abra Kadabra tries to receive evaluations of the Titans from his puppets. Abra Kadabra reveals his origin (which is similar to his pre-Flashpoint origin) to his puppets, revealing that he is from the future and traveled back in time in order to become famous, but his plans were always thwarted by the Flash (Barry Allen) and Kid Flash (Wally West). Abra Kadabra then used almost all of his power to throw Wally into the time stream in order to remove him from time, but it removed his memories in the process. Intrigued as to why history has been knocked askew, due to the fact Wally knows Linda (even hinting that he knows the true perpetrator), Abra Kadabra begins to craft an even greater trick and he kidnaps Linda from in front of Wally.\nHe then attempts to force Wally into a position where Wally will run himself into the Speed Force, believing that Wally will be unable to return without Linda as his 'lightning rod', but Wally is able to return by using the Titans as his own lightning rod after talking with a representation of his memories of Linda in the Speed Force, which assures him that he can still win Linda back. With Abra Kadabra defeated and sending him to the timestream, Lilith notes that she cannot understand Abra Kadabra's madness, but picked up a key word in his thoughts; \"<a href=\"Doctor%20Manhattan\">Manhattan</a>\".\nAbra Kadabra is a powerful sorcerer and can achieve virtually any feat with his spells. Originally his powers were all due to 64th century scientific technology that appeared magical to residents of the 20th century. Later, Kadabra's powers are augmented to include true <a href=\"Magic%20%28paranormal%29\">sorcery</a> when he strikes a deal with Neron.\nIn the alternate timeline of the \"<a href=\"Flashpoint%20%28comics%29\">Flashpoint</a>\" event, Abra Kadabra is a television presenter and member of the <a href=\"Secret%20Six%20%28comics%29\">Secret Seven</a>. He sends a message about <a href=\"Shade%2C%20the%20Changing%20Man\">Shade, the Changing Man</a> believing that Shade was a dangerous lunatic and then reveals the identities of the Secret Seven members.","Anne Dudek\nAnne Louise Dudek (born March 22, 1975) is an American actress. She is known for portraying Tiffany Wilson in the 2004 film \"<a href=\"White%20Chicks\">White Chicks</a>\", Danielle Brookson in the USA series Covert Affairs, <a href=\"List%20of%20House%20characters%23Amber%20Volakis\">Dr. Amber Volakis</a> on the <a href=\"Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company\">Fox</a> series \"<a href=\"House%20%28TV%20series%29\">House</a>\", Lura Grant on \"<a href=\"Big%20Love\">Big Love</a>\", and Francine Hanson on the <a href=\"AMC%20%28TV%20channel%29\">AMC</a> series \"<a href=\"Mad%20Men\">Mad Men</a>\". She has also starred in the British television series \"<a href=\"The%20Book%20Group\">The Book Group</a>\".\nDudek was born in <a href=\"Boston\">Boston</a>, <a href=\"Massachusetts\">Massachusetts</a>, and grew up in <a href=\"Newton%2C%20Massachusetts\">Newton, Massachusetts</a>. Her father was an architect. She attended <a href=\"Northwestern%20University\">Northwestern University</a>. She is of <a href=\"Polish%20Americans\">Polish descent</a>.\nFrom the mid-1990s (while at Northwestern University) through 2001, Dudek appeared in various theater productions and on <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a>. She made her Broadway debut in \"Wrong Mountain\" in 2000. She won the Connecticut Critics Circle Award for outstanding performance in \"<a href=\"The%20Glass%20Menagerie\">The Glass Menagerie</a>\".\nAfter success on Broadway, she made the jump to television. Her first starring role on television came when she was cast as the lead in the British <a href=\"comedy%20drama\">comedy drama</a> \"<a href=\"The%20Book%20Group\">The Book Group</a>\". The show aired on <a href=\"Channel%204\">Channel 4</a> in the United Kingdom to rave reviews. In her native United States, Dudek has since guest starred on other TV shows, including \"<a href=\"Desperate%20Housewives\">Desperate Housewives</a>\" (as <a href=\"Karl%20Mayer\">Karl Mayer</a>'s girlfriend in Season 1), \"<a href=\"How%20I%20Met%20Your%20Mother\">How I Met Your Mother</a>\" (as Ted's <a href=\"Krav%20Maga\">Krav Maga</a>-trained ex-girlfriend), \"<a href=\"Friends\">Friends</a>\" (as 'Precious', <a href=\"Mike%20Hannigan\">Mike Hannigan</a>'s girlfriend), \"<a href=\"ER%20%28TV%20series%29\">ER</a>\" (as a mother who accidentally shot her son), \"<a href=\"Charmed\">Charmed</a>\", \"<a href=\"Bones%20%28TV%20series%29\">Bones</a>\" (as <a href=\"Seeley%20Booth\">Seeley Booth</a>'s lawyer girlfriend), \"<a href=\"Numbers%20%28TV%20series%29\">Numb3rs</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Six%20Feet%20Under%20%28TV%20series%29\">Six Feet Under</a>\". She also played Lucinda Barry in the pilot episode of \"<a href=\"Psych\">Psych</a>\", and a teacher who has a sexual relationship with one of her students (based on the case of <a href=\"Debra%20Lafave\">Debra Lafave</a>) on \"\". In both \"Friends\" and \"How I Met Your Mother\", her character was dumped on her birthday. Dudek appeared in several episodes as a child bride in HBO series Big Love.\nDudek had a recurring role on \"<a href=\"House%20%28TV%20series%29\">House</a>\" (from season 4 onwards) as <a href=\"List%20of%20House%20characters%23Recurring%20characters\">Dr. Amber Volakis</a>, one of 40 physicians under consideration by <a href=\"Gregory%20House\">Dr. Gregory House</a> for permanent positions on his team. Her character, nicknamed \"Cutthroat Bitch\" by House, continued to the end of season 4 but was killed off in the two-part season finale, \"<a href=\"House%27s%20Head\">House's Head</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Wilson%27s%20Heart%20%28House%29\">Wilson's Heart</a>\". She would later reappear as a hallucination by House in the season 5 episode \"<a href=\"Saviors%20%28House%29\">Saviors</a>\", appearing in this form for the remainder of the season.\nDudek later appeared in \"<a href=\"Mad%20Men\">Mad Men</a>\" as next-door neighbor Francine Hanson, and on \"<a href=\"Big%20Love\">Big Love</a>\" as one of antagonist <a href=\"Alby%20Grant\">Alby Grant</a>'s wives, both recurring roles. In 2010, she joined the cast of \"<a href=\"Covert%20Affairs\">Covert Affairs</a>\". She played <a href=\"Anthony%20Hopkins\">Anthony Hopkins</a>' character's daughter in the 2003 film \"<a href=\"The%20Human%20Stain%20%28film%29\">The Human Stain</a>\", and cruise line heir Tiffany Wilson in the 2004 <a href=\"comedy%20film\">comedy film</a> \"<a href=\"White%20Chicks\">White Chicks</a>\". In 2012, she played an <a href=\"International%20Space%20Station\">ISS</a> astronaut in one episode of the TV show \"<a href=\"Touch%20%282012%20TV%20series%29\">Touch</a>\". She also reprised her role as Amber Volakis for the \"House\" series finale \"<a href=\"Everybody%20Dies%20%28House%29\">Everybody Dies</a>\".\nDudek was married to artist Matthew Heller. They have a son, Akiva, born in December 2008, and a daughter, Saskia, born in February 2012. The pair divorced in 2016.","Supergirl (TV series)\nSupergirl is an American <a href=\"superhero%20fiction\">superhero</a> <a href=\"action%20fiction\">action</a>-<a href=\"adventure%20fiction\">adventure</a> television series developed by <a href=\"Ali%20Adler\">Ali Adler</a>, <a href=\"Greg%20Berlanti\">Greg Berlanti</a> and <a href=\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\">Andrew Kreisberg</a> (the latter two having previously created \"<a href=\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\">Arrow</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\">The Flash</a>\") that originally aired on <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> and premiered on October 26, 2015. It is based on the <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a> character <a href=\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\">Supergirl</a>, created by <a href=\"Otto%20Binder\">Otto Binder</a> and <a href=\"Al%20Plastino\">Al Plastino</a>, and stars <a href=\"Melissa%20Benoist\">Melissa Benoist</a> in the title role. Supergirl is a costumed superheroine who is <a href=\"Superman\">Superman</a>'s cousin and one of the last surviving <a href=\"Krypton%20%28comics%29\">Kryptonians</a>.\nThe series was officially picked up on May 6, 2015, after receiving a series commitment in September 2014, and received a full season order on November 30, 2015. On May 12, 2016, <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.%20Television\">Warner Bros.</a> announced that the series had been renewed for a second season and that it would move from CBS to <a href=\"The%20CW\">The CW</a>. It debuted on October 10, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which is scheduled to debut on October 9, 2017.\n<a href=\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\">Kara Zor-El</a> was sent to Earth from <a href=\"Krypton%20%28comics%29\">Krypton</a> as a 13-year-old by her parents <a href=\"Zor-El\">Zor-El</a> and <a href=\"List%20of%20minor%20DC%20Comics%20characters%23Alura\">Alura</a>. Kara was meant to protect her infant cousin Kal-El, but her spacecraft was knocked off course and forced into the <a href=\"Phantom%20Zone\">Phantom Zone</a>, where it stayed for 24 years. By the time the spacecraft crash landed on Earth, Kal-El had grown up and become <a href=\"Superman\">Superman</a>. The series begins eleven years later when the now 24-year-old Kara is learning to embrace her powers and has adopted the superheroic alias \"Supergirl\".\nIn the first season, having hidden her powers for more than a decade, Kara is forced to reveal her powers, and becomes <a href=\"National%20City%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">National City</a>'s protector. Kara discovers that hundreds of the criminals her mother prosecuted as a judge are hiding on Earth, including her aunt Astra and Astra's husband <a href=\"Non%20%28comics%29\">Non</a>. She and her adoptive sister, Alex Danvers, discover that their boss, <a href=\"Hank%20Henshaw\">Hank Henshaw</a>, is actually benevolent Green Martian <a href=\"Martian%20Manhunter\">J'onn J'onzz</a>. She is aided by a few close friends and family who guard her secrets, including her cousin's friend, <a href=\"Jimmy%20Olsen\">James Olsen</a>, and tech genius Winn Schott, Jr.\nIn the second season, Kara and her allies deal with feuds between Earth's native populace and extraterrestrial community, and investigate the shadowy organization <a href=\"Project%20Cadmus\">Project Cadmus</a>, masterminded by Lillian Luthor, mother of Superman's archenemy <a href=\"Lex%20Luthor\">Lex Luthor</a>. At the same time, Kara becomes friendly with Lillian's stepdaughter <a href=\"Lena%20Luthor\">Lena Luthor</a>, the new CEO of <a href=\"LexCorp\">LuthorCorp</a>, and struggles with romantic feelings for recent Earth arrival <a href=\"Lar%20Gand\">Mon-El</a>, a survivor and prince from Krypton's neighboring planet <a href=\"Daxam\">Daxam</a>. James becomes the masked streetfighting vigilante <a href=\"Guardian%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Guardian</a>; Alex begins dating <a href=\"Maggie%20Sawyer\">Maggie Sawyer</a>; and J'onn befriends a younger Martian, <a href=\"Miss%20Martian\">M'gann</a>, from the <a href=\"White%20Martian\">White Martian</a> race that killed his people.\nBy September 2014, <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.%20Television\">Warner Bros. Television</a> was looking to create a television series centered around <a href=\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\">Supergirl</a>. Executive producers for the series include <a href=\"Greg%20Berlanti\">Greg Berlanti</a> (also a creator/producer for \"<a href=\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\">Arrow</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\">The Flash</a>\"), <a href=\"Ali%20Adler\">Ali Adler</a>, who are both writing the script, and Berlanti Productions' Sarah Schechter. <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a>' <a href=\"Geoff%20Johns\">Geoff Johns</a> is also expected to be part of the project. Titles under consideration for the series included \"Super\" and \"Girl\". Berlanti confirmed the show shortly after, and stated it was in development and had yet to be pitched to networks. On September 20, it was announced that <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> had landed \"Supergirl\" with a series commitment, with an expected premiere in 2015 of the <a href=\"2015%E2%80%9316%20United%20States%20network%20television%20schedule\">2015–16 television season</a>. In January 2015, CBS Entertainment Chairman <a href=\"Nina%20Tassler\">Nina Tassler</a> revealed the show would be a procedural, saying, \"There will be [crime] cases, but what [executive producers] Ali Adler and Greg Berlanti pitched was a real series arc for her. The beauty of it is now with shows like \"<a href=\"The%20Good%20Wife\">The Good Wife</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Madam%20Secretary%20%28TV%20series%29\">Madam Secretary</a>\", you can have serialized story elements woven into a case of the week. She's a crime solver, so she's going to have to solve a crime.\"\nIn January 2015, it was announced by \"<a href=\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\">The Hollywood Reporter</a>\" that Melissa Benoist would star as Supergirl. Benoist later revealed that auditioning for the part \"was a long, drawn-out, three-month process\"; she was the first actress looked at for the role, although <a href=\"Claire%20Holt\">Claire Holt</a> and <a href=\"Gemma%20Atkinson\">Gemma Atkinson</a> were also considered. In March 2015, <a href=\"Blake%20Neely\">Blake Neely</a>, composer for \"Arrow\" and \"The Flash\", revealed he would be composing for \"Supergirl\". The show was officially picked up to series on May 6, 2015. It was originally set to premiere in November 2015, before being moved up to October 26, 2015. The pilot episode was screened at <a href=\"San%20Diego%20Comic-Con%20International\">San Diego Comic-Con International</a> 2015 on July 8 and 11, 2015. In July 2015, Adler spoke on how much influence <a href=\"Superman\">Superman</a> would have on the show, saying, \"Our prototype is the way the president is seen on \"<a href=\"Veep%20%28TV%20series%29\">Veep</a>\". It's certainly [inspired by] so much of what <a href=\"Julia%20Louis-Dreyfus\">Julia Louis-Dreyfus</a>' character goes through. Ultimately, this is a show about Supergirl and we really want to see it through her lens.\" On November 30, 2015, CBS ordered an additional seven episodes of \"Supergirl\", for a full season of 20 episodes.\nOn May 12, 2016, <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.%20Television\">Warner Bros. Television</a> announced that the series had been renewed for a second season of 22 episodes and would move to <a href=\"The%20CW\">The CW</a>. The season debuted in October 2016. With the move of the production to Vancouver, it was unclear if Calista Flockhart would remain with the series, as her original contract stipulated that she work near her home in Los Angeles. The CW president Mark Pedowitz said Flockhart wanted to remain with the series and that \"We're in ongoing discussions... we're happy to have her in [in whatever capacity] works out.\" Flockhart ultimately reached a deal to be recurring in the second season, with the production flying her to Vancouver every few weeks to film material.\nOn January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which is scheduled to debut on October 9, 2017. The third season will see Jessica Queller and <a href=\"Robert%20Rovner\">Robert Rovner</a> become the series' executive producers and co-showrunners along with Kreisberg, following Adler's departure; Adler will remain an executive consultant for the series. Both Queller and Rovner joined \"Supergirl\" midway through the first season as co-executive producer and consulting producer, respectively, with Rovner promoted to executive producer ahead of the second season.\n<a href=\"Katie%20McGrath\">Katie McGrath</a>, who portrays <a href=\"Lena%20Luthor\">Lena Luthor</a> in the series, will be promoted to series regular for the third season. <a href=\"Odette%20Annable\">Odette Annable</a> will also join the main cast in the third season, portraying Reign, another Kryptonian sent to Earth.\nThe costume for Supergirl was created by <a href=\"Colleen%20Atwood\">Colleen Atwood</a>, who also designed the costumes for \"Arrow\" and \"The Flash\". Benoist stated that she is aware of the costume worn by Kara in more modern depictions of in the comics, and expressed that the \"micro-mini hemline\" of the skirt in the version created by <a href=\"Michael%20Turner%20%28comics%29\">Michael Turner</a> could be \"a little daunting ... but that's good. I like being pushed.\" Promotional photos of Benoist wearing Atwood's design were released on March 6, 2015. Atwood indicated that she wanted to \"embrace the past ... but more importantly, thrust her into the street-style action hero of today.\" Atwood later revealed details about the costume such as the cape being fastened to an undersuit so as not to pull the costume and that the fabric used was Eurojersey. The reveal of the <a href=\"Martian%20Manhunter\">Martian Manhunter</a> costume in \"<a href=\"Human%20For%20a%20Day\">Human For a Day</a>\" was created through visual effects, though a physical version was created to appear in later episodes, with it proving to be one of the most challenging costumes for the costume team.\nReception of the Supergirl costume upon its reveal was mixed. \"<a href=\"Entertainment%20Weekly\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\"'s Natalie Abrams commented that the new look of the costume looks and feels different in a good way. The new costume avoids exposing the character's midriff, as it does in the Michael Turner version of the costume from the comics, as well as having Benoist wear stockings underneath the skirt with over-the-knee boots. Abrams compared the texture of the costume to that worn by <a href=\"Henry%20Cavill\">Henry Cavill</a> as Superman in \"<a href=\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\">Man of Steel</a>\", as well as the positioning of the cape on the suit, and the decision to do away with the bright blue and red color scheme. Andrew Dyce, from Screen Rant, found the new costume to perfectly balance itself between classic nostalgia and modernism. \"The Washington Post\" noted that Atwood's design was successful, praising her ability to take \"cartoon-y tints\" and moving them to darker tones.\n\"<a href=\"E%21\">E! Online</a>\" was less impressed with the design, negatively comparing it to a \"cheap Halloween costume\", with washed out colors, and not buying into the \"gritty, 'street style'\" look Atwood was intending. \"<a href=\"TV%20Guide\">TV Guide</a>\" questioned Atwood's design, and noted that although the promotional image has Benoist trying to appear as a powerful hero, the thigh-high boots and pleated skirt comes across as a \"model advertising a moderately-priced Halloween costume\".\nIn February 2015, it was announced that <a href=\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\">Andrew Kreisberg</a>, co-creator of \"Arrow\" and \"The Flash\", had joined the series as a writer and executive producer; and \"Arrow\" / \"The Flash\" and \"<a href=\"Smallville\">Smallville</a>\" alum <a href=\"Glen%20Winter\">Glen Winter</a> was announced to be directing the pilot. <a href=\"Principal%20photography\">Principal photography</a> for the pilot took place from March 4 to March 29, 2015. Filming locations included the Warner Bros. lot, where \"Lois and Clark\" was shot. Each episode cost approximately $3 million to broadcast, which is one of the highest license fees ever for a first year show.\nThe second season was filmed in <a href=\"Vancouver\">Vancouver</a>, rather than <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a> where the first season was shot. This was done to reduce the high production costs of the series, one of the issues that made CBS wary to renew the series on their network. Filming for the third season began in Vancouver on July 6, 2017, and is expected to continue until April 24, 2018.\nIn Canada, \"Supergirl\" aired in a <a href=\"simultaneous%20substitution\">sim-subbed</a> <a href=\"simulcast\">simulcast</a> on <a href=\"Global%20Television%20Network\">Global</a> with the American broadcast in the first season; the second season saw it move to <a href=\"Showcase%20%28Canadian%20TV%20channel%29\">Showcase</a> in the same arrangement.\nThe series premiered on October 29, 2015, in the United Kingdom on <a href=\"Sky%20One\">Sky One</a>. The series premiered in Australia on December 6, 2015 on <a href=\"Fox8\">FOX8</a>.\nReview aggregation website <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> gave the series premiere a 95% approval rating from critics and with an average rating of 7.6/10 based on 73 reviews. The site's consensus states: \"Melissa Benoist shines as Superman's plucky little cousin in \"Supergirl\", a family-friendly comic-book adaptation that ditches cynicism for heart.\" <a href=\"Metacritic\">Metacritic</a>, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 75 out of 100 based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating \"Generally favorable reviews\". Cliff Wheatley of <a href=\"IGN\">IGN</a> gave the pilot episode a 7/10, praising <a href=\"Melissa%20Benoist\">Melissa Benoist</a>'s performance as Kara and the fun take on the Superman mythos.\nRotten Tomatoes gave the premiere of the second season a 100% approval rating from critics and with an average rating of 8.3/10 based on 20 reviews. The site's consensus reads, \"The arrival of the more famous cousin in \"Supergirl\" does nothing to detract from the show's lead, who continues to deliver strength, action, and relatability.\" Metacritic assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on reviews from 4 critics, indicating \"Universal acclaim\".\n\nIn November 2014, Berlanti expressed interest in \"Supergirl\" existing in the <a href=\"Arrowverse\">Arrowverse</a>, the same universe as his other series \"<a href=\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\">Arrow</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\">The Flash</a>\", and in January 2015, <a href=\"The%20CW\">The CW</a> president Mark Pedowitz revealed that he was also open to a crossover between the series and networks (due to Berlanti executive producing all three and The CW being co-owned by CBS). However, CBS Entertainment chair Nina Tassler stated that month that \"those two shows are on a different network. So I think we'll keep \"Supergirl\" to ourselves for a while.\" In August 2015, Tassler revealed that while there were no plans at the time to do crossover storylines, the three series would have crossover promotions.\nPedowitz regretted passing on the series when presented it in mid-2014, saying, \"We hadn't launched \"The Flash\" yet, we weren't ready to take on another DC property. In hindsight we probably should've gone that direction...Sometimes you lose great shows.\" In January 2016, during the <a href=\"Television%20Critics%20Association\">Television Critics Association</a> press tour, he said that The CW was still interested in a crossover with \"Supergirl\" if the producers could find a way to do it, and Berlanti added that while no official conversations had taken place, internal ones had concerning how a crossover would work. He also noted that for a crossover to happen during \"Supergirl\"'s first season, it would have to be figured out \"in the next month or so\". Glenn Geller, Tassler's successor at CBS, then stated on the matter, \"I have to be really careful what I say here. Watch and wait and see what happens.\"\nOn February 3, 2016, it was announced that <a href=\"Grant%20Gustin\">Grant Gustin</a>, who appears as <a href=\"The%20Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\">Barry Allen / Flash</a> on \"The Flash\", would appear in the eighteenth episode of the first season, \"<a href=\"Worlds%20Finest\">Worlds Finest</a>\". While no plot details on the episodes were released at the time, Ross A. Lincoln of <a href=\"Deadline.com\">Deadline.com</a> noted that \"the in-universe reason\" for the crossover was due to Barry's ability to travel to various dimensions, thus implying that \"Supergirl\" exists on an alternate Earth to the Arrowverse in a multiverse. \"The Flash\" episode \"Welcome to Earth-2\" confirmed this, showing an image of Benoist as Supergirl during a sequence where characters travel through that multiverse. The earth that the series inhabits is Earth-38 in the Arrowverse multiverse, and has been informally referred to as \"Earth-CBS\" by <a href=\"Marc%20Guggenheim\">Marc Guggenheim</a>, one of the creators of \"Arrow\".\nDuring the second season, Supergirl appears in \"<a href=\"Invasion%21%20%28Arrowverse%29\">Invasion!</a>\", a crossover episode of \"The Flash\", \"Arrow\" and \"<a href=\"Legends%20of%20Tomorrow\">Legends of Tomorrow</a>\", when she's recruited by Barry Allen and Cisco Ramon at the end of \"<a href=\"Medusa%20%28Supergirl%29\">Medusa</a>\" to help fight off an invasion by the <a href=\"Dominators\">Dominators</a>. \"Supergirl\" and \"The Flash\" also featured in a musical crossover, featuring several covers of existing songs along with two original numbers. Similar to \"Invasion!\", the crossover begins at the end of the \"Supergirl\" episode \"<a href=\"Star-Crossed%20%28Supergirl%29\">Star-Crossed</a>\" and primarily takes place during \"The Flash\" episode \"<a href=\"Duet%20%28The%20Flash%29\">Duet</a>\", featuring the <a href=\"Music%20Meister\">Music Meister</a> as the antagonist who puts both The Flash and Supergirl in a shared hallucination. After \"Invasion!\", Guggenheim felt \"If there's an appetite for it from the fans and from the network,\" the crossover next year could be \"a proper four-part crossover.\"\nAt the 2017 <a href=\"Paleyfest\">Paleyfest</a> event, Kreisberg reiterated the creative team's intention to do a full four-way crossover the following year. At <a href=\"San%20Diego%20Comic-Con\">San Diego Comic Con 2017</a>, it was confirmed that another four-way crossover would take place, with Supergirl playing a larger role than the previous season.\nBeginning in January 2016, DC Comics launched a 13-issue, bi-weekly digital comic, \"Adventures of Supergirl\". Written by <a href=\"Sterling%20Gates\">Sterling Gates</a> and drawn by a rotating team of artist including Bengal, Jonboy Meyers, Emanuela Lupacchino, and Emma Vieceli, the comic, while not directly tying into the show, tells stories set in the universe of the show.\n|- style=\"background-color:#203666; color: ;\"\n! scope=\"col\" colspan=\"6\" | DVD release dates\n","Sterling Gates\nSterling Gates (born March 1, 1981 in <a href=\"Tulsa%2C%20Oklahoma\">Tulsa, Oklahoma</a>) is an <a href=\"People%20of%20the%20United%20States\">American</a> <a href=\"comic%20book%20writer\">comic book writer</a> currently working for <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a>.\nSterling Gates was a comic fan from a young age. His father owned a comic book store in <a href=\"Tulsa%2C%20Oklahoma\">Tulsa, Oklahoma</a>, and remembered that, \"We had a garage full of comics for as long as I could remember and I would sit and read them for hours, then sneak them under the covers and read them in bed.\" When he started college, he also worked part-time in a local comic shop.\nGates attended the <a href=\"University%20of%20Oklahoma\">University of Oklahoma</a> and earned a degree in Fine Arts with a specialization in film and television production. His professors used to get annoyed due to his desire to relate all of his schoolwork to comics in some way, shape, or form. His capstone thesis was about sequential art theory and relating time theory in comics to training in film and television. He went on to say that he, \"must've referenced <a href=\"Scott%20McCloud\">Scott McCloud</a>'s \"<a href=\"Understanding%20Comics\">Understanding Comics</a>\" a hundred times in that paper!\" After moving out to <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\">Los Angeles, California</a> to \"do something with his life,\" he and a friend attended <a href=\"WonderCon\">WonderCon</a> in <a href=\"San%20Francisco%2C%20California\">San Francisco</a> where he met writer <a href=\"Geoff%20Johns\">Geoff Johns</a>.\nOne night in San Francisco, Gates and a friend went out to dinner and then to a bar. Afterwards, upon returning to their hotel, Gates and his friend spotted Johns and editor Steve Wacker in the lobby. After going to a nearby diner, Johns and Wacker had arrived there as well. After striking up a conversation, Gates, \"...told them about how I just moved to L.A., and it turned out that Geoff and I shopped at the same comics shop, DJ's Universal, so we talked about that. We said our 'good-byes' and our 'nice-to-meet-you's' and then the host sat them, and then came back and sat us at the table literally right next to theirs. A table maybe five inches from their table. And we kind of all looked at each other and I thought, 'Can this get more awkward? I doubt it.'\"\nWhen Gates' friend, who was a rabid Johns fan, was not making the best first impression, Gates paid for Johns' and Wacker's meal as an apology. Gates hoped the meal would make up for his friend's behavior and after the generous act, Johns asked Gates directly, \"Do you want a job?\" Gates then interviewed with the writing staff for \"\" on Johns' recommendation and was hired. After the series' cancellation, Gates discussed his history of writing comics with Johns, which was previously unbeknownst to him. Johns asked to read Gates' early comics work. Johns was impressed, and after Gates submitted outlines to Johns inspired by the \"<a href=\"Sinestro%20Corps%20War\">Sinestro Corps War</a>\", Gates was interviewed by editor <a href=\"Eddie%20Berganza\">Eddie Berganza</a> and was hired by <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a>.\nGates told a back-up story about <a href=\"Sinestro%20Corps\">Sinestro Corps</a> member Kryb with artist <a href=\"Jerry%20Ordway\">Jerry Ordway</a> in \"Tales of the Sinestro Corps: Superman Prime\". He went on to write a two-part story about <a href=\"Alpha%20Lantern\">Alpha Lantern</a> <a href=\"Boodikka\">Boodikka</a> in \"Green Lantern Corps\" #21-22. He then took over full writing duties of the \"<a href=\"Supergirl%20%28comic%20book%29\">Supergirl</a>\" title featuring <a href=\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\">Kara Zor-El</a>, starting with issue #34 of volume 5, in October 2008. Gates also contributed to the \"\" story arc.\nOther projects include the \"<a href=\"Prometheus%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Prometheus</a>\" \"<a href=\"Faces%20of%20Evil\">Faces of Evil</a>\" one-shot with artist Federico Dallocchio.\nGates co-wrote the \"<a href=\"War%20of%20the%20Supermen\">War of the Supermen</a>\" storyline alongside \"<a href=\"Superman%20%28comic%20book%29\">Superman</a>\" writer <a href=\"James%20Robinson%20%28comics%29\">James Robinson</a>.\nAs part of the DC Comics \"<a href=\"The%20New%2052\">The New 52</a>\" relaunch, Gates initially wrote the \"<a href=\"Hawk%20%26amp%3B%20Dove\">Hawk & Dove</a>\" series drawn by <a href=\"Rob%20Liefeld\">Rob Liefeld</a> but left the series after issue 5.\nGates took over the DC title \"<a href=\"Vibe%20%28comics%29\">Justice League's Vibe</a>\" with issue 4, replacing <a href=\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\">Andrew Kreisberg</a> on writing duties. He was also brought in to pen the final issue of \"Stormwatch\".\nGates lives in <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>, where he is good friends with fellow writers and collaborators <a href=\"James%20Dale%20Robinson\">James Robinson</a> and <a href=\"Geoff%20Johns\">Geoff Johns</a>.\nComics work includes:","Savitar (comics)\nSavitar is a <a href=\"fictional\">fictional</a> <a href=\"supervillain\">supervillain</a> published by <a href=\"DC%20Comics\">DC Comics</a>.\nSavitar first appeared in \"<a href=\"flash%20%28comics%29\">Flash</a>\" (vol. 2) #108 (December 1995), and was created by <a href=\"Mark%20Waid\">Mark Waid</a> and <a href=\"Oscar%20Jimenez%20%28comics%29\">Oscar Jimenez</a>.\nA <a href=\"Cold%20War\">Cold War</a> pilot for a third-world nation, the man who would become known as Savitar was to test a <a href=\"supersonic\">supersonic</a> <a href=\"fighter%20jet\">fighter jet</a>. As he reached top speed, his plane was struck by what appeared to be <a href=\"lightning\">lightning</a>, and he went down in hostile territory. Discovering he could defeat the enemy by moving at super-speed, he became obsessed, naming himself after <a href=\"Savitr\">Savitr</a>, the <a href=\"Hindu\">Hindu</a> \"god of motion\", (although it is important to note that Savitr is not actually a god of motion), and dedicating his life to unlocking its secrets. As Savitar studied, he discovered new powers that no other living speedster has mastered. He can protect himself in a null-inertia force field, give speed and <a href=\"kinetic%20energy\">kinetic energy</a> to objects or people, even those in a \"rest state\", and he could also heal his own injuries almost instantly.\nSavitar's obsession gained followers, and he became the leader of a <a href=\"cult\">cult</a>. In search of more knowledge, he sought out the only super-speed hero operating at the time: <a href=\"Johnny%20Quick\">Johnny Quick</a>. This encounter became a battle, the tide of which was turned with the arrival of <a href=\"Max%20Mercury\">Max Mercury</a> who led Savitar toward the <a href=\"Speed%20Force\">Speed Force</a>, but caused him to bounce off, both speedsters being thrown forward in time. Emerging from the timestream before Savitar, Max Mercury became a mentor to the various members of the Flash family and other speedsters, secretly preparing them against the day Savitar would exit the timestream.\nReappearing decades later, Savitar found that his cult had grown in his absence, awaiting his return. He recruited former Blue Trinity member Lady Flash (Christina Alexandrova), and discovered a way to use her speed to divert all energy from the Speed Force to his own army of <a href=\"ninja\">ninja</a>s. He then sought to eliminate the competition: Kid Flash (<a href=\"Wally%20West\">Wally West</a>), <a href=\"Bart%20Allen\">Impulse</a>, Golden Age Flash (<a href=\"Jay%20Garrick\">Jay Garrick</a>), Johnny Quick, <a href=\"Jesse%20Quick\">Jesse Quick</a>, <a href=\"XS%20%28comics%29\">XS</a>, and especially Max Mercury.\nFortunately, Wally’s direct line to the Speed Force prevented Savitar from stealing his speed, and a coalition of just about every speedster (except for <a href=\"Red%20Trinity\">Red Trinity</a>) foiled his plans. Hell-bent on at least destroying the Flash’s world in retribution, Savitar led Wally on a worldwide race of destruction, until Flash chose to give Savitar what he wanted: union with the Speed Force. His earlier encounter had shown him that the others who had arrived before would deal with Savitar as they saw fit.\nIn \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20Rebirth\">The Flash Rebirth</a>\" mini-series, Savitar was able to escape from the Speed Force. He was run down by the recently returned to life <a href=\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\">Barry Allen</a>; however, when Barry touches him, Savitar disintegrates, leaving only a pile of bones. It is revealed that <a href=\"Eobard%20Thawne\">Professor Zoom</a> altered the Speed Force and Barry to make the Flash shift in reverse, cursed to kill every Speed Force user with a single touch, though it seemed to be undone by the defeat of Professor Zoom during the conflict between the two speedsters. Thus far, Savitar, Lady Flash (Lady Savitar at the time) and Johnny Quick have been killed by this effect.\nIn \"<a href=\"The%20New%2052\">The New 52</a>\", a reboot of the DC Comics universe, parts of Savitar's origin are used in the origin of the <a href=\"Top%20%28comics%29\">Top</a>.\nSavitar can move at super speed, and is able to lend or steal speed from moving objects. He has accelerated healing due to increased metabolism and can generate a full Inertia force field.\nA character named Savitar appears as the main antagonist in season three of <a href=\"The%20CW\">The CW</a>'s live-action television series \"<a href=\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\">The Flash</a>\", voiced by <a href=\"Tobin%20Bell\">Tobin Bell</a> and portrayed by <a href=\"Grant%20Gustin\">Grant Gustin</a> while also portrayed by <a href=\"Tom%20Felton\">Tom Felton</a> (via \"<a href=\"Doctor%20Alchemy\">Doctor Alchemy</a>\") and by <a href=\"Andre%20Tricoteux\">Andre Tricoteux</a> (while wearing his signature <a href=\"powered%20exoskeleton\">powered exoskeleton</a>). This version (also known as the \"<a href=\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\">Future Flash</a>\") is a time remnant of <a href=\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\">Barry Allen/The Flash</a> from the future who wound up shunned by his original self, thus developing a deep hatred for Team Flash. He wears a suit of armor covered in blue lines, a nod to the costume of the New 52 Future Flash. Despite being locked in a Speed Force prison, he manages to use Julian Albert as Alchemy, an acolyte within Savitar's cult that possesses the <a href=\"Brahmastra\">Philosopher's Stone</a>, an ancient Hindu weapon connected to Savitar's interdimesional prison. Although it's revealed that Savitar tricked Julian into being possessed to play the Alchemy role, Savitar proceeds to manipulate Team Flash, first as <a href=\"List%20of%20minor%20DC%20Comics%20characters%23Dante%20Ramon\">Dante Ramon</a> (<a href=\"Nicholas%20Gonzalez\">Nicholas Gonzalez</a>) to torment <a href=\"Vibe%20%28comics%29\">Cisco Ramon/Vibe</a> and as Francine West (<a href=\"Vanessa%20A.%20Williams\">Vanessa A. Williams</a>) to mess with <a href=\"Wally%20West\">Wally West/Kid Flash</a>, eventually gaining his own freedom. Savitar convinces <a href=\"Killer%20Frost\">Caitlin Snow/Killer Frost</a> to join his side as he plans to murder <a href=\"Iris%20West%20Allen\">Iris West</a> before the Flash's eyes, setting Barry on a quest for revenge that involves the creation of the temporal duplicates and ensuring the conditions necessary for his own creation. When <a href=\"Harrison%20Wells\">H.R. Wells</a> prevents this by switching places with Iris, Savitar tries to find a means of preserving his own existence, but he is eventually shot in the back by Iris and is erased from the timeline."],"string":"[\n \"The Flash (season 4)\\nThe fourth season of the American television series \\\"The Flash\\\", which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin-off of \\\"Arrow\\\". The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.\\nThe season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons.\\nThe fourth season is set to begin airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW.\\n<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>\\n\\nThe series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, \\\"The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season.\\\" In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons.\\nIn March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, \\\"We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we’re going to focus on the present.\\\" In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / The Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode \\\"Abra Kadabra\\\" when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale \\\"Finish Line\\\" when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series' San Diego Comic-Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, \\\"With three Speedsters in a row, this year it's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive.\\\" He added that the writers were \\\"making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up\\\".\\nRegarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that \\\"It's not something that's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for.\\\" With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying \\\"the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back.\\\" Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco's more lighthearted joking manner.\\nCandice Patton explained Iris West's larger role within Team Flash as \\\"a way of distracting herself,\\\" adding that \\\"[Iris] is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris.\\\" Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that \\\"the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry\\\".\\nIn July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of \\\"The Flash\\\" is \\\"going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons,\\\" and said that the show was likely \\\"done with Speedster villains\\\". Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth-2, saying that \\\"season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to The Thinker's plan,\\\" in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.\\nIn September 2017, Helbing noted \\\"There's a lot of love in the air this season,\\\" and compared Barry and Iris' reunion to \\\"somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry didn't when he was gone, and it's really [about] the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they weren't together.\\\" Helbing also explained that the Speed Force \\\"let [Barry] deal with all of the baggage [from the past three seasons]. When he comes out, he's sort of left that all behind.\\\" That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since \\\"[they] keep comically clashing inadvertently because [both are] used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it.\\\" He added, \\\"The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship.\\\"\\nMain cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth-2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, \\\"We're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season's gaps present themselves.\\\" Also returning from earlier in the series are Jessica Camacho as Gypsy, and Anne Dudek as Tracy Brand. Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, was revealed not to be returning to the series, although there is a possibility he could return if the storyline demanded it and Felton's availability permits. Julian's absence will be addressed \\\"pretty quickly — there's a reason why he's no longer with the team,\\\" said Helbing. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek-a-Boo in the first season and the web series \\\"The Chronicles of Cisco\\\", will reprise her role in the season premiere.\\nIn July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, Devoe's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth-19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that \\\"should put the visual effects department to the test\\\", with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast-talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of metahuman supervillains.\\nFilming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and is set to conclude on April 21, 2018.\\nIn August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathan Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.\\nIn May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four-show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series \\\"Supergirl\\\", \\\"The Flash\\\", \\\"Legends of Tomorrow\\\", and \\\"Arrow\\\". The crossover will begin with \\\"Supergirl\\\" and a special airing of \\\"Arrow\\\" on November 27, 2017, and conclude on \\\"The Flash\\\" and \\\"Legends of Tomorrow\\\" on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be \\\"a big life event for a few different people\\\" that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding \\\"There are many life events that happen.\\\" Emily Bett Rickards will appear as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season.\\nThe season is set to begin airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada.\\nIn July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic-Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the \\\"grim\\\" tone, there was \\\"some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without [Barry]... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you've got a good season of \\\"The Flash\\\" lined up.\\\" Ben Pearson with /Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was \\\"a nice change of pace for that character\\\", but anticipated that \\\"Barry [would] be back two or three episodes in at the latest.\\\" Collider.com's Allison Keene also noted Iris \\\"getting an actual storyline\\\" with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he \\\"[would] be back in the fold by the end of the first episode\\\" alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, \\\"There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech — it’s great!\\\"\\n\\n\",\n \"Johnny Quick\\nJohnny Quick is the name of two DC Comics characters, each with the power of superhuman speed. The first was a superhero who appeared mostly in \\\"More Fun Comics\\\" during the Golden Age. The other was a supervillain, an evil version of The Flash from Earth-Three, originally appearing during the Silver Age. The Golden Age hero has been mostly forgotten while versions of the Crime Syndicate Johnny Quick have continued to appear throughout the modern age.\\nHe was a prominent member of the All-Star Squadron as well as husband to Liberty Belle. His daughter, Jesse Chambers, assumed his speed mantra and became Jesse Quick and served a short while with the Titans.\\nAfter World War II, he periodically was active as a superhero, having encountered Savitar.\\nHe ultimately entered the Speed Force, saving his daughter from Lady Flash - then called Lady Savitar.\\nLater, he was \\\"seemingly\\\" reanimated during the 2009-10 DC comics \\\"Blackest Night\\\" story arc for a short time, but after his daughter Jesse Quick realized that the man in front of her was just an evil mockery of his former self and that his resurrection was a false one, he was forcibly laid to rest again.\\nJohnny Quick was a supervillain on the alternate Earth designated as Earth-Three, but rather than being a counterpart of the Earth-Two Johnny Quick, he was a version of The Flash. He and the other members of the Crime Syndicate of America (all of whom were villainous counterparts of Justice League of America members) were Earth-Three's only superpowered beings, and had never been defeated by Earth-Three's primary hero, Alexander Luthor (a heroic counterpart to Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor). They travelled to Earth-1 as they were out of shape from inactivity, but were defeated by the JLA, Quick by Batman. They were defeated by the JSA, but using a trick imprisoned them and battled the JLA again, where the Flash defeated Quick by making him work up so much speed he couldn't control it and collapsed. The Crime Syndicate are imprisoned by Green Lantern in the vibratory barriers between Earth-1 and 2. Once they were released by time-traveling villain Per Degaton to help him change history and take over Earth-2, though they tried to overthrow him. They tried to get him, but he revealed he had made sure he and his Time Machine would vibrate at a different speed to them, meaning they couldn't touch him. They told him who they were, and he decided to use them. He then made them steal nuclear missiles from the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 on Earth-Prime and brought them back in time to Earth-Two's 1942 by towing them behind his time machine, not caring about the fact war would happen due to this. When they tried to defeat him, they were hurled into 1982 of Earth-1, as he had made sure this would happen if any of them touched him. They materialized on the JLA's satellite headquarters, and defeated the heroes. The JLA traveled to the past and teamed up with the JSA and All-Star Squadron to prevent Per Degaton's plan. When Per Degaton was defeated, these events were erased from existence. Like the rest of the Crime Syndicate, he perished during the \\\"Crisis\\\" at the hands of the Anti-Monitor when a wave of antimatter destroyed Earth-Three.\\nDuring the \\\"Convergence\\\" storyline, Johnny Quick was with the Crime Syndicate when they planned to free Superwoman from death row.\\nThe character was revived in the 1990s as a villain from the \\\"Anti-Matter Universe\\\", rather than being from Earth-Three. Unlike the Flash, Johnny receives his powers by injecting himself with a drug called \\\"Speed Juice\\\" (whether this is a variation of the super-speed inducing drug \\\"Velocity 9\\\" from the regular Flash's Earth is not known). This Johnny Quick is the counterpart of the Wally West Flash. According to Grant Morrison, who created this version of the character, he had a predecessor (corresponding to Barry Allen), whose blood was used to create the Speed Juice. A flashback to the early days of the Crime Syndicate showed this character as resembling the Pre-Crisis version. While Quick is part of that Earth's \\\"Ruling Elite\\\", he is hopelessly addicted to \\\"Speed Juice\\\" and goes into massive physical withdrawal without it. As part of the Tribute the world's leaders present the Crime Syndicate with on a regular basis, they supply Quick with fresh supplies of his drug, sometimes altered to be more euphoric.\\nIn \\\"Justice League of America\\\" #51, Jesse Chambers says \\\"This Johnny Quick has my father's face\\\", implying that the name is more than coincidence and that the New Earth Johnny Quick, and the \\\"original\\\" (Barry Allen counterpart) Antimatter Johnny Quick are genetically the same person.\\nIn \\\"52\\\" Week 52, an alternate version of Earth-Three (called Earth-3) was shown as a part of the new Multiverse. In the depiction were characters that are altered versions of the original Justice League of America, including the Flash. The names of the characters and the team are not mentioned in the two panels in which they appear, but the altered Flash is visually similar to the Crime Syndicate Johnny Quick.\\nBased on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the pre-Crisis Earth-Three, making this a new character unrelated to previous versions. Earth-3 is a world populated by evil counterparts of Earth-2 heroes, where Johnny Quick is part of a \\\"Golden Age\\\" \\\"Crime Society\\\".\\nIn The New 52, Johnny Quick is one of the members of the Crime Syndicate to arrive from Earth 3 at the conclusion of the \\\"Trinity War\\\" event. Johnny Quick, known as Jonathan Allen on Earth 3, works with Rhonda Pineda as professional thieves and killers. One night after killing two cops, \\\"Johnny and Rhonnie\\\", as they are known, end up cornered on the roof of S.T.A.R. Labs during a storm. Lightning hits a satellite, electrocuting Johnny, causing him to gain his powers, while Rhonda also gains hers by falling into the lab near Ray Palmer's Atomico work.\\nDuring the \\\"Forever Evil\\\" storyline, Johnny Quick invades Iron Heights Penitentiary and frees its inmates at the time when the Rogues were in the middle of freeing Trickster. When Lex Luthor's team infiltrates the fallen Watchtower, Johnny Quick joins in the fight against them where Captain Cold uses his cold-gun to freeze Johnny Quick's leg and break it off. When Alexander Luthor of Earth-3 is freed and becomes Mazahs, he kills Johnny Quick and steals his powers.\\nEach of the characters that were named Johnny Quick possess super-speed.\\nThe Crime Syndicate version of Johnny Quick possesses the same abilities as Flash.\",\n \"List of The Flash episodes\\n\\\"The Flash\\\" is an American action television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, and Geoff Johns, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, a costumed crimefighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds. It is a spin-off from \\\"Arrow\\\", existing in the same fictional universe. The series follows Barry Allen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, a crime scene investigator who gains superhuman speed, which he uses to fight criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. \\\"The Flash\\\" was renewed in March 2016 for a third season, which premiered on October 4, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fourth season, which is scheduled to debut on October 10, 2017. s of 23, 2017, episodes of \\\"The Flash \\\" have aired, concluding the first half of the season.\\n<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>\\n\",\n \"Gorilla City (The Flash)\\n\\\"Gorilla City\\\" is a two-part story arc and the thirteenth and fourteenth episodes of the third season of the American television series \\\"The Flash\\\", based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash. A costumed superhero crime-fighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds, Barry is a crime-scene investigator who gains superhuman speed which he uses to fight criminals, including others who also have superhuman abilities. The series is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the television series \\\"Arrow\\\" and \\\"Legends of Tomorrow\\\". The storyline began on February 21, 2017 with \\\"Attack on Gorilla City\\\", and concluded on February 28 with \\\"Attack on Central City\\\". The first episode was written by Aaron Helbing and David Kob from a story by Andrew Kreisberg, and the second episode was written by Benjamin Raab and Deric A. Hughes from a story by Todd Helbing. Both episodes were directed by Dermott Daniel Downs.\\nGrant Gustin portrays Barry Allen / Flash, joined by series regulars Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Tom Cavanagh, Jesse L. Martin and Keiynan Lonsdale and recurring cast members Tom Felton, Violett Beane, and Jessica Camacho. Keith David and David Sobolov guest star as the voices of Solovar and Grodd, respectively. In the first episode, Barry, Caitlin Snow, Cisco Ramon, and Julian Albert travel to Earth-2 to rescue Harry Wells from Gorilla City. They are captured and brought to Grodd, who says that he needs their help to stop Solovar. In the second episode, the Flash and his team must stop Grodd and his army of gorillas from destroying Central City.\\nThe episodes originally aired on The CW. According to Nielsen Media Research, the first episode was seen by 2.78 million viewers and the second by 2.87 million viewers, consistent with ratings for the rest of the season. The episodes received generally-positive reviews from critics.\\nHarry Wells, from Earth-2, is captured when he runs through the woods. Jesse Wells explains that he was leading an expedition to Gorilla City which was ambushed and killed while Wells disappeared. Barry Allen remembers that in the future, Central City will be attacked by gorillas. He, Julian Albert, Cisco Ramon, and Caitlin Snow try to rescue Wells and are captured by Grodd. Speaking through Wells, Grodd asks Barry to assassinate his master Solovar (leader of Gorilla City) to prevent a planned invasion of Central City. Barry agrees to fight Solovar in the arena for the lives of the others; defeating him, he spares his life.\\nGrodd says that he used Barry's victory to convince the apes that humans are dangerous, and plans to force Cisco to open a portal for him to Earth-1. Grodd seizes control of Gorilla City and prepares an invasion of Earth-1. The team asks Caitlin to kill Cisco to prevent Grodd from using him to open a portal, but she refuses. Barry has Caitlin use her powers to fake his death, and Grodd removes him from his cage for disposal. After Grodd leaves, he resuscitates himself and frees the others; they escape, returning to Earth-1. Jesse and her father reunite, and Wally West and Jesse recommit to their relationship. Julian asks Caitlin out on a date. Grodd, in full armor, assembles his army with a brainwashed Gypsy at his side.\\nThe personalities of Harry and H.R. clash. Jesse tells her father that she intends to stay on Earth-1 with Wally, which Harry initially tries to prevent. Harry subdues Gypsy when she ambushes and tries to kill Cisco and Barry, and the team realizes that Grodd and his forces have reached Central City. Gypsy is held captive for a short time before Cisco allows her to return to her earth. Using his powers, Cisco determines that the gorillas will attack the center of town. This turns out to be a distraction by Grodd, who uses telepathy to compel Joe West to commit suicide with his own gun; however, Barry pushes Joe out of the way in time. Grodd abducts a visiting army general. Barry considers killing Grodd the only way to stop him and change the future, but Harry encourages him to find a better way.\\nControlling the general, Grodd attempts a nuclear-missile strike on the city. Barry prevents the attack, and Grodd and his gorilla army invade the city. Cisco travels to Earth-19 to ask Gypsy for help. The speedsters distract the soldiers while Cisco and Gypsy bring Solovar to Earth-1; Solovar defeats Grodd and assumes leadership again. All the gorillas return to Earth-2 except Grodd, who is turned over to A.R.G.U.S. Gypsy kisses Cisco before she returns home, and Barry proposes to Iris. When he picks up dinner for Jesse, Wally is confronted by Savitar.\\nGrodd, first mentioned in the show's pilot, appeared in the first two seasons. At the end of the seventh episode of season two, \\\"Gorilla Warfare\\\", Team Flash lured Grodd to a dimensional breach and sent him to a jungle sanctuary on Earth-2 for gorillas who have been experimented on. In January 2016, executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said that he intended to wait to tell the next chapter of Grodd's story for a multi-episode arc. He compared Gorilla City to the storyline of Ra's al Ghul and Nanda Parbat from \\\"Arrow\\\", noting \\\"it's a long-term thing\\\". In August 2016, Kreisberg confirmed Grodd's return in the third season of \\\"The Flash\\\", saying, \\\"Yes, we’re going to be doing a two-part episode that takes place in Gorilla City.\\\"\\nIn January 2017, it was announced that the two-part arc would air on episodes thirteen and fourteen of the series' third season. According to Kreisberg, \\\"One of the episodes will take place in Gorilla City and one of them will take place on Earth-1\\\". In February 2017, The CW said that the first part of the \\\"Gorilla City\\\" storyline would be entitled \\\"Attack on Gorilla City\\\" and would be written by Aaron Helbing and David Kob from a story by Andrew Kreisberg. The second part, \\\"Attack on Central City\\\", would be written by Benjamin Raab and Deric A. Hughes based on a story by Todd Helbing.\\nDavid Sobolov, the voice of Grodd, said that the character evolved since he was last seen in season two, which \\\"makes the plot more interesting\\\". Sobolov said, \\\"I have a feeling that when he comes back, he's not going to be very giving or loving to the humans since they all betrayed him\\\", adding \\\"They do a great job of writing on [this] show and giving them a more intelligent gorilla gives them more possibilities\\\". Carlos Valdes called the episodes' tone \\\"one of fear, because when you suddenly find yourself in the cold African jungles of Earth-2 and you hear the sound of omnipresent gorillas roaring at you, it kind of makes you shake in your boots\\\".\\nMain cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh and Jesse L. Martin appear in the episodes as Barry Allen / Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, H.R. Wells and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh also plays Harry Wells from Earth-2. The guest cast for the episodes includes Tom Felton as Julian Albert, Violett Beane as Jesse Chambers Wells / Jesse Quick and Jessica Camacho as Gypsy; all are recurring characters in the series. In January 2017, Keith David was cast to voice Solovar, a longtime ally of the Flash in DC Comics and the leader of Gorilla City. David Sobolov confirmed his return as the voice of Grodd. In \\\"Attack on Central City\\\", Sean Poague appears as Accelerated Man, a Speed Force Conduit and Earth-19's version of the Flash, and Paul Jarrett was General McNally; both received co-starring credit.\\nThe episodes were filmed from December 2016 to January 18, 2017. Automated dialogue replacement took place in post-production at the beginning of February. Both episodes were directed by Dermott Daniel Downs, who directed the previous two Grodd-centric episodes \\\"Grodd Lives\\\" and \\\"Gorilla Warfare\\\". A placeholder for Grodd was used on-set to give the actors someone to react to, and Sobolov could see (and react to) their performances. Due to snow in Vancouver, filming of the \\\"Gorilla City\\\" scenes had to be moved south of the original site. Visual effects for both episodes were handled by Encore Post. According to post-production producer Jeff Garrett, episodes with Grodd cost 50 percent more than other Flash episodes.\\nThe first part \\\"Attack on Gorilla City\\\" aired on February 21, 2017, and concluded with part two \\\"Attack on Central City\\\" on February 28, both on The CW. The event was simulcast with the US broadcast in Canada on CTV for the first part, after which the series moved to CTV Two for the second part and the rest of the season. Both episodes, along with the rest of \\\"The Flash\\\"' s third season, will be released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 5, 2017, including a behind-the-scenes featurette about the episodes. On May 31, 2017, the episodes became available for streaming on Netflix, along with the rest of the third season.\\nScott Von Doviak of \\\"The A.V. Club\\\" wrote, \\\"The two-part Gorilla City adventure serves as a showcase for ambition outstripping budget and ingenuity. Berlanti and company clearly want to deliver on the goofy anything-goes appeal of DC’s Silver Age, and it’s to their credit that they keep trying to pull off these fan-friendly events. It’s a hit-and-miss proposition: for every giddy success, like the first visit to Earth-2, there’s a clunky outing like this one, where the limitations of weekly television are laid bare. Still, I’d never want the creative team to stop swinging for the fences, even if the result is a harmless pop-up to the infield\\\". Vinnie Mancuso of the \\\"New York Observer\\\" said that \\\"'Gorilla City' was some of the most fun TV in a long time ... This two-part tale of a psychic gorilla gone rogue isn’t going to win any Emmys—not even the CGI is that good—but it was a blast to experience\\\". Mancuso described it as \\\"somehow a perfect example of both High Art and Low Art. It was Exact Middle Art\\\".\\nJesse Schedeen of IGN rated \\\"Attack on Central City\\\" 8.4 out of 10, saying that the episode \\\"didn't quite reach the heights of last year's \\\"Welcome to Earth-2\\\"\\\" but the episode \\\"was hardly lacking in entertainment value\\\" with \\\"plenty of CG gorilla goodness\\\" even if it was obvious \\\"where the crew was cutting corners\\\". He enjoyed the \\\"heavy dose of Harrison Wells and [the] new wrinkles to Barry's ongoing 'fight the future' mission\\\". Von Doviak graded the episode B+, saying that it \\\"was never going to deliver the full-on comic book version of the title location, so it's pointless to gripe about the weekly version of \\\"The Flash\\\" not having the budget of a \\\"Planet of the Apes\\\" movie. The closest it comes is the closing scene, with Grodd and his troops clad in full battle armor, having found a way to invade Central City after all. The story has not yet been fully told, and we’ll have to wait until next week to find out exactly how much ape mayhem this show is really prepared to deliver ... The episode has enough going for it that it's easy to forgive some of the visual shortcomings\\\".\\nChancellor Agard of \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" also graded the episode B+, saying that it \\\"might not have been the most dramatic episode, since it was part one of a two-parter, it was still a very entertaining hour that benefited a lot from the change in scenery ... The trip to Earth-2 infuses The Flash with a level of suspense that's been missing for awhile, and it's clear from director Dermott Downs' many sweeping shots of the completely CGI'd Gorilla City that he's relishing the opportunity to transport viewers to this part of the DC Universe ... The Flash's battle against Solivar pushes the show's special effects budget to the limits. That being said, it doesn't make the fight any less entertaining\\\". Carla Day of Collider.com gave the episode four stars out of five, calling it \\\"a promising start\\\": \\\"Overall Grodd's plan was one of the strongest aspects of the episode and sets up next week's major gorilla vs. human battle on Earth-1. The letdown was the lack of intelligence shown by Team Flash at times ... The fight between Solovar and The Flash was impressive, especially for a CW show, as the stadium visuals reflected the epic scope of the event for Gorilla City\\\". Erik Kain of \\\"Forbes\\\" said that the episode \\\"was a lot of fun, with one of the best CGI fight scenes we've seen yet from the superhero show\\\". He praised the \\\"impressive fight scene\\\": \\\"For a TV show, the CGI was really pretty incredible ... [and] was a really entertaining fight\\\". He was \\\"less fond of the Wally/Jesse scenes\\\", noting that Team Flash had become \\\"too big\\\" and \\\"the show [felt] increasingly crowded\\\".\\nGiving \\\"Attack on Central City\\\" 8.5 out of 10, Schedeen said: \\\"\\\"The Flash\\\" wrapped up an ambitious two-part storyline in fine form this week. Once again the show was forced to rely on Gorilla Grodd and his gorilla army sparingly, but the final showdown between Grodd and Solovar offered a truly epic finish to the conflict. And along the way, there was plenty of amusing character drama and a subtle focus on the growing pressure Barry faces as he tries to protect Iris\\\". Von Doviak graded the episode B-, calling it \\\"another downbeat, self-serious exploration of team dynamics and speedster soul-searching\\\"; \\\"the promised gorilla invasion of Central City plays more like Waiting For Grodd-o for most of\\\" the episode. He added, \\\"The slugfest between Grodd and Solovar up and down the side of a skyscraper plays a bit like a cut scene from a King Kong video game, but it comes as a relief after the largely action-free episode leading up to it\\\".\\nAgard said that \\\"Attack on Central City\\\" wasn't \\\"as exhilarating\\\" as the first episode. However, he felt that it \\\"did a pretty good job of picking up the threads of part one, particularly when it came to the importance of hope. It's been a while since the show has embraced the optimism of its premise, so it was nice to see both Barry and Gyspy step up to the plate. Furthermore, I loved Harry and H.R.'s interactions, as Harry spent the entire episode reminding H.R. that he wasn't a genius. There was something weird about Tom Cavanagh's portrayal of Harry, who was grumpier than usual, but that's a quibble. Cavanagh is one of the show's best assets, and he makes H.R. work through sheer force of will\\\". Agard gave the episode a B grade. Collider.com's Evan Valentine said that the episode \\\"was an extremely solid episode of the Flash, one of the better installments of the season in fact. It managed to play well on the series strength, though it was also hampered by some pacing issues ... \\\"Attack on Central City\\\" was certainly ambitious. Dedicating an episode to the Flash team dealing with an army of sentient, super-powered apes from an alternate reality is a storyline that you'd expect from a comic book, but not so much from a prime time television show. Understandably, the show's budget didn't allow for the entire episode to be devoted to Flash fighting a telepathic gorilla twice his size, but thanks to the strength of the characters, we're able to forget about the special effect shenanigans and focus on the interactions they all have with one another\\\". He gave the episode four stars out of five, praising \\\"the 'balls to the wall' method that the creators have taken in attempting to bring a comic book to life here\\\".\\n\",\n \"Johnny Quick (Johnny Chambers)\\nJohnny Quick is a Golden Age DC Comics character with the power of superhuman speed. He was a superhero who appeared mostly in \\\"More Fun Comics\\\" during the Golden Age. In the 1980s Johnny Quick's adventures were reconnected into the reality of DC Comics' Earth-Two; this was done in the pages of the comic book the \\\"All-Star Squadron\\\".\\nJohnny Quick is in truth Mr. Johnny Chambers, a newsreel photographer for Sees-All/Tells-All News. He invokes his power by reciting a mathematical formula (\\\"3X2(9YZ)4A\\\") taught to him by his childhood guardian, Professor Gill, who had in turn derived it from inscriptions found in a Pharaoh's tomb. After learning the secret to gaining superhuman speed, Johnny chooses to work as a mystery-man.\\nIn 1941 Johnny Chambers puts on his scarlet uniform for the first time. He works alone at first and then gains the help of his friend and newsreel assistant Tubby Watts. December of that same year, however, proves a turning point in Johnny’s life. While on assignment in Los Angeles, California, he is one of the last people to see the Flash before that mystery-man’s kidnapping at the behest of the time-travelling villain Per Degaton. Due to the time paradoxes inherent in Dr. Zee’s 1947 technology, the events of that first week of December, any and all which surround the villain’s intrusion from the future, become undone to one extent or another when Degaton returns to the future. Though Johnny Chambers loses his memory of the details of that week (along with the other heroes and Degaton himself), in the end he goes from lone mystery-man to member of President Roosevelt’s All-Star Squadron.\\nThat pivotal adventure began with Johnny following the trail of the disappearing JSA members. He makes his way to Washington, D.C. and encounters, for the first time, Miss Libby Lawrence. As Johnny Quick he meets Liberty Belle, Plastic Man, Dr. Mid-Nite, the Hawkman, Robotman, and the Atom, and with these heroes meets with President Roosevelt. They are told of the Japanese attack on the American Fleet at Pearl Harbor. President Roosevelt announces to this handful his desire that the Justice Society of America mobilize all American costumed heroes into a single unit, an All-Star Squadron, responsible directly to the President. Their first mission is to fly to the west coast and search out any saboteurs and hopefully prevent any Japanese attack on the US mainland. (\\\"All-Star Squadron\\\" 1, 9.1981)\\nThat very same day Johnny helps save San Francisco as well as the town of Monterey from Degaton’s hypnotized Japanese pilots and their fearsome Zeroes. He also helps his comrades while in Degaton’s super-submarine (before it winked out of existence). (\\\"All-Star Squadron\\\" 2-3, 1981). The assembled heroes then use their unique powers to travel to Hawaii and see the terrible consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor. They also see firsthand the supernatural effects of the Spear of Destiny and Holy Grail, and learn that even \\\"super\\\" men can become manipulated by magic. The Axis now has an invisible barrier about their tactical fronts that will snare any magical mystery-man and cause them to fight for tyranny. (\\\"All-Star Squadron\\\" 4, 1982)\\nAs for Johnny and Libby, from their first meeting the tension between them is evident as they immediately enter into a flirtatious relationship. The relationship endures many hardships in the next few months especially when Libby takes on responsibilities as Chairwoman of the Squadron after being voted in by secret ballot, but nonetheless the relationship perseveres and the two wed on April 1, 1942.\\nIn those first few months of the All-Stars Johnny and the Squadron are actively involved with President Roosevelt and the visiting Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill. Johnny not only protects Churchill from Nazis, the super-Nazi called Baron Blitzkrieg, and from brain-washed POWs (in the form of Commander Steel), he too saves the Statue of Liberty and the National Monument from attacks by Nazi sympathizers. He also travels to the Yucatán, Mexico, in the days before Christmas in order to help Carter Hall rescue his fiancee Miss Shiera Sanders. There, too, they fight Nazis and Mexican Nazi sympathizers. (\\\"All-Star Squadron\\\" 5-9, 1982)\\nEarly January finds Johnny present when an eye-shaped craft flies over Washington D.C. From it there materializes a tall being who claims to be Akhet, an alien and representative of the space-faring Binary Brotherhood. This is all a trick orchestrated by Hath-Set (in his reincarnated identity of Dr. Anton Hastor). This \\\"alien\\\" and alien ship appear over various cities and locations the world over and the message is always the same: \\\"All Earth’s nations must surrender to Akhet, as emissary of the Brotherhood. All who resist will be obliterated\\\". For a brief moment in the history of the terrible World War, all the leaders become united against a common threat. Hitler, Mussolini, and Tojo all send word to Roosevelt and Churchill that they are ready to join in common defense against the alien. This union never comes about, however, for various heroes of the All-Star Squadron are able to discover the deception and defeat Hath-Set. (\\\"All-Star Squadron\\\" 10-12, 1982)\\nIn early February the members of the disbanded JSA are missing...again. An emergency meeting of the All-Stars is called and the Tarantula is invited for the first time. The meeting is interrupted by an attack by a crazed 'Fairytales' Fenton and after he is dealt with, the All-Stars head over to the grounds of the 1939 New York World's Fair where a mysterious threat is being broadcast in Morse Code. This results in the All-Stars meeting, for the first time in combat, the Brain Wave. Within the Perisphere the group find the comatose bodies of the JSAers and are given an ultimatum – enter into the dream world crafted by the villain and save the heroes from within, or else be killed. Johnny and company enter into the dreamscape but they fail as quickly as did the JSAers. Only the timely intervention of the Green Lantern saves the heroes and destroys the dream machine. After Brain Wave’s defeat the group chooses the Perisphere and Trylon as their new HQ. (\\\"All-Star Squadron\\\" 18-21, 1983)\\nThis adventure quickly leads into the next as Johnny finds himself with Danette Reilly when they are attacked by the man calling himself the Cyclotron, but Johnny can't keep Danette from being kidnapped. He joins with Robotman and Commander Steel and soon they discover that the Cyclotron is only a minion of the Ultra-Humanite. After yet another battle, Robotman is taken captive. In his civilian identity, Johnny is present at the \\\"Carole Lombard Memorial War Bond Drive\\\" in Manhattan. It just so happens that that is the site of the Ultra-Humanite’s next attack. Though he saves numerous lives, he also suffers grave injuries and is taken to the hospital. After leaving the hospital early, he makes his way to the Perisphere and meets up with a small group of mystery-men, including the Flash. The All-Stars have already traveled to three separate cities in danger of disaster at the hands of the Ultra-Humanite: Brooklyn, Detroit, Los Angeles, and suffered various defeats. Johnny joins with the groups and together they defeat the villain.\\nDuring the War Johnny meets other speedsters, the Flash and Quicksilver (Max Mercury). Quicksilver becomes a mentor for Johnny, though the hotheaded Johnny does not always take his advice easily. In 1948 Quicksilver disappears and in the 1950s Johnny retires (for the most part) as a mystery-man. In the 1960s, however, Quicksilver reappears and saves Johnny from Savitar. The two together fight the villain with Quicksilver and Savitar disappearing in a flash of light and neither reappearing for decades. Johnny, for his part, rarely puts on his speedster’s uniform after that and concentrates on other aspects of his life.\\nIn the 1950s, after committing to retirement, Johnny begins research on the formula that unlocks his speed. Quicksilver had told him that the formula was merely his way of tapping into the other-dimensional power known as the Speed Force. Scientists balk at the idea that the formula gives him power, and theorize that the power was genetic. Neither theory convinces Johnny, and he seeks his conclusions in the mystic arts, seeing the formula as a mantra, unlocking his potential.\\nThis theory had an effect on Johnny, as he began lecturing at universities and delivering seminars, trying to preach this newfound philosophy to the world. To achieve this goal he founded Quickstart Enterprises, which created and endorsed products of potential-unlocking quality, as well as videotapes of Johnny's lectures. This led to his wife, Libby, leaving him, embarrassed.\\nThanks to his abilities, Johnny's age was retarded, keeping his appearance younger and vigorous, despite his true age. After the Justice Society of America returned following a long absence, Johnny assisted them occasionally. Together with the Justice Society, Johnny would face the villain Extant during the time-event known as Zero Hour. Like the other heroes present, Johnny was aged considerably by the villain. Though he was now much older physically, he did not relinquish his hero-ing activities, and together with his daughter (now calling herself Jesse Quick) helped train the time-displaced Impulse.\\nSome time afterwards, Johnny meets with Iris Allen, widow of Barry Allen, who warns him that trouble was forthcoming for users of the Speed Force. Johnny refuses to believe his power was not his own, till moments later he finds himself without his speed, thanks to the manipulations of the returned Savitar. Johnny is grudgingly forced to accept the Speed Force's existence.\\nIn the final battle with Savitar, Johnny Quick sacrifices himself to save his daughter's life and runs into the Speed Force, merging with it. In \\\"Infinite Crisis\\\" #4, he assists Max Mercury and Bart Allen in confining the murderous Superboy-Prime by taking the villain into and past the Speed Force.\\nDue to Professor Zoom's , Johnny Quick is later seen by his daughter, Jesse and her husband, the current Hourman begging Barry Allen to spare Jesse's life. It's then revealed that Professor Zoom altered the Speed Force and Barry to make the Silver Age Flash \\\"shift in reverse\\\", and cursed to kill every Speed Force user with a single touch. Zoom forces Johnny into touching Barry, making the former decay and crumble to dust in mere seconds. His daughter Jesse taking the mantle of Johnny's costume with Wally West uses his connection to the Speed Force to rejuvenate the speedsters and, in the process, repair Jesse's suits.\\nIn the solicited tie-in \\\"Blackest Night\\\" storyline, Johnny was reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps. The scene where Liberty Belle is found by her father, Johnny Quick, who claims that Jesse's love for her father was the reason he came back. Jesse says that she has a uniform like his and quickly changes into it by reciting the mathematical formula that her father originally used and calls herself Jesse Quick. The two speedsters then run off. While, across the globe, Jesse Quick is running with her father Black Lantern Johnny Quick trying to enjoy the time she's spending with her father, while thinking that she must be with her husband, the modern-day Hourman. Jesse continues to run with her father, remembering her childhood memories of when they used to jog together around their neighborhood and Johnny would let her win, feeling thankful that she was able to spend only a few moments. Mr. Terrific had managed to create a one-time use machine which destroys all the Black Lanterns in New York city, Johnny included.\\nJohnny Chambers had as his trusty assistant and confidant Tubby Watts (also of See-All-Tell-All News). He worked with, romanced and married Libby Lawrence aka Liberty Belle, and he also worked with all the members of the Wartime All-Star Squadron. During his time with the Squadron, Johnny met the members of the JSA and developed a strong but friendly rivalry with Jay Garrick, the first Flash.\\nJohnny Quick reappeared briefly during the Infinite Crisis storyline with Max Mercury and Barry Allen to assist Bart Allen (the second Kid Flash) wrestle Superboy-Prime into the Speed Force.\\n\",\n \"Kid Flash\\nKid Flash is the name of several fictional characters appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, originally created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, as a junior counterpart to DC Comics superhero The Flash. The first version of the character, Wally West, debuted in \\\"The Flash\\\" (vol. 1) #110 (1959). The character, along with others like the first Wonder Girl, Aqualad, and Speedy, was created in response to the success of Batman's young sidekick Robin. These young heroes would later be spun off into their own superhero team, the Teen Titans. As Kid Flash, Wally West made regular appearances in Flash related comic books and other DC Comics publications from 1959 through the mid-1980s until the character was reinvented as the new version of The Flash.\\nLater, well after Wally West had made a name for himself as the new Flash, the character of Bart Allen, grandson of the second Flash Barry Allen, was brought into the past from his home in the future and served as the young hero Impulse. In 2003, with writer Geoff Johns' relaunch of a new \\\"Young justice\\\" volume, Bart donned the mantle of Kid Flash after being nearly killed by the assassin Deathstroke. As Kid Flash, Bart appeared in \\\"Teen Titans\\\" and \\\"The Flash\\\" (vol. 2) regularly until the \\\"Infinite Crisis\\\" event, where a disappearance of Wally West made Bart the fourth Flash. Apparently killed by the Rogues, Bart was resurrected in the 31st century by Legion of Super-Heroes member Brainiac 5 and retook the mantle of Kid Flash. Following a 2011 reboot, DC introduced a new interpretation of Wally West as its latest Kid Flash in 2014, later established as being the original Wally's younger cousin.\\nOutside of Iris West, Kid Flash was the first person to whom Flash revealed the secret of his double-identity (\\\"Flash\\\" #120, May, 1961). In that story, the two speedsters were inadvertently thrown 25 million years into the past, where they battled a race of golden humanoids. It was only the first of many time-trips for the pair, who teamed up next to try out Flash's Cosmic Treadmill.\\nShortly after meeting Flash's friend Elongated Man, Kid Flash received his own unique uniform. The Flash, who had been toying with a new design for Wally, was inspecting an alien mind over-matter machine when, in a burst of light, the new costume sprang from his mind and onto the body of his protégé. Since the new outfit exposed Wally's bright red hair, Flash provided his costume-storage ring with a special instant-dye spray with which he could easily change his hair color, as Wally, to brown.\\nThe boy speedster first met Robin and Aqualad in \\\"The Brave and the Bold\\\" #54 (June–July, 1964), in an adventure that would predicate the formation of the Teen Titans shortly thereafter. Kid Flash remained a member in good standing of that team, though his participation limited his involvement in solo adventures considerably. At 18 Wally revealed his alter-ego to his parents Bob and Mary for the first time, chose his university (Taggart), and confided to the Flash his intentions to retire from super-heroing upon graduation from college so that he might live a normal life.\\nAs it happened, he left his crime-fighting career behind even before that, when he retired from the third incarnation of the Teen Titans for personal reasons, including a desire to devote more time to studying, to his new girlfriend Frances Kane, and because, as a result of his changing metabolism, he was beginning to lose his powers.\\nKid Flash came out of retirement to fight in the \\\"Crisis on Infinite Earths\\\", and was hit harder than anyone when the heroes found Flash's costume and ring and realized that their compatriot was dead. However, even though a blast from the Anti-Monitor reduced Wally's top speed to that of sound, it cured him of his metabolic malady. This, combined with the desire to honor his mentor and friend, caused Wally West to discard his Kid Flash identity and, instead, adopt the name and costume of Flash. However, after fully accepting that Barry was not returning, West removed a mental block, unlocking his true powers. This made him just as fast as Barry Allen and at one point, even faster. He also acquired unique abilities such as sharing and stealing speed, and accessing the speed force itself, allowing time travel. When it was eventually discovered that Barry Allen was, in fact, alive, Wally took on his own version of the Flash costume, fighting alongside Barry Allen, Bart Allen (Impulse or for a time Kid Flash).\\nIris West is the Kid Flash that originally appeared in \\\"Kingdom Come\\\", a story set in the \\\"near\\\" future of the DC Universe. While this story has been treated as a separate continuity from the main DC Universe, versions of the character have been featured in time travel and Hypertime related stories.\\nBart, the child from the future known as the hero Impulse, After Max Mercury disappeared in the timestream, Bart took up residence in Keystone City with Jay Garrick, the original Flash, and Jay's wife Joan.\\nWhen a mysterious android from the future known as Indigo attacked the Titans and Young Justice, it resulted in the apparent deaths of Donna Troy and Omen. At Donna's funeral, Nightwing disbanded the Titans. The members of Young Justice, especially Wonder Girl, felt responsible for the tragic deaths. This led Wonder Girl, Robin, Impulse and Superboy to form a new group of Teen Titans under the guidance of the more experienced Cyborg, Starfire and Beast Boy. Despite Wally West's misgivings, Bart accepted an invitation to join the new Teen Titans.\\nBart was later injured when Deathstroke put a shotgun to his leg. Thankfully, his accelerated healing enabled a handful of surgeons to replace his kneecap with an artificial one, and Bart was back on his feet in a matter of hours, but the effects of this encounter were much more than physical. Feeling unsure and tired of being underestimated, Bart went to the local public library and read every single book in the building. He retained that knowledge and balanced it with lack of experience. With a renewed sense of confidence, Bart left his impulsive rep behind and returned to the team as Kid Flash.\\nWhen Superboy-Prime ran amok during the \\\"Infinite Crisis\\\", Kid Flash and the super-speedsters raced to stop his rampage. While running to subdue the deranged Teen of Steel, Wally West disappeared in a burst of lightning (later to return). Meanwhile, the speedsters' combined might defeated Superboy-Prime, but severed their connection to the Speed Force in the process. Bart returned to warn the heroes of Superboy-Prime's escape. But while mere moments had passed in the present, Bart returned from his time-bending journey four years older. Bart handed his grandfather's costume to Jay Garrick, claiming he used up all his speed powers during the final battle.\\nBart still had his powers, but faced with the guilt over Superboy-Prime's escape, he initially decided to retire his costume. He took a job as a factory worker in Keystone City, but soon realized he must use his abilities to protect innocents. Although Bart found new challenges in harnessing the speed force, he accepted his destiny as the latest Flash in the Allen family tradition. In his efforts to tame the speed force inside him, Bart turned to S.T.A.R. Labs intern, Valerie Perez, and their relationship quickly blossomed into a full-blown romance.\\nOnce accepting the mantle of the Flash, Bart moved to Los Angeles, California and enrolled in the Police Academy. Robin asked him to join the Titans but Bart declined, saying he’d rather work towards membership in the Justice League of America. Shortly after resuming the mantle, Iris Allen warned Bart that if he fought the newly formed league of Rogues, he would not survive. Inertia, in a plan to steal the speed force energy for himself, manipulated the Rogues into battle with Bart. As a depowered Bart fought valiantly against the combined might of the Rogues, he saw the spectre of the Black Flash, and died as Iris Allen and Valerie Perez were left to mourn him.\\nLater on New Earth, during the \\\"Final Crisis\\\" storyline, Superman was called to the thirty-first century to assist the Legion of Super-Heroes in fending off Superboy-Prime, who was thrown to the future in the aftermath of the destruction of Earth-51 and the \\\"Sinestro Corps War\\\". Prime, raging about his minor place in history as a Superman rival, released the entire Legion of Super-Villains from the prison planet Takron-Galtos and waged war on Earth and the Legion. In response to this, Brainiac 5 summoned the Legions of Three Worlds (alternate earths) to combat Prime's forces. Revealing that the Legion had captured \\\"living lightning\\\" in the Legion's last trip to present Earth in \\\"The Lightning Saga\\\", Brainiac 5 had Legionnaire XS run on the cosmic treadmill while the three Lightning Lads activated the \\\"lightning rod\\\" to release the living lightning. Although he tried to stop them, Superboy-Prime was unable to stop the lightning from being unleashed. A fully formed alive-and-well Bart Allen, in his Kid Flash uniform, appeared before him.\\nWhen the New 52 universe began, the Kid Flash working with the Titans was known as Bart Allen. He ended up with a different backstory, and eventually was written out of the storyline. He was later replaced as Kid Flash by the New 52 version of Wally West.\\nWally West II is the third and current Kid Flash of the main DC Comics Universe. He first appeared in \\\"The Flash Annual\\\" (Vol. 4) #3. He is the son of the fifth Reverse Flash, Daniel West, and cousin of the first Kid Flash and third Flash, Wally West.\\n\",\n \"Sport bike\\nA sportbike, or sports bike, is a motorcycle optimized for speed, acceleration, braking, and cornering on paved roads, typically at the expense of comfort and fuel economy by comparison with other motorcycles. Soichiro Honda wrote in the owner's manual of the 1959 Honda CB92 Benly Super Sport that, \\\"Primarily, essentials of the motorcycle consists in the speed and the thrill,\\\" while \\\"Cycle World's\\\" Kevin Cameron says that, \\\"A sportbike is a motorcycle whose enjoyment consists mainly from its ability to perform on all types of paved highway – its cornering ability, its handling, its thrilling acceleration and braking power, even (dare I say it?) its speed.\\\"\\nMotorcycles are versatile and may be put to many uses as the rider sees fit. In the past there were few if any specialized types of motorcycles, but the number of types and sub-types has proliferated, particularly in the period since the 1950s. The introduction of the Honda CB750 in 1969 marked a dramatic increase in the power and speed of practical and affordable sport bikes available to the general public. This was followed in the 1970s by improvements in suspension and braking commensurate with the power of the large inline fours that had begun to dominate the sport bike world. In the 1980s sport bikes again took a leap ahead, becoming almost indistinguishable from racing motorcycles. Since the 1990s sport bikes have become more diverse, adding new variations like the naked bike and streetfighter to the more familiar road racing style of sport bike.\\nWith the emphasis of a sport bike being on speed, acceleration, braking, and maneuverability, there are certain design elements that most motorcycles of this type will share. Rider ergonomics favor function. This generally means higher foot pegs that move the legs closer to the body and more of a reach to a lower set of hand controls, such as clip on handlebars, which positions the body and weight forward and over the tank. Sport bikes have comparatively high-performance engines resting inside a lightweight frame. High tech and expensive materials are often used on sport bikes to reduce weight.\\nBraking systems combine higher performance brake pads and disc brakes with multi-piston calipers that clamp onto oversized vented rotors. Suspension systems are advanced in terms of adjustments and materials for increased stability and durability. Front and rear tires are larger and wider than tires found on other types of motorcycles to allow higher cornering speeds and greater lean angles. Fairings may or may not be used on a sport bike; when used, fairings are shaped to reduce aerodynamic drag as much as possible and provide wind protection for the rider.\\nThe combination of rider position, location of the engine and other heavy components, and the motorcycle's geometry help maintain structural integrity and chassis rigidity, and determine how it will behave under acceleration, braking, and cornering. Correct front-to-rear weight distribution is of particular importance to the handling of sport bikes, and the changing position of the rider's body dynamically changes the handling of the motorcycle. Because of the complexity of modeling all the possible movements of different sized riders, to approach perfect tuning of a motorcycle's weight distribution and suspension is often only possible by having a bike customized or at least adjusted to fit a specific rider. Generally, road racing style sport bikes have shorter wheelbases than those intended for more comfortable touring, and the current trend in sport bike design is towards shorter wheelbases, giving quicker turning at the expense of a greater tendency for unintentional wheelies and stoppies under hard acceleration and braking, respectively.\\nThere is no universal authority defining the terminology of sport bikes or any other motorcycle classes. Legal definitions are limited by local jurisdiction, and race sanctioning bodies like the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) and the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) set rules that only apply to those who choose to participate in their competitions. Nonetheless, by present day standards in Europe, North America and the rest of the developed world, sport bikes are usually divided into three, four, or five rough categories, reflecting vaguely similar engine displacement, horsepower, price and intended use, with a good measure of subjective opinion and simplification. Marketing messages about a model from the manufacturer can diverge from the consensus of the motorcycling media and the public. Sometimes the classes used in motorcycle racing are approximated in production models, often but not always in connection with homologation.\\nThe sport bike classes in common usage are:\\nThe terms supersport and superbike are sometimes applied indiscriminately to all high-performance motorcycles. Categorization by engine displacement alone is a crude measure, particularly when comparing engines with different numbers of cylinders like inline or V fours with parallel and V twins, not to mention the greater power for a given displacement of two-stroke engines over four strokes.\\nIn the less developed world, smaller engine sizes are the norm, and relative terms like small, mid-sized and large displacement can have different meanings. For example, in India in 2002 there were about 37 million two-wheelers, but as of 2008, there were only about 3,000 motorcycles, or fewer than one in 12,000, of displacement 1000 cc or more. Similarly, the perception of relative sizes has shifted over time in developed countries, from smaller to larger displacements. When the original superbike, the Honda CB750, appeared in 1969, it was called a \\\"big four,\\\" while today an inline four of 736.5 cc would be classed in the middle range.\\nBesides having product lines that span from entry level through high end sport bikes, many manufacturers add depth to that line by having pairs, or several pairs, of similar sport bikes aimed at riders of different levels. These are designed to appeal to riders seeking more or less extreme performance features. The more expensive model will be in the vein of a race replica, offering the latest technology updated with frequent design revisions, while the lower cost model typically relies on older technology, can have a more relaxed riding position, and is generally more practical for non-road racing tasks such as urban commuting and carrying passengers or baggage, and offering lower fuel, insurance and maintenance costs. Examples of these paired models are Buell's Firebolt and Lightning, Ducati's 916/748 through 1198/848 paired series, Honda's CBR600RR and F4i middleweights and RC51 and CBR1000RR liter-class, several different concurrent models in Kawasaki's Ninja line, and Yamaha's R6 and 600R.\\nSport touring motorcycles share many features of sport bikes, but they are generally considered a class all their own. These are mid- to large-sized motorcycles that offer more carrying capacity, more relaxed ergonomics, and more versatility than specialized sport bikes, while being lighter and more agile than touring motorcycles. Some sport bikes are marketed as race replicas, implying that the model sold to the public is identical to the one used in racing, or at least is closer to the racing version than non-replica models. Suffixes \\\"R\\\" or \\\"RR\\\" applied to model codes can be interpreted as standing for replica or race replica.\\n\\\"Race Replica\\\" was used in the late 1970s UK where 250 cc models customized with full bodykits providing race-styling in factory team colors themed to the top-level of sponsored riders of the time were available marketed towards 'learner' riders who had not passed a driving test enabling their progression to large-capacity machines. In 1982 Yamaha described their 1983 RD350 YPVS launched at the Cologne motorcycle show as \\\"the nearest thing to a road going racer ever produced\\\".\\nThe term race replica was then also used to distinguish the period of sport bike production from Japan and Europe since the mid-1980s having integrated race-styled bodywork, representing an evolution from the superbike period that began in 1969. The sport bike, or race replica, era began with the 1983 Suzuki RG250 Gamma, the 1984 Honda VF750F and the 1985 Suzuki GSX-R750, and had full fairings. Sport bikes with small or no fairings have proliferated since the mid-1990s. These are called naked bikes or streetfighters, and they retain many of the performance features of other sport bikes, but besides abbreviated bodywork, they give the rider a more upright posture by using, for example, higher handlebars instead of clip ons. The streetfighter name, associated with motorcycle stunt riding and perhaps hooliganism on public roads, can imply higher performance than the sometimes more tame naked bike, which in some cases is a synonym for a standard motorcycle. Others define naked bikes as equal in power and performance to sport bikes, merely absent the bodywork.\\nThe same period that saw the naked and streetfighter variants of the sport bike theme also had a resurgence of the versatile standard in response to demand for a return of the Universal Japanese Motorcycle. Supermoto-style street bikes, constructed with a completely different set of priorities than a road racing style sport bike, have also entered the mainstream, offering another option for riders seeking a spirited riding experience. The nickname muscle bike has been applied to sport bikes that give engine output a disproportionate priority over braking, handling or aerodynamics, harking back to the Japanese superbikes of the 1970s. A similar sensibility drives the so-called power cruiser motorcycles, based on cruiser class machines but with horsepower numbers in league with superbikes.\",\n \"Silver Streak (comics)\\nSilver Streak is a fictional superhero character created by Joe Simon that first appeared in \\\"Silver Streak Comics\\\" #3 (cover-dated March 1940), from Lev Gleason Publications. He is believed to be the second-ever comic book superhero whose primary power is speed; All-American Publications' The Flash preceded him by two months. However, Silver Streak beat out National Allied Publications' Johnny Quick (who debuted in 1941) as the first superhero whose two powers were speed and flight. Silver Streak has a kid sidekick called \\\"Mercury\\\" (soon changed to \\\"Meteor\\\"); he is also assisted by a hawk named \\\"Whiz\\\".\\n\\\"Silver Streak Comics\\\" was originally published by Arthur Bernhardt’s Rhoda Publications, and the title was inspired by Bernhardt's car, a Pontiac Silver Streak. With issue #3, the title was taken over by Lev Gleason Publications and Silver Streak himself first appeared.\\nSilver Streak appeared in \\\"Silver Streak Comics\\\" until issue #19 (March 1942); the title itself ended with #22, and was renamed \\\"Crime Does Not Pay\\\". Also during this run, Silver Streak appeared in Lev Gleason's \\\"Daredevil\\\" #1.\\nIn 1945, Silver Streak appeared in the one and only issue of \\\"Dime Comics\\\", and then in the 23rd and final issue of the briefly revived \\\"Silver Streak Comics\\\". Since then, this character has fallen into the public domain. In 2008, he appeared in issue #141 of \\\"The Savage Dragon\\\", along with a score of other Golden Age heroes.\\nIn 2008, Silver Streak appeared in flashbacks in issue #0 of Dynamite Entertainment’s \\\"Project Superpowers\\\", a title that uses mostly public domain Golden Age characters. In the one-shot \\\"Project Superpowers: Chapter Two Prelude\\\". He later appeared in the related Dynamite miniseries \\\"The Death-Defying ’Devil\\\".\\nEditor Erik Larsen's \\\"Next Issue Project\\\" (Image Comics) published \\\"Silver Streak Comics\\\" \\\"#24\\\" (Dec. 2009). Silver Streak = appeared in one story, written and illustrated by Paul Grist.\\nIn 1940, a taxicab driver (name unknown) was hypnotized by a mysterious swami (name unknown) into working for him as a race car driver; all of the swami’s previous drivers had been killed by giant insects, sent by a mad scientist named Dr. Katan. The cab driver was killed as well, but the swami used his mystical powers to bring him back to life, after which he gave the resurrected driver an injection of a “secret fluid” that gave him super-speed and the power of flight. Motivated by a strong desire to make the world a better place, he donned a colorful costume and fought against crime, Nazi spies, and The Claw, calling himself “Silver Streak” after the race car he was killed in. He had changed costumes a few times over the years, but one detail that remained constant was the arrowhead-shaped emblem on his chest with the shape-fitting “SS” inside it. (Curiously, most of his costumes had no silver coloring anywhere on them.)\\nHe later learned that anyone who receives a transfusion of his blood gains super-speed; he gave this gift to a pet hawk named Whiz, and to a kid sidekick named Mickey O’Toole who first called himself \\\"Mercury\\\" but quickly changed it to \\\"Meteor.\\\"\\nIn \\\"Silver Streak Comics\\\" #5 (June, 1940), Jack Cole, who by this time was writing and drawing the character's adventures, directly addressed the readers and explained the hero’s motivations:\\nAt some point after World War II, Silver Streak and other heroes were imprisoned in the mystical Urn of Pandora by the misguided Fighting Yank. Decades later the Urn was broken and the heroes released; Silver Streak emerged (wearing a red and silver costume similar to his original one) just in time to aid his former ally The Death-Defying ’Devil against a terrorist attack. Exactly what part this hero will play in the modern world remains to be seen.\\nThe Metahuman Press serial \\\"Living Legends\\\" has introduced a new version of Silver Streak. This character is an Asian female, native to the fictional city of Riccapoor, home of The Claw.\",\n \"Speedster (fiction)\\nA speedster is a superhero whose powers primarily relate to super-speed. Primary abilities shared by all speedsters include running at speeds far in excess of human capability (to varying degrees) and resistance to the side effects (air resistance, inability to breathe, dynamic shock resulting from contact with objects at high speed, etc.) that result from such velocity. In almost all cases, speedsters are able to physically attack opponents by striking them while at high speed to impart huge amounts of kinetic energy without suffering harm, although this has on rare occasion been lampshaded by characters discovering that they cannot do this and suffering severe injury from the attempt. A variety of other powers have been attributed to speedsters depending on the story, the origin of the power, and the established continuity and rules of a given universe.\\nThe use of speedsters in non fiction requires artistic license due to the laws of physics that would prohibit such abilities. Moving at the speed of sound, for example, would create sonic booms that are usually not heard in such stories. An enormous amount of energy would be required to achieve such speeds, and as some speedsters can actually move close to or at the speed of light, this would cause them to gain near-infinite mass, according to the laws of relativity.\\nFor example, the \\\"Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe\\\" states that the character Nova maintains speeds which can be considered \\\"modest,\\\" especially when carrying a passenger. The Handbook also concedes that a solid object moving in the Earth’s atmosphere at one times the speed of several times faster than the speed of sound which would wreak havoc on the planet and that moving at such speeds would prohibit Northstar from breathing, while the generated wind/friction would ravage his body. On the other hand, the Handbook states that the character Quicksilver was born with adaptations that make higher speeds possible, such as enhanced cardiovascular, respiratory, musculature, and digestive systems, a more efficient metabolism, better lubricated joints, tendons with the tensile strength of spring steel, unidentified bone composition that can withstand the dynamic shock of his touching the ground at speeds over 100 miles an hour, and a brain that can process information fast enough for him to react to his surroundings at high speed.\\nDC Comics dispenses with such explanations with its Flash family of speedsters, who instead derive their abilities from an extradimensional energy source known as the Speed Force, which not only grants them super speed, but protects them from the ravages that would be suffered by their bodies, and grants them various other related abilities as well. (\\\"See Speed Force Powers section.\\\") However, the Speed Force is not the source from which other DC characters with super speed such as Superman or Shazam derive their powers, although Superman is capable of using them without harm.\\nWriter John Byrne maintained modest abilities for the speedster character Danny Hilltop in his series \\\"John Byrne’s Next Men\\\". Although Danny can keep pace with a race car, the friction generated by his speed melts any footwear he wears, burning his feet. Thus he runs barefoot, having toughened the soles of his feet through a regimen of pounding increasingly harder materials (sand, gravel and then broken rock). The costume he wears has a built-in guidance system.\\nOther writers choose not to offer any scientific explanations for the questions raised by the actual use of such abilities.\\nComic book writer Peter David, whose run on the series \\\"Young Justice\\\" included the junior speedster Impulse, has opined that speedsters are inherently difficult to write, saying:\\nSome speedsters may also end up destroying their surroundings or entire astronomical structures around them by their sheer speed alone if they are not careful enough. For example, Saitama from \\\"One-Punch Man\\\" accidentally destroyed at least 40% of the Moon when he jumped back to Earth from it within ten seconds during his battle with Boros, after calculating how much force would be required to safely land back, and combined with the fact that Boros confirmed that Saitama was holding back, the latter is indeed capable of travelling faster than light without any harm.\\nSome speedsters can emit so much power that they can literally resist time manipulation and attain immeasurable speed (here one always remains above all multiversal time and space, literally surpassing the concept of infinite speed, since this involves moving indefinitely where time is frozen or moving infinite distances instantly via sheer willpower and without teleportation, while having immeasurable speed means moving beyond the concepts of time and space themselves by using the same principles of attaining infinite speed, albeit on a far more powerful level). One such example is in \\\"Dragon Ball Super\\\", where Goku uses the Super Saiyan Blue Kaio-Ken x10 in order to resist Hit's Time Stop ability in the Universe 6 Saga.\\nSpeedsters in other media include Daphne Millbrook (played by Brea Grant), a character in the NBC television superhero drama \\\"Heroes\\\". Daphne first appeared in that series' third season in 2008, initially as a villain.\\nIn addition, many characters exist in other media such as film, video games, anime and manga who possess the abilities to perform feats at incredible speeds that exceed the abilities of those around them. Examples include the video game character Sonic the Hedgehog, and the animated cartoon characters Speedy Gonzales, the Road Runner, Morton of \\\"Horton Hears A Who!\\\", several Ben 10 Aliens including XLR8, Jetray,and Fasttrack, (and in one case, Pinkie Pie taking on the an alter ego called 'Filisecond') from \\\"\\\", Saitama, Speed o' Sound Sonic, Flashy Flash and several other characters of \\\"One-Punch Man\\\", Goku, Vegeta, Frieza, Beerus, Whis and practically every single character in the entire \\\"Dragon Ball\\\" franchise and Dash Parr of \\\"The Incredibles\\\".\\nכ\",\n \"Felicity Smoak\\nFelicity Smoak is a <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a> character. Her first appearance was in \\\"The Fury of Firestorm\\\" #23 (May 1984), created by writer <a href=\\\"Gerry%20Conway\\\">Gerry Conway</a> and artist <a href=\\\"Rafael%20Kayanan\\\">Rafael Kayanan</a>. She was originally the manager of a computer software firm who opposed the superhero <a href=\\\"Firestorm%20%28comics%29\\\">Firestorm</a> because of his recklessness, eventually becoming the second wife of Edward Raymond and stepmother to Ronnie Raymond, one-half of the integrated dual identity of the superhero.\\nA re-imagined <a href=\\\"Jews\\\">Jewish</a> version of the character is portrayed by <a href=\\\"Emily%20Bett%20Rickards\\\">Emily Bett Rickards</a> in the <a href=\\\"television%20series\\\">television series</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Arrow</a>\\\", who later operates under the alias Overwatch, with a similar version of Felicity introduced briefly as <a href=\\\"the%20New%2052\\\">the New 52</a> incarnation of the character in \\\"<a href=\\\"Green%20Arrow\\\">Green Arrow</a>\\\" (vol. 5) #35.\\nPortrayed as the supervisor of a New York computer software firm in her 1984 debut appearance, Firestorm first encounters her in the course of one of his battles with a villain, where he inadvertently magnetizes and effectively destroys several of the computers storing the software programs in development. This results in millions of dollars in property damage, which threatens to ruin the software firm and leads to a heated confrontation between Felicity and Firestorm where she threatened to organize a class action lawsuit against him. Felicity would make recurring appearance, often taking an adversarial role against Firestorm and making a point of explaining what the collateral damage of his battles cost her and other civilians. On one occasion, a frustrated Firestorm lashes out against Felicity's confrontational behavior by using his molecular transmutation powers to transform her clothes to soap suds, a tactic he previously used on the supervillain <a href=\\\"Plastique%20%28comics%29\\\">Plastique</a>. Humiliated from being rendered nude in public, Felicity retaliates by filing a lawsuit against him.\\nAt some point, Felicity develops a romantic relationship with Ed Raymond. She has no idea that Ed's son Ronnie is the other half of Firestorm. When Ronald discovers that Felicity is seeing his father, he is uncertain how to treat her due to their past interactions. Over time, Felicity and Ed fall deeply in love and are married. After the wedding Felicity learns the truth about Ronnie's secret dual identity, but by this point she had forgiven him for his past transgressions and stopped berating him, although she would still insist on reminding him about the importance of using his superpowers in a responsible manner.\\nDC Comics rebooted its comic properties in 2011 as part of a relaunch entitled <a href=\\\"The%20New%2052\\\">The New 52</a>, which led to the character of Felicity Smoak being brought back in a fashion similar to the version seen on \\\"Arrow\\\". The New 52 version of Felicity Smoak is introduced in 2014 in \\\"Green Arrow\\\" #35, the first issue of that book to be written by \\\"Arrow\\\" showrunner <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\\\">Andrew Kreisberg</a>. In #35, she is introduced in an end-of-issue cliffhanger as an assassin out to kill Oliver, but quickly explains that while she is a hacker-for-hire who has \\\"done questionable things\\\" in her past, \\\"leading a hero to his death isn't one of them\\\", explaining she did not know her target was the Green Arrow when she accepted the job. After proving her hacker credentials by explaining to him that she knows his secret identity, as well as highly specific details from his superhero, personal, professional and family lives, she offers to become a part of his team out of a desire to help him save the city. Surmising that whoever hired her to kill Oliver has extremely evil plans, she teams up with Green Arrow to track down her client's other target, a woman named <a href=\\\"Mia%20Dearden\\\">Mia Dearden</a>, who they soon discover is being pursued by the deadly archer <a href=\\\"Merlyn%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Merlyn</a>.\\nLater in the same storyline, Felicity is arrested and placed in a Supermax facility for her many cybercrimes, where she shares a cell with <a href=\\\"Cheetah%20%28comics%29\\\">Cheetah</a>; it is established that Felicity had once been hired to <a href=\\\"doxing\\\">dox</a> Cheetah, putting the villain and her loved ones in added danger. Oliver saves her from Cheetah with some help from <a href=\\\"Steve%20Trevor\\\">Steve Trevor</a> of <a href=\\\"ARGUS%20%28comics%29\\\">A.R.G.U.S.</a> Ultimately, Oliver saves Mia from the man pursuing her and her father John King. Oliver also exposes him as a murderer who used bribery and corruption to control Seattle. Felicity is then invited by Trevor to join A.R.G.U.S., but appears to reject his offer in favour of working with Oliver.\\nIn an alternate history version of <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a> depicted in \\\"<a href=\\\"DC%20Comics%20Bombshells\\\">DC Comics Bombshells</a>\\\", a young Felicity and her family were evicted from their house in <a href=\\\"Gotham%20City\\\">Gotham City</a> by their landlord because they violated the law by taking care of some relatives, who have fled the horrors of Europe. The landlord tries to take some of their personal belongings, justifying as taking back rent. Felicity argues with him, saying she won't turn her back to her own family. Fortunately, a team of Batgirls come to the rescue, saving the Smoak family and all their belongings. Felicity and her family are later moved to a safe house by the young heroines. Smoak eventually joins the Batgirls and dons a costume herself.\\nFelicity Smoak appears in the television series \\\"<a href=\\\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Arrow</a>\\\", a reimagining of the <a href=\\\"Green%20Arrow\\\">Green Arrow</a> mythos, portrayed by <a href=\\\"Emily%20Bett%20Rickards\\\">Emily Bett Rickards</a>. The character also makes appearances in \\\"Arrow\\\" spin-offs \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Flash</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Legends%20of%20Tomorrow\\\">Legends of Tomorrow</a>\\\".\\nIn season one, Felicity is a computer genius IT worker at Oliver's father's company who is recruited to work on technical matters for Oliver in his vigilante quest. She was originally introduced in the third episode of season one, \\\"Lone Gunman\\\", as a one-off character, Rickards went on to recur across season one as a result of positive reactions both from co-star <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Amell\\\">Stephen Amell</a>, and <a href=\\\"Warner%20Brothers\\\">Warner Brothers</a> producer <a href=\\\"Peter%20Roth%20%28executive%29\\\">Peter Roth</a>. Felicity quickly deduces the nature of her assignments for Oliver and becomes a willing assistant to Oliver. As time develops, she becomes command central for Oliver and his small band of fellow vigilantes, and takes the codename Overwatch. From season two onwards, the show begins exploring Oliver and Felicity's romantic potential, and the two elope at the end of season three. In season four, they are engaged, but break up due to Oliver lying about having a son. The show also reveals that Felicity's father is <a href=\\\"Calculator%20%28comics%29\\\">Noah Kuttler</a>, a career cyber-criminal. After breaking up with Oliver, Felicity remains a vital part of the team. She also occasionally provides assistance to <a href=\\\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\\\">Barry Allen</a>, her and Oliver's friend in Central City who operates as the Flash, appearing on the show \\\"The Flash\\\".\\nThe character features in the tie-in comics, \\\"Arrow Season 2.5\\\", which bridge the gap between the second and third seasons of the television show.\\nShe also features in the tie-in novels published for the series, \\\"Arrow: Vengeance\\\", written by Oscar Balderrama and Lauren Certo, \\\"The Flash: The Haunting of Barry Allen\\\" written by Susan and Clay Griffith, and its sequel \\\"Arrow: A Generation of Vipers\\\" from the same authors.\\nRickards provides the voice for the character on seasons 1 and 2 of the web-series \\\"<a href=\\\"Vixen%20%28web%20series%29\\\">Vixen</a>\\\".\\nThe character also appears as a character in \\\"\\\" as part of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Arrow</a>\\\" DLC pack.\\n\",\n \"Abra Kadabra (comics)\\nAbra Kadabra (Citizen Abra) is a magical supervillian appearing in <a href=\\\"American%20comic%20book\\\">American comic book</a>s published by <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a>.\\nCreated by <a href=\\\"John%20Broome%20%28writer%29\\\">John Broome</a> and <a href=\\\"Carmine%20Infantino\\\">Carmine Infantino</a>, the character made his first appearance in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%28comic%20book%29\\\">The Flash</a>\\\" #128 (May 1962).\\nCitizen Abra is from the 64th century, at a time when science has made <a href=\\\"Magic%20%28illusion%29\\\">stage magic</a> obsolete. However, he desires a career as a performing magician, so he goes back in time to find an audience to entertain after stealing a time machine and inventing a device to paralyze the guards, and soon clashes with the Flash (<a href=\\\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\\\">Barry Allen</a>). He has a hypnotic device that makes people clap regardless of their thoughts, which he uses to force applause from audiences even when they don't applaud his magic tricks. He finds his magic is being overlooked, so decides to involve himself in important events. When the Flash tries to stop a crime he is committing, he makes the Flash clap, enabling him to escape. He is able to send the Flash into space after challenging him to a fight at the theatre, but the Flash is able to change the course of the planetoid he is on so he is sent back to Earth, and finds Kadabra took his left-behind costume, meaning he can follow the impulses, and Kadabra is jailed. But he hypnotizes the Governor using a ray from a device made out of pots and pans, to let him out, and starts staging a puppet show where the Flash is defeated by a puppet called Captain Cream-Puff. When the Flash passes a poster advertising Kadabra, he is turned into a puppet and used in the performance. But the Scarlet Speedster is able to restore himself slightly using the organic matter in his brain, which was not transformed, and then reverse Kadabra's ray so he is restored completely. He again defeats Kadabra.\\nIn one of his many confrontations with the Flash, Abra Kadabra's technology is damaged and his body becomes insubstantial and wraith-like. After his body is returned to normal, he is captured by a bounty hunter named Peregrine, and returned to his native century to serve a death sentence, although he is saved by the Flash before he can be executed. Shortly after returning to the 21st century, during the \\\"<a href=\\\"Underworld%20Unleashed\\\">Underworld Unleashed</a>\\\" storyline, he forgoes his technological implements and tricks five <a href=\\\"Rogues%20%28comics%29\\\">Rogues</a> into selling their souls to <a href=\\\"Neron%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Neron</a> so he can gain genuine magical powers. Abra Kadabra later kidnapped <a href=\\\"Linda%20Park%20%28comics%29\\\">Linda Park</a>, the girlfriend of <a href=\\\"Wally%20West\\\">Wally West</a> (Barry Allen's protégé and successor), during their wedding and erases her from history, though he is ultimately defeated with the help of <a href=\\\"Dark%20Flash\\\">Walter West</a>, Wally's counterpart from an alternate dimension.\\nAbra Kadabra is mentioned in <a href=\\\"Neil%20Gaiman\\\">Neil Gaiman</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Books%20of%20Magic\\\">Books of Magic</a>\\\" mini-series. In the fourth issue <a href=\\\"Timothy%20Hunter\\\">Timothy Hunter</a>, escorted by <a href=\\\"Mister%20E\\\">Mister E</a>, visits the 64th century, described by E as a time when the differences between magic and technology have become blurred. The inhabitants tell them they have selected their \\\"date-line\\\" to send the \\\"Madchild Abhararakadhararbarakh\\\". Timothy Hunter responds \\\"Abracadabra?\\\" and Mister E tells him not to talk to the inhabitants of this time, and so they then continue their path into the future.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Infinite%20Crisis\\\">Infinite Crisis</a>\\\", Abra Kadabra became a member of the <a href=\\\"Secret%20Society%20of%20Super%20Villains\\\">Secret Society of Super Villains</a>.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"One%20Year%20Later\\\">One Year Later</a>\\\", he and several other Rogues are approached by <a href=\\\"Inertia%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Inertia</a> with a plan to kill the Flash (then <a href=\\\"Bart%20Allen\\\">Bart Allen</a>). Though Inertia is defeated, Kadabra and the other Rogues successfully beat Bart to death, though not before Kadabra recognizes that Bart is too young to be the Flash they are used to dealing with.\\nAbra Kadabra is one of the exiled villains featured in <a href=\\\"Salvation%20Run\\\">Salvation Run</a> along with his fellow Rogues: <a href=\\\"Captain%20Cold\\\">Captain Cold</a>, <a href=\\\"Heat%20Wave%20%28comics%29\\\">Heat Wave</a>, <a href=\\\"Weather%20Wizard\\\">Weather Wizard</a>, and <a href=\\\"Mirror%20Master%23Evan%20McCulloch\\\">Mirror Master</a>. Upon coming across the planet's local pygmies, Abra Kadabra deciphers its language and uses it to locate a \\\"safe zone\\\" for himself and the other Rogues before leading the other villains dispatched there to it.\\nHe was a member of the <a href=\\\"Rogues%20%28comics%29\\\">Rogues</a> who joined <a href=\\\"Libra%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Libra</a>'s Secret Society of Super Villains, however the rest of the Rogues left the Society.\\nHe was last seen in \\\"\\\" off-panel, being attacked by Professor Zoom. In the final issue of the mini-series, Abra is seen to have survived Zoom's attack and says Zoom should have made sure he was dead.\\nAbra Kadabra makes his post-DC Rebirth debut in the \\\"Titans\\\" series. He first appears as a bumbling and terrible party magician known as Mister Hocus Pocus. When <a href=\\\"Lilith%20Clay\\\">Lilith</a> forms a psionic link with <a href=\\\"Wally%20West\\\">Wally West</a> to try and uncover who or what <a href=\\\"The%20New%2052\\\">removed 10 years of history from everyone's memories</a>, she accidentally awakens Abra Kadabra from within Mister Hocus Pocus. Abra Kadabra reveals he is the one who made Wally disappear and he will now destroy him.\\nAbra Kadabra creates younger puppet duplicates of the Titans and has them fight the Titans. When the puppet Lilith finds <a href=\\\"Linda%20Park%20%28comics%29\\\">Linda Park</a> and tells Abra Kadabra of her importance to Wally, Abra Kadabra realizes that history is broken, knowing that Wally and Linda will not meet years from now. Abra Kadabra realizes that his plans must be speed up, and before he can contemplate even further, he is attacked by <a href=\\\"Garth%20%28comics%29\\\">Garth</a>. He tries to kill him but only succeeds in injuring Garth due to Wally's interference. Abra Kadabra reveals to Wally that he removed the latter from time and recollection because he always managed to thwart Abra Kadabra's plans, and disappears with his puppet Titans afterwards. At the theater, Abra Kadabra tries to receive evaluations of the Titans from his puppets. Abra Kadabra reveals his origin (which is similar to his pre-Flashpoint origin) to his puppets, revealing that he is from the future and traveled back in time in order to become famous, but his plans were always thwarted by the Flash (Barry Allen) and Kid Flash (Wally West). Abra Kadabra then used almost all of his power to throw Wally into the time stream in order to remove him from time, but it removed his memories in the process. Intrigued as to why history has been knocked askew, due to the fact Wally knows Linda (even hinting that he knows the true perpetrator), Abra Kadabra begins to craft an even greater trick and he kidnaps Linda from in front of Wally.\\nHe then attempts to force Wally into a position where Wally will run himself into the Speed Force, believing that Wally will be unable to return without Linda as his 'lightning rod', but Wally is able to return by using the Titans as his own lightning rod after talking with a representation of his memories of Linda in the Speed Force, which assures him that he can still win Linda back. With Abra Kadabra defeated and sending him to the timestream, Lilith notes that she cannot understand Abra Kadabra's madness, but picked up a key word in his thoughts; \\\"<a href=\\\"Doctor%20Manhattan\\\">Manhattan</a>\\\".\\nAbra Kadabra is a powerful sorcerer and can achieve virtually any feat with his spells. Originally his powers were all due to 64th century scientific technology that appeared magical to residents of the 20th century. Later, Kadabra's powers are augmented to include true <a href=\\\"Magic%20%28paranormal%29\\\">sorcery</a> when he strikes a deal with Neron.\\nIn the alternate timeline of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Flashpoint%20%28comics%29\\\">Flashpoint</a>\\\" event, Abra Kadabra is a television presenter and member of the <a href=\\\"Secret%20Six%20%28comics%29\\\">Secret Seven</a>. He sends a message about <a href=\\\"Shade%2C%20the%20Changing%20Man\\\">Shade, the Changing Man</a> believing that Shade was a dangerous lunatic and then reveals the identities of the Secret Seven members.\",\n \"Anne Dudek\\nAnne Louise Dudek (born March 22, 1975) is an American actress. She is known for portraying Tiffany Wilson in the 2004 film \\\"<a href=\\\"White%20Chicks\\\">White Chicks</a>\\\", Danielle Brookson in the USA series Covert Affairs, <a href=\\\"List%20of%20House%20characters%23Amber%20Volakis\\\">Dr. Amber Volakis</a> on the <a href=\\\"Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">Fox</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">House</a>\\\", Lura Grant on \\\"<a href=\\\"Big%20Love\\\">Big Love</a>\\\", and Francine Hanson on the <a href=\\\"AMC%20%28TV%20channel%29\\\">AMC</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Mad%20Men\\\">Mad Men</a>\\\". She has also starred in the British television series \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Book%20Group\\\">The Book Group</a>\\\".\\nDudek was born in <a href=\\\"Boston\\\">Boston</a>, <a href=\\\"Massachusetts\\\">Massachusetts</a>, and grew up in <a href=\\\"Newton%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Newton, Massachusetts</a>. Her father was an architect. She attended <a href=\\\"Northwestern%20University\\\">Northwestern University</a>. She is of <a href=\\\"Polish%20Americans\\\">Polish descent</a>.\\nFrom the mid-1990s (while at Northwestern University) through 2001, Dudek appeared in various theater productions and on <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a>. She made her Broadway debut in \\\"Wrong Mountain\\\" in 2000. She won the Connecticut Critics Circle Award for outstanding performance in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Glass%20Menagerie\\\">The Glass Menagerie</a>\\\".\\nAfter success on Broadway, she made the jump to television. Her first starring role on television came when she was cast as the lead in the British <a href=\\\"comedy%20drama\\\">comedy drama</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Book%20Group\\\">The Book Group</a>\\\". The show aired on <a href=\\\"Channel%204\\\">Channel 4</a> in the United Kingdom to rave reviews. In her native United States, Dudek has since guest starred on other TV shows, including \\\"<a href=\\\"Desperate%20Housewives\\\">Desperate Housewives</a>\\\" (as <a href=\\\"Karl%20Mayer\\\">Karl Mayer</a>'s girlfriend in Season 1), \\\"<a href=\\\"How%20I%20Met%20Your%20Mother\\\">How I Met Your Mother</a>\\\" (as Ted's <a href=\\\"Krav%20Maga\\\">Krav Maga</a>-trained ex-girlfriend), \\\"<a href=\\\"Friends\\\">Friends</a>\\\" (as 'Precious', <a href=\\\"Mike%20Hannigan\\\">Mike Hannigan</a>'s girlfriend), \\\"<a href=\\\"ER%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">ER</a>\\\" (as a mother who accidentally shot her son), \\\"<a href=\\\"Charmed\\\">Charmed</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Bones%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Bones</a>\\\" (as <a href=\\\"Seeley%20Booth\\\">Seeley Booth</a>'s lawyer girlfriend), \\\"<a href=\\\"Numbers%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Numb3rs</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Six%20Feet%20Under%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Six Feet Under</a>\\\". She also played Lucinda Barry in the pilot episode of \\\"<a href=\\\"Psych\\\">Psych</a>\\\", and a teacher who has a sexual relationship with one of her students (based on the case of <a href=\\\"Debra%20Lafave\\\">Debra Lafave</a>) on \\\"\\\". In both \\\"Friends\\\" and \\\"How I Met Your Mother\\\", her character was dumped on her birthday. Dudek appeared in several episodes as a child bride in HBO series Big Love.\\nDudek had a recurring role on \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">House</a>\\\" (from season 4 onwards) as <a href=\\\"List%20of%20House%20characters%23Recurring%20characters\\\">Dr. Amber Volakis</a>, one of 40 physicians under consideration by <a href=\\\"Gregory%20House\\\">Dr. Gregory House</a> for permanent positions on his team. Her character, nicknamed \\\"Cutthroat Bitch\\\" by House, continued to the end of season 4 but was killed off in the two-part season finale, \\\"<a href=\\\"House%27s%20Head\\\">House's Head</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Wilson%27s%20Heart%20%28House%29\\\">Wilson's Heart</a>\\\". She would later reappear as a hallucination by House in the season 5 episode \\\"<a href=\\\"Saviors%20%28House%29\\\">Saviors</a>\\\", appearing in this form for the remainder of the season.\\nDudek later appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"Mad%20Men\\\">Mad Men</a>\\\" as next-door neighbor Francine Hanson, and on \\\"<a href=\\\"Big%20Love\\\">Big Love</a>\\\" as one of antagonist <a href=\\\"Alby%20Grant\\\">Alby Grant</a>'s wives, both recurring roles. In 2010, she joined the cast of \\\"<a href=\\\"Covert%20Affairs\\\">Covert Affairs</a>\\\". She played <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Hopkins\\\">Anthony Hopkins</a>' character's daughter in the 2003 film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Human%20Stain%20%28film%29\\\">The Human Stain</a>\\\", and cruise line heir Tiffany Wilson in the 2004 <a href=\\\"comedy%20film\\\">comedy film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"White%20Chicks\\\">White Chicks</a>\\\". In 2012, she played an <a href=\\\"International%20Space%20Station\\\">ISS</a> astronaut in one episode of the TV show \\\"<a href=\\\"Touch%20%282012%20TV%20series%29\\\">Touch</a>\\\". She also reprised her role as Amber Volakis for the \\\"House\\\" series finale \\\"<a href=\\\"Everybody%20Dies%20%28House%29\\\">Everybody Dies</a>\\\".\\nDudek was married to artist Matthew Heller. They have a son, Akiva, born in December 2008, and a daughter, Saskia, born in February 2012. The pair divorced in 2016.\",\n \"Supergirl (TV series)\\nSupergirl is an American <a href=\\\"superhero%20fiction\\\">superhero</a> <a href=\\\"action%20fiction\\\">action</a>-<a href=\\\"adventure%20fiction\\\">adventure</a> television series developed by <a href=\\\"Ali%20Adler\\\">Ali Adler</a>, <a href=\\\"Greg%20Berlanti\\\">Greg Berlanti</a> and <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\\\">Andrew Kreisberg</a> (the latter two having previously created \\\"<a href=\\\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Arrow</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Flash</a>\\\") that originally aired on <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> and premiered on October 26, 2015. It is based on the <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a> character <a href=\\\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\\\">Supergirl</a>, created by <a href=\\\"Otto%20Binder\\\">Otto Binder</a> and <a href=\\\"Al%20Plastino\\\">Al Plastino</a>, and stars <a href=\\\"Melissa%20Benoist\\\">Melissa Benoist</a> in the title role. Supergirl is a costumed superheroine who is <a href=\\\"Superman\\\">Superman</a>'s cousin and one of the last surviving <a href=\\\"Krypton%20%28comics%29\\\">Kryptonians</a>.\\nThe series was officially picked up on May 6, 2015, after receiving a series commitment in September 2014, and received a full season order on November 30, 2015. On May 12, 2016, <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.%20Television\\\">Warner Bros.</a> announced that the series had been renewed for a second season and that it would move from CBS to <a href=\\\"The%20CW\\\">The CW</a>. It debuted on October 10, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which is scheduled to debut on October 9, 2017.\\n<a href=\\\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\\\">Kara Zor-El</a> was sent to Earth from <a href=\\\"Krypton%20%28comics%29\\\">Krypton</a> as a 13-year-old by her parents <a href=\\\"Zor-El\\\">Zor-El</a> and <a href=\\\"List%20of%20minor%20DC%20Comics%20characters%23Alura\\\">Alura</a>. Kara was meant to protect her infant cousin Kal-El, but her spacecraft was knocked off course and forced into the <a href=\\\"Phantom%20Zone\\\">Phantom Zone</a>, where it stayed for 24 years. By the time the spacecraft crash landed on Earth, Kal-El had grown up and become <a href=\\\"Superman\\\">Superman</a>. The series begins eleven years later when the now 24-year-old Kara is learning to embrace her powers and has adopted the superheroic alias \\\"Supergirl\\\".\\nIn the first season, having hidden her powers for more than a decade, Kara is forced to reveal her powers, and becomes <a href=\\\"National%20City%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">National City</a>'s protector. Kara discovers that hundreds of the criminals her mother prosecuted as a judge are hiding on Earth, including her aunt Astra and Astra's husband <a href=\\\"Non%20%28comics%29\\\">Non</a>. She and her adoptive sister, Alex Danvers, discover that their boss, <a href=\\\"Hank%20Henshaw\\\">Hank Henshaw</a>, is actually benevolent Green Martian <a href=\\\"Martian%20Manhunter\\\">J'onn J'onzz</a>. She is aided by a few close friends and family who guard her secrets, including her cousin's friend, <a href=\\\"Jimmy%20Olsen\\\">James Olsen</a>, and tech genius Winn Schott, Jr.\\nIn the second season, Kara and her allies deal with feuds between Earth's native populace and extraterrestrial community, and investigate the shadowy organization <a href=\\\"Project%20Cadmus\\\">Project Cadmus</a>, masterminded by Lillian Luthor, mother of Superman's archenemy <a href=\\\"Lex%20Luthor\\\">Lex Luthor</a>. At the same time, Kara becomes friendly with Lillian's stepdaughter <a href=\\\"Lena%20Luthor\\\">Lena Luthor</a>, the new CEO of <a href=\\\"LexCorp\\\">LuthorCorp</a>, and struggles with romantic feelings for recent Earth arrival <a href=\\\"Lar%20Gand\\\">Mon-El</a>, a survivor and prince from Krypton's neighboring planet <a href=\\\"Daxam\\\">Daxam</a>. James becomes the masked streetfighting vigilante <a href=\\\"Guardian%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Guardian</a>; Alex begins dating <a href=\\\"Maggie%20Sawyer\\\">Maggie Sawyer</a>; and J'onn befriends a younger Martian, <a href=\\\"Miss%20Martian\\\">M'gann</a>, from the <a href=\\\"White%20Martian\\\">White Martian</a> race that killed his people.\\nBy September 2014, <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.%20Television\\\">Warner Bros. Television</a> was looking to create a television series centered around <a href=\\\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\\\">Supergirl</a>. Executive producers for the series include <a href=\\\"Greg%20Berlanti\\\">Greg Berlanti</a> (also a creator/producer for \\\"<a href=\\\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Arrow</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Flash</a>\\\"), <a href=\\\"Ali%20Adler\\\">Ali Adler</a>, who are both writing the script, and Berlanti Productions' Sarah Schechter. <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a>' <a href=\\\"Geoff%20Johns\\\">Geoff Johns</a> is also expected to be part of the project. Titles under consideration for the series included \\\"Super\\\" and \\\"Girl\\\". Berlanti confirmed the show shortly after, and stated it was in development and had yet to be pitched to networks. On September 20, it was announced that <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> had landed \\\"Supergirl\\\" with a series commitment, with an expected premiere in 2015 of the <a href=\\\"2015%E2%80%9316%20United%20States%20network%20television%20schedule\\\">2015–16 television season</a>. In January 2015, CBS Entertainment Chairman <a href=\\\"Nina%20Tassler\\\">Nina Tassler</a> revealed the show would be a procedural, saying, \\\"There will be [crime] cases, but what [executive producers] Ali Adler and Greg Berlanti pitched was a real series arc for her. The beauty of it is now with shows like \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Good%20Wife\\\">The Good Wife</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Madam%20Secretary%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Madam Secretary</a>\\\", you can have serialized story elements woven into a case of the week. She's a crime solver, so she's going to have to solve a crime.\\\"\\nIn January 2015, it was announced by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\\\">The Hollywood Reporter</a>\\\" that Melissa Benoist would star as Supergirl. Benoist later revealed that auditioning for the part \\\"was a long, drawn-out, three-month process\\\"; she was the first actress looked at for the role, although <a href=\\\"Claire%20Holt\\\">Claire Holt</a> and <a href=\\\"Gemma%20Atkinson\\\">Gemma Atkinson</a> were also considered. In March 2015, <a href=\\\"Blake%20Neely\\\">Blake Neely</a>, composer for \\\"Arrow\\\" and \\\"The Flash\\\", revealed he would be composing for \\\"Supergirl\\\". The show was officially picked up to series on May 6, 2015. It was originally set to premiere in November 2015, before being moved up to October 26, 2015. The pilot episode was screened at <a href=\\\"San%20Diego%20Comic-Con%20International\\\">San Diego Comic-Con International</a> 2015 on July 8 and 11, 2015. In July 2015, Adler spoke on how much influence <a href=\\\"Superman\\\">Superman</a> would have on the show, saying, \\\"Our prototype is the way the president is seen on \\\"<a href=\\\"Veep%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Veep</a>\\\". It's certainly [inspired by] so much of what <a href=\\\"Julia%20Louis-Dreyfus\\\">Julia Louis-Dreyfus</a>' character goes through. Ultimately, this is a show about Supergirl and we really want to see it through her lens.\\\" On November 30, 2015, CBS ordered an additional seven episodes of \\\"Supergirl\\\", for a full season of 20 episodes.\\nOn May 12, 2016, <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.%20Television\\\">Warner Bros. Television</a> announced that the series had been renewed for a second season of 22 episodes and would move to <a href=\\\"The%20CW\\\">The CW</a>. The season debuted in October 2016. With the move of the production to Vancouver, it was unclear if Calista Flockhart would remain with the series, as her original contract stipulated that she work near her home in Los Angeles. The CW president Mark Pedowitz said Flockhart wanted to remain with the series and that \\\"We're in ongoing discussions... we're happy to have her in [in whatever capacity] works out.\\\" Flockhart ultimately reached a deal to be recurring in the second season, with the production flying her to Vancouver every few weeks to film material.\\nOn January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which is scheduled to debut on October 9, 2017. The third season will see Jessica Queller and <a href=\\\"Robert%20Rovner\\\">Robert Rovner</a> become the series' executive producers and co-showrunners along with Kreisberg, following Adler's departure; Adler will remain an executive consultant for the series. Both Queller and Rovner joined \\\"Supergirl\\\" midway through the first season as co-executive producer and consulting producer, respectively, with Rovner promoted to executive producer ahead of the second season.\\n<a href=\\\"Katie%20McGrath\\\">Katie McGrath</a>, who portrays <a href=\\\"Lena%20Luthor\\\">Lena Luthor</a> in the series, will be promoted to series regular for the third season. <a href=\\\"Odette%20Annable\\\">Odette Annable</a> will also join the main cast in the third season, portraying Reign, another Kryptonian sent to Earth.\\nThe costume for Supergirl was created by <a href=\\\"Colleen%20Atwood\\\">Colleen Atwood</a>, who also designed the costumes for \\\"Arrow\\\" and \\\"The Flash\\\". Benoist stated that she is aware of the costume worn by Kara in more modern depictions of in the comics, and expressed that the \\\"micro-mini hemline\\\" of the skirt in the version created by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Turner%20%28comics%29\\\">Michael Turner</a> could be \\\"a little daunting ... but that's good. I like being pushed.\\\" Promotional photos of Benoist wearing Atwood's design were released on March 6, 2015. Atwood indicated that she wanted to \\\"embrace the past ... but more importantly, thrust her into the street-style action hero of today.\\\" Atwood later revealed details about the costume such as the cape being fastened to an undersuit so as not to pull the costume and that the fabric used was Eurojersey. The reveal of the <a href=\\\"Martian%20Manhunter\\\">Martian Manhunter</a> costume in \\\"<a href=\\\"Human%20For%20a%20Day\\\">Human For a Day</a>\\\" was created through visual effects, though a physical version was created to appear in later episodes, with it proving to be one of the most challenging costumes for the costume team.\\nReception of the Supergirl costume upon its reveal was mixed. \\\"<a href=\\\"Entertainment%20Weekly\\\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\\\"'s Natalie Abrams commented that the new look of the costume looks and feels different in a good way. The new costume avoids exposing the character's midriff, as it does in the Michael Turner version of the costume from the comics, as well as having Benoist wear stockings underneath the skirt with over-the-knee boots. Abrams compared the texture of the costume to that worn by <a href=\\\"Henry%20Cavill\\\">Henry Cavill</a> as Superman in \\\"<a href=\\\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\\\">Man of Steel</a>\\\", as well as the positioning of the cape on the suit, and the decision to do away with the bright blue and red color scheme. Andrew Dyce, from Screen Rant, found the new costume to perfectly balance itself between classic nostalgia and modernism. \\\"The Washington Post\\\" noted that Atwood's design was successful, praising her ability to take \\\"cartoon-y tints\\\" and moving them to darker tones.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"E%21\\\">E! Online</a>\\\" was less impressed with the design, negatively comparing it to a \\\"cheap Halloween costume\\\", with washed out colors, and not buying into the \\\"gritty, 'street style'\\\" look Atwood was intending. \\\"<a href=\\\"TV%20Guide\\\">TV Guide</a>\\\" questioned Atwood's design, and noted that although the promotional image has Benoist trying to appear as a powerful hero, the thigh-high boots and pleated skirt comes across as a \\\"model advertising a moderately-priced Halloween costume\\\".\\nIn February 2015, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\\\">Andrew Kreisberg</a>, co-creator of \\\"Arrow\\\" and \\\"The Flash\\\", had joined the series as a writer and executive producer; and \\\"Arrow\\\" / \\\"The Flash\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Smallville\\\">Smallville</a>\\\" alum <a href=\\\"Glen%20Winter\\\">Glen Winter</a> was announced to be directing the pilot. <a href=\\\"Principal%20photography\\\">Principal photography</a> for the pilot took place from March 4 to March 29, 2015. Filming locations included the Warner Bros. lot, where \\\"Lois and Clark\\\" was shot. Each episode cost approximately $3 million to broadcast, which is one of the highest license fees ever for a first year show.\\nThe second season was filmed in <a href=\\\"Vancouver\\\">Vancouver</a>, rather than <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a> where the first season was shot. This was done to reduce the high production costs of the series, one of the issues that made CBS wary to renew the series on their network. Filming for the third season began in Vancouver on July 6, 2017, and is expected to continue until April 24, 2018.\\nIn Canada, \\\"Supergirl\\\" aired in a <a href=\\\"simultaneous%20substitution\\\">sim-subbed</a> <a href=\\\"simulcast\\\">simulcast</a> on <a href=\\\"Global%20Television%20Network\\\">Global</a> with the American broadcast in the first season; the second season saw it move to <a href=\\\"Showcase%20%28Canadian%20TV%20channel%29\\\">Showcase</a> in the same arrangement.\\nThe series premiered on October 29, 2015, in the United Kingdom on <a href=\\\"Sky%20One\\\">Sky One</a>. The series premiered in Australia on December 6, 2015 on <a href=\\\"Fox8\\\">FOX8</a>.\\nReview aggregation website <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> gave the series premiere a 95% approval rating from critics and with an average rating of 7.6/10 based on 73 reviews. The site's consensus states: \\\"Melissa Benoist shines as Superman's plucky little cousin in \\\"Supergirl\\\", a family-friendly comic-book adaptation that ditches cynicism for heart.\\\" <a href=\\\"Metacritic\\\">Metacritic</a>, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 75 out of 100 based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating \\\"Generally favorable reviews\\\". Cliff Wheatley of <a href=\\\"IGN\\\">IGN</a> gave the pilot episode a 7/10, praising <a href=\\\"Melissa%20Benoist\\\">Melissa Benoist</a>'s performance as Kara and the fun take on the Superman mythos.\\nRotten Tomatoes gave the premiere of the second season a 100% approval rating from critics and with an average rating of 8.3/10 based on 20 reviews. The site's consensus reads, \\\"The arrival of the more famous cousin in \\\"Supergirl\\\" does nothing to detract from the show's lead, who continues to deliver strength, action, and relatability.\\\" Metacritic assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on reviews from 4 critics, indicating \\\"Universal acclaim\\\".\\n\\nIn November 2014, Berlanti expressed interest in \\\"Supergirl\\\" existing in the <a href=\\\"Arrowverse\\\">Arrowverse</a>, the same universe as his other series \\\"<a href=\\\"Arrow%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Arrow</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Flash</a>\\\", and in January 2015, <a href=\\\"The%20CW\\\">The CW</a> president Mark Pedowitz revealed that he was also open to a crossover between the series and networks (due to Berlanti executive producing all three and The CW being co-owned by CBS). However, CBS Entertainment chair Nina Tassler stated that month that \\\"those two shows are on a different network. So I think we'll keep \\\"Supergirl\\\" to ourselves for a while.\\\" In August 2015, Tassler revealed that while there were no plans at the time to do crossover storylines, the three series would have crossover promotions.\\nPedowitz regretted passing on the series when presented it in mid-2014, saying, \\\"We hadn't launched \\\"The Flash\\\" yet, we weren't ready to take on another DC property. In hindsight we probably should've gone that direction...Sometimes you lose great shows.\\\" In January 2016, during the <a href=\\\"Television%20Critics%20Association\\\">Television Critics Association</a> press tour, he said that The CW was still interested in a crossover with \\\"Supergirl\\\" if the producers could find a way to do it, and Berlanti added that while no official conversations had taken place, internal ones had concerning how a crossover would work. He also noted that for a crossover to happen during \\\"Supergirl\\\"'s first season, it would have to be figured out \\\"in the next month or so\\\". Glenn Geller, Tassler's successor at CBS, then stated on the matter, \\\"I have to be really careful what I say here. Watch and wait and see what happens.\\\"\\nOn February 3, 2016, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Grant%20Gustin\\\">Grant Gustin</a>, who appears as <a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\\\">Barry Allen / Flash</a> on \\\"The Flash\\\", would appear in the eighteenth episode of the first season, \\\"<a href=\\\"Worlds%20Finest\\\">Worlds Finest</a>\\\". While no plot details on the episodes were released at the time, Ross A. Lincoln of <a href=\\\"Deadline.com\\\">Deadline.com</a> noted that \\\"the in-universe reason\\\" for the crossover was due to Barry's ability to travel to various dimensions, thus implying that \\\"Supergirl\\\" exists on an alternate Earth to the Arrowverse in a multiverse. \\\"The Flash\\\" episode \\\"Welcome to Earth-2\\\" confirmed this, showing an image of Benoist as Supergirl during a sequence where characters travel through that multiverse. The earth that the series inhabits is Earth-38 in the Arrowverse multiverse, and has been informally referred to as \\\"Earth-CBS\\\" by <a href=\\\"Marc%20Guggenheim\\\">Marc Guggenheim</a>, one of the creators of \\\"Arrow\\\".\\nDuring the second season, Supergirl appears in \\\"<a href=\\\"Invasion%21%20%28Arrowverse%29\\\">Invasion!</a>\\\", a crossover episode of \\\"The Flash\\\", \\\"Arrow\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Legends%20of%20Tomorrow\\\">Legends of Tomorrow</a>\\\", when she's recruited by Barry Allen and Cisco Ramon at the end of \\\"<a href=\\\"Medusa%20%28Supergirl%29\\\">Medusa</a>\\\" to help fight off an invasion by the <a href=\\\"Dominators\\\">Dominators</a>. \\\"Supergirl\\\" and \\\"The Flash\\\" also featured in a musical crossover, featuring several covers of existing songs along with two original numbers. Similar to \\\"Invasion!\\\", the crossover begins at the end of the \\\"Supergirl\\\" episode \\\"<a href=\\\"Star-Crossed%20%28Supergirl%29\\\">Star-Crossed</a>\\\" and primarily takes place during \\\"The Flash\\\" episode \\\"<a href=\\\"Duet%20%28The%20Flash%29\\\">Duet</a>\\\", featuring the <a href=\\\"Music%20Meister\\\">Music Meister</a> as the antagonist who puts both The Flash and Supergirl in a shared hallucination. After \\\"Invasion!\\\", Guggenheim felt \\\"If there's an appetite for it from the fans and from the network,\\\" the crossover next year could be \\\"a proper four-part crossover.\\\"\\nAt the 2017 <a href=\\\"Paleyfest\\\">Paleyfest</a> event, Kreisberg reiterated the creative team's intention to do a full four-way crossover the following year. At <a href=\\\"San%20Diego%20Comic-Con\\\">San Diego Comic Con 2017</a>, it was confirmed that another four-way crossover would take place, with Supergirl playing a larger role than the previous season.\\nBeginning in January 2016, DC Comics launched a 13-issue, bi-weekly digital comic, \\\"Adventures of Supergirl\\\". Written by <a href=\\\"Sterling%20Gates\\\">Sterling Gates</a> and drawn by a rotating team of artist including Bengal, Jonboy Meyers, Emanuela Lupacchino, and Emma Vieceli, the comic, while not directly tying into the show, tells stories set in the universe of the show.\\n|- style=\\\"background-color:#203666; color: ;\\\"\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" colspan=\\\"6\\\" | DVD release dates\\n\",\n \"Sterling Gates\\nSterling Gates (born March 1, 1981 in <a href=\\\"Tulsa%2C%20Oklahoma\\\">Tulsa, Oklahoma</a>) is an <a href=\\\"People%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">American</a> <a href=\\\"comic%20book%20writer\\\">comic book writer</a> currently working for <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a>.\\nSterling Gates was a comic fan from a young age. His father owned a comic book store in <a href=\\\"Tulsa%2C%20Oklahoma\\\">Tulsa, Oklahoma</a>, and remembered that, \\\"We had a garage full of comics for as long as I could remember and I would sit and read them for hours, then sneak them under the covers and read them in bed.\\\" When he started college, he also worked part-time in a local comic shop.\\nGates attended the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Oklahoma\\\">University of Oklahoma</a> and earned a degree in Fine Arts with a specialization in film and television production. His professors used to get annoyed due to his desire to relate all of his schoolwork to comics in some way, shape, or form. His capstone thesis was about sequential art theory and relating time theory in comics to training in film and television. He went on to say that he, \\\"must've referenced <a href=\\\"Scott%20McCloud\\\">Scott McCloud</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Understanding%20Comics\\\">Understanding Comics</a>\\\" a hundred times in that paper!\\\" After moving out to <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\\\">Los Angeles, California</a> to \\\"do something with his life,\\\" he and a friend attended <a href=\\\"WonderCon\\\">WonderCon</a> in <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco%2C%20California\\\">San Francisco</a> where he met writer <a href=\\\"Geoff%20Johns\\\">Geoff Johns</a>.\\nOne night in San Francisco, Gates and a friend went out to dinner and then to a bar. Afterwards, upon returning to their hotel, Gates and his friend spotted Johns and editor Steve Wacker in the lobby. After going to a nearby diner, Johns and Wacker had arrived there as well. After striking up a conversation, Gates, \\\"...told them about how I just moved to L.A., and it turned out that Geoff and I shopped at the same comics shop, DJ's Universal, so we talked about that. We said our 'good-byes' and our 'nice-to-meet-you's' and then the host sat them, and then came back and sat us at the table literally right next to theirs. A table maybe five inches from their table. And we kind of all looked at each other and I thought, 'Can this get more awkward? I doubt it.'\\\"\\nWhen Gates' friend, who was a rabid Johns fan, was not making the best first impression, Gates paid for Johns' and Wacker's meal as an apology. Gates hoped the meal would make up for his friend's behavior and after the generous act, Johns asked Gates directly, \\\"Do you want a job?\\\" Gates then interviewed with the writing staff for \\\"\\\" on Johns' recommendation and was hired. After the series' cancellation, Gates discussed his history of writing comics with Johns, which was previously unbeknownst to him. Johns asked to read Gates' early comics work. Johns was impressed, and after Gates submitted outlines to Johns inspired by the \\\"<a href=\\\"Sinestro%20Corps%20War\\\">Sinestro Corps War</a>\\\", Gates was interviewed by editor <a href=\\\"Eddie%20Berganza\\\">Eddie Berganza</a> and was hired by <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a>.\\nGates told a back-up story about <a href=\\\"Sinestro%20Corps\\\">Sinestro Corps</a> member Kryb with artist <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Ordway\\\">Jerry Ordway</a> in \\\"Tales of the Sinestro Corps: Superman Prime\\\". He went on to write a two-part story about <a href=\\\"Alpha%20Lantern\\\">Alpha Lantern</a> <a href=\\\"Boodikka\\\">Boodikka</a> in \\\"Green Lantern Corps\\\" #21-22. He then took over full writing duties of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Supergirl%20%28comic%20book%29\\\">Supergirl</a>\\\" title featuring <a href=\\\"Supergirl%20%28Kara%20Zor-El%29\\\">Kara Zor-El</a>, starting with issue #34 of volume 5, in October 2008. Gates also contributed to the \\\"\\\" story arc.\\nOther projects include the \\\"<a href=\\\"Prometheus%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Prometheus</a>\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"Faces%20of%20Evil\\\">Faces of Evil</a>\\\" one-shot with artist Federico Dallocchio.\\nGates co-wrote the \\\"<a href=\\\"War%20of%20the%20Supermen\\\">War of the Supermen</a>\\\" storyline alongside \\\"<a href=\\\"Superman%20%28comic%20book%29\\\">Superman</a>\\\" writer <a href=\\\"James%20Robinson%20%28comics%29\\\">James Robinson</a>.\\nAs part of the DC Comics \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%2052\\\">The New 52</a>\\\" relaunch, Gates initially wrote the \\\"<a href=\\\"Hawk%20%26amp%3B%20Dove\\\">Hawk & Dove</a>\\\" series drawn by <a href=\\\"Rob%20Liefeld\\\">Rob Liefeld</a> but left the series after issue 5.\\nGates took over the DC title \\\"<a href=\\\"Vibe%20%28comics%29\\\">Justice League's Vibe</a>\\\" with issue 4, replacing <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Kreisberg\\\">Andrew Kreisberg</a> on writing duties. He was also brought in to pen the final issue of \\\"Stormwatch\\\".\\nGates lives in <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>, where he is good friends with fellow writers and collaborators <a href=\\\"James%20Dale%20Robinson\\\">James Robinson</a> and <a href=\\\"Geoff%20Johns\\\">Geoff Johns</a>.\\nComics work includes:\",\n \"Savitar (comics)\\nSavitar is a <a href=\\\"fictional\\\">fictional</a> <a href=\\\"supervillain\\\">supervillain</a> published by <a href=\\\"DC%20Comics\\\">DC Comics</a>.\\nSavitar first appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"flash%20%28comics%29\\\">Flash</a>\\\" (vol. 2) #108 (December 1995), and was created by <a href=\\\"Mark%20Waid\\\">Mark Waid</a> and <a href=\\\"Oscar%20Jimenez%20%28comics%29\\\">Oscar Jimenez</a>.\\nA <a href=\\\"Cold%20War\\\">Cold War</a> pilot for a third-world nation, the man who would become known as Savitar was to test a <a href=\\\"supersonic\\\">supersonic</a> <a href=\\\"fighter%20jet\\\">fighter jet</a>. As he reached top speed, his plane was struck by what appeared to be <a href=\\\"lightning\\\">lightning</a>, and he went down in hostile territory. Discovering he could defeat the enemy by moving at super-speed, he became obsessed, naming himself after <a href=\\\"Savitr\\\">Savitr</a>, the <a href=\\\"Hindu\\\">Hindu</a> \\\"god of motion\\\", (although it is important to note that Savitr is not actually a god of motion), and dedicating his life to unlocking its secrets. As Savitar studied, he discovered new powers that no other living speedster has mastered. He can protect himself in a null-inertia force field, give speed and <a href=\\\"kinetic%20energy\\\">kinetic energy</a> to objects or people, even those in a \\\"rest state\\\", and he could also heal his own injuries almost instantly.\\nSavitar's obsession gained followers, and he became the leader of a <a href=\\\"cult\\\">cult</a>. In search of more knowledge, he sought out the only super-speed hero operating at the time: <a href=\\\"Johnny%20Quick\\\">Johnny Quick</a>. This encounter became a battle, the tide of which was turned with the arrival of <a href=\\\"Max%20Mercury\\\">Max Mercury</a> who led Savitar toward the <a href=\\\"Speed%20Force\\\">Speed Force</a>, but caused him to bounce off, both speedsters being thrown forward in time. Emerging from the timestream before Savitar, Max Mercury became a mentor to the various members of the Flash family and other speedsters, secretly preparing them against the day Savitar would exit the timestream.\\nReappearing decades later, Savitar found that his cult had grown in his absence, awaiting his return. He recruited former Blue Trinity member Lady Flash (Christina Alexandrova), and discovered a way to use her speed to divert all energy from the Speed Force to his own army of <a href=\\\"ninja\\\">ninja</a>s. He then sought to eliminate the competition: Kid Flash (<a href=\\\"Wally%20West\\\">Wally West</a>), <a href=\\\"Bart%20Allen\\\">Impulse</a>, Golden Age Flash (<a href=\\\"Jay%20Garrick\\\">Jay Garrick</a>), Johnny Quick, <a href=\\\"Jesse%20Quick\\\">Jesse Quick</a>, <a href=\\\"XS%20%28comics%29\\\">XS</a>, and especially Max Mercury.\\nFortunately, Wally’s direct line to the Speed Force prevented Savitar from stealing his speed, and a coalition of just about every speedster (except for <a href=\\\"Red%20Trinity\\\">Red Trinity</a>) foiled his plans. Hell-bent on at least destroying the Flash’s world in retribution, Savitar led Wally on a worldwide race of destruction, until Flash chose to give Savitar what he wanted: union with the Speed Force. His earlier encounter had shown him that the others who had arrived before would deal with Savitar as they saw fit.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20Rebirth\\\">The Flash Rebirth</a>\\\" mini-series, Savitar was able to escape from the Speed Force. He was run down by the recently returned to life <a href=\\\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\\\">Barry Allen</a>; however, when Barry touches him, Savitar disintegrates, leaving only a pile of bones. It is revealed that <a href=\\\"Eobard%20Thawne\\\">Professor Zoom</a> altered the Speed Force and Barry to make the Flash shift in reverse, cursed to kill every Speed Force user with a single touch, though it seemed to be undone by the defeat of Professor Zoom during the conflict between the two speedsters. Thus far, Savitar, Lady Flash (Lady Savitar at the time) and Johnny Quick have been killed by this effect.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%2052\\\">The New 52</a>\\\", a reboot of the DC Comics universe, parts of Savitar's origin are used in the origin of the <a href=\\\"Top%20%28comics%29\\\">Top</a>.\\nSavitar can move at super speed, and is able to lend or steal speed from moving objects. He has accelerated healing due to increased metabolism and can generate a full Inertia force field.\\nA character named Savitar appears as the main antagonist in season three of <a href=\\\"The%20CW\\\">The CW</a>'s live-action television series \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Flash%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Flash</a>\\\", voiced by <a href=\\\"Tobin%20Bell\\\">Tobin Bell</a> and portrayed by <a href=\\\"Grant%20Gustin\\\">Grant Gustin</a> while also portrayed by <a href=\\\"Tom%20Felton\\\">Tom Felton</a> (via \\\"<a href=\\\"Doctor%20Alchemy\\\">Doctor Alchemy</a>\\\") and by <a href=\\\"Andre%20Tricoteux\\\">Andre Tricoteux</a> (while wearing his signature <a href=\\\"powered%20exoskeleton\\\">powered exoskeleton</a>). This version (also known as the \\\"<a href=\\\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\\\">Future Flash</a>\\\") is a time remnant of <a href=\\\"Flash%20%28Barry%20Allen%29\\\">Barry Allen/The Flash</a> from the future who wound up shunned by his original self, thus developing a deep hatred for Team Flash. He wears a suit of armor covered in blue lines, a nod to the costume of the New 52 Future Flash. Despite being locked in a Speed Force prison, he manages to use Julian Albert as Alchemy, an acolyte within Savitar's cult that possesses the <a href=\\\"Brahmastra\\\">Philosopher's Stone</a>, an ancient Hindu weapon connected to Savitar's interdimesional prison. Although it's revealed that Savitar tricked Julian into being possessed to play the Alchemy role, Savitar proceeds to manipulate Team Flash, first as <a href=\\\"List%20of%20minor%20DC%20Comics%20characters%23Dante%20Ramon\\\">Dante Ramon</a> (<a href=\\\"Nicholas%20Gonzalez\\\">Nicholas Gonzalez</a>) to torment <a href=\\\"Vibe%20%28comics%29\\\">Cisco Ramon/Vibe</a> and as Francine West (<a href=\\\"Vanessa%20A.%20Williams\\\">Vanessa A. Williams</a>) to mess with <a href=\\\"Wally%20West\\\">Wally West/Kid Flash</a>, eventually gaining his own freedom. Savitar convinces <a href=\\\"Killer%20Frost\\\">Caitlin Snow/Killer Frost</a> to join his side as he plans to murder <a href=\\\"Iris%20West%20Allen\\\">Iris West</a> before the Flash's eyes, setting Barry on a quest for revenge that involves the creation of the temporal duplicates and ensuring the conditions necessary for his own creation. When <a href=\\\"Harrison%20Wells\\\">H.R. Wells</a> prevents this by switching places with Iris, Savitar tries to find a means of preserving his own existence, but he is eventually shot in the back by Iris and is erased from the timeline.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Wally West is a fictional superhero that appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the first Kid Flash and the third Flash. His power consists mainly of superhuman speed. He made his first appearance as the Kid Flash in the \"Flash #110\" in 1959. Wally took up the mantle of the Flash following the death of Barry Allen from 1986 to 2009 in DC's main lineup. His physical appearance is generally a redhead with green eyes, and is generally portrayed with a lighthearted, comical, and caring personality. Wally has an important role as the Flash in DC Rebirth (2016).","Kid Flash is the name of several fictional characters appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, originally created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, as a junior counterpart to DC Comics superhero The Flash. The first version of the character, Wally West, debuted in \"The Flash\" (vol. 1) #110 (1959). The character, along with others like the first Wonder Girl, Aqualad, and Speedy, was created in response to the success of Batman's young sidekick Robin. These young heroes would later be spun off into their own superhero team, the Teen Titans. As Kid Flash, Wally West made regular appearances in Flash related comic books and other DC Comics publications from 1959 through the mid-1980s until the character was reinvented as the new version of The Flash."],"string":"[\n \"Wally West is a fictional superhero that appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the first Kid Flash and the third Flash. His power consists mainly of superhuman speed. He made his first appearance as the Kid Flash in the \\\"Flash #110\\\" in 1959. Wally took up the mantle of the Flash following the death of Barry Allen from 1986 to 2009 in DC's main lineup. His physical appearance is generally a redhead with green eyes, and is generally portrayed with a lighthearted, comical, and caring personality. Wally has an important role as the Flash in DC Rebirth (2016).\",\n \"Kid Flash is the name of several fictional characters appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, originally created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, as a junior counterpart to DC Comics superhero The Flash. The first version of the character, Wally West, debuted in \\\"The Flash\\\" (vol. 1) #110 (1959). The character, along with others like the first Wonder Girl, Aqualad, and Speedy, was created in response to the success of Batman's young sidekick Robin. These young heroes would later be spun off into their own superhero team, the Teen Titans. As Kid Flash, Wally West made regular appearances in Flash related comic books and other DC Comics publications from 1959 through the mid-1980s until the character was reinvented as the new version of The Flash.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":47,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Regarding the founder of the Qin dynasty, who was his grandfather?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"King Xiaowen of Qin"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ancient City Ruins of Liye\nThe site of Ancient City Ruins of Liye () is the archaeological site of seat of the historic Qianling County () in Dongting Prefecture (), Qin dynasty (221 BC–206 BC). Its site is located in the present-day Liye Town, Longshan County, Hunan Province, China, and it is known for 37,400 pieces of Qin Bamboo slips unearthed in 2002. The Ancient City was built by Chu State in the late Warring States period, reconstructed in the Qin dynasty and abandoned in the early Western Han dynasty. The site of Ancient City Ruins was approved as a hiistorical and cultural site protected at the national level in Hunan on November 22, 2002. The Qin Bamboo Slips Museum and the Ruins Park has been established and officially opened on October 28, 2010.\nIn June 1985, a group of bricklayers digging to make bricks excavated ancient potteries and weapons, the archaeologists had gradually carried out archaeological excavations there since then. As part of the Wanmipo Hydropower station () construction, the archaeologists from Hunan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology () and the local archaeological units started a rescue excavation for the site of ancient cultural remains in Liye on April 17, 2002, the ancient city gradually revealed. In the ancient city ruins, there are a moat, a rampart, building ruins and drainage facilities, ancient wells are spread regularly in the inner and outer side. All the buildings and facilities together formed a complete system of an ancient city. In June 2002, more than 36,000 Qin Bamboo slips were unearthed in an ancient well, the event was considered as the most important archaeological discovery of the Qin dynasty after the Qin Terracotta Army unearthed in 1973 in an eastern suburb of Xi'an.\nThe site is rectangular and adjacent to the You River () and surrounded by a moat to the north, south and west, there is a crossroad with the main street to the south outside. it is 210.4 meters long north to south with the width of 103 - 107 meters, the remaining area covers about 20,000 square meters.","King Xiaowen of Qin\nKing Xiaowen of Qin (reigned 250 BC) was a Chinese king, who had a very brief reign. He is also known as Lord Anguo (安國君). His grandson was Emperor Qin Shi Huang.\nXiaowen was a son of the King Zhaoxiang of Qin and Queen Tang and grandson of Queen Dowager Xuan.\nHe was a king of the Qin for less than one year, and died three days after his coronation.\nThis gave rise to many theories as to his short reign. The most accepted one is that he was very old when he ascended to the throne (his father ruled for over 50 years).\nHowever, there is a conspiracy theory: that Lü Buwei poisoned the king or at least hastened his death, to put the next king, King Zhuangxiang of Qin onto the throne. This is supported in a way by the fact that Zhuangxiang reigned for only 3 years.\nWives of Xiaowen were Ladies Huayang and Xia.\nHis son by Lady Xia was King Zhuangxiang of Qin.\nLady Huayang was the favourite wife of Xiaowen and had great influence on him.","Zhang Han (Qin dynasty)\nZhang Han (died 205 BC) was a military general of the Qin dynasty. When uprisings erupted throughout China during the reign of Qin Er Shi, Zhang Han led the Qin armies and successfully quelled several of these rebel forces. In 207 BC, Zhang Han was defeated by Xiang Yu of Chu at the Battle of Julu, after which he surrendered along with his 200,000 troops. He was conferred the title of \"King of Yong\" (雍王) by Xiang Yu and given part of the lands in Guanzhong as his fief when Xiang split the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms after the fall of the Qin dynasty. Zhang Han's territory was conquered by Liu Bang in 206 BC, and he committed suicide a year later.\nIn 209 BC, the rebel army led by Chen Sheng's deputy, Zhou Wen (周文), was the first to reach the Qin capital Xianyang. Qin Er Shi was shocked and discussed with his subjects on how to counter the rebels. Zhang Han suggested to the emperor to grant amnesty to some of the convicts serving as labourers at Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum, and organise them into an army to deal with the rebels. The emperor approved Zhang Han's proposal and put him in charge of the army to quell the rebel forces. Zhang Han emerged victorious against Zhou Wen, defeating and driving Zhou out of Guanzhong. The emperor then commissioned Sima Xin and Dong Yi to serve as Zhang Han's deputies.\nZhang Han's army continued to advance eastward and destroyed the rebel army of Chen Sheng. Zhang Han then led his men to attack the Wei rebels, emerging victorious against Wei and enemy reinforcements from Qi. Zhang Han's armies moved on to attack Tian Rong (田榮) of Qi, while Xiang Liang of Chu came to help Qi and defeated Zhang. Zhang Han scored another victory at the Battle of Dingtao against the Chu forces, killing Xiang Liang in battle.\nIn 207 BC, when Zhang Han attacked and besieged the Zhao forces at Julu, the Zhao ruler Zhao Xie (趙歇) sought help from King Huai II of Chu. King Huai II sent Xiang Yu to lift the siege and Xiang's army defeated Zhang Han's forces at the Battle of Julu despite being heavily outnumbered. Zhang Han sent Sima Xin to request for reinforcements from Xianyang but Zhao Gao deceived Qin Er Shi and the emperor refused to send aid. Sima Xin escaped from Zhao Gao's assassins on his return journey and reported to Zhang Han that the state power of Qin had fallen into the hands of Zhao. Zhang Han pondered over the situation and realised that he would not survive even if he attained victory over Xiang Yu, as Zhao Gao would have him killed on false charges of treason. Hence, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops then surrendered to Xiang Yu and Zhang was conferred the title of \"King of Yong\" (雍王) by Xiang.\nAfter the fall of the Qin Dynasty in 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, while Zhang Han and his two deputies were granted the region of Guanzhong as their fiefs. The three kingdoms were known as the Three Qins because they occupied the lands of the former Qin state. Later that year, the forces of Liu Bang (King of Han) invaded Guanzhong and captured Zhang Han's territory in a surprise attack. Zhang Han retreated to Feiqiu (廢丘; present-day Xingping, Shaanxi) and remained there. A year later, in 205 BC, the Han army flooded Feiqiu and Zhang Han committed suicide after his defeat.\n","Emperor Yi of Chu\nEmperor Yi of Chu (died 206 BC), also known as King Huai II of Chu, personal name Xiong Xin, was the ruler of the Chu state in the late Qin dynasty. He was a grandson of King Huai of Chu. In 223 BC, during the Warring States period, the Chu state was conquered by the Qin state, which unified the various Chinese feudal states in a series of wars and established the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. In 209 BC, when rebellions broke out throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty, the Chu state was revived as an insurgent state against Qin imperial rule. Xiong Xin was discovered by Xiang Liang, a rebel leader who descended from a famous Chu general (Xiang Yan), and installed on the Chu throne as \"King Huai II of Chu\". However, Xiong Xin was merely a puppet ruler because power was concentrated in Xiang Liang's hands, and was later passed on to Xiang Liang's nephew, Xiang Yu, after Xiang Liang was killed in battle. In 206 BC, the Qin dynasty was overthrown by the rebels, after which Xiang Yu, who was the \"de facto\" leader of all the rebel forces, divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms. He promoted King Huai II to a more \"honourable\" title – Emperor Yi of Chu – and made him the nominal sovereign ruler over all the Eighteen Kingdoms. Xiang Yu then had Emperor Yi relocated to Chen County (郴縣; in present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) and secretly ordered Ying Bu to assassinate the emperor during the journey.\nXiong Xin was a descendant of the royal family of the Chu state in the Warring States period, and a grandson of King Huai of Chu. However, he was not in the main line of succession and there were four kings who succeeded his grandfather before the Chu state was conquered by the Qin state in 223 BC. Xiong Xin lived as a commoner under Qin rule after the fall of Chu.\nIn 209 BC, the Dazexiang Uprising broke out under the leadership of Chen Sheng, who proclaimed himself \"King of Zhangchu\" (張楚王; lit. \"king of rising Chu\") and aimed to overthrow the Qin dynasty. Although Chen Sheng's uprising was crushed by Qin imperial forces, other rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty and restore the former six states conquered by Qin about two decades ago. The leader of the Chu insurgent state, Xiang Liang, was advised by Fan Zeng to seek a member of the Chu royal family and install him on the throne to garner more support from the people. Xiang Liang found Xiong Xin, who was living as a shepherd, and installed him on the throne in the summer of 208 BC. Xiong Xin ruled under the title of \"King Huai II of Chu\".\nKing Huai II was effectively a puppet ruler because the power of Chu was concentrated in Xiang Liang's hands. However, after Xiang Liang was killed at the Battle of Dingtao in the winter of 208 BC, the power was passed on to King Huai II and some Chu generals, so the king gradually began to assert his authority. After that, the king ordered Song Yi and Liu Bang to lead two armies to attack Qin, and promised to award the title \"King of Guanzhong\" to whoever entered Guanzhong (the Qin heartland) first. Xiang Liang's nephew, Xiang Yu, was the second-in-command to Song Yi, who led his army to attack Qin forces led by Zhang Han. Zhang Han's army was besieging Handan, the capital of the Zhao state, and Song Yi refused to advance any further to assist the Zhao forces. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting, falsely accused him of treason, killed him and usurped his command. He then sent a messenger to inform King Huai II, who reluctantly approved his command. In the winter of 207 BC, Liu Bang arrived in Guanzhong first, before Xiang Yu. The last Qin emperor, Ziying, surrendered to Liu Bang and brought an end to the Qin dynasty.\nAccording to the promise made earlier by King Huai II, Liu Bang should rightfully become the \"King of Guanzhong\", but after Xiang Yu reached Guanzhong, he wrote a letter to King Huai II to ask the king to give him the title instead. King Huai II's reply was to the effect of \"per my earlier promise\", but Xiang Yu ignored him and took control of Guanzhong from Liu Bang since he was more militarily powerful than Liu. Xiang Yu then proclaimed himself \"Hegemon-King of Western Chu\" and divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, each ruled by one of the leaders of the rebel forces which overthrew the Qin dynasty. He also promoted King Huai II to a seemingly more \"honourable\" title – Emperor Yi of Chu. However, later, he had the puppet emperor relocated to Chen County (郴縣; in present-day Chenzhou, Hunan), thereby effectively sending the emperor into exile.\nEmperor Yi was aware that Xiang Yu wanted to force him into exile, so he feigned illness and used that as an excuse to postpone his trip to Chen County, but to no avail. Xiang Yu still forced him to make his way from Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Chen County. At the same time, he secretly ordered Ying Bu, Wu Rui and Gong Ao to kill the emperor during the journey to Chen County. Emperor Yi was murdered by Ying Bu's men near Chen County and buried by the locals at a hill in the southwest of the county.\nBetween 206–202 BC, a power struggle for supremacy over China (historically known as the Chu–Han Contention) broke out between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang. Liu Bang used Emperor Yi's death as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu. In 205 BC, he held a three-day memorial service for the emperor, accused Xiang Yu of committing regicide, and rally support from the people against Xiang Yu. In 202 BC, the Chu–Han Contention concluded with victory for Liu Bang, who became the sovereign ruler of China and established the Han dynasty. Liu Bang ordered his generals Zhou Bo, Wang Ling and Fan Kuai, who had been enfeoffed as marquises, to conduct memorial services for Emperor Yi in their respective marquisates.\nYi sometimes appears as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples, usually paired with the last Qin emperor Ziying.","Liye Qin Slips\nThe Liye Qin Slips () is a large collection of bamboo slips which were unearthed at the ancient town of Liye, Longshan County, Hunan Province, China in 2002. The event is one of the most important archaeological finds of the 21st century in China. The archaeologists found more than 37,000 pieces of bamboo writing slips in 2002 in the Ancient City Ruins of Liye (), on which more than 200,000 Chinese characters recorded the governing state secrets of the Qin dynasty. It was considered as the most important archaeological discovery of the Qin dynasty after the Qin Terracotta Army unearthed in 1973 in an eastern suburb of Xi'an.\nThe Liye bamboo slip documents and archives fully embody a wide range of document types and terms, the grown of constant administrative and judicial document styles. Among them are more than 68 types of archives and content, which have high value of supplementing and testifying history facts. Some in the academic circles have argued that its importance is no less than those of Oracle bone script and Dunhuang manuscripts. The world's oldest example of a multiplication table was found here. The slips, used for writing in ancient times, have great significance in furthering research on Qin dynasty politics, economy and culture. All the historical artifacts from Liye are displayed at the Qin Dynasty Bamboo Slips Museum of Liye ().\nThe Qin bamboo slips of Liye are important for the research of the unification of the Qin Empire and the cultural expansion of the Qin. The slips belong to a model of the local authorities in the Qin dynasty. They also filled in the blank pages of the \"Records of the Grand Historian\" and \"Book of Han\" on the Qin and Han dynasties, and fundamentally changed the face of the academic history of thousands of years on warring States, Qin and Han dynasties. The slips contain thousands of pieces of bamboo slips without words, which takes on a very high research value.","Ying Bu\nYing Bu (died 195 BC), also known as Qing Bu, was a military general and vassal king who lived in the early Western Han dynasty. He was a native of Lu County (六縣; present-day Lu'an, Anhui). In his early life under the Qin dynasty, Ying Bu was convicted and sentenced to \"qing\" (黥; a form of punishment which involved branding a criminal by tattooing his face), so he was also called \"Qing Bu\". He was then sent to Mount Li to perform hard labour by constructing Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum. He later escaped with some men and became the leader of a bandit gang. Ying Bu participated in the insurrection against the Qin dynasty after the Dazexiang Uprising broke out in 209 BC. After the uprising failed, he became part of a rebel force led by Xiang Liang. He assisted Xiang Liang's nephew and successor Xiang Yu in overthrowing the Qin dynasty. After the fall of Qin, he initially fought on Xiang Yu's side in the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC), a power struggle for supremacy over China between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang (Emperor Gao). However, later, he defected to Liu Bang's side and helped Liu defeat Xiang Yu and become the emperor. During this period of time, Ying Bu held the title of \"King of Jiujiang\". After Liu Bang established the Han dynasty in 202 BC, he appointed Ying Bu as a vassal king and granted him the title of \"King of Huainan\". In 195 BC, Ying Bu rebelled against the Han dynasty but was defeated and killed.\nYing Bu was born in a family of commoners. In his childhood, a fortune teller once told him that he would become a convict first before becoming a king later. When he became older, Ying Bu committed a crime and under the laws of the Qin dynasty, he was sentenced to \"qing\" (黥; a form of punishment which involved branding a criminal by tattooing his face), but he laughed and said, \"A fortune teller once told me that I would be convicted before becoming a king. Isn't it so?\" He was scorned at by others when they heard him. Ying Bu was later sent to Mount Li to do hard labour by constructing Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum. He befriended many fellow convicts and later escaped with them, and became the leader of a bandit gang.\nIn 209 BC, when Chen Sheng and Wu Guang started the Dazexiang Uprising to overthrow the Qin dynasty, Ying Bu joined a rebel leader Wu Rui and rallied several thousand men. He also married Wu Rui's daughter. After the uprising was crushed by the Qin general Zhang Han, Ying Bu led his followers north to attack the Qin left and right flanks and defeated the enemy at Qingbo (清波; southwest of present-day Xincai County, Henan), and then moved east. When Ying Bu learnt that Xiang Liang had amassed a large rebel force in Kuaiji (then still centered on present-day Suzhou, not Shaoxing), he led his own followers to join Xiang Liang too.\nYing Bu fought bravely in battle and assisted Xiang Liang in defeating other insurgent leaders such as Jing Ju and Qin Jia (秦嘉). In the summer of 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed King Huai II on the throne of the Chu state, but the king was actually a figurehead used by Xiang Liang to rally more supporters in the name of restoring Chu. King Huai II granted Ying Bu the title of \"Lord Dangyang\" (當陽君). Xiang Liang was killed in action against Qin forces at the Battle of Dingtao in the winter of 208 BC, and King Huai II moved his capital to Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). Ying Bu and other Chu generals were stationed in Pengcheng.\nAt the time, Qin forces were attacking another insurgent state, Zhao. The Zhao king Zhao Xie (趙歇) requested aid from Chu. King Huai II ordered Song Yi, Xiang Yu (Xiang Liang's nephew) and Fan Zeng to lead an army to rescue Zhao Xie. Xiang Yu accused Song Yi of treason, killed the latter and took control of the army. Ying Bu was originally under Song Yi, so he became Xiang Yu's subordinate after King Huai II approved Xiang Yu's command. In 207 BC, Chu forces led by Xiang Yu, Ying Bu and others defeated a larger Qin army led by Zhang Han at the Battle of Julu. After the battle, at Xin'an (新安; in present-day Yima, Henan), Xiang Yu had Ying Bu oversee the execution of Zhang Han's 200,000 surrendered Qin soldiers by burying them alive.\nAfter his victory at Julu, Xiang Yu led his forces towards Guanzhong (the heartland of the Qin dynasty) and prepared for an invasion. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin emperor Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang (the Qin capital), bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. Xiang Yu later occupied Xianyang and divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, each ruled by a vassal king. Ying Bu was named \"King of Jiujiang\" (九江王).\nIn the fourth lunar month of 206 BC, the rulers of the Eighteen Kingdoms returned to their respective domains. Xiang Yu ostensibly promoted King Huai II of Chu to a more honorific title of \"Emperor Yi of Chu\", and moved him to Changsha, effectively sending the puppet ruler into exile. Xiang Yu then secretly ordered Ying Bu to kill Emperor Yi, and Ying Bu intercepted the emperor at Chen County (郴縣; present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) and killed him.\nIn 205 BC, Tian Rong (田榮) started a rebellion in Qi so Xiang Yu led an army to attack him. Xiang Yu requested reinforcements from Ying Bu, but the latter claimed that he was ill and instead sent his subordinates and a few thousand troops to assist Xiang Yu. At the same time, Liu Bang (King of Han) formed an alliance with five other kings and took advantage of Xiang Yu's absence to attack and seize the latter's capital Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). When Xiang Yu asked help from Ying Bu, the latter claimed that he was ill again and refused to aid Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu was displeased with Ying Bu and sent a messenger to summon the latter but Ying Bu became afraid and refused to go. Xiang Yu did not attack Ying Bu because he faced the threats of Qi and Zhao, and Liu Bang in the west, and also because he felt that Ying Bu was a talent and wanted the latter to remain on his side.\nIn late 205 BC, Xiang Yu defeated Liu Bang at the Battle of Pengcheng and Liu was forced to retreat to Yu (虞). Liu Bang told his followers, \"People like you are not worthy to discuss great plans with me.\" One of Liu Bang's advisors, Sui He (隨何), asked why, and Liu Bang replied, \"Who can help me go to Huainan and persuade (Ying Bu) to betray Chu, and keep Xiang Yu occupied in Qi for several months, then I can easily take control of the empire.\" Sui He volunteered for the mission and brought 20 escorts to Huainan. Three days after reaching his destination, Sui He had yet to see Ying Bu, so he said to Ying Bu's advisor, \"The king refuses to see me because Chu is powerful and Han is weak. This is exactly the reason why I'm here. Why don't you allow me to meet him first? If what I've said is true, then that's what he wishes to hear. If what I've said is false, then me and my 20 men are willing to die in Huainan to prove that your king is against Han and loyal to Chu.\" The advisor relayed Sui He's message to Ying Bu, and Ying agreed to meet Sui He.\nSui He said, \"The King of Han sends me to deliver a message to you. I'm curious why you're so close to Chu.\" Ying Bu responded that he had all along been serving Xiang Yu. Sui He said, \"Both you and Xiang Yu are vassal kings. You're willing to be subservient to him because you feel that Chu is powerful and can be relied on. When Xiang Yu was attacking Qi, he fought ahead of his men. You should personally lead Huainan's forces and fight as Chu's vanguard. Yet now you only send 4,000 men to assist Chu, is this what a subordinate should do? When the King of Han was attacking Chu's capital Pengcheng, you should lead your men to help Xiang Yu and fight with the King of Han day and night. You have a large army but you don't send troops to help and would rather stand by and watch. Is this what a subordinate should do? You are subordinate to Chu in name, but actually you rely on yourself. I feel that this won't be good for you. You refuse to betray Chu because you think that Han is weak. However, although Chu is powerful, Xiang Yu has lost the people's trust when he broke his promises and murdered Emperor Yi, and now he still thinks that his state is strong and he can win any battle. The King of Han is recruiting other vassal lords, and garrisoning in Chenggao and Xingyang. His supply routes from Shu avoid deep trenches and are well defended. When Chu recall its forces, it is separated by Liang in between and is 800-900 \"li\" within enemy territory. Now Chu is unable to fight well and is exhausted. Its old and weak soldiers are transporting supplies over great distances. When Chu forces reach Xingyang and Chenggao, Han forces only need to put up a firm defence. In this way, Chu forces can neither advance by attacking nor retreat. Therefore, I say that Chu is unreliable. If Chu wins Han, other vassal states will help each other for fear of Chu. As such, we can see that if Chu becomes more powerful, it will invite hostility from many sides. It's obvious that Chu is worse than Han. I'm puzzled as to why you choose to depend on Chu, which is at stake, instead of Han, which has nothing to lose. I don't think that Huainan's forces are sufficient to resist Chu, but if you betray Chu, Xiang Yu will be held up in Qi for several months, and Han has higher chances of taking over the empire. I sincerely hope you can join the King of Han. He'll grant you a fief larger than the current Huainan you have. As such, he sends me to present this plan to you and hope that you'll consider it.\" Ying Bu agreed but he kept silent about his defection.\nAt the same time, Xiang Yu had sent a messenger to Huainan to request reinforcements from Ying Bu. Sui He called for the messenger and declared, \"The King of Jiujiang has already joined Han. Why does he need to send troops to help Chu?\" Ying Bu was startled. The Chu messenger was surprised and left. Sui He then said to Ying Bu, \"It's now a fact (that you've joined Han), so you should kill the Chu messenger and stop him from returning to Chu. You should also ally with Han as soon as possible.\", and Ying Bu heeded his advice.\nWhen Xiang Yu learnt that Ying Bu had turned against him, he sent Xiang Sheng (項聲) and Long Ju to attack Huainan while he remained behind to attack Xiayi (下邑). Months later Long Ju defeated Ying Bu and conquered Jiujiang. Ying Bu was afraid that he would be killed so he fled to Han territory.\nYing Bu wanted to meet Liu Bang after he arrived in Han. Liu Bang was sitting on his bed and washing his feet when Ying Bu came to see him. Ying Bu was furious because he felt that Liu Bang was treating him with contempt, and he regretted joining Han and wanted to commit suicide. When Ying Bu was shown to his living quarters, he was surprised to see that everything was similar to Liu Bang's and he was delighted. He then sent his men to Jiujiang and learnt that Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo had taken control of his former troops and killed his family. His men also found several of his former followers and brought them back to Han. Liu Bang put Ying Bu in command of some troops.\nIn 203 BC, Liu Bang instated Ying Bu as \"King of Huainan\" (淮南王). Later that year, Ying Bu led an army to attack Jiujiang and conquered many cities. He entered Jiujiang together with Liu Gu (劉賈) and persuaded Zhou Yin (周殷) to defect from Chu to Han. Ying Bu and Zhou Yin led their armies to join Liu Bang in attacking Xiang Yu and eventually defeated Xiang at the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BC. Xiang Yu committed suicide and the rest of Chu surrendered to Han.\nFollowing his victory in the Chu–Han Contention, Liu Bang was proclaimed \"Emperor\" and became historically known as \"Emperor Gaozu of Han\" after establishing the Han dynasty. Ying Bu became a vassal king of the Han dynasty, under the title King of Huainan (淮南王), with his capital at Lu (六; present-day Lu'an, Anhui), and the commanderies of Jiujiang (九江), Lushan (廬山), Hengshan (衡山) and Yuzhang (豫章) under his control.\nIn 196 BC, Han Xin, the Marquis of Huaiyin (淮陰侯), was executed on Empress Lü Zhi's order. Ying Bu became uneasy when he learnt of this. In the summer of that year, Peng Yue, the King of Liang (梁王), suffered a similar fate, and his corpse was minced into pieces and the gory parts distributed to various nobles and vassal kings. Ying Bu was terrified and was worried that he would end up like Han Xin and Peng Yue, so he started gathering his forces and paying closer attention to happenings in the nearby areas.\nOne of Ying Bu's favourite concubines fell sick and was sent for medical treatment. The physician who attended to her was a neighbour of a palace official called Ben He (賁赫). As Ying Bu's concubine often visited the physician, Ben He used the opportunity to get close to her and offered her expensive gifts, and they had drinks at the physician's house. When the concubine returned home she praised Ben He in front of Ying Bu, saying that Ben He was a warm hearted man. Ying Bu asked her how she knew Ben He, and she told him everything. Ying Bu began to suspect that Ben He was having an affair with his concubine. Ben He became afraid when he heard that Ying Bu suspected him so he feigned illness and remained at home. Ying Bu became more angry and wanted to arrest Ben He. In desperation, Ben He accused Ying Bu of plotting a rebellion and fled to the capital Chang'an. Ying Bu sent his men to pursue Ben He but could not catch up with the latter. Upon reaching Chang'an, Ben He claimed that Ying Bu was showing signs of plotting a rebellion and urged the Han imperial court to send an army to launch a preemptive attack on Ying Bu. Emperor Gaozu discussed with his chancellor Xiao He, and the latter commented, \"Ying Bu wouldn't do this. I believe that his enemies are trying to frame him. Please put Ben He under custody first and then send people to investigate Ying Bu.\" When Ying Bu saw that Ben He had escaped and accused him of plotting a rebellion, he suspected that Ben He had already revealed what he had been secretly planning to do. Besides, the Han imperial court had sent people to investigate, so Ying Bu decided to proceed with his plan. He killed Ben He's family and started a rebellion. When news of Ying Bu's revolt reached Chang'an, Emperor Gaozu pardoned Ben He and appointed him as a general.\nGaozu summoned his subjects to discuss on how to deal with Ying Bu and they urged the emperor to send an army to attack Ying Bu and destroy him. Xiahou Ying consulted Xue Gong (薛公), a former \"lingyin\" of Chu, and asked him, \"The emperor granted him a fief and the title of a vassal king, allowing him to enjoy luxuries and rule over thousands, why does he still want to rebel?\" Xue Gong replied, \"Peng Yue and Han Xin were executed in the past two years. The three of them contributed heavily to the dynasty's founding and are almost equal to each other. Ying Bu feared that he would experience the same fate (as Han Xin and Peng Yue) so he rebelled.\" Xiahou Ying then recommended Xue Gong to Emperor Gaozu. Xue Gong analysed to the emperor that Ying Bu would make three possible moves: 1. Attack and capture Wu, Chu, Qi, Lu, Yan and Zhao, and the Han dynasty would lose the Shandong region as a result; 2. Attack and capture Wu, Chu, Han, Wei, rely on supplies from Aoyu to block Chenggao, the outcome of this move was uncertain; 3. Attack Wu, Xiacai, return to Yue and Changsha, there was nothing to worry if Ying Bu made this move. Xue Gong predicted that Ying Bu would take the third option because Ying Bu was a convict and he attained his kingly status through his own efforts, and everything he did was for personal gain and he did not care about the people and his descendants. Gaozu put Xue Gong in charge of 1,000 households and installed his son Liu Chang (劉長) as \"Prince of Huainan\" to replace Ying Bu. Gaozu then personally led an army to suppress Ying Bu's rebellion.\nBefore Ying Bu rebelled, he told his men, \"The emperor is old and hates going to war. He'll definitely not come. Even if he sends any of his generals, among them only Han Xin and Peng Yue are dangerous, but since both of them are already dead there's nothing to fear.\" Ying Bu moved east to attack Jing (荊) and in Fuling (富陵) he defeated and killed Liu Gu (劉賈), Prince of Jing (荊王). He then crossed the Huai River to attack Chu. Chu sent its forces to intercept Ying Bu between Xu (徐) and Tong (僮), with three armies ready to come to each other's aid if any came under attack. Someone warned the Chu commanders, \"Ying Bu is versed in warfare and the people have long feared him. Chu forces are fighting on their own territory and are easily scattered. Now the army is divided into three forces, if one is defeated the other two would follow suit. How is it possible for them to help each other?\" The warning was ignored. Ying Bu later really did defeat one army and the other two dispersed.\nYing Bu then advanced west and encountered the Han army led by Emperor Gaozu in Qixi (蕲西; south of present-day Su County, Anhui) and they battled at Zhui (甀). Ying Bu's army was well-trained so Gaozu had to retreat to Yongcheng (庸城). From a distance, Gaozu saw that Ying Bu's forces were deployed like Xiang Yu's and he hated that. Gaozu asked Ying Bu, \"Why do you want to rebel?\", to which Ying Bu replied, \"I want to be the emperor.\" Gaozu was furious and scolded Ying Bu, and launched an attack. Ying Bu was defeated and retreated back across the Huai River. At times he halted and turned back to resist the Han forces but failed. Ying Bu was eventually left with around 100 men and they retreated to south of the Yangtze River.\nYing Bu was Wu Rui's son-in-law, so Wu Hui (吳回; Wu Rui's grandson), King Ai of Changsha (長沙哀王), sent a messenger to Ying Bu, lying that he would help Ying Bu escape to Nanyue. Ying Bu believed Wu Hui and followed the messenger to Poyang (番陽), where he was killed by peasants in Zi Village (茲鄉).\nYing Bu is sometimes venerated as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples, usually partnered with Peng Yue. He is one of the 32 historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI\" by Koei. He is also featured under the name \"Qing Bu\" as a playable character of the \"Muscleman\" class in the action role-playing game \"Prince of Qin\".\nYing Bu on hxlsw.com","Li Si\nLi Si (; c. 280 BCSeptember or October 208 BC) was a Chinese politician of the Qin dynasty. He served as the Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of the Qin dynasty from 246–208 BC, well known Legalist writer and politician, and notable calligrapher. He served under two rulers: Qin Shi Huang, the king of the Qin state and later the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty; and Qin Er Shi, Qin Shi Huang's youngest son and the Second Emperor. Concerning administrative methods, Li \"indicated that he admired and utilized the ideas of Shen Pu-hai\", repeatedly referring to the technique of Shen and Han Fei, but regarding law followed Shang Yang.\nStanford University's John Knoblock considered Li Si \"one of the two or three most important figures in Chinese history\". Having a clear vision of universal empire and \"one world comprising all Chinese, bringing with universal dominion universal peace\", Li Si was \"largely responsible for the creation of those institutions that made the Qin dynasty the first universal state in Chinese history\".\nLi Si unified the laws, governmental ordinances, weights and measures, and standardized chariots, carts, and the characters used in writing... [facilitating] the cultural unification of China. He \"created a government based solely on merit, so that in the empire sons and younger brothers in the imperial clan were not ennobled, but meritorious ministers were\", and \"pacified the frontier regions by subduing the barbarians to the north and south\". He had the weapons of the feudal states melted and cast into musical bells and large human statues, and relaxed taxes and the draconian punishments inherited from Shang Yang.\nLi Si was originally from Shang Cai (上蔡) in the State of Chu. As a young man he was a minor functionary in the local administration of Chu. According to the \"Records of the Great Historian\", one day Li Si observed that rats in the outhouse were dirty and hungry but the rats in the barn house were well fed. He suddenly realized that \"there is no set standard for honour since everyone's life is different. The values of people are determined by their social status. And like rats, people's social status often depends purely on the random life events around them. And so instead of always being restricted by moral codes, people should do what they deemed best at the moment.\" He made up his mind to take up politics as a career, which was a common choice for scholars not from a noble family during the Warring States period.\nLi Si was unable to advance his career in Chu. He believed that achieving nothing in life while being so intelligent and educated would bring shame to not just himself but to all scholars. After having finished his education with the famous Confucian thinker Xunzi, he moved to the State of Qin, the most powerful state at that time in an attempt to advance his political career.\nDuring his stay in Qin, Li Si became a guest of Prime Minister Lü Buwei and got the chance to talk to the ruler of Ying Zheng who would later become the first emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang. Li Si expressed that the Qin state was extremely powerful, but uniting China was still impossible if all of the other six states united to fight against Qin. Qin Shi Huang was impressed by Li Si's view of how to unify China. Having adopted Li Si's proposal, the ruler of Qin spent generously to lure intellectuals to the state of Qin and sent out assassins to kill important scholars in other states.\nIn 237 BC a clique at the Qin court urged King Zheng to expel all foreigners from the state to prevent espionage. As a native of Chu, Li Si would be a target of the policy so he memorialised the king explaining the many benefits of foreigners to Qin including \"the sultry girls of Zhao\". The king relented and, impressed with Li Si's rhetoric, promoted him. The same year, Li Si is reported to have urged King Zheng to annex the neighbouring State of Han to order to intimidate the other five remaining states. Li Si also wrote the \"Petition against the Expulsion of Guest Officers” (Jianzhuke Shu) in 234 BC. Han Fei, a member of the aristocracy from the State of Han, was asked by the Han king to go to Qin and resolve the situation through diplomacy. Li Si, who envied Han Fei's intellect, persuaded the Qin king that he could neither send Han Fei back (as his superior ability would be a threat to Qin) nor employ him (as his loyalty would not be to Qin). As a result, Han Fei was imprisoned, and in 233 BC convinced by Li Si to commit suicide by taking poison. The State of Han was later conquered in 230 BC.\nAfter Qin Shi Huang became emperor Li Si persuaded him to suppress intellectual dissent. Li Si believed that books regarding things such as medicine, agriculture and prophecy could be ignored but political books were dangerous in public hands. It was hard to make progress and change the country with the opposition of so many \"\" scholars. As a result, only the state should keep political books, and only the state run schools should be allowed to educate political scholars. Li Si himself penned the edict ordering the destruction of historical records and literature in 213 BC, including key Confucian texts, which he thought detrimental to the welfare of the state. It is commonly thought that 460 Confucian scholars were buried alive, from the well-known historical event \"Burning Books and Burying Confucianists\" (焚书坑儒); however, this was a mistranslation in later historical texts. In reality, the 460 people who were buried alive by the emperor Qin Shi Huang were mainly priests and shamans who were alleged to be depriving the emperor of resources and wealth while looking for medicines that would grant eternal life or apotheosis.\nWhen Qin Shi Huang died while away from the capital, Li Si and the chief eunuch Zhao Gao suppressed the late emperor's choice of successor, which was Fusu. At that time Fusu was close friends with Meng Tian. If Fusu became the next emperor there was a high chance Meng Tian would replace Li Si as prime minister. Fearing a loss of power, Li Si decided to betray the dead Qin Shi Huang. Li Si and Zhao Gao tricked Fusu into committing suicide, and installed another prince, Qin Er Shi (229 BC – 207 BC) in his place. During the tumultuous aftermath, Zhao Gao convinced the new emperor to install his followers in official positions. When his power base was secure enough, Zhao Gao betrayed Li Si and charged him with treason. Qin Er Shi, who viewed Zhao Gao as his teacher, did not question his decision. Zhao Gao had Li Si tortured until he admitted the crime. In 208 BC Zhao Gao had Li Si executed by way of waist chop (腰斩).\nBelieving in a highly bureaucratic system, Li Si is considered to have been central to the efficiency of the state of Qin and the success of its military conquest. He was also instrumental in systematizing standard measures and currency in post-unified China. He further helped systematize the written Chinese language by promulgating as the imperial standard the small seal script which had already been in use in the state of Qin. In this process, variant glyphs within the Qin script were proscribed, as were variant scripts from the different regions which had been conquered. This would have a unifying effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. Li Si was also the author of the \"Cangjiepian\", the first Chinese language primer of which fragments still exist.\n","Zhao Gao\nZhao Gao (Simplified Chinese 赵高, died 207 BC) was a Chinese politician of the Qin dynasty. Allegedly a eunuch, he served as a close aide to all three emperors of the Qin dynasty – Qin Shi Huang, Qin Er Shi and Ziying – and was regarded as having played an instrumental role in the downfall of the dynasty.\nZhao Gao started his career under Qin Shi Huang as a \"zhongche fuling\" (中車府令), an official in charge of managing the palace horse-drawn carriages. During this period of time, he also served as an attendant to Huhai, Qin Shi Huang's youngest son, and tutored him in the laws of the Qin Empire. In 210 BC, after Qin Shi Huang died in Shaqiu (沙丘; south of present-day Dapingtai Village, Guangzong County, Hebei), Zhao Gao and Li Si, the Chancellor, secretly changed the emperor's final edict, which named Fusu, the crown prince, the heir to the throne. In the falsified edict, Fusu was ordered to commit suicide while Huhai was named the new emperor. After Huhai was enthroned as Qin Er Shi, he promoted Zhao Gao to \"langzhongling\" (郎中令), an official post whose duties included managing the daily activities in the imperial palace. Zhao Gao, who was highly trusted by Qin Er Shi, instigated the emperor to exterminate his own siblings to consolidate power, and used the opportunity to eliminate his political opponents such as Meng Tian and Meng Yi. He also framed Li Si for treason and had Li and his entire family executed, after which he replaced Li as the Chancellor and monopolised state power. In 207 BC, when rebellions broke out in the lands east of Hangu Pass, Zhao Gao became worried that Qin Er Shi would blame him, so he launched a coup in Wangyi Palace (望夷宮; in Xianyang, near present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi) and assassinated the emperor. Following Qin Er Shi's death, Zhao Gao installed Ziying, Fusu's son, on the throne. Ziying sent Han Tan (韓談), a eunuch, to assassinate Zhao Gao.\nZhao Gao was distantly related to the royal family of the Zhao state of the Warring States period. According to the \"Records of the Grand Historian\", Zhao Gao's parents committed crimes and were punished. His brothers were castrated; it is unclear whether Zhao Gao himself was a eunuch or not. However, Qin Shi Huang valued Zhao Gao since he was learned in criminal law. This was very useful to Qin Shi Huang since he himself was always looking for ways to control the people by laws and punishments. Zhao Gao enjoyed a steady rise in position.\nWhen Zhao was a minor official, he committed a crime punishable by death. Meng Yi was the official in charge of sentencing and he sentenced Zhao to death and removed him from the officials list as instructed by Qin Shi Huang. Zhao was later pardoned by Qin Shi Huang and returned to his official status.\nAt the end of the reign of Qin Shi Huang, Zhao Gao was involved in the death of Meng Tian and his younger brother, Meng Yi. Meng Tian, a reputable general and a supporter of Qin Shi Huang's eldest son, Fusu, was stationed at the northern border, commanding more than 200,000 troops for the inconclusive campaign against the Xiongnu. Following the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang at Shaqiu, Zhao Gao and Li Si, the Chancellor, persuaded the emperor's youngest son, Huhai, to falsify the emperor's will. The fake decree forced Fusu to commit suicide and stripped Meng Tian of his command. Harbouring hatred for the entire Meng family due to his prior sentencing by Meng Yi, Zhao Gao destroyed the Meng brothers by convincing Huhai to issue a decree that forced Meng Tian to commit suicide and execute Meng Yi.\nQin Er Shi, who viewed Zhao Gao as his tutor, became the next Qin emperor.\nTwo years later, Zhao Gao also killed Li Si, ironically executing him via the \"Five Pains\" method, Li's own invention. The method consisted of having the victim's nose cut off, cutting off a hand and a foot, then the victim was castrated and finally cut in half in line with the waist. He also had Li Si's entire family exterminated.\nIn 207 BC, rebellions broke out in the lands east of Hangu Pass. Zhao Gao was afraid that Qin Er Shi might make him responsible for the uprisings. To preempt this, he launched a coup and assassinated Qin Er Shi, and then installed Ziying, Fusu's son, as the new emperor.\nZiying, however, knew that Zhao Gao intended to kill him afterwards to appease the rebels, so he feigned illness on the day of the coronation, which forced Zhao to arrive at his residence to persuade him to attend. The moment Zhao Gao arrived, Ziying ordered a eunuch, Han Tan, to kill Zhao. Zhao Gao's entire clan was exterminated on Ziying's order.\nOne Chinese idiom that is derived from an incident involving Zhao Gao is \"calling a deer a horse\" (), meaning \"deliberate misrepresentation for ulterior purposes\". The \"Records of the Grand Historian\" records that Zhao Gao, in an attempt to control the Qin government, devised a loyalty test for court officials using a deer and horse:\nZhao Gao was contemplating treason but was afraid the other officials would not heed his commands, so he decided to test them first. He brought a deer and presented it to the Second Emperor but called it a horse. The Second Emperor laughed and said, \"Is the chancellor perhaps mistaken, calling a deer a horse?\" Then the emperor questioned those around him. Some remained silent, while some, hoping to ingratiate themselves with Zhao Gao, said it was a horse, and others said it was a deer. Zhao Gao secretly arranged for all those who said it was a deer to be brought before the law and had them executed instantly. Thereafter the officials were all terrified of Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao gained military power as a result of that. (tr. Watson 1993:70)\nThere is a conspiracy theory that Zhao Gao was a descendant of the royal family of the Zhao state, which was destroyed by the Qin state, and Zhao Gao was seeking revenge on Qin. With Zhao Gao in charge of the Qin government, it was natural that the Qin Empire collapsed in such a short time. In fact, Zhao Gao killed all the sons and daughters of Qin Shi Huang, including the Second Emperor, Huhai. In revenge, Ziying killed Zhao Gao and all of his family members. Thus Zhao Gao or his brothers have no known descendants.\nThe historian Li Kaiyuan (李開元) believes Zhao Gao was not a eunuch at all. He bases this in part on the fact eunuchs were not allowed to serve as chancellors, which Zhao did.","Chu (state)\nChu (, <a href=\"Old%20Chinese\">Old Chinese</a>: \"*s-r̥aʔ\" ) was a hegemonic, <a href=\"Zhou%20dynasty\">Zhou dynasty</a> era <a href=\"ancient%20Chinese%20states\">state</a>. From <a href=\"King%20Wu%20of%20Chu\">King Wu of Chu</a> in the early 8th century BCE, the rulers of Chu declared themselves kings on an equal footing with the Zhou kings. Though initially inconsequential, removed to the south of the Zhou heartland and practising differing customs, Chu began a series of administrative reforms, becoming a successful expansionist state during the <a href=\"Spring%20and%20Autumn%20period\">Spring and Autumn period</a>. With its continued expansion Chu became a great <a href=\"Warring%20States%20period\">Warring States period</a> power.\nAlso known as Jing (荆 ), Jingchu (荆楚 ) and Shu (舒 ), Chu included most of the present-day provinces of <a href=\"Hubei\">Hubei</a> and <a href=\"Hunan\">Hunan</a>, along with parts of <a href=\"Chongqing\">Chongqing</a>, <a href=\"Guizhou\">Guizhou</a>, <a href=\"Henan\">Henan</a>, <a href=\"Anhui\">Anhui</a>, <a href=\"Jiangxi\">Jiangxi</a>, <a href=\"Jiangsu\">Jiangsu</a>, <a href=\"Zhejiang\">Zhejiang</a>, and <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>. For more than 400 years, the Chu capital <a href=\"Danyang%20%28Chu%29\">Danyang</a> was located at the junction of the <a href=\"Dan%20River%20%28Shaanxi%29\">Dan</a> and <a href=\"Xi%20River\">Xi River</a>s near present-day <a href=\"Xichuan%20County\">Xichuan County</a>, Henan, but later moved to <a href=\"Ying%20%28Chu%29\">Ying</a>. The ruling house of Chu originally bore the <a href=\"Chinese%20surname\">clan name</a> Nai (嬭 ) and lineage name Yan (酓 ), but they are later written as <a href=\"Mi%20%28surname%29\">Mi</a> (芈 ) and <a href=\"Xiong%20%28surname%29\">Xiong</a> (熊 ), respectively.\nAccording to legends recounted in <a href=\"Sima%20Qian\">Sima Qian</a>'s \"<a href=\"Records%20of%20the%20Grand%20Historian\">Records of the Grand Historian</a>\", the royal family of Chu descended from the <a href=\"Yellow%20Emperor\">Yellow Emperor</a> and his grandson and successor <a href=\"Zhuanxu\">Zhuanxu</a>. Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui (吳回 ) was put in charge of fire by <a href=\"Emperor%20Ku\">Emperor Ku</a> and given the title <a href=\"Zhurong\">Zhurong</a>. Wuhui's son Luzhong (陸終 ) had six sons, all born by <a href=\"Caesarian%20section\">Caesarian section</a>. The youngest, <a href=\"Jilian\">Jilian</a>, adopted the ancestral surname <a href=\"Mi%20%28surname%29\">Mi</a>. Jilian’s descendant <a href=\"Yuxiong\">Yuxiong</a> was the teacher of <a href=\"King%20Wen%20of%20Zhou\">King Wen of Zhou</a> (r. 1099–1050 BCE). After the Zhou overthrew the <a href=\"Shang%20dynasty\">Shang dynasty</a>, <a href=\"King%20Cheng%20of%20Zhou\">King Cheng</a> (r. 1042–1021 BCE) awarded Yuxiong's great-grandson <a href=\"Xiong%20Yi\">Xiong Yi</a> with the <a href=\"Chinese%20fief\">fiefdom</a> of Chu and the hereditary title of <a href=\"wikt%3A%E5%AD%90\">子</a> (\"zǐ\", \"<a href=\"Chinese%20nobility\">viscount</a>\"). Xiong Yi built the first capital of Chu at <a href=\"Danyang%20%28Chu%29\">Danyang</a> (present-day <a href=\"Xichuan%20County\">Xichuan</a> in Henan).\nIn 977 BCE, during <a href=\"Zhou%E2%80%93Chu%20War\">his campaign against Chu</a>, <a href=\"King%20Zhao%20of%20Zhou\">King Zhao of Zhou</a>'s boat sank and he drowned in the <a href=\"Han%20River%20%28Yangtze%20River%20tributary%29\">Han River</a>. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount <a href=\"Xiong%20Qu\">Xiong Qu</a> overthrew <a href=\"E%20%28state%29\">E</a> in 863 BCE but subsequently made its capital <a href=\"Ezhou\">Ezhou</a> one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler <a href=\"King%20Wu%20of%20Chu\">Xiong Tong</a> proclaimed himself king, establishing Chu's full independence from the Zhou dynasty.\nIn its early years, Chu was a successful expansionist and militaristic state that developed a reputation for <a href=\"Interstate%20relations%20during%20the%20Spring%20and%20Autumn%20period\">coercing and absorbing its allies</a>. Chu grew from a small state into a large kingdom. <a href=\"King%20Zhuang%20of%20Chu\">King Zhuang</a> was even considered one of the <a href=\"five%20Hegemons\">five Hegemons</a> of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BCE, the Chu capital moved southeast from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing lesser states in its original area (modern <a href=\"Hubei\">Hubei</a>), then it expanded into the north towards the <a href=\"North%20China%20Plain\">North China Plain</a>. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of <a href=\"Jin%20%28Chinese%20state%29\">Jin</a>. These alliances kept Chu in check, with the first major victory won at the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Chengpu\">Chengpu</a> in 632 BCE. During the 6th century BCE, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of <a href=\"Central%20Plain%20%28China%29\">central plain</a>. In <a href=\"597%20BCE\">597 BCE</a>, Jin was defeated by Chu in the <a href=\"battle%20of%20Bi\">battle of Bi</a>, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the <a href=\"Zheng%20%28state%29\">state of Zheng</a> as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with <a href=\"Lu%20%28state%29\">Lu</a>, <a href=\"Wey%20%28state%29\">Wey</a>, and <a href=\"Song%20%28state%29\">Song</a>. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen untill the year of 579 BCE when a truce was signed between the two states.\nAt the beginning of the sixth century BCE, Jin strengthened the state of <a href=\"Wu%20%28state%29\">Wu</a> near the <a href=\"Yangtze\">Yangtze</a> delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated <a href=\"Qi%20%28state%29\">Qi</a> and then invaded Chu in 506 BCE. Following the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Boju\">Battle of Boju</a>, it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing <a href=\"King%20Zhao%20of%20Chu\">King Zhao</a> to flee to his allies in <a href=\"Yun%20County%2C%20Hubei\">Yun</a> and \"<a href=\"Sui%20%28state%29\">Sui</a>\". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BCE, he temporarily moved the capital into the territory of the former state of <a href=\"Ruo%20%28state%29\">Ruo</a>. Chu began to strengthen <a href=\"Yue%20%28state%29\">Yue</a> in modern <a href=\"Zhejiang\">Zhejiang</a> to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by <a href=\"King%20Fuchai\">King Fuchai</a> of Wu until he released their king <a href=\"King%20Goujian%20of%20Yue\">Goujian</a>, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu.\nFreed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed <a href=\"Chen%20%28state%29\">Chen</a> in 479 BCE and overran <a href=\"Cai%20%28state%29\">Cai</a> to the north in 447 BCE. This policy of expansion continued until the last generation before the fall to Qin (<a href=\"Lu%20%28state%29\">Lu</a> was conquered by <a href=\"King%20Kaolie%20of%20Chu\">King Kaolie</a> in 223 BCE). However, by the end of the 5th century BCE, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality.\nIn the late 390s BCE, <a href=\"King%20Dao%20of%20Chu\">King Dao of Chu</a> made <a href=\"Wu%20Qi\">Wu Qi</a> his <a href=\"chancellor%20%28China%29\">chancellor</a>. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BCE, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless ones. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BCE, when <a href=\"Zhao%20%28state%29\">Zhao</a> and <a href=\"Qin%20%28state%29\">Qin</a> were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of <a href=\"Wei%20%28state%29\">Wei</a> and <a href=\"Yue%20%28state%29\">Yue</a>. Yue was partitioned between Chu and <a href=\"Qi%20%28state%29\">Qi</a> in either 334 or 333 BCE. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BCE. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, \"<a href=\"Wuzi\">The Book of Master Wu</a>\". Of Chu, he said:\nDuring the late Warring States Period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the <a href=\"Legalism%20%28Chinese%20philosophy%29\">Legalistic</a> reforms of <a href=\"Shang%20Yang\">Shang Yang</a>. In 241 BCE, five of the seven major warring states - Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han - formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian <a href=\"Yang%20Kuan\">Yang Kuan</a>, the Zhao general <a href=\"Pang%20Nuan\">Pang Nuan</a> (庞煖) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic <a href=\"Hangu%20Pass\">Hangu Pass</a> but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed <a href=\"Lord%20Chunshen\">Lord Chunshen</a> for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to <a href=\"Shouchun\">Shouchun</a>, farther away from the threat of Qin.\nChu's size and power made it the key state in alliances against Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. By the late 4th century BCE, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually subjugated by Qin.\nAccording to the \"<a href=\"Records%20of%20the%20Warring%20States\">Records of the Warring States</a>\", a debate between the <a href=\"School%20of%20Diplomacy\">Diplomat</a> strategist <a href=\"Zhang%20Yi%20%28strategist%29\">Zhang Yi</a> and the Qin general <a href=\"Sima%20Cuo\">Sima Cuo</a> led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering <a href=\"Han%20%28state%29\">Han</a> and seizing the <a href=\"Mandate%20of%20Heaven\">Mandate of Heaven</a> from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that \"conquering <a href=\"Shu%20%28state%29\">Shu</a> is conquering Chu\" and, \"once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united\".\nThe importance of Shu in the <a href=\"Sichuan%20Basin\">Sichuan Basin</a> was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the <a href=\"Yangtze%20River\">Yangtze River</a>, leading directly into the Chu heartland. <a href=\"King%20Huiwen%20of%20Qin\">King Huiwen of Qin</a> opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BCE, Qin invaded and conquered <a href=\"Shu%20%28state%29\">Shu</a> and nearby <a href=\"Ba%20%28state%29\">Ba</a>, expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BCE, the Qin general <a href=\"Bai%20Qi\">Bai Qi</a> finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following the fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in <a href=\"Shouchun\">Shouchun</a> in 241 BCE. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main <a href=\"Zhao%20%28state%29\">Zhao</a> force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Changping\">Changping</a> in 260 BCE. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states.\nBy 225 BCE, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, <a href=\"Yan%20%28state%29\">Yan</a>, and <a href=\"Qi%20%28state%29\">Qi</a>. Chu had recovered significantly enough to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BCE, <a href=\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\">Ying Zheng</a> called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. <a href=\"Wang%20Jian%20%28Qin%29\">Wang Jian</a> said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while <a href=\"Li%20Xin%20%28Qin%29\">Li Xin</a> thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng sided with Li and ordered him and <a href=\"Meng%20Wu\">Meng Wu</a> to lead the army against Chu; Wang Jian was forced to retire from state affairs upon a pretense of illness.\nThe Qin armies scored initial victories as Li Xin's force conquered Pingyu (平輿 , north of present-day <a href=\"Pingyu%20County\">Pingyu</a> in <a href=\"Henan\">Henan</a>) and Meng Wu's captured Qinqiu (寢丘 , present-day <a href=\"Linquan%20County\">Linquan</a> in <a href=\"Anhui\">Anhui</a>). After conquering Yan (鄢 , present-day <a href=\"Yanling%20County%2C%20Henan\">Yanling</a> in Henan), Li Xin led his army west to rendezvous with Meng at Chengfu (城父 , east of present-day <a href=\"Baofeng%20County\">Baofeng</a> in Henan). The Chu army, led by <a href=\"Xiang%20Yan\">Xiang Yan</a>, had avoided using its main force and waited for an opportunity to launch a counterattack. They secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching a surprise offensive and defeating the Qin army.\nUpon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng visited the exiled Wang Jian in person and invited him back, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing <a href=\"Meng%20Wu\">Meng Wu</a> beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce the king's suspicion.\nWang Jian's army passed through southern Chen (陳 ; present-day <a href=\"Huaiyang%20County\">Huaiyang</a> in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch a swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan (蕲南 ; northwest of present-day <a href=\"Qichun%20County\">Qichun</a> in <a href=\"Hubei\">Hubei</a>) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat.\nThe next year, in 223 BCE, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King <a href=\"Fuchu\">Fuchu</a> was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led the Qin army against <a href=\"Wu%20%28region%29\">Wuyue</a> around the mouth of the <a href=\"Yangtze\">Yangtze</a>, capturing the descendants of the royal family of <a href=\"Yue%20%28state%29\">Yue</a>. These conquered territories became the <a href=\"Kuaiji%20Prefecture\">Kuaiji Prefecture</a> of the Qin Empire.\nAt their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Changping\">Battle of Changping</a> between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu (黑夫 ) and Jing (惊 ), tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.\nThe Chu realm at its most powerful was vast with many ethnicities and various customs. Though diverse, the Chu people were united by a common respect for nature, the supernatural, and their heritage and loyalty to their ruling house and nobility, epitomized by the famed Chu statesman-poet <a href=\"Qu%20Yuan\">Qu Yuan</a> and the \"<a href=\"Chu%20Ci\">Songs of Chu</a>\". The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the <a href=\"Shuihudi%20Qin%20bamboo%20texts\">excavated bamboo slips</a> of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu was one of the last states to fall and its people aspired to overthrowing the painful yoke of Qin rule and reestablishing a separate state. The attitude was immortalized in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: \"Though Chu have but three <a href=\"Chinese%20clan\">clans</a>, it must kill Qin\" (楚雖三戶, 亡秦必楚 ).\nAfter Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor (<a href=\"Shi%20Huangdi\">Shi Huangdi</a>) and served his short reign, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of the Qin <a href=\"corvee\">corvee</a>; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the <a href=\"Great%20Wall%20of%20China\">Great Wall of China</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Dazexiang%20Uprising\">Dazexiang Uprising</a> occurred in 209 BCE under the leadership of a Chu peasant, <a href=\"Chen%20Sheng\">Chen Sheng</a>, who proclaimed himself \"King of Rising Chu\" (\"Zhangchu\"). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of the leaders, <a href=\"Jing%20Ju\">Jing Ju</a> of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under <a href=\"Xiang%20Liang\">Xiang Liang</a>. Xiang installed <a href=\"Emperor%20Yi%20of%20Chu\">Xiong Xin</a>, a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BCE, after the fall of the Qin Empire, <a href=\"Xiang%20Yu\">Xiang Yu</a>, Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the \"Hegemon-King of Western Chu\" and promoted King Huai II to \"Emperor Yi\". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with <a href=\"Emperor%20Gaozu%20of%20Han\">Liu Bang</a>, another prominent Chu rebel, in a long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the <a href=\"Chu-Han%20Contention\">Chu-Han Contention</a>. The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the <a href=\"Han%20Dynasty\">Han Dynasty</a> and was later honored with the <a href=\"temple%20name\">temple name</a> Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat.\nThe Chu people and customs were major influences on the new era of the Han. Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with the <a href=\"Xiongnu\">Xiongnu</a> through <a href=\"heqin\">heqin</a> intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. By the time of <a href=\"Emperor%20Wu%20of%20Han\">Emperor Wu of Han</a>, Chu folk culture and aesthetics were amalgamated with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create a distinct \"<a href=\"Han%20Chinese\">Chinese</a>\" culture.\nBased on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the <a href=\"Yellow%20River\">Yellow River</a> basin. Subsequently, however, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the <a href=\"Baiyue\">Baiyue</a> lands the state conquered to its south and east, developing a distinct culture from the states of the northern plains.\nEarly Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of <a href=\"Chinese%20ritual%20bronzes\">bronze vessels</a> in the Zhou style. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct <a href=\"Chinese%20funerary%20art\">burial object</a>s, such as colorful <a href=\"lacquer\">lacquer</a>ware, iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in <a href=\"List%20of%20Chinese%20names%20of%20bronze%20vessels\">bronze vessel offerings</a>.\nA common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as <a href=\"snakes%20in%20Chinese%20mythology\">snakes</a>, <a href=\"Chinese%20dragon\">dragons</a>, <a href=\"Chinese%20phoenix\">phoenixes</a>, tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the vanished <a href=\"Shang%20dynasty\">Shang dynasty</a>, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods.\nLater Chu culture was known for its affinity for <a href=\"wu%20%28shaman%29\">shamans</a>. The Chu culture and government strongly supported <a href=\"Taoism\">Taoism</a> and native <a href=\"wu%20%28shaman%29\">shaman</a>ism supplemented with some <a href=\"Confucianism\">Confucian</a> glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire <a href=\"Zhurong\">Zhurong</a> in Chinese mythodology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people.\nThe naturalistic and flowing art, the \"<a href=\"Chu%20Ci\">Songs of Chu</a>\", historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the <a href=\"Guodian%20Chu%20Slips\">Guodian slips</a>, and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless <a href=\"Legalism%20%28Chinese%20philosophy%29\">Legalist</a> state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister <a href=\"Shang%20Yang\">Shang Yang</a>, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might.\nChu was known for its distinct music. Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu, the \"<a href=\"Se%20%28instrument%29\">se</a>\" was preferred over the <a href=\"guqin\">zither</a>, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states.\nChu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the <a href=\"Ba%20%28state%29\">Ba</a>, <a href=\"Yue%20%28state%29\">Yue</a>, and the <a href=\"Baiyue\">Baiyue</a>. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects.\nThe early rulers of the <a href=\"Han%20Dynasty\">Han Dynasty</a> romanticized the culture of Chu, sparking a renewed interest in Chu cultural elements such as the \"Songs of Chu\". Evidence of heavy Chu cultural influence appears at <a href=\"Mawangdui\">Mawangdui</a>. After the Han dynasty, some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the \"lewd\" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture.\nChu artisanship shows a mastery of form and color, especially the <a href=\"lacquer\">lacquer</a> woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where the lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay.\nChu used the complex calligraphic script called <a href=\"%26quot%3BBirds%20and%20Worms%26quot%3B%20style\">\"Birds and Worms\" style</a>, which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has an intricate design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the Chu reverence of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to <a href=\"Wuyue\">Wuyue</a> swords but not as intricate.\nChu was in the region of many rivers, so it created an efficient riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying.\n<a href=\"Miao%20people\">Miao</a> people in modern China was closely related to Chu. Historian <a href=\"Fan%20Wenlan\">Fan Wenlan</a>(范文澜) argues that Chu was a \"Miao state\". Folklorist Lin He's studies on Qu Yuan's <a href=\"Jiu%20Ge\">Jiu Ge</a> correlated Chu's culture with Miao. In particular, Miao people living between <a href=\"Yuan%20River\">Yuan</a> and <a href=\"Xiang%20River\">Xiang</a> river perform rituals that have imprints of Jiu Ge.\nHistorically, ancestors of Miao people resided in Chu's realm, they are by no means irrelevant to Chu people. However, the exact ethnicity and demographic composition of Chu remain contested.\nWang Tongling, a professor of Chinese history from <a href=\"Peking%20University\">Peking university</a> put forth the possibility of Chu people being sinicized Miaos who adopted <a href=\"Sino-Tibetan%20languages\">Sino-Tibetan</a> customs.\nChu's bureaucracy was distinct from other Zhou dynasty states. According to <a href=\"Li%20Tiaoyuan\">Li Tiaoyuan</a>'s \"Zuozhuan Guanming Kao\", <a href=\"Mo%27ao\">Mo'ao</a>(莫敖) and <a href=\"Prime%20minister%20%28Chu%20State%29\">Lingyin</a> were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong(三公) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin(左尹) and Youyin(右尹) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima(司馬) was assisted by Zuosima(左司馬) and Yousima(右司馬) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court.\nMinisters whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin(尹). For example: Lingyin(Prime minister), Gongyin(Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word \"Yin\". Shenyin(沈尹) was the minister of religious duties or the high priest of Chu, multiple entries in <a href=\"Zuo%20Zhuan\">Zuo Zhuan</a> indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Ling(陵)yin, Huanlie Zhi Yin(Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin(minister of musics). In counties and commanderies, Gong(公), also known as Xianyin(minister of county) was the chief administrator.\nIn many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of a cadet branch of Chu's royal house; <a href=\"Mi%20%28surname%29\">Mi</a>. Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu(屈) clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the <a href=\"Ruo%27ao%20rebellion\">Ruo'ao rebellion</a>, Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou(鬭) and Cheng(成).\nChu's expanse was one of the largest among ancient Chinese states. Progenitors of Chu such as viscount <a href=\"Xiong%20Yi\">Xiong Yi</a> were said to originate from <a href=\"Jing%20Mountains\">Jing mountains</a>; a chain of mountains located in today's <a href=\"Hubei%20province\">Hubei province</a>. Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to the Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountians are the Tu(塗) mountains. In the north east part of Chu are the <a href=\"Dabie%20Mountains\">Dabie mountains</a>; the drainage divide of <a href=\"Huai%20River\">Huai river</a> and <a href=\"Yangzi%20river\">Yangzi river</a>. The first capital of Chu, Dangyang(丹陽) was located in today's <a href=\"Zhijiang%2C%20Hubei\">Zhijiang</a>, Hubei province. Ying(郢), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name <a href=\"Jingzhou\">Jingzhou</a>. In Chu's northern border lies the Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal denfense against states of <a href=\"Central%20Plain%20%28China%29\">central plain</a>. Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain.\n<a href=\"Yunmeng%20Ze\">Yunmeng Ze</a> in <a href=\"Jianghan%20Plain\">Jianghan Plain</a> was an immense fresh water lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng(夢), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun(雲). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, <a href=\"Jianli%20County\">Jianli</a>, <a href=\"Shishou\">Shishou</a>, <a href=\"Macheng\">Macheng</a>, <a href=\"Huanggang\">Huanggang</a>, and <a href=\"Anlu\">Anlu</a>.\n<a href=\"Wu%20Pass\">Shaoxi Pass</a> was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of <a href=\"Danfeng%20County\">Danfeng County</a>, <a href=\"Shaanxi\">Shaanxi</a>. Any forces that marches from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi.\nIn traditional <a href=\"Chinese%20astronomy\">Chinese astronomy</a>, Chu is represented by a star in the \"Twelve States\" <a href=\"Asterism%20%28astronomy%29\">asterism</a>, part of the \"<a href=\"Girl%20%28Chinese%20constellation%29\">Girl</a>\" <a href=\"28%20Mansions\">lunar mansion</a> in the \"<a href=\"Black%20Tortoise\">Black Turtle</a>\" <a href=\"Four%20Symbols%20%28China%29\">symbol</a>. Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star is <a href=\"Phi%20Capricorni\">Phi</a> or <a href=\"24%20Capricorni\">24 Capricorni</a>. It is also represented by the star <a href=\"Epsilon%20Ophiuchi\">Epsilon Ophiuchi</a> in the \"Right Wall\" asterism in the <a href=\"Heavenly%20Market%20enclosure\">\"Heavenly Market\" enclosure</a>.","Liye\nLiye () is a <a href=\"towns%20of%20China\">town</a> of <a href=\"Longshan%20County\">Longshan County</a>, <a href=\"Hunan\">Hunan Province</a>, <a href=\"China\">China</a>. Located on the northern bank of <a href=\"You%20River%20%28Tributary%20of%20Yuan%20River%29\">You River</a> (), Liye is the southernmost town of the county, and bordered to the west by Youshuihe Town () and Keda Township () of <a href=\"Youyang%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20County\">Youyang County</a>, Daxi Township () of <a href=\"Xiushan%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20County\">Xiushan County</a> of <a href=\"Chongqing\">Chongqing Municipality</a>, to the south by Qingshuiping () and Bier Towns () of <a href=\"Baojing%20County\">Baojing County</a>, to the east and southeast by Maoertan Town (), to the southwest by Zaguo Township (). The present-day Liye was reformed on November 30， 2015.It covers an area of 259.2 km2 , as of November, 2015, it has a registered population of 43,300, the seat is Liye Community.\nLiye is an ancient town with a history of over 2300 years old, it was established by <a href=\"Chu%20%28state%29\">Chu State</a> in the late <a href=\"Warring%20States%20period\">Warring States period</a> (403 BC - 221 BC). An <a href=\"archaeological%20site\">archaeological site</a> of ancient humans belonged to <a href=\"Longshan%20culture\">Longshan culture</a> (3000 BC - 1900 BC) was found near a bridge in the northeast of the seat of the town in May 1982, lots of <a href=\"stone%20axe\">stone axe</a>s, <a href=\"stone%20chip\">stone chip</a>s and <a href=\"Pottery\">red clay potteries</a> was discovered. The Ancient City Ruins of the <a href=\"Warring%20States%20period\">Warring States period</a> and many precious <a href=\"Relic\">cultural relics</a> were excavated in the schoolyard of Liye Primary School in April 2002. More than 36,000 pieces of <a href=\"Qin%20Slips%20of%20Liye\">Bamboo Slips of the Qin dynasty</a> in the <a href=\"Ancient%20City%20Ruins%20of%20Liye\">Ancient City Ruins of Liye</a> () were unearthed in June 2002, before the Liye slips were found, there were only about 2,000 slips on the Qin dynasty and fewer than 1,000 words of official Qin records. The event was considered the most important archaeological discovery of the <a href=\"Qin%20dynasty\">Qin dynasty</a> after the <a href=\"Terracotta%20Army\">Qin Terracotta Army</a> unearthed in 1973.\nThe town of Liye is a principal historical and cultural destination in Hunan.\n","Excavation (archaeology)\nIn <a href=\"archaeology\">archaeology</a>, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or \"dig\" is a site being studied. Such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years.\nNumerous specialized techniques each with its particular features are used. Resources and other practical issues do not allow archaeologists to carry out excavations whenever and wherever they choose. These constraints mean many known sites have been deliberately left unexcavated. This is with the intention of preserving them for future generations as well as recognising the role they serve in the communities that live near them.\nExcavation involves the recovery of several types of data from a site. These data include <a href=\"Artifact%20%28archaeology%29\">artifacts</a> (objects made or modified by humans), features (modifications to the site itself such as post molds, burials, and hearths), <a href=\"ecofact\">ecofact</a>s (evidence for the local environment and resources being used such as snail shells, seeds, and butchered bones) and, most importantly, <a href=\"archaeological%20context\">archaeological context</a> (relationships among the other types of data). Ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space.\nThe presence or absence of archaeological remains can often be suggested by <a href=\"remote%20sensing\">remote sensing</a>, such as <a href=\"ground-penetrating%20radar\">ground-penetrating radar</a>. Indeed, grosser information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work but the understanding of finer features usually requires excavation though appropriate use of <a href=\"auger%20%28drill%29\">auger</a>ing.\nExcavation techniques have developed over the years from a treasure hunting process to one which seeks to fully understand the sequence of human activity on a given site and that site's relationship with other sites and with the landscape in which it is set.\nThe history of excavation began with a crude search for treasure and for artifacts which fell into the category of '<a href=\"wikt%3Acurio\">curio</a>'. These curios were the subject of interest of <a href=\"antiquarian\">antiquarian</a>s. It was later appreciated that digging on a site destroyed the evidence of earlier people's lives which it had contained. Once the curio had been removed from its context, most of the information it held was lost. It was from this realization that antiquarianism began to be replaced by archaeology, a process still being perfected.\nArchaeological material tends to accumulate in events. A gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench. Years later, someone built a pig sty onto it and drained the pig sty into the nettle patch. Later still, the original wall blew over and so on. Each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a <a href=\"Archaeological%20context\">context</a>. This layer cake of events is often referred to as the <a href=\"archaeological%20sequence\">archaeological sequence</a> or <a href=\"archaeological%20record\">record</a>. It is by analysis of this sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation, which should lead to discussion and understanding.\nThe prominent <a href=\"processual%20archaeology\">processual archaeologist</a> <a href=\"Lewis%20Binford\">Lewis Binford</a> highlighted the fact that the archaeological evidence left at a site may not be entirely indicative of the historical events that actually took place there. Using an <a href=\"ethnoarchaeology\">ethnoarchaeological</a> comparison, he looked at how hunters amongst the <a href=\"Nunamiut\">Nunamiut</a> <a href=\"I%C3%B1upiat\">Iñupiat</a> of north central <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a> spent a great deal of time in a certain area simply waiting for prey to arrive there, and that during this period, they undertook other tasks to pass the time, such as the carving of various objects, including a wooden mould for a mask, a horn spoon and an ivory needle, as well as repairing a skin pouch and a pair of caribou skin socks. Binford notes that all of these activities would have left evidence in the archaeological record, but that none of them would provide evidence for the primary reason that the hunters were in the area; to wait for prey. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt \"represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded; yet there is no recognisable archaeological consequences of this behaviour. No tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material \"byproducts\" of the \"primary\" activity. All of the other activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers.\"\nThere are two basic types of modern archaeological excavation:\nThere are two main types of trial excavation in professional archaeology both commonly associated with development-led excavation: the test pit or trench and the watching brief. The purpose of trial excavations is to determine the extent and characteristics of archaeological potential in a given area before extensive excavation work is undertaken. This is usually conducted in development-led excavations as part of <a href=\"Project%20management\">Project management</a> planning. the main difference between <a href=\"Trial%20trenching\">Trial trenching</a> and <a href=\"watching%20brief\">watching brief</a>s is that trial trenches are actively dug for the purpose of revealing archaeological potential whereas <a href=\"watching%20brief\">watching brief</a>s are cursory examination of trenches where the primary function of the trench is something other than archaeology, for example a trench cut for a gas pipe in a road. In the USA, a method of evaluation called a <a href=\"Shovel%20test%20pit\">Shovel test pit</a> is used which is a specified half meter square line of trial trenches dug by hand.\nIn archaeology, especially in excavating, <a href=\"Stratigraphy%20%28archaeology%29\">stratigraphy</a> is a fundamental concept. It is largely based on the <a href=\"Law%20of%20Superposition\">Law of Superposition</a>. When archaeological finds are below the surface of the ground (as is most commonly the case), the identification of the context of each find is vital to enable the archaeologist to draw conclusions about the site and the nature and date of its occupation. It is the archaeologist's role to attempt to discover what contexts exist and how they came to be created. Archaeological stratification or sequence is the dynamic superimposition of single units of stratigraphy or contexts. The context (physical location) of a discovery can be of major significance. More precisely, an archaeological context is an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record. The cutting of a pit or ditch in the past is a context, whilst the material filling it will be another. Multiple fills seen in <a href=\"Archaeological%20section\">section</a> would mean multiple contexts. Structural features, natural deposits and <a href=\"inhumation\">inhumation</a>s are also contexts.\nBy separating a site into these basic, discrete units, archaeologists are able to create a chronology for activity on a site and describe and interpret it. Stratigraphic <a href=\"Relationship%20%28archaeology%29\">relationships</a> are the relationships created between contexts in time representing the chronological order they were created. An example would be a ditch and the back-fill of said ditch. The relationship of \"the fill\" context to the ditch \"cut\" context is \"the fill\" occurred later in the sequence, i.e., you have to dig a ditch first before you can back-fill it. A relationship that is later in the sequence is sometimes referred to as \"higher\" in the sequence and a relationship that is earlier \"lower\" though the term \"higher\" or \"lower\" does not itself imply a context needs to be physically higher or lower. It is more useful to think of this \"higher\" or \"lower\" term as it relates to the contexts position in a <a href=\"Harris%20matrix\">Harris matrix</a>, which is a two-dimensional representation of a site's formation in space and time.\nUnderstanding a site in modern archaeology is a process of grouping single contexts together in ever larger groups by virtue of their relationships. The terminology of these larger clusters varies depending on practitioner but the terms interface, sub-group, group and land use are common. An example of a sub-group could be the three contexts that make up a burial; the grave cut, the body and the back-filled earth on top of the body. In turn sub-groups can be clustered together with other sub-groups by virtue of their stratigraphic relationship to form groups which in turn form \"<a href=\"Archaeological%20phase\">phases</a>\". A sub-group burial could cluster with other sub group burials to form a cemetery or burial group which in turn could be clustered with a building such as church to produce a \"phase\". A less rigorously defined combination of one or more contexts is sometimes called a <a href=\"Feature%20%28archaeology%29\">feature</a>.\nPhase is the most easily understood grouping for the layman as it implies a near contemporaneous <a href=\"Archaeological%20horizon\">Archaeological horizon</a> representing \"what you would see if you went back to a specific point in time\". Often but not always a phase implies the identification of an occupation surface \"old ground level\" that existed at some earlier time.\nThe production of phase interpretations is one of the first goals of stratigraphic interpretation and excavation. Digging \"in phase\" is not quite the same as phasing a site. Phasing a site represents reducing the site either in excavation or <a href=\"Post%20excavation\">post-excavation</a> to contemporaneous horizons whereas \"digging in phase\" is the process of stratigraphic removal of archaeological remains so as not to remove contexts that are earlier in time \"lower in the sequence\" before other contexts that have a latter physical stratigraphic relationship to them as defined by the <a href=\"law%20of%20superposition\">law of superposition</a>. The process of interpretation in practice will have a bearing on excavation strategies on site so \"phasing\" a site is actively pursued during excavation where at all possible, and is considered good practice.\nExcavation initially involves the removal of any topsoil overburden by machine. This material may be examined by <a href=\"metal%20detector\">metal detector</a> for stray <a href=\"Small%20finds\">finds</a> but unless the site has remained untouched since its abandonment there is invariably a layer of modern material on the surface of limited archaeological interest. In rural areas, any features are often visible beneath the surface as opposed to urban areas where there may be thick layers of human deposits and only the uppermost contexts will be initially visible and definable through isolation from other contexts. A strategy for sampling the contexts and features is formulated which may involve total excavation of each feature or only portions. It is preferred goal of excavation to remove all archaeological deposits and features in the reverse order they were created and construct a Harris matrix as a chronological record or \"sequence\" of the site. This Harris matrix is used for interpretation and combining contexts into ever larger units of understanding. This stratigraphic removal of the site is crucial for understanding the chronology of events on site. It is perhaps easier to think of this as \"archaeological deposits should leave the site in the reverse order they arrived\". A grid is usually set up, dividing the site into 5 m squares to better aid the positioning of the features and contexts on the overall site plan. This grid is usually tied into a national <a href=\"Geomatics\">geomatic</a> database such as the <a href=\"Ordnance%20Survey\">Ordnance Survey</a> in the UK. In <a href=\"urban%20archaeology\">urban archaeology</a> this grid becomes invaluable for implementing single context recording.\n<a href=\"Single%20context%20recording\">Single context recording</a> was developed in the 1970s by the <a href=\"museum%20of%20London\">museum of London</a> (as well as earlier in Winchester and York) and has become the de facto recording system in many parts of the world and is especially suited to the complexities of deep <a href=\"urban%20archaeology\">urban archaeology</a> and the process of <a href=\"Stratification%20%28archaeology%29\">Stratification</a>.\nEach excavated context is given a unique \"context number\" and is recorded by type on a context sheet and perhaps being drawn on a <a href=\"archaeological%20plan\">plan</a> and/or a <a href=\"Archaeological%20section\">section</a>. Depending on time constraints and importance contexts may also be photographed, but in this case a grouping of contexts and their associations are the purpose of the photography. <a href=\"Small%20finds\">Finds</a> from each context are bagged and labeled with their context number and site code for later cross reference work carried out post-excavation. The height above sea level of pertinent points on a context, such as the top and bottom of a wall are taken and added to plans sections and context sheets. Heights are recorded with a <a href=\"dumpy%20level\">dumpy level</a> or total station by relation to the site temporary <a href=\"Benchmark%20%28surveying%29\">benchmark</a> (abbr. T.B.M). Samples of deposits from contexts are sometimes also taken, for later environmental analysis or for <a href=\"Chronological%20dating\">scientific dating</a>.\n<a href=\"Best%20practice\">Best practice</a> of stratigraphic excavation in its basic sense involves a cyclical process of cleaning or \"troweling back\" the surface of the site and isolating contexts and edges which are definable in their entirety or part as either\nFollowing this preliminary process of defining the context, the context is then assessed in relation to the wider understanding of the site, for considerations of reduction of the site in phases, and then removed and recorded by various methods.\nOften, owing to practical considerations or error, the process of defining the edges of contexts is not followed and contexts are removed out of sequence and un-stratigraphically. This is called \"digging out of phase\". It is not good practice.\nAfter removing a context or if practical a set of contexts such as the case would be for features, the \"isolate and dig\" procedure is repeated until no man made remains are left on site and the site is reduced to <a href=\"Archaeological%20natural\">natural</a>.\nThe process of excavation is achieved in many ways depending on the nature of the deposits to be removed and time constraints. In the main, deposits are lifted by <a href=\"Trowel\">Trowel</a> and <a href=\"Mattock\">Mattock</a> and shovelled or carried from the site by wheel barrow and bucket. The use of many other tools including fine trowels such as the plaster's leaf trowel and brushes of various grades are used on delicate items such as human bone and decayed timber. When removing material from the archaeological record some basic guidelines are often observed.\nCommon errors during excavation fall into two basic categories and one or the other is almost inevitable because excavation is a destructive process that removes the information it seeks to record in real time and mistakes cannot be rectified easily.\nOver-cutting represents the loss of information whereas undercutting represents false information. One role of an archaeologist is to avoid false information and minimize the loss of information.\nFinds and artifacts that survive in the archaeological record are retrieved in the main by hand and observation as the context they survive in is excavated. Several other techniques are available depending on suitability and time constraints. Sieving and <a href=\"Flotation%20%28archaeology%29\">flotation</a> is used to maximize the recovery of small items such as small shards of pottery or flint flakes. The use of sieving is more common on research based excavations where more time is available. Some success has been achieved with the use of cement mixers and bulk sieving. This method allows the quick removal of context by shovel and mattock yet allows for a high retrieval rate. Spoil is shovelled into cement mixers and water added to form a slurry which is then poured through a large screen mesh. Flotation is a process of retrieval that works by passing spoil onto the surface of water and separating finds that float from the spoil which sinks, this is especially suited to the recovery of environmental data such as seeds and small bones. Not all finds retrieval is done during excavation and some especially flotation may take place post-excavation from samples taken during excavation.\nOne important role of finds retrieval during excavation is the role of specialists to provide <a href=\"spot%20dating\">spot dating</a> information on the contexts being removed from the archaeological record. This can provide advance warning of potential discoveries to come by virtue of <a href=\"Stratigraphy%20%28archaeology%29%23Residual%20and%20intrusive%20finds\">residual finds</a> redeposited in contexts higher in the <a href=\"sequence%20%28archaeological%29\">sequence</a> (which should be coming offsite earlier than contexts from early eras and phases). Spot dating also forms part of a confirmation process, of assessing the validity of the working hypothesis on the phasing of site during excavation. For example, the presence of an anomalous <a href=\"medieval\">medieval</a> pottery <a href=\"sherd\">sherd</a> in what was thought to be an Iron Age ditch feature could radically alter onsite thinking on the correct strategy for digging a site and save a lot of information being lost due to incorrect assumptions about the nature of the deposits which will be destroyed by the excavation process and in turn, limit the sites potential for revealing information for post-excavation specialists. Or anomalous information could show up errors in excavation such as \"undercutting\". <a href=\"Chronological%20dating\">Dating methodology</a> in part relies on accurate excavation and in this sense the two activities become interdependent.\nArchaeological excavation is an unrepeatable process, since the same area of the ground cannot be excavated twice.\nThus, archaeology is often known as a destructive science, where you must destroy the original evidence in order to make observations. To mitigate this, highly accurate and precise digital methods can be used to record the excavation process and its results.\nDigital tools used by field archaeologists during excavation include <a href=\"GPS\">GPS</a>, <a href=\"tablet%20computers\">tablet computers</a>, <a href=\"relational%20databases\">relational databases</a>, <a href=\"digital%20cameras\">digital cameras</a>, 3d <a href=\"laser%20scanner\">laser scanner</a>s, and <a href=\"unmanned%20aerial%20vehicles\">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>. After high quality digital data have been recorded, these data can then be shared over the internet for <a href=\"open%20access\">open access</a> and use by the public and archaeological researchers.\nDigital imaging or digital image acquisition is <a href=\"digital%20photography\">digital photography</a>, such as of a physical scene or of the interior structure of an object. The term is often assumed to imply or include the processing, compression, storage, printing, and display of the images.\nThis describes the use in excavations of various types and sizes of machines from small <a href=\"backhoe\">backhoe</a>s to heavy duty earth-moving machinery. Machines are often used in what is called salvage or rescue archaeology in developer-led excavation when there are financial or time pressures. Using a mechanical excavator is the quickest method to remove soil and debris and to prepare the surface for excavation by hand, taking care to avoid damaging archaeological deposits by accident or to make it difficult to identify later precisely where finds were located. The use of such machinery is often routine (as it is for instance with the British archaeological television series \"<a href=\"Time%20Team\">Time Team</a>\") but can also be controversial as it can result in less discrimination in how the archaeological sequence on a site is recorded. One of the earliest uses of earth-moving machinery was at <a href=\"Durrington%20Walls\">Durrington Walls</a> in 1967. An old road through the henge was to be straightened and improved and was going to cause considerable damage to the archaeology. Rosemary Hill describes how <a href=\"Geoffrey%20Wainwright%20%28archaeologist%29\">Geoffrey Wainwright</a> \"oversaw large, high-speed excavations, taking bulldozers to the site in a manner that shocked some of his colleagues but yielded valuable if tantalising information about what Durrington had looked like and how it might have been used.\" Machines are used primarily to remove modern <a href=\"overburden\">overburden</a> and for the control of <a href=\"Spoil%20%28archaeology%29\">spoil</a>. In <a href=\"British%20archaeology\">British archaeology</a> mechanical diggers are sometimes nicknamed \"big yellow trowels\".\nA group of archaeological excavators will generally work for a supervisor who reports to the site director or project manager. The director will have ultimate responsibility for interpreting the site and writing the final report. Most excavations are eventually published in professional journals although this process can take years. This process takes place post-excavation and involves a myriad of other specialists.","Terracotta Army\nThe Terracotta Army () is a collection of <a href=\"terracotta\">terracotta</a> sculptures depicting the armies of <a href=\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\">Qin Shi Huang</a>, the first <a href=\"Emperor%20of%20China\">Emperor of China</a>. It is a form of <a href=\"funerary%20art\">funerary art</a> buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.\nThe figures, dating from approximately the late third century BCE, were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in <a href=\"Lintong%20District\">Lintong District</a>, <a href=\"Xi%27an\">Xi'an</a>, Shaanxi province. The figures vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, <a href=\"Chariot%20%28Ancient%20China%29\">chariot</a>s and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits nearby <a href=\"Mausoleum%20of%20the%20First%20Qin%20Emperor\">Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum</a>. Other terracotta non-military figures were found in other pits, including <a href=\"Court%20%28royal%29%23Court%20officials\">officials</a>, <a href=\"Acrobatics\">acrobats</a>, <a href=\"strongman%20%28strength%20athlete%29\">strongmen</a> and musicians.\nThe construction of the tomb was described by historian <a href=\"Sima%20Qian\">Sima Qian</a> (14590 BCE) in his most noted work \"<a href=\"Shiji\">Shiji</a>\", written a century after the mausoleum's completion. Work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the throne, and the project eventually involved 700,000 workers. Geographer <a href=\"Li%20Daoyuan\">Li Daoyuan</a>, writing six centuries after the First Emperor's death, recorded in \"<a href=\"Shui%20Jing%20Zhu\">Shui Jing Zhu</a>\" that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspicious geology, \"famed for its jade mines, its northern side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beautiful jade; the First Emperor, covetous of its fine reputation, therefore chose to be buried there\". Sima Qian wrote that the First Emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valuable artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this account, 100 flowing rivers were simulated using mercury, and above them the ceiling was decorated with heavenly bodies below which were the features of the land. Some translations of this passage refer to \"models\" or \"imitations\"; however, those words were not used in the original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta army.\nHigh levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.\nLater historical accounts suggested that the tomb had been looted by <a href=\"Xiang%20Yu\">Xiang Yu</a>, a contender for the throne after the death of the first emperor. However, there are indications that the tomb may not have been plundered.\nThe Terracotta Army was discovered on 29 March 1974 to the east of <a href=\"Xi%27an\">Xi'an</a> in <a href=\"Shaanxi%20province\">Shaanxi province</a> by farmers digging a water well approximately 1.5 km east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at <a href=\"Mount%20Li\">Mount Li</a> (Lishan), a region riddled with underground springs and watercourses. For centuries, occasional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and fragments of the Qin <a href=\"necropolis\">necropolis</a> roofing tiles, bricks and chunks of masonry. This discovery prompted Chinese archaeologists to investigate, revealing the largest pottery figurine group ever found in China.\nA museum complex has since been constructed over the area, with the largest pit enclosed within with a large structure.\nThe Terracotta Army is part of a much larger <a href=\"necropolis\">necropolis</a>. Ground-penetrating radar and core sampling have measured the area to be approximately 98 square kilometers (38 square miles).\nThe necropolis was constructed as a microcosm of the emperor's imperial palace or compound, and covers a large area around the tomb mound of the first emperor. The earthen tomb mound is located at the foot of Mount Li and built in a <a href=\"Chinese%20pyramids\">pyramidal</a> shape, and is surrounded by two solidly built <a href=\"rammed%20earth\">rammed earth</a> walls with gateway entrances. The necropolis consists of several offices, halls, stables, other structures as well as an imperial park placed around the tomb mound.\nThe warriors stand guard to the east of the tomb. Up to 5 m of reddish, sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two millennia following its construction, but archaeologists found evidence of earlier disturbances at the site. During the excavations near the Mount Li burial mound, archaeologists found several graves dating from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, where diggers had apparently struck terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless and used along with soil to back fill the excavations.\nThe tomb appears to be a hermetically-sealed space roughly the size of a football pitch (c. 100 x 75 m). The tomb remains unopened, possibly due to concerns over preservation of its artifacts. For example, after the excavation of the Terracotta Army, the painted surface present on some terracotta figures began to flake and fade. The lacquer covering the paint can curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air and can flake off in just four minutes.\nFour main pits approximately 7 m deep have been excavated. These are located approximately 1.5 km east of the burial mound. The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb from the east, where all the Qin Emperor's conquered states lay.\nPit one, which is 230 m long and 62 m wide, contains the main army of more than 6,000 figures. Pit one has 11 corridors, most of which are more than 3 m wide and paved with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by large beams and posts. This design was also used for the tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hallways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to above the surrounding ground level when completed.\nPit two has cavalry and infantry units as well as <a href=\"Chariot%20%28China%29\">war chariot</a>s and is thought to represent a military guard. Pit three is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a war chariot. Pit four is empty, perhaps left unfinished by its builders.\nSome of the figures in pit one and two show fire damage, while remains of burnt ceiling rafters have also been found. These, together with the missing weapons, have been taken as evidence of the reported looting by Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush the army figures below. The terracotta figures currently on display have been restored from the fragments.\nOther pits that formed the necropolis also have been excavated. These pits lie within and outside the walls surrounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acrobats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, burials sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.\nThe terracotta figures are life-sized. They vary in height, uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank. Their faces appear to be different for each individual figure, scholars however have identified 10 basic face shapes. The figures are of these general types: armored warriors; unarmored <a href=\"infantrymen\">infantrymen</a>; <a href=\"cavalrymen\">cavalrymen</a> who wear a pillbox hat; helmeted driver of chariots with more armor protection; spear-carrying charioteers; kneeling archers who are armored; standing archers who are not; as well as generals and other lower-ranking officers. There are however many variations in the uniforms within the ranks, for example, some may wear shin pads while others not; they may wear either long or short trousers, some of which may be padded; and their body armors vary depending on rank, function, and position in formation. There are also terracotta horses placed among the warrior figures.\nOriginally, the figures were painted with bright pigments, variously coloured pink, red, green, blue, black, brown, white and lilac. The coloured lacquer finish and individual facial features would have given the figures a realistic feel. However, much of the colour coating had flaked off or become greatly faded.\nSome scholars have speculated a possible <a href=\"Hellenistic\">Hellenistic</a> link to these sculptures, due to the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures prior to the Qin dynasty. They argued that potential Greek influence is particularly evident in some terracotta figures such as those of acrobats, as well as the technique used for casting bronze sculptures.\nThe terracotta army figures were manufactured in workshops by government laborers and local craftsmen using local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were created separately and then assembled by <a href=\"luting\">luting</a> the pieces together. When completed, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in precise military formation according to rank and duty.\nThe faces were created using <a href=\"Molding%20%28process%29\">molds</a>, and at least ten face molds may have been used. Clay was then added after assembly to provide individual facial features to make each figure appear different. It is believed that the warriors' legs were made in much the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at the time. This would classify the process as <a href=\"assembly%20line\">assembly line</a> production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to inscribe its name on items produced to ensure quality control. This has aided modern historians in verifying which workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other mundane items for the terracotta army.\nMost of the figures originally held real weapons such as spears, swords, or crossbows, and the use of actual weapons would have increased the figures' realism. Most of the original weapons, however, were looted shortly after the creation of the army, or have rotted away. Nevertheless, many weapons such as swords, spears, lances, battle-axes, scimitars, shields, crossbows, and arrowheads have been found in the pits. Over 40,000 bronze items of weaponry have been recovered from the pits, with most of these arrowheads which are usually found in bundles of 100 units. Studies of these arrowheads suggests that they were produced in small units of self-sufficient, autonomous workshops that produced finished items in a production process referred to as cellular production or <a href=\"Toyotism\">Toyotism</a>. There are also hundreds of crossbow triggers, and smaller number of other weapons such as bronze swords, and daggers.\nSome of these weapons, such as the swords, are sharp and were coated with a 10–15 micrometre layer of <a href=\"chromium%20dioxide\">chromium dioxide</a> that kept the swords rust-free for 2,000 years. The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt. Some carry inscriptions that date their manufacture to between 245 and 228 BCE, indicating that they were used as weapons before their burials.\nAn important element of the army is the <a href=\"chariot\">chariot</a>, of which four types have been found. In battle the fighting chariots formed pairs at the head of a unit of infantry. The principal weapon of the charioteers was the \"ge\" or <a href=\"dagger-axe\">dagger-axe</a>, an L-shaped bronze blade mounted on a long shaft and used for sweeping and hooking at the enemy. Infantrymen also carried \"ge\" on shorter shafts, \"<a href=\"Ji%20%28halberd%29\">ji</a>\" or <a href=\"halberds\">halberds</a> and spears and lances. For close fighting and defence, both charioteers and infantrymen carried double-edged straight swords. The archers carried crossbows, which have sophisticated trigger mechanisms and are capable of shooting arrows farther than 800 m .\nIn 2007, scientists at <a href=\"Stanford%20University\">Stanford University</a> and the <a href=\"Advanced%20Light%20Source\">Advanced Light Source</a> facility in Berkeley, California reported that <a href=\"powder%20diffraction\">powder diffraction</a> experiments combined with <a href=\"energy-dispersive%20X-ray%20spectroscopy\">energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy</a> and <a href=\"micro-X-ray%20fluorescence\">micro-X-ray fluorescence</a> analysis showed that the process of producing Terracotta figures colored with <a href=\"Han%20purple%20and%20Han%20blue\">Chinese purple</a> dye consisting of <a href=\"barium\">barium</a> <a href=\"copper\">copper</a> <a href=\"silicate\">silicate</a> was derived from the knowledge gained by <a href=\"Taoist\">Taoist</a> <a href=\"alchemy\">alchemists</a> in their attempts to synthesize <a href=\"jade\">jade</a> <a href=\"Ornament%20%28art%29\">ornaments</a>.\nSince 2006, an international team of researchers at the <a href=\"UCL%20Institute%20of%20Archaeology\">UCL Institute of Archaeology</a> have been using <a href=\"analytical%20chemistry\">analytical chemistry</a> techniques to uncover more details about the production techniques employed in the creation of the Terracotta Army. Using <a href=\"X-ray%20fluorescence\">X-ray fluorescence</a> spectrometry of 40,000 bronze <a href=\"arrowhead\">arrowhead</a>s bundled in groups of 100, the researchers reported that the arrowheads within a single bundle formed a relatively tight cluster that was different from other bundles. In addition, the presence or absence of metal impurities was consistent within bundles. Based on the arrows’ chemical compositions, the researchers concluded that a <a href=\"cellular%20manufacturing\">cellular manufacturing</a> system similar to the one used in a modern <a href=\"Toyota\">Toyota</a> factory, as opposed to a continuous <a href=\"assembly%20line\">assembly line</a> in the early days of automobile industry, was employed.\nGrinding and polishing marks visible under a <a href=\"scanning%20electron%20microscope\">scanning electron microscope</a> provide evidence for the earliest industrial use of <a href=\"lathe\">lathe</a>s for polishing.\nA collection of 120 objects from the mausoleum and 12 terracotta warriors were displayed at the <a href=\"British%20Museum\">British Museum</a> in London as its special exhibition \"The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army\" from 13 September 2007 to April 2008. This exhibition made 2008 the British Museum's most successful year and made the British Museum the United Kingdom's top cultural attraction between 2007 and 2008. The exhibition brought the most visitors to the museum since the <a href=\"Tutankhamun\">King Tutankhamun</a> exhibition in 1972. It was reported that the 400,000 advance tickets sold out so fast that the museum extended its opening hours until midnight. According to \"<a href=\"The%20Times\">The Times</a>\", many people had to be turned away, despite the extended hours. During the day of events to mark the <a href=\"Chinese%20New%20Year\">Chinese New Year</a>, the crush was so intense that the gates to the museum had to be shut. The Terracotta Army has been described as the only other set of historic artifacts (along with the remnants of wreck of the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS \"Titanic\"</a>) that can draw a crowd by the name alone.\nWarriors and other artifacts were exhibited to the public at the Forum de Barcelona in <a href=\"Barcelona\">Barcelona</a> between 9 May and 26 September 2004. It was their most successful exhibition ever. The same exhibition was presented at the Fundación Canal de Isabel II in Madrid between October 2004 and January 2005, their most successful ever. From December 2009 to May 2010, the exhibition was shown in the Centro Cultural La Moneda in <a href=\"Santiago%20de%20Chile\">Santiago de Chile</a>.\nThe exhibition traveled to North America and visited museums such as the <a href=\"Asian%20Art%20Museum%20of%20San%20Francisco\">Asian Art Museum</a> of <a href=\"San%20Francisco\">San Francisco</a>, <a href=\"Bowers%20Museum\">Bowers Museum</a> in <a href=\"Santa%20Ana%2C%20California\">Santa Ana, California</a>, <a href=\"Houston%20Museum%20of%20Natural%20Science\">Houston Museum of Natural Science</a>, <a href=\"High%20Museum%20of%20Art\">High Museum of Art</a> in <a href=\"Atlanta\">Atlanta</a>, <a href=\"National%20Geographic%20Society\">National Geographic Society</a> Museum in Washington, D.C. and the <a href=\"Royal%20Ontario%20Museum\">Royal Ontario Museum</a> in Toronto. Subsequently, the exhibition traveled to Sweden and was hosted in the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Far%20Eastern%20Antiquities\">Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities</a> between 28 August 2010 and 20 January 2011. An exhibition entitled 'The First Emperor – China's Entombed Warriors', presenting 120 artifacts was hosted at the <a href=\"Art%20Gallery%20of%20New%20South%20Wales\">Art Gallery of New South Wales</a>, between 2 December 2010 and 13 March 2011. An exhibition entitled \"L'Empereur guerrier de Chine et son armée de terre cuite\" (\"The Warrior-Emperor of China and his terracotta army\"), featuring artifacts including statues from the mausoleum, was hosted by the <a href=\"Montreal%20Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts\">Montreal Museum of Fine Arts</a> from 11 February 2011 to 26 June 2011. In Italy, from July 2008 to November 16, 2008, five of the warriors of the terracotta army were exposed in <a href=\"Turin\">Turin</a> at the Museum of Antiquities, and from 16 April 2010 to 5 September 2010 were exposed nine warriors in <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a>, at the <a href=\"Royal%20Palace%20of%20Milan\">Royal Palace</a>, at the exhibition entitled \"The Two Empires\". The group consisted of a horse, a counselor, an archer and 6 Lancers. The \"Treasures of Ancient China\" exhibition, showcasing two terracotta soldiers and other artifacts, including the <a href=\"Longmen%20Grottoes\">Longmen Grottoes</a> Buddhist statues, was held between 19February 2011 and 7November 2011 in four locations in India: <a href=\"National%20Museum%2C%20New%20Delhi\">National Museum</a> of <a href=\"New%20Delhi\">New Delhi</a>, <a href=\"Prince%20of%20Wales%20Museum\">Prince of Wales Museum</a> in <a href=\"Mumbai\">Mumbai</a>, <a href=\"Salar%20Jung%20Museum\">Salar Jung Museum</a> in <a href=\"Hyderabad\">Hyderabad</a> and <a href=\"National%20Library%20of%20India\">National Library of India</a> in <a href=\"Kolkata\">Kolkata</a>.\nSoldiers and related items were on display from March15, 2013, to November17, 2013, at the <a href=\"Historical%20Museum%20of%20Bern\">Historical Museum of Bern</a>.\nSeveral Terracotta Army figures are on display, along with many other objects, in an exhibit entitled \"Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties\" at The <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Museum%20of%20Art\">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> from April 3, 2017, to July 16, 2017. Ten Terracotta Army figures and other artifacts are on display at the <a href=\"Pacific%20Science%20Center\">Pacific Science Center</a> in Seattle, Washington, from April 8, 2017, to September 4, 2017.\n\n","Longshan County\nLongshan County () is a <a href=\"Counties%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\">county</a> of <a href=\"Hunan\">Hunan Province</a>, <a href=\"China\">China</a>, it is under the administration of <a href=\"Xiangxi%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20Prefecture\">Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture</a>.\nLocated on the western margin of the province and the north western Xiangxi, it is immediately adjacent to the borders of <a href=\"Chongqing\">Chongqing Municipality</a> and <a href=\"Hubei\">Hubei Province</a>. The county is bordered to the northeast by <a href=\"Sangzhi%20County\">Sangzhi County</a>, to the east by <a href=\"Yongshun%20County\">Yongshun County</a>, to the southeast and the south by <a href=\"Baojing%20County\">Baojing County</a>, to the west by <a href=\"Youyang%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20County\">Youyang County</a> of Chongqing, <a href=\"Laifeng%20County\">Laifeng County</a> and <a href=\"Xuan%27en%20County\">Xuan'en County</a> of Hubei. Longshan County covers 3,131 km2 , as of 2015, It had a registered population of 601,000 and a resident population of 492,800. The county has 12 <a href=\"towns%20of%20China\">towns</a>, 5 <a href=\"townships%20of%20China\">townships</a> and 4 subdistricts under its jurisdiction, the <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> is <a href=\"Min%27an%20Subdistrict\">Min'an Subdistrict</a> (民安街道).\nLongshan has 3 <a href=\"Subdistrict%20%28China%29\">subdistricts</a>, 11 <a href=\"Town%20%28China%29\">towns</a>, and 20 <a href=\"Township%20%28People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China%29\">townships</a>:\n","Queen Dowager Xuan\nQueen Dowager Xuan (; 338–265 BC), also called Mi Bazi (羋八子; <a href=\"Wade%E2%80%93Giles\">Wade–Giles</a>: Mi Pa-tzu), was a secondary wife of <a href=\"King%20Huiwen%20of%20Qin\">King Huiwen of Qin</a>. She was originally from <a href=\"Chu%20%28state%29\">Chu</a>. She gave birth to <a href=\"King%20Zhaoxiang%20of%20Qin\">King Zhaoxiang of Qin</a> (r. 306–251 BC) and acted as his regent when he was young. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang, the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the nomadic <a href=\"Yiqu\">Yiqu</a> king and had two sons with him, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the <a href=\"Ordos%20region\">Ordos region</a>.\nYiqu's fall rendered Qin a safe northern border. Since there was no more hostile forces in the north of Qin, Yiqu's fall ensured Qin's successful expansion eastward.\nQueen Xuan was the de facto ruler of Qin starting from 307 BCE until around 270s BCE. She eventually lost her power due to <a href=\"Fan%20Sui\">Fan Sui</a>'s scheme against her. She represented Qin's interests and protected, expanded Qin's realm. However, she refused to fight her homeland Chu when the state of Han, under the attack of Chu, asked Qin for reinforcement.\n","King Zhuangxiang of Qin\nKing Zhuangxiang of Qin (281–247 BC), personal names Yiren and Zichu, was a ruler of the <a href=\"Qin%20%28state%29\">Qin state</a> during the third century BC in the <a href=\"Warring%20States%20period\">Warring States period</a> of ancient China.\nYiren was born to <a href=\"King%20Xiaowen%20of%20Qin\">Lord Anguo</a>, the second son and heir apparent of <a href=\"King%20Zhaoxiang%20of%20Qin\">King Zhaoxiang</a>, and Lord Anguo's concubine Lady Xia. He was chosen to serve as a hostage in the <a href=\"Zhao%20%28state%29\">Kingdom of Zhao</a>. In <a href=\"Handan\">Handan</a> (the capital of Zhao) he met a merchant, <a href=\"L%C3%BC%20Buwei\">Lü Buwei</a>, who saw Yiren as extraordinary and detected in him the potential to become the king of Qin in the future. Lü Buwei treated Yiren well and presented his concubine Lady Zhao to Yiren. Lady Zhao later bore Yiren a son, <a href=\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\">Ying Zheng</a>.\nIn the meantime, through bribes and machinations, Lü Buwei helped Yiren return to Qin. He also successfully persuaded Lord Anguo's primary spouse, the childless Lady Huayang, to adopt Yiren as her own son, thereby making Yiren become Lord Anguo's legitimate <a href=\"heir%20apparent\">heir apparent</a>. As Lady Huayang was a native of the <a href=\"Chu%20%28state%29\">Chu state</a>, she renamed Yiren to \"Zichu\" (lit. \"son of Chu\"). Upon the death of King Zhaoxiang in 251 BC, Lord Anguo ascended the throne and became historically known as \"King Xiaowen\", but he died in the following year just three days after his coronation. Zichu succeeded his father as the king of Qin and became historically known as \"King Zhuangxiang of Qin\". He named Lü Buwei as his <a href=\"Chancellor%20%28China%29\">chancellor</a>, Lady Zhao as his queen consort, and Ying Zheng as his crown prince.\nKing Zhuangxiang died in 247 after reigning for three years. Ying Zheng succeeded him and eventually unified China through <a href=\"Qin%27s%20wars%20of%20unification\">a series of wars</a> against the other six major states, established the <a href=\"Qin%20Dynasty\">Qin Dynasty</a> in 221 BC, and became historically known as \"<a href=\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\">Qin Shi Huang</a>\" (First Emperor of Qin)."],"string":"[\n \"Ancient City Ruins of Liye\\nThe site of Ancient City Ruins of Liye () is the archaeological site of seat of the historic Qianling County () in Dongting Prefecture (), Qin dynasty (221 BC–206 BC). Its site is located in the present-day Liye Town, Longshan County, Hunan Province, China, and it is known for 37,400 pieces of Qin Bamboo slips unearthed in 2002. The Ancient City was built by Chu State in the late Warring States period, reconstructed in the Qin dynasty and abandoned in the early Western Han dynasty. The site of Ancient City Ruins was approved as a hiistorical and cultural site protected at the national level in Hunan on November 22, 2002. The Qin Bamboo Slips Museum and the Ruins Park has been established and officially opened on October 28, 2010.\\nIn June 1985, a group of bricklayers digging to make bricks excavated ancient potteries and weapons, the archaeologists had gradually carried out archaeological excavations there since then. As part of the Wanmipo Hydropower station () construction, the archaeologists from Hunan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology () and the local archaeological units started a rescue excavation for the site of ancient cultural remains in Liye on April 17, 2002, the ancient city gradually revealed. In the ancient city ruins, there are a moat, a rampart, building ruins and drainage facilities, ancient wells are spread regularly in the inner and outer side. All the buildings and facilities together formed a complete system of an ancient city. In June 2002, more than 36,000 Qin Bamboo slips were unearthed in an ancient well, the event was considered as the most important archaeological discovery of the Qin dynasty after the Qin Terracotta Army unearthed in 1973 in an eastern suburb of Xi'an.\\nThe site is rectangular and adjacent to the You River () and surrounded by a moat to the north, south and west, there is a crossroad with the main street to the south outside. it is 210.4 meters long north to south with the width of 103 - 107 meters, the remaining area covers about 20,000 square meters.\",\n \"King Xiaowen of Qin\\nKing Xiaowen of Qin (reigned 250 BC) was a Chinese king, who had a very brief reign. He is also known as Lord Anguo (安國君). His grandson was Emperor Qin Shi Huang.\\nXiaowen was a son of the King Zhaoxiang of Qin and Queen Tang and grandson of Queen Dowager Xuan.\\nHe was a king of the Qin for less than one year, and died three days after his coronation.\\nThis gave rise to many theories as to his short reign. The most accepted one is that he was very old when he ascended to the throne (his father ruled for over 50 years).\\nHowever, there is a conspiracy theory: that Lü Buwei poisoned the king or at least hastened his death, to put the next king, King Zhuangxiang of Qin onto the throne. This is supported in a way by the fact that Zhuangxiang reigned for only 3 years.\\nWives of Xiaowen were Ladies Huayang and Xia.\\nHis son by Lady Xia was King Zhuangxiang of Qin.\\nLady Huayang was the favourite wife of Xiaowen and had great influence on him.\",\n \"Zhang Han (Qin dynasty)\\nZhang Han (died 205 BC) was a military general of the Qin dynasty. When uprisings erupted throughout China during the reign of Qin Er Shi, Zhang Han led the Qin armies and successfully quelled several of these rebel forces. In 207 BC, Zhang Han was defeated by Xiang Yu of Chu at the Battle of Julu, after which he surrendered along with his 200,000 troops. He was conferred the title of \\\"King of Yong\\\" (雍王) by Xiang Yu and given part of the lands in Guanzhong as his fief when Xiang split the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms after the fall of the Qin dynasty. Zhang Han's territory was conquered by Liu Bang in 206 BC, and he committed suicide a year later.\\nIn 209 BC, the rebel army led by Chen Sheng's deputy, Zhou Wen (周文), was the first to reach the Qin capital Xianyang. Qin Er Shi was shocked and discussed with his subjects on how to counter the rebels. Zhang Han suggested to the emperor to grant amnesty to some of the convicts serving as labourers at Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum, and organise them into an army to deal with the rebels. The emperor approved Zhang Han's proposal and put him in charge of the army to quell the rebel forces. Zhang Han emerged victorious against Zhou Wen, defeating and driving Zhou out of Guanzhong. The emperor then commissioned Sima Xin and Dong Yi to serve as Zhang Han's deputies.\\nZhang Han's army continued to advance eastward and destroyed the rebel army of Chen Sheng. Zhang Han then led his men to attack the Wei rebels, emerging victorious against Wei and enemy reinforcements from Qi. Zhang Han's armies moved on to attack Tian Rong (田榮) of Qi, while Xiang Liang of Chu came to help Qi and defeated Zhang. Zhang Han scored another victory at the Battle of Dingtao against the Chu forces, killing Xiang Liang in battle.\\nIn 207 BC, when Zhang Han attacked and besieged the Zhao forces at Julu, the Zhao ruler Zhao Xie (趙歇) sought help from King Huai II of Chu. King Huai II sent Xiang Yu to lift the siege and Xiang's army defeated Zhang Han's forces at the Battle of Julu despite being heavily outnumbered. Zhang Han sent Sima Xin to request for reinforcements from Xianyang but Zhao Gao deceived Qin Er Shi and the emperor refused to send aid. Sima Xin escaped from Zhao Gao's assassins on his return journey and reported to Zhang Han that the state power of Qin had fallen into the hands of Zhao. Zhang Han pondered over the situation and realised that he would not survive even if he attained victory over Xiang Yu, as Zhao Gao would have him killed on false charges of treason. Hence, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops then surrendered to Xiang Yu and Zhang was conferred the title of \\\"King of Yong\\\" (雍王) by Xiang.\\nAfter the fall of the Qin Dynasty in 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, while Zhang Han and his two deputies were granted the region of Guanzhong as their fiefs. The three kingdoms were known as the Three Qins because they occupied the lands of the former Qin state. Later that year, the forces of Liu Bang (King of Han) invaded Guanzhong and captured Zhang Han's territory in a surprise attack. Zhang Han retreated to Feiqiu (廢丘; present-day Xingping, Shaanxi) and remained there. A year later, in 205 BC, the Han army flooded Feiqiu and Zhang Han committed suicide after his defeat.\\n\",\n \"Emperor Yi of Chu\\nEmperor Yi of Chu (died 206 BC), also known as King Huai II of Chu, personal name Xiong Xin, was the ruler of the Chu state in the late Qin dynasty. He was a grandson of King Huai of Chu. In 223 BC, during the Warring States period, the Chu state was conquered by the Qin state, which unified the various Chinese feudal states in a series of wars and established the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. In 209 BC, when rebellions broke out throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty, the Chu state was revived as an insurgent state against Qin imperial rule. Xiong Xin was discovered by Xiang Liang, a rebel leader who descended from a famous Chu general (Xiang Yan), and installed on the Chu throne as \\\"King Huai II of Chu\\\". However, Xiong Xin was merely a puppet ruler because power was concentrated in Xiang Liang's hands, and was later passed on to Xiang Liang's nephew, Xiang Yu, after Xiang Liang was killed in battle. In 206 BC, the Qin dynasty was overthrown by the rebels, after which Xiang Yu, who was the \\\"de facto\\\" leader of all the rebel forces, divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms. He promoted King Huai II to a more \\\"honourable\\\" title – Emperor Yi of Chu – and made him the nominal sovereign ruler over all the Eighteen Kingdoms. Xiang Yu then had Emperor Yi relocated to Chen County (郴縣; in present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) and secretly ordered Ying Bu to assassinate the emperor during the journey.\\nXiong Xin was a descendant of the royal family of the Chu state in the Warring States period, and a grandson of King Huai of Chu. However, he was not in the main line of succession and there were four kings who succeeded his grandfather before the Chu state was conquered by the Qin state in 223 BC. Xiong Xin lived as a commoner under Qin rule after the fall of Chu.\\nIn 209 BC, the Dazexiang Uprising broke out under the leadership of Chen Sheng, who proclaimed himself \\\"King of Zhangchu\\\" (張楚王; lit. \\\"king of rising Chu\\\") and aimed to overthrow the Qin dynasty. Although Chen Sheng's uprising was crushed by Qin imperial forces, other rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty and restore the former six states conquered by Qin about two decades ago. The leader of the Chu insurgent state, Xiang Liang, was advised by Fan Zeng to seek a member of the Chu royal family and install him on the throne to garner more support from the people. Xiang Liang found Xiong Xin, who was living as a shepherd, and installed him on the throne in the summer of 208 BC. Xiong Xin ruled under the title of \\\"King Huai II of Chu\\\".\\nKing Huai II was effectively a puppet ruler because the power of Chu was concentrated in Xiang Liang's hands. However, after Xiang Liang was killed at the Battle of Dingtao in the winter of 208 BC, the power was passed on to King Huai II and some Chu generals, so the king gradually began to assert his authority. After that, the king ordered Song Yi and Liu Bang to lead two armies to attack Qin, and promised to award the title \\\"King of Guanzhong\\\" to whoever entered Guanzhong (the Qin heartland) first. Xiang Liang's nephew, Xiang Yu, was the second-in-command to Song Yi, who led his army to attack Qin forces led by Zhang Han. Zhang Han's army was besieging Handan, the capital of the Zhao state, and Song Yi refused to advance any further to assist the Zhao forces. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting, falsely accused him of treason, killed him and usurped his command. He then sent a messenger to inform King Huai II, who reluctantly approved his command. In the winter of 207 BC, Liu Bang arrived in Guanzhong first, before Xiang Yu. The last Qin emperor, Ziying, surrendered to Liu Bang and brought an end to the Qin dynasty.\\nAccording to the promise made earlier by King Huai II, Liu Bang should rightfully become the \\\"King of Guanzhong\\\", but after Xiang Yu reached Guanzhong, he wrote a letter to King Huai II to ask the king to give him the title instead. King Huai II's reply was to the effect of \\\"per my earlier promise\\\", but Xiang Yu ignored him and took control of Guanzhong from Liu Bang since he was more militarily powerful than Liu. Xiang Yu then proclaimed himself \\\"Hegemon-King of Western Chu\\\" and divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, each ruled by one of the leaders of the rebel forces which overthrew the Qin dynasty. He also promoted King Huai II to a seemingly more \\\"honourable\\\" title – Emperor Yi of Chu. However, later, he had the puppet emperor relocated to Chen County (郴縣; in present-day Chenzhou, Hunan), thereby effectively sending the emperor into exile.\\nEmperor Yi was aware that Xiang Yu wanted to force him into exile, so he feigned illness and used that as an excuse to postpone his trip to Chen County, but to no avail. Xiang Yu still forced him to make his way from Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Chen County. At the same time, he secretly ordered Ying Bu, Wu Rui and Gong Ao to kill the emperor during the journey to Chen County. Emperor Yi was murdered by Ying Bu's men near Chen County and buried by the locals at a hill in the southwest of the county.\\nBetween 206–202 BC, a power struggle for supremacy over China (historically known as the Chu–Han Contention) broke out between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang. Liu Bang used Emperor Yi's death as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu. In 205 BC, he held a three-day memorial service for the emperor, accused Xiang Yu of committing regicide, and rally support from the people against Xiang Yu. In 202 BC, the Chu–Han Contention concluded with victory for Liu Bang, who became the sovereign ruler of China and established the Han dynasty. Liu Bang ordered his generals Zhou Bo, Wang Ling and Fan Kuai, who had been enfeoffed as marquises, to conduct memorial services for Emperor Yi in their respective marquisates.\\nYi sometimes appears as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples, usually paired with the last Qin emperor Ziying.\",\n \"Liye Qin Slips\\nThe Liye Qin Slips () is a large collection of bamboo slips which were unearthed at the ancient town of Liye, Longshan County, Hunan Province, China in 2002. The event is one of the most important archaeological finds of the 21st century in China. The archaeologists found more than 37,000 pieces of bamboo writing slips in 2002 in the Ancient City Ruins of Liye (), on which more than 200,000 Chinese characters recorded the governing state secrets of the Qin dynasty. It was considered as the most important archaeological discovery of the Qin dynasty after the Qin Terracotta Army unearthed in 1973 in an eastern suburb of Xi'an.\\nThe Liye bamboo slip documents and archives fully embody a wide range of document types and terms, the grown of constant administrative and judicial document styles. Among them are more than 68 types of archives and content, which have high value of supplementing and testifying history facts. Some in the academic circles have argued that its importance is no less than those of Oracle bone script and Dunhuang manuscripts. The world's oldest example of a multiplication table was found here. The slips, used for writing in ancient times, have great significance in furthering research on Qin dynasty politics, economy and culture. All the historical artifacts from Liye are displayed at the Qin Dynasty Bamboo Slips Museum of Liye ().\\nThe Qin bamboo slips of Liye are important for the research of the unification of the Qin Empire and the cultural expansion of the Qin. The slips belong to a model of the local authorities in the Qin dynasty. They also filled in the blank pages of the \\\"Records of the Grand Historian\\\" and \\\"Book of Han\\\" on the Qin and Han dynasties, and fundamentally changed the face of the academic history of thousands of years on warring States, Qin and Han dynasties. The slips contain thousands of pieces of bamboo slips without words, which takes on a very high research value.\",\n \"Ying Bu\\nYing Bu (died 195 BC), also known as Qing Bu, was a military general and vassal king who lived in the early Western Han dynasty. He was a native of Lu County (六縣; present-day Lu'an, Anhui). In his early life under the Qin dynasty, Ying Bu was convicted and sentenced to \\\"qing\\\" (黥; a form of punishment which involved branding a criminal by tattooing his face), so he was also called \\\"Qing Bu\\\". He was then sent to Mount Li to perform hard labour by constructing Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum. He later escaped with some men and became the leader of a bandit gang. Ying Bu participated in the insurrection against the Qin dynasty after the Dazexiang Uprising broke out in 209 BC. After the uprising failed, he became part of a rebel force led by Xiang Liang. He assisted Xiang Liang's nephew and successor Xiang Yu in overthrowing the Qin dynasty. After the fall of Qin, he initially fought on Xiang Yu's side in the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC), a power struggle for supremacy over China between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang (Emperor Gao). However, later, he defected to Liu Bang's side and helped Liu defeat Xiang Yu and become the emperor. During this period of time, Ying Bu held the title of \\\"King of Jiujiang\\\". After Liu Bang established the Han dynasty in 202 BC, he appointed Ying Bu as a vassal king and granted him the title of \\\"King of Huainan\\\". In 195 BC, Ying Bu rebelled against the Han dynasty but was defeated and killed.\\nYing Bu was born in a family of commoners. In his childhood, a fortune teller once told him that he would become a convict first before becoming a king later. When he became older, Ying Bu committed a crime and under the laws of the Qin dynasty, he was sentenced to \\\"qing\\\" (黥; a form of punishment which involved branding a criminal by tattooing his face), but he laughed and said, \\\"A fortune teller once told me that I would be convicted before becoming a king. Isn't it so?\\\" He was scorned at by others when they heard him. Ying Bu was later sent to Mount Li to do hard labour by constructing Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum. He befriended many fellow convicts and later escaped with them, and became the leader of a bandit gang.\\nIn 209 BC, when Chen Sheng and Wu Guang started the Dazexiang Uprising to overthrow the Qin dynasty, Ying Bu joined a rebel leader Wu Rui and rallied several thousand men. He also married Wu Rui's daughter. After the uprising was crushed by the Qin general Zhang Han, Ying Bu led his followers north to attack the Qin left and right flanks and defeated the enemy at Qingbo (清波; southwest of present-day Xincai County, Henan), and then moved east. When Ying Bu learnt that Xiang Liang had amassed a large rebel force in Kuaiji (then still centered on present-day Suzhou, not Shaoxing), he led his own followers to join Xiang Liang too.\\nYing Bu fought bravely in battle and assisted Xiang Liang in defeating other insurgent leaders such as Jing Ju and Qin Jia (秦嘉). In the summer of 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed King Huai II on the throne of the Chu state, but the king was actually a figurehead used by Xiang Liang to rally more supporters in the name of restoring Chu. King Huai II granted Ying Bu the title of \\\"Lord Dangyang\\\" (當陽君). Xiang Liang was killed in action against Qin forces at the Battle of Dingtao in the winter of 208 BC, and King Huai II moved his capital to Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). Ying Bu and other Chu generals were stationed in Pengcheng.\\nAt the time, Qin forces were attacking another insurgent state, Zhao. The Zhao king Zhao Xie (趙歇) requested aid from Chu. King Huai II ordered Song Yi, Xiang Yu (Xiang Liang's nephew) and Fan Zeng to lead an army to rescue Zhao Xie. Xiang Yu accused Song Yi of treason, killed the latter and took control of the army. Ying Bu was originally under Song Yi, so he became Xiang Yu's subordinate after King Huai II approved Xiang Yu's command. In 207 BC, Chu forces led by Xiang Yu, Ying Bu and others defeated a larger Qin army led by Zhang Han at the Battle of Julu. After the battle, at Xin'an (新安; in present-day Yima, Henan), Xiang Yu had Ying Bu oversee the execution of Zhang Han's 200,000 surrendered Qin soldiers by burying them alive.\\nAfter his victory at Julu, Xiang Yu led his forces towards Guanzhong (the heartland of the Qin dynasty) and prepared for an invasion. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin emperor Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang (the Qin capital), bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. Xiang Yu later occupied Xianyang and divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, each ruled by a vassal king. Ying Bu was named \\\"King of Jiujiang\\\" (九江王).\\nIn the fourth lunar month of 206 BC, the rulers of the Eighteen Kingdoms returned to their respective domains. Xiang Yu ostensibly promoted King Huai II of Chu to a more honorific title of \\\"Emperor Yi of Chu\\\", and moved him to Changsha, effectively sending the puppet ruler into exile. Xiang Yu then secretly ordered Ying Bu to kill Emperor Yi, and Ying Bu intercepted the emperor at Chen County (郴縣; present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) and killed him.\\nIn 205 BC, Tian Rong (田榮) started a rebellion in Qi so Xiang Yu led an army to attack him. Xiang Yu requested reinforcements from Ying Bu, but the latter claimed that he was ill and instead sent his subordinates and a few thousand troops to assist Xiang Yu. At the same time, Liu Bang (King of Han) formed an alliance with five other kings and took advantage of Xiang Yu's absence to attack and seize the latter's capital Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). When Xiang Yu asked help from Ying Bu, the latter claimed that he was ill again and refused to aid Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu was displeased with Ying Bu and sent a messenger to summon the latter but Ying Bu became afraid and refused to go. Xiang Yu did not attack Ying Bu because he faced the threats of Qi and Zhao, and Liu Bang in the west, and also because he felt that Ying Bu was a talent and wanted the latter to remain on his side.\\nIn late 205 BC, Xiang Yu defeated Liu Bang at the Battle of Pengcheng and Liu was forced to retreat to Yu (虞). Liu Bang told his followers, \\\"People like you are not worthy to discuss great plans with me.\\\" One of Liu Bang's advisors, Sui He (隨何), asked why, and Liu Bang replied, \\\"Who can help me go to Huainan and persuade (Ying Bu) to betray Chu, and keep Xiang Yu occupied in Qi for several months, then I can easily take control of the empire.\\\" Sui He volunteered for the mission and brought 20 escorts to Huainan. Three days after reaching his destination, Sui He had yet to see Ying Bu, so he said to Ying Bu's advisor, \\\"The king refuses to see me because Chu is powerful and Han is weak. This is exactly the reason why I'm here. Why don't you allow me to meet him first? If what I've said is true, then that's what he wishes to hear. If what I've said is false, then me and my 20 men are willing to die in Huainan to prove that your king is against Han and loyal to Chu.\\\" The advisor relayed Sui He's message to Ying Bu, and Ying agreed to meet Sui He.\\nSui He said, \\\"The King of Han sends me to deliver a message to you. I'm curious why you're so close to Chu.\\\" Ying Bu responded that he had all along been serving Xiang Yu. Sui He said, \\\"Both you and Xiang Yu are vassal kings. You're willing to be subservient to him because you feel that Chu is powerful and can be relied on. When Xiang Yu was attacking Qi, he fought ahead of his men. You should personally lead Huainan's forces and fight as Chu's vanguard. Yet now you only send 4,000 men to assist Chu, is this what a subordinate should do? When the King of Han was attacking Chu's capital Pengcheng, you should lead your men to help Xiang Yu and fight with the King of Han day and night. You have a large army but you don't send troops to help and would rather stand by and watch. Is this what a subordinate should do? You are subordinate to Chu in name, but actually you rely on yourself. I feel that this won't be good for you. You refuse to betray Chu because you think that Han is weak. However, although Chu is powerful, Xiang Yu has lost the people's trust when he broke his promises and murdered Emperor Yi, and now he still thinks that his state is strong and he can win any battle. The King of Han is recruiting other vassal lords, and garrisoning in Chenggao and Xingyang. His supply routes from Shu avoid deep trenches and are well defended. When Chu recall its forces, it is separated by Liang in between and is 800-900 \\\"li\\\" within enemy territory. Now Chu is unable to fight well and is exhausted. Its old and weak soldiers are transporting supplies over great distances. When Chu forces reach Xingyang and Chenggao, Han forces only need to put up a firm defence. In this way, Chu forces can neither advance by attacking nor retreat. Therefore, I say that Chu is unreliable. If Chu wins Han, other vassal states will help each other for fear of Chu. As such, we can see that if Chu becomes more powerful, it will invite hostility from many sides. It's obvious that Chu is worse than Han. I'm puzzled as to why you choose to depend on Chu, which is at stake, instead of Han, which has nothing to lose. I don't think that Huainan's forces are sufficient to resist Chu, but if you betray Chu, Xiang Yu will be held up in Qi for several months, and Han has higher chances of taking over the empire. I sincerely hope you can join the King of Han. He'll grant you a fief larger than the current Huainan you have. As such, he sends me to present this plan to you and hope that you'll consider it.\\\" Ying Bu agreed but he kept silent about his defection.\\nAt the same time, Xiang Yu had sent a messenger to Huainan to request reinforcements from Ying Bu. Sui He called for the messenger and declared, \\\"The King of Jiujiang has already joined Han. Why does he need to send troops to help Chu?\\\" Ying Bu was startled. The Chu messenger was surprised and left. Sui He then said to Ying Bu, \\\"It's now a fact (that you've joined Han), so you should kill the Chu messenger and stop him from returning to Chu. You should also ally with Han as soon as possible.\\\", and Ying Bu heeded his advice.\\nWhen Xiang Yu learnt that Ying Bu had turned against him, he sent Xiang Sheng (項聲) and Long Ju to attack Huainan while he remained behind to attack Xiayi (下邑). Months later Long Ju defeated Ying Bu and conquered Jiujiang. Ying Bu was afraid that he would be killed so he fled to Han territory.\\nYing Bu wanted to meet Liu Bang after he arrived in Han. Liu Bang was sitting on his bed and washing his feet when Ying Bu came to see him. Ying Bu was furious because he felt that Liu Bang was treating him with contempt, and he regretted joining Han and wanted to commit suicide. When Ying Bu was shown to his living quarters, he was surprised to see that everything was similar to Liu Bang's and he was delighted. He then sent his men to Jiujiang and learnt that Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo had taken control of his former troops and killed his family. His men also found several of his former followers and brought them back to Han. Liu Bang put Ying Bu in command of some troops.\\nIn 203 BC, Liu Bang instated Ying Bu as \\\"King of Huainan\\\" (淮南王). Later that year, Ying Bu led an army to attack Jiujiang and conquered many cities. He entered Jiujiang together with Liu Gu (劉賈) and persuaded Zhou Yin (周殷) to defect from Chu to Han. Ying Bu and Zhou Yin led their armies to join Liu Bang in attacking Xiang Yu and eventually defeated Xiang at the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BC. Xiang Yu committed suicide and the rest of Chu surrendered to Han.\\nFollowing his victory in the Chu–Han Contention, Liu Bang was proclaimed \\\"Emperor\\\" and became historically known as \\\"Emperor Gaozu of Han\\\" after establishing the Han dynasty. Ying Bu became a vassal king of the Han dynasty, under the title King of Huainan (淮南王), with his capital at Lu (六; present-day Lu'an, Anhui), and the commanderies of Jiujiang (九江), Lushan (廬山), Hengshan (衡山) and Yuzhang (豫章) under his control.\\nIn 196 BC, Han Xin, the Marquis of Huaiyin (淮陰侯), was executed on Empress Lü Zhi's order. Ying Bu became uneasy when he learnt of this. In the summer of that year, Peng Yue, the King of Liang (梁王), suffered a similar fate, and his corpse was minced into pieces and the gory parts distributed to various nobles and vassal kings. Ying Bu was terrified and was worried that he would end up like Han Xin and Peng Yue, so he started gathering his forces and paying closer attention to happenings in the nearby areas.\\nOne of Ying Bu's favourite concubines fell sick and was sent for medical treatment. The physician who attended to her was a neighbour of a palace official called Ben He (賁赫). As Ying Bu's concubine often visited the physician, Ben He used the opportunity to get close to her and offered her expensive gifts, and they had drinks at the physician's house. When the concubine returned home she praised Ben He in front of Ying Bu, saying that Ben He was a warm hearted man. Ying Bu asked her how she knew Ben He, and she told him everything. Ying Bu began to suspect that Ben He was having an affair with his concubine. Ben He became afraid when he heard that Ying Bu suspected him so he feigned illness and remained at home. Ying Bu became more angry and wanted to arrest Ben He. In desperation, Ben He accused Ying Bu of plotting a rebellion and fled to the capital Chang'an. Ying Bu sent his men to pursue Ben He but could not catch up with the latter. Upon reaching Chang'an, Ben He claimed that Ying Bu was showing signs of plotting a rebellion and urged the Han imperial court to send an army to launch a preemptive attack on Ying Bu. Emperor Gaozu discussed with his chancellor Xiao He, and the latter commented, \\\"Ying Bu wouldn't do this. I believe that his enemies are trying to frame him. Please put Ben He under custody first and then send people to investigate Ying Bu.\\\" When Ying Bu saw that Ben He had escaped and accused him of plotting a rebellion, he suspected that Ben He had already revealed what he had been secretly planning to do. Besides, the Han imperial court had sent people to investigate, so Ying Bu decided to proceed with his plan. He killed Ben He's family and started a rebellion. When news of Ying Bu's revolt reached Chang'an, Emperor Gaozu pardoned Ben He and appointed him as a general.\\nGaozu summoned his subjects to discuss on how to deal with Ying Bu and they urged the emperor to send an army to attack Ying Bu and destroy him. Xiahou Ying consulted Xue Gong (薛公), a former \\\"lingyin\\\" of Chu, and asked him, \\\"The emperor granted him a fief and the title of a vassal king, allowing him to enjoy luxuries and rule over thousands, why does he still want to rebel?\\\" Xue Gong replied, \\\"Peng Yue and Han Xin were executed in the past two years. The three of them contributed heavily to the dynasty's founding and are almost equal to each other. Ying Bu feared that he would experience the same fate (as Han Xin and Peng Yue) so he rebelled.\\\" Xiahou Ying then recommended Xue Gong to Emperor Gaozu. Xue Gong analysed to the emperor that Ying Bu would make three possible moves: 1. Attack and capture Wu, Chu, Qi, Lu, Yan and Zhao, and the Han dynasty would lose the Shandong region as a result; 2. Attack and capture Wu, Chu, Han, Wei, rely on supplies from Aoyu to block Chenggao, the outcome of this move was uncertain; 3. Attack Wu, Xiacai, return to Yue and Changsha, there was nothing to worry if Ying Bu made this move. Xue Gong predicted that Ying Bu would take the third option because Ying Bu was a convict and he attained his kingly status through his own efforts, and everything he did was for personal gain and he did not care about the people and his descendants. Gaozu put Xue Gong in charge of 1,000 households and installed his son Liu Chang (劉長) as \\\"Prince of Huainan\\\" to replace Ying Bu. Gaozu then personally led an army to suppress Ying Bu's rebellion.\\nBefore Ying Bu rebelled, he told his men, \\\"The emperor is old and hates going to war. He'll definitely not come. Even if he sends any of his generals, among them only Han Xin and Peng Yue are dangerous, but since both of them are already dead there's nothing to fear.\\\" Ying Bu moved east to attack Jing (荊) and in Fuling (富陵) he defeated and killed Liu Gu (劉賈), Prince of Jing (荊王). He then crossed the Huai River to attack Chu. Chu sent its forces to intercept Ying Bu between Xu (徐) and Tong (僮), with three armies ready to come to each other's aid if any came under attack. Someone warned the Chu commanders, \\\"Ying Bu is versed in warfare and the people have long feared him. Chu forces are fighting on their own territory and are easily scattered. Now the army is divided into three forces, if one is defeated the other two would follow suit. How is it possible for them to help each other?\\\" The warning was ignored. Ying Bu later really did defeat one army and the other two dispersed.\\nYing Bu then advanced west and encountered the Han army led by Emperor Gaozu in Qixi (蕲西; south of present-day Su County, Anhui) and they battled at Zhui (甀). Ying Bu's army was well-trained so Gaozu had to retreat to Yongcheng (庸城). From a distance, Gaozu saw that Ying Bu's forces were deployed like Xiang Yu's and he hated that. Gaozu asked Ying Bu, \\\"Why do you want to rebel?\\\", to which Ying Bu replied, \\\"I want to be the emperor.\\\" Gaozu was furious and scolded Ying Bu, and launched an attack. Ying Bu was defeated and retreated back across the Huai River. At times he halted and turned back to resist the Han forces but failed. Ying Bu was eventually left with around 100 men and they retreated to south of the Yangtze River.\\nYing Bu was Wu Rui's son-in-law, so Wu Hui (吳回; Wu Rui's grandson), King Ai of Changsha (長沙哀王), sent a messenger to Ying Bu, lying that he would help Ying Bu escape to Nanyue. Ying Bu believed Wu Hui and followed the messenger to Poyang (番陽), where he was killed by peasants in Zi Village (茲鄉).\\nYing Bu is sometimes venerated as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples, usually partnered with Peng Yue. He is one of the 32 historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game \\\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI\\\" by Koei. He is also featured under the name \\\"Qing Bu\\\" as a playable character of the \\\"Muscleman\\\" class in the action role-playing game \\\"Prince of Qin\\\".\\nYing Bu on hxlsw.com\",\n \"Li Si\\nLi Si (; c. 280 BCSeptember or October 208 BC) was a Chinese politician of the Qin dynasty. He served as the Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of the Qin dynasty from 246–208 BC, well known Legalist writer and politician, and notable calligrapher. He served under two rulers: Qin Shi Huang, the king of the Qin state and later the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty; and Qin Er Shi, Qin Shi Huang's youngest son and the Second Emperor. Concerning administrative methods, Li \\\"indicated that he admired and utilized the ideas of Shen Pu-hai\\\", repeatedly referring to the technique of Shen and Han Fei, but regarding law followed Shang Yang.\\nStanford University's John Knoblock considered Li Si \\\"one of the two or three most important figures in Chinese history\\\". Having a clear vision of universal empire and \\\"one world comprising all Chinese, bringing with universal dominion universal peace\\\", Li Si was \\\"largely responsible for the creation of those institutions that made the Qin dynasty the first universal state in Chinese history\\\".\\nLi Si unified the laws, governmental ordinances, weights and measures, and standardized chariots, carts, and the characters used in writing... [facilitating] the cultural unification of China. He \\\"created a government based solely on merit, so that in the empire sons and younger brothers in the imperial clan were not ennobled, but meritorious ministers were\\\", and \\\"pacified the frontier regions by subduing the barbarians to the north and south\\\". He had the weapons of the feudal states melted and cast into musical bells and large human statues, and relaxed taxes and the draconian punishments inherited from Shang Yang.\\nLi Si was originally from Shang Cai (上蔡) in the State of Chu. As a young man he was a minor functionary in the local administration of Chu. According to the \\\"Records of the Great Historian\\\", one day Li Si observed that rats in the outhouse were dirty and hungry but the rats in the barn house were well fed. He suddenly realized that \\\"there is no set standard for honour since everyone's life is different. The values of people are determined by their social status. And like rats, people's social status often depends purely on the random life events around them. And so instead of always being restricted by moral codes, people should do what they deemed best at the moment.\\\" He made up his mind to take up politics as a career, which was a common choice for scholars not from a noble family during the Warring States period.\\nLi Si was unable to advance his career in Chu. He believed that achieving nothing in life while being so intelligent and educated would bring shame to not just himself but to all scholars. After having finished his education with the famous Confucian thinker Xunzi, he moved to the State of Qin, the most powerful state at that time in an attempt to advance his political career.\\nDuring his stay in Qin, Li Si became a guest of Prime Minister Lü Buwei and got the chance to talk to the ruler of Ying Zheng who would later become the first emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang. Li Si expressed that the Qin state was extremely powerful, but uniting China was still impossible if all of the other six states united to fight against Qin. Qin Shi Huang was impressed by Li Si's view of how to unify China. Having adopted Li Si's proposal, the ruler of Qin spent generously to lure intellectuals to the state of Qin and sent out assassins to kill important scholars in other states.\\nIn 237 BC a clique at the Qin court urged King Zheng to expel all foreigners from the state to prevent espionage. As a native of Chu, Li Si would be a target of the policy so he memorialised the king explaining the many benefits of foreigners to Qin including \\\"the sultry girls of Zhao\\\". The king relented and, impressed with Li Si's rhetoric, promoted him. The same year, Li Si is reported to have urged King Zheng to annex the neighbouring State of Han to order to intimidate the other five remaining states. Li Si also wrote the \\\"Petition against the Expulsion of Guest Officers” (Jianzhuke Shu) in 234 BC. Han Fei, a member of the aristocracy from the State of Han, was asked by the Han king to go to Qin and resolve the situation through diplomacy. Li Si, who envied Han Fei's intellect, persuaded the Qin king that he could neither send Han Fei back (as his superior ability would be a threat to Qin) nor employ him (as his loyalty would not be to Qin). As a result, Han Fei was imprisoned, and in 233 BC convinced by Li Si to commit suicide by taking poison. The State of Han was later conquered in 230 BC.\\nAfter Qin Shi Huang became emperor Li Si persuaded him to suppress intellectual dissent. Li Si believed that books regarding things such as medicine, agriculture and prophecy could be ignored but political books were dangerous in public hands. It was hard to make progress and change the country with the opposition of so many \\\"\\\" scholars. As a result, only the state should keep political books, and only the state run schools should be allowed to educate political scholars. Li Si himself penned the edict ordering the destruction of historical records and literature in 213 BC, including key Confucian texts, which he thought detrimental to the welfare of the state. It is commonly thought that 460 Confucian scholars were buried alive, from the well-known historical event \\\"Burning Books and Burying Confucianists\\\" (焚书坑儒); however, this was a mistranslation in later historical texts. In reality, the 460 people who were buried alive by the emperor Qin Shi Huang were mainly priests and shamans who were alleged to be depriving the emperor of resources and wealth while looking for medicines that would grant eternal life or apotheosis.\\nWhen Qin Shi Huang died while away from the capital, Li Si and the chief eunuch Zhao Gao suppressed the late emperor's choice of successor, which was Fusu. At that time Fusu was close friends with Meng Tian. If Fusu became the next emperor there was a high chance Meng Tian would replace Li Si as prime minister. Fearing a loss of power, Li Si decided to betray the dead Qin Shi Huang. Li Si and Zhao Gao tricked Fusu into committing suicide, and installed another prince, Qin Er Shi (229 BC – 207 BC) in his place. During the tumultuous aftermath, Zhao Gao convinced the new emperor to install his followers in official positions. When his power base was secure enough, Zhao Gao betrayed Li Si and charged him with treason. Qin Er Shi, who viewed Zhao Gao as his teacher, did not question his decision. Zhao Gao had Li Si tortured until he admitted the crime. In 208 BC Zhao Gao had Li Si executed by way of waist chop (腰斩).\\nBelieving in a highly bureaucratic system, Li Si is considered to have been central to the efficiency of the state of Qin and the success of its military conquest. He was also instrumental in systematizing standard measures and currency in post-unified China. He further helped systematize the written Chinese language by promulgating as the imperial standard the small seal script which had already been in use in the state of Qin. In this process, variant glyphs within the Qin script were proscribed, as were variant scripts from the different regions which had been conquered. This would have a unifying effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. Li Si was also the author of the \\\"Cangjiepian\\\", the first Chinese language primer of which fragments still exist.\\n\",\n \"Zhao Gao\\nZhao Gao (Simplified Chinese 赵高, died 207 BC) was a Chinese politician of the Qin dynasty. Allegedly a eunuch, he served as a close aide to all three emperors of the Qin dynasty – Qin Shi Huang, Qin Er Shi and Ziying – and was regarded as having played an instrumental role in the downfall of the dynasty.\\nZhao Gao started his career under Qin Shi Huang as a \\\"zhongche fuling\\\" (中車府令), an official in charge of managing the palace horse-drawn carriages. During this period of time, he also served as an attendant to Huhai, Qin Shi Huang's youngest son, and tutored him in the laws of the Qin Empire. In 210 BC, after Qin Shi Huang died in Shaqiu (沙丘; south of present-day Dapingtai Village, Guangzong County, Hebei), Zhao Gao and Li Si, the Chancellor, secretly changed the emperor's final edict, which named Fusu, the crown prince, the heir to the throne. In the falsified edict, Fusu was ordered to commit suicide while Huhai was named the new emperor. After Huhai was enthroned as Qin Er Shi, he promoted Zhao Gao to \\\"langzhongling\\\" (郎中令), an official post whose duties included managing the daily activities in the imperial palace. Zhao Gao, who was highly trusted by Qin Er Shi, instigated the emperor to exterminate his own siblings to consolidate power, and used the opportunity to eliminate his political opponents such as Meng Tian and Meng Yi. He also framed Li Si for treason and had Li and his entire family executed, after which he replaced Li as the Chancellor and monopolised state power. In 207 BC, when rebellions broke out in the lands east of Hangu Pass, Zhao Gao became worried that Qin Er Shi would blame him, so he launched a coup in Wangyi Palace (望夷宮; in Xianyang, near present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi) and assassinated the emperor. Following Qin Er Shi's death, Zhao Gao installed Ziying, Fusu's son, on the throne. Ziying sent Han Tan (韓談), a eunuch, to assassinate Zhao Gao.\\nZhao Gao was distantly related to the royal family of the Zhao state of the Warring States period. According to the \\\"Records of the Grand Historian\\\", Zhao Gao's parents committed crimes and were punished. His brothers were castrated; it is unclear whether Zhao Gao himself was a eunuch or not. However, Qin Shi Huang valued Zhao Gao since he was learned in criminal law. This was very useful to Qin Shi Huang since he himself was always looking for ways to control the people by laws and punishments. Zhao Gao enjoyed a steady rise in position.\\nWhen Zhao was a minor official, he committed a crime punishable by death. Meng Yi was the official in charge of sentencing and he sentenced Zhao to death and removed him from the officials list as instructed by Qin Shi Huang. Zhao was later pardoned by Qin Shi Huang and returned to his official status.\\nAt the end of the reign of Qin Shi Huang, Zhao Gao was involved in the death of Meng Tian and his younger brother, Meng Yi. Meng Tian, a reputable general and a supporter of Qin Shi Huang's eldest son, Fusu, was stationed at the northern border, commanding more than 200,000 troops for the inconclusive campaign against the Xiongnu. Following the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang at Shaqiu, Zhao Gao and Li Si, the Chancellor, persuaded the emperor's youngest son, Huhai, to falsify the emperor's will. The fake decree forced Fusu to commit suicide and stripped Meng Tian of his command. Harbouring hatred for the entire Meng family due to his prior sentencing by Meng Yi, Zhao Gao destroyed the Meng brothers by convincing Huhai to issue a decree that forced Meng Tian to commit suicide and execute Meng Yi.\\nQin Er Shi, who viewed Zhao Gao as his tutor, became the next Qin emperor.\\nTwo years later, Zhao Gao also killed Li Si, ironically executing him via the \\\"Five Pains\\\" method, Li's own invention. The method consisted of having the victim's nose cut off, cutting off a hand and a foot, then the victim was castrated and finally cut in half in line with the waist. He also had Li Si's entire family exterminated.\\nIn 207 BC, rebellions broke out in the lands east of Hangu Pass. Zhao Gao was afraid that Qin Er Shi might make him responsible for the uprisings. To preempt this, he launched a coup and assassinated Qin Er Shi, and then installed Ziying, Fusu's son, as the new emperor.\\nZiying, however, knew that Zhao Gao intended to kill him afterwards to appease the rebels, so he feigned illness on the day of the coronation, which forced Zhao to arrive at his residence to persuade him to attend. The moment Zhao Gao arrived, Ziying ordered a eunuch, Han Tan, to kill Zhao. Zhao Gao's entire clan was exterminated on Ziying's order.\\nOne Chinese idiom that is derived from an incident involving Zhao Gao is \\\"calling a deer a horse\\\" (), meaning \\\"deliberate misrepresentation for ulterior purposes\\\". The \\\"Records of the Grand Historian\\\" records that Zhao Gao, in an attempt to control the Qin government, devised a loyalty test for court officials using a deer and horse:\\nZhao Gao was contemplating treason but was afraid the other officials would not heed his commands, so he decided to test them first. He brought a deer and presented it to the Second Emperor but called it a horse. The Second Emperor laughed and said, \\\"Is the chancellor perhaps mistaken, calling a deer a horse?\\\" Then the emperor questioned those around him. Some remained silent, while some, hoping to ingratiate themselves with Zhao Gao, said it was a horse, and others said it was a deer. Zhao Gao secretly arranged for all those who said it was a deer to be brought before the law and had them executed instantly. Thereafter the officials were all terrified of Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao gained military power as a result of that. (tr. Watson 1993:70)\\nThere is a conspiracy theory that Zhao Gao was a descendant of the royal family of the Zhao state, which was destroyed by the Qin state, and Zhao Gao was seeking revenge on Qin. With Zhao Gao in charge of the Qin government, it was natural that the Qin Empire collapsed in such a short time. In fact, Zhao Gao killed all the sons and daughters of Qin Shi Huang, including the Second Emperor, Huhai. In revenge, Ziying killed Zhao Gao and all of his family members. Thus Zhao Gao or his brothers have no known descendants.\\nThe historian Li Kaiyuan (李開元) believes Zhao Gao was not a eunuch at all. He bases this in part on the fact eunuchs were not allowed to serve as chancellors, which Zhao did.\",\n \"Chu (state)\\nChu (, <a href=\\\"Old%20Chinese\\\">Old Chinese</a>: \\\"*s-r̥aʔ\\\" ) was a hegemonic, <a href=\\\"Zhou%20dynasty\\\">Zhou dynasty</a> era <a href=\\\"ancient%20Chinese%20states\\\">state</a>. From <a href=\\\"King%20Wu%20of%20Chu\\\">King Wu of Chu</a> in the early 8th century BCE, the rulers of Chu declared themselves kings on an equal footing with the Zhou kings. Though initially inconsequential, removed to the south of the Zhou heartland and practising differing customs, Chu began a series of administrative reforms, becoming a successful expansionist state during the <a href=\\\"Spring%20and%20Autumn%20period\\\">Spring and Autumn period</a>. With its continued expansion Chu became a great <a href=\\\"Warring%20States%20period\\\">Warring States period</a> power.\\nAlso known as Jing (荆 ), Jingchu (荆楚 ) and Shu (舒 ), Chu included most of the present-day provinces of <a href=\\\"Hubei\\\">Hubei</a> and <a href=\\\"Hunan\\\">Hunan</a>, along with parts of <a href=\\\"Chongqing\\\">Chongqing</a>, <a href=\\\"Guizhou\\\">Guizhou</a>, <a href=\\\"Henan\\\">Henan</a>, <a href=\\\"Anhui\\\">Anhui</a>, <a href=\\\"Jiangxi\\\">Jiangxi</a>, <a href=\\\"Jiangsu\\\">Jiangsu</a>, <a href=\\\"Zhejiang\\\">Zhejiang</a>, and <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>. For more than 400 years, the Chu capital <a href=\\\"Danyang%20%28Chu%29\\\">Danyang</a> was located at the junction of the <a href=\\\"Dan%20River%20%28Shaanxi%29\\\">Dan</a> and <a href=\\\"Xi%20River\\\">Xi River</a>s near present-day <a href=\\\"Xichuan%20County\\\">Xichuan County</a>, Henan, but later moved to <a href=\\\"Ying%20%28Chu%29\\\">Ying</a>. The ruling house of Chu originally bore the <a href=\\\"Chinese%20surname\\\">clan name</a> Nai (嬭 ) and lineage name Yan (酓 ), but they are later written as <a href=\\\"Mi%20%28surname%29\\\">Mi</a> (芈 ) and <a href=\\\"Xiong%20%28surname%29\\\">Xiong</a> (熊 ), respectively.\\nAccording to legends recounted in <a href=\\\"Sima%20Qian\\\">Sima Qian</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Records%20of%20the%20Grand%20Historian\\\">Records of the Grand Historian</a>\\\", the royal family of Chu descended from the <a href=\\\"Yellow%20Emperor\\\">Yellow Emperor</a> and his grandson and successor <a href=\\\"Zhuanxu\\\">Zhuanxu</a>. Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui (吳回 ) was put in charge of fire by <a href=\\\"Emperor%20Ku\\\">Emperor Ku</a> and given the title <a href=\\\"Zhurong\\\">Zhurong</a>. Wuhui's son Luzhong (陸終 ) had six sons, all born by <a href=\\\"Caesarian%20section\\\">Caesarian section</a>. The youngest, <a href=\\\"Jilian\\\">Jilian</a>, adopted the ancestral surname <a href=\\\"Mi%20%28surname%29\\\">Mi</a>. Jilian’s descendant <a href=\\\"Yuxiong\\\">Yuxiong</a> was the teacher of <a href=\\\"King%20Wen%20of%20Zhou\\\">King Wen of Zhou</a> (r. 1099–1050 BCE). After the Zhou overthrew the <a href=\\\"Shang%20dynasty\\\">Shang dynasty</a>, <a href=\\\"King%20Cheng%20of%20Zhou\\\">King Cheng</a> (r. 1042–1021 BCE) awarded Yuxiong's great-grandson <a href=\\\"Xiong%20Yi\\\">Xiong Yi</a> with the <a href=\\\"Chinese%20fief\\\">fiefdom</a> of Chu and the hereditary title of <a href=\\\"wikt%3A%E5%AD%90\\\">子</a> (\\\"zǐ\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Chinese%20nobility\\\">viscount</a>\\\"). Xiong Yi built the first capital of Chu at <a href=\\\"Danyang%20%28Chu%29\\\">Danyang</a> (present-day <a href=\\\"Xichuan%20County\\\">Xichuan</a> in Henan).\\nIn 977 BCE, during <a href=\\\"Zhou%E2%80%93Chu%20War\\\">his campaign against Chu</a>, <a href=\\\"King%20Zhao%20of%20Zhou\\\">King Zhao of Zhou</a>'s boat sank and he drowned in the <a href=\\\"Han%20River%20%28Yangtze%20River%20tributary%29\\\">Han River</a>. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount <a href=\\\"Xiong%20Qu\\\">Xiong Qu</a> overthrew <a href=\\\"E%20%28state%29\\\">E</a> in 863 BCE but subsequently made its capital <a href=\\\"Ezhou\\\">Ezhou</a> one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler <a href=\\\"King%20Wu%20of%20Chu\\\">Xiong Tong</a> proclaimed himself king, establishing Chu's full independence from the Zhou dynasty.\\nIn its early years, Chu was a successful expansionist and militaristic state that developed a reputation for <a href=\\\"Interstate%20relations%20during%20the%20Spring%20and%20Autumn%20period\\\">coercing and absorbing its allies</a>. Chu grew from a small state into a large kingdom. <a href=\\\"King%20Zhuang%20of%20Chu\\\">King Zhuang</a> was even considered one of the <a href=\\\"five%20Hegemons\\\">five Hegemons</a> of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BCE, the Chu capital moved southeast from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing lesser states in its original area (modern <a href=\\\"Hubei\\\">Hubei</a>), then it expanded into the north towards the <a href=\\\"North%20China%20Plain\\\">North China Plain</a>. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of <a href=\\\"Jin%20%28Chinese%20state%29\\\">Jin</a>. These alliances kept Chu in check, with the first major victory won at the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Chengpu\\\">Chengpu</a> in 632 BCE. During the 6th century BCE, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of <a href=\\\"Central%20Plain%20%28China%29\\\">central plain</a>. In <a href=\\\"597%20BCE\\\">597 BCE</a>, Jin was defeated by Chu in the <a href=\\\"battle%20of%20Bi\\\">battle of Bi</a>, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the <a href=\\\"Zheng%20%28state%29\\\">state of Zheng</a> as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with <a href=\\\"Lu%20%28state%29\\\">Lu</a>, <a href=\\\"Wey%20%28state%29\\\">Wey</a>, and <a href=\\\"Song%20%28state%29\\\">Song</a>. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen untill the year of 579 BCE when a truce was signed between the two states.\\nAt the beginning of the sixth century BCE, Jin strengthened the state of <a href=\\\"Wu%20%28state%29\\\">Wu</a> near the <a href=\\\"Yangtze\\\">Yangtze</a> delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated <a href=\\\"Qi%20%28state%29\\\">Qi</a> and then invaded Chu in 506 BCE. Following the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Boju\\\">Battle of Boju</a>, it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing <a href=\\\"King%20Zhao%20of%20Chu\\\">King Zhao</a> to flee to his allies in <a href=\\\"Yun%20County%2C%20Hubei\\\">Yun</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"Sui%20%28state%29\\\">Sui</a>\\\". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BCE, he temporarily moved the capital into the territory of the former state of <a href=\\\"Ruo%20%28state%29\\\">Ruo</a>. Chu began to strengthen <a href=\\\"Yue%20%28state%29\\\">Yue</a> in modern <a href=\\\"Zhejiang\\\">Zhejiang</a> to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by <a href=\\\"King%20Fuchai\\\">King Fuchai</a> of Wu until he released their king <a href=\\\"King%20Goujian%20of%20Yue\\\">Goujian</a>, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu.\\nFreed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed <a href=\\\"Chen%20%28state%29\\\">Chen</a> in 479 BCE and overran <a href=\\\"Cai%20%28state%29\\\">Cai</a> to the north in 447 BCE. This policy of expansion continued until the last generation before the fall to Qin (<a href=\\\"Lu%20%28state%29\\\">Lu</a> was conquered by <a href=\\\"King%20Kaolie%20of%20Chu\\\">King Kaolie</a> in 223 BCE). However, by the end of the 5th century BCE, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality.\\nIn the late 390s BCE, <a href=\\\"King%20Dao%20of%20Chu\\\">King Dao of Chu</a> made <a href=\\\"Wu%20Qi\\\">Wu Qi</a> his <a href=\\\"chancellor%20%28China%29\\\">chancellor</a>. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BCE, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless ones. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BCE, when <a href=\\\"Zhao%20%28state%29\\\">Zhao</a> and <a href=\\\"Qin%20%28state%29\\\">Qin</a> were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of <a href=\\\"Wei%20%28state%29\\\">Wei</a> and <a href=\\\"Yue%20%28state%29\\\">Yue</a>. Yue was partitioned between Chu and <a href=\\\"Qi%20%28state%29\\\">Qi</a> in either 334 or 333 BCE. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BCE. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, \\\"<a href=\\\"Wuzi\\\">The Book of Master Wu</a>\\\". Of Chu, he said:\\nDuring the late Warring States Period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the <a href=\\\"Legalism%20%28Chinese%20philosophy%29\\\">Legalistic</a> reforms of <a href=\\\"Shang%20Yang\\\">Shang Yang</a>. In 241 BCE, five of the seven major warring states - Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han - formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian <a href=\\\"Yang%20Kuan\\\">Yang Kuan</a>, the Zhao general <a href=\\\"Pang%20Nuan\\\">Pang Nuan</a> (庞煖) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic <a href=\\\"Hangu%20Pass\\\">Hangu Pass</a> but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed <a href=\\\"Lord%20Chunshen\\\">Lord Chunshen</a> for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to <a href=\\\"Shouchun\\\">Shouchun</a>, farther away from the threat of Qin.\\nChu's size and power made it the key state in alliances against Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. By the late 4th century BCE, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually subjugated by Qin.\\nAccording to the \\\"<a href=\\\"Records%20of%20the%20Warring%20States\\\">Records of the Warring States</a>\\\", a debate between the <a href=\\\"School%20of%20Diplomacy\\\">Diplomat</a> strategist <a href=\\\"Zhang%20Yi%20%28strategist%29\\\">Zhang Yi</a> and the Qin general <a href=\\\"Sima%20Cuo\\\">Sima Cuo</a> led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering <a href=\\\"Han%20%28state%29\\\">Han</a> and seizing the <a href=\\\"Mandate%20of%20Heaven\\\">Mandate of Heaven</a> from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that \\\"conquering <a href=\\\"Shu%20%28state%29\\\">Shu</a> is conquering Chu\\\" and, \\\"once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united\\\".\\nThe importance of Shu in the <a href=\\\"Sichuan%20Basin\\\">Sichuan Basin</a> was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the <a href=\\\"Yangtze%20River\\\">Yangtze River</a>, leading directly into the Chu heartland. <a href=\\\"King%20Huiwen%20of%20Qin\\\">King Huiwen of Qin</a> opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BCE, Qin invaded and conquered <a href=\\\"Shu%20%28state%29\\\">Shu</a> and nearby <a href=\\\"Ba%20%28state%29\\\">Ba</a>, expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BCE, the Qin general <a href=\\\"Bai%20Qi\\\">Bai Qi</a> finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following the fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in <a href=\\\"Shouchun\\\">Shouchun</a> in 241 BCE. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main <a href=\\\"Zhao%20%28state%29\\\">Zhao</a> force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Changping\\\">Changping</a> in 260 BCE. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states.\\nBy 225 BCE, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, <a href=\\\"Yan%20%28state%29\\\">Yan</a>, and <a href=\\\"Qi%20%28state%29\\\">Qi</a>. Chu had recovered significantly enough to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BCE, <a href=\\\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\\\">Ying Zheng</a> called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. <a href=\\\"Wang%20Jian%20%28Qin%29\\\">Wang Jian</a> said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while <a href=\\\"Li%20Xin%20%28Qin%29\\\">Li Xin</a> thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng sided with Li and ordered him and <a href=\\\"Meng%20Wu\\\">Meng Wu</a> to lead the army against Chu; Wang Jian was forced to retire from state affairs upon a pretense of illness.\\nThe Qin armies scored initial victories as Li Xin's force conquered Pingyu (平輿 , north of present-day <a href=\\\"Pingyu%20County\\\">Pingyu</a> in <a href=\\\"Henan\\\">Henan</a>) and Meng Wu's captured Qinqiu (寢丘 , present-day <a href=\\\"Linquan%20County\\\">Linquan</a> in <a href=\\\"Anhui\\\">Anhui</a>). After conquering Yan (鄢 , present-day <a href=\\\"Yanling%20County%2C%20Henan\\\">Yanling</a> in Henan), Li Xin led his army west to rendezvous with Meng at Chengfu (城父 , east of present-day <a href=\\\"Baofeng%20County\\\">Baofeng</a> in Henan). The Chu army, led by <a href=\\\"Xiang%20Yan\\\">Xiang Yan</a>, had avoided using its main force and waited for an opportunity to launch a counterattack. They secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching a surprise offensive and defeating the Qin army.\\nUpon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng visited the exiled Wang Jian in person and invited him back, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing <a href=\\\"Meng%20Wu\\\">Meng Wu</a> beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce the king's suspicion.\\nWang Jian's army passed through southern Chen (陳 ; present-day <a href=\\\"Huaiyang%20County\\\">Huaiyang</a> in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch a swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan (蕲南 ; northwest of present-day <a href=\\\"Qichun%20County\\\">Qichun</a> in <a href=\\\"Hubei\\\">Hubei</a>) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat.\\nThe next year, in 223 BCE, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King <a href=\\\"Fuchu\\\">Fuchu</a> was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led the Qin army against <a href=\\\"Wu%20%28region%29\\\">Wuyue</a> around the mouth of the <a href=\\\"Yangtze\\\">Yangtze</a>, capturing the descendants of the royal family of <a href=\\\"Yue%20%28state%29\\\">Yue</a>. These conquered territories became the <a href=\\\"Kuaiji%20Prefecture\\\">Kuaiji Prefecture</a> of the Qin Empire.\\nAt their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Changping\\\">Battle of Changping</a> between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu (黑夫 ) and Jing (惊 ), tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.\\nThe Chu realm at its most powerful was vast with many ethnicities and various customs. Though diverse, the Chu people were united by a common respect for nature, the supernatural, and their heritage and loyalty to their ruling house and nobility, epitomized by the famed Chu statesman-poet <a href=\\\"Qu%20Yuan\\\">Qu Yuan</a> and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Chu%20Ci\\\">Songs of Chu</a>\\\". The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the <a href=\\\"Shuihudi%20Qin%20bamboo%20texts\\\">excavated bamboo slips</a> of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu was one of the last states to fall and its people aspired to overthrowing the painful yoke of Qin rule and reestablishing a separate state. The attitude was immortalized in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: \\\"Though Chu have but three <a href=\\\"Chinese%20clan\\\">clans</a>, it must kill Qin\\\" (楚雖三戶, 亡秦必楚 ).\\nAfter Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor (<a href=\\\"Shi%20Huangdi\\\">Shi Huangdi</a>) and served his short reign, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of the Qin <a href=\\\"corvee\\\">corvee</a>; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the <a href=\\\"Great%20Wall%20of%20China\\\">Great Wall of China</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Dazexiang%20Uprising\\\">Dazexiang Uprising</a> occurred in 209 BCE under the leadership of a Chu peasant, <a href=\\\"Chen%20Sheng\\\">Chen Sheng</a>, who proclaimed himself \\\"King of Rising Chu\\\" (\\\"Zhangchu\\\"). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of the leaders, <a href=\\\"Jing%20Ju\\\">Jing Ju</a> of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under <a href=\\\"Xiang%20Liang\\\">Xiang Liang</a>. Xiang installed <a href=\\\"Emperor%20Yi%20of%20Chu\\\">Xiong Xin</a>, a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BCE, after the fall of the Qin Empire, <a href=\\\"Xiang%20Yu\\\">Xiang Yu</a>, Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the \\\"Hegemon-King of Western Chu\\\" and promoted King Huai II to \\\"Emperor Yi\\\". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with <a href=\\\"Emperor%20Gaozu%20of%20Han\\\">Liu Bang</a>, another prominent Chu rebel, in a long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the <a href=\\\"Chu-Han%20Contention\\\">Chu-Han Contention</a>. The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the <a href=\\\"Han%20Dynasty\\\">Han Dynasty</a> and was later honored with the <a href=\\\"temple%20name\\\">temple name</a> Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat.\\nThe Chu people and customs were major influences on the new era of the Han. Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with the <a href=\\\"Xiongnu\\\">Xiongnu</a> through <a href=\\\"heqin\\\">heqin</a> intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. By the time of <a href=\\\"Emperor%20Wu%20of%20Han\\\">Emperor Wu of Han</a>, Chu folk culture and aesthetics were amalgamated with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create a distinct \\\"<a href=\\\"Han%20Chinese\\\">Chinese</a>\\\" culture.\\nBased on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the <a href=\\\"Yellow%20River\\\">Yellow River</a> basin. Subsequently, however, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the <a href=\\\"Baiyue\\\">Baiyue</a> lands the state conquered to its south and east, developing a distinct culture from the states of the northern plains.\\nEarly Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of <a href=\\\"Chinese%20ritual%20bronzes\\\">bronze vessels</a> in the Zhou style. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct <a href=\\\"Chinese%20funerary%20art\\\">burial object</a>s, such as colorful <a href=\\\"lacquer\\\">lacquer</a>ware, iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Chinese%20names%20of%20bronze%20vessels\\\">bronze vessel offerings</a>.\\nA common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as <a href=\\\"snakes%20in%20Chinese%20mythology\\\">snakes</a>, <a href=\\\"Chinese%20dragon\\\">dragons</a>, <a href=\\\"Chinese%20phoenix\\\">phoenixes</a>, tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the vanished <a href=\\\"Shang%20dynasty\\\">Shang dynasty</a>, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods.\\nLater Chu culture was known for its affinity for <a href=\\\"wu%20%28shaman%29\\\">shamans</a>. The Chu culture and government strongly supported <a href=\\\"Taoism\\\">Taoism</a> and native <a href=\\\"wu%20%28shaman%29\\\">shaman</a>ism supplemented with some <a href=\\\"Confucianism\\\">Confucian</a> glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire <a href=\\\"Zhurong\\\">Zhurong</a> in Chinese mythodology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people.\\nThe naturalistic and flowing art, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Chu%20Ci\\\">Songs of Chu</a>\\\", historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the <a href=\\\"Guodian%20Chu%20Slips\\\">Guodian slips</a>, and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless <a href=\\\"Legalism%20%28Chinese%20philosophy%29\\\">Legalist</a> state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister <a href=\\\"Shang%20Yang\\\">Shang Yang</a>, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might.\\nChu was known for its distinct music. Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Se%20%28instrument%29\\\">se</a>\\\" was preferred over the <a href=\\\"guqin\\\">zither</a>, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states.\\nChu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the <a href=\\\"Ba%20%28state%29\\\">Ba</a>, <a href=\\\"Yue%20%28state%29\\\">Yue</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Baiyue\\\">Baiyue</a>. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects.\\nThe early rulers of the <a href=\\\"Han%20Dynasty\\\">Han Dynasty</a> romanticized the culture of Chu, sparking a renewed interest in Chu cultural elements such as the \\\"Songs of Chu\\\". Evidence of heavy Chu cultural influence appears at <a href=\\\"Mawangdui\\\">Mawangdui</a>. After the Han dynasty, some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the \\\"lewd\\\" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture.\\nChu artisanship shows a mastery of form and color, especially the <a href=\\\"lacquer\\\">lacquer</a> woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where the lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay.\\nChu used the complex calligraphic script called <a href=\\\"%26quot%3BBirds%20and%20Worms%26quot%3B%20style\\\">\\\"Birds and Worms\\\" style</a>, which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has an intricate design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the Chu reverence of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to <a href=\\\"Wuyue\\\">Wuyue</a> swords but not as intricate.\\nChu was in the region of many rivers, so it created an efficient riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying.\\n<a href=\\\"Miao%20people\\\">Miao</a> people in modern China was closely related to Chu. Historian <a href=\\\"Fan%20Wenlan\\\">Fan Wenlan</a>(范文澜) argues that Chu was a \\\"Miao state\\\". Folklorist Lin He's studies on Qu Yuan's <a href=\\\"Jiu%20Ge\\\">Jiu Ge</a> correlated Chu's culture with Miao. In particular, Miao people living between <a href=\\\"Yuan%20River\\\">Yuan</a> and <a href=\\\"Xiang%20River\\\">Xiang</a> river perform rituals that have imprints of Jiu Ge.\\nHistorically, ancestors of Miao people resided in Chu's realm, they are by no means irrelevant to Chu people. However, the exact ethnicity and demographic composition of Chu remain contested.\\nWang Tongling, a professor of Chinese history from <a href=\\\"Peking%20University\\\">Peking university</a> put forth the possibility of Chu people being sinicized Miaos who adopted <a href=\\\"Sino-Tibetan%20languages\\\">Sino-Tibetan</a> customs.\\nChu's bureaucracy was distinct from other Zhou dynasty states. According to <a href=\\\"Li%20Tiaoyuan\\\">Li Tiaoyuan</a>'s \\\"Zuozhuan Guanming Kao\\\", <a href=\\\"Mo%27ao\\\">Mo'ao</a>(莫敖) and <a href=\\\"Prime%20minister%20%28Chu%20State%29\\\">Lingyin</a> were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong(三公) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin(左尹) and Youyin(右尹) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima(司馬) was assisted by Zuosima(左司馬) and Yousima(右司馬) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court.\\nMinisters whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin(尹). For example: Lingyin(Prime minister), Gongyin(Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word \\\"Yin\\\". Shenyin(沈尹) was the minister of religious duties or the high priest of Chu, multiple entries in <a href=\\\"Zuo%20Zhuan\\\">Zuo Zhuan</a> indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Ling(陵)yin, Huanlie Zhi Yin(Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin(minister of musics). In counties and commanderies, Gong(公), also known as Xianyin(minister of county) was the chief administrator.\\nIn many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of a cadet branch of Chu's royal house; <a href=\\\"Mi%20%28surname%29\\\">Mi</a>. Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu(屈) clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the <a href=\\\"Ruo%27ao%20rebellion\\\">Ruo'ao rebellion</a>, Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou(鬭) and Cheng(成).\\nChu's expanse was one of the largest among ancient Chinese states. Progenitors of Chu such as viscount <a href=\\\"Xiong%20Yi\\\">Xiong Yi</a> were said to originate from <a href=\\\"Jing%20Mountains\\\">Jing mountains</a>; a chain of mountains located in today's <a href=\\\"Hubei%20province\\\">Hubei province</a>. Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to the Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountians are the Tu(塗) mountains. In the north east part of Chu are the <a href=\\\"Dabie%20Mountains\\\">Dabie mountains</a>; the drainage divide of <a href=\\\"Huai%20River\\\">Huai river</a> and <a href=\\\"Yangzi%20river\\\">Yangzi river</a>. The first capital of Chu, Dangyang(丹陽) was located in today's <a href=\\\"Zhijiang%2C%20Hubei\\\">Zhijiang</a>, Hubei province. Ying(郢), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name <a href=\\\"Jingzhou\\\">Jingzhou</a>. In Chu's northern border lies the Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal denfense against states of <a href=\\\"Central%20Plain%20%28China%29\\\">central plain</a>. Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain.\\n<a href=\\\"Yunmeng%20Ze\\\">Yunmeng Ze</a> in <a href=\\\"Jianghan%20Plain\\\">Jianghan Plain</a> was an immense fresh water lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng(夢), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun(雲). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, <a href=\\\"Jianli%20County\\\">Jianli</a>, <a href=\\\"Shishou\\\">Shishou</a>, <a href=\\\"Macheng\\\">Macheng</a>, <a href=\\\"Huanggang\\\">Huanggang</a>, and <a href=\\\"Anlu\\\">Anlu</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Wu%20Pass\\\">Shaoxi Pass</a> was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of <a href=\\\"Danfeng%20County\\\">Danfeng County</a>, <a href=\\\"Shaanxi\\\">Shaanxi</a>. Any forces that marches from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi.\\nIn traditional <a href=\\\"Chinese%20astronomy\\\">Chinese astronomy</a>, Chu is represented by a star in the \\\"Twelve States\\\" <a href=\\\"Asterism%20%28astronomy%29\\\">asterism</a>, part of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Girl%20%28Chinese%20constellation%29\\\">Girl</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"28%20Mansions\\\">lunar mansion</a> in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Black%20Tortoise\\\">Black Turtle</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Four%20Symbols%20%28China%29\\\">symbol</a>. Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star is <a href=\\\"Phi%20Capricorni\\\">Phi</a> or <a href=\\\"24%20Capricorni\\\">24 Capricorni</a>. It is also represented by the star <a href=\\\"Epsilon%20Ophiuchi\\\">Epsilon Ophiuchi</a> in the \\\"Right Wall\\\" asterism in the <a href=\\\"Heavenly%20Market%20enclosure\\\">\\\"Heavenly Market\\\" enclosure</a>.\",\n \"Liye\\nLiye () is a <a href=\\\"towns%20of%20China\\\">town</a> of <a href=\\\"Longshan%20County\\\">Longshan County</a>, <a href=\\\"Hunan\\\">Hunan Province</a>, <a href=\\\"China\\\">China</a>. Located on the northern bank of <a href=\\\"You%20River%20%28Tributary%20of%20Yuan%20River%29\\\">You River</a> (), Liye is the southernmost town of the county, and bordered to the west by Youshuihe Town () and Keda Township () of <a href=\\\"Youyang%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20County\\\">Youyang County</a>, Daxi Township () of <a href=\\\"Xiushan%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20County\\\">Xiushan County</a> of <a href=\\\"Chongqing\\\">Chongqing Municipality</a>, to the south by Qingshuiping () and Bier Towns () of <a href=\\\"Baojing%20County\\\">Baojing County</a>, to the east and southeast by Maoertan Town (), to the southwest by Zaguo Township (). The present-day Liye was reformed on November 30， 2015.It covers an area of 259.2 km2 , as of November, 2015, it has a registered population of 43,300, the seat is Liye Community.\\nLiye is an ancient town with a history of over 2300 years old, it was established by <a href=\\\"Chu%20%28state%29\\\">Chu State</a> in the late <a href=\\\"Warring%20States%20period\\\">Warring States period</a> (403 BC - 221 BC). An <a href=\\\"archaeological%20site\\\">archaeological site</a> of ancient humans belonged to <a href=\\\"Longshan%20culture\\\">Longshan culture</a> (3000 BC - 1900 BC) was found near a bridge in the northeast of the seat of the town in May 1982, lots of <a href=\\\"stone%20axe\\\">stone axe</a>s, <a href=\\\"stone%20chip\\\">stone chip</a>s and <a href=\\\"Pottery\\\">red clay potteries</a> was discovered. The Ancient City Ruins of the <a href=\\\"Warring%20States%20period\\\">Warring States period</a> and many precious <a href=\\\"Relic\\\">cultural relics</a> were excavated in the schoolyard of Liye Primary School in April 2002. More than 36,000 pieces of <a href=\\\"Qin%20Slips%20of%20Liye\\\">Bamboo Slips of the Qin dynasty</a> in the <a href=\\\"Ancient%20City%20Ruins%20of%20Liye\\\">Ancient City Ruins of Liye</a> () were unearthed in June 2002, before the Liye slips were found, there were only about 2,000 slips on the Qin dynasty and fewer than 1,000 words of official Qin records. The event was considered the most important archaeological discovery of the <a href=\\\"Qin%20dynasty\\\">Qin dynasty</a> after the <a href=\\\"Terracotta%20Army\\\">Qin Terracotta Army</a> unearthed in 1973.\\nThe town of Liye is a principal historical and cultural destination in Hunan.\\n\",\n \"Excavation (archaeology)\\nIn <a href=\\\"archaeology\\\">archaeology</a>, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or \\\"dig\\\" is a site being studied. Such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years.\\nNumerous specialized techniques each with its particular features are used. Resources and other practical issues do not allow archaeologists to carry out excavations whenever and wherever they choose. These constraints mean many known sites have been deliberately left unexcavated. This is with the intention of preserving them for future generations as well as recognising the role they serve in the communities that live near them.\\nExcavation involves the recovery of several types of data from a site. These data include <a href=\\\"Artifact%20%28archaeology%29\\\">artifacts</a> (objects made or modified by humans), features (modifications to the site itself such as post molds, burials, and hearths), <a href=\\\"ecofact\\\">ecofact</a>s (evidence for the local environment and resources being used such as snail shells, seeds, and butchered bones) and, most importantly, <a href=\\\"archaeological%20context\\\">archaeological context</a> (relationships among the other types of data). Ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space.\\nThe presence or absence of archaeological remains can often be suggested by <a href=\\\"remote%20sensing\\\">remote sensing</a>, such as <a href=\\\"ground-penetrating%20radar\\\">ground-penetrating radar</a>. Indeed, grosser information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work but the understanding of finer features usually requires excavation though appropriate use of <a href=\\\"auger%20%28drill%29\\\">auger</a>ing.\\nExcavation techniques have developed over the years from a treasure hunting process to one which seeks to fully understand the sequence of human activity on a given site and that site's relationship with other sites and with the landscape in which it is set.\\nThe history of excavation began with a crude search for treasure and for artifacts which fell into the category of '<a href=\\\"wikt%3Acurio\\\">curio</a>'. These curios were the subject of interest of <a href=\\\"antiquarian\\\">antiquarian</a>s. It was later appreciated that digging on a site destroyed the evidence of earlier people's lives which it had contained. Once the curio had been removed from its context, most of the information it held was lost. It was from this realization that antiquarianism began to be replaced by archaeology, a process still being perfected.\\nArchaeological material tends to accumulate in events. A gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench. Years later, someone built a pig sty onto it and drained the pig sty into the nettle patch. Later still, the original wall blew over and so on. Each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a <a href=\\\"Archaeological%20context\\\">context</a>. This layer cake of events is often referred to as the <a href=\\\"archaeological%20sequence\\\">archaeological sequence</a> or <a href=\\\"archaeological%20record\\\">record</a>. It is by analysis of this sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation, which should lead to discussion and understanding.\\nThe prominent <a href=\\\"processual%20archaeology\\\">processual archaeologist</a> <a href=\\\"Lewis%20Binford\\\">Lewis Binford</a> highlighted the fact that the archaeological evidence left at a site may not be entirely indicative of the historical events that actually took place there. Using an <a href=\\\"ethnoarchaeology\\\">ethnoarchaeological</a> comparison, he looked at how hunters amongst the <a href=\\\"Nunamiut\\\">Nunamiut</a> <a href=\\\"I%C3%B1upiat\\\">Iñupiat</a> of north central <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a> spent a great deal of time in a certain area simply waiting for prey to arrive there, and that during this period, they undertook other tasks to pass the time, such as the carving of various objects, including a wooden mould for a mask, a horn spoon and an ivory needle, as well as repairing a skin pouch and a pair of caribou skin socks. Binford notes that all of these activities would have left evidence in the archaeological record, but that none of them would provide evidence for the primary reason that the hunters were in the area; to wait for prey. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt \\\"represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded; yet there is no recognisable archaeological consequences of this behaviour. No tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material \\\"byproducts\\\" of the \\\"primary\\\" activity. All of the other activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers.\\\"\\nThere are two basic types of modern archaeological excavation:\\nThere are two main types of trial excavation in professional archaeology both commonly associated with development-led excavation: the test pit or trench and the watching brief. The purpose of trial excavations is to determine the extent and characteristics of archaeological potential in a given area before extensive excavation work is undertaken. This is usually conducted in development-led excavations as part of <a href=\\\"Project%20management\\\">Project management</a> planning. the main difference between <a href=\\\"Trial%20trenching\\\">Trial trenching</a> and <a href=\\\"watching%20brief\\\">watching brief</a>s is that trial trenches are actively dug for the purpose of revealing archaeological potential whereas <a href=\\\"watching%20brief\\\">watching brief</a>s are cursory examination of trenches where the primary function of the trench is something other than archaeology, for example a trench cut for a gas pipe in a road. In the USA, a method of evaluation called a <a href=\\\"Shovel%20test%20pit\\\">Shovel test pit</a> is used which is a specified half meter square line of trial trenches dug by hand.\\nIn archaeology, especially in excavating, <a href=\\\"Stratigraphy%20%28archaeology%29\\\">stratigraphy</a> is a fundamental concept. It is largely based on the <a href=\\\"Law%20of%20Superposition\\\">Law of Superposition</a>. When archaeological finds are below the surface of the ground (as is most commonly the case), the identification of the context of each find is vital to enable the archaeologist to draw conclusions about the site and the nature and date of its occupation. It is the archaeologist's role to attempt to discover what contexts exist and how they came to be created. Archaeological stratification or sequence is the dynamic superimposition of single units of stratigraphy or contexts. The context (physical location) of a discovery can be of major significance. More precisely, an archaeological context is an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record. The cutting of a pit or ditch in the past is a context, whilst the material filling it will be another. Multiple fills seen in <a href=\\\"Archaeological%20section\\\">section</a> would mean multiple contexts. Structural features, natural deposits and <a href=\\\"inhumation\\\">inhumation</a>s are also contexts.\\nBy separating a site into these basic, discrete units, archaeologists are able to create a chronology for activity on a site and describe and interpret it. Stratigraphic <a href=\\\"Relationship%20%28archaeology%29\\\">relationships</a> are the relationships created between contexts in time representing the chronological order they were created. An example would be a ditch and the back-fill of said ditch. The relationship of \\\"the fill\\\" context to the ditch \\\"cut\\\" context is \\\"the fill\\\" occurred later in the sequence, i.e., you have to dig a ditch first before you can back-fill it. A relationship that is later in the sequence is sometimes referred to as \\\"higher\\\" in the sequence and a relationship that is earlier \\\"lower\\\" though the term \\\"higher\\\" or \\\"lower\\\" does not itself imply a context needs to be physically higher or lower. It is more useful to think of this \\\"higher\\\" or \\\"lower\\\" term as it relates to the contexts position in a <a href=\\\"Harris%20matrix\\\">Harris matrix</a>, which is a two-dimensional representation of a site's formation in space and time.\\nUnderstanding a site in modern archaeology is a process of grouping single contexts together in ever larger groups by virtue of their relationships. The terminology of these larger clusters varies depending on practitioner but the terms interface, sub-group, group and land use are common. An example of a sub-group could be the three contexts that make up a burial; the grave cut, the body and the back-filled earth on top of the body. In turn sub-groups can be clustered together with other sub-groups by virtue of their stratigraphic relationship to form groups which in turn form \\\"<a href=\\\"Archaeological%20phase\\\">phases</a>\\\". A sub-group burial could cluster with other sub group burials to form a cemetery or burial group which in turn could be clustered with a building such as church to produce a \\\"phase\\\". A less rigorously defined combination of one or more contexts is sometimes called a <a href=\\\"Feature%20%28archaeology%29\\\">feature</a>.\\nPhase is the most easily understood grouping for the layman as it implies a near contemporaneous <a href=\\\"Archaeological%20horizon\\\">Archaeological horizon</a> representing \\\"what you would see if you went back to a specific point in time\\\". Often but not always a phase implies the identification of an occupation surface \\\"old ground level\\\" that existed at some earlier time.\\nThe production of phase interpretations is one of the first goals of stratigraphic interpretation and excavation. Digging \\\"in phase\\\" is not quite the same as phasing a site. Phasing a site represents reducing the site either in excavation or <a href=\\\"Post%20excavation\\\">post-excavation</a> to contemporaneous horizons whereas \\\"digging in phase\\\" is the process of stratigraphic removal of archaeological remains so as not to remove contexts that are earlier in time \\\"lower in the sequence\\\" before other contexts that have a latter physical stratigraphic relationship to them as defined by the <a href=\\\"law%20of%20superposition\\\">law of superposition</a>. The process of interpretation in practice will have a bearing on excavation strategies on site so \\\"phasing\\\" a site is actively pursued during excavation where at all possible, and is considered good practice.\\nExcavation initially involves the removal of any topsoil overburden by machine. This material may be examined by <a href=\\\"metal%20detector\\\">metal detector</a> for stray <a href=\\\"Small%20finds\\\">finds</a> but unless the site has remained untouched since its abandonment there is invariably a layer of modern material on the surface of limited archaeological interest. In rural areas, any features are often visible beneath the surface as opposed to urban areas where there may be thick layers of human deposits and only the uppermost contexts will be initially visible and definable through isolation from other contexts. A strategy for sampling the contexts and features is formulated which may involve total excavation of each feature or only portions. It is preferred goal of excavation to remove all archaeological deposits and features in the reverse order they were created and construct a Harris matrix as a chronological record or \\\"sequence\\\" of the site. This Harris matrix is used for interpretation and combining contexts into ever larger units of understanding. This stratigraphic removal of the site is crucial for understanding the chronology of events on site. It is perhaps easier to think of this as \\\"archaeological deposits should leave the site in the reverse order they arrived\\\". A grid is usually set up, dividing the site into 5 m squares to better aid the positioning of the features and contexts on the overall site plan. This grid is usually tied into a national <a href=\\\"Geomatics\\\">geomatic</a> database such as the <a href=\\\"Ordnance%20Survey\\\">Ordnance Survey</a> in the UK. In <a href=\\\"urban%20archaeology\\\">urban archaeology</a> this grid becomes invaluable for implementing single context recording.\\n<a href=\\\"Single%20context%20recording\\\">Single context recording</a> was developed in the 1970s by the <a href=\\\"museum%20of%20London\\\">museum of London</a> (as well as earlier in Winchester and York) and has become the de facto recording system in many parts of the world and is especially suited to the complexities of deep <a href=\\\"urban%20archaeology\\\">urban archaeology</a> and the process of <a href=\\\"Stratification%20%28archaeology%29\\\">Stratification</a>.\\nEach excavated context is given a unique \\\"context number\\\" and is recorded by type on a context sheet and perhaps being drawn on a <a href=\\\"archaeological%20plan\\\">plan</a> and/or a <a href=\\\"Archaeological%20section\\\">section</a>. Depending on time constraints and importance contexts may also be photographed, but in this case a grouping of contexts and their associations are the purpose of the photography. <a href=\\\"Small%20finds\\\">Finds</a> from each context are bagged and labeled with their context number and site code for later cross reference work carried out post-excavation. The height above sea level of pertinent points on a context, such as the top and bottom of a wall are taken and added to plans sections and context sheets. Heights are recorded with a <a href=\\\"dumpy%20level\\\">dumpy level</a> or total station by relation to the site temporary <a href=\\\"Benchmark%20%28surveying%29\\\">benchmark</a> (abbr. T.B.M). Samples of deposits from contexts are sometimes also taken, for later environmental analysis or for <a href=\\\"Chronological%20dating\\\">scientific dating</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Best%20practice\\\">Best practice</a> of stratigraphic excavation in its basic sense involves a cyclical process of cleaning or \\\"troweling back\\\" the surface of the site and isolating contexts and edges which are definable in their entirety or part as either\\nFollowing this preliminary process of defining the context, the context is then assessed in relation to the wider understanding of the site, for considerations of reduction of the site in phases, and then removed and recorded by various methods.\\nOften, owing to practical considerations or error, the process of defining the edges of contexts is not followed and contexts are removed out of sequence and un-stratigraphically. This is called \\\"digging out of phase\\\". It is not good practice.\\nAfter removing a context or if practical a set of contexts such as the case would be for features, the \\\"isolate and dig\\\" procedure is repeated until no man made remains are left on site and the site is reduced to <a href=\\\"Archaeological%20natural\\\">natural</a>.\\nThe process of excavation is achieved in many ways depending on the nature of the deposits to be removed and time constraints. In the main, deposits are lifted by <a href=\\\"Trowel\\\">Trowel</a> and <a href=\\\"Mattock\\\">Mattock</a> and shovelled or carried from the site by wheel barrow and bucket. The use of many other tools including fine trowels such as the plaster's leaf trowel and brushes of various grades are used on delicate items such as human bone and decayed timber. When removing material from the archaeological record some basic guidelines are often observed.\\nCommon errors during excavation fall into two basic categories and one or the other is almost inevitable because excavation is a destructive process that removes the information it seeks to record in real time and mistakes cannot be rectified easily.\\nOver-cutting represents the loss of information whereas undercutting represents false information. One role of an archaeologist is to avoid false information and minimize the loss of information.\\nFinds and artifacts that survive in the archaeological record are retrieved in the main by hand and observation as the context they survive in is excavated. Several other techniques are available depending on suitability and time constraints. Sieving and <a href=\\\"Flotation%20%28archaeology%29\\\">flotation</a> is used to maximize the recovery of small items such as small shards of pottery or flint flakes. The use of sieving is more common on research based excavations where more time is available. Some success has been achieved with the use of cement mixers and bulk sieving. This method allows the quick removal of context by shovel and mattock yet allows for a high retrieval rate. Spoil is shovelled into cement mixers and water added to form a slurry which is then poured through a large screen mesh. Flotation is a process of retrieval that works by passing spoil onto the surface of water and separating finds that float from the spoil which sinks, this is especially suited to the recovery of environmental data such as seeds and small bones. Not all finds retrieval is done during excavation and some especially flotation may take place post-excavation from samples taken during excavation.\\nOne important role of finds retrieval during excavation is the role of specialists to provide <a href=\\\"spot%20dating\\\">spot dating</a> information on the contexts being removed from the archaeological record. This can provide advance warning of potential discoveries to come by virtue of <a href=\\\"Stratigraphy%20%28archaeology%29%23Residual%20and%20intrusive%20finds\\\">residual finds</a> redeposited in contexts higher in the <a href=\\\"sequence%20%28archaeological%29\\\">sequence</a> (which should be coming offsite earlier than contexts from early eras and phases). Spot dating also forms part of a confirmation process, of assessing the validity of the working hypothesis on the phasing of site during excavation. For example, the presence of an anomalous <a href=\\\"medieval\\\">medieval</a> pottery <a href=\\\"sherd\\\">sherd</a> in what was thought to be an Iron Age ditch feature could radically alter onsite thinking on the correct strategy for digging a site and save a lot of information being lost due to incorrect assumptions about the nature of the deposits which will be destroyed by the excavation process and in turn, limit the sites potential for revealing information for post-excavation specialists. Or anomalous information could show up errors in excavation such as \\\"undercutting\\\". <a href=\\\"Chronological%20dating\\\">Dating methodology</a> in part relies on accurate excavation and in this sense the two activities become interdependent.\\nArchaeological excavation is an unrepeatable process, since the same area of the ground cannot be excavated twice.\\nThus, archaeology is often known as a destructive science, where you must destroy the original evidence in order to make observations. To mitigate this, highly accurate and precise digital methods can be used to record the excavation process and its results.\\nDigital tools used by field archaeologists during excavation include <a href=\\\"GPS\\\">GPS</a>, <a href=\\\"tablet%20computers\\\">tablet computers</a>, <a href=\\\"relational%20databases\\\">relational databases</a>, <a href=\\\"digital%20cameras\\\">digital cameras</a>, 3d <a href=\\\"laser%20scanner\\\">laser scanner</a>s, and <a href=\\\"unmanned%20aerial%20vehicles\\\">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>. After high quality digital data have been recorded, these data can then be shared over the internet for <a href=\\\"open%20access\\\">open access</a> and use by the public and archaeological researchers.\\nDigital imaging or digital image acquisition is <a href=\\\"digital%20photography\\\">digital photography</a>, such as of a physical scene or of the interior structure of an object. The term is often assumed to imply or include the processing, compression, storage, printing, and display of the images.\\nThis describes the use in excavations of various types and sizes of machines from small <a href=\\\"backhoe\\\">backhoe</a>s to heavy duty earth-moving machinery. Machines are often used in what is called salvage or rescue archaeology in developer-led excavation when there are financial or time pressures. Using a mechanical excavator is the quickest method to remove soil and debris and to prepare the surface for excavation by hand, taking care to avoid damaging archaeological deposits by accident or to make it difficult to identify later precisely where finds were located. The use of such machinery is often routine (as it is for instance with the British archaeological television series \\\"<a href=\\\"Time%20Team\\\">Time Team</a>\\\") but can also be controversial as it can result in less discrimination in how the archaeological sequence on a site is recorded. One of the earliest uses of earth-moving machinery was at <a href=\\\"Durrington%20Walls\\\">Durrington Walls</a> in 1967. An old road through the henge was to be straightened and improved and was going to cause considerable damage to the archaeology. Rosemary Hill describes how <a href=\\\"Geoffrey%20Wainwright%20%28archaeologist%29\\\">Geoffrey Wainwright</a> \\\"oversaw large, high-speed excavations, taking bulldozers to the site in a manner that shocked some of his colleagues but yielded valuable if tantalising information about what Durrington had looked like and how it might have been used.\\\" Machines are used primarily to remove modern <a href=\\\"overburden\\\">overburden</a> and for the control of <a href=\\\"Spoil%20%28archaeology%29\\\">spoil</a>. In <a href=\\\"British%20archaeology\\\">British archaeology</a> mechanical diggers are sometimes nicknamed \\\"big yellow trowels\\\".\\nA group of archaeological excavators will generally work for a supervisor who reports to the site director or project manager. The director will have ultimate responsibility for interpreting the site and writing the final report. Most excavations are eventually published in professional journals although this process can take years. This process takes place post-excavation and involves a myriad of other specialists.\",\n \"Terracotta Army\\nThe Terracotta Army () is a collection of <a href=\\\"terracotta\\\">terracotta</a> sculptures depicting the armies of <a href=\\\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\\\">Qin Shi Huang</a>, the first <a href=\\\"Emperor%20of%20China\\\">Emperor of China</a>. It is a form of <a href=\\\"funerary%20art\\\">funerary art</a> buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.\\nThe figures, dating from approximately the late third century BCE, were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in <a href=\\\"Lintong%20District\\\">Lintong District</a>, <a href=\\\"Xi%27an\\\">Xi'an</a>, Shaanxi province. The figures vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, <a href=\\\"Chariot%20%28Ancient%20China%29\\\">chariot</a>s and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits nearby <a href=\\\"Mausoleum%20of%20the%20First%20Qin%20Emperor\\\">Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum</a>. Other terracotta non-military figures were found in other pits, including <a href=\\\"Court%20%28royal%29%23Court%20officials\\\">officials</a>, <a href=\\\"Acrobatics\\\">acrobats</a>, <a href=\\\"strongman%20%28strength%20athlete%29\\\">strongmen</a> and musicians.\\nThe construction of the tomb was described by historian <a href=\\\"Sima%20Qian\\\">Sima Qian</a> (14590 BCE) in his most noted work \\\"<a href=\\\"Shiji\\\">Shiji</a>\\\", written a century after the mausoleum's completion. Work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the throne, and the project eventually involved 700,000 workers. Geographer <a href=\\\"Li%20Daoyuan\\\">Li Daoyuan</a>, writing six centuries after the First Emperor's death, recorded in \\\"<a href=\\\"Shui%20Jing%20Zhu\\\">Shui Jing Zhu</a>\\\" that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspicious geology, \\\"famed for its jade mines, its northern side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beautiful jade; the First Emperor, covetous of its fine reputation, therefore chose to be buried there\\\". Sima Qian wrote that the First Emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valuable artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this account, 100 flowing rivers were simulated using mercury, and above them the ceiling was decorated with heavenly bodies below which were the features of the land. Some translations of this passage refer to \\\"models\\\" or \\\"imitations\\\"; however, those words were not used in the original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta army.\\nHigh levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.\\nLater historical accounts suggested that the tomb had been looted by <a href=\\\"Xiang%20Yu\\\">Xiang Yu</a>, a contender for the throne after the death of the first emperor. However, there are indications that the tomb may not have been plundered.\\nThe Terracotta Army was discovered on 29 March 1974 to the east of <a href=\\\"Xi%27an\\\">Xi'an</a> in <a href=\\\"Shaanxi%20province\\\">Shaanxi province</a> by farmers digging a water well approximately 1.5 km east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at <a href=\\\"Mount%20Li\\\">Mount Li</a> (Lishan), a region riddled with underground springs and watercourses. For centuries, occasional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and fragments of the Qin <a href=\\\"necropolis\\\">necropolis</a> roofing tiles, bricks and chunks of masonry. This discovery prompted Chinese archaeologists to investigate, revealing the largest pottery figurine group ever found in China.\\nA museum complex has since been constructed over the area, with the largest pit enclosed within with a large structure.\\nThe Terracotta Army is part of a much larger <a href=\\\"necropolis\\\">necropolis</a>. Ground-penetrating radar and core sampling have measured the area to be approximately 98 square kilometers (38 square miles).\\nThe necropolis was constructed as a microcosm of the emperor's imperial palace or compound, and covers a large area around the tomb mound of the first emperor. The earthen tomb mound is located at the foot of Mount Li and built in a <a href=\\\"Chinese%20pyramids\\\">pyramidal</a> shape, and is surrounded by two solidly built <a href=\\\"rammed%20earth\\\">rammed earth</a> walls with gateway entrances. The necropolis consists of several offices, halls, stables, other structures as well as an imperial park placed around the tomb mound.\\nThe warriors stand guard to the east of the tomb. Up to 5 m of reddish, sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two millennia following its construction, but archaeologists found evidence of earlier disturbances at the site. During the excavations near the Mount Li burial mound, archaeologists found several graves dating from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, where diggers had apparently struck terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless and used along with soil to back fill the excavations.\\nThe tomb appears to be a hermetically-sealed space roughly the size of a football pitch (c. 100 x 75 m). The tomb remains unopened, possibly due to concerns over preservation of its artifacts. For example, after the excavation of the Terracotta Army, the painted surface present on some terracotta figures began to flake and fade. The lacquer covering the paint can curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air and can flake off in just four minutes.\\nFour main pits approximately 7 m deep have been excavated. These are located approximately 1.5 km east of the burial mound. The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb from the east, where all the Qin Emperor's conquered states lay.\\nPit one, which is 230 m long and 62 m wide, contains the main army of more than 6,000 figures. Pit one has 11 corridors, most of which are more than 3 m wide and paved with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by large beams and posts. This design was also used for the tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hallways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to above the surrounding ground level when completed.\\nPit two has cavalry and infantry units as well as <a href=\\\"Chariot%20%28China%29\\\">war chariot</a>s and is thought to represent a military guard. Pit three is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a war chariot. Pit four is empty, perhaps left unfinished by its builders.\\nSome of the figures in pit one and two show fire damage, while remains of burnt ceiling rafters have also been found. These, together with the missing weapons, have been taken as evidence of the reported looting by Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush the army figures below. The terracotta figures currently on display have been restored from the fragments.\\nOther pits that formed the necropolis also have been excavated. These pits lie within and outside the walls surrounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acrobats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, burials sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.\\nThe terracotta figures are life-sized. They vary in height, uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank. Their faces appear to be different for each individual figure, scholars however have identified 10 basic face shapes. The figures are of these general types: armored warriors; unarmored <a href=\\\"infantrymen\\\">infantrymen</a>; <a href=\\\"cavalrymen\\\">cavalrymen</a> who wear a pillbox hat; helmeted driver of chariots with more armor protection; spear-carrying charioteers; kneeling archers who are armored; standing archers who are not; as well as generals and other lower-ranking officers. There are however many variations in the uniforms within the ranks, for example, some may wear shin pads while others not; they may wear either long or short trousers, some of which may be padded; and their body armors vary depending on rank, function, and position in formation. There are also terracotta horses placed among the warrior figures.\\nOriginally, the figures were painted with bright pigments, variously coloured pink, red, green, blue, black, brown, white and lilac. The coloured lacquer finish and individual facial features would have given the figures a realistic feel. However, much of the colour coating had flaked off or become greatly faded.\\nSome scholars have speculated a possible <a href=\\\"Hellenistic\\\">Hellenistic</a> link to these sculptures, due to the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures prior to the Qin dynasty. They argued that potential Greek influence is particularly evident in some terracotta figures such as those of acrobats, as well as the technique used for casting bronze sculptures.\\nThe terracotta army figures were manufactured in workshops by government laborers and local craftsmen using local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were created separately and then assembled by <a href=\\\"luting\\\">luting</a> the pieces together. When completed, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in precise military formation according to rank and duty.\\nThe faces were created using <a href=\\\"Molding%20%28process%29\\\">molds</a>, and at least ten face molds may have been used. Clay was then added after assembly to provide individual facial features to make each figure appear different. It is believed that the warriors' legs were made in much the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at the time. This would classify the process as <a href=\\\"assembly%20line\\\">assembly line</a> production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to inscribe its name on items produced to ensure quality control. This has aided modern historians in verifying which workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other mundane items for the terracotta army.\\nMost of the figures originally held real weapons such as spears, swords, or crossbows, and the use of actual weapons would have increased the figures' realism. Most of the original weapons, however, were looted shortly after the creation of the army, or have rotted away. Nevertheless, many weapons such as swords, spears, lances, battle-axes, scimitars, shields, crossbows, and arrowheads have been found in the pits. Over 40,000 bronze items of weaponry have been recovered from the pits, with most of these arrowheads which are usually found in bundles of 100 units. Studies of these arrowheads suggests that they were produced in small units of self-sufficient, autonomous workshops that produced finished items in a production process referred to as cellular production or <a href=\\\"Toyotism\\\">Toyotism</a>. There are also hundreds of crossbow triggers, and smaller number of other weapons such as bronze swords, and daggers.\\nSome of these weapons, such as the swords, are sharp and were coated with a 10–15 micrometre layer of <a href=\\\"chromium%20dioxide\\\">chromium dioxide</a> that kept the swords rust-free for 2,000 years. The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt. Some carry inscriptions that date their manufacture to between 245 and 228 BCE, indicating that they were used as weapons before their burials.\\nAn important element of the army is the <a href=\\\"chariot\\\">chariot</a>, of which four types have been found. In battle the fighting chariots formed pairs at the head of a unit of infantry. The principal weapon of the charioteers was the \\\"ge\\\" or <a href=\\\"dagger-axe\\\">dagger-axe</a>, an L-shaped bronze blade mounted on a long shaft and used for sweeping and hooking at the enemy. Infantrymen also carried \\\"ge\\\" on shorter shafts, \\\"<a href=\\\"Ji%20%28halberd%29\\\">ji</a>\\\" or <a href=\\\"halberds\\\">halberds</a> and spears and lances. For close fighting and defence, both charioteers and infantrymen carried double-edged straight swords. The archers carried crossbows, which have sophisticated trigger mechanisms and are capable of shooting arrows farther than 800 m .\\nIn 2007, scientists at <a href=\\\"Stanford%20University\\\">Stanford University</a> and the <a href=\\\"Advanced%20Light%20Source\\\">Advanced Light Source</a> facility in Berkeley, California reported that <a href=\\\"powder%20diffraction\\\">powder diffraction</a> experiments combined with <a href=\\\"energy-dispersive%20X-ray%20spectroscopy\\\">energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy</a> and <a href=\\\"micro-X-ray%20fluorescence\\\">micro-X-ray fluorescence</a> analysis showed that the process of producing Terracotta figures colored with <a href=\\\"Han%20purple%20and%20Han%20blue\\\">Chinese purple</a> dye consisting of <a href=\\\"barium\\\">barium</a> <a href=\\\"copper\\\">copper</a> <a href=\\\"silicate\\\">silicate</a> was derived from the knowledge gained by <a href=\\\"Taoist\\\">Taoist</a> <a href=\\\"alchemy\\\">alchemists</a> in their attempts to synthesize <a href=\\\"jade\\\">jade</a> <a href=\\\"Ornament%20%28art%29\\\">ornaments</a>.\\nSince 2006, an international team of researchers at the <a href=\\\"UCL%20Institute%20of%20Archaeology\\\">UCL Institute of Archaeology</a> have been using <a href=\\\"analytical%20chemistry\\\">analytical chemistry</a> techniques to uncover more details about the production techniques employed in the creation of the Terracotta Army. Using <a href=\\\"X-ray%20fluorescence\\\">X-ray fluorescence</a> spectrometry of 40,000 bronze <a href=\\\"arrowhead\\\">arrowhead</a>s bundled in groups of 100, the researchers reported that the arrowheads within a single bundle formed a relatively tight cluster that was different from other bundles. In addition, the presence or absence of metal impurities was consistent within bundles. Based on the arrows’ chemical compositions, the researchers concluded that a <a href=\\\"cellular%20manufacturing\\\">cellular manufacturing</a> system similar to the one used in a modern <a href=\\\"Toyota\\\">Toyota</a> factory, as opposed to a continuous <a href=\\\"assembly%20line\\\">assembly line</a> in the early days of automobile industry, was employed.\\nGrinding and polishing marks visible under a <a href=\\\"scanning%20electron%20microscope\\\">scanning electron microscope</a> provide evidence for the earliest industrial use of <a href=\\\"lathe\\\">lathe</a>s for polishing.\\nA collection of 120 objects from the mausoleum and 12 terracotta warriors were displayed at the <a href=\\\"British%20Museum\\\">British Museum</a> in London as its special exhibition \\\"The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army\\\" from 13 September 2007 to April 2008. This exhibition made 2008 the British Museum's most successful year and made the British Museum the United Kingdom's top cultural attraction between 2007 and 2008. The exhibition brought the most visitors to the museum since the <a href=\\\"Tutankhamun\\\">King Tutankhamun</a> exhibition in 1972. It was reported that the 400,000 advance tickets sold out so fast that the museum extended its opening hours until midnight. According to \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Times\\\">The Times</a>\\\", many people had to be turned away, despite the extended hours. During the day of events to mark the <a href=\\\"Chinese%20New%20Year\\\">Chinese New Year</a>, the crush was so intense that the gates to the museum had to be shut. The Terracotta Army has been described as the only other set of historic artifacts (along with the remnants of wreck of the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a>) that can draw a crowd by the name alone.\\nWarriors and other artifacts were exhibited to the public at the Forum de Barcelona in <a href=\\\"Barcelona\\\">Barcelona</a> between 9 May and 26 September 2004. It was their most successful exhibition ever. The same exhibition was presented at the Fundación Canal de Isabel II in Madrid between October 2004 and January 2005, their most successful ever. From December 2009 to May 2010, the exhibition was shown in the Centro Cultural La Moneda in <a href=\\\"Santiago%20de%20Chile\\\">Santiago de Chile</a>.\\nThe exhibition traveled to North America and visited museums such as the <a href=\\\"Asian%20Art%20Museum%20of%20San%20Francisco\\\">Asian Art Museum</a> of <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco\\\">San Francisco</a>, <a href=\\\"Bowers%20Museum\\\">Bowers Museum</a> in <a href=\\\"Santa%20Ana%2C%20California\\\">Santa Ana, California</a>, <a href=\\\"Houston%20Museum%20of%20Natural%20Science\\\">Houston Museum of Natural Science</a>, <a href=\\\"High%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">High Museum of Art</a> in <a href=\\\"Atlanta\\\">Atlanta</a>, <a href=\\\"National%20Geographic%20Society\\\">National Geographic Society</a> Museum in Washington, D.C. and the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Ontario%20Museum\\\">Royal Ontario Museum</a> in Toronto. Subsequently, the exhibition traveled to Sweden and was hosted in the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Far%20Eastern%20Antiquities\\\">Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities</a> between 28 August 2010 and 20 January 2011. An exhibition entitled 'The First Emperor – China's Entombed Warriors', presenting 120 artifacts was hosted at the <a href=\\\"Art%20Gallery%20of%20New%20South%20Wales\\\">Art Gallery of New South Wales</a>, between 2 December 2010 and 13 March 2011. An exhibition entitled \\\"L'Empereur guerrier de Chine et son armée de terre cuite\\\" (\\\"The Warrior-Emperor of China and his terracotta army\\\"), featuring artifacts including statues from the mausoleum, was hosted by the <a href=\\\"Montreal%20Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts\\\">Montreal Museum of Fine Arts</a> from 11 February 2011 to 26 June 2011. In Italy, from July 2008 to November 16, 2008, five of the warriors of the terracotta army were exposed in <a href=\\\"Turin\\\">Turin</a> at the Museum of Antiquities, and from 16 April 2010 to 5 September 2010 were exposed nine warriors in <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a>, at the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Palace%20of%20Milan\\\">Royal Palace</a>, at the exhibition entitled \\\"The Two Empires\\\". The group consisted of a horse, a counselor, an archer and 6 Lancers. The \\\"Treasures of Ancient China\\\" exhibition, showcasing two terracotta soldiers and other artifacts, including the <a href=\\\"Longmen%20Grottoes\\\">Longmen Grottoes</a> Buddhist statues, was held between 19February 2011 and 7November 2011 in four locations in India: <a href=\\\"National%20Museum%2C%20New%20Delhi\\\">National Museum</a> of <a href=\\\"New%20Delhi\\\">New Delhi</a>, <a href=\\\"Prince%20of%20Wales%20Museum\\\">Prince of Wales Museum</a> in <a href=\\\"Mumbai\\\">Mumbai</a>, <a href=\\\"Salar%20Jung%20Museum\\\">Salar Jung Museum</a> in <a href=\\\"Hyderabad\\\">Hyderabad</a> and <a href=\\\"National%20Library%20of%20India\\\">National Library of India</a> in <a href=\\\"Kolkata\\\">Kolkata</a>.\\nSoldiers and related items were on display from March15, 2013, to November17, 2013, at the <a href=\\\"Historical%20Museum%20of%20Bern\\\">Historical Museum of Bern</a>.\\nSeveral Terracotta Army figures are on display, along with many other objects, in an exhibit entitled \\\"Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties\\\" at The <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> from April 3, 2017, to July 16, 2017. Ten Terracotta Army figures and other artifacts are on display at the <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Science%20Center\\\">Pacific Science Center</a> in Seattle, Washington, from April 8, 2017, to September 4, 2017.\\n\\n\",\n \"Longshan County\\nLongshan County () is a <a href=\\\"Counties%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\\\">county</a> of <a href=\\\"Hunan\\\">Hunan Province</a>, <a href=\\\"China\\\">China</a>, it is under the administration of <a href=\\\"Xiangxi%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20Prefecture\\\">Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture</a>.\\nLocated on the western margin of the province and the north western Xiangxi, it is immediately adjacent to the borders of <a href=\\\"Chongqing\\\">Chongqing Municipality</a> and <a href=\\\"Hubei\\\">Hubei Province</a>. The county is bordered to the northeast by <a href=\\\"Sangzhi%20County\\\">Sangzhi County</a>, to the east by <a href=\\\"Yongshun%20County\\\">Yongshun County</a>, to the southeast and the south by <a href=\\\"Baojing%20County\\\">Baojing County</a>, to the west by <a href=\\\"Youyang%20Tujia%20and%20Miao%20Autonomous%20County\\\">Youyang County</a> of Chongqing, <a href=\\\"Laifeng%20County\\\">Laifeng County</a> and <a href=\\\"Xuan%27en%20County\\\">Xuan'en County</a> of Hubei. Longshan County covers 3,131 km2 , as of 2015, It had a registered population of 601,000 and a resident population of 492,800. The county has 12 <a href=\\\"towns%20of%20China\\\">towns</a>, 5 <a href=\\\"townships%20of%20China\\\">townships</a> and 4 subdistricts under its jurisdiction, the <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> is <a href=\\\"Min%27an%20Subdistrict\\\">Min'an Subdistrict</a> (民安街道).\\nLongshan has 3 <a href=\\\"Subdistrict%20%28China%29\\\">subdistricts</a>, 11 <a href=\\\"Town%20%28China%29\\\">towns</a>, and 20 <a href=\\\"Township%20%28People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China%29\\\">townships</a>:\\n\",\n \"Queen Dowager Xuan\\nQueen Dowager Xuan (; 338–265 BC), also called Mi Bazi (羋八子; <a href=\\\"Wade%E2%80%93Giles\\\">Wade–Giles</a>: Mi Pa-tzu), was a secondary wife of <a href=\\\"King%20Huiwen%20of%20Qin\\\">King Huiwen of Qin</a>. She was originally from <a href=\\\"Chu%20%28state%29\\\">Chu</a>. She gave birth to <a href=\\\"King%20Zhaoxiang%20of%20Qin\\\">King Zhaoxiang of Qin</a> (r. 306–251 BC) and acted as his regent when he was young. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang, the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the nomadic <a href=\\\"Yiqu\\\">Yiqu</a> king and had two sons with him, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the <a href=\\\"Ordos%20region\\\">Ordos region</a>.\\nYiqu's fall rendered Qin a safe northern border. Since there was no more hostile forces in the north of Qin, Yiqu's fall ensured Qin's successful expansion eastward.\\nQueen Xuan was the de facto ruler of Qin starting from 307 BCE until around 270s BCE. She eventually lost her power due to <a href=\\\"Fan%20Sui\\\">Fan Sui</a>'s scheme against her. She represented Qin's interests and protected, expanded Qin's realm. However, she refused to fight her homeland Chu when the state of Han, under the attack of Chu, asked Qin for reinforcement.\\n\",\n \"King Zhuangxiang of Qin\\nKing Zhuangxiang of Qin (281–247 BC), personal names Yiren and Zichu, was a ruler of the <a href=\\\"Qin%20%28state%29\\\">Qin state</a> during the third century BC in the <a href=\\\"Warring%20States%20period\\\">Warring States period</a> of ancient China.\\nYiren was born to <a href=\\\"King%20Xiaowen%20of%20Qin\\\">Lord Anguo</a>, the second son and heir apparent of <a href=\\\"King%20Zhaoxiang%20of%20Qin\\\">King Zhaoxiang</a>, and Lord Anguo's concubine Lady Xia. He was chosen to serve as a hostage in the <a href=\\\"Zhao%20%28state%29\\\">Kingdom of Zhao</a>. In <a href=\\\"Handan\\\">Handan</a> (the capital of Zhao) he met a merchant, <a href=\\\"L%C3%BC%20Buwei\\\">Lü Buwei</a>, who saw Yiren as extraordinary and detected in him the potential to become the king of Qin in the future. Lü Buwei treated Yiren well and presented his concubine Lady Zhao to Yiren. Lady Zhao later bore Yiren a son, <a href=\\\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\\\">Ying Zheng</a>.\\nIn the meantime, through bribes and machinations, Lü Buwei helped Yiren return to Qin. He also successfully persuaded Lord Anguo's primary spouse, the childless Lady Huayang, to adopt Yiren as her own son, thereby making Yiren become Lord Anguo's legitimate <a href=\\\"heir%20apparent\\\">heir apparent</a>. As Lady Huayang was a native of the <a href=\\\"Chu%20%28state%29\\\">Chu state</a>, she renamed Yiren to \\\"Zichu\\\" (lit. \\\"son of Chu\\\"). Upon the death of King Zhaoxiang in 251 BC, Lord Anguo ascended the throne and became historically known as \\\"King Xiaowen\\\", but he died in the following year just three days after his coronation. Zichu succeeded his father as the king of Qin and became historically known as \\\"King Zhuangxiang of Qin\\\". He named Lü Buwei as his <a href=\\\"Chancellor%20%28China%29\\\">chancellor</a>, Lady Zhao as his queen consort, and Ying Zheng as his crown prince.\\nKing Zhuangxiang died in 247 after reigning for three years. Ying Zheng succeeded him and eventually unified China through <a href=\\\"Qin%27s%20wars%20of%20unification\\\">a series of wars</a> against the other six major states, established the <a href=\\\"Qin%20Dynasty\\\">Qin Dynasty</a> in 221 BC, and became historically known as \\\"<a href=\\\"Qin%20Shi%20Huang\\\">Qin Shi Huang</a>\\\" (First Emperor of Qin).\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["King Xiaowen of Qin (reigned 250 BC) was a Chinese king, who had a very brief reign. He is also known as Lord Anguo (安國君). His grandson was Emperor Qin Shi Huang.","Qin Shi Huang ( ; 18 February 25910 September 210) was the founder of the Qin dynasty (秦朝 ) and was the first emperor of a unified China. He was born Ying Zheng (嬴政 ) or Zhao Zheng (趙政 ), a prince of the state of Qin. He became the King Zheng of Qin (秦王政 ) when he was thirteen, then China's first emperor when he was 38 after the Qin had conquered all of the other Warring States and unified all of China in 221 BC. Rather than maintain the title of \"king\" borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor (始皇帝 ) of the Qin dynasty from 220 to 210 BC. His self-invented title \"emperor\" (皇帝 , \" \"), as indicated by his use of the word \"First\", would continue to be borne by Chinese rulers for the next two millennia."],"string":"[\n \"King Xiaowen of Qin (reigned 250 BC) was a Chinese king, who had a very brief reign. He is also known as Lord Anguo (安國君). His grandson was Emperor Qin Shi Huang.\",\n \"Qin Shi Huang ( ; 18 February 25910 September 210) was the founder of the Qin dynasty (秦朝 ) and was the first emperor of a unified China. He was born Ying Zheng (嬴政 ) or Zhao Zheng (趙政 ), a prince of the state of Qin. He became the King Zheng of Qin (秦王政 ) when he was thirteen, then China's first emperor when he was 38 after the Qin had conquered all of the other Warring States and unified all of China in 221 BC. Rather than maintain the title of \\\"king\\\" borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor (始皇帝 ) of the Qin dynasty from 220 to 210 BC. His self-invented title \\\"emperor\\\" (皇帝 , \\\" \\\"), as indicated by his use of the word \\\"First\\\", would continue to be borne by Chinese rulers for the next two millennia.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":48,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"A church located on the village of Skomsvoll, is made in what style, derived from timber framing?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Stave church"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Blackden Hall\nBlackden Hall is a country house to the northeast of the village of Goostrey, Cheshire, England. It dates from the later part of the 16th century, and there have been later alterations. It is constructed in timber framing and brick with plastered panels. The house is in two storeys with an attic, and has an L-shaped plan. Its main front has three bays and is gabled. The central bay of the first floor is jettied. The timber framing is close studded, and decorated with roundels and chevrons. Most of the windows are mullioned with three lights. The authors of the \"Buildings of England\" series describe it as a \"charming C17 timber-framed house\". The house is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building.\n","Leaky homes crisis\nThe leaky homes crisis is an ongoing construction and legal crisis in New Zealand concerning a number of timber framed buildings constructed from 1994 to 2004 that suffered from weather-tightness problems. The problem was primarily related to the decay of timber framing which, in extreme cases, made buildings structurally unsound. Some buildings became unhealthy to live in due to moulds and spores developing within the damp timber framing. The repairs and replacement costs that may have been avoided were estimated in 2009 to be approximately $11.3 billion.\nThe Building Act 1991, which came into effect about 1994, changed building controls from a prescriptive system to a more self-regulated regime. In addition, the Government dropped the apprentice training system for builders and the related building trades. Some developers and builders knowingly or carelessly constructed buildings with numerous faults and short-cuts. An architectural design trend towards Mediterranean-style houses with complex roofs, plastered exterior walls, internal decks and small or no eaves also factored in.\nSome local authorities were later found to have issued Building Consents based on insufficient documentation, failed to carry out inspection of the work during construction, and issued code completion certificates for buildings which were later found to have leaking problems. Consequently some councils now share significant financial responsibilities with the builders (which in many cases have closed or otherwise removed themselves from liability) and the owners. Court cases have generally assigned around one third of the financial responsibility to local authorities. A 2013 Supreme Court case involving the Auckland City Council extended the liability of local bodies.\nThere are many reasons that some buildings from the 1990s were leaky. A major one was the increase in the use of cladding systems such as fibre cement sheet and EIPS (Externally Insulated Plaster System) that relied on a paint finish as the primary defence against water ingress. This system is very similar to Exterior insulation finishing system (or EIFS). Such cladding systems typically allowed for little construction or thermal movement so that fine cracks that appeared insignificant, and would have been relatively insignificant in traditional claddings such as weatherboard, allowed continuous ingress of moisture into the framing. These causes, combined with the reduced air movement through the prevalence of sheet cladding or sheet insulating materials for the monolithic look cladding, resulted in very damp conditions which are ideal for rot. A further exacerbating factor that resulted in more significant damage from the leaks, was the change to the New Zealand Standard for Timber Treatment in 1995, allowing the use of untreated \"Pinus radiata\" timber for wall framing. As this timber has little natural resistance to rot when wet, damage occurs more quickly.\nIn many cases claddings were not used within their specifications or not installed correctly. Many buildings built in the \"Mediterranean\" style used these types of cladding and had features such as recessed windows, flat roofs, minimal eaves, multiple stories, complex roofs, solid balustrades, balconies and penetrations of the exterior cladding that increased the likelihood of water infiltrating the structure.\nLack of detailed drawings for buildings was also a contributing factor. Some builders were unable to make a weathertight structure without proper guidance. This has partially been blamed on the breakdown of the apprenticeship system and unqualified builders in the marketplace. Council staff carrying out building inspections had neither the required construction expertise to ensure weathertightness nor the intuition to look for it.\nThe Building Act 1991 was replaced by the Building Act 2004, which introduced a licensing scheme for building designers, builders and related trades. Councils were required to be registered with a central authority and were to be subject to regular quality control procedure checks. Council building inspectors remain unlicensed.\nThe Government dissolved the BIA (Building Industry Authority, the Government department which was responsible for the oversight and administration of the building sector) on 30 November 2004 and replaced it with DBH (Department of Building and Housing).\nSome of the Acceptable Solutions to the Building Code were re-written, most notably E2/AS1 External Moisture which covers the detailing of roofs and walls was greatly expanded.\nThe Standard covering durability of timber framing was amended in late 2003 with the publication of NZS 3602: 2003 Timber and Wood-based Products for Use in Building. This revision required a return to the use of treated radiata framing in external walls.\nSeveral thousands of homes throughout the country are still awaiting renovation, with a total cost that has been estimated by a PricewaterhouseCoopers report to the Government in 2008 as being around NZ$11.3 billion for a \"consensus estimate\" of 42,000 buildings. Other building experts estimate the true cost at $23 billion for 89,000 buildings, and accused government of reducing the figure of affected buildings to 42,000 buildings because they were allegedly \"unhappy\" with the expert prediction.\nThe majority of affected buildings are homes or apartments, but in 2011 the twenty-year-old Ronald McDonald House for children with cancer and their families at Wellington Hospital was demolished as leaky and replaced.\nThe Minister of Education said in 2009 that at least 73 schools were affected, and in 2011 that 157 schools still needed repairs, at an estimated cost of at least $1.5 billion As of 2013 the Ministry of Education was taking action against architects and builders involved with 87 of the 309 schools which have \"leakiness\" problems. One school in Wellington, Seatoun School, built at a cost of $5.3 million and opened in 2002 is costing $4.5 million to repair.\nAs of mid-2009, plans for an up to NZ$6 billion bailout package shared between government and local authorities are in doubt because the amount could affect New Zealand's international credit rating. In November 2009, the National government decided not to offer a more substantial sharing of costs, and it is now estimated that in most cases, around 64% would have to be borne by the owners, 26% by Councils, and only 10% by government funds, while also forcing homeowners to sign away their rights to sue for more.\nPrime Minister John Key noted that while claimants did not have to accept the settlement, legal costs for bringing suit could eat up any further money awarded to them. Some claimants have taken negligence claims against company directors of construction companies, relying on the decision in \"Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd\" [1984] 2 NZLR 548. There have also been accusations that parts of the legal and inspection professions are profiting substantially from disputes around the cases, and that significant money was diverted into these channels rather than into fixing the buildings. The government's position was assailed by mayors of affected Councils and by pundits, who noted that by paying only 10%, and then receiving 12.5% back in goods and services tax, the government was actually making money from the crisis. Another report commissioned by North Shore City Council estimated a potential gain by government of up to $2 billion. Further, National was also criticised that as an opposition party, they had constantly asked for the then Labour-led government to assist homeowners financially.\nThe government has also imposed a 10 year limit (after construction) on claims, even though some building experts believe many cases will only become apparent during coming years, as building rot becomes advanced enough. They also warned that houses in drier parts of New Zealand were now starting to show problems, which had simply developed at a slower pace – and that despite Building Act reforms in 2004, there were still houses being built that leaked badly due to shoddy workmanship.\nIn February 2010, New Zealand's Building and Construction Minister Maurice Williamson, National, warned that the size of the issue at at least $11 billion was so gianormous [sic] that even a government with budget surpluses would struggle. He noted that: \"...a Government who's [sic] running deficits - and has a forecast track of deficits for many years out - has to just sit there with its head in its hands, saying, 'Well, I just don't how to do this'.\" He also warned that it was necessary to come up with a solution so money could be spent on fixing houses, rather than paying lawyers, and that there was a risk of significant rates rises in the major centres like Auckland, Tauranga, Wellington and Christchurch, of a scale that would \"make eyes water\".\nIn May 2010 the New Zealand Government launched the Financial Assistance Package (FAP) for leaky homes. Under the scheme, the home owner shares the agreed cost of repairing their home with the government and the local council, if the council approved the original work and is participating in the scheme. The government and the council each contribute 25% of the repair cost with the owner paying the remaining 50%. Despite the FAP offering to give the homeowners the certainty of financial contribution and to help get leaky homes fixed faster, by November 2012 only 12 victims had received final payouts under the government scheme.\nIn 2009 it was estimated between 22,000 and 89,000 properties were affected, but the government's scheme would cover around 3,500 at the most.\nVarious Councils and politicians have warned that the leaky homes crisis could impact on the rates bill. Further, in mid-2011, the Valuer-General of the country instructed Council that in the re-evaluation of property values (which are used to set local body rates), auditors had to take into account the loss of value incurred by practices likely to cause leaky home syndrome – even if the home had not, or not yet, experienced any damage from it. This was to take into account that such homes faced widespread stigma, and thus, were harder to sell. While this was expected to reduce not only the valued worth but also the rates bill of the relevant owners (by between 5 and 20%, or even more if the house is already confirmed as leaking), it was noted that other ratepayers would have to make up the difference via higher rates.\nThe placing into liquidation of Mainzeal Construction and Property, New Zealand’s third largest construction company, in February 2013 was blamed on both a slowdown in commercial construction work and liability for several leaky apartment buildings in Auckland and Wellington where other parties had gone out of existence.\nA very similar issue arose in the early 1980's, some 10 years before New Zealand & for very similar reasons in the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is commonly known in Canada as the Leaky condo crisis and has been an ongoing issue that is estimated to have caused $4 billion in damage since the 1980s.","Pepperstock\nPepperstock is a small village located in Central Bedfordshire, England. The village itself mostly consists of residential caravan parks. However, Pepperstock displays an interesting range of vernacular buildings, most notably in the form of 16th and 17th century timber framing with brick infill and red clay tiled roofs. It is in the civil parish of Slip End.\n","Poteaux-sur-sol\nPoteaux-sur-sol (“posts on a sill” Sol is also spelled sole and solle) is a style of timber framing, in which relatively closely spaced posts rest on a timber sill. Poteaux-en-terre and pieux-en-terre are similar, but the closely spaced posts extend into the ground rather than resting on a sill on a foundation, and therefore are a type of post in ground construction. Poteaux-sur-sol is similar to the framing style known in the United Kingdom as close studding. \"Poteaux-sur-sol\" has also, confusingly, been used for other types of timber framing which have a sill timber such as post-and-plank, but this is considered incorrect by some scholars.\nPoteaux-sur-sol is a part of American historic carpentry but is known by its French name in North America as it was used by French and French-Canadian people in the region historically known as New France. Besides its appearance in French colonial architecture it was also used in the 19th century by Ukrainian peasants living on the open steppes or anywhere there was a timber shortage.\nIn the present-day United States, houses in this style can be found in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri; Prairie du Rocher, Illinois, and former French settlements in Louisiana—all former parts of New France (\"La Louisiane\"). Most are listed on the National Register of Historic Places; \"Maison Bolduc\" (see below) is a National Historic Landmark.","Black-and-white Revival architecture\nThe Black-and-white Revival was an architectural movement from the middle of the 19th century which re-used the vernacular elements of the past, using timber framing. The wooden framing is painted black and the panels between the frames are painted white. The style was part of a wider Tudor Revival in 19th-century architecture.\nNikolaus Pevsner describes the movement as a \"Cheshire speciality\", but states that it was not created in Cheshire and is not confined to the county. The earliest example noted by Pevsner is the Henry VII Lodge in Woburn Sands, Bedfordshire, built in 1811. The other example he gives is the Court House in Worsley, which was built in 1849. The first Cheshire architect to be involved in the movement was T. M. Penson who restored the house at No. 22 Eastgate Street, Chester in 1852 in the black-and-white style. This was followed by his further restorations in Eastgate Street, at Nos. 34–36 in 1856, and No. 26 in 1858. However Pevsner considers that Penson's works were \"moderate in size and not very knowledgeable in detail\".\nThe movement was improved when John Douglas and T. M. Lockwood \"discovered the medium\". They were the principal architects of the movement, and they \"transformed the street frontages of the city with their black and white buildings\". Major examples of their work are Lockwood's building opposite Chester Cross at No. 1 Bridge Street of 1888 and the terrace of buildings on the east side of St Werburgh Street of 1895–99 by Douglas. The black-and-white tradition in Chester continued into the 20th century.\nCitations\nSources","St Anne's Church, Haughton\nSt Anne's Church in Haughton, Denton is a Grade I Listed Building. The church was built in 1881 and designed by J. Medland Taylor. The construction was funded by E. Joseph Sidebotham, a member of the Sidebotham mill-owning family of Hyde. The church was built in brick in the Gothic Revival style, but also utilised timber framing.\nIt has been described as the best-known work of the architects, an 'extraordinary free-form brick church [that] forms the nucleus of the most important cluster of their buildings' surviving. The lychgate and rectory that adjoin the main church are also of architectural significance, and each is on the register of protected buildings in its own right.\n","Listed buildings in Marbury cum Quoisley\nMarbury cum Quoisley is a civil parish in Cheshire East, England. It contains 11 buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as designated listed buildings. Of these, one is listed at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II. Apart from the village of Marbury the parish is rural. The major buildings in the parish are St Michael's Church and Marbury Hall; these and some associated buildings are listed. Also listed are some 16th and 17th-century houses and farm buildings that are timber-framed or incorporate timber framing. The parish includes the part of the Combermere estate that contains a monumental obelisk that is listed.\nCitations\nSources","Skomsvoll\nSkomsvoll is a village on the island of Otterøya in the municipality of Namsos in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located on the south side of the island, along the Namsenfjorden. The village of Statland (in Flatanger) lies across the fjord from Skomsvoll, with the island of Hoddøya nearby. The main church for the island, Otterøy Church is located in Skomsvoll.\n","Otterøy Church\nOtterøy Church (Norwegian: \"Otterøy kirke\" ) is a parish church in the municipality of Namsos in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located in the village of Skomsvoll on the island of Otterøya. The church is part of the Otterøy parish in the Namdal deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros. The octagonal wood church building was constructed in 1858 and seats about 350 people. The church was designed by architect Christian Heinrich Grosch. It was built in a Stave church style.\n","Mullion\nA mullion is a vertical <a href=\"structural%20element\">element</a> that forms a division between units of a window, door, or screen, or is used decoratively. When dividing adjacent <a href=\"window\">window</a> units, its primary purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or <a href=\"lintel\">lintel</a> above the window opening. Its secondary purpose may be as a rigid support to the glazing of the window. When used to support glazing, they are often teamed with horizontal elements called \"<a href=\"Transom%20%28architectural%29\">transom</a>s\" which divide an opening's upper part into one or more additional lights.\nIn the commercial door industry, the term \"floating mullion\" is also applied to an interlock profile which is fitted in between a pair of double swing doors.\nStone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century. They became common across Europe in the <a href=\"Romanesque%20architecture\">Romanesque architecture</a>, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch becoming a fashionable architectural form. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, and is found in galleries and cloisters.\nIn <a href=\"Gothic%20architecture\">Gothic architecture</a> windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic churches where stained glass is set in lead and ferramenta between the stone mullions. Mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a single mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian, bifore windows.\nMullions may be made of any material, but <a href=\"wood\">wood</a> and <a href=\"aluminum\">aluminum</a> are most common, although glass is also used between windows. <a href=\"I.M.%20Pei\">I.M. Pei</a> used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airport's Terminal 6 (<a href=\"Sundrome\">National Airlines Sundrome</a>), unprecedented at the time.\nMullions are vertical elements and are often confused with <a href=\"Transom%20%28architectural%29\">transoms</a>, which lie horizontally. The word is also confused with the \"<a href=\"muntin\">muntin</a>\" (or \"glazing bar\" in the UK) which is the precise word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a <a href=\"sash%20window\">sash</a> into smaller glass \"panes\" or \"lights\".\nA mullion acts as a structural member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing and upper levels into the structure below. Although in the instance of a <a href=\"curtain%20wall%20%28architecture%29\">curtain wall</a> screen, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass and any opening vents installed. Also in the case of a curtain wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above (providing the structure can take the required loads) this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression.\nWhen a very large glazed area was desired before the middle of the nineteenth century, such as in the large windows seen in <a href=\"Gothic%20architecture\">Gothic</a> churches or <a href=\"Elizabethan\">Elizabethan</a> palaces, the openings necessarily required division into a framework of mullions and transoms, often of stone. It was further necessary for each glazed panel, <a href=\"sash%20window\">sash</a> or <a href=\"window%23Casement\">casement</a> to be further subdivided by muntins or lead <a href=\"came\">came</a>s because large panes of glass were reserved primarily for use as mirrors, being far too costly to use for glazing windows or doors.\nIn traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows and doors when glazing porches or other large areas.\n","Jettying\nJettying (jetty, jutty, getee (obsolete) from Old French getee, jette) is a building technique used in <a href=\"medieval\">medieval</a> <a href=\"timber%20framing\">timber-frame</a> buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below. This has the advantage of increasing the available space in the building without obstructing the street. Jettied floors are also termed \"jetties\". In the U.S., the most common surviving colonial version of this is the <a href=\"Garrison%20%28architecture%29\">garrison</a> house. Most jetties are external, but some early Medieval houses were built with internal jetties.\nA jetty is an upper floor that depends on a <a href=\"cantilever\">cantilever</a> system in which a horizontal beam, the jetty bressummer, supports the wall above and projects forward beyond the floor below (a technique also called \"oversailing\"). The <a href=\"bressummer\">bressummer</a> (or breastsummer) itself rests on the ends of a row of jetty beams or <a href=\"joist\">joist</a>s which are supported by jetty plates. Jetty joists in their turn were slotted sideways into the diagonal <a href=\"dragon%20beam\">dragon beam</a>s at angle of 45° by means of <a href=\"mortise%20and%20tenon\">mortise and tenon</a> joints.\nThe overhanging corner posts are often reinforced by curved jetty brackets.\nThe origins of jettying is unclear but some reasons put forward for their purpose are:\nJetties were popular in the 16th century but banned in Rouen in 1520 relating to air circulation and the plague, and London in 1667 relating to the great fire. They are considered a Gothic style.\nStructurally, jetties are of several types:\nThe vertical elements of jetties can be summarized as:\nThe horizontal elements of jetties are:\nJettying was used for timber-framed buildings, but was succeeded by cantilever which are used for the same reason as jettying, to maximise space in buildings. This is often utilised on buildings which are on a narrow plot and space is at a premium.\nThe <a href=\"Pennsylvania%20barn\">Pennsylvania barn</a> in the U.S. has a distinctive cantilever called a forebay, not a jetty.\nThe traditional Turkish house is a <a href=\"Timber%20framing%23halftimbering\">half-timber</a>ed house with a cantilevered or supported overhang called a cumba.\nIn the North African Maghreb, houses in medieval city Kasbahs often featured jetties. Contemporary examples still survive in the <a href=\"Casbah%20of%20Algiers\">Casbah of Algiers</a>.\nThe House of <a href=\"Opus%20craticum\">Opus Craticum</a> built before AD 79 in Roman <a href=\"Herculaneum\">Herculaneum</a> has a supported cantilever.","Goostrey\nGoostrey is an old farming village and <a href=\"civil%20parishes%20in%20England\">civil parish</a> in the unitary authority of <a href=\"Cheshire%20East\">Cheshire East</a> and the ceremonial county of <a href=\"Cheshire\">Cheshire</a>, England. It is located off Junction 18 of the <a href=\"M6%20motorway\">M6 motorway</a>, near <a href=\"Jodrell%20Bank%20Observatory\">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a>. According to the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20Census%202001\">2001 Census</a>, the civil parish had a total population of 2,201. The Parish of Goostrey was the fourth largest in the former <a href=\"Congleton%20%28borough%29\">Borough of Congleton</a>, excluding the four towns, with a population of 2,180 at mid-1997. Its area of 2,535 acres (10.26 square kilometres) contains 900 houses of which fourteen are <a href=\"listed%20building\">listed building</a>s and are considered as being of historical or architectural importance.\nIt is possible that Goostrey was a meeting place or even a settlement during the 1st millennium BC, as stone and bronze axe heads and <a href=\"tumulus\">barrows</a> within the parish boundary show the area was inhabited before the <a href=\"British%20Iron%20Age\">Iron Age</a>. <a href=\"British%20Bronze%20Age\">Bronze Age</a> barrows have also been found near <a href=\"Twemlow%20Hall\">Twemlow Hall</a> and Terra Nova School on the edge of the parish. The 1,200-year-old <a href=\"Taxus%20baccata\">yew tree</a> in Goostrey's churchyard suggests that the mound on which the church is built was a focal point for a community during the <a href=\"Dark%20Ages%20%28historiography%29\">Dark Ages</a> of the 1st millennium. At that time Cheshire was under the control of the <a href=\"Wrekinset\">Wreocensæte</a> people of <a href=\"Mercia\">Mercia</a>.\nGoostrey first appears in recorded history with two entries in the <a href=\"Domesday%20Book\">Domesday Book</a> of 1086, when most of the parish was held by William FitzNigel, Baron of <a href=\"Halton%20%28borough%29\">Halton</a>, and by Hugh de Mara, another follower of the <a href=\"Earl%20of%20Chester\">Earl of Chester</a>. Hugh FitzNorman gave much land in Goostrey to endow the new <a href=\"Chester%20Cathedral\">Abbey of Saint Werburgh</a> in Chester in 1119, as did a later owner, Baron Hugh of <a href=\"Mold%2C%20Flintshire\">Mold</a>. Some land in the parish or nearby Twemlow was also given to help endow the <a href=\"Vale%20Royal%20Abbey\">Vale Royal Abbey</a>, near <a href=\"Northwich\">Northwich</a>.\nThe Parish of Goostrey-cum-Barnshaw remained ecclesiastical property until the 14th century, leased out at first and then managed by the abbey directly. Abbey records mostly relate to maintenance of ditches, mills and fish ponds and give a picture of a scatter of small farms set amongst woods and heath supplying wood, flour and fish to the great <a href=\"Chester%20Cathedral\">Chester Abbey</a>, some later gifted to the new foundation of <a href=\"Vale%20Royal%20Abbey\">Vale Royal Abbey</a>.\nAfter the <a href=\"Dissolution%20of%20the%20Monasteries\">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a>, the land was purchased by the <a href=\"Mainwaring%20Baronets\">Mainwaring family</a> of Over Peover and remained part of that family's estate until the 20th century. From the 17th century, farming techniques improved and farms became bigger and more prosperous. <a href=\"Dairy%20farming\">Dairy farming</a> and particularly the Cheshire speciality, cheese, thrived, shielding the county from poor harvests and low prices. Goostrey became a centre for a comparatively well-to-do farming community. The church, <a href=\"St%20Luke%27s%20Church%2C%20Goostrey\">St Luke's</a>, a wooden framed building built around 1220 was replaced by the present one of brick in 1792. The first recorded school early in the 17th century was rebuilt in 1775, a replacement built on another site in 1812 and that replaced by the present 'old' school in 1856 when some 62 boys and 40 girls were pupils. Also at that time, the village had at least two pubs, a mill, a blacksmith, two tailors, a shoemaker and two or three shops.\nThe first big change to the old way of life was the opening of the <a href=\"Crewe%20to%20Manchester%20Line\">Crewe to Manchester railway</a> near the village in 1842. However, Goostrey did not get its own station until 1891. The <a href=\"Goostrey%20railway%20station\">new station</a> offered a market for milk and produce and brought in occasional trippers, temperance groups or Sunday schools out for a picnic. In the late 19th century, villas were built along Main Road and groups of cyclists began visiting the village, a connection which continues. After the <a href=\"First%20World%20War\">First World War</a>, <a href=\"motor%20car\">motor car</a>s were more frequent and the annual Goostrey horseraces became fashionable. Goostrey remained largely a farming community until the late 1930s, when the district council decided to build council housing in the village and to install mains drainage. In 1963, the first of three new estate developments was started and by 1970 the number of houses had quadrupled.\nThough the new residents were initially seen as \"incomers\", many soon became active members of village clubs and societies. In 1976, the village's residents and activities were captured by a series of five one-hour ITV programmes titled \"Goostrey—A Village\", which received a mixed welcome from the inhabitants themselves.\nCommunity spirit has grown along with the village. A sports field (originally planned in the 1920s) finally became a reality in the 1990s, and both \"old\" and \"new\" residents were involved in planning the village's <a href=\"millennium\">millennium</a> celebrations. Recent community ventures include a sports <a href=\"pavilion\">pavilion</a>, and a new children's play area in Boothbed Lane (completed in 2005).\nThe village of Goostrey sprawls east-west along a single main road, stretching about three miles (5 km). There are two main concentrations of houses, one in the west of the village containing the local shop and a small sports venue, and the other in the centre of the village. The east end of the village is marked by <a href=\"Goostrey%20railway%20station\">Goostrey railway station</a>, which is on the Manchester–Crewe line.\nGoostrey has a <a href=\"Goostrey%20Primary%20School\">village primary school</a>, a <a href=\"Methodist\">Methodist</a> chapel and <a href=\"St%20Luke%27s%20Church%2C%20Goostrey\">St Luke's Church</a>. There are two <a href=\"public%20house\">public house</a>s, the Crown Inn and the Red Lion. Goostrey also has a general store, a post office, a newsagent, a hairdresser, a butcher's shop, Mrs Kettle's hardware shop and a pharmacy. There are also a number of small businesses in the village.\nThe wooded valley of Red Lion Brook on the northern side of the village is known as \"The Bongs\" and features in <a href=\"Alan%20Garner\">Alan Garner</a>'s play \"Holly from the Bongs\", which was performed by the children of the village in the 1970s for the BBC. Alan Garner lives in the village in the late 16th century house known as Toad Hall and set his popular novel \"<a href=\"The%20Weirdstone%20of%20Brisingamen\">The Weirdstone of Brisingamen</a>\" in nearby <a href=\"Alderley%20Edge\">Alderley Edge</a>.\nGoostrey is near <a href=\"Holmes%20Chapel\">Holmes Chapel</a>; most of the village children attend <a href=\"Holmes%20Chapel%20Comprehensive%20School\">Holmes Chapel Comprehensive School</a> after leaving <a href=\"Goostrey%20Primary%20School\">Goostrey Primary School</a>. Goostrey is also near <a href=\"Knutsford\">Knutsford</a>, <a href=\"Wilmslow\">Wilmslow</a>, <a href=\"Alderley%20Edge\">Alderley Edge</a> and <a href=\"Sandbach\">Sandbach</a>.\nGoostrey Rose Day is the annual summer village <a href=\"f%C3%AAte\">fête</a> which is held on the last Saturday of June. The village children, organisations and the young at hearts dress in fancy-dress costumes and parade through the village. To mark the centenary, Goostrey held a <a href=\"scarecrow\">scarecrow</a> competition for the whole village to participate in, which has now become an annual event in the village. Photos of past Goostrey Rose Days can be seen in the Crown Inn.\nThere is a very popular local tradition of <a href=\"gooseberry\">gooseberry</a> growing, and an annual Goostrey Gooseberry Show. A plaque in the Crown Inn lists all of the show's past winners.\nGoostrey is a thriving village with a close knit community and has many clubs and organisations for all ages. The village has a village hall as well as a park and children's play area. The village also has its own sports pavilion and facilities which are available to village residents and include a <a href=\"bowling%20green\">bowling green</a>, football pitch and tennis courts.\nAn active footpaths group keeps the many public footpaths around the village in good order. \"More Goostrey Walks & Strolls\" details nine walks around the village and is available via the group's website (see External Links). It has photos, maps needed for the walks and is a mine of historical and ecological information about Goostrey.\nIn 2006, Goostrey became one of the first villages in the United Kingdom to have its own profile on the social networking website MySpace.\n2007 saw the introduction of the Goostrey Arts Festival. Also known as \"Goosfest\", the week-long showcase comprises a wide variety of events promoting the cultural life of the village, consisting of amateur and professional practitioners (many of whom are local) across a wide range of the arts, including stand-up comedy, classical, folk and contemporary music, pottery, photography and paintings. The majority of the events take place in the Red Lion, the village hall, the Crown Inn and St Luke's Church.\n","Pevsner Architectural Guides\nThe Pevsner Architectural Guides are a series of <a href=\"guide%20book\">guide book</a>s to the <a href=\"architecture\">architecture</a> of the <a href=\"British%20Isles\">British Isles</a>. Begun in the 1940s by the art historian <a href=\"Sir%20Nikolaus%20Pevsner\">Sir Nikolaus Pevsner</a>, the 46 volumes of the original Buildings of England series were published between 1951 and 1974. The series was then extended to <a href=\"Scotland\">Scotland</a>, <a href=\"Wales\">Wales</a> and <a href=\"Ireland\">Ireland</a> in the late 1970s. The Irish guides are incomplete as of autumn 2016. Most of the English volumes have had second editions, chiefly by other authors.\nThe final Scottish volume, \"Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire\", was published in Autumn 2016. This completed the series' coverage of Great Britain in the 65th anniversary year of their inception.\nAfter moving to <a href=\"Great%20Britain\">Great Britain</a> from his native <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a> in the 1930s, Nikolaus Pevsner found that the study of <a href=\"architectural%20history\">architectural history</a> had little status in academic circles, and that the amount of information available, especially to travellers wanting to inform themselves about the architecture of a particular district, was limited. He conceived a project to write a series of comprehensive county guides to rectify this, and gained the backing of <a href=\"Allen%20Lane\">Allen Lane</a>, founder of <a href=\"Penguin%20Books\">Penguin Books</a>, for whom he had written his \"Outline of European Architecture\".\nWork on the series began in 1945. Lane employed two part-time assistants, both <a href=\"German%20people\">German</a> refugee art historians, who prepared notes for Pevsner from published sources. Pevsner spent the academic holidays touring the country to make personal observations and to carry out local research, before writing up the finished volumes. The first volume was published in 1951.\nPevsner wrote 32 of the books himself and ten with collaborators, with a further four of the original series written by others: the two Gloucestershire volumes by David Verey, and the two volumes on Kent by <a href=\"John%20Newman%20%28architectural%20historian%29\">John Newman</a>. Newman is the only author in the series to have written a volume and revised it three times.\nSince Pevsner's death, work has continued on the series, with several volumes now in their third revision, and three in their fourth editions.\nThe books are compact and intended to meet the needs of both specialists and the general reader. Each contains an extensive introduction to the architectural history and styles of the area, followed by a town-by-town — and in the case of larger settlements, street-by-street — account of individual buildings. These are often grouped under the heading \"Perambulation\", as Pevsner intended the books to be used as the reader was walking about the area. The guides offer both detailed coverage of the most notable buildings and notes on lesser-known and <a href=\"Vernacular%20architecture\">vernacular</a> buildings; all building types are covered but there is a particular emphasis on churches and public buildings. Each volume has a central section with several dozen pages of photographs, originally in black and white, though colour illustrations have featured in revised volumes published by <a href=\"Yale%20University%20Press\">Yale University Press</a> since 2003.\nThe boundaries of each volume do not follow a uniform pattern and have evolved with revisions and expansions. The original intention was to maintain whatever boundaries were current at time of writing; in the first years of the survey these were the <a href=\"Historic%20counties%20of%20England\">traditional counties</a> of England. However boundary changes to the London area in 1965 and the rest of England in 1974 meant that this was no longer practicable. As such there are now many variants: \"Cumbria\", for example, covers the modern <a href=\"non-metropolitan%20county\">non-metropolitan county</a> – excepting the district of <a href=\"Sedbergh\">Sedbergh</a> which although in modern <a href=\"Cumbria\">Cumbria</a> is included in the volume covering the <a href=\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>. Conversely, the <a href=\"Furness\">Furness</a> area – geographically in Cumbria but traditionally in <a href=\"Lancashire\">Lancashire</a> – is included, having been omitted from the predecessor volume, \"Cumberland and Westmorland\".\nThe six volumes currently covering London collectively represent the 32 <a href=\"London%20boroughs\">London boroughs</a> plus the <a href=\"City%20of%20London\">City</a>, which constitute the modern <a href=\"Greater%20London\">Greater London</a> region, rather than earlier divisions. The entire volume on <a href=\"Middlesex\">Middlesex</a> was an early casualty of this rearrangement, as are parts of the revised volumes covering <a href=\"Surrey\">Surrey</a>, <a href=\"Essex\">Essex</a> and <a href=\"Kent\">Kent</a>. The forthcoming \"Birmingham and the Black Country\" volume covers the area bounded by the modern <a href=\"West%20Midlands%20%28county%29\">West Midlands</a> metropolitan county, but minus the Metropolitan Borough of <a href=\"Coventry\">Coventry</a> and the rural part of <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Borough%20of%20Solihull\">Metropolitan Borough of Solihull</a>. These appear in the revised \"Warwickshire\" volume, despite no longer being in that county. Hence \"Warwickshire\" now follows the boundary of neither the <a href=\"Warwickshire\">traditional</a> nor the modern county.\n\"The Buildings of Scotland\" similarly features hybrid divisions, with volumes such as \"Fife\" and \"Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire\" reflecting their traditional county boundaries whilst \"Highland and Islands\" corresponds to the modern counterparts. \"The Buildings of Ireland\" has so far broadly corresponded to the traditional <a href=\"provinces%20of%20Ireland\">provinces of Ireland</a> and is blind to <a href=\"Irish%20border\">the national boundary</a>. \"The Buildings of Wales\" largely follows the post-1974 divisions.\nThe list below is of the volumes that are currently in print – dates in brackets indicate forthcoming editions.\nSince 1962, the guides have undergone a gradual programme of updating to reflect architectural-history scholarship and to include significant new buildings. Pevsner left virtually all the revisions to others, acting as supervisor only. He ultimately revised only two of his original editions alone: \"London 1: The Cities of London and Westminster\" (1962) and \"Cambridgeshire\" (1970). Both were later revised again by others. To date, the oldest wholly unrevised volume is \"Yorkshire: The North Riding\" (1966). Additionally, readers looking for information on <a href=\"West%20Sussex\">West Sussex</a> will have to consult Ian Nairn's 1965 text, whilst those wishing to read about the architecture of the <a href=\"Black%20Country\">Black Country</a> must refer to the 1966 text of \"Warwickshire\" pending a new volume covering that area. Of the rest, only \"Dorset\" (1972) and \"Staffordshire\" (1974) remain in their unrevised first editions.\nUntil 1953, all volumes were published in paperback only, after which both hardback and paperback versions were issued. The revision of \"London: 1\" in 1962 was the first volume to be issued in hardback alone, and no further paperbacks were issued after 1964. Until 1970 volumes bore a sequential reference number, with \"Cornwall\" being 1. The last volume to be so numbered was \"Gloucestershire 2: The Vale and the Forest of Dean\" (41). Thereafter <a href=\"ISBN\">ISBN</a>s identify each volume. Beginning in 1983, a larger format was introduced, and all subsequent new editions have been issued in this format. Volumes revised pre-1983 have been reprinted in the original, smaller format (marked with an asterisk in the table below). All editions are now published by <a href=\"Yale%20University%20Press\">Yale University Press</a>.\nWhere revisions have been spread over more than one volume, the preceding edition remains in print until the whole area has been revised. Editions which have been partly superseded in this way are marked ‡.\nThe first of the paperback City Guides, covering Manchester, appeared in 2001. It featured a new format with integrated colour illustrations. In most cases the City Guides have preceded a revision of the county volume in which they are located, although they do go into greater detail than the county volumes and have more illustrations. Thus the Birmingham guide completely supersedes the central Birmingham section of the \"Warwickshire\" volume, which is now almost fifty years old. Two of the guides, covering \"Newcastle and Gateshead\" and \"Hull\", are more recent than the hardback editions for the surrounding counties, and therefore update as well as expand the coverage of those cities. This series appears to be on a hiatus, with no new volumes published since 2010 and none confirmed as in planning.\nTwo supplementary works – thus far the only of their type – were published in 1998, one covering London's City Churches and the other the Docklands area (see \"London Docklands\" in Superseded Volumes below). Both were issued in the format of the main series rather than the City Guides. However, unlike the Docklands edition which represented preliminary work for an expanded main volume, the City Churches volume augmented the text in \"London 1: The City\", published the previous year. The continued development of the Docklands area meant that the volume was superseded when \"London 5: East\" was published seven years later, but the City Churches volume remains current and was reissued by Yale in 2002.\nThe series continued under Pevsner's founding editorship into Scotland. The format is largely similar; however, only \"Lothian\" was published in the original small volume style. One noticeable difference in some of the Scottish series is a greater subdivision of the main gazetteer (\"e.g.\" in \"Argyll and Bute\" mainland Argyll has separate gazetteer from its islands, and Bute similarly is treated on its own). Unlike \"The Buildings of England\", none of the Scottish volumes adopts a hierarchy of ecclesiastical buildings, instead grouping them together. As with the English revisions, several of the volumes are the work of many contributors. The series was completed with \"Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire\", published in November 2016.\nThe volumes on Glasgow and Edinburgh are, with Dublin (see below) the only Pevsner volumes outside London to focus exclusively on a city. These volumes should not be confused with the City Guide format (see above).\nThe series has also been extended to Wales, and was completed with the issue of \"Gwynedd\" in 2009 (although this initial survey had taken seven years longer than Pevsner's first complete survey of England). Only the first volume, \"Powys\" (edited by Richard Haslam, and published in 1979) appeared in the original small format style; and this volume has now been superseded by a revised large-format edition, published in 2013. This is the first (and to date only) guide outside \"The Buildings of England\" series to be revised.\nThe Irish series is incomplete, with only four volumes being published between 1979 and the present day. Research for several of the intended volumes has not yet begun.\nThe revision of the series has rendered some original volumes obsolete, usually as the area of coverage has changed. For example, the county of <a href=\"Cumbria\">Cumbria</a> was created after the publication of \"Cumberland and Westmorland\" and \"North Lancashire\", leading to the merger of material from both volumes in a single volume \"Cumbria\", a revision with a new geographical focus.\nTo date the following volumes have been entirely superseded:\nIn addition, two volumes, \"North Devon\" and \"South Devon\" (1952) were superseded by a single volume covering the entire county. Parts of the original \"Hampshire & the Isle of Wight\" and \"Yorkshire: the West Riding\" volumes have been superseded by revised volumes.\nIn some published volumes and in advance publicity, certain titles were announced which were ultimately never published. A number of factors accounted for this, including the readiness of parts of the text covering certain areas and the anticipated size of the volumes. Unpublished titles included:\nIn 1995 Penguin, in conjunction with <a href=\"English%20Heritage\">English Heritage</a>, released a publication based on the guides entitled \"Looking at Buildings\". Focusing on the East Riding of Yorkshire volume, Pevsner's text was adapted as an introduction, with a greater number of illustrations than the main guides. No further print publications were issued, however the title survives as an introductory website to architectural terms and selected buildings which feature the Pevsner guides<a href=\"http%3A//www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/index.html\"></a>.\nIn 1995 a <a href=\"CD-ROM\">CD-ROM</a> entitled \"A Compendium of Pevsner's Buildings of England\" was issued by <a href=\"Oxford%20University%20Press\">Oxford University Press</a>, designed as a searchable database of the volumes published for England only. A second edition was released in 2005. Bibliographies of the guides themselves were published in 1983, 1998 and 2012 by the <a href=\"Penguin%20Collectors%20Society\">Penguin Collectors Society</a>.\nIn 2016 Yale University Press published three volumes, each serving as an introduction to some of the buildings and the architectural terms mentioned in the text of the guides. Published as \"Pevsner Architectural Guides: Introductions\" these are: an architectural glossary (also available as an <a href=\"Mobile%20app\">app</a>), a volume focusing on church buildings and another on dwelling houses (including <a href=\"vernacular%20architecture\">vernacular architecture</a>).\nIn 1986, Penguin published an anthology from Pevsner's volumes edited by <a href=\"Bridget%20Cherry\">Bridget Cherry</a> and John Newman, \"The Best Buildings of England\", <a href=\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\">ISBN</a> . It has an introduction by Newman assessing Pevsner's aims and methods. In 2001, the Penguin Collectors Society published \"The Buildings of England: a Celebration\", edited by Simon Bradley and Bridget Cherry, fifty years after BE1 was published: it includes twelve essays and a selection of text from the series.\nIn 1997 the <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a> broadcast a series of documentaries entitled \"Travels with Pevsner\", in which six writers and broadcasters travelled through a county which had particular significance to them. They revisited buildings mentioned by Pevsner, critically examining his views on them. A further series was broadcast in 1998. John Grundy, who presented the programme on Northumberland, was one of the revisers of that county volume. Both series were accompanied by booklets published by the <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a>, describing the buildings featured in the programmes and suggesting others to explore. The counties visited and the travellers were:\nIn both series extracts from Pevsner's text were read by <a href=\"Benjamin%20Whitrow\">Benjamin Whitrow</a>.","Ronald McDonald House Charities\nRonald McDonald House Charities (RMHC) is an American independent <a href=\"nonprofit%20organization\">nonprofit organization</a> whose stated mission is to create, find, and support programs that directly improve the health and well-being of children.\nGerald Newman, Chief Accounting Officer for <a href=\"McDonald%27s%20Corporation\">McDonald's Corporation</a>, was \"one of the founders of Ronald McDonald Children's Charities and was president of R.M.H.C.\"\nRMHC has a global network of chapters in 64 countries and regions under three core programs: Ronald McDonald House, Ronald McDonald Family Room and Ronald McDonald Care Mobile.\nThere are currently 366 Ronald McDonald's Houses in 42 countries and regions. Ronald McDonald Houses act as a place to stay for families with hospitalized children under 21 years of age (or 18, depending on the House), who are being treated at nearby hospitals and medical facilities. Ronald McDonald's Houses provide over 7,200 bedrooms to families around the world each night, with an estimated value of $700 million in lieu of hotel costs.\nThere are currently 214 Ronald McDonald's Family Rooms in 24 countries and regions. These rooms accommodate over 3,000 families each day who live in the community and don't need or do not meet the prescribed criteria to stay at a Ronald McDonald House. They provide a safe place for family members to rest, wash clothes, take a shower, or nap near the vicinity of their child.\nThere are currently 50 Ronald McDonald's Care Mobiles in 9 countries and regions. Ronald McDonald Care Mobiles are mobile clinics that offer health care for children in their own neighborhoods at no cost to the families. The program serves more than 100,000 children a year, and saves families in the U.S. $10 million in medical and dental costs each year.\nThe Ronald McDonald's Learning Program (Australia only) was formed in 1997 to help children who had suffered minor illness and returned to school. The stated mission of the program is to provide \"educational support\" to these children who have fallen behind in their education. The Ronald McDonald Learning Program is the only program of its kind in Australia.\nThe program now works with over 1000 students each week. The program was first piloted in 1997 by Tracey Webster.\nThe Ronald McDonald's Learning Program supplies students with:\nIn 1981, the first Ronald McDonald's House outside the United States opened, in <a href=\"Toronto\">Toronto</a>, <a href=\"Ontario\">Ontario</a>. In 1991, the 150th Ronald McDonald's House opened, in <a href=\"Paris%2C%20France\">Paris, France</a> now closed. On July 25, 2005, the 250th opened, in <a href=\"Caracas%2C%20Venezuela\">Caracas, Venezuela</a> currently closed. The first in-hospital Ronald McDonald House in APMEA (Asia Pacific Middle East and Africa) opened at Queen Sirikit National Institute of Child Health, <a href=\"Bangkok\">Bangkok</a>, <a href=\"Thailand\">Thailand</a>, on June 7, 2011. Currently there are 366 Ronald McDonald's Houses in 43 countries.\nThe first Ronald McDonald House was opened in Australia in Camperdown, New South Wales in 1981. The number of Houses has since grown to 15. It has since affected 100,000 families and houses up to 260 families per night. Each House is attached to a major Children's or Women's hospital. Each House has an independent board that manages its own day-to-day funding.\nOther RMHC Australia activities include Family Rooms in 14 hospitals. They are located at Canberra Hospital, Garran, ACT; Gosford Hospital, Gosford, New South Wales; John Hunter Hospital, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales; Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, New South Wales; Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, New South Wales; Nepean Hospital, Kingswood, New South Wales; Gold Coast Hospital Children's Ward, Southport, Queensland; Gold Coast Hospital NICU, Southport, Queensland; Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria; Sunshine Hospital, St Albans, Victoria; The Northern Hospital, Epping, Victoria; Wodonga Hospital, Wodonga, Victoria; Peel Health Campus, Mandurah, Western Australia; and Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Subiaco, Western Australia\nRMHC Australia also operates Family Retreats that enable families of sick children to take a holiday for a week. The retreats are located in Ocean Grove, Victoria; Jurien Bay and Bunbury, Western Australia; Forster, New South Wales and Palm Cove in Northern Queensland.\nThe Ronald McDonald Learning Program assists seriously ill children to catch up with missed education while staying in hospital. It provides assessment, therapy, and tuition to children and training for teachers. It assists over 500 children a week.\nThe Charlie Bell Scholarship Program is named after the first Australian Global <a href=\"McDonald%27s\">McDonald's</a> Corporation CEO. The program provides financial assistance in the form of 11 one off scholarships a year. It assists with expenses related to vocational or tertiary education for children that have been seriously ill.\nThe Ronald McDonald Care Mobile is a partnership between RMHC Australia and <a href=\"Royal%20Far%20West\">Royal Far West</a>. It is based in Orange in regional New South Wales and travels throughout rural and remote New South Wales.\nRonald McDonald House Charity Australia is also the major private donor to Cord Blood Banks in Australia, providing a 10-year $A1 million commitment.\nOn May 21, 2016 Ronald McDonald Barnefond (Ronald McDonald Children's Fund) along with Stine Sofies Stiftelse, opened the world's first camp and learning center for children.\nStine Sofie Stiftelse first joined forces with Ronald McDonald Barnefond in 2015. The initial purpose was to fix houses where children of abuse and their families can stay for a day free of charge.\nThrough the <a href=\"http%3A//rmhc.org/how-you-can-help/other-ways-to-get-involved/pop-tab-collections/\">RMHC Pop Tab Collection Program</a>, to date more than $4 million has been generated. The Pop Tab Collection Program has been established to allow individuals and businesses to collect <a href=\"Tab%20%28beverage%20can%29\">soda pop tabs</a> from aluminum cans and donate them to their local RMHC Chapter or Ronald McDonald's House. Though it differs from program to program, for the most part, RMHC Chapters use the money received from recycling the tabs to help offset operational expenses or to sponsor or support programs. Not all Houses participate in the Pop Tab Program. Collected pop tabs are used by Ronald McDonald House Charities to fund their work.\n\"<a href=\"Worth%20%28magazine%29\">Worth</a>\" magazine named Ronald McDonald's House Charity one of \"America's 100 Best Charities\" in 2001 and 2002.\nThe U.S. Green Building Council awarded the Ronald McDonald's House Charities of Austin and Central Texas (RMHC-ACT) with Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design <a href=\"Leadership%20in%20Energy%20and%20Environmental%20Design\">(LEED)</a> Platinum certification, the highest level of sustainable building in the nation. Not only is the design good for the environment, the Earth-friendly features create a beautiful environment for the children and families staying at the Ronald McDonald House.\n","Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd\nMorton v Douglas Homes Ltd has become an important case in New Zealand as a result of the <a href=\"leaky%20homes%20crisis\">leaky homes crisis</a>. The salience of the case comes from the fact that <a href=\"Michael%20Hardie%20Boys\">Justice Hardie Boys</a> held the directors of a building company personally liable for damage caused by defective foundations. The case has been described in the <a href=\"Court%20of%20Appeal%20of%20New%20Zealand\">Court of Appeal</a> as one that, \"certainly provides some authority for the view that the directors of a building company with actual control of particular building operations owe a duty of care, associated with that control.\"\nBetween 1976 and 1977 Douglas Homes Ltd built four flats in a residential subdivision in <a href=\"Waimairi%20County\">Waimairi County</a>, <a href=\"Canterbury%2C%20New%20Zealand\">Canterbury</a> over the top of an old shingle pit. Before construction, \"the directors had been advised by an engineer on the work necessary for the laying of foundations for two flats. One of the directors did not ensure that the engineer’s advice was adhered to in the construction of the foundations of one flat. The other director specifically took charge of the works on the other, and failed to ensure the engineer’s advice was followed.\"\nHardie Boys J reasoned that the directors of Douglas Homes Ltd could be held liable for their negligence as, \"The principle of limited liability protects shareholders and not directors, and a director is as responsible for his own torts as any other servant or agent.\"\nHardie Boys J held that in establishing whether a director owed a duty of care the test was to be that established in \"<a href=\"Anns%20v%20Merton%20LBC\">Anns v Merton London Borough Council</a>\" [1978] AC 728 and that a duty of care was founded upon the control a director exercised over the operations of a company.\nThe ratio has not yet been overturned and as such remains a precedent for holding directors liable for defects in construction that was under their control. In 2006 in \"Dicks v Hobson Swan Construction Limited (in liquidation),\" <a href=\"David%20Baragwanath\">Justice Baragwanath</a> applied the ratio of the case to hold a director personally liable for a <a href=\"Leaky%20homes%20crisis\">leaky building</a> constructed by his company. In a 2010 appeal from the Weathertight Homes Tribunal Justice Wylie noted the correct approach to searching for directorial liability lay through the test articulated in \"Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd\";","Exterior insulation finishing system\nExterior insulation and finish system (EIFS) is a general class of non-load bearing building cladding systems that provides exterior walls with an insulated, water-resistant, finished surface in an integrated composite material system. In Europe, systems similar to EIFS are known as <a href=\"External%20wall%20insulation\">External Wall Insulation System</a> (EWIS) and External Thermal Insulation Cladding System (ETICS).\nEIFS has been in use since the 1960s in North America, first on masonry buildings, but since the 1990s the majority on wood framed buildings. There is a history of water infiltration problems causing damage to buildings resulting in costly legal cases, so the recommended systems include a drainage plane to let water drain down and out from behind the cladding.\nEIFS was developed in Europe after World War II and was initially used to retrofit <a href=\"masonry\">masonry</a> walls. EIFS started to be used in North America in the 1960s, and became very popular in the mid- 1970s due to the oil embargo and the resultant surge in interest in high energy efficiency wall systems such as EIFS provides. The use of EIFS over <a href=\"Wall%20stud\">stud</a>-and-sheathing framing instead of over solid walls is a technique used primarily in North America. EIFS is now used all over North America, and also in many other areas around the world, especially in Europe and the Pacific Rim.\nIn North America, EIFS was initially used almost exclusively on commercial, masonry buildings. As of 1997 EIFS accounted for about 4% of the residential <a href=\"siding\">siding</a> market and 12% of the commercial siding market.\nIn the late 1980s problems started developing due to water leakage in EIFS-clad buildings. This created an international controversy and numerous lawsuits. Critics argue that, while not inherently more prone to water penetration than other exterior finishes, barrier-type EIFS systems (non-water-managed systems) do not allow water that penetrates the building envelope to escape.\nThe EIFS industry has consistently maintained that the EIFS itself was not leaking, but rather poor craftsmanship and bad architectural detailing at the perimeter of the EIFS was causing the problems. As a result, building codes began mandating a drainage system for EIFS systems on wood frame buildings and additional on-site inspection.\nMost homeowner insurance policies cover EIFS and EIFS-like systems. Though there are some cases where insurance companies may not offer coverage for EIFS several companies do. Also, some facility owners have found that EIFS systems that are installed at lower building levels are subject to vandalism, as the material is soft and can be chipped or carved resulting in significant damage. If these concerns exist, specifying heavier ounce reinforcing mesh can be the answer. Building to these specifications can drastically increase the durability of the EIFS system.\nEIFS installation was found to be a contributing factor in the multibillion-dollar problem known as the \"<a href=\"Leaky%20condo%20crisis\">Leaky condo crisis</a>\" in southwestern <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia</a> and the \"<a href=\"Leaky%20homes\">Leaky homes</a>\" issue in <a href=\"New%20Zealand\">New Zealand</a> that emerged separately in the 1980s and 1990s.\nIn the United States the <a href=\"International%20Building%20Code\">International Building Code</a> and <a href=\"ASTM%20International\">ASTM International</a> define \"Exterior Insulation and Finish System\" (EIFS) as a nonload bearing, exterior wall cladding system that consists of an insulation board attached either adhesively or mechanically, or both, to the substrate; an integrally reinforced base coat; and a textured protective finish coat.\n\"EIFS with Drainage\", another EIFS system, is the predominant method of EIFS applied today. As the name implies, EIFS with Drainage provides a way for moisture that may accumulate in the wall cavity to evacuate.\nAlthough often called \"synthetic stucco\", EIFS is not <a href=\"stucco\">stucco</a>. Traditional stucco is a centuries-old material which consists of aggregate, a binder, and water, and is a hard, dense, thick, non-insulating material. EIFS is a lightweight synthetic wall cladding that includes foam plastic insulation and thin synthetic coatings. There are also \"specialty stuccos\" that use synthetic materials but no insulation, and these are also not \"EIFS\". A common example is what is called \"one-coat stucco\", which is a thick, synthetic stucco applied in a single layer (traditional stucco is applied in 3 layers).\nEIFS are proprietary systems of a particular EIFS manufacturer and consist of specific components. EIFS are not \"generic\" products made from common separate materials. To function properly, EIFS needs to be architecturally designed and installed as a system. The materials and installation methods specified by different EIFS manufacturers are not all compatible and should not be used interchangeably in new construction or repair work.\nThe technical definition of an EIFS does not include wall framing, sheathing, flashings, caulking, water barriers, windows, doors, and other wall components. However, some architects have begun specifying flashings, <a href=\"sealant\">sealant</a>s, and wiring fasteners as being a part of the EIFS scope of work, essentially requiring EIFS contractors to carry out that work as well. The technical national consensus standard for the definition of an EIFS, as published by ASTM International does not include <a href=\"Flashing%20%28weatherproofing%29\">flashing</a> or sealants as part of the EIFS. Many of the EIFS manufacturers have their own standard details showing typical building conditions for window and door flashings, control joints, inside/outside corners, penetrations, and joints at dissimilar materials which should be followed for that manufacturers warranty.\nEIFS are typically attached to the outside face of exterior walls with an adhesive (cementitious or acrylic based) or mechanical fasteners. Adhesives are commonly used to attach EIFS to gypsum board, cement board, or concrete substrates. EIFS are attached with mechanical fasteners (specially designed for this application) when installed over <a href=\"housewrap\">housewrap</a>s (sheet-good weather barriers) such as are commonly used over wood sheathings. The supporting wall surface should be continuous (not \"open framing\") and flat.\nResearch, conducted by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and supported by the Department of Energy, has validated that EIFS are the \"best performing cladding\" in relation to thermal and moisture control when compared to brick, stucco, and cementitious fiberboard siding. In addition EIFS are in full compliance with modern building codes which emphasize energy conservation through the use of CI (continuous insulation) and a continuous air barrier. Both these components are built into today's EIFS products to provide maximum energy savings, reduced environmental impact over the life of the structure, and improved IAQ, Indoor Air Quality. Along with these functional advantages come virtually unlimited color, texture, and decorative choices to enhance curb appeal and enjoyment of almost any home or structure.\nEIFS before 2000 were barrier systems, meaning that the EIFS itself was the weather barrier. After 2000 the EIFS industry introduced the air/moisture barrier that resides behind the foam. In a study done by the Department Of Energy's Office of Science - Oak Ridge National Laboratory it was found that the best air/moisture barrier was a fluid barrier. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ATLANTA, Oct. 28, 2006 — EIFS \"outperformed all other walls in terms of moisture while maintaining superior thermal performance.\" The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has evaluated the five life cycle stages of the environmental impact of EIFS alongside brick, aluminum, stucco, vinyl, and cedar. Depending on a variety of site and project specific conditions, EIFS have the potential to save money in construction costs and contribute toward energy efficient operations and environmental responsibility when correctly designed and executed.\nEIFS have also passed a variety of fire tests that range from resistance to ignitability, that include: ASTM E 119, NFPA 268, NFPA 285, ANSI FM 4880.\nTypes of EIFS are defined by their materials and the existence/absence of a drainage plane. The EIFS Industry Members Association (EIMA) defines two classes of EIFS, Class PB (polymer based) identified as PB EIFS and Class PM (polymer modified) identified as PM EIFS.\nPB EIFS is the most common type in North America and historically used expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation adhered to the substrate with fiberglass mesh embedded in a nominal 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) base coat which can receive additional layers of mesh and base coat for stronger impact resistance. Other types of insulation board can include <a href=\"polyisocyanurate\">polyisocyanurate</a>.\nPM EIFS use extruded polystyrene insulation (XEPS), and a thick, cementitious base coat applied over mechanically attached glass fiber reinforcing mesh. The system has joints similar to traditional stucco. PM EIFS have evolved to include different insulation materials and base coats.\nThe most common type of EIFS used today is the system that includes a drainage cavity, which allows any and all moisture to exit the wall. EIFS with drainage typically consists of the following components:\nIf an EIFS with Drainage, or water-managed EIFS is installed, a water resistive barrier (aka a WRB) is first installed over the substrate (generally glass faced exterior-grade <a href=\"Drywall\">gypsum sheathing</a>, <a href=\"oriented%20strand%20board\">oriented strand board</a> (OSB) or <a href=\"plywood\">plywood</a>). The moisture barrier is applied to the entire wall surface with a mesh tape over joints and a liquid-applied membrane or a protective wrap like <a href=\"tyvek\">tyvek</a> or <a href=\"felt%20paper\">felt paper</a>. Then a drainage cavity is created (usually by adding some sort of space between the foam and the WRB). Then the other 3 layers, described above, are added. This type of EIFS is required by many building codes areas on wood frame construction, and is intended to provide a path for incidental water that may get behind the EIFS with a safe route back to the outside. The purpose is to preclude water from damaging the supporting wall.\nAdhesives and finishes are water-based, and thus must be installed at temperatures well above freezing. Two types of adhesives are used with EIFS: those that contain Portland cement (\"cementitious\"), or do not have any Portland cement (\"cementless\"). Adhesives that contain Portland cement harden by the chemical reaction of the cement with water. Adhesives and finishes that are cementless harden by the evaporation of water. Adhesives come in two forms: The most common is in a plastic pail as a paste, to which Portland cement is added and as dry powders in sacks, to which water is added. Finishes come in a plastic pail, ready to use, like <a href=\"paint\">paint</a>. EIFS insulation comes in individual pieces, usually 2' x 4', in large bags. The pieces are trimmed to fit the wall at the construction site.\nEIFS systems have been the subject of several lawsuits, mostly related to the installation process and failure of the system causing moisture buildups and subsequent mold growth. The most notable case concerned the former <a href=\"San%20Martin%2C%20California\">San Martin, California</a> courthouse. This case was settled for 12 million dollars.\nThe basic underlying problem behind EIFS litigation was that EIFS was marketed as a cost-effective replacement for stucco. Stucco is expensive to install because it must be carefully applied by skilled craftsmen and takes a month to cure between coats. General contractors switched to EIFS because they were supposed to be easy to install with unskilled or semi-skilled labor and would not crack like traditional stucco if they were not cured properly. Although EIFS \"if properly installed\" according to the manufacturer's directions should not have water intrusion problems, many GCs cut corners by using insufficiently trained labor and also failed to supervise their work adequately. In turn, thousands of EIFS installations were noncompliant and suffered severe water intrusion and mold as a result. While the EIFS industry has consistently tried to shift the blame to GCs, the construction industry has retorted that using journeymen carpenters in turn eliminates the cost advantage of EIFS over stucco, and that the EIFS industry should have anticipated this issue and engineered its products from the beginning to be installed by unskilled labor or semi-skilled labor (that is, it should have been a <a href=\"fault-tolerant%20design\">fault-tolerant design</a>).\nEIFS account for about 10% of the US commercial wall cladding market. There are several dozen EIFS manufacturers in North America. Some sell nationwide, and some are regional in their area of business operations. The EIFS manufacturers sell the various system components (adhesives, coatings, etc.) through specialty building product distributors, who in turn resell the components to local EIFS installers. The top five EIFS producers account for about 90% of the US market. These producers include Dryvit Systems, STO Corp., BASF Wall Systems, Master Wall, and Parex.\nAnother benefit of EIFS is the option to add architectural details that are composed of the same materials. EIFS mouldings or as they are commonly referred to, stucco mouldings, come in a large variety of shapes and sizes. They are widely used on residential/commercial projects in North America and are gaining popularity worldwide. Production methods have come a long way since their inception which allow manufacturers to create with great efficiency in a cost effective manner.","Rates (tax)\nRates are a type of <a href=\"property%20tax\">property tax</a> system in the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a>, and in places with systems deriving from the British one, the proceeds of which are used to fund <a href=\"local%20government\">local government</a>. Some other countries have taxes with a more or less comparable role, like <a href=\"France\">France</a>'s \"taxe d'habitation\".\nLocal government authorities levy annual taxes, which are called council rates or shire rates. The basis on which these charges can be calculated varies from state to state, but is usually based in some way on the value of property. Even within states, individual local government authorities can often choose the specific basis of rates - for example, it may be on the rental value of houses (as in <a href=\"Western%20Australia\">Western Australia</a>) or on the unimproved land value (as in <a href=\"New%20South%20Wales\">New South Wales</a>). These rateable valuations are usually determined by a statutory authority, and are subject to periodic revision.\nRates are referred to as property taxes in Canada. These taxes are collected primarily by municipal governments on residential, industrial and commercial properties and are their main source of funding.\nEngland and Wales, it is still levied on domestic property as well as non-domestic premises. Prior to 2000, it was used to fund municipal services, the responsibility of the now-abolished <a href=\"Urban%20Council\">Urban Council</a> and <a href=\"Regional%20Council%2C%20Hong%20Kong\">Regional Council</a>, through the <a href=\"Urban%20Services%20Department\">Urban Services Department</a> and <a href=\"Regional%20Services%20Department\">Regional Services Department</a>. The revenue now goes to the <a href=\"Treasury%20%28Hong%20Kong%29\">Treasury</a>. The bill is issued quarterly.\n<a href=\"Ireland\">Ireland</a> is re-introducing rates in 2013 after having abolished them in 1977. The rates will be based on a self-assessment of the property values and set at 0.18% of a property's value annually, and 0.25% for any part of a property's value over €1m.\n<a href=\"Israel\">Israel</a> has a similar tax known as \"arnona\" that goes back to the days of the <a href=\"British%20Mandate%20of%20Palestine\">British Mandate of Palestine</a>. It is levied by the municipality (or, in smaller localities, by the \"moatza eizorit\", i.e., Regional Council) based (currently) on the square meterage of dwelling or business. Specific rates vary widely among municipalities, with <a href=\"Jerusalem\">Jerusalem</a> and <a href=\"Rehovot\">Rehovot</a> having the highest rates in the country. In rental dwellings, tenants (rather than owners) generally pay the arnona. Single parents and some forms of economic hardship qualify for discounts or even exemptions.\nIn New Zealand, rates provide the major source of revenue for funding <a href=\"Territorial%20Authorities%20of%20New%20Zealand\">Territorial Authorities of New Zealand</a> expenditure since the late 1800s. Rates are basically a tax on real estate property. For the year ended June 2005, rates made up 56% of local authority operating revenue.\nAlmost all property owners in New Zealand pay rates. People who rent property do not pay rates directly, but property owners will take account of the cost of rates when they set the rent. As a result, those who rent properties also have an interest in the level of rates, as well as in the services provided by councils using these rates.\nSome types of property are exempt from rate levies - government land and rail land, for example. Other categories of property may possibly only be rated at 50% (land used for some types of sports purposes). And Maori land - particularly where ownership and therefore liability for rates are hard to establish - can also get special treatment. Exceptions are listed in Schedule 1 Part 1 of the Local Government (Rating) Act 2002.\nProperty values may be assessed in three different ways – on the basis of land, annual or capital value – using valuations prepared in accordance with the Rating Valuations Act 1998. The valuation process is overseen by the Valuer-General. Each local authority, after consulting with their community, can decide which basis to use.\nCouncils can use a mix of these different methodologies when assessing rates based on the value of holdings, for example land value for its general rate and capital value for a targeted rate.\nCouncils can also levy flat charges per rating unit (i.e. each lot of land, with some exceptions where multiple adjacent lots may be considered one rating unit if in common ownership, or where multiple dwelling units are on a single lot) - generally called a uniform annual general charge. Other methodologies also exist, such as a charge per toilet bowl or urinal, or a water charge per cu metre of water supplied.\nThe Local Government (Rating) Act 2002 is the governing legislation and provides a number of options for setting rates, such that local authorities can use combinations of general rates, targeted rates and/or uniform annual general charges.\nRates in the United Kingdom are a tax on property used to provide some of the funding of local government.\nDomestic rates, split into regional and district rates, are currently collected in <a href=\"Domestic%20rates%20in%20Northern%20Ireland\">Northern Ireland</a>. They were collected in England and Wales before 1990 and in Scotland before 1989. Outside Northern Ireland <a href=\"Council%20Tax\">Council Tax</a> is collected instead of domestic rates.\nBusiness rates are collected throughout the United Kingdom, with different systems in <a href=\"Business%20rates%20in%20England%20and%20Wales\">England and Wales</a>, in <a href=\"Business%20rates%20in%20Northern%20Ireland\">Northern Ireland</a> and in <a href=\"Business%20rates%20in%20Scotland\">Scotland</a>.\nIn the US, real estate taxes which are based on a percentage of the property's actual or nominal value are referred to as \"property taxes\". The term \"rates\" is not used in this context. Property taxes are the prime funding method for local government, and are normally the responsibility of the property owner, regardless of whether the property owner lives on the property.","Maurice Williamson\nMaurice Donald Williamson (born 6 March 1951) is a former New Zealand politician, representing <a href=\"Pakuranga%20%28New%20Zealand%20electorate%29\">Pakuranga</a> in the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20House%20of%20Representatives\">House of Representatives</a> as a member of the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20National%20Party\">National Party</a>. He held several ministerial portfolios outside the <a href=\"Cabinet%20of%20New%20Zealand\">cabinet</a>: Building and Construction, Customs, Statistics and Land Information.\nWilliamson was born in <a href=\"Auckland\">Auckland</a> but spent nearly all his school years in <a href=\"Matamata\">Matamata</a>. After graduating with qualifications in <a href=\"computer%20science\">computer science</a> and <a href=\"applied%20mathematics\">applied mathematics</a> from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Auckland\">University of Auckland</a>, he worked for twelve years developing airline planning software for mainframe computers.\nWilliamson is married to Raewyn and has three children. He is an Honorary Fellow of the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20Computer%20Society\">New Zealand Computer Society</a> (HFNZCS).\nWilliamson was a member of Parliament for the National Party, a centre-right political Party in New Zealand, as MP for Pakuranga since the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20general%20election%2C%201987\">1987 general election</a>. He held a number of ministerial posts, including Minister of Communications, Minister of Broadcasting, Minister of Transport, and Minister of Research, Science and Technology, and associate Minister of Health (1990–96). He was a strong supporter of <a href=\"Prostitution%20in%20New%20Zealand\">reform of prostitution law</a>.\nHis 2005 election campaign saw one of the strongest results for National across New Zealand.\nHe was suspended from <a href=\"caucus\">caucus</a> on 22 July 2003, after refusing to curtail his criticism of the National Party leader, <a href=\"Bill%20English\">Bill English</a>, who he blamed for poor performance in the polls. After English was replaced by <a href=\"Don%20Brash\">Don Brash</a>, Williamson was reinstated. After his return from suspension, Williamson played an active role in National, and was elevated up the ranks to eighth position in the National lineup in 2008.\nOn 1 May 2014, he resigned his ministerial portfolios after making what the Prime Minister, John Key, called, \"A serious error of judgement.\" The Prime Minister was referring to a phone call Mr Williamson had made to the Police enquiring about a charge they were laying against businessman and National Party donor <a href=\"Donghua%20Liu\">Donghua Liu</a> over domestic violence allegations. Williamson had told police he was not trying to interfere with the process – he just wanted to make sure somebody had reviewed the matter to ensure the police were on solid ground as \"Mr Liu is investing a lot of money in New Zealand\".\nAfter the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20general%20election%2C%202008\">2008 general election</a> the National Party formed a minority government with 3 Confidence and Supply partners. Despite his high list placing, Williamson was not selected for cabinet due in part to a series of gaffes during the election campaign relating to the party's policy on road tolls. He was given ministerial responsibilities outside of cabinet for Customs, Building and Construction, Statistics and Small Business. One of the major matters under his governance was the ongoing <a href=\"Leaky%20homes%20crisis\">Leaky homes crisis</a>, which he noted as having the government \"stumped\" due to its enormity.\nIn June 2009, <a href=\"Richard%20Worth\">Richard Worth</a> left Parliament after Prime Minister <a href=\"John%20Key\">John Key</a> lost confidence in him as a Minister over sexual allegations. Williamson was made the acting Minister of Worth's portfolios of Internal Affairs, National Library and Archives New Zealand which were subsequently passed on to <a href=\"Nathan%20Guy\">Nathan Guy</a>.\nAfter the election of the <a href=\"50th%20Parliament%20of%20New%20Zealand\">50th Parliament of New Zealand</a> Williamson was returned to his seat and re-appointed as a minister in the second term of the National-led government. Williamson retained his 2008 portfolios of Customs, Land Information and Building and Construction but lost the role of Small Business Minister to <a href=\"John%20Banks%20%28New%20Zealand%20politician%29\">John Banks</a> as part of the new National-ACT Confidence and Supply deal. Williamson remained a minister outside of cabinet, along with <a href=\"Jo%20Goodhew\">Jo Goodhew</a>, <a href=\"Chester%20Borrows\">Chester Borrows</a> and <a href=\"Chris%20Tremain\">Chris Tremain</a>, until his resignation from all ministerial portfolios on 1 May 2014.\nHe announced that he would not stand for Parliament at the 2017 election.\nIn April 2013, Williamson voted in favour of the <a href=\"Marriage%20%28Definition%20of%20Marriage%29%20Amendment%20Act%202013\">Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill</a> which legalised same-sex marriage, delivering a memorable speech prior to the third reading vote. The speech was soon being referenced worldwide by news outlets. With Williamson's sarcastic and honest approach, the speech was viewed hundreds of thousands of times over the next few days, and featured on high-profile news sites like <a href=\"The%20Huffington%20Post\">The Huffington Post</a> and <a href=\"Gawker\">Gawker</a>. Williamson said he had an offer to go on \"<a href=\"The%20Ellen%20DeGeneres%20Show\">The Ellen DeGeneres Show</a>\", but had to turn it down due to rules around ministers accepting gifts. Williamson was later given approval by the prime minister to go on the show as long as he donated any money received to charity. Williamson's speech was praised by Opposition politicians and left-wing media commentators.","Goods and Services Tax (New Zealand)\nGoods and Services Tax (GST) is a <a href=\"value-added%20tax\">value-added tax</a> in <a href=\"New%20Zealand\">New Zealand</a>.\nGST in New Zealand is designed to be a broad-based system with few exemptions. Exceptions that do exist include rents collected on residential rental properties, donations, precious metals and financial services.\nEnd users pay this tax on all liable goods and services indirectly, in that the purchase price of goods and services includes GST.\nThe rate for GST effective since 1 October 2010 is 15%.\nGST was introduced by the <a href=\"Fourth%20Labour%20Government%20of%20New%20Zealand\">Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand</a> on 1 October 1986 at a rate of 10% on most goods and services. It replaced existing sales taxes for some goods and services. GST was a part of the economic reforms initiated by Labour Finance Minister <a href=\"Roger%20Douglas\">Roger Douglas</a> dubbed <a href=\"Rogernomics\">Rogernomics</a>. GST was introduced in conjunction with compensating changes to personal income tax rates.\nSince its introduction it has had two increases, on 1 July 1989 the rate increased to 12.5% and on 1 October 2010 it increased again to 15%, to pay for income tax cuts by the <a href=\"Fifth%20National%20Government%20of%20New%20Zealand\">National Government</a>, under which, \"Higher income earners get the biggest gain from these income tax cuts\".\nGST-registered organisations and individuals pay GST only on the difference between GST-liable sales and GST-liable supplies (i.e., they pay GST on the difference between what they sell and what they buy: income less expenditure). This is accomplished by reconciling GST received (through sales) and GST paid (through purchases) at regular periods (typically every two months, with some qualifying companies opting for one-month or six-month periods), then either paying the difference to the Inland Revenue (IRD) if the GST collected on sales is higher or receiving a refund from IRD if the GST paid on purchases is higher.\nBusinesses exporting goods and services from New Zealand are entitled to \"zero-rate\" their products: effectively, they charge GST at 0%. This permits the business to claim back the input GST, but the eventual, non-New Zealand based consumer does not pay the tax (businesses that produce GST-exempt supplies are not able to claim back input GST).\nBecause businesses claim back their input GST, the GST inclusive price is usually irrelevant for business purchasing decisions, other than in relation to <a href=\"cash%20flow\">cash flow</a> issues. Consequently, <a href=\"wholesaler\">wholesaler</a>s often state prices exclusive of GST, but must collect the full, GST-inclusive price when they make the sale and account to the IRD for the GST so collected.\nOn 1 October 2016, the taxation of digital ('remote') services supplied by offshore companies (non-New Zealand) to consumers based in New Zealand changes. From this date onwards a GST of 15% (dubbed the 'Netflix Tax') will be applied to all supplies from offshore digital service suppliers to New Zealand based consumers. It will be the supplier's responsibility to apply, collect, and remit the <a href=\"http%3A//www.ird.govt.nz/industry-guidelines/non-res-bus-gst/online-services/non-res-bus-gst-online-services.html\">new GST</a> to New Zealand's <a href=\"Inland%20Revenue%20Department%20%28New%20Zealand%29\">Inland Revenue Department</a>.\nThis new piece of GST legislation mirrors similar rules governing the supply of digital services introduced in the European Union (EU) in <a href=\"Taxation%20of%20digital%20goods\">January 2015</a>.\nThe general taxation of digital goods and services has become more commonplace internationally since the <a href=\"Organisation%20for%20Economic%20Co-operation%20and%20Development\">OECD</a> released its long-awaited <a href=\"Base%20erosion%20and%20profit%20shifting\">BEPS</a> report in October 2015. Action 1 of this BEPS report deals with the taxation of the <a href=\"digital%20economy\">digital economy</a>. The report provided guidelines and recommendations for such taxes be they in the form of <a href=\"value-added%20tax\">value-added tax</a>, GST, equalisation levy, or <a href=\"withholding%20tax\">withholding tax</a>.\nNew Zealand is the latest jurisdiction to include such rules in legislation following in the path of Norway, the EU, South Africa, South Korea, and Japan. In July 2017 the Australian Government also plans to introduce similar rules.","Wellington Hospital, New Zealand\nWellington Hospital is the main hospital in <a href=\"Wellington\">Wellington</a>, New Zealand, located south of the city centre in the suburb of <a href=\"Newtown%2C%20New%20Zealand\">Newtown</a>. It is the main hospital run by Capital & Coast District Health Board (C&CDHB), which serves <a href=\"Wellington%20City\">Wellington City</a>, <a href=\"Porirua\">Porirua</a> and the <a href=\"Kapiti%20Coast\">Kapiti Coast</a> District. <a href=\"Lower%20Hutt\">Lower Hutt</a> and <a href=\"Upper%20Hutt\">Upper Hutt</a> are served by the separate Hutt Valley DHB and a separate hospital, <a href=\"Hutt%20Hospital\">Hutt Hospital</a>, in the Lower Hutt suburb of Boulcott.\nWellington Hospital is the region's main tertiary hospital with services such as complex specialist and acute (or ‘tertiary’) services, procedures and treatments such as the Intensive Care Unit, cardiac surgery, cancer care, cardiology procedures, neurosurgery, and renal care. The Hospital is a tertiary referral centre for the lower half of the <a href=\"North%20Island\">North Island</a> and the upper half of the <a href=\"South%20Island\">South Island</a>, including the <a href=\"Chatham%20Islands\">Chatham Islands</a>.\nIt is affiliated with the <a href=\"University%20of%20Otago\">University of Otago</a> and has the Wellington School of Medicine and Health Sciences situated adjacent to the hospital.\nThe first hospital was established in 1847 to address the needs of the Māori and the poorer local population. This was one of the first four hospitals established by Governor <a href=\"George%20Grey\">George Grey</a>. He believed that the young and fit settlers would be treated at home but the native New Zealanders might benefit from the European influence of a hospital.\n<a href=\"Kate%20Marsden\">Kate Marsden</a> served here as matron before she returned to Europe and undertook a journey to Siberia to help the lepers. When she was subsequently accused of dishonesty there was mixed support from New Zealand. Reports here recorded that Marsden had referred to the leprosy that the Māoris suffered from. However, there was no evidence of leprosy in New Zealand although the native population did endure a similar disease.\nC&CDHB has built a new regional hospital on the existing site known as the NRH Project, the programme of work included demolition of some of the older buildings, refurbishment/upgrade of others and the construction of a new main building including wards spread over 47,830 sq metres – this project was completed in December 2008, at a cost of NZ$265m. The rebuild included a new state-of-the-art 18-bed Intensive Care Unit, a new operating theatre complex, and the uniting of medical & surgical wards into a single building. The newly named Wellington Regional Hospital has been built to withstand considerable earthquake shock waves using technology similar to that used in the construction of <a href=\"Museum%20of%20New%20Zealand%20Te%20Papa%20Tongarewa\">Te Papa</a>, New Zealand's National Museum.\nIn early 2010 Prince William visited the children of Ward 1 and some of Ward 2 (formerly known as Ward 19 and Ward 18).","Leaky condo crisis\nThe leaky condo crisis, also known as the leaky condo syndrome and rotten condo crisis, is an ongoing construction, financial, and legal crisis in <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a>. It primarily involves multi-unit <a href=\"Condominium\">condominium (or \"strata\")</a> buildings damaged by rainwater infiltration in the <a href=\"Lower%20Mainland\">Lower Mainland</a> and <a href=\"Vancouver%20Island\">Vancouver Island</a> regions of coastal <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia (B.C.)</a>. In B.C. alone an estimated $4 billion in damage has occurred to over 900 buildings and 31,000 individual housing units built between the late 1980s and early 2000s, establishing it as the most extensive and most costly reconstruction of housing stock in Canadian history.\nSimilar infiltration problems have been reported in highrise buildings and schools, as well as in other climatic zones in <a href=\"Ontario\">Ontario</a> and <a href=\"Nova%20Scotia\">Nova Scotia</a>, in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, and <a href=\"Leaky%20homes%20crisis\">New Zealand</a>. Since the start of the crisis it has been commonplace to see occupied buildings draped in scaffolding and protective tarps as the problems were assessed and repaired. The crisis has caused, as a major public inquiry concluded: \"a litany of horrific experiences, personal tragedies, and dashed dreams\" endured by homeowners.\nThe main physical problem is water infiltrating into the exterior <a href=\"Building%20envelope\">building envelope (walls and roofs)</a> of buildings, usually through a weather barrier (e.g. building paper or air barrier membrane) that is designed to prevent water drops to pass through, but allow water vapour through. However, problems in design, installation, and damage during construction can allow water to penetrate the walls. This causes <a href=\"Decomposition\">rot</a> and <a href=\"delamination\">delamination</a> of exterior wall cladding and sheathing, rusting in metal wall studs, rot in the wood structure, saturation of batt insulation, and development of mould and spores inside the walls and building interior. The construction failures ranged from minor to major failure of the structural integrity of the building. Some buildings became unhealthy to occupants. Most of these buildings are low-rise, 3-4 story buildings constructed of wood-frame construction, as well as some with steel, concrete, and metal stud construction types, including highrises.\nThe majority of the buildings that have experienced these problems in B.C. are owned by the individual owners of the condominium units, although commercial properties and public schools have also been impacted. Many homeowners have been faced with correcting a problem they did not create, by a contractor they had not hired; they purchased the units either from a previous owner, a developer, or a developer/contractor. Typical repair costs are in the tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars, resulting in significant hardship, bankruptcies, and lawsuits against the developers, contractors, architects, and others involved in the original construction and maintenance of the buildings.\nIn total, approximately 45% of the 159,979 condominium strata units and 57% of the 700 school buildings constructed in B.C. between 1985 and 2000 were found to have envelope leak problems. It was reported in 2002 that 90% of 3–4 storey units built have serious problems and that some have undergone envelope repairs two and three times. In 2008 it was estimated the cost to repair the damage to schools alone would be nearly $400 million.\nThere were several factors that brought about the crisis. Beginning in the 1980s, the <a href=\"Greater%20Vancouver\">Greater Vancouver</a> area of B.C.'s Lower Mainland, and to a lesser degree the <a href=\"Greater%20Victoria\">Greater Victoria</a> region on Vancouver Island, experienced a construction boom in the multi-family condominium market. This attracted developers, design aesthetics, designers, contractors, workers, and new building technologies from climates that were quite different than the coastal region of B.C. which supports large areas of temperate rain forests.\nA 1998 provincial commission of inquiry summarized the key factors:\n\"\"The evidence suggests that significant building envelope failures in British Columbia since the early 1980s ... is a result of numerous factors, including design features inappropriate for our climate; a reliance on face-sealed wall systems; a fundamental lack of awareness regarding the principles of enclosure design suitable for our climate; meaningful inspection at critical stages of construction; and a regulatory system which was unable to understand that failures were occurring and to redress them.\"\"\nThe Lower Mainland and southern Vancouver Island regions have a moderate <a href=\"Oceanic%20climate\">oceanic</a> <a href=\"Climate%20of%20Vancouver\">climate</a> that each year experiences months-long periods of cool, damp, overcast, and rainy weather. Greater Vancouver receives over 161 rainy days per year and rainfall between 1153 and 2477 mm (45 to 97 inches) per year, approximately double that of <a href=\"Climate%20of%20London%23Climate\">London, England</a>; triple that of <a href=\"Rome\">Rome, Italy</a>; and more than quadruple that of <a href=\"Climate%20of%20the%20Los%20Angeles%20Basin\">Los Angeles</a>. With an average high summer temperature of 21–22 degrees Celsius, buildings dry out much less quickly (or not at all) compared to those in southern California or Mediterranean climates where average high summer temperatures reach 28–30 degrees C. Building design in coastal British Columbia had provided greater protection from the damp and rainy climate than newer designs until this time, through the use of features such overhanging roofs which protect the walls below from direct rain contact.\nA major design aesthetic of the 1980s and 1990s was <a href=\"Postmodern%20architecture\">Post Modernism</a>, which featured building styles and forms reminiscent of the <a href=\"Mediterranean%20Sea\">Mediterranean</a> and southern <a href=\"California\">California</a>. This design approach was heavily marketed and became a fashionable design motif. Common building elements of this time included roof parapet with no overhangs or <a href=\"eaves\">eaves</a>, stucco wall cladding, open walkways, arched windows, complex cladding joints, all of which provided more opportunities for penetration of water and studies confirmed were key contributors to water infiltration.\nThe City of Vancouver, the largest city in British Columbia, had also changed its <a href=\"Zoning\">Zoning</a> By-Law to include roof overhangs in the amount of permitted (buildable and salable) floor area, known as <a href=\"Floor%20Space%20Ratio\">floor space ratio or FSR</a>. Roof overhangs were included in the calculation of FSR, and as this reduced the amount of permitted floor space, they were often removed from designs. The calculation of FSR from the outside of the building envelope, instead of from the centre or interior side of the wall, also tended to promote thinner walls and <a href=\"rainscreen\">rainscreen</a> systems. Open, uncovered walkways were excluded from the FSR, thus encouraging their inclusion in the design.\nPrior to 1993 in B.C., architects and engineers were not required to certify that the design met the requirements of the building codes, review the quality of construction, or certify that the construction had been performed in accordance with the codes, permitted drawings, and specifications, including those relating to providing a weathertight building envelope.\nDesign professionals were not required to perform these extensive reviews during construction and developers not wishing to incur extra fees would not engage them to do so. This left the obligation for correct interpretation and construction to the developers or builders, who either lacked the experience and/or had a financial incentive to cut costs. The Provincial and Vancouver Building Codes were amended in 1993 to require, as a condition of the building permit and the occupancy permit, that design professionals be engaged to perform this level of certification and oversight. However, application of this provision of the codes was frequently not enforced in many condominium projects; they were issued Building Permits under another section of the code that did not require Letters of Assurance.\nThe <a href=\"National%20Building%20Code%20of%20Canada\">National Building Code of Canada</a>, upon which the British Columbia Building Code, and the Vancouver Building By-Law are based, had since the 1970s and early 1980s been progressively introducing changes to require greater sealing of exterior walls to prevent infiltration of moisture vapor from the interior of the building. In most Canadian winter climates, which are cold and dry, such vapor infiltrating into exterior wall insulation causes condensation and significantly reduced insulation performance, hence increased energy consumption. Increased sealing of the walls prevents the walls from \"breathing\" and drying out in warmer months.\nDevelopment pressures and lack of effective legal prevention of fee competition amongst design professionals contributed to significantly reduced professional fees paid to architects and engineers. In some cases less attention was therefore paid to careful detailing of the construction drawings, noticeably in envelope details for flashing and sealing of joints and edge conditions at windows and doors. The previously normal practice of the architects monitoring of the construction trades on a building project was reduced or eliminated.\nIn many projects, developers and contractors established separate companies for each project. At the end of construction, the developer and/or contractor would be dissolved, thereby removing any legal recourse by those wishing to make a financial claim for defects in construction. These practices, while considered dubious or \"shell games\", were not illegal.\nThe building boom also attracted new and inexperienced workers unfamiliar with the construction trades in general and local practices in particular. Since the early 1980s, the majority of construction work has been performed by unskilled labour. Concern was voiced by representatives of industry and labour about reduced training and government financial support for trades, training systems, and apprenticeship programs.\nA major contributing factor to the crisis was the increase in the use of cladding systems such as acrylic <a href=\"stucco\">stucco</a> and <a href=\"Exterior%20insulation%20finishing%20system\">exterior insulation finishing system (or EIFS)</a>, which are highly resistant to infiltration and exfiltration of water and moisture. Unlike more traditional materials, such as wood siding or cement-based stucco, a critical flaw of the new materials is that any water or moisture that penetrates into the system, either through cracks in the surface (caused by thermal expansion or damage), unsealed joints, or incorrect flashings, becomes trapped inside the wall, potentially causing deterioration, rot, and mould.\nAnother newer building material that contributed to the damage was the widespread use of <a href=\"Oriented%20strand%20board\">oriented strand board (OSB)</a> as sheathing under the exterior <a href=\"Siding\">siding or cladding</a>. It did not cause water infiltration, but it is much more susceptible to deterioration from water and is less able to breathe than is plywood or boards, the standard sheathing material for the previous decades.\nTo date, four major investigative initiatives on the \"Leaky Condo Crisis\" have been undertaken: two by the <a href=\"Canada%20Mortgage%20and%20Housing%20Corporation\">Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation</a> (CMHC); and two by former <a href=\"Premier%20of%20British%20Columbia\">B.C. provincial premier</a> <a href=\"Dave%20Barrett\">Dave Barrett</a>, who was appointed by the Province of B.C. to conduct two separate inquiries. The commissions' findings have been accepted as accurate and fair by many sectors of the related professions and the construction industry. To date they are the most extensive investigations and reports prepared on the issue. A private sector group was also established to facilitate discussion and building envelope research.\nIn 1995 the BERC was established through an initiative of CMHC to act as a coordinating agency for the research of building envelope problems in B.C.. Participants included agencies of the federal, provincial, and municipal agencies; professional associations; <a href=\"University%20of%20British%20Columbia\">University of British Columbia</a> schools of architecture civil engineering, <a href=\"British%20Columbia%20Institute%20of%20Technology\">British Columbia Institute of Technology</a>; a private sector research company; development and construction industry associations; trades unions; contractors and materials suppliers and associations; and financing and insurance agencies. (In 2003 BERC merged with the B.C. Building Envelope Council (BCBEC) and was renamed the Building Research Committee (BRC)).\nIn 1996 the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation released its \"Survey of Building Envelope Failures in the Coastal Climate of British Columbia\". It undertook a study of 37 \"problem\" buildings which were defined as those in which a moisture problem within the walls, decks or exterior framing had resulted in damage requiring $10,000 or more to repair and incorporated a variety of materials in exterior wall components.\nNine “control” buildings were also studied, those being defined as buildings which had not experienced moisture problems for at least five years. The recommendations, several of which would be echoed in later reports, included greater clarity in design strategies, improvement in details, envelope quality management protocol, training of trades in <a href=\"building%20envelope\">building envelope</a> construction, use of <a href=\"rainscreen\">rainscreen</a> systems, and guidance for maintaining exterior wall systems.\nIn April 1998 a \"Commission of Inquiry into the quality of condominium construction in the Province of British Columbia\" (commonly referred to as the Barrett Commission after Commission Chair <a href=\"Dave%20Barrett\">Dave Barrett</a>) was established. The Commission's mandate was to inquire into then decade-old crisis of leaking condominiums. The Commission held public hearings from April 28 to May 20, 1998 which included presentations from condominium owners and representatives from different sectors of the residential construction industry and over 700 written submissions. The report was issued June 16, 1998.\nIn total 82 specific recommendations were made, including changes to zoning regulations, building codes, provincial law, federal law, financing, contractor licensing, and requirements of design professionals; and establishment of a Compensation Fund for reconstruction and a provincial Homeowner Protection Office.\nIn 1999 a (second) \"Commission of Inquiry into the Quality of Condominium Construction part II\" was established following collapse of the construction industry-run and financed New Home Warranty of British Columbia Inc. (NHWBC), the largest provider of new-home warranty coverage in B.C.. The commission had a mandate to:\nThe commission's findings were published in two volumes in January and March 2000. Among its recommendations was 100% compensation up to $25,000 per unit for repairs, with costs to be shared equally between the provincial and federal governments and the B.C. condominium construction industry.\nIn the aftermath of the major revelations of the crisis, both before and after the Barrett Commissions' reports, the B.C. provincial government and Lower Mainland municipalities responded in a variety of ways.\nAt the height of the crisis in April 1999 the New Home Warranty of British Columbia & Yukon, the main source of warrantees against construction defects for BC home buyers, collapsed. It was a voluntary warranty program created by the provincial residential construction industry in 1975. NHW had a monopoly in B.C. until National Home Warranty of Alberta entered the B.C. market in the late 1990s. Neither program was subject to provincial regulations beyond the Corporations Act. In 1998 approximately 60% of all new housing units were carrying warranty protection.\nIn 1998 B.C. implemented the Homeowners Protection Act. It was designed to protect homebuyers from and improve the quality of residential construction and established the Homeowner Protection Office (HPO), a provincial Crown corporation responsible for:\nBy 2000 the HPO was involved with approximately 500 condominium buildings containing nearly 32,000 residential units.\nThe City of Vancouver and other B.C. municipalities began to implement their own prescriptive requirements for building envelope design and construction in multi-unit residential buildings, even before the Barrett Commission's 1998 report was issued and the provincial government amended the B.C. Building Code. The two most significant items were requirements for rainscreen construction of exterior walls and professional certification of the design and implementation of the design in the construction.\nA <a href=\"rainscreen\">rainscreen</a> is the weather-facing surface of an exterior wall that stands off from the moisture-resistant surface of the main wall. There is a gap or cavity between the outermost layer, or rainscreen, and the main wall which prevents infiltration of moisture into the main wall assembly and allows air to circulate between. By 1997 Vancouver and neighboring <a href=\"Richmond%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Richmond</a> and <a href=\"New%20Westminster%2C%20British%20Columbia\">New Westminster</a> enacted requirements for this construction technology in residential construction. (Masonry veneer walls typically have a similar type cavity but these are not limited to residential buildings). The Vancouver Building By-Law included this requirement in its 1996 edition and the BC Building Code in 2006 for coastal climates. A 5-year scientific study on residential building envelopes in Vancouver was undertaken between 2001-2006. Its conclusions reported on the benefits of rainscreens in exterior wall assemblies.\nOne of the key recommendations of the Barrett Commission was to require that \"Any architect or engineer involved in Letters of Assurance and the field review process must have the qualifications, or sub-contract the building envelope design and review to a qualified Building Envelope Specialist\".\nIn 1995 (before the Barrett Commission), the City of Vancouver established a list of “Building Envelope Specialists” (BES), comprising architectural and engineering firms deemed qualified to provide independent inspection and review of building envelope components, based on the city’s perception of the firm’s qualifications and experience in the Lower Mainland. These professionals were required to be retained by the owner/developer to provide the Letters of Assurance. Other municipalities in the region soon followed Vancouver's lead. It was recognized that the city’s BES list was a temporary measure until a more permanent process was established.\nIn 1997 the <a href=\"Architectural%20Institute%20of%20British%20Columbia\">Architectural Institute of British Columbia</a> (AIBC) launched its own specialty course Building Envelope Education Program for its members.\nIn 1999 a joint committee of the professional governing bodies for architects and engineers in the province (the AIBC and the <a href=\"Association%20of%20Professional%20Engineers%20and%20Geoscientists%20of%20British%20Columbia\">Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia</a>) developed a formal designation: the Building Envelope Professional (BEP). A joint accreditation process and procedures manual for BEPs was created and the municipalities' lists of BES were discarded as they transferred recognition to the BEP list.\nIn 1998 the B.C. government initiated an interest-free loan program to assist homeowners with building envelope repairs. It was administered through the Homeowner Protection Office and approved more than $670 million in loans from during its decade of operation. The loans were financed through a levy on new residential projects and in 2009 Rich Coleman, the minister responsible for housing at the time, stated the program was no longer raising sufficient funds during the economic downturn to continue the program. In 1999 the B.C. government announced a provincial grant and tax relief program to assist homeowners affected by the crisis.\nThe enormity of the crisis has been felt all levels of government. Locally, the large tarps over buildings being repaired came to be known as \"B.C. flags\".\nIn 1999 B.C. Premier Glen Clark called on the federal government to offer tax relief on repairs. In 2005 and 2006 the <a href=\"Prime%20Minister%20of%20Canada\">Prime Minister of Canada</a> made a commitment to provide financial aid to homeowners affected by the crisis. To date no financial assistance has been provided by the federal government. Former federal cabinet minister <a href=\"Simma%20Holt\">Simma Holt</a> waged a publicly vocal seven year legal action in the 2000s seeking compensation for repairs for her own leaking condominium.\nIn 2005 <a href=\"Member%20of%20Parliament\">Member of Parliament</a> John Cummings alleged that the federal government was complicit, and attempted to cover up its complicity, in creating the crisis through the <a href=\"National%20Energy%20Program\">National Energy Program</a>'s energy conservation measures. On August 27, 1981 then CMHC president Ray Hession had written to the committee responsible for the National Building Code, \"warning of the \"emergency\" matter of moisture damage that is \"potentially serious, possibly widespread and ... concerns matters of structural safety and public health.\"\" Hession wrote in a September 1981 letter to federal Deputy Minister of Energy, Mines, and Resources M.A. (Mickey) Cohen: \"Nevertheless, I feel it equally important for us to collectively face up to the reality that construction practices associated with energy conservation measures do, in fact, increase the hazard of moisture induced structural damage.\"\nIn 2005 a class action lawsuit was filed in B.C. Supreme Court against the <a href=\"Crown%20corporations%20of%20Canada\">federal Crown corporation</a> CMHC seeking damages. (In 2007 the court refused to certify the suit). In July 2006, federal Human Resources Minister Diane Finley wrote that the government couldn't even \"consider\" a review while the government is being sued by some owners.","Eaves\nThe eaves are the edges of the roof which overhang the face of a wall and, normally, project beyond the side of a building. The eaves form an overhang to throw water clear of the walls and may be highly decorated as part of an architectural style; such as the Chinese <a href=\"dougong\">dougong</a> bracket systems.\n\"Eaves\" is derived from <a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a> \"efes\" meaning \"edge\". According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", \"eaves\" is both the singular and plural form of the word. However, the <a href=\"Merriam-Webster\">Merriam-Webster</a> website lists the word as \"eave\" and states that it is \"usually used in plural\". The word was used before the 12th century in the form \"efes\" (Old English).\nThe primary function of the eaves is to keep rain water off the walls and to prevent the ingress of water at the junction where the roof meets the wall. The eaves may also protect a pathway around the building from the rain, prevent erosion of the footings, and reduce splatter on the wall from rain as it hits the ground.\nThe secondary function is to control solar penetration as a form of <a href=\"passive%20solar%20building%20design\">passive solar building design</a>; the eaves overhang can be designed to adjust the building's <a href=\"solar%20gain\">solar gain</a> to suit the local climate, the latitude and orientation of the building.\nThe eaves overhang may also shelter openings to ventilate the roof space.\nAesthetic, traditional or purely decorative considerations may prevail over the strictly functional requirements of the eaves. The <a href=\"Arts%20and%20Crafts%20Movement\">Arts and Crafts Movement</a> influenced the <a href=\"American%20Craftsman\">American Craftsman</a> tradition, which has very wide eaves with decorative <a href=\"Bracket%20%28architecture%29\">brackets</a>, for which there is not necessarily a real functional need; likewise the Italian style eaves, shown above.\nThe eaves may terminate in a <a href=\"Fascia%20%28architecture%29\">fascia</a>, a board running the length of the eaves under the tiles or roof sheets to cap off and protect the exposed rafter ends and to provide grounds on which to fix gutters. At the <a href=\"gable\">gable</a>s the eaves may extend beyond the gable end wall by projecting the <a href=\"purlin\">purlin</a>s and are usually capped off by <a href=\"bargeboard\">bargeboard</a>s to protect the wall and the purlin ends.\nThe underside of the eaves may be filled with a horizontal <a href=\"soffit\">soffit</a> fixed at right angles to the wall, the soffit may be decorative but it also has the function of sealing the gap between the rafters from vermin and weather.\nEaves must be designed for local wind speeds as the overhang can significantly increase the wind loading on the roof.\nThe line on the ground under the outer edge of the eaves is the <a href=\"eavesdrip\">eavesdrip</a>, or dripline, and in typical building planning regulations defines the extent of the building and cannot oversail the property boundary.\n","Ministry of Education (New Zealand)\nThe Ministry of Education (<a href=\"M%C4%81ori%20language\">Māori</a>: \"Te Tāhuhu o te Mātauranga\") is the public service department of New Zealand charged with overseeing the <a href=\"Education%20in%20New%20Zealand\">New Zealand education system</a>.\nThe Ministry was formed in 1989 when the former, all-encompassing Department of Education was broken up into six separate agencies.\nThe Ministry was established as a result of the <a href=\"Picot%20task%20force\">Picot task force</a> set up by the Labour government in July 1987 to review the New Zealand education system. The members were Brian Picot, a businessman, Peter Ramsay, an associate professor of education at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Waikato\">University of Waikato</a>, Margaret Rosemergy, a senior lecturer at the Wellington College of Education, <a href=\"Whetumarama%20Wereta\">Whetumarama Wereta</a>, a social researcher at the <a href=\"Department%20of%20Maori%20Affairs\">Department of Maori Affairs</a> and Colin Wise, another businessman.\nThe task force was assisted by staff from the Treasury and the State Services Commission (SSC), who may have applied pressure on the task force to move towards eventually privatizing education, as had happened with other government services. The mandate was to review management structures and cost-effectiveness, but did not include curriculum, teaching or effectiveness. In nine months the commission received input from over 700 people or organizations.\nThe Picot task force released its report \"Administering for Excellence: Effective Administration in Education\" in May 1988.\nThe report was critical of the <a href=\"Department%20of%20Education%20%28New%20Zealand%29\">Department of Education</a>, which it labelled as inefficient and unresponsive.\nThe task force conceived of the school charter as a contract between school boards, the local community and central authority and the government accepted many of the recommendations subsequently published in their response - \"<a href=\"Tomorrow%27s%20Schools\">Tomorrow's Schools</a>\". This recommended a system where each school would be largely independent, governed by a board consisting mainly of parents, although subject to review and inspection by specialized government agencies. Another recommendation was that boards of trustees were made responsible to the Minister of Education, who gained the power to dismiss boards.\nThe Picot report became the basis for a drawn out process of educational reform in New Zealand starting in 1989. When National was elected in October 1990, it carried out a further series of educational reviews culminating in the publication \"Education Policy: Investing in People, Our Greatest Asset\". This resulted in further modifications to the structure of education reform, and according to one academic, created \"a system which is a far cry from the Picot intentions... There has been an ongoing series of changes and reassessments that has caused chaos, confusion and massive insecurity throughout the education sector\".\nIn March 2013, Patrick Walsh, the outgoing president of the Secondary Principals' Association said that despite having about 3000 employees, the Ministry had underperformed for more than a decade. He said \"in an era of self-managing schools we have a Ministry that is so large and yet not able to perform in an effective and efficient manner\". Walsh said the Ministry's poor performance has been confirmed by a number of reviews conducted by the State Services Commission.\nThe Ministry's role is to raise the overall level of educational achievement and reduce disparity. It is not an education provider. That role is met by individual elected Boards of Trustees for every <a href=\"state%20school\">state school</a> in the country. The ministry has numerous functions - advising government, providing information to the sector, providing learning resources, administering sector regulation and funding, and providing specialist services. The ministry works with other education agencies including the <a href=\"Education%20Review%20Office\">Education Review Office</a>, the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20Qualifications%20Authority\">New Zealand Qualifications Authority</a> and <a href=\"Learning%20Media%20Limited\">Learning Media Limited</a>.\nAlthough the Ministry's role is to raise the level of educational achievement, it is also the mechanism through which the Government of the day implements its education policy. When government changes aspects of its policy on education, the Ministry is responsible for implementing those changes. Sometimes the Ministry ends up in the difficult position of trying to implement political induced changes in education policy to which teachers, parents and boards of trustees may be totally opposed. Changes introduced by the <a href=\"Fifth%20National%20Government%20of%20New%20Zealand\">National Government</a> in 2011–2012 are an example.\nIn order for the Ministry to perform its role effectively, it is dependent on taxpayer funding provided by Government. When government increases funding or requires financial cutbacks, this also impacts on the ability of the Ministry to fulfil its role. In 2013, the Government provided about $12.2 billion to fund education in New Zealand.\nThe Ministry serves 2 portfolios, 1 other responsibility, 4 ministers and 1 parliamentary undersecretary.","Slip End\nSlip End is a village and <a href=\"civil%20parishes%20in%20England\">civil parish</a> in Luton, <a href=\"Bedfordshire\">Bedfordshire</a>. As well as the village of Slip End, the parish contains the <a href=\"hamlet%20%28place%29\">hamlets</a> of <a href=\"Lower%20Woodside\">Lower Woodside</a>, <a href=\"Woodside%2C%20Bedfordshire\">Woodside</a> and <a href=\"Pepperstock\">Pepperstock</a>. It has a population of 1,976, reducing to 1,831 at the 2011 Census.\nThe name of Slip End possibly has a connection with <a href=\"brickworks\">brickworks</a>. \"<a href=\"Slip%20%28ceramics%29\">Slip</a>\" is an old <a href=\"English%20language\">English</a> word for <a href=\"clay\">clay</a> and \"End\" is a common part of place names in Bedfordshire and not unknown in other counties. \"End\" refers to small settlements outside larger villages. It is, therefore, possible that Slip End was named in the early 19th century because of the small number of houses built near the new brickworks in an area not previously developed with the older settlements of Woodside and Pepperstock to either side. Nearby <a href=\"Markyate\">Markyate</a> has a \"Slype Lane\" which may or not be connected.\nThe school in Slip End was located towards the Pepperstock end of Front Street and Summer Street, and is now the site of a small development of flats and houses called \"Old School Walk\". It was a <a href=\"School%20boards%20in%20England%20and%20Wales\">board school</a> established as after the <a href=\"Education%20Act%201870\">Education Act 1870</a> providing education to all.\nThe school catered for the whole age range in two sections – juniors and infants – and in 1947 it was extended to 15‑year‑olds. A century after its foundation, the school moved to its present site on Rossway which previously had been clay pits for local brick production. The school is now a <a href=\"lower%20school\">lower school</a>, part of the <a href=\"three-tier%20education\">three-tier education</a> system in <a href=\"Central%20Bedfordshire\">Central Bedfordshire</a>, and caters for ages 3½ to 9 years.\nThe parish was created in 2001 by splitting that of <a href=\"Caddington\">Caddington</a> and Slip End.\nThe <a href=\"M1%20motorway\">M1 motorway</a> runs adjacent to the village and was officially inaugurated from Slip End. This is celebrated by a large concrete slab on the bridge next to the village with the inscription:\nThe village hall, built circa 1901, is situated at the heart of the community with parking for 40 cars and an entertainment licence for 100 for dancing or up to 200 for a meeting.\nThe Peter Edwards Hall and Playing Fields are situated at the Luton end of the village, next to the church. Facilities include tennis courts and a football pitch.\nThere are two pubs in the village, \"The Rising Sun\" on Front Street and the \"Frog and Rhubarb\" on Church Road.","Central Bedfordshire\nCentral Bedfordshire is a <a href=\"Unitary%20authorities%20of%20England\">unitary authority area</a> in the ceremonial county of <a href=\"Bedfordshire\">Bedfordshire</a>, England. It was created from the merger of <a href=\"Mid%20Bedfordshire%20%28district%29\">Mid Bedfordshire</a> and <a href=\"South%20Bedfordshire\">South Bedfordshire</a> District Councils on 1 April 2009. With a budget of £500m the <a href=\"Unitary%20authorities%20of%20England\">unitary council</a> provides over a hundred services to a quarter of a million people, and is responsible for schools, social services, rubbish collection, roads, planning, leisure centres, libraries, care homes and more.\nThe county of Bedfordshire was abolished on 1 April 2009. The term of office of councillors of Bedfordshire County Council and of Mid and South Bedfordshire District Councils ended on 1 April 2009. A new county and a new district, both from that date to be known as Central Bedfordshire, were created for the same area as the existing districts of Mid and South Bedfordshire. A new district council, the Central Bedfordshire Council, was created for the new district and became the sole principal authority for the district. There was to be no county council for the new county.\nIn 2006 the <a href=\"Department%20for%20Communities%20and%20Local%20Government\">Department for Communities and Local Government</a> considered reorganising Bedfordshire's administrative structure as part of the <a href=\"2009%20structural%20changes%20to%20local%20government%20in%20England\">2009 structural changes to local government in England</a>. The four proposals considered were:\nOn 6 March 2008 the DCLG, under Labour Party Secretary of State, <a href=\"Hazel%20Blears\">Hazel Blears</a>, decided to implement Proposal 2. This meant that from 1 April 2009 there would be three unitary authorities in Bedfordshire: Bedford, Luton and <a href=\"Central%20Bedfordshire%20Council\">Central Bedfordshire</a>. Bedfordshire County Council challenged this decision in the High Court but on 4 April 2008 it was announced the Judicial Review had failed and the County Council would not appeal. Subsequently, a shadow council for Central Bedfordshire was formed from all the members of Mid and South Bedfordshire councils, as well as all Bedfordshire County Council members from the Central Bedfordshire area. The inaugural meeting of the shadow council was held on 10 April 2008. A shadow Executive for the council was formed consisting of four members of each council, led by the former leader of Mid Bedfordshire District Council.\nCentral Bedfordshire Council is made up of 59 Councillors.\nSince 2011 the Council has been led by James Jamieson with a Cabinet of seven portfolio holders:\nThe Central Bedfordshire area is a mix of rural and small market towns and villages. It includes the following towns and villages.\n","Post (structural)\nA post is a main vertical or leaning support in a structure similar to a <a href=\"column\">column</a> or pillar but the term post generally refers to a timber but may be metal or stone. A stud in wooden or metal building construction is similar but lighter duty than a post and a <a href=\"Strut%23Architecture%20and%20construction\">strut</a> may be similar to a stud or act as a brace. In the U.K. a strut may be very similar to a post but not carry a beam. In wood construction posts normally land on a <a href=\"Sill%20plate\">sill</a>, but in rare types of buildings the post may continue through to the foundation called an interrupted sill or into the ground called earthfast, <a href=\"post%20in%20ground\">post in ground</a>, or <a href=\"posthole\">posthole</a> construction. A post is also a fundamental element in a <a href=\"fence\">fence</a>. The terms \"jack\" and \"cripple\" are used with shortened studs and rafters but not posts, except in the specialized vocabulary of <a href=\"shoring\">shoring</a>.\n<a href=\"Timber%20framing\">Timber framing</a> is a general term for building with wooden posts and beams. The term post is the namesake of other general names for timber framing such as post-and-beam, post-and-girt construction and more specific types of timber framing such as <a href=\"Post%20and%20lintel\">Post and lintel</a>, <a href=\"Pole%20building%20framing\">post-frame</a>, <a href=\"post%20in%20ground\">post in ground</a>, and ridge-post construction. In roof construction such as <a href=\"king%20post\">king post</a>, <a href=\"queen%20post\">queen post</a>, <a href=\"crown%20post\">crown post</a> framing. A round post is often called a pole or mast depending on its diameter thus <a href=\"pole%20building%20framing\">pole building framing</a>, or a <a href=\"Stave%20church\">mast church</a>."],"string":"[\n \"Blackden Hall\\nBlackden Hall is a country house to the northeast of the village of Goostrey, Cheshire, England. It dates from the later part of the 16th century, and there have been later alterations. It is constructed in timber framing and brick with plastered panels. The house is in two storeys with an attic, and has an L-shaped plan. Its main front has three bays and is gabled. The central bay of the first floor is jettied. The timber framing is close studded, and decorated with roundels and chevrons. Most of the windows are mullioned with three lights. The authors of the \\\"Buildings of England\\\" series describe it as a \\\"charming C17 timber-framed house\\\". The house is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building.\\n\",\n \"Leaky homes crisis\\nThe leaky homes crisis is an ongoing construction and legal crisis in New Zealand concerning a number of timber framed buildings constructed from 1994 to 2004 that suffered from weather-tightness problems. The problem was primarily related to the decay of timber framing which, in extreme cases, made buildings structurally unsound. Some buildings became unhealthy to live in due to moulds and spores developing within the damp timber framing. The repairs and replacement costs that may have been avoided were estimated in 2009 to be approximately $11.3 billion.\\nThe Building Act 1991, which came into effect about 1994, changed building controls from a prescriptive system to a more self-regulated regime. In addition, the Government dropped the apprentice training system for builders and the related building trades. Some developers and builders knowingly or carelessly constructed buildings with numerous faults and short-cuts. An architectural design trend towards Mediterranean-style houses with complex roofs, plastered exterior walls, internal decks and small or no eaves also factored in.\\nSome local authorities were later found to have issued Building Consents based on insufficient documentation, failed to carry out inspection of the work during construction, and issued code completion certificates for buildings which were later found to have leaking problems. Consequently some councils now share significant financial responsibilities with the builders (which in many cases have closed or otherwise removed themselves from liability) and the owners. Court cases have generally assigned around one third of the financial responsibility to local authorities. A 2013 Supreme Court case involving the Auckland City Council extended the liability of local bodies.\\nThere are many reasons that some buildings from the 1990s were leaky. A major one was the increase in the use of cladding systems such as fibre cement sheet and EIPS (Externally Insulated Plaster System) that relied on a paint finish as the primary defence against water ingress. This system is very similar to Exterior insulation finishing system (or EIFS). Such cladding systems typically allowed for little construction or thermal movement so that fine cracks that appeared insignificant, and would have been relatively insignificant in traditional claddings such as weatherboard, allowed continuous ingress of moisture into the framing. These causes, combined with the reduced air movement through the prevalence of sheet cladding or sheet insulating materials for the monolithic look cladding, resulted in very damp conditions which are ideal for rot. A further exacerbating factor that resulted in more significant damage from the leaks, was the change to the New Zealand Standard for Timber Treatment in 1995, allowing the use of untreated \\\"Pinus radiata\\\" timber for wall framing. As this timber has little natural resistance to rot when wet, damage occurs more quickly.\\nIn many cases claddings were not used within their specifications or not installed correctly. Many buildings built in the \\\"Mediterranean\\\" style used these types of cladding and had features such as recessed windows, flat roofs, minimal eaves, multiple stories, complex roofs, solid balustrades, balconies and penetrations of the exterior cladding that increased the likelihood of water infiltrating the structure.\\nLack of detailed drawings for buildings was also a contributing factor. Some builders were unable to make a weathertight structure without proper guidance. This has partially been blamed on the breakdown of the apprenticeship system and unqualified builders in the marketplace. Council staff carrying out building inspections had neither the required construction expertise to ensure weathertightness nor the intuition to look for it.\\nThe Building Act 1991 was replaced by the Building Act 2004, which introduced a licensing scheme for building designers, builders and related trades. Councils were required to be registered with a central authority and were to be subject to regular quality control procedure checks. Council building inspectors remain unlicensed.\\nThe Government dissolved the BIA (Building Industry Authority, the Government department which was responsible for the oversight and administration of the building sector) on 30 November 2004 and replaced it with DBH (Department of Building and Housing).\\nSome of the Acceptable Solutions to the Building Code were re-written, most notably E2/AS1 External Moisture which covers the detailing of roofs and walls was greatly expanded.\\nThe Standard covering durability of timber framing was amended in late 2003 with the publication of NZS 3602: 2003 Timber and Wood-based Products for Use in Building. This revision required a return to the use of treated radiata framing in external walls.\\nSeveral thousands of homes throughout the country are still awaiting renovation, with a total cost that has been estimated by a PricewaterhouseCoopers report to the Government in 2008 as being around NZ$11.3 billion for a \\\"consensus estimate\\\" of 42,000 buildings. Other building experts estimate the true cost at $23 billion for 89,000 buildings, and accused government of reducing the figure of affected buildings to 42,000 buildings because they were allegedly \\\"unhappy\\\" with the expert prediction.\\nThe majority of affected buildings are homes or apartments, but in 2011 the twenty-year-old Ronald McDonald House for children with cancer and their families at Wellington Hospital was demolished as leaky and replaced.\\nThe Minister of Education said in 2009 that at least 73 schools were affected, and in 2011 that 157 schools still needed repairs, at an estimated cost of at least $1.5 billion As of 2013 the Ministry of Education was taking action against architects and builders involved with 87 of the 309 schools which have \\\"leakiness\\\" problems. One school in Wellington, Seatoun School, built at a cost of $5.3 million and opened in 2002 is costing $4.5 million to repair.\\nAs of mid-2009, plans for an up to NZ$6 billion bailout package shared between government and local authorities are in doubt because the amount could affect New Zealand's international credit rating. In November 2009, the National government decided not to offer a more substantial sharing of costs, and it is now estimated that in most cases, around 64% would have to be borne by the owners, 26% by Councils, and only 10% by government funds, while also forcing homeowners to sign away their rights to sue for more.\\nPrime Minister John Key noted that while claimants did not have to accept the settlement, legal costs for bringing suit could eat up any further money awarded to them. Some claimants have taken negligence claims against company directors of construction companies, relying on the decision in \\\"Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd\\\" [1984] 2 NZLR 548. There have also been accusations that parts of the legal and inspection professions are profiting substantially from disputes around the cases, and that significant money was diverted into these channels rather than into fixing the buildings. The government's position was assailed by mayors of affected Councils and by pundits, who noted that by paying only 10%, and then receiving 12.5% back in goods and services tax, the government was actually making money from the crisis. Another report commissioned by North Shore City Council estimated a potential gain by government of up to $2 billion. Further, National was also criticised that as an opposition party, they had constantly asked for the then Labour-led government to assist homeowners financially.\\nThe government has also imposed a 10 year limit (after construction) on claims, even though some building experts believe many cases will only become apparent during coming years, as building rot becomes advanced enough. They also warned that houses in drier parts of New Zealand were now starting to show problems, which had simply developed at a slower pace – and that despite Building Act reforms in 2004, there were still houses being built that leaked badly due to shoddy workmanship.\\nIn February 2010, New Zealand's Building and Construction Minister Maurice Williamson, National, warned that the size of the issue at at least $11 billion was so gianormous [sic] that even a government with budget surpluses would struggle. He noted that: \\\"...a Government who's [sic] running deficits - and has a forecast track of deficits for many years out - has to just sit there with its head in its hands, saying, 'Well, I just don't how to do this'.\\\" He also warned that it was necessary to come up with a solution so money could be spent on fixing houses, rather than paying lawyers, and that there was a risk of significant rates rises in the major centres like Auckland, Tauranga, Wellington and Christchurch, of a scale that would \\\"make eyes water\\\".\\nIn May 2010 the New Zealand Government launched the Financial Assistance Package (FAP) for leaky homes. Under the scheme, the home owner shares the agreed cost of repairing their home with the government and the local council, if the council approved the original work and is participating in the scheme. The government and the council each contribute 25% of the repair cost with the owner paying the remaining 50%. Despite the FAP offering to give the homeowners the certainty of financial contribution and to help get leaky homes fixed faster, by November 2012 only 12 victims had received final payouts under the government scheme.\\nIn 2009 it was estimated between 22,000 and 89,000 properties were affected, but the government's scheme would cover around 3,500 at the most.\\nVarious Councils and politicians have warned that the leaky homes crisis could impact on the rates bill. Further, in mid-2011, the Valuer-General of the country instructed Council that in the re-evaluation of property values (which are used to set local body rates), auditors had to take into account the loss of value incurred by practices likely to cause leaky home syndrome – even if the home had not, or not yet, experienced any damage from it. This was to take into account that such homes faced widespread stigma, and thus, were harder to sell. While this was expected to reduce not only the valued worth but also the rates bill of the relevant owners (by between 5 and 20%, or even more if the house is already confirmed as leaking), it was noted that other ratepayers would have to make up the difference via higher rates.\\nThe placing into liquidation of Mainzeal Construction and Property, New Zealand’s third largest construction company, in February 2013 was blamed on both a slowdown in commercial construction work and liability for several leaky apartment buildings in Auckland and Wellington where other parties had gone out of existence.\\nA very similar issue arose in the early 1980's, some 10 years before New Zealand & for very similar reasons in the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is commonly known in Canada as the Leaky condo crisis and has been an ongoing issue that is estimated to have caused $4 billion in damage since the 1980s.\",\n \"Pepperstock\\nPepperstock is a small village located in Central Bedfordshire, England. The village itself mostly consists of residential caravan parks. However, Pepperstock displays an interesting range of vernacular buildings, most notably in the form of 16th and 17th century timber framing with brick infill and red clay tiled roofs. It is in the civil parish of Slip End.\\n\",\n \"Poteaux-sur-sol\\nPoteaux-sur-sol (“posts on a sill” Sol is also spelled sole and solle) is a style of timber framing, in which relatively closely spaced posts rest on a timber sill. Poteaux-en-terre and pieux-en-terre are similar, but the closely spaced posts extend into the ground rather than resting on a sill on a foundation, and therefore are a type of post in ground construction. Poteaux-sur-sol is similar to the framing style known in the United Kingdom as close studding. \\\"Poteaux-sur-sol\\\" has also, confusingly, been used for other types of timber framing which have a sill timber such as post-and-plank, but this is considered incorrect by some scholars.\\nPoteaux-sur-sol is a part of American historic carpentry but is known by its French name in North America as it was used by French and French-Canadian people in the region historically known as New France. Besides its appearance in French colonial architecture it was also used in the 19th century by Ukrainian peasants living on the open steppes or anywhere there was a timber shortage.\\nIn the present-day United States, houses in this style can be found in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri; Prairie du Rocher, Illinois, and former French settlements in Louisiana—all former parts of New France (\\\"La Louisiane\\\"). Most are listed on the National Register of Historic Places; \\\"Maison Bolduc\\\" (see below) is a National Historic Landmark.\",\n \"Black-and-white Revival architecture\\nThe Black-and-white Revival was an architectural movement from the middle of the 19th century which re-used the vernacular elements of the past, using timber framing. The wooden framing is painted black and the panels between the frames are painted white. The style was part of a wider Tudor Revival in 19th-century architecture.\\nNikolaus Pevsner describes the movement as a \\\"Cheshire speciality\\\", but states that it was not created in Cheshire and is not confined to the county. The earliest example noted by Pevsner is the Henry VII Lodge in Woburn Sands, Bedfordshire, built in 1811. The other example he gives is the Court House in Worsley, which was built in 1849. The first Cheshire architect to be involved in the movement was T. M. Penson who restored the house at No. 22 Eastgate Street, Chester in 1852 in the black-and-white style. This was followed by his further restorations in Eastgate Street, at Nos. 34–36 in 1856, and No. 26 in 1858. However Pevsner considers that Penson's works were \\\"moderate in size and not very knowledgeable in detail\\\".\\nThe movement was improved when John Douglas and T. M. Lockwood \\\"discovered the medium\\\". They were the principal architects of the movement, and they \\\"transformed the street frontages of the city with their black and white buildings\\\". Major examples of their work are Lockwood's building opposite Chester Cross at No. 1 Bridge Street of 1888 and the terrace of buildings on the east side of St Werburgh Street of 1895–99 by Douglas. The black-and-white tradition in Chester continued into the 20th century.\\nCitations\\nSources\",\n \"St Anne's Church, Haughton\\nSt Anne's Church in Haughton, Denton is a Grade I Listed Building. The church was built in 1881 and designed by J. Medland Taylor. The construction was funded by E. Joseph Sidebotham, a member of the Sidebotham mill-owning family of Hyde. The church was built in brick in the Gothic Revival style, but also utilised timber framing.\\nIt has been described as the best-known work of the architects, an 'extraordinary free-form brick church [that] forms the nucleus of the most important cluster of their buildings' surviving. The lychgate and rectory that adjoin the main church are also of architectural significance, and each is on the register of protected buildings in its own right.\\n\",\n \"Listed buildings in Marbury cum Quoisley\\nMarbury cum Quoisley is a civil parish in Cheshire East, England. It contains 11 buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as designated listed buildings. Of these, one is listed at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II. Apart from the village of Marbury the parish is rural. The major buildings in the parish are St Michael's Church and Marbury Hall; these and some associated buildings are listed. Also listed are some 16th and 17th-century houses and farm buildings that are timber-framed or incorporate timber framing. The parish includes the part of the Combermere estate that contains a monumental obelisk that is listed.\\nCitations\\nSources\",\n \"Skomsvoll\\nSkomsvoll is a village on the island of Otterøya in the municipality of Namsos in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located on the south side of the island, along the Namsenfjorden. The village of Statland (in Flatanger) lies across the fjord from Skomsvoll, with the island of Hoddøya nearby. The main church for the island, Otterøy Church is located in Skomsvoll.\\n\",\n \"Otterøy Church\\nOtterøy Church (Norwegian: \\\"Otterøy kirke\\\" ) is a parish church in the municipality of Namsos in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located in the village of Skomsvoll on the island of Otterøya. The church is part of the Otterøy parish in the Namdal deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros. The octagonal wood church building was constructed in 1858 and seats about 350 people. The church was designed by architect Christian Heinrich Grosch. It was built in a Stave church style.\\n\",\n \"Mullion\\nA mullion is a vertical <a href=\\\"structural%20element\\\">element</a> that forms a division between units of a window, door, or screen, or is used decoratively. When dividing adjacent <a href=\\\"window\\\">window</a> units, its primary purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or <a href=\\\"lintel\\\">lintel</a> above the window opening. Its secondary purpose may be as a rigid support to the glazing of the window. When used to support glazing, they are often teamed with horizontal elements called \\\"<a href=\\\"Transom%20%28architectural%29\\\">transom</a>s\\\" which divide an opening's upper part into one or more additional lights.\\nIn the commercial door industry, the term \\\"floating mullion\\\" is also applied to an interlock profile which is fitted in between a pair of double swing doors.\\nStone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century. They became common across Europe in the <a href=\\\"Romanesque%20architecture\\\">Romanesque architecture</a>, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch becoming a fashionable architectural form. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, and is found in galleries and cloisters.\\nIn <a href=\\\"Gothic%20architecture\\\">Gothic architecture</a> windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic churches where stained glass is set in lead and ferramenta between the stone mullions. Mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a single mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian, bifore windows.\\nMullions may be made of any material, but <a href=\\\"wood\\\">wood</a> and <a href=\\\"aluminum\\\">aluminum</a> are most common, although glass is also used between windows. <a href=\\\"I.M.%20Pei\\\">I.M. Pei</a> used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airport's Terminal 6 (<a href=\\\"Sundrome\\\">National Airlines Sundrome</a>), unprecedented at the time.\\nMullions are vertical elements and are often confused with <a href=\\\"Transom%20%28architectural%29\\\">transoms</a>, which lie horizontally. The word is also confused with the \\\"<a href=\\\"muntin\\\">muntin</a>\\\" (or \\\"glazing bar\\\" in the UK) which is the precise word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a <a href=\\\"sash%20window\\\">sash</a> into smaller glass \\\"panes\\\" or \\\"lights\\\".\\nA mullion acts as a structural member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing and upper levels into the structure below. Although in the instance of a <a href=\\\"curtain%20wall%20%28architecture%29\\\">curtain wall</a> screen, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass and any opening vents installed. Also in the case of a curtain wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above (providing the structure can take the required loads) this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression.\\nWhen a very large glazed area was desired before the middle of the nineteenth century, such as in the large windows seen in <a href=\\\"Gothic%20architecture\\\">Gothic</a> churches or <a href=\\\"Elizabethan\\\">Elizabethan</a> palaces, the openings necessarily required division into a framework of mullions and transoms, often of stone. It was further necessary for each glazed panel, <a href=\\\"sash%20window\\\">sash</a> or <a href=\\\"window%23Casement\\\">casement</a> to be further subdivided by muntins or lead <a href=\\\"came\\\">came</a>s because large panes of glass were reserved primarily for use as mirrors, being far too costly to use for glazing windows or doors.\\nIn traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows and doors when glazing porches or other large areas.\\n\",\n \"Jettying\\nJettying (jetty, jutty, getee (obsolete) from Old French getee, jette) is a building technique used in <a href=\\\"medieval\\\">medieval</a> <a href=\\\"timber%20framing\\\">timber-frame</a> buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below. This has the advantage of increasing the available space in the building without obstructing the street. Jettied floors are also termed \\\"jetties\\\". In the U.S., the most common surviving colonial version of this is the <a href=\\\"Garrison%20%28architecture%29\\\">garrison</a> house. Most jetties are external, but some early Medieval houses were built with internal jetties.\\nA jetty is an upper floor that depends on a <a href=\\\"cantilever\\\">cantilever</a> system in which a horizontal beam, the jetty bressummer, supports the wall above and projects forward beyond the floor below (a technique also called \\\"oversailing\\\"). The <a href=\\\"bressummer\\\">bressummer</a> (or breastsummer) itself rests on the ends of a row of jetty beams or <a href=\\\"joist\\\">joist</a>s which are supported by jetty plates. Jetty joists in their turn were slotted sideways into the diagonal <a href=\\\"dragon%20beam\\\">dragon beam</a>s at angle of 45° by means of <a href=\\\"mortise%20and%20tenon\\\">mortise and tenon</a> joints.\\nThe overhanging corner posts are often reinforced by curved jetty brackets.\\nThe origins of jettying is unclear but some reasons put forward for their purpose are:\\nJetties were popular in the 16th century but banned in Rouen in 1520 relating to air circulation and the plague, and London in 1667 relating to the great fire. They are considered a Gothic style.\\nStructurally, jetties are of several types:\\nThe vertical elements of jetties can be summarized as:\\nThe horizontal elements of jetties are:\\nJettying was used for timber-framed buildings, but was succeeded by cantilever which are used for the same reason as jettying, to maximise space in buildings. This is often utilised on buildings which are on a narrow plot and space is at a premium.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania%20barn\\\">Pennsylvania barn</a> in the U.S. has a distinctive cantilever called a forebay, not a jetty.\\nThe traditional Turkish house is a <a href=\\\"Timber%20framing%23halftimbering\\\">half-timber</a>ed house with a cantilevered or supported overhang called a cumba.\\nIn the North African Maghreb, houses in medieval city Kasbahs often featured jetties. Contemporary examples still survive in the <a href=\\\"Casbah%20of%20Algiers\\\">Casbah of Algiers</a>.\\nThe House of <a href=\\\"Opus%20craticum\\\">Opus Craticum</a> built before AD 79 in Roman <a href=\\\"Herculaneum\\\">Herculaneum</a> has a supported cantilever.\",\n \"Goostrey\\nGoostrey is an old farming village and <a href=\\\"civil%20parishes%20in%20England\\\">civil parish</a> in the unitary authority of <a href=\\\"Cheshire%20East\\\">Cheshire East</a> and the ceremonial county of <a href=\\\"Cheshire\\\">Cheshire</a>, England. It is located off Junction 18 of the <a href=\\\"M6%20motorway\\\">M6 motorway</a>, near <a href=\\\"Jodrell%20Bank%20Observatory\\\">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a>. According to the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20Census%202001\\\">2001 Census</a>, the civil parish had a total population of 2,201. The Parish of Goostrey was the fourth largest in the former <a href=\\\"Congleton%20%28borough%29\\\">Borough of Congleton</a>, excluding the four towns, with a population of 2,180 at mid-1997. Its area of 2,535 acres (10.26 square kilometres) contains 900 houses of which fourteen are <a href=\\\"listed%20building\\\">listed building</a>s and are considered as being of historical or architectural importance.\\nIt is possible that Goostrey was a meeting place or even a settlement during the 1st millennium BC, as stone and bronze axe heads and <a href=\\\"tumulus\\\">barrows</a> within the parish boundary show the area was inhabited before the <a href=\\\"British%20Iron%20Age\\\">Iron Age</a>. <a href=\\\"British%20Bronze%20Age\\\">Bronze Age</a> barrows have also been found near <a href=\\\"Twemlow%20Hall\\\">Twemlow Hall</a> and Terra Nova School on the edge of the parish. The 1,200-year-old <a href=\\\"Taxus%20baccata\\\">yew tree</a> in Goostrey's churchyard suggests that the mound on which the church is built was a focal point for a community during the <a href=\\\"Dark%20Ages%20%28historiography%29\\\">Dark Ages</a> of the 1st millennium. At that time Cheshire was under the control of the <a href=\\\"Wrekinset\\\">Wreocensæte</a> people of <a href=\\\"Mercia\\\">Mercia</a>.\\nGoostrey first appears in recorded history with two entries in the <a href=\\\"Domesday%20Book\\\">Domesday Book</a> of 1086, when most of the parish was held by William FitzNigel, Baron of <a href=\\\"Halton%20%28borough%29\\\">Halton</a>, and by Hugh de Mara, another follower of the <a href=\\\"Earl%20of%20Chester\\\">Earl of Chester</a>. Hugh FitzNorman gave much land in Goostrey to endow the new <a href=\\\"Chester%20Cathedral\\\">Abbey of Saint Werburgh</a> in Chester in 1119, as did a later owner, Baron Hugh of <a href=\\\"Mold%2C%20Flintshire\\\">Mold</a>. Some land in the parish or nearby Twemlow was also given to help endow the <a href=\\\"Vale%20Royal%20Abbey\\\">Vale Royal Abbey</a>, near <a href=\\\"Northwich\\\">Northwich</a>.\\nThe Parish of Goostrey-cum-Barnshaw remained ecclesiastical property until the 14th century, leased out at first and then managed by the abbey directly. Abbey records mostly relate to maintenance of ditches, mills and fish ponds and give a picture of a scatter of small farms set amongst woods and heath supplying wood, flour and fish to the great <a href=\\\"Chester%20Cathedral\\\">Chester Abbey</a>, some later gifted to the new foundation of <a href=\\\"Vale%20Royal%20Abbey\\\">Vale Royal Abbey</a>.\\nAfter the <a href=\\\"Dissolution%20of%20the%20Monasteries\\\">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a>, the land was purchased by the <a href=\\\"Mainwaring%20Baronets\\\">Mainwaring family</a> of Over Peover and remained part of that family's estate until the 20th century. From the 17th century, farming techniques improved and farms became bigger and more prosperous. <a href=\\\"Dairy%20farming\\\">Dairy farming</a> and particularly the Cheshire speciality, cheese, thrived, shielding the county from poor harvests and low prices. Goostrey became a centre for a comparatively well-to-do farming community. The church, <a href=\\\"St%20Luke%27s%20Church%2C%20Goostrey\\\">St Luke's</a>, a wooden framed building built around 1220 was replaced by the present one of brick in 1792. The first recorded school early in the 17th century was rebuilt in 1775, a replacement built on another site in 1812 and that replaced by the present 'old' school in 1856 when some 62 boys and 40 girls were pupils. Also at that time, the village had at least two pubs, a mill, a blacksmith, two tailors, a shoemaker and two or three shops.\\nThe first big change to the old way of life was the opening of the <a href=\\\"Crewe%20to%20Manchester%20Line\\\">Crewe to Manchester railway</a> near the village in 1842. However, Goostrey did not get its own station until 1891. The <a href=\\\"Goostrey%20railway%20station\\\">new station</a> offered a market for milk and produce and brought in occasional trippers, temperance groups or Sunday schools out for a picnic. In the late 19th century, villas were built along Main Road and groups of cyclists began visiting the village, a connection which continues. After the <a href=\\\"First%20World%20War\\\">First World War</a>, <a href=\\\"motor%20car\\\">motor car</a>s were more frequent and the annual Goostrey horseraces became fashionable. Goostrey remained largely a farming community until the late 1930s, when the district council decided to build council housing in the village and to install mains drainage. In 1963, the first of three new estate developments was started and by 1970 the number of houses had quadrupled.\\nThough the new residents were initially seen as \\\"incomers\\\", many soon became active members of village clubs and societies. In 1976, the village's residents and activities were captured by a series of five one-hour ITV programmes titled \\\"Goostrey—A Village\\\", which received a mixed welcome from the inhabitants themselves.\\nCommunity spirit has grown along with the village. A sports field (originally planned in the 1920s) finally became a reality in the 1990s, and both \\\"old\\\" and \\\"new\\\" residents were involved in planning the village's <a href=\\\"millennium\\\">millennium</a> celebrations. Recent community ventures include a sports <a href=\\\"pavilion\\\">pavilion</a>, and a new children's play area in Boothbed Lane (completed in 2005).\\nThe village of Goostrey sprawls east-west along a single main road, stretching about three miles (5 km). There are two main concentrations of houses, one in the west of the village containing the local shop and a small sports venue, and the other in the centre of the village. The east end of the village is marked by <a href=\\\"Goostrey%20railway%20station\\\">Goostrey railway station</a>, which is on the Manchester–Crewe line.\\nGoostrey has a <a href=\\\"Goostrey%20Primary%20School\\\">village primary school</a>, a <a href=\\\"Methodist\\\">Methodist</a> chapel and <a href=\\\"St%20Luke%27s%20Church%2C%20Goostrey\\\">St Luke's Church</a>. There are two <a href=\\\"public%20house\\\">public house</a>s, the Crown Inn and the Red Lion. Goostrey also has a general store, a post office, a newsagent, a hairdresser, a butcher's shop, Mrs Kettle's hardware shop and a pharmacy. There are also a number of small businesses in the village.\\nThe wooded valley of Red Lion Brook on the northern side of the village is known as \\\"The Bongs\\\" and features in <a href=\\\"Alan%20Garner\\\">Alan Garner</a>'s play \\\"Holly from the Bongs\\\", which was performed by the children of the village in the 1970s for the BBC. Alan Garner lives in the village in the late 16th century house known as Toad Hall and set his popular novel \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Weirdstone%20of%20Brisingamen\\\">The Weirdstone of Brisingamen</a>\\\" in nearby <a href=\\\"Alderley%20Edge\\\">Alderley Edge</a>.\\nGoostrey is near <a href=\\\"Holmes%20Chapel\\\">Holmes Chapel</a>; most of the village children attend <a href=\\\"Holmes%20Chapel%20Comprehensive%20School\\\">Holmes Chapel Comprehensive School</a> after leaving <a href=\\\"Goostrey%20Primary%20School\\\">Goostrey Primary School</a>. Goostrey is also near <a href=\\\"Knutsford\\\">Knutsford</a>, <a href=\\\"Wilmslow\\\">Wilmslow</a>, <a href=\\\"Alderley%20Edge\\\">Alderley Edge</a> and <a href=\\\"Sandbach\\\">Sandbach</a>.\\nGoostrey Rose Day is the annual summer village <a href=\\\"f%C3%AAte\\\">fête</a> which is held on the last Saturday of June. The village children, organisations and the young at hearts dress in fancy-dress costumes and parade through the village. To mark the centenary, Goostrey held a <a href=\\\"scarecrow\\\">scarecrow</a> competition for the whole village to participate in, which has now become an annual event in the village. Photos of past Goostrey Rose Days can be seen in the Crown Inn.\\nThere is a very popular local tradition of <a href=\\\"gooseberry\\\">gooseberry</a> growing, and an annual Goostrey Gooseberry Show. A plaque in the Crown Inn lists all of the show's past winners.\\nGoostrey is a thriving village with a close knit community and has many clubs and organisations for all ages. The village has a village hall as well as a park and children's play area. The village also has its own sports pavilion and facilities which are available to village residents and include a <a href=\\\"bowling%20green\\\">bowling green</a>, football pitch and tennis courts.\\nAn active footpaths group keeps the many public footpaths around the village in good order. \\\"More Goostrey Walks & Strolls\\\" details nine walks around the village and is available via the group's website (see External Links). It has photos, maps needed for the walks and is a mine of historical and ecological information about Goostrey.\\nIn 2006, Goostrey became one of the first villages in the United Kingdom to have its own profile on the social networking website MySpace.\\n2007 saw the introduction of the Goostrey Arts Festival. Also known as \\\"Goosfest\\\", the week-long showcase comprises a wide variety of events promoting the cultural life of the village, consisting of amateur and professional practitioners (many of whom are local) across a wide range of the arts, including stand-up comedy, classical, folk and contemporary music, pottery, photography and paintings. The majority of the events take place in the Red Lion, the village hall, the Crown Inn and St Luke's Church.\\n\",\n \"Pevsner Architectural Guides\\nThe Pevsner Architectural Guides are a series of <a href=\\\"guide%20book\\\">guide book</a>s to the <a href=\\\"architecture\\\">architecture</a> of the <a href=\\\"British%20Isles\\\">British Isles</a>. Begun in the 1940s by the art historian <a href=\\\"Sir%20Nikolaus%20Pevsner\\\">Sir Nikolaus Pevsner</a>, the 46 volumes of the original Buildings of England series were published between 1951 and 1974. The series was then extended to <a href=\\\"Scotland\\\">Scotland</a>, <a href=\\\"Wales\\\">Wales</a> and <a href=\\\"Ireland\\\">Ireland</a> in the late 1970s. The Irish guides are incomplete as of autumn 2016. Most of the English volumes have had second editions, chiefly by other authors.\\nThe final Scottish volume, \\\"Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire\\\", was published in Autumn 2016. This completed the series' coverage of Great Britain in the 65th anniversary year of their inception.\\nAfter moving to <a href=\\\"Great%20Britain\\\">Great Britain</a> from his native <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a> in the 1930s, Nikolaus Pevsner found that the study of <a href=\\\"architectural%20history\\\">architectural history</a> had little status in academic circles, and that the amount of information available, especially to travellers wanting to inform themselves about the architecture of a particular district, was limited. He conceived a project to write a series of comprehensive county guides to rectify this, and gained the backing of <a href=\\\"Allen%20Lane\\\">Allen Lane</a>, founder of <a href=\\\"Penguin%20Books\\\">Penguin Books</a>, for whom he had written his \\\"Outline of European Architecture\\\".\\nWork on the series began in 1945. Lane employed two part-time assistants, both <a href=\\\"German%20people\\\">German</a> refugee art historians, who prepared notes for Pevsner from published sources. Pevsner spent the academic holidays touring the country to make personal observations and to carry out local research, before writing up the finished volumes. The first volume was published in 1951.\\nPevsner wrote 32 of the books himself and ten with collaborators, with a further four of the original series written by others: the two Gloucestershire volumes by David Verey, and the two volumes on Kent by <a href=\\\"John%20Newman%20%28architectural%20historian%29\\\">John Newman</a>. Newman is the only author in the series to have written a volume and revised it three times.\\nSince Pevsner's death, work has continued on the series, with several volumes now in their third revision, and three in their fourth editions.\\nThe books are compact and intended to meet the needs of both specialists and the general reader. Each contains an extensive introduction to the architectural history and styles of the area, followed by a town-by-town — and in the case of larger settlements, street-by-street — account of individual buildings. These are often grouped under the heading \\\"Perambulation\\\", as Pevsner intended the books to be used as the reader was walking about the area. The guides offer both detailed coverage of the most notable buildings and notes on lesser-known and <a href=\\\"Vernacular%20architecture\\\">vernacular</a> buildings; all building types are covered but there is a particular emphasis on churches and public buildings. Each volume has a central section with several dozen pages of photographs, originally in black and white, though colour illustrations have featured in revised volumes published by <a href=\\\"Yale%20University%20Press\\\">Yale University Press</a> since 2003.\\nThe boundaries of each volume do not follow a uniform pattern and have evolved with revisions and expansions. The original intention was to maintain whatever boundaries were current at time of writing; in the first years of the survey these were the <a href=\\\"Historic%20counties%20of%20England\\\">traditional counties</a> of England. However boundary changes to the London area in 1965 and the rest of England in 1974 meant that this was no longer practicable. As such there are now many variants: \\\"Cumbria\\\", for example, covers the modern <a href=\\\"non-metropolitan%20county\\\">non-metropolitan county</a> – excepting the district of <a href=\\\"Sedbergh\\\">Sedbergh</a> which although in modern <a href=\\\"Cumbria\\\">Cumbria</a> is included in the volume covering the <a href=\\\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\\\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>. Conversely, the <a href=\\\"Furness\\\">Furness</a> area – geographically in Cumbria but traditionally in <a href=\\\"Lancashire\\\">Lancashire</a> – is included, having been omitted from the predecessor volume, \\\"Cumberland and Westmorland\\\".\\nThe six volumes currently covering London collectively represent the 32 <a href=\\\"London%20boroughs\\\">London boroughs</a> plus the <a href=\\\"City%20of%20London\\\">City</a>, which constitute the modern <a href=\\\"Greater%20London\\\">Greater London</a> region, rather than earlier divisions. The entire volume on <a href=\\\"Middlesex\\\">Middlesex</a> was an early casualty of this rearrangement, as are parts of the revised volumes covering <a href=\\\"Surrey\\\">Surrey</a>, <a href=\\\"Essex\\\">Essex</a> and <a href=\\\"Kent\\\">Kent</a>. The forthcoming \\\"Birmingham and the Black Country\\\" volume covers the area bounded by the modern <a href=\\\"West%20Midlands%20%28county%29\\\">West Midlands</a> metropolitan county, but minus the Metropolitan Borough of <a href=\\\"Coventry\\\">Coventry</a> and the rural part of <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Borough%20of%20Solihull\\\">Metropolitan Borough of Solihull</a>. These appear in the revised \\\"Warwickshire\\\" volume, despite no longer being in that county. Hence \\\"Warwickshire\\\" now follows the boundary of neither the <a href=\\\"Warwickshire\\\">traditional</a> nor the modern county.\\n\\\"The Buildings of Scotland\\\" similarly features hybrid divisions, with volumes such as \\\"Fife\\\" and \\\"Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire\\\" reflecting their traditional county boundaries whilst \\\"Highland and Islands\\\" corresponds to the modern counterparts. \\\"The Buildings of Ireland\\\" has so far broadly corresponded to the traditional <a href=\\\"provinces%20of%20Ireland\\\">provinces of Ireland</a> and is blind to <a href=\\\"Irish%20border\\\">the national boundary</a>. \\\"The Buildings of Wales\\\" largely follows the post-1974 divisions.\\nThe list below is of the volumes that are currently in print – dates in brackets indicate forthcoming editions.\\nSince 1962, the guides have undergone a gradual programme of updating to reflect architectural-history scholarship and to include significant new buildings. Pevsner left virtually all the revisions to others, acting as supervisor only. He ultimately revised only two of his original editions alone: \\\"London 1: The Cities of London and Westminster\\\" (1962) and \\\"Cambridgeshire\\\" (1970). Both were later revised again by others. To date, the oldest wholly unrevised volume is \\\"Yorkshire: The North Riding\\\" (1966). Additionally, readers looking for information on <a href=\\\"West%20Sussex\\\">West Sussex</a> will have to consult Ian Nairn's 1965 text, whilst those wishing to read about the architecture of the <a href=\\\"Black%20Country\\\">Black Country</a> must refer to the 1966 text of \\\"Warwickshire\\\" pending a new volume covering that area. Of the rest, only \\\"Dorset\\\" (1972) and \\\"Staffordshire\\\" (1974) remain in their unrevised first editions.\\nUntil 1953, all volumes were published in paperback only, after which both hardback and paperback versions were issued. The revision of \\\"London: 1\\\" in 1962 was the first volume to be issued in hardback alone, and no further paperbacks were issued after 1964. Until 1970 volumes bore a sequential reference number, with \\\"Cornwall\\\" being 1. The last volume to be so numbered was \\\"Gloucestershire 2: The Vale and the Forest of Dean\\\" (41). Thereafter <a href=\\\"ISBN\\\">ISBN</a>s identify each volume. Beginning in 1983, a larger format was introduced, and all subsequent new editions have been issued in this format. Volumes revised pre-1983 have been reprinted in the original, smaller format (marked with an asterisk in the table below). All editions are now published by <a href=\\\"Yale%20University%20Press\\\">Yale University Press</a>.\\nWhere revisions have been spread over more than one volume, the preceding edition remains in print until the whole area has been revised. Editions which have been partly superseded in this way are marked ‡.\\nThe first of the paperback City Guides, covering Manchester, appeared in 2001. It featured a new format with integrated colour illustrations. In most cases the City Guides have preceded a revision of the county volume in which they are located, although they do go into greater detail than the county volumes and have more illustrations. Thus the Birmingham guide completely supersedes the central Birmingham section of the \\\"Warwickshire\\\" volume, which is now almost fifty years old. Two of the guides, covering \\\"Newcastle and Gateshead\\\" and \\\"Hull\\\", are more recent than the hardback editions for the surrounding counties, and therefore update as well as expand the coverage of those cities. This series appears to be on a hiatus, with no new volumes published since 2010 and none confirmed as in planning.\\nTwo supplementary works – thus far the only of their type – were published in 1998, one covering London's City Churches and the other the Docklands area (see \\\"London Docklands\\\" in Superseded Volumes below). Both were issued in the format of the main series rather than the City Guides. However, unlike the Docklands edition which represented preliminary work for an expanded main volume, the City Churches volume augmented the text in \\\"London 1: The City\\\", published the previous year. The continued development of the Docklands area meant that the volume was superseded when \\\"London 5: East\\\" was published seven years later, but the City Churches volume remains current and was reissued by Yale in 2002.\\nThe series continued under Pevsner's founding editorship into Scotland. The format is largely similar; however, only \\\"Lothian\\\" was published in the original small volume style. One noticeable difference in some of the Scottish series is a greater subdivision of the main gazetteer (\\\"e.g.\\\" in \\\"Argyll and Bute\\\" mainland Argyll has separate gazetteer from its islands, and Bute similarly is treated on its own). Unlike \\\"The Buildings of England\\\", none of the Scottish volumes adopts a hierarchy of ecclesiastical buildings, instead grouping them together. As with the English revisions, several of the volumes are the work of many contributors. The series was completed with \\\"Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire\\\", published in November 2016.\\nThe volumes on Glasgow and Edinburgh are, with Dublin (see below) the only Pevsner volumes outside London to focus exclusively on a city. These volumes should not be confused with the City Guide format (see above).\\nThe series has also been extended to Wales, and was completed with the issue of \\\"Gwynedd\\\" in 2009 (although this initial survey had taken seven years longer than Pevsner's first complete survey of England). Only the first volume, \\\"Powys\\\" (edited by Richard Haslam, and published in 1979) appeared in the original small format style; and this volume has now been superseded by a revised large-format edition, published in 2013. This is the first (and to date only) guide outside \\\"The Buildings of England\\\" series to be revised.\\nThe Irish series is incomplete, with only four volumes being published between 1979 and the present day. Research for several of the intended volumes has not yet begun.\\nThe revision of the series has rendered some original volumes obsolete, usually as the area of coverage has changed. For example, the county of <a href=\\\"Cumbria\\\">Cumbria</a> was created after the publication of \\\"Cumberland and Westmorland\\\" and \\\"North Lancashire\\\", leading to the merger of material from both volumes in a single volume \\\"Cumbria\\\", a revision with a new geographical focus.\\nTo date the following volumes have been entirely superseded:\\nIn addition, two volumes, \\\"North Devon\\\" and \\\"South Devon\\\" (1952) were superseded by a single volume covering the entire county. Parts of the original \\\"Hampshire & the Isle of Wight\\\" and \\\"Yorkshire: the West Riding\\\" volumes have been superseded by revised volumes.\\nIn some published volumes and in advance publicity, certain titles were announced which were ultimately never published. A number of factors accounted for this, including the readiness of parts of the text covering certain areas and the anticipated size of the volumes. Unpublished titles included:\\nIn 1995 Penguin, in conjunction with <a href=\\\"English%20Heritage\\\">English Heritage</a>, released a publication based on the guides entitled \\\"Looking at Buildings\\\". Focusing on the East Riding of Yorkshire volume, Pevsner's text was adapted as an introduction, with a greater number of illustrations than the main guides. No further print publications were issued, however the title survives as an introductory website to architectural terms and selected buildings which feature the Pevsner guides<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/index.html\\\"></a>.\\nIn 1995 a <a href=\\\"CD-ROM\\\">CD-ROM</a> entitled \\\"A Compendium of Pevsner's Buildings of England\\\" was issued by <a href=\\\"Oxford%20University%20Press\\\">Oxford University Press</a>, designed as a searchable database of the volumes published for England only. A second edition was released in 2005. Bibliographies of the guides themselves were published in 1983, 1998 and 2012 by the <a href=\\\"Penguin%20Collectors%20Society\\\">Penguin Collectors Society</a>.\\nIn 2016 Yale University Press published three volumes, each serving as an introduction to some of the buildings and the architectural terms mentioned in the text of the guides. Published as \\\"Pevsner Architectural Guides: Introductions\\\" these are: an architectural glossary (also available as an <a href=\\\"Mobile%20app\\\">app</a>), a volume focusing on church buildings and another on dwelling houses (including <a href=\\\"vernacular%20architecture\\\">vernacular architecture</a>).\\nIn 1986, Penguin published an anthology from Pevsner's volumes edited by <a href=\\\"Bridget%20Cherry\\\">Bridget Cherry</a> and John Newman, \\\"The Best Buildings of England\\\", <a href=\\\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\\\">ISBN</a> . It has an introduction by Newman assessing Pevsner's aims and methods. In 2001, the Penguin Collectors Society published \\\"The Buildings of England: a Celebration\\\", edited by Simon Bradley and Bridget Cherry, fifty years after BE1 was published: it includes twelve essays and a selection of text from the series.\\nIn 1997 the <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a> broadcast a series of documentaries entitled \\\"Travels with Pevsner\\\", in which six writers and broadcasters travelled through a county which had particular significance to them. They revisited buildings mentioned by Pevsner, critically examining his views on them. A further series was broadcast in 1998. John Grundy, who presented the programme on Northumberland, was one of the revisers of that county volume. Both series were accompanied by booklets published by the <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a>, describing the buildings featured in the programmes and suggesting others to explore. The counties visited and the travellers were:\\nIn both series extracts from Pevsner's text were read by <a href=\\\"Benjamin%20Whitrow\\\">Benjamin Whitrow</a>.\",\n \"Ronald McDonald House Charities\\nRonald McDonald House Charities (RMHC) is an American independent <a href=\\\"nonprofit%20organization\\\">nonprofit organization</a> whose stated mission is to create, find, and support programs that directly improve the health and well-being of children.\\nGerald Newman, Chief Accounting Officer for <a href=\\\"McDonald%27s%20Corporation\\\">McDonald's Corporation</a>, was \\\"one of the founders of Ronald McDonald Children's Charities and was president of R.M.H.C.\\\"\\nRMHC has a global network of chapters in 64 countries and regions under three core programs: Ronald McDonald House, Ronald McDonald Family Room and Ronald McDonald Care Mobile.\\nThere are currently 366 Ronald McDonald's Houses in 42 countries and regions. Ronald McDonald Houses act as a place to stay for families with hospitalized children under 21 years of age (or 18, depending on the House), who are being treated at nearby hospitals and medical facilities. Ronald McDonald's Houses provide over 7,200 bedrooms to families around the world each night, with an estimated value of $700 million in lieu of hotel costs.\\nThere are currently 214 Ronald McDonald's Family Rooms in 24 countries and regions. These rooms accommodate over 3,000 families each day who live in the community and don't need or do not meet the prescribed criteria to stay at a Ronald McDonald House. They provide a safe place for family members to rest, wash clothes, take a shower, or nap near the vicinity of their child.\\nThere are currently 50 Ronald McDonald's Care Mobiles in 9 countries and regions. Ronald McDonald Care Mobiles are mobile clinics that offer health care for children in their own neighborhoods at no cost to the families. The program serves more than 100,000 children a year, and saves families in the U.S. $10 million in medical and dental costs each year.\\nThe Ronald McDonald's Learning Program (Australia only) was formed in 1997 to help children who had suffered minor illness and returned to school. The stated mission of the program is to provide \\\"educational support\\\" to these children who have fallen behind in their education. The Ronald McDonald Learning Program is the only program of its kind in Australia.\\nThe program now works with over 1000 students each week. The program was first piloted in 1997 by Tracey Webster.\\nThe Ronald McDonald's Learning Program supplies students with:\\nIn 1981, the first Ronald McDonald's House outside the United States opened, in <a href=\\\"Toronto\\\">Toronto</a>, <a href=\\\"Ontario\\\">Ontario</a>. In 1991, the 150th Ronald McDonald's House opened, in <a href=\\\"Paris%2C%20France\\\">Paris, France</a> now closed. On July 25, 2005, the 250th opened, in <a href=\\\"Caracas%2C%20Venezuela\\\">Caracas, Venezuela</a> currently closed. The first in-hospital Ronald McDonald House in APMEA (Asia Pacific Middle East and Africa) opened at Queen Sirikit National Institute of Child Health, <a href=\\\"Bangkok\\\">Bangkok</a>, <a href=\\\"Thailand\\\">Thailand</a>, on June 7, 2011. Currently there are 366 Ronald McDonald's Houses in 43 countries.\\nThe first Ronald McDonald House was opened in Australia in Camperdown, New South Wales in 1981. The number of Houses has since grown to 15. It has since affected 100,000 families and houses up to 260 families per night. Each House is attached to a major Children's or Women's hospital. Each House has an independent board that manages its own day-to-day funding.\\nOther RMHC Australia activities include Family Rooms in 14 hospitals. They are located at Canberra Hospital, Garran, ACT; Gosford Hospital, Gosford, New South Wales; John Hunter Hospital, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales; Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, New South Wales; Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, New South Wales; Nepean Hospital, Kingswood, New South Wales; Gold Coast Hospital Children's Ward, Southport, Queensland; Gold Coast Hospital NICU, Southport, Queensland; Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria; Sunshine Hospital, St Albans, Victoria; The Northern Hospital, Epping, Victoria; Wodonga Hospital, Wodonga, Victoria; Peel Health Campus, Mandurah, Western Australia; and Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Subiaco, Western Australia\\nRMHC Australia also operates Family Retreats that enable families of sick children to take a holiday for a week. The retreats are located in Ocean Grove, Victoria; Jurien Bay and Bunbury, Western Australia; Forster, New South Wales and Palm Cove in Northern Queensland.\\nThe Ronald McDonald Learning Program assists seriously ill children to catch up with missed education while staying in hospital. It provides assessment, therapy, and tuition to children and training for teachers. It assists over 500 children a week.\\nThe Charlie Bell Scholarship Program is named after the first Australian Global <a href=\\\"McDonald%27s\\\">McDonald's</a> Corporation CEO. The program provides financial assistance in the form of 11 one off scholarships a year. It assists with expenses related to vocational or tertiary education for children that have been seriously ill.\\nThe Ronald McDonald Care Mobile is a partnership between RMHC Australia and <a href=\\\"Royal%20Far%20West\\\">Royal Far West</a>. It is based in Orange in regional New South Wales and travels throughout rural and remote New South Wales.\\nRonald McDonald House Charity Australia is also the major private donor to Cord Blood Banks in Australia, providing a 10-year $A1 million commitment.\\nOn May 21, 2016 Ronald McDonald Barnefond (Ronald McDonald Children's Fund) along with Stine Sofies Stiftelse, opened the world's first camp and learning center for children.\\nStine Sofie Stiftelse first joined forces with Ronald McDonald Barnefond in 2015. The initial purpose was to fix houses where children of abuse and their families can stay for a day free of charge.\\nThrough the <a href=\\\"http%3A//rmhc.org/how-you-can-help/other-ways-to-get-involved/pop-tab-collections/\\\">RMHC Pop Tab Collection Program</a>, to date more than $4 million has been generated. The Pop Tab Collection Program has been established to allow individuals and businesses to collect <a href=\\\"Tab%20%28beverage%20can%29\\\">soda pop tabs</a> from aluminum cans and donate them to their local RMHC Chapter or Ronald McDonald's House. Though it differs from program to program, for the most part, RMHC Chapters use the money received from recycling the tabs to help offset operational expenses or to sponsor or support programs. Not all Houses participate in the Pop Tab Program. Collected pop tabs are used by Ronald McDonald House Charities to fund their work.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Worth%20%28magazine%29\\\">Worth</a>\\\" magazine named Ronald McDonald's House Charity one of \\\"America's 100 Best Charities\\\" in 2001 and 2002.\\nThe U.S. Green Building Council awarded the Ronald McDonald's House Charities of Austin and Central Texas (RMHC-ACT) with Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design <a href=\\\"Leadership%20in%20Energy%20and%20Environmental%20Design\\\">(LEED)</a> Platinum certification, the highest level of sustainable building in the nation. Not only is the design good for the environment, the Earth-friendly features create a beautiful environment for the children and families staying at the Ronald McDonald House.\\n\",\n \"Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd\\nMorton v Douglas Homes Ltd has become an important case in New Zealand as a result of the <a href=\\\"leaky%20homes%20crisis\\\">leaky homes crisis</a>. The salience of the case comes from the fact that <a href=\\\"Michael%20Hardie%20Boys\\\">Justice Hardie Boys</a> held the directors of a building company personally liable for damage caused by defective foundations. The case has been described in the <a href=\\\"Court%20of%20Appeal%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">Court of Appeal</a> as one that, \\\"certainly provides some authority for the view that the directors of a building company with actual control of particular building operations owe a duty of care, associated with that control.\\\"\\nBetween 1976 and 1977 Douglas Homes Ltd built four flats in a residential subdivision in <a href=\\\"Waimairi%20County\\\">Waimairi County</a>, <a href=\\\"Canterbury%2C%20New%20Zealand\\\">Canterbury</a> over the top of an old shingle pit. Before construction, \\\"the directors had been advised by an engineer on the work necessary for the laying of foundations for two flats. One of the directors did not ensure that the engineer’s advice was adhered to in the construction of the foundations of one flat. The other director specifically took charge of the works on the other, and failed to ensure the engineer’s advice was followed.\\\"\\nHardie Boys J reasoned that the directors of Douglas Homes Ltd could be held liable for their negligence as, \\\"The principle of limited liability protects shareholders and not directors, and a director is as responsible for his own torts as any other servant or agent.\\\"\\nHardie Boys J held that in establishing whether a director owed a duty of care the test was to be that established in \\\"<a href=\\\"Anns%20v%20Merton%20LBC\\\">Anns v Merton London Borough Council</a>\\\" [1978] AC 728 and that a duty of care was founded upon the control a director exercised over the operations of a company.\\nThe ratio has not yet been overturned and as such remains a precedent for holding directors liable for defects in construction that was under their control. In 2006 in \\\"Dicks v Hobson Swan Construction Limited (in liquidation),\\\" <a href=\\\"David%20Baragwanath\\\">Justice Baragwanath</a> applied the ratio of the case to hold a director personally liable for a <a href=\\\"Leaky%20homes%20crisis\\\">leaky building</a> constructed by his company. In a 2010 appeal from the Weathertight Homes Tribunal Justice Wylie noted the correct approach to searching for directorial liability lay through the test articulated in \\\"Morton v Douglas Homes Ltd\\\";\",\n \"Exterior insulation finishing system\\nExterior insulation and finish system (EIFS) is a general class of non-load bearing building cladding systems that provides exterior walls with an insulated, water-resistant, finished surface in an integrated composite material system. In Europe, systems similar to EIFS are known as <a href=\\\"External%20wall%20insulation\\\">External Wall Insulation System</a> (EWIS) and External Thermal Insulation Cladding System (ETICS).\\nEIFS has been in use since the 1960s in North America, first on masonry buildings, but since the 1990s the majority on wood framed buildings. There is a history of water infiltration problems causing damage to buildings resulting in costly legal cases, so the recommended systems include a drainage plane to let water drain down and out from behind the cladding.\\nEIFS was developed in Europe after World War II and was initially used to retrofit <a href=\\\"masonry\\\">masonry</a> walls. EIFS started to be used in North America in the 1960s, and became very popular in the mid- 1970s due to the oil embargo and the resultant surge in interest in high energy efficiency wall systems such as EIFS provides. The use of EIFS over <a href=\\\"Wall%20stud\\\">stud</a>-and-sheathing framing instead of over solid walls is a technique used primarily in North America. EIFS is now used all over North America, and also in many other areas around the world, especially in Europe and the Pacific Rim.\\nIn North America, EIFS was initially used almost exclusively on commercial, masonry buildings. As of 1997 EIFS accounted for about 4% of the residential <a href=\\\"siding\\\">siding</a> market and 12% of the commercial siding market.\\nIn the late 1980s problems started developing due to water leakage in EIFS-clad buildings. This created an international controversy and numerous lawsuits. Critics argue that, while not inherently more prone to water penetration than other exterior finishes, barrier-type EIFS systems (non-water-managed systems) do not allow water that penetrates the building envelope to escape.\\nThe EIFS industry has consistently maintained that the EIFS itself was not leaking, but rather poor craftsmanship and bad architectural detailing at the perimeter of the EIFS was causing the problems. As a result, building codes began mandating a drainage system for EIFS systems on wood frame buildings and additional on-site inspection.\\nMost homeowner insurance policies cover EIFS and EIFS-like systems. Though there are some cases where insurance companies may not offer coverage for EIFS several companies do. Also, some facility owners have found that EIFS systems that are installed at lower building levels are subject to vandalism, as the material is soft and can be chipped or carved resulting in significant damage. If these concerns exist, specifying heavier ounce reinforcing mesh can be the answer. Building to these specifications can drastically increase the durability of the EIFS system.\\nEIFS installation was found to be a contributing factor in the multibillion-dollar problem known as the \\\"<a href=\\\"Leaky%20condo%20crisis\\\">Leaky condo crisis</a>\\\" in southwestern <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia</a> and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Leaky%20homes\\\">Leaky homes</a>\\\" issue in <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand\\\">New Zealand</a> that emerged separately in the 1980s and 1990s.\\nIn the United States the <a href=\\\"International%20Building%20Code\\\">International Building Code</a> and <a href=\\\"ASTM%20International\\\">ASTM International</a> define \\\"Exterior Insulation and Finish System\\\" (EIFS) as a nonload bearing, exterior wall cladding system that consists of an insulation board attached either adhesively or mechanically, or both, to the substrate; an integrally reinforced base coat; and a textured protective finish coat.\\n\\\"EIFS with Drainage\\\", another EIFS system, is the predominant method of EIFS applied today. As the name implies, EIFS with Drainage provides a way for moisture that may accumulate in the wall cavity to evacuate.\\nAlthough often called \\\"synthetic stucco\\\", EIFS is not <a href=\\\"stucco\\\">stucco</a>. Traditional stucco is a centuries-old material which consists of aggregate, a binder, and water, and is a hard, dense, thick, non-insulating material. EIFS is a lightweight synthetic wall cladding that includes foam plastic insulation and thin synthetic coatings. There are also \\\"specialty stuccos\\\" that use synthetic materials but no insulation, and these are also not \\\"EIFS\\\". A common example is what is called \\\"one-coat stucco\\\", which is a thick, synthetic stucco applied in a single layer (traditional stucco is applied in 3 layers).\\nEIFS are proprietary systems of a particular EIFS manufacturer and consist of specific components. EIFS are not \\\"generic\\\" products made from common separate materials. To function properly, EIFS needs to be architecturally designed and installed as a system. The materials and installation methods specified by different EIFS manufacturers are not all compatible and should not be used interchangeably in new construction or repair work.\\nThe technical definition of an EIFS does not include wall framing, sheathing, flashings, caulking, water barriers, windows, doors, and other wall components. However, some architects have begun specifying flashings, <a href=\\\"sealant\\\">sealant</a>s, and wiring fasteners as being a part of the EIFS scope of work, essentially requiring EIFS contractors to carry out that work as well. The technical national consensus standard for the definition of an EIFS, as published by ASTM International does not include <a href=\\\"Flashing%20%28weatherproofing%29\\\">flashing</a> or sealants as part of the EIFS. Many of the EIFS manufacturers have their own standard details showing typical building conditions for window and door flashings, control joints, inside/outside corners, penetrations, and joints at dissimilar materials which should be followed for that manufacturers warranty.\\nEIFS are typically attached to the outside face of exterior walls with an adhesive (cementitious or acrylic based) or mechanical fasteners. Adhesives are commonly used to attach EIFS to gypsum board, cement board, or concrete substrates. EIFS are attached with mechanical fasteners (specially designed for this application) when installed over <a href=\\\"housewrap\\\">housewrap</a>s (sheet-good weather barriers) such as are commonly used over wood sheathings. The supporting wall surface should be continuous (not \\\"open framing\\\") and flat.\\nResearch, conducted by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and supported by the Department of Energy, has validated that EIFS are the \\\"best performing cladding\\\" in relation to thermal and moisture control when compared to brick, stucco, and cementitious fiberboard siding. In addition EIFS are in full compliance with modern building codes which emphasize energy conservation through the use of CI (continuous insulation) and a continuous air barrier. Both these components are built into today's EIFS products to provide maximum energy savings, reduced environmental impact over the life of the structure, and improved IAQ, Indoor Air Quality. Along with these functional advantages come virtually unlimited color, texture, and decorative choices to enhance curb appeal and enjoyment of almost any home or structure.\\nEIFS before 2000 were barrier systems, meaning that the EIFS itself was the weather barrier. After 2000 the EIFS industry introduced the air/moisture barrier that resides behind the foam. In a study done by the Department Of Energy's Office of Science - Oak Ridge National Laboratory it was found that the best air/moisture barrier was a fluid barrier. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ATLANTA, Oct. 28, 2006 — EIFS \\\"outperformed all other walls in terms of moisture while maintaining superior thermal performance.\\\" The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has evaluated the five life cycle stages of the environmental impact of EIFS alongside brick, aluminum, stucco, vinyl, and cedar. Depending on a variety of site and project specific conditions, EIFS have the potential to save money in construction costs and contribute toward energy efficient operations and environmental responsibility when correctly designed and executed.\\nEIFS have also passed a variety of fire tests that range from resistance to ignitability, that include: ASTM E 119, NFPA 268, NFPA 285, ANSI FM 4880.\\nTypes of EIFS are defined by their materials and the existence/absence of a drainage plane. The EIFS Industry Members Association (EIMA) defines two classes of EIFS, Class PB (polymer based) identified as PB EIFS and Class PM (polymer modified) identified as PM EIFS.\\nPB EIFS is the most common type in North America and historically used expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation adhered to the substrate with fiberglass mesh embedded in a nominal 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) base coat which can receive additional layers of mesh and base coat for stronger impact resistance. Other types of insulation board can include <a href=\\\"polyisocyanurate\\\">polyisocyanurate</a>.\\nPM EIFS use extruded polystyrene insulation (XEPS), and a thick, cementitious base coat applied over mechanically attached glass fiber reinforcing mesh. The system has joints similar to traditional stucco. PM EIFS have evolved to include different insulation materials and base coats.\\nThe most common type of EIFS used today is the system that includes a drainage cavity, which allows any and all moisture to exit the wall. EIFS with drainage typically consists of the following components:\\nIf an EIFS with Drainage, or water-managed EIFS is installed, a water resistive barrier (aka a WRB) is first installed over the substrate (generally glass faced exterior-grade <a href=\\\"Drywall\\\">gypsum sheathing</a>, <a href=\\\"oriented%20strand%20board\\\">oriented strand board</a> (OSB) or <a href=\\\"plywood\\\">plywood</a>). The moisture barrier is applied to the entire wall surface with a mesh tape over joints and a liquid-applied membrane or a protective wrap like <a href=\\\"tyvek\\\">tyvek</a> or <a href=\\\"felt%20paper\\\">felt paper</a>. Then a drainage cavity is created (usually by adding some sort of space between the foam and the WRB). Then the other 3 layers, described above, are added. This type of EIFS is required by many building codes areas on wood frame construction, and is intended to provide a path for incidental water that may get behind the EIFS with a safe route back to the outside. The purpose is to preclude water from damaging the supporting wall.\\nAdhesives and finishes are water-based, and thus must be installed at temperatures well above freezing. Two types of adhesives are used with EIFS: those that contain Portland cement (\\\"cementitious\\\"), or do not have any Portland cement (\\\"cementless\\\"). Adhesives that contain Portland cement harden by the chemical reaction of the cement with water. Adhesives and finishes that are cementless harden by the evaporation of water. Adhesives come in two forms: The most common is in a plastic pail as a paste, to which Portland cement is added and as dry powders in sacks, to which water is added. Finishes come in a plastic pail, ready to use, like <a href=\\\"paint\\\">paint</a>. EIFS insulation comes in individual pieces, usually 2' x 4', in large bags. The pieces are trimmed to fit the wall at the construction site.\\nEIFS systems have been the subject of several lawsuits, mostly related to the installation process and failure of the system causing moisture buildups and subsequent mold growth. The most notable case concerned the former <a href=\\\"San%20Martin%2C%20California\\\">San Martin, California</a> courthouse. This case was settled for 12 million dollars.\\nThe basic underlying problem behind EIFS litigation was that EIFS was marketed as a cost-effective replacement for stucco. Stucco is expensive to install because it must be carefully applied by skilled craftsmen and takes a month to cure between coats. General contractors switched to EIFS because they were supposed to be easy to install with unskilled or semi-skilled labor and would not crack like traditional stucco if they were not cured properly. Although EIFS \\\"if properly installed\\\" according to the manufacturer's directions should not have water intrusion problems, many GCs cut corners by using insufficiently trained labor and also failed to supervise their work adequately. In turn, thousands of EIFS installations were noncompliant and suffered severe water intrusion and mold as a result. While the EIFS industry has consistently tried to shift the blame to GCs, the construction industry has retorted that using journeymen carpenters in turn eliminates the cost advantage of EIFS over stucco, and that the EIFS industry should have anticipated this issue and engineered its products from the beginning to be installed by unskilled labor or semi-skilled labor (that is, it should have been a <a href=\\\"fault-tolerant%20design\\\">fault-tolerant design</a>).\\nEIFS account for about 10% of the US commercial wall cladding market. There are several dozen EIFS manufacturers in North America. Some sell nationwide, and some are regional in their area of business operations. The EIFS manufacturers sell the various system components (adhesives, coatings, etc.) through specialty building product distributors, who in turn resell the components to local EIFS installers. The top five EIFS producers account for about 90% of the US market. These producers include Dryvit Systems, STO Corp., BASF Wall Systems, Master Wall, and Parex.\\nAnother benefit of EIFS is the option to add architectural details that are composed of the same materials. EIFS mouldings or as they are commonly referred to, stucco mouldings, come in a large variety of shapes and sizes. They are widely used on residential/commercial projects in North America and are gaining popularity worldwide. Production methods have come a long way since their inception which allow manufacturers to create with great efficiency in a cost effective manner.\",\n \"Rates (tax)\\nRates are a type of <a href=\\\"property%20tax\\\">property tax</a> system in the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a>, and in places with systems deriving from the British one, the proceeds of which are used to fund <a href=\\\"local%20government\\\">local government</a>. Some other countries have taxes with a more or less comparable role, like <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>'s \\\"taxe d'habitation\\\".\\nLocal government authorities levy annual taxes, which are called council rates or shire rates. The basis on which these charges can be calculated varies from state to state, but is usually based in some way on the value of property. Even within states, individual local government authorities can often choose the specific basis of rates - for example, it may be on the rental value of houses (as in <a href=\\\"Western%20Australia\\\">Western Australia</a>) or on the unimproved land value (as in <a href=\\\"New%20South%20Wales\\\">New South Wales</a>). These rateable valuations are usually determined by a statutory authority, and are subject to periodic revision.\\nRates are referred to as property taxes in Canada. These taxes are collected primarily by municipal governments on residential, industrial and commercial properties and are their main source of funding.\\nEngland and Wales, it is still levied on domestic property as well as non-domestic premises. Prior to 2000, it was used to fund municipal services, the responsibility of the now-abolished <a href=\\\"Urban%20Council\\\">Urban Council</a> and <a href=\\\"Regional%20Council%2C%20Hong%20Kong\\\">Regional Council</a>, through the <a href=\\\"Urban%20Services%20Department\\\">Urban Services Department</a> and <a href=\\\"Regional%20Services%20Department\\\">Regional Services Department</a>. The revenue now goes to the <a href=\\\"Treasury%20%28Hong%20Kong%29\\\">Treasury</a>. The bill is issued quarterly.\\n<a href=\\\"Ireland\\\">Ireland</a> is re-introducing rates in 2013 after having abolished them in 1977. The rates will be based on a self-assessment of the property values and set at 0.18% of a property's value annually, and 0.25% for any part of a property's value over €1m.\\n<a href=\\\"Israel\\\">Israel</a> has a similar tax known as \\\"arnona\\\" that goes back to the days of the <a href=\\\"British%20Mandate%20of%20Palestine\\\">British Mandate of Palestine</a>. It is levied by the municipality (or, in smaller localities, by the \\\"moatza eizorit\\\", i.e., Regional Council) based (currently) on the square meterage of dwelling or business. Specific rates vary widely among municipalities, with <a href=\\\"Jerusalem\\\">Jerusalem</a> and <a href=\\\"Rehovot\\\">Rehovot</a> having the highest rates in the country. In rental dwellings, tenants (rather than owners) generally pay the arnona. Single parents and some forms of economic hardship qualify for discounts or even exemptions.\\nIn New Zealand, rates provide the major source of revenue for funding <a href=\\\"Territorial%20Authorities%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">Territorial Authorities of New Zealand</a> expenditure since the late 1800s. Rates are basically a tax on real estate property. For the year ended June 2005, rates made up 56% of local authority operating revenue.\\nAlmost all property owners in New Zealand pay rates. People who rent property do not pay rates directly, but property owners will take account of the cost of rates when they set the rent. As a result, those who rent properties also have an interest in the level of rates, as well as in the services provided by councils using these rates.\\nSome types of property are exempt from rate levies - government land and rail land, for example. Other categories of property may possibly only be rated at 50% (land used for some types of sports purposes). And Maori land - particularly where ownership and therefore liability for rates are hard to establish - can also get special treatment. Exceptions are listed in Schedule 1 Part 1 of the Local Government (Rating) Act 2002.\\nProperty values may be assessed in three different ways – on the basis of land, annual or capital value – using valuations prepared in accordance with the Rating Valuations Act 1998. The valuation process is overseen by the Valuer-General. Each local authority, after consulting with their community, can decide which basis to use.\\nCouncils can use a mix of these different methodologies when assessing rates based on the value of holdings, for example land value for its general rate and capital value for a targeted rate.\\nCouncils can also levy flat charges per rating unit (i.e. each lot of land, with some exceptions where multiple adjacent lots may be considered one rating unit if in common ownership, or where multiple dwelling units are on a single lot) - generally called a uniform annual general charge. Other methodologies also exist, such as a charge per toilet bowl or urinal, or a water charge per cu metre of water supplied.\\nThe Local Government (Rating) Act 2002 is the governing legislation and provides a number of options for setting rates, such that local authorities can use combinations of general rates, targeted rates and/or uniform annual general charges.\\nRates in the United Kingdom are a tax on property used to provide some of the funding of local government.\\nDomestic rates, split into regional and district rates, are currently collected in <a href=\\\"Domestic%20rates%20in%20Northern%20Ireland\\\">Northern Ireland</a>. They were collected in England and Wales before 1990 and in Scotland before 1989. Outside Northern Ireland <a href=\\\"Council%20Tax\\\">Council Tax</a> is collected instead of domestic rates.\\nBusiness rates are collected throughout the United Kingdom, with different systems in <a href=\\\"Business%20rates%20in%20England%20and%20Wales\\\">England and Wales</a>, in <a href=\\\"Business%20rates%20in%20Northern%20Ireland\\\">Northern Ireland</a> and in <a href=\\\"Business%20rates%20in%20Scotland\\\">Scotland</a>.\\nIn the US, real estate taxes which are based on a percentage of the property's actual or nominal value are referred to as \\\"property taxes\\\". The term \\\"rates\\\" is not used in this context. Property taxes are the prime funding method for local government, and are normally the responsibility of the property owner, regardless of whether the property owner lives on the property.\",\n \"Maurice Williamson\\nMaurice Donald Williamson (born 6 March 1951) is a former New Zealand politician, representing <a href=\\\"Pakuranga%20%28New%20Zealand%20electorate%29\\\">Pakuranga</a> in the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">House of Representatives</a> as a member of the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20National%20Party\\\">National Party</a>. He held several ministerial portfolios outside the <a href=\\\"Cabinet%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">cabinet</a>: Building and Construction, Customs, Statistics and Land Information.\\nWilliamson was born in <a href=\\\"Auckland\\\">Auckland</a> but spent nearly all his school years in <a href=\\\"Matamata\\\">Matamata</a>. After graduating with qualifications in <a href=\\\"computer%20science\\\">computer science</a> and <a href=\\\"applied%20mathematics\\\">applied mathematics</a> from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Auckland\\\">University of Auckland</a>, he worked for twelve years developing airline planning software for mainframe computers.\\nWilliamson is married to Raewyn and has three children. He is an Honorary Fellow of the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20Computer%20Society\\\">New Zealand Computer Society</a> (HFNZCS).\\nWilliamson was a member of Parliament for the National Party, a centre-right political Party in New Zealand, as MP for Pakuranga since the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20general%20election%2C%201987\\\">1987 general election</a>. He held a number of ministerial posts, including Minister of Communications, Minister of Broadcasting, Minister of Transport, and Minister of Research, Science and Technology, and associate Minister of Health (1990–96). He was a strong supporter of <a href=\\\"Prostitution%20in%20New%20Zealand\\\">reform of prostitution law</a>.\\nHis 2005 election campaign saw one of the strongest results for National across New Zealand.\\nHe was suspended from <a href=\\\"caucus\\\">caucus</a> on 22 July 2003, after refusing to curtail his criticism of the National Party leader, <a href=\\\"Bill%20English\\\">Bill English</a>, who he blamed for poor performance in the polls. After English was replaced by <a href=\\\"Don%20Brash\\\">Don Brash</a>, Williamson was reinstated. After his return from suspension, Williamson played an active role in National, and was elevated up the ranks to eighth position in the National lineup in 2008.\\nOn 1 May 2014, he resigned his ministerial portfolios after making what the Prime Minister, John Key, called, \\\"A serious error of judgement.\\\" The Prime Minister was referring to a phone call Mr Williamson had made to the Police enquiring about a charge they were laying against businessman and National Party donor <a href=\\\"Donghua%20Liu\\\">Donghua Liu</a> over domestic violence allegations. Williamson had told police he was not trying to interfere with the process – he just wanted to make sure somebody had reviewed the matter to ensure the police were on solid ground as \\\"Mr Liu is investing a lot of money in New Zealand\\\".\\nAfter the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20general%20election%2C%202008\\\">2008 general election</a> the National Party formed a minority government with 3 Confidence and Supply partners. Despite his high list placing, Williamson was not selected for cabinet due in part to a series of gaffes during the election campaign relating to the party's policy on road tolls. He was given ministerial responsibilities outside of cabinet for Customs, Building and Construction, Statistics and Small Business. One of the major matters under his governance was the ongoing <a href=\\\"Leaky%20homes%20crisis\\\">Leaky homes crisis</a>, which he noted as having the government \\\"stumped\\\" due to its enormity.\\nIn June 2009, <a href=\\\"Richard%20Worth\\\">Richard Worth</a> left Parliament after Prime Minister <a href=\\\"John%20Key\\\">John Key</a> lost confidence in him as a Minister over sexual allegations. Williamson was made the acting Minister of Worth's portfolios of Internal Affairs, National Library and Archives New Zealand which were subsequently passed on to <a href=\\\"Nathan%20Guy\\\">Nathan Guy</a>.\\nAfter the election of the <a href=\\\"50th%20Parliament%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">50th Parliament of New Zealand</a> Williamson was returned to his seat and re-appointed as a minister in the second term of the National-led government. Williamson retained his 2008 portfolios of Customs, Land Information and Building and Construction but lost the role of Small Business Minister to <a href=\\\"John%20Banks%20%28New%20Zealand%20politician%29\\\">John Banks</a> as part of the new National-ACT Confidence and Supply deal. Williamson remained a minister outside of cabinet, along with <a href=\\\"Jo%20Goodhew\\\">Jo Goodhew</a>, <a href=\\\"Chester%20Borrows\\\">Chester Borrows</a> and <a href=\\\"Chris%20Tremain\\\">Chris Tremain</a>, until his resignation from all ministerial portfolios on 1 May 2014.\\nHe announced that he would not stand for Parliament at the 2017 election.\\nIn April 2013, Williamson voted in favour of the <a href=\\\"Marriage%20%28Definition%20of%20Marriage%29%20Amendment%20Act%202013\\\">Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill</a> which legalised same-sex marriage, delivering a memorable speech prior to the third reading vote. The speech was soon being referenced worldwide by news outlets. With Williamson's sarcastic and honest approach, the speech was viewed hundreds of thousands of times over the next few days, and featured on high-profile news sites like <a href=\\\"The%20Huffington%20Post\\\">The Huffington Post</a> and <a href=\\\"Gawker\\\">Gawker</a>. Williamson said he had an offer to go on \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ellen%20DeGeneres%20Show\\\">The Ellen DeGeneres Show</a>\\\", but had to turn it down due to rules around ministers accepting gifts. Williamson was later given approval by the prime minister to go on the show as long as he donated any money received to charity. Williamson's speech was praised by Opposition politicians and left-wing media commentators.\",\n \"Goods and Services Tax (New Zealand)\\nGoods and Services Tax (GST) is a <a href=\\\"value-added%20tax\\\">value-added tax</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand\\\">New Zealand</a>.\\nGST in New Zealand is designed to be a broad-based system with few exemptions. Exceptions that do exist include rents collected on residential rental properties, donations, precious metals and financial services.\\nEnd users pay this tax on all liable goods and services indirectly, in that the purchase price of goods and services includes GST.\\nThe rate for GST effective since 1 October 2010 is 15%.\\nGST was introduced by the <a href=\\\"Fourth%20Labour%20Government%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand</a> on 1 October 1986 at a rate of 10% on most goods and services. It replaced existing sales taxes for some goods and services. GST was a part of the economic reforms initiated by Labour Finance Minister <a href=\\\"Roger%20Douglas\\\">Roger Douglas</a> dubbed <a href=\\\"Rogernomics\\\">Rogernomics</a>. GST was introduced in conjunction with compensating changes to personal income tax rates.\\nSince its introduction it has had two increases, on 1 July 1989 the rate increased to 12.5% and on 1 October 2010 it increased again to 15%, to pay for income tax cuts by the <a href=\\\"Fifth%20National%20Government%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">National Government</a>, under which, \\\"Higher income earners get the biggest gain from these income tax cuts\\\".\\nGST-registered organisations and individuals pay GST only on the difference between GST-liable sales and GST-liable supplies (i.e., they pay GST on the difference between what they sell and what they buy: income less expenditure). This is accomplished by reconciling GST received (through sales) and GST paid (through purchases) at regular periods (typically every two months, with some qualifying companies opting for one-month or six-month periods), then either paying the difference to the Inland Revenue (IRD) if the GST collected on sales is higher or receiving a refund from IRD if the GST paid on purchases is higher.\\nBusinesses exporting goods and services from New Zealand are entitled to \\\"zero-rate\\\" their products: effectively, they charge GST at 0%. This permits the business to claim back the input GST, but the eventual, non-New Zealand based consumer does not pay the tax (businesses that produce GST-exempt supplies are not able to claim back input GST).\\nBecause businesses claim back their input GST, the GST inclusive price is usually irrelevant for business purchasing decisions, other than in relation to <a href=\\\"cash%20flow\\\">cash flow</a> issues. Consequently, <a href=\\\"wholesaler\\\">wholesaler</a>s often state prices exclusive of GST, but must collect the full, GST-inclusive price when they make the sale and account to the IRD for the GST so collected.\\nOn 1 October 2016, the taxation of digital ('remote') services supplied by offshore companies (non-New Zealand) to consumers based in New Zealand changes. From this date onwards a GST of 15% (dubbed the 'Netflix Tax') will be applied to all supplies from offshore digital service suppliers to New Zealand based consumers. It will be the supplier's responsibility to apply, collect, and remit the <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.ird.govt.nz/industry-guidelines/non-res-bus-gst/online-services/non-res-bus-gst-online-services.html\\\">new GST</a> to New Zealand's <a href=\\\"Inland%20Revenue%20Department%20%28New%20Zealand%29\\\">Inland Revenue Department</a>.\\nThis new piece of GST legislation mirrors similar rules governing the supply of digital services introduced in the European Union (EU) in <a href=\\\"Taxation%20of%20digital%20goods\\\">January 2015</a>.\\nThe general taxation of digital goods and services has become more commonplace internationally since the <a href=\\\"Organisation%20for%20Economic%20Co-operation%20and%20Development\\\">OECD</a> released its long-awaited <a href=\\\"Base%20erosion%20and%20profit%20shifting\\\">BEPS</a> report in October 2015. Action 1 of this BEPS report deals with the taxation of the <a href=\\\"digital%20economy\\\">digital economy</a>. The report provided guidelines and recommendations for such taxes be they in the form of <a href=\\\"value-added%20tax\\\">value-added tax</a>, GST, equalisation levy, or <a href=\\\"withholding%20tax\\\">withholding tax</a>.\\nNew Zealand is the latest jurisdiction to include such rules in legislation following in the path of Norway, the EU, South Africa, South Korea, and Japan. In July 2017 the Australian Government also plans to introduce similar rules.\",\n \"Wellington Hospital, New Zealand\\nWellington Hospital is the main hospital in <a href=\\\"Wellington\\\">Wellington</a>, New Zealand, located south of the city centre in the suburb of <a href=\\\"Newtown%2C%20New%20Zealand\\\">Newtown</a>. It is the main hospital run by Capital & Coast District Health Board (C&CDHB), which serves <a href=\\\"Wellington%20City\\\">Wellington City</a>, <a href=\\\"Porirua\\\">Porirua</a> and the <a href=\\\"Kapiti%20Coast\\\">Kapiti Coast</a> District. <a href=\\\"Lower%20Hutt\\\">Lower Hutt</a> and <a href=\\\"Upper%20Hutt\\\">Upper Hutt</a> are served by the separate Hutt Valley DHB and a separate hospital, <a href=\\\"Hutt%20Hospital\\\">Hutt Hospital</a>, in the Lower Hutt suburb of Boulcott.\\nWellington Hospital is the region's main tertiary hospital with services such as complex specialist and acute (or ‘tertiary’) services, procedures and treatments such as the Intensive Care Unit, cardiac surgery, cancer care, cardiology procedures, neurosurgery, and renal care. The Hospital is a tertiary referral centre for the lower half of the <a href=\\\"North%20Island\\\">North Island</a> and the upper half of the <a href=\\\"South%20Island\\\">South Island</a>, including the <a href=\\\"Chatham%20Islands\\\">Chatham Islands</a>.\\nIt is affiliated with the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Otago\\\">University of Otago</a> and has the Wellington School of Medicine and Health Sciences situated adjacent to the hospital.\\nThe first hospital was established in 1847 to address the needs of the Māori and the poorer local population. This was one of the first four hospitals established by Governor <a href=\\\"George%20Grey\\\">George Grey</a>. He believed that the young and fit settlers would be treated at home but the native New Zealanders might benefit from the European influence of a hospital.\\n<a href=\\\"Kate%20Marsden\\\">Kate Marsden</a> served here as matron before she returned to Europe and undertook a journey to Siberia to help the lepers. When she was subsequently accused of dishonesty there was mixed support from New Zealand. Reports here recorded that Marsden had referred to the leprosy that the Māoris suffered from. However, there was no evidence of leprosy in New Zealand although the native population did endure a similar disease.\\nC&CDHB has built a new regional hospital on the existing site known as the NRH Project, the programme of work included demolition of some of the older buildings, refurbishment/upgrade of others and the construction of a new main building including wards spread over 47,830 sq metres – this project was completed in December 2008, at a cost of NZ$265m. The rebuild included a new state-of-the-art 18-bed Intensive Care Unit, a new operating theatre complex, and the uniting of medical & surgical wards into a single building. The newly named Wellington Regional Hospital has been built to withstand considerable earthquake shock waves using technology similar to that used in the construction of <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20New%20Zealand%20Te%20Papa%20Tongarewa\\\">Te Papa</a>, New Zealand's National Museum.\\nIn early 2010 Prince William visited the children of Ward 1 and some of Ward 2 (formerly known as Ward 19 and Ward 18).\",\n \"Leaky condo crisis\\nThe leaky condo crisis, also known as the leaky condo syndrome and rotten condo crisis, is an ongoing construction, financial, and legal crisis in <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a>. It primarily involves multi-unit <a href=\\\"Condominium\\\">condominium (or \\\"strata\\\")</a> buildings damaged by rainwater infiltration in the <a href=\\\"Lower%20Mainland\\\">Lower Mainland</a> and <a href=\\\"Vancouver%20Island\\\">Vancouver Island</a> regions of coastal <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia (B.C.)</a>. In B.C. alone an estimated $4 billion in damage has occurred to over 900 buildings and 31,000 individual housing units built between the late 1980s and early 2000s, establishing it as the most extensive and most costly reconstruction of housing stock in Canadian history.\\nSimilar infiltration problems have been reported in highrise buildings and schools, as well as in other climatic zones in <a href=\\\"Ontario\\\">Ontario</a> and <a href=\\\"Nova%20Scotia\\\">Nova Scotia</a>, in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, and <a href=\\\"Leaky%20homes%20crisis\\\">New Zealand</a>. Since the start of the crisis it has been commonplace to see occupied buildings draped in scaffolding and protective tarps as the problems were assessed and repaired. The crisis has caused, as a major public inquiry concluded: \\\"a litany of horrific experiences, personal tragedies, and dashed dreams\\\" endured by homeowners.\\nThe main physical problem is water infiltrating into the exterior <a href=\\\"Building%20envelope\\\">building envelope (walls and roofs)</a> of buildings, usually through a weather barrier (e.g. building paper or air barrier membrane) that is designed to prevent water drops to pass through, but allow water vapour through. However, problems in design, installation, and damage during construction can allow water to penetrate the walls. This causes <a href=\\\"Decomposition\\\">rot</a> and <a href=\\\"delamination\\\">delamination</a> of exterior wall cladding and sheathing, rusting in metal wall studs, rot in the wood structure, saturation of batt insulation, and development of mould and spores inside the walls and building interior. The construction failures ranged from minor to major failure of the structural integrity of the building. Some buildings became unhealthy to occupants. Most of these buildings are low-rise, 3-4 story buildings constructed of wood-frame construction, as well as some with steel, concrete, and metal stud construction types, including highrises.\\nThe majority of the buildings that have experienced these problems in B.C. are owned by the individual owners of the condominium units, although commercial properties and public schools have also been impacted. Many homeowners have been faced with correcting a problem they did not create, by a contractor they had not hired; they purchased the units either from a previous owner, a developer, or a developer/contractor. Typical repair costs are in the tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars, resulting in significant hardship, bankruptcies, and lawsuits against the developers, contractors, architects, and others involved in the original construction and maintenance of the buildings.\\nIn total, approximately 45% of the 159,979 condominium strata units and 57% of the 700 school buildings constructed in B.C. between 1985 and 2000 were found to have envelope leak problems. It was reported in 2002 that 90% of 3–4 storey units built have serious problems and that some have undergone envelope repairs two and three times. In 2008 it was estimated the cost to repair the damage to schools alone would be nearly $400 million.\\nThere were several factors that brought about the crisis. Beginning in the 1980s, the <a href=\\\"Greater%20Vancouver\\\">Greater Vancouver</a> area of B.C.'s Lower Mainland, and to a lesser degree the <a href=\\\"Greater%20Victoria\\\">Greater Victoria</a> region on Vancouver Island, experienced a construction boom in the multi-family condominium market. This attracted developers, design aesthetics, designers, contractors, workers, and new building technologies from climates that were quite different than the coastal region of B.C. which supports large areas of temperate rain forests.\\nA 1998 provincial commission of inquiry summarized the key factors:\\n\\\"\\\"The evidence suggests that significant building envelope failures in British Columbia since the early 1980s ... is a result of numerous factors, including design features inappropriate for our climate; a reliance on face-sealed wall systems; a fundamental lack of awareness regarding the principles of enclosure design suitable for our climate; meaningful inspection at critical stages of construction; and a regulatory system which was unable to understand that failures were occurring and to redress them.\\\"\\\"\\nThe Lower Mainland and southern Vancouver Island regions have a moderate <a href=\\\"Oceanic%20climate\\\">oceanic</a> <a href=\\\"Climate%20of%20Vancouver\\\">climate</a> that each year experiences months-long periods of cool, damp, overcast, and rainy weather. Greater Vancouver receives over 161 rainy days per year and rainfall between 1153 and 2477 mm (45 to 97 inches) per year, approximately double that of <a href=\\\"Climate%20of%20London%23Climate\\\">London, England</a>; triple that of <a href=\\\"Rome\\\">Rome, Italy</a>; and more than quadruple that of <a href=\\\"Climate%20of%20the%20Los%20Angeles%20Basin\\\">Los Angeles</a>. With an average high summer temperature of 21–22 degrees Celsius, buildings dry out much less quickly (or not at all) compared to those in southern California or Mediterranean climates where average high summer temperatures reach 28–30 degrees C. Building design in coastal British Columbia had provided greater protection from the damp and rainy climate than newer designs until this time, through the use of features such overhanging roofs which protect the walls below from direct rain contact.\\nA major design aesthetic of the 1980s and 1990s was <a href=\\\"Postmodern%20architecture\\\">Post Modernism</a>, which featured building styles and forms reminiscent of the <a href=\\\"Mediterranean%20Sea\\\">Mediterranean</a> and southern <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>. This design approach was heavily marketed and became a fashionable design motif. Common building elements of this time included roof parapet with no overhangs or <a href=\\\"eaves\\\">eaves</a>, stucco wall cladding, open walkways, arched windows, complex cladding joints, all of which provided more opportunities for penetration of water and studies confirmed were key contributors to water infiltration.\\nThe City of Vancouver, the largest city in British Columbia, had also changed its <a href=\\\"Zoning\\\">Zoning</a> By-Law to include roof overhangs in the amount of permitted (buildable and salable) floor area, known as <a href=\\\"Floor%20Space%20Ratio\\\">floor space ratio or FSR</a>. Roof overhangs were included in the calculation of FSR, and as this reduced the amount of permitted floor space, they were often removed from designs. The calculation of FSR from the outside of the building envelope, instead of from the centre or interior side of the wall, also tended to promote thinner walls and <a href=\\\"rainscreen\\\">rainscreen</a> systems. Open, uncovered walkways were excluded from the FSR, thus encouraging their inclusion in the design.\\nPrior to 1993 in B.C., architects and engineers were not required to certify that the design met the requirements of the building codes, review the quality of construction, or certify that the construction had been performed in accordance with the codes, permitted drawings, and specifications, including those relating to providing a weathertight building envelope.\\nDesign professionals were not required to perform these extensive reviews during construction and developers not wishing to incur extra fees would not engage them to do so. This left the obligation for correct interpretation and construction to the developers or builders, who either lacked the experience and/or had a financial incentive to cut costs. The Provincial and Vancouver Building Codes were amended in 1993 to require, as a condition of the building permit and the occupancy permit, that design professionals be engaged to perform this level of certification and oversight. However, application of this provision of the codes was frequently not enforced in many condominium projects; they were issued Building Permits under another section of the code that did not require Letters of Assurance.\\nThe <a href=\\\"National%20Building%20Code%20of%20Canada\\\">National Building Code of Canada</a>, upon which the British Columbia Building Code, and the Vancouver Building By-Law are based, had since the 1970s and early 1980s been progressively introducing changes to require greater sealing of exterior walls to prevent infiltration of moisture vapor from the interior of the building. In most Canadian winter climates, which are cold and dry, such vapor infiltrating into exterior wall insulation causes condensation and significantly reduced insulation performance, hence increased energy consumption. Increased sealing of the walls prevents the walls from \\\"breathing\\\" and drying out in warmer months.\\nDevelopment pressures and lack of effective legal prevention of fee competition amongst design professionals contributed to significantly reduced professional fees paid to architects and engineers. In some cases less attention was therefore paid to careful detailing of the construction drawings, noticeably in envelope details for flashing and sealing of joints and edge conditions at windows and doors. The previously normal practice of the architects monitoring of the construction trades on a building project was reduced or eliminated.\\nIn many projects, developers and contractors established separate companies for each project. At the end of construction, the developer and/or contractor would be dissolved, thereby removing any legal recourse by those wishing to make a financial claim for defects in construction. These practices, while considered dubious or \\\"shell games\\\", were not illegal.\\nThe building boom also attracted new and inexperienced workers unfamiliar with the construction trades in general and local practices in particular. Since the early 1980s, the majority of construction work has been performed by unskilled labour. Concern was voiced by representatives of industry and labour about reduced training and government financial support for trades, training systems, and apprenticeship programs.\\nA major contributing factor to the crisis was the increase in the use of cladding systems such as acrylic <a href=\\\"stucco\\\">stucco</a> and <a href=\\\"Exterior%20insulation%20finishing%20system\\\">exterior insulation finishing system (or EIFS)</a>, which are highly resistant to infiltration and exfiltration of water and moisture. Unlike more traditional materials, such as wood siding or cement-based stucco, a critical flaw of the new materials is that any water or moisture that penetrates into the system, either through cracks in the surface (caused by thermal expansion or damage), unsealed joints, or incorrect flashings, becomes trapped inside the wall, potentially causing deterioration, rot, and mould.\\nAnother newer building material that contributed to the damage was the widespread use of <a href=\\\"Oriented%20strand%20board\\\">oriented strand board (OSB)</a> as sheathing under the exterior <a href=\\\"Siding\\\">siding or cladding</a>. It did not cause water infiltration, but it is much more susceptible to deterioration from water and is less able to breathe than is plywood or boards, the standard sheathing material for the previous decades.\\nTo date, four major investigative initiatives on the \\\"Leaky Condo Crisis\\\" have been undertaken: two by the <a href=\\\"Canada%20Mortgage%20and%20Housing%20Corporation\\\">Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation</a> (CMHC); and two by former <a href=\\\"Premier%20of%20British%20Columbia\\\">B.C. provincial premier</a> <a href=\\\"Dave%20Barrett\\\">Dave Barrett</a>, who was appointed by the Province of B.C. to conduct two separate inquiries. The commissions' findings have been accepted as accurate and fair by many sectors of the related professions and the construction industry. To date they are the most extensive investigations and reports prepared on the issue. A private sector group was also established to facilitate discussion and building envelope research.\\nIn 1995 the BERC was established through an initiative of CMHC to act as a coordinating agency for the research of building envelope problems in B.C.. Participants included agencies of the federal, provincial, and municipal agencies; professional associations; <a href=\\\"University%20of%20British%20Columbia\\\">University of British Columbia</a> schools of architecture civil engineering, <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia%20Institute%20of%20Technology\\\">British Columbia Institute of Technology</a>; a private sector research company; development and construction industry associations; trades unions; contractors and materials suppliers and associations; and financing and insurance agencies. (In 2003 BERC merged with the B.C. Building Envelope Council (BCBEC) and was renamed the Building Research Committee (BRC)).\\nIn 1996 the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation released its \\\"Survey of Building Envelope Failures in the Coastal Climate of British Columbia\\\". It undertook a study of 37 \\\"problem\\\" buildings which were defined as those in which a moisture problem within the walls, decks or exterior framing had resulted in damage requiring $10,000 or more to repair and incorporated a variety of materials in exterior wall components.\\nNine “control” buildings were also studied, those being defined as buildings which had not experienced moisture problems for at least five years. The recommendations, several of which would be echoed in later reports, included greater clarity in design strategies, improvement in details, envelope quality management protocol, training of trades in <a href=\\\"building%20envelope\\\">building envelope</a> construction, use of <a href=\\\"rainscreen\\\">rainscreen</a> systems, and guidance for maintaining exterior wall systems.\\nIn April 1998 a \\\"Commission of Inquiry into the quality of condominium construction in the Province of British Columbia\\\" (commonly referred to as the Barrett Commission after Commission Chair <a href=\\\"Dave%20Barrett\\\">Dave Barrett</a>) was established. The Commission's mandate was to inquire into then decade-old crisis of leaking condominiums. The Commission held public hearings from April 28 to May 20, 1998 which included presentations from condominium owners and representatives from different sectors of the residential construction industry and over 700 written submissions. The report was issued June 16, 1998.\\nIn total 82 specific recommendations were made, including changes to zoning regulations, building codes, provincial law, federal law, financing, contractor licensing, and requirements of design professionals; and establishment of a Compensation Fund for reconstruction and a provincial Homeowner Protection Office.\\nIn 1999 a (second) \\\"Commission of Inquiry into the Quality of Condominium Construction part II\\\" was established following collapse of the construction industry-run and financed New Home Warranty of British Columbia Inc. (NHWBC), the largest provider of new-home warranty coverage in B.C.. The commission had a mandate to:\\nThe commission's findings were published in two volumes in January and March 2000. Among its recommendations was 100% compensation up to $25,000 per unit for repairs, with costs to be shared equally between the provincial and federal governments and the B.C. condominium construction industry.\\nIn the aftermath of the major revelations of the crisis, both before and after the Barrett Commissions' reports, the B.C. provincial government and Lower Mainland municipalities responded in a variety of ways.\\nAt the height of the crisis in April 1999 the New Home Warranty of British Columbia & Yukon, the main source of warrantees against construction defects for BC home buyers, collapsed. It was a voluntary warranty program created by the provincial residential construction industry in 1975. NHW had a monopoly in B.C. until National Home Warranty of Alberta entered the B.C. market in the late 1990s. Neither program was subject to provincial regulations beyond the Corporations Act. In 1998 approximately 60% of all new housing units were carrying warranty protection.\\nIn 1998 B.C. implemented the Homeowners Protection Act. It was designed to protect homebuyers from and improve the quality of residential construction and established the Homeowner Protection Office (HPO), a provincial Crown corporation responsible for:\\nBy 2000 the HPO was involved with approximately 500 condominium buildings containing nearly 32,000 residential units.\\nThe City of Vancouver and other B.C. municipalities began to implement their own prescriptive requirements for building envelope design and construction in multi-unit residential buildings, even before the Barrett Commission's 1998 report was issued and the provincial government amended the B.C. Building Code. The two most significant items were requirements for rainscreen construction of exterior walls and professional certification of the design and implementation of the design in the construction.\\nA <a href=\\\"rainscreen\\\">rainscreen</a> is the weather-facing surface of an exterior wall that stands off from the moisture-resistant surface of the main wall. There is a gap or cavity between the outermost layer, or rainscreen, and the main wall which prevents infiltration of moisture into the main wall assembly and allows air to circulate between. By 1997 Vancouver and neighboring <a href=\\\"Richmond%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Richmond</a> and <a href=\\\"New%20Westminster%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">New Westminster</a> enacted requirements for this construction technology in residential construction. (Masonry veneer walls typically have a similar type cavity but these are not limited to residential buildings). The Vancouver Building By-Law included this requirement in its 1996 edition and the BC Building Code in 2006 for coastal climates. A 5-year scientific study on residential building envelopes in Vancouver was undertaken between 2001-2006. Its conclusions reported on the benefits of rainscreens in exterior wall assemblies.\\nOne of the key recommendations of the Barrett Commission was to require that \\\"Any architect or engineer involved in Letters of Assurance and the field review process must have the qualifications, or sub-contract the building envelope design and review to a qualified Building Envelope Specialist\\\".\\nIn 1995 (before the Barrett Commission), the City of Vancouver established a list of “Building Envelope Specialists” (BES), comprising architectural and engineering firms deemed qualified to provide independent inspection and review of building envelope components, based on the city’s perception of the firm’s qualifications and experience in the Lower Mainland. These professionals were required to be retained by the owner/developer to provide the Letters of Assurance. Other municipalities in the region soon followed Vancouver's lead. It was recognized that the city’s BES list was a temporary measure until a more permanent process was established.\\nIn 1997 the <a href=\\\"Architectural%20Institute%20of%20British%20Columbia\\\">Architectural Institute of British Columbia</a> (AIBC) launched its own specialty course Building Envelope Education Program for its members.\\nIn 1999 a joint committee of the professional governing bodies for architects and engineers in the province (the AIBC and the <a href=\\\"Association%20of%20Professional%20Engineers%20and%20Geoscientists%20of%20British%20Columbia\\\">Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia</a>) developed a formal designation: the Building Envelope Professional (BEP). A joint accreditation process and procedures manual for BEPs was created and the municipalities' lists of BES were discarded as they transferred recognition to the BEP list.\\nIn 1998 the B.C. government initiated an interest-free loan program to assist homeowners with building envelope repairs. It was administered through the Homeowner Protection Office and approved more than $670 million in loans from during its decade of operation. The loans were financed through a levy on new residential projects and in 2009 Rich Coleman, the minister responsible for housing at the time, stated the program was no longer raising sufficient funds during the economic downturn to continue the program. In 1999 the B.C. government announced a provincial grant and tax relief program to assist homeowners affected by the crisis.\\nThe enormity of the crisis has been felt all levels of government. Locally, the large tarps over buildings being repaired came to be known as \\\"B.C. flags\\\".\\nIn 1999 B.C. Premier Glen Clark called on the federal government to offer tax relief on repairs. In 2005 and 2006 the <a href=\\\"Prime%20Minister%20of%20Canada\\\">Prime Minister of Canada</a> made a commitment to provide financial aid to homeowners affected by the crisis. To date no financial assistance has been provided by the federal government. Former federal cabinet minister <a href=\\\"Simma%20Holt\\\">Simma Holt</a> waged a publicly vocal seven year legal action in the 2000s seeking compensation for repairs for her own leaking condominium.\\nIn 2005 <a href=\\\"Member%20of%20Parliament\\\">Member of Parliament</a> John Cummings alleged that the federal government was complicit, and attempted to cover up its complicity, in creating the crisis through the <a href=\\\"National%20Energy%20Program\\\">National Energy Program</a>'s energy conservation measures. On August 27, 1981 then CMHC president Ray Hession had written to the committee responsible for the National Building Code, \\\"warning of the \\\"emergency\\\" matter of moisture damage that is \\\"potentially serious, possibly widespread and ... concerns matters of structural safety and public health.\\\"\\\" Hession wrote in a September 1981 letter to federal Deputy Minister of Energy, Mines, and Resources M.A. (Mickey) Cohen: \\\"Nevertheless, I feel it equally important for us to collectively face up to the reality that construction practices associated with energy conservation measures do, in fact, increase the hazard of moisture induced structural damage.\\\"\\nIn 2005 a class action lawsuit was filed in B.C. Supreme Court against the <a href=\\\"Crown%20corporations%20of%20Canada\\\">federal Crown corporation</a> CMHC seeking damages. (In 2007 the court refused to certify the suit). In July 2006, federal Human Resources Minister Diane Finley wrote that the government couldn't even \\\"consider\\\" a review while the government is being sued by some owners.\",\n \"Eaves\\nThe eaves are the edges of the roof which overhang the face of a wall and, normally, project beyond the side of a building. The eaves form an overhang to throw water clear of the walls and may be highly decorated as part of an architectural style; such as the Chinese <a href=\\\"dougong\\\">dougong</a> bracket systems.\\n\\\"Eaves\\\" is derived from <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a> \\\"efes\\\" meaning \\\"edge\\\". According to the \\\"Oxford English Dictionary\\\", \\\"eaves\\\" is both the singular and plural form of the word. However, the <a href=\\\"Merriam-Webster\\\">Merriam-Webster</a> website lists the word as \\\"eave\\\" and states that it is \\\"usually used in plural\\\". The word was used before the 12th century in the form \\\"efes\\\" (Old English).\\nThe primary function of the eaves is to keep rain water off the walls and to prevent the ingress of water at the junction where the roof meets the wall. The eaves may also protect a pathway around the building from the rain, prevent erosion of the footings, and reduce splatter on the wall from rain as it hits the ground.\\nThe secondary function is to control solar penetration as a form of <a href=\\\"passive%20solar%20building%20design\\\">passive solar building design</a>; the eaves overhang can be designed to adjust the building's <a href=\\\"solar%20gain\\\">solar gain</a> to suit the local climate, the latitude and orientation of the building.\\nThe eaves overhang may also shelter openings to ventilate the roof space.\\nAesthetic, traditional or purely decorative considerations may prevail over the strictly functional requirements of the eaves. The <a href=\\\"Arts%20and%20Crafts%20Movement\\\">Arts and Crafts Movement</a> influenced the <a href=\\\"American%20Craftsman\\\">American Craftsman</a> tradition, which has very wide eaves with decorative <a href=\\\"Bracket%20%28architecture%29\\\">brackets</a>, for which there is not necessarily a real functional need; likewise the Italian style eaves, shown above.\\nThe eaves may terminate in a <a href=\\\"Fascia%20%28architecture%29\\\">fascia</a>, a board running the length of the eaves under the tiles or roof sheets to cap off and protect the exposed rafter ends and to provide grounds on which to fix gutters. At the <a href=\\\"gable\\\">gable</a>s the eaves may extend beyond the gable end wall by projecting the <a href=\\\"purlin\\\">purlin</a>s and are usually capped off by <a href=\\\"bargeboard\\\">bargeboard</a>s to protect the wall and the purlin ends.\\nThe underside of the eaves may be filled with a horizontal <a href=\\\"soffit\\\">soffit</a> fixed at right angles to the wall, the soffit may be decorative but it also has the function of sealing the gap between the rafters from vermin and weather.\\nEaves must be designed for local wind speeds as the overhang can significantly increase the wind loading on the roof.\\nThe line on the ground under the outer edge of the eaves is the <a href=\\\"eavesdrip\\\">eavesdrip</a>, or dripline, and in typical building planning regulations defines the extent of the building and cannot oversail the property boundary.\\n\",\n \"Ministry of Education (New Zealand)\\nThe Ministry of Education (<a href=\\\"M%C4%81ori%20language\\\">Māori</a>: \\\"Te Tāhuhu o te Mātauranga\\\") is the public service department of New Zealand charged with overseeing the <a href=\\\"Education%20in%20New%20Zealand\\\">New Zealand education system</a>.\\nThe Ministry was formed in 1989 when the former, all-encompassing Department of Education was broken up into six separate agencies.\\nThe Ministry was established as a result of the <a href=\\\"Picot%20task%20force\\\">Picot task force</a> set up by the Labour government in July 1987 to review the New Zealand education system. The members were Brian Picot, a businessman, Peter Ramsay, an associate professor of education at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Waikato\\\">University of Waikato</a>, Margaret Rosemergy, a senior lecturer at the Wellington College of Education, <a href=\\\"Whetumarama%20Wereta\\\">Whetumarama Wereta</a>, a social researcher at the <a href=\\\"Department%20of%20Maori%20Affairs\\\">Department of Maori Affairs</a> and Colin Wise, another businessman.\\nThe task force was assisted by staff from the Treasury and the State Services Commission (SSC), who may have applied pressure on the task force to move towards eventually privatizing education, as had happened with other government services. The mandate was to review management structures and cost-effectiveness, but did not include curriculum, teaching or effectiveness. In nine months the commission received input from over 700 people or organizations.\\nThe Picot task force released its report \\\"Administering for Excellence: Effective Administration in Education\\\" in May 1988.\\nThe report was critical of the <a href=\\\"Department%20of%20Education%20%28New%20Zealand%29\\\">Department of Education</a>, which it labelled as inefficient and unresponsive.\\nThe task force conceived of the school charter as a contract between school boards, the local community and central authority and the government accepted many of the recommendations subsequently published in their response - \\\"<a href=\\\"Tomorrow%27s%20Schools\\\">Tomorrow's Schools</a>\\\". This recommended a system where each school would be largely independent, governed by a board consisting mainly of parents, although subject to review and inspection by specialized government agencies. Another recommendation was that boards of trustees were made responsible to the Minister of Education, who gained the power to dismiss boards.\\nThe Picot report became the basis for a drawn out process of educational reform in New Zealand starting in 1989. When National was elected in October 1990, it carried out a further series of educational reviews culminating in the publication \\\"Education Policy: Investing in People, Our Greatest Asset\\\". This resulted in further modifications to the structure of education reform, and according to one academic, created \\\"a system which is a far cry from the Picot intentions... There has been an ongoing series of changes and reassessments that has caused chaos, confusion and massive insecurity throughout the education sector\\\".\\nIn March 2013, Patrick Walsh, the outgoing president of the Secondary Principals' Association said that despite having about 3000 employees, the Ministry had underperformed for more than a decade. He said \\\"in an era of self-managing schools we have a Ministry that is so large and yet not able to perform in an effective and efficient manner\\\". Walsh said the Ministry's poor performance has been confirmed by a number of reviews conducted by the State Services Commission.\\nThe Ministry's role is to raise the overall level of educational achievement and reduce disparity. It is not an education provider. That role is met by individual elected Boards of Trustees for every <a href=\\\"state%20school\\\">state school</a> in the country. The ministry has numerous functions - advising government, providing information to the sector, providing learning resources, administering sector regulation and funding, and providing specialist services. The ministry works with other education agencies including the <a href=\\\"Education%20Review%20Office\\\">Education Review Office</a>, the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20Qualifications%20Authority\\\">New Zealand Qualifications Authority</a> and <a href=\\\"Learning%20Media%20Limited\\\">Learning Media Limited</a>.\\nAlthough the Ministry's role is to raise the level of educational achievement, it is also the mechanism through which the Government of the day implements its education policy. When government changes aspects of its policy on education, the Ministry is responsible for implementing those changes. Sometimes the Ministry ends up in the difficult position of trying to implement political induced changes in education policy to which teachers, parents and boards of trustees may be totally opposed. Changes introduced by the <a href=\\\"Fifth%20National%20Government%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">National Government</a> in 2011–2012 are an example.\\nIn order for the Ministry to perform its role effectively, it is dependent on taxpayer funding provided by Government. When government increases funding or requires financial cutbacks, this also impacts on the ability of the Ministry to fulfil its role. In 2013, the Government provided about $12.2 billion to fund education in New Zealand.\\nThe Ministry serves 2 portfolios, 1 other responsibility, 4 ministers and 1 parliamentary undersecretary.\",\n \"Slip End\\nSlip End is a village and <a href=\\\"civil%20parishes%20in%20England\\\">civil parish</a> in Luton, <a href=\\\"Bedfordshire\\\">Bedfordshire</a>. As well as the village of Slip End, the parish contains the <a href=\\\"hamlet%20%28place%29\\\">hamlets</a> of <a href=\\\"Lower%20Woodside\\\">Lower Woodside</a>, <a href=\\\"Woodside%2C%20Bedfordshire\\\">Woodside</a> and <a href=\\\"Pepperstock\\\">Pepperstock</a>. It has a population of 1,976, reducing to 1,831 at the 2011 Census.\\nThe name of Slip End possibly has a connection with <a href=\\\"brickworks\\\">brickworks</a>. \\\"<a href=\\\"Slip%20%28ceramics%29\\\">Slip</a>\\\" is an old <a href=\\\"English%20language\\\">English</a> word for <a href=\\\"clay\\\">clay</a> and \\\"End\\\" is a common part of place names in Bedfordshire and not unknown in other counties. \\\"End\\\" refers to small settlements outside larger villages. It is, therefore, possible that Slip End was named in the early 19th century because of the small number of houses built near the new brickworks in an area not previously developed with the older settlements of Woodside and Pepperstock to either side. Nearby <a href=\\\"Markyate\\\">Markyate</a> has a \\\"Slype Lane\\\" which may or not be connected.\\nThe school in Slip End was located towards the Pepperstock end of Front Street and Summer Street, and is now the site of a small development of flats and houses called \\\"Old School Walk\\\". It was a <a href=\\\"School%20boards%20in%20England%20and%20Wales\\\">board school</a> established as after the <a href=\\\"Education%20Act%201870\\\">Education Act 1870</a> providing education to all.\\nThe school catered for the whole age range in two sections – juniors and infants – and in 1947 it was extended to 15‑year‑olds. A century after its foundation, the school moved to its present site on Rossway which previously had been clay pits for local brick production. The school is now a <a href=\\\"lower%20school\\\">lower school</a>, part of the <a href=\\\"three-tier%20education\\\">three-tier education</a> system in <a href=\\\"Central%20Bedfordshire\\\">Central Bedfordshire</a>, and caters for ages 3½ to 9 years.\\nThe parish was created in 2001 by splitting that of <a href=\\\"Caddington\\\">Caddington</a> and Slip End.\\nThe <a href=\\\"M1%20motorway\\\">M1 motorway</a> runs adjacent to the village and was officially inaugurated from Slip End. This is celebrated by a large concrete slab on the bridge next to the village with the inscription:\\nThe village hall, built circa 1901, is situated at the heart of the community with parking for 40 cars and an entertainment licence for 100 for dancing or up to 200 for a meeting.\\nThe Peter Edwards Hall and Playing Fields are situated at the Luton end of the village, next to the church. Facilities include tennis courts and a football pitch.\\nThere are two pubs in the village, \\\"The Rising Sun\\\" on Front Street and the \\\"Frog and Rhubarb\\\" on Church Road.\",\n \"Central Bedfordshire\\nCentral Bedfordshire is a <a href=\\\"Unitary%20authorities%20of%20England\\\">unitary authority area</a> in the ceremonial county of <a href=\\\"Bedfordshire\\\">Bedfordshire</a>, England. It was created from the merger of <a href=\\\"Mid%20Bedfordshire%20%28district%29\\\">Mid Bedfordshire</a> and <a href=\\\"South%20Bedfordshire\\\">South Bedfordshire</a> District Councils on 1 April 2009. With a budget of £500m the <a href=\\\"Unitary%20authorities%20of%20England\\\">unitary council</a> provides over a hundred services to a quarter of a million people, and is responsible for schools, social services, rubbish collection, roads, planning, leisure centres, libraries, care homes and more.\\nThe county of Bedfordshire was abolished on 1 April 2009. The term of office of councillors of Bedfordshire County Council and of Mid and South Bedfordshire District Councils ended on 1 April 2009. A new county and a new district, both from that date to be known as Central Bedfordshire, were created for the same area as the existing districts of Mid and South Bedfordshire. A new district council, the Central Bedfordshire Council, was created for the new district and became the sole principal authority for the district. There was to be no county council for the new county.\\nIn 2006 the <a href=\\\"Department%20for%20Communities%20and%20Local%20Government\\\">Department for Communities and Local Government</a> considered reorganising Bedfordshire's administrative structure as part of the <a href=\\\"2009%20structural%20changes%20to%20local%20government%20in%20England\\\">2009 structural changes to local government in England</a>. The four proposals considered were:\\nOn 6 March 2008 the DCLG, under Labour Party Secretary of State, <a href=\\\"Hazel%20Blears\\\">Hazel Blears</a>, decided to implement Proposal 2. This meant that from 1 April 2009 there would be three unitary authorities in Bedfordshire: Bedford, Luton and <a href=\\\"Central%20Bedfordshire%20Council\\\">Central Bedfordshire</a>. Bedfordshire County Council challenged this decision in the High Court but on 4 April 2008 it was announced the Judicial Review had failed and the County Council would not appeal. Subsequently, a shadow council for Central Bedfordshire was formed from all the members of Mid and South Bedfordshire councils, as well as all Bedfordshire County Council members from the Central Bedfordshire area. The inaugural meeting of the shadow council was held on 10 April 2008. A shadow Executive for the council was formed consisting of four members of each council, led by the former leader of Mid Bedfordshire District Council.\\nCentral Bedfordshire Council is made up of 59 Councillors.\\nSince 2011 the Council has been led by James Jamieson with a Cabinet of seven portfolio holders:\\nThe Central Bedfordshire area is a mix of rural and small market towns and villages. It includes the following towns and villages.\\n\",\n \"Post (structural)\\nA post is a main vertical or leaning support in a structure similar to a <a href=\\\"column\\\">column</a> or pillar but the term post generally refers to a timber but may be metal or stone. A stud in wooden or metal building construction is similar but lighter duty than a post and a <a href=\\\"Strut%23Architecture%20and%20construction\\\">strut</a> may be similar to a stud or act as a brace. In the U.K. a strut may be very similar to a post but not carry a beam. In wood construction posts normally land on a <a href=\\\"Sill%20plate\\\">sill</a>, but in rare types of buildings the post may continue through to the foundation called an interrupted sill or into the ground called earthfast, <a href=\\\"post%20in%20ground\\\">post in ground</a>, or <a href=\\\"posthole\\\">posthole</a> construction. A post is also a fundamental element in a <a href=\\\"fence\\\">fence</a>. The terms \\\"jack\\\" and \\\"cripple\\\" are used with shortened studs and rafters but not posts, except in the specialized vocabulary of <a href=\\\"shoring\\\">shoring</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Timber%20framing\\\">Timber framing</a> is a general term for building with wooden posts and beams. The term post is the namesake of other general names for timber framing such as post-and-beam, post-and-girt construction and more specific types of timber framing such as <a href=\\\"Post%20and%20lintel\\\">Post and lintel</a>, <a href=\\\"Pole%20building%20framing\\\">post-frame</a>, <a href=\\\"post%20in%20ground\\\">post in ground</a>, and ridge-post construction. In roof construction such as <a href=\\\"king%20post\\\">king post</a>, <a href=\\\"queen%20post\\\">queen post</a>, <a href=\\\"crown%20post\\\">crown post</a> framing. A round post is often called a pole or mast depending on its diameter thus <a href=\\\"pole%20building%20framing\\\">pole building framing</a>, or a <a href=\\\"Stave%20church\\\">mast church</a>.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["A stave church is a medieval wooden Christian church building once common in north-western Europe. The name derives from the buildings' structure of post and lintel construction, a type of timber framing where the load-bearing ore-pine posts are called \"stafr\" in Old Norse (\"stav\" in modern Norwegian). Two related church building types also named for their structural elements, the post church and palisade church, are often also called 'stave churches'.","Otterøy Church (Norwegian: \"Otterøy kirke\" ) is a parish church in the municipality of Namsos in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located in the village of Skomsvoll on the island of Otterøya. The church is part of the Otterøy parish in the Namdal deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros. The octagonal wood church building was constructed in 1858 and seats about 350 people. The church was designed by architect Christian Heinrich Grosch. It was built in a Stave church style."],"string":"[\n \"A stave church is a medieval wooden Christian church building once common in north-western Europe. The name derives from the buildings' structure of post and lintel construction, a type of timber framing where the load-bearing ore-pine posts are called \\\"stafr\\\" in Old Norse (\\\"stav\\\" in modern Norwegian). Two related church building types also named for their structural elements, the post church and palisade church, are often also called 'stave churches'.\",\n \"Otterøy Church (Norwegian: \\\"Otterøy kirke\\\" ) is a parish church in the municipality of Namsos in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located in the village of Skomsvoll on the island of Otterøya. The church is part of the Otterøy parish in the Namdal deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros. The octagonal wood church building was constructed in 1858 and seats about 350 people. The church was designed by architect Christian Heinrich Grosch. It was built in a Stave church style.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":49,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which had a bigger population at the 2011 census, North Willingham or Market Rasen?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Market Rasen"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Middle Rasen\nMiddle Rasen is a village and civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England, located about 1.5 mi west from the town of Market Rasen. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 2,043. Today the village consists of two villages which have merged to become one; they were called Middle Rasen Drax and Middle Rasen Tupholme.\nRasen is mentioned in \"Domesday Book\" of 1086, but West Rasen, Middle Rasen and Market Rasen are indistinguishable. In its entirety the list includes ten separate references to Rasen, which as a whole consists of 144 households.\nMiddle Rasen has had two churches. A church dedicated to \"St Paul Middle Rasen Drax\" took part of its name from the parent house of \"Drax Priory\" in Yorkshire. In 1846 St Paul's comprised a nave, chancel, South aisle and western tower, with the probable remains of a demolished north aisle and north chapel. – it was demolished in 1860, with parts of its fabric used to restore of the church of St Peter. Grade II* listed St Peter's church dates from the 12th century, with later alterations and additions, and an 1861 restoration by Pearson Bellamy and John Spence Hardy, of Lincoln.\nIn 1885 \"Kelly's Directory\" noted village Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, and Reformed Wesleyan chapels. It described a parish land of sand and clay, with a clay subsoil, on which wheat, barley and turnips were grown, and with pasture. Parish area was 3550 acre , supporting an 1881 population of 928. There were 17 farmers listed, four of whom had added trades, variously a miller, cattle dealer, butcher & cattle dealer, and machine owner. Other occupations were a blacksmith, beer retailer & blacksmith, millwright, grocer, shopkeeper, wheelwright, carrier, grocer & draper, butcher & cattle dealer, miller, publican, and dressmaker, and a shoemaker who also ran the post office.\nA tower windmill, built in 1827 for the grinding of cereal, ceased working permanently in 1925, and is now used as a store. A previous three storey red-brick watermill dated from the late 18th century, with 1827 remodelling – its remaining wheelhouse is Grade II listed.\nMiddle Rasen Primary School was built in 1875 to replace a charity school founded through a bequest by John Wilkinson, who died in 1720. In 1878 the school became a Board School, and in 1903 the Middle Rasen Council School. The charity still supports the current school.\nThe ecclesiastical parish is part of The Middle Rasen Group of the Deanery of West Wold. The 2013 incumbent is The Revd Charles Patrick. Since the demolition of one church the other has carried both dedications, and is known to the Diocese as \"Drax St Peter & St Paul\". The parish maintains a modern church hall which is used by the village. To mark the Millennium a new clock, new bell frame, and three additional bells were installed.\nThe Middle Rasen Methodist church maintains a chapel on Gainsborough Road. The Anglican and Methodist churches hold joint services at a former RAF base 4 mi away.\nThe Bowling club maintains a Bowling Green on Church Street. The village has numerous sports and social clubs, including a Cricket Club and a Horticultural Society.\n","Willingham House\nWillingham House was a country house in North Willingham (Nr. Market Rasen), Lincolnshire, England.\nIt was built around 1790 for Ayscoghe Boucherett and is attributed to the architect Robert Mitchell (a similar building design can be seen in the engraving Selwood Park (Silwood Park), in the County of Berkshire, the Seat of James Sibbald Esqr - designed 1788). The Boucherett family were regularly painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A. (1769-1830) who is believed to have visited the house to undertake a series of sketches of the children over a period of around five years.\nUnusual for a very large house of this period, Willingham House could be viewed easily from the main road, from Market Rasen to Louth. The small lake in front of the house still remains, although now obscured by mature trees from the main road.\nWillingham House was blown up at 2 pm on 7 June 1967 by explosives set by the Royal Engineers following years of neglect. The roof timbers were suffering from wood beetle which was making the building unstable. There was little appreciation of the heritage of the 1790 building by the local authorities, perhaps surprisingly for a county, noted for its conservation of ecclesiastical architecture since the 18th century. However, the house had been a prison camp during and following WW2, then a Ministry of Defence training camp and was unlikely to be taken on again by a family. The repair costs outweighed conversion costs and the feeling was that something should be done rather than leave a dangerous ruin unattended. To avoid the hazard of collapse (and for economical reasons) after a careful demolition and salvage operation, the decision was taken to use dynamite. To ensure complete destruction the portico had its pillar’s loaded with explosives to do the job, thus reducing the remains to nothing more than land-fill. The beautiful wrought iron stair rails are thought to have been taken away for their scrap value, not having any practical use for anything else at that time. The decorative plastered ceilings and walls were all destroyed. Very few images survive of the interior, or the back of the hall, which was made up of the service buildings and stables (3/4 of the total building area). Remnants of some of the out-buildings survive today in what is now an industrial park.","South Willingham\nSouth Willingham is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated 1 mi south-west from the A157 road, 8 mi south-east from Market Rasen, 10 mi north from Horncastle and 10 miles west from Louth.\nSouth Willingham is recorded in the \"Domesday Book\" as \"Ulingeham\".\nSouth Willingham Grade II listed Anglican parish church is dedicated to St Martin. The church, built of greenstone, was rebuilt in 1835, but the Perpendicular style tower and screen remain. In 1964 \"Pevsner\" noted a 1571 paten cover by John Morley.\nOther Grade II listed buildings include four cottages and two farm houses\nThe village had both a Wesleyan and a Free Methodist chapel, both now converted to other use.\nSouth Willingham was a railway station on the Great Northern Railway branch line from Bardney to Louth. The station closed in the 1950s.\n","Bullington, Lincolnshire\nBullington is a village and civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated approximately 8 mi north-east from the city and county town of Lincoln and 7 mi south from the market town of Market Rasen. According to the 2001 Census the village had a population of 36. At the 2011 census the population remained less than 100 and is included in the civil parish of Goltho.\nBullington Hall is a Grade II listed farmhouse within the village, originating in the 17th century with later rebuilding and additions.\n\n","Burgh on Bain\nBurgh on Bain is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated on the A157 road, 7 mi west from Louth and 7 miles east from Market Rasen. According to the 2001 Census it had a population of 114, increasing to 172 at the 2011 census.\nBurgh on Bain Grade II listed Anglican church is dedicated to St Helen.\n\n\n","Toft Newton\nToft Newton is a civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It consists of the small villages of Toft next Newton and Newton by Toft, and the hamlet of Newtoft. It is 4 mi west from Market Rasen. According to the 2001 Census it had a population of 522, decreasing to 457 at the 2011 census.\nThe church of St Michael in Newton by Toft dates from the 12th century and was extensively rebuilt in 1860 by James Fowler. St Peter and Paul Church in Toft next Newton was originally built in the thirteenth century, but was extensively remodelled in 1891 by Hodgson Fowler. It is a grade II listed building, but was closed in 1986 and was sold for residential use in 1989.\nToft Newton Reservoir on the upper reaches of the River Ancholme attracts fishing, particularly for trout, and bird watching. The reservoir covers 16.5 ha , and is supplied with water from Short Ferry, on the River Witham, through a 10.6 mi pipeline. It is used to maintain flows in the Ancholme during the summer months, and is regularly stocked with rainbow trout and brown trout. Facilities include a \"wheelyboat\", which is designed to allow wheelchair users to access the fishery.\n\n","Bishop Norton\nBishop Norton is a village and the main settlement of the civil parish of the same name in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. The village is approximately 8 mi north-west from the market town of Market Rasen, and is close to the A15 road. According to the 2001 Census it had a population of 233, including Atterby and increasing to 308 at the 2011 census.\nThe name of Bishop Norton derives from the fact that it was the most northerly of the twelve manors belonging to the Bishop based upon his chief manor at Stow. The bishop in question since the Norman Conquest was the Bishop of Lincoln, but Bishop Norton and the twelve manors date from much earlier during the periods when the sees of Lichfield, Leicester, Lindsey (Sidnacester) or Dorchester (on-Thames) respectively governed the ecclesiastical life of the area.\nThe name of Bishop Norton appears variously in the record as Nortune, Nortun, Bishop's Norton, and Norton Episcopi.Until 1974, when West Lindsey District Council was formed, Bishop Norton civil parish had been a constituent part the Caistor Rural District.\nBishop Norton is a civil parish and a very ancient ecclesiastical parish. The parish is bounded in the east by the old course of the river Ancholme, in the west by the line of the Roman road known as Ermine Street. It is bounded in the north by the parish of Snitterby, the south by Glentham. Across the Ancholme are Osgodby and Owersby parishes. Across the Roman road, to the west, is Hemswell Cliff civil parish.\nHistorically this parish has included three manors. The oldest of these was the manor of the bishop, which possibly dates back to the eighth century, and almost certainly to the ninth. This was administered as part of the larger estate based on Stow, one of twelve manors until the see of Lincoln was established after the Norman Conquest. After that date, the main manor was retained by the bishop including most of the lands pertaining to it, but a new manor was established some time after for the benefit of the Prebend of Bishop Norton. This second manor held the advowson of the Church and claimed the petty tithes from the whole parish. This Prebendary manor supported the Prebend of Bishop Norton who was one of the senior clerics who formed the Chapter for the cathedral church at Lincoln.\nThe third manor was one which seems to have been established quite late, since in England manors were not created after the Twelfth century, the manor of Crossholme seems to date from that century. It was based upon the now extinct village or hamlet of Crossholme which was sited between Bishop Norton and nearby Glentham. The centre of the site is estimated to have been at SK 99279 91810. Various evidence for the settlement have been found including various artefacts, cropmarks and historical record. The manor existed into the twentieth century, records at least up to 1924. The site had now been levelled by ploughing out by 1964. The Lords of the Manor in the fourteenth century were recorded in various Feet of Fines as holding property in Lincoln as part of the manor. The name of Crossholme now only exists as a farm name at the eastern end of Bishop Norton village.\nIn addition to the manors, the settlements within the modern day civil parish include, Bishop Norton, the hamlet of Atterby, and that part of Spital-in-the-Street which lies north of Mellows Beck and east of the centre of Ermine Street (A15). Additionally there are good number of more isolated farmsteads within the parish, generally to the east of the village towards the river Ancholme on both Atterby and Snitterby Carrs.\nThe parish church of St Peter's is a relatively modern construction, possibly from about 1737, but with earlier artefacts within the fabric, such as the Twelfth century Tympanum inserted within an internal wall. It is unclear whether an earlier church stood on the site of the current one, but it is certain that a church did exist here from the earliest days of the bishop's manor. A medieval boundary ditch that may, or may not, have belonged to an earlier church dated to between 1066 and 1500 was discovered in substrate deposits on the site. During building work in 1895 various artefacts were unearthed from various historic periods including the Middle Saxon period and also an even older boundary ditch. Middle Saxon finds from the ninth and tenth century have been found here and in other places immediately adjacent to the church grounds. This included a ninth century shard from a Maxey ware strainer from the ninth century which was discovered in the garden of 3 Archer Street in 2004.\nBishop Norton is part of the Waddingham and Spital ward of West Lindsey District Council's area, and a constituent of the Ancholme Cliff division for Lincolnshire County Council. The parish has a Parish Council.\nHistorically, the county of Lincoln was divided into three parts; Bishop Norton was in the Parts of Lindsey, which covered all of that part of the county of Lincoln from Lincoln to the Humber. Lindsey County Council, created in 1889 was abolished in 1974 when West Lindsey district was created. Prior to the formation of the county council in 1889 the system of local government was fractured and dependent on many different structures. Like Yorkshire, Lindsey too, during the so-called Danelaw period, adopted the structure of Manor/ Wapentake /Riding (being a third part of the Parts of Lindsey). Bishop Norton was in the Wapentake of Aslacoe, in the West Riding of the Parts of Lindsey. The other important factors in local government throughout the post-medieval was the parish and the justices in their sessions.\nThe current church is a Grade II* listed building. In addition there are within the village three buildings with Grade II listings; Archer House, The Bakehouse and the Old School. Within the wider parish there is one Grade I listed building, Norton Place, which is described below. There are four further listed buildings; three are subsidiary buildings of Norton Place, and on that estate, south of Bishop Norton. The fourth is Atterby Mill, an early nineteenth century water mill on the Atterby Beck. The Lincolnshire Historic Environment Record records that it is a three-storey brick corn mill, rectangular in plan and dated '1802'in iron ties at the north end. A large iron wheel is on the exterior of the west elevation at the first floor level. This indicates that in later years it could be worked by traction engine or tractor. The leat has been infilled. The mill was last known to have been worked during the second world war.\nEnglish Heritage carried out a survey of farmsteads and identified twenty-seven that were extant in the nineteenth century. Many are now demolished or partly demolished. Two within the centre of the village have been entirely demolished, but new houses have been built to replace them and the names are retained at Roseland House and Manor House, both in Archer Street. Several on the Carrs have been demolished, but most remain as extant buildings, albeit, not always as working farms and several with significant changes to the buildings.\nThere are barns noted in both the Farmstead survey and in the HER, including a range of barns at Crossholme Farm, the most easterly of which was reputedly the parish Pinfold. The house named The Barns in Pingle Lane includes a number of former farm buildings of different ages, and these are included in the HER.\nThe most notable house in Bishop Norton is Norton Place. It is listed as Grade I and is by the York Architect John Carr. Norton Place is set on the edge of plantations in former parkland which was laid out in the 1770s. The house was built for John Harrison MP by John Carr in 1776. The main front of the house has a stone south facade of seven bays and has two storeys, the three centre bays more widely spaced beneath a pediment. The entrance is a Doric porch with Venetian window above, and above that in the pediment is a circular light garlanded with foliage and tied up with a bow. The side fronts have deep canted bays, a favourite Carr device, topped with urns. The drawing room has a delicate oval-pattern plaster ceiling with inset Wedgwood plaques depicting antique heads. The stables make a courtyard to the rear. There were some alterations to house in the 1830s by Lewis Vulliamy for Sir Montagu Cholmeley, who was the grandson of John Harrison.\nThe Lincolnshire Historic Environment Record (HER) provides an enormous amount of detail finds and a great deal of information relating to cropmarks, aerial photography since 1946 and of structures that have been discovered mainly during contemporary works. Some eighty-six records are held in the HER for the parish of Bishop Norton, within which the oldest 'find' is recorded in record 50829: an Acheulian handaxe from the lower Paleolithic period (500,000 BC to 15001 BC) was found in 1954 by a farm labourer, on a hummock of sand and gravel on Atterby Carr near the river Ancholme. There are many records of finds and cropmarks linked to the Neolithic period (4000 BC - 2351 BC). These are generally, but not exclusively at the eastern end of the parish, suggesting that the river was the important natural feature for people at that time. Not surprisingly, it might have provided a 'highway', as well as a means of providing food. These records describe possible permanent settlement sites as well as small finds scattered around.\nThe Bronze Age is well represented around the parish with several sites of finds and a possible small settlement just to the south of the village of Bishop Norton, with further cropmarks of the same age a little further south alongside the Glentham Road. There appears to be less recorded from the Iron Age, however, since it is difficult to discern a clear cut-off point in the habits and culture of British people between the Iron Age and the Roman period, that is not too surprising.\nThe Roman period is well represented in the record. At Low Place on Cross Lane there is evidence of a Romano-British settlement or large farmstead; given the high number of Neolithic finds locally, there is, perhaps, reason to suppose that there may have been continuity of settlement here at that time for a thousand years or more. At the western end of the parish between the modern village and Atterby mill there is evidence of both a villa and a possible Roman settlement. between that site (on record 50547) and of a branch of the Ermine Street running towards it on record 50574. Given that Lincoln was a colonia, is it possible that this was a settlement of one or more former legionaries?\nThere is evidence of other settlements from the medieval period, including Crossholme and at Atterby. Besides these, there is evidence of a medieval mill dam on the Atterby Beck close to Atterby Mill, suggesting that this site had been home to a water mill for a long period before 1802. The entry for Bishop Norton in Domesday shows that the Bishop owned a mill as part of his manor here.\nLater material in the HER includes post-medieval structures and finds, including evidence of a windmill on Atterby Lane not far from the old water mill. The only human remains were a couple of bone fragments in a pit alongside Main Street.\nWhat is clear in these records is the sheer scale and spread of the finds making the probability of archaeology throughout the parish rank highly. The fact that there has been so many identified sites and finds despite a lack of organised archaeological excavation or other investigations, suggests that the number of recorded sites would almost certainly grow significantly if they were to occur.\n","Sixhills\nSixhills is a village in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England, about 3 mi south-east from Market Rasen. It lies just south of the A631 between Market Rasen and Ludford. It is in the civil parish of North Willingham.\nThe Church of All Saints was designed by James Fowler (1869 and 1875).\nThe village was the site of a former nunnery of the Gilbertine Order, founded in the twelfth century. At the behest of Edward I Gwladys ferch Dafydd was sent there; she remained until her death in 1336.\n\n","Millwright\nA millwright is a <a href=\"Master%20craftsman\">craftsman</a> or <a href=\"tradesman\">tradesman</a> who installs, dismantles, repairs, reassembles, and moves machinery in factories, power plants, and construction sites.\nAs the name suggests, the original function of a millwright was the construction of <a href=\"flour%20mill\">flour mill</a>s, <a href=\"sawmill\">sawmill</a>s, <a href=\"papermill\">paper mills</a> and <a href=\"fulling\">fulling mills</a> powered by <a href=\"watermill\">water</a> or <a href=\"windmill\">wind</a>, mostly of wood with a limited number of metal parts.\nSince both of these structures originated from antiquity, millwrighting could be considered, arguably, as one of the oldest engineering trades and the forerunner of the modern mechanical engineer.\nIn modern usage, a millwright is engaged with the erection of machinery. This includes such tasks as leveling, aligning and installing machinery on foundations or base plates and setting, leveling and aligning <a href=\"electric%20motor\">electric motor</a>s or other power sources such as turbines with the equipment, which millwrights typically connect with some type of <a href=\"coupling\">coupling</a>.\nThe term \"millwright\" (also known as \"industrial mechanic\" ) is mainly used in the United States, Canada and <a href=\"South%20Africa\">South Africa</a> to describe members belonging to a particular trade. Other countries use different terms to describe tradesmen engaging in similar activities.\nRelated, but distinctly different crafts, include <a href=\"machinist\">machinist</a>s and <a href=\"mechanic\">mechanic</a>s.\nOriginally, millwrights were specialized <a href=\"carpenter\">carpenter</a>s who completely designed and constructed mills. Having a working knowledge of <a href=\"driveshaft\">driveshaft</a>s, <a href=\"bearing%20%28mechanical%29\">bearing</a>s, <a href=\"Gear%20train\">gearing</a> and <a href=\"Belt%20%28mechanical%29\">mechanical belts</a>, they executed every type of engineering operation in the construction of these mills. They designed the patterns of the water wheel systems, carved their gear mechanisms, and finally erected the mill machines\nIn the <a href=\"Hellenistic%20period\">Hellenistic period</a> <a href=\"Greeks\">Greek</a> millwrights invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing. Greeks, along with the <a href=\"Roman%20Empire\">Romans</a>, were the first to operate undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills.\nMuslim millwrights adopted the Greek watermill technology from the <a href=\"Byzantine%20Empire\">Byzantine Empire</a>, where it had been applied for centuries in those provinces conquered by the Muslims. They used several solutions to achieve the maximum output from watermills, by either mounting them to <a href=\"pier\">pier</a>s of <a href=\"bridge\">bridge</a>s to take advantage of the increased flow or by using a shipmill, a type of watermill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of ships <a href=\"Mooring%20%28watercraft%29\">moored</a> in <a href=\"midstream\">midstream</a>.\nIn Medieval Europe, millwrights built the first industrial mills which introduced new innovative uses of waterpower. A survey of the types introduced in Western Europe was conducted by Adam Robert Lucas.\nIn China, in the late 14th century, the millwrights were known as \"jiang\" and \"kong\" (a special term for artisan-engineers) and existed at an early age. They learned their craft on the shop floor, in a kind of apprentiship scheme.\n<a href=\"William%20Fairbairn\">Sir William Fairbairn</a>, a millwright of the late 19th century, wrote in his \"Treatise on Mills and Millwork\", \"...the millwright of the late centuries was an itinerant engineer and mechanic of high reputation. He could handle the axe, the hammer, and the plane with equal skill and precision...he could set out and cut in the furrows of a millstone with an accuracy equal or superior to that of the miller himself.\"\nThe introduction of the steam engine and the increasing importance of iron and steel changed the global industrial landscape.\nIt created specialisation and the birth of new trades (<a href=\"Turning\">turners</a>, <a href=\"fitter%20%28occupation%29\">fitters</a>, machine makers, and <a href=\"mechanical%20engineer\">mechanical engineer</a>s). It also changed the traditional job of the millwright.\nAs James F. Hobart wrote in his book \"Millwrighting\", \"The ancient type of millwright has passed away. He has gone with the old time carpenter and obsolete shoemaker - the former with 500 pounds of molding planes and woodworking tools, the latter with nothing but pegging and sewing awls, hammer, and knife...\"\nThrough the 20th century, the trade adapted to the change. Modern millwrights work with <a href=\"steel\">steel</a> and other materials and must often combine the skills of other mechanical trades in order to successfully install industrial machinery or to assemble machines from pre-fabricated parts. Modern millwrights must also be able to read <a href=\"blueprints\">blueprints</a> and other <a href=\"schematics\">schematics</a> to aid them in the construction of complex systems. Millwrights are frequently <a href=\"trade%20union\">unionized</a>, with estimated numbers of around 45% in the US.\nMillwrights install, maintain, repair and troubleshoot stationary industrial machinery and mechanical equipment in sites such as factories, production plants and recreational facilities.However, the exact duties of a millwright vary depending on whether they are unionized or not, with union rules typically being more restrictive than non-union situations, which may have their own <a href=\"job%20description\">job description</a>.\nOn a typical job millwrights:\nModern standards of practice for millwrights also require working:\nMillwrights by nature of their profession have to be extremely well versed in many aspects of construction/demobilization. They may install a <a href=\"conveyor\">conveyor</a> system at an airport one week and the following week work at an <a href=\"industrial%20wastewater%20treatment\">industrial wastewater treatment</a> plant.\nMillwrights in the power generation industry can assemble, set, <a href=\"wikt%3Aalign\">align</a> and balance <a href=\"turbines\">turbines</a> or <a href=\"rotor%20%28turbine%29\">rotor</a>s, as well as install pumps, valves, cranes, fans, and travelling screens. Millwrights also perform critical lifts involving major components to be flown level at up to and within .005 inch (5 thousandths of an inch). Because of their training and expertise, Millwrights are generally chosen to work on tasks associated with flying and setting heavy machinery.\nMillwrights are also in demand as teachers for vocational programs, both at the high school level and in post-secondary institutions. Many high schools feature fabrication courses that include metal work, where the experience of a qualified millwright is valuable. Often, these millwrights are paid a premium based on their years of field experience.\nMillwrights must have a good understanding of <a href=\"fluid%20mechanics\">fluid mechanics</a> (<a href=\"hydraulics\">hydraulics</a> and <a href=\"pneumatics\">pneumatics</a>), and all of the components involved in these processes, such as <a href=\"valve\">valve</a>s, <a href=\"cylinder%20%28engine%29\">cylinder</a>s, <a href=\"pump\">pump</a>s and <a href=\"Gas%20compressor\">compressors</a>.\nThey are also trained to work with a wide array of precision tools, such as vernier calipers, micrometers, dial indicators, levels, gauge blocks, and optical and laser alignment tooling.\nMost millwrights are educated through <a href=\"apprenticeship\">apprenticeship</a> programs where they receive a combination of classroom education along with a good deal of on-the-job training. For example, in <a href=\"Alberta\">Alberta</a>, the term of apprenticeship for a millwright is four years (four 12-month periods) including a minimum of 1560 hours of on-the-job training and cite weeks of technical training each year.\nApprentices are usually paid a percentage of the average millwright's wage, and this percentage increases with experience.\nA typical training course, to qualify as a millwright, may include, among others, the following:\nIn South Africa, the millwright trade (especially focused on the mining sector) enjoys a far more versatile description than in most other countries.\nFields wherein South African millwrights may operate include:\nAt most trades training centers, prospective millwright artisans are required to have a certain level of theoretical certification (e.g. N3-Nated- certificate) and psychometric characteristics, judged by thorough testing, in order to qualify for the foundation practical and theoretical technical training.\nAfter being trained in a multitude of different fields, novice, unqualified Millwrights enter in an apprenticeship for \"on-the-job\" training. There they work alongside all available artisans regardless of trade, depending on the institution. Once they meet a structured quota of experience and pass the necessary modules, apprentices have two months to prepare for their practical Trade Test. After they passed, they receive the certification and status of a qualified Millwright Tradesman.\nOnce millwrights qualify, they have the opportunity to qualify as technicians, engineers, planners, foremen and many other routes requiring mainly electrical and mechanical expertise.\nMany millwrights choose to enter the private sector to work on a contractual basis.\nA number of prominent early-modern <a href=\"civil%20engineer\">civil engineer</a>s originally trained as millwrights, including:","School boards in England and Wales\nSchool boards were public bodies in <a href=\"England%20and%20Wales\">England and Wales</a> between 1870 and 1902, which established and administered elementary schools.\nSchool boards were created in boroughs and parishes under the <a href=\"Elementary%20Education%20Act%201870\">Elementary Education Act 1870</a> following campaigning by <a href=\"George%20Dixon%20%28MP%29\">George Dixon</a>, <a href=\"Joseph%20Chamberlain\">Joseph Chamberlain</a> and the <a href=\"National%20Education%20League\">National Education League</a> for elementary education free from <a href=\"Anglican\">Anglican</a> doctrine.\nEducation was still not free of fees. Members were directly elected, not appointed by borough councils or parishes. Each board could:\nSchool boards were abolished by the <a href=\"Education%20Act%201902\">Education Act 1902</a>, which replaced them with <a href=\"local%20education%20authority\">local education authorities</a>.\n","Wheelwright\nA wheelwright is a <a href=\"Artisan\">craftsman</a> who builds or repairs <a href=\"wood\">wood</a>en <a href=\"wheel\">wheel</a>s. The word is the combination of \"wheel\" and the archaic word \"<a href=\"wright\">wright</a>\", which comes from the <a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a> word \"\"wryhta\"\", meaning a worker or maker. This occupational name eventually became the English <a href=\"surname\">surname</a> \"Wheelwright\".\nThese tradesmen made wheels for <a href=\"cart\">cart</a>s and <a href=\"wagon\">wagon</a>s by first constructing the hub (called the nave), the <a href=\"spoke\">spoke</a>s and the rim/felloe segments (pronounced fellies) and assembling them all into a unit working from the center of the wheel outwards. Most wheels were made from <a href=\"wood\">wood</a>, but other materials have been used, such as <a href=\"bone\">bone</a> and <a href=\"horn%20%28anatomy%29\">horn</a>, for decorative or other purposes. Some earlier construction for wheels such as those used in early chariots were bound by <a href=\"Rawhide%20%28material%29\">rawhide</a> that would be applied wet and would shrink whilst drying, compressing and binding the woodwork together. After many centuries wheels evolved to be straked with iron, a method of nailing iron plates onto the felloes to protect against wear on the ground and to help bind the wheel together.\nOver millennia the overall appearance of the wheel barely changed but subtle changes to the design of a wooden wheel such as dishing and staggered spokes helped keep up with the demands of a changing world.\nDuring the industrial age, iron strakes were replaced by a solid <a href=\"iron\">iron</a> tyre custom made by a <a href=\"blacksmith\">blacksmith</a>, who first measured each wheel to ensure proper fit. Iron tyres that were always made smaller than the wheel in circumference, expanded by heating in a fire then placed on the wooden wheel and quenched quickly with water to shrink it onto the wood, then fastened to the wooden wheel by nails or tyre bolts. Tyre-bolts were less likely than tyre-nails to break off because they were flush finished and countersunk into the wheel's outer surface also allowing for wear without wearing the bolt head away.\nDuring the second half of the 19th century, the use of pre-manufactured iron hubs and other factory-made wood, iron and rubber wheel parts became increasingly common. Companies such as <a href=\"Henry%20Ford\">Henry Ford</a> developed manufacturing processes that soon made the village wheelwright obsolete. With the onset of two <a href=\"world%20war\">world war</a>s, the trade soon went into decline and was very rare by the 1960s and almost extinct by the year 2000. However, owing to the efforts of organisations like the Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights, wheelwrights still continue to operate in the UK.\nIn modern times, wheelwrights continue to make and repair a wide variety of wheels, including those made from wood and banded by iron tyres. The word \"wheelwright\" remains a term usually used for someone who makes and repairs wheels for horse-drawn vehicles, although it is sometimes used to refer to someone who repairs wheels, wheel alignment, rims, <a href=\"drum%20brake\">drums</a>, <a href=\"disc%20brake\">discs</a> and wire <a href=\"spoke\">spoke</a>s on modern vehicles such as <a href=\"automobile\">automobile</a>s, <a href=\"bus\">bus</a>es and <a href=\"truck\">truck</a>s. Wheels for <a href=\"horse-drawn%20vehicles\">horse-drawn vehicles</a> continue to be constructed and repaired for use by people who use such vehicles for <a href=\"farming\">farming</a>, competitions and presentations of historical events such as <a href=\"reenactment\">reenactment</a>s and <a href=\"living%20history\">living history</a>.\nA modern wooden wheel generally consists of three main parts, the \"nave\" or hub at the centre of the wheel, the spokes radiating out from the centre and the \"felloes\" or rims around the outside. Generally the wheel would be bound by a steel or iron tyre depending on its historical period and purpose.\nThe main timbers used in a traditional wooden wheel are Elm for the nave, Oak for the spokes and Ash for the felloes although this can vary in some areas depending on availability of timber, climate and style of production. Sometimes Hickory is substituted for Oak and Ash as it is easier to bend for mass production and is quite springy for light wheels that require a bit of flexibility.\nThe Elm is used for its interwoven grain, this prevents the nave from splitting with the force of the spokes being driven in tight.\nThe Oak is used because it doesn't bend, compress or flex and transfers any load pressures directly from the felloes to the nave.\nThe Ash is used for its flexibility and springy nature, this acts as a form of suspension and protects against shock damage.\nIn the second half of the 20th century Wheelwright training faded away due to a lack of demand for new wooden wheels. In the UK as in other countries the skills were kept alive by small businesses, museums, societies and trusts such as The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (USA) and The Countryside Agency (UK) amongst others.\nWith thanks to the Worshipful company of Wheelwrights in London (UK) there is a flourishing (Government backed) apprenticeship scheme running from 2013.\nColonial Williamsburg (USA) has an ongoing apprenticeship program and has recently taken on new apprentices (2016)","Victorian restoration\nVictorian restoration was the widespread and extensive <a href=\"wikt%3Arefurbish\">refurbishment</a> and rebuilding of <a href=\"Church%20of%20England\">Church of England</a> <a href=\"church%20%28building%29\">churches</a> and cathedrals that took place in England and Wales during the 19th-century <a href=\"Victorian%20era\">reign of Queen Victoria</a>. It was not the same process as is understood today by the term <a href=\"building%20restoration\">building restoration</a>.\nAgainst a background of poorly maintained church buildings; a reaction against the <a href=\"Puritan\">Puritan</a> ethic manifested in the <a href=\"Gothic%20Revival\">Gothic Revival</a>; and a shortage of churches where they were needed in cities, the <a href=\"Cambridge%20Camden%20Society\">Cambridge Camden Society</a> and the <a href=\"Oxford%20Movement\">Oxford Movement</a> advocated a return to a more medieval attitude to churchgoing. The change was embraced by the Church of England which saw it as a means of reversing the decline in <a href=\"church%20attendance\">church attendance</a>.\nThe principle was to \"restore\" a church to how it might have looked during the \"<a href=\"English%20Gothic%20architecture\">Decorated</a>\" style of architecture which existed between 1260 and 1360, and many famous architects such as <a href=\"George%20Gilbert%20Scott\">George Gilbert Scott</a> and <a href=\"Ewan%20Christian\">Ewan Christian</a> enthusiastically accepted commissions for restorations. It is estimated that around 80% of all Church of England churches were affected in some way by the movement, varying from minor changes to complete demolition and rebuilding.\nInfluential people like <a href=\"John%20Ruskin\">John Ruskin</a> and <a href=\"William%20Morris\">William Morris</a> were opposed to such large-scale restoration, and their activities eventually led to the formation of societies dedicated to building preservation, such as the <a href=\"Society%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Ancient%20Buildings\">Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings</a>. In retrospect, the period of Victorian restoration has been viewed in a generally unfavourable light.\nA number of factors working together led to the spate of Victorian restoration.\nFrom the time of the <a href=\"English%20Reformation\">English Reformation</a> onwards, apart from necessary repairs so that buildings might remain in use, and the addition of occasional internal commemorative adornments, English churches and cathedrals were subjected to little building work and only piecemeal restoration. This situation lasted for about 250 years with the fabric of many churches and cathedrals suffering from neglect. The severity of the problem was demonstrated when the spire of <a href=\"Chichester%20Cathedral\">Chichester Cathedral</a> suddenly telescoped in on itself in 1861.\nIn addition, ever since the mid-17th century <a href=\"Puritan\">Puritan</a> reforms which were typified by a minimum of ritual and decoration and by an unambiguous emphasis on preaching there had been an ongoing removal of any emotion or colour from English religious services as a means of distancing itself from what was seen as the excesses of Catholicism. But towards the end of the 18th century the burgeoning <a href=\"Gothic%20Revival\">Gothic Revival</a> and interest in <a href=\"medievalism\">medievalism</a> encouraged people to seek more interest in their religious services. The popularity of the Gothic Revival was seen by Church officials as a way to reverse the decline in church attendance, and thereby start to reassert the Church's power, prosperity and influence. They therefore pushed for massive restoration programs.\nAs a third factor, the industrial revolution had resulted in many people living in cities that had few churches to cater for their religious needs—for instance <a href=\"Stockport\">Stockport</a> had a population of nearly 34,000 but church seating for only 2,500. The rise in <a href=\"dissenter\">dissenter</a> <a href=\"Religious%20denomination\">denominations</a>, such as <a href=\"Methodism\">Methodism</a> and the <a href=\"Religious%20Society%20of%20Friends\">Religious Society of Friends</a>, was seen as further evidence of this shortfall. To fulfil this need, between 1818 and 1824 the Government had granted £1.5 million for building new churches. Known as <a href=\"Commissioners%27%20church\">Commissioners' church</a>es, most of them cost only £4,000 to £5,000 each to build, and dissatisfaction with their indifferent design and cheap construction provoked a strong reaction.\nEquivalent movements existed in most of Europe, especially northern Europe, with the French architect and architectural historian <a href=\"Eug%C3%A8ne%20Viollet-le-Duc\">Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</a> especially associated with the French manifestation.\nOne of the main driving forces for the restoration of churches was the <a href=\"Cambridge%20Camden%20Society\">Cambridge Camden Society</a> (CCS), which was founded in 1839 by two <a href=\"University%20of%20Cambridge\">Cambridge</a> undergraduates, <a href=\"John%20Mason%20Neale\">John Mason Neale</a> and <a href=\"Benjamin%20Webb%20%28clergyman%29\">Benjamin Webb</a>, as a club for those who shared a common interest in Gothic church design. It rapidly became popular: its membership increased from 8 to 180 in its first 12 months. Although initially a society for recording and discussing medieval church features, the members of the CCS soon began to expostulate in their journal \"The Ecclesiologist\" and particularly in their \"Few Words to Church-builders\" of 1844 that the only \"correct\" form for a church building was the \"middle pointed\" or \"<a href=\"English%20Gothic%20architecture%23Decorated%20Gothic\">Decorated</a>\" style, in which churches had been built during the hundred years centred on 1300. Ecclesiology obviously struck a chord in society: it was closely linked with the ongoing interest in <a href=\"medievalism\">medievalism</a> and the <a href=\"Gothic%20Revival\">Gothic Revival</a>.\nThe CCS's firm insistence on one style being correct proved to be a beacon for those who were no longer able to judge for themselves what was \"good\" in architecture—the certainties of the <a href=\"Vitruvius\">Vitruvian</a> rules having lost their power during the <a href=\"Romanticism\">Romantic movement</a> that had been in vogue since the middle of the 18th century. The CCS stated that there were two possible ways in which a church could be restored. As <a href=\"Kenneth%20Clark\">Kenneth Clark</a> put it, they said that one could \"either restore each of the various alterations and additions in its own style, or restore the whole church to the best and purest style of which traces remain\". The Society wholeheartedly recommended the second option and since virtually every medieval church had at least some small remnant of decorated style, maybe a porch or even just a window, the whole church would be \"restored\" to match it. And if the earliest portions were too late, then it was a candidate for a complete rebuild in the \"correct\" style.\n\"To restore,\" \"The Ecclesiologist\" declared, \"is to revive the original appearance ... lost by decay, accident or ill-judged alteration\". They did later admit, though, that such \"restoration\" might create an ideal state that the building had never been in.\nChurch restorations were also strongly influenced by the <a href=\"Oxford%20Movement\">Oxford Movement</a>, which advocated moving the centre of importance in the church from preaching to the <a href=\"sacrament\">sacrament</a> of the <a href=\"Eucharist\">Eucharist</a>: from the <a href=\"pulpit\">pulpit</a> to the <a href=\"altar\">altar</a>. Consequences of this included moving the pulpit from a more central position to the side of the church, replacing <a href=\"box%20pew\">box pew</a>s with open pews, creating a central <a href=\"aisle\">aisle</a> to give a better view of the altar, and the removal of galleries. Another consequence was that a larger <a href=\"chancel\">chancel</a> was required for the associated ritual.\nPersuaded by the Cambridge Camden Society that <a href=\"English%20Gothic%20architecture%23Decorated%20Gothic\">Decorated Gothic</a> was the only correct style, and by the Oxford Movement's theories concerning the nature of worship, a spate of \"restoration\" was soon under way. Some figures give an idea of the scale. A total of 3,765 new and rebuilt churches were <a href=\"Consecration\">consecrated</a> in the forty years up to 1875, with the most active decade being the 1860s in which there were more than 1,000 such consecrations. Over 7,000 parish churches in England and Wales — which is nearly 80% of all of them — were restored in some way between 1840 and 1875. There were 150% more people identified as professional architects in the 1871 census than in 1851 — it is known that established architects passed small restoration jobs on to their newly qualified colleagues, since such work provided good practice.\nThe retention of original material (carving, woodwork, etc.) tended to be of little importance to the early restorers: appearance was all, and much good old work was discarded to be replaced by modern replacement in the chosen style. Different architects had different degrees of sympathy with original material, and as the century progressed greater care was generally taken; this was at least partly as a result of the increasingly louder voices that were raised in opposition.\nAs an example of the type of work undertaken in one church, in 1870–71 the <a href=\"Church%20of%20St%20Peter%2C%20Great%20Berkhamsted\">Church of St Peter, Great Berkhamsted</a> was the subject of a restoration programme by <a href=\"William%20Butterfield\">William Butterfield</a>, whose other works included churches such as <a href=\"All%20Saints%2C%20Margaret%20Street\">All Saints, Margaret Street</a> in London. Butterfield's restoration involved the removal of some original features, including the obliteration of paintings on the pillars. The most substantial structural changes involved raising both the roof and the floor of the chancel, raising the roof of the south transept to its original pitch, removing the vestry, incorporating the south porch into the south aisle and removing the door, re-flooring the nave, installing new oak benches and replacing an earlier gallery. Butterfield also installed clear windows in the clerestory, allowing more light to enter the nave. He extended the aisles by knocking down the dividing walls of two chambers at the west end. On the exterior of the church, Butterfield removed the crumbling <a href=\"stucco\">stucco</a> that had been added in 1820 and re-faced the church walls with <a href=\"flint\">flint</a> <a href=\"flushwork\">flushwork</a>.\nAt <a href=\"Lichfield%20Cathedral\">Lichfield Cathedral</a>, the 18th century had been a period of decay: the 15th-century library was pulled down, most of the statues on the west front were removed, and the stonework covered with <a href=\"Roman%20cement\">Roman cement</a>. After some structural work early in the 19th century by <a href=\"James%20Wyatt\">James Wyatt</a>, the ornate west front (pictured above) was restored by Sir <a href=\"George%20Gilbert%20Scott\">George Gilbert Scott</a>. It includes many ornate carved figures of kings, queens and saints, created from original materials where possible and new imitations and additions when the originals were not available. Wyatt's <a href=\"choir-screen\">choir-screen</a> had utilised medieval stone-work which Scott in turn used to create the clergy's seats in the sanctuary. A new metal screen by <a href=\"Francis%20Skidmore\">Francis Skidmore</a> and <a href=\"John%20Birnie%20Philip\">John Birnie Philip</a> to designs by Scott was installed, as was a <a href=\"Mintons\">Minton tile</a> pavement stretching from choir screen to altar, inspired by medieval tiles found in the Choir foundations.\nFamous architects like <a href=\"George%20Gilbert%20Scott\">George Gilbert Scott</a>, <a href=\"Ewan%20Christian\">Ewan Christian</a>, <a href=\"William%20Butterfield\">William Butterfield</a> and <a href=\"George%20Edmund%20Street\">George Edmund Street</a> became enthusiastic \"restorers\" and the wave of restoration spread across the country so that by 1875 something like 80% of all churches in England had been affected in some way.\nIn 1850 Scott wrote a book \"A plea for the faithful restoration of our Ancient Churches\", in which he stated that \"as a general rule it is highly desirable to preserve those vestiges of the growth and history of buildings which are indicated by the various styles and irregularities of its parts\". However he did not follow this principle in practice, generally sweeping away all later changes and reconstructing the church in a uniform early style, sometimes on the evidence of just one remaining early feature.\nThere were opponents. Although <a href=\"John%20Ruskin\">John Ruskin</a> was generally in favour of new buildings in an early Gothic style, in 1849 he wrote in \"<a href=\"The%20Seven%20Lamps%20of%20Architecture\">The Seven Lamps of Architecture</a>\" that it was not possible \"to restore anything that has ever been great or beautiful in architecture\". His attitude influenced the Society of Antiquaries of London, which urged in 1855 that \"no restoration should ever be attempted, otherwise than ... in the sense of preservation from further injuries\".\nAnother vociferous opponent was <a href=\"William%20Morris\">William Morris</a> who campaigned against the proposed restoration of <a href=\"St%20John%20the%20Baptist%20Church%2C%20Inglesham\">St John the Baptist Church, Inglesham</a> in the 1880s and started the <a href=\"Society%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Ancient%20Buildings\">Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings</a> (SPAB) in 1877 when he heard of the proposed restoration of <a href=\"Tewkesbury%20Abbey\">Tewkesbury Abbey</a> by Scott. The principles espoused by SPAB took some time to attract support, but the policy of putting \"Protection in place of Restoration\" eventually took hold, and are adhered to today. Morris also wrote in 1877:\n\"But of late years a great uprising of ecclesiastical zeal, coinciding with a great increase of study, and consequently of knowledge of medieval architecture has driven people into spending their money on these buildings, not merely with the purpose of repairing them, of keeping them safe, clean, and wind and water-tight, but also of \"restoring\" them to some ideal state of perfection; sweeping away if possible all signs of what has befallen them at least since the Reformation, and often since dates much earlier.\"\nDespite his opposition, though, it is known that Morris profited greatly by his firm's provision of stained glass to many restoration projects, and it has been noted that his criticism only started after his firm was securely established as a supplier to these projects.\nFurther opposition came from evangelical Protestants, who believed that \"ornamental carved work, decorative painting, encaustic tiles, and stained glass were foolish vanities which lead the heart astray\", and from others who were concerned about the cost: \"For the cost of one stone church with a groined roof, or even an open timbered roof, two might be built in brick with plaster ceilings; and who could dare to say that worship in the plainer building would be less devout or sincere than that which was offered in the other?\"\nNot all Catholics were in favour either: late in his life <a href=\"Cardinal%20Wiseman\">Cardinal Wiseman</a> made it clear that his preference was for Renaissance art, as might be expected of a religious order of Italian origin.\nFrom a 20th-century perspective the process of Victorian restoration has often been viewed unfavourably, with terms such as \"ruthless\", \"insensitive\" and \"heavy-handed\" being commonly used to describe the work done.\nIn the introduction to his book \"The Gothic Revival\" (first published in 1928), <a href=\"Kenneth%20Clark\">Kenneth Clark</a> wrote \"The real reason the Gothic Revival had been neglected is that it produced so little on which our eyes can rest without pain\". Clark also reckoned that Decorated Gothic was the worst of the <a href=\"English%20Gothic%20architecture\">three possible styles</a> that could have been adopted—the others being Early English which had \"very little detail which an ordinary craftsman could not manage\", and Perpendicular which was \"infinitely the most adaptable of medieval styles\". Clark pointed out that Decorated was the most difficult to execute, not least because of the complicated window <a href=\"tracery\">tracery</a> that set it apart from the other two Gothic styles.\nHowever, not all restoration work was purely negative: a side effect of a number of restorations was the rediscovery of long-lost features, for instance Anglo-Saxon carving that had been incorporated into Norman foundations, or wall-paintings that had been whitewashed over, at <a href=\"St%20Albans%20Cathedral\">St Albans Cathedral</a>. It is also true to say that had they not been restored many churches would have fallen into disrepair.","Wesleyan Reform Union\nThe Wesleyan Reform Union is an independent <a href=\"Methodist\">Methodist</a> Connexion based in the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a>. It was founded in 1859 by the members of the <a href=\"Wesleyanism\">Wesleyan</a> Reform movement who did not join the United Methodist Free Churches\nThe Wesleyan Reform Union Statement of Faith was accepted at a conference in 1970:\nModified by conference of 2008.\nThe head of the Wesleyan Reform Union is the Union President, who presides over the General Committee. The General Committee consists of up to 20 elected members plus representatives from various Union committees. There is also a President Designate. People are elected to each of these positions annually by delegates to a Conference. The <a href=\"General%20Secretary\">General Secretary</a> takes care of business matters.\nAt the local level, churches follow one of two schemes. They may elect a President and a <a href=\"Vice%20President\">Vice President</a>, or they may elect a Leadership Group. These positions are generally voted on annually. In the case of a <a href=\"Leadership%20Group\">Leadership Group</a>, a <a href=\"Minister%20of%20religion\">Minister</a> may also be elected. The Union maintains a list of approved ministers although churches are at liberty to appoint others not on the list. Some churches have had women pastors for a number of years and in 2016 the Union ordained and received a female minister onto its approved list for the first time. The position of <a href=\"Trustee\">Trustee</a>s may be implemented as well.\nWesleyan Reform Union churches are <a href=\"Self-governance\">self-governing</a>, this being the principal point of difference with the Methodist Church. Local leadership has final authority in local matters. Many churches are organized into Circuits which have four Quarterly Meetings each year.\nThe WRU's headquarters are in Sheffield, and it has around 100 congregations across Yorkshire, the Midlands, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Cornwall, and Scotland.","Kelly's Directory\nKelly's Directory (or more formally, the Kelly's, Post Office and Harrod & Co Directory) was a <a href=\"trade%20directory\">trade directory</a> in the United Kingdom that listed all businesses and tradespeople in a particular city or town, as well as a general directory of postal addresses of local <a href=\"gentry\">gentry</a>, landowners, charities, and other facilities. In effect, it was a Victorian version of today's <a href=\"Yellow%20Pages\">Yellow Pages</a>. Many reference libraries still keep their copies of these directories, which are now an important source for historical research.\nThe eponymous originator of the directory was <a href=\"Frederic%20Festus%20Kelly\">Frederic Festus Kelly</a>. In 1835 or 1836 he became chief inspector of letter-carriers for the inland or general post office, and took over publication of the Post Office London Directory, whose copyright was in private hands despite its semi-official association with the post office, and which Kelly had to purchase from the widow of his predecessor.\nHe founded Kelly & Co. and he and various family members gradually expanded the company over the next several decades, producing directories for an increasing number of UK <a href=\"county\">counties</a> and buying out or putting out of business various competing publishers of directories.\nOther publications followed, including the \"Handbook to the Titled, Landed and Official Classes\" (1875) and \"Merchants, Manufacturers and Shippers\" (1877). In 1897, Kelly & Co Ltd became Kelly’s Directories Ltd. This name stuck for another 106 years before being renamed Kellysearch in 2003 to reflect its focus away from hard copy directories and towards an Internet-based product search engine.\nThe front cover of a Kelly's Directory sometimes stated \"Kelly's Directories Ltd., established 1799\", however this was based on the date of issue of the first Post Office London Directory by an earlier inspector of letter carriers several decades before Kelly's involvement with that publication.\nFor a short time, Kelly's existed online as <a href=\"http%3A//www.kellysearch.co.uk/\">Kellysearch (broken link)</a>, a directory similar to the online <a href=\"Yellow%20Pages\">Yellow Pages</a>. Kellysearch.com was established in Boston in 2004. It was in many different languages and introduced a fully searchable online-catalogue library and product <a href=\"News%20release\">press release</a> section.\nThe old editions of the Kelly’s Directories are seen as highly collectable by many and have also become a useful reference tool for people tracing the history of local areas (with the contents now available to buy on CD-ROM from many entrepreneurial sources for this purpose.) An extensive but incomplete collection of Kelly’s Directorys is held in the <a href=\"Guildhall%20Library\">Guildhall Library</a> in <a href=\"London\">London</a>.","Wesleyan Methodist Church (Great Britain)\nThe Wesleyan Methodist Church was the name used by the majority <a href=\"Methodist\">Methodist</a> movement in Great Britain following its split from the <a href=\"Church%20of%20England\">Church of England</a> after the death of <a href=\"John%20Wesley\">John Wesley</a> and the appearance of parallel Methodist movements. The word \"<a href=\"Wesleyan\">Wesleyan</a>\" was added to the title to differentiate it from the Welsh <a href=\"Calvinistic%20Methodist\">Calvinistic Methodist</a>s, founded by <a href=\"George%20Whitefield\">George Whitefield</a> who, like Wesley and his brother <a href=\"Charles%20Wesley\">Charles</a>, had been a member of the <a href=\"Holy%20Club\">Holy Club</a> in Oxford to which the (originally derogatory) epithet \"Methodist\" was first applied, and from the <a href=\"Primitive%20Methodist\">Primitive Methodist</a> movement, which separated from the Wesleyans in 1807. The Wesleyan Methodist Church followed the Wesleys in holding to an <a href=\"Arminian\">Arminian</a> theology, as against Whitefield's Calvinism; its Conference was also the legal successor to John Wesley as holder of the property of the original Methodist Societies.\nJohn Wesley was convinced of the importance of education and, following the advice of his friend Dr. <a href=\"Philip%20Doddridge\">Philip Doddridge</a>, opened schools at <a href=\"The%20Foundery\">The Foundery</a> in London, and at <a href=\"Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne\">Newcastle</a> and <a href=\"Kingswood%20School\">Kingswood</a>. Following the upsurge in interest in education which accompanied the <a href=\"Reform%20Act%201832\">extension of franchise</a> in 1832, the Methodist Conference commissioned <a href=\"William%20Atherton%20%28minister%29\">William Atherton</a>, Richard Treffry and Samuel Jackson to report on Methodist schools, coming to the conclusion that if the Church were to prosper the system of Sunday schools (3,339 in number at that time, with 59,277 teachers and 341,442 pupils) should be augmented by day-schools with teachers educated to high school level. The Rev. John Scott proposed in 1843 that 700 new Methodist day-schools be established within seven years. Though a steady increase was achieved, that ambitious target could not be reached, in part limited by the number of suitably qualified teachers, mostly coming from the institution founded in Glasgow by <a href=\"David%20Stow\">David Stow</a>. The outcome of the Wesleyan Education Report for 1844 was that planning began for permanent Wesleyan teacher-training college, resulting in the foundation of <a href=\"Westminster%20Training%20College\">Westminster Training College</a> at Horseferry Road, <a href=\"City%20of%20Westminster\">Westminster</a> in 1851, with the Rev. Scott its first Principal.\nIn 1897, Reginald Perks, MP for <a href=\"Louth%20%28Lincolnshire%29%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29\">Louth</a> in <a href=\"Lincolnshire\">Lincolnshire</a>, proposed the creation of the Wesleyan Methodist Twentieth Century Fund (also known as the 'One Million Guinea Fund') which aimed to raise one <a href=\"Guinea%20%28coin%29\">guinea</a> (£1.1s. or £1.05) from each of the one million Wesleyans to purchase the former <a href=\"Royal%20Aquarium\">Royal Aquarium and Winter Garden</a> site in <a href=\"central%20London\">central London</a> to build a world centre of Wesleyan Methodism and to expand the mission of the Wesleyan Church at home and overseas. On 8 November, 1898, the fund was officially launched at <a href=\"Wesley%27s%20Chapel\">Wesley's Chapel</a> in <a href=\"City%20Road%20%28London%29\">City Road</a>, London, and raised the funds to pay for <a href=\"Westminster%20Central%20Hall\">Westminster Central Hall</a> and to support construction and extension of other Wesleyan Methodist churches and <a href=\"sunday%20school\">sunday school</a>s around the UK and overseas.\nThe title \"Wesleyan Methodist Church\" remained in use until the <a href=\"Methodist%20Union\">Methodist Union</a> of 1932, when the church re-united with the Primitive Methodist Church and the <a href=\"United%20Methodist%20Church%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">United Methodist Church</a> to form the current <a href=\"Methodist%20Church%20of%20Great%20Britain\">Methodist Church of Great Britain</a>.\n","West Rasen\nWest Rasen is a village and <a href=\"civil%20parish\">civil parish</a> in the <a href=\"West%20Lindsey\">West Lindsey</a> district of <a href=\"Lincolnshire\">Lincolnshire</a>, England. It is situated on the <a href=\"A631%20road\">A631 road</a>, and approximately 3 mi west from <a href=\"Market%20Rasen\">Market Rasen</a>.\nThe <a href=\"parish%20church\">parish church</a> is a Grade I <a href=\"listed%20building\">listed building</a> dedicated to <a href=\"All%20Saints%27%20Day\">All Saints</a>, dating from the 11th century, and built from <a href=\"ironstone\">ironstone</a>. The <a href=\"baptismal%20font\">font</a> is 15th-century, and the former north <a href=\"Aisle%23Architecture\">aisle</a> chapel was a <a href=\"chantry\">chantry</a> founded in 1373 for John Pouger and dissolved in 1548.\nThe churchyard cross is 14th-century, although it was restored in the 19th century, and is both Grade II listed and a <a href=\"scheduled%20monument\">scheduled monument</a>.\nPackhorse Bridge is a Grade II* <a href=\"ironstone\">ironstone</a> listed bridge over the <a href=\"River%20Rase\">River Rase</a>, which dates from the 15th century with 20th-century alterations. It consists of a narrow bridge with 3 arches and cobbled surface. It is a scheduled monument.\nThe Post Office is a Grade II listed former cottage, now shop and house, dating from the late 17th century with 20th-century alterations and additions. It is likely to have been mud and stud originally, but is now underbuilt in red brick with a thatched roof.\n","Thomas Lawrence\nSir Thomas Lawrence <a href=\"Royal%20Academy\">PRA</a> <a href=\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society\">FRS</a> (13 April 1769 – 7 January 1830) was a leading English portrait painter and the fourth president of the <a href=\"Royal%20Academy\">Royal Academy</a>.\nLawrence was a child prodigy. He was born in <a href=\"Bristol\">Bristol</a> and began drawing in <a href=\"Devizes\">Devizes</a>, where his father was an innkeeper. At the age of ten, having moved to Bath, he was supporting his family with his <a href=\"pastel\">pastel</a> portraits. At eighteen he went to London and soon established his reputation as a portrait painter in <a href=\"oil%20paint\">oils</a>, receiving his first royal commission, a portrait of <a href=\"Charlotte%20of%20Mecklenburg-Strelitz\">Queen Charlotte</a>, in 1790. He stayed at the top of his profession until his death, aged 60, in 1830.\nSelf-taught, he was a brilliant draughtsman and known for his gift of capturing a likeness, as well as his virtuoso handling of paint. He became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1791, a full member in 1794, and president in 1820. In 1810 he acquired the generous patronage of the <a href=\"George%20IV%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">Prince Regent</a>, was sent abroad to paint portraits of allied leaders for the Waterloo chamber at <a href=\"Windsor%20Castle\">Windsor Castle</a>, and is particularly remembered as the <a href=\"Romanticism\">Romantic</a> portraitist of the <a href=\"British%20Regency\">Regency</a>. Lawrence's love affairs were not happy (his tortuous relationships with Sally and Maria Siddons became the subject of several books) and, in spite of his success, he spent most of life deep in debt. He never married. At his death, Lawrence was the most fashionable portrait painter in Europe. His reputation waned during <a href=\"Victorian%20Era\">Victorian times</a>, but has since been partially restored.\nThomas Lawrence was born at 6 Redcross Street, <a href=\"Bristol\">Bristol</a>, the youngest surviving child of Thomas Lawrence, a supervisor of excise, and Lucy Read, the daughter of a clergyman. The couple had 16 children but only five survived infancy: Lawrence's brother Andrew became a clergyman; William had a career in the army; sisters Lucy and Anne married a solicitor and a clergyman (Lawrence's nephews included <a href=\"Andrew%20Bloxam\">Andrew Bloxam</a>). Soon after Thomas was born his father decided to become an innkeeper and took over the White Lion Inn and next-door American Coffee House in Broad Street, Bristol. But the venture did not prosper and in 1773 Lawrence senior removed his family from Bristol and took over the tenancy of the Black Bear Inn in Devizes, a favourite stopping place for the London gentry who were making their annual trip to take the waters at Bath.\nIt was during the family's six-year stay at the Black Bear Inn that Lawrence senior began to make use of his son's precocious talents for drawing and reciting poetry. Visitors would be greeted with the words \"Gentlemen, here's my son – will you have him recite from the poets, or take your portraits?\" Among those who listened to a recitation from Tom, or Tommy as he was called, was the actor <a href=\"David%20Garrick\">David Garrick</a>. Lawrence's formal schooling was limited to two years at The Fort, a school in Bristol, when he was aged six to eight, and a little tuition in French and Latin from a dissenting minister. He also became accomplished in dancing, fencing, boxing and billiards. By the age of ten his fame had spread sufficiently for him to receive a mention in <a href=\"Daines%20Barrington\">Daines Barrington</a>'s \"Miscellanies\" as \"without the most distant instruction from anyone, capable of copying historical pictures in a masterly style\". But once again Lawrence senior failed as a landlord and, in 1779, he was declared bankrupt and the family moved to <a href=\"Bath%2C%20Somerset\">Bath</a>. From now on, Lawrence was to support his parents with the money he earned from his portraits.\nThe family settled at 2 Alfred Street in Bath, and the young Lawrence established himself as a portraitist in <a href=\"pastel\">pastel</a>s. The oval portraits, for which he was soon charging three guineas, were about 12 inches by 10 inches (30 by 25 centimetres), and usually portrayed a half-length. His sitters included <a href=\"Georgiana%20Cavendish%2C%20Duchess%20of%20Devonshire\">the Duchess of Devonshire</a>, <a href=\"Sarah%20Siddons\">Sarah Siddons</a>, <a href=\"Sir%20Henry%20Harpur%2C%206th%20Baronet\">Sir Henry Harpur</a> (of <a href=\"Calke%20Abbey\">Calke Abbey</a>, Derbyshire, who offered to send Lawrence to Italy – Lawrence senior refused to part with his son), <a href=\"Warren%20Hastings\">Warren Hastings</a> and <a href=\"Elijah%20Impey\">Sir Elijah Impey</a>. Talented, charming and attractive (and surprisingly modest) Lawrence was popular with Bath residents and visitors: artists <a href=\"William%20Hoare\">William Hoare</a> and Mary Hartley gave him encouragement; wealthy people allowed him to study their collections of paintings and Lawrence's drawing of a copy of <a href=\"Raffaello%20Santi\">Raphael's</a> \"Transfiguration\" was awarded a <a href=\"silver-gilt\">silver-gilt</a> palette and a prize of 5 guineas by the Society of Arts in London.\nSometime before his eighteenth birthday in 1787 Lawrence arrived in London, taking lodgings in Leicester Square, near to <a href=\"Joshua%20Reynolds\">Joshua Reynolds</a>' studio. He was introduced to Reynolds, who advised him to study nature, rather than the Old Masters. Lawrence set up a studio at 41 Jermyn Street and installed his parents in a house in Greek Street. He exhibited several works in the 1787 Royal Academy exhibition at <a href=\"Somerset%20House\">Somerset House</a>, and enrolled as a student at the <a href=\"Royal%20Academy\">Royal Academy</a> but didn't stay long, abandoning the drawing of classical statues to concentrate on his portraiture. In the Royal Academy exhibition of 1788 Lawrence was represented by five portraits in pastels and one in oils, a medium he quickly mastered. Between 1787 and his death in 1830 he would miss only two of the annual exhibitions: once, 1809, in protest about the way his paintings had been displayed and once, in 1819, because he was abroad. In 1789 he exhibited 13 portraits, mostly in oil, including one of <a href=\"William%20Linley\">William Linley</a> and one of Lady Cremorne, his first attempt at a full-length portrait. The paintings received favourable comments in the press with one critic referring to him as \"the Sir Joshua of futurity not far off\" and, aged just twenty, Lawrence received his first royal commission, a summons arriving from Windsor Palace to paint the portraits of <a href=\"Charlotte%20of%20Mecklenburg-Strelitz\">Queen Charlotte</a> and <a href=\"Princess%20Amelia%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">Princess Amelia</a>. The queen found Lawrence presumptuous (although he made a good impression on the princesses and ladies-in-waiting) and she didn't like the finished portrait, which remained in Lawrence's studio until his death. When it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1790, however, it received critical acclaim. Also shown that year was another of Lawrence's most famous portraits, that of the actress <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Farren\">Elizabeth Farren</a>, soon to be the Countess of Derby, \"completely Elizabeth Farren: arch, spirited, elegant and engaging\", according to one newspaper.\nIn 1791 Lawrence was elected an associate of the Royal Academy and the following year, on the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, King George III appointed him <a href=\"Principal%20Painter%20in%20Ordinary\">\"painter-in-ordinary to his majesty\"</a>. His reputation was established, and he moved to a studio in Old Bond Street. In 1794 he became a full member of the Royal Academy. Although commissions were pouring in, Lawrence was in financial difficulties. His debts would stay with him for the rest of life: he narrowly avoided bankruptcy and had to be bailed out by wealthy sitters and friends, and died insolvent. Biographers have never been able to discover the source of his debts; he was a prodigiously hard worker (once referring in a letter to his portrait painting as \"mill-horse business\") and didn't appear to live extravagantly. Lawrence himself said: \"I have never been extravagant nor profligate in the use of money. Neither gaming, horses, curricles, expensive entertainments, nor secret sources of ruin from vulgar licentiousness have swept it from me\". This has generally been accepted, with biographers blaming his financial problems on his generosity towards his family and others, his inability to keep accounts (in spite of advice from his friend the painter and diarist <a href=\"Joseph%20Farington\">Joseph Farington</a>), and his magnificent but costly collection of Old Master drawings.\nAnother source of unhappiness in Lawrence's life was his romantic entanglement with two of Sarah Siddons' daughters. He fell in love first with Sally, then transferred his affections on to her sister Maria, then broke with Maria and turned to Sally again. Both the sisters had fragile health; Maria died in 1798, on her deathbed extracting a promise from her sister never to marry Lawrence. Sally kept her promise and refused to see Lawrence again, dying in 1803. But Lawrence continued on friendly terms with their mother and painted several portraits of her. He never married. In later years two women would provide him with companionship, friends Elizabeth Croft and Isabella Wolff who first met Lawrence when she sat for her portrait in 1803. Isabella was married to the Danish consul Jens Wolff, but she separated from him in 1810, and Sir Michael Levey suggests that people may have wondered if Lawrence was the father of her son Herman.\nLawrence's departures from portraiture were very rare. In the early 1790s he completed two history pictures: \"Homer reciting his poems\", a small picture of the poet in a pastoral setting; and \"Satan summoning his legions\", a giant canvas to illustrate lines from <a href=\"John%20Milton\">John Milton</a>'s <a href=\"Paradise%20Lost\">Paradise Lost</a>. The boxer <a href=\"John%20Jackson%20%28boxer%29\">John Jackson</a> posed for the naked body of Satan; the face is that of Sarah Siddons' brother, <a href=\"John%20Philip%20Kemble\">John Philip Kemble</a>.\nLawrence's parents died within a few months of each other in 1797 and he gave up his house in Picadilly, where he had moved from Old Bond Street, to set up his studio in the family home in Greek Street. By now, to keep up with the demand for replicas of his portraits, he was making use of studio assistants, most notable of whom would be <a href=\"William%20Etty\">William Etty</a> and <a href=\"George%20Henry%20Harlow\">George Henry Harlow</a>. The early years of the nineteenth century saw Lawrence's portrait practice continue to flourish: amongst his sitters were major political figures such as <a href=\"Henry%20Dundas%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Melville\">Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville</a> and <a href=\"William%20Lamb%2C%202nd%20Viscount%20Melbourne\">William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne</a>, whose wife <a href=\"Lady%20Caroline%20Lamb\">Lady Caroline Lamb</a> was also painted by Lawrence. The king commissioned portraits of his daughter-in-law <a href=\"Caroline%20of%20Brunswick\">Caroline</a>, the estranged wife of the <a href=\"George%20IV%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">Prince of Wales</a>, and his granddaughter <a href=\"Princess%20Charlotte%20Augusta%20of%20Wales\">Charlotte</a>. Lawrence stayed at the Montague House, the residence of the princess in Blackheath, while he was painting the portraits and thus became implicated in the \"<a href=\"delicate%20investigation\">delicate investigation</a>\" into Caroline's morals. He swore an affidavit that although he had on occasion been alone with the princess, the door had never been locked or bolted and he had \"not the least objection for all the world to have heard or seen what took place\". Expertly defended by <a href=\"Spencer%20Perceval\">Spencer Perceval</a>, he was exonerated.\nBy the time the Prince of Wales was made regent in 1814, Lawrence was acknowledged as the foremost portrait painter in the country. Through one of his sitters, <a href=\"Charles%20Vane%2C%203rd%20Marquess%20of%20Londonderry\">Lord Charles Stewart</a>, he met the Prince Regent who was to become his most important patron. As well as portraits of himself, the prince commissioned portraits of allied leaders: <a href=\"Arthur%20Wellesley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Wellington\">the Duke of Wellington</a>, <a href=\"Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher\">Field-Marshal von Blücher</a> and <a href=\"Matvei%20Platov\">Count Platov</a> sat for Lawrence at his new house at 65 Russell Square. The house was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for the Imperial Hotel. \"The private sitting-room of Sir Thomas Lawrence\" shows Lawrence at 65 Russell Square, surrounded by casts of classical sculpture. The prince also had plans for Lawrence to travel abroad and paint foreign royalty and leaders, and as a preliminary he was given a knighthood on 22 April 1815. Napoleon's return from Elba put these plans on hold, although Lawrence did make a visit to Paris, where his friend Lord Charles Stewart was ambassador, and saw the art that Napoleon had looted from Italy, including Raphael's \"<a href=\"Transfiguration%20%28Raphael%29\">Transfiguration</a>\", the painting he had reproduced for his silver-gilt palette as a boy.\nIn 1817 the prince commissioned Lawrence to paint a portrait of his daughter <a href=\"Princess%20Charlotte%20of%20Wales\">Princess Charlotte</a>, who was pregnant with her first child. Charlotte died in childbirth; Lawrence completed the portrait and presented it to her husband <a href=\"Leopold%20I%20of%20Belgium\">Prince Leopold</a> at <a href=\"Claremont%20%28country%20house%29\">Claremont</a> on his birthday, as agreed. The princess's obstetrician, <a href=\"Sir%20Richard%20Croft%2C%206th%20Baronet\">Sir Richard Croft</a>, who later shot himself, was the half-brother of Lawrence's friend, Elizabeth Croft, and for her Lawrence drew a sketch of Croft in his coffin.\nEventually, in September 1818, Lawrence was able to make his postponed trip to the continent to paint the allied leaders, first at <a href=\"Aachen\">Aachen</a> and then at the conference of Vienna, for what would become <a href=\"the%20Waterloo%20Chamber\">the Waterloo Chamber</a> series, housed in <a href=\"Windsor%20Castle\">Windsor Castle</a>. His sitters included <a href=\"Alexander%20I%20of%20Russia\">Tsar Alexander</a>, <a href=\"Francis%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Emperor Francis I of Austria</a>, the <a href=\"Frederick%20William%20III%20of%20Prussia\">King of Prussia</a>, <a href=\"Karl%20Philipp%2C%20Prince%20of%20Schwarzenberg\">Field-Marshal Prince Schwarzenberg</a>, <a href=\"Archduke%20Charles%2C%20Duke%20of%20Teschen\">Archduke Charles of Austria</a> and Henriette his wife, and a young <a href=\"Napoleon%20II\">Napoleon II</a>, as well as various French and Prussian ministers. In May 1819, still under orders from the Prince Regent, he left Vienna for Rome to paint <a href=\"Pope%20Pius%20VII\">Pope Pius VII</a> and <a href=\"Ercole%20Consalvi\">Cardinal Consalvi</a>.\nLawrence arrived back in London 30 March 1820 to find that the president of the Royal Academy, <a href=\"Benjamin%20West\">Benjamin West</a>, had died. That very evening Lawrence was voted the new president, a position he would hold until his death 10 years later. George III had died in January; Lawrence was granted a place in the procession for the coronation of George IV. On 28 February 1822 he was elected as a <a href=\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society\">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> \"for his eminence in art\". The royal commissions continued during the 1820s, including one for a portrait of the king's sister <a href=\"Princess%20Sophia%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">Sophia</a>, and one of <a href=\"Walter%20Scott\">Sir Walter Scott</a> (along with <a href=\"Jane%20Austen\">Jane Austen</a>, one of Lawrence's favourite authors), as well as one to paint <a href=\"Charles%20X%20of%20France\">King Charles X of France</a> for the Waterloo series, for which Lawrence made a trip to Paris, taking Herman Wolff with him. Lawrence acquired another important patron in <a href=\"Robert%20Peel\">Robert Peel</a>, who commissioned the painter to do portraits of his family as well a portrait of <a href=\"George%20Canning\">George Canning</a>. Two of Lawrence's most famous portraits of children were painted during the 1820s: that of Emily and Laura Calmady and that of Master Charles William Lambton, painted for his father <a href=\"John%20Lambton%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Durham\">Lord Durham</a> for 600 guineas and known as \"<a href=\"The%20Red%20Boy\">The Red Boy</a>\". The latter portrait attracted much praise when it was exhibited in Paris in 1827. One of the artist's last commissions was of future prime-minister <a href=\"George%20Hamilton-Gordon%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Aberdeen\">the Earl of Aberdeen</a>. <a href=\"Fanny%20Kemble\">Fanny Kemble</a>, a niece of Sarah Siddons, was one of his last sitters (for a drawing).\nLawrence died suddenly on 7 January 1830, just months after his friend Isabella Wolff. A few days previously he had experienced chest pains but had continued working and was eagerly anticipating a stay with his sister at Rugby, when he collapsed and died during a visit from his friends Elizabeth Croft and Archibald Keightley. After a post-mortem examination, doctors concluded that the artist's death had been caused by ossification of the aorta and vessels of the heart. Lawrence's first biographer, D. E. Williams suggested that this in itself was not enough to cause death and it was his doctors' over-zealous bleeding and leeching that killed him. Lawrence was buried on 21 January in the crypt of <a href=\"St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral\">St Paul's Cathedral</a>. Amongst the mourners was <a href=\"J.%20M.%20W.%20Turner\">J. M. W. Turner</a> who painted a sketch of the funeral from memory. Turner's painting of Lawrence's funeral is in the <a href=\"Tate%20Gallery\">Tate Gallery</a>.\nLawrence was famed for the length of time he took to finish some of his paintings (Isabella Wolff waited twelve years for her portrait to be completed) and, at his death, his studio contained a large number of unfinished works. Some were completed by his assistants and other artists, some were sold as they were. In his will Lawrence left instructions to offer, at a price much below their worth, his collection of Old Master drawings to first George IV, then the trustees of the <a href=\"British%20Museum\">British Museum</a>, then Robert Peel and the <a href=\"John%20Ward%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Dudley\">Earl of Dudley</a>. None of them accepted the offer and the collection was split up and auctioned; many of the drawings later found their way into the British Museum and the <a href=\"Ashmolean%20Museum\">Ashmolean Museum</a>. After Lawrence's creditors had been paid, there was no money left, although a memorial exhibition at the <a href=\"British%20Institution\">British Institution</a> raised £3,000 which was given to his nieces.\nLawrence's friends asked the Scottish poet <a href=\"Thomas%20Campbell%20%28poet%29\">Thomas Campbell</a> to write the artist's biography, but he passed the task on to D.E. Williams whose two rather inaccurate volumes were published in 1831. It would be nearly 70 years later, in 1900, before another biography of Lawrence appeared, this time by <a href=\"Lord%20Ronald%20Gower\">Lord Ronald Gower</a>. In 1913 Sir Walter Armstrong, who was not a great admirer of Lawrence, published a monograph. The 1950s saw the publication of two further works: <a href=\"Douglas%20Goldring\">Douglas Goldring</a>'s \"Regency portrait painter\", and Kenneth Garlick's catalogue of Lawrence's paintings (a further edition was published in 1989). <a href=\"Michael%20Levey\">Sir Michael Levey</a>, curator of the <a href=\"National%20Portrait%20Gallery%20%28London%29\">National Portrait Gallery's</a> 1979–80 Lawrence exhibition, produced books on the artist in 1979 and 2005. Lawrence's entanglements with the Siddons family has been the subject of three books (by Oswald Knapp, <a href=\"Andr%C3%A9%20Maurois\">André Maurois</a>, and <a href=\"Naomi%20Royde-Smith\">Naomi Royde-Smith</a>) and a recent radio play.\nLawrence's reputation as an artist fell during the Victorian era. Critic and artist <a href=\"Roger%20Fry\">Roger Fry</a> did something to restore it in the 1930s, when he described Lawrence as having a \"consummate mastery over the means of artistic expression\" with an \"unerring hand and eye\". At one time Lawrence was more popular in the United States and France than he was in Britain, and some of his best known portraits, including those of <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Farren\">Elizabeth Farren</a>, <a href=\"Pinkie%20%28Lawrence%20painting%29\">Sarah Barrett Moulton</a> (known to her family as Pinkie), and Charles Lambton (the \"Red Boy\") found their way to the United States during the early 20th century enthusiasm there for English portraits. Sir Michael Levey acknowledges that Lawrence is still dismissed by some art historians; his explanation is that \"He was a highly original artist, quite unexpected on the English scene: self-taught, self-absorbed in perfecting his own personal style, and in effect self-destructing, since he left behind no significant followers or creative influence. Leaving aside Sargent, his sole successor has been not in painting, but in fashionable, virtuoso photography.\"\nThe most extensive collections of Lawrence's work can be found in the Royal Collections and the National Portrait Gallery in London. The <a href=\"Tate%20Britain\">Tate Britain</a>, the <a href=\"National%20Gallery%2C%20London\">National Gallery</a> and the <a href=\"Dulwich%20Picture%20Gallery\">Dulwich Picture Gallery</a> house smaller collections of his work in London. There are a few examples of his work in the <a href=\"Holburne%20Museum%20of%20Art\">Holburne Museum of Art</a> and the <a href=\"Victoria%20Art%20Gallery\">Victoria Art Gallery</a> in Bath, and in <a href=\"Bristol%20City%20Museum%20and%20Art%20Gallery\">Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery</a>. In the United States, <a href=\"The%20Huntington%20Library\">The Huntington Library</a> houses <a href=\"Pinkie%20%28Lawrence%20painting%29\">\"Pinkie\"</a>, and Lawrence's portraits of <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Farren\">Elizabeth Farren</a>, Lady Harriet Maria Conyngham, and the Calmady children are in the <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Museum%20of%20Art\">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. In Europe, the <a href=\"Mus%C3%A9e%20du%20Louvre\">Musée du Louvre</a> has a few example's of Lawrence's work, and the <a href=\"Vatican%20Pinacoteca\">Vatican Pinacoteca</a> has a <a href=\"swagger%20portrait\">swagger portrait</a> of <a href=\"George%20IV%20of%20England\">George IV</a> (presented by the king himself) as almost its only British work.\nIn 2010 the <a href=\"National%20Portrait%20Gallery%20%28London%29\">National Portrait Gallery</a> held a retrospective exhibition of Lawrence's work. The director of the National Portrait Gallery, <a href=\"Sandy%20Nairne\">Sandy Nairne</a>, was quoted in <a href=\"the%20Guardian\">the Guardian</a> describing Lawrence as: \"a huge figure. But a huge figure who we believe deserves a great deal more attention. He is one of the great painters of the last 250 years and one of the great stars of portraiture on a European stage.\"","Silwood Park\nSilwood Park is the rural campus of <a href=\"Imperial%20College%20London\">Imperial College London</a>, England. It is situated near the village of <a href=\"Sunninghill%2C%20Berkshire\">Sunninghill</a>, near <a href=\"Ascot%2C%20Berkshire\">Ascot</a> in Berkshire. Since 1986, there have been major developments on the site with four new college buildings. Adjacent to these buildings is the Technology Transfer Centre: a <a href=\"science%20park\">science park</a> with units leased to commercial companies for research.\nThere are a number of the divisions of Faculty of Natural Sciences that have a presence on the campus. Additionally, Silwood Park is home to the <a href=\"NERC%20Centre%20for%20Population%20Biology\">NERC Centre for Population Biology</a> (CPB), the <a href=\"IPARC\">International Pesticide Application Research Consortium</a> (IPARC), and the Imperial College Reactor Centre.\nPrior to <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, Silwood Park was a private <a href=\"house\">residence</a>—the <a href=\"manor%20house\">manor house</a> of <a href=\"Sunninghill%2C%20Berkshire\">Sunninghill</a>—then during the war, it became a <a href=\"convalescent%20home\">convalescent home</a> for airmen. The original manor at which Prince Arthur stayed in 1499 was known as Eastmore and was situated on the hill near Silwood Farm. In about 1788, Sir James Sibbald built a Georgian mansion on part of the present house and demolished the old \"Eastmore\"; he called it Selwood or Silwood Park. The name stems from the Old English for Sallow (\"<a href=\"Salix%20caprea\">Salix caprea</a>\" Agg.) which presumably grew then along the banks of the streams that flow through the Park. The house was, in its turn, demolished, and the present mansion was completed in 1878.\nIn 1947, Silwood Park was purchased by Imperial College for <a href=\"entomology\">entomological</a> research and field studies. Initially, pioneering developments in insect pest management took place, but more recently the emphasis has been on ecology and <a href=\"evolution\">evolution</a>ary biology. Staff and research students of the Zoology Department were the first college personnel at Silwood when the Field Station moved from <a href=\"Slough\">Slough</a>, but the department of <a href=\"Civil%20Engineering\">Civil Engineering</a> has used it since 1947 for courses in surveying. <a href=\"Botany\">Botany</a> and <a href=\"Meteorology\">Meteorology</a> started work there about thirty years ago and the nuclear reactor was opened in 1965. Over a thousand postgraduate students have been trained at Silwood since its establishment, about half of them taking PhDs. They have come from more than sixty countries, and Silwood-trained graduates have gone to almost every corner of the globe. There are over 200 graduate staff and students working there at any one time. Undergraduates from South Kensington attend for field courses and some final-year projects. In 1981, the departments of Zoology and Botany were merged to form the Department of Biology.\nA low power nuclear <a href=\"research%20reactor\">research reactor</a> (100 kW thermal), named CONSORT II, was licensed at the site on 20 December 1962, completed February 1963, and achieved first <a href=\"Criticality%20%28status%29\">criticality</a> in 1965. The reactor will be decommissioned by 2021.\nIn 1984, the <a href=\"CAB%20International\">CAB International</a> Institute of Biological Control (IIBC) moved its headquarters to Silwood Park. In 1989, the institute moved into its own new building at Silwood Park, which also houses the Michael Way Library, specialising in ecology, entomology and crop protection. From January 1998, IIBC and its sister Institutes of Entomology, Mycology and Parasitology were integrated on two sites as CABI Bioscience. The Silwood site was the centre for the <a href=\"LUBILOSA\">LUBILOSA</a> Programme, where an <a href=\"inter-disciplinary\">inter-disciplinary</a> team could be set up, combining IIBCs <a href=\"biological%20control\">biological control</a> skills with (bio)<a href=\"pesticide%20application\">pesticide application</a> (<a href=\"IPARC\">IPARC</a>) and host-pathogen ecology (CPB). CABI continued to focus on biological pest, disease and weed management in Silwood Park until consolidation at <a href=\"Egham\">Egham</a> (to become the UK Centre) in 2008.\nSilwood Park provides a wide range of habitats for the study of animals and plants in the field and for the study of meteorological and geophysical phenomena: its special feature is the proximity of these to modern sophisticated laboratory equipment, such as the Environmental Analysis Section computers, the flight and <a href=\"photoperiod\">photoperiod</a> laboratories and in the numerous growth cabinets and controlled environment rooms.\nMany of the Silwood Park staff have spent periods working on pest problems overseas. Their continuing contacts as visiting advisers, on lecturing programmes, and in international committees together with close liaison with CABI, the Natural Resources Institute, Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council and Natural Environment Research Council Institutes, and many connections through past and present students and academic visitors, means that work at Silwood Park maintains an international flavour. Support is obtained from Research Councils, other Government Bodies and Industry.\nIn 2001, the Biology and Biochemistry Departments merged to form the Department of Biological Sciences within the Faculty of Life Sciences. In 2005, further restructuring occurred and the Centre for Environmental Policy, Cell and Molecular Biology, Molecular Biosciences and Biology were moved to the Faculty of Natural Sciences. In 2007 the Divisions of Biology, Cell and Molecular Biology and Molecular Biosciences were moved into the Department of Life Sciences within the Faculty of Natural Sciences. The Division of Biology, which hosts various MSc courses, is based at Silwood Park and at Imperial College's <a href=\"South%20Kensington\">South Kensington</a> campus in southwest London.","Ayscoghe Boucherett\n<a href=\"Lieutenant%20colonel%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\">Lieutenant-Colonel</a> Ayscoghe Boucherett, {'1': \", '2': \", '3': \", '4': \"} (16 April 1755 – 15 September 1815) was a British landowner, businessman and Member of Parliament for <a href=\"Great%20Grimsby\">Great Grimsby</a> from 1796 to 1803.\nBorn into a family of the Lincolnshire landed gentry, Boucherett became involved in local politics in Lincolnshire, and (owing mainly to his marriage) with artistic and mercantile circles in London. He was the chairman of the <a href=\"Grimsby%20Haven%20Company\">Grimsby Haven Company</a>, which oversaw the reopening and expansion of <a href=\"Old%20Dock%2C%20Grimsby\">Grimsby's first dock</a>. He was a friend of the artist <a href=\"Sir%20Thomas%20Lawrence\">Sir Thomas Lawrence</a> and the proprietor of Willingham, Lincolnshire, where he constructed his country seat, <a href=\"Willingham%20House\">Willingham House</a>, in 1790. For his investment in the Haven Company, he received the support of <a href=\"Charles%20Anderson-Pelham%2C%201st%20Baron%20Yarborough\">Lord Yarborough</a>, one of its main investors and a principal land-owner in Grimsby; owing largely to Lord Yarborough's patronage, Boucherett was returned as the Member of Parliament for that borough at the 1796 election. He was not a frequent voter, but used his position to further the interests of his corporation. Nonetheless, the company met with financial difficulties after it opened the Harbour in 1800. In 1803, Boucherett resigned his seat in favour of Yarborough's heir and pursued a quieter political life. He died in a carriage accident in 1815.\nBoucherett was born on 16 April 1755, the son of Ayscoghe Boucherett of <a href=\"North%20Willingham\">Willingham</a> and <a href=\"Stallingborough\">Stallingborough</a>, Lincolnshire, and his wife, Mary White. The elder Boucherett had been the <a href=\"High%20Sheriff%20of%20Lincolnshire\">High Sheriff of Lincolnshire</a> in 1754, and was a landed gentleman in Lincolnshire, whose family was descended from Huguenot merchants; they married into the Ayscoghe family and inherited the Willingham estate through this marriage. The elder Boucherett's daughter, Mary, had married <a href=\"Michael%20Barne%20%28politician%29\">Michael Barne</a> of Sotterley, Suffolk, an army officer and a member of parliament for <a href=\"Dunwich\">Dunwich</a>.\nThe younger Boucherett was admitted at <a href=\"Queen%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">Queen's College, Cambridge</a>, in 1773, aged 18, but did not take a degree. He married, on 17 March 1789, Emelia Crockatt, daughter of Charles Crockatt, a merchant, of London and of Luxborough Hall, Essex, and his wife, Anna Muilman, who married, when widowed, the insurance broker and art connoisseur <a href=\"John%20Julius%20Angerstein\">John Julius Angerstein</a>. This union helped the younger Boucherett to garner connexions in London merchant circles. Emilia Boucherett died on 5 February 1837, aged 75. The Boucheretts had one son and three daughters:\nBoucherett paid for the construction of a new family seat in 1790; Willingham House was a larger and grander mansion than the family's previous seat closer to Willingham, and was constructed in the neoclassical style, most likely by Robert Mitchell, two miles west of the earlier house.\nThe family's connection with the art connoisseur John Julius Angerstein led to them becoming acquainted with certain artistic circles in the late eighteenth century; most notably, they established a close friendship with the portrait painter <a href=\"Sir%20Thomas%20Lawrence\">Sir Thomas Lawrence</a>, who would go on to be <a href=\"President%20of%20the%20Royal%20Academy\">President of the Royal Academy</a>. He visited Willingham House, the Boucherett family's country home, composing a number of studies in pastel of Boucherett's young children, beginning in 1793. The Boucherett family were also painted several times by Lawrence; he painted a group portrait of Emilia Boucherett, and her two eldest children, Ayscoghe and Emilia Maria, alongside Mrs Boucherett's half-sister, Juliana Angerstein; another group portrait, \"The Children of Ayscoghe Boucherett\", depicting the four children of Boucherett and his wife, (painted in 1808 and now held in the <a href=\"Louvre%20Museum\">Louvre Museum</a>), has been described as \"one of Lawrence's most celebrated group portraits\". A separate study of the three daughters, Emilia Mary, Maria and Juliana, was sold by the auction house <a href=\"Christie%27s\">Christie's</a> in 2012 for £121,000.\nIn the 1790s, Boucherett began to rise through Lincolnshire's civic and mercantile circles, especially in the north of the County, where the family had their seat; his connexions helped him to become involved with a group of businessmen planning to reopen and expand Grimsby's harbour. His rise is charted in his appointments to several civic posts: to be High Steward of Grimsby from 1794 (he remained as such until his death), succeeding Christopher Clayton, and to be High Sheriff of Lincolnshire for 1795–6. As these plans for the harbour came to fruition, he was appointed chairman of the company tasked with performing the required work; it was the Grimsby Haven Company, which was created by an Act of Parliament in 1796 (36 Geo III, chap. 98) for the express purpose of building the dock and repairing the Haven. He secured the friendship and patronage of <a href=\"Charles%20Anderson-Pelham%2C%201st%20Baron%20Yarborough\">Charles Anderson Pelham, 1st Baron Yarborough</a>, a prominent local land-owner involved in the Haven Company, and was returned as the Member of Parliament for Great Grimsby in 1796 owing to this friendship.\nYarborough, Boucherett's patron, was an opponent of the administration of <a href=\"William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger\">William Pitt the Younger</a> and supported the <a href=\"William%20Cavendish-Bentinck%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Portland\">Duke of Portland</a> during the 1790s. Boucherett was an infrequent voter, but he told the diarist <a href=\"Joseph%20Farington\">Joseph Farington</a> that, when he did vote, he tended to do so with <a href=\"Charles%20James%20Fox\">Charles James Fox</a>, rather than <a href=\"William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger\">Pitt the Younger</a>, although, he later became \"disgusted\" at Fox's style of opposition; he is also known to have voted against the <a href=\"Ferrol%20Expedition%20%281800%29\">Ferrol Expedition</a> in 1801. The seat did allow for him to further the interests of the Haven Company, with him proposing a bill to grant more funds in 1799. He found, though, that his funds and the financial success of the company were both in decline by 1801. Although re-elected in 1802, the following year he resigned in favour of Lord Yarborough's eldest son and heir, \"the Hon\". <a href=\"Charles%20Anderson-Pelham%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Yarborough\">Charles Anderson Pelham</a>, later 1st Earl and 2nd Baron Yarborough.\nAlthough opened in 1800 at the cost of £100,000, the new harbour at Grimsby failed to attract the levels of trade the company had projected, caused largely by a lack of inland transport networks. The financial problems facing the Grimsby Haven Company led to factions and difficulty in its running and put strain on Boucherett's relations with Yarborough; having invested much money and time in the now failing company, Boucherett also found it draining of him financially.\nAside from Parliamentary and business commitments, he served as a Deputy Lieutenant for Lincolnshire and a Justice of the Peace. Boucherett was also an officer in the Yeoman volunteers, being a Captain the Market Raisin <a href=\"Yeomanry\">Yeomanry</a> in 1798 and then a Lieutenant-Colonel in and Commandant of the North Lincolnshire Yeomanry from 1814 until his death. He died in a carriage accident on 15 September 1815. At his death, his assets barely covered the debts he had accrued in his lifetime. He was succeeded as the High Steward of Grimsby by \"the Hon\". <a href=\"George%20Anderson%20Pelham\">George Anderson Pelham</a>, the second son of the first Lord Yarborough."],"string":"[\n \"Middle Rasen\\nMiddle Rasen is a village and civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England, located about 1.5 mi west from the town of Market Rasen. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 2,043. Today the village consists of two villages which have merged to become one; they were called Middle Rasen Drax and Middle Rasen Tupholme.\\nRasen is mentioned in \\\"Domesday Book\\\" of 1086, but West Rasen, Middle Rasen and Market Rasen are indistinguishable. In its entirety the list includes ten separate references to Rasen, which as a whole consists of 144 households.\\nMiddle Rasen has had two churches. A church dedicated to \\\"St Paul Middle Rasen Drax\\\" took part of its name from the parent house of \\\"Drax Priory\\\" in Yorkshire. In 1846 St Paul's comprised a nave, chancel, South aisle and western tower, with the probable remains of a demolished north aisle and north chapel. – it was demolished in 1860, with parts of its fabric used to restore of the church of St Peter. Grade II* listed St Peter's church dates from the 12th century, with later alterations and additions, and an 1861 restoration by Pearson Bellamy and John Spence Hardy, of Lincoln.\\nIn 1885 \\\"Kelly's Directory\\\" noted village Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, and Reformed Wesleyan chapels. It described a parish land of sand and clay, with a clay subsoil, on which wheat, barley and turnips were grown, and with pasture. Parish area was 3550 acre , supporting an 1881 population of 928. There were 17 farmers listed, four of whom had added trades, variously a miller, cattle dealer, butcher & cattle dealer, and machine owner. Other occupations were a blacksmith, beer retailer & blacksmith, millwright, grocer, shopkeeper, wheelwright, carrier, grocer & draper, butcher & cattle dealer, miller, publican, and dressmaker, and a shoemaker who also ran the post office.\\nA tower windmill, built in 1827 for the grinding of cereal, ceased working permanently in 1925, and is now used as a store. A previous three storey red-brick watermill dated from the late 18th century, with 1827 remodelling – its remaining wheelhouse is Grade II listed.\\nMiddle Rasen Primary School was built in 1875 to replace a charity school founded through a bequest by John Wilkinson, who died in 1720. In 1878 the school became a Board School, and in 1903 the Middle Rasen Council School. The charity still supports the current school.\\nThe ecclesiastical parish is part of The Middle Rasen Group of the Deanery of West Wold. The 2013 incumbent is The Revd Charles Patrick. Since the demolition of one church the other has carried both dedications, and is known to the Diocese as \\\"Drax St Peter & St Paul\\\". The parish maintains a modern church hall which is used by the village. To mark the Millennium a new clock, new bell frame, and three additional bells were installed.\\nThe Middle Rasen Methodist church maintains a chapel on Gainsborough Road. The Anglican and Methodist churches hold joint services at a former RAF base 4 mi away.\\nThe Bowling club maintains a Bowling Green on Church Street. The village has numerous sports and social clubs, including a Cricket Club and a Horticultural Society.\\n\",\n \"Willingham House\\nWillingham House was a country house in North Willingham (Nr. Market Rasen), Lincolnshire, England.\\nIt was built around 1790 for Ayscoghe Boucherett and is attributed to the architect Robert Mitchell (a similar building design can be seen in the engraving Selwood Park (Silwood Park), in the County of Berkshire, the Seat of James Sibbald Esqr - designed 1788). The Boucherett family were regularly painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A. (1769-1830) who is believed to have visited the house to undertake a series of sketches of the children over a period of around five years.\\nUnusual for a very large house of this period, Willingham House could be viewed easily from the main road, from Market Rasen to Louth. The small lake in front of the house still remains, although now obscured by mature trees from the main road.\\nWillingham House was blown up at 2 pm on 7 June 1967 by explosives set by the Royal Engineers following years of neglect. The roof timbers were suffering from wood beetle which was making the building unstable. There was little appreciation of the heritage of the 1790 building by the local authorities, perhaps surprisingly for a county, noted for its conservation of ecclesiastical architecture since the 18th century. However, the house had been a prison camp during and following WW2, then a Ministry of Defence training camp and was unlikely to be taken on again by a family. The repair costs outweighed conversion costs and the feeling was that something should be done rather than leave a dangerous ruin unattended. To avoid the hazard of collapse (and for economical reasons) after a careful demolition and salvage operation, the decision was taken to use dynamite. To ensure complete destruction the portico had its pillar’s loaded with explosives to do the job, thus reducing the remains to nothing more than land-fill. The beautiful wrought iron stair rails are thought to have been taken away for their scrap value, not having any practical use for anything else at that time. The decorative plastered ceilings and walls were all destroyed. Very few images survive of the interior, or the back of the hall, which was made up of the service buildings and stables (3/4 of the total building area). Remnants of some of the out-buildings survive today in what is now an industrial park.\",\n \"South Willingham\\nSouth Willingham is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated 1 mi south-west from the A157 road, 8 mi south-east from Market Rasen, 10 mi north from Horncastle and 10 miles west from Louth.\\nSouth Willingham is recorded in the \\\"Domesday Book\\\" as \\\"Ulingeham\\\".\\nSouth Willingham Grade II listed Anglican parish church is dedicated to St Martin. The church, built of greenstone, was rebuilt in 1835, but the Perpendicular style tower and screen remain. In 1964 \\\"Pevsner\\\" noted a 1571 paten cover by John Morley.\\nOther Grade II listed buildings include four cottages and two farm houses\\nThe village had both a Wesleyan and a Free Methodist chapel, both now converted to other use.\\nSouth Willingham was a railway station on the Great Northern Railway branch line from Bardney to Louth. The station closed in the 1950s.\\n\",\n \"Bullington, Lincolnshire\\nBullington is a village and civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated approximately 8 mi north-east from the city and county town of Lincoln and 7 mi south from the market town of Market Rasen. According to the 2001 Census the village had a population of 36. At the 2011 census the population remained less than 100 and is included in the civil parish of Goltho.\\nBullington Hall is a Grade II listed farmhouse within the village, originating in the 17th century with later rebuilding and additions.\\n\\n\",\n \"Burgh on Bain\\nBurgh on Bain is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated on the A157 road, 7 mi west from Louth and 7 miles east from Market Rasen. According to the 2001 Census it had a population of 114, increasing to 172 at the 2011 census.\\nBurgh on Bain Grade II listed Anglican church is dedicated to St Helen.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"Toft Newton\\nToft Newton is a civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It consists of the small villages of Toft next Newton and Newton by Toft, and the hamlet of Newtoft. It is 4 mi west from Market Rasen. According to the 2001 Census it had a population of 522, decreasing to 457 at the 2011 census.\\nThe church of St Michael in Newton by Toft dates from the 12th century and was extensively rebuilt in 1860 by James Fowler. St Peter and Paul Church in Toft next Newton was originally built in the thirteenth century, but was extensively remodelled in 1891 by Hodgson Fowler. It is a grade II listed building, but was closed in 1986 and was sold for residential use in 1989.\\nToft Newton Reservoir on the upper reaches of the River Ancholme attracts fishing, particularly for trout, and bird watching. The reservoir covers 16.5 ha , and is supplied with water from Short Ferry, on the River Witham, through a 10.6 mi pipeline. It is used to maintain flows in the Ancholme during the summer months, and is regularly stocked with rainbow trout and brown trout. Facilities include a \\\"wheelyboat\\\", which is designed to allow wheelchair users to access the fishery.\\n\\n\",\n \"Bishop Norton\\nBishop Norton is a village and the main settlement of the civil parish of the same name in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. The village is approximately 8 mi north-west from the market town of Market Rasen, and is close to the A15 road. According to the 2001 Census it had a population of 233, including Atterby and increasing to 308 at the 2011 census.\\nThe name of Bishop Norton derives from the fact that it was the most northerly of the twelve manors belonging to the Bishop based upon his chief manor at Stow. The bishop in question since the Norman Conquest was the Bishop of Lincoln, but Bishop Norton and the twelve manors date from much earlier during the periods when the sees of Lichfield, Leicester, Lindsey (Sidnacester) or Dorchester (on-Thames) respectively governed the ecclesiastical life of the area.\\nThe name of Bishop Norton appears variously in the record as Nortune, Nortun, Bishop's Norton, and Norton Episcopi.Until 1974, when West Lindsey District Council was formed, Bishop Norton civil parish had been a constituent part the Caistor Rural District.\\nBishop Norton is a civil parish and a very ancient ecclesiastical parish. The parish is bounded in the east by the old course of the river Ancholme, in the west by the line of the Roman road known as Ermine Street. It is bounded in the north by the parish of Snitterby, the south by Glentham. Across the Ancholme are Osgodby and Owersby parishes. Across the Roman road, to the west, is Hemswell Cliff civil parish.\\nHistorically this parish has included three manors. The oldest of these was the manor of the bishop, which possibly dates back to the eighth century, and almost certainly to the ninth. This was administered as part of the larger estate based on Stow, one of twelve manors until the see of Lincoln was established after the Norman Conquest. After that date, the main manor was retained by the bishop including most of the lands pertaining to it, but a new manor was established some time after for the benefit of the Prebend of Bishop Norton. This second manor held the advowson of the Church and claimed the petty tithes from the whole parish. This Prebendary manor supported the Prebend of Bishop Norton who was one of the senior clerics who formed the Chapter for the cathedral church at Lincoln.\\nThe third manor was one which seems to have been established quite late, since in England manors were not created after the Twelfth century, the manor of Crossholme seems to date from that century. It was based upon the now extinct village or hamlet of Crossholme which was sited between Bishop Norton and nearby Glentham. The centre of the site is estimated to have been at SK 99279 91810. Various evidence for the settlement have been found including various artefacts, cropmarks and historical record. The manor existed into the twentieth century, records at least up to 1924. The site had now been levelled by ploughing out by 1964. The Lords of the Manor in the fourteenth century were recorded in various Feet of Fines as holding property in Lincoln as part of the manor. The name of Crossholme now only exists as a farm name at the eastern end of Bishop Norton village.\\nIn addition to the manors, the settlements within the modern day civil parish include, Bishop Norton, the hamlet of Atterby, and that part of Spital-in-the-Street which lies north of Mellows Beck and east of the centre of Ermine Street (A15). Additionally there are good number of more isolated farmsteads within the parish, generally to the east of the village towards the river Ancholme on both Atterby and Snitterby Carrs.\\nThe parish church of St Peter's is a relatively modern construction, possibly from about 1737, but with earlier artefacts within the fabric, such as the Twelfth century Tympanum inserted within an internal wall. It is unclear whether an earlier church stood on the site of the current one, but it is certain that a church did exist here from the earliest days of the bishop's manor. A medieval boundary ditch that may, or may not, have belonged to an earlier church dated to between 1066 and 1500 was discovered in substrate deposits on the site. During building work in 1895 various artefacts were unearthed from various historic periods including the Middle Saxon period and also an even older boundary ditch. Middle Saxon finds from the ninth and tenth century have been found here and in other places immediately adjacent to the church grounds. This included a ninth century shard from a Maxey ware strainer from the ninth century which was discovered in the garden of 3 Archer Street in 2004.\\nBishop Norton is part of the Waddingham and Spital ward of West Lindsey District Council's area, and a constituent of the Ancholme Cliff division for Lincolnshire County Council. The parish has a Parish Council.\\nHistorically, the county of Lincoln was divided into three parts; Bishop Norton was in the Parts of Lindsey, which covered all of that part of the county of Lincoln from Lincoln to the Humber. Lindsey County Council, created in 1889 was abolished in 1974 when West Lindsey district was created. Prior to the formation of the county council in 1889 the system of local government was fractured and dependent on many different structures. Like Yorkshire, Lindsey too, during the so-called Danelaw period, adopted the structure of Manor/ Wapentake /Riding (being a third part of the Parts of Lindsey). Bishop Norton was in the Wapentake of Aslacoe, in the West Riding of the Parts of Lindsey. The other important factors in local government throughout the post-medieval was the parish and the justices in their sessions.\\nThe current church is a Grade II* listed building. In addition there are within the village three buildings with Grade II listings; Archer House, The Bakehouse and the Old School. Within the wider parish there is one Grade I listed building, Norton Place, which is described below. There are four further listed buildings; three are subsidiary buildings of Norton Place, and on that estate, south of Bishop Norton. The fourth is Atterby Mill, an early nineteenth century water mill on the Atterby Beck. The Lincolnshire Historic Environment Record records that it is a three-storey brick corn mill, rectangular in plan and dated '1802'in iron ties at the north end. A large iron wheel is on the exterior of the west elevation at the first floor level. This indicates that in later years it could be worked by traction engine or tractor. The leat has been infilled. The mill was last known to have been worked during the second world war.\\nEnglish Heritage carried out a survey of farmsteads and identified twenty-seven that were extant in the nineteenth century. Many are now demolished or partly demolished. Two within the centre of the village have been entirely demolished, but new houses have been built to replace them and the names are retained at Roseland House and Manor House, both in Archer Street. Several on the Carrs have been demolished, but most remain as extant buildings, albeit, not always as working farms and several with significant changes to the buildings.\\nThere are barns noted in both the Farmstead survey and in the HER, including a range of barns at Crossholme Farm, the most easterly of which was reputedly the parish Pinfold. The house named The Barns in Pingle Lane includes a number of former farm buildings of different ages, and these are included in the HER.\\nThe most notable house in Bishop Norton is Norton Place. It is listed as Grade I and is by the York Architect John Carr. Norton Place is set on the edge of plantations in former parkland which was laid out in the 1770s. The house was built for John Harrison MP by John Carr in 1776. The main front of the house has a stone south facade of seven bays and has two storeys, the three centre bays more widely spaced beneath a pediment. The entrance is a Doric porch with Venetian window above, and above that in the pediment is a circular light garlanded with foliage and tied up with a bow. The side fronts have deep canted bays, a favourite Carr device, topped with urns. The drawing room has a delicate oval-pattern plaster ceiling with inset Wedgwood plaques depicting antique heads. The stables make a courtyard to the rear. There were some alterations to house in the 1830s by Lewis Vulliamy for Sir Montagu Cholmeley, who was the grandson of John Harrison.\\nThe Lincolnshire Historic Environment Record (HER) provides an enormous amount of detail finds and a great deal of information relating to cropmarks, aerial photography since 1946 and of structures that have been discovered mainly during contemporary works. Some eighty-six records are held in the HER for the parish of Bishop Norton, within which the oldest 'find' is recorded in record 50829: an Acheulian handaxe from the lower Paleolithic period (500,000 BC to 15001 BC) was found in 1954 by a farm labourer, on a hummock of sand and gravel on Atterby Carr near the river Ancholme. There are many records of finds and cropmarks linked to the Neolithic period (4000 BC - 2351 BC). These are generally, but not exclusively at the eastern end of the parish, suggesting that the river was the important natural feature for people at that time. Not surprisingly, it might have provided a 'highway', as well as a means of providing food. These records describe possible permanent settlement sites as well as small finds scattered around.\\nThe Bronze Age is well represented around the parish with several sites of finds and a possible small settlement just to the south of the village of Bishop Norton, with further cropmarks of the same age a little further south alongside the Glentham Road. There appears to be less recorded from the Iron Age, however, since it is difficult to discern a clear cut-off point in the habits and culture of British people between the Iron Age and the Roman period, that is not too surprising.\\nThe Roman period is well represented in the record. At Low Place on Cross Lane there is evidence of a Romano-British settlement or large farmstead; given the high number of Neolithic finds locally, there is, perhaps, reason to suppose that there may have been continuity of settlement here at that time for a thousand years or more. At the western end of the parish between the modern village and Atterby mill there is evidence of both a villa and a possible Roman settlement. between that site (on record 50547) and of a branch of the Ermine Street running towards it on record 50574. Given that Lincoln was a colonia, is it possible that this was a settlement of one or more former legionaries?\\nThere is evidence of other settlements from the medieval period, including Crossholme and at Atterby. Besides these, there is evidence of a medieval mill dam on the Atterby Beck close to Atterby Mill, suggesting that this site had been home to a water mill for a long period before 1802. The entry for Bishop Norton in Domesday shows that the Bishop owned a mill as part of his manor here.\\nLater material in the HER includes post-medieval structures and finds, including evidence of a windmill on Atterby Lane not far from the old water mill. The only human remains were a couple of bone fragments in a pit alongside Main Street.\\nWhat is clear in these records is the sheer scale and spread of the finds making the probability of archaeology throughout the parish rank highly. The fact that there has been so many identified sites and finds despite a lack of organised archaeological excavation or other investigations, suggests that the number of recorded sites would almost certainly grow significantly if they were to occur.\\n\",\n \"Sixhills\\nSixhills is a village in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England, about 3 mi south-east from Market Rasen. It lies just south of the A631 between Market Rasen and Ludford. It is in the civil parish of North Willingham.\\nThe Church of All Saints was designed by James Fowler (1869 and 1875).\\nThe village was the site of a former nunnery of the Gilbertine Order, founded in the twelfth century. At the behest of Edward I Gwladys ferch Dafydd was sent there; she remained until her death in 1336.\\n\\n\",\n \"Millwright\\nA millwright is a <a href=\\\"Master%20craftsman\\\">craftsman</a> or <a href=\\\"tradesman\\\">tradesman</a> who installs, dismantles, repairs, reassembles, and moves machinery in factories, power plants, and construction sites.\\nAs the name suggests, the original function of a millwright was the construction of <a href=\\\"flour%20mill\\\">flour mill</a>s, <a href=\\\"sawmill\\\">sawmill</a>s, <a href=\\\"papermill\\\">paper mills</a> and <a href=\\\"fulling\\\">fulling mills</a> powered by <a href=\\\"watermill\\\">water</a> or <a href=\\\"windmill\\\">wind</a>, mostly of wood with a limited number of metal parts.\\nSince both of these structures originated from antiquity, millwrighting could be considered, arguably, as one of the oldest engineering trades and the forerunner of the modern mechanical engineer.\\nIn modern usage, a millwright is engaged with the erection of machinery. This includes such tasks as leveling, aligning and installing machinery on foundations or base plates and setting, leveling and aligning <a href=\\\"electric%20motor\\\">electric motor</a>s or other power sources such as turbines with the equipment, which millwrights typically connect with some type of <a href=\\\"coupling\\\">coupling</a>.\\nThe term \\\"millwright\\\" (also known as \\\"industrial mechanic\\\" ) is mainly used in the United States, Canada and <a href=\\\"South%20Africa\\\">South Africa</a> to describe members belonging to a particular trade. Other countries use different terms to describe tradesmen engaging in similar activities.\\nRelated, but distinctly different crafts, include <a href=\\\"machinist\\\">machinist</a>s and <a href=\\\"mechanic\\\">mechanic</a>s.\\nOriginally, millwrights were specialized <a href=\\\"carpenter\\\">carpenter</a>s who completely designed and constructed mills. Having a working knowledge of <a href=\\\"driveshaft\\\">driveshaft</a>s, <a href=\\\"bearing%20%28mechanical%29\\\">bearing</a>s, <a href=\\\"Gear%20train\\\">gearing</a> and <a href=\\\"Belt%20%28mechanical%29\\\">mechanical belts</a>, they executed every type of engineering operation in the construction of these mills. They designed the patterns of the water wheel systems, carved their gear mechanisms, and finally erected the mill machines\\nIn the <a href=\\\"Hellenistic%20period\\\">Hellenistic period</a> <a href=\\\"Greeks\\\">Greek</a> millwrights invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing. Greeks, along with the <a href=\\\"Roman%20Empire\\\">Romans</a>, were the first to operate undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills.\\nMuslim millwrights adopted the Greek watermill technology from the <a href=\\\"Byzantine%20Empire\\\">Byzantine Empire</a>, where it had been applied for centuries in those provinces conquered by the Muslims. They used several solutions to achieve the maximum output from watermills, by either mounting them to <a href=\\\"pier\\\">pier</a>s of <a href=\\\"bridge\\\">bridge</a>s to take advantage of the increased flow or by using a shipmill, a type of watermill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of ships <a href=\\\"Mooring%20%28watercraft%29\\\">moored</a> in <a href=\\\"midstream\\\">midstream</a>.\\nIn Medieval Europe, millwrights built the first industrial mills which introduced new innovative uses of waterpower. A survey of the types introduced in Western Europe was conducted by Adam Robert Lucas.\\nIn China, in the late 14th century, the millwrights were known as \\\"jiang\\\" and \\\"kong\\\" (a special term for artisan-engineers) and existed at an early age. They learned their craft on the shop floor, in a kind of apprentiship scheme.\\n<a href=\\\"William%20Fairbairn\\\">Sir William Fairbairn</a>, a millwright of the late 19th century, wrote in his \\\"Treatise on Mills and Millwork\\\", \\\"...the millwright of the late centuries was an itinerant engineer and mechanic of high reputation. He could handle the axe, the hammer, and the plane with equal skill and precision...he could set out and cut in the furrows of a millstone with an accuracy equal or superior to that of the miller himself.\\\"\\nThe introduction of the steam engine and the increasing importance of iron and steel changed the global industrial landscape.\\nIt created specialisation and the birth of new trades (<a href=\\\"Turning\\\">turners</a>, <a href=\\\"fitter%20%28occupation%29\\\">fitters</a>, machine makers, and <a href=\\\"mechanical%20engineer\\\">mechanical engineer</a>s). It also changed the traditional job of the millwright.\\nAs James F. Hobart wrote in his book \\\"Millwrighting\\\", \\\"The ancient type of millwright has passed away. He has gone with the old time carpenter and obsolete shoemaker - the former with 500 pounds of molding planes and woodworking tools, the latter with nothing but pegging and sewing awls, hammer, and knife...\\\"\\nThrough the 20th century, the trade adapted to the change. Modern millwrights work with <a href=\\\"steel\\\">steel</a> and other materials and must often combine the skills of other mechanical trades in order to successfully install industrial machinery or to assemble machines from pre-fabricated parts. Modern millwrights must also be able to read <a href=\\\"blueprints\\\">blueprints</a> and other <a href=\\\"schematics\\\">schematics</a> to aid them in the construction of complex systems. Millwrights are frequently <a href=\\\"trade%20union\\\">unionized</a>, with estimated numbers of around 45% in the US.\\nMillwrights install, maintain, repair and troubleshoot stationary industrial machinery and mechanical equipment in sites such as factories, production plants and recreational facilities.However, the exact duties of a millwright vary depending on whether they are unionized or not, with union rules typically being more restrictive than non-union situations, which may have their own <a href=\\\"job%20description\\\">job description</a>.\\nOn a typical job millwrights:\\nModern standards of practice for millwrights also require working:\\nMillwrights by nature of their profession have to be extremely well versed in many aspects of construction/demobilization. They may install a <a href=\\\"conveyor\\\">conveyor</a> system at an airport one week and the following week work at an <a href=\\\"industrial%20wastewater%20treatment\\\">industrial wastewater treatment</a> plant.\\nMillwrights in the power generation industry can assemble, set, <a href=\\\"wikt%3Aalign\\\">align</a> and balance <a href=\\\"turbines\\\">turbines</a> or <a href=\\\"rotor%20%28turbine%29\\\">rotor</a>s, as well as install pumps, valves, cranes, fans, and travelling screens. Millwrights also perform critical lifts involving major components to be flown level at up to and within .005 inch (5 thousandths of an inch). Because of their training and expertise, Millwrights are generally chosen to work on tasks associated with flying and setting heavy machinery.\\nMillwrights are also in demand as teachers for vocational programs, both at the high school level and in post-secondary institutions. Many high schools feature fabrication courses that include metal work, where the experience of a qualified millwright is valuable. Often, these millwrights are paid a premium based on their years of field experience.\\nMillwrights must have a good understanding of <a href=\\\"fluid%20mechanics\\\">fluid mechanics</a> (<a href=\\\"hydraulics\\\">hydraulics</a> and <a href=\\\"pneumatics\\\">pneumatics</a>), and all of the components involved in these processes, such as <a href=\\\"valve\\\">valve</a>s, <a href=\\\"cylinder%20%28engine%29\\\">cylinder</a>s, <a href=\\\"pump\\\">pump</a>s and <a href=\\\"Gas%20compressor\\\">compressors</a>.\\nThey are also trained to work with a wide array of precision tools, such as vernier calipers, micrometers, dial indicators, levels, gauge blocks, and optical and laser alignment tooling.\\nMost millwrights are educated through <a href=\\\"apprenticeship\\\">apprenticeship</a> programs where they receive a combination of classroom education along with a good deal of on-the-job training. For example, in <a href=\\\"Alberta\\\">Alberta</a>, the term of apprenticeship for a millwright is four years (four 12-month periods) including a minimum of 1560 hours of on-the-job training and cite weeks of technical training each year.\\nApprentices are usually paid a percentage of the average millwright's wage, and this percentage increases with experience.\\nA typical training course, to qualify as a millwright, may include, among others, the following:\\nIn South Africa, the millwright trade (especially focused on the mining sector) enjoys a far more versatile description than in most other countries.\\nFields wherein South African millwrights may operate include:\\nAt most trades training centers, prospective millwright artisans are required to have a certain level of theoretical certification (e.g. N3-Nated- certificate) and psychometric characteristics, judged by thorough testing, in order to qualify for the foundation practical and theoretical technical training.\\nAfter being trained in a multitude of different fields, novice, unqualified Millwrights enter in an apprenticeship for \\\"on-the-job\\\" training. There they work alongside all available artisans regardless of trade, depending on the institution. Once they meet a structured quota of experience and pass the necessary modules, apprentices have two months to prepare for their practical Trade Test. After they passed, they receive the certification and status of a qualified Millwright Tradesman.\\nOnce millwrights qualify, they have the opportunity to qualify as technicians, engineers, planners, foremen and many other routes requiring mainly electrical and mechanical expertise.\\nMany millwrights choose to enter the private sector to work on a contractual basis.\\nA number of prominent early-modern <a href=\\\"civil%20engineer\\\">civil engineer</a>s originally trained as millwrights, including:\",\n \"School boards in England and Wales\\nSchool boards were public bodies in <a href=\\\"England%20and%20Wales\\\">England and Wales</a> between 1870 and 1902, which established and administered elementary schools.\\nSchool boards were created in boroughs and parishes under the <a href=\\\"Elementary%20Education%20Act%201870\\\">Elementary Education Act 1870</a> following campaigning by <a href=\\\"George%20Dixon%20%28MP%29\\\">George Dixon</a>, <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Chamberlain\\\">Joseph Chamberlain</a> and the <a href=\\\"National%20Education%20League\\\">National Education League</a> for elementary education free from <a href=\\\"Anglican\\\">Anglican</a> doctrine.\\nEducation was still not free of fees. Members were directly elected, not appointed by borough councils or parishes. Each board could:\\nSchool boards were abolished by the <a href=\\\"Education%20Act%201902\\\">Education Act 1902</a>, which replaced them with <a href=\\\"local%20education%20authority\\\">local education authorities</a>.\\n\",\n \"Wheelwright\\nA wheelwright is a <a href=\\\"Artisan\\\">craftsman</a> who builds or repairs <a href=\\\"wood\\\">wood</a>en <a href=\\\"wheel\\\">wheel</a>s. The word is the combination of \\\"wheel\\\" and the archaic word \\\"<a href=\\\"wright\\\">wright</a>\\\", which comes from the <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a> word \\\"\\\"wryhta\\\"\\\", meaning a worker or maker. This occupational name eventually became the English <a href=\\\"surname\\\">surname</a> \\\"Wheelwright\\\".\\nThese tradesmen made wheels for <a href=\\\"cart\\\">cart</a>s and <a href=\\\"wagon\\\">wagon</a>s by first constructing the hub (called the nave), the <a href=\\\"spoke\\\">spoke</a>s and the rim/felloe segments (pronounced fellies) and assembling them all into a unit working from the center of the wheel outwards. Most wheels were made from <a href=\\\"wood\\\">wood</a>, but other materials have been used, such as <a href=\\\"bone\\\">bone</a> and <a href=\\\"horn%20%28anatomy%29\\\">horn</a>, for decorative or other purposes. Some earlier construction for wheels such as those used in early chariots were bound by <a href=\\\"Rawhide%20%28material%29\\\">rawhide</a> that would be applied wet and would shrink whilst drying, compressing and binding the woodwork together. After many centuries wheels evolved to be straked with iron, a method of nailing iron plates onto the felloes to protect against wear on the ground and to help bind the wheel together.\\nOver millennia the overall appearance of the wheel barely changed but subtle changes to the design of a wooden wheel such as dishing and staggered spokes helped keep up with the demands of a changing world.\\nDuring the industrial age, iron strakes were replaced by a solid <a href=\\\"iron\\\">iron</a> tyre custom made by a <a href=\\\"blacksmith\\\">blacksmith</a>, who first measured each wheel to ensure proper fit. Iron tyres that were always made smaller than the wheel in circumference, expanded by heating in a fire then placed on the wooden wheel and quenched quickly with water to shrink it onto the wood, then fastened to the wooden wheel by nails or tyre bolts. Tyre-bolts were less likely than tyre-nails to break off because they were flush finished and countersunk into the wheel's outer surface also allowing for wear without wearing the bolt head away.\\nDuring the second half of the 19th century, the use of pre-manufactured iron hubs and other factory-made wood, iron and rubber wheel parts became increasingly common. Companies such as <a href=\\\"Henry%20Ford\\\">Henry Ford</a> developed manufacturing processes that soon made the village wheelwright obsolete. With the onset of two <a href=\\\"world%20war\\\">world war</a>s, the trade soon went into decline and was very rare by the 1960s and almost extinct by the year 2000. However, owing to the efforts of organisations like the Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights, wheelwrights still continue to operate in the UK.\\nIn modern times, wheelwrights continue to make and repair a wide variety of wheels, including those made from wood and banded by iron tyres. The word \\\"wheelwright\\\" remains a term usually used for someone who makes and repairs wheels for horse-drawn vehicles, although it is sometimes used to refer to someone who repairs wheels, wheel alignment, rims, <a href=\\\"drum%20brake\\\">drums</a>, <a href=\\\"disc%20brake\\\">discs</a> and wire <a href=\\\"spoke\\\">spoke</a>s on modern vehicles such as <a href=\\\"automobile\\\">automobile</a>s, <a href=\\\"bus\\\">bus</a>es and <a href=\\\"truck\\\">truck</a>s. Wheels for <a href=\\\"horse-drawn%20vehicles\\\">horse-drawn vehicles</a> continue to be constructed and repaired for use by people who use such vehicles for <a href=\\\"farming\\\">farming</a>, competitions and presentations of historical events such as <a href=\\\"reenactment\\\">reenactment</a>s and <a href=\\\"living%20history\\\">living history</a>.\\nA modern wooden wheel generally consists of three main parts, the \\\"nave\\\" or hub at the centre of the wheel, the spokes radiating out from the centre and the \\\"felloes\\\" or rims around the outside. Generally the wheel would be bound by a steel or iron tyre depending on its historical period and purpose.\\nThe main timbers used in a traditional wooden wheel are Elm for the nave, Oak for the spokes and Ash for the felloes although this can vary in some areas depending on availability of timber, climate and style of production. Sometimes Hickory is substituted for Oak and Ash as it is easier to bend for mass production and is quite springy for light wheels that require a bit of flexibility.\\nThe Elm is used for its interwoven grain, this prevents the nave from splitting with the force of the spokes being driven in tight.\\nThe Oak is used because it doesn't bend, compress or flex and transfers any load pressures directly from the felloes to the nave.\\nThe Ash is used for its flexibility and springy nature, this acts as a form of suspension and protects against shock damage.\\nIn the second half of the 20th century Wheelwright training faded away due to a lack of demand for new wooden wheels. In the UK as in other countries the skills were kept alive by small businesses, museums, societies and trusts such as The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (USA) and The Countryside Agency (UK) amongst others.\\nWith thanks to the Worshipful company of Wheelwrights in London (UK) there is a flourishing (Government backed) apprenticeship scheme running from 2013.\\nColonial Williamsburg (USA) has an ongoing apprenticeship program and has recently taken on new apprentices (2016)\",\n \"Victorian restoration\\nVictorian restoration was the widespread and extensive <a href=\\\"wikt%3Arefurbish\\\">refurbishment</a> and rebuilding of <a href=\\\"Church%20of%20England\\\">Church of England</a> <a href=\\\"church%20%28building%29\\\">churches</a> and cathedrals that took place in England and Wales during the 19th-century <a href=\\\"Victorian%20era\\\">reign of Queen Victoria</a>. It was not the same process as is understood today by the term <a href=\\\"building%20restoration\\\">building restoration</a>.\\nAgainst a background of poorly maintained church buildings; a reaction against the <a href=\\\"Puritan\\\">Puritan</a> ethic manifested in the <a href=\\\"Gothic%20Revival\\\">Gothic Revival</a>; and a shortage of churches where they were needed in cities, the <a href=\\\"Cambridge%20Camden%20Society\\\">Cambridge Camden Society</a> and the <a href=\\\"Oxford%20Movement\\\">Oxford Movement</a> advocated a return to a more medieval attitude to churchgoing. The change was embraced by the Church of England which saw it as a means of reversing the decline in <a href=\\\"church%20attendance\\\">church attendance</a>.\\nThe principle was to \\\"restore\\\" a church to how it might have looked during the \\\"<a href=\\\"English%20Gothic%20architecture\\\">Decorated</a>\\\" style of architecture which existed between 1260 and 1360, and many famous architects such as <a href=\\\"George%20Gilbert%20Scott\\\">George Gilbert Scott</a> and <a href=\\\"Ewan%20Christian\\\">Ewan Christian</a> enthusiastically accepted commissions for restorations. It is estimated that around 80% of all Church of England churches were affected in some way by the movement, varying from minor changes to complete demolition and rebuilding.\\nInfluential people like <a href=\\\"John%20Ruskin\\\">John Ruskin</a> and <a href=\\\"William%20Morris\\\">William Morris</a> were opposed to such large-scale restoration, and their activities eventually led to the formation of societies dedicated to building preservation, such as the <a href=\\\"Society%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Ancient%20Buildings\\\">Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings</a>. In retrospect, the period of Victorian restoration has been viewed in a generally unfavourable light.\\nA number of factors working together led to the spate of Victorian restoration.\\nFrom the time of the <a href=\\\"English%20Reformation\\\">English Reformation</a> onwards, apart from necessary repairs so that buildings might remain in use, and the addition of occasional internal commemorative adornments, English churches and cathedrals were subjected to little building work and only piecemeal restoration. This situation lasted for about 250 years with the fabric of many churches and cathedrals suffering from neglect. The severity of the problem was demonstrated when the spire of <a href=\\\"Chichester%20Cathedral\\\">Chichester Cathedral</a> suddenly telescoped in on itself in 1861.\\nIn addition, ever since the mid-17th century <a href=\\\"Puritan\\\">Puritan</a> reforms which were typified by a minimum of ritual and decoration and by an unambiguous emphasis on preaching there had been an ongoing removal of any emotion or colour from English religious services as a means of distancing itself from what was seen as the excesses of Catholicism. But towards the end of the 18th century the burgeoning <a href=\\\"Gothic%20Revival\\\">Gothic Revival</a> and interest in <a href=\\\"medievalism\\\">medievalism</a> encouraged people to seek more interest in their religious services. The popularity of the Gothic Revival was seen by Church officials as a way to reverse the decline in church attendance, and thereby start to reassert the Church's power, prosperity and influence. They therefore pushed for massive restoration programs.\\nAs a third factor, the industrial revolution had resulted in many people living in cities that had few churches to cater for their religious needs—for instance <a href=\\\"Stockport\\\">Stockport</a> had a population of nearly 34,000 but church seating for only 2,500. The rise in <a href=\\\"dissenter\\\">dissenter</a> <a href=\\\"Religious%20denomination\\\">denominations</a>, such as <a href=\\\"Methodism\\\">Methodism</a> and the <a href=\\\"Religious%20Society%20of%20Friends\\\">Religious Society of Friends</a>, was seen as further evidence of this shortfall. To fulfil this need, between 1818 and 1824 the Government had granted £1.5 million for building new churches. Known as <a href=\\\"Commissioners%27%20church\\\">Commissioners' church</a>es, most of them cost only £4,000 to £5,000 each to build, and dissatisfaction with their indifferent design and cheap construction provoked a strong reaction.\\nEquivalent movements existed in most of Europe, especially northern Europe, with the French architect and architectural historian <a href=\\\"Eug%C3%A8ne%20Viollet-le-Duc\\\">Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</a> especially associated with the French manifestation.\\nOne of the main driving forces for the restoration of churches was the <a href=\\\"Cambridge%20Camden%20Society\\\">Cambridge Camden Society</a> (CCS), which was founded in 1839 by two <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Cambridge\\\">Cambridge</a> undergraduates, <a href=\\\"John%20Mason%20Neale\\\">John Mason Neale</a> and <a href=\\\"Benjamin%20Webb%20%28clergyman%29\\\">Benjamin Webb</a>, as a club for those who shared a common interest in Gothic church design. It rapidly became popular: its membership increased from 8 to 180 in its first 12 months. Although initially a society for recording and discussing medieval church features, the members of the CCS soon began to expostulate in their journal \\\"The Ecclesiologist\\\" and particularly in their \\\"Few Words to Church-builders\\\" of 1844 that the only \\\"correct\\\" form for a church building was the \\\"middle pointed\\\" or \\\"<a href=\\\"English%20Gothic%20architecture%23Decorated%20Gothic\\\">Decorated</a>\\\" style, in which churches had been built during the hundred years centred on 1300. Ecclesiology obviously struck a chord in society: it was closely linked with the ongoing interest in <a href=\\\"medievalism\\\">medievalism</a> and the <a href=\\\"Gothic%20Revival\\\">Gothic Revival</a>.\\nThe CCS's firm insistence on one style being correct proved to be a beacon for those who were no longer able to judge for themselves what was \\\"good\\\" in architecture—the certainties of the <a href=\\\"Vitruvius\\\">Vitruvian</a> rules having lost their power during the <a href=\\\"Romanticism\\\">Romantic movement</a> that had been in vogue since the middle of the 18th century. The CCS stated that there were two possible ways in which a church could be restored. As <a href=\\\"Kenneth%20Clark\\\">Kenneth Clark</a> put it, they said that one could \\\"either restore each of the various alterations and additions in its own style, or restore the whole church to the best and purest style of which traces remain\\\". The Society wholeheartedly recommended the second option and since virtually every medieval church had at least some small remnant of decorated style, maybe a porch or even just a window, the whole church would be \\\"restored\\\" to match it. And if the earliest portions were too late, then it was a candidate for a complete rebuild in the \\\"correct\\\" style.\\n\\\"To restore,\\\" \\\"The Ecclesiologist\\\" declared, \\\"is to revive the original appearance ... lost by decay, accident or ill-judged alteration\\\". They did later admit, though, that such \\\"restoration\\\" might create an ideal state that the building had never been in.\\nChurch restorations were also strongly influenced by the <a href=\\\"Oxford%20Movement\\\">Oxford Movement</a>, which advocated moving the centre of importance in the church from preaching to the <a href=\\\"sacrament\\\">sacrament</a> of the <a href=\\\"Eucharist\\\">Eucharist</a>: from the <a href=\\\"pulpit\\\">pulpit</a> to the <a href=\\\"altar\\\">altar</a>. Consequences of this included moving the pulpit from a more central position to the side of the church, replacing <a href=\\\"box%20pew\\\">box pew</a>s with open pews, creating a central <a href=\\\"aisle\\\">aisle</a> to give a better view of the altar, and the removal of galleries. Another consequence was that a larger <a href=\\\"chancel\\\">chancel</a> was required for the associated ritual.\\nPersuaded by the Cambridge Camden Society that <a href=\\\"English%20Gothic%20architecture%23Decorated%20Gothic\\\">Decorated Gothic</a> was the only correct style, and by the Oxford Movement's theories concerning the nature of worship, a spate of \\\"restoration\\\" was soon under way. Some figures give an idea of the scale. A total of 3,765 new and rebuilt churches were <a href=\\\"Consecration\\\">consecrated</a> in the forty years up to 1875, with the most active decade being the 1860s in which there were more than 1,000 such consecrations. Over 7,000 parish churches in England and Wales — which is nearly 80% of all of them — were restored in some way between 1840 and 1875. There were 150% more people identified as professional architects in the 1871 census than in 1851 — it is known that established architects passed small restoration jobs on to their newly qualified colleagues, since such work provided good practice.\\nThe retention of original material (carving, woodwork, etc.) tended to be of little importance to the early restorers: appearance was all, and much good old work was discarded to be replaced by modern replacement in the chosen style. Different architects had different degrees of sympathy with original material, and as the century progressed greater care was generally taken; this was at least partly as a result of the increasingly louder voices that were raised in opposition.\\nAs an example of the type of work undertaken in one church, in 1870–71 the <a href=\\\"Church%20of%20St%20Peter%2C%20Great%20Berkhamsted\\\">Church of St Peter, Great Berkhamsted</a> was the subject of a restoration programme by <a href=\\\"William%20Butterfield\\\">William Butterfield</a>, whose other works included churches such as <a href=\\\"All%20Saints%2C%20Margaret%20Street\\\">All Saints, Margaret Street</a> in London. Butterfield's restoration involved the removal of some original features, including the obliteration of paintings on the pillars. The most substantial structural changes involved raising both the roof and the floor of the chancel, raising the roof of the south transept to its original pitch, removing the vestry, incorporating the south porch into the south aisle and removing the door, re-flooring the nave, installing new oak benches and replacing an earlier gallery. Butterfield also installed clear windows in the clerestory, allowing more light to enter the nave. He extended the aisles by knocking down the dividing walls of two chambers at the west end. On the exterior of the church, Butterfield removed the crumbling <a href=\\\"stucco\\\">stucco</a> that had been added in 1820 and re-faced the church walls with <a href=\\\"flint\\\">flint</a> <a href=\\\"flushwork\\\">flushwork</a>.\\nAt <a href=\\\"Lichfield%20Cathedral\\\">Lichfield Cathedral</a>, the 18th century had been a period of decay: the 15th-century library was pulled down, most of the statues on the west front were removed, and the stonework covered with <a href=\\\"Roman%20cement\\\">Roman cement</a>. After some structural work early in the 19th century by <a href=\\\"James%20Wyatt\\\">James Wyatt</a>, the ornate west front (pictured above) was restored by Sir <a href=\\\"George%20Gilbert%20Scott\\\">George Gilbert Scott</a>. It includes many ornate carved figures of kings, queens and saints, created from original materials where possible and new imitations and additions when the originals were not available. Wyatt's <a href=\\\"choir-screen\\\">choir-screen</a> had utilised medieval stone-work which Scott in turn used to create the clergy's seats in the sanctuary. A new metal screen by <a href=\\\"Francis%20Skidmore\\\">Francis Skidmore</a> and <a href=\\\"John%20Birnie%20Philip\\\">John Birnie Philip</a> to designs by Scott was installed, as was a <a href=\\\"Mintons\\\">Minton tile</a> pavement stretching from choir screen to altar, inspired by medieval tiles found in the Choir foundations.\\nFamous architects like <a href=\\\"George%20Gilbert%20Scott\\\">George Gilbert Scott</a>, <a href=\\\"Ewan%20Christian\\\">Ewan Christian</a>, <a href=\\\"William%20Butterfield\\\">William Butterfield</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20Edmund%20Street\\\">George Edmund Street</a> became enthusiastic \\\"restorers\\\" and the wave of restoration spread across the country so that by 1875 something like 80% of all churches in England had been affected in some way.\\nIn 1850 Scott wrote a book \\\"A plea for the faithful restoration of our Ancient Churches\\\", in which he stated that \\\"as a general rule it is highly desirable to preserve those vestiges of the growth and history of buildings which are indicated by the various styles and irregularities of its parts\\\". However he did not follow this principle in practice, generally sweeping away all later changes and reconstructing the church in a uniform early style, sometimes on the evidence of just one remaining early feature.\\nThere were opponents. Although <a href=\\\"John%20Ruskin\\\">John Ruskin</a> was generally in favour of new buildings in an early Gothic style, in 1849 he wrote in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Seven%20Lamps%20of%20Architecture\\\">The Seven Lamps of Architecture</a>\\\" that it was not possible \\\"to restore anything that has ever been great or beautiful in architecture\\\". His attitude influenced the Society of Antiquaries of London, which urged in 1855 that \\\"no restoration should ever be attempted, otherwise than ... in the sense of preservation from further injuries\\\".\\nAnother vociferous opponent was <a href=\\\"William%20Morris\\\">William Morris</a> who campaigned against the proposed restoration of <a href=\\\"St%20John%20the%20Baptist%20Church%2C%20Inglesham\\\">St John the Baptist Church, Inglesham</a> in the 1880s and started the <a href=\\\"Society%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Ancient%20Buildings\\\">Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings</a> (SPAB) in 1877 when he heard of the proposed restoration of <a href=\\\"Tewkesbury%20Abbey\\\">Tewkesbury Abbey</a> by Scott. The principles espoused by SPAB took some time to attract support, but the policy of putting \\\"Protection in place of Restoration\\\" eventually took hold, and are adhered to today. Morris also wrote in 1877:\\n\\\"But of late years a great uprising of ecclesiastical zeal, coinciding with a great increase of study, and consequently of knowledge of medieval architecture has driven people into spending their money on these buildings, not merely with the purpose of repairing them, of keeping them safe, clean, and wind and water-tight, but also of \\\"restoring\\\" them to some ideal state of perfection; sweeping away if possible all signs of what has befallen them at least since the Reformation, and often since dates much earlier.\\\"\\nDespite his opposition, though, it is known that Morris profited greatly by his firm's provision of stained glass to many restoration projects, and it has been noted that his criticism only started after his firm was securely established as a supplier to these projects.\\nFurther opposition came from evangelical Protestants, who believed that \\\"ornamental carved work, decorative painting, encaustic tiles, and stained glass were foolish vanities which lead the heart astray\\\", and from others who were concerned about the cost: \\\"For the cost of one stone church with a groined roof, or even an open timbered roof, two might be built in brick with plaster ceilings; and who could dare to say that worship in the plainer building would be less devout or sincere than that which was offered in the other?\\\"\\nNot all Catholics were in favour either: late in his life <a href=\\\"Cardinal%20Wiseman\\\">Cardinal Wiseman</a> made it clear that his preference was for Renaissance art, as might be expected of a religious order of Italian origin.\\nFrom a 20th-century perspective the process of Victorian restoration has often been viewed unfavourably, with terms such as \\\"ruthless\\\", \\\"insensitive\\\" and \\\"heavy-handed\\\" being commonly used to describe the work done.\\nIn the introduction to his book \\\"The Gothic Revival\\\" (first published in 1928), <a href=\\\"Kenneth%20Clark\\\">Kenneth Clark</a> wrote \\\"The real reason the Gothic Revival had been neglected is that it produced so little on which our eyes can rest without pain\\\". Clark also reckoned that Decorated Gothic was the worst of the <a href=\\\"English%20Gothic%20architecture\\\">three possible styles</a> that could have been adopted—the others being Early English which had \\\"very little detail which an ordinary craftsman could not manage\\\", and Perpendicular which was \\\"infinitely the most adaptable of medieval styles\\\". Clark pointed out that Decorated was the most difficult to execute, not least because of the complicated window <a href=\\\"tracery\\\">tracery</a> that set it apart from the other two Gothic styles.\\nHowever, not all restoration work was purely negative: a side effect of a number of restorations was the rediscovery of long-lost features, for instance Anglo-Saxon carving that had been incorporated into Norman foundations, or wall-paintings that had been whitewashed over, at <a href=\\\"St%20Albans%20Cathedral\\\">St Albans Cathedral</a>. It is also true to say that had they not been restored many churches would have fallen into disrepair.\",\n \"Wesleyan Reform Union\\nThe Wesleyan Reform Union is an independent <a href=\\\"Methodist\\\">Methodist</a> Connexion based in the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a>. It was founded in 1859 by the members of the <a href=\\\"Wesleyanism\\\">Wesleyan</a> Reform movement who did not join the United Methodist Free Churches\\nThe Wesleyan Reform Union Statement of Faith was accepted at a conference in 1970:\\nModified by conference of 2008.\\nThe head of the Wesleyan Reform Union is the Union President, who presides over the General Committee. The General Committee consists of up to 20 elected members plus representatives from various Union committees. There is also a President Designate. People are elected to each of these positions annually by delegates to a Conference. The <a href=\\\"General%20Secretary\\\">General Secretary</a> takes care of business matters.\\nAt the local level, churches follow one of two schemes. They may elect a President and a <a href=\\\"Vice%20President\\\">Vice President</a>, or they may elect a Leadership Group. These positions are generally voted on annually. In the case of a <a href=\\\"Leadership%20Group\\\">Leadership Group</a>, a <a href=\\\"Minister%20of%20religion\\\">Minister</a> may also be elected. The Union maintains a list of approved ministers although churches are at liberty to appoint others not on the list. Some churches have had women pastors for a number of years and in 2016 the Union ordained and received a female minister onto its approved list for the first time. The position of <a href=\\\"Trustee\\\">Trustee</a>s may be implemented as well.\\nWesleyan Reform Union churches are <a href=\\\"Self-governance\\\">self-governing</a>, this being the principal point of difference with the Methodist Church. Local leadership has final authority in local matters. Many churches are organized into Circuits which have four Quarterly Meetings each year.\\nThe WRU's headquarters are in Sheffield, and it has around 100 congregations across Yorkshire, the Midlands, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Cornwall, and Scotland.\",\n \"Kelly's Directory\\nKelly's Directory (or more formally, the Kelly's, Post Office and Harrod & Co Directory) was a <a href=\\\"trade%20directory\\\">trade directory</a> in the United Kingdom that listed all businesses and tradespeople in a particular city or town, as well as a general directory of postal addresses of local <a href=\\\"gentry\\\">gentry</a>, landowners, charities, and other facilities. In effect, it was a Victorian version of today's <a href=\\\"Yellow%20Pages\\\">Yellow Pages</a>. Many reference libraries still keep their copies of these directories, which are now an important source for historical research.\\nThe eponymous originator of the directory was <a href=\\\"Frederic%20Festus%20Kelly\\\">Frederic Festus Kelly</a>. In 1835 or 1836 he became chief inspector of letter-carriers for the inland or general post office, and took over publication of the Post Office London Directory, whose copyright was in private hands despite its semi-official association with the post office, and which Kelly had to purchase from the widow of his predecessor.\\nHe founded Kelly & Co. and he and various family members gradually expanded the company over the next several decades, producing directories for an increasing number of UK <a href=\\\"county\\\">counties</a> and buying out or putting out of business various competing publishers of directories.\\nOther publications followed, including the \\\"Handbook to the Titled, Landed and Official Classes\\\" (1875) and \\\"Merchants, Manufacturers and Shippers\\\" (1877). In 1897, Kelly & Co Ltd became Kelly’s Directories Ltd. This name stuck for another 106 years before being renamed Kellysearch in 2003 to reflect its focus away from hard copy directories and towards an Internet-based product search engine.\\nThe front cover of a Kelly's Directory sometimes stated \\\"Kelly's Directories Ltd., established 1799\\\", however this was based on the date of issue of the first Post Office London Directory by an earlier inspector of letter carriers several decades before Kelly's involvement with that publication.\\nFor a short time, Kelly's existed online as <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.kellysearch.co.uk/\\\">Kellysearch (broken link)</a>, a directory similar to the online <a href=\\\"Yellow%20Pages\\\">Yellow Pages</a>. Kellysearch.com was established in Boston in 2004. It was in many different languages and introduced a fully searchable online-catalogue library and product <a href=\\\"News%20release\\\">press release</a> section.\\nThe old editions of the Kelly’s Directories are seen as highly collectable by many and have also become a useful reference tool for people tracing the history of local areas (with the contents now available to buy on CD-ROM from many entrepreneurial sources for this purpose.) An extensive but incomplete collection of Kelly’s Directorys is held in the <a href=\\\"Guildhall%20Library\\\">Guildhall Library</a> in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>.\",\n \"Wesleyan Methodist Church (Great Britain)\\nThe Wesleyan Methodist Church was the name used by the majority <a href=\\\"Methodist\\\">Methodist</a> movement in Great Britain following its split from the <a href=\\\"Church%20of%20England\\\">Church of England</a> after the death of <a href=\\\"John%20Wesley\\\">John Wesley</a> and the appearance of parallel Methodist movements. The word \\\"<a href=\\\"Wesleyan\\\">Wesleyan</a>\\\" was added to the title to differentiate it from the Welsh <a href=\\\"Calvinistic%20Methodist\\\">Calvinistic Methodist</a>s, founded by <a href=\\\"George%20Whitefield\\\">George Whitefield</a> who, like Wesley and his brother <a href=\\\"Charles%20Wesley\\\">Charles</a>, had been a member of the <a href=\\\"Holy%20Club\\\">Holy Club</a> in Oxford to which the (originally derogatory) epithet \\\"Methodist\\\" was first applied, and from the <a href=\\\"Primitive%20Methodist\\\">Primitive Methodist</a> movement, which separated from the Wesleyans in 1807. The Wesleyan Methodist Church followed the Wesleys in holding to an <a href=\\\"Arminian\\\">Arminian</a> theology, as against Whitefield's Calvinism; its Conference was also the legal successor to John Wesley as holder of the property of the original Methodist Societies.\\nJohn Wesley was convinced of the importance of education and, following the advice of his friend Dr. <a href=\\\"Philip%20Doddridge\\\">Philip Doddridge</a>, opened schools at <a href=\\\"The%20Foundery\\\">The Foundery</a> in London, and at <a href=\\\"Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne\\\">Newcastle</a> and <a href=\\\"Kingswood%20School\\\">Kingswood</a>. Following the upsurge in interest in education which accompanied the <a href=\\\"Reform%20Act%201832\\\">extension of franchise</a> in 1832, the Methodist Conference commissioned <a href=\\\"William%20Atherton%20%28minister%29\\\">William Atherton</a>, Richard Treffry and Samuel Jackson to report on Methodist schools, coming to the conclusion that if the Church were to prosper the system of Sunday schools (3,339 in number at that time, with 59,277 teachers and 341,442 pupils) should be augmented by day-schools with teachers educated to high school level. The Rev. John Scott proposed in 1843 that 700 new Methodist day-schools be established within seven years. Though a steady increase was achieved, that ambitious target could not be reached, in part limited by the number of suitably qualified teachers, mostly coming from the institution founded in Glasgow by <a href=\\\"David%20Stow\\\">David Stow</a>. The outcome of the Wesleyan Education Report for 1844 was that planning began for permanent Wesleyan teacher-training college, resulting in the foundation of <a href=\\\"Westminster%20Training%20College\\\">Westminster Training College</a> at Horseferry Road, <a href=\\\"City%20of%20Westminster\\\">Westminster</a> in 1851, with the Rev. Scott its first Principal.\\nIn 1897, Reginald Perks, MP for <a href=\\\"Louth%20%28Lincolnshire%29%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29\\\">Louth</a> in <a href=\\\"Lincolnshire\\\">Lincolnshire</a>, proposed the creation of the Wesleyan Methodist Twentieth Century Fund (also known as the 'One Million Guinea Fund') which aimed to raise one <a href=\\\"Guinea%20%28coin%29\\\">guinea</a> (£1.1s. or £1.05) from each of the one million Wesleyans to purchase the former <a href=\\\"Royal%20Aquarium\\\">Royal Aquarium and Winter Garden</a> site in <a href=\\\"central%20London\\\">central London</a> to build a world centre of Wesleyan Methodism and to expand the mission of the Wesleyan Church at home and overseas. On 8 November, 1898, the fund was officially launched at <a href=\\\"Wesley%27s%20Chapel\\\">Wesley's Chapel</a> in <a href=\\\"City%20Road%20%28London%29\\\">City Road</a>, London, and raised the funds to pay for <a href=\\\"Westminster%20Central%20Hall\\\">Westminster Central Hall</a> and to support construction and extension of other Wesleyan Methodist churches and <a href=\\\"sunday%20school\\\">sunday school</a>s around the UK and overseas.\\nThe title \\\"Wesleyan Methodist Church\\\" remained in use until the <a href=\\\"Methodist%20Union\\\">Methodist Union</a> of 1932, when the church re-united with the Primitive Methodist Church and the <a href=\\\"United%20Methodist%20Church%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">United Methodist Church</a> to form the current <a href=\\\"Methodist%20Church%20of%20Great%20Britain\\\">Methodist Church of Great Britain</a>.\\n\",\n \"West Rasen\\nWest Rasen is a village and <a href=\\\"civil%20parish\\\">civil parish</a> in the <a href=\\\"West%20Lindsey\\\">West Lindsey</a> district of <a href=\\\"Lincolnshire\\\">Lincolnshire</a>, England. It is situated on the <a href=\\\"A631%20road\\\">A631 road</a>, and approximately 3 mi west from <a href=\\\"Market%20Rasen\\\">Market Rasen</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"parish%20church\\\">parish church</a> is a Grade I <a href=\\\"listed%20building\\\">listed building</a> dedicated to <a href=\\\"All%20Saints%27%20Day\\\">All Saints</a>, dating from the 11th century, and built from <a href=\\\"ironstone\\\">ironstone</a>. The <a href=\\\"baptismal%20font\\\">font</a> is 15th-century, and the former north <a href=\\\"Aisle%23Architecture\\\">aisle</a> chapel was a <a href=\\\"chantry\\\">chantry</a> founded in 1373 for John Pouger and dissolved in 1548.\\nThe churchyard cross is 14th-century, although it was restored in the 19th century, and is both Grade II listed and a <a href=\\\"scheduled%20monument\\\">scheduled monument</a>.\\nPackhorse Bridge is a Grade II* <a href=\\\"ironstone\\\">ironstone</a> listed bridge over the <a href=\\\"River%20Rase\\\">River Rase</a>, which dates from the 15th century with 20th-century alterations. It consists of a narrow bridge with 3 arches and cobbled surface. It is a scheduled monument.\\nThe Post Office is a Grade II listed former cottage, now shop and house, dating from the late 17th century with 20th-century alterations and additions. It is likely to have been mud and stud originally, but is now underbuilt in red brick with a thatched roof.\\n\",\n \"Thomas Lawrence\\nSir Thomas Lawrence <a href=\\\"Royal%20Academy\\\">PRA</a> <a href=\\\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society\\\">FRS</a> (13 April 1769 – 7 January 1830) was a leading English portrait painter and the fourth president of the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Academy\\\">Royal Academy</a>.\\nLawrence was a child prodigy. He was born in <a href=\\\"Bristol\\\">Bristol</a> and began drawing in <a href=\\\"Devizes\\\">Devizes</a>, where his father was an innkeeper. At the age of ten, having moved to Bath, he was supporting his family with his <a href=\\\"pastel\\\">pastel</a> portraits. At eighteen he went to London and soon established his reputation as a portrait painter in <a href=\\\"oil%20paint\\\">oils</a>, receiving his first royal commission, a portrait of <a href=\\\"Charlotte%20of%20Mecklenburg-Strelitz\\\">Queen Charlotte</a>, in 1790. He stayed at the top of his profession until his death, aged 60, in 1830.\\nSelf-taught, he was a brilliant draughtsman and known for his gift of capturing a likeness, as well as his virtuoso handling of paint. He became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1791, a full member in 1794, and president in 1820. In 1810 he acquired the generous patronage of the <a href=\\\"George%20IV%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">Prince Regent</a>, was sent abroad to paint portraits of allied leaders for the Waterloo chamber at <a href=\\\"Windsor%20Castle\\\">Windsor Castle</a>, and is particularly remembered as the <a href=\\\"Romanticism\\\">Romantic</a> portraitist of the <a href=\\\"British%20Regency\\\">Regency</a>. Lawrence's love affairs were not happy (his tortuous relationships with Sally and Maria Siddons became the subject of several books) and, in spite of his success, he spent most of life deep in debt. He never married. At his death, Lawrence was the most fashionable portrait painter in Europe. His reputation waned during <a href=\\\"Victorian%20Era\\\">Victorian times</a>, but has since been partially restored.\\nThomas Lawrence was born at 6 Redcross Street, <a href=\\\"Bristol\\\">Bristol</a>, the youngest surviving child of Thomas Lawrence, a supervisor of excise, and Lucy Read, the daughter of a clergyman. The couple had 16 children but only five survived infancy: Lawrence's brother Andrew became a clergyman; William had a career in the army; sisters Lucy and Anne married a solicitor and a clergyman (Lawrence's nephews included <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Bloxam\\\">Andrew Bloxam</a>). Soon after Thomas was born his father decided to become an innkeeper and took over the White Lion Inn and next-door American Coffee House in Broad Street, Bristol. But the venture did not prosper and in 1773 Lawrence senior removed his family from Bristol and took over the tenancy of the Black Bear Inn in Devizes, a favourite stopping place for the London gentry who were making their annual trip to take the waters at Bath.\\nIt was during the family's six-year stay at the Black Bear Inn that Lawrence senior began to make use of his son's precocious talents for drawing and reciting poetry. Visitors would be greeted with the words \\\"Gentlemen, here's my son – will you have him recite from the poets, or take your portraits?\\\" Among those who listened to a recitation from Tom, or Tommy as he was called, was the actor <a href=\\\"David%20Garrick\\\">David Garrick</a>. Lawrence's formal schooling was limited to two years at The Fort, a school in Bristol, when he was aged six to eight, and a little tuition in French and Latin from a dissenting minister. He also became accomplished in dancing, fencing, boxing and billiards. By the age of ten his fame had spread sufficiently for him to receive a mention in <a href=\\\"Daines%20Barrington\\\">Daines Barrington</a>'s \\\"Miscellanies\\\" as \\\"without the most distant instruction from anyone, capable of copying historical pictures in a masterly style\\\". But once again Lawrence senior failed as a landlord and, in 1779, he was declared bankrupt and the family moved to <a href=\\\"Bath%2C%20Somerset\\\">Bath</a>. From now on, Lawrence was to support his parents with the money he earned from his portraits.\\nThe family settled at 2 Alfred Street in Bath, and the young Lawrence established himself as a portraitist in <a href=\\\"pastel\\\">pastel</a>s. The oval portraits, for which he was soon charging three guineas, were about 12 inches by 10 inches (30 by 25 centimetres), and usually portrayed a half-length. His sitters included <a href=\\\"Georgiana%20Cavendish%2C%20Duchess%20of%20Devonshire\\\">the Duchess of Devonshire</a>, <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Siddons\\\">Sarah Siddons</a>, <a href=\\\"Sir%20Henry%20Harpur%2C%206th%20Baronet\\\">Sir Henry Harpur</a> (of <a href=\\\"Calke%20Abbey\\\">Calke Abbey</a>, Derbyshire, who offered to send Lawrence to Italy – Lawrence senior refused to part with his son), <a href=\\\"Warren%20Hastings\\\">Warren Hastings</a> and <a href=\\\"Elijah%20Impey\\\">Sir Elijah Impey</a>. Talented, charming and attractive (and surprisingly modest) Lawrence was popular with Bath residents and visitors: artists <a href=\\\"William%20Hoare\\\">William Hoare</a> and Mary Hartley gave him encouragement; wealthy people allowed him to study their collections of paintings and Lawrence's drawing of a copy of <a href=\\\"Raffaello%20Santi\\\">Raphael's</a> \\\"Transfiguration\\\" was awarded a <a href=\\\"silver-gilt\\\">silver-gilt</a> palette and a prize of 5 guineas by the Society of Arts in London.\\nSometime before his eighteenth birthday in 1787 Lawrence arrived in London, taking lodgings in Leicester Square, near to <a href=\\\"Joshua%20Reynolds\\\">Joshua Reynolds</a>' studio. He was introduced to Reynolds, who advised him to study nature, rather than the Old Masters. Lawrence set up a studio at 41 Jermyn Street and installed his parents in a house in Greek Street. He exhibited several works in the 1787 Royal Academy exhibition at <a href=\\\"Somerset%20House\\\">Somerset House</a>, and enrolled as a student at the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Academy\\\">Royal Academy</a> but didn't stay long, abandoning the drawing of classical statues to concentrate on his portraiture. In the Royal Academy exhibition of 1788 Lawrence was represented by five portraits in pastels and one in oils, a medium he quickly mastered. Between 1787 and his death in 1830 he would miss only two of the annual exhibitions: once, 1809, in protest about the way his paintings had been displayed and once, in 1819, because he was abroad. In 1789 he exhibited 13 portraits, mostly in oil, including one of <a href=\\\"William%20Linley\\\">William Linley</a> and one of Lady Cremorne, his first attempt at a full-length portrait. The paintings received favourable comments in the press with one critic referring to him as \\\"the Sir Joshua of futurity not far off\\\" and, aged just twenty, Lawrence received his first royal commission, a summons arriving from Windsor Palace to paint the portraits of <a href=\\\"Charlotte%20of%20Mecklenburg-Strelitz\\\">Queen Charlotte</a> and <a href=\\\"Princess%20Amelia%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">Princess Amelia</a>. The queen found Lawrence presumptuous (although he made a good impression on the princesses and ladies-in-waiting) and she didn't like the finished portrait, which remained in Lawrence's studio until his death. When it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1790, however, it received critical acclaim. Also shown that year was another of Lawrence's most famous portraits, that of the actress <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Farren\\\">Elizabeth Farren</a>, soon to be the Countess of Derby, \\\"completely Elizabeth Farren: arch, spirited, elegant and engaging\\\", according to one newspaper.\\nIn 1791 Lawrence was elected an associate of the Royal Academy and the following year, on the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, King George III appointed him <a href=\\\"Principal%20Painter%20in%20Ordinary\\\">\\\"painter-in-ordinary to his majesty\\\"</a>. His reputation was established, and he moved to a studio in Old Bond Street. In 1794 he became a full member of the Royal Academy. Although commissions were pouring in, Lawrence was in financial difficulties. His debts would stay with him for the rest of life: he narrowly avoided bankruptcy and had to be bailed out by wealthy sitters and friends, and died insolvent. Biographers have never been able to discover the source of his debts; he was a prodigiously hard worker (once referring in a letter to his portrait painting as \\\"mill-horse business\\\") and didn't appear to live extravagantly. Lawrence himself said: \\\"I have never been extravagant nor profligate in the use of money. Neither gaming, horses, curricles, expensive entertainments, nor secret sources of ruin from vulgar licentiousness have swept it from me\\\". This has generally been accepted, with biographers blaming his financial problems on his generosity towards his family and others, his inability to keep accounts (in spite of advice from his friend the painter and diarist <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Farington\\\">Joseph Farington</a>), and his magnificent but costly collection of Old Master drawings.\\nAnother source of unhappiness in Lawrence's life was his romantic entanglement with two of Sarah Siddons' daughters. He fell in love first with Sally, then transferred his affections on to her sister Maria, then broke with Maria and turned to Sally again. Both the sisters had fragile health; Maria died in 1798, on her deathbed extracting a promise from her sister never to marry Lawrence. Sally kept her promise and refused to see Lawrence again, dying in 1803. But Lawrence continued on friendly terms with their mother and painted several portraits of her. He never married. In later years two women would provide him with companionship, friends Elizabeth Croft and Isabella Wolff who first met Lawrence when she sat for her portrait in 1803. Isabella was married to the Danish consul Jens Wolff, but she separated from him in 1810, and Sir Michael Levey suggests that people may have wondered if Lawrence was the father of her son Herman.\\nLawrence's departures from portraiture were very rare. In the early 1790s he completed two history pictures: \\\"Homer reciting his poems\\\", a small picture of the poet in a pastoral setting; and \\\"Satan summoning his legions\\\", a giant canvas to illustrate lines from <a href=\\\"John%20Milton\\\">John Milton</a>'s <a href=\\\"Paradise%20Lost\\\">Paradise Lost</a>. The boxer <a href=\\\"John%20Jackson%20%28boxer%29\\\">John Jackson</a> posed for the naked body of Satan; the face is that of Sarah Siddons' brother, <a href=\\\"John%20Philip%20Kemble\\\">John Philip Kemble</a>.\\nLawrence's parents died within a few months of each other in 1797 and he gave up his house in Picadilly, where he had moved from Old Bond Street, to set up his studio in the family home in Greek Street. By now, to keep up with the demand for replicas of his portraits, he was making use of studio assistants, most notable of whom would be <a href=\\\"William%20Etty\\\">William Etty</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20Henry%20Harlow\\\">George Henry Harlow</a>. The early years of the nineteenth century saw Lawrence's portrait practice continue to flourish: amongst his sitters were major political figures such as <a href=\\\"Henry%20Dundas%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Melville\\\">Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville</a> and <a href=\\\"William%20Lamb%2C%202nd%20Viscount%20Melbourne\\\">William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne</a>, whose wife <a href=\\\"Lady%20Caroline%20Lamb\\\">Lady Caroline Lamb</a> was also painted by Lawrence. The king commissioned portraits of his daughter-in-law <a href=\\\"Caroline%20of%20Brunswick\\\">Caroline</a>, the estranged wife of the <a href=\\\"George%20IV%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">Prince of Wales</a>, and his granddaughter <a href=\\\"Princess%20Charlotte%20Augusta%20of%20Wales\\\">Charlotte</a>. Lawrence stayed at the Montague House, the residence of the princess in Blackheath, while he was painting the portraits and thus became implicated in the \\\"<a href=\\\"delicate%20investigation\\\">delicate investigation</a>\\\" into Caroline's morals. He swore an affidavit that although he had on occasion been alone with the princess, the door had never been locked or bolted and he had \\\"not the least objection for all the world to have heard or seen what took place\\\". Expertly defended by <a href=\\\"Spencer%20Perceval\\\">Spencer Perceval</a>, he was exonerated.\\nBy the time the Prince of Wales was made regent in 1814, Lawrence was acknowledged as the foremost portrait painter in the country. Through one of his sitters, <a href=\\\"Charles%20Vane%2C%203rd%20Marquess%20of%20Londonderry\\\">Lord Charles Stewart</a>, he met the Prince Regent who was to become his most important patron. As well as portraits of himself, the prince commissioned portraits of allied leaders: <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Wellesley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Wellington\\\">the Duke of Wellington</a>, <a href=\\\"Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher\\\">Field-Marshal von Blücher</a> and <a href=\\\"Matvei%20Platov\\\">Count Platov</a> sat for Lawrence at his new house at 65 Russell Square. The house was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for the Imperial Hotel. \\\"The private sitting-room of Sir Thomas Lawrence\\\" shows Lawrence at 65 Russell Square, surrounded by casts of classical sculpture. The prince also had plans for Lawrence to travel abroad and paint foreign royalty and leaders, and as a preliminary he was given a knighthood on 22 April 1815. Napoleon's return from Elba put these plans on hold, although Lawrence did make a visit to Paris, where his friend Lord Charles Stewart was ambassador, and saw the art that Napoleon had looted from Italy, including Raphael's \\\"<a href=\\\"Transfiguration%20%28Raphael%29\\\">Transfiguration</a>\\\", the painting he had reproduced for his silver-gilt palette as a boy.\\nIn 1817 the prince commissioned Lawrence to paint a portrait of his daughter <a href=\\\"Princess%20Charlotte%20of%20Wales\\\">Princess Charlotte</a>, who was pregnant with her first child. Charlotte died in childbirth; Lawrence completed the portrait and presented it to her husband <a href=\\\"Leopold%20I%20of%20Belgium\\\">Prince Leopold</a> at <a href=\\\"Claremont%20%28country%20house%29\\\">Claremont</a> on his birthday, as agreed. The princess's obstetrician, <a href=\\\"Sir%20Richard%20Croft%2C%206th%20Baronet\\\">Sir Richard Croft</a>, who later shot himself, was the half-brother of Lawrence's friend, Elizabeth Croft, and for her Lawrence drew a sketch of Croft in his coffin.\\nEventually, in September 1818, Lawrence was able to make his postponed trip to the continent to paint the allied leaders, first at <a href=\\\"Aachen\\\">Aachen</a> and then at the conference of Vienna, for what would become <a href=\\\"the%20Waterloo%20Chamber\\\">the Waterloo Chamber</a> series, housed in <a href=\\\"Windsor%20Castle\\\">Windsor Castle</a>. His sitters included <a href=\\\"Alexander%20I%20of%20Russia\\\">Tsar Alexander</a>, <a href=\\\"Francis%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Emperor Francis I of Austria</a>, the <a href=\\\"Frederick%20William%20III%20of%20Prussia\\\">King of Prussia</a>, <a href=\\\"Karl%20Philipp%2C%20Prince%20of%20Schwarzenberg\\\">Field-Marshal Prince Schwarzenberg</a>, <a href=\\\"Archduke%20Charles%2C%20Duke%20of%20Teschen\\\">Archduke Charles of Austria</a> and Henriette his wife, and a young <a href=\\\"Napoleon%20II\\\">Napoleon II</a>, as well as various French and Prussian ministers. In May 1819, still under orders from the Prince Regent, he left Vienna for Rome to paint <a href=\\\"Pope%20Pius%20VII\\\">Pope Pius VII</a> and <a href=\\\"Ercole%20Consalvi\\\">Cardinal Consalvi</a>.\\nLawrence arrived back in London 30 March 1820 to find that the president of the Royal Academy, <a href=\\\"Benjamin%20West\\\">Benjamin West</a>, had died. That very evening Lawrence was voted the new president, a position he would hold until his death 10 years later. George III had died in January; Lawrence was granted a place in the procession for the coronation of George IV. On 28 February 1822 he was elected as a <a href=\\\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society\\\">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> \\\"for his eminence in art\\\". The royal commissions continued during the 1820s, including one for a portrait of the king's sister <a href=\\\"Princess%20Sophia%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">Sophia</a>, and one of <a href=\\\"Walter%20Scott\\\">Sir Walter Scott</a> (along with <a href=\\\"Jane%20Austen\\\">Jane Austen</a>, one of Lawrence's favourite authors), as well as one to paint <a href=\\\"Charles%20X%20of%20France\\\">King Charles X of France</a> for the Waterloo series, for which Lawrence made a trip to Paris, taking Herman Wolff with him. Lawrence acquired another important patron in <a href=\\\"Robert%20Peel\\\">Robert Peel</a>, who commissioned the painter to do portraits of his family as well a portrait of <a href=\\\"George%20Canning\\\">George Canning</a>. Two of Lawrence's most famous portraits of children were painted during the 1820s: that of Emily and Laura Calmady and that of Master Charles William Lambton, painted for his father <a href=\\\"John%20Lambton%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Durham\\\">Lord Durham</a> for 600 guineas and known as \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Red%20Boy\\\">The Red Boy</a>\\\". The latter portrait attracted much praise when it was exhibited in Paris in 1827. One of the artist's last commissions was of future prime-minister <a href=\\\"George%20Hamilton-Gordon%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Aberdeen\\\">the Earl of Aberdeen</a>. <a href=\\\"Fanny%20Kemble\\\">Fanny Kemble</a>, a niece of Sarah Siddons, was one of his last sitters (for a drawing).\\nLawrence died suddenly on 7 January 1830, just months after his friend Isabella Wolff. A few days previously he had experienced chest pains but had continued working and was eagerly anticipating a stay with his sister at Rugby, when he collapsed and died during a visit from his friends Elizabeth Croft and Archibald Keightley. After a post-mortem examination, doctors concluded that the artist's death had been caused by ossification of the aorta and vessels of the heart. Lawrence's first biographer, D. E. Williams suggested that this in itself was not enough to cause death and it was his doctors' over-zealous bleeding and leeching that killed him. Lawrence was buried on 21 January in the crypt of <a href=\\\"St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral\\\">St Paul's Cathedral</a>. Amongst the mourners was <a href=\\\"J.%20M.%20W.%20Turner\\\">J. M. W. Turner</a> who painted a sketch of the funeral from memory. Turner's painting of Lawrence's funeral is in the <a href=\\\"Tate%20Gallery\\\">Tate Gallery</a>.\\nLawrence was famed for the length of time he took to finish some of his paintings (Isabella Wolff waited twelve years for her portrait to be completed) and, at his death, his studio contained a large number of unfinished works. Some were completed by his assistants and other artists, some were sold as they were. In his will Lawrence left instructions to offer, at a price much below their worth, his collection of Old Master drawings to first George IV, then the trustees of the <a href=\\\"British%20Museum\\\">British Museum</a>, then Robert Peel and the <a href=\\\"John%20Ward%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Dudley\\\">Earl of Dudley</a>. None of them accepted the offer and the collection was split up and auctioned; many of the drawings later found their way into the British Museum and the <a href=\\\"Ashmolean%20Museum\\\">Ashmolean Museum</a>. After Lawrence's creditors had been paid, there was no money left, although a memorial exhibition at the <a href=\\\"British%20Institution\\\">British Institution</a> raised £3,000 which was given to his nieces.\\nLawrence's friends asked the Scottish poet <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Campbell%20%28poet%29\\\">Thomas Campbell</a> to write the artist's biography, but he passed the task on to D.E. Williams whose two rather inaccurate volumes were published in 1831. It would be nearly 70 years later, in 1900, before another biography of Lawrence appeared, this time by <a href=\\\"Lord%20Ronald%20Gower\\\">Lord Ronald Gower</a>. In 1913 Sir Walter Armstrong, who was not a great admirer of Lawrence, published a monograph. The 1950s saw the publication of two further works: <a href=\\\"Douglas%20Goldring\\\">Douglas Goldring</a>'s \\\"Regency portrait painter\\\", and Kenneth Garlick's catalogue of Lawrence's paintings (a further edition was published in 1989). <a href=\\\"Michael%20Levey\\\">Sir Michael Levey</a>, curator of the <a href=\\\"National%20Portrait%20Gallery%20%28London%29\\\">National Portrait Gallery's</a> 1979–80 Lawrence exhibition, produced books on the artist in 1979 and 2005. Lawrence's entanglements with the Siddons family has been the subject of three books (by Oswald Knapp, <a href=\\\"Andr%C3%A9%20Maurois\\\">André Maurois</a>, and <a href=\\\"Naomi%20Royde-Smith\\\">Naomi Royde-Smith</a>) and a recent radio play.\\nLawrence's reputation as an artist fell during the Victorian era. Critic and artist <a href=\\\"Roger%20Fry\\\">Roger Fry</a> did something to restore it in the 1930s, when he described Lawrence as having a \\\"consummate mastery over the means of artistic expression\\\" with an \\\"unerring hand and eye\\\". At one time Lawrence was more popular in the United States and France than he was in Britain, and some of his best known portraits, including those of <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Farren\\\">Elizabeth Farren</a>, <a href=\\\"Pinkie%20%28Lawrence%20painting%29\\\">Sarah Barrett Moulton</a> (known to her family as Pinkie), and Charles Lambton (the \\\"Red Boy\\\") found their way to the United States during the early 20th century enthusiasm there for English portraits. Sir Michael Levey acknowledges that Lawrence is still dismissed by some art historians; his explanation is that \\\"He was a highly original artist, quite unexpected on the English scene: self-taught, self-absorbed in perfecting his own personal style, and in effect self-destructing, since he left behind no significant followers or creative influence. Leaving aside Sargent, his sole successor has been not in painting, but in fashionable, virtuoso photography.\\\"\\nThe most extensive collections of Lawrence's work can be found in the Royal Collections and the National Portrait Gallery in London. The <a href=\\\"Tate%20Britain\\\">Tate Britain</a>, the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%2C%20London\\\">National Gallery</a> and the <a href=\\\"Dulwich%20Picture%20Gallery\\\">Dulwich Picture Gallery</a> house smaller collections of his work in London. There are a few examples of his work in the <a href=\\\"Holburne%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">Holburne Museum of Art</a> and the <a href=\\\"Victoria%20Art%20Gallery\\\">Victoria Art Gallery</a> in Bath, and in <a href=\\\"Bristol%20City%20Museum%20and%20Art%20Gallery\\\">Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery</a>. In the United States, <a href=\\\"The%20Huntington%20Library\\\">The Huntington Library</a> houses <a href=\\\"Pinkie%20%28Lawrence%20painting%29\\\">\\\"Pinkie\\\"</a>, and Lawrence's portraits of <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Farren\\\">Elizabeth Farren</a>, Lady Harriet Maria Conyngham, and the Calmady children are in the <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. In Europe, the <a href=\\\"Mus%C3%A9e%20du%20Louvre\\\">Musée du Louvre</a> has a few example's of Lawrence's work, and the <a href=\\\"Vatican%20Pinacoteca\\\">Vatican Pinacoteca</a> has a <a href=\\\"swagger%20portrait\\\">swagger portrait</a> of <a href=\\\"George%20IV%20of%20England\\\">George IV</a> (presented by the king himself) as almost its only British work.\\nIn 2010 the <a href=\\\"National%20Portrait%20Gallery%20%28London%29\\\">National Portrait Gallery</a> held a retrospective exhibition of Lawrence's work. The director of the National Portrait Gallery, <a href=\\\"Sandy%20Nairne\\\">Sandy Nairne</a>, was quoted in <a href=\\\"the%20Guardian\\\">the Guardian</a> describing Lawrence as: \\\"a huge figure. But a huge figure who we believe deserves a great deal more attention. He is one of the great painters of the last 250 years and one of the great stars of portraiture on a European stage.\\\"\",\n \"Silwood Park\\nSilwood Park is the rural campus of <a href=\\\"Imperial%20College%20London\\\">Imperial College London</a>, England. It is situated near the village of <a href=\\\"Sunninghill%2C%20Berkshire\\\">Sunninghill</a>, near <a href=\\\"Ascot%2C%20Berkshire\\\">Ascot</a> in Berkshire. Since 1986, there have been major developments on the site with four new college buildings. Adjacent to these buildings is the Technology Transfer Centre: a <a href=\\\"science%20park\\\">science park</a> with units leased to commercial companies for research.\\nThere are a number of the divisions of Faculty of Natural Sciences that have a presence on the campus. Additionally, Silwood Park is home to the <a href=\\\"NERC%20Centre%20for%20Population%20Biology\\\">NERC Centre for Population Biology</a> (CPB), the <a href=\\\"IPARC\\\">International Pesticide Application Research Consortium</a> (IPARC), and the Imperial College Reactor Centre.\\nPrior to <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, Silwood Park was a private <a href=\\\"house\\\">residence</a>—the <a href=\\\"manor%20house\\\">manor house</a> of <a href=\\\"Sunninghill%2C%20Berkshire\\\">Sunninghill</a>—then during the war, it became a <a href=\\\"convalescent%20home\\\">convalescent home</a> for airmen. The original manor at which Prince Arthur stayed in 1499 was known as Eastmore and was situated on the hill near Silwood Farm. In about 1788, Sir James Sibbald built a Georgian mansion on part of the present house and demolished the old \\\"Eastmore\\\"; he called it Selwood or Silwood Park. The name stems from the Old English for Sallow (\\\"<a href=\\\"Salix%20caprea\\\">Salix caprea</a>\\\" Agg.) which presumably grew then along the banks of the streams that flow through the Park. The house was, in its turn, demolished, and the present mansion was completed in 1878.\\nIn 1947, Silwood Park was purchased by Imperial College for <a href=\\\"entomology\\\">entomological</a> research and field studies. Initially, pioneering developments in insect pest management took place, but more recently the emphasis has been on ecology and <a href=\\\"evolution\\\">evolution</a>ary biology. Staff and research students of the Zoology Department were the first college personnel at Silwood when the Field Station moved from <a href=\\\"Slough\\\">Slough</a>, but the department of <a href=\\\"Civil%20Engineering\\\">Civil Engineering</a> has used it since 1947 for courses in surveying. <a href=\\\"Botany\\\">Botany</a> and <a href=\\\"Meteorology\\\">Meteorology</a> started work there about thirty years ago and the nuclear reactor was opened in 1965. Over a thousand postgraduate students have been trained at Silwood since its establishment, about half of them taking PhDs. They have come from more than sixty countries, and Silwood-trained graduates have gone to almost every corner of the globe. There are over 200 graduate staff and students working there at any one time. Undergraduates from South Kensington attend for field courses and some final-year projects. In 1981, the departments of Zoology and Botany were merged to form the Department of Biology.\\nA low power nuclear <a href=\\\"research%20reactor\\\">research reactor</a> (100 kW thermal), named CONSORT II, was licensed at the site on 20 December 1962, completed February 1963, and achieved first <a href=\\\"Criticality%20%28status%29\\\">criticality</a> in 1965. The reactor will be decommissioned by 2021.\\nIn 1984, the <a href=\\\"CAB%20International\\\">CAB International</a> Institute of Biological Control (IIBC) moved its headquarters to Silwood Park. In 1989, the institute moved into its own new building at Silwood Park, which also houses the Michael Way Library, specialising in ecology, entomology and crop protection. From January 1998, IIBC and its sister Institutes of Entomology, Mycology and Parasitology were integrated on two sites as CABI Bioscience. The Silwood site was the centre for the <a href=\\\"LUBILOSA\\\">LUBILOSA</a> Programme, where an <a href=\\\"inter-disciplinary\\\">inter-disciplinary</a> team could be set up, combining IIBCs <a href=\\\"biological%20control\\\">biological control</a> skills with (bio)<a href=\\\"pesticide%20application\\\">pesticide application</a> (<a href=\\\"IPARC\\\">IPARC</a>) and host-pathogen ecology (CPB). CABI continued to focus on biological pest, disease and weed management in Silwood Park until consolidation at <a href=\\\"Egham\\\">Egham</a> (to become the UK Centre) in 2008.\\nSilwood Park provides a wide range of habitats for the study of animals and plants in the field and for the study of meteorological and geophysical phenomena: its special feature is the proximity of these to modern sophisticated laboratory equipment, such as the Environmental Analysis Section computers, the flight and <a href=\\\"photoperiod\\\">photoperiod</a> laboratories and in the numerous growth cabinets and controlled environment rooms.\\nMany of the Silwood Park staff have spent periods working on pest problems overseas. Their continuing contacts as visiting advisers, on lecturing programmes, and in international committees together with close liaison with CABI, the Natural Resources Institute, Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council and Natural Environment Research Council Institutes, and many connections through past and present students and academic visitors, means that work at Silwood Park maintains an international flavour. Support is obtained from Research Councils, other Government Bodies and Industry.\\nIn 2001, the Biology and Biochemistry Departments merged to form the Department of Biological Sciences within the Faculty of Life Sciences. In 2005, further restructuring occurred and the Centre for Environmental Policy, Cell and Molecular Biology, Molecular Biosciences and Biology were moved to the Faculty of Natural Sciences. In 2007 the Divisions of Biology, Cell and Molecular Biology and Molecular Biosciences were moved into the Department of Life Sciences within the Faculty of Natural Sciences. The Division of Biology, which hosts various MSc courses, is based at Silwood Park and at Imperial College's <a href=\\\"South%20Kensington\\\">South Kensington</a> campus in southwest London.\",\n \"Ayscoghe Boucherett\\n<a href=\\\"Lieutenant%20colonel%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\\\">Lieutenant-Colonel</a> Ayscoghe Boucherett, {'1': \\\", '2': \\\", '3': \\\", '4': \\\"} (16 April 1755 – 15 September 1815) was a British landowner, businessman and Member of Parliament for <a href=\\\"Great%20Grimsby\\\">Great Grimsby</a> from 1796 to 1803.\\nBorn into a family of the Lincolnshire landed gentry, Boucherett became involved in local politics in Lincolnshire, and (owing mainly to his marriage) with artistic and mercantile circles in London. He was the chairman of the <a href=\\\"Grimsby%20Haven%20Company\\\">Grimsby Haven Company</a>, which oversaw the reopening and expansion of <a href=\\\"Old%20Dock%2C%20Grimsby\\\">Grimsby's first dock</a>. He was a friend of the artist <a href=\\\"Sir%20Thomas%20Lawrence\\\">Sir Thomas Lawrence</a> and the proprietor of Willingham, Lincolnshire, where he constructed his country seat, <a href=\\\"Willingham%20House\\\">Willingham House</a>, in 1790. For his investment in the Haven Company, he received the support of <a href=\\\"Charles%20Anderson-Pelham%2C%201st%20Baron%20Yarborough\\\">Lord Yarborough</a>, one of its main investors and a principal land-owner in Grimsby; owing largely to Lord Yarborough's patronage, Boucherett was returned as the Member of Parliament for that borough at the 1796 election. He was not a frequent voter, but used his position to further the interests of his corporation. Nonetheless, the company met with financial difficulties after it opened the Harbour in 1800. In 1803, Boucherett resigned his seat in favour of Yarborough's heir and pursued a quieter political life. He died in a carriage accident in 1815.\\nBoucherett was born on 16 April 1755, the son of Ayscoghe Boucherett of <a href=\\\"North%20Willingham\\\">Willingham</a> and <a href=\\\"Stallingborough\\\">Stallingborough</a>, Lincolnshire, and his wife, Mary White. The elder Boucherett had been the <a href=\\\"High%20Sheriff%20of%20Lincolnshire\\\">High Sheriff of Lincolnshire</a> in 1754, and was a landed gentleman in Lincolnshire, whose family was descended from Huguenot merchants; they married into the Ayscoghe family and inherited the Willingham estate through this marriage. The elder Boucherett's daughter, Mary, had married <a href=\\\"Michael%20Barne%20%28politician%29\\\">Michael Barne</a> of Sotterley, Suffolk, an army officer and a member of parliament for <a href=\\\"Dunwich\\\">Dunwich</a>.\\nThe younger Boucherett was admitted at <a href=\\\"Queen%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">Queen's College, Cambridge</a>, in 1773, aged 18, but did not take a degree. He married, on 17 March 1789, Emelia Crockatt, daughter of Charles Crockatt, a merchant, of London and of Luxborough Hall, Essex, and his wife, Anna Muilman, who married, when widowed, the insurance broker and art connoisseur <a href=\\\"John%20Julius%20Angerstein\\\">John Julius Angerstein</a>. This union helped the younger Boucherett to garner connexions in London merchant circles. Emilia Boucherett died on 5 February 1837, aged 75. The Boucheretts had one son and three daughters:\\nBoucherett paid for the construction of a new family seat in 1790; Willingham House was a larger and grander mansion than the family's previous seat closer to Willingham, and was constructed in the neoclassical style, most likely by Robert Mitchell, two miles west of the earlier house.\\nThe family's connection with the art connoisseur John Julius Angerstein led to them becoming acquainted with certain artistic circles in the late eighteenth century; most notably, they established a close friendship with the portrait painter <a href=\\\"Sir%20Thomas%20Lawrence\\\">Sir Thomas Lawrence</a>, who would go on to be <a href=\\\"President%20of%20the%20Royal%20Academy\\\">President of the Royal Academy</a>. He visited Willingham House, the Boucherett family's country home, composing a number of studies in pastel of Boucherett's young children, beginning in 1793. The Boucherett family were also painted several times by Lawrence; he painted a group portrait of Emilia Boucherett, and her two eldest children, Ayscoghe and Emilia Maria, alongside Mrs Boucherett's half-sister, Juliana Angerstein; another group portrait, \\\"The Children of Ayscoghe Boucherett\\\", depicting the four children of Boucherett and his wife, (painted in 1808 and now held in the <a href=\\\"Louvre%20Museum\\\">Louvre Museum</a>), has been described as \\\"one of Lawrence's most celebrated group portraits\\\". A separate study of the three daughters, Emilia Mary, Maria and Juliana, was sold by the auction house <a href=\\\"Christie%27s\\\">Christie's</a> in 2012 for £121,000.\\nIn the 1790s, Boucherett began to rise through Lincolnshire's civic and mercantile circles, especially in the north of the County, where the family had their seat; his connexions helped him to become involved with a group of businessmen planning to reopen and expand Grimsby's harbour. His rise is charted in his appointments to several civic posts: to be High Steward of Grimsby from 1794 (he remained as such until his death), succeeding Christopher Clayton, and to be High Sheriff of Lincolnshire for 1795–6. As these plans for the harbour came to fruition, he was appointed chairman of the company tasked with performing the required work; it was the Grimsby Haven Company, which was created by an Act of Parliament in 1796 (36 Geo III, chap. 98) for the express purpose of building the dock and repairing the Haven. He secured the friendship and patronage of <a href=\\\"Charles%20Anderson-Pelham%2C%201st%20Baron%20Yarborough\\\">Charles Anderson Pelham, 1st Baron Yarborough</a>, a prominent local land-owner involved in the Haven Company, and was returned as the Member of Parliament for Great Grimsby in 1796 owing to this friendship.\\nYarborough, Boucherett's patron, was an opponent of the administration of <a href=\\\"William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger\\\">William Pitt the Younger</a> and supported the <a href=\\\"William%20Cavendish-Bentinck%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Portland\\\">Duke of Portland</a> during the 1790s. Boucherett was an infrequent voter, but he told the diarist <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Farington\\\">Joseph Farington</a> that, when he did vote, he tended to do so with <a href=\\\"Charles%20James%20Fox\\\">Charles James Fox</a>, rather than <a href=\\\"William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger\\\">Pitt the Younger</a>, although, he later became \\\"disgusted\\\" at Fox's style of opposition; he is also known to have voted against the <a href=\\\"Ferrol%20Expedition%20%281800%29\\\">Ferrol Expedition</a> in 1801. The seat did allow for him to further the interests of the Haven Company, with him proposing a bill to grant more funds in 1799. He found, though, that his funds and the financial success of the company were both in decline by 1801. Although re-elected in 1802, the following year he resigned in favour of Lord Yarborough's eldest son and heir, \\\"the Hon\\\". <a href=\\\"Charles%20Anderson-Pelham%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Yarborough\\\">Charles Anderson Pelham</a>, later 1st Earl and 2nd Baron Yarborough.\\nAlthough opened in 1800 at the cost of £100,000, the new harbour at Grimsby failed to attract the levels of trade the company had projected, caused largely by a lack of inland transport networks. The financial problems facing the Grimsby Haven Company led to factions and difficulty in its running and put strain on Boucherett's relations with Yarborough; having invested much money and time in the now failing company, Boucherett also found it draining of him financially.\\nAside from Parliamentary and business commitments, he served as a Deputy Lieutenant for Lincolnshire and a Justice of the Peace. Boucherett was also an officer in the Yeoman volunteers, being a Captain the Market Raisin <a href=\\\"Yeomanry\\\">Yeomanry</a> in 1798 and then a Lieutenant-Colonel in and Commandant of the North Lincolnshire Yeomanry from 1814 until his death. He died in a carriage accident on 15 September 1815. At his death, his assets barely covered the debts he had accrued in his lifetime. He was succeeded as the High Steward of Grimsby by \\\"the Hon\\\". <a href=\\\"George%20Anderson%20Pelham\\\">George Anderson Pelham</a>, the second son of the first Lord Yarborough.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Market Rasen is a town and civil parish within the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It lies on the River Rase, approximately 13 mi north-east from Lincoln, 18 mi east from Gainsborough and 16 mi south-west from Grimsby. The town is known for Market Rasen Racecourse. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 3,904.","North Willingham is a village and civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. The population of the civil parish (including Sixhills) was 181 at the 2011 census. It is situated 3.5 mi east from the town of Market Rasen on the A631 road between Market Rasen and Louth."],"string":"[\n \"Market Rasen is a town and civil parish within the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It lies on the River Rase, approximately 13 mi north-east from Lincoln, 18 mi east from Gainsborough and 16 mi south-west from Grimsby. The town is known for Market Rasen Racecourse. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 3,904.\",\n \"North Willingham is a village and civil parish in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. The population of the civil parish (including Sixhills) was 181 at the 2011 census. It is situated 3.5 mi east from the town of Market Rasen on the A631 road between Market Rasen and Louth.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":50,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which composer born in the Upper Palatinate and raised in Bohemia wrote an operate intended to celebrate the name day of Emperor Francis I?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Christoph Willibald Gluck"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Dyleň\nDyleň (German: \"Tillenberg\" ) is a mountain in the Karlovy Vary Region of western Bohemia, located roughly 100 m from the Czech Republic–Germany border. At 939 m above sea level, its summit is the second highest peak in the Upper Palatinate Range (Bavarian–Bohemian Forest).\nLocal tradition holds that Napoleon Bonaparte declared Tillenberg the geographical center of Europe in 1813.\nThe German name lent itself to the title of the epic poem \"Der Tillenberg: Ein Sagenschatz aus dem Egerlande\" (\"A Treasure-tale from the Egerland\") published in 1904 by Ernst Freimut (pseudonym of Johann (Hans) Sommert).\nOn its summit is a set of prominent buildings. These were used by the Soviet Union for electronic espionage into Germany during the Cold War. Now it's radio and television transmission tower.\n","La corona (Gluck)\nLa corona (\"The Crown\") is an opera by the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck. It takes the form of an \"azione teatrale\" in one act. The Italian-language libretto is by Pietro Metastasio. The opera was intended to celebrate the name day of Emperor Francis I on 4 October 1765 but the emperor died in August and it remained unperformed until the 20th century.\n","Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz\nNeumarkt in der Oberpfalz is the capital of the Neumarkt district in the administrative region of the Upper Palatinate, in Bavaria, Germany. With a population of about 40,000, Neumarkt is the seat of various projects, and acts as the economic and cultural center of the western Upper Palatinate, along with Nürnberg, Ingolstadt, and Regensburg.\nNeumarkt lies on the western edge of the Franconian Jura, nestled in a valley. The municipal region reaches as far as the Bavarian Jura to the east. The Neumarkt valley drains to the north through the Schwarzach River, a tributary of the Regnitz, eventually flowing into the Main, and to the south through the Sulz, a tributary of the Altmühl, which eventually flows into the Danube. The Ludwig Canal cuts through the area from North to South, bridging the European water divide. The elevation varies from 406 meters on the Beckenmühle River to the north, to 595 meters in the vicinity of Fuchsberg; as a reference, the elevation of city hall is given as 423 meters.\nThe municipal region has an area of 73.09 km². The following municipalities, all of which belong to the Neumarkt district, border the district capital. They are named clockwise, beginning in the north: Berg, Pilsach, Velburg, Deining, Sengenthal, Berngau and Postbauer-Heng.\nNeumarkt is located on the western edge of a former Coral Reef (now called the Franconian Jura) of the Tethys Ocean during the Jurassic. The floor of the valley is predominately sandy, whence came the earlier name \"Neumarkt auf dem Sand\" (Neumarkt on the Sand), on the sides are isolated regions of loam. The mountains are formed of hard Limestone containing numerous springs, including, for example, the source of the White Laber River near Voggenthal.\nThe core of the municipal area is the Old City and its still-recognized borders. The first housing developments built outside the city walls began in 1850 to the east, along Mühlstraße, Mariahilfstraße, and Badstraße. To the south, the Industrial area developed beginning around 1920. After 1945, the city expanded to the north and west, and eventually grew together with the municipalities of Woffenbach and Holzheim. Numerous other settlements developed around the city center, named, going clockwise from the north: Altenhof, Koppenmühle, Kohlenbrunnermühle, Mühlen, Wolfstein (at the site of the former Prison Work Camp), Weinberg, Schlosserhügel, and Hasenheide.\nDuring the 1972 Municipality Reforms, nine municipalities were merged with the city, substantially increasing the municipal area.\nTraces of the earliest settlement at Neumarkt go back as far as the Neolithic period. Around Neumarkt there are numerous burial mounds and multiple Celtic embankments. The town is assumed to have been first founded by the Bavarii in the 6th or 7th century, for example, the quarter of the city now named Pölling.\nThe precise date of the city's founding is unknown, but its founding as \"neuer Markt\" is assumed to have happened in the beginning of the 12th century, on the trade route between Nuremberg and Regensburg. The city was first mentioned in a document in 1135, and city fortifications were mentioned for the first time in 1315. In the 13th century Emperor Frederick II granted Neumarkt \"Reichsfreiheit\", and with it, the right to collect customs on trade between Nuremberg and Regensburg and itself. However, the city never enforced this status, because the city fell to the Wittelsbachs in 1329 through the Treaty of Pavia.\nIn the 15th and 16th centuries, Neumarkt was the residence of the rulers of the Palatinate. Count Johann von Pfalz-Neumarkt established the seat of his government here, and began to develop the city into a residency. Included in his work are the church of St. Johannes, the Court Chapel, and the castle of the counts of the Palatinate. Johann was succeeded by Counts Otto I, his son Otto II, and Frederick II, who later became an Elector, and moved to Heidelberg.\nAfter the Palatinate Counts left, Neumarkt lost much of its importance. Subsequently, the city played a part in political and economic life only for the surrounding area, and the growth of the city stopped almost entirely. The next perceptible period of growth did not occur until the middle of the 19th century. In the Thirty Years' War, Neumarkt was occupied by Swedish troops from 1633 to 1635 and from 1646 to 1649. Both times the city was plundered and partially destroyed.\nDuring the war of the First Coalition a dramatic encounter between the French and Austria troops occurred in Neumarkt in the Summer of 1796. The French barricaded themselves in the city and the Austrians began its complete destruction. Only through the intervention of a smith from Neumarkt, who single-handedly opened the upper gate, was something worse averted. Neumarkt attained the status of Bavarian imperial city, and was the seat of a district court after the Kingdom of Bavaria was formed by Napoleon in 1806.\nIn the 19th century Neumarkt gradually developed into an industrial center. Beginning in 1830, thousands of laborers worked on the \"Ludwigskanal\" in the vicinity of Neumarkt, the completion of which, in 1846, made Neumarkt a port city. The \"Express-Werken\", established in Neumarkt in 1884, were continental Europe's first bicycle factory.\nThe economic and political results of World War I were quickly noticeable in Neumarkt. Over 300 of its young men fell on the battlefield.\nIn September 1923 one of the first local chapters of the Nazi Party was founded in Neumarkt, which appeared publicly on September 23 for \"German Day\". The chapter was created shortly before the death of Dietrich Eckart, one of the founders of the Nazi party, who was born in Neumarkt. The removal of active party members, however, led to its quick disintegration. The party was not reorganized in Neumarkt until 1928. In 1934, in memory of Eckart, the town was officially given the added suffix \"Dietrich-Eckart-city\". In that year, Adolf Hitler inaugurated a monument in Eckart's honour in the city park. It has since been rededicated to Christopher of Bavaria (1416-1448), King of Denmark, who was probably born in the town.\nThe Lammsbräu Brewery is located in the town.\nNeumarkt offers sport activities like martial arts (Judo, Karate, Taekwondo, Aikido, Boxing and Thai boxing) as well as table tennis, wheelchair sports, athletics, bowling, volleyball, wrestling and tennis. league and wrestling.\n","Battle of Hiltersried\nThe Battle of Hiltersried took place on 21 September 1433 near the village Hiltersried in Bavaria. A Bavarian feudal army under Count Palatine John of Neumarkt took an expedition against in the Upper Palatinate against marauding Hussites and soundly defeated the Hussite section whose task was to ensure the protection for troops besieging Pilsen. The Hussites, who on that day were not expecting any attack, were totally surprised and did not have time to prepare to defend. After a sharp firing crossbows, the mounted knights attacked in wedge formation toward the entrance to the camp. At the same time the infantry attacked from the wings, binding part of the struggle of defenders. After the Hussite knighthood broke the defense and burst into the camp, the defense started the rout. Knights of the Palatinate took chase.\nDuring the fighting and the pursuit, about 1,500 Hussites were killed and 300 taken prisoner. Their commander escaped, however, and led 130 Taborites from the battlefield and headed for Pilsen. Losses among the knighthood of Palatinate were only 14 dead and about 120 wounded. The failure at Hiltersried led to internal clashes within the ranks of the Hussites, public opinion among the Hussites at Pilsen turned against the organizers Jan Pardus and Jan Řitka of Bezdědice and led to several days of imprisonment for the spiritual administrator of the Tabor municipality Prokop, who defended both captains. The Hussite movement was falling apart from the inside, contributing to the end of the Hussite wars. It was one of the major battles in which documents the Hussites.","Emperor Francis cherry\nThe Emperor Francis cherry is a sweet cherry cultivar \"(Prunus avium)\" that produces a bright red fruit which is resistant to cracking. In 1996, it was the source of the first cherry genetic map, which was created from a haploid-microspore derived population from the 'Emperor Francis' cultivar. It is also one of the sources of the 'Newfane' sweet cherry, which was created by crossing the 'Emperor Francis' with the 'Stella' cherry.\nIt can be cross-pollinated with 'Montmorency' cherry.\n","March of the Nordgau\nThe March of the Nordgau (German: \"Markgrafschaft Nordgau\" ) or Bavarian Nordgau (\"Bayerischer Nordgau\") was a medieval administrative unit (\"Gau\") on the frontier of the German stem duchy of Bavaria. It comprised the region north of the Danube and Regensburg (Ratisbon), roughly covered by the modern Upper Palatinate stretching up to the river Main and, especially after 1061, into the Egerland on the border with Bohemia.\nThe area east of Franconia proper up to the Bohemian Forest had been settled by Germanic Varisci and Armalausi tribes in ancient times; after the Migration Period it was occupied by the Merovingian king Chlodio. From the mid 6th century onwards, the region was Christianised by several wandering bishops, among them Saints Boniface and Emmeram of Regensburg. In 739, the Diocese of Regensburg was founded. The great fortress of Wogastisburg was built at the insistence of Saint Boniface by Charles Martel.\nWhen King Charlemagne deposed Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria in 788, he entered the Nordgau and brought the Carolingian Empire into contact with Bohemia permanently. For this reason, the incorporated Nordgau has been called the Bohemian March on occasion, although this term is also reserved for the later Margraviate of Moravia. By a 806 deed issued at Thionville, Charlemagne separated the Bavarian lands left of the Danube including the ducal residences of Regensburg and Lauterhofen, called \"pagum, qui dicitur Northgowe\". His chancellor Einhard reached the confirmation by Pope Leo III.\nThe Nordgau was again separated from Bavaria following the death of the Luitpolding duke Arnulf in 937. There has been some confusion over whether or not the Nordgau was separated from Bavaria at this date or only as late as 976, when the East Franconain count Berthold of Schweinfurt, who had helped to suppress the rebellion of the Bavarian duke Henry the Wrangler against Emperor Otto II, was appointed margrave to administrate the region as a distinct march.\nLikewise, Berthold's son Count Henry of Schweinfurt appeared as Margrave of the Nordgau in 994. He backed the election of Duke Henry IV of Bavaria as King of the Romans in 1002, however, he the new king (Henry II) responded with ingratitude. Count Henry soon after joined a revolt (\"Schweinfurter Fehde\") led by the Polish ruler Bolesław I the Brave, after which he was deposed and arrested. In 1004, King Henry II installed his brother-in-law Count Henry of Luxembourg as Bavarian duke and gave the temporal authority of the Nordgau region over to the Bishopric of Bamberg, which he heavily favoured throughout his career. However, the margravial title survived in a succession of families in the region. Count Henry's possessions were partly restored and his descendants used the title \"Margrave of Schweinfurt\".\nThroughout the 11th and 12th centuries, the Nordgau was a pathway for invading armies from Bohemia and Hungary and for the countering armies of the Holy Roman Empire.\nIn the mid 11th century, the Salian emperor Henry III had an Imperial castle erected at Cham to encounter the forces of Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia. It became the residence of the \"Rapotonen\" noble family, who eventually received the margravial title by royal grant about 1073, passing it down as \"Margrave of Vohburg\" to their descendants.\nMargrave Diepold III (d. 1146) was a loyal supporter of Emperor Henry V and founder of the abbeys in Reichenbach and Waldsassen. From about 1125, he had the fortress of Eger (Cheb) erected at the border with Bohemia. His daughter Adelaide married the Swabian duke and later emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1147.\nThe Egerland was incorporated as a Hohenstaufen imperial territory upon Diepold's death and the town of Eger itself was inherited by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1167. It attained the immediate status of an Imperial city, while large parts of the Norgau were controlled by the Bavarian House of Wittelsbach from the mid 13th century onwards. In 1322 the Wittelsbach emperor Louis IV gave the Egerland in pawn to the Kingdom of Bohemia. By the 1329 Treaty of Pavia, he ceded the remaining Nordgau region to his Palatinate nephews Rudolf II and Rupert I, whereafter it became known as the \"Upper Palatinate\".","Upper Palatinate Tower\nThe Upper Palatinate Tower (German: \"Oberpfalzturm\" ) is an observation tower on the 946 m high Platte mountain, the highest peak in the Steinwald and in Northern Upper Palatinate in southern Germany.\nThe first solid observation tower was built in 1971/72 by the Steinwald Nature Park Authority from Steinwald spruce trees. Due to dilapidation it had to be demolished on 1 April 1998.\nThe engineer, Ferdinand Lehner, from Tirschenreuth was then given the contract to design and build a new tower.\nOn 10 September 2000 the new observation tower was opened. It is 35 m high and was made of larch plywood. The contract was let by the town of Erbendorf. The total cost of construction came to about DM 400,000 and was supported by grants from the European Union, the Free State of Bavaria, the district of Tirschenreuth and the surrounding towns and villages. From the observation platform there are views of the Fichtelgebirge, the Egerland, the Stiftland and over the Upper Palatine Forest.\n","Bohemian Palatinate\nBohemian Palatinate (Czech: \"Česká Falc\" , German: \"Böhmische Oberpfalz\" ), since the 19th century also called New Bohemia (Czech: \"Nové Čechy\" , German: \"Neuböhmen\" ), is the historical area in the northeast of present-day Bavaria (Germany), which from 1353 onwards was incorporated into the Crown of Bohemia by Emperor Charles IV. Bohemian Palatinate lies in the north of the Upper Palatinate, its territory stretched up to Upper and Middle Franconia close to the Imperial City of Nuremberg.\nAlready in 1322, Emperor Louis IV had pawned the Egerland region to King John of Bohemia of the House of Luxembourg. John's son, Charles IV, who also succeeded Louis as Emperor, rivalled with the houses of Habsburg and Wittelsbach and aimed at the aggrandizement of his hereditary lands, in order to win influence on the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles obtained the approval by the Prince-electors to affiliate the Imperial City of Eger (Cheb) with the Bohemian kingdom. In 1349 he married Anne of Bavaria, daughter of the Wittelsbach count palatine Rudolf II of the Rhine, who held the adjacent lands in the Bavarian Nordgau (the later \"Upper Palatinate\" region). However, Charles had to abandon his hope to be heir to his father-in-law's estates upon Anna's early death in 1353.\nIn 1353 Charles gained 24 Palatinate estates from Rupert I in compensation for his debts. To these he joined other territories and the whole region incorporated into the Crown of Bohemia in 1355. Administrative center of this area was in Sulzbach-Rosenberg, while for representational purposes Charles built the Lauf Castle. The Emperor intensively supported the area through tax reliefs for craftsmen and traders, as well as other privileges for settlements and markets.\nIn 1373 Charles ceded the greater part of area back to the Wittelsbachs in exchange for the Electorate of Brandenburg. Wenceslaus IV lost the rest in 1401.","Erika Eichenseer\nErika Eichenseer née Jahn was born in Munich in 1934 and lives in Regensburg, Bavaria. She has led the revival of interest in Franz Xaver von Schönwerth, the 19th-century folklorist who collected fairy tales in the Upper Palatinate region of northern Bavaria, having found 500 tales of his in the municipal archives of Regensburg, most of which had never been published before. She is a writer, a poet, an authority on the folk heritage of the Upper Palatinate, and a well-known storyteller.\nErika Eichenseer completed her schooling in Erding in 1952. She then trained as a primary school teacher, graduated in 1954 at the Teachers’ Training College of Freising. She subsequently studied English and German, graduating in 1959 as a teacher for secondary modern schools. She married Adolf J. Eichenseer the same year. From 1959–1979 she taught in secondary schools in Munich and later in Regensburg, where she initiated school theatre projects, for which she wrote plays and adapted local tales, including some by Schönwerth.\nFrom 1979 to 1994 she worked in her husband’s institute for the development of traditional culture (Bezirksheimatpflegeamt Oberpfalz), specializing in regional literature, documentation and the reanimation of traditional customs and arts. In this function she guided 400 amateur theatre groups in the region, giving them specialized courses, reviewing the value of their performance material, created opportunities for new plays to be written, and wrote plays herself.\nFor twenty years, until her retirement in 1994, she produced and directed children's theatrical productions at the instrument-making courses in Pleystein and Waldmünchen. For ten years she was involved in the children’s theatre at Burg Wolfsegg, producing texts and directing productions.\nIn 1976 the Eichenseers were invited to the USA to the German Department of the University of Missouri to speak about their work. In 1977 they took part in a University summer programme there on traditional folk instruments. Erika Eichenseer lectured on puppet plays and participated in the German Department's folklore course. In 1995 they took part in the Missouri Big Muddy Folk Festival with lectures and story-telling.\nTo commemorate the centenary of the death of Franz Xaver von Schönwerth in 1986, Erika Eichenseer produced a booklet of his tales, complete with a teachers’ manual, for all schools in the Upper Palatinate; she helped to arrange a Schönwerth exhibition and a theatrical production which travelled to eight different locations in Bavaria, she opening and introducing each one.\nIn 2009, she came across around 500 unpublished Schönwerth tales in the Municipal Archive of Regensburg. She selected and edited 136 of them for her book \"Prinz Rosszwifl\" (Prince Dungbeetle), which was published the following year.\nIn 2010, Eichenseer and her husband founded the Franz Xaver von Schönwerth Society. She produced a further Schönwerth reader with a teachers’ manual for all schools in the Upper Palatinate. During the centenary year the Society organised a whole series of commemorations, Erika Eichenseer herself lectured, spoke and performed at about 100 events.\nIn March 2012 Eichenseer’s book \"Prinz Rosszwifl\" was reviewed by Victoria Sussens-Messerer in the English newspaper \"The Guardian\" and the discovery of 500 new Schönwerth fairytales hailed as a sensation. This led to considerable international interest. Penguin Classics decided to publish a collection of Schönwerth tales in English – in February 2015 – and translations into other languages may follow.\nIn 2012 an annual Schönwerth Day was inaugurated at the Open Air Museum in Neusath-Perschen. \"Don’t read to us, Grandma – tell us stories!\" was the theme of a fairy tale seminar and gala evening. This was followed by story-telling in the International Children’s and Young People’s Library in Munich.\nIn June 2013 Erika Eichenseer took part in a 2-day symposium organised by the School of Education in Trinity College Dublin on \"The Role of Fairy Tale in Contemporary Theatre\".\nThe premiere of the musical based on Schönwerth’s tale \"Das Fliegende Kästchen\" (The Flying Trunk) was given on 7 July 2013 in Regensburg. The idea and libretto were by Eichenseer, the music by Mathias Wehr; the work was performed by the Cantemus Choir of Regensburg and conducted by Matthias Schlier, and was directed by Gregor Turecek. It was part of the Schaulust Festival Junges Theater Regensburg.\nOn 21 September 2014 the Schönwerth Fairy Tale Path, which had been initiated by Erika and Adolf J. Eichenseer, was inaugurated in Sinzing by the Lord Mayor of Regensburg.\nSince 1985: at the Weiden Literary Festival [Weidener Literaturtage] seminars and gala performances for authors from the Upper Palatinate\nSince 1989: Wöi uns der Schnobl g’wachsn is – Dialect Poetry Readings at the Upper Palatinate Open Air Museum in Neusath-Perschen\nSince 2010: For the Franz Xaver von Schönwerth Society\n2004: Hanns-Seidl-Stiftung [Trust] Folk Music Prize\n2004: Bavarian Forest Association Cultural Prize\n2005: Bavarian Radio Gold Medal\n2009: Waldschmidt Prize\n2016: Upper Palatinate Jura Literary Prize (Literaturpreis des Oberpfälzer Jura)\nEichenseer has published poetry and essays in the journals \"Schönere Heimat\", \"Nordgau-Festschrift\", \"Charivari\", \"Literatur in Bayern\"","Egerland\nThe Egerland (; <a href=\"German%20language\">German</a>: \"Egerland\" ; <a href=\"Northern%20Austro-Bavarian\">Egerland German dialect</a>: \"Eghalånd\") is a historical region in the far north west of <a href=\"Bohemia\">Bohemia</a> in the <a href=\"Czech%20Republic\">Czech Republic</a> at the border with <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>. It is named after the German name \"Eger\" for the city of <a href=\"Cheb\">Cheb</a> and the main river <a href=\"Oh%C5%99e\">Ohře</a>. Recently the northern parts around the town of <a href=\"A%C5%A1\">Aš</a> are also called Böhmisches Vogtland \"(Fojtsko)\" related to the adjacent German <a href=\"Vogtland\">Vogtland</a> region in <a href=\"Saxony\">Saxony</a>, <a href=\"Thuringia\">Thuringia</a> and <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a>, today constituent parts of the \"\" <a href=\"Euroregion\">Euroregion</a> initiative.\nThe Egerland forms the northwestern edge of the Czech Republic. Originally, it was a small region of less than 1000 km2 around the historic city of Cheb, roughly corresponding with the present-day <a href=\"Cheb%20District\">Cheb District</a> of the <a href=\"Karlovy%20Vary%20Region\">Karlovy Vary Region</a>, originally with the exception of Aš, but including the headwaters of the Ohře river and the area of <a href=\"Marktredwitz\">Marktredwitz</a> in today's <a href=\"Upper%20Franconia\">Upper Franconia</a>.\nIn contrast, after the beginning of the <a href=\"German%20occupation%20of%20Czechoslovakia\">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a> in 1938, Cheb and the historic Egerland were incorporated as part of the \"\"<a href=\"Sudetenland\">Sudetenland</a>\"\" into an extended area of 7466 km2 . Though the seat of the administration was established at <a href=\"Karlovy%20Vary\">Karlovy Vary</a> (Carlsbad) the entity was officially named \"<a href=\"Regierungsbezirk\">Regierungsbezirk</a> Eger\" in order to reduce territorial claims. It included large Bohemian territories up to the outskirts of <a href=\"Plze%C5%88\">Plzeň</a>, comprising cities like <a href=\"Sokolov%20%28Sokolov%20District%29\">Falknov</a> (today Sokolov), <a href=\"Kraslice\">Kraslice</a>, <a href=\"Chodov%20%28Sokolov%20District%29\">Chodov</a>, <a href=\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\">Mariánské Lázně</a> (Marienbad) and <a href=\"Tachov\">Tachov</a>, which never belonged to historical region.\nThe settlement of \"Eger\" in the <a href=\"Germania%20Slavica\">Bavaria Slavica</a> was first mentioned in 1061 records of trade routes laid out in the course of the German \"<a href=\"Ostsiedlung\">Ostsiedlung</a>\" migration. In 1135 the \"regio Egere\" is recorded as a part of the Bavarian <a href=\"March%20of%20the%20Nordgau\">March of the Nordgau</a> under the rule of Count <a href=\"Diepold%20III%2C%20Margrave%20of%20Vohburg\">Diepold III of Vohburg</a>. After his death in 1146, the Egerland was inherited by the later Emperor <a href=\"Frederick%20I%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Frederick I Barbarossa</a> of <a href=\"House%20of%20Hohenstaufen\">Hohenstaufen</a> by marriage with Diepold's daughter <a href=\"Adelheid%20of%20Vohburg\">Adelheid</a>. The Staufer finally severed the \"Provincia Egrensis\" from Bavaria and built it up as an exemplary model of a \"Reichsgut\" territory under immediate rule of the <a href=\"Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Holy Roman Emperor</a>. Along this development Cheb became the site of a \"<a href=\"Kaiserpfalz\">Kaiserpfalz</a>\" residence \"(Chebský hrad)\", the only one in the present-day Czech Republic.\nCheb, a <a href=\"free%20imperial%20city\">free imperial city</a> since 1277, and the \"<a href=\"Imperial%20immediacy\">reichsunmittelbar</a>\" Egerland were given as a lien to King <a href=\"John%20of%20Bohemia\">John of Bohemia</a> in 1322 by Emperor <a href=\"Louis%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Louis IV of Wittelsbach</a>. In return for John's support against Louis' rival <a href=\"Frederick%20the%20Fair\">Frederick of Habsburg</a> at the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20M%C3%BChldorf\">Battle of Mühldorf</a>, he received Eger as a \"Reichspfandschaft\" (Imperial lien) with the \"guarantee of complete independence from the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Bohemia\">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>\". This reservation however became meaningless as Louis never redeemed the pawn, and with the accession of Emperor <a href=\"Charles%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles IV of Luxembourg</a> in 1346, the crowns of the <a href=\"Holy%20Roman%20Empire\">Holy Roman Empire</a> and Bohemia were united in one hand. Charles' successors from the <a href=\"House%20of%20Luxembourg\">House of Luxembourg</a> and (from 1526) <a href=\"House%20of%20Habsburg\">Habsburg</a> continuously eliminated the autonomy of the Egerland against the resistance of the Cheb citizens and the local nobility. While the present-day Franconian parts up to the <a href=\"Fichtelgebirge\">Fichtelgebirge</a> were acquired by the <a href=\"Principality%20of%20Bayreuth\">Principality of Bayreuth</a> under <a href=\"House%20of%20Hohenzollern\">Hohenzollern</a> rule, the remaining territory was administrated within the Bohemian \"<a href=\"kraj\">kraj</a>\" of <a href=\"Loket%20%28Sokolov%20District%29\">Loket</a> from 1751.\nThe incorporation of the Bohemian kingdom into the <a href=\"Habsburg%20Monarchy\">Habsburg Monarchy</a> had created ongoing conflicts at first along the fault-lines between the <a href=\"Catholicism\">Catholic</a> dynasty and the <a href=\"Protestantism\">Protestant</a> nobility culminating in the <a href=\"Thirty%20Years%27%20War\">Thirty Years' War</a>. Cheb and the Egerland insisting on their independence tried to maintain a neutral position, they nevertheless were seized as a stronghold by <a href=\"Albrecht%20von%20Wallenstein\">Albrecht von Wallenstein</a>, who was murdered at Cheb on 25 February 1634. In the following decades the <a href=\"Absolute%20monarchy\">absolute</a> Habsburg rulers aimed at a <a href=\"centralized%20government\">centralized government</a>. Emperor <a href=\"Joseph%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Joseph II of Habsburg</a> on the one hand issued an <a href=\"1782%20Edict%20of%20Tolerance\">Edict of Religious Tolerance</a> in 1781, but also denied the Bohemian autonomy by renouncing the ceremony of the coronation as Bohemian king. With the determination of <a href=\"German%20language\">German</a> as official language in all Habsburg lands (instead of <a href=\"Latin%20language\">Latin</a>), he laid the foundations for future <a href=\"ethnic%20conflict\">ethnic conflict</a>s. In the course of the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the onset of the <a href=\"Austrian%20Empire\">Austrian Empire</a>, the eastern part of Egerland finally became an ordinary district of the Austrian province of Bohemia.\nThe suppression during the <a href=\"Age%20of%20Metternich\">Age of Metternich</a> led to a second-class status of the <a href=\"Czech%20people\">Czech people</a> in the Austrian crown land of Bohemia, despite them being much more numerous than the German-speaking population. From about 1830 on Czech scholars like <a href=\"Franti%C5%A1ek%20Palack%C3%BD\">František Palacký</a> encouraged the <a href=\"Austroslavism\">Austroslavism</a> movement demanding autonomy for the Bohemian crown lands and admission of the <a href=\"Czech%20language\">Czech language</a>. In the aftermath of the 1848 <a href=\"Revolutions%20of%201848\">Spring of Nations</a>, the Czechs, as well as some other Slavic nations, began <a href=\"Pan-Slavic\">Pan-Slavic</a> movements aiming at complete independence, fiercely opposed by <a href=\"Pan-Germanism\">Pan-German</a> organisations like the <a href=\"German%20Workers%27%20Party%20%28Austria-Hungary%29\">German Worker's Party</a> based in Cheb. The rise of <a href=\"ethnic%20nationalism\">ethnic nationalism</a> turned out to be fatal, as, while the central parts of Bohemia were only inhabited by a smaller German-speaking elite, in border regions like the Egerland people who spoke the German language were more numerous.\nAt the end of World War I, the German-speaking population of former <a href=\"Austria%E2%80%93Hungary\">Austria–Hungary</a> proclaimed the Republic of <a href=\"German%20Austria\">German Austria</a> including the Egerland and further peripheral regions of <a href=\"German%20Bohemia\">German Bohemia</a>, that were to become part of <a href=\"Czechoslovakia\">Czechoslovakia</a>. They demanded the unification with <a href=\"Weimar%20Republic\">Germany</a>, referring to the <a href=\"self-determination\">self-determination</a> doctrine proclaimed by U.S. president <a href=\"Woodrow%20Wilson\">Woodrow Wilson</a> that had been the basis for the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Nevertheless, the Czech majority in the total of Bohemia insisted to \"restore their countries in their historical borders\", as a revision of the former <a href=\"Germanization\">Germanization</a>. Both parties acted unilaterally, the Czechs prevailed establishing the Czechoslovakian Republic comprising all parts of Bohemia including the Egerland, while the German minority drew a completely new border between predominantly Czech- and predominantly German-speaking parts of the country.\nWith the 1933 <a href=\"Machtergreifung\">Nazi seizure of power</a> in Germany, the separatists of the <a href=\"Sudeten%20German%20Party\">Sudeten German Party</a> under <a href=\"Konrad%20Henlein\">Konrad Henlein</a> became more and more dominant, calling themselves <a href=\"Germans%20in%20Czechoslovakia%20%281918%E2%80%931938%29\">Sudeten German</a>s. After <a href=\"Adolf%20Hitler\">Hitler</a> had pushed the situation towards an armed conflict, the prime ministers of <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">Britain</a> and <a href=\"French%20Third%20Republic\">France</a> in the 1938 <a href=\"Munich%20Agreement\">Munich Agreement</a> backed the annexation of the Sudetenland with the Egerland by <a href=\"Nazi%20Germany\">Nazi Germany</a>, resulting in flight and expulsion of Czech people. At that time, the term \"Egerland\" came in use for the western district of the Sudetenland, itself a <a href=\"Reichsgau\">Reichsgau</a> from 1939 on.\nFollowing the German defeat in World War II, the region was rejoined to Czechoslovakia in 1945 and most of the <a href=\"Expulsion%20of%20Germans%20from%20Czechoslovakia\">ethnic Germans were expelled</a> to Germany on the basis of the <a href=\"Bene%C5%A1%20decrees\">Beneš decrees</a>, nearly 90,000 from Egerland proper and almost 800,000 from the short-lived \"Regierungsbezirk Eger\".\n","Czech Republic–Germany border\nThe Czech Republic–Germany border is the <a href=\"international%20border\">international border</a> between the <a href=\"Czech%20Republic\">Czech Republic</a> and <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>. It forms a 815 km arc extending from <a href=\"Austria\">Austria</a> at the south to <a href=\"Poland\">Poland</a> at the north.\nSeveral rivers cross this border, or form portions of it. These include:\nThe border comes from the old border between German Empire and the Austrian Empire.\nIn the period 1945-1990, the border formed part of the <a href=\"Iron%20curtain\">Iron curtain</a> and was heavily fenced and strictly guarded.\nThe Czech Republic joined the <a href=\"Schengen%20Area\">Schengen Area</a> in 2007. This meant that all passport checks were removed along the border in December 2007. The limitations on Czechs working in Germany expired in April 2011.\n","Karlovy Vary Region\nThe Karlovy Vary Region or Carlsbad Region (<a href=\"Czech%20language\">Czech</a>: \"Karlovarský kraj\" ) is an administrative unit (<a href=\"Czech%20language\">Czech</a>: \"kraj\" ) of the <a href=\"Czech%20Republic\">Czech Republic</a>, located in the westernmost part of its historical region of <a href=\"Bohemia\">Bohemia</a>. It is named after its capital <a href=\"Karlovy%20Vary\">Karlovy Vary</a>. The region is world-famous for its <a href=\"spa\">spa</a>s, including Karlovy Vary and <a href=\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\">Mariánské Lázně</a>.\nThe Karlovy Vary Region is divided into 3 districts:\nAt a lower level, the region has 132 municipalities, comprising 54 in the Karlovy Vary District, 40 in the Cheb District and 38 in the Sokolov District.\nAs of 1 January 2012 the population of the Karlovy Vary Region was 303,165 with 149,432 males and 153,733 females, accounting for 49.3% and 50.7% of the population respectively.\nThe region is well known for its spas and is responsible over half of the county's spa industry. Twelve spas can be found in the city of Karlovy Vary alone. Other famous spa towns in the region include <a href=\"Franti%C5%A1kovy%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\">Františkovy Lázně</a>, <a href=\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\">Mariánské Lázně</a>, <a href=\"L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B%20Kyn%C5%BEvart\">Lázně Kynžvart</a> and <a href=\"J%C3%A1chymov\">Jáchymov</a>. The spas are visited not only by Czechs but by people from the rest of Europe, Russia, Israel and North America as well. Karlovy Vary spa wafers, a food item from the region, was awarded <a href=\"protected%20designation%20of%20origin\">protected designation of origin</a> (PDO) status by the European Commission in 2011.\nThe water from the region is used in locally produced beverages including \"<a href=\"Mattoni\">Mattoni</a>\" from Karlovy Vary and \"<a href=\"Aquila%20%28spring%20water%29\">Aquila</a>\" from the village of <a href=\"Kyselka\">Kyselka</a>.\nThe region is the home of two power stations, \"Vřesová\" and \"Tisová\", both in the Sokolov District. The region is also part of the so-called <a href=\"Black%20Triangle%20%28region%29\">Black Triangle</a>, an area of heavy industrialization and environmental damage on the three-way border of Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic.\nThe Karlovy Region is served by <a href=\"Karlovy%20Vary%20Airport\">Karlovy Vary Airport</a>, which handled more than 100,000 passengers in 2012. The region is also home to two other airports, neither of which are used for passenger flights. These are <a href=\"Cheb%20Airport\">Cheb Airport</a>, the oldest airport in the country, and <a href=\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B%20Airport\">Mariánské Lázně Airport</a>.\nThe region lacks any motorways. The unfinished <a href=\"R6%20expressway%20%28Czech%20Republic%29\">R6 expressway</a> passes through the region, linking Cheb and Karlovy Vary to Prague. The length of operated railway lines in the region is 493 km .\nThe <a href=\"Czech%20University%20of%20Life%20Sciences%20Prague\">Czech University of Life Sciences Prague</a> opened a centre in the village of <a href=\"Dalovice%20%28Karlovy%20Vary%20District%29\">Dalovice</a> in the <a href=\"Karlovy%20Vary%20District\">Karlovy Vary District</a> in 2007. The <a href=\"private%20school\">private</a> <a href=\"College%20of%20Karlovy%20Vary\">College of Karlovy Vary</a> is also located in the region, in addition to regional centres of the <a href=\"Banking%20Institute%20/%20College%20of%20Banking\">Banking Institute / College of Banking</a> in Karlovy Vary and the <a href=\"University%20of%20West%20Bohemia\">University of West Bohemia</a> in Cheb and Sokolov.\n","Azione teatrale\nAzione teatrale (English \"theatrical action\", plural \"azioni teatrali\") is a genre of <a href=\"opera\">opera</a>, popular in <a href=\"Italy\">Italy</a> and southern Europe in the late 17th and 18th centuries. It is also sometimes conflated with differing works such as \"azione scenica\", \"componimento dramatico\" or \"componimento da camera\".\nAn \"azione teatrale\" was typically shorter in scale, with few actors, usually no chorus, and either presented in a single act or divided into two 'parts.' These musical plays were usually presented for dignitaries in their private palaces, or in the aristocratic theaters of their hosts. Dedicatory in nature, the plots as perfected by the leading light of The Enlightenment stage, <a href=\"Pietro%20Metastasio\">Metastasio</a>, revolve around the trial and personal struggle of an individual to overcome hardship, privation, or temptation on his road to being a better man.\nLarger works, with more charterers, festive choruses, and often involving historical or mythological characters, were called a \"<a href=\"festa%20teatrale\">festa teatrale</a>\".\nExamples of the genre include <a href=\"Tommaso%20Traetta\">Traetta</a>'s \"Armida\" (1761), <a href=\"Wolfgang%20Amadeus%20Mozart\">Mozart</a>'s \"<a href=\"Il%20sogno%20di%20Scipione\">Il sogno di Scipione</a>\" (1772) and <a href=\"Joseph%20Haydn\">Haydn</a>'s \"<a href=\"L%27isola%20disabitata\">L'isola disabitata</a>\" (1779). <a href=\"Christoph%20Willibald%20Gluck\">Gluck</a>'s \"<a href=\"Orfeo%20ed%20Euridice\">Orfeo ed Euridice</a>\" (1762) also belongs to this genre, though in many ways it is atypical.\nThe long term influence of this type of stage work can be felt in <a href=\"Charles%20Dickens\">Charles Dickens</a> <a href=\"A%20Christmas%20Carol\">A Christmas Carol</a>, where <a href=\"Ebenezer%20Scrooge\">Scrooge</a> is confronted and offered a way to live to his full potential. As such is very much based on Metastasio's \"<a href=\"Il%20sogno%20di%20Scipione\">Il sogno di Scipione</a>.\"\n","Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor\nFrancis I (German: \"Franz Stefan\" , French: \"François Étienne\" ; 8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) was <a href=\"Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Holy Roman Emperor</a> and Grand Duke of <a href=\"Tuscany\">Tuscany</a>, though his wife effectively executed the real powers of those positions. With his wife, <a href=\"Maria%20Theresa%20of%20Austria\">Maria Theresa</a>, he was the founder of the <a href=\"Habsburg-Lorraine\">Habsburg-Lorraine</a> dynasty. From 1728 until 1737 he was <a href=\"Duke%20of%20Lorraine\">Duke of Lorraine</a>. Francis traded the duchy to the ex-Polish king <a href=\"Stanis%C5%82aw_Leszczy%C5%84ski\">Stanisław Leszczyński</a> in exchange for the <a href=\"Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany\">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> as one of the terms ending the <a href=\"War_of_the_Polish_Succession\">War of the Polish Succession</a> in November 1738. The duchy and the ducal title to Lorraine and <a href=\"Duchy_of_Bar\">Bar</a> passed to <a href=\"Louis_XV_of_France\">King Louis XV of France</a> upon Leszczynski's death in 1766, though Francis and his successors retained the right to style themselves as dukes of Lorraine and Bar.\nFrancis was born in <a href=\"Nancy%2C%20France\">Nancy</a>, <a href=\"Duchy%20of%20Lorraine\">Lorraine</a> (now in France), the oldest surviving son of <a href=\"Leopold%2C%20Duke%20of%20Lorraine\">Leopold, Duke of Lorraine</a>, and his wife <a href=\"%C3%89lisabeth%20Charlotte%20d%27Orl%C3%A9ans\">Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans</a>. He was connected with the <a href=\"Habsburg\">Habsburg</a>s through his grandmother <a href=\"Eleanor%20of%20Austria%2C%20Queen%20of%20Poland\">Eleonor</a>, daughter of Emperor <a href=\"Ferdinand%20III%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Ferdinand III</a>. He was very close to his brother <a href=\"Prince_Charles_Alexander_of_Lorraine\">Charles</a> and sister <a href=\"Princess%20Anne%20Charlotte%20of%20Lorraine\">Anne Charlotte</a>.\nEmperor <a href=\"Charles%20VI%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles VI</a> favoured the family, who, besides being his cousins, had served the house of <a href=\"Austria\">Austria</a> with distinction. He had designed to marry his daughter <a href=\"Maria%20Theresa\">Maria Theresa</a> to Francis' older brother <a href=\"L%C3%A9opold%20Cl%C3%A9ment%2C%20Hereditary%20Prince%20of%20Lorraine\">Leopold Clement</a>. On Leopold Clement's death, Charles adopted the younger brother as his future son-in-law. Francis was brought up in <a href=\"Vienna\">Vienna</a> with Maria Theresa with the understanding that they were to be married, and a real affection arose between them.\nAt the age of 15, when he was brought to Vienna, he was established in the <a href=\"Silesia\">Silesia</a>n <a href=\"Duchy%20of%20Teschen\">Duchy of Teschen</a>, which had been <a href=\"Mediatisation\">mediatised</a> and granted to his father by the emperor in 1722. Francis succeeded his father as <a href=\"Duke%20of%20Lorraine\">Duke of Lorraine</a> in 1729. In 1731 he was initiated into freemasonry (<a href=\"Premier%20Grand%20Lodge%20of%20England\">Grand Lodge of England</a>) by <a href=\"John%20Theophilus%20Desaguliers\">John Theophilus Desaguliers</a> at a specially convened lodge in <a href=\"The%20Hague\">The Hague</a> at the house of the British Ambassador, <a href=\"Philip%20Stanhope%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Chesterfield\">Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield</a>. During a subsequent visit to England, Francis was made a Master Mason at another specially convened lodge at <a href=\"Houghton%20Hall\">Houghton Hall</a>, the <a href=\"Norfolk\">Norfolk</a> estate of British Prime Minister <a href=\"Robert%20Walpole\">Robert Walpole</a>.\nMaria Theresa arranged for Francis to become \"<a href=\"Lord%20Lieutenant\">Lord Lieutenant</a>\" (locumtenens) of Hungary in 1732. He was not excited about this position, but Maria Theresa wanted him closer to her. In June 1732 he agreed to go to <a href=\"Pressburg\">Pressburg</a>.\nWhen the <a href=\"War%20of%20the%20Polish%20Succession\">War of the Polish Succession</a> broke out in 1733, France used it as an opportunity to seize Lorraine, since France's prime minister, <a href=\"Cardinal%20Fleury\">Cardinal Fleury</a>, was concerned that, as a Habsburg possession, it would bring Austrian power too close to France.\nA preliminary peace was concluded in October 1735 and ratified in the <a href=\"Treaty%20of%20Vienna%20%281738%29\">Treaty of Vienna</a> in November 1738. Under its terms, <a href=\"Stanis%C5%82aw%20I\">Stanisław I</a>, the father-in-law of <a href=\"Louis%20XV%20of%20France\">King Louis XV</a> and the losing claimant to the Polish throne, received Lorraine, while Francis, in compensation for his loss, was made heir to the <a href=\"Grand%20Duchy%20of%20Tuscany\">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>, which he would inherit in 1737.\nAlthough fighting stopped after the preliminary peace, the final peace settlement had to wait until the death of the last <a href=\"House%20of%20Medici\">Medici</a> Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href=\"Gian%20Gastone%20de%27%20Medici%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany\">Gian Gastone de' Medici</a> in 1737, to allow the territorial exchanges provided for by the peace settlement to go into effect.\nIn March 1736 the Emperor persuaded Francis, his future son-in-law, to secretly exchange Lorraine for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. France had demanded that Maria Theresa's fiancé surrender his ancestral <a href=\"Lorraine%20%28province%29\">Duchy of Lorraine</a> to accommodate the <a href=\"Stanis%C5%82aw%20Leszczy%C5%84ski\">deposed King of Poland</a>. The Emperor considered other possibilities (such as marrying her to the future <a href=\"Charles%20III%20of%20Spain\">Charles III of Spain</a>) before announcing the engagement of the couple. If something were to go wrong, Francis would become governor of the <a href=\"Austrian%20Netherlands\">Austrian Netherlands</a>.\n<a href=\"Elisabeth%20of%20Parma\">Elisabeth of Parma</a> had also wanted the Grand Duchy of Tuscany for her son <a href=\"Charles%20III%20of%20Spain\">Charles III of Spain</a>; Gian Gastone de' Medici was childless and was related to Elisabeth via her great-grandmother <a href=\"Margherita%20de%27%20Medici\">Margherita de' Medici</a>. As a result, Elisabeth's sons could claim by right of being a descendant of Margherita.\nOn 31 January 1736 Francis had agreed to marry Maria Theresa. He hesitated three times (and laid down the feather before signing). Especially his mother <a href=\"%C3%89lisabeth%20Charlotte%20d%27Orl%C3%A9ans\">Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans</a> and his brother <a href=\"Prince%20Charles%20Alexander%20of%20Lorraine\">Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine</a> were against the loss of Lorraine. On 1 February, Maria Theresa sent Francis a letter: she would withdraw from her future reign, when a male successor for her father appeared.\nThey married on 12 February in the <a href=\"Augustinian%20Church%2C%20Vienna\">Augustinian Church, Vienna</a>. The wedding was held on 14 February 1736. The (secret) treaty between the Emperor and Francis was signed on 4 May 1736. In January 1737, the Spanish troops withdrew from Tuscany, and were replaced by 6,000 Austrians. On 24 January 1737 Francis received Tuscany from his father-in-law. Until then, Maria Theresa was Duchess of Lorraine.\n<a href=\"Gian%20Gastone%20de%27%20Medici\">Gian Gastone de' Medici</a>, who died on 9 July 1737, was the second cousin of Francis (Gian Gastone and Francis' father Leopold were both great-grandchildren of <a href=\"Francis%20II%2C%20Duke%20of%20Lorraine\">Francis II, Duke of Lorraine</a>), who also had <a href=\"House%20of%20Medici\">Medici</a> blood through his maternal great-great-grandmother <a href=\"Marie%20de%27%20Medici\">Marie de' Medici</a>, <a href=\"List%20of%20French%20consorts\">Queen consort of France and Navarre</a>. In June 1737 Francis went to Hungary again to fight against the Turks. In October 1738 he was back in Vienna. On 17 December 1738 the couple travelled south, accompanied by his brother Charles to visit Florence for three months. They arrived on 20 January 1739.\nIn 1744 Francis' brother Charles married a younger sister of Maria Theresa, <a href=\"Archduchess%20Maria%20Anna%20of%20Austria%20%281718%E2%80%931744%29\">Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria</a>. In 1744 Charles became governor of the Austrian Netherlands, a post he held until his death in 1780.\nMaria Theresa secured in the <a href=\"Treaty%20of%20F%C3%BCssen\">Treaty of Füssen</a> his election to the Empire on 13 September 1745, in succession to <a href=\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles VII</a>, and she made him co-<a href=\"regent\">regent</a> of her hereditary dominions.\nFrancis was well content to leave the wielding of power to his able wife. He had a natural fund of good sense and brilliant business capacity and was a useful assistant to Maria Theresa in the laborious task of governing the complicated Austrian dominions, but he was not active in politics. However, his wife left him in charge of the financial affairs, which he managed well until his death. Heavily indebted and on the verge of bankruptcy at the end of the <a href=\"Seven%20Years%27%20War\">Seven Years' War</a>, the Austrian Empire was in a better financial condition than France or England in the 1780s. He also took a great interest in the natural sciences. He was a member of the Freemasons.\nFrancis was a serial adulterer, many of his affairs well-known and indiscreet, notably one with <a href=\"Maria%20Wilhelmina%20von%20Neipperg\">Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg</a>, who was thirty years his junior. This particular affair was remarked upon in the letters and journals of visitors to the court and in those of his children.\nHe died suddenly in his carriage while returning from the opera at <a href=\"Innsbruck\">Innsbruck</a> on 18 August 1765. He is buried in tomb number 55 in the <a href=\"Imperial%20Crypt\">Imperial Crypt</a> in Vienna.\nMaria Theresa and Francis I had sixteen children, amongst them the last pre-revolutionary queen consort of France, their youngest daughter, <a href=\"Marie%20Antoinette\">Marie Antoinette</a> (1755–1793). Francis was succeeded as Emperor by his eldest son, <a href=\"Joseph%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Joseph II</a>, and as Grand Duke of Tuscany by his younger son, <a href=\"Leopold%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Peter Leopold (later Emperor Leopold II)</a>. Maria Theresa retained the government of her dominions until her own death in 1780.\n\"Francis I, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany and of Jerusalem, Archduke of Austria,\nDuke of Lorraine, Bar, and Grand Duke of Tuscany, Duke of Calabria, in Silesia of Teschen, Prince of Charleville, Margrave of Pont-à-Mousson and Nomeny, Count of Provence, Vaudémont, Blâmont, Zütphen, Saarwerden, Salm, Falkenstein, etc. etc.\"\n","Dietrich Eckart\nDietrich Eckart (23 March 1868 – 26 December 1923) was a <a href=\"Germans\">German</a> journalist, playwright, poet, and politician who was one of the founders of the \"Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\" (<a href=\"German%20Workers%27%20Party\">German Workers' Party</a> - DAP), which later evolved into the <a href=\"Nazi%20Party\">Nazi Party</a> (NSDAP). He was a key influence on <a href=\"Adolf%20Hitler\">Adolf Hitler</a> in the early years of the Nazi Party and was a participant in the 1923 <a href=\"Beer%20Hall%20Putsch\">Beer Hall Putsch</a>.\nHe died shortly after the \"putsch\", and was elevated during the Nazi era to the status of a major thinker and writer.\nEckart was born Johann Dietrich Eckart in 1868 in <a href=\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\">Neumarkt</a>, <a href=\"Upper%20Palatinate\">Upper Palatinate</a> (about twenty miles southeast of <a href=\"Nuremberg\">Nuremberg</a>) in the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Bavaria\">Kingdom of Bavaria</a>, the son of royal notary and lawyer Christian Eckart and his wife Anna, a devout <a href=\"Catholic%20Church\">Catholic</a>. His mother died when he was ten years old. Young Dietrich was expelled from several schools; in 1895, his father died also, leaving him a considerable amount of money that Eckart soon spent.\nEckart initially studied law at <a href=\"University%20of%20Erlangen-Nuremberg\">Erlangen</a>, later medicine at the <a href=\"Ludwig%20Maximilian%20University%20of%20Munich\">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>, and was an eager member of the fencing and drinking <a href=\"German%20Student%20Corps\">Student Korps</a>. But he finally decided in 1891 to work as a poet, playwright, and journalist. Diagnosed with <a href=\"morphine\">morphine</a> addiction and nearly stranded, he moved to <a href=\"Berlin\">Berlin</a> in 1899. There he wrote a number of plays, often autobiographical, and became the protégé of Count Georg von Hülsen-Haeseler (1858–1922), the artistic director of the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Prussia\">Prussian</a> Royal Theatre.\nAfter a duel, he was incarcerated at the <a href=\"Passau\">Passau</a> <a href=\"Veste%20Oberhaus\">Oberhaus</a>.\nEckart was a successful playwright, especially with his 1912 adaptation of <a href=\"Henrik%20Ibsen\">Henrik Ibsen</a>'s \"<a href=\"Peer%20Gynt\">Peer Gynt</a>\", one of the best attended productions of the age with more than 600 performances in Berlin alone. In Eckart's version, the play became \"a powerful dramatisation of nationalist and anti-semitic ideas\", in which Gynt represents the superior Germanic hero, struggling against implicitly Jewish \"trolls\". As Ralph M. Engelman says, \"Eckart meant his adaptation of Peer Gynt to represent a racial allegory in which the trolls and Great Boyg represented what [Otto] <a href=\"Otto%20Weininger\">Weininger</a> conceived to be the Jewish spirit.\"\nThis success not only made Eckart wealthy, it gave him the social contacts that he later used to introduce Hitler to dozens of important German citizens. These introductions proved to be pivotal in Hitler's ultimate rise to power. Later on, Eckart developed an ideology of a \"genius superman\", based on writings by the \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lkisch%20movement\">Völkisch</a>\" author <a href=\"J%C3%B6rg%20Lanz%20von%20Liebenfels\">Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels</a>; he saw himself following the tradition of <a href=\"Heinrich%20Heine\">Heinrich Heine</a>, <a href=\"Arthur%20Schopenhauer\">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> and <a href=\"Angelus%20Silesius\">Angelus Silesius</a>. He also became fascinated by the <a href=\"Buddhism\">Buddhist</a> doctrine of <a href=\"Maya%20%28illusion%29\">Maya (illusion)</a>. From 1907 he lived with his brother Wilhelm in the <a href=\"Dallgow-D%C3%B6beritz\">Döberitz</a> mansion colony west of the Berlin city limits. In 1913 he married Rose Marx, an affluent widow from <a href=\"Bad%20Blankenburg\">Bad Blankenburg</a>, and returned to <a href=\"Munich\">Munich</a>.\nAfter <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a>, Eckart edited the <a href=\"Antisemitism\">antisemitic</a> periodical \"Auf gut Deutsch\" (\"In plain German\"), working with <a href=\"Alfred%20Rosenberg\">Alfred Rosenberg</a> and <a href=\"Gottfried%20Feder\">Gottfried Feder</a>. A fierce critic of the <a href=\"German%20Revolution%20of%201918%E2%80%9319\">German Revolution</a> and the <a href=\"Weimar%20Republic\">Weimar Republic</a>, he vehemently opposed the <a href=\"Treaty%20of%20Versailles\">Treaty of Versailles</a>, which he viewed as treason, and was a proponent of the so-called <a href=\"stab-in-the-back%20legend\">stab-in-the-back legend</a> (\"Dolchstoßlegende\"), according to which the <a href=\"Social%20Democratic%20Party%20of%20Germany\">Social Democrats</a> and <a href=\"History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Germany\">Jews</a> were to blame for Germany's defeat in the war.\nIn January 1919, Eckart, Feder, <a href=\"Anton%20Drexler\">Anton Drexler</a> and <a href=\"Karl%20Harrer\">Karl Harrer</a> founded the \"Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\" (<a href=\"German%20Workers%27%20Party\">German Workers' Party</a> - DAP), which to increase its appeal to larger segments of the population, in February 1920 changed its name to the \"Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\" (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP); more commonly known as the <a href=\"Nazi%20Party\">Nazi Party</a>. He was the original publisher of the party newspaper, the \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lkischer%20Beobachter\">Völkischer Beobachter</a>\", and also wrote the lyrics of \"<a href=\"Nazi%20songs%23Deutschland%20erwache\">Deutschland erwache</a>\" (\"Germany awake\"), which became an anthem of the Nazi Party.\nEckart met <a href=\"Adolf%20Hitler\">Adolf Hitler</a> when Hitler gave a speech before the DAP members in 1919. Eckart was involved with the <a href=\"Thule%20Society\">Thule Society</a>, although not a member. The Society was a secretive group of occultists who believed in the coming of a “German Messiah” who would redeem Germany after its defeat in World War I. Eckart expressed his anticipation in a poem he wrote months before he first met Hitler. In the poem, Eckart refers to ‘the Great One’, ‘the Nameless One’, ‘Whom all can sense but no one saw’. When Eckart met Hitler, Eckart was convinced that he had encountered the prophesied redeemer. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and helping to establish theories and beliefs of the Party.\nIt was Eckart who introduced <a href=\"Alfred%20Rosenberg\">Alfred Rosenberg</a> to Adolf Hitler. Between 1920 and 1923, Eckart and Rosenberg labored tirelessly in the service of Hitler and the party. Through Rosenberg, Hitler was introduced to the writings of <a href=\"Houston%20Stewart%20Chamberlain\">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a>, Rosenberg's inspiration. Rosenberg edited the \"<a href=\"M%C3%BCnchener%20Beobachter\">Münchener Beobachter</a>\", a party newspaper, originally owned by the Thule Society. Rosenberg published the \"<a href=\"Protocols%20of%20the%20Elders%20of%20Zion\">Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a>\" in the \"Beobachter\".\nTo raise funds for the Party, Eckart introduced Hitler into influential circles. In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival <a href=\"German%20Socialist%20Party\">German Socialist Party</a> (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Eckart was asked by the Party leadership to talk with Hitler and relay the conditions in which Hitler would agree to return to the Party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26July 1921.\nOn 9 November 1923, Eckart participated in the failed <a href=\"Beer%20Hall%20Putsch\">Beer Hall Putsch</a>. He was arrested and placed in <a href=\"Landsberg%20Prison\">Landsberg Prison</a> along with Hitler and other party officials, but was released shortly thereafter due to illness. He died of a <a href=\"myocardial%20infarction\">heart attack</a> in <a href=\"Berchtesgaden\">Berchtesgaden</a> on 26 December 1923. He was buried in Berchtesgaden's old cemetery, not far from the eventual graves of Nazi Party official <a href=\"Hans%20Lammers\">Hans Lammers</a> and his wife and daughter.\nDuring the Nazi period, several monuments and memorials were created to Eckart. Hitler dedicated the second volume of \"<a href=\"Mein%20Kampf\">Mein Kampf</a>\" to Eckart, and also named the arena near the <a href=\"Olympic%20Stadium%20%28Berlin%29\">Olympic Stadium</a> in Berlin, now known as the <a href=\"Waldb%C3%BChne\">Waldbühne</a> (Forest Stage), the \"Dietrich-Eckart-Bühne\" when it was opened for the <a href=\"1936%20Summer%20Olympics\">1936 Summer Olympics</a>. The 5th \"Standarte\" (regiment) of the \"<a href=\"SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde\">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a>\" was given the honour-title \"Dietrich Eckart\". In 1937 the \"Realprogymnasium\" in <a href=\"Emmendingen\">Emmendingen</a> was expanded and renamed the \"Dietrich-Eckart secondary school for boys\". Several new roads were named after Eckart. All of these have since been renamed.\nHis birthplace in <a href=\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\">Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz</a> was officially renamed with the added suffix \"Dietrich-Eckart-Stadt\". In 1934, Adolf Hitler inaugurated a monument in his honour in the city park. It has since been rededicated to <a href=\"Christopher%20of%20Bavaria\">Christopher of Bavaria</a> (1416–1448), King of Denmark, who was probably born in the town.\nIn March 1938, when <a href=\"Passau\">Passau</a> commemorated Eckart's 70th birthday at <a href=\"Veste%20Oberhaus\">Oberhaus</a> Castle, the Lord Mayor announced not only the creation of a \"Dietrich-Eckart-Foundation\" but also the restoration of the room where Eckart had been imprisoned. In addition, a street was dedicated to Eckart.\nIn 1925, Eckart's unfinished essay \"Der Bolschewismus von Moses bis Lenin: Zwiegespräch zwischen Hitler und mir\" (\"<a href=\"Bolshevism\">Bolshevism</a> from <a href=\"Moses\">Moses</a> to <a href=\"Vladimir%20Lenin\">Lenin</a>: Dialogues Between Hitler and Me\") was published posthumously, although it has been shown that the dialogues were an invention; the essay was written by Eckart alone. \"However, this book still remains a reliable indicator of [Eckart's] own views.\" The historian <a href=\"Richard%20Steigmann-Gall\">Richard Steigmann-Gall</a> quotes from Eckart's book:\nIn Christ, the embodiment of all manliness, we find all that we need. And if we occasionally speak of <a href=\"Baldur\">Baldur</a> (a god in Norse mythology), our words always contain some joy, some satisfaction, that our pagan ancestors were already so Christian as to have an indication of Christ in this ideal figure.\nSteigmann-Gall concluded that, \"far from advocating a paganism or anti-Christian religion, Eckart held that, in Germany's postwar tailspin, Christ was a leader to be emulated.\"\nIn 1935 <a href=\"Alfred%20Rosenberg\">Alfred Rosenberg</a> published the book \" Dietrich Eckart. A Legacy\" (i.e. \"Dietrich Eckart. Ein Vermächtnis\") with collected writings by Eckart, including the quotation:\nTo be a genius means to use the soul, to strive for the divine, to escape from the mean; and even if this cannot be totally achieved, there will be no space for the opposite of good. It does not prevent the genius to portray also the wretchedness of being in all shapes and colors, being the great artist, that he is; but he does this as an observer, not taking part, sine ira et studio, his heart remains pure. ... The ideal in this, just like in every respect whatsoever is <a href=\"Christ\">Christ</a>; his words \"You judge by human standards; I pass judgment on no one\" show the completely divine freedom from the influence of the senses, the overcoming of the earthly world even without art as an intermediary. At the other end you find <a href=\"Heinrich%20Heine\">Heine</a> and his race ... all they do culminates in ... the motive, in subjugating the world, and the less this works, the more hate-filled their work becomes that is to satisfy their motive, the more deceitful and fallacious every try to reach the goal. No trace of true genius, the very opposite of the manliness of genius ...\nEckart was described by <a href=\"Edgar%20Ansel%20Mowrer\">Edgar Ansel Mowrer</a> as \"a strange drunken genius\". His antisemitism supposedly arose from various esoteric schools of <a href=\"mysticism\">mysticism</a> and he spent hours with Hitler discussing art and the place of the Jews in world history, he has been called the spiritual father of National Socialism.\nNotes\nSources\n","Berngau\nBerngau is a municipality in the district of <a href=\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>.","Postbauer-Heng\nPostbauer-Heng is a <a href=\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>.","Sengenthal\nSengenthal is a <a href=\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>.","Velburg\nVelburg is a <a href=\"Town%23Germany\">town</a> in the <a href=\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\">district of Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a>, <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>. It is situated 17 km southeast of <a href=\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\">Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz</a>, and 39 km northwest of <a href=\"Regensburg\">Regensburg</a>.\nThe town of Velburg has a castle ruin which occupies the highest point of land. The castle is triangular in outline, with a central keep which is nearly intact, having been partly restored. The castle stands at a height of 621.5 metres above sea level and was initially constructed in 1129. The castle was captured and damaged in 1633 during the <a href=\"Thirty%20Years%20War\">Thirty Years War</a> after which it was abandoned. The town bought the castle in 1793, and many attempts were made to restore it, with the most successful attempt being in 1986, which was the last restoration to date.\nVelburg is located in a scenic area with many walking trails, including the eastern portion of the Main-Danube Trail.\nAccommodation in the Velburg village include the historic <a href=\"Hotel%20zur%20Post%20%28Velburg%29\">Hotel zur Post</a>.\n","House of Wittelsbach\nThe House of Wittelsbach (] ) is a <a href=\"Europe\">Europe</a>an <a href=\"royal%20family\">royal family</a> and a <a href=\"Germany\">German</a> dynasty from <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a>.\nMembers of the family reigned as <a href=\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Bavaria\">Dukes, Electors and Kings of Bavaria</a> (1180–1918), <a href=\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\">Counts Palatine of the Rhine</a> (1214–1803 and 1816–1918), <a href=\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Brandenburg\">Margraves of Brandenburg</a> (1323–1373), Counts of <a href=\"Holland\">Holland</a>, <a href=\"County%20of%20Hainaut\">Hainaut</a> and <a href=\"Zeeland\">Zeeland</a> (1345–1432), <a href=\"List%20of%20bishops%20and%20archbishops%20of%20Cologne\">Elector-Archbishops of Cologne</a> (1583–1761), <a href=\"Duchy%20of%20J%C3%BClich\">Dukes of Jülich</a> and <a href=\"Berg%20%28German%20region%29\">Berg</a> (1614–1794/1806), Kings of <a href=\"Sweden\">Sweden</a> (1441–1448 and 1654–1720) and <a href=\"Bremen-Verden\">Dukes of Bremen-Verden</a> (1654–1719).\nThe family also provided two <a href=\"Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Holy Roman Emperor</a>s (1328–1347/1742–1745), one <a href=\"King%20of%20the%20Romans\">King of the Romans</a> (1400–1410), two <a href=\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Bohemia\">Anti-Kings of Bohemia</a> (1619–20/1742–43), one <a href=\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Hungary\">King of Hungary</a> (1305–1309), one King of <a href=\"List%20of%20Danish%20monarchs\">Denmark</a> and <a href=\"List%20of%20Norwegian%20monarchs\">Norway</a> (1440–1447) and one <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Greece\">King of Greece</a> (1832–1862).\nThe family's head, since 1996, is <a href=\"Franz%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Franz, Duke of Bavaria</a>.\nBerthold, Margrave in Bavaria (died 980), was the ancestor of <a href=\"Otto%20I%2C%20Count%20of%20Scheyern\">Otto I, Count of Scheyern</a> (died 1072), whose third son <a href=\"Otto%20II%2C%20Count%20of%20Scheyern\">Otto II, Count of Scheyern</a> acquired the castle of Wittelsbach (near <a href=\"Aichach\">Aichach</a>). The Counts of Scheyern left Scheyern Castle (constructed around 940) in 1119 for <a href=\"Burg%20Wittelsbach\">Wittelsbach Castle</a> and the former was given to monks to establish <a href=\"Scheyern%20Abbey\">Scheyern Abbey</a>.\nOtto I's eldest son <a href=\"Eckhard%20I%2C%20Count%20of%20Scheyern\">Eckhard I, Count of Scheyern</a> was father of the <a href=\"Count%20palatine\">Count palatine</a> of Bavaria <a href=\"Otto%20IV%2C%20Count%20of%20Wittelsbach\">Otto IV</a> (died 1156), who was the first Count of Wittelsbach and whose son <a href=\"Otto%20I%20Wittelsbach%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Otto</a> was invested with the Duchy of Bavaria in 1180 after the fall of <a href=\"Henry%20the%20Lion\">Henry the Lion</a> and hence the first Bavarian ruler from the House of Wittelsbach. Duke Otto's son <a href=\"Louis%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Louis I, Duke of Bavaria</a> acquired also the <a href=\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\">Electorate of the Palatinate</a> in 1214.\nThe \"Wittelsbach\" dynasty ruled the <a href=\"Germany\">German</a> territories of <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a> from 1180 to 1918 and the <a href=\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\">Electorate of the Palatinate</a> from 1214 until 1805; in 1815 the latter territory was partly incorporated as <a href=\"Rhine%20Palatinate\">Rhine Palatinate</a> into Bavaria, which <a href=\"Napoleon\">Napoleon</a> elevated to a kingdom in 1806.\nOn Duke <a href=\"Otto%20II%20Wittelsbach%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Otto II</a>'s death in 1253, his sons divided the Wittelsbach possessions between them: <a href=\"Henry%20XIII%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Henry</a> became Duke of Lower Bavaria, and <a href=\"Louis%20II%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Louis II</a> Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine. When Henry's branch died out in 1340 the Emperor Louis IV, a son of Duke Louis II, reunited the duchy.\nThe family provided two <a href=\"Holy%20Roman%20Empire\">Holy Roman Emperors</a>: <a href=\"Louis%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Louis IV</a> (1314–1347) and <a href=\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles VII</a> (1742–1745), both members of the Bavarian branch of the family, and one <a href=\"King%20of%20Germany\">German King</a> with <a href=\"Rupert%20of%20Germany\">Rupert of the Palatinate</a> (1400–1410), a member of the Palatinate branch.\nThe House of Wittelsbach split into these two branches in 1329: Under the <a href=\"Treaty%20of%20Pavia%20%281329%29\">Treaty of Pavia</a>, Emperor Louis IV granted the Palatinate including the Bavarian Upper Palatinate to his brother Duke <a href=\"Rudolf%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Rudolf's</a> descendants, <a href=\"Rudolf%20II%2C%20Count%20Palatine%20of%20the%20Rhine\">Rudolf II</a>, <a href=\"Rupert%20I%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\">Rupert I</a> and <a href=\"Rupert%20II%2C%20Elector%20Palatine%20of%20the%20Rhine\">Rupert II</a>. Rudolf I in this way became the ancestor of the older (Palatinate) line of the Wittelsbach dynasty, which returned to power also in Bavaria in 1777 after the extinction of the younger (Bavarian) line, the descendants of Louis IV.\nThe Bavarian branch kept the duchy of Bavaria until its extinction in 1777.\nThe Wittelsbach Emperor <a href=\"Louis%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Louis IV</a> acquired <a href=\"Brandenburg\">Brandenburg</a> (1323), <a href=\"county%20of%20Tyrol\">Tyrol</a> (1342), <a href=\"Holland\">Holland</a>, <a href=\"Zeeland\">Zeeland</a> and <a href=\"County%20of%20Hainaut\">Hainaut</a> (1345) for his House but he had also released the <a href=\"Upper%20Palatinate\">Upper Palatinate</a> for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. His six sons succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria and Count of <a href=\"Holland\">Holland</a> and <a href=\"County%20of%20Hainaut\">Hainaut</a> in 1347. The Wittelsbachs lost the Tyrol with the death of duke <a href=\"Meinhard%20III%20of%20Gorizia-Tyrol\">Meinhard</a> and the following Peace of Schärding - the Tyrol was finally renounced to the <a href=\"Habsburg\">Habsburg</a>s in 1369. In 1373 <a href=\"Otto%20V%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Otto</a>, the last Wittelsbach regent of Brandenburg, released the country to the <a href=\"House%20of%20Luxembourg\">House of Luxembourg</a>. On Duke <a href=\"Albert%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Albert's</a> death in 1404, he was succeeded in the Netherlands by his eldest son, <a href=\"William%20VI%2C%20Count%20of%20Holland\">William</a>. A younger son, <a href=\"John%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria-Straubing\">John III</a>, became <a href=\"Bishop%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge\">Bishop of Liège</a>. However, on William's death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and William's daughter <a href=\"Jacqueline%20of%20Hainaut\">Jacqueline of Hainaut</a>. This last episode of the <a href=\"Hook%20and%20Cod%20wars\">Hook and Cod wars</a> finally left the counties in Burgundian hands in 1432.\nEmperor Louis IV had reunited Bavaria in 1340 but from 1349 onwards Bavaria was split among the descendants of Louis IV, who created the branches \"<a href=\"Bavaria-Landshut\">Bavaria-Landshut</a>\", \"<a href=\"Bavaria-Straubing\">Bavaria-Straubing</a>\", \"<a href=\"Bavaria-Ingolstadt\">Bavaria-Ingolstadt</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Bavaria-Munich\">Bavaria-Munich</a>\". With the <a href=\"Landshut%20War%20of%20Succession\">Landshut War of Succession</a> Bavaria was reunited in 1505 against the claim of the Palatinate branch under the Bavarian branch \"Bavaria-Munich\".\nFrom 1549 to 1567 the Wittelsbach owned the <a href=\"County%20of%20Kladsko\">County of Kladsko</a> in Bohemia.\nStrictly <a href=\"Catholic\">Catholic</a> by upbringing, the Bavarian dukes became <a href=\"leadership\">leader</a>s of the German <a href=\"Counter-Reformation\">Counter-Reformation</a>. From 1583 to 1761, the Bavarian branch of the dynasty provided the <a href=\"Prince-elector\">Prince-elector</a>s and <a href=\"Archbishop%20of%20Cologne\">Archbishops of Cologne</a> and many other Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, namely <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge\">Liège</a> (1581–1763). Wittelsbach princes served for example as Bishops of <a href=\"Bishop%20of%20Regensburg\">Regensburg</a>, <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Munich%20and%20Freising%23Prince-bishops%20of%20Freising\">Freising</a>, <a href=\"List%20of%20bishops%20and%20prince-bishops%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge%23Prince-bishops%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge%2C%20972-1794\">Liège</a>, <a href=\"Bishopric%20of%20M%C3%BCnster\">Münster</a>, <a href=\"Bishopric%20of%20Hildesheim\">Hildesheim</a>, <a href=\"Bishopric%20of%20Paderborn\">Paderborn</a> and <a href=\"Prince-Bishopric%20of%20Osnabr%C3%BCck\">Osnabrück</a>, and as <a href=\"Grand%20Master%20%28order%29\">Grand Master</a>s of the <a href=\"Teutonic%20Order\">Teutonic Order</a>.\nIn 1623 under <a href=\"Maximilian%20I%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\">Maximilian I</a> the Bavarian dukes were invested with the <a href=\"Prince-elector\">electoral</a> dignity and the duchy became the <a href=\"Electorate%20of%20Bavaria\">Electorate of Bavaria</a>. His grandson <a href=\"Maximilian%20II%20Emanuel%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\">Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria</a> served also as <a href=\"Governors%20of%20the%20Habsburg%20Netherlands\">Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands</a> (1692–1706) and as Duke of <a href=\"Luxembourg\">Luxembourg</a> (1712–1714). His son Emperor <a href=\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles VII</a> was also king of <a href=\"Bohemia\">Bohemia</a> (1741–1743). With the death of Charles' son <a href=\"Maximilian%20III%20Joseph%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\">Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria</a> the Bavarian branch died out in 1777.\nThe Palatinate branch kept the Palatinate until 1918 and succeeded also in Bavaria in 1777. With the <a href=\"Golden%20Bull%20of%201356\">Golden Bull of 1356</a> the Counts Palatine were invested with the <a href=\"Prince-elector\">electoral</a> dignity, their county became the <a href=\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\">Electorate of the Palatinate</a>. Princes of the Palatinate branch served as Bishops of the Empire and also as <a href=\"Archbishopric%20of%20Mainz\">Elector-Archbishops of Mainz</a> and <a href=\"Archbishopric%20of%20Trier\">Elector-Archbishops of Trier</a>.\nAfter the death of the Wittelsbach king <a href=\"Rupert%20of%20Germany\">Rupert of Germany</a> in 1410 the Palatinate lands began to split under numerous branches of the family such as \"<a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Neumarkt\">Neumarkt</a>\", \"<a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Simmern\">Simmern</a>\", \"<a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\">Zweibrücken</a>\", \"<a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Birkenfeld\">Birkenfeld</a>\", \"<a href=\"Palatinate-Neuburg\">Neuburg</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Palatinate-Sulzbach\">Sulzbach</a>\". When the senior branch of the Palatinate branch died out in 1559, the Electorate passed to <a href=\"Frederick%20III%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\">Frederick III</a> of \"<a href=\"Palatinate-Simmern\">Simmern</a>\", a staunch <a href=\"Calvinist\">Calvinist</a>, and the Palatinate became one of the major centers of Calvinism in Europe, supporting Calvinist rebellions in both the <a href=\"Netherlands\">Netherlands</a> and <a href=\"France\">France</a>.\nThe \"Neuburg\" cadet branch of the Palatinate branch kept also the <a href=\"Duchy%20of%20J%C3%BClich\">Duchy of Jülich</a> and <a href=\"Berg%20%28state%29\">Berg</a> from 1614 onwards: When the last duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg died without direct heirs in 1609, the <a href=\"War%20of%20the%20J%C3%BClich%20succession\">War of the Jülich succession</a> broke out, ended by the 1614 <a href=\"Treaty%20of%20Xanten\">Treaty of Xanten</a>, which divided the separate duchies between \"<a href=\"Palatinate-Neuburg\">Palatinate-Neuburg</a>\" and the <a href=\"Margraviate%20of%20Brandenburg\">Margraviate of Brandenburg</a>. Jülich and Berg fell to the Wittelsbach Count Palatine <a href=\"Wolfgang%20William%2C%20Count%20Palatine%20of%20Neuburg\">Wolfgang William of Neuburg</a>.\nIn 1619, the Protestant <a href=\"Frederick%20V%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\">Frederick V, Elector Palatine</a> became King of <a href=\"Bohemia\">Bohemia</a> but was defeated by the Catholic <a href=\"Maximilian%20I%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\">Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria</a>, a member of the Bavarian branch. As a result, the <a href=\"Upper%20Palatinate\">Upper Palatinate</a> had to be ceded to the Bavarian branch in 1623. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the <a href=\"Peace%20of%20Westphalia\">Treaty of Münster</a> (also called the Peace of Westphalia) in 1648, a new additional electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. During their exile Frederick's sons, especially <a href=\"Prince%20Rupert%20of%20the%20Rhine\">Prince Rupert of the Rhine</a>, gained fame in England.\nThe house of \"<a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\">Palatinate of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg</a>\" as heir to the Swedish throne ruled simultaneously the duchy of <a href=\"Bremen-Verden\">Bremen-Verden</a> (1654–1719).\nIn 1685, the \"Simmern\" line died out, and the Catholic <a href=\"Philip%20William%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\">Philip William</a>, Count Palatine of \"<a href=\"Palatinate-Neuburg\">Neuburg</a>\" inherited the Palatinate (and also Duke of <a href=\"Duchy%20of%20J%C3%BClich\">Jülich</a> and <a href=\"Berg%20%28German%20region%29\">Berg</a>). During the reign of <a href=\"Johann%20Wilhelm%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\">Johann Wilhelm</a> (1690–1716) the Electoral residence moved to <a href=\"D%C3%BCsseldorf\">Düsseldorf</a> in Berg. His brother and successor <a href=\"Charles%20III%20Philip%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\">Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine</a> moved the Palatinate's capital back to <a href=\"Heidelberg\">Heidelberg</a> in 1718 and then to <a href=\"Mannheim\">Mannheim</a> in 1720. To strengthen the union of all lines of the Wittelsbach dynasty Charles Philip organized a wedding on 17 January 1742 when his granddaughters were married to <a href=\"Charles%20Theodore%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\">Charles Theodore of Palatinate-Sulzbach</a> and to the Bavarian prince <a href=\"Clement%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria%20and%20Count%20Palatine\">Clement</a>. In the imperial election a few days later Charles III Philip voted for his Bavarian cousin Prince-Elector <a href=\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles Albert</a>. After extinction of the \"Neuburg\" branch in 1742, the Palatinate was inherited by Duke Charles Theodore of the branch \"Palatinate-Sulzbach\".\nAfter the extinction of the Bavarian branch in 1777, a succession dispute and the brief <a href=\"War%20of%20the%20Bavarian%20Succession\">War of the Bavarian Succession</a>, the Palatinate-Sulzbach branch under Elector Charles Theodore succeeded also in Bavaria.\nWith the death of Charles Theodore in 1799 all Wittelsbach land in Bavaria and the Palatinate was reunited under <a href=\"Maximilian%20I%20Joseph%20of%20Bavaria\">Maximilian IV Joseph</a>, a member of the branch \"<a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Birkenfeld\">Palatinate-Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld</a>\". At the time there were two surviving branches of the Wittelsbach family: \"Palatinate-Zweibrücken\" (headed by Maximilian Joseph) and \"Palatinate-Birkenfeld\" (headed by Count Palatine <a href=\"Duke%20Wilhelm%20in%20Bavaria\">William</a>). Maximilian Joseph inherited Charles Thedore's title of Elector of Bavaria, while William was compensated with the title of Duke \"in\" Bavaria. The form <a href=\"Duke%20in%20Bavaria\">Duke in Bavaria</a> was selected because in 1506 <a href=\"primogeniture\">primogeniture</a> had been established in the House of Wittelsbach resulting in there being only one Reigning Duke of Bavaria at any given time. Maximillian Joseph assumed the title of <a href=\"King%20of%20Bavaria\">king</a> as <a href=\"Maximilian%20I%20Joseph%20of%20Bavaria\">Maximilian I Joseph</a> on January 1, 1806. The new king still served as an <a href=\"Prince-elector\">Prince-elector</a> until the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Bavaria\">Kingdom of Bavaria</a> left the Holy Roman Empire (1 August 1806).\nUnder Maximilian's descendants, Bavaria became the third most powerful German state, behind only Prussia and Austria. It was also far-and-away the most powerful secondary state. When the <a href=\"German%20Empire\">German Empire</a> was formed in 1871, Bavaria became the new empire's second most powerful state after Prussia. The Wittelsbachs reigned as kings of Bavaria until 1918. On 12 November 1918 <a href=\"Ludwig%20III%20of%20Bavaria\">Ludwig III</a> issued the \"<a href=\"Anif%20declaration\">Anif declaration</a>\" (German: \"Anifer Erklärung\") at <a href=\"Anif%20Palace\">Anif Palace</a>, <a href=\"Austria\">Austria</a>, in which he released his soldiers and officials from their oath of loyalty to him and ended the 738-year rule of the House of Wittelsbach in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a>. The republican movement thereupon declared a republic.\nDuring the <a href=\"Second%20World%20War\">Second World War</a>, the Wittelsbachs were anti-Nazi. The family initially left Germany for Hungary, but were eventually arrested. Family members spent time in several <a href=\"Nazi%20concentration%20camps\">Nazi concentration camps</a> including <a href=\"Oranienburg\">Oranienburg</a> and <a href=\"Dachau%20concentration%20camp\">Dachau</a>.\nWith Duke <a href=\"Otto%20III%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Otto III of Lower Bavaria</a>, who was a maternal grandson of <a href=\"B%C3%A9la%20IV%20of%20Hungary\">Béla IV of Hungary</a> and was elected <a href=\"anti-king\">anti-king</a> of <a href=\"Hungary\">Hungary</a> and <a href=\"Croatia\">Croatia</a> as Bela V (1305–1308) the Wittelsbach dynasty came to power outside the <a href=\"Holy%20Roman%20Empire\">Holy Roman Empire</a> for the first time. Otto had abdicated the Hungarian throne by 1308.\n<a href=\"Christopher%20III%20of%20Denmark\">Christopher III</a> of the <a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Neumarkt\">House of Palatinate-Neumarkt</a> was king of <a href=\"Denmark\">Denmark</a>, <a href=\"Sweden\">Sweden</a> and <a href=\"Norway\">Norway</a> in 1440/1442–1448, but he left no descendants. The <a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\">House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken</a> contributed to the monarchy of Sweden again 1654–1720 under <a href=\"Charles%20X%20of%20Sweden\">Charles X</a>, <a href=\"Charles%20XI%20of%20Sweden\">Charles XI</a>, <a href=\"Charles%20XII%20of%20Sweden\">Charles XII</a> and <a href=\"Ulrika%20Eleonora%20of%20Sweden\">Ulrika Eleonora</a>. The Wittelsbach princess <a href=\"Sophia%20of%20Hanover\">Sophia of Hanover</a> (1630–1714) was the mother of <a href=\"George%20I%20of%20Great%20Britain\">George I of Great Britain</a>; she died as Heiress Presumptive of <a href=\"Great%20Britain\">Great Britain</a> a few weeks before the case of succession. The line of <a href=\"Jacobitism\">Jacobite</a> succession is currently within the House of Wittelsbach. <a href=\"Franz%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Franz, Hereditary Prince of Bavaria</a> is recognised by the Jacobites as \"Francis II\". The Wittelsbach prince <a href=\"Otto%20of%20Greece\">Otto</a> of Bavaria was elected king of newly independent <a href=\"Greece\">Greece</a> in 1832 and was forced to abdicate in 1862.\nQueen <a href=\"Christina%20of%20Sweden\">Christina of Sweden</a> abdicated her throne on 5 June 1654 in favor of her cousin <a href=\"Charles%20X%20Gustav%20of%20Sweden\">Charles X Gustavus</a>, a member of the Wittelsbach branch <a href=\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\">Palatinate-Zweibrücken</a>. It was the second term for the rule of the House of Wittelsbach in Sweden since 1448 when <a href=\"Christopher%20III%20of%20Denmark\">Christopher III</a> of the Palatinate branch was king of Denmark, Sweden and Norway.\nSweden reached its largest territorial extent under the rule of Charles X after the <a href=\"treaty%20of%20Roskilde\">treaty of Roskilde</a> in 1658. Charles' son, <a href=\"Charles%20XI%20of%20Sweden\">Charles XI</a>, rebuilt the economy and refitted the army. His legacy to his son, <a href=\"Charles%20XII%20of%20Sweden\">Charles XII</a>, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Charles XII was a skilled military leader and tactician. However, although he was also skilled as a politician, he was reluctant in making peace. While Sweden achieved several large scale military successes early on, and won the most battles, the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and the end of the <a href=\"Swedish%20Empire\">Swedish Empire</a>. Charles was succeeded to the Swedish throne by his sister, <a href=\"Ulrika%20Eleonora\">Ulrika Eleonora</a>. Her abdication in 1720 marked the end of the Wittelsbach rule in Sweden.\nKing <a href=\"Otto%20of%20Greece\">Otto I</a> of the House of Wittelsbach was made the first <a href=\"List%20of%20Greek%20monarchs\">King</a> of modern <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Greece\">Greece</a> in 1832 under the <a href=\"London%20Conference%20of%201832\">Convention of London</a>, whereby <a href=\"Greece\">Greece</a> became a new independent kingdom under the protection of the <a href=\"Great%20Powers\">Great Powers</a> (the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland\">United Kingdom</a>, <a href=\"July%20Monarchy\">France</a> and the <a href=\"Russian%20Empire\">Russian Empire</a>). Throughout his reign, Otto faced political challenges concerning Greece's financial weakness and the role of the government in the affairs of the Church. The politics of Greece of this era was based on affiliations with the three Great Powers, and Otto’s ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power. To remain strong, Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers’ Greek adherents against the others, while not aggravating the Great Powers. When Greece was blockaded by the (British) <a href=\"Royal%20Navy\">Royal Navy</a> in 1850 and again in 1853, to stop Greece from attacking the <a href=\"Ottoman%20Empire\">Ottoman Empire</a> during the <a href=\"Crimean%20War\">Crimean War</a>, Otto’s standing amongst Greeks suffered. As a result, there was an assassination attempt on the Queen and finally, in 1862, Otto was deposed while in the countryside.\nThe law of succession to the throne of Greece was defined by a supplementary article to the convention of 7 May 1832 awarding the Greek Throne to Otto I. It instituted a semi-salic order with an important rule preventing the union of the crown on the same head with any other crown, especially that of Bavaria. Under the terms of the succession law, a Wittelsbach claim to the throne would have passed on Otto's death in 1867 to his younger brother Luitpold, who was regent of Bavaria from 1886 to 1912; and after him to Ludwig who became king Ludwig III of Bavaria in 1913. At this point, tracing the claim becomes impossible as the same branch of the Wittelsbach became heir to both thrones, and a subsequent monarch or pretender should have issued a renunciation to one of the two thrones, which none did. In the end, neither <a href=\"Luitpold%2C%20Prince%20Regent%20of%20Bavaria\">Luitpold</a> nor his son <a href=\"Ludwig%20III%20of%20Bavaria\">Ludwig</a> actively pursued a claim to the Greek throne inherited from <a href=\"Otto%20of%20Greece\">Otto I</a>, and the throne of Bavaria itself disappeared in 1918, leaving the future of the claim to be decided by a further arrangement that never occurred.\n<a href=\"Joseph%20Ferdinand%20of%20Bavaria%20%281692-1699%29\">Joseph Ferdinand</a>, a son of Maximilian II Emanuel, was the favored choice of England and the Netherlands to succeed as the ruler of Spain, and young Charles II of Spain chose him as his heir. Due to the unexpected death of Joseph Ferdinand in 1699 the Wittelsbach did not come to power in <a href=\"Spain\">Spain</a>, leaving the <a href=\"Spanish%20Succession\">Spanish Succession</a> uncertain again.\n\n<a href=\"Franz%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Duke Franz's</a> patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. <a href=\"Patrilineal%20descent\">Patrilineal descent</a> is the principle behind membership in <a href=\"royal%20house\">royal house</a>s, as it can be traced back through the generations.\nSeveral other women in the family are known as <a href=\"Elisabeth%20of%20Bavaria%20%28disambiguation%29\">Elisabeth of Bavaria</a>.\nSome of the most important Bavarian castles and palaces that were built by Wittelsbach rulers, or served as seats of ruling branch lines, are the following:\nSome of the most important castles and palaces of the Palatinate Wittelsbach were:\nFrom 1597 to 1794, <a href=\"Bonn\">Bonn</a> was the capital of the <a href=\"Electorate%20of%20Cologne\">Electorate of Cologne</a> and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne, most of them belonging to the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach (from 1583 to 1761).\nA full <a href=\"armorial\">armorial</a> of the Wittelsbach family can be found on the French-language Wikipedia at .","Christopher of Bavaria\nChristopher of Bavaria (26 February 1416 – 5/6 January 1448) was <a href=\"King%20of%20Denmark\">King of Denmark</a> (1440–48, as Christopher III), <a href=\"King%20of%20Sweden\">Sweden</a> (1441–48) and <a href=\"King%20of%20Norway\">Norway</a> (1442–48) during the era of the <a href=\"Kalmar%20Union\">Kalmar Union</a>.\nHe was probably born at <a href=\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\">Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz</a>, the son of <a href=\"John%2C%20Count%20Palatine%20of%20Neumarkt\">John, Count Palatine of Neumarkt</a>, and <a href=\"Catherine%20of%20Pomerania%2C%20Countess%20Palatine%20of%20Neumarkt\">Catherine of Pomerania</a>, the daughter of <a href=\"Wartislaw%20VII%2C%20Duke%20of%20Pomerania\">Wartislaw VII</a>, <a href=\"Duke%20of%20Pomerania\">Duke of Pomerania</a> in <a href=\"Pomerania-Stolp\">Pomerania-Stolp</a>, and sister of the Scandinavian king, <a href=\"Eric%20of%20Pomerania\">Eric of Pomerania</a>. Count Palatine John was a son of King <a href=\"Rupert%20of%20Germany\">Rupert of Germany</a>. In 1445, Christopher married <a href=\"Dorothea%20of%20Brandenburg\">Dorothea of Brandenburg</a> (1430 – 25 November 1495), in <a href=\"Copenhagen\">Copenhagen</a>.\n<a href=\"Eric%20of%20Pomerania\">Eric of Pomerania</a> was deposed as king of Denmark and Sweden in 1439. As Eric's nephew, Christopher, who was rather unfamiliar with Scandinavian conditions, was elected by the Danish <a href=\"rigsraadet\">State Council</a> as the successor to his uncle, first as <a href=\"regent\">regent</a> from 1439, and then proclaimed King of Denmark at the Viborg Assembly (Danish \"landsting\") on 9 April 1440. He was meant to be a puppet, as evidenced by the saying: \"Had the Council demanded the stars of heaven from him, he would have ordered it.\" However he succeeded in maintaining some personal control. As a whole his rule, according to the politics of the nobility and his succession, might be called the start of the long period of balance between royal power and nobility which lasted until 1660. He was later elected king of Sweden in 1441, and Norway in June 1442.\nAt the start of his reign, he put down <a href=\"peasant%20rebellion\">peasant rebellion</a>s in <a href=\"Funen\">Funen</a> and <a href=\"Jutland\">Jutland</a>. Once the rebellion on Funen was suppressed, he turned his attention the uprising in Jutland. North Jutland, especially <a href=\"Vendsyssel\">Vendsyssel</a>, was so restive that a peasant army of 25,000 led by <a href=\"Henrik%20Reventlow\">Henrik Reventlow</a> posed a serious threat to Christopher's continued reign. Before the king could act, Jutland's noble families raised their own army and marched west of <a href=\"Aalborg\">Aalborg</a> to meet Reventlow's forces.\nThe peasants had created a gigantic wagon fortress three layers deep to protect themselves from the mounted knights they knew would come against them. They also placed tree branches across the bog in front of the camp and then cast earth on top to make it look like solid ground. The overconfident army of nobles led by <a href=\"Eske%20Brok\">Eske Brok</a> appeared at <a href=\"St%20Jorgen%27s%20Hill\">St Jorgen's Hill</a> on 3 May 1441. The knights charged the camp, and were quickly mired down in the bog. The peasants moved in for the kill. Brok was killed and dismembered and the pieces sent to the towns in the area as a warning. The peasants then raided the area's most important manor at <a href=\"Aagard\">Aagard</a> and burned it, forcing the noble <a href=\"Niels%20Guldenstierne\">Niels Guldenstierne</a> to flee with nothing but a staff.\nThe treatment of the captives after the battle strengthened Christopher's determination to put down the peasants. With his own army Christopher rode north to the rebel camp at <a href=\"Husby%20Hole\">Husby Hole</a> near St Jorgen's Hill in northern Jutland. Because the rebels outnumbered his troops, Christopher sent word that anyone who left the camp and went home would not be punished for rebellion. The men from the island of <a href=\"Mors%20%28island%29\">Mors</a> and <a href=\"Thisted\">Thisted</a> left, for which they were called cowards and traitors ever after. Christopher ordered the attack on the rebel camp on 8 June 1441 and despite fighting ferociously the rebels could not overcome the heavily armed knights. Thousands of rebels were killed, those who survived were fined heavily. The more severe consequence was that rebels lost their free status and became <a href=\"serf\">serf</a>s on the farms where they worked. The king made it a capital crime for peasants to carry weapons longer than a short knife. The subjugation of Denmark's once free peasants was complete.\nIn May 1442 Christopher traveled to <a href=\"L%C3%B6d%C3%B6se\">Lödöse</a> to meet with the nobles from all three kingdoms. He was crowned <a href=\"King%20of%20Norway\">King of Norway</a> there and then went to <a href=\"Oslo\">Oslo</a> and the <a href=\"Trondheim\">Trondheim</a> to be confirmed as the king. The next year he was proclaimed <a href=\"King%20of%20Denmark\">King of Denmark</a> at the <a href=\"Urnehoved\">Urnehoved</a> Assembly near <a href=\"Ribe\">Ribe</a>. When his residence at <a href=\"Roskilde\">Roskilde</a> burned down, Christopher moved to <a href=\"Copenhagen\">Copenhagen</a> and made it the capital of Denmark.\nThe Swedish nobles were not happy to relinquish any power and thus didn't like him, claiming he was too German for them and that he allowed his uncle (ex-King Eric) to plunder shipping from his castle on <a href=\"Gotland\">Gotland</a> without any attempt to stop him. They blamed a series of bad harvests on him. People were so hungry they mixed ground tree bark with the little flour they could find. Christopher was contemptuously nicknamed the \"Bark King\" in Sweden.\nOn the other hand, he tried to support the cities and their merchants as far as the limits of nobility and <a href=\"Hanse\">Hanse</a>atic cities allowed. During his reign <a href=\"Copenhagen\">Copenhagen</a> was made permanently the capital of Denmark (<a href=\"municipal%20charter\">municipal charter</a> of 1443).\nHe carried on an ineffective policy of war and negotiations against Eric in Gotland which did little to help the dissatisfaction within both Sweden and the <a href=\"Hanseatic%20League\">Hanseatic League</a>. The <a href=\"Kalmar%20Union\">Kalmar Union</a> Treaty was changed so that the aristocracy had most of the policy-making powers, and the king lost many of the powers monarchs had acquired since Viking times. The results of this policy of balance were still not reached when he suddenly died as the last descendant of <a href=\"Valdemar%20IV\">Valdemar IV</a> of Denmark.\nChristopher died suddenly at <a href=\"Helsingborg\">Helsingborg</a> in 1448. On 28 October 1449, Dorothea remarried <a href=\"Christian%20I%20of%20Denmark\">Christian I</a>. King Christopher was buried in <a href=\"Roskilde%20Cathedral\">Roskilde Cathedral</a>.\nIn 1654 his <a href=\"Wittelsbach\">Wittelsbach</a> family would return to power in Sweden.\nChristopher's full title was:\n\"<a href=\"By%20the%20Grace%20of%20God\">By the Grace of God</a>, <a href=\"King%20of%20Denmark\">King of Denmark</a>, <a href=\"King%20of%20Sweden\">Sweden</a> and <a href=\"King%20of%20Norway\">Norway</a>, <a href=\"King%20of%20the%20Wends\">the Wends</a> and <a href=\"King%20of%20the%20Goths\">the Goths</a>, <a href=\"Count%20Palatine%20of%20the%20Rhine\">Count Palatine of the Rhine</a>, <a href=\"Duke%20of%20Bavaria\">Duke of Bavaria</a>\".\n\n","Deining\nDeining is a <a href=\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>.","Altmühl\nThe Altmühl is a river in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a>, <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>. It is a left tributary of the river <a href=\"Danube\">Danube</a> and is approximately 230 km long.\nIt is a place well-known for potato farming.\nThe source of the Altmühl is close to the town of <a href=\"Ansbach\">Ansbach</a>. From here the river runs southeastwards as a narrow brook to enter the (a lake) north of <a href=\"Gunzenhausen\">Gunzenhausen</a>. After leaving Gunzenhausen the river describes a broad curve through the <a href=\"Franconian%20Jura\">Franconian Jura</a>. It enters the \"\" (Altmühl Valley Nature Park), which is known for its natural environment: The <a href=\"meander\">meander</a>s of the Altmühl river have cut deep gorges into the mountains of the Franconian Jura.\nThe Altmühl passes the towns of <a href=\"Treuchtlingen\">Treuchtlingen</a>, <a href=\"Eichst%C3%A4tt\">Eichstätt</a> and <a href=\"Beilngries\">Beilngries</a>.\nDownriver of <a href=\"Dietfurt\">Dietfurt</a> the river bed was straightened and integrated into a canal connecting the <a href=\"Main%20%28river%29\">river Main</a> and the river Danube (the <a href=\"Rhine%E2%80%93Main%E2%80%93Danube%20Canal\">Rhine–Main–Danube Canal</a>). In spite of protests by conservationists the canal was opened in 1992 and has changed much of the eastern Altmühl valley.\nThe Altmühl finally flows into the Danube in <a href=\"Kelheim\">Kelheim</a>.\n","Pilsach\nPilsach is a <a href=\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\"Bavaria\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>."],"string":"[\n \"Dyleň\\nDyleň (German: \\\"Tillenberg\\\" ) is a mountain in the Karlovy Vary Region of western Bohemia, located roughly 100 m from the Czech Republic–Germany border. At 939 m above sea level, its summit is the second highest peak in the Upper Palatinate Range (Bavarian–Bohemian Forest).\\nLocal tradition holds that Napoleon Bonaparte declared Tillenberg the geographical center of Europe in 1813.\\nThe German name lent itself to the title of the epic poem \\\"Der Tillenberg: Ein Sagenschatz aus dem Egerlande\\\" (\\\"A Treasure-tale from the Egerland\\\") published in 1904 by Ernst Freimut (pseudonym of Johann (Hans) Sommert).\\nOn its summit is a set of prominent buildings. These were used by the Soviet Union for electronic espionage into Germany during the Cold War. Now it's radio and television transmission tower.\\n\",\n \"La corona (Gluck)\\nLa corona (\\\"The Crown\\\") is an opera by the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck. It takes the form of an \\\"azione teatrale\\\" in one act. The Italian-language libretto is by Pietro Metastasio. The opera was intended to celebrate the name day of Emperor Francis I on 4 October 1765 but the emperor died in August and it remained unperformed until the 20th century.\\n\",\n \"Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz\\nNeumarkt in der Oberpfalz is the capital of the Neumarkt district in the administrative region of the Upper Palatinate, in Bavaria, Germany. With a population of about 40,000, Neumarkt is the seat of various projects, and acts as the economic and cultural center of the western Upper Palatinate, along with Nürnberg, Ingolstadt, and Regensburg.\\nNeumarkt lies on the western edge of the Franconian Jura, nestled in a valley. The municipal region reaches as far as the Bavarian Jura to the east. The Neumarkt valley drains to the north through the Schwarzach River, a tributary of the Regnitz, eventually flowing into the Main, and to the south through the Sulz, a tributary of the Altmühl, which eventually flows into the Danube. The Ludwig Canal cuts through the area from North to South, bridging the European water divide. The elevation varies from 406 meters on the Beckenmühle River to the north, to 595 meters in the vicinity of Fuchsberg; as a reference, the elevation of city hall is given as 423 meters.\\nThe municipal region has an area of 73.09 km². The following municipalities, all of which belong to the Neumarkt district, border the district capital. They are named clockwise, beginning in the north: Berg, Pilsach, Velburg, Deining, Sengenthal, Berngau and Postbauer-Heng.\\nNeumarkt is located on the western edge of a former Coral Reef (now called the Franconian Jura) of the Tethys Ocean during the Jurassic. The floor of the valley is predominately sandy, whence came the earlier name \\\"Neumarkt auf dem Sand\\\" (Neumarkt on the Sand), on the sides are isolated regions of loam. The mountains are formed of hard Limestone containing numerous springs, including, for example, the source of the White Laber River near Voggenthal.\\nThe core of the municipal area is the Old City and its still-recognized borders. The first housing developments built outside the city walls began in 1850 to the east, along Mühlstraße, Mariahilfstraße, and Badstraße. To the south, the Industrial area developed beginning around 1920. After 1945, the city expanded to the north and west, and eventually grew together with the municipalities of Woffenbach and Holzheim. Numerous other settlements developed around the city center, named, going clockwise from the north: Altenhof, Koppenmühle, Kohlenbrunnermühle, Mühlen, Wolfstein (at the site of the former Prison Work Camp), Weinberg, Schlosserhügel, and Hasenheide.\\nDuring the 1972 Municipality Reforms, nine municipalities were merged with the city, substantially increasing the municipal area.\\nTraces of the earliest settlement at Neumarkt go back as far as the Neolithic period. Around Neumarkt there are numerous burial mounds and multiple Celtic embankments. The town is assumed to have been first founded by the Bavarii in the 6th or 7th century, for example, the quarter of the city now named Pölling.\\nThe precise date of the city's founding is unknown, but its founding as \\\"neuer Markt\\\" is assumed to have happened in the beginning of the 12th century, on the trade route between Nuremberg and Regensburg. The city was first mentioned in a document in 1135, and city fortifications were mentioned for the first time in 1315. In the 13th century Emperor Frederick II granted Neumarkt \\\"Reichsfreiheit\\\", and with it, the right to collect customs on trade between Nuremberg and Regensburg and itself. However, the city never enforced this status, because the city fell to the Wittelsbachs in 1329 through the Treaty of Pavia.\\nIn the 15th and 16th centuries, Neumarkt was the residence of the rulers of the Palatinate. Count Johann von Pfalz-Neumarkt established the seat of his government here, and began to develop the city into a residency. Included in his work are the church of St. Johannes, the Court Chapel, and the castle of the counts of the Palatinate. Johann was succeeded by Counts Otto I, his son Otto II, and Frederick II, who later became an Elector, and moved to Heidelberg.\\nAfter the Palatinate Counts left, Neumarkt lost much of its importance. Subsequently, the city played a part in political and economic life only for the surrounding area, and the growth of the city stopped almost entirely. The next perceptible period of growth did not occur until the middle of the 19th century. In the Thirty Years' War, Neumarkt was occupied by Swedish troops from 1633 to 1635 and from 1646 to 1649. Both times the city was plundered and partially destroyed.\\nDuring the war of the First Coalition a dramatic encounter between the French and Austria troops occurred in Neumarkt in the Summer of 1796. The French barricaded themselves in the city and the Austrians began its complete destruction. Only through the intervention of a smith from Neumarkt, who single-handedly opened the upper gate, was something worse averted. Neumarkt attained the status of Bavarian imperial city, and was the seat of a district court after the Kingdom of Bavaria was formed by Napoleon in 1806.\\nIn the 19th century Neumarkt gradually developed into an industrial center. Beginning in 1830, thousands of laborers worked on the \\\"Ludwigskanal\\\" in the vicinity of Neumarkt, the completion of which, in 1846, made Neumarkt a port city. The \\\"Express-Werken\\\", established in Neumarkt in 1884, were continental Europe's first bicycle factory.\\nThe economic and political results of World War I were quickly noticeable in Neumarkt. Over 300 of its young men fell on the battlefield.\\nIn September 1923 one of the first local chapters of the Nazi Party was founded in Neumarkt, which appeared publicly on September 23 for \\\"German Day\\\". The chapter was created shortly before the death of Dietrich Eckart, one of the founders of the Nazi party, who was born in Neumarkt. The removal of active party members, however, led to its quick disintegration. The party was not reorganized in Neumarkt until 1928. In 1934, in memory of Eckart, the town was officially given the added suffix \\\"Dietrich-Eckart-city\\\". In that year, Adolf Hitler inaugurated a monument in Eckart's honour in the city park. It has since been rededicated to Christopher of Bavaria (1416-1448), King of Denmark, who was probably born in the town.\\nThe Lammsbräu Brewery is located in the town.\\nNeumarkt offers sport activities like martial arts (Judo, Karate, Taekwondo, Aikido, Boxing and Thai boxing) as well as table tennis, wheelchair sports, athletics, bowling, volleyball, wrestling and tennis. league and wrestling.\\n\",\n \"Battle of Hiltersried\\nThe Battle of Hiltersried took place on 21 September 1433 near the village Hiltersried in Bavaria. A Bavarian feudal army under Count Palatine John of Neumarkt took an expedition against in the Upper Palatinate against marauding Hussites and soundly defeated the Hussite section whose task was to ensure the protection for troops besieging Pilsen. The Hussites, who on that day were not expecting any attack, were totally surprised and did not have time to prepare to defend. After a sharp firing crossbows, the mounted knights attacked in wedge formation toward the entrance to the camp. At the same time the infantry attacked from the wings, binding part of the struggle of defenders. After the Hussite knighthood broke the defense and burst into the camp, the defense started the rout. Knights of the Palatinate took chase.\\nDuring the fighting and the pursuit, about 1,500 Hussites were killed and 300 taken prisoner. Their commander escaped, however, and led 130 Taborites from the battlefield and headed for Pilsen. Losses among the knighthood of Palatinate were only 14 dead and about 120 wounded. The failure at Hiltersried led to internal clashes within the ranks of the Hussites, public opinion among the Hussites at Pilsen turned against the organizers Jan Pardus and Jan Řitka of Bezdědice and led to several days of imprisonment for the spiritual administrator of the Tabor municipality Prokop, who defended both captains. The Hussite movement was falling apart from the inside, contributing to the end of the Hussite wars. It was one of the major battles in which documents the Hussites.\",\n \"Emperor Francis cherry\\nThe Emperor Francis cherry is a sweet cherry cultivar \\\"(Prunus avium)\\\" that produces a bright red fruit which is resistant to cracking. In 1996, it was the source of the first cherry genetic map, which was created from a haploid-microspore derived population from the 'Emperor Francis' cultivar. It is also one of the sources of the 'Newfane' sweet cherry, which was created by crossing the 'Emperor Francis' with the 'Stella' cherry.\\nIt can be cross-pollinated with 'Montmorency' cherry.\\n\",\n \"March of the Nordgau\\nThe March of the Nordgau (German: \\\"Markgrafschaft Nordgau\\\" ) or Bavarian Nordgau (\\\"Bayerischer Nordgau\\\") was a medieval administrative unit (\\\"Gau\\\") on the frontier of the German stem duchy of Bavaria. It comprised the region north of the Danube and Regensburg (Ratisbon), roughly covered by the modern Upper Palatinate stretching up to the river Main and, especially after 1061, into the Egerland on the border with Bohemia.\\nThe area east of Franconia proper up to the Bohemian Forest had been settled by Germanic Varisci and Armalausi tribes in ancient times; after the Migration Period it was occupied by the Merovingian king Chlodio. From the mid 6th century onwards, the region was Christianised by several wandering bishops, among them Saints Boniface and Emmeram of Regensburg. In 739, the Diocese of Regensburg was founded. The great fortress of Wogastisburg was built at the insistence of Saint Boniface by Charles Martel.\\nWhen King Charlemagne deposed Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria in 788, he entered the Nordgau and brought the Carolingian Empire into contact with Bohemia permanently. For this reason, the incorporated Nordgau has been called the Bohemian March on occasion, although this term is also reserved for the later Margraviate of Moravia. By a 806 deed issued at Thionville, Charlemagne separated the Bavarian lands left of the Danube including the ducal residences of Regensburg and Lauterhofen, called \\\"pagum, qui dicitur Northgowe\\\". His chancellor Einhard reached the confirmation by Pope Leo III.\\nThe Nordgau was again separated from Bavaria following the death of the Luitpolding duke Arnulf in 937. There has been some confusion over whether or not the Nordgau was separated from Bavaria at this date or only as late as 976, when the East Franconain count Berthold of Schweinfurt, who had helped to suppress the rebellion of the Bavarian duke Henry the Wrangler against Emperor Otto II, was appointed margrave to administrate the region as a distinct march.\\nLikewise, Berthold's son Count Henry of Schweinfurt appeared as Margrave of the Nordgau in 994. He backed the election of Duke Henry IV of Bavaria as King of the Romans in 1002, however, he the new king (Henry II) responded with ingratitude. Count Henry soon after joined a revolt (\\\"Schweinfurter Fehde\\\") led by the Polish ruler Bolesław I the Brave, after which he was deposed and arrested. In 1004, King Henry II installed his brother-in-law Count Henry of Luxembourg as Bavarian duke and gave the temporal authority of the Nordgau region over to the Bishopric of Bamberg, which he heavily favoured throughout his career. However, the margravial title survived in a succession of families in the region. Count Henry's possessions were partly restored and his descendants used the title \\\"Margrave of Schweinfurt\\\".\\nThroughout the 11th and 12th centuries, the Nordgau was a pathway for invading armies from Bohemia and Hungary and for the countering armies of the Holy Roman Empire.\\nIn the mid 11th century, the Salian emperor Henry III had an Imperial castle erected at Cham to encounter the forces of Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia. It became the residence of the \\\"Rapotonen\\\" noble family, who eventually received the margravial title by royal grant about 1073, passing it down as \\\"Margrave of Vohburg\\\" to their descendants.\\nMargrave Diepold III (d. 1146) was a loyal supporter of Emperor Henry V and founder of the abbeys in Reichenbach and Waldsassen. From about 1125, he had the fortress of Eger (Cheb) erected at the border with Bohemia. His daughter Adelaide married the Swabian duke and later emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1147.\\nThe Egerland was incorporated as a Hohenstaufen imperial territory upon Diepold's death and the town of Eger itself was inherited by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1167. It attained the immediate status of an Imperial city, while large parts of the Norgau were controlled by the Bavarian House of Wittelsbach from the mid 13th century onwards. In 1322 the Wittelsbach emperor Louis IV gave the Egerland in pawn to the Kingdom of Bohemia. By the 1329 Treaty of Pavia, he ceded the remaining Nordgau region to his Palatinate nephews Rudolf II and Rupert I, whereafter it became known as the \\\"Upper Palatinate\\\".\",\n \"Upper Palatinate Tower\\nThe Upper Palatinate Tower (German: \\\"Oberpfalzturm\\\" ) is an observation tower on the 946 m high Platte mountain, the highest peak in the Steinwald and in Northern Upper Palatinate in southern Germany.\\nThe first solid observation tower was built in 1971/72 by the Steinwald Nature Park Authority from Steinwald spruce trees. Due to dilapidation it had to be demolished on 1 April 1998.\\nThe engineer, Ferdinand Lehner, from Tirschenreuth was then given the contract to design and build a new tower.\\nOn 10 September 2000 the new observation tower was opened. It is 35 m high and was made of larch plywood. The contract was let by the town of Erbendorf. The total cost of construction came to about DM 400,000 and was supported by grants from the European Union, the Free State of Bavaria, the district of Tirschenreuth and the surrounding towns and villages. From the observation platform there are views of the Fichtelgebirge, the Egerland, the Stiftland and over the Upper Palatine Forest.\\n\",\n \"Bohemian Palatinate\\nBohemian Palatinate (Czech: \\\"Česká Falc\\\" , German: \\\"Böhmische Oberpfalz\\\" ), since the 19th century also called New Bohemia (Czech: \\\"Nové Čechy\\\" , German: \\\"Neuböhmen\\\" ), is the historical area in the northeast of present-day Bavaria (Germany), which from 1353 onwards was incorporated into the Crown of Bohemia by Emperor Charles IV. Bohemian Palatinate lies in the north of the Upper Palatinate, its territory stretched up to Upper and Middle Franconia close to the Imperial City of Nuremberg.\\nAlready in 1322, Emperor Louis IV had pawned the Egerland region to King John of Bohemia of the House of Luxembourg. John's son, Charles IV, who also succeeded Louis as Emperor, rivalled with the houses of Habsburg and Wittelsbach and aimed at the aggrandizement of his hereditary lands, in order to win influence on the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles obtained the approval by the Prince-electors to affiliate the Imperial City of Eger (Cheb) with the Bohemian kingdom. In 1349 he married Anne of Bavaria, daughter of the Wittelsbach count palatine Rudolf II of the Rhine, who held the adjacent lands in the Bavarian Nordgau (the later \\\"Upper Palatinate\\\" region). However, Charles had to abandon his hope to be heir to his father-in-law's estates upon Anna's early death in 1353.\\nIn 1353 Charles gained 24 Palatinate estates from Rupert I in compensation for his debts. To these he joined other territories and the whole region incorporated into the Crown of Bohemia in 1355. Administrative center of this area was in Sulzbach-Rosenberg, while for representational purposes Charles built the Lauf Castle. The Emperor intensively supported the area through tax reliefs for craftsmen and traders, as well as other privileges for settlements and markets.\\nIn 1373 Charles ceded the greater part of area back to the Wittelsbachs in exchange for the Electorate of Brandenburg. Wenceslaus IV lost the rest in 1401.\",\n \"Erika Eichenseer\\nErika Eichenseer née Jahn was born in Munich in 1934 and lives in Regensburg, Bavaria. She has led the revival of interest in Franz Xaver von Schönwerth, the 19th-century folklorist who collected fairy tales in the Upper Palatinate region of northern Bavaria, having found 500 tales of his in the municipal archives of Regensburg, most of which had never been published before. She is a writer, a poet, an authority on the folk heritage of the Upper Palatinate, and a well-known storyteller.\\nErika Eichenseer completed her schooling in Erding in 1952. She then trained as a primary school teacher, graduated in 1954 at the Teachers’ Training College of Freising. She subsequently studied English and German, graduating in 1959 as a teacher for secondary modern schools. She married Adolf J. Eichenseer the same year. From 1959–1979 she taught in secondary schools in Munich and later in Regensburg, where she initiated school theatre projects, for which she wrote plays and adapted local tales, including some by Schönwerth.\\nFrom 1979 to 1994 she worked in her husband’s institute for the development of traditional culture (Bezirksheimatpflegeamt Oberpfalz), specializing in regional literature, documentation and the reanimation of traditional customs and arts. In this function she guided 400 amateur theatre groups in the region, giving them specialized courses, reviewing the value of their performance material, created opportunities for new plays to be written, and wrote plays herself.\\nFor twenty years, until her retirement in 1994, she produced and directed children's theatrical productions at the instrument-making courses in Pleystein and Waldmünchen. For ten years she was involved in the children’s theatre at Burg Wolfsegg, producing texts and directing productions.\\nIn 1976 the Eichenseers were invited to the USA to the German Department of the University of Missouri to speak about their work. In 1977 they took part in a University summer programme there on traditional folk instruments. Erika Eichenseer lectured on puppet plays and participated in the German Department's folklore course. In 1995 they took part in the Missouri Big Muddy Folk Festival with lectures and story-telling.\\nTo commemorate the centenary of the death of Franz Xaver von Schönwerth in 1986, Erika Eichenseer produced a booklet of his tales, complete with a teachers’ manual, for all schools in the Upper Palatinate; she helped to arrange a Schönwerth exhibition and a theatrical production which travelled to eight different locations in Bavaria, she opening and introducing each one.\\nIn 2009, she came across around 500 unpublished Schönwerth tales in the Municipal Archive of Regensburg. She selected and edited 136 of them for her book \\\"Prinz Rosszwifl\\\" (Prince Dungbeetle), which was published the following year.\\nIn 2010, Eichenseer and her husband founded the Franz Xaver von Schönwerth Society. She produced a further Schönwerth reader with a teachers’ manual for all schools in the Upper Palatinate. During the centenary year the Society organised a whole series of commemorations, Erika Eichenseer herself lectured, spoke and performed at about 100 events.\\nIn March 2012 Eichenseer’s book \\\"Prinz Rosszwifl\\\" was reviewed by Victoria Sussens-Messerer in the English newspaper \\\"The Guardian\\\" and the discovery of 500 new Schönwerth fairytales hailed as a sensation. This led to considerable international interest. Penguin Classics decided to publish a collection of Schönwerth tales in English – in February 2015 – and translations into other languages may follow.\\nIn 2012 an annual Schönwerth Day was inaugurated at the Open Air Museum in Neusath-Perschen. \\\"Don’t read to us, Grandma – tell us stories!\\\" was the theme of a fairy tale seminar and gala evening. This was followed by story-telling in the International Children’s and Young People’s Library in Munich.\\nIn June 2013 Erika Eichenseer took part in a 2-day symposium organised by the School of Education in Trinity College Dublin on \\\"The Role of Fairy Tale in Contemporary Theatre\\\".\\nThe premiere of the musical based on Schönwerth’s tale \\\"Das Fliegende Kästchen\\\" (The Flying Trunk) was given on 7 July 2013 in Regensburg. The idea and libretto were by Eichenseer, the music by Mathias Wehr; the work was performed by the Cantemus Choir of Regensburg and conducted by Matthias Schlier, and was directed by Gregor Turecek. It was part of the Schaulust Festival Junges Theater Regensburg.\\nOn 21 September 2014 the Schönwerth Fairy Tale Path, which had been initiated by Erika and Adolf J. Eichenseer, was inaugurated in Sinzing by the Lord Mayor of Regensburg.\\nSince 1985: at the Weiden Literary Festival [Weidener Literaturtage] seminars and gala performances for authors from the Upper Palatinate\\nSince 1989: Wöi uns der Schnobl g’wachsn is – Dialect Poetry Readings at the Upper Palatinate Open Air Museum in Neusath-Perschen\\nSince 2010: For the Franz Xaver von Schönwerth Society\\n2004: Hanns-Seidl-Stiftung [Trust] Folk Music Prize\\n2004: Bavarian Forest Association Cultural Prize\\n2005: Bavarian Radio Gold Medal\\n2009: Waldschmidt Prize\\n2016: Upper Palatinate Jura Literary Prize (Literaturpreis des Oberpfälzer Jura)\\nEichenseer has published poetry and essays in the journals \\\"Schönere Heimat\\\", \\\"Nordgau-Festschrift\\\", \\\"Charivari\\\", \\\"Literatur in Bayern\\\"\",\n \"Egerland\\nThe Egerland (; <a href=\\\"German%20language\\\">German</a>: \\\"Egerland\\\" ; <a href=\\\"Northern%20Austro-Bavarian\\\">Egerland German dialect</a>: \\\"Eghalånd\\\") is a historical region in the far north west of <a href=\\\"Bohemia\\\">Bohemia</a> in the <a href=\\\"Czech%20Republic\\\">Czech Republic</a> at the border with <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>. It is named after the German name \\\"Eger\\\" for the city of <a href=\\\"Cheb\\\">Cheb</a> and the main river <a href=\\\"Oh%C5%99e\\\">Ohře</a>. Recently the northern parts around the town of <a href=\\\"A%C5%A1\\\">Aš</a> are also called Böhmisches Vogtland \\\"(Fojtsko)\\\" related to the adjacent German <a href=\\\"Vogtland\\\">Vogtland</a> region in <a href=\\\"Saxony\\\">Saxony</a>, <a href=\\\"Thuringia\\\">Thuringia</a> and <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a>, today constituent parts of the \\\"\\\" <a href=\\\"Euroregion\\\">Euroregion</a> initiative.\\nThe Egerland forms the northwestern edge of the Czech Republic. Originally, it was a small region of less than 1000 km2 around the historic city of Cheb, roughly corresponding with the present-day <a href=\\\"Cheb%20District\\\">Cheb District</a> of the <a href=\\\"Karlovy%20Vary%20Region\\\">Karlovy Vary Region</a>, originally with the exception of Aš, but including the headwaters of the Ohře river and the area of <a href=\\\"Marktredwitz\\\">Marktredwitz</a> in today's <a href=\\\"Upper%20Franconia\\\">Upper Franconia</a>.\\nIn contrast, after the beginning of the <a href=\\\"German%20occupation%20of%20Czechoslovakia\\\">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a> in 1938, Cheb and the historic Egerland were incorporated as part of the \\\"\\\"<a href=\\\"Sudetenland\\\">Sudetenland</a>\\\"\\\" into an extended area of 7466 km2 . Though the seat of the administration was established at <a href=\\\"Karlovy%20Vary\\\">Karlovy Vary</a> (Carlsbad) the entity was officially named \\\"<a href=\\\"Regierungsbezirk\\\">Regierungsbezirk</a> Eger\\\" in order to reduce territorial claims. It included large Bohemian territories up to the outskirts of <a href=\\\"Plze%C5%88\\\">Plzeň</a>, comprising cities like <a href=\\\"Sokolov%20%28Sokolov%20District%29\\\">Falknov</a> (today Sokolov), <a href=\\\"Kraslice\\\">Kraslice</a>, <a href=\\\"Chodov%20%28Sokolov%20District%29\\\">Chodov</a>, <a href=\\\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\\\">Mariánské Lázně</a> (Marienbad) and <a href=\\\"Tachov\\\">Tachov</a>, which never belonged to historical region.\\nThe settlement of \\\"Eger\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Germania%20Slavica\\\">Bavaria Slavica</a> was first mentioned in 1061 records of trade routes laid out in the course of the German \\\"<a href=\\\"Ostsiedlung\\\">Ostsiedlung</a>\\\" migration. In 1135 the \\\"regio Egere\\\" is recorded as a part of the Bavarian <a href=\\\"March%20of%20the%20Nordgau\\\">March of the Nordgau</a> under the rule of Count <a href=\\\"Diepold%20III%2C%20Margrave%20of%20Vohburg\\\">Diepold III of Vohburg</a>. After his death in 1146, the Egerland was inherited by the later Emperor <a href=\\\"Frederick%20I%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Frederick I Barbarossa</a> of <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Hohenstaufen\\\">Hohenstaufen</a> by marriage with Diepold's daughter <a href=\\\"Adelheid%20of%20Vohburg\\\">Adelheid</a>. The Staufer finally severed the \\\"Provincia Egrensis\\\" from Bavaria and built it up as an exemplary model of a \\\"Reichsgut\\\" territory under immediate rule of the <a href=\\\"Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Holy Roman Emperor</a>. Along this development Cheb became the site of a \\\"<a href=\\\"Kaiserpfalz\\\">Kaiserpfalz</a>\\\" residence \\\"(Chebský hrad)\\\", the only one in the present-day Czech Republic.\\nCheb, a <a href=\\\"free%20imperial%20city\\\">free imperial city</a> since 1277, and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Imperial%20immediacy\\\">reichsunmittelbar</a>\\\" Egerland were given as a lien to King <a href=\\\"John%20of%20Bohemia\\\">John of Bohemia</a> in 1322 by Emperor <a href=\\\"Louis%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Louis IV of Wittelsbach</a>. In return for John's support against Louis' rival <a href=\\\"Frederick%20the%20Fair\\\">Frederick of Habsburg</a> at the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20M%C3%BChldorf\\\">Battle of Mühldorf</a>, he received Eger as a \\\"Reichspfandschaft\\\" (Imperial lien) with the \\\"guarantee of complete independence from the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Bohemia\\\">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>\\\". This reservation however became meaningless as Louis never redeemed the pawn, and with the accession of Emperor <a href=\\\"Charles%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles IV of Luxembourg</a> in 1346, the crowns of the <a href=\\\"Holy%20Roman%20Empire\\\">Holy Roman Empire</a> and Bohemia were united in one hand. Charles' successors from the <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Luxembourg\\\">House of Luxembourg</a> and (from 1526) <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Habsburg\\\">Habsburg</a> continuously eliminated the autonomy of the Egerland against the resistance of the Cheb citizens and the local nobility. While the present-day Franconian parts up to the <a href=\\\"Fichtelgebirge\\\">Fichtelgebirge</a> were acquired by the <a href=\\\"Principality%20of%20Bayreuth\\\">Principality of Bayreuth</a> under <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Hohenzollern\\\">Hohenzollern</a> rule, the remaining territory was administrated within the Bohemian \\\"<a href=\\\"kraj\\\">kraj</a>\\\" of <a href=\\\"Loket%20%28Sokolov%20District%29\\\">Loket</a> from 1751.\\nThe incorporation of the Bohemian kingdom into the <a href=\\\"Habsburg%20Monarchy\\\">Habsburg Monarchy</a> had created ongoing conflicts at first along the fault-lines between the <a href=\\\"Catholicism\\\">Catholic</a> dynasty and the <a href=\\\"Protestantism\\\">Protestant</a> nobility culminating in the <a href=\\\"Thirty%20Years%27%20War\\\">Thirty Years' War</a>. Cheb and the Egerland insisting on their independence tried to maintain a neutral position, they nevertheless were seized as a stronghold by <a href=\\\"Albrecht%20von%20Wallenstein\\\">Albrecht von Wallenstein</a>, who was murdered at Cheb on 25 February 1634. In the following decades the <a href=\\\"Absolute%20monarchy\\\">absolute</a> Habsburg rulers aimed at a <a href=\\\"centralized%20government\\\">centralized government</a>. Emperor <a href=\\\"Joseph%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Joseph II of Habsburg</a> on the one hand issued an <a href=\\\"1782%20Edict%20of%20Tolerance\\\">Edict of Religious Tolerance</a> in 1781, but also denied the Bohemian autonomy by renouncing the ceremony of the coronation as Bohemian king. With the determination of <a href=\\\"German%20language\\\">German</a> as official language in all Habsburg lands (instead of <a href=\\\"Latin%20language\\\">Latin</a>), he laid the foundations for future <a href=\\\"ethnic%20conflict\\\">ethnic conflict</a>s. In the course of the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the onset of the <a href=\\\"Austrian%20Empire\\\">Austrian Empire</a>, the eastern part of Egerland finally became an ordinary district of the Austrian province of Bohemia.\\nThe suppression during the <a href=\\\"Age%20of%20Metternich\\\">Age of Metternich</a> led to a second-class status of the <a href=\\\"Czech%20people\\\">Czech people</a> in the Austrian crown land of Bohemia, despite them being much more numerous than the German-speaking population. From about 1830 on Czech scholars like <a href=\\\"Franti%C5%A1ek%20Palack%C3%BD\\\">František Palacký</a> encouraged the <a href=\\\"Austroslavism\\\">Austroslavism</a> movement demanding autonomy for the Bohemian crown lands and admission of the <a href=\\\"Czech%20language\\\">Czech language</a>. In the aftermath of the 1848 <a href=\\\"Revolutions%20of%201848\\\">Spring of Nations</a>, the Czechs, as well as some other Slavic nations, began <a href=\\\"Pan-Slavic\\\">Pan-Slavic</a> movements aiming at complete independence, fiercely opposed by <a href=\\\"Pan-Germanism\\\">Pan-German</a> organisations like the <a href=\\\"German%20Workers%27%20Party%20%28Austria-Hungary%29\\\">German Worker's Party</a> based in Cheb. The rise of <a href=\\\"ethnic%20nationalism\\\">ethnic nationalism</a> turned out to be fatal, as, while the central parts of Bohemia were only inhabited by a smaller German-speaking elite, in border regions like the Egerland people who spoke the German language were more numerous.\\nAt the end of World War I, the German-speaking population of former <a href=\\\"Austria%E2%80%93Hungary\\\">Austria–Hungary</a> proclaimed the Republic of <a href=\\\"German%20Austria\\\">German Austria</a> including the Egerland and further peripheral regions of <a href=\\\"German%20Bohemia\\\">German Bohemia</a>, that were to become part of <a href=\\\"Czechoslovakia\\\">Czechoslovakia</a>. They demanded the unification with <a href=\\\"Weimar%20Republic\\\">Germany</a>, referring to the <a href=\\\"self-determination\\\">self-determination</a> doctrine proclaimed by U.S. president <a href=\\\"Woodrow%20Wilson\\\">Woodrow Wilson</a> that had been the basis for the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Nevertheless, the Czech majority in the total of Bohemia insisted to \\\"restore their countries in their historical borders\\\", as a revision of the former <a href=\\\"Germanization\\\">Germanization</a>. Both parties acted unilaterally, the Czechs prevailed establishing the Czechoslovakian Republic comprising all parts of Bohemia including the Egerland, while the German minority drew a completely new border between predominantly Czech- and predominantly German-speaking parts of the country.\\nWith the 1933 <a href=\\\"Machtergreifung\\\">Nazi seizure of power</a> in Germany, the separatists of the <a href=\\\"Sudeten%20German%20Party\\\">Sudeten German Party</a> under <a href=\\\"Konrad%20Henlein\\\">Konrad Henlein</a> became more and more dominant, calling themselves <a href=\\\"Germans%20in%20Czechoslovakia%20%281918%E2%80%931938%29\\\">Sudeten German</a>s. After <a href=\\\"Adolf%20Hitler\\\">Hitler</a> had pushed the situation towards an armed conflict, the prime ministers of <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">Britain</a> and <a href=\\\"French%20Third%20Republic\\\">France</a> in the 1938 <a href=\\\"Munich%20Agreement\\\">Munich Agreement</a> backed the annexation of the Sudetenland with the Egerland by <a href=\\\"Nazi%20Germany\\\">Nazi Germany</a>, resulting in flight and expulsion of Czech people. At that time, the term \\\"Egerland\\\" came in use for the western district of the Sudetenland, itself a <a href=\\\"Reichsgau\\\">Reichsgau</a> from 1939 on.\\nFollowing the German defeat in World War II, the region was rejoined to Czechoslovakia in 1945 and most of the <a href=\\\"Expulsion%20of%20Germans%20from%20Czechoslovakia\\\">ethnic Germans were expelled</a> to Germany on the basis of the <a href=\\\"Bene%C5%A1%20decrees\\\">Beneš decrees</a>, nearly 90,000 from Egerland proper and almost 800,000 from the short-lived \\\"Regierungsbezirk Eger\\\".\\n\",\n \"Czech Republic–Germany border\\nThe Czech Republic–Germany border is the <a href=\\\"international%20border\\\">international border</a> between the <a href=\\\"Czech%20Republic\\\">Czech Republic</a> and <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>. It forms a 815 km arc extending from <a href=\\\"Austria\\\">Austria</a> at the south to <a href=\\\"Poland\\\">Poland</a> at the north.\\nSeveral rivers cross this border, or form portions of it. These include:\\nThe border comes from the old border between German Empire and the Austrian Empire.\\nIn the period 1945-1990, the border formed part of the <a href=\\\"Iron%20curtain\\\">Iron curtain</a> and was heavily fenced and strictly guarded.\\nThe Czech Republic joined the <a href=\\\"Schengen%20Area\\\">Schengen Area</a> in 2007. This meant that all passport checks were removed along the border in December 2007. The limitations on Czechs working in Germany expired in April 2011.\\n\",\n \"Karlovy Vary Region\\nThe Karlovy Vary Region or Carlsbad Region (<a href=\\\"Czech%20language\\\">Czech</a>: \\\"Karlovarský kraj\\\" ) is an administrative unit (<a href=\\\"Czech%20language\\\">Czech</a>: \\\"kraj\\\" ) of the <a href=\\\"Czech%20Republic\\\">Czech Republic</a>, located in the westernmost part of its historical region of <a href=\\\"Bohemia\\\">Bohemia</a>. It is named after its capital <a href=\\\"Karlovy%20Vary\\\">Karlovy Vary</a>. The region is world-famous for its <a href=\\\"spa\\\">spa</a>s, including Karlovy Vary and <a href=\\\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\\\">Mariánské Lázně</a>.\\nThe Karlovy Vary Region is divided into 3 districts:\\nAt a lower level, the region has 132 municipalities, comprising 54 in the Karlovy Vary District, 40 in the Cheb District and 38 in the Sokolov District.\\nAs of 1 January 2012 the population of the Karlovy Vary Region was 303,165 with 149,432 males and 153,733 females, accounting for 49.3% and 50.7% of the population respectively.\\nThe region is well known for its spas and is responsible over half of the county's spa industry. Twelve spas can be found in the city of Karlovy Vary alone. Other famous spa towns in the region include <a href=\\\"Franti%C5%A1kovy%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\\\">Františkovy Lázně</a>, <a href=\\\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B\\\">Mariánské Lázně</a>, <a href=\\\"L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B%20Kyn%C5%BEvart\\\">Lázně Kynžvart</a> and <a href=\\\"J%C3%A1chymov\\\">Jáchymov</a>. The spas are visited not only by Czechs but by people from the rest of Europe, Russia, Israel and North America as well. Karlovy Vary spa wafers, a food item from the region, was awarded <a href=\\\"protected%20designation%20of%20origin\\\">protected designation of origin</a> (PDO) status by the European Commission in 2011.\\nThe water from the region is used in locally produced beverages including \\\"<a href=\\\"Mattoni\\\">Mattoni</a>\\\" from Karlovy Vary and \\\"<a href=\\\"Aquila%20%28spring%20water%29\\\">Aquila</a>\\\" from the village of <a href=\\\"Kyselka\\\">Kyselka</a>.\\nThe region is the home of two power stations, \\\"Vřesová\\\" and \\\"Tisová\\\", both in the Sokolov District. The region is also part of the so-called <a href=\\\"Black%20Triangle%20%28region%29\\\">Black Triangle</a>, an area of heavy industrialization and environmental damage on the three-way border of Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic.\\nThe Karlovy Region is served by <a href=\\\"Karlovy%20Vary%20Airport\\\">Karlovy Vary Airport</a>, which handled more than 100,000 passengers in 2012. The region is also home to two other airports, neither of which are used for passenger flights. These are <a href=\\\"Cheb%20Airport\\\">Cheb Airport</a>, the oldest airport in the country, and <a href=\\\"Mari%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9%20L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B%20Airport\\\">Mariánské Lázně Airport</a>.\\nThe region lacks any motorways. The unfinished <a href=\\\"R6%20expressway%20%28Czech%20Republic%29\\\">R6 expressway</a> passes through the region, linking Cheb and Karlovy Vary to Prague. The length of operated railway lines in the region is 493 km .\\nThe <a href=\\\"Czech%20University%20of%20Life%20Sciences%20Prague\\\">Czech University of Life Sciences Prague</a> opened a centre in the village of <a href=\\\"Dalovice%20%28Karlovy%20Vary%20District%29\\\">Dalovice</a> in the <a href=\\\"Karlovy%20Vary%20District\\\">Karlovy Vary District</a> in 2007. The <a href=\\\"private%20school\\\">private</a> <a href=\\\"College%20of%20Karlovy%20Vary\\\">College of Karlovy Vary</a> is also located in the region, in addition to regional centres of the <a href=\\\"Banking%20Institute%20/%20College%20of%20Banking\\\">Banking Institute / College of Banking</a> in Karlovy Vary and the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20West%20Bohemia\\\">University of West Bohemia</a> in Cheb and Sokolov.\\n\",\n \"Azione teatrale\\nAzione teatrale (English \\\"theatrical action\\\", plural \\\"azioni teatrali\\\") is a genre of <a href=\\\"opera\\\">opera</a>, popular in <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italy</a> and southern Europe in the late 17th and 18th centuries. It is also sometimes conflated with differing works such as \\\"azione scenica\\\", \\\"componimento dramatico\\\" or \\\"componimento da camera\\\".\\nAn \\\"azione teatrale\\\" was typically shorter in scale, with few actors, usually no chorus, and either presented in a single act or divided into two 'parts.' These musical plays were usually presented for dignitaries in their private palaces, or in the aristocratic theaters of their hosts. Dedicatory in nature, the plots as perfected by the leading light of The Enlightenment stage, <a href=\\\"Pietro%20Metastasio\\\">Metastasio</a>, revolve around the trial and personal struggle of an individual to overcome hardship, privation, or temptation on his road to being a better man.\\nLarger works, with more charterers, festive choruses, and often involving historical or mythological characters, were called a \\\"<a href=\\\"festa%20teatrale\\\">festa teatrale</a>\\\".\\nExamples of the genre include <a href=\\\"Tommaso%20Traetta\\\">Traetta</a>'s \\\"Armida\\\" (1761), <a href=\\\"Wolfgang%20Amadeus%20Mozart\\\">Mozart</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Il%20sogno%20di%20Scipione\\\">Il sogno di Scipione</a>\\\" (1772) and <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Haydn\\\">Haydn</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"L%27isola%20disabitata\\\">L'isola disabitata</a>\\\" (1779). <a href=\\\"Christoph%20Willibald%20Gluck\\\">Gluck</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Orfeo%20ed%20Euridice\\\">Orfeo ed Euridice</a>\\\" (1762) also belongs to this genre, though in many ways it is atypical.\\nThe long term influence of this type of stage work can be felt in <a href=\\\"Charles%20Dickens\\\">Charles Dickens</a> <a href=\\\"A%20Christmas%20Carol\\\">A Christmas Carol</a>, where <a href=\\\"Ebenezer%20Scrooge\\\">Scrooge</a> is confronted and offered a way to live to his full potential. As such is very much based on Metastasio's \\\"<a href=\\\"Il%20sogno%20di%20Scipione\\\">Il sogno di Scipione</a>.\\\"\\n\",\n \"Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor\\nFrancis I (German: \\\"Franz Stefan\\\" , French: \\\"François Étienne\\\" ; 8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) was <a href=\\\"Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Holy Roman Emperor</a> and Grand Duke of <a href=\\\"Tuscany\\\">Tuscany</a>, though his wife effectively executed the real powers of those positions. With his wife, <a href=\\\"Maria%20Theresa%20of%20Austria\\\">Maria Theresa</a>, he was the founder of the <a href=\\\"Habsburg-Lorraine\\\">Habsburg-Lorraine</a> dynasty. From 1728 until 1737 he was <a href=\\\"Duke%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Duke of Lorraine</a>. Francis traded the duchy to the ex-Polish king <a href=\\\"Stanis%C5%82aw_Leszczy%C5%84ski\\\">Stanisław Leszczyński</a> in exchange for the <a href=\\\"Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany\\\">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> as one of the terms ending the <a href=\\\"War_of_the_Polish_Succession\\\">War of the Polish Succession</a> in November 1738. The duchy and the ducal title to Lorraine and <a href=\\\"Duchy_of_Bar\\\">Bar</a> passed to <a href=\\\"Louis_XV_of_France\\\">King Louis XV of France</a> upon Leszczynski's death in 1766, though Francis and his successors retained the right to style themselves as dukes of Lorraine and Bar.\\nFrancis was born in <a href=\\\"Nancy%2C%20France\\\">Nancy</a>, <a href=\\\"Duchy%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Lorraine</a> (now in France), the oldest surviving son of <a href=\\\"Leopold%2C%20Duke%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Leopold, Duke of Lorraine</a>, and his wife <a href=\\\"%C3%89lisabeth%20Charlotte%20d%27Orl%C3%A9ans\\\">Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans</a>. He was connected with the <a href=\\\"Habsburg\\\">Habsburg</a>s through his grandmother <a href=\\\"Eleanor%20of%20Austria%2C%20Queen%20of%20Poland\\\">Eleonor</a>, daughter of Emperor <a href=\\\"Ferdinand%20III%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Ferdinand III</a>. He was very close to his brother <a href=\\\"Prince_Charles_Alexander_of_Lorraine\\\">Charles</a> and sister <a href=\\\"Princess%20Anne%20Charlotte%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Anne Charlotte</a>.\\nEmperor <a href=\\\"Charles%20VI%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles VI</a> favoured the family, who, besides being his cousins, had served the house of <a href=\\\"Austria\\\">Austria</a> with distinction. He had designed to marry his daughter <a href=\\\"Maria%20Theresa\\\">Maria Theresa</a> to Francis' older brother <a href=\\\"L%C3%A9opold%20Cl%C3%A9ment%2C%20Hereditary%20Prince%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Leopold Clement</a>. On Leopold Clement's death, Charles adopted the younger brother as his future son-in-law. Francis was brought up in <a href=\\\"Vienna\\\">Vienna</a> with Maria Theresa with the understanding that they were to be married, and a real affection arose between them.\\nAt the age of 15, when he was brought to Vienna, he was established in the <a href=\\\"Silesia\\\">Silesia</a>n <a href=\\\"Duchy%20of%20Teschen\\\">Duchy of Teschen</a>, which had been <a href=\\\"Mediatisation\\\">mediatised</a> and granted to his father by the emperor in 1722. Francis succeeded his father as <a href=\\\"Duke%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Duke of Lorraine</a> in 1729. In 1731 he was initiated into freemasonry (<a href=\\\"Premier%20Grand%20Lodge%20of%20England\\\">Grand Lodge of England</a>) by <a href=\\\"John%20Theophilus%20Desaguliers\\\">John Theophilus Desaguliers</a> at a specially convened lodge in <a href=\\\"The%20Hague\\\">The Hague</a> at the house of the British Ambassador, <a href=\\\"Philip%20Stanhope%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Chesterfield\\\">Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield</a>. During a subsequent visit to England, Francis was made a Master Mason at another specially convened lodge at <a href=\\\"Houghton%20Hall\\\">Houghton Hall</a>, the <a href=\\\"Norfolk\\\">Norfolk</a> estate of British Prime Minister <a href=\\\"Robert%20Walpole\\\">Robert Walpole</a>.\\nMaria Theresa arranged for Francis to become \\\"<a href=\\\"Lord%20Lieutenant\\\">Lord Lieutenant</a>\\\" (locumtenens) of Hungary in 1732. He was not excited about this position, but Maria Theresa wanted him closer to her. In June 1732 he agreed to go to <a href=\\\"Pressburg\\\">Pressburg</a>.\\nWhen the <a href=\\\"War%20of%20the%20Polish%20Succession\\\">War of the Polish Succession</a> broke out in 1733, France used it as an opportunity to seize Lorraine, since France's prime minister, <a href=\\\"Cardinal%20Fleury\\\">Cardinal Fleury</a>, was concerned that, as a Habsburg possession, it would bring Austrian power too close to France.\\nA preliminary peace was concluded in October 1735 and ratified in the <a href=\\\"Treaty%20of%20Vienna%20%281738%29\\\">Treaty of Vienna</a> in November 1738. Under its terms, <a href=\\\"Stanis%C5%82aw%20I\\\">Stanisław I</a>, the father-in-law of <a href=\\\"Louis%20XV%20of%20France\\\">King Louis XV</a> and the losing claimant to the Polish throne, received Lorraine, while Francis, in compensation for his loss, was made heir to the <a href=\\\"Grand%20Duchy%20of%20Tuscany\\\">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>, which he would inherit in 1737.\\nAlthough fighting stopped after the preliminary peace, the final peace settlement had to wait until the death of the last <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Medici\\\">Medici</a> Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href=\\\"Gian%20Gastone%20de%27%20Medici%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany\\\">Gian Gastone de' Medici</a> in 1737, to allow the territorial exchanges provided for by the peace settlement to go into effect.\\nIn March 1736 the Emperor persuaded Francis, his future son-in-law, to secretly exchange Lorraine for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. France had demanded that Maria Theresa's fiancé surrender his ancestral <a href=\\\"Lorraine%20%28province%29\\\">Duchy of Lorraine</a> to accommodate the <a href=\\\"Stanis%C5%82aw%20Leszczy%C5%84ski\\\">deposed King of Poland</a>. The Emperor considered other possibilities (such as marrying her to the future <a href=\\\"Charles%20III%20of%20Spain\\\">Charles III of Spain</a>) before announcing the engagement of the couple. If something were to go wrong, Francis would become governor of the <a href=\\\"Austrian%20Netherlands\\\">Austrian Netherlands</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Elisabeth%20of%20Parma\\\">Elisabeth of Parma</a> had also wanted the Grand Duchy of Tuscany for her son <a href=\\\"Charles%20III%20of%20Spain\\\">Charles III of Spain</a>; Gian Gastone de' Medici was childless and was related to Elisabeth via her great-grandmother <a href=\\\"Margherita%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Margherita de' Medici</a>. As a result, Elisabeth's sons could claim by right of being a descendant of Margherita.\\nOn 31 January 1736 Francis had agreed to marry Maria Theresa. He hesitated three times (and laid down the feather before signing). Especially his mother <a href=\\\"%C3%89lisabeth%20Charlotte%20d%27Orl%C3%A9ans\\\">Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans</a> and his brother <a href=\\\"Prince%20Charles%20Alexander%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine</a> were against the loss of Lorraine. On 1 February, Maria Theresa sent Francis a letter: she would withdraw from her future reign, when a male successor for her father appeared.\\nThey married on 12 February in the <a href=\\\"Augustinian%20Church%2C%20Vienna\\\">Augustinian Church, Vienna</a>. The wedding was held on 14 February 1736. The (secret) treaty between the Emperor and Francis was signed on 4 May 1736. In January 1737, the Spanish troops withdrew from Tuscany, and were replaced by 6,000 Austrians. On 24 January 1737 Francis received Tuscany from his father-in-law. Until then, Maria Theresa was Duchess of Lorraine.\\n<a href=\\\"Gian%20Gastone%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Gian Gastone de' Medici</a>, who died on 9 July 1737, was the second cousin of Francis (Gian Gastone and Francis' father Leopold were both great-grandchildren of <a href=\\\"Francis%20II%2C%20Duke%20of%20Lorraine\\\">Francis II, Duke of Lorraine</a>), who also had <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Medici\\\">Medici</a> blood through his maternal great-great-grandmother <a href=\\\"Marie%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Marie de' Medici</a>, <a href=\\\"List%20of%20French%20consorts\\\">Queen consort of France and Navarre</a>. In June 1737 Francis went to Hungary again to fight against the Turks. In October 1738 he was back in Vienna. On 17 December 1738 the couple travelled south, accompanied by his brother Charles to visit Florence for three months. They arrived on 20 January 1739.\\nIn 1744 Francis' brother Charles married a younger sister of Maria Theresa, <a href=\\\"Archduchess%20Maria%20Anna%20of%20Austria%20%281718%E2%80%931744%29\\\">Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria</a>. In 1744 Charles became governor of the Austrian Netherlands, a post he held until his death in 1780.\\nMaria Theresa secured in the <a href=\\\"Treaty%20of%20F%C3%BCssen\\\">Treaty of Füssen</a> his election to the Empire on 13 September 1745, in succession to <a href=\\\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles VII</a>, and she made him co-<a href=\\\"regent\\\">regent</a> of her hereditary dominions.\\nFrancis was well content to leave the wielding of power to his able wife. He had a natural fund of good sense and brilliant business capacity and was a useful assistant to Maria Theresa in the laborious task of governing the complicated Austrian dominions, but he was not active in politics. However, his wife left him in charge of the financial affairs, which he managed well until his death. Heavily indebted and on the verge of bankruptcy at the end of the <a href=\\\"Seven%20Years%27%20War\\\">Seven Years' War</a>, the Austrian Empire was in a better financial condition than France or England in the 1780s. He also took a great interest in the natural sciences. He was a member of the Freemasons.\\nFrancis was a serial adulterer, many of his affairs well-known and indiscreet, notably one with <a href=\\\"Maria%20Wilhelmina%20von%20Neipperg\\\">Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg</a>, who was thirty years his junior. This particular affair was remarked upon in the letters and journals of visitors to the court and in those of his children.\\nHe died suddenly in his carriage while returning from the opera at <a href=\\\"Innsbruck\\\">Innsbruck</a> on 18 August 1765. He is buried in tomb number 55 in the <a href=\\\"Imperial%20Crypt\\\">Imperial Crypt</a> in Vienna.\\nMaria Theresa and Francis I had sixteen children, amongst them the last pre-revolutionary queen consort of France, their youngest daughter, <a href=\\\"Marie%20Antoinette\\\">Marie Antoinette</a> (1755–1793). Francis was succeeded as Emperor by his eldest son, <a href=\\\"Joseph%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Joseph II</a>, and as Grand Duke of Tuscany by his younger son, <a href=\\\"Leopold%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Peter Leopold (later Emperor Leopold II)</a>. Maria Theresa retained the government of her dominions until her own death in 1780.\\n\\\"Francis I, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany and of Jerusalem, Archduke of Austria,\\nDuke of Lorraine, Bar, and Grand Duke of Tuscany, Duke of Calabria, in Silesia of Teschen, Prince of Charleville, Margrave of Pont-à-Mousson and Nomeny, Count of Provence, Vaudémont, Blâmont, Zütphen, Saarwerden, Salm, Falkenstein, etc. etc.\\\"\\n\",\n \"Dietrich Eckart\\nDietrich Eckart (23 March 1868 – 26 December 1923) was a <a href=\\\"Germans\\\">German</a> journalist, playwright, poet, and politician who was one of the founders of the \\\"Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\\\" (<a href=\\\"German%20Workers%27%20Party\\\">German Workers' Party</a> - DAP), which later evolved into the <a href=\\\"Nazi%20Party\\\">Nazi Party</a> (NSDAP). He was a key influence on <a href=\\\"Adolf%20Hitler\\\">Adolf Hitler</a> in the early years of the Nazi Party and was a participant in the 1923 <a href=\\\"Beer%20Hall%20Putsch\\\">Beer Hall Putsch</a>.\\nHe died shortly after the \\\"putsch\\\", and was elevated during the Nazi era to the status of a major thinker and writer.\\nEckart was born Johann Dietrich Eckart in 1868 in <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\\\">Neumarkt</a>, <a href=\\\"Upper%20Palatinate\\\">Upper Palatinate</a> (about twenty miles southeast of <a href=\\\"Nuremberg\\\">Nuremberg</a>) in the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Kingdom of Bavaria</a>, the son of royal notary and lawyer Christian Eckart and his wife Anna, a devout <a href=\\\"Catholic%20Church\\\">Catholic</a>. His mother died when he was ten years old. Young Dietrich was expelled from several schools; in 1895, his father died also, leaving him a considerable amount of money that Eckart soon spent.\\nEckart initially studied law at <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Erlangen-Nuremberg\\\">Erlangen</a>, later medicine at the <a href=\\\"Ludwig%20Maximilian%20University%20of%20Munich\\\">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>, and was an eager member of the fencing and drinking <a href=\\\"German%20Student%20Corps\\\">Student Korps</a>. But he finally decided in 1891 to work as a poet, playwright, and journalist. Diagnosed with <a href=\\\"morphine\\\">morphine</a> addiction and nearly stranded, he moved to <a href=\\\"Berlin\\\">Berlin</a> in 1899. There he wrote a number of plays, often autobiographical, and became the protégé of Count Georg von Hülsen-Haeseler (1858–1922), the artistic director of the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Prussia\\\">Prussian</a> Royal Theatre.\\nAfter a duel, he was incarcerated at the <a href=\\\"Passau\\\">Passau</a> <a href=\\\"Veste%20Oberhaus\\\">Oberhaus</a>.\\nEckart was a successful playwright, especially with his 1912 adaptation of <a href=\\\"Henrik%20Ibsen\\\">Henrik Ibsen</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Peer%20Gynt\\\">Peer Gynt</a>\\\", one of the best attended productions of the age with more than 600 performances in Berlin alone. In Eckart's version, the play became \\\"a powerful dramatisation of nationalist and anti-semitic ideas\\\", in which Gynt represents the superior Germanic hero, struggling against implicitly Jewish \\\"trolls\\\". As Ralph M. Engelman says, \\\"Eckart meant his adaptation of Peer Gynt to represent a racial allegory in which the trolls and Great Boyg represented what [Otto] <a href=\\\"Otto%20Weininger\\\">Weininger</a> conceived to be the Jewish spirit.\\\"\\nThis success not only made Eckart wealthy, it gave him the social contacts that he later used to introduce Hitler to dozens of important German citizens. These introductions proved to be pivotal in Hitler's ultimate rise to power. Later on, Eckart developed an ideology of a \\\"genius superman\\\", based on writings by the \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lkisch%20movement\\\">Völkisch</a>\\\" author <a href=\\\"J%C3%B6rg%20Lanz%20von%20Liebenfels\\\">Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels</a>; he saw himself following the tradition of <a href=\\\"Heinrich%20Heine\\\">Heinrich Heine</a>, <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Schopenhauer\\\">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> and <a href=\\\"Angelus%20Silesius\\\">Angelus Silesius</a>. He also became fascinated by the <a href=\\\"Buddhism\\\">Buddhist</a> doctrine of <a href=\\\"Maya%20%28illusion%29\\\">Maya (illusion)</a>. From 1907 he lived with his brother Wilhelm in the <a href=\\\"Dallgow-D%C3%B6beritz\\\">Döberitz</a> mansion colony west of the Berlin city limits. In 1913 he married Rose Marx, an affluent widow from <a href=\\\"Bad%20Blankenburg\\\">Bad Blankenburg</a>, and returned to <a href=\\\"Munich\\\">Munich</a>.\\nAfter <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a>, Eckart edited the <a href=\\\"Antisemitism\\\">antisemitic</a> periodical \\\"Auf gut Deutsch\\\" (\\\"In plain German\\\"), working with <a href=\\\"Alfred%20Rosenberg\\\">Alfred Rosenberg</a> and <a href=\\\"Gottfried%20Feder\\\">Gottfried Feder</a>. A fierce critic of the <a href=\\\"German%20Revolution%20of%201918%E2%80%9319\\\">German Revolution</a> and the <a href=\\\"Weimar%20Republic\\\">Weimar Republic</a>, he vehemently opposed the <a href=\\\"Treaty%20of%20Versailles\\\">Treaty of Versailles</a>, which he viewed as treason, and was a proponent of the so-called <a href=\\\"stab-in-the-back%20legend\\\">stab-in-the-back legend</a> (\\\"Dolchstoßlegende\\\"), according to which the <a href=\\\"Social%20Democratic%20Party%20of%20Germany\\\">Social Democrats</a> and <a href=\\\"History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Germany\\\">Jews</a> were to blame for Germany's defeat in the war.\\nIn January 1919, Eckart, Feder, <a href=\\\"Anton%20Drexler\\\">Anton Drexler</a> and <a href=\\\"Karl%20Harrer\\\">Karl Harrer</a> founded the \\\"Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\\\" (<a href=\\\"German%20Workers%27%20Party\\\">German Workers' Party</a> - DAP), which to increase its appeal to larger segments of the population, in February 1920 changed its name to the \\\"Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\\\" (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP); more commonly known as the <a href=\\\"Nazi%20Party\\\">Nazi Party</a>. He was the original publisher of the party newspaper, the \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lkischer%20Beobachter\\\">Völkischer Beobachter</a>\\\", and also wrote the lyrics of \\\"<a href=\\\"Nazi%20songs%23Deutschland%20erwache\\\">Deutschland erwache</a>\\\" (\\\"Germany awake\\\"), which became an anthem of the Nazi Party.\\nEckart met <a href=\\\"Adolf%20Hitler\\\">Adolf Hitler</a> when Hitler gave a speech before the DAP members in 1919. Eckart was involved with the <a href=\\\"Thule%20Society\\\">Thule Society</a>, although not a member. The Society was a secretive group of occultists who believed in the coming of a “German Messiah” who would redeem Germany after its defeat in World War I. Eckart expressed his anticipation in a poem he wrote months before he first met Hitler. In the poem, Eckart refers to ‘the Great One’, ‘the Nameless One’, ‘Whom all can sense but no one saw’. When Eckart met Hitler, Eckart was convinced that he had encountered the prophesied redeemer. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and helping to establish theories and beliefs of the Party.\\nIt was Eckart who introduced <a href=\\\"Alfred%20Rosenberg\\\">Alfred Rosenberg</a> to Adolf Hitler. Between 1920 and 1923, Eckart and Rosenberg labored tirelessly in the service of Hitler and the party. Through Rosenberg, Hitler was introduced to the writings of <a href=\\\"Houston%20Stewart%20Chamberlain\\\">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a>, Rosenberg's inspiration. Rosenberg edited the \\\"<a href=\\\"M%C3%BCnchener%20Beobachter\\\">Münchener Beobachter</a>\\\", a party newspaper, originally owned by the Thule Society. Rosenberg published the \\\"<a href=\\\"Protocols%20of%20the%20Elders%20of%20Zion\\\">Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a>\\\" in the \\\"Beobachter\\\".\\nTo raise funds for the Party, Eckart introduced Hitler into influential circles. In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival <a href=\\\"German%20Socialist%20Party\\\">German Socialist Party</a> (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Eckart was asked by the Party leadership to talk with Hitler and relay the conditions in which Hitler would agree to return to the Party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26July 1921.\\nOn 9 November 1923, Eckart participated in the failed <a href=\\\"Beer%20Hall%20Putsch\\\">Beer Hall Putsch</a>. He was arrested and placed in <a href=\\\"Landsberg%20Prison\\\">Landsberg Prison</a> along with Hitler and other party officials, but was released shortly thereafter due to illness. He died of a <a href=\\\"myocardial%20infarction\\\">heart attack</a> in <a href=\\\"Berchtesgaden\\\">Berchtesgaden</a> on 26 December 1923. He was buried in Berchtesgaden's old cemetery, not far from the eventual graves of Nazi Party official <a href=\\\"Hans%20Lammers\\\">Hans Lammers</a> and his wife and daughter.\\nDuring the Nazi period, several monuments and memorials were created to Eckart. Hitler dedicated the second volume of \\\"<a href=\\\"Mein%20Kampf\\\">Mein Kampf</a>\\\" to Eckart, and also named the arena near the <a href=\\\"Olympic%20Stadium%20%28Berlin%29\\\">Olympic Stadium</a> in Berlin, now known as the <a href=\\\"Waldb%C3%BChne\\\">Waldbühne</a> (Forest Stage), the \\\"Dietrich-Eckart-Bühne\\\" when it was opened for the <a href=\\\"1936%20Summer%20Olympics\\\">1936 Summer Olympics</a>. The 5th \\\"Standarte\\\" (regiment) of the \\\"<a href=\\\"SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde\\\">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a>\\\" was given the honour-title \\\"Dietrich Eckart\\\". In 1937 the \\\"Realprogymnasium\\\" in <a href=\\\"Emmendingen\\\">Emmendingen</a> was expanded and renamed the \\\"Dietrich-Eckart secondary school for boys\\\". Several new roads were named after Eckart. All of these have since been renamed.\\nHis birthplace in <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\\\">Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz</a> was officially renamed with the added suffix \\\"Dietrich-Eckart-Stadt\\\". In 1934, Adolf Hitler inaugurated a monument in his honour in the city park. It has since been rededicated to <a href=\\\"Christopher%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Christopher of Bavaria</a> (1416–1448), King of Denmark, who was probably born in the town.\\nIn March 1938, when <a href=\\\"Passau\\\">Passau</a> commemorated Eckart's 70th birthday at <a href=\\\"Veste%20Oberhaus\\\">Oberhaus</a> Castle, the Lord Mayor announced not only the creation of a \\\"Dietrich-Eckart-Foundation\\\" but also the restoration of the room where Eckart had been imprisoned. In addition, a street was dedicated to Eckart.\\nIn 1925, Eckart's unfinished essay \\\"Der Bolschewismus von Moses bis Lenin: Zwiegespräch zwischen Hitler und mir\\\" (\\\"<a href=\\\"Bolshevism\\\">Bolshevism</a> from <a href=\\\"Moses\\\">Moses</a> to <a href=\\\"Vladimir%20Lenin\\\">Lenin</a>: Dialogues Between Hitler and Me\\\") was published posthumously, although it has been shown that the dialogues were an invention; the essay was written by Eckart alone. \\\"However, this book still remains a reliable indicator of [Eckart's] own views.\\\" The historian <a href=\\\"Richard%20Steigmann-Gall\\\">Richard Steigmann-Gall</a> quotes from Eckart's book:\\nIn Christ, the embodiment of all manliness, we find all that we need. And if we occasionally speak of <a href=\\\"Baldur\\\">Baldur</a> (a god in Norse mythology), our words always contain some joy, some satisfaction, that our pagan ancestors were already so Christian as to have an indication of Christ in this ideal figure.\\nSteigmann-Gall concluded that, \\\"far from advocating a paganism or anti-Christian religion, Eckart held that, in Germany's postwar tailspin, Christ was a leader to be emulated.\\\"\\nIn 1935 <a href=\\\"Alfred%20Rosenberg\\\">Alfred Rosenberg</a> published the book \\\" Dietrich Eckart. A Legacy\\\" (i.e. \\\"Dietrich Eckart. Ein Vermächtnis\\\") with collected writings by Eckart, including the quotation:\\nTo be a genius means to use the soul, to strive for the divine, to escape from the mean; and even if this cannot be totally achieved, there will be no space for the opposite of good. It does not prevent the genius to portray also the wretchedness of being in all shapes and colors, being the great artist, that he is; but he does this as an observer, not taking part, sine ira et studio, his heart remains pure. ... The ideal in this, just like in every respect whatsoever is <a href=\\\"Christ\\\">Christ</a>; his words \\\"You judge by human standards; I pass judgment on no one\\\" show the completely divine freedom from the influence of the senses, the overcoming of the earthly world even without art as an intermediary. At the other end you find <a href=\\\"Heinrich%20Heine\\\">Heine</a> and his race ... all they do culminates in ... the motive, in subjugating the world, and the less this works, the more hate-filled their work becomes that is to satisfy their motive, the more deceitful and fallacious every try to reach the goal. No trace of true genius, the very opposite of the manliness of genius ...\\nEckart was described by <a href=\\\"Edgar%20Ansel%20Mowrer\\\">Edgar Ansel Mowrer</a> as \\\"a strange drunken genius\\\". His antisemitism supposedly arose from various esoteric schools of <a href=\\\"mysticism\\\">mysticism</a> and he spent hours with Hitler discussing art and the place of the Jews in world history, he has been called the spiritual father of National Socialism.\\nNotes\\nSources\\n\",\n \"Berngau\\nBerngau is a municipality in the district of <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\\\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>.\",\n \"Postbauer-Heng\\nPostbauer-Heng is a <a href=\\\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\\\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\\\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>.\",\n \"Sengenthal\\nSengenthal is a <a href=\\\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\\\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\\\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>.\",\n \"Velburg\\nVelburg is a <a href=\\\"Town%23Germany\\\">town</a> in the <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\\\">district of Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a>, <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>. It is situated 17 km southeast of <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\\\">Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz</a>, and 39 km northwest of <a href=\\\"Regensburg\\\">Regensburg</a>.\\nThe town of Velburg has a castle ruin which occupies the highest point of land. The castle is triangular in outline, with a central keep which is nearly intact, having been partly restored. The castle stands at a height of 621.5 metres above sea level and was initially constructed in 1129. The castle was captured and damaged in 1633 during the <a href=\\\"Thirty%20Years%20War\\\">Thirty Years War</a> after which it was abandoned. The town bought the castle in 1793, and many attempts were made to restore it, with the most successful attempt being in 1986, which was the last restoration to date.\\nVelburg is located in a scenic area with many walking trails, including the eastern portion of the Main-Danube Trail.\\nAccommodation in the Velburg village include the historic <a href=\\\"Hotel%20zur%20Post%20%28Velburg%29\\\">Hotel zur Post</a>.\\n\",\n \"House of Wittelsbach\\nThe House of Wittelsbach (] ) is a <a href=\\\"Europe\\\">Europe</a>an <a href=\\\"royal%20family\\\">royal family</a> and a <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">German</a> dynasty from <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a>.\\nMembers of the family reigned as <a href=\\\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Dukes, Electors and Kings of Bavaria</a> (1180–1918), <a href=\\\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\\\">Counts Palatine of the Rhine</a> (1214–1803 and 1816–1918), <a href=\\\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Brandenburg\\\">Margraves of Brandenburg</a> (1323–1373), Counts of <a href=\\\"Holland\\\">Holland</a>, <a href=\\\"County%20of%20Hainaut\\\">Hainaut</a> and <a href=\\\"Zeeland\\\">Zeeland</a> (1345–1432), <a href=\\\"List%20of%20bishops%20and%20archbishops%20of%20Cologne\\\">Elector-Archbishops of Cologne</a> (1583–1761), <a href=\\\"Duchy%20of%20J%C3%BClich\\\">Dukes of Jülich</a> and <a href=\\\"Berg%20%28German%20region%29\\\">Berg</a> (1614–1794/1806), Kings of <a href=\\\"Sweden\\\">Sweden</a> (1441–1448 and 1654–1720) and <a href=\\\"Bremen-Verden\\\">Dukes of Bremen-Verden</a> (1654–1719).\\nThe family also provided two <a href=\\\"Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Holy Roman Emperor</a>s (1328–1347/1742–1745), one <a href=\\\"King%20of%20the%20Romans\\\">King of the Romans</a> (1400–1410), two <a href=\\\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Bohemia\\\">Anti-Kings of Bohemia</a> (1619–20/1742–43), one <a href=\\\"List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Hungary\\\">King of Hungary</a> (1305–1309), one King of <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Danish%20monarchs\\\">Denmark</a> and <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Norwegian%20monarchs\\\">Norway</a> (1440–1447) and one <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Greece\\\">King of Greece</a> (1832–1862).\\nThe family's head, since 1996, is <a href=\\\"Franz%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Franz, Duke of Bavaria</a>.\\nBerthold, Margrave in Bavaria (died 980), was the ancestor of <a href=\\\"Otto%20I%2C%20Count%20of%20Scheyern\\\">Otto I, Count of Scheyern</a> (died 1072), whose third son <a href=\\\"Otto%20II%2C%20Count%20of%20Scheyern\\\">Otto II, Count of Scheyern</a> acquired the castle of Wittelsbach (near <a href=\\\"Aichach\\\">Aichach</a>). The Counts of Scheyern left Scheyern Castle (constructed around 940) in 1119 for <a href=\\\"Burg%20Wittelsbach\\\">Wittelsbach Castle</a> and the former was given to monks to establish <a href=\\\"Scheyern%20Abbey\\\">Scheyern Abbey</a>.\\nOtto I's eldest son <a href=\\\"Eckhard%20I%2C%20Count%20of%20Scheyern\\\">Eckhard I, Count of Scheyern</a> was father of the <a href=\\\"Count%20palatine\\\">Count palatine</a> of Bavaria <a href=\\\"Otto%20IV%2C%20Count%20of%20Wittelsbach\\\">Otto IV</a> (died 1156), who was the first Count of Wittelsbach and whose son <a href=\\\"Otto%20I%20Wittelsbach%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Otto</a> was invested with the Duchy of Bavaria in 1180 after the fall of <a href=\\\"Henry%20the%20Lion\\\">Henry the Lion</a> and hence the first Bavarian ruler from the House of Wittelsbach. Duke Otto's son <a href=\\\"Louis%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Louis I, Duke of Bavaria</a> acquired also the <a href=\\\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\\\">Electorate of the Palatinate</a> in 1214.\\nThe \\\"Wittelsbach\\\" dynasty ruled the <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">German</a> territories of <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a> from 1180 to 1918 and the <a href=\\\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\\\">Electorate of the Palatinate</a> from 1214 until 1805; in 1815 the latter territory was partly incorporated as <a href=\\\"Rhine%20Palatinate\\\">Rhine Palatinate</a> into Bavaria, which <a href=\\\"Napoleon\\\">Napoleon</a> elevated to a kingdom in 1806.\\nOn Duke <a href=\\\"Otto%20II%20Wittelsbach%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Otto II</a>'s death in 1253, his sons divided the Wittelsbach possessions between them: <a href=\\\"Henry%20XIII%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Henry</a> became Duke of Lower Bavaria, and <a href=\\\"Louis%20II%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Louis II</a> Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine. When Henry's branch died out in 1340 the Emperor Louis IV, a son of Duke Louis II, reunited the duchy.\\nThe family provided two <a href=\\\"Holy%20Roman%20Empire\\\">Holy Roman Emperors</a>: <a href=\\\"Louis%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Louis IV</a> (1314–1347) and <a href=\\\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles VII</a> (1742–1745), both members of the Bavarian branch of the family, and one <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Germany\\\">German King</a> with <a href=\\\"Rupert%20of%20Germany\\\">Rupert of the Palatinate</a> (1400–1410), a member of the Palatinate branch.\\nThe House of Wittelsbach split into these two branches in 1329: Under the <a href=\\\"Treaty%20of%20Pavia%20%281329%29\\\">Treaty of Pavia</a>, Emperor Louis IV granted the Palatinate including the Bavarian Upper Palatinate to his brother Duke <a href=\\\"Rudolf%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Rudolf's</a> descendants, <a href=\\\"Rudolf%20II%2C%20Count%20Palatine%20of%20the%20Rhine\\\">Rudolf II</a>, <a href=\\\"Rupert%20I%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\\\">Rupert I</a> and <a href=\\\"Rupert%20II%2C%20Elector%20Palatine%20of%20the%20Rhine\\\">Rupert II</a>. Rudolf I in this way became the ancestor of the older (Palatinate) line of the Wittelsbach dynasty, which returned to power also in Bavaria in 1777 after the extinction of the younger (Bavarian) line, the descendants of Louis IV.\\nThe Bavarian branch kept the duchy of Bavaria until its extinction in 1777.\\nThe Wittelsbach Emperor <a href=\\\"Louis%20IV%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Louis IV</a> acquired <a href=\\\"Brandenburg\\\">Brandenburg</a> (1323), <a href=\\\"county%20of%20Tyrol\\\">Tyrol</a> (1342), <a href=\\\"Holland\\\">Holland</a>, <a href=\\\"Zeeland\\\">Zeeland</a> and <a href=\\\"County%20of%20Hainaut\\\">Hainaut</a> (1345) for his House but he had also released the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Palatinate\\\">Upper Palatinate</a> for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. His six sons succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria and Count of <a href=\\\"Holland\\\">Holland</a> and <a href=\\\"County%20of%20Hainaut\\\">Hainaut</a> in 1347. The Wittelsbachs lost the Tyrol with the death of duke <a href=\\\"Meinhard%20III%20of%20Gorizia-Tyrol\\\">Meinhard</a> and the following Peace of Schärding - the Tyrol was finally renounced to the <a href=\\\"Habsburg\\\">Habsburg</a>s in 1369. In 1373 <a href=\\\"Otto%20V%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Otto</a>, the last Wittelsbach regent of Brandenburg, released the country to the <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Luxembourg\\\">House of Luxembourg</a>. On Duke <a href=\\\"Albert%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Albert's</a> death in 1404, he was succeeded in the Netherlands by his eldest son, <a href=\\\"William%20VI%2C%20Count%20of%20Holland\\\">William</a>. A younger son, <a href=\\\"John%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria-Straubing\\\">John III</a>, became <a href=\\\"Bishop%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge\\\">Bishop of Liège</a>. However, on William's death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and William's daughter <a href=\\\"Jacqueline%20of%20Hainaut\\\">Jacqueline of Hainaut</a>. This last episode of the <a href=\\\"Hook%20and%20Cod%20wars\\\">Hook and Cod wars</a> finally left the counties in Burgundian hands in 1432.\\nEmperor Louis IV had reunited Bavaria in 1340 but from 1349 onwards Bavaria was split among the descendants of Louis IV, who created the branches \\\"<a href=\\\"Bavaria-Landshut\\\">Bavaria-Landshut</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Bavaria-Straubing\\\">Bavaria-Straubing</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Bavaria-Ingolstadt\\\">Bavaria-Ingolstadt</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Bavaria-Munich\\\">Bavaria-Munich</a>\\\". With the <a href=\\\"Landshut%20War%20of%20Succession\\\">Landshut War of Succession</a> Bavaria was reunited in 1505 against the claim of the Palatinate branch under the Bavarian branch \\\"Bavaria-Munich\\\".\\nFrom 1549 to 1567 the Wittelsbach owned the <a href=\\\"County%20of%20Kladsko\\\">County of Kladsko</a> in Bohemia.\\nStrictly <a href=\\\"Catholic\\\">Catholic</a> by upbringing, the Bavarian dukes became <a href=\\\"leadership\\\">leader</a>s of the German <a href=\\\"Counter-Reformation\\\">Counter-Reformation</a>. From 1583 to 1761, the Bavarian branch of the dynasty provided the <a href=\\\"Prince-elector\\\">Prince-elector</a>s and <a href=\\\"Archbishop%20of%20Cologne\\\">Archbishops of Cologne</a> and many other Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, namely <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge\\\">Liège</a> (1581–1763). Wittelsbach princes served for example as Bishops of <a href=\\\"Bishop%20of%20Regensburg\\\">Regensburg</a>, <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Munich%20and%20Freising%23Prince-bishops%20of%20Freising\\\">Freising</a>, <a href=\\\"List%20of%20bishops%20and%20prince-bishops%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge%23Prince-bishops%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge%2C%20972-1794\\\">Liège</a>, <a href=\\\"Bishopric%20of%20M%C3%BCnster\\\">Münster</a>, <a href=\\\"Bishopric%20of%20Hildesheim\\\">Hildesheim</a>, <a href=\\\"Bishopric%20of%20Paderborn\\\">Paderborn</a> and <a href=\\\"Prince-Bishopric%20of%20Osnabr%C3%BCck\\\">Osnabrück</a>, and as <a href=\\\"Grand%20Master%20%28order%29\\\">Grand Master</a>s of the <a href=\\\"Teutonic%20Order\\\">Teutonic Order</a>.\\nIn 1623 under <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20I%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Maximilian I</a> the Bavarian dukes were invested with the <a href=\\\"Prince-elector\\\">electoral</a> dignity and the duchy became the <a href=\\\"Electorate%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Electorate of Bavaria</a>. His grandson <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20II%20Emanuel%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria</a> served also as <a href=\\\"Governors%20of%20the%20Habsburg%20Netherlands\\\">Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands</a> (1692–1706) and as Duke of <a href=\\\"Luxembourg\\\">Luxembourg</a> (1712–1714). His son Emperor <a href=\\\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles VII</a> was also king of <a href=\\\"Bohemia\\\">Bohemia</a> (1741–1743). With the death of Charles' son <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20III%20Joseph%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria</a> the Bavarian branch died out in 1777.\\nThe Palatinate branch kept the Palatinate until 1918 and succeeded also in Bavaria in 1777. With the <a href=\\\"Golden%20Bull%20of%201356\\\">Golden Bull of 1356</a> the Counts Palatine were invested with the <a href=\\\"Prince-elector\\\">electoral</a> dignity, their county became the <a href=\\\"Electorate%20of%20the%20Palatinate\\\">Electorate of the Palatinate</a>. Princes of the Palatinate branch served as Bishops of the Empire and also as <a href=\\\"Archbishopric%20of%20Mainz\\\">Elector-Archbishops of Mainz</a> and <a href=\\\"Archbishopric%20of%20Trier\\\">Elector-Archbishops of Trier</a>.\\nAfter the death of the Wittelsbach king <a href=\\\"Rupert%20of%20Germany\\\">Rupert of Germany</a> in 1410 the Palatinate lands began to split under numerous branches of the family such as \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Neumarkt\\\">Neumarkt</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Simmern\\\">Simmern</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\\\">Zweibrücken</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Birkenfeld\\\">Birkenfeld</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Palatinate-Neuburg\\\">Neuburg</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Palatinate-Sulzbach\\\">Sulzbach</a>\\\". When the senior branch of the Palatinate branch died out in 1559, the Electorate passed to <a href=\\\"Frederick%20III%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\\\">Frederick III</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"Palatinate-Simmern\\\">Simmern</a>\\\", a staunch <a href=\\\"Calvinist\\\">Calvinist</a>, and the Palatinate became one of the major centers of Calvinism in Europe, supporting Calvinist rebellions in both the <a href=\\\"Netherlands\\\">Netherlands</a> and <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>.\\nThe \\\"Neuburg\\\" cadet branch of the Palatinate branch kept also the <a href=\\\"Duchy%20of%20J%C3%BClich\\\">Duchy of Jülich</a> and <a href=\\\"Berg%20%28state%29\\\">Berg</a> from 1614 onwards: When the last duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg died without direct heirs in 1609, the <a href=\\\"War%20of%20the%20J%C3%BClich%20succession\\\">War of the Jülich succession</a> broke out, ended by the 1614 <a href=\\\"Treaty%20of%20Xanten\\\">Treaty of Xanten</a>, which divided the separate duchies between \\\"<a href=\\\"Palatinate-Neuburg\\\">Palatinate-Neuburg</a>\\\" and the <a href=\\\"Margraviate%20of%20Brandenburg\\\">Margraviate of Brandenburg</a>. Jülich and Berg fell to the Wittelsbach Count Palatine <a href=\\\"Wolfgang%20William%2C%20Count%20Palatine%20of%20Neuburg\\\">Wolfgang William of Neuburg</a>.\\nIn 1619, the Protestant <a href=\\\"Frederick%20V%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\\\">Frederick V, Elector Palatine</a> became King of <a href=\\\"Bohemia\\\">Bohemia</a> but was defeated by the Catholic <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20I%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria</a>, a member of the Bavarian branch. As a result, the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Palatinate\\\">Upper Palatinate</a> had to be ceded to the Bavarian branch in 1623. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the <a href=\\\"Peace%20of%20Westphalia\\\">Treaty of Münster</a> (also called the Peace of Westphalia) in 1648, a new additional electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. During their exile Frederick's sons, especially <a href=\\\"Prince%20Rupert%20of%20the%20Rhine\\\">Prince Rupert of the Rhine</a>, gained fame in England.\\nThe house of \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\\\">Palatinate of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg</a>\\\" as heir to the Swedish throne ruled simultaneously the duchy of <a href=\\\"Bremen-Verden\\\">Bremen-Verden</a> (1654–1719).\\nIn 1685, the \\\"Simmern\\\" line died out, and the Catholic <a href=\\\"Philip%20William%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\\\">Philip William</a>, Count Palatine of \\\"<a href=\\\"Palatinate-Neuburg\\\">Neuburg</a>\\\" inherited the Palatinate (and also Duke of <a href=\\\"Duchy%20of%20J%C3%BClich\\\">Jülich</a> and <a href=\\\"Berg%20%28German%20region%29\\\">Berg</a>). During the reign of <a href=\\\"Johann%20Wilhelm%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\\\">Johann Wilhelm</a> (1690–1716) the Electoral residence moved to <a href=\\\"D%C3%BCsseldorf\\\">Düsseldorf</a> in Berg. His brother and successor <a href=\\\"Charles%20III%20Philip%2C%20Elector%20Palatine\\\">Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine</a> moved the Palatinate's capital back to <a href=\\\"Heidelberg\\\">Heidelberg</a> in 1718 and then to <a href=\\\"Mannheim\\\">Mannheim</a> in 1720. To strengthen the union of all lines of the Wittelsbach dynasty Charles Philip organized a wedding on 17 January 1742 when his granddaughters were married to <a href=\\\"Charles%20Theodore%2C%20Elector%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Charles Theodore of Palatinate-Sulzbach</a> and to the Bavarian prince <a href=\\\"Clement%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria%20and%20Count%20Palatine\\\">Clement</a>. In the imperial election a few days later Charles III Philip voted for his Bavarian cousin Prince-Elector <a href=\\\"Charles%20VII%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles Albert</a>. After extinction of the \\\"Neuburg\\\" branch in 1742, the Palatinate was inherited by Duke Charles Theodore of the branch \\\"Palatinate-Sulzbach\\\".\\nAfter the extinction of the Bavarian branch in 1777, a succession dispute and the brief <a href=\\\"War%20of%20the%20Bavarian%20Succession\\\">War of the Bavarian Succession</a>, the Palatinate-Sulzbach branch under Elector Charles Theodore succeeded also in Bavaria.\\nWith the death of Charles Theodore in 1799 all Wittelsbach land in Bavaria and the Palatinate was reunited under <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20I%20Joseph%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Maximilian IV Joseph</a>, a member of the branch \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Birkenfeld\\\">Palatinate-Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld</a>\\\". At the time there were two surviving branches of the Wittelsbach family: \\\"Palatinate-Zweibrücken\\\" (headed by Maximilian Joseph) and \\\"Palatinate-Birkenfeld\\\" (headed by Count Palatine <a href=\\\"Duke%20Wilhelm%20in%20Bavaria\\\">William</a>). Maximilian Joseph inherited Charles Thedore's title of Elector of Bavaria, while William was compensated with the title of Duke \\\"in\\\" Bavaria. The form <a href=\\\"Duke%20in%20Bavaria\\\">Duke in Bavaria</a> was selected because in 1506 <a href=\\\"primogeniture\\\">primogeniture</a> had been established in the House of Wittelsbach resulting in there being only one Reigning Duke of Bavaria at any given time. Maximillian Joseph assumed the title of <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Bavaria\\\">king</a> as <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20I%20Joseph%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Maximilian I Joseph</a> on January 1, 1806. The new king still served as an <a href=\\\"Prince-elector\\\">Prince-elector</a> until the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Kingdom of Bavaria</a> left the Holy Roman Empire (1 August 1806).\\nUnder Maximilian's descendants, Bavaria became the third most powerful German state, behind only Prussia and Austria. It was also far-and-away the most powerful secondary state. When the <a href=\\\"German%20Empire\\\">German Empire</a> was formed in 1871, Bavaria became the new empire's second most powerful state after Prussia. The Wittelsbachs reigned as kings of Bavaria until 1918. On 12 November 1918 <a href=\\\"Ludwig%20III%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Ludwig III</a> issued the \\\"<a href=\\\"Anif%20declaration\\\">Anif declaration</a>\\\" (German: \\\"Anifer Erklärung\\\") at <a href=\\\"Anif%20Palace\\\">Anif Palace</a>, <a href=\\\"Austria\\\">Austria</a>, in which he released his soldiers and officials from their oath of loyalty to him and ended the 738-year rule of the House of Wittelsbach in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a>. The republican movement thereupon declared a republic.\\nDuring the <a href=\\\"Second%20World%20War\\\">Second World War</a>, the Wittelsbachs were anti-Nazi. The family initially left Germany for Hungary, but were eventually arrested. Family members spent time in several <a href=\\\"Nazi%20concentration%20camps\\\">Nazi concentration camps</a> including <a href=\\\"Oranienburg\\\">Oranienburg</a> and <a href=\\\"Dachau%20concentration%20camp\\\">Dachau</a>.\\nWith Duke <a href=\\\"Otto%20III%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Otto III of Lower Bavaria</a>, who was a maternal grandson of <a href=\\\"B%C3%A9la%20IV%20of%20Hungary\\\">Béla IV of Hungary</a> and was elected <a href=\\\"anti-king\\\">anti-king</a> of <a href=\\\"Hungary\\\">Hungary</a> and <a href=\\\"Croatia\\\">Croatia</a> as Bela V (1305–1308) the Wittelsbach dynasty came to power outside the <a href=\\\"Holy%20Roman%20Empire\\\">Holy Roman Empire</a> for the first time. Otto had abdicated the Hungarian throne by 1308.\\n<a href=\\\"Christopher%20III%20of%20Denmark\\\">Christopher III</a> of the <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Neumarkt\\\">House of Palatinate-Neumarkt</a> was king of <a href=\\\"Denmark\\\">Denmark</a>, <a href=\\\"Sweden\\\">Sweden</a> and <a href=\\\"Norway\\\">Norway</a> in 1440/1442–1448, but he left no descendants. The <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\\\">House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken</a> contributed to the monarchy of Sweden again 1654–1720 under <a href=\\\"Charles%20X%20of%20Sweden\\\">Charles X</a>, <a href=\\\"Charles%20XI%20of%20Sweden\\\">Charles XI</a>, <a href=\\\"Charles%20XII%20of%20Sweden\\\">Charles XII</a> and <a href=\\\"Ulrika%20Eleonora%20of%20Sweden\\\">Ulrika Eleonora</a>. The Wittelsbach princess <a href=\\\"Sophia%20of%20Hanover\\\">Sophia of Hanover</a> (1630–1714) was the mother of <a href=\\\"George%20I%20of%20Great%20Britain\\\">George I of Great Britain</a>; she died as Heiress Presumptive of <a href=\\\"Great%20Britain\\\">Great Britain</a> a few weeks before the case of succession. The line of <a href=\\\"Jacobitism\\\">Jacobite</a> succession is currently within the House of Wittelsbach. <a href=\\\"Franz%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Franz, Hereditary Prince of Bavaria</a> is recognised by the Jacobites as \\\"Francis II\\\". The Wittelsbach prince <a href=\\\"Otto%20of%20Greece\\\">Otto</a> of Bavaria was elected king of newly independent <a href=\\\"Greece\\\">Greece</a> in 1832 and was forced to abdicate in 1862.\\nQueen <a href=\\\"Christina%20of%20Sweden\\\">Christina of Sweden</a> abdicated her throne on 5 June 1654 in favor of her cousin <a href=\\\"Charles%20X%20Gustav%20of%20Sweden\\\">Charles X Gustavus</a>, a member of the Wittelsbach branch <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken\\\">Palatinate-Zweibrücken</a>. It was the second term for the rule of the House of Wittelsbach in Sweden since 1448 when <a href=\\\"Christopher%20III%20of%20Denmark\\\">Christopher III</a> of the Palatinate branch was king of Denmark, Sweden and Norway.\\nSweden reached its largest territorial extent under the rule of Charles X after the <a href=\\\"treaty%20of%20Roskilde\\\">treaty of Roskilde</a> in 1658. Charles' son, <a href=\\\"Charles%20XI%20of%20Sweden\\\">Charles XI</a>, rebuilt the economy and refitted the army. His legacy to his son, <a href=\\\"Charles%20XII%20of%20Sweden\\\">Charles XII</a>, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Charles XII was a skilled military leader and tactician. However, although he was also skilled as a politician, he was reluctant in making peace. While Sweden achieved several large scale military successes early on, and won the most battles, the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and the end of the <a href=\\\"Swedish%20Empire\\\">Swedish Empire</a>. Charles was succeeded to the Swedish throne by his sister, <a href=\\\"Ulrika%20Eleonora\\\">Ulrika Eleonora</a>. Her abdication in 1720 marked the end of the Wittelsbach rule in Sweden.\\nKing <a href=\\\"Otto%20of%20Greece\\\">Otto I</a> of the House of Wittelsbach was made the first <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Greek%20monarchs\\\">King</a> of modern <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Greece\\\">Greece</a> in 1832 under the <a href=\\\"London%20Conference%20of%201832\\\">Convention of London</a>, whereby <a href=\\\"Greece\\\">Greece</a> became a new independent kingdom under the protection of the <a href=\\\"Great%20Powers\\\">Great Powers</a> (the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland\\\">United Kingdom</a>, <a href=\\\"July%20Monarchy\\\">France</a> and the <a href=\\\"Russian%20Empire\\\">Russian Empire</a>). Throughout his reign, Otto faced political challenges concerning Greece's financial weakness and the role of the government in the affairs of the Church. The politics of Greece of this era was based on affiliations with the three Great Powers, and Otto’s ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power. To remain strong, Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers’ Greek adherents against the others, while not aggravating the Great Powers. When Greece was blockaded by the (British) <a href=\\\"Royal%20Navy\\\">Royal Navy</a> in 1850 and again in 1853, to stop Greece from attacking the <a href=\\\"Ottoman%20Empire\\\">Ottoman Empire</a> during the <a href=\\\"Crimean%20War\\\">Crimean War</a>, Otto’s standing amongst Greeks suffered. As a result, there was an assassination attempt on the Queen and finally, in 1862, Otto was deposed while in the countryside.\\nThe law of succession to the throne of Greece was defined by a supplementary article to the convention of 7 May 1832 awarding the Greek Throne to Otto I. It instituted a semi-salic order with an important rule preventing the union of the crown on the same head with any other crown, especially that of Bavaria. Under the terms of the succession law, a Wittelsbach claim to the throne would have passed on Otto's death in 1867 to his younger brother Luitpold, who was regent of Bavaria from 1886 to 1912; and after him to Ludwig who became king Ludwig III of Bavaria in 1913. At this point, tracing the claim becomes impossible as the same branch of the Wittelsbach became heir to both thrones, and a subsequent monarch or pretender should have issued a renunciation to one of the two thrones, which none did. In the end, neither <a href=\\\"Luitpold%2C%20Prince%20Regent%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Luitpold</a> nor his son <a href=\\\"Ludwig%20III%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Ludwig</a> actively pursued a claim to the Greek throne inherited from <a href=\\\"Otto%20of%20Greece\\\">Otto I</a>, and the throne of Bavaria itself disappeared in 1918, leaving the future of the claim to be decided by a further arrangement that never occurred.\\n<a href=\\\"Joseph%20Ferdinand%20of%20Bavaria%20%281692-1699%29\\\">Joseph Ferdinand</a>, a son of Maximilian II Emanuel, was the favored choice of England and the Netherlands to succeed as the ruler of Spain, and young Charles II of Spain chose him as his heir. Due to the unexpected death of Joseph Ferdinand in 1699 the Wittelsbach did not come to power in <a href=\\\"Spain\\\">Spain</a>, leaving the <a href=\\\"Spanish%20Succession\\\">Spanish Succession</a> uncertain again.\\n\\n<a href=\\\"Franz%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Duke Franz's</a> patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. <a href=\\\"Patrilineal%20descent\\\">Patrilineal descent</a> is the principle behind membership in <a href=\\\"royal%20house\\\">royal house</a>s, as it can be traced back through the generations.\\nSeveral other women in the family are known as <a href=\\\"Elisabeth%20of%20Bavaria%20%28disambiguation%29\\\">Elisabeth of Bavaria</a>.\\nSome of the most important Bavarian castles and palaces that were built by Wittelsbach rulers, or served as seats of ruling branch lines, are the following:\\nSome of the most important castles and palaces of the Palatinate Wittelsbach were:\\nFrom 1597 to 1794, <a href=\\\"Bonn\\\">Bonn</a> was the capital of the <a href=\\\"Electorate%20of%20Cologne\\\">Electorate of Cologne</a> and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne, most of them belonging to the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach (from 1583 to 1761).\\nA full <a href=\\\"armorial\\\">armorial</a> of the Wittelsbach family can be found on the French-language Wikipedia at .\",\n \"Christopher of Bavaria\\nChristopher of Bavaria (26 February 1416 – 5/6 January 1448) was <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Denmark\\\">King of Denmark</a> (1440–48, as Christopher III), <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Sweden\\\">Sweden</a> (1441–48) and <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Norway\\\">Norway</a> (1442–48) during the era of the <a href=\\\"Kalmar%20Union\\\">Kalmar Union</a>.\\nHe was probably born at <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20in%20der%20Oberpfalz\\\">Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz</a>, the son of <a href=\\\"John%2C%20Count%20Palatine%20of%20Neumarkt\\\">John, Count Palatine of Neumarkt</a>, and <a href=\\\"Catherine%20of%20Pomerania%2C%20Countess%20Palatine%20of%20Neumarkt\\\">Catherine of Pomerania</a>, the daughter of <a href=\\\"Wartislaw%20VII%2C%20Duke%20of%20Pomerania\\\">Wartislaw VII</a>, <a href=\\\"Duke%20of%20Pomerania\\\">Duke of Pomerania</a> in <a href=\\\"Pomerania-Stolp\\\">Pomerania-Stolp</a>, and sister of the Scandinavian king, <a href=\\\"Eric%20of%20Pomerania\\\">Eric of Pomerania</a>. Count Palatine John was a son of King <a href=\\\"Rupert%20of%20Germany\\\">Rupert of Germany</a>. In 1445, Christopher married <a href=\\\"Dorothea%20of%20Brandenburg\\\">Dorothea of Brandenburg</a> (1430 – 25 November 1495), in <a href=\\\"Copenhagen\\\">Copenhagen</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Eric%20of%20Pomerania\\\">Eric of Pomerania</a> was deposed as king of Denmark and Sweden in 1439. As Eric's nephew, Christopher, who was rather unfamiliar with Scandinavian conditions, was elected by the Danish <a href=\\\"rigsraadet\\\">State Council</a> as the successor to his uncle, first as <a href=\\\"regent\\\">regent</a> from 1439, and then proclaimed King of Denmark at the Viborg Assembly (Danish \\\"landsting\\\") on 9 April 1440. He was meant to be a puppet, as evidenced by the saying: \\\"Had the Council demanded the stars of heaven from him, he would have ordered it.\\\" However he succeeded in maintaining some personal control. As a whole his rule, according to the politics of the nobility and his succession, might be called the start of the long period of balance between royal power and nobility which lasted until 1660. He was later elected king of Sweden in 1441, and Norway in June 1442.\\nAt the start of his reign, he put down <a href=\\\"peasant%20rebellion\\\">peasant rebellion</a>s in <a href=\\\"Funen\\\">Funen</a> and <a href=\\\"Jutland\\\">Jutland</a>. Once the rebellion on Funen was suppressed, he turned his attention the uprising in Jutland. North Jutland, especially <a href=\\\"Vendsyssel\\\">Vendsyssel</a>, was so restive that a peasant army of 25,000 led by <a href=\\\"Henrik%20Reventlow\\\">Henrik Reventlow</a> posed a serious threat to Christopher's continued reign. Before the king could act, Jutland's noble families raised their own army and marched west of <a href=\\\"Aalborg\\\">Aalborg</a> to meet Reventlow's forces.\\nThe peasants had created a gigantic wagon fortress three layers deep to protect themselves from the mounted knights they knew would come against them. They also placed tree branches across the bog in front of the camp and then cast earth on top to make it look like solid ground. The overconfident army of nobles led by <a href=\\\"Eske%20Brok\\\">Eske Brok</a> appeared at <a href=\\\"St%20Jorgen%27s%20Hill\\\">St Jorgen's Hill</a> on 3 May 1441. The knights charged the camp, and were quickly mired down in the bog. The peasants moved in for the kill. Brok was killed and dismembered and the pieces sent to the towns in the area as a warning. The peasants then raided the area's most important manor at <a href=\\\"Aagard\\\">Aagard</a> and burned it, forcing the noble <a href=\\\"Niels%20Guldenstierne\\\">Niels Guldenstierne</a> to flee with nothing but a staff.\\nThe treatment of the captives after the battle strengthened Christopher's determination to put down the peasants. With his own army Christopher rode north to the rebel camp at <a href=\\\"Husby%20Hole\\\">Husby Hole</a> near St Jorgen's Hill in northern Jutland. Because the rebels outnumbered his troops, Christopher sent word that anyone who left the camp and went home would not be punished for rebellion. The men from the island of <a href=\\\"Mors%20%28island%29\\\">Mors</a> and <a href=\\\"Thisted\\\">Thisted</a> left, for which they were called cowards and traitors ever after. Christopher ordered the attack on the rebel camp on 8 June 1441 and despite fighting ferociously the rebels could not overcome the heavily armed knights. Thousands of rebels were killed, those who survived were fined heavily. The more severe consequence was that rebels lost their free status and became <a href=\\\"serf\\\">serf</a>s on the farms where they worked. The king made it a capital crime for peasants to carry weapons longer than a short knife. The subjugation of Denmark's once free peasants was complete.\\nIn May 1442 Christopher traveled to <a href=\\\"L%C3%B6d%C3%B6se\\\">Lödöse</a> to meet with the nobles from all three kingdoms. He was crowned <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Norway\\\">King of Norway</a> there and then went to <a href=\\\"Oslo\\\">Oslo</a> and the <a href=\\\"Trondheim\\\">Trondheim</a> to be confirmed as the king. The next year he was proclaimed <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Denmark\\\">King of Denmark</a> at the <a href=\\\"Urnehoved\\\">Urnehoved</a> Assembly near <a href=\\\"Ribe\\\">Ribe</a>. When his residence at <a href=\\\"Roskilde\\\">Roskilde</a> burned down, Christopher moved to <a href=\\\"Copenhagen\\\">Copenhagen</a> and made it the capital of Denmark.\\nThe Swedish nobles were not happy to relinquish any power and thus didn't like him, claiming he was too German for them and that he allowed his uncle (ex-King Eric) to plunder shipping from his castle on <a href=\\\"Gotland\\\">Gotland</a> without any attempt to stop him. They blamed a series of bad harvests on him. People were so hungry they mixed ground tree bark with the little flour they could find. Christopher was contemptuously nicknamed the \\\"Bark King\\\" in Sweden.\\nOn the other hand, he tried to support the cities and their merchants as far as the limits of nobility and <a href=\\\"Hanse\\\">Hanse</a>atic cities allowed. During his reign <a href=\\\"Copenhagen\\\">Copenhagen</a> was made permanently the capital of Denmark (<a href=\\\"municipal%20charter\\\">municipal charter</a> of 1443).\\nHe carried on an ineffective policy of war and negotiations against Eric in Gotland which did little to help the dissatisfaction within both Sweden and the <a href=\\\"Hanseatic%20League\\\">Hanseatic League</a>. The <a href=\\\"Kalmar%20Union\\\">Kalmar Union</a> Treaty was changed so that the aristocracy had most of the policy-making powers, and the king lost many of the powers monarchs had acquired since Viking times. The results of this policy of balance were still not reached when he suddenly died as the last descendant of <a href=\\\"Valdemar%20IV\\\">Valdemar IV</a> of Denmark.\\nChristopher died suddenly at <a href=\\\"Helsingborg\\\">Helsingborg</a> in 1448. On 28 October 1449, Dorothea remarried <a href=\\\"Christian%20I%20of%20Denmark\\\">Christian I</a>. King Christopher was buried in <a href=\\\"Roskilde%20Cathedral\\\">Roskilde Cathedral</a>.\\nIn 1654 his <a href=\\\"Wittelsbach\\\">Wittelsbach</a> family would return to power in Sweden.\\nChristopher's full title was:\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"By%20the%20Grace%20of%20God\\\">By the Grace of God</a>, <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Denmark\\\">King of Denmark</a>, <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Sweden\\\">Sweden</a> and <a href=\\\"King%20of%20Norway\\\">Norway</a>, <a href=\\\"King%20of%20the%20Wends\\\">the Wends</a> and <a href=\\\"King%20of%20the%20Goths\\\">the Goths</a>, <a href=\\\"Count%20Palatine%20of%20the%20Rhine\\\">Count Palatine of the Rhine</a>, <a href=\\\"Duke%20of%20Bavaria\\\">Duke of Bavaria</a>\\\".\\n\\n\",\n \"Deining\\nDeining is a <a href=\\\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\\\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\\\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>.\",\n \"Altmühl\\nThe Altmühl is a river in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a>, <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>. It is a left tributary of the river <a href=\\\"Danube\\\">Danube</a> and is approximately 230 km long.\\nIt is a place well-known for potato farming.\\nThe source of the Altmühl is close to the town of <a href=\\\"Ansbach\\\">Ansbach</a>. From here the river runs southeastwards as a narrow brook to enter the (a lake) north of <a href=\\\"Gunzenhausen\\\">Gunzenhausen</a>. After leaving Gunzenhausen the river describes a broad curve through the <a href=\\\"Franconian%20Jura\\\">Franconian Jura</a>. It enters the \\\"\\\" (Altmühl Valley Nature Park), which is known for its natural environment: The <a href=\\\"meander\\\">meander</a>s of the Altmühl river have cut deep gorges into the mountains of the Franconian Jura.\\nThe Altmühl passes the towns of <a href=\\\"Treuchtlingen\\\">Treuchtlingen</a>, <a href=\\\"Eichst%C3%A4tt\\\">Eichstätt</a> and <a href=\\\"Beilngries\\\">Beilngries</a>.\\nDownriver of <a href=\\\"Dietfurt\\\">Dietfurt</a> the river bed was straightened and integrated into a canal connecting the <a href=\\\"Main%20%28river%29\\\">river Main</a> and the river Danube (the <a href=\\\"Rhine%E2%80%93Main%E2%80%93Danube%20Canal\\\">Rhine–Main–Danube Canal</a>). In spite of protests by conservationists the canal was opened in 1992 and has changed much of the eastern Altmühl valley.\\nThe Altmühl finally flows into the Danube in <a href=\\\"Kelheim\\\">Kelheim</a>.\\n\",\n \"Pilsach\\nPilsach is a <a href=\\\"Municipalities%20of%20Germany\\\">municipality</a> in the district of <a href=\\\"Neumarkt%20%28district%29\\\">Neumarkt</a> in <a href=\\\"Bavaria\\\">Bavaria</a> in <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["La corona (\"The Crown\") is an opera by the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck. It takes the form of an \"azione teatrale\" in one act. The Italian-language libretto is by Pietro Metastasio. The opera was intended to celebrate the name day of Emperor Francis I on 4 October 1765 but the emperor died in August and it remained unperformed until the 20th century.","Christoph Willibald (Ritter von) Gluck (] ; 2 July 1714 – 15 November 1787) was a composer of Italian and French opera in the early classical period. Born in the Upper Palatinate (now part of Germany) and raised in Bohemia, he gained prominence at the Habsburg court at Vienna, where he brought about the practical reform of opera's dramaturgical practices that many intellectuals had been campaigning for over the years. With a series of radical new works in the 1760s, among them \"Orfeo ed Euridice\" and \"Alceste\", he broke the stranglehold that Metastasian \"opera seria\" had enjoyed for much of the century."],"string":"[\n \"La corona (\\\"The Crown\\\") is an opera by the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck. It takes the form of an \\\"azione teatrale\\\" in one act. The Italian-language libretto is by Pietro Metastasio. The opera was intended to celebrate the name day of Emperor Francis I on 4 October 1765 but the emperor died in August and it remained unperformed until the 20th century.\",\n \"Christoph Willibald (Ritter von) Gluck (] ; 2 July 1714 – 15 November 1787) was a composer of Italian and French opera in the early classical period. Born in the Upper Palatinate (now part of Germany) and raised in Bohemia, he gained prominence at the Habsburg court at Vienna, where he brought about the practical reform of opera's dramaturgical practices that many intellectuals had been campaigning for over the years. With a series of radical new works in the 1760s, among them \\\"Orfeo ed Euridice\\\" and \\\"Alceste\\\", he broke the stranglehold that Metastasian \\\"opera seria\\\" had enjoyed for much of the century.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":51,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which science fiction anthology has an episode written by the actress who portays Ann Perkins on Parks and Recreation?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Black Mirror"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Wandering Stars\nWandering Stars is an anthology of Jewish fantasy and science fiction, edited by American writer Jack Dann, originally published by Harper & Row in 1974. It represented, according to the book cover, \"the first time in science fiction that the Jew - and the richness of his themes and particular points of view -- will appear without a mask.\" In his introduction, \"Why Me?\", Isaac Asimov discussed how many Jewish science fiction writers prior to that time had used gentile pen names in order to get published: \"Many of the Jewish pulp writers, however, used pen names as a matter of sound business. A story entitled \"War Gods of the Oyster-Men of Deneb\" did not carry conviction if it was written by someone named Chaim Itzkowitz.\" He then goes on to discuss the pen names of various Jewish writers included in this book. \"Wandering Stars\" is therefore of historical significance as the first science fiction anthology where Jewish writers openly identified themselves as such. It was followed by a second anthology, \"More Wandering Stars\", also edited by Jack Dann, published by Doubleday in 1981.\n","Nosedive\n\"Nosedive\" is the first episode of the third series of British science fiction anthology series \"Black Mirror\". Michael Schur and Rashida Jones wrote the teleplay for the episode, based on a story by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker, while Joe Wright acted as director. Max Richter composed the soundtrack. It premiered on Netflix on 21 October 2016, together with the rest of the third series.\nThe episode is set in a world where people can rate each other from one to five stars for every interaction they have. Lacie (Bryce Dallas Howard) is a young woman overly obsessed with her ratings, and is chosen by her popular childhood friend (Alice Eve) as the maid of honour for her wedding. On her journey to the wedding Lacie gets angry at a customer service worker, beginning a rapid reduction in her rating .\n\"Nosedive\" had a larger budget than episodes in previous series, and was given a different style based on pastel aesthetics. The episode was filmed in South Africa, with Seamus McGarvey as director of photography and Joel Collins as the production designer. As it is part of an anthology series, production was similar to making a short film. In interviews, several people who worked on the episode have expressed negative views towards social media.\nThe episode has received mainly positive reviews, and is mostly ranked in the top half in critics' lists of \"Black Mirror\" episodes by quality. The pastel aesthetics and the plot's relevance to the modern world have been praised by many reviewers; Max Richter's soundtrack and Howard's performance have also been complimented. The tone of the episode is less dark than other \"Black Mirror\" episodes, and in particular the ending is less bleak than usual for the series; reaction to this has been polarised, with some reviewers approving of it and others disliking it. Many critics noted the similarity of the episode to other media—in particular, \"App Development and Condiments\" (an episode of \"Community\") and the real world app Peeple. The episode has been nominated for several awards, including a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Howard.\nLacie Pound (Bryce Dallas Howard) lives in a world where everyone can rate one another's interactions and social media posts from one to five stars. Lacie has a rating of 4.2. She is obsessed with her rating, maintaining superficially positive relationships with everyone she meets, and staging social media posts. One day, she is given low ratings by several coworkers for accepting a free smoothie from Chester, as Chester and his boyfriend Gordon have broken up and the office workers are siding with Gordon. By the following day, Chester's rating has dropped so far he is no longer allowed into the building where he works; Lacie then shuns him. Lacie lives with her brother Ryan (James Norton), who has a lower rating than she does, though he does not care. Lacie is eager to improve socially and materially and wants to live in the chic new housing development Pelican Cove, but in order to live there, she must either pay an exorbitant rent or earn a discount by having a rating of 4.5 or above. After consulting with a ratings expert, she is told that she is receiving many positive ratings from service workers, but such ratings do not matter as much as ratings from people with high rankings, so she should cultivate their approval.\nAfter Lacie posts a picture of her teddy bear, Mr. Rags, whom she and her childhood friend Naomi (Alice Eve) made together, Naomi asks Lacie to be her maid of honour at her wedding, and deliver a speech. Naomi has a rating of 4.8 and many highly rated friends; Lacie believes the speech will boost her rating to a 4.5. However, at the airport, she learns her flight is cancelled. There is an available seat on another flight, but she needs a 4.2 rating to get it. Due to an earlier argument with Ryan and several unfortunate encounters with strangers, Lacie's rating has dropped to 4.183, so she is refused the seat. Frustrated, Lacie causes a scene, and security gives her a 24-hour punishment that temporarily lowers her rating by one point and activates \"Double Damage\", which doubles the effect of all low ratings she receives. After being asked to leave the airport, Lacie is forced to rent a car to make the nine-hour drive to Naomi's wedding.\nBecause of her low ranking, Lacie can only rent an old car with controls that are in Czech. After driving for some time, the electric car needs to be charged, but Lacie cannot find an adapter that fits it. She attempts to hitchhike, but passing motorists refuse to stop due to her rating, and even downvote her as they pass. Eventually she manages to get a ride from a truck driver with an extremely low ranking, Susan (Cherry Jones), who reveals she too was obsessed with ratings until her husband was passed over for vital cancer treatment because he was a 4.3 rather than a 4.4.\nAs Lacie is hitchhiking with fans of a science fiction show she is pretending to enjoy in order to win their assistance, Naomi calls Lacie and tells her she is no longer welcome at the wedding, as her rating has now dropped to 2.6. Enraged, Lacie drinks a thermos of whiskey given to her by Susan and trespasses onto the island to crash the wedding reception. Lacie drunkenly performs her speech, calmly at first, but then she insults Naomi's new husband Paul (Alan Ritchson). Her speech becomes more frantic, nonsensical and angry, and the guests rate her down until she has a rating of 0. When Paul attempts to take away her microphone, Lacie threatens him with a cake knife. As Lacie continues to rant, security restrain her. She is jailed, and has her ranking technology removed. While in her cell, Lacie begins to exchange insults with another prisoner (Sope Dirisu), each delighted that they are free to speak to each other without fear of being rated.\n\"Nosedive\" is the first episode of the third series; all six episodes in this series were released on Netflix simultaneously on 21 October 2016. Brooker says it was selected to be the season premiere \"partly to slightly ease people in\", as \"we thought [it] was probably one of the most accessible episodes\". Alongside \"San Junipero\", \"Nosedive\" was first shown in 2016 ahead of its Netflix release at the Toronto International Film Festival. Two days prior to the release of series 3 on Netflix, \"Den of Geek!\" published an interview in which Brooker hinted that \"Nosedive\" is \"a pastel, playful satire about modern insecurity.\"\nWhilst series one and two of \"Black Mirror\" were shown on Channel 4 in the UK, in September 2015 Netflix commissioned the series for 12 episodes (split into two series of six episodes), and in March 2016 it outbid Channel 4 for the rights to distributing the third series, with a bid of $40 million. Due to its move to Netflix, the show had a larger budget than in previous series, which one critic suggests is responsible for the \"impressive line-up\" which was noted by many reviewers. Another critic called this episode the show's \"most ambitious yet\"; due to its larger episode order, series 3 was also able to vary its genre and tone more than previous series. One reviewer also noted that \"Nosedive\" contained \"only American characters\".\nThe episode is based on an idea by series creator Charlie Brooker. In a 2016 interview, Brooker states that the original idea, from five years previous, was similar to \"Brewster's Millions\" and based on the idea of a high status person trying to reduce their ranking. Later, Brooker wrote either a three or four page outline for the episode, wanting it to be \"comedic, darkly\". Rashida Jones and Mike Schur wrote the episode. Known for comedy and sitcoms, the pair had previously worked together on many shows, including \"Parks and Recreation\", but had never written anything together before \"Nosedive\". Both fans of \"Black Mirror\", Jones had been in contact with Brooker for a few years beforehand; Schur wrote the first half of the episode (up to \"[Lacie] finding out that [Naomi] doesn't want her to come\"), while Jones wrote the second half, and the two then \"blended and mixed\" their scripts. In 2016, Schur had accounts on Twitter but not Facebook or Instagram, as \"there's a bunch of strangers talking shit about you in there\", and Jones expressed a similarly negative attitude, stating \"I do have very strong, very conflicted feelings about rating systems and social media.\" Jones believes that the episode, as with all \"Black Mirror\" episodes, \"pushes you into the near future\", while Schur considers it to be more of a \"parallel reality\". Brooker has described the episode as \"like a cross between \"Pleasantville\" and \"The Truman Show\"\".\nJoe Wright directed the episode, Seamus McGarvey was director of photography and Joel Collins, working for VFX company Painting Practice, was the production designer. The episode was shot in four weeks, on an island an hour from Cape Town, South Africa; \"San Junipero\" was also filmed in South Africa. In an interview with \"Variety\", McGarvey noted that the episode was shot in 4K resolution at the request of Netflix; he said the colour scheme was \"a sort of peppermint green, duck egg blue [and] strange peach colors\", and that props and \"even the drinks people are drinking\" were chosen with care to create a \"sickly pastel feel\". Brooker pointed out that directors of \"Black Mirror\" episodes (in this case, Wright) have more \"power\" than in serialised television shows, as \"it is like making a short film\", and he said that Wright had \"been feeling quite bruised after doing \"Pan\" and [\"Black Mirror\"] was a good thing for him to get his teeth into which wasn't the full five-year commitment of a movie\". McGarvey had worked with Wright previously. The scenes in which Lacie is driving utilise a computer generated landscape designed by Dan May, the episode's art director.\nBryce Dallas Howard plays Lacie, the episode's main character. Howard gained 30 pounds for the role, saying an an interview with \"Marie Claire\" that body shaming is a \"huge part of the subtext of the story\". Howard first joined social media during Thanksgiving 2015, and was approached with the treatment of the episode a fortnight later, in December 2015.\nMax Richter, a \"conservatoire, university-trained classical composer\", composed the episode's soundtrack. Richter first met the director, Joe Wright, in London before the shooting of the episode had been completed, and quickly began coming up with ideas for the score. Richter aimed to \"support\" the episode's display of \"incredible anxiety hovering beneath this smiley surface [...] while at the same time not flattening out the emotionality of it\", commenting in an interview that Wright's camerawork had a \"dream-like quality\" and that Brooker's \"story was fantastic\". In another interview, Richter said he was aiming for the episode to have \"warmth and a fairytale quality throughout\" with \"darkness underneath it\", and notes that his composition was based on \"the sentiment and the emotional trajectory of the characters\". Richter also composed the sound effects which play when one character rates another, and incorporated these sounds into the score itself.\nIn November 2016, to tie in with the episode, Netflix released a tongue-in-cheek app called Rate Me. The app allows users to rate people, by their Twitter handle, and view their own rating and the ratings of others.\nThe episode received mostly positive reviews from critics. In a four out of five star review in \"The Independent\", Jacob Stolworthy calls the episode \"a unique treat - and one that's a joy to unpack on a visual level\", compliments Max Richter for \"blending the diegetic sounds of the app with the non-diegetic score evoking our protagonist's struggle to determine reality and fiction\" and summarises that the episode \"is more prescient than you first suspect\". Benjamin Lee of \"The Guardian\" gives this episode, alongside \"San Junipero\", a rating of four out of five stars, noting that the episode \"is more traditionally Black Mirror in its tale of the sinister side of technological progress\" but has \"a freshness that prevents it from ever feeling heavy-handed\"; Lee also comments that it \"manages to create a believable and aesthetically impressive mini-universe without the need for tiresome exposition\". Suchandrika Chakrabarti of \"Daily Mirror\" also gave the episode four stars out of five, opining that \"it's a credit to the writing that we do feel the danger that presses in on [Lacie's] sunny existence\".\nEmefa Setranah of \"The Mancunion\" gives the episode 3.5 out of five stars, stating: \"This introductory episode does not fall short of \"Black Mirror\"' s reputation. [...] However, it is a tune that has been played one too many times. The show's warnings against technology are becoming repetitive and predictable.\" Mark Monahan in \"The Telegraph\" gives the episode three out of five stars, praising the setting for being \"superbly and thought-provokingly drawn\", but criticising the episode for being \"weakened by spoon-feedingly schematic characters and a plot [...] that fails to exploit its more interesting tainted-by-association potential\". Another three star review comes from Pat Stacey of \"Irish Independent\", who criticises: \"Like all the best Black Mirrors, this is just a few short steps from current reality. It's not one of the best, though. It sets up the premise crisply, then spends far too much time labouring the point.\"\nA positive review by Tasha Robinson in \"The Verge\" summarises the episode as an \"exaggerated morality play about the dangers of conformity and the small pleasures of individuality\". Robinson opines that the episode \"can be strident and obvious\" but \"understands human nature very well\". Commenting on the episode's aesthetics, Robinson writes, \"Wright gives parts of the episode a gorgeous, sunlit gleam that powerfully highlights the difference between the eternal-magic-hour world of the haves and the grubby reality of the have-nots\", and particularly approves of the point at which \"the bleeps of [Lacie's] plummeting rating start showing up in the episode's soundtrack.\" Adam Chitwood of \"Collider\" commented that the \"lush world and bitingly hilarious script of 'Nosedive' brings some much-welcomed levity to the \"Black Mirror\" universe\", and notes that the episode has a \"pastel-filled palate\" and \"keeps everything focused on the characters\", which is different to director Joe Wright's usual style. Matt Fowler of IGN described the episode as \"both fun and frustrating [but] it works well when you consider that the next two episodes get a lot more grounded and grim\", and complimented the \"very compelling score by Max Richter\".\nAlex Mullane of \"Digital Spy\" gave a positive review, saying it is \"as funny – and uplifting – as Black Mirror has ever been\". Mullane opines that Bryce Dallas Howard is \"fantastic in the lead role, carrying the piece brilliantly\", and Alice Eve is \"excellent\". Mullane also writes, \"the real success of 'Nosedive' comes within the final scene\", because \"the climax might be bleak in some ways, but in others, it's a moment of sheer, fist-pumping joy\" as \"Mike Schur knows how to end a series on a wonderfully uplifting note, and it's a trick he pulls off here with panache\". Zack Handlen of \"The A.V. Club\" gave the episode an A–, commenting that the first half of the episode is \"Black Mirror\" at \"its most unsettling and its most predictable\", but that the second half \"[adds] depth and sincerity\" to something that \"bordered perilously close to smug\". Handlen says that the \"final scene in the jail is a little too perfect\", but that the episode is \"clever and hatefully plausible\". Sophie Lee of \"The Atlantic\" gave the episode a mixed review, praising Howard's performance and saying that the \"lush, calming visuals of 'Nosedive' clash nicely with the mounting anxiety\", but opining that the episode is \"about 15 minutes too long\" and describing the ending as \"too cute\".\n\"Nosedive\" appears on many critics' rankings of the 13 episodes in \"Black Mirror\"' s first three series, usually in the top half. Charles Bramesco of \"Vulture\" places the episode second, compilmenting its \"hilarious, moving, supremely unsettling script\". Bramesco writes: \"Seldom is the guiding theme of Black Mirror — the insidious ways in which technology alters human behavior — expressed with more lucid clarity.\" \"Nosedive\" appears fourth in \"TheWrap\"' s ranking of \"Black Mirror\" episodes, with the authors summarising that it is the \"perfect sendup of our obsession with social media approval\". James Hibberd of \"Entertainment Weekly\" ranked the episode sixth, decribing it as \"a successful shift into comedy\" and a \"social media spoof that takes online reviews to their ultimate desperate extreme\". Aubrey Page of \"Collider\" also places the episode sixth, calling it \"a perfect choice as Black Mirror's Season 3 opener\" but says that it \"lacks the sadistic snap of Brooker's usual work\", which \"undercuts a bit of the episode's self-seriousness\", and \"feels woefully surface-level and a bit off-brand\" because of its predictability. Mat Elfring of GameSpot puts the episode seventh, due to the fact that it is \"one of the more thought-provoking episodes and a dynamite way to kick off the third season\". \"Nosedive\" also comes seventh in Morgan Jeffery's list in \"Digital Spy\", accompanied by the summary that \"Lacie's Instagram-perfect world of social status defined by 'likes' is instantly recognisable to anyone who's ever been to school, and like the best Black Mirror episodes, presents us with only a slight adjustment to our own reality.\" In \"Esquire\", Corey Atad ranked \"Nosedive\" eighth, summarising that Howard's performance is \"delightfully unhinged\" and that the episode \"in some ways a tad too simplistic, but as a nearly feature-length film, it's totally engaging\".\nOther critics have ranked the six episodes from series three of \"Black Mirror\" in order of quality. In \"The Independent\"' s ranking, \"Nosedive\" is second, being described as the \"most detailed\" episode of the third series for \"presenting a well-conceived world that could be revisited time and time again\". In \"Forbes\", Paul Tassi places the episode third, calling it the \"most visually-stunning\" of the series, but opining that \"I didn't really care for the climactic ending sequence, and I feel like the episode loses its way about two-thirds of the way through.\"\nA \"Business Insider\" article by Erin Brodwin notes that the episode shows Lacie fall victim to the hedonic treadmill, as \"Every time she gets a four or five-star rating, her bright blue eyes light up. [...] But at the end of the day, Lacie is lonely and unsatisfied.\" Brodwin points out that scientific studies match Lacie's experience, because \"when we engage with social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter, we may feel a temporary boost from likes or favorites, but there's absolutely no link between social media use and long-term happiness.\"\nSeveral critics compared the episode to a 2014 episode of \"Community\", \"App Development and Condiments\", which features an app where users assign each other \"Meow Meow Beenz\" ratings on a scale from one to five; Jack Shepherd of \"The Independent\" notes that both episodes \"critically [analyse] people's obsession with stature on social media platforms with rating systems\". Other reviewers compared \"Nosedive\" to the mobile application Peeple, an app where users could rate one another, which garnered immediate backlash upon its release. Brooker said in an interview that he was not aware of the \"Community\" episode when he came up with the idea for \"Nosedive\", but that he did see advertising for Peeple during pre-production, initially thinking it would turn out to be marketing for a comedy show, and considered whether or not they should still produce the episode. The episode has also been compared to the 2003 novel \"Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom\", and to the 1980s films \"Clockwise\" and \"Planes, Trains and Automobiles\". Following the episode's release, the Facebook page for \"Black Mirror\" shared an article in \"The Washington Post\" about a rating system proposed by the government of China, which Rob Leane in \"Den of Geek!\" notes is very similar to the rating system that appears in \"Nosedive\". Manuel Betancourt of \"Pacific Standard\" notes that \"Nosedive\" is similar to several other works about women and social media, particularly \"The Circle\" and \"Ingrid Goes West\", but describes it as \"perhaps the most keen-eyed critique of the demographics of social media usage of recent titles\".\nCritics have also noted the inclusion of Easter eggs within \"Black Mirror\"—small details referring to other episodes. In \"Nosedive\", there is a frame where a social media post from Michael Callow reads, \"Just got thrown out of the zoo again :(\", a joke based on Callow having intercourse with a pig in \"The National Anthem\". Brooker has described this Easter egg as his favourite in series three. Another reference to that episode is the fictional show \"Sea of Tranquility\"; in \"The National Anthem\", a special effects expert mentions having worked on the show, while in \"Nosedive\", Lacie hitchhikes with fans of the show. Additionally, in \"Hated in the Nation\", a news ticker contains the term \"Reputelligent\", which is the name of the company that Lacie consults for advice about her rating.\n\"Nosedive\" has been parodied in popular culture, in the 2017 \"Saturday Night Live\" sketch \"Five Stars\". It features Aziz Ansari and Bobby Moynihan desperately trying to impress each other on an Uber journey, in order to boost each other's ratings. The sketch mentions \"Black Mirror\" explicitly, with both characters saying \"San Junipero\" is their favourite episode.\n\"Nosedive\" was nominated for several awards in 2017; the third season of \"Black Mirror\" also received several other nominations.\n","Constellations (2005 book)\nConstellations (2005) is a science fiction anthology of all-new short stories edited by Peter Crowther, the fourth in his themed science fiction anthology series for DAW Books. The stories are all intended to be inspired by the theme of constellations. The book was published in 2005. The title page carries a subtitle, \"The Best of New British SF\".\nThe book includes a three-page introduction by Crowther entitled, \"Britain Swings!\", fifteen short stories, and a six-page set of author biographies at the end.\nThe stories are as follows:","Born & Raised (Parks and Recreation)\n\"Born & Raised\" is the third episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series \"Parks and Recreation\", and the 49th overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 6, 2011. In the episode, Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) promotes a book she has written about Pawnee to advance her campaign, but is sidetracked when Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) points out that she was not born in Pawnee. Meanwhile, Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones) attempts to bond with April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) and Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), while Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) and Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) attempt to charm the recently divorced Callamezzo.\nWritten by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Dean Holland, the episode marks the return of guest star Mo Collins as well as the continuation of Leslie's campaign for public office. The book featured in this episode, \"Pawnee: The Greatest Town in America\", is available for sale online and in book stores. The author is listed as \"Leslie Knope.\"\nThe episode received positive reviews from critics, with praise going to the performance of guest star Mo Collins.\nLeslie (Amy Poehler) has written a book called “Pawnee: The Greatest Town in America” and is preparing to promote it on local talk show “Pawnee Today.” She hopes that host Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) will select it for her book club, which will guarantee high sales and help Leslie's campaign for city council. Before Leslie goes on the show, an anonymous source claims there is an inaccuracy in the book, which Leslie asks the parks department to find because she knows that Joan will reveal it during the interview as a form of gotcha journalism. Ann (Rashida Jones) is teamed up with Ron (Nick Offerman) and April (Aubrey Plaza) to fact check the book, and although she is determined to win them over with kindness, they want nothing to do with her.\nLeslie goes on “Pawnee Today” where Joan reveals that the inaccuracy is that Leslie was not born in Pawnee as she states in the book, and Joan refuses to put it in her book club. Leslie disputes the claim, but the damage from the interview is done: when Leslie is promoting the book, she is heckled by people who demand to see her birth certificate and it becomes an issue for her campaign for city council. Leslie shows her short-form birth certificate to her campaign advisors William Barnes (Johnny Sneed) and Elizabeth (Antonia Raftu), but since it only lists the county that she was born in, they say she needs to produce her long-form birth certificate, which is in the hall of records in Eagleton, Pawnee’s hated rival town. Andy (Chris Pratt) steals the birth certificate and Leslie is horrified to learn that she was actually born in Eagleton.\nLeslie hires Tom (Aziz Ansari) to charm Joan into putting the book in her book club, which Tom is confident of doing because he always playfully flirts with Joan. However, he calls everything off when she begins hitting on him for real due to her impending divorce. Joan becomes very drunk during lunch with Tom and Ben (Adam Scott), forcing them to carry her home. Meanwhile, after trying and failing to win over Ron and April, Ann finally gets them to open up by telling gross stories about her job at the hospital.\nLeslie’s mother Marlene (Pamela Reed) admits that Leslie was born in Eagleton, but only because Pawnee’s hospital was overrun with raccoons when she went into labor. Still, Leslie is depressed and feels that she is not a true Pawneean. Chris (Rob Lowe) disagrees, telling Leslie that she is the most dedicated resident in town and where she was born does not matter. Hearing this, Leslie goes back on “Pawnee Today” and reveals the truth, but also proves how much she loves Pawnee by reciting the many people and places in town. Joan allows the book into the book club, but also puts a big “Gotcha!” sticker on the back of the book.\nAccording to Nielsen Media Research, \"Born & Raised\" was seen by 4.15 million viewers.","Out of This World (UK TV series)\nOut of This World is a British science fiction anthology television series made by ABC Television and broadcast in 1962. A spin-off from the \"Armchair Theatre\" anthology series, each episode was introduced by the actor Boris Karloff. Many of the episodes were adaptations of stories by science fiction writers including Isaac Asimov, Philip K. Dick and Clifford D. Simak. The series is generally seen as a precursor to the BBC science fiction anthology series \"Out of the Unknown\".\nSeries creator Irene Shubik began her career working on educational films for Encyclopædia Britannica Inc in Chicago before returning home to London where she joined ABC Television as a story editor on the anthology series \"Armchair Theatre\" under producer Sydney Newman in 1960. A science fiction fan since college, Shubik approached Newman during the summer of 1961 with the notion of making a science fiction version of \"Armchair Theatre\", similar to the \"Armchair Mystery Theatre\" spin-off that specialised in crime and mystery stories. Shubik had already commissioned several science fiction tinged scripts for \"Armchair Theatre\" such as \"The Omega Mystery\" and \"The Ship That Couldn't Stop\". However, the production that acted as a template for what would become \"Out of This World\" was \"Murder Club\", an adaptation of Robert Sheckley’s short story \"The Seventh Victim\", starring Richard Briers, that aired under the \"Armchair Theatre\" banner on 3 December 1961. Also around this time the BBC had scored a notable hit with the science fiction thriller \"A for Andromeda\".\nShubik was appointed story editor and Leonard White, who had produced the first two seasons of \"The Avengers\", was assigned to produce. Leonard found \"Out of This World\" a welcome antidote to \"The Avengers\", which had proved a difficult production; he recalled, \"It was a great pleasure to make, getting away from today and exploring the unrealities (or so we thought) of tomorrow. An opportunity for the suspension of disbelief even in the here and now ambiance of television\". The budget for each episode averaged £5,000.\nShubik soon ran into difficulties finding material suitable for adaptation, a problem that had plagued earlier aborted attempts to get a similar series off the ground. A useful contact Shubik made was with John Carnell, a key figure in British science fiction, founder of the magazine \"New Worlds\" and agent for many British science fiction writers. Carnell assisted Shubik in selecting material and put her in contact with writers and publishers. Carnell also promoted the series heavily in \"New Worlds\", giving it the cover of the July 1962 edition. When a strike by actor's union Equity hit production of \"Armchair Theatre\", it bought Shubik the extra time she needed to find sufficient scripts. All but two episodes were adaptations of short stories and novels. Shubik took the name \"Out of This World\" from a series of anthology collections published by Blackie and Son, edited by Amabel Williams-Ellis.\nThe actor Boris Karloff, well known for his association with the horror film genre, was chosen as host for the new series. This was an idea taken from such U.S. anthology series as \"The Twilight Zone\", \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\" and \"Thriller\" (which Karloff himself had hosted) and was in line with what had been done for \"Armchair Mystery Theatre\", which was introduced by Donald Pleasence.\nThree scripts for \"Out of This World\", adaptations of Philip K. Dick's \"Impostor\" and Clifford D. Simak's \"Immigrant\" as well as an original story called \"Botany Bay\", were supplied by Terry Nation. These scripts were Nation's first professional foray into the genre for which he would become best known; he would later go on to create the popular Dalek monsters for the science fiction series \"Doctor Who\" as well as his own science fiction television series \"Survivors\" and \"Blake's 7\".\nAn adaptation of John Wyndham’s short story \"Dumb Martian\" was originally intended to launch the series. However, Sydney Newman elected to broadcast the story as part of \"Armchair Theatre\" the week before \"Out of This World\" made its debut. The play ended with an epilogue by Boris Karloff introducing and previewing the new spin-off series.\nThe first episode, \"The Yellow Pill\", attracted 11 million viewers, placing \"Out of This World\" eleventh in the television ratings for that week and beating the popular police drama series \"Z-Cars\".\nCritical reaction to \"Out of This World\" was, on the whole, positive: \"Kinematograph Weekly\" commented that the series was \"the most intelligent and best written of its genre since \"Quatermass\"\" while \"The Times\" said, \"in general the level of writing and direction has been encouragingly high [...] \"Out of This World\" may well help to banish forever the view of the summer as a time when just anything will do\". H. F. Hall, writing in the \"Yorkshire Evening Post\", described \"Out of This World\" as \"the most accomplished thing of its kind that TV has yet produced... well schemed scripting and disciplined production\". One viewer who enjoyed the series was Goon Michael Bentine who sent a telegram to Leonard White conveying \"joyous congratulations for wonderful entertainment\".\nAlthough the series was judged a success, the departure of both Sydney Newman and Irene Shubik to the BBC meant that a second season was not made. However, while at the BBC Shubik devised and produced \"Out of the Unknown\", another science fiction anthology series that, like \"Out of This World\", concentrated mainly on adaptations of short stories and novels and ran for four seasons between 1965 and 1971. Two \"Out of This World\" scripts — \"The Yellow Pill\" and \"Target Generation\" — were remade by \"Out of the Unknown\" in its third season. Shubik went on to become a noted television producer of series such as \"The Wednesday Play\", \"Play for Today\", \"Playhouse: The Mind Beyond\" and \"Rumpole of the Bailey\" and instigated, but did not produce, the acclaimed adaptation of \"The Jewel in the Crown\".\nAs was common practice among British broadcasters at the time, almost all of the episodes of \"Out of This World\" were wiped after broadcast and only \"Little Lost Robot\" is known to survive, which was released on DVD by the British Film Institute in 2014.\nThirteen episodes of \"Out of This World\" were broadcast on Saturday nights at 10 p.m. from 30 June 1962. The \"Armchair Theatre\" presentation of \"Dumb Martian\" is also included in this list for completeness as it was originally intended to be part of \"Out of This World\", in line with most episode guides published for this series.","Mark Brendanawicz\nMark Brendanawicz is a fictional character in the NBC comedy series \"Parks and Recreation\". He is the city planner for Pawnee, Indiana, as well as Leslie Knope's colleague and one of Ann Perkins' ex-boyfriends. He is portrayed by Paul Schneider, who left \"Parks and Recreation\" at the end of the second season; despite the producers' plans to the contrary, Schneider never reprised the role in any later seasons, and the show made absolutely no references to the character after his departure.\nMark Brendanawicz was a city planner with the Pawnee municipal government. When he studied city planning in college, Mark was optimistic about the field and dreamed of designing huge and impressive cities. However, since graduation, Mark learned most of the career largely involved mundane technical issues, such as regulating the sizes of garages and proposed construction additions to houses. As a result, Mark grew jaded and disillusioned with the career, and became critical of government processes in general.\nMark has a self-absorbed personality and engages in romantic flings with multiple women without any sign of seeking a commitment. Mark and Leslie had sex on one occasion and Leslie harbored romantic feelings for the next six years, although Mark does not return the feelings. In season two, he enters a committed relationship with Ann and even considers marriage before the breakup.\nLeslie continues to harbor a crush on Mark, but Mark is not interested in her romantically, and instead appears to be more interested in her friend Ann; an early draft of the script had Mark stating that he didn't care about Leslie or the park project but supported her efforts because it would allow him to spend more time around Ann, but this was changed to the final version where Mark is impressed by Leslie's fighting spirit and helps the park project for that reason. Mark agrees to help Leslie in her quest to turn a large construction pit into a park, but he is pragmatic about her chances of success, and warns it has little chance of succeeding. When Leslie seeks his help in dealing with newspaper reporter Shauna Malwae-Tweep, who is planning to write a negative story, Mark makes the situation worse by having sex with her. This angers Leslie, particularly after Mark tells the reporter in confidence that the pit project will never be successful, only to later learn she plans to use that it in the story.\nOne night, while feeling particularly disillusioned and unhappy with the insignificance of his career, Mark makes a halfhearted attempt to flirt with Ann, unaware of Ann's anger over problems with her boyfriend Andy. Mark's advances are quickly and harshly rejected by an irritated Ann as a result. Later that night, Mark and Leslie spend time together at the pit and an intoxicated Mark attempts to kiss her. Not wishing to reconnect with Mark in his drunken state, Leslie rejects his advances, and Mark accidentally falls into the pit and injures his legs.\nFollowing the accident at the pit, Mark becomes less jaded and abandons his promiscuous lifestyle. He and Ann develop a romantic interest in each other after she nurses him back to health at the hospital while his legs healed. They start dating only after Leslie assures Ann she is fine with the pairing and appears to have moved on from her long-standing infatuation with Mark. He fences off Andy's juvenile insults and attempts to mess with his and Ann's relationship, but also contends with some jealousy when Ann tries to \"save\" her close friend Justin as a potential future mate. Mark planned to propose to Ann, but she'd told Leslie she wanted to break up with him, and she did dump him after Leslie narrowly prevented Mark from making what would have been a humiliating proposal during the Diabetes Telethon. Mark and Ann have a breakfast sit-down where Mark says he's shocked that she wanted to end the relationship when they never even fought with each other, but Ann tells him that the lack of conflict meant neither of them really had any passion or stake in the relationship at all, and also says Mark overstated them as a couple because he'd never had a relationship that lasted for months before. When the Pawnee government is shut down, Mark decides to take an offered buyout and leave his city hall position for a private-sector job with a construction company, causing Leslie to call him \"Mark Brendanaquits.\"\nIn a scene echoing their moment together in the pit during the first season, Mark shares a tender goodbye with Leslie and gives her plans he drafted for the park she wants to build in place of the pit.\nWhen Mark Brendanawicz was originally conceived, it was anticipated that the character would eventually start to appear infrequently in \"Parks and Recreation\", switching between his city planner job and work in the private sector. Series co-creator Michael Schur said this is because real-life city planners often move back and forth between different jobs. Schur said Mark is partially based on a real-life city planner who eventually got tired of the bureaucratic red tape of government and moved into the private sector, but eventually moved back to government when he was tired of the negative corporate environment. When Paul Schneider was cast as Mark, Schur told him the character might eventually leave Pawnee government and come back working for a different company, then keep moving back and forth in such a manner. Schur said, \"It's not something you usually do on TV shows but we thought it was a good way to illustrate both the positive and negative aspects of working for a government. It was one of the first things we talked about with [Schneider].\"\nElements of the character were designed based on advice by Scott Albright, a California city planner who worked as a consultant with \"Parks and Recreation\". The discrepancy between Mark's optimism in college and pragmatism after encountering the real world were inspired by feedback Albright provided about the urban planning profession. The Mark character underwent major changes after receiving feedback at press tours and focus group screenings. In the original pilot episode script, Mark was portrayed as slightly less likable than the final character became. For example, in the final episode Mark asked Ron Swanson to green-light the park project to help Leslie, but in the original script, he did so only because he was attracted to Ann and wanted another excuse to keep seeing her. During the first season, Paul Schneider said he was insecure about playing Mark in early episodes because he was still trying to figure out and understand the motivations of his character.\nIt was announced in March 2010 that Schneider would leave \"Parks and Recreation\" at the end of the second season. Schur claimed the decision was a combination of the original conception of the character switching between the government and the private sector, as well as Schneider's increasing success in such independent films as \"Bright Star\". In the initial announcement, Schur claimed that both the producers and Schneider were interested in having Schneider return for guest appearances in the future, including in season three. Schur said at the time: \"He's going to remain in the world of the show in a way that not only allows but hopefully demands that he'll reenter it. He's not going to be killed in some weird accident.\"\nDespite Schur's statements, Schneider never made a return appearance on \"Parks and Recreation\", and the show made absolutely no reference to Mark Brendanawicz after Schneider's departure. In a TV show where Schur and other TV comedy showrunners discussed their work, Schur's story about the Season 2 episode where Jerry Gergich found out he was adopted talked about Mark revealing that information but only by referring to Mark as \"a character\" who accidentally revealed the truth. Even during the sixth season, when Ann Perkins extensively reminisced about her past romances, she never once mentioned Mark, even though they dated for almost all of the second season. In addition, although virtually every major and minor supporting character that ever appeared on \"Parks and Recreation\" made at least a cameo appearance in the seventh and final season, Mark was not one of them, nor was he shown in any clips in a flashback montage during the series' final episode. Shortly before the series finale, Schneider stated that he was not interested in returning to the show, and had never been contacted about it.","We Think, Therefore We Are\nWe Think, Therefore We Are (2009) is a science fiction anthology of new short stories edited by Peter Crowther, the sixth in his themed science fiction anthology series for DAW Books. The main topic of the fifteen stories in the book is artificial intelligence. The introduction is written by Paul McAuley.\nThe stories are as follows:","Mars Probes\nMars Probes (2002) is a science fiction anthology of mostly all-new short stories edited by Peter Crowther, the third in his themed science fiction anthology series for DAW Books. The one story that is the exception to appearing here for the first time is a reprint of a Ray Bradbury story from 1968. The stories are all intended to be inspired by the theme of robotic probes on Mars. The book was published in 2002.\nThe book includes a three-page introduction by Crowther entitled, \"The Fascination of Mars\", fifteen short stories, and an eleven-page set of author biographies at the end.\nThe stories are as follows:","List of Parks and Recreation characters\nThe primary characters of the American television comedy series \"Parks and Recreation\" are the employees of the parks department of Pawnee, a fictional Indiana town. The protagonist is Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler), the deputy parks director as well as serving on city council, and the rest of the ensemble cast consists of her friends and co-workers, including nurse Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), parks director Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), and parks department employees Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari), April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza), Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), Jerry Gergich (Jim O'Heir), and Donna Meagle (Retta).\nWhile most of the main cast have been with the series since it debuted in April 2009, actors Rob Lowe and Adam Scott joined the cast late in the second season portraying Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt, two state auditors who later take permanent jobs in Pawnee. Paul Schneider was a permanent cast member during the first two seasons as city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but he departed at the end of season two. Billy Eichner who portrays Craig Middlebrooks, the \"associate administrator\" of the Pawnee parks department, recurred throughout the show's sixth season until he was promoted to the main cast in the fourth episode of the seventh season. The majority of \"Parks and Recreation\" episodes are set in Pawnee, and most of the recurring and supporting characters are friends of the main characters or residents of the town.\nSeveral guest stars have made appearances on the show, including Louis C.K., John Larroquette, Justin Theroux and Parker Posey. Megan Mullally, Offerman's real-life wife, played his character's ex-wife Tammy Swanson, and Poehler's former husband Will Arnett made an appearance as a man on a with Leslie. Several of Poehler's past colleagues on the sketch comedy series \"Saturday Night Live\" have appeared on \"Parks and Recreation\", including Fred Armisen, Will Forte and Andy Samberg.\nEach of the following primary characters were played by members of the \"Parks and Recreation\" regular cast, rather than guest stars or non-regular supporting cast members.\nLeslie Knope (Amy Poehler) is the deputy director of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department, and the protagonist of \"Parks and Recreation\". Leslie is a passionate, hard-working and ambitious woman who loves her hometown of Pawnee and, unlike many around her, has not lost her optimism in the face of government bureaucracy. She believes strongly in the mission of her job, sometimes going over-the-top in her dedication to helping people. Her dream is to become the first female President of the United States. During the first two seasons, Leslie seeks to turn a construction pit into a park, despite several government obstacles and . When the parks department is hindered by Pawnee's budget problems, Leslie successfully relaunches the town's harvest festival, which makes her department sustainable again. The third season ends with political scouts approaching her about possibly running for elected office, although she declines to inform them of her secret affair with Ben Wyatt, which could prove to be a political scandal. In season four, Leslie furthers her political ambitions when she successfully runs for city council. Season 5 focused mainly on Leslie's experiences on the Pawnee City Council. In season six, however, she is recalled\nand returns full-time to work in the Parks and Recreation department.\nRon Swanson (Nick Offerman) is the parks and recreation director, although he allows Leslie to do almost all the real work in the department. Despite working in a government job, Ron is a steadfast libertarian who believes in as little government as possible and feels the parks department should not even run or maintain parks. He advocates for program cuts wherever possible, actively works to make city hall less effective, and especially detests interacting with Pawnee taxpayers. Nevertheless, Ron has a deep respect for Leslie and genuinely cares about his fellow employees, despite his efforts to hide it. Ron has a deadpan, inexpressive personality, and loves meat, hunting and breakfast foods. He has two ex-wives, both named Tammy, both of whom he hates. Ron Swanson has been praised as the show's breakout character, and some of his traits were based on elements of Offerman's real-life personality, like their shared affinity for woodworking and saxophone-playing.\nTom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) was an administrator in the parks department for most of the show, although he also became a minor investor in the Snake Hole Lounge and quit at the end of the third season to form an entertainment company with his friend Jean-Ralphio. Tom was Leslie's immediate subordinate on the parks department and the two would often work together on tasks. The sarcastic Tom seemed to care little for his mid-level government job and seldom showed any initiative or work ethic. This made him a favorite of Ron Swanson, who once quipped, \"I like Tom. He doesn’t do a lot of work around here. He shows zero initiative. He’s not a team player. He’s never one to go that extra mile. Tom is exactly what I’m looking for in a government employee.\" However, Tom harbors strong aspirations of becoming a media mogul, and sometimes used his parks department job to increase his stature and curry favors with others. Tom considers himself an extremely stylish dresser and smooth pickup artist, and believes he carries himself in the style of rapper Jay-Z. He constantly hits on women, particularly Ann Perkins, but usually to little success. Tom was married to an attractive surgeon named Wendy at the start of the show, but it is eventually revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in divorce.\nAnn Perkins (Rashida Jones), Leslie's best friend, is a nurse who eventually takes a part-time position with Pawnee's department of public health. Ann and Leslie meet after Ann requests at a town meeting that an abandoned construction pit be filled, and Leslie pushes to have it turned into a park. Even before getting her part-time Pawnee job, Ann often spent time at city hall and helped the parks department on their endeavors due to her friendship with Leslie. Ann was dating Andy Dwyer at the start of the show, but she broke up with him after the first season after learning Andy faked the severity of an injury so that Ann would pamper him. She started dating city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but they split up by the end of the second season. Ann briefly dated Chris Traeger until he broke up with her, leaving Ann emotionally distraught and prompting her to go on a string of dates with multiple men. The two secretly got back together in the sixth season and Ann became pregnant. Shortly after, Ann and Chris moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan. She had a son, Oliver, in Galentine's Day.\nApril Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) is the extremely sarcastic, apathetic and goth-like college student who started the show working as an intern in the parks and recreation department, but is eventually hired as Ron Swanson's full-time assistant. She always speaks in a deadpan and uninterested tone of voice, often making dry comments or mocking those around her, and expresses little interest in her job. Nevertheless, she secretly has a deep appreciation for Leslie Knope. In contrast to April's personality, her parents are extremely positive and enthusiastic people. At the start of the show, April was dating her openly gay boyfriend, Derek, who was simultaneously dating his gay boyfriend, Ben. April and Derek eventually broke up, and April harbored a crush on Andy Dwyer for most of the second season. They started dating in the third season and, after a very short period, were married during an impromptu ceremony in the episode \"Andy and April's Fancy Party\". She also became the manager of Andy's band, Mouse Rat, previously known as Scarecrow Boat. When Pawnee's Animal Control division is threatened, April recommends that the Animal Control division should be absorbed into the Parks and Recreation division. She is put in charge as the deputy director of the animal control part of Parks and Recreation. With Ann's help, she applies and is accepted into veterinary school, which she declines to attend. Eventually she finds enjoyment in a job in Washington D.C. as a career placement counselor.\nAndy Dwyer (Chris Pratt) is a goofy and dim-witted but lovable slacker who works as a shoeshiner at Pawnee city hall, and later works for Leslie in the Parks Department. He was dating Ann at the start of the show and, prior to the events of the first episode, he falls into a construction pit and breaks both his legs. This inadvertently caused Ann to meet Leslie after Ann attends a city hall meeting to demand the pit be filled in. Ann broke up with Andy after learning he faked the severity of his injuries so she would pamper him. The unemployed and homeless Andy initially lives in the pit, but became more self-sufficient when Leslie gets him the shoeshiner job. Andy started dating April Ludgate during the third season and, after a very short period, the two got married on a whim in the episode \"Andy and April's Fancy Party\". Andy is the lead singer and guitarist for his band, Mouse Rat. In the final season, he is shown hosting a children's TV show as the character \"Johnny Karate\". Andy was originally only meant to appear in the first season, but the \"Parks and Recreation\" producers liked Chris Pratt so much that, almost immediately after casting him, they decided to make him a regular cast member.\nBen Wyatt (Adam Scott) is Leslie's husband. He joined the show in the penultimate second season episode \"The Master Plan\" as an Indiana state auditor, but eventually took a job at Pawnee working for Chris. When he was 18, Ben was elected mayor of his Minnesota hometown, but was impeached after two months because he had no government experience and bankrupted the town. He became an auditor as an attempt to redeem himself and prove he can responsibly manage city government. At the start of the show, Ben contrasted Chris' cheery personality by bluntly describing the need for economic cuts in Pawnee, which caused conflicts between Leslie and Ben. While Ben never previously established roots in a town due to the constant traveling from his job, Ben gradually came to develop a love of Pawnee, which coincided with his developing romantic interest in Leslie herself. The two start dating in the episode \"Road Trip\", despite Chris' strict policy forbidding workplace romances. When he learns Leslie is running for office in the episode \"I'm Leslie Knope\", they break up for fear of jeopardizing Leslie's chance of winning the election in the event they could get caught and create a scandal. However, they decide to get back together in \"Smallest Park\".\nChris Traeger (Rob Lowe) first appeared in \"The Master Plan\", along with Ben Wyatt, as an Indiana state auditor who visits Pawnee to help solve their crippling financial problems. This led to major budget cutbacks and, eventually, a three-month government shutdown. In the episode \"Camping\", he took a job as acting city manager after the previous manager, Paul Iaresco, suffered a heart attack. Chris is an extremely positive person who is always upbeat and energetic. Extremely health-conscious, he exercises constantly and eats only healthy foods, and hopes to be the first human being to live 150 years. He briefly dated Ann Perkins, but the two split up in the third season. Chris imposed a strict policy against workplace dating at city hall, which serves as a detriment to Leslie and Ben. Rob Lowe was originally expected to appear in only eight episodes as a guest star, but eventually signed on to remain on the show as a permanent cast member.\nGarry \"Jerry\"/\"Larry\"/\"Terry\"/\"Gengurch\"/ Gergich (Jim O'Heir) is a parks and recreation department employee who is regularly mocked and taunted by his fellow co-workers. Jerry is clumsy, overweight and often mangles his speech while speaking publicly. He is teased so badly that, after falling and dislocating his shoulder in the episode \"Park Safety\", he falsely claimed he was robbed just so his co-workers would not make fun of him. However, despite their jokes at his expense, the parks department employees like Jerry, and Jerry himself claims not to mind the jokes because he is nearing retirement with a full pension. Jerry often demonstrates great artistic talent and is an excellent pianist and painter, although his talents are usually overlooked, ignored or even mocked by his colleagues as though they were character faults. Jerry's personality was not established until the second season, but the producers cast O'Heir at the start of the show because they liked the actor and decided they would develop the character later in the series. In an episode of season 4 during Leslie's trial for the relationship she had with Ben, Jerry reveals his real first name, Garry, while under oath. He then goes on to explain that he was accidentally called Jerry by a high-ranking employee of the city and thought it was rude to correct him. It was also revealed that he has a Leap Day birthday and is 64/16 years old. In contrast to his awkwardness at work, Jerry leads an idyllic family life with his gorgeous wife, Gayle (played by Christie Brinkley), and their children, as shown when he hosts a holiday party in the Season 5 episode \"Ron and Diane\". In season six, his coworkers take to permanently calling him Larry instead of Jerry. In a flash forward sequence in the season six finale, Jerry is shown working for Leslie at her new job three years in the future, with Leslie now calling him Terry. He is named mayor of Pawnee in the second to last episode of season 7. In flash forwards in the series finale, it is revealed that he was elected mayor multiple times before retiring and dying peacefully in Gayle's arms surrounded by his family on his 100th birthday.\nDonna Meagle (Retta) is an employee for the parks and recreation department. Confident and lively, she has been described by NBC as the \"parks diva\". Donna enjoys partying, and often takes two shots of alcohol at once without any problem. She can be extremely competitive, especially when it comes to dating, where she has an philosophy. Nevertheless, Donna helped Ann recover from her bad break-up with Chris by giving her advice and encouraging her to pursue rebound dates. Donna has worked at the parks department longer than Leslie, and is one of the few people who can speak sternly to Ron Swanson. She is the proud owner of a Mercedes, which she is extremely protective of and often brags about. As with Jerry Gergich, the personality for Donna was not established until the second season, but Retta was cast during the first season because the producers liked her, and they decided they would establish her character as the series progressed.\nMark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider) was a Pawnee city planner who dated Ann Perkins for much of the second season. According to Aziz Ansari's character, Tom Haverford, \"He's stuck it in some crazy chicks.\" At the start of the show, Mark was an unrequited love interest for Leslie Knope. The two had once had a one-night stand six years earlier and Leslie never got over him, although Mark did not return her affections. Jaded and disillusioned with his job due to government red tape, Mark often pragmatically insisted to Leslie that her ambitions to turn a construction pit into a park were unlikely to succeed. Nevertheless, he admired Leslie's unwavering optimism in the face of government ineffectiveness and tried to help her. In the first season finale \"Rock Show\", a drunken Mark tried to kiss Leslie, but she rejected him and he accidentally falls into the pit. Although Mark is selfish and promiscuous with women at the start of the show, he becomes kinder when he starts dating Ann, and even plans to propose to her. After she broke up with him, Mark left his city hall position for a job in the private sector, marking Schneider's departure from the series. He did not appear in any episodes after Season 2, and the show pointedly made no references to him ever having been there at all, most notably in the episode where Ann Perkins left Pawnee and the storyline reviewed her many pre-marriage/pregnancy romances but erased Mark from that listing even though they dated for almost all of Season 2. The only remaining references are that the mural mock-up he made hangs in Ron's office through season 6, and a laptop bag he gives to Ann Perkins appears as a prop through season 5.\nCraig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) is the former office manager of Eagleton's parks department, the equivalent of Donna's position in Pawnee. In the episode \"Doppelgangers\", he and other Eagleton employees were brought in to Pawnee's offices after the Pawnee–Eagleton city merger. Craig is the one former Eagleton Parks employee not laid off after the merger, and continues to work at the Pawnee offices under the title of \"Associate Administrator\". By 2017, he has replaced Ron Swanson as director of the Pawnee Parks department.\nCraig at first seemed to be the polar opposite to Donna's more laid-back personality (with layoffs imminent, Donna actually suggested to Leslie that Craig should have her job because he was much more passionate). The two of them bonded over their mutual love of the TV series \"Scandal\".\nThe overdramatic Craig often raises his voice to the point of shouting, and frequently blows things out of proportion, although he proves to be a highly efficient employee who is familiar with city politics and a strong negotiator.\nAfter recurring heavily during the show's sixth season, Eichner was promoted to a main cast member in the seventh season, beginning with the fourth episode \"Leslie and Ron\".\nDave Sanderson (Louis C.K.) is a former boyfriend of Leslie Knope and ex-police sergeant in Pawnee. Socially awkward, Dave always speaks in an extremely deadpan and technical tone of voice, but has a sweet personality despite his serious and sometimes gruff exterior, with one Pawnee cop telling Leslie that Dave had been the crankiest member of the force until he met her. He first appears in \"The Stakeout\", where he arrested Tom after finding him suspiciously lingering in a parked van. Leslie angrily demanded that Dave set Tom free, and Dave immediately found Leslie attractive. He asked her on a date in \"Beauty Pageant\" and she accepted, although she initially hesitated when Dave failed to recognize photos of major female political figures hanging in Leslie's office. Nervous about the upcoming first date, Leslie became drunk in \"Practice Date\" and visited Dave's house in the middle of the night, acting foolish until Dave brought her home. Leslie was humiliated, but Dave comforted her the next day and they continued dating. In \"Greg Pikitis\", Dave helped Leslie monitor her nemesis, high school student Greg Pikitis, on Halloween night and ultimately helped catch him in the middle of committing a prank. Dave made what seemed to be his final appearance in \"Christmas Scandal\", when he told Leslie he is in the United States Army Reserve and has been called for maintenance work in San Diego. He invited Leslie to move there with him, but she insisted she could not leave her home of Pawnee, so they amicably split up. In \"Dave Returns\", Dave comes back to Pawnee for the retirement party of the current police chief. On a whim, Leslie invites Dave out to dinner with her and Ben and while Ben is in the bathroom, Dave reveals to Leslie that he still has feelings for her. He then handcuffed Ben in the bathroom, but Ben had access to his cell phone and called Leslie, who then sat down for a friendly but firm chat with Dave where she said she was in love with Ben. Dave apologized for his behavior and accepted the situation, being glad to know that Leslie is happy. At the end of the episode, he finally convinced Ben to use the bathroom (Ben has a fear of cops) in the form of a command, which Ben gratefully accepts.\nDerek (Blake Lee) is April Ludgate's openly gay ex-boyfriend, who himself had a gay boyfriend named Ben (Josh Duvendeck) while dating her. Like April, both Derek and Ben are cynical and sarcastic, often mocking others around them. The two first appear together in \"Pawnee Zoo\", where they and April congratulate Leslie for organizing a publicity stunt that married two homosexual penguins at the local zoo. In \"Sweetums\", they begin to notice April is spending more time with Andy Dwyer, and they mock his personality, upsetting and embarrassing April. In \"Galentine's Day\", Derek and Ben attend a senior citizen dance party, where they mock the seniors. Tired of their constantly sarcastic behavior, and growing more romantically interested in Andy, April breaks up with them. Derek and Ben reappear again, in the episode \"Andy and April's Fancy Party\", making brief cameos as flower-men at Andy's and April's wedding.\nDr. Harris (Cooper Thornton) is a doctor who works at the hospital with Ann Perkins. He has an extremely sarcastic personality and responds to everything in a deadpan manner. He first appeared in the first season finale \"Rock Show\", where he tended to Andy Dwyer, who broke his legs falling into a construction pit. He appeared again in \"Greg Pikitis\", where he attended Ann's Halloween party dressed as a doctor. When the party proves boring, Dr. Harris left early and took the bottle of wine he brought to Ann's party because no one drank it. Dr. Harris tended to Andy again in \"Freddy Spaghetti\", after Andy was struck by a car while riding his motorcycle. When Andy asked whether Dr. Harris can have him fully healed in the next 10 minutes, the doctor sarcastically responded, \"Sure, I'll just advance medical science 30 years.\" He also appeared in the third season finale \"Li'l Sebastian\", where he treated Chris Traeger for a case of tendinitis. Chris responded to Dr. Harris' sarcasm by declaring him \"literally the meanest person I have ever met.\"\nJean-Ralphio Saperstein (Ben Schwartz) is the idiotic and cocky friend of Tom Haverford who, like Tom himself, fancies himself a pickup artist and baller, although he is looked upon with contempt by most people around him except Tom. He tries to dress stylishly, makes up and raps spontaneous rhymes and often speaks in slang terms such as variations of the suffix -izzle as popularized by rapper Snoop Dogg. Jean-Ralphio is first introduced in \"The Set Up\", when Tom brought him in for an interview to be Ron Swanson's new assistant; he was quickly rejected. Jean-Ralphio contributed $5,000 when Tom was seeking a $10,000 investment in the Snakehole Lounge nightclub. In the third season finale, \"Li'l Sebastian\", Tom quit his city hall job to form an entertainment company with Jean-Ralphio called Entertainment 720. The role of Jean-Ralphio was created specifically for Schwartz because the \"Parks and Recreation\" producers liked the actor so much.\nJustin Anderson (Justin Theroux) is a lawyer and long-time friend of Ann who briefly dated Leslie. He is very charming, regularly travels around the world and has done many extravagant things, such as mountain climbing. He loves telling entertaining stories, and sometimes seems less interested in the people around him than he is in listening to and learning new stories. Justin and Ann never dated, but she seems to secretly harbor romantic feelings for him, something that caused difficulties between Ann and Andy when they were dating. Justin first appears in \"The Set Up\", when he provided legal advice to the Parks and Recreation department, and Leslie developed a romantic interest in him. She asks Ann to set them up, but she hesitated to do so, prompting Mark to accuse her of still having feelings for Justin. Ann finally sets up a date, and the two start dating regularly. Impressed by Justin's worldliness, Leslie was so determined to impress him with a house party that, in \"Leslie's House\", she abused her government power by recruiting town employees to provide entertainment. Justin made his final appearance in \"Galentine's Day\", when Justin and Leslie tried to find Frank Beckerson, the long-lost love of Leslie's mother Marlene, and reunite the two. Upon finding him, Leslie quickly realized Frank is too strange and tried to call the plan off, but Justin insisted on going through with it. After the evening ends disastrously, Ron points out to Leslie that Justin is a selfish person who only cares about getting more stories, so she breaks up with him. Tom, who strongly admired Justin's hipness and idolized him, became extremely disappointed by the break-up and reacted like a child whose parents are divorcing.\nLi'l Sebastian is a miniature horse, who debuted at the Pawnee Harvest Festival in 1987, as an instant sensation. That week he was the eighth most photographed item in the United States. He also received an honorary degree from Notre Dame. Leslie brings him back for the Harvest Festival in season three, although he was much older and had many ailments, including cataracts, diabetes, and arthritis. His return brought excitement and joy to all of Pawnee, except for Ben, who didn't understand what made him so special. In the season three finale, Li'l Sebastian dies, and everyone is devastated. Leslie used Tom's company, Entertainment 720, to give Li'l Sebastian a funeral. Andy then writes the song \"5000 Candles in the Wind\" to honor Li'l Sebastian.\nProfessor Linda Lonegan (Danielle Bisutti) was Andy's Women's Studies professor. She first appeared in Smallest Park, where she made an quite an impression on Andy, April, and particularly Ron. Ron even stated \"If that woman wasn't so violently opposed to marriage, I'd propose to her\". When Andy finished the course, Linda went to dinner with them to celebrate, where April tried to set her up with Chris. Although Linda seemed to have a connection with Chris, she went home with Ron, revealing her attraction to him, for the entire night.\nLucy (Natalie Morales) is a bartender at the Snakehole Lounge and the eventual wife of Tom Haverford. Lucy meets Tom in \"The Master Plan\" after he came to the bar to settle his tab from the night before, when he unsuccessfully attempted to pick up several girls by buying drinks for them. Rather than try to pick up Lucy like the other girls, he simply acts like himself, and the two end up hitting it off and started dating. Lucy is intelligent and funny, and she freely accepts Tom's immature and sometimes inappropriate personality. She jokingly claimed to be attracted to Tom because, \"You're cute and you're small enough for me to throw you around.\" However, it eventually became clear to Lucy that Tom was not over his ex-wife Wendy, particularly due to how upset he got when Ron Swanson starts dating her. In \"Time Capsule\", Lucy broke up with Tom, but told him he should call her if he ever gets over Wendy. In \"End of the World,\" Lucy attends Tom's \"best party of all time,\" the two have a good time, and she kisses Tom the next morning, hinting at the possibility of their relationship starting up again. Tom and Lucy rekindle their relationship in Season 7, and Tom proposes to Lucy, which she accepts, in \"Two Funerals\".\nApril Ludgate's parents, Larry (John Ellison Conlee) and Rita (Terri Hoyos) are, in contrast to April's sarcastic and apathetic personality, extremely enthusiastic and positive people, who affectionally call their daughter Zuzu. Rita is from Puerto Rico, which April sardonically claims is what makes herself so \"lively and colorful\"; otherwise, however, Larry and Rita represent the archetypical Midwesterner couple. Their other daughter and April's younger sister, Natalie (Minni Jo Mazzola), is much more like April in personality: she is sullen, dismissive of others and seemingly uninterested in everything around her. The Ludgate family is first introduced in \"94 Meetings\", when Ron met them after coming to the Ludgate home to speak with April. Larry and Rita were extremely pleased to meet him, and April revealed Rita is a big fan of Ron's secret jazz saxophonist alter ego, Duke Silver. The family also attended April and Andy's surprise wedding ceremony in \"Andy and April's Fancy Party\", where they voiced their approval of the marriage. Natalie gave an unsentimental and indifferent speech about her sister during the reception, calling April \"lame\", but Andy \"sort of cool\", but the speech was still enough to reduce an emotional April to tears, leading to her hugging Natalie.\nMarlene Griggs-Knope (Pamela Reed) is Leslie's mother and a major political figure in Pawnee's school system. She is a shrewd and cunning politician who is willing to resort to unethical tactics to get her way. Although Leslie has very different standards, she nevertheless sees Marlene as a source of inspiration, and is extremely eager to impress her mother. Marlene has low expectations for her daughter's ability to succeed, but is ultimately supportive of her, as indicated in \"Canvassing\" when Marlene attended Leslie's public forum in support of her despite privately predicting it would be a \"train wreck\". In \"The Banquet\", Marlene encouraged Leslie to use scandalous information to blackmail a Pawnee zoning official into supporting Leslie's park project. In \"The Bubble\", Leslie secretly prepared her boyfriend Ben for a meeting with Marlene with the hopes her mother would be impressed with him. The plan backfired, however, when Marlene became attracted to Ben and made a pass at him.\nMona-Lisa Saperstein (Jenny Slate) is the crazy, outgoing twin sister of Jean-Ralphio Saperstein, described by him as \"a klepto, and a nympho, and a pyro\". She is also the former girlfriend of Tom Haverford. She is partly responsible for the opening of her father's, Dr.Saperstein's, store which eventually runs Tom Haverford's Rent-a-Swag store out of business. She first appeared in season 5 and continued to appear in the final two seasons (particularly Season 6) as an unreformed lunatic who frightened/terrorized anyone in her path. When she appears in Season 7 her father offers an embarrassed explanation for her insanity by telling Ben and April one word: \"pills.\"\nDr. Saperstein (Henry Winkler), the father of Jean-Ralphio and Mona-Lisa, is a gynecologist in Pawnee who invests in several area businesses. Though he openly admits his two children are ne'er-do-well leeches, he loves them unconditionally anyway. After Tom and Mona-Lisa break up, Dr. Saperstein opens a store similar to Tom's Rent-a-Swag directly across the street for the express purpose of ruining Tom and forcing him to sell his store cheaply. He later relents a bit and offers Tom a deal that will let him break even as well as get a small portion of \"Tommy's Closet\" revenues going forward, which Tom glumly accepts. He is also the doctor whom Ann and Chris go to while the former is pregnant. In the season six finale, he shows up to the opening of Tom's Bistro (Tom is aghast to see him, but Mona-Lisa cluelessly followed up on Tom's request to bring in big names) and is happy when it appears the restaurant is going to flop. However, he later states the food is incredible and asks Tom if he can be a minority investor, to which Tom coolly replies that he will give Dr. Saperstein's offer some time and thought.\nOrin (Eric Isenhower) is the creepy and intense friend of April Ludgate. He seldom speaks and often stares at people and makes them feel awkward. He first appeared in \"April and Andy's Fancy Party\", where he made Ben feel uncomfortable; at one point Ben said to him, \"No, Orin, I don't know how I'm going to die. Wait, are you asking me or telling me?\" At that same party, Orin spoke to Chris, but Chris was so positive he overwhelmed Orin. Orin reappeared in an art show at \"Jerry's Painting\", where he stood silently and motionlessly next to his exhibition: a completely blank canvas. Orin was originally mentioned in a throw-away joke in \"Time Capsule\", but \"Parks and Recreation\" screenwriter Katie Dippold liked the idea of the character so much she worked him into her script for \"Andy and April's Fancy Party\". When Leslie had everyone bring a potential date for single Ann Perkins to a Valentine's Day dance, April (who doesn't like Ann) brought Orin; Leslie proceeded to insult Orin and then told him she meant every word of it, before lambasting April for bringing someone that unpleasant and unlikable to a romantic dance. This marked the first time someone on the show directly let Orin know they didn't like him. When he applied for the job of Animal Control director in Season 5, his resume contained one word: his name, in regular font. Leslie told him to go away, and after April asked him what qualified him to work in animal control, and he responded, \"I studied zoology in college. And I can control animals with my mind\", to which Leslie curtly says he will not be hired and repeats that he needs to get lost, which he does. He appeared briefly in Season 6 twice, in the episode \"Ann and Chris\" dressed up as the Easter Bunny at Ann and Chris's going away party and in the episode \"Prom\" pretending to be April's mom when Andy picked her up to go to the senior prom.\nTammy Swanson (Patricia Clarkson) is the first ex-wife of Ron Swanson. Ron has been married to two different women, both named Tammy, and he hates and fears both of them. Ron explains that Tammy had been present throughout most of his young life: she delivered him as a baby, was his teacher, and she even took his virginity. Tammy returns as an IRS agent who arrives at the end of the third season (although she is not shown to the audience until the fourth season premiere) to audit Ron. Both Ron and his second wife named Tammy panic at the news of her arrival, and Ron attempts to flee before deciding to return to face her. Leslie then enlists Ron's eccentric mother (also named Tammy) in a drinking contest to drive Tammy I away once and for all. Since Tammy I's claim she was auditing Ron was a lie designed to let her search for his hidden gold, she ends up leaving with nothing, as Ron had deliberately put a tiny amount of gold out as a decoy, and was happy to sacrifice it in order to get rid of Tammy I.\nTammy Swanson (Megan Mullally) is the second ex-wife of Ron Swanson; Ron has been married to two women named Tammy, and he hates both of them. Tammy is a manipulative woman who uses sex as a weapon, and she constantly tries to make Ron miserable. However, the two maintain a strong sexual attraction to each other. Tammy is director of the Pawnee Library, which is widely considered a horrible place by Leslie Knope and the parks department employees. Tammy is introduced in \"Ron and Tammy\", when she approached Leslie in a friendly way under the guise that she wants to talk to Ron and work out her differences with him. Secretly, she was scheming for Ron to give her a lot Leslie wanted to turn into a park, so she can instead turn it into a library branch. Once she and Ron reconnected, the two fight loudly, but quickly began having sex and briefly reunited. Ron eventually realized he was being manipulated and, with Leslie's help, resisted Tammy's efforts. Tammy returns in \"\", where she went on a date with Tom to make Ron jealous. Tammy and Ron ended up having a night of drunken sex and mayhem, which ended with the two of them getting remarried. However, when Tom tried to intervene and Tammy brutally beat him up, Ron remembered how horrible Tammy was and ended their marriage again. Tammy briefly appeared in the third season finale, \"Li'l Sebastian\", where she and Ron learned together that Ron's first wife, \"Tammy I\", had arrived in town, which made Tammy flee in terror. In Season 5, Tammy turned up during \"Ron and Diane\" with plans to seduce Ron at the woodworking show where he was getting an award, leading to much pain for Leslie when she painfully made sure Tammy never got near Ron (Diane was wrongly more worried about Leslie's friendship with Ron than Tammy's behavior, and Tammy ended up locking Leslie in the trunk of her own car and taking off in it), but in the end it all worked out: Diane was aware Tammy was psychotic and said if the cops let her go she would happily pummel her, and Ron pressed charges against his criminal ex.\nMullally is the real-life wife of Nick Offerman, who plays Ron. Michael Schur conceived the idea for \"Ron and Tammy\", and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character. Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea. Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on-screen fights, as well as their unusual kissing and sexual encounters. During one scene in \"Ron and Tammy\", where the two characters run into a motel to have sex, Mullally removed her top and threw it into the air. Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it. Mullally's performance was well received by viewers, which made the \"Parks and Recreation\" producers feel more comfortable about using celebrity guest actors in later episodes.\nTamara \"Tammy\" Swanson (Paula Pell) is Ron's mother. She shares many personality traits with her son, and seems more than aware of the effect his ex-wives have on him. She first appeared in the episode \"Ron & Tammys\". She lives on the farm Ron grew up on, and has an entire room devoted to guns.\nWendy Haverford (Jama Williamson) started the season as the wife of Tom Haverford, although it is later revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in a divorce. Wendy came to Pawnee from Ottawa, Canada and married Tom so she could remain in the country. Introduced in the first season finale \"Rock Band\", Wendy is an attractive, outgoing and wealthy pediatric surgeon, and the other characters are surprised she is married to Tom, who often brags about her attractiveness. Although Tom outwardly claims he is fine with the divorce, he secretly harbors romantic feelings for Wendy and wishes for the marriage to continue. When the parks department employees hold a contest in \"Practice Date\" about who can find out the biggest secret about the others, Ron learns about the green card marriage, but he keeps it a secret at Tom's request.\nThe divorce proceedings begin in \"Tom's Divorce\", and Tom continued to pretend he is alright with the arrangement. However, when Ron asked Tom whether he could ask Wendy out after the divorce, Tom was secretly heartbroken, despite giving Ron his blessing. In \"Galentine's Day\", Tom admitted to Wendy his true feelings for her, but she rejected him, prompting an angry Tom to sue her for alimony in an attempt to blackmail her into going out with him. This effort was short-lived, however, and Tom eventually apologized and the two parted on good terms. A horrified Tom learned in the second season finale, \"Freddy Spaghetti\", that Wendy and Ron are indeed dating. Although the pairing caused tension between Ron and Tom, Ron proved so happy in his relationship with Wendy that it allowed him to resist the temptations of his horrible ex-wife Tammy. In \"Ron & Tammy: Part Two\", Ron and Wendy broke up after she decided to move back to Canada to take care of her ailing parents.\nDiane Elizabeth Lewis (Lucy Lawless) was introduced in the third episode of Season 5, \"How a Bill Becomes a Law\". She is a junior high school vice principal and a single mother of two young girls, Ivy (Sadie Salizar) and Zoey (Rylan Lee). Ron Swanson meets her when he goes to fix a pothole in front of her house (since the Department of Public Works had been ignoring her complaints, Ron decided to simply take the matter into his own hands). Diane is far from Ron's usual \"type\". She's not named \"Tammy\" and she has two small girls. Ron is not good with children, or more specifically, with little girls (Ron had previously taken teenage and pre-teen boys camping to teach them survival skills, and also coached a basketball team). After he fixes the pothole, Diane's girls put makeup on Ron and Andy's faces (Ron had taken Andy with him to help fix the pothole), and have a little girl's tea party with them, which Ron tolerates surprisingly well. Ron really likes Diane and in episode 5 of season 5 (\"Halloween Surprise\") begins a dating relationship with her, deciding that dealing with a single mother and her girls might help him to expand his life experience. Diane, in return, in the episode \"Ron and Diane\", shows an impressive level of patience and understanding at Tammy II's psychotic attempts to ruin her relationship with Ron. In a private conversation with Leslie, Diane admits that she feels more threatened by Leslie than by Tammy II, as she feels that Leslie knows Ron in a way that she never can. When she confesses this fear to Ron, he assures her that, while Leslie is a loyal friend and colleague, he could never have any romantic feelings towards her. Then, to prove his commitment to Diane, he reveals to her his Duke Silver identity (a night club saxophone player, something even Leslie didn't know), and he plays Diane a song, naming her as his \"duchess\". In the same episode, Leslie decides that Diane is a good guardian of Ron's well-being and a shield against the disruptive antics of Tammy II. Later, during the episode \"Women in Garbage\", Ron is babysitting her daughters in the office with Ann, and accidentally allows them to lock themselves in his office with the contents of Ann's medical bag. The girls cut each other's hair before Ron and Ann can stop them, which destroys their hairstyles. Ron and Ann are horrified by this, and when Ron considers Diane's potential reaction, he blurts out to Ann that he has fallen in love with Diane (a statement he immediately tries to take back). Diane, however, is understanding of the accident, saying that it was just kids being kids. She tells him that she is touched by how much he cared, and that she loves him. Ron sheepishly admits that he loves her as well. It is implied at the end of the fifth season that Diane may be pregnant. In the beginning of the first episode of the sixth season, Diane confirms her pregnancy and Ron proposes marriage to which she accepts under one condition: that the wedding is as plain as possible. With that in mind, the two head up to the fourth floor with Leslie and April in tow. Leslie is asked to be the matron of honour and April appoints herself as Ron's 'Best Man'. The two are married in an extremely fast paced wedding filmed on April's phone and with highlighter pens acting as a bouquet. Later on in the episode where Leslie, Ron, April and Andy are in London, it is revealed that Diane suggested tagging along to make the trip hers and Ron's honeymoon, however her morning sickness meant she couldn't go and Ron had to take plenty of photos for her. Ron and Diane's baby, John Swanson, is born later in the season.\nAlthough Diane does not appear in Season 7, she is frequently mentioned as still being married to Ron.\nGayle Gergich (Christie Brinkley) is Jerry's inexplicably gorgeous wife, as well as the mother of Millicent, Miriam, and Gladys. Gayle has a solid and overly-affectionate relationship with Jerry, puzzling to his coworkers. She is referenced until she makes an appearance in \"Ron and Diane\". She also appears again in \"Jerry's Retirement.\"\nMillicent \"Millie\" Gergich (Sarah Wright) is the gorgeous daughter of Gayle and Jerry. She was introduced in season 4 as Chris's love interest. In \"Bowling for Votes\", Chris mentions his plans to move in with Millicent, but she breaks up with him off screen that same episode. In \"Ron and Diane\" it's revealed that Millicent is engaged to a rafting instructor named Carl. She makes another appearance in \"Jerry's Retirement.\"\nGladys Gergich (Katie Gill) is one of Gayle and Jerry's other daughters. She first appears in \"Ron and Diane\", singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and sister, Miriam. She also appears again in \"Jerry's Retirement.\"\nMiriam Gergich (Maliabeth Johnson) is one of Gayle and Jerry's other daughters. She first appears in \"Ron and Diane\", singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and Gladys. She also appears again in \"Jerry's retirement.\"\nNorman \"Typhoon\" Montalban (Rodney To) is a hairdresser in Pawnee who marries Craig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) in the flash forwards of the season finale. Typhoon was introduced in the 5th episode of Season 6 as Donna's hairdresser after she recommends him to Ron, following the passing of Ron's former regular barber. Ron is at first reluctant to take on a new stylist, but bonds with Typhoon over their shared hatred of Europe and bicycles. He appears again in the 7th episode of Season 7 as Donna's stylist for her wedding, and again in the final episode when he marries Craig. Ron is shown to be the best man at their wedding.\nBill Dexhart (Kevin Symons) is a Pawnee councilman who regularly participates in outrageous sex scandals with multiple partners. His character was inspired by South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford and his 2009 scandal, in which he admitted to a long-time extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman. Dexhart first appeared in \"Practice Date\", when he publicly admitted to having participated in a foursome in a Brazil cave under the guise of building houses for the underprivileged. Dexhart was featured prominently in \"Christmas Scandal\", which began with Leslie portraying him in a satirical holiday skit in which he discussed his an affair with multiple women that resulted in a love child. Unbeknownst to Leslie, Dexhart turned out to be involved in a sexual arrangement very similar to that one: four-way sex in a hospital room where he has just overseen the birth of his love child. When he confronted her about it, members of the media took pictures of Leslie and Dexhart together and speculated that the two of them were having an affair. Dexhart refused to deny the allegations, and even went so far as to confirm them, because the fictional affair was less scandalous than his actual sexual discretions. As proof of the affair, he claimed Leslie had a mole on her right buttock, but she publicly proved him wrong by dropping her pants on live television and revealing there is no mole. In Season 5 he was something of a swing vote for Leslie on the City Council because he was less likely to fully support her than Howser, but also less likely to thoughtlessly oppose her than either Milton or Jamm. That has changed during the recall campaign against Leslie in Season 6, as Dexhart has cheerfully joined Jamm in blocking any initiatives by her and making it clear they both hope she is booted from office. In the episode \"Second Chunce\", Dexhart publicly confesses to \"texting, sexting and Tex-Mexting\" approximately one hundred women under a series of implausible pseudonyms, parodying the Anthony Weiner sexting scandals. In fact, \"Anthony Weiner\" is the last in the list of pseudonyms Dexhart reads out at a press conference. Leslie briefly considers running for his seat after being impeached, but is dissuaded by Jennifer Barkley.\nThe district that Dexhart is in charge of is a run-down, crime-ridden part of town that he had promised to clean up, but his only action has been to rename it Beach View Terrace.\nCarl Lorthner (Andy Samberg) is a park ranger and the head of outdoor security for Pawnee. He constantly talks extremely loudly, speaking at screaming levels even when asked to talk quietly, and works as a ranger because he cannot hold down a job that involves working indoors due to his inability to control the volume of his voice. Carl appeared in \"Park Safety\", in which Jerry claimed to be mugged in Ramsett Park, which fell under Carl's territory. Leslie launched efforts to make the parks safer and had Carl take them on a tour of the area; he showed Leslie, Tom and Jerry around on a mobile cart that had been attacked and urinated upon by raccoons. Carl eventually discovered that Jerry was not mugged at all, but accidentally fell into a creek by himself. Angry that Leslie blamed Carl's security measures for the mugging, he threatened to reveal the truth on Joan Callamezzo's morning news show, \"Pawnee Today\". Leslie convinced him not to do so at the last minute, and they instead angered Callamezzo by discussing the 2009 film \"Avatar\" and whether it lived up to its hype.\nGeorge Williams (Biff Yeager) works in the Public Works Department, first seen in the season three episode Jerry's Painting, although he was referred to as \"Lenny\". In Li'l Sebastian, he worked as a maintenance worker for Li'l Sebastian's funeral, as witnessed Ben and Leslie kissing. To keep him from revealing their secret, Ben and Leslie give him a $50 spa gift certificate. He reappears in The Trial of Leslie Knope, where it is revealed he is a NASCAR enthusiast. He testifies against Leslie and provides the key evidence against her.\nCouncilman Howser (Yvans Jourdain) is a Pawnee councilman who repeatedly encounters Leslie in embarrassing or awkward situations around city hall, during which time Leslie nevertheless tries to discuss politics with him. For example, in \"94 Meetings\", Leslie ran into Councilman Howser in the men's bathroom, which she entered while following Ron Swanson and trying to discuss something with him. Afterward, Leslie awkwardly blurted to Howser, \"Councilman Howser. I saw your penis.\" That being said, he is depicted as by far the most rational Council member and has consistently supported her proposals and plans since she was elected. In \"Filibuster\" he can be seen as visibly pleased that Leslie had successfully filibustered Jamm's attempt to block former Eagletonians's right to vote.\nHugh Trumple (Eric Pierpoint) is chief of the Pawnee police department. He has a very serious and gruff personality, and speaks in a dry, monotonic manner. Trumple has great respect for Leslie Knope because of her passion for helping those around her. Chief Trumple first appeared in \"Ron & Tammy: Part Two\", when Ron Swanson gets arrested for a night of debauchery with his ex-wife Tammy. The chief agreed to Leslie's request that he release him to Leslie's custody. Ben feared Leslie cashing in this favor meant the chief would not agree to provide security for the upcoming harvest festival, but Chief Trumple agreed to do so anyway out of his respect for Leslie, telling Ben he will always do favors for Leslie because she is the kind of person who uses those favors to help people. The chief reappeared in the episode \"Eagleton\", where he arrested Leslie when she refused to apologize after getting in a fight with Lindsay Carlisle Shay, her rival from the neighboring city of Eagleton. Trumple retired as police chief in Season 4.\nAn orthodontist by day, Jamm (Jon Glaser) is a member of the Pawnee City Council, and has made himself Leslie's major nemesis. He also appears to have a grudge against the entire Parks Department, angry over the fact that Leslie ruined his Paunch Burger plan. Tom shoved him into a swimming pool, Ann refused to sleep with him, and Ron punched him in the mouth. After fighting with Leslie over the use of her private bathroom for her office, he becomes a continual thorn in Leslie's side for any proposal she makes. His catch phrase, \"you just got Jammed,\" is used whenever he one-ups Leslie or any other adversary. He failed to turn Lot 48 into a new Paunch Burger restaurant when Leslie won over the city planning committee and got the Pawnee Commons park project approved, leading to him getting drunk and temporarily ruining Ben and Leslie's impromptu on-site wedding. Afterward, he was punched by Ron Swanson; both of them were thrown in jail but Ron was quickly released while Jamm was left to sober up in his cell, and the wedding took place at City Hall. He then sued Ron and it looked he would win, but Tom, Andy and April threatened a similarly bogus lawsuit that Jamm knew he would lose, so both sides backed off. When Leslie is under political pressure to resign, Jamm complicates Leslie's role on the council by teaming up with councilman Dexhart and voting down any proposal Leslie has, to spite her. When Donna Meagle accidentally sends a sexually suggestive tweet from the department Twitter, Jamm uses this as an opportunity to hold public hearings that put Leslie's ethics into question. After he holds a series of hearings to drag out Leslie's ordeal, Leslie publicly stands up to Jamm and says that she's going to get back to work as a councilwoman and won't attend any more of the hearings. In the season six finale, Jamm is shown at the Pawnee/Eagleton unity concert leading a secession effort.\nJamm reappears in the Season 7 episode \"Ron and Jammy\", where he is revealed to be dating Tammy, Ron's second ex-wife. Leslie and Ron are feuding over the Newport land rights at this time, and Jamm is the swing vote on the issue. Leslie initially sees the relationship as an advantage, since Tammy would influence Jamm to vote against Ron; however, it becomes apparent that being with Tammy is detrimental to Jamm's physical and mental well-being. Leslie and Ron decide to put aside their differences and successfully coach Jamm into breaking up with her. Jamm then abstains from the land rights vote, leaving the issue deadlocked.\nMilton (James Greene) is the longest-serving Pawnee Councilman, having been elected in 1948 as a Dixiecrat largely due to his commitment to de-integrating Major League Baseball, as well as a plan to re-open a former WWII Japanese-American Internment Camp in Pawnee and get it back up to speed. He is generally senile except on matters of racism and sexism, where his memory seems to be intact (he was able to calculate when Leslie Knope's next menstrual period would start during \"Women in Garbage\"), and he has generally—though not always—been on the other side of Leslie's initiatives.\nJoe Fantringham (Kirk Fox), also sometimes called \"Sewage Joe\", works for the Pawnee sewer department, which he calls the \"Toilet Party\". Despite the nature of his department, Joe regularly hires supermodel-like interns. The parks and sewer departments have an ongoing rivalry and Joe regularly mocks them, much to the confusion of Leslie, who does not understand why he considers the sewer department better than parks and recreation. Joe first appeared in \"The Camel\", when the various Pawnee departments competed to design a mural for city hall. Joe was arrogant and bragged to Leslie about his department's chances at success, and his department ultimately designed a good mural, but the contest ended without a winner. In \"Telethon\", Joe made a pass at April. When she rejected him, he insisted he did not care because the sewer department is \"waist deep in hot snizz\", a reference to the sewer department interns. Joe also appeared in \"Soulmates\", where he made a pass at Leslie, prompting her to wonder why only jerks have recently seemed to be attracted to her. When Leslie asked Joe his standards for women, he replied only that they cannot be elderly. Ben Wyatt fired him after Joe sent a cell-phone picture of his penis to everyone in the Pawnee government. Also, Ann noticed from the picture that Joe had the mumps. In Bus Tour, Joe later tried twice to hit Ben in the face with a pie in revenge, failing the first time (at one of Leslie Knope's campaign rallies, where he hit Jerry) before succeeding (at Bobby Newport's mansion) due to inept security from Andy's FBI agent alter-ego 'Bert Macklin' and then getting arrested. He later appears briefly in the fifth season, at the local sperm bank when he tells Ann and Leslie (Who were there because Ann was trying to have a baby) that he and his friends were regular donors.\nKen Hotate (Jonathan Joss) is the leader of Pawnee's local Wamapoke Native American tribe. He also runs a casino in the city. He appeared in \"Harvest Festival\", where he asked Leslie to relocate her festival because it was taking place on the sacred burial grounds of the Battle of Indian Hill, where his ancestors were killed in a seven-day battle. When Leslie insisted there was nowhere she could move the festival without being offensive due to Pawnee's extremely bloody history, Ken threatened to place a curse on the festival. He knew the curse to be fake, but believed it would frighten people enough to ruin the festival, insisting, \"There are two things I know about white people: they love Matchbox Twenty, and they are terrified of curses.\" Ken's efforts proved successful, as the local media learned about the curse and reported on it so extensively that the festival was nearly ruined. Leslie and Ken came to a compromise after Leslie agreed to place a Wamapoke history exhibit by the entrance of the festival, and Ken lifted the fake curse during a phony ceremony, where he said nonsense chants including \"Doobee doobee do\". Although Ken enjoyed giving Leslie some tsuris at this point, later on it is shown he fully respects her; when Leslie desperately plants Wamapoke artifacts on the Lots 42 site after Councilman Jamm and the Pawnee Restaurant Association henchwoman have broken an agreement to leave the site alone until a city meeting, Ken first accepts Leslie's apology and then bluntly threatens reprisals unless the agreement is reinstated, which a cowardly Jamm quickly agrees to do. Jonathan Joss previously voiced John Redcorn in the animated television series \"King of the Hill\", which was co-created by \"Parks and Recreation\" co-creator Greg Daniels.\nKyle (Andy Forrest) is a government employee and regular customer at Andy's shoeshine stand. He is routinely mocked and laughed at, not only by Andy but others at city hall as well, even Jerry Gergich, who himself is usually scorned by his co-workers. For example, in the episode \"Camping\", Kyle told Andy that his identity had been stolen and his bank account frozen, and Andy reacted by laughing hysterically. Andy and April have also stolen money from Kyle's wallet and ejected him from the shoeshine chair (but not before Andy poured Pepto-Bismol on Kyle's shoes). Kyle also appeared in \"Soulmates\", where he was one of the judges in a contest between Chris and Ron to determine whether red or lean meat is better. Kyle complimented the umami taste in one of the burgers, prompting fellow judge Jerry to condemn him for acting pretentious. Ron Swanson also pawned Kyle off on Chris when Chris was trying to be friendly to Ron, with Ron knowing very little about Kyle beyond his first name, and Chris being politely distant to him.\nMayor Gunderson (Bill Murray) is the mayor of Pawnee during most of the show's run. In the final season, set in 2017, Perd Hapley announces Mayor Gunderson's death and an open-casket memorial is held in the city council chambers. In a video Gunderson assigned to be shown at his funeral, he remarks at how little attention he had been paying, and that he would take credit if any needed to be taken. He then points out that if there was any blame, it was the citizens' fault. His last statement is \"Goodbye forever.\" This posthumous appearance by Bill Murray as Gunderson, is the only time he is seen on \"Parks and Recreation\", although he had been mentioned in multiple episodes of the show. He was first mentioned in \"Christmas Scandal\", when the parks and recreation department held a satirical holiday skit full of inside jokes about Pawnee, and April declared, \"That's crazier than Mayor Gunderson's dog, Rufus.\" He is also mentioned in the episode \"Leslie's House,\" when Mark asks everyone if they heard about the incident involving his dog, prompting Ron to say, \"Oh my god, it was a bloodbath.\" Mark later adds that as a result of the incident, someone from animal services would be fired. The mayor and his dog played a major part in the episode \"The Possum\", when Mayor Gunderson's assistant ordered the parks department to capture an opossum that bit Rufus on a Pawnee golf course. Andy, who helps Leslie capture the opossum, said at one point, \"We're acting under direct orders from Mayor Gunderson's dog.\" For the funeral scene in the third season finale \"Li'l Sebastian\", Michael Schur said the writing staff considered killing off Mayor Gunderson, but they instead went with miniature horse Li'l Sebastian because it was decided having an animal die would be more appropriate and less morbid. Having Bill Murray play the mayor was a long-time goal of the cast and crew of the show. Amy Poehler stated she would love Murray to play Mayor Gunderson and, during an appearance on \"Late Night with Jimmy Fallon\", jokingly announced she would pay him $250 if he played the role.\nAfter Gunderson's death, Gerry Gergich was appointed interim mayor of the town.\nPaul Iaresco (Phil Reeves) is the Pawnee city manager, which makes him supervisor of all the departments and staff in city hall. He was first introduced in \"Canvassing\", when he asked Ron to Leslie's plans to convert a construction pit into a park. This inadvertently led to a disastrous public forum, where most attendees forcefully opposed the project. Paul appeared in several other \"Parks and Recreation\" episodes, including \"The Master Plan\", where he announced the pending arrival of state auditors Ben Wyatt and Chris Traeger due to Pawnee's crippling budget problems. In \"Camping\", Paul held a press conference to commend Leslie for her successful relaunch of the city's harvest festival. During the conference, he suffered a massive heart attack and accidentally clutched Leslie's breast as he fell to the ground; one newspaper's story about the incident read, \"Knope Grope is Last Hope!\" Paul took a leave of absence after an octuple bypass, and Chris Traeger took over as interim city manager.\nScott Braddock (H. Jon Benjamin) is a high-strung Pawnee city attorney who becomes extremely nervous about anything that could lead to a lawsuit. He appeared in \"Kaboom\", where Leslie accidentally injured Andy by arranging for a bulldozer to fill in a giant pit, unaware that Andy was inside it. He became hospitalized, and Scott encouraged Leslie not to apologize or admit fault in the incident because it would risk Pawnee getting sued. Scott constantly admonished Leslie when she tries to apologize, at one point shouting, \"No miming!\" when she made a motion indicating how badly she feels. Andy did file a lawsuit with the hopes of winning enough money to impress his ex-girlfriend Ann, but it ended with a settlement that resulted in the pit getting filled in.\nWilliam (Johnny Sneed) and Elizabeth (Antonia Raftu) first approached Leslie in the third season finale, Li'l Sebastian, about Leslie potentially running for city council. After she agrees, in season four, they start working on her campaign, as her advisors. In Citizen Knope, Leslie gives a Christmas ornament with \"Knope 2012\" written on it, to William as a present, and attempts to give Elizabeth a Knope 2012 menorah because she thinks but is not sure Elizabeth is Jewish (she isn't). When Leslie and Ben turn themselves in, and Ben resigns after Leslie's trial, William and Elizabeth inform her that she is polling at 1%, and they will no longer advise her on her campaign. Leslie accuses them of hypocrisy as she believes that they are romantically involved, however Elizabeth bluntly responds \"I'm gay\". William and Elizabeth make their final appearance in The Comeback Kid, as they tell Leslie that they are looking for other potential candidates.\nEthel Beavers (Helen Slayton-Hughes) is an elderly town employee, who continues to work as the municipal stenographer.\nHarris (show writer Harris Wittels) and Brett (Colton Dunn) are the two useless stoner employees of the Animal Control department. They are first seen in the second season episode The Possum; Brett appears in six episodes and Harris in eight. In \"Andy and April's Fancy Party\", Harris and Brett attend the wedding party; despite this, Harris later asks if April is single. In \"Operation Ann\" in the fourth season, Harris is one of the men Leslie and Tom set up with Ann during the Valentine's Day dance. Tom tells her Harris still lives with his parents and has been to at least 200 Phish concerts; Harris informs them he has been to 308.\nIn the season five episode \"Animal Control,\" Chris Traeger fires Brett and Harris after he steps on a coyote trap in the animal control office. Both subsequently reapply for the position and are the only two applicants; by this time they also live together. On his application, Brett lists his love of hamburgers under his qualifications for the job. When April asks why there are so many police outside city hall, the presumably stoned Harris and Brett quickly run off.\nIn the season seven episode \"Pie\", Brett and Harris are revealed to be secretly living in the basement of city hall. Ron, April and Andy ask them the location of the shoeshine stand while searching for a hidden key to Ron's home.\nCrazy Ira (Matt Besser) and Howard \"The Douche\" Tuttleman (Nick Kroll) are two shock jocks of a morning zoo-style Pawnee radio program. They serve primarily as a parody of those types of radio shows, especially in a small-town market like Pawnee. The show prominently features fart jokes and \"your mom\" insults, as well as constant sound effects from their sound man \"China Joe\", who hates his job. Crazy Ira and The Douche are widely admired in Pawnee, especially by Tom Haverford, and are considered much better than their rival radio show, \"Tubby Tony and The Papaya\" (who never appear on-screen). They first appeared on \"Media Blitz\" when, during an interview with Leslie and Tom about the upcoming harvest festival, they revealed their true motive was to lambast Ben for his failed tenure as a city mayor during his teen years. The interview proved disastrous for Ben, who was so socially awkward he could barely talk, and it led to other Pawnee media taking on the story and nearly ruining the harvest festival. The Douche reappeared in \"The Fight\", when he went on a date with Ann to the Snakehole Lounge bar. This came at a time when Ann was regularly going on a string of dates with random, underachieving men, and the date with The Douche led to a major argument between Ann and Leslie because Ann was supposed to be preparing for a job interview Leslie had arranged for her. Later, on his radio show, The Douche dismissed both Ann and Leslie as likely lesbians.\nBefore his appearance as Crazy Ira, Matt Besser was a comedian with the \"Upright Citizens Brigade\", a sketch comedy show and troupe which also featured \"Parks and Recreation\" star Amy Poehler.\nDuring the last seasons of Parks and Recreation, Nick Kroll was dating Amy Poehler (Leslie Knope) in real life and she also starred in his show, \"Kroll Show\"\nDerry Murbles (Dan Castellaneta) and August Clementine (John Hodgman) are the hosts of the public radio talk show \"Thought for your Thoughts.\" The show is known for its particularly boring content and terrible song selections. August Clementine joined the show after the Pawnee-Eagleton merger.\nJoan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) is the hostess of \"Pawnee Today\", a local news magazine/talk show that combines elements of NBC's \"Today\" show and news shows like \"Nancy Grace\". She often serves as a parody of the media in her tendency to turn small matters into big stories and her desire to find the most negative possible aspects of any given story. Joan refers to herself as a \"legendary newswoman\" and is more intimidating than other members of the Pawnee media, as Leslie declares that she \"runs this town\". However, Leslie also has a tendency of taking over Joan's show when she appears on it and discussing whatever she wants. In \"Christmas Scandal\", Leslie appeared on \"Pawnee Today\" to refute accusations that she was having an affair with Councilman Bill Dexhart. When Dexhart himself appeared on the show and offered proof of the affair by claiming Leslie has a mole on her buttock, Leslie pulled her pants down on the show to prove him wrong. Upon realizing Leslie has no mole, Joan called Dexhart's lies about Leslie \"No mole-gate\", named after the Watergate scandal. In \"Media Blitz\", Leslie and Ben appeared on \"Pawnee Today\" to combat rumors that he was going to bankrupt the town due to his past as a failed teen mayor. Ben was bombarded with angry callers and labeled a \"human disaster\" on the show's subtitles. Joan reappeared in \"Harvest Festival\", where she was determined to find a problem with the festival Leslie organized. Initially disappointed to find no problems, she eventually learned about a supposed Indian curse placed upon the harvest festival by a local Pawnee tribe, which she turned into a major scandalous story. In later episodes, Joan has gone through an ugly divorce and become an alcoholic; when Ron Swanson appears on her show, she has just returned from a \"singles cruise\" and simply passes out during their taping, leading Ron to take over as host and do such a great job that the on-camera graphics show the episode as \"You're on With Ron\".\nCollins was originally expected to appear only in one \"Parks and Recreation\" episode, but returned for subsequent episodes because the writing staff enjoyed her performance.\nPerderick L. \"Perd\" Hapley (Jay Jackson) is a Pawnee television journalist and host of the television news programs \"Ya Heard? With Perd!\" and \"The Final Word With Perd\". He also hosts a news segment called \"Are You There Perd-verts? It's Me Perd, Hosting a New Segment\". He often speaks in awkward tautologies such as \"One more shocking revelation in a story that won't stop unfolding\", \"The statement this reporter has is a question\", and \"Also joining us today is a different person\". Like other reporters on \"Parks and Recreation\", Perd often serves as a parody of the pack mentality of the media and their tendency to generate scandals. Perd reported on the sex scandal involving Councilman Bill Dexhart in \"Practice Date\", the rumors of Leslie's sexual affair with Dexhart in \"Christmas Scandal\", and the supposed Indian curse on the harvest festival in \"Harvest Festival\". He also appears in \"Telethon\" as a guest of Leslie's 24-hour telethon, where he performed the dance move the worm to \"Axel F\". In \"Media Blitz\", Ben Wyatt appeared on Perd Hapley's show amid a media controversy about Ben's failed tenure as a child mayor. Although Perd only asked simple questions, the nervous Ben had a complete meltdown, which ended with him angrily referring to Perd Hapley as \"Turd Crapley\". Perd interviewed Leslie and porn star Brandi Maxxxx in \"Jerry's Painting\" to discuss whether a painting featuring Leslie nude can be considered art. In his younger days on Pawnee TV, Perd was a film critic who famously gave only 1 and 1/2 stars because \"it's a good story, but it's just not believable\". In the final season, he is shown dressed as a judge and hosting a TV show called \"The Perdples Court\", while onscreen subtitles remind viewers that Perd is \"not a real judge\".\nJackson was originally expected to appear only in one \"Parks and Recreation\" episode, during which his character was seen only on a television screen. He returned for subsequent episodes, however, because the writing staff enjoyed his performance and liked writing jokes for him.\nShauna Malwae-Tweep (Alison Becker) is a reporter with the local newspaper, \"The Pawnee Journal\". Shauna meets Leslie Knope in \"The Reporter\", when she was assigned to write a story about the parks department's efforts to turn a construction pit into a park. When the interviews went badly, Leslie asked Mark Brendanawicz for help dealing with Shauna, and Mark ended up sleeping with her. Mark told Shauna he does not believe the park will ever be built. Later, Shauna agreed not to publish the story since she and Mark are in a relationship and it would be a conflict. When Mark says he cannot commit to a relationship, however, she goes ahead with the story. Shauna returned in \"The Possum\", where she interviewed Andy Dwyer for a story about his successful capture of an opossum that had bitten Mayor Gunderson's dog. During that interview, Andy made Shauna feel awkward by openly discussing her having previously slept with Mark. During scenes cut from the episode \"The Master Plan\", Shauna and Andy flirted with each other, but he ultimately rejected her due to his feelings for April, prompting her to declare, \"I can't even land the shoeshine guy.\" Michael Schur said of the character, \"She's just unlucky in love.\" Shauna also appears in \"Time Capsule\", where she initially started writing a story about Leslie's plans for a Pawnee time capsule. However, after Kelly Larson handcuffed himself to a pipe when she did not include the \"Twilight\" novel in the capsule, Shauna wrote that story instead, with the headline, \"Parks Department Foiled by Pipe Dreams\". Shauna also appeared in \"Media Blitz\" as one of the many reporters who wrote about Ben Wyatt's past as a failed teen mayor. In season 5, she briefly dates Chris Traeger.\nShauna is increasingly shown throughout the show to have a particularly messy personal life. The season six episode \"Galentine's Day\" revealed that she had recently ended a relationship with a married man, and that she found out in college that her family was actually her father's secret second family. In the extended edition of the show's final episode, Leslie reassures Shauna that one day she will find happiness. In a flash-forward, Shauna is shown to have been left at the altar in 2018, crying on a park bench. Bobby Newport walks by and consoles her, and five hours later the two are happily married. Shauna is the only non-main character to appear in every season.\nKim (Jamie Denbo) is an obnoxious, untalented tabloid reporter working at the local rag \"Pawnee Sun\" who made her only appearance to date in Season 5's \"Correspondents Lunch\". Leslie was eager to perform a great skit at the event, but Kim (whose paper has been suspiciously capable of finding and printing embarrassing information about Leslie) ends up delivering all of Leslie's jokes. Unfortunately for Kim, Leslie and Donna find proof that Kim has illegally hacked into Leslie's e-mails, when Leslie sends a bait message about \"midichlorians\" in the soil near the Pawnee Commons project. Kim asks a question about the \"news\" only to have Leslie bluntly tell her that the substance in question is from \"\" and she's just revealed that she's broken the law. Kim tries to act dismissive, but gets scared out of the room by Donna.\nBarney Varmn (John Balma) is an accountant who first appeared in the season 2 episode \"Leslie's House\" where he gives a presentation to Leslie to try and save an accounting class he teaches at the William Percy Recreation Center. He works at an unnamed accounting firm in Pawnee. He has offered Ben Wyatt a job at his accounting firm on multiple occasions, however, Ben always refuses to accept the position. Nonetheless, he is known for laughing raucously when Ben makes accounting puns, often calling in an unseen character named Ted to hear the pun after he laughs at it. He is also a fan of the Cones of Dunshire, a board game that Ben invented in season 6.\nBrandi Maxxxx (Mara Marini) is a pornography star who has appeared in more than 200 adult films, despite having been in the business only one year. She appeared in \"Jerry's Painting\" as a guest on the news show \"Ya Heard? With Perd!\", where host Perd Hapley was interviewing Leslie Knope about a painting she appeared nude in. Brandi was also brought on as a guest and, to Leslie's chagrin, compared Leslie's painting to pornography and defended them both. She claimed anyone should be allowed to have sex anywhere they wanted, and falsely believed Leslie felt the same way. When Leslie quoted United States Supreme Court Associate Justice Potter Stewart's famous claim that he cannot define pornography but \"I know it when I see it\", Brandi was asked to define it and she replied, \"For me, it's when the penis goes in.\" Brandi also invited Leslie to appear in her next film. Tom tried to flirt with Brandi, but his efforts were ruined when she recognized him as the basis of a baby-like cherub in the painting. In the episode \"Campaign Shake Up\", Brandi Maxxxx is also running for the City Council election, in third place in polls with 8% of the vote behind Bobby Newport's 45% and second place Leslie Knope with 30%. In the final episode One Last Ride, a flashfoward shows that she eventually becomes the head of the Pawnee City Council, swearing in Garry Gergich for his fourth term as Mayor. Her character may be a reference to adult film star and candidate for Governor of California Mary Carey.\nChris (Will Arnett) is an MRI technologist at the hospital where Ann Perkins works. Ann sets Chris and Leslie up on a in \"The Set Up\", which goes extremely poorly. Chris is openly rude to Leslie during the dinner, criticizing Leslie's alma mater of Indiana University and expressing disappointment that she only works in regular parks rather than amusement parks. Upon learning Leslie has never had an MRI, Chris insists on immediately taking her to the hospital and giving her one, a plan to which she reluctantly agrees. His inappropriate behavior continues at the hospital, where he makes creepy comments about her \"industrial-sized\" womb during the MRI and unsubtle comments about expecting to have sex with her later, including asking whether she is having her period. They part on bad terms, with Chris angry that Leslie refused to have sex with him after the date.\nAt the time of the episode, Arnett was the real-life husband of Amy Poehler, who played Leslie. However, it was not Poehler who arranged for him to be on the show, but rather Michael Schur, who is a good friend of Arnett and felt he would be a good fit for the character.\nJessica Wicks (Susan Yeagley) is a Miss Pawnee beauty pageant winner who became the younger trophy wife of the elderly but wealthy Nick Newport, Sr. Speaking with a slight Southern accent, Jessica is a superficial woman who cares deeply about her own physical appearance and tries hard to charm others around her. She won the Miss Pawnee contest in 1994 primarily based on her looks; her talent during the pageant was packing a suitcase. This was most likely intended by the writers to be an homage to the 1975 beauty pageant film \"Smile\", where Miss Imperial Valley packed a suitcase as her talent. Jessica first appeared in \"Beauty Pageant\" as a Miss Pawnee panel judge along with Leslie and Tom. When Tom voted for the beautiful Trish Ianetta but Leslie pushed for a smarter but less attractive contestant, the superficial Jessica sided with Tom. She reappeared in \"94 Meetings\", where she organized a birthday party for Nick Newport, Sr. by completely renovating and tearing down portions of the historic Turnbill Mansion. Leslie unsuccessfully tried to stop her, while Tom simply flirted with her, acknowledging she was a but calling himself a \"gold digger digger\". Jessica sang a horribly out-of-key song for her husband with an accompanist on the harp. Her husband, Nick Newport, Sr. dies in Bus Tour, making her a widow. She takes over the family business, \"Sweetums,\" making Ben the new Director of Charitable projects.\nKelly Larson (Will Forte) is a Pawnee resident who advocated for Leslie to include the \"Twilight\" novel in a time capsule she was organizing. Appearing in \"Time Capsule\", Kelly is obsessed with Twilight and knows every detail about the books, the film series and \"Twilight\" author Stephenie Meyer. When Kelly visited Leslie's office to advocate for the novel, she politely refused, and Kelly responded by handcuffing himself to a pipe in her office, promising to stay there until she agrees. He spent three days in the office, where he got Tom interested in \"Twilight\" and held book discussions with Tom and Donna. Finally, Leslie revealed she knows Kelly's true motivations: he had recently gone through a divorce and was trying to impress his teenage daughter, who loves \"Twilight\". Although sympathetic, Leslie cannot agree to Kelly's request or she would have to accept demands from all Pawnee residents. As a compromise, she held a public meeting where she listened to all demands. Ultimately, when the citizens could not agree on anything, Leslie submitted a video tape of that very meeting, which she believed symbolizes the spirit and passion of Pawnee.\nLawrence (Eric Edelstein) is a Pawnee resident who has criticized the parks and recreation department's plans at public forums, which embodied a recurring \"Parks and Recreation\" theme that only citizens opposed to projects bother to attend town meetings. He first appeared in \"Canvassing\" at a forum Leslie held to raise support for her proposed park project. Lawrence only complained about the loud music his neighbor Andy played. Andy said in an interview with the documentary crew \"Lawrence lives with his uh grandmother, which is pretty awesome. He takes care of her, I guess. But whatever, he's a douchebag.\" He complained that Andy's music was \"loud, . . . abusive, and [was] waking up [his] birds,\" causing Lawrence to admit that he had \". . . nice, pretty, expensive birds . . .\" Lawrence was also the one who pointed out in the same meeting that April Ludgate had been planted by Leslie as a supporter for the park, having recognized her since she was at his door the day before. He ended the night by telling Leslie, \"Hey park lady, you suck,\" to which she proudly replied, \"Hear that? He called me park lady.\" The line was originally meant to be said by someone else, but Michael Schur said it was given to Lawrence because the \"Parks and Recreation\" crew liked Edelstein so much. Lawrence reappeared in \"Boys' Club\", where he angrily stole Andy's radio while Andy was bathing himself in a children's pool in the back yard. This prompted Andy to chase Lawrence through the street naked while using crutches. Lawrence also appeared in a scene that was deleted from \"Ron and Tammy\", but included in the second season DVD, in which he mocked Andy's new city hall job as a shoeshiner by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean.\nMarcia Langman (Darlene Hunt) is a conservative activist with the Pawnee organization, the Society for Family Stability Foundation. She often serves as an antagonist to Leslie by objecting to her plans and arguing against issues she considers offensive. Marcia uses fear-mongering tactics and often expresses racist and homophobic sentiments. In her first appearance, \"Pawnee Zoo\", she objected to Leslie's marriage of two male penguins during a publicity stunt for the zoo. Offended by what she perceived as a public show of support for same-sex marriage, Marcia demanded Leslie's resignation and appeared on the morning news program \"Pawnee Today\" to debate the matter with Leslie. She next appeared in \"Time Capsule\", where Marcia objected to a proposal to include the \"Twilight\" novel in a Pawnee time capsule, claiming it included offensive sexual content and went against Christian values. Marcia reappeared in \"Jerry's Painting\", where she demanded the destruction of a painting that depicted Leslie as a bare-chested centaur. Condemning it as \"government-funded animal porn\", she took the matter to the city arts commission, which agreed to destroy it because they do not want to offend anybody. Marcia planned to publicly burn the painting, but Leslie had it switched with a decoy painting and kept the original herself. She initially blocked Leslie's sensible plan to teach safe sexual practices to senior citizens in Season 5, citing city laws that banned anything other than promoting abstinence (which had always only been applied to teenagers) but Leslie ignored the laws and proudly accepted a censure for doing so. One of Marcia's odd personality quirks is that she seems completely unaware of the fact that her husband, Marshall, is possibly gay or bisexual, as he has a flamboyant personality and speaks with an effeminate voice. Marshall's sexuality was never confirmed, but, when speaking to Chris Traeger, he smiles in a way that could be interpreted as attraction.\nThe Newport family are the owners of the Sweetums candy manufacturer in Pawnee and one of the city's richest and most prominent families. The company has operated and thrived in the city for years, as indicated in the episode \"Sweetums\", where Leslie screened 30-year-old video footage of a then-young Nick Newport, Sr. discussing how corn syrup was used to fatten cattle at farms. By the time of \"Parks and Recreation\", Nick Newport, Sr. (Christopher Murray) is an elderly man in a wheelchair so senile he can barely speak, and the company is run by his son Nick Newport, Jr. (Gary Weeks), who himself appears in Sweetums commercials along with his two children, Dakota (Harley Graham) and Denver (Ryan Hartwig). In \"Sweetums\", the company formed a partnership with the city hall to run the concessions stands in Pawnee parks, and Nick Newport, Jr. unveiled their new, supposedly-healthy energy bars Nutriyums. He promotes the energy bars through commercials that use similar propagandistic techniques as the commercials of real-life corn refiners: they feature warm images of Nick Newport, Jr. with his dog Shoelace insisting corn syrup is \"fine in moderation\". Ann and Leslie held public forums to inform people the energy bars are not actually healthy, but the citizenry of Pawnee ultimately rejected their arguments and were won over by the charisma of Nick Newport, Jr. and his family, particularly when Denver announced they should look under their seats for free Sweetums candy. Nick Newport, Sr. appeared in the episode \"94 Meetings\", where his young and attractive wife Jessica Wicks held his 85th birthday party at the Turnbill Mansion. Jessica made major alterations to the historic mansion, and Leslie unsuccessfully tried to intervene to stop her.\nNewport (Paul Rudd) is Leslie's chief opponent in her fourth season campaign for City Council. Bobby would appear to be the second son of Nick Newport, Sr., who paid $250,000 to his campaign manager (Jennifer Barkley) in order to get Bobby elected. Bobby Newport is friendly and superficially charming, but extremely naive and clueless (who at times acts mentally handicapped despite the fact that he isn't), and has gotten everything he ever wanted in life either by fiat or by whining/pleading for those things. When Leslie puts together a viral video that makes him look pathetic and stupid (in lieu of a nasty attack ad she ultimately refused to air), Bobby has a meeting where he complains she hurt his feelings, then asks her to drop out of the election and simply hand the office to him. He also tells Leslie he'll give her an invitation to his victory party, and even offers to let her do the job for him once he's elected; Leslie tells him that's not going to happen, and that he needs to know his stuff or she'll destroy him when they have a debate. During that debate, Bobby first appears to be in the lead by saying short quips rather than longer speeches, but Leslie eventually attacks his character and wins the debate. Afterwards, Bobby asks her if she would like to come to his house for a party. Later, he spends much of the campaign away from Pawnee, and gets involved in a sex scandal while vacationing in Majorca. He comes to think of Leslie as a really awesome lady, tells reporters people who don't vote for him should definitely vote for her, and then says on TV that he's very relieved he lost the election to her. He is later considered a possible candidate for interim mayor after Mayor Gunderson dies. In the extended edition of the series finale, he is revealed to have married Shauna Malwae-Tweep.\nTrish Ianetta (April Marie Eden) is an attractive young woman who won the title Miss Pawnee in \"Beauty Pageant\". She gave unintelligent answers during the pageant and displayed no actual talent: during her talent portion, she did a baton twirling act that involved simply moving the baton around without twirling it. In describing herself, she says, \"I've been on YouTube. I love wearing bikinis at the beach with everyone there.\" Trish has been compared to Caitlin Upton, the 2007 Miss South Carolina Teen USA who made an incoherent response during the Miss Teen USA 2007 pageant. Based solely on her physical attractiveness, Trish was favored by the panel of judges, which included Tom Haverford and Jessica Wicks. Only Leslie objected to Trish and unsuccessfully argued for Susan, an intelligent and talented contestant who was less pretty. Trish made another appearance in \"The Master Plan\", where she was among the girls Tom tried to flirt with during a night at the Snakehole Lounge bar.\nGreg Pikitis (Cody Klop), a teenage boy living in Pawnee, Indiana, is Leslie's mortal enemy. His first appearance is in \"Greg Pikitis,\" where he has a very important role. He is convicted of crimes that Leslie tries to prove him guilty of, but he refuses to admit. Finally, Leslie hunts him down and he is given probation. His second appearance is in \"Prom\" in season 6, where he plays the boyfriend of Leslie's mentee.\nRon Dunn (Sam Elliott) is the former director of Eagleton's parks department, the equivalent position of Ron Swanson's in Pawnee. In the Season 6 episode \"Doppelgangers\", he was brought over to the Pawnee offices along with other Eagleton employees when the towns merged. Swanson at first took a liking to Dunn, as the latter was mustachioed, taciturn and also named Ron. However, Dunn later revealed himself to be a hippie with New Age ideals, and Swanson found him insufferable.\nDunn was laid off along with most other Eagleton employees (excepting Craig), which he took in stride. He reappeared in \"Flu Season 2\", where Swanson and a drunk Ben encounter him at night, and he helps Ben overcome his anger at his parents' selling their vacation home. His final appearance is in the Season 7 episode \"Two Funerals\".\nTynnyfer (June Diane Raphael) is a former employee of Eagleton's parks department whose position was the equivalent of April's. In the Season 6 episode \"Doppelgangers\", she was brought over during the Pawnee-Eagleton merger. She is a stereotypical vacuous, rich housewife. With the inevitability of one of them being laid off, April ingratiated herself to Tynnyfer by mirroring her personality and vocal inflections, and encouraged her to quit her job. Tynnyfer replied that she was planning on doing that anyway, as she wanted to move somewhere warmer while her husband served time in prison. April gave her an address in Miami that she claimed was hers, and said Tynnyfer was welcome to climb over the fence and stay there. April then revealed in a cutaway that the house belongs to Dwyane Wade and she got the address off the Internet.\nDr. Richard Nygard is a character who is mentioned several times, but never appears on screen. He is first mentioned to be Chris's therapist, whom he sees near constantly. Chris's anxiety improves under his care. Later Leslie recommends Dr. Nygard to a troubled Malwae-Tweep, but then comments that she is not completely certain he isn't an imaginary creation of Chris's. Later, however, it is confirmed that he is a real person because he also acts as the off-screen therapist to Craig Middlebrooks.\n\"Pistol Pete\" Disellio (Tuc Watkins) is a local celebrity, only remembered for his last-second game-winning dunk in the annual Pawnee-Eagleton high school basketball game in 1992. As a middle-aged man he resents the fact that everyone in town still sees him this way. He appears in three episodes across Seasons 4-6, during which Leslie secures his endorsement for City Council, Ann considers him as a sperm donor, and Pete refuses to endorse Sweetums' new sports drink.\nFirst appearing in Season 3's \"Indianapolis\", Dennis Feinstein (Jason Mantzoukas) is at The Snakehole Lounge for his \"Allergic\" cologne launch party. Tom Haverford attempts to pitch his cologne to Dennis while there. Dennis laughs at him when Tom sprays the cologne, telling him it smells terrible, and dismisses him. Later, Feinstein buys out JJ's Diner, completely unsympathetic to the townspeople's protests. He changed his original Italian name to something considered \"more exotic in Pawnee.\"\nDetlef Schrempf is a real-life retired basketball player for the Indiana Pacers who portrays himself on \"Parks and Recreation\". He first appeared in \"Telethon\", where Leslie invited him to make a guest appearance on a 24-hour diabetes telethon. Tom picked him up from the airport, but first took him for a drink to the Snakehole Lounge, where Detlef proved so popular that bar owner Freddy would not let them leave. After Tom got drunk on two light beers, Detlef took him to the telethon, where he made his scheduled appearance. Detlef made another appearance in the third season finale \"Li'l Sebastian\", where Tom and Jean-Ralphio hired him to work for their new entertainment company, Entertainment 720. His only job was to shoot basketballs around the office; Detlef tried giving them business advice, but they disregarded it. In Season 4, he remained at Entertainment 720, and was hanging out with Roy Hibbert, who had the free time to work with them due to the NBA lockout; both men roundly mocked Tom and Jean-Ralphio's lack of business sense.\nPrior to filming \"Telethon\", Schrempf's acting skills had been limited to appearances on the American comedy series \"Married... with Children\" and the German soap opera \"Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten\". Michael Schur said of his performance, \"For a guy who literally never acted before in his life, he was really funny.\"\nEduardo (Carlo Mendez) was an attractive young Venezuelan man who briefly dated April Ludgate. The two met during April's vacation to Venezuela and she brought him back to Pawnee, primarily to make Andy jealous. Eduardo, who only spoke Spanish, first appeared in \"Go Big or Go Home\", where Andy vowed to continue pursuing April despite her new relationship. When April claimed in Spanish that Andy just described his plans to become a woman, Eduardo encouraged Andy to follow his dreams, surprising Andy. In \"Time Capsule\", Andy and Eduardo started bonding, particularly over their mutual appreciation for the Dave Matthews Band. When April learned they were becoming friends, she became frustrated and broke up with Eduardo, who returned to Venezuela.\nFrank Beckerson (John Larroquette) is a man who, in his youth, had a passionate love affair with Leslie Knope's mother, Marlene Griggs-Knope. The two met when Marlene was 18 years old and Frank, a lifeguard, saved her life. They had a two-week affair before going their separate ways. Decades later, Marlene shared the story of her long-lost love with Leslie, and Leslie's boyfriend Justin Anderson insisted they find Frank and surprise Marlene by reuniting the pair. Leslie was initially pleased with the idea, and together they tracked Frank to his new home in Illinois. However, the older Frank is an eccentric man who has long been unemployed and is extremely socially awkward, repeatedly vomiting in nervousness at the prospect of seeing Marlene. He also embarrassed Leslie by showing her naked photos of Marlene from her youth. Leslie tried to call off the reunion, but Justin insisted on going through with it, and they brought Frank to a Valentine's Day senior citizen dance to meet Marlene. She was initially pleased to see him, but upon learning his life amounted to nothing, she rejected Frank, who publicly berated Marlene on a dance hall stage before storming off.\nLindsay Carlisle Shay (Parker Posey) is the parks and recreation director of Eagleton, Pawnee's more upscale neighboring town. Once best friends with Leslie Knope, the two are now bitter rivals. Five years before the events of the third season, Lindsay worked in the Pawnee parks department with Leslie, and the two made a vow they would never leave their hometown. Leslie was offered the parks director job in Eagleton but did not accept it due to this pact. However, the job was subsequently offered to Lindsay and she accepted, which Leslie considered an act of betrayal. Although she does not admit it, Lindsay appears to harbor resentment toward Leslie for having been offered the job first. Since leaving Pawnee, Lindsay lost 35 pounds, had a nose job, adopted a slight aristocratic accent and developed a snobbish, nouveau riche personality. She regularly insults Leslie and others in Pawnee with passive-aggressive, condescending comments, and has condemned Pawnee as \"a dirty little nightmare from which you'll never wake up\". Lindsay first appears in the episode \"Eagleton\", where she built a fence directly through a park Pawnee and Eagleton share to keep the Pawnee children out of her town. Leslie tried to fight this action, culminating in Leslie and Lindsay fighting amid piles of garbage and both getting arrested. Leslie ultimately solved the problem by turning Pawnee's side of the park into a wiffle ball field and making the fence its home run wall. Lindsay was ultimately impressed with Leslie's solution and her work ethic, and she seemed to respond positively when Leslie offered a reconciliation.\nPosey previously starred with Amy Poehler in the 2009 comedy film \"Spring Breakdown\". She had been in discussions with the \"Parks and Recreation\" staff to make a guest appearance since the show debuted, and grew frustrated when it took several months before she received an invitation.\nRaul Alejandro Bastilla Pedro de Veloso de Morana (Fred Armisen) most commonly referred to simply as Raul, is a parks official from Baraqua, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode \"Sister City\", when he and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, Raul is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so he was unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens, who he treated rudely from the moment he arrived. He was particularly unsettled by Pawnee's public forums, in which the residents loudly and angrily criticized their government officials; Raul explained he usually holds his meetings in fortresses, citadels or palaces, and that anyone who complains or does anything out of line is immediately thrown in jail. Leslie got annoyed with Raul's insults, but he eventually offered her a check for $35,000, enough to completely fund her plans to turn a construction pit into a park. However, Raul explained a condition of the check was that Leslie must praise Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and insult the United States, revealing they are part of what is called the Committee to Humiliate and Shame America. Leslie angrily ripped up the check and sent Raul and his delegation away.\nIntern Johnny Quezada (JC Gonzalez) most commonly referred to simply as Johnny, is an internal officer of the official Baraqua Delegation, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode \"Sister City\", when Raul, Carlos, Johnny and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, The Venezuelan delegation is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so they were unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens. Johnny is very excited about April Ludgate represented by Aubrey Plaza, Johnny invites her to go with him to his country and attend her like a princess full of luxuries and acts. During his stay, one night Johnny sends a car to April to pick her up and take her to be with him but she uses the car to go to the movies with her friends.\nJennifer Barkley (Kathryn Hahn) is an extremely successful political operative who has taken over the City Council campaign of Bobby Newport after being promised $250,000 by the Newport family. She awed Leslie by appearing in a picture where she's sharing an egg salad with Colin Powell. Jennifer tells Leslie that she's bored and took this job for the money, not much caring who wins and finding Bobby to be stupid. While it appears she's being honest about this, she later trashes Leslie in a TV interview, edits Leslie's successful YouTube campaign ad to make her sound like an idiot, and swipes Leslie's building-ramp plan in favor of an electric lifts plan that leads Pawnee senior citizen powerbroker Ned Jones to endorse Bobby. Leslie later confronts Jennifer at her favorite restaurant, where Jennifer says bluntly she likes Leslie but has been hired to defeat her. Jennifer then gives Leslie some genuinely good advice about upcoming decisions, and tells the camera that she is doing so because she has no one to play chess with and \"sometimes I need to play against myself\". Jennifer appears to keep her work and her personal feelings separate, given that she's able to relate to people when she's not working a campaign. When Leslie appears on Perd Hapley's show to reveal that Bobby Newport has been avoiding his hometown in favor of making out with a woman on a Majorca beach, Jennifer says that Bobby is in Europe to get business opportunities for Pawnee and the woman is an anti-landmine advocate. Afterwards, she tells Leslie and Ben that she \"mostly\" made all that up, then details how she'll be able to spin any outrage from them in Bobby's favor. Leslie and Ben are left completely stunned by Jennifer's mercenary brilliance. However, Leslie and Ben are finally able to knock her off balance a little bit after Jennifer goes on Perd's TV show and says Leslie ordered a pet shelter closed (after Leslie had asked a retiring Councilman to reverse a funding cut for the Parks Department); after she's overjoyed with Leslie's idea that the Newport family use their wealth to fund the shelter, Leslie explains that she'll accept the initial funding cut if Jennifer breaks a promise to stop airing \"puppy killer\" ads, and that she's fine with losing a week's news momentum because she's debating Bobby Newport after that and she's going to ruin him. Jennifer's expression makes it clear Leslie has finally scored some points against her. But after Leslie does score a huge victory over Bobby in the debate and pulls within 2 points of him in the polls, Jennifer strikes back by using the death of Nick Newport (and Leslie's comments, made before she learned he had died, that Nick was a jerk) to force Leslie into several embarrassing mistakes. However, Jennifer finds out that she might not get any of her promised quarter-million fee due to her handshake deal with Nick, and watches as Bobby manages to tell the press that Leslie is an awesome person. The campaign having ended, Jennifer seeks out Chris Traeger and invites him to have sex with her, and he accepts. On Election Night, she tries and fails to keep pro-Newport voting machines in place, and later is rebuffed when she doesn't want an automatic recount to be triggered by Bobby's initial 21-vote victory margin. Recognizing Ben's talent on Leslie's campaign, she offers Ben a job working with her on a Congressional campaign (he eventually accepts it) and has sex with Chris again but leaves Pawnee without saying goodbye to him. When that campaign successfully ends in Washington D.C., she offers Ben another campaign job for a governor candidate in Florida. She appears again in Season 6 (\"Second Chunce\") to convince Leslie (as a paid favor to Ben) not to run for Dexhart's seat in the city council, but to reach for the stars and to look for a more high-powered job. Leslie said it was the best present she could have received (from Ben).\nShe makes several more appearances in the seventh and final season, encouraging Ben to run for governor of Indiana.\nBuddy Wood (Sean Hayes) is a journalist from Indianapolis that does an annual special where he profiles five political candidates from around Indiana. The candidates he profiles tend to get elected, causing him to be described as a \"lucky charm\" for people running for office. Buddy interviews Leslie, but this doesn't go well because she is drunk, and Wood tries to turn the story to Pawnee not being as great as it once was. Leslie and Ben consider him to be rude, but they still drive to Buddy Wood's house to beg him for either a second chance for an interview or for him to erase the negative footage; Buddy then sourly reveals that he never aired the interview because his bag was lost in Pawnee, unaware that one of the airport workers, who liked Leslie and was angered by Buddy's rude attitude, took the interview tape and threw it into a dumpster."],"string":"[\n \"Wandering Stars\\nWandering Stars is an anthology of Jewish fantasy and science fiction, edited by American writer Jack Dann, originally published by Harper & Row in 1974. It represented, according to the book cover, \\\"the first time in science fiction that the Jew - and the richness of his themes and particular points of view -- will appear without a mask.\\\" In his introduction, \\\"Why Me?\\\", Isaac Asimov discussed how many Jewish science fiction writers prior to that time had used gentile pen names in order to get published: \\\"Many of the Jewish pulp writers, however, used pen names as a matter of sound business. A story entitled \\\"War Gods of the Oyster-Men of Deneb\\\" did not carry conviction if it was written by someone named Chaim Itzkowitz.\\\" He then goes on to discuss the pen names of various Jewish writers included in this book. \\\"Wandering Stars\\\" is therefore of historical significance as the first science fiction anthology where Jewish writers openly identified themselves as such. It was followed by a second anthology, \\\"More Wandering Stars\\\", also edited by Jack Dann, published by Doubleday in 1981.\\n\",\n \"Nosedive\\n\\\"Nosedive\\\" is the first episode of the third series of British science fiction anthology series \\\"Black Mirror\\\". Michael Schur and Rashida Jones wrote the teleplay for the episode, based on a story by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker, while Joe Wright acted as director. Max Richter composed the soundtrack. It premiered on Netflix on 21 October 2016, together with the rest of the third series.\\nThe episode is set in a world where people can rate each other from one to five stars for every interaction they have. Lacie (Bryce Dallas Howard) is a young woman overly obsessed with her ratings, and is chosen by her popular childhood friend (Alice Eve) as the maid of honour for her wedding. On her journey to the wedding Lacie gets angry at a customer service worker, beginning a rapid reduction in her rating .\\n\\\"Nosedive\\\" had a larger budget than episodes in previous series, and was given a different style based on pastel aesthetics. The episode was filmed in South Africa, with Seamus McGarvey as director of photography and Joel Collins as the production designer. As it is part of an anthology series, production was similar to making a short film. In interviews, several people who worked on the episode have expressed negative views towards social media.\\nThe episode has received mainly positive reviews, and is mostly ranked in the top half in critics' lists of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes by quality. The pastel aesthetics and the plot's relevance to the modern world have been praised by many reviewers; Max Richter's soundtrack and Howard's performance have also been complimented. The tone of the episode is less dark than other \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes, and in particular the ending is less bleak than usual for the series; reaction to this has been polarised, with some reviewers approving of it and others disliking it. Many critics noted the similarity of the episode to other media—in particular, \\\"App Development and Condiments\\\" (an episode of \\\"Community\\\") and the real world app Peeple. The episode has been nominated for several awards, including a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Howard.\\nLacie Pound (Bryce Dallas Howard) lives in a world where everyone can rate one another's interactions and social media posts from one to five stars. Lacie has a rating of 4.2. She is obsessed with her rating, maintaining superficially positive relationships with everyone she meets, and staging social media posts. One day, she is given low ratings by several coworkers for accepting a free smoothie from Chester, as Chester and his boyfriend Gordon have broken up and the office workers are siding with Gordon. By the following day, Chester's rating has dropped so far he is no longer allowed into the building where he works; Lacie then shuns him. Lacie lives with her brother Ryan (James Norton), who has a lower rating than she does, though he does not care. Lacie is eager to improve socially and materially and wants to live in the chic new housing development Pelican Cove, but in order to live there, she must either pay an exorbitant rent or earn a discount by having a rating of 4.5 or above. After consulting with a ratings expert, she is told that she is receiving many positive ratings from service workers, but such ratings do not matter as much as ratings from people with high rankings, so she should cultivate their approval.\\nAfter Lacie posts a picture of her teddy bear, Mr. Rags, whom she and her childhood friend Naomi (Alice Eve) made together, Naomi asks Lacie to be her maid of honour at her wedding, and deliver a speech. Naomi has a rating of 4.8 and many highly rated friends; Lacie believes the speech will boost her rating to a 4.5. However, at the airport, she learns her flight is cancelled. There is an available seat on another flight, but she needs a 4.2 rating to get it. Due to an earlier argument with Ryan and several unfortunate encounters with strangers, Lacie's rating has dropped to 4.183, so she is refused the seat. Frustrated, Lacie causes a scene, and security gives her a 24-hour punishment that temporarily lowers her rating by one point and activates \\\"Double Damage\\\", which doubles the effect of all low ratings she receives. After being asked to leave the airport, Lacie is forced to rent a car to make the nine-hour drive to Naomi's wedding.\\nBecause of her low ranking, Lacie can only rent an old car with controls that are in Czech. After driving for some time, the electric car needs to be charged, but Lacie cannot find an adapter that fits it. She attempts to hitchhike, but passing motorists refuse to stop due to her rating, and even downvote her as they pass. Eventually she manages to get a ride from a truck driver with an extremely low ranking, Susan (Cherry Jones), who reveals she too was obsessed with ratings until her husband was passed over for vital cancer treatment because he was a 4.3 rather than a 4.4.\\nAs Lacie is hitchhiking with fans of a science fiction show she is pretending to enjoy in order to win their assistance, Naomi calls Lacie and tells her she is no longer welcome at the wedding, as her rating has now dropped to 2.6. Enraged, Lacie drinks a thermos of whiskey given to her by Susan and trespasses onto the island to crash the wedding reception. Lacie drunkenly performs her speech, calmly at first, but then she insults Naomi's new husband Paul (Alan Ritchson). Her speech becomes more frantic, nonsensical and angry, and the guests rate her down until she has a rating of 0. When Paul attempts to take away her microphone, Lacie threatens him with a cake knife. As Lacie continues to rant, security restrain her. She is jailed, and has her ranking technology removed. While in her cell, Lacie begins to exchange insults with another prisoner (Sope Dirisu), each delighted that they are free to speak to each other without fear of being rated.\\n\\\"Nosedive\\\" is the first episode of the third series; all six episodes in this series were released on Netflix simultaneously on 21 October 2016. Brooker says it was selected to be the season premiere \\\"partly to slightly ease people in\\\", as \\\"we thought [it] was probably one of the most accessible episodes\\\". Alongside \\\"San Junipero\\\", \\\"Nosedive\\\" was first shown in 2016 ahead of its Netflix release at the Toronto International Film Festival. Two days prior to the release of series 3 on Netflix, \\\"Den of Geek!\\\" published an interview in which Brooker hinted that \\\"Nosedive\\\" is \\\"a pastel, playful satire about modern insecurity.\\\"\\nWhilst series one and two of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" were shown on Channel 4 in the UK, in September 2015 Netflix commissioned the series for 12 episodes (split into two series of six episodes), and in March 2016 it outbid Channel 4 for the rights to distributing the third series, with a bid of $40 million. Due to its move to Netflix, the show had a larger budget than in previous series, which one critic suggests is responsible for the \\\"impressive line-up\\\" which was noted by many reviewers. Another critic called this episode the show's \\\"most ambitious yet\\\"; due to its larger episode order, series 3 was also able to vary its genre and tone more than previous series. One reviewer also noted that \\\"Nosedive\\\" contained \\\"only American characters\\\".\\nThe episode is based on an idea by series creator Charlie Brooker. In a 2016 interview, Brooker states that the original idea, from five years previous, was similar to \\\"Brewster's Millions\\\" and based on the idea of a high status person trying to reduce their ranking. Later, Brooker wrote either a three or four page outline for the episode, wanting it to be \\\"comedic, darkly\\\". Rashida Jones and Mike Schur wrote the episode. Known for comedy and sitcoms, the pair had previously worked together on many shows, including \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", but had never written anything together before \\\"Nosedive\\\". Both fans of \\\"Black Mirror\\\", Jones had been in contact with Brooker for a few years beforehand; Schur wrote the first half of the episode (up to \\\"[Lacie] finding out that [Naomi] doesn't want her to come\\\"), while Jones wrote the second half, and the two then \\\"blended and mixed\\\" their scripts. In 2016, Schur had accounts on Twitter but not Facebook or Instagram, as \\\"there's a bunch of strangers talking shit about you in there\\\", and Jones expressed a similarly negative attitude, stating \\\"I do have very strong, very conflicted feelings about rating systems and social media.\\\" Jones believes that the episode, as with all \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes, \\\"pushes you into the near future\\\", while Schur considers it to be more of a \\\"parallel reality\\\". Brooker has described the episode as \\\"like a cross between \\\"Pleasantville\\\" and \\\"The Truman Show\\\"\\\".\\nJoe Wright directed the episode, Seamus McGarvey was director of photography and Joel Collins, working for VFX company Painting Practice, was the production designer. The episode was shot in four weeks, on an island an hour from Cape Town, South Africa; \\\"San Junipero\\\" was also filmed in South Africa. In an interview with \\\"Variety\\\", McGarvey noted that the episode was shot in 4K resolution at the request of Netflix; he said the colour scheme was \\\"a sort of peppermint green, duck egg blue [and] strange peach colors\\\", and that props and \\\"even the drinks people are drinking\\\" were chosen with care to create a \\\"sickly pastel feel\\\". Brooker pointed out that directors of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes (in this case, Wright) have more \\\"power\\\" than in serialised television shows, as \\\"it is like making a short film\\\", and he said that Wright had \\\"been feeling quite bruised after doing \\\"Pan\\\" and [\\\"Black Mirror\\\"] was a good thing for him to get his teeth into which wasn't the full five-year commitment of a movie\\\". McGarvey had worked with Wright previously. The scenes in which Lacie is driving utilise a computer generated landscape designed by Dan May, the episode's art director.\\nBryce Dallas Howard plays Lacie, the episode's main character. Howard gained 30 pounds for the role, saying an an interview with \\\"Marie Claire\\\" that body shaming is a \\\"huge part of the subtext of the story\\\". Howard first joined social media during Thanksgiving 2015, and was approached with the treatment of the episode a fortnight later, in December 2015.\\nMax Richter, a \\\"conservatoire, university-trained classical composer\\\", composed the episode's soundtrack. Richter first met the director, Joe Wright, in London before the shooting of the episode had been completed, and quickly began coming up with ideas for the score. Richter aimed to \\\"support\\\" the episode's display of \\\"incredible anxiety hovering beneath this smiley surface [...] while at the same time not flattening out the emotionality of it\\\", commenting in an interview that Wright's camerawork had a \\\"dream-like quality\\\" and that Brooker's \\\"story was fantastic\\\". In another interview, Richter said he was aiming for the episode to have \\\"warmth and a fairytale quality throughout\\\" with \\\"darkness underneath it\\\", and notes that his composition was based on \\\"the sentiment and the emotional trajectory of the characters\\\". Richter also composed the sound effects which play when one character rates another, and incorporated these sounds into the score itself.\\nIn November 2016, to tie in with the episode, Netflix released a tongue-in-cheek app called Rate Me. The app allows users to rate people, by their Twitter handle, and view their own rating and the ratings of others.\\nThe episode received mostly positive reviews from critics. In a four out of five star review in \\\"The Independent\\\", Jacob Stolworthy calls the episode \\\"a unique treat - and one that's a joy to unpack on a visual level\\\", compliments Max Richter for \\\"blending the diegetic sounds of the app with the non-diegetic score evoking our protagonist's struggle to determine reality and fiction\\\" and summarises that the episode \\\"is more prescient than you first suspect\\\". Benjamin Lee of \\\"The Guardian\\\" gives this episode, alongside \\\"San Junipero\\\", a rating of four out of five stars, noting that the episode \\\"is more traditionally Black Mirror in its tale of the sinister side of technological progress\\\" but has \\\"a freshness that prevents it from ever feeling heavy-handed\\\"; Lee also comments that it \\\"manages to create a believable and aesthetically impressive mini-universe without the need for tiresome exposition\\\". Suchandrika Chakrabarti of \\\"Daily Mirror\\\" also gave the episode four stars out of five, opining that \\\"it's a credit to the writing that we do feel the danger that presses in on [Lacie's] sunny existence\\\".\\nEmefa Setranah of \\\"The Mancunion\\\" gives the episode 3.5 out of five stars, stating: \\\"This introductory episode does not fall short of \\\"Black Mirror\\\"' s reputation. [...] However, it is a tune that has been played one too many times. The show's warnings against technology are becoming repetitive and predictable.\\\" Mark Monahan in \\\"The Telegraph\\\" gives the episode three out of five stars, praising the setting for being \\\"superbly and thought-provokingly drawn\\\", but criticising the episode for being \\\"weakened by spoon-feedingly schematic characters and a plot [...] that fails to exploit its more interesting tainted-by-association potential\\\". Another three star review comes from Pat Stacey of \\\"Irish Independent\\\", who criticises: \\\"Like all the best Black Mirrors, this is just a few short steps from current reality. It's not one of the best, though. It sets up the premise crisply, then spends far too much time labouring the point.\\\"\\nA positive review by Tasha Robinson in \\\"The Verge\\\" summarises the episode as an \\\"exaggerated morality play about the dangers of conformity and the small pleasures of individuality\\\". Robinson opines that the episode \\\"can be strident and obvious\\\" but \\\"understands human nature very well\\\". Commenting on the episode's aesthetics, Robinson writes, \\\"Wright gives parts of the episode a gorgeous, sunlit gleam that powerfully highlights the difference between the eternal-magic-hour world of the haves and the grubby reality of the have-nots\\\", and particularly approves of the point at which \\\"the bleeps of [Lacie's] plummeting rating start showing up in the episode's soundtrack.\\\" Adam Chitwood of \\\"Collider\\\" commented that the \\\"lush world and bitingly hilarious script of 'Nosedive' brings some much-welcomed levity to the \\\"Black Mirror\\\" universe\\\", and notes that the episode has a \\\"pastel-filled palate\\\" and \\\"keeps everything focused on the characters\\\", which is different to director Joe Wright's usual style. Matt Fowler of IGN described the episode as \\\"both fun and frustrating [but] it works well when you consider that the next two episodes get a lot more grounded and grim\\\", and complimented the \\\"very compelling score by Max Richter\\\".\\nAlex Mullane of \\\"Digital Spy\\\" gave a positive review, saying it is \\\"as funny – and uplifting – as Black Mirror has ever been\\\". Mullane opines that Bryce Dallas Howard is \\\"fantastic in the lead role, carrying the piece brilliantly\\\", and Alice Eve is \\\"excellent\\\". Mullane also writes, \\\"the real success of 'Nosedive' comes within the final scene\\\", because \\\"the climax might be bleak in some ways, but in others, it's a moment of sheer, fist-pumping joy\\\" as \\\"Mike Schur knows how to end a series on a wonderfully uplifting note, and it's a trick he pulls off here with panache\\\". Zack Handlen of \\\"The A.V. Club\\\" gave the episode an A–, commenting that the first half of the episode is \\\"Black Mirror\\\" at \\\"its most unsettling and its most predictable\\\", but that the second half \\\"[adds] depth and sincerity\\\" to something that \\\"bordered perilously close to smug\\\". Handlen says that the \\\"final scene in the jail is a little too perfect\\\", but that the episode is \\\"clever and hatefully plausible\\\". Sophie Lee of \\\"The Atlantic\\\" gave the episode a mixed review, praising Howard's performance and saying that the \\\"lush, calming visuals of 'Nosedive' clash nicely with the mounting anxiety\\\", but opining that the episode is \\\"about 15 minutes too long\\\" and describing the ending as \\\"too cute\\\".\\n\\\"Nosedive\\\" appears on many critics' rankings of the 13 episodes in \\\"Black Mirror\\\"' s first three series, usually in the top half. Charles Bramesco of \\\"Vulture\\\" places the episode second, compilmenting its \\\"hilarious, moving, supremely unsettling script\\\". Bramesco writes: \\\"Seldom is the guiding theme of Black Mirror — the insidious ways in which technology alters human behavior — expressed with more lucid clarity.\\\" \\\"Nosedive\\\" appears fourth in \\\"TheWrap\\\"' s ranking of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes, with the authors summarising that it is the \\\"perfect sendup of our obsession with social media approval\\\". James Hibberd of \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" ranked the episode sixth, decribing it as \\\"a successful shift into comedy\\\" and a \\\"social media spoof that takes online reviews to their ultimate desperate extreme\\\". Aubrey Page of \\\"Collider\\\" also places the episode sixth, calling it \\\"a perfect choice as Black Mirror's Season 3 opener\\\" but says that it \\\"lacks the sadistic snap of Brooker's usual work\\\", which \\\"undercuts a bit of the episode's self-seriousness\\\", and \\\"feels woefully surface-level and a bit off-brand\\\" because of its predictability. Mat Elfring of GameSpot puts the episode seventh, due to the fact that it is \\\"one of the more thought-provoking episodes and a dynamite way to kick off the third season\\\". \\\"Nosedive\\\" also comes seventh in Morgan Jeffery's list in \\\"Digital Spy\\\", accompanied by the summary that \\\"Lacie's Instagram-perfect world of social status defined by 'likes' is instantly recognisable to anyone who's ever been to school, and like the best Black Mirror episodes, presents us with only a slight adjustment to our own reality.\\\" In \\\"Esquire\\\", Corey Atad ranked \\\"Nosedive\\\" eighth, summarising that Howard's performance is \\\"delightfully unhinged\\\" and that the episode \\\"in some ways a tad too simplistic, but as a nearly feature-length film, it's totally engaging\\\".\\nOther critics have ranked the six episodes from series three of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" in order of quality. In \\\"The Independent\\\"' s ranking, \\\"Nosedive\\\" is second, being described as the \\\"most detailed\\\" episode of the third series for \\\"presenting a well-conceived world that could be revisited time and time again\\\". In \\\"Forbes\\\", Paul Tassi places the episode third, calling it the \\\"most visually-stunning\\\" of the series, but opining that \\\"I didn't really care for the climactic ending sequence, and I feel like the episode loses its way about two-thirds of the way through.\\\"\\nA \\\"Business Insider\\\" article by Erin Brodwin notes that the episode shows Lacie fall victim to the hedonic treadmill, as \\\"Every time she gets a four or five-star rating, her bright blue eyes light up. [...] But at the end of the day, Lacie is lonely and unsatisfied.\\\" Brodwin points out that scientific studies match Lacie's experience, because \\\"when we engage with social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter, we may feel a temporary boost from likes or favorites, but there's absolutely no link between social media use and long-term happiness.\\\"\\nSeveral critics compared the episode to a 2014 episode of \\\"Community\\\", \\\"App Development and Condiments\\\", which features an app where users assign each other \\\"Meow Meow Beenz\\\" ratings on a scale from one to five; Jack Shepherd of \\\"The Independent\\\" notes that both episodes \\\"critically [analyse] people's obsession with stature on social media platforms with rating systems\\\". Other reviewers compared \\\"Nosedive\\\" to the mobile application Peeple, an app where users could rate one another, which garnered immediate backlash upon its release. Brooker said in an interview that he was not aware of the \\\"Community\\\" episode when he came up with the idea for \\\"Nosedive\\\", but that he did see advertising for Peeple during pre-production, initially thinking it would turn out to be marketing for a comedy show, and considered whether or not they should still produce the episode. The episode has also been compared to the 2003 novel \\\"Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom\\\", and to the 1980s films \\\"Clockwise\\\" and \\\"Planes, Trains and Automobiles\\\". Following the episode's release, the Facebook page for \\\"Black Mirror\\\" shared an article in \\\"The Washington Post\\\" about a rating system proposed by the government of China, which Rob Leane in \\\"Den of Geek!\\\" notes is very similar to the rating system that appears in \\\"Nosedive\\\". Manuel Betancourt of \\\"Pacific Standard\\\" notes that \\\"Nosedive\\\" is similar to several other works about women and social media, particularly \\\"The Circle\\\" and \\\"Ingrid Goes West\\\", but describes it as \\\"perhaps the most keen-eyed critique of the demographics of social media usage of recent titles\\\".\\nCritics have also noted the inclusion of Easter eggs within \\\"Black Mirror\\\"—small details referring to other episodes. In \\\"Nosedive\\\", there is a frame where a social media post from Michael Callow reads, \\\"Just got thrown out of the zoo again :(\\\", a joke based on Callow having intercourse with a pig in \\\"The National Anthem\\\". Brooker has described this Easter egg as his favourite in series three. Another reference to that episode is the fictional show \\\"Sea of Tranquility\\\"; in \\\"The National Anthem\\\", a special effects expert mentions having worked on the show, while in \\\"Nosedive\\\", Lacie hitchhikes with fans of the show. Additionally, in \\\"Hated in the Nation\\\", a news ticker contains the term \\\"Reputelligent\\\", which is the name of the company that Lacie consults for advice about her rating.\\n\\\"Nosedive\\\" has been parodied in popular culture, in the 2017 \\\"Saturday Night Live\\\" sketch \\\"Five Stars\\\". It features Aziz Ansari and Bobby Moynihan desperately trying to impress each other on an Uber journey, in order to boost each other's ratings. The sketch mentions \\\"Black Mirror\\\" explicitly, with both characters saying \\\"San Junipero\\\" is their favourite episode.\\n\\\"Nosedive\\\" was nominated for several awards in 2017; the third season of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" also received several other nominations.\\n\",\n \"Constellations (2005 book)\\nConstellations (2005) is a science fiction anthology of all-new short stories edited by Peter Crowther, the fourth in his themed science fiction anthology series for DAW Books. The stories are all intended to be inspired by the theme of constellations. The book was published in 2005. The title page carries a subtitle, \\\"The Best of New British SF\\\".\\nThe book includes a three-page introduction by Crowther entitled, \\\"Britain Swings!\\\", fifteen short stories, and a six-page set of author biographies at the end.\\nThe stories are as follows:\",\n \"Born & Raised (Parks and Recreation)\\n\\\"Born & Raised\\\" is the third episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", and the 49th overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 6, 2011. In the episode, Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) promotes a book she has written about Pawnee to advance her campaign, but is sidetracked when Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) points out that she was not born in Pawnee. Meanwhile, Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones) attempts to bond with April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) and Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), while Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) and Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) attempt to charm the recently divorced Callamezzo.\\nWritten by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Dean Holland, the episode marks the return of guest star Mo Collins as well as the continuation of Leslie's campaign for public office. The book featured in this episode, \\\"Pawnee: The Greatest Town in America\\\", is available for sale online and in book stores. The author is listed as \\\"Leslie Knope.\\\"\\nThe episode received positive reviews from critics, with praise going to the performance of guest star Mo Collins.\\nLeslie (Amy Poehler) has written a book called “Pawnee: The Greatest Town in America” and is preparing to promote it on local talk show “Pawnee Today.” She hopes that host Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) will select it for her book club, which will guarantee high sales and help Leslie's campaign for city council. Before Leslie goes on the show, an anonymous source claims there is an inaccuracy in the book, which Leslie asks the parks department to find because she knows that Joan will reveal it during the interview as a form of gotcha journalism. Ann (Rashida Jones) is teamed up with Ron (Nick Offerman) and April (Aubrey Plaza) to fact check the book, and although she is determined to win them over with kindness, they want nothing to do with her.\\nLeslie goes on “Pawnee Today” where Joan reveals that the inaccuracy is that Leslie was not born in Pawnee as she states in the book, and Joan refuses to put it in her book club. Leslie disputes the claim, but the damage from the interview is done: when Leslie is promoting the book, she is heckled by people who demand to see her birth certificate and it becomes an issue for her campaign for city council. Leslie shows her short-form birth certificate to her campaign advisors William Barnes (Johnny Sneed) and Elizabeth (Antonia Raftu), but since it only lists the county that she was born in, they say she needs to produce her long-form birth certificate, which is in the hall of records in Eagleton, Pawnee’s hated rival town. Andy (Chris Pratt) steals the birth certificate and Leslie is horrified to learn that she was actually born in Eagleton.\\nLeslie hires Tom (Aziz Ansari) to charm Joan into putting the book in her book club, which Tom is confident of doing because he always playfully flirts with Joan. However, he calls everything off when she begins hitting on him for real due to her impending divorce. Joan becomes very drunk during lunch with Tom and Ben (Adam Scott), forcing them to carry her home. Meanwhile, after trying and failing to win over Ron and April, Ann finally gets them to open up by telling gross stories about her job at the hospital.\\nLeslie’s mother Marlene (Pamela Reed) admits that Leslie was born in Eagleton, but only because Pawnee’s hospital was overrun with raccoons when she went into labor. Still, Leslie is depressed and feels that she is not a true Pawneean. Chris (Rob Lowe) disagrees, telling Leslie that she is the most dedicated resident in town and where she was born does not matter. Hearing this, Leslie goes back on “Pawnee Today” and reveals the truth, but also proves how much she loves Pawnee by reciting the many people and places in town. Joan allows the book into the book club, but also puts a big “Gotcha!” sticker on the back of the book.\\nAccording to Nielsen Media Research, \\\"Born & Raised\\\" was seen by 4.15 million viewers.\",\n \"Out of This World (UK TV series)\\nOut of This World is a British science fiction anthology television series made by ABC Television and broadcast in 1962. A spin-off from the \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\" anthology series, each episode was introduced by the actor Boris Karloff. Many of the episodes were adaptations of stories by science fiction writers including Isaac Asimov, Philip K. Dick and Clifford D. Simak. The series is generally seen as a precursor to the BBC science fiction anthology series \\\"Out of the Unknown\\\".\\nSeries creator Irene Shubik began her career working on educational films for Encyclopædia Britannica Inc in Chicago before returning home to London where she joined ABC Television as a story editor on the anthology series \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\" under producer Sydney Newman in 1960. A science fiction fan since college, Shubik approached Newman during the summer of 1961 with the notion of making a science fiction version of \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\", similar to the \\\"Armchair Mystery Theatre\\\" spin-off that specialised in crime and mystery stories. Shubik had already commissioned several science fiction tinged scripts for \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\" such as \\\"The Omega Mystery\\\" and \\\"The Ship That Couldn't Stop\\\". However, the production that acted as a template for what would become \\\"Out of This World\\\" was \\\"Murder Club\\\", an adaptation of Robert Sheckley’s short story \\\"The Seventh Victim\\\", starring Richard Briers, that aired under the \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\" banner on 3 December 1961. Also around this time the BBC had scored a notable hit with the science fiction thriller \\\"A for Andromeda\\\".\\nShubik was appointed story editor and Leonard White, who had produced the first two seasons of \\\"The Avengers\\\", was assigned to produce. Leonard found \\\"Out of This World\\\" a welcome antidote to \\\"The Avengers\\\", which had proved a difficult production; he recalled, \\\"It was a great pleasure to make, getting away from today and exploring the unrealities (or so we thought) of tomorrow. An opportunity for the suspension of disbelief even in the here and now ambiance of television\\\". The budget for each episode averaged £5,000.\\nShubik soon ran into difficulties finding material suitable for adaptation, a problem that had plagued earlier aborted attempts to get a similar series off the ground. A useful contact Shubik made was with John Carnell, a key figure in British science fiction, founder of the magazine \\\"New Worlds\\\" and agent for many British science fiction writers. Carnell assisted Shubik in selecting material and put her in contact with writers and publishers. Carnell also promoted the series heavily in \\\"New Worlds\\\", giving it the cover of the July 1962 edition. When a strike by actor's union Equity hit production of \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\", it bought Shubik the extra time she needed to find sufficient scripts. All but two episodes were adaptations of short stories and novels. Shubik took the name \\\"Out of This World\\\" from a series of anthology collections published by Blackie and Son, edited by Amabel Williams-Ellis.\\nThe actor Boris Karloff, well known for his association with the horror film genre, was chosen as host for the new series. This was an idea taken from such U.S. anthology series as \\\"The Twilight Zone\\\", \\\"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\\\" and \\\"Thriller\\\" (which Karloff himself had hosted) and was in line with what had been done for \\\"Armchair Mystery Theatre\\\", which was introduced by Donald Pleasence.\\nThree scripts for \\\"Out of This World\\\", adaptations of Philip K. Dick's \\\"Impostor\\\" and Clifford D. Simak's \\\"Immigrant\\\" as well as an original story called \\\"Botany Bay\\\", were supplied by Terry Nation. These scripts were Nation's first professional foray into the genre for which he would become best known; he would later go on to create the popular Dalek monsters for the science fiction series \\\"Doctor Who\\\" as well as his own science fiction television series \\\"Survivors\\\" and \\\"Blake's 7\\\".\\nAn adaptation of John Wyndham’s short story \\\"Dumb Martian\\\" was originally intended to launch the series. However, Sydney Newman elected to broadcast the story as part of \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\" the week before \\\"Out of This World\\\" made its debut. The play ended with an epilogue by Boris Karloff introducing and previewing the new spin-off series.\\nThe first episode, \\\"The Yellow Pill\\\", attracted 11 million viewers, placing \\\"Out of This World\\\" eleventh in the television ratings for that week and beating the popular police drama series \\\"Z-Cars\\\".\\nCritical reaction to \\\"Out of This World\\\" was, on the whole, positive: \\\"Kinematograph Weekly\\\" commented that the series was \\\"the most intelligent and best written of its genre since \\\"Quatermass\\\"\\\" while \\\"The Times\\\" said, \\\"in general the level of writing and direction has been encouragingly high [...] \\\"Out of This World\\\" may well help to banish forever the view of the summer as a time when just anything will do\\\". H. F. Hall, writing in the \\\"Yorkshire Evening Post\\\", described \\\"Out of This World\\\" as \\\"the most accomplished thing of its kind that TV has yet produced... well schemed scripting and disciplined production\\\". One viewer who enjoyed the series was Goon Michael Bentine who sent a telegram to Leonard White conveying \\\"joyous congratulations for wonderful entertainment\\\".\\nAlthough the series was judged a success, the departure of both Sydney Newman and Irene Shubik to the BBC meant that a second season was not made. However, while at the BBC Shubik devised and produced \\\"Out of the Unknown\\\", another science fiction anthology series that, like \\\"Out of This World\\\", concentrated mainly on adaptations of short stories and novels and ran for four seasons between 1965 and 1971. Two \\\"Out of This World\\\" scripts — \\\"The Yellow Pill\\\" and \\\"Target Generation\\\" — were remade by \\\"Out of the Unknown\\\" in its third season. Shubik went on to become a noted television producer of series such as \\\"The Wednesday Play\\\", \\\"Play for Today\\\", \\\"Playhouse: The Mind Beyond\\\" and \\\"Rumpole of the Bailey\\\" and instigated, but did not produce, the acclaimed adaptation of \\\"The Jewel in the Crown\\\".\\nAs was common practice among British broadcasters at the time, almost all of the episodes of \\\"Out of This World\\\" were wiped after broadcast and only \\\"Little Lost Robot\\\" is known to survive, which was released on DVD by the British Film Institute in 2014.\\nThirteen episodes of \\\"Out of This World\\\" were broadcast on Saturday nights at 10 p.m. from 30 June 1962. The \\\"Armchair Theatre\\\" presentation of \\\"Dumb Martian\\\" is also included in this list for completeness as it was originally intended to be part of \\\"Out of This World\\\", in line with most episode guides published for this series.\",\n \"Mark Brendanawicz\\nMark Brendanawicz is a fictional character in the NBC comedy series \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\". He is the city planner for Pawnee, Indiana, as well as Leslie Knope's colleague and one of Ann Perkins' ex-boyfriends. He is portrayed by Paul Schneider, who left \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" at the end of the second season; despite the producers' plans to the contrary, Schneider never reprised the role in any later seasons, and the show made absolutely no references to the character after his departure.\\nMark Brendanawicz was a city planner with the Pawnee municipal government. When he studied city planning in college, Mark was optimistic about the field and dreamed of designing huge and impressive cities. However, since graduation, Mark learned most of the career largely involved mundane technical issues, such as regulating the sizes of garages and proposed construction additions to houses. As a result, Mark grew jaded and disillusioned with the career, and became critical of government processes in general.\\nMark has a self-absorbed personality and engages in romantic flings with multiple women without any sign of seeking a commitment. Mark and Leslie had sex on one occasion and Leslie harbored romantic feelings for the next six years, although Mark does not return the feelings. In season two, he enters a committed relationship with Ann and even considers marriage before the breakup.\\nLeslie continues to harbor a crush on Mark, but Mark is not interested in her romantically, and instead appears to be more interested in her friend Ann; an early draft of the script had Mark stating that he didn't care about Leslie or the park project but supported her efforts because it would allow him to spend more time around Ann, but this was changed to the final version where Mark is impressed by Leslie's fighting spirit and helps the park project for that reason. Mark agrees to help Leslie in her quest to turn a large construction pit into a park, but he is pragmatic about her chances of success, and warns it has little chance of succeeding. When Leslie seeks his help in dealing with newspaper reporter Shauna Malwae-Tweep, who is planning to write a negative story, Mark makes the situation worse by having sex with her. This angers Leslie, particularly after Mark tells the reporter in confidence that the pit project will never be successful, only to later learn she plans to use that it in the story.\\nOne night, while feeling particularly disillusioned and unhappy with the insignificance of his career, Mark makes a halfhearted attempt to flirt with Ann, unaware of Ann's anger over problems with her boyfriend Andy. Mark's advances are quickly and harshly rejected by an irritated Ann as a result. Later that night, Mark and Leslie spend time together at the pit and an intoxicated Mark attempts to kiss her. Not wishing to reconnect with Mark in his drunken state, Leslie rejects his advances, and Mark accidentally falls into the pit and injures his legs.\\nFollowing the accident at the pit, Mark becomes less jaded and abandons his promiscuous lifestyle. He and Ann develop a romantic interest in each other after she nurses him back to health at the hospital while his legs healed. They start dating only after Leslie assures Ann she is fine with the pairing and appears to have moved on from her long-standing infatuation with Mark. He fences off Andy's juvenile insults and attempts to mess with his and Ann's relationship, but also contends with some jealousy when Ann tries to \\\"save\\\" her close friend Justin as a potential future mate. Mark planned to propose to Ann, but she'd told Leslie she wanted to break up with him, and she did dump him after Leslie narrowly prevented Mark from making what would have been a humiliating proposal during the Diabetes Telethon. Mark and Ann have a breakfast sit-down where Mark says he's shocked that she wanted to end the relationship when they never even fought with each other, but Ann tells him that the lack of conflict meant neither of them really had any passion or stake in the relationship at all, and also says Mark overstated them as a couple because he'd never had a relationship that lasted for months before. When the Pawnee government is shut down, Mark decides to take an offered buyout and leave his city hall position for a private-sector job with a construction company, causing Leslie to call him \\\"Mark Brendanaquits.\\\"\\nIn a scene echoing their moment together in the pit during the first season, Mark shares a tender goodbye with Leslie and gives her plans he drafted for the park she wants to build in place of the pit.\\nWhen Mark Brendanawicz was originally conceived, it was anticipated that the character would eventually start to appear infrequently in \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", switching between his city planner job and work in the private sector. Series co-creator Michael Schur said this is because real-life city planners often move back and forth between different jobs. Schur said Mark is partially based on a real-life city planner who eventually got tired of the bureaucratic red tape of government and moved into the private sector, but eventually moved back to government when he was tired of the negative corporate environment. When Paul Schneider was cast as Mark, Schur told him the character might eventually leave Pawnee government and come back working for a different company, then keep moving back and forth in such a manner. Schur said, \\\"It's not something you usually do on TV shows but we thought it was a good way to illustrate both the positive and negative aspects of working for a government. It was one of the first things we talked about with [Schneider].\\\"\\nElements of the character were designed based on advice by Scott Albright, a California city planner who worked as a consultant with \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\". The discrepancy between Mark's optimism in college and pragmatism after encountering the real world were inspired by feedback Albright provided about the urban planning profession. The Mark character underwent major changes after receiving feedback at press tours and focus group screenings. In the original pilot episode script, Mark was portrayed as slightly less likable than the final character became. For example, in the final episode Mark asked Ron Swanson to green-light the park project to help Leslie, but in the original script, he did so only because he was attracted to Ann and wanted another excuse to keep seeing her. During the first season, Paul Schneider said he was insecure about playing Mark in early episodes because he was still trying to figure out and understand the motivations of his character.\\nIt was announced in March 2010 that Schneider would leave \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" at the end of the second season. Schur claimed the decision was a combination of the original conception of the character switching between the government and the private sector, as well as Schneider's increasing success in such independent films as \\\"Bright Star\\\". In the initial announcement, Schur claimed that both the producers and Schneider were interested in having Schneider return for guest appearances in the future, including in season three. Schur said at the time: \\\"He's going to remain in the world of the show in a way that not only allows but hopefully demands that he'll reenter it. He's not going to be killed in some weird accident.\\\"\\nDespite Schur's statements, Schneider never made a return appearance on \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", and the show made absolutely no reference to Mark Brendanawicz after Schneider's departure. In a TV show where Schur and other TV comedy showrunners discussed their work, Schur's story about the Season 2 episode where Jerry Gergich found out he was adopted talked about Mark revealing that information but only by referring to Mark as \\\"a character\\\" who accidentally revealed the truth. Even during the sixth season, when Ann Perkins extensively reminisced about her past romances, she never once mentioned Mark, even though they dated for almost all of the second season. In addition, although virtually every major and minor supporting character that ever appeared on \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" made at least a cameo appearance in the seventh and final season, Mark was not one of them, nor was he shown in any clips in a flashback montage during the series' final episode. Shortly before the series finale, Schneider stated that he was not interested in returning to the show, and had never been contacted about it.\",\n \"We Think, Therefore We Are\\nWe Think, Therefore We Are (2009) is a science fiction anthology of new short stories edited by Peter Crowther, the sixth in his themed science fiction anthology series for DAW Books. The main topic of the fifteen stories in the book is artificial intelligence. The introduction is written by Paul McAuley.\\nThe stories are as follows:\",\n \"Mars Probes\\nMars Probes (2002) is a science fiction anthology of mostly all-new short stories edited by Peter Crowther, the third in his themed science fiction anthology series for DAW Books. The one story that is the exception to appearing here for the first time is a reprint of a Ray Bradbury story from 1968. The stories are all intended to be inspired by the theme of robotic probes on Mars. The book was published in 2002.\\nThe book includes a three-page introduction by Crowther entitled, \\\"The Fascination of Mars\\\", fifteen short stories, and an eleven-page set of author biographies at the end.\\nThe stories are as follows:\",\n \"List of Parks and Recreation characters\\nThe primary characters of the American television comedy series \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" are the employees of the parks department of Pawnee, a fictional Indiana town. The protagonist is Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler), the deputy parks director as well as serving on city council, and the rest of the ensemble cast consists of her friends and co-workers, including nurse Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), parks director Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), and parks department employees Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari), April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza), Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), Jerry Gergich (Jim O'Heir), and Donna Meagle (Retta).\\nWhile most of the main cast have been with the series since it debuted in April 2009, actors Rob Lowe and Adam Scott joined the cast late in the second season portraying Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt, two state auditors who later take permanent jobs in Pawnee. Paul Schneider was a permanent cast member during the first two seasons as city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but he departed at the end of season two. Billy Eichner who portrays Craig Middlebrooks, the \\\"associate administrator\\\" of the Pawnee parks department, recurred throughout the show's sixth season until he was promoted to the main cast in the fourth episode of the seventh season. The majority of \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" episodes are set in Pawnee, and most of the recurring and supporting characters are friends of the main characters or residents of the town.\\nSeveral guest stars have made appearances on the show, including Louis C.K., John Larroquette, Justin Theroux and Parker Posey. Megan Mullally, Offerman's real-life wife, played his character's ex-wife Tammy Swanson, and Poehler's former husband Will Arnett made an appearance as a man on a with Leslie. Several of Poehler's past colleagues on the sketch comedy series \\\"Saturday Night Live\\\" have appeared on \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", including Fred Armisen, Will Forte and Andy Samberg.\\nEach of the following primary characters were played by members of the \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" regular cast, rather than guest stars or non-regular supporting cast members.\\nLeslie Knope (Amy Poehler) is the deputy director of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department, and the protagonist of \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\". Leslie is a passionate, hard-working and ambitious woman who loves her hometown of Pawnee and, unlike many around her, has not lost her optimism in the face of government bureaucracy. She believes strongly in the mission of her job, sometimes going over-the-top in her dedication to helping people. Her dream is to become the first female President of the United States. During the first two seasons, Leslie seeks to turn a construction pit into a park, despite several government obstacles and . When the parks department is hindered by Pawnee's budget problems, Leslie successfully relaunches the town's harvest festival, which makes her department sustainable again. The third season ends with political scouts approaching her about possibly running for elected office, although she declines to inform them of her secret affair with Ben Wyatt, which could prove to be a political scandal. In season four, Leslie furthers her political ambitions when she successfully runs for city council. Season 5 focused mainly on Leslie's experiences on the Pawnee City Council. In season six, however, she is recalled\\nand returns full-time to work in the Parks and Recreation department.\\nRon Swanson (Nick Offerman) is the parks and recreation director, although he allows Leslie to do almost all the real work in the department. Despite working in a government job, Ron is a steadfast libertarian who believes in as little government as possible and feels the parks department should not even run or maintain parks. He advocates for program cuts wherever possible, actively works to make city hall less effective, and especially detests interacting with Pawnee taxpayers. Nevertheless, Ron has a deep respect for Leslie and genuinely cares about his fellow employees, despite his efforts to hide it. Ron has a deadpan, inexpressive personality, and loves meat, hunting and breakfast foods. He has two ex-wives, both named Tammy, both of whom he hates. Ron Swanson has been praised as the show's breakout character, and some of his traits were based on elements of Offerman's real-life personality, like their shared affinity for woodworking and saxophone-playing.\\nTom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) was an administrator in the parks department for most of the show, although he also became a minor investor in the Snake Hole Lounge and quit at the end of the third season to form an entertainment company with his friend Jean-Ralphio. Tom was Leslie's immediate subordinate on the parks department and the two would often work together on tasks. The sarcastic Tom seemed to care little for his mid-level government job and seldom showed any initiative or work ethic. This made him a favorite of Ron Swanson, who once quipped, \\\"I like Tom. He doesn’t do a lot of work around here. He shows zero initiative. He’s not a team player. He’s never one to go that extra mile. Tom is exactly what I’m looking for in a government employee.\\\" However, Tom harbors strong aspirations of becoming a media mogul, and sometimes used his parks department job to increase his stature and curry favors with others. Tom considers himself an extremely stylish dresser and smooth pickup artist, and believes he carries himself in the style of rapper Jay-Z. He constantly hits on women, particularly Ann Perkins, but usually to little success. Tom was married to an attractive surgeon named Wendy at the start of the show, but it is eventually revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in divorce.\\nAnn Perkins (Rashida Jones), Leslie's best friend, is a nurse who eventually takes a part-time position with Pawnee's department of public health. Ann and Leslie meet after Ann requests at a town meeting that an abandoned construction pit be filled, and Leslie pushes to have it turned into a park. Even before getting her part-time Pawnee job, Ann often spent time at city hall and helped the parks department on their endeavors due to her friendship with Leslie. Ann was dating Andy Dwyer at the start of the show, but she broke up with him after the first season after learning Andy faked the severity of an injury so that Ann would pamper him. She started dating city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but they split up by the end of the second season. Ann briefly dated Chris Traeger until he broke up with her, leaving Ann emotionally distraught and prompting her to go on a string of dates with multiple men. The two secretly got back together in the sixth season and Ann became pregnant. Shortly after, Ann and Chris moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan. She had a son, Oliver, in Galentine's Day.\\nApril Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) is the extremely sarcastic, apathetic and goth-like college student who started the show working as an intern in the parks and recreation department, but is eventually hired as Ron Swanson's full-time assistant. She always speaks in a deadpan and uninterested tone of voice, often making dry comments or mocking those around her, and expresses little interest in her job. Nevertheless, she secretly has a deep appreciation for Leslie Knope. In contrast to April's personality, her parents are extremely positive and enthusiastic people. At the start of the show, April was dating her openly gay boyfriend, Derek, who was simultaneously dating his gay boyfriend, Ben. April and Derek eventually broke up, and April harbored a crush on Andy Dwyer for most of the second season. They started dating in the third season and, after a very short period, were married during an impromptu ceremony in the episode \\\"Andy and April's Fancy Party\\\". She also became the manager of Andy's band, Mouse Rat, previously known as Scarecrow Boat. When Pawnee's Animal Control division is threatened, April recommends that the Animal Control division should be absorbed into the Parks and Recreation division. She is put in charge as the deputy director of the animal control part of Parks and Recreation. With Ann's help, she applies and is accepted into veterinary school, which she declines to attend. Eventually she finds enjoyment in a job in Washington D.C. as a career placement counselor.\\nAndy Dwyer (Chris Pratt) is a goofy and dim-witted but lovable slacker who works as a shoeshiner at Pawnee city hall, and later works for Leslie in the Parks Department. He was dating Ann at the start of the show and, prior to the events of the first episode, he falls into a construction pit and breaks both his legs. This inadvertently caused Ann to meet Leslie after Ann attends a city hall meeting to demand the pit be filled in. Ann broke up with Andy after learning he faked the severity of his injuries so she would pamper him. The unemployed and homeless Andy initially lives in the pit, but became more self-sufficient when Leslie gets him the shoeshiner job. Andy started dating April Ludgate during the third season and, after a very short period, the two got married on a whim in the episode \\\"Andy and April's Fancy Party\\\". Andy is the lead singer and guitarist for his band, Mouse Rat. In the final season, he is shown hosting a children's TV show as the character \\\"Johnny Karate\\\". Andy was originally only meant to appear in the first season, but the \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" producers liked Chris Pratt so much that, almost immediately after casting him, they decided to make him a regular cast member.\\nBen Wyatt (Adam Scott) is Leslie's husband. He joined the show in the penultimate second season episode \\\"The Master Plan\\\" as an Indiana state auditor, but eventually took a job at Pawnee working for Chris. When he was 18, Ben was elected mayor of his Minnesota hometown, but was impeached after two months because he had no government experience and bankrupted the town. He became an auditor as an attempt to redeem himself and prove he can responsibly manage city government. At the start of the show, Ben contrasted Chris' cheery personality by bluntly describing the need for economic cuts in Pawnee, which caused conflicts between Leslie and Ben. While Ben never previously established roots in a town due to the constant traveling from his job, Ben gradually came to develop a love of Pawnee, which coincided with his developing romantic interest in Leslie herself. The two start dating in the episode \\\"Road Trip\\\", despite Chris' strict policy forbidding workplace romances. When he learns Leslie is running for office in the episode \\\"I'm Leslie Knope\\\", they break up for fear of jeopardizing Leslie's chance of winning the election in the event they could get caught and create a scandal. However, they decide to get back together in \\\"Smallest Park\\\".\\nChris Traeger (Rob Lowe) first appeared in \\\"The Master Plan\\\", along with Ben Wyatt, as an Indiana state auditor who visits Pawnee to help solve their crippling financial problems. This led to major budget cutbacks and, eventually, a three-month government shutdown. In the episode \\\"Camping\\\", he took a job as acting city manager after the previous manager, Paul Iaresco, suffered a heart attack. Chris is an extremely positive person who is always upbeat and energetic. Extremely health-conscious, he exercises constantly and eats only healthy foods, and hopes to be the first human being to live 150 years. He briefly dated Ann Perkins, but the two split up in the third season. Chris imposed a strict policy against workplace dating at city hall, which serves as a detriment to Leslie and Ben. Rob Lowe was originally expected to appear in only eight episodes as a guest star, but eventually signed on to remain on the show as a permanent cast member.\\nGarry \\\"Jerry\\\"/\\\"Larry\\\"/\\\"Terry\\\"/\\\"Gengurch\\\"/ Gergich (Jim O'Heir) is a parks and recreation department employee who is regularly mocked and taunted by his fellow co-workers. Jerry is clumsy, overweight and often mangles his speech while speaking publicly. He is teased so badly that, after falling and dislocating his shoulder in the episode \\\"Park Safety\\\", he falsely claimed he was robbed just so his co-workers would not make fun of him. However, despite their jokes at his expense, the parks department employees like Jerry, and Jerry himself claims not to mind the jokes because he is nearing retirement with a full pension. Jerry often demonstrates great artistic talent and is an excellent pianist and painter, although his talents are usually overlooked, ignored or even mocked by his colleagues as though they were character faults. Jerry's personality was not established until the second season, but the producers cast O'Heir at the start of the show because they liked the actor and decided they would develop the character later in the series. In an episode of season 4 during Leslie's trial for the relationship she had with Ben, Jerry reveals his real first name, Garry, while under oath. He then goes on to explain that he was accidentally called Jerry by a high-ranking employee of the city and thought it was rude to correct him. It was also revealed that he has a Leap Day birthday and is 64/16 years old. In contrast to his awkwardness at work, Jerry leads an idyllic family life with his gorgeous wife, Gayle (played by Christie Brinkley), and their children, as shown when he hosts a holiday party in the Season 5 episode \\\"Ron and Diane\\\". In season six, his coworkers take to permanently calling him Larry instead of Jerry. In a flash forward sequence in the season six finale, Jerry is shown working for Leslie at her new job three years in the future, with Leslie now calling him Terry. He is named mayor of Pawnee in the second to last episode of season 7. In flash forwards in the series finale, it is revealed that he was elected mayor multiple times before retiring and dying peacefully in Gayle's arms surrounded by his family on his 100th birthday.\\nDonna Meagle (Retta) is an employee for the parks and recreation department. Confident and lively, she has been described by NBC as the \\\"parks diva\\\". Donna enjoys partying, and often takes two shots of alcohol at once without any problem. She can be extremely competitive, especially when it comes to dating, where she has an philosophy. Nevertheless, Donna helped Ann recover from her bad break-up with Chris by giving her advice and encouraging her to pursue rebound dates. Donna has worked at the parks department longer than Leslie, and is one of the few people who can speak sternly to Ron Swanson. She is the proud owner of a Mercedes, which she is extremely protective of and often brags about. As with Jerry Gergich, the personality for Donna was not established until the second season, but Retta was cast during the first season because the producers liked her, and they decided they would establish her character as the series progressed.\\nMark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider) was a Pawnee city planner who dated Ann Perkins for much of the second season. According to Aziz Ansari's character, Tom Haverford, \\\"He's stuck it in some crazy chicks.\\\" At the start of the show, Mark was an unrequited love interest for Leslie Knope. The two had once had a one-night stand six years earlier and Leslie never got over him, although Mark did not return her affections. Jaded and disillusioned with his job due to government red tape, Mark often pragmatically insisted to Leslie that her ambitions to turn a construction pit into a park were unlikely to succeed. Nevertheless, he admired Leslie's unwavering optimism in the face of government ineffectiveness and tried to help her. In the first season finale \\\"Rock Show\\\", a drunken Mark tried to kiss Leslie, but she rejected him and he accidentally falls into the pit. Although Mark is selfish and promiscuous with women at the start of the show, he becomes kinder when he starts dating Ann, and even plans to propose to her. After she broke up with him, Mark left his city hall position for a job in the private sector, marking Schneider's departure from the series. He did not appear in any episodes after Season 2, and the show pointedly made no references to him ever having been there at all, most notably in the episode where Ann Perkins left Pawnee and the storyline reviewed her many pre-marriage/pregnancy romances but erased Mark from that listing even though they dated for almost all of Season 2. The only remaining references are that the mural mock-up he made hangs in Ron's office through season 6, and a laptop bag he gives to Ann Perkins appears as a prop through season 5.\\nCraig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) is the former office manager of Eagleton's parks department, the equivalent of Donna's position in Pawnee. In the episode \\\"Doppelgangers\\\", he and other Eagleton employees were brought in to Pawnee's offices after the Pawnee–Eagleton city merger. Craig is the one former Eagleton Parks employee not laid off after the merger, and continues to work at the Pawnee offices under the title of \\\"Associate Administrator\\\". By 2017, he has replaced Ron Swanson as director of the Pawnee Parks department.\\nCraig at first seemed to be the polar opposite to Donna's more laid-back personality (with layoffs imminent, Donna actually suggested to Leslie that Craig should have her job because he was much more passionate). The two of them bonded over their mutual love of the TV series \\\"Scandal\\\".\\nThe overdramatic Craig often raises his voice to the point of shouting, and frequently blows things out of proportion, although he proves to be a highly efficient employee who is familiar with city politics and a strong negotiator.\\nAfter recurring heavily during the show's sixth season, Eichner was promoted to a main cast member in the seventh season, beginning with the fourth episode \\\"Leslie and Ron\\\".\\nDave Sanderson (Louis C.K.) is a former boyfriend of Leslie Knope and ex-police sergeant in Pawnee. Socially awkward, Dave always speaks in an extremely deadpan and technical tone of voice, but has a sweet personality despite his serious and sometimes gruff exterior, with one Pawnee cop telling Leslie that Dave had been the crankiest member of the force until he met her. He first appears in \\\"The Stakeout\\\", where he arrested Tom after finding him suspiciously lingering in a parked van. Leslie angrily demanded that Dave set Tom free, and Dave immediately found Leslie attractive. He asked her on a date in \\\"Beauty Pageant\\\" and she accepted, although she initially hesitated when Dave failed to recognize photos of major female political figures hanging in Leslie's office. Nervous about the upcoming first date, Leslie became drunk in \\\"Practice Date\\\" and visited Dave's house in the middle of the night, acting foolish until Dave brought her home. Leslie was humiliated, but Dave comforted her the next day and they continued dating. In \\\"Greg Pikitis\\\", Dave helped Leslie monitor her nemesis, high school student Greg Pikitis, on Halloween night and ultimately helped catch him in the middle of committing a prank. Dave made what seemed to be his final appearance in \\\"Christmas Scandal\\\", when he told Leslie he is in the United States Army Reserve and has been called for maintenance work in San Diego. He invited Leslie to move there with him, but she insisted she could not leave her home of Pawnee, so they amicably split up. In \\\"Dave Returns\\\", Dave comes back to Pawnee for the retirement party of the current police chief. On a whim, Leslie invites Dave out to dinner with her and Ben and while Ben is in the bathroom, Dave reveals to Leslie that he still has feelings for her. He then handcuffed Ben in the bathroom, but Ben had access to his cell phone and called Leslie, who then sat down for a friendly but firm chat with Dave where she said she was in love with Ben. Dave apologized for his behavior and accepted the situation, being glad to know that Leslie is happy. At the end of the episode, he finally convinced Ben to use the bathroom (Ben has a fear of cops) in the form of a command, which Ben gratefully accepts.\\nDerek (Blake Lee) is April Ludgate's openly gay ex-boyfriend, who himself had a gay boyfriend named Ben (Josh Duvendeck) while dating her. Like April, both Derek and Ben are cynical and sarcastic, often mocking others around them. The two first appear together in \\\"Pawnee Zoo\\\", where they and April congratulate Leslie for organizing a publicity stunt that married two homosexual penguins at the local zoo. In \\\"Sweetums\\\", they begin to notice April is spending more time with Andy Dwyer, and they mock his personality, upsetting and embarrassing April. In \\\"Galentine's Day\\\", Derek and Ben attend a senior citizen dance party, where they mock the seniors. Tired of their constantly sarcastic behavior, and growing more romantically interested in Andy, April breaks up with them. Derek and Ben reappear again, in the episode \\\"Andy and April's Fancy Party\\\", making brief cameos as flower-men at Andy's and April's wedding.\\nDr. Harris (Cooper Thornton) is a doctor who works at the hospital with Ann Perkins. He has an extremely sarcastic personality and responds to everything in a deadpan manner. He first appeared in the first season finale \\\"Rock Show\\\", where he tended to Andy Dwyer, who broke his legs falling into a construction pit. He appeared again in \\\"Greg Pikitis\\\", where he attended Ann's Halloween party dressed as a doctor. When the party proves boring, Dr. Harris left early and took the bottle of wine he brought to Ann's party because no one drank it. Dr. Harris tended to Andy again in \\\"Freddy Spaghetti\\\", after Andy was struck by a car while riding his motorcycle. When Andy asked whether Dr. Harris can have him fully healed in the next 10 minutes, the doctor sarcastically responded, \\\"Sure, I'll just advance medical science 30 years.\\\" He also appeared in the third season finale \\\"Li'l Sebastian\\\", where he treated Chris Traeger for a case of tendinitis. Chris responded to Dr. Harris' sarcasm by declaring him \\\"literally the meanest person I have ever met.\\\"\\nJean-Ralphio Saperstein (Ben Schwartz) is the idiotic and cocky friend of Tom Haverford who, like Tom himself, fancies himself a pickup artist and baller, although he is looked upon with contempt by most people around him except Tom. He tries to dress stylishly, makes up and raps spontaneous rhymes and often speaks in slang terms such as variations of the suffix -izzle as popularized by rapper Snoop Dogg. Jean-Ralphio is first introduced in \\\"The Set Up\\\", when Tom brought him in for an interview to be Ron Swanson's new assistant; he was quickly rejected. Jean-Ralphio contributed $5,000 when Tom was seeking a $10,000 investment in the Snakehole Lounge nightclub. In the third season finale, \\\"Li'l Sebastian\\\", Tom quit his city hall job to form an entertainment company with Jean-Ralphio called Entertainment 720. The role of Jean-Ralphio was created specifically for Schwartz because the \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" producers liked the actor so much.\\nJustin Anderson (Justin Theroux) is a lawyer and long-time friend of Ann who briefly dated Leslie. He is very charming, regularly travels around the world and has done many extravagant things, such as mountain climbing. He loves telling entertaining stories, and sometimes seems less interested in the people around him than he is in listening to and learning new stories. Justin and Ann never dated, but she seems to secretly harbor romantic feelings for him, something that caused difficulties between Ann and Andy when they were dating. Justin first appears in \\\"The Set Up\\\", when he provided legal advice to the Parks and Recreation department, and Leslie developed a romantic interest in him. She asks Ann to set them up, but she hesitated to do so, prompting Mark to accuse her of still having feelings for Justin. Ann finally sets up a date, and the two start dating regularly. Impressed by Justin's worldliness, Leslie was so determined to impress him with a house party that, in \\\"Leslie's House\\\", she abused her government power by recruiting town employees to provide entertainment. Justin made his final appearance in \\\"Galentine's Day\\\", when Justin and Leslie tried to find Frank Beckerson, the long-lost love of Leslie's mother Marlene, and reunite the two. Upon finding him, Leslie quickly realized Frank is too strange and tried to call the plan off, but Justin insisted on going through with it. After the evening ends disastrously, Ron points out to Leslie that Justin is a selfish person who only cares about getting more stories, so she breaks up with him. Tom, who strongly admired Justin's hipness and idolized him, became extremely disappointed by the break-up and reacted like a child whose parents are divorcing.\\nLi'l Sebastian is a miniature horse, who debuted at the Pawnee Harvest Festival in 1987, as an instant sensation. That week he was the eighth most photographed item in the United States. He also received an honorary degree from Notre Dame. Leslie brings him back for the Harvest Festival in season three, although he was much older and had many ailments, including cataracts, diabetes, and arthritis. His return brought excitement and joy to all of Pawnee, except for Ben, who didn't understand what made him so special. In the season three finale, Li'l Sebastian dies, and everyone is devastated. Leslie used Tom's company, Entertainment 720, to give Li'l Sebastian a funeral. Andy then writes the song \\\"5000 Candles in the Wind\\\" to honor Li'l Sebastian.\\nProfessor Linda Lonegan (Danielle Bisutti) was Andy's Women's Studies professor. She first appeared in Smallest Park, where she made an quite an impression on Andy, April, and particularly Ron. Ron even stated \\\"If that woman wasn't so violently opposed to marriage, I'd propose to her\\\". When Andy finished the course, Linda went to dinner with them to celebrate, where April tried to set her up with Chris. Although Linda seemed to have a connection with Chris, she went home with Ron, revealing her attraction to him, for the entire night.\\nLucy (Natalie Morales) is a bartender at the Snakehole Lounge and the eventual wife of Tom Haverford. Lucy meets Tom in \\\"The Master Plan\\\" after he came to the bar to settle his tab from the night before, when he unsuccessfully attempted to pick up several girls by buying drinks for them. Rather than try to pick up Lucy like the other girls, he simply acts like himself, and the two end up hitting it off and started dating. Lucy is intelligent and funny, and she freely accepts Tom's immature and sometimes inappropriate personality. She jokingly claimed to be attracted to Tom because, \\\"You're cute and you're small enough for me to throw you around.\\\" However, it eventually became clear to Lucy that Tom was not over his ex-wife Wendy, particularly due to how upset he got when Ron Swanson starts dating her. In \\\"Time Capsule\\\", Lucy broke up with Tom, but told him he should call her if he ever gets over Wendy. In \\\"End of the World,\\\" Lucy attends Tom's \\\"best party of all time,\\\" the two have a good time, and she kisses Tom the next morning, hinting at the possibility of their relationship starting up again. Tom and Lucy rekindle their relationship in Season 7, and Tom proposes to Lucy, which she accepts, in \\\"Two Funerals\\\".\\nApril Ludgate's parents, Larry (John Ellison Conlee) and Rita (Terri Hoyos) are, in contrast to April's sarcastic and apathetic personality, extremely enthusiastic and positive people, who affectionally call their daughter Zuzu. Rita is from Puerto Rico, which April sardonically claims is what makes herself so \\\"lively and colorful\\\"; otherwise, however, Larry and Rita represent the archetypical Midwesterner couple. Their other daughter and April's younger sister, Natalie (Minni Jo Mazzola), is much more like April in personality: she is sullen, dismissive of others and seemingly uninterested in everything around her. The Ludgate family is first introduced in \\\"94 Meetings\\\", when Ron met them after coming to the Ludgate home to speak with April. Larry and Rita were extremely pleased to meet him, and April revealed Rita is a big fan of Ron's secret jazz saxophonist alter ego, Duke Silver. The family also attended April and Andy's surprise wedding ceremony in \\\"Andy and April's Fancy Party\\\", where they voiced their approval of the marriage. Natalie gave an unsentimental and indifferent speech about her sister during the reception, calling April \\\"lame\\\", but Andy \\\"sort of cool\\\", but the speech was still enough to reduce an emotional April to tears, leading to her hugging Natalie.\\nMarlene Griggs-Knope (Pamela Reed) is Leslie's mother and a major political figure in Pawnee's school system. She is a shrewd and cunning politician who is willing to resort to unethical tactics to get her way. Although Leslie has very different standards, she nevertheless sees Marlene as a source of inspiration, and is extremely eager to impress her mother. Marlene has low expectations for her daughter's ability to succeed, but is ultimately supportive of her, as indicated in \\\"Canvassing\\\" when Marlene attended Leslie's public forum in support of her despite privately predicting it would be a \\\"train wreck\\\". In \\\"The Banquet\\\", Marlene encouraged Leslie to use scandalous information to blackmail a Pawnee zoning official into supporting Leslie's park project. In \\\"The Bubble\\\", Leslie secretly prepared her boyfriend Ben for a meeting with Marlene with the hopes her mother would be impressed with him. The plan backfired, however, when Marlene became attracted to Ben and made a pass at him.\\nMona-Lisa Saperstein (Jenny Slate) is the crazy, outgoing twin sister of Jean-Ralphio Saperstein, described by him as \\\"a klepto, and a nympho, and a pyro\\\". She is also the former girlfriend of Tom Haverford. She is partly responsible for the opening of her father's, Dr.Saperstein's, store which eventually runs Tom Haverford's Rent-a-Swag store out of business. She first appeared in season 5 and continued to appear in the final two seasons (particularly Season 6) as an unreformed lunatic who frightened/terrorized anyone in her path. When she appears in Season 7 her father offers an embarrassed explanation for her insanity by telling Ben and April one word: \\\"pills.\\\"\\nDr. Saperstein (Henry Winkler), the father of Jean-Ralphio and Mona-Lisa, is a gynecologist in Pawnee who invests in several area businesses. Though he openly admits his two children are ne'er-do-well leeches, he loves them unconditionally anyway. After Tom and Mona-Lisa break up, Dr. Saperstein opens a store similar to Tom's Rent-a-Swag directly across the street for the express purpose of ruining Tom and forcing him to sell his store cheaply. He later relents a bit and offers Tom a deal that will let him break even as well as get a small portion of \\\"Tommy's Closet\\\" revenues going forward, which Tom glumly accepts. He is also the doctor whom Ann and Chris go to while the former is pregnant. In the season six finale, he shows up to the opening of Tom's Bistro (Tom is aghast to see him, but Mona-Lisa cluelessly followed up on Tom's request to bring in big names) and is happy when it appears the restaurant is going to flop. However, he later states the food is incredible and asks Tom if he can be a minority investor, to which Tom coolly replies that he will give Dr. Saperstein's offer some time and thought.\\nOrin (Eric Isenhower) is the creepy and intense friend of April Ludgate. He seldom speaks and often stares at people and makes them feel awkward. He first appeared in \\\"April and Andy's Fancy Party\\\", where he made Ben feel uncomfortable; at one point Ben said to him, \\\"No, Orin, I don't know how I'm going to die. Wait, are you asking me or telling me?\\\" At that same party, Orin spoke to Chris, but Chris was so positive he overwhelmed Orin. Orin reappeared in an art show at \\\"Jerry's Painting\\\", where he stood silently and motionlessly next to his exhibition: a completely blank canvas. Orin was originally mentioned in a throw-away joke in \\\"Time Capsule\\\", but \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" screenwriter Katie Dippold liked the idea of the character so much she worked him into her script for \\\"Andy and April's Fancy Party\\\". When Leslie had everyone bring a potential date for single Ann Perkins to a Valentine's Day dance, April (who doesn't like Ann) brought Orin; Leslie proceeded to insult Orin and then told him she meant every word of it, before lambasting April for bringing someone that unpleasant and unlikable to a romantic dance. This marked the first time someone on the show directly let Orin know they didn't like him. When he applied for the job of Animal Control director in Season 5, his resume contained one word: his name, in regular font. Leslie told him to go away, and after April asked him what qualified him to work in animal control, and he responded, \\\"I studied zoology in college. And I can control animals with my mind\\\", to which Leslie curtly says he will not be hired and repeats that he needs to get lost, which he does. He appeared briefly in Season 6 twice, in the episode \\\"Ann and Chris\\\" dressed up as the Easter Bunny at Ann and Chris's going away party and in the episode \\\"Prom\\\" pretending to be April's mom when Andy picked her up to go to the senior prom.\\nTammy Swanson (Patricia Clarkson) is the first ex-wife of Ron Swanson. Ron has been married to two different women, both named Tammy, and he hates and fears both of them. Ron explains that Tammy had been present throughout most of his young life: she delivered him as a baby, was his teacher, and she even took his virginity. Tammy returns as an IRS agent who arrives at the end of the third season (although she is not shown to the audience until the fourth season premiere) to audit Ron. Both Ron and his second wife named Tammy panic at the news of her arrival, and Ron attempts to flee before deciding to return to face her. Leslie then enlists Ron's eccentric mother (also named Tammy) in a drinking contest to drive Tammy I away once and for all. Since Tammy I's claim she was auditing Ron was a lie designed to let her search for his hidden gold, she ends up leaving with nothing, as Ron had deliberately put a tiny amount of gold out as a decoy, and was happy to sacrifice it in order to get rid of Tammy I.\\nTammy Swanson (Megan Mullally) is the second ex-wife of Ron Swanson; Ron has been married to two women named Tammy, and he hates both of them. Tammy is a manipulative woman who uses sex as a weapon, and she constantly tries to make Ron miserable. However, the two maintain a strong sexual attraction to each other. Tammy is director of the Pawnee Library, which is widely considered a horrible place by Leslie Knope and the parks department employees. Tammy is introduced in \\\"Ron and Tammy\\\", when she approached Leslie in a friendly way under the guise that she wants to talk to Ron and work out her differences with him. Secretly, she was scheming for Ron to give her a lot Leslie wanted to turn into a park, so she can instead turn it into a library branch. Once she and Ron reconnected, the two fight loudly, but quickly began having sex and briefly reunited. Ron eventually realized he was being manipulated and, with Leslie's help, resisted Tammy's efforts. Tammy returns in \\\"\\\", where she went on a date with Tom to make Ron jealous. Tammy and Ron ended up having a night of drunken sex and mayhem, which ended with the two of them getting remarried. However, when Tom tried to intervene and Tammy brutally beat him up, Ron remembered how horrible Tammy was and ended their marriage again. Tammy briefly appeared in the third season finale, \\\"Li'l Sebastian\\\", where she and Ron learned together that Ron's first wife, \\\"Tammy I\\\", had arrived in town, which made Tammy flee in terror. In Season 5, Tammy turned up during \\\"Ron and Diane\\\" with plans to seduce Ron at the woodworking show where he was getting an award, leading to much pain for Leslie when she painfully made sure Tammy never got near Ron (Diane was wrongly more worried about Leslie's friendship with Ron than Tammy's behavior, and Tammy ended up locking Leslie in the trunk of her own car and taking off in it), but in the end it all worked out: Diane was aware Tammy was psychotic and said if the cops let her go she would happily pummel her, and Ron pressed charges against his criminal ex.\\nMullally is the real-life wife of Nick Offerman, who plays Ron. Michael Schur conceived the idea for \\\"Ron and Tammy\\\", and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character. Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea. Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on-screen fights, as well as their unusual kissing and sexual encounters. During one scene in \\\"Ron and Tammy\\\", where the two characters run into a motel to have sex, Mullally removed her top and threw it into the air. Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it. Mullally's performance was well received by viewers, which made the \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" producers feel more comfortable about using celebrity guest actors in later episodes.\\nTamara \\\"Tammy\\\" Swanson (Paula Pell) is Ron's mother. She shares many personality traits with her son, and seems more than aware of the effect his ex-wives have on him. She first appeared in the episode \\\"Ron & Tammys\\\". She lives on the farm Ron grew up on, and has an entire room devoted to guns.\\nWendy Haverford (Jama Williamson) started the season as the wife of Tom Haverford, although it is later revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in a divorce. Wendy came to Pawnee from Ottawa, Canada and married Tom so she could remain in the country. Introduced in the first season finale \\\"Rock Band\\\", Wendy is an attractive, outgoing and wealthy pediatric surgeon, and the other characters are surprised she is married to Tom, who often brags about her attractiveness. Although Tom outwardly claims he is fine with the divorce, he secretly harbors romantic feelings for Wendy and wishes for the marriage to continue. When the parks department employees hold a contest in \\\"Practice Date\\\" about who can find out the biggest secret about the others, Ron learns about the green card marriage, but he keeps it a secret at Tom's request.\\nThe divorce proceedings begin in \\\"Tom's Divorce\\\", and Tom continued to pretend he is alright with the arrangement. However, when Ron asked Tom whether he could ask Wendy out after the divorce, Tom was secretly heartbroken, despite giving Ron his blessing. In \\\"Galentine's Day\\\", Tom admitted to Wendy his true feelings for her, but she rejected him, prompting an angry Tom to sue her for alimony in an attempt to blackmail her into going out with him. This effort was short-lived, however, and Tom eventually apologized and the two parted on good terms. A horrified Tom learned in the second season finale, \\\"Freddy Spaghetti\\\", that Wendy and Ron are indeed dating. Although the pairing caused tension between Ron and Tom, Ron proved so happy in his relationship with Wendy that it allowed him to resist the temptations of his horrible ex-wife Tammy. In \\\"Ron & Tammy: Part Two\\\", Ron and Wendy broke up after she decided to move back to Canada to take care of her ailing parents.\\nDiane Elizabeth Lewis (Lucy Lawless) was introduced in the third episode of Season 5, \\\"How a Bill Becomes a Law\\\". She is a junior high school vice principal and a single mother of two young girls, Ivy (Sadie Salizar) and Zoey (Rylan Lee). Ron Swanson meets her when he goes to fix a pothole in front of her house (since the Department of Public Works had been ignoring her complaints, Ron decided to simply take the matter into his own hands). Diane is far from Ron's usual \\\"type\\\". She's not named \\\"Tammy\\\" and she has two small girls. Ron is not good with children, or more specifically, with little girls (Ron had previously taken teenage and pre-teen boys camping to teach them survival skills, and also coached a basketball team). After he fixes the pothole, Diane's girls put makeup on Ron and Andy's faces (Ron had taken Andy with him to help fix the pothole), and have a little girl's tea party with them, which Ron tolerates surprisingly well. Ron really likes Diane and in episode 5 of season 5 (\\\"Halloween Surprise\\\") begins a dating relationship with her, deciding that dealing with a single mother and her girls might help him to expand his life experience. Diane, in return, in the episode \\\"Ron and Diane\\\", shows an impressive level of patience and understanding at Tammy II's psychotic attempts to ruin her relationship with Ron. In a private conversation with Leslie, Diane admits that she feels more threatened by Leslie than by Tammy II, as she feels that Leslie knows Ron in a way that she never can. When she confesses this fear to Ron, he assures her that, while Leslie is a loyal friend and colleague, he could never have any romantic feelings towards her. Then, to prove his commitment to Diane, he reveals to her his Duke Silver identity (a night club saxophone player, something even Leslie didn't know), and he plays Diane a song, naming her as his \\\"duchess\\\". In the same episode, Leslie decides that Diane is a good guardian of Ron's well-being and a shield against the disruptive antics of Tammy II. Later, during the episode \\\"Women in Garbage\\\", Ron is babysitting her daughters in the office with Ann, and accidentally allows them to lock themselves in his office with the contents of Ann's medical bag. The girls cut each other's hair before Ron and Ann can stop them, which destroys their hairstyles. Ron and Ann are horrified by this, and when Ron considers Diane's potential reaction, he blurts out to Ann that he has fallen in love with Diane (a statement he immediately tries to take back). Diane, however, is understanding of the accident, saying that it was just kids being kids. She tells him that she is touched by how much he cared, and that she loves him. Ron sheepishly admits that he loves her as well. It is implied at the end of the fifth season that Diane may be pregnant. In the beginning of the first episode of the sixth season, Diane confirms her pregnancy and Ron proposes marriage to which she accepts under one condition: that the wedding is as plain as possible. With that in mind, the two head up to the fourth floor with Leslie and April in tow. Leslie is asked to be the matron of honour and April appoints herself as Ron's 'Best Man'. The two are married in an extremely fast paced wedding filmed on April's phone and with highlighter pens acting as a bouquet. Later on in the episode where Leslie, Ron, April and Andy are in London, it is revealed that Diane suggested tagging along to make the trip hers and Ron's honeymoon, however her morning sickness meant she couldn't go and Ron had to take plenty of photos for her. Ron and Diane's baby, John Swanson, is born later in the season.\\nAlthough Diane does not appear in Season 7, she is frequently mentioned as still being married to Ron.\\nGayle Gergich (Christie Brinkley) is Jerry's inexplicably gorgeous wife, as well as the mother of Millicent, Miriam, and Gladys. Gayle has a solid and overly-affectionate relationship with Jerry, puzzling to his coworkers. She is referenced until she makes an appearance in \\\"Ron and Diane\\\". She also appears again in \\\"Jerry's Retirement.\\\"\\nMillicent \\\"Millie\\\" Gergich (Sarah Wright) is the gorgeous daughter of Gayle and Jerry. She was introduced in season 4 as Chris's love interest. In \\\"Bowling for Votes\\\", Chris mentions his plans to move in with Millicent, but she breaks up with him off screen that same episode. In \\\"Ron and Diane\\\" it's revealed that Millicent is engaged to a rafting instructor named Carl. She makes another appearance in \\\"Jerry's Retirement.\\\"\\nGladys Gergich (Katie Gill) is one of Gayle and Jerry's other daughters. She first appears in \\\"Ron and Diane\\\", singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and sister, Miriam. She also appears again in \\\"Jerry's Retirement.\\\"\\nMiriam Gergich (Maliabeth Johnson) is one of Gayle and Jerry's other daughters. She first appears in \\\"Ron and Diane\\\", singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and Gladys. She also appears again in \\\"Jerry's retirement.\\\"\\nNorman \\\"Typhoon\\\" Montalban (Rodney To) is a hairdresser in Pawnee who marries Craig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) in the flash forwards of the season finale. Typhoon was introduced in the 5th episode of Season 6 as Donna's hairdresser after she recommends him to Ron, following the passing of Ron's former regular barber. Ron is at first reluctant to take on a new stylist, but bonds with Typhoon over their shared hatred of Europe and bicycles. He appears again in the 7th episode of Season 7 as Donna's stylist for her wedding, and again in the final episode when he marries Craig. Ron is shown to be the best man at their wedding.\\nBill Dexhart (Kevin Symons) is a Pawnee councilman who regularly participates in outrageous sex scandals with multiple partners. His character was inspired by South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford and his 2009 scandal, in which he admitted to a long-time extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman. Dexhart first appeared in \\\"Practice Date\\\", when he publicly admitted to having participated in a foursome in a Brazil cave under the guise of building houses for the underprivileged. Dexhart was featured prominently in \\\"Christmas Scandal\\\", which began with Leslie portraying him in a satirical holiday skit in which he discussed his an affair with multiple women that resulted in a love child. Unbeknownst to Leslie, Dexhart turned out to be involved in a sexual arrangement very similar to that one: four-way sex in a hospital room where he has just overseen the birth of his love child. When he confronted her about it, members of the media took pictures of Leslie and Dexhart together and speculated that the two of them were having an affair. Dexhart refused to deny the allegations, and even went so far as to confirm them, because the fictional affair was less scandalous than his actual sexual discretions. As proof of the affair, he claimed Leslie had a mole on her right buttock, but she publicly proved him wrong by dropping her pants on live television and revealing there is no mole. In Season 5 he was something of a swing vote for Leslie on the City Council because he was less likely to fully support her than Howser, but also less likely to thoughtlessly oppose her than either Milton or Jamm. That has changed during the recall campaign against Leslie in Season 6, as Dexhart has cheerfully joined Jamm in blocking any initiatives by her and making it clear they both hope she is booted from office. In the episode \\\"Second Chunce\\\", Dexhart publicly confesses to \\\"texting, sexting and Tex-Mexting\\\" approximately one hundred women under a series of implausible pseudonyms, parodying the Anthony Weiner sexting scandals. In fact, \\\"Anthony Weiner\\\" is the last in the list of pseudonyms Dexhart reads out at a press conference. Leslie briefly considers running for his seat after being impeached, but is dissuaded by Jennifer Barkley.\\nThe district that Dexhart is in charge of is a run-down, crime-ridden part of town that he had promised to clean up, but his only action has been to rename it Beach View Terrace.\\nCarl Lorthner (Andy Samberg) is a park ranger and the head of outdoor security for Pawnee. He constantly talks extremely loudly, speaking at screaming levels even when asked to talk quietly, and works as a ranger because he cannot hold down a job that involves working indoors due to his inability to control the volume of his voice. Carl appeared in \\\"Park Safety\\\", in which Jerry claimed to be mugged in Ramsett Park, which fell under Carl's territory. Leslie launched efforts to make the parks safer and had Carl take them on a tour of the area; he showed Leslie, Tom and Jerry around on a mobile cart that had been attacked and urinated upon by raccoons. Carl eventually discovered that Jerry was not mugged at all, but accidentally fell into a creek by himself. Angry that Leslie blamed Carl's security measures for the mugging, he threatened to reveal the truth on Joan Callamezzo's morning news show, \\\"Pawnee Today\\\". Leslie convinced him not to do so at the last minute, and they instead angered Callamezzo by discussing the 2009 film \\\"Avatar\\\" and whether it lived up to its hype.\\nGeorge Williams (Biff Yeager) works in the Public Works Department, first seen in the season three episode Jerry's Painting, although he was referred to as \\\"Lenny\\\". In Li'l Sebastian, he worked as a maintenance worker for Li'l Sebastian's funeral, as witnessed Ben and Leslie kissing. To keep him from revealing their secret, Ben and Leslie give him a $50 spa gift certificate. He reappears in The Trial of Leslie Knope, where it is revealed he is a NASCAR enthusiast. He testifies against Leslie and provides the key evidence against her.\\nCouncilman Howser (Yvans Jourdain) is a Pawnee councilman who repeatedly encounters Leslie in embarrassing or awkward situations around city hall, during which time Leslie nevertheless tries to discuss politics with him. For example, in \\\"94 Meetings\\\", Leslie ran into Councilman Howser in the men's bathroom, which she entered while following Ron Swanson and trying to discuss something with him. Afterward, Leslie awkwardly blurted to Howser, \\\"Councilman Howser. I saw your penis.\\\" That being said, he is depicted as by far the most rational Council member and has consistently supported her proposals and plans since she was elected. In \\\"Filibuster\\\" he can be seen as visibly pleased that Leslie had successfully filibustered Jamm's attempt to block former Eagletonians's right to vote.\\nHugh Trumple (Eric Pierpoint) is chief of the Pawnee police department. He has a very serious and gruff personality, and speaks in a dry, monotonic manner. Trumple has great respect for Leslie Knope because of her passion for helping those around her. Chief Trumple first appeared in \\\"Ron & Tammy: Part Two\\\", when Ron Swanson gets arrested for a night of debauchery with his ex-wife Tammy. The chief agreed to Leslie's request that he release him to Leslie's custody. Ben feared Leslie cashing in this favor meant the chief would not agree to provide security for the upcoming harvest festival, but Chief Trumple agreed to do so anyway out of his respect for Leslie, telling Ben he will always do favors for Leslie because she is the kind of person who uses those favors to help people. The chief reappeared in the episode \\\"Eagleton\\\", where he arrested Leslie when she refused to apologize after getting in a fight with Lindsay Carlisle Shay, her rival from the neighboring city of Eagleton. Trumple retired as police chief in Season 4.\\nAn orthodontist by day, Jamm (Jon Glaser) is a member of the Pawnee City Council, and has made himself Leslie's major nemesis. He also appears to have a grudge against the entire Parks Department, angry over the fact that Leslie ruined his Paunch Burger plan. Tom shoved him into a swimming pool, Ann refused to sleep with him, and Ron punched him in the mouth. After fighting with Leslie over the use of her private bathroom for her office, he becomes a continual thorn in Leslie's side for any proposal she makes. His catch phrase, \\\"you just got Jammed,\\\" is used whenever he one-ups Leslie or any other adversary. He failed to turn Lot 48 into a new Paunch Burger restaurant when Leslie won over the city planning committee and got the Pawnee Commons park project approved, leading to him getting drunk and temporarily ruining Ben and Leslie's impromptu on-site wedding. Afterward, he was punched by Ron Swanson; both of them were thrown in jail but Ron was quickly released while Jamm was left to sober up in his cell, and the wedding took place at City Hall. He then sued Ron and it looked he would win, but Tom, Andy and April threatened a similarly bogus lawsuit that Jamm knew he would lose, so both sides backed off. When Leslie is under political pressure to resign, Jamm complicates Leslie's role on the council by teaming up with councilman Dexhart and voting down any proposal Leslie has, to spite her. When Donna Meagle accidentally sends a sexually suggestive tweet from the department Twitter, Jamm uses this as an opportunity to hold public hearings that put Leslie's ethics into question. After he holds a series of hearings to drag out Leslie's ordeal, Leslie publicly stands up to Jamm and says that she's going to get back to work as a councilwoman and won't attend any more of the hearings. In the season six finale, Jamm is shown at the Pawnee/Eagleton unity concert leading a secession effort.\\nJamm reappears in the Season 7 episode \\\"Ron and Jammy\\\", where he is revealed to be dating Tammy, Ron's second ex-wife. Leslie and Ron are feuding over the Newport land rights at this time, and Jamm is the swing vote on the issue. Leslie initially sees the relationship as an advantage, since Tammy would influence Jamm to vote against Ron; however, it becomes apparent that being with Tammy is detrimental to Jamm's physical and mental well-being. Leslie and Ron decide to put aside their differences and successfully coach Jamm into breaking up with her. Jamm then abstains from the land rights vote, leaving the issue deadlocked.\\nMilton (James Greene) is the longest-serving Pawnee Councilman, having been elected in 1948 as a Dixiecrat largely due to his commitment to de-integrating Major League Baseball, as well as a plan to re-open a former WWII Japanese-American Internment Camp in Pawnee and get it back up to speed. He is generally senile except on matters of racism and sexism, where his memory seems to be intact (he was able to calculate when Leslie Knope's next menstrual period would start during \\\"Women in Garbage\\\"), and he has generally—though not always—been on the other side of Leslie's initiatives.\\nJoe Fantringham (Kirk Fox), also sometimes called \\\"Sewage Joe\\\", works for the Pawnee sewer department, which he calls the \\\"Toilet Party\\\". Despite the nature of his department, Joe regularly hires supermodel-like interns. The parks and sewer departments have an ongoing rivalry and Joe regularly mocks them, much to the confusion of Leslie, who does not understand why he considers the sewer department better than parks and recreation. Joe first appeared in \\\"The Camel\\\", when the various Pawnee departments competed to design a mural for city hall. Joe was arrogant and bragged to Leslie about his department's chances at success, and his department ultimately designed a good mural, but the contest ended without a winner. In \\\"Telethon\\\", Joe made a pass at April. When she rejected him, he insisted he did not care because the sewer department is \\\"waist deep in hot snizz\\\", a reference to the sewer department interns. Joe also appeared in \\\"Soulmates\\\", where he made a pass at Leslie, prompting her to wonder why only jerks have recently seemed to be attracted to her. When Leslie asked Joe his standards for women, he replied only that they cannot be elderly. Ben Wyatt fired him after Joe sent a cell-phone picture of his penis to everyone in the Pawnee government. Also, Ann noticed from the picture that Joe had the mumps. In Bus Tour, Joe later tried twice to hit Ben in the face with a pie in revenge, failing the first time (at one of Leslie Knope's campaign rallies, where he hit Jerry) before succeeding (at Bobby Newport's mansion) due to inept security from Andy's FBI agent alter-ego 'Bert Macklin' and then getting arrested. He later appears briefly in the fifth season, at the local sperm bank when he tells Ann and Leslie (Who were there because Ann was trying to have a baby) that he and his friends were regular donors.\\nKen Hotate (Jonathan Joss) is the leader of Pawnee's local Wamapoke Native American tribe. He also runs a casino in the city. He appeared in \\\"Harvest Festival\\\", where he asked Leslie to relocate her festival because it was taking place on the sacred burial grounds of the Battle of Indian Hill, where his ancestors were killed in a seven-day battle. When Leslie insisted there was nowhere she could move the festival without being offensive due to Pawnee's extremely bloody history, Ken threatened to place a curse on the festival. He knew the curse to be fake, but believed it would frighten people enough to ruin the festival, insisting, \\\"There are two things I know about white people: they love Matchbox Twenty, and they are terrified of curses.\\\" Ken's efforts proved successful, as the local media learned about the curse and reported on it so extensively that the festival was nearly ruined. Leslie and Ken came to a compromise after Leslie agreed to place a Wamapoke history exhibit by the entrance of the festival, and Ken lifted the fake curse during a phony ceremony, where he said nonsense chants including \\\"Doobee doobee do\\\". Although Ken enjoyed giving Leslie some tsuris at this point, later on it is shown he fully respects her; when Leslie desperately plants Wamapoke artifacts on the Lots 42 site after Councilman Jamm and the Pawnee Restaurant Association henchwoman have broken an agreement to leave the site alone until a city meeting, Ken first accepts Leslie's apology and then bluntly threatens reprisals unless the agreement is reinstated, which a cowardly Jamm quickly agrees to do. Jonathan Joss previously voiced John Redcorn in the animated television series \\\"King of the Hill\\\", which was co-created by \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" co-creator Greg Daniels.\\nKyle (Andy Forrest) is a government employee and regular customer at Andy's shoeshine stand. He is routinely mocked and laughed at, not only by Andy but others at city hall as well, even Jerry Gergich, who himself is usually scorned by his co-workers. For example, in the episode \\\"Camping\\\", Kyle told Andy that his identity had been stolen and his bank account frozen, and Andy reacted by laughing hysterically. Andy and April have also stolen money from Kyle's wallet and ejected him from the shoeshine chair (but not before Andy poured Pepto-Bismol on Kyle's shoes). Kyle also appeared in \\\"Soulmates\\\", where he was one of the judges in a contest between Chris and Ron to determine whether red or lean meat is better. Kyle complimented the umami taste in one of the burgers, prompting fellow judge Jerry to condemn him for acting pretentious. Ron Swanson also pawned Kyle off on Chris when Chris was trying to be friendly to Ron, with Ron knowing very little about Kyle beyond his first name, and Chris being politely distant to him.\\nMayor Gunderson (Bill Murray) is the mayor of Pawnee during most of the show's run. In the final season, set in 2017, Perd Hapley announces Mayor Gunderson's death and an open-casket memorial is held in the city council chambers. In a video Gunderson assigned to be shown at his funeral, he remarks at how little attention he had been paying, and that he would take credit if any needed to be taken. He then points out that if there was any blame, it was the citizens' fault. His last statement is \\\"Goodbye forever.\\\" This posthumous appearance by Bill Murray as Gunderson, is the only time he is seen on \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", although he had been mentioned in multiple episodes of the show. He was first mentioned in \\\"Christmas Scandal\\\", when the parks and recreation department held a satirical holiday skit full of inside jokes about Pawnee, and April declared, \\\"That's crazier than Mayor Gunderson's dog, Rufus.\\\" He is also mentioned in the episode \\\"Leslie's House,\\\" when Mark asks everyone if they heard about the incident involving his dog, prompting Ron to say, \\\"Oh my god, it was a bloodbath.\\\" Mark later adds that as a result of the incident, someone from animal services would be fired. The mayor and his dog played a major part in the episode \\\"The Possum\\\", when Mayor Gunderson's assistant ordered the parks department to capture an opossum that bit Rufus on a Pawnee golf course. Andy, who helps Leslie capture the opossum, said at one point, \\\"We're acting under direct orders from Mayor Gunderson's dog.\\\" For the funeral scene in the third season finale \\\"Li'l Sebastian\\\", Michael Schur said the writing staff considered killing off Mayor Gunderson, but they instead went with miniature horse Li'l Sebastian because it was decided having an animal die would be more appropriate and less morbid. Having Bill Murray play the mayor was a long-time goal of the cast and crew of the show. Amy Poehler stated she would love Murray to play Mayor Gunderson and, during an appearance on \\\"Late Night with Jimmy Fallon\\\", jokingly announced she would pay him $250 if he played the role.\\nAfter Gunderson's death, Gerry Gergich was appointed interim mayor of the town.\\nPaul Iaresco (Phil Reeves) is the Pawnee city manager, which makes him supervisor of all the departments and staff in city hall. He was first introduced in \\\"Canvassing\\\", when he asked Ron to Leslie's plans to convert a construction pit into a park. This inadvertently led to a disastrous public forum, where most attendees forcefully opposed the project. Paul appeared in several other \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" episodes, including \\\"The Master Plan\\\", where he announced the pending arrival of state auditors Ben Wyatt and Chris Traeger due to Pawnee's crippling budget problems. In \\\"Camping\\\", Paul held a press conference to commend Leslie for her successful relaunch of the city's harvest festival. During the conference, he suffered a massive heart attack and accidentally clutched Leslie's breast as he fell to the ground; one newspaper's story about the incident read, \\\"Knope Grope is Last Hope!\\\" Paul took a leave of absence after an octuple bypass, and Chris Traeger took over as interim city manager.\\nScott Braddock (H. Jon Benjamin) is a high-strung Pawnee city attorney who becomes extremely nervous about anything that could lead to a lawsuit. He appeared in \\\"Kaboom\\\", where Leslie accidentally injured Andy by arranging for a bulldozer to fill in a giant pit, unaware that Andy was inside it. He became hospitalized, and Scott encouraged Leslie not to apologize or admit fault in the incident because it would risk Pawnee getting sued. Scott constantly admonished Leslie when she tries to apologize, at one point shouting, \\\"No miming!\\\" when she made a motion indicating how badly she feels. Andy did file a lawsuit with the hopes of winning enough money to impress his ex-girlfriend Ann, but it ended with a settlement that resulted in the pit getting filled in.\\nWilliam (Johnny Sneed) and Elizabeth (Antonia Raftu) first approached Leslie in the third season finale, Li'l Sebastian, about Leslie potentially running for city council. After she agrees, in season four, they start working on her campaign, as her advisors. In Citizen Knope, Leslie gives a Christmas ornament with \\\"Knope 2012\\\" written on it, to William as a present, and attempts to give Elizabeth a Knope 2012 menorah because she thinks but is not sure Elizabeth is Jewish (she isn't). When Leslie and Ben turn themselves in, and Ben resigns after Leslie's trial, William and Elizabeth inform her that she is polling at 1%, and they will no longer advise her on her campaign. Leslie accuses them of hypocrisy as she believes that they are romantically involved, however Elizabeth bluntly responds \\\"I'm gay\\\". William and Elizabeth make their final appearance in The Comeback Kid, as they tell Leslie that they are looking for other potential candidates.\\nEthel Beavers (Helen Slayton-Hughes) is an elderly town employee, who continues to work as the municipal stenographer.\\nHarris (show writer Harris Wittels) and Brett (Colton Dunn) are the two useless stoner employees of the Animal Control department. They are first seen in the second season episode The Possum; Brett appears in six episodes and Harris in eight. In \\\"Andy and April's Fancy Party\\\", Harris and Brett attend the wedding party; despite this, Harris later asks if April is single. In \\\"Operation Ann\\\" in the fourth season, Harris is one of the men Leslie and Tom set up with Ann during the Valentine's Day dance. Tom tells her Harris still lives with his parents and has been to at least 200 Phish concerts; Harris informs them he has been to 308.\\nIn the season five episode \\\"Animal Control,\\\" Chris Traeger fires Brett and Harris after he steps on a coyote trap in the animal control office. Both subsequently reapply for the position and are the only two applicants; by this time they also live together. On his application, Brett lists his love of hamburgers under his qualifications for the job. When April asks why there are so many police outside city hall, the presumably stoned Harris and Brett quickly run off.\\nIn the season seven episode \\\"Pie\\\", Brett and Harris are revealed to be secretly living in the basement of city hall. Ron, April and Andy ask them the location of the shoeshine stand while searching for a hidden key to Ron's home.\\nCrazy Ira (Matt Besser) and Howard \\\"The Douche\\\" Tuttleman (Nick Kroll) are two shock jocks of a morning zoo-style Pawnee radio program. They serve primarily as a parody of those types of radio shows, especially in a small-town market like Pawnee. The show prominently features fart jokes and \\\"your mom\\\" insults, as well as constant sound effects from their sound man \\\"China Joe\\\", who hates his job. Crazy Ira and The Douche are widely admired in Pawnee, especially by Tom Haverford, and are considered much better than their rival radio show, \\\"Tubby Tony and The Papaya\\\" (who never appear on-screen). They first appeared on \\\"Media Blitz\\\" when, during an interview with Leslie and Tom about the upcoming harvest festival, they revealed their true motive was to lambast Ben for his failed tenure as a city mayor during his teen years. The interview proved disastrous for Ben, who was so socially awkward he could barely talk, and it led to other Pawnee media taking on the story and nearly ruining the harvest festival. The Douche reappeared in \\\"The Fight\\\", when he went on a date with Ann to the Snakehole Lounge bar. This came at a time when Ann was regularly going on a string of dates with random, underachieving men, and the date with The Douche led to a major argument between Ann and Leslie because Ann was supposed to be preparing for a job interview Leslie had arranged for her. Later, on his radio show, The Douche dismissed both Ann and Leslie as likely lesbians.\\nBefore his appearance as Crazy Ira, Matt Besser was a comedian with the \\\"Upright Citizens Brigade\\\", a sketch comedy show and troupe which also featured \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" star Amy Poehler.\\nDuring the last seasons of Parks and Recreation, Nick Kroll was dating Amy Poehler (Leslie Knope) in real life and she also starred in his show, \\\"Kroll Show\\\"\\nDerry Murbles (Dan Castellaneta) and August Clementine (John Hodgman) are the hosts of the public radio talk show \\\"Thought for your Thoughts.\\\" The show is known for its particularly boring content and terrible song selections. August Clementine joined the show after the Pawnee-Eagleton merger.\\nJoan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) is the hostess of \\\"Pawnee Today\\\", a local news magazine/talk show that combines elements of NBC's \\\"Today\\\" show and news shows like \\\"Nancy Grace\\\". She often serves as a parody of the media in her tendency to turn small matters into big stories and her desire to find the most negative possible aspects of any given story. Joan refers to herself as a \\\"legendary newswoman\\\" and is more intimidating than other members of the Pawnee media, as Leslie declares that she \\\"runs this town\\\". However, Leslie also has a tendency of taking over Joan's show when she appears on it and discussing whatever she wants. In \\\"Christmas Scandal\\\", Leslie appeared on \\\"Pawnee Today\\\" to refute accusations that she was having an affair with Councilman Bill Dexhart. When Dexhart himself appeared on the show and offered proof of the affair by claiming Leslie has a mole on her buttock, Leslie pulled her pants down on the show to prove him wrong. Upon realizing Leslie has no mole, Joan called Dexhart's lies about Leslie \\\"No mole-gate\\\", named after the Watergate scandal. In \\\"Media Blitz\\\", Leslie and Ben appeared on \\\"Pawnee Today\\\" to combat rumors that he was going to bankrupt the town due to his past as a failed teen mayor. Ben was bombarded with angry callers and labeled a \\\"human disaster\\\" on the show's subtitles. Joan reappeared in \\\"Harvest Festival\\\", where she was determined to find a problem with the festival Leslie organized. Initially disappointed to find no problems, she eventually learned about a supposed Indian curse placed upon the harvest festival by a local Pawnee tribe, which she turned into a major scandalous story. In later episodes, Joan has gone through an ugly divorce and become an alcoholic; when Ron Swanson appears on her show, she has just returned from a \\\"singles cruise\\\" and simply passes out during their taping, leading Ron to take over as host and do such a great job that the on-camera graphics show the episode as \\\"You're on With Ron\\\".\\nCollins was originally expected to appear only in one \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" episode, but returned for subsequent episodes because the writing staff enjoyed her performance.\\nPerderick L. \\\"Perd\\\" Hapley (Jay Jackson) is a Pawnee television journalist and host of the television news programs \\\"Ya Heard? With Perd!\\\" and \\\"The Final Word With Perd\\\". He also hosts a news segment called \\\"Are You There Perd-verts? It's Me Perd, Hosting a New Segment\\\". He often speaks in awkward tautologies such as \\\"One more shocking revelation in a story that won't stop unfolding\\\", \\\"The statement this reporter has is a question\\\", and \\\"Also joining us today is a different person\\\". Like other reporters on \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", Perd often serves as a parody of the pack mentality of the media and their tendency to generate scandals. Perd reported on the sex scandal involving Councilman Bill Dexhart in \\\"Practice Date\\\", the rumors of Leslie's sexual affair with Dexhart in \\\"Christmas Scandal\\\", and the supposed Indian curse on the harvest festival in \\\"Harvest Festival\\\". He also appears in \\\"Telethon\\\" as a guest of Leslie's 24-hour telethon, where he performed the dance move the worm to \\\"Axel F\\\". In \\\"Media Blitz\\\", Ben Wyatt appeared on Perd Hapley's show amid a media controversy about Ben's failed tenure as a child mayor. Although Perd only asked simple questions, the nervous Ben had a complete meltdown, which ended with him angrily referring to Perd Hapley as \\\"Turd Crapley\\\". Perd interviewed Leslie and porn star Brandi Maxxxx in \\\"Jerry's Painting\\\" to discuss whether a painting featuring Leslie nude can be considered art. In his younger days on Pawnee TV, Perd was a film critic who famously gave only 1 and 1/2 stars because \\\"it's a good story, but it's just not believable\\\". In the final season, he is shown dressed as a judge and hosting a TV show called \\\"The Perdples Court\\\", while onscreen subtitles remind viewers that Perd is \\\"not a real judge\\\".\\nJackson was originally expected to appear only in one \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" episode, during which his character was seen only on a television screen. He returned for subsequent episodes, however, because the writing staff enjoyed his performance and liked writing jokes for him.\\nShauna Malwae-Tweep (Alison Becker) is a reporter with the local newspaper, \\\"The Pawnee Journal\\\". Shauna meets Leslie Knope in \\\"The Reporter\\\", when she was assigned to write a story about the parks department's efforts to turn a construction pit into a park. When the interviews went badly, Leslie asked Mark Brendanawicz for help dealing with Shauna, and Mark ended up sleeping with her. Mark told Shauna he does not believe the park will ever be built. Later, Shauna agreed not to publish the story since she and Mark are in a relationship and it would be a conflict. When Mark says he cannot commit to a relationship, however, she goes ahead with the story. Shauna returned in \\\"The Possum\\\", where she interviewed Andy Dwyer for a story about his successful capture of an opossum that had bitten Mayor Gunderson's dog. During that interview, Andy made Shauna feel awkward by openly discussing her having previously slept with Mark. During scenes cut from the episode \\\"The Master Plan\\\", Shauna and Andy flirted with each other, but he ultimately rejected her due to his feelings for April, prompting her to declare, \\\"I can't even land the shoeshine guy.\\\" Michael Schur said of the character, \\\"She's just unlucky in love.\\\" Shauna also appears in \\\"Time Capsule\\\", where she initially started writing a story about Leslie's plans for a Pawnee time capsule. However, after Kelly Larson handcuffed himself to a pipe when she did not include the \\\"Twilight\\\" novel in the capsule, Shauna wrote that story instead, with the headline, \\\"Parks Department Foiled by Pipe Dreams\\\". Shauna also appeared in \\\"Media Blitz\\\" as one of the many reporters who wrote about Ben Wyatt's past as a failed teen mayor. In season 5, she briefly dates Chris Traeger.\\nShauna is increasingly shown throughout the show to have a particularly messy personal life. The season six episode \\\"Galentine's Day\\\" revealed that she had recently ended a relationship with a married man, and that she found out in college that her family was actually her father's secret second family. In the extended edition of the show's final episode, Leslie reassures Shauna that one day she will find happiness. In a flash-forward, Shauna is shown to have been left at the altar in 2018, crying on a park bench. Bobby Newport walks by and consoles her, and five hours later the two are happily married. Shauna is the only non-main character to appear in every season.\\nKim (Jamie Denbo) is an obnoxious, untalented tabloid reporter working at the local rag \\\"Pawnee Sun\\\" who made her only appearance to date in Season 5's \\\"Correspondents Lunch\\\". Leslie was eager to perform a great skit at the event, but Kim (whose paper has been suspiciously capable of finding and printing embarrassing information about Leslie) ends up delivering all of Leslie's jokes. Unfortunately for Kim, Leslie and Donna find proof that Kim has illegally hacked into Leslie's e-mails, when Leslie sends a bait message about \\\"midichlorians\\\" in the soil near the Pawnee Commons project. Kim asks a question about the \\\"news\\\" only to have Leslie bluntly tell her that the substance in question is from \\\"\\\" and she's just revealed that she's broken the law. Kim tries to act dismissive, but gets scared out of the room by Donna.\\nBarney Varmn (John Balma) is an accountant who first appeared in the season 2 episode \\\"Leslie's House\\\" where he gives a presentation to Leslie to try and save an accounting class he teaches at the William Percy Recreation Center. He works at an unnamed accounting firm in Pawnee. He has offered Ben Wyatt a job at his accounting firm on multiple occasions, however, Ben always refuses to accept the position. Nonetheless, he is known for laughing raucously when Ben makes accounting puns, often calling in an unseen character named Ted to hear the pun after he laughs at it. He is also a fan of the Cones of Dunshire, a board game that Ben invented in season 6.\\nBrandi Maxxxx (Mara Marini) is a pornography star who has appeared in more than 200 adult films, despite having been in the business only one year. She appeared in \\\"Jerry's Painting\\\" as a guest on the news show \\\"Ya Heard? With Perd!\\\", where host Perd Hapley was interviewing Leslie Knope about a painting she appeared nude in. Brandi was also brought on as a guest and, to Leslie's chagrin, compared Leslie's painting to pornography and defended them both. She claimed anyone should be allowed to have sex anywhere they wanted, and falsely believed Leslie felt the same way. When Leslie quoted United States Supreme Court Associate Justice Potter Stewart's famous claim that he cannot define pornography but \\\"I know it when I see it\\\", Brandi was asked to define it and she replied, \\\"For me, it's when the penis goes in.\\\" Brandi also invited Leslie to appear in her next film. Tom tried to flirt with Brandi, but his efforts were ruined when she recognized him as the basis of a baby-like cherub in the painting. In the episode \\\"Campaign Shake Up\\\", Brandi Maxxxx is also running for the City Council election, in third place in polls with 8% of the vote behind Bobby Newport's 45% and second place Leslie Knope with 30%. In the final episode One Last Ride, a flashfoward shows that she eventually becomes the head of the Pawnee City Council, swearing in Garry Gergich for his fourth term as Mayor. Her character may be a reference to adult film star and candidate for Governor of California Mary Carey.\\nChris (Will Arnett) is an MRI technologist at the hospital where Ann Perkins works. Ann sets Chris and Leslie up on a in \\\"The Set Up\\\", which goes extremely poorly. Chris is openly rude to Leslie during the dinner, criticizing Leslie's alma mater of Indiana University and expressing disappointment that she only works in regular parks rather than amusement parks. Upon learning Leslie has never had an MRI, Chris insists on immediately taking her to the hospital and giving her one, a plan to which she reluctantly agrees. His inappropriate behavior continues at the hospital, where he makes creepy comments about her \\\"industrial-sized\\\" womb during the MRI and unsubtle comments about expecting to have sex with her later, including asking whether she is having her period. They part on bad terms, with Chris angry that Leslie refused to have sex with him after the date.\\nAt the time of the episode, Arnett was the real-life husband of Amy Poehler, who played Leslie. However, it was not Poehler who arranged for him to be on the show, but rather Michael Schur, who is a good friend of Arnett and felt he would be a good fit for the character.\\nJessica Wicks (Susan Yeagley) is a Miss Pawnee beauty pageant winner who became the younger trophy wife of the elderly but wealthy Nick Newport, Sr. Speaking with a slight Southern accent, Jessica is a superficial woman who cares deeply about her own physical appearance and tries hard to charm others around her. She won the Miss Pawnee contest in 1994 primarily based on her looks; her talent during the pageant was packing a suitcase. This was most likely intended by the writers to be an homage to the 1975 beauty pageant film \\\"Smile\\\", where Miss Imperial Valley packed a suitcase as her talent. Jessica first appeared in \\\"Beauty Pageant\\\" as a Miss Pawnee panel judge along with Leslie and Tom. When Tom voted for the beautiful Trish Ianetta but Leslie pushed for a smarter but less attractive contestant, the superficial Jessica sided with Tom. She reappeared in \\\"94 Meetings\\\", where she organized a birthday party for Nick Newport, Sr. by completely renovating and tearing down portions of the historic Turnbill Mansion. Leslie unsuccessfully tried to stop her, while Tom simply flirted with her, acknowledging she was a but calling himself a \\\"gold digger digger\\\". Jessica sang a horribly out-of-key song for her husband with an accompanist on the harp. Her husband, Nick Newport, Sr. dies in Bus Tour, making her a widow. She takes over the family business, \\\"Sweetums,\\\" making Ben the new Director of Charitable projects.\\nKelly Larson (Will Forte) is a Pawnee resident who advocated for Leslie to include the \\\"Twilight\\\" novel in a time capsule she was organizing. Appearing in \\\"Time Capsule\\\", Kelly is obsessed with Twilight and knows every detail about the books, the film series and \\\"Twilight\\\" author Stephenie Meyer. When Kelly visited Leslie's office to advocate for the novel, she politely refused, and Kelly responded by handcuffing himself to a pipe in her office, promising to stay there until she agrees. He spent three days in the office, where he got Tom interested in \\\"Twilight\\\" and held book discussions with Tom and Donna. Finally, Leslie revealed she knows Kelly's true motivations: he had recently gone through a divorce and was trying to impress his teenage daughter, who loves \\\"Twilight\\\". Although sympathetic, Leslie cannot agree to Kelly's request or she would have to accept demands from all Pawnee residents. As a compromise, she held a public meeting where she listened to all demands. Ultimately, when the citizens could not agree on anything, Leslie submitted a video tape of that very meeting, which she believed symbolizes the spirit and passion of Pawnee.\\nLawrence (Eric Edelstein) is a Pawnee resident who has criticized the parks and recreation department's plans at public forums, which embodied a recurring \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" theme that only citizens opposed to projects bother to attend town meetings. He first appeared in \\\"Canvassing\\\" at a forum Leslie held to raise support for her proposed park project. Lawrence only complained about the loud music his neighbor Andy played. Andy said in an interview with the documentary crew \\\"Lawrence lives with his uh grandmother, which is pretty awesome. He takes care of her, I guess. But whatever, he's a douchebag.\\\" He complained that Andy's music was \\\"loud, . . . abusive, and [was] waking up [his] birds,\\\" causing Lawrence to admit that he had \\\". . . nice, pretty, expensive birds . . .\\\" Lawrence was also the one who pointed out in the same meeting that April Ludgate had been planted by Leslie as a supporter for the park, having recognized her since she was at his door the day before. He ended the night by telling Leslie, \\\"Hey park lady, you suck,\\\" to which she proudly replied, \\\"Hear that? He called me park lady.\\\" The line was originally meant to be said by someone else, but Michael Schur said it was given to Lawrence because the \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" crew liked Edelstein so much. Lawrence reappeared in \\\"Boys' Club\\\", where he angrily stole Andy's radio while Andy was bathing himself in a children's pool in the back yard. This prompted Andy to chase Lawrence through the street naked while using crutches. Lawrence also appeared in a scene that was deleted from \\\"Ron and Tammy\\\", but included in the second season DVD, in which he mocked Andy's new city hall job as a shoeshiner by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean.\\nMarcia Langman (Darlene Hunt) is a conservative activist with the Pawnee organization, the Society for Family Stability Foundation. She often serves as an antagonist to Leslie by objecting to her plans and arguing against issues she considers offensive. Marcia uses fear-mongering tactics and often expresses racist and homophobic sentiments. In her first appearance, \\\"Pawnee Zoo\\\", she objected to Leslie's marriage of two male penguins during a publicity stunt for the zoo. Offended by what she perceived as a public show of support for same-sex marriage, Marcia demanded Leslie's resignation and appeared on the morning news program \\\"Pawnee Today\\\" to debate the matter with Leslie. She next appeared in \\\"Time Capsule\\\", where Marcia objected to a proposal to include the \\\"Twilight\\\" novel in a Pawnee time capsule, claiming it included offensive sexual content and went against Christian values. Marcia reappeared in \\\"Jerry's Painting\\\", where she demanded the destruction of a painting that depicted Leslie as a bare-chested centaur. Condemning it as \\\"government-funded animal porn\\\", she took the matter to the city arts commission, which agreed to destroy it because they do not want to offend anybody. Marcia planned to publicly burn the painting, but Leslie had it switched with a decoy painting and kept the original herself. She initially blocked Leslie's sensible plan to teach safe sexual practices to senior citizens in Season 5, citing city laws that banned anything other than promoting abstinence (which had always only been applied to teenagers) but Leslie ignored the laws and proudly accepted a censure for doing so. One of Marcia's odd personality quirks is that she seems completely unaware of the fact that her husband, Marshall, is possibly gay or bisexual, as he has a flamboyant personality and speaks with an effeminate voice. Marshall's sexuality was never confirmed, but, when speaking to Chris Traeger, he smiles in a way that could be interpreted as attraction.\\nThe Newport family are the owners of the Sweetums candy manufacturer in Pawnee and one of the city's richest and most prominent families. The company has operated and thrived in the city for years, as indicated in the episode \\\"Sweetums\\\", where Leslie screened 30-year-old video footage of a then-young Nick Newport, Sr. discussing how corn syrup was used to fatten cattle at farms. By the time of \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", Nick Newport, Sr. (Christopher Murray) is an elderly man in a wheelchair so senile he can barely speak, and the company is run by his son Nick Newport, Jr. (Gary Weeks), who himself appears in Sweetums commercials along with his two children, Dakota (Harley Graham) and Denver (Ryan Hartwig). In \\\"Sweetums\\\", the company formed a partnership with the city hall to run the concessions stands in Pawnee parks, and Nick Newport, Jr. unveiled their new, supposedly-healthy energy bars Nutriyums. He promotes the energy bars through commercials that use similar propagandistic techniques as the commercials of real-life corn refiners: they feature warm images of Nick Newport, Jr. with his dog Shoelace insisting corn syrup is \\\"fine in moderation\\\". Ann and Leslie held public forums to inform people the energy bars are not actually healthy, but the citizenry of Pawnee ultimately rejected their arguments and were won over by the charisma of Nick Newport, Jr. and his family, particularly when Denver announced they should look under their seats for free Sweetums candy. Nick Newport, Sr. appeared in the episode \\\"94 Meetings\\\", where his young and attractive wife Jessica Wicks held his 85th birthday party at the Turnbill Mansion. Jessica made major alterations to the historic mansion, and Leslie unsuccessfully tried to intervene to stop her.\\nNewport (Paul Rudd) is Leslie's chief opponent in her fourth season campaign for City Council. Bobby would appear to be the second son of Nick Newport, Sr., who paid $250,000 to his campaign manager (Jennifer Barkley) in order to get Bobby elected. Bobby Newport is friendly and superficially charming, but extremely naive and clueless (who at times acts mentally handicapped despite the fact that he isn't), and has gotten everything he ever wanted in life either by fiat or by whining/pleading for those things. When Leslie puts together a viral video that makes him look pathetic and stupid (in lieu of a nasty attack ad she ultimately refused to air), Bobby has a meeting where he complains she hurt his feelings, then asks her to drop out of the election and simply hand the office to him. He also tells Leslie he'll give her an invitation to his victory party, and even offers to let her do the job for him once he's elected; Leslie tells him that's not going to happen, and that he needs to know his stuff or she'll destroy him when they have a debate. During that debate, Bobby first appears to be in the lead by saying short quips rather than longer speeches, but Leslie eventually attacks his character and wins the debate. Afterwards, Bobby asks her if she would like to come to his house for a party. Later, he spends much of the campaign away from Pawnee, and gets involved in a sex scandal while vacationing in Majorca. He comes to think of Leslie as a really awesome lady, tells reporters people who don't vote for him should definitely vote for her, and then says on TV that he's very relieved he lost the election to her. He is later considered a possible candidate for interim mayor after Mayor Gunderson dies. In the extended edition of the series finale, he is revealed to have married Shauna Malwae-Tweep.\\nTrish Ianetta (April Marie Eden) is an attractive young woman who won the title Miss Pawnee in \\\"Beauty Pageant\\\". She gave unintelligent answers during the pageant and displayed no actual talent: during her talent portion, she did a baton twirling act that involved simply moving the baton around without twirling it. In describing herself, she says, \\\"I've been on YouTube. I love wearing bikinis at the beach with everyone there.\\\" Trish has been compared to Caitlin Upton, the 2007 Miss South Carolina Teen USA who made an incoherent response during the Miss Teen USA 2007 pageant. Based solely on her physical attractiveness, Trish was favored by the panel of judges, which included Tom Haverford and Jessica Wicks. Only Leslie objected to Trish and unsuccessfully argued for Susan, an intelligent and talented contestant who was less pretty. Trish made another appearance in \\\"The Master Plan\\\", where she was among the girls Tom tried to flirt with during a night at the Snakehole Lounge bar.\\nGreg Pikitis (Cody Klop), a teenage boy living in Pawnee, Indiana, is Leslie's mortal enemy. His first appearance is in \\\"Greg Pikitis,\\\" where he has a very important role. He is convicted of crimes that Leslie tries to prove him guilty of, but he refuses to admit. Finally, Leslie hunts him down and he is given probation. His second appearance is in \\\"Prom\\\" in season 6, where he plays the boyfriend of Leslie's mentee.\\nRon Dunn (Sam Elliott) is the former director of Eagleton's parks department, the equivalent position of Ron Swanson's in Pawnee. In the Season 6 episode \\\"Doppelgangers\\\", he was brought over to the Pawnee offices along with other Eagleton employees when the towns merged. Swanson at first took a liking to Dunn, as the latter was mustachioed, taciturn and also named Ron. However, Dunn later revealed himself to be a hippie with New Age ideals, and Swanson found him insufferable.\\nDunn was laid off along with most other Eagleton employees (excepting Craig), which he took in stride. He reappeared in \\\"Flu Season 2\\\", where Swanson and a drunk Ben encounter him at night, and he helps Ben overcome his anger at his parents' selling their vacation home. His final appearance is in the Season 7 episode \\\"Two Funerals\\\".\\nTynnyfer (June Diane Raphael) is a former employee of Eagleton's parks department whose position was the equivalent of April's. In the Season 6 episode \\\"Doppelgangers\\\", she was brought over during the Pawnee-Eagleton merger. She is a stereotypical vacuous, rich housewife. With the inevitability of one of them being laid off, April ingratiated herself to Tynnyfer by mirroring her personality and vocal inflections, and encouraged her to quit her job. Tynnyfer replied that she was planning on doing that anyway, as she wanted to move somewhere warmer while her husband served time in prison. April gave her an address in Miami that she claimed was hers, and said Tynnyfer was welcome to climb over the fence and stay there. April then revealed in a cutaway that the house belongs to Dwyane Wade and she got the address off the Internet.\\nDr. Richard Nygard is a character who is mentioned several times, but never appears on screen. He is first mentioned to be Chris's therapist, whom he sees near constantly. Chris's anxiety improves under his care. Later Leslie recommends Dr. Nygard to a troubled Malwae-Tweep, but then comments that she is not completely certain he isn't an imaginary creation of Chris's. Later, however, it is confirmed that he is a real person because he also acts as the off-screen therapist to Craig Middlebrooks.\\n\\\"Pistol Pete\\\" Disellio (Tuc Watkins) is a local celebrity, only remembered for his last-second game-winning dunk in the annual Pawnee-Eagleton high school basketball game in 1992. As a middle-aged man he resents the fact that everyone in town still sees him this way. He appears in three episodes across Seasons 4-6, during which Leslie secures his endorsement for City Council, Ann considers him as a sperm donor, and Pete refuses to endorse Sweetums' new sports drink.\\nFirst appearing in Season 3's \\\"Indianapolis\\\", Dennis Feinstein (Jason Mantzoukas) is at The Snakehole Lounge for his \\\"Allergic\\\" cologne launch party. Tom Haverford attempts to pitch his cologne to Dennis while there. Dennis laughs at him when Tom sprays the cologne, telling him it smells terrible, and dismisses him. Later, Feinstein buys out JJ's Diner, completely unsympathetic to the townspeople's protests. He changed his original Italian name to something considered \\\"more exotic in Pawnee.\\\"\\nDetlef Schrempf is a real-life retired basketball player for the Indiana Pacers who portrays himself on \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\". He first appeared in \\\"Telethon\\\", where Leslie invited him to make a guest appearance on a 24-hour diabetes telethon. Tom picked him up from the airport, but first took him for a drink to the Snakehole Lounge, where Detlef proved so popular that bar owner Freddy would not let them leave. After Tom got drunk on two light beers, Detlef took him to the telethon, where he made his scheduled appearance. Detlef made another appearance in the third season finale \\\"Li'l Sebastian\\\", where Tom and Jean-Ralphio hired him to work for their new entertainment company, Entertainment 720. His only job was to shoot basketballs around the office; Detlef tried giving them business advice, but they disregarded it. In Season 4, he remained at Entertainment 720, and was hanging out with Roy Hibbert, who had the free time to work with them due to the NBA lockout; both men roundly mocked Tom and Jean-Ralphio's lack of business sense.\\nPrior to filming \\\"Telethon\\\", Schrempf's acting skills had been limited to appearances on the American comedy series \\\"Married... with Children\\\" and the German soap opera \\\"Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten\\\". Michael Schur said of his performance, \\\"For a guy who literally never acted before in his life, he was really funny.\\\"\\nEduardo (Carlo Mendez) was an attractive young Venezuelan man who briefly dated April Ludgate. The two met during April's vacation to Venezuela and she brought him back to Pawnee, primarily to make Andy jealous. Eduardo, who only spoke Spanish, first appeared in \\\"Go Big or Go Home\\\", where Andy vowed to continue pursuing April despite her new relationship. When April claimed in Spanish that Andy just described his plans to become a woman, Eduardo encouraged Andy to follow his dreams, surprising Andy. In \\\"Time Capsule\\\", Andy and Eduardo started bonding, particularly over their mutual appreciation for the Dave Matthews Band. When April learned they were becoming friends, she became frustrated and broke up with Eduardo, who returned to Venezuela.\\nFrank Beckerson (John Larroquette) is a man who, in his youth, had a passionate love affair with Leslie Knope's mother, Marlene Griggs-Knope. The two met when Marlene was 18 years old and Frank, a lifeguard, saved her life. They had a two-week affair before going their separate ways. Decades later, Marlene shared the story of her long-lost love with Leslie, and Leslie's boyfriend Justin Anderson insisted they find Frank and surprise Marlene by reuniting the pair. Leslie was initially pleased with the idea, and together they tracked Frank to his new home in Illinois. However, the older Frank is an eccentric man who has long been unemployed and is extremely socially awkward, repeatedly vomiting in nervousness at the prospect of seeing Marlene. He also embarrassed Leslie by showing her naked photos of Marlene from her youth. Leslie tried to call off the reunion, but Justin insisted on going through with it, and they brought Frank to a Valentine's Day senior citizen dance to meet Marlene. She was initially pleased to see him, but upon learning his life amounted to nothing, she rejected Frank, who publicly berated Marlene on a dance hall stage before storming off.\\nLindsay Carlisle Shay (Parker Posey) is the parks and recreation director of Eagleton, Pawnee's more upscale neighboring town. Once best friends with Leslie Knope, the two are now bitter rivals. Five years before the events of the third season, Lindsay worked in the Pawnee parks department with Leslie, and the two made a vow they would never leave their hometown. Leslie was offered the parks director job in Eagleton but did not accept it due to this pact. However, the job was subsequently offered to Lindsay and she accepted, which Leslie considered an act of betrayal. Although she does not admit it, Lindsay appears to harbor resentment toward Leslie for having been offered the job first. Since leaving Pawnee, Lindsay lost 35 pounds, had a nose job, adopted a slight aristocratic accent and developed a snobbish, nouveau riche personality. She regularly insults Leslie and others in Pawnee with passive-aggressive, condescending comments, and has condemned Pawnee as \\\"a dirty little nightmare from which you'll never wake up\\\". Lindsay first appears in the episode \\\"Eagleton\\\", where she built a fence directly through a park Pawnee and Eagleton share to keep the Pawnee children out of her town. Leslie tried to fight this action, culminating in Leslie and Lindsay fighting amid piles of garbage and both getting arrested. Leslie ultimately solved the problem by turning Pawnee's side of the park into a wiffle ball field and making the fence its home run wall. Lindsay was ultimately impressed with Leslie's solution and her work ethic, and she seemed to respond positively when Leslie offered a reconciliation.\\nPosey previously starred with Amy Poehler in the 2009 comedy film \\\"Spring Breakdown\\\". She had been in discussions with the \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\" staff to make a guest appearance since the show debuted, and grew frustrated when it took several months before she received an invitation.\\nRaul Alejandro Bastilla Pedro de Veloso de Morana (Fred Armisen) most commonly referred to simply as Raul, is a parks official from Baraqua, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode \\\"Sister City\\\", when he and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, Raul is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so he was unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens, who he treated rudely from the moment he arrived. He was particularly unsettled by Pawnee's public forums, in which the residents loudly and angrily criticized their government officials; Raul explained he usually holds his meetings in fortresses, citadels or palaces, and that anyone who complains or does anything out of line is immediately thrown in jail. Leslie got annoyed with Raul's insults, but he eventually offered her a check for $35,000, enough to completely fund her plans to turn a construction pit into a park. However, Raul explained a condition of the check was that Leslie must praise Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and insult the United States, revealing they are part of what is called the Committee to Humiliate and Shame America. Leslie angrily ripped up the check and sent Raul and his delegation away.\\nIntern Johnny Quezada (JC Gonzalez) most commonly referred to simply as Johnny, is an internal officer of the official Baraqua Delegation, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode \\\"Sister City\\\", when Raul, Carlos, Johnny and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, The Venezuelan delegation is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so they were unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens. Johnny is very excited about April Ludgate represented by Aubrey Plaza, Johnny invites her to go with him to his country and attend her like a princess full of luxuries and acts. During his stay, one night Johnny sends a car to April to pick her up and take her to be with him but she uses the car to go to the movies with her friends.\\nJennifer Barkley (Kathryn Hahn) is an extremely successful political operative who has taken over the City Council campaign of Bobby Newport after being promised $250,000 by the Newport family. She awed Leslie by appearing in a picture where she's sharing an egg salad with Colin Powell. Jennifer tells Leslie that she's bored and took this job for the money, not much caring who wins and finding Bobby to be stupid. While it appears she's being honest about this, she later trashes Leslie in a TV interview, edits Leslie's successful YouTube campaign ad to make her sound like an idiot, and swipes Leslie's building-ramp plan in favor of an electric lifts plan that leads Pawnee senior citizen powerbroker Ned Jones to endorse Bobby. Leslie later confronts Jennifer at her favorite restaurant, where Jennifer says bluntly she likes Leslie but has been hired to defeat her. Jennifer then gives Leslie some genuinely good advice about upcoming decisions, and tells the camera that she is doing so because she has no one to play chess with and \\\"sometimes I need to play against myself\\\". Jennifer appears to keep her work and her personal feelings separate, given that she's able to relate to people when she's not working a campaign. When Leslie appears on Perd Hapley's show to reveal that Bobby Newport has been avoiding his hometown in favor of making out with a woman on a Majorca beach, Jennifer says that Bobby is in Europe to get business opportunities for Pawnee and the woman is an anti-landmine advocate. Afterwards, she tells Leslie and Ben that she \\\"mostly\\\" made all that up, then details how she'll be able to spin any outrage from them in Bobby's favor. Leslie and Ben are left completely stunned by Jennifer's mercenary brilliance. However, Leslie and Ben are finally able to knock her off balance a little bit after Jennifer goes on Perd's TV show and says Leslie ordered a pet shelter closed (after Leslie had asked a retiring Councilman to reverse a funding cut for the Parks Department); after she's overjoyed with Leslie's idea that the Newport family use their wealth to fund the shelter, Leslie explains that she'll accept the initial funding cut if Jennifer breaks a promise to stop airing \\\"puppy killer\\\" ads, and that she's fine with losing a week's news momentum because she's debating Bobby Newport after that and she's going to ruin him. Jennifer's expression makes it clear Leslie has finally scored some points against her. But after Leslie does score a huge victory over Bobby in the debate and pulls within 2 points of him in the polls, Jennifer strikes back by using the death of Nick Newport (and Leslie's comments, made before she learned he had died, that Nick was a jerk) to force Leslie into several embarrassing mistakes. However, Jennifer finds out that she might not get any of her promised quarter-million fee due to her handshake deal with Nick, and watches as Bobby manages to tell the press that Leslie is an awesome person. The campaign having ended, Jennifer seeks out Chris Traeger and invites him to have sex with her, and he accepts. On Election Night, she tries and fails to keep pro-Newport voting machines in place, and later is rebuffed when she doesn't want an automatic recount to be triggered by Bobby's initial 21-vote victory margin. Recognizing Ben's talent on Leslie's campaign, she offers Ben a job working with her on a Congressional campaign (he eventually accepts it) and has sex with Chris again but leaves Pawnee without saying goodbye to him. When that campaign successfully ends in Washington D.C., she offers Ben another campaign job for a governor candidate in Florida. She appears again in Season 6 (\\\"Second Chunce\\\") to convince Leslie (as a paid favor to Ben) not to run for Dexhart's seat in the city council, but to reach for the stars and to look for a more high-powered job. Leslie said it was the best present she could have received (from Ben).\\nShe makes several more appearances in the seventh and final season, encouraging Ben to run for governor of Indiana.\\nBuddy Wood (Sean Hayes) is a journalist from Indianapolis that does an annual special where he profiles five political candidates from around Indiana. The candidates he profiles tend to get elected, causing him to be described as a \\\"lucky charm\\\" for people running for office. Buddy interviews Leslie, but this doesn't go well because she is drunk, and Wood tries to turn the story to Pawnee not being as great as it once was. Leslie and Ben consider him to be rude, but they still drive to Buddy Wood's house to beg him for either a second chance for an interview or for him to erase the negative footage; Buddy then sourly reveals that he never aired the interview because his bag was lost in Pawnee, unaware that one of the airport workers, who liked Leslie and was angered by Buddy's rude attitude, took the interview tape and threw it into a dumpster.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Rashida Leah Jones (born February 25, 1976) is an American actress, producer, singer, and writer. She is widely known for playing Ann Perkins on NBC's comedy \"Parks and Recreation\", for which she received acclaim.","\"Nosedive\" is the first episode of the third series of British science fiction anthology series \"Black Mirror\". Michael Schur and Rashida Jones wrote the teleplay for the episode, based on a story by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker, while Joe Wright acted as director. Max Richter composed the soundtrack. It premiered on Netflix on 21 October 2016, together with the rest of the third series."],"string":"[\n \"Rashida Leah Jones (born February 25, 1976) is an American actress, producer, singer, and writer. She is widely known for playing Ann Perkins on NBC's comedy \\\"Parks and Recreation\\\", for which she received acclaim.\",\n \"\\\"Nosedive\\\" is the first episode of the third series of British science fiction anthology series \\\"Black Mirror\\\". Michael Schur and Rashida Jones wrote the teleplay for the episode, based on a story by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker, while Joe Wright acted as director. Max Richter composed the soundtrack. It premiered on Netflix on 21 October 2016, together with the rest of the third series.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":52,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which winner of America's Best Dance Crew was formed in 2007 by Matthew \"Dumbo\" Nguyen?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Poreotics"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["America's Best Dance Crew (season 7)\nThe seventh season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", also known as America's Best Dance Crew: Return of the Superstars, premiered on April 11, 2012. \"Return of the Superstars\" used the same show format of the previous season, in which the crews performed to the music of one specific artist each week. The season featured artists including Rihanna, Britney Spears, Madonna, Pitbull, David Guetta, LMFAO, Jennifer Lopez, Drake, Flo Rida, and Katy Perry. In the live finale, which aired on June 13, 2012, Elektrolytes was declared the winner.\nAuditions for the seventh season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" were held in four cities: Chicago, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. Similar to the previous season, there was no age restriction. Dance crews who had previously competed on the show were also encouraged to audition again.\nThe cast consisted of nine new dance crews and one returning crew. The appearance of Fanny Pak, who were originally contestants in the second season of \"ABDC\", marked the first time a crew appeared to compete on the show a second time. Each dance crew's hometown and representative region were displayed on their banner during the course of the competition.\n^Note 1 : The bottom crew from the first episode battled the bottom crew from the second episode to determine the first elimination of the season.<br>\n^Note 2 : The judges saved both crews from elimination.\nThe season kicked off with the first round of crews dancing to a remix of \"I Wanna Go\". Then, the crews incorporated Spears' hits into their routines. The judges selected four crews to advance to the next round, while the crew who did not make the cut faced elimination in the following week's episode.\nThe other five competing crews danced to \"Wild Ones\" featuring Sia, with Flo Rida performing alongside with them. Flo Rida then joined the judges table as a special guest judge. Later, the crews crafted their own routines inspired by his songs. After the judges decided the four dance crews that were safe, the bottom crew battled Mix'd Elements to a remix of \"Turn Around\" to determine which one would be the first eliminated.\nThe nine remaining crews choreographed routines inspired by Madonna's music videos. Each crew had to incorporate their music video's signature dance style into their routine. In this episode, two teams were sent home after a double-elimination.\nThe seven remaining crews selected lyrics from their assigned Drake songs and \"brought them to life.\"\nThe six remaining crews paid tribute to Jennifer Lopez. Her choreographer, Beau \"Casper\" Smart, worked with the crews during rehearsals. Each crew's challenge was to highlight a defining moment in Lopez's career. Smart also gave them an additional challenge that linked to their initial challenge.\nThe five remaining dance crews began the episode with a dance number to \"I Like: The Remix\" featuring Enrique Iglesias and The WAV.s, alongside Season 6 runner-up ICONic Boyz. Then, each crew was given a country and an international dance style to incorporate into their routines. In a two-way tie, the Bottom 2 crews advanced to the next round, marking the first time the judges saved both bottom crews from elimination.\nThe five remaining crews created dance routines inspired by Rihanna, beginning with a group performance to \"We Found Love\" featuring Calvin Harris. Unlike last season, where her choreographer distributed the challenges, Rihanna delivered them to the crews herself.\nThe four remaining crews danced to songs by LMFAO, beginning with a group performance to \"Live My Life\" by Far East Movement featuring Justin Bieber. Redfoo from LMFAO handed out the dance challenges, and Season 3 champion Quest Crew visited the rehearsal studio to work with the crews.\nThe top three crews competed for the two spots in the championship round to the music of David Guetta. Unlike the format from previous episodes, the crews performed first before the voting results were revealed. Guetta gave each crew the same song mix and challenges to incorporate into their routines. Then, they did a group number to \"Titanium\" featuring Sia.\nAfter the Bottom 2 was announced, the two crews had to dance battle to determine which one would advance to the finale.\nThe final two crews danced to music from the concert film, \"\", after meeting the pop starlet. Then, the winner was crowned. The show also featured performances by past \"ABDC\" champions.","Quest Crew\nQuest Crew is an American hip-hop dance crew from Los Angeles, California who were declared winners of the third season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\". They made their first few appearances individually on shows like \"So You Think You Can Dance\" and at events such as Kollaboration 8 and World of Dance. They are currently helping with choreography for well-known artists such as LMFAO and touring with them as well. On August 29, 2015, Quest Crew was declared all-star champions of Season 8 of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" (ABDC). This is the crew's second time being declared champion of MTV's hit show.\nThe name \"Quest Crew\" reflects the support that the Quest Learning Center, located in Artesia, California, has had on growth within the team and individually. Quest Crew won the title of America's Best Dance Crew on the third season of the show and consists of eleven members. Team members originally performed with the \"SickStep\" dance troupe, but later disbanded to recreate and include dancers to form Quest. D-Trix and Victor Kim are also part of the b-boy crew Fallen Kings, formally known as Flexible Flave, which won Freestyle session.\nThe entire crew appeared in the Far East Movement music video \"Dance Like Michael Jackson\" and LMFAO's \"Party Rock Anthem\", \"Champagne Showers\", \"Sexy And I Know It\" and \"Sorry for Party Rocking\". Quest Crew also performed on \"Idol Gives Back\" in 2008.\nFive out of the ten active members of Quest Crew have appeared on \"So You Think You Can Dance\". Ryan and Hok auditioned for season one with another member of their former crew Sick Step; crew member Ryan 'Ryanimay' Conferido appeared on the first season as a finalist and Hok did not make it. Ryan was eliminated in the fourth week of season one. Steve Terada, Victor Kim, and Hokuto 'Hok' Konishi had all auditioned for the second season (this being Hok's second time). Steve and Victor were both eliminated in the choreography rounds. Hok nearly made it to the top 20, but was only in the United States on a student visa, and was ineligible to be employed which led to his dismissal from the program. After obtaining a work permit, Hok had returned for the third season along with Dominic 'D-Trix' Sandoval. This time, both made it to the top 20. Hok was eliminated during the fifth week of competition and D-Trix was eliminated in the seventh week. Both D-Trix and Hok went on tour with the rest of the top 10 dancers with D-Trix as a featured dancer and Hok serving as a substitute/swing dancer. In 2008, Victor auditioned again for the fourth season but was cut early on in the choreography rounds. In 2017, Mark Villaver auditioned and made it all the way to the top 10 for the fourteenth season alongside his all-star Comfort.\nIn 2009 Quest Crew became the winners of season three of \"America's Best Dance Crew\". The seven members who competed were Hok, Feng, D-Trix, Brian, Victor, Steve, and Ryan. Lydia Paek, who is also a member of Quest Crew, decided to perform with the Boxcuttuhz due to the show's 7 member limit rule, meaning she could not dance with Quest. Aris Paracuelles and Andy Luo did not compete due to the seven member limit. Quest Crew originally auditioned for season one but were unable to take part of the show because crew members D-Trix and Hok's original contract with \"So You Think You Can Dance\".\nDuring the , Quest Crew performed to their own master mix featuring Hero by Nas. They received overwhelmingly positive comments from the judges and were saved from elimination. Kid Rainen, a member of the JabbaWockeeZ served as a guest judge in place of JC Chasez. He complimented D-Trix's double halos and shoulder halos b-boy moves. Lil' Mama complimented Ryan on performing a highflip and landing on his head (describing him as 'crazy'). Shane Sparks also praised them, and said, \"The battle is on.\"\nDuring the , Quest Crew was given the challenge of Kickboxing. This challenge was performed to a master mix of Kevin Rudolf ft. Lil Wayne's \"Let It Rock.\" Steve is a martial arts instructor, and he took them through all the basic punches and kicks. The crew relied on him to deliver those heavy blow ups. JC said they had great moments but thought the performance seemed a little too \"Tae Bo\" and said they had too much posing. Lil Mama agreed. However, Shane Sparks thought there were many moments in their performance where they killed the show and praised them. Nevertheless, they were saved from elimination that night.\nDuring the , the Britney Spears song that Quest Crew received was \"Toxic\". For this challenge, they had to perform a portion of their routine blindfolded.\nTheir performance was given positive remarks from the judges with judge JC Chasez calling it his favorite performance of the night. Shane Sparks, stated that the crew \"killed the stage\" when they incorporated a little feminine vibe into their routine. Shane Sparks also complimented Ryan on his \"Shablam,\" and calling him 'crazy' for doing that. Originally, Dominic was supposed to do the solo, performing fouettes into airflares, but injured his shoulder in rehearsal. At last minute, Ryan created the back flip \"Shablam\" but ironically, after the episode he injured his knee. After the airing of the episode, Dominic and Ryan both commented that the Britney Spears Challenge was cursed on account of both getting injured.\nDuring the , Quest Crew got You Got It (The Right Stuff) by New Kids on the Block as their whack track.\nThe crew chose to do the crotch grab pendulum and their routine featured Hok looking like he was on his hands but in reality he had switched his clothes around and eventually changed back into regular attire. The performance was again praised due to Quest's creativity and getting Hok in and out cleanly.\nAfter this performance, there were controversies by some fans of the show throughout the internet. It was pointed out that the move done by Hok had been performed by Korean B-Boy crew, Project Seoul. Quest was accused of being \"biters\", however D-Trix soon issued an apology through a bboy forum.\nDuring the , Quest Crew had to put an object through their body. The crew chose to perform to a master mix of Got Money by Lil Wayne feat. T-Pain. In their performance, Feng \"stabbed\" Brian Hirano with a coat rack and broke it off.\nJC criticized their performance by pointing out that there was too much posing. JC also criticized Quest on their transitions. Some fans in the audience did not approve of JC's comments and responded with 'boos.' However, Lil Mama responded by instructing the fans in the audience not to boo because that would not enable Quest to listen to their \"Words of Wisdom.\" Shane Sparks also stated to Quest that \"Beat Freaks are on y'all butts\", with Victor jokingly looking behind him and responding backstage saying \"I'm honored that they're on our butts. I like them there, actually.\"\nDuring the Battle of the Sexes Challenge, it was between two male crews, and two female crews. Quest Crew had to dance to the song \"Forever\" by Chris Brown. The crew decided they would imitate the smooth moves and gliding from the video. The judges complimented their performance and Shane complimented D-Trix (Dominic Sandoval) on having the cleanest air flares on the show.\nDuring the , Quest was put into the bottom two for the first time against Fly Khicks. The crew had to incorporate five styles of hip hop into their routine: threading, krumping, housing, tutting and waving. Hok was familiar with tutting and Ryan Conferido knew how to thread so the crew depended on them to work on those sections. Songs performed in the Hip Hop Decathlon were: Poker Face by Lady Gaga (Threading), Love Lockdown by Kanye West (Tutting), I'm in Miami trick by LMFAO (Waving), Closer by Ne-Yo (Housing), and Get Up by 50 Cent (Krumping). The performance received a standing ovation from the judges and audience. The judges highly praised the crew. D-Trix performed elbow airflares, which received compliments from Shane Sparks, Hirano receiving compliments for being buff - since he ripped his shirt off during the krumping section - and Steve Terada performed a backflip from a sitting Indian-style position. Victor Kim performed threaded handhops, and Hok Konishi choreographed the tutting section. JC praised Hok in his tutting by calling him a true Egyptian and stating that Hok should be called \"King Tut\".\nThe second challenge involved creating their own song, much like season 1 and season 2's last chance challenge. Quest's song was titled \"orQUESTra\". The song included Ryan Conferido's own piano piece. Ryan actually played the piano during the middle of the performance while D-Trix performed headspins to the alternating tempos on top of the piano. After a box split and locking solo by Hok, Victor Kim performed a hollowback into an invert. At the end of the performance, D-Trix pushed Steve Terada who was in the middle of a vertical back flip sideways over Hok and Victor, and ended with the Quest Crew Salute. This performance is number two on Randy Jackson's list of top 10 performances of all time.\nFor the finale Quest performed in a dance collaboration with Strikers All Stars and Dynamic Edition. This group which was chosen by Shane Sparks had to dance to the song \"Right Round\" by Flo Rida. Later that same night Quest performed a routine with fellow finalist Beat Freaks to a mastermix \"Beggin'\" by Madcon. After nearly 20 million votes were cast, Quest was declared the winners of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" season 3. Their victory dance was to \"On Top of the World\" by T.I. ft Ludacris.\nOn April 15, 2010 America's Best Dance Crew held a special charity episode featuring the winners of the first five seasons. Each dance crew was partnered with a charity organization. Quest Crew supported the DoSomething.org volunteer organization which inspires young people into action to better their community. Quest spent time with Jordan Coleman, the fourteen-year-old from Hackensack, NJ, who developed and released the film “Say It Loud” to promote the importance of education. Hok held the honor of presenting Jordan with a donation check worth $10,000. They performed to \"Sing, Sing, Sing\" by Swing Kids.\nOn June 5, 2011, Quest Crew performed on the sixth season finale of MTV's America's Best Dance Crew. The crew performed to \"Party Rock Anthem\" by LMFAO. This was the first performance where D-Trix did not dance with Quest Crew on ABDC, as D-Trix himself was on the judging panel. Naturally, D-Trix gave Quest his judging commentary, where he praised their routine as well as the bond they share as a dance crew that caused them to pull off their performance.\n","Elektrolytes\nThe Elektrolytes are an all-male dance crew formed by a group of local dancers within the area of Gilbert, Arizona in 2006. They are the winner of the seventh season of America's Best Dance Crew. They are also the winners of Hip Hop International USA 2011 Adult Division, and finished seventh in the World Hip Hop International 2011 Finals.\nBefore forming Elektrolytes, they were all friends in school. Years later, they decided to make a dance crew naming themselves Elektrolytes as dance fuels their body and it's what plants crave.\nThe crew auditioned for America's Best Dance Crew three times, failing to pass each time. After placing first at HHI 2011 USA for the Adult Division, the crew decided to audition for ABDC and passed.\nElektrolytes were declared ABDC Champions on the Live Finale June 13, 2012.\nMember Chris Thomas injured his knee during rehearsal and missed the performances of weeks 2 and 3.\nAfter ABDC, the Elektrolytes competed again at the 2012 Hip Hop International. They received silver in the USA Adult Division and 4th Place in the World Adult Division. The Elektrolytes were dancing while traveling on tour, but now are on ABDC season 8.","America's Best Dance Crew (season 5)\nThe fifth season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" premiered on January 28, 2010. Similar to the live casting specials featured in the first two seasons, the first three episodes consisted of separate regional auditions before proceeding to the official national-level competition. Shane Sparks did not return as a judge this season, due to his arrest, and was replaced by Omarion. In the live finale, which aired on April 8, 2010, Poreotix was declared the winner.\nFor the fifth season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", auditions were held in six cities: Atlanta, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, Boston, and New York City. Fifteen dance crews were selected and then categorized into three regions: South, East Coast, and West Coast. Following the regional competitions, the initial pool of dance crews was narrowed down to nine.\n^Note 1 : No crews were eliminated due to technical errors in voting.<br>\n^Note 2 : Blueprint Cru received immunity from the double-elimination for having the judges' favorite performance during the previous episode.\nThe five top dance crews from the South, selected by Lil Mama, JC Chasez, and guest judge Hokuto \"Hok\" Konishi from Quest Crew, competed to represent their region in the Season 5 opener. After the Bottom 3 was chosen, each crew had to face off in a dance battle to \"Outta Control\" by Baby Bash featuring Pitbull.\nThe five top dance crews from the East Coast, selected by Lil Mama and guest judge Kevin \"KB\" Brewer from the JabbaWockeeZ, auditioned for a chance to move on in the competition. After the Bottom 3 was chosen, the crews participated in a dance battle to \"Hip Hop Is Dead\" by Nas featuring will.i.am.\nThe five top dance crews from the West Coast, selected by JC Chasez, Omarion, and guest judge Nichelle Thrower from We Are Heroes, performed for the opportunity to win a spot on the show. After the Bottom 3 was chosen, the crews battled each other to \"Showdown\" by The Black Eyed Peas.\nEach crew was assigned a hit song that served as inspiration for their dance routines. The lowest ranked crew in each region danced in a battle for 30 seconds each to \"TiK ToK\" by Kesha.\nThe eight remaining crews emulated popular music videos from the past decade, featuring videos from artists such as Britney Spears, Shakira, Rihanna, and Omarion.\nThe seven remaining crews choreographed routines inspired by Lady Gaga. There were no eliminations due to voting issues. At the end of the episode, the judges chose the crew with the best performance to receive immunity from the double-elimination next week.\nThe seven remaining crews incorporated classic disco moves into their dance routines. In addition to the challenge, all the crews had to incorporate a lift into their routines. This week featured a double-elimination due to last week's non-elimination episode.\nThe five remaining crews took inspiration from Usher's music videos. Usher himself gave each crew their challenges through video.\nJust like its predecessor in Season 3, the remaining four crews incorporated an illusion or magic act into their performance set. The crews kicked off the show with a group performance to \"Take It Off\" by Kesha with judge Lil Mama performing in the routine. Magician Franz Harary returned as the magic instructor for the crews.\nThe three remaining crews demonstrated hip hop styles from across the country in the penultimate challenge of the season. For both challenges, the crews got to collaborate with producer Swizz Beatz.\nThe remaining crews displayed their mastery of hip hop styles from around the nation. One crew was eliminated halfway through the show. The crews received help from three guest \"ABDC\" alumni from past seasons. Each alumnus was assigned to one of the dance styles the crews were responsible for.\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a regional collaboration. Instead of going head-to-head, Poreotix and Blueprint Cru teamed up for their last performance.\n\"America's Best Dance Crew\" hosted a charity event featuring all five champions. The five crews opened up the show with a group performance to \"All I Do Is Win\" by DJ Khaled.","Fanny Pak\nFanny Pak is a ten-member contemporary, hip-hop and jazz-trained dance crew from Los Angeles, California that gained popularity after appearing on the second season of MTV's \"America's Best Dance Crew\" (ABDC). Often while performing, the crew wears bright clothes and bold patterns reminiscent of the 1980s as well as fanny packs, which is where their crew name originated. In addition, all of the members were born in the 1980s. The crew returned to ABDC on the seventh season, placing fifth in the competition.\nMatt Cady (born October 17, 1985) formed Fanny Pak while he was teaching at Debbie Reynolds Dance Studio in North Hollywood, California. Other than teaching at Debbie Reynolds, Matt choreographed the stage show \"Grease\" for the 2004 Fringe Festival in Scotland. He also choreographed a music video and a promotional tour for the independent singer Natalise. His dancing credits include Missy Elliott, ABC Family's \"The Secret Life of the American Teenager\", Jessica Simpson, Finger 11, and Erin Hamilton. Aside from Fanny Pak, Matt is also a member of Collide Dance Company and Unity Dance Ensemble.\nBefore appearing on MTV, Matt and his fellow crew members performed at , a monthly performance showcase for dancers/choreographers to perform in front of other professional dancers. He is a faculty member at the Edge Performing Arts Center, Triple Threat Dance, and Intrigue Dance. He is represented by DDO Artists Agency.\nBeau Fournier (born July 1, 1983) is from the San Fernando Valley in Southern California. At the late age of 19, Beau started dance and it turned into a career. He is currently signed with DDO Artists Agency and Artist's International. Some of Beau's credits include: Angel Faith VH1 Save the Music Tour, Paula DeAnda, Diet Pepsi, , ABC Family's \"The Secret Life of the American Teenager\", Missy Elliott, Lil Mama, and the MTV Video Music Awards. He also worked with dance groups such as the California State University, Northridge Hip Hop Team, Expressive Doubt LA, and Asylum Dance Company. Beau is an instructor at Jayvee Dance Center. At Jayvee, he created two dance companies: Mischief Makers, an adult exhibition team and Trouble Makers, his teen competing team\nNatalie Gilmore (born December 30, 1985) grew up in Seattle, Washington. She has been dancing since the age of 5, training in all areas including ballet, tap, jazz, and hip-hop. Natalie moved to Los Angeles at age 19 and since then has trained under many teacher/choreographers including Marty Kudelka, David Moore, and Tessandra Chavez. Natalie toured the world as a back-up dancer for Avril Lavigne and worked with Joe Jonas promoting his newest solo album \"Fastlife.\" She is currently on tour with Justin Timberlake for his \"20/20 Experience\" Tour.\nOriginally from Antioch, California, Tiffani began dancing her freshmen year at Deer Valley High School where she trained in jazz, modern, ballet, African, hula, and jazz-funk. Dance carried over into her college education at California State University, Northridge where she trained in modern and ballet on her path to become a dance therapist. Since her move to southern California she's studied with various choreographers such as Tony G., Travis Payne, and Keith Young. Before she discovered her passion for dance, Tiffani was a cheerleader and coached nationally ranked youth cheerleading and hip-hop teams. She still choreographs pom competition routines for her former high school. She became a song leading instructor for the United Spirit Association where she teaches cheer camps to high school and middle school students all over the west coast. Tiffani did not compete on season seven of ABDC in order to focus on school, but she is still part of Fanny Pak.\nCara \"Barracuda\" Horibe (born May 31, 1984) started dancing at the age of 9 in Hawaii. She began teaching with 24-VII Danceforce while training in jazz, hip-hop, ballet, contemporary, swing, and gymnastics. Cara moved to Los Angeles in 2006 to pursue a career in dance. She has continued to train and assist under various choreographers such as Erica Sobol, Gil Duldalao, Kevin Maher, and \"So You Think You Can Dance\" alumnus Mark Kanemura. She also became a member of the contemporary dance company Collide under the direction of Erica Sobol in 2007 and joined Fanny Pak in 2008. Cara is a faculty member for Boogiezone and Broadway Dance Center. Her dance credits include Missy Elliott, Lil Mama, MTV Video Music Awards, \"High School Musical 3\", Canon Electronics, and LA Fashion Week. Cara also appeared as one of the back-up dancers in the 2009 Janet Jackson music video, \"Make Me\".\nMegan Lawson (born November 19, 1985) began training in tap, jazz, ballet, contemporary, and hip-hop in her hometown Calgary, Alberta, Canada at Dance Spectrum Inc. Megan later became a faculty member for Triple Threat Dance Convention in Vancouver. In 2006, Megan moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in dance. Other than being a member of Fanny Pak, Megan's credits include Missy Elliott, Lil Mama, MTV's Video Music Awards, \"Another Cinderella Story\", Canon Electronics, New Balance, BODOG Poker, SONY, Boogiezone's World Hip Hop Showcase, and LA Fashion week.\nGlenda Morales (born October 23, 1987) started training and competing in gymnastics before deciding to get serious with dance. She started ballet, jazz, tap, lyrical, and modern at age 11 and began competing right away. At California State University, Fullerton, Glenda began as a dance major and was performing at Disneyland as a dancer and acrobat until she was offered representation by DDO Artists Agency. Her major changed from dance to communications with emphasis in entertainment studies. Since joining DDO, Glenda has danced for artists such as including Keke Palmer, Raven-Symoné, and Ashley Tisdale. She also appeared in the 2009 cheerleading movie \"Fired Up!\". Glenda was on the cover of the new Harlequin book, Chasing Romeo, and was featured in the 12th episode of the sixth season of \"The Office\" as one of \"Scott's Tots.\" She also appeared as a dancer on \"Glee\" in the episode \"Funk.\"\nPreston Mui is a professional dancer, choreographer, and actor, who joined Fanny Pak before their second appearance on America's Best Dance Crew. He has been featured in music videos and international tours for major label performing artists, including Janet Jackson, Britney Spears, Mariah Carey, Christina Aguilera, JLo, Black Eyed Peas, and Paulina Rubio. As an actor, he has appeared in national commercials for McDonald's, Old Navy, and Target, and in network TV shows like \"The Voice\", \"2 Broke Girls\", \"Parenthood\" and \"American Idol\". He has also worked as a personal stylist for New Kids on the Block and the Glee tour. Currently, Preston Mui teaches at The Edge Performing Arts Center in Hollywood, CA, on tour with the Dance League Convention and is the creative director of an all-Asian female dance crew called \"The Dynasties.\"\nIn 2008, Fanny Pak appeared on the second season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" and finished in third place behind runner-up, SoReal Cru, and the season champion, Super Cr3w. Ironically, the judges voted them off on the episode themed \"80's night\", where each crew had to make up a routine using music and dances that were made popular in the 1980s.\nAfter the second season was over, they returned for a two-part ABDC special, \"Battle of the VMA's\". During the MTV special presentation, popular crews from seasons one and two competed for an opportunity to win $25,000 for charity and to present the 2008 VMA for Best Dancing in a Video.\nOther than Fanny Pak, alumni crews BreakSk8, SoReal Cru, Kaba Modern, and Status Quo participated in the event. BreakSk8 and Status Quo were eliminated in the preliminary rounds. After the public voted, Fanny Pak and Kaba Modern moved on, eliminating SoReal Cru for having the least votes. After a dance off, the public voted once again, and it was announced during the VMA's that Fanny Pak won. They are the only dance crew to ever receive an award at the MTV Video Music Awards. They later went on the \"America's Best Dance Crew Live\" tour with Jabbawockeez, Super Cr3w, Breaksk8, and ASIID.\nIn 2012, it was announced that Fanny Pak had been selected to compete in the seventh season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", which marked the first time a dance crew appeared to compete on the show twice. Fanny Pak had five of the same members from season two and four new members. Previous member Phil left Fanny Pak a year prior to pursue other projects, while Tiffani was focusing on college and chose not to participate. The crew was eliminated during the seventh week, placing fifth overall.\nOutside of ABDC, Fanny Pak has continued to find success. They choreographed and danced in Lil Mama's \"\"Truly In Love\"\" video which featured season four \"So You Think You Can Dance\" alumnus Mark Kanemura as well as Supreme Soul crew members Frost and George. The video was choreographed by Matt Cady. They also had a line of sneakers, the Battle collection, through the independent shoe company, MilkShake Kicks in New York City. The Battle I and the Battle Black were released in September 2009. Fanny Pak choreographed, and was featured in, a commercial for the relaunch of the Hasbro children's toy Bop It. Fanny Pak is also mentioned in the 2009 Lil Wayne song \"\"Watch My Shoes\"\". They made an appearance in the Toni Braxton music video \"Make My Heart.\" Fanny Pak is featured in the film \"Honey 2\" starring Katerina Graham and Randy Wayne which was released in cinemas on June 10, 2011. Matt Cady choreographed French house group Yelle's double music video \"Safari Disco Club/Que Veux-Tu\". The rest of Fanny Pak appeared in the video as featured dancers.\nFanny Pak released a full length dance album featuring all seven crew members from season two and special guest appearances from artists such as Taboo from The Black Eyed Peas, Chonique Sneed, and Far East Movement. The first single from their debut album, \"\"Something Sick\"\" was featured in a segment about Fanny Pak on The Logo Channel's \"NewNowNextPopLab.\" The crew recorded the album with District 78, the producers behind the master mixes for \"America's Best Dance Crew\". A preview EP, entitled \"A Touch of Fanny\" was released on August 17, 2010. The songs released on the EP were \"Something Sick,\" \"Show Out,\" and \"Close to You.\"\nFanny Pak is represented by \"Artist International\" in Los Angeles. Arnel Calvario, the founder of Kaba Modern, and Joel Newton are Fanny Pak's managers.","SoReal Cru\nSoReal Cru is a hip-hop dance crew from Houston, Texas who gained fame as the runner-up on the second season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" (ABDC). Before ABDC, they won first place at the World of Dance competition in Pomona in 2008. After the second season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" was over, they returned to MTV for a two-part ABDC special, \"Battle of the VMA's\". In the spin-off, popular crews from seasons one and two competed for an opportunity to win $25,000 for charity and to present the 2008 VMA for Best Dancing in a Video. Alumni crews BreakSk8, Fanny Pak, Kaba Modern, Status Quo, and SoReal Cru participated in the event. SoReal Cru danced to \"Forever\" by Chris Brown and made the cut in the preliminary rounds while BreakSk8 and Status Quo were eliminated. After the public voted, SoReal Cru lost to Fanny Pak and Kaba Modern for having the least amount of votes. After a dance off at the VMA Preshow, the public voted again, and it was announced during the VMA's that Fanny Pak won.\nAndrew Baterina also choreographs for famous Korean-American singer Jay Park. SoReal Cru performed with Jay Park to his song \"Abandoned\" at The Korean Music Festival. They have a hip-hop dance studio, SoReal Studios, in Houston, Texas. Crew member Brian Puspos competed once again on the seventh season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" as a member of Mos Wanted Crew.\nDuring an interview with crew member Brian Puspos, it was stated that the crew never broke up but \"retired\". The crew members split into different subdivisions such as: SoReal Pac and ArchiTeks. For instance, Andrew Baterina and Jackie Lautchang are lead choreographers for SoReal Pac while Brian Puspos, Mark Fucanan, Brian Fucanan, Pat Lam and Ailyn Isidro are current members of the ArchiTeks. Brian Puspos also became a member of Mos Wanted Crew to represent ArchiTeks\n","America's Best Dance Crew (season 8)\nAmerica’s Best Dance Crew All-Stars: Road to the VMAs was the eighth season of the competitive dance reality television series \"America's Best Dance Crew\". The revival of the series was announced by MTV on January 10, 2015, following the show's cancellation in 2012. The season, which premiered on July 29, 2015, was hosted by television presenter Jason Dundas. The season consisted of six \"Video Music Award\"–themed episodes; the winner was crowned in a live episode finale airing before the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. Hip hop artist T-Pain, recording artist Teyana Taylor, and Broadway performer Frankie Grande formed the new judging panel.\nThe eighth season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" features six dance crews, including five previous winners. The past champions are joined by one new dance crew, which includes members from Season 1 winner JabbaWockeeZ and fellow competitors Kaba Modern.\n^Note 1 : The bottom crew from the first episode battled the bottom crew from the second episode to determine the first elimination of the season.<br>\n^Note 2 : All three crews advanced to the final episode.\nThe season kicked off with all six crews dancing alongside American R&B singer, Ne-Yo, to a medley of his own songs including '\"She Knows\", \"Coming with You\", and \"Time of Our Lives\". Then, the crews incorporated hits from VMA-nominated artists into their routines. All six crews advanced to the next round, but We Are Heroes were put at risk and set to face elimination against another crew in the next episode.\nThe episode started off with all six crews dancing to a master mix of \"Started from the Bottom\" by Canadian rapper Drake. Then, each crew was assigned a VMA Icon and chose a track from their legendary catalog.\nThe episode started off with the remaining crews performing a martial arts-inspired dance to a master mix of \"Bad Blood\" by Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar. The crews were then given a challenge to incorporate fashion and wardrobe into their routines.\nThe four remaining crews competed against each other in two challenges: the VMA Megacrew Challenge, in which each crew was split into teams of two and given the task of creating a routine that would keep them from the bottom two, and the Crews' Control Challenge, where the remaining crews were given artistic freedom to create a routine that would save them from elimination.\nAt the end of the episode, Di \"Moon\" Zhang of I.aM.mE proposed to his girlfriend on stage, to which she accepted and the couple became engaged.\nThe remaining four crews were split into two teams of two crews and each team was given the task to create a unique dance number together. The crews in the team chosen by the judges would be safe, while the other team would make up the bottom two for the next challenge.\nThe four remaining crews were given full freedom to use lighting, camera work, stage layout, etc. to create a unique performance of their very own.\nThe three remaining crews competed against each other in two challenges: the VMA Nominee Challenge, where they chose a VMA-nominated song to perform to in order to stay safe from elimination this week, and the Final Statement Challenge, where, like previous seasons' Last Chance Challenge, the crews chose a song to perform to in a bid to win the competition.\nIn a surprise twist, it was revealed the judges made the decision of sending all three remaining crews straight to the finale.\nThe remaining three crews chose a VMA-nominated song to perform a routine to in order to advance to the finals.\nSimilar to previous seasons, the remaining three crews were given one last chance to perform before voting lines opened up for the finale.\nThe episode started off with the remaining three finalists dancing alongside the eliminated crews to a master mix of \"All That\" by Dillon Francis featuring Twista and The Rej3ctz. The three finalists then performed one last routine before the winner was officially announced.\n","America's Best Dance Crew (season 6)\nThe sixth season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", also known as America's Best Dance Crew: Season of the Superstars, premiered on April 7, 2011. Taking a different route from past seasons, the crews performed to the music of one specific artist each week, including Rihanna, Lil Wayne, and other stars. The season also featured special guest appearances by various music celebrities including Justin Bieber, The Black Eyed Peas, Katy Perry, Kesha, Nicki Minaj, and Kanye West. Dominic \"D-Trix\" Sandoval, a former member of Quest Crew, the winner of the third season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", joined returning judges Lil Mama and JC Chasez as the newest judge. In the season finale, which aired on June 5, 2011, I.aM.mE was declared the winner.\nFor the sixth season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", auditions were held in four cities: Chicago, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. The age requirement for auditioning, used in the previous five seasons, was dropped. A total of ten dance crews were selected to compete. This was the first season to showcase a crew from the Pacific region.\n^Note 1 : A non-elimination episode meant to showcase the two finalists.\nThe first five crews auditioned for a chance to move on in the competition during the season premiere, beginning with a group performance to \"6 Foot 7 Foot\" featuring Cory Gunz.\nThe next five crews performed to Ke$ha hits to compete for a chance to move on to the next round, starting with a dance number to \"We R Who We R\".\nThe Black Eyed Peas assigned each crew a different song and challenge to incorporate into their routines.\nKaty Perry handed out dance challenges to the seven remaining crews.\nThe six remaining crews choreographed routines inspired by Rihanna. Rihanna's choreographer, Tanisha Scott, gave each crew a dancehall move to be incorporated.\nJustin Bieber handed out dance challenges to the five remaining crews. All the challenges were based on moments from Bieber's documentary \"\".\nThe final four crews kicked off the show with a group number to \"Massive Attack\" featuring Sean Garrett. Then, Nicki Minaj dropped by and challenged the four remaining crews to choreograph routines inspired by one of her alter egos.\nThe episode began with the three remaining crews performing a group number to \"All of the Lights\" featuring Rihanna. Season 5 winner Poreotix delivered the challenges to the crews. After the mid-show elimination, the final two crews performed their prepared routines to make their one last plea for votes.\nThe crews had to demonstrate their versatility by creating a routine that incorporated three different styles of dance. All crews were given the same styles and songs.\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\nThe final two crews faced off in the penultimate episode of Season 6, which also featured a look back at their accomplishments so far.\nFor the first challenge, the judges chose one routine from the past weeks in which the crews must improve upon and perform again. The judges selected I.aM.mE's Week 5 Rihanna performance and ICONic Boyz' Week 6 Justin Bieber routine.\nThe two crews then performed in a three-round dance battle. Swizz Beatz returned to provide the music for the battle.\nThe winner was crowned in the Season 6 finale, which also featured performances by the past winners. In contrast to previous seasons of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", the finale was pre-recorded; each crew taped a faux winning and losing reaction, as well as their victory performance, and were unaware of the results until the final cut of the episode was aired prior to the 2011 MTV Movie Awards.","Poreotics\nPoreotics, also known as Poreotix, is an Asian American all-male dance crew from Westminster, California. The crew was formed in 2007 by Matthew \"Dumbo\" Nguyen and specializes in popping, choreography and robotics, hence the name Po-reo-tics. They have performed in numerous hip hop dance competitions, most notably coming in 1st place in the USA division of the 2009 and 2010 Hip-Hop Internationals and in other dance programs and competitions including the Vibe 15, FUSION X, Body Rock, and World Of Dance. On April 8, 2010, they were crowned the champions on the fifth season of America's Best Dance Crew. On January 14, 2011 they were crowned as \"Team of the Year\" at the World of Dance awards.\nThey are known for their shades, dark glasses which they wear for all of their performances. Jet Li stated that they wear the shades because it gives them character. All of them are of Southeast Asian heritage. Matthew \"Dumbo\" Nguyen, Can Trong Nguyen, and Charles Viet Nguyen are Vietnamese while Andrew-Chad \"Chad\" Fausto Mayate, Lawrence \"Law\" Bravo Devera, and Justin \"Jet Li\" Valles are Filipino.\nThey are a group of young Asian males with their signature image of sunglasses. They are worn for every performance on the show and eventually signify who they are. They stand out further with the unique highlighted hair. Poreotics was formed in Westminster, California by Matthew \"Dumbo\" Nguyen, Can \"Candy\" Nguyen, and Charles Viet Nguyen in December 2007. Supposedly, Dumbo met Can at a movie theater and battled his brother. Can \" Candy\" Nguyen attended Garden Grove High School and Matthew Nguyen attended Rancho Alamitos High School. Subsequently the group expanded with new members Lawrence \"Law\" Devera and Justin \"Jet-Li\" Valles. In 2009, the team chose Andrew \"Chad\" Fausto Mayate to substitute for Justin \"Jet-Li\" Valles in the 2009 Hip Hop Dance Championships. The team won first place and Andrew-Chad Fausto Mayate became a permanent member. Five out of the six crew members (Dumbo, Can, Charles, Law, and Chad) were also members of PAC Modern Dance Troupe. In 2008, both Matthew (Dumbo) and Lawrence (Law) competed on Season 3 of \"America's Got Talent\" with the crew Sick Step.\nOn February 11, 2010 Poreotics competed on the fifth season of Randy Jackson Presents America's Best Dance Crew. The crew danced to several songs including those of Taylor Swift and Beyonce. Through their creative ideas and synchronized choreography, they managed to utilize the stage to its fullest and become extremely popular with the audience. They brought comedy mixed with popping to America's Best Dance Crew. The live season finale aired on April 8, 2010 and Poreotix was crowned the champions of season 5 and also perform in the finale of season 7 alongside season 7 champions Elektrolytes.\nPoreotics traveled to Australia to hold their first ever official tour, called the \"Tic Tic Tour\". The tour consisted of 3 actual shows which took place in three major cities (Melbourne, Sydney & Adelaide). The tour also consisted of four dance workshops, performances by local Australian dance crews, and a meeting with the fans. The full tour ran from September 30 to October 10.\nIn August 2011, Poreotics came back to Australia and held the 2nd tic tic tour called 'Tic Tic 2 tour' like in the first tic tic they visited many major cities Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide and for the first time Brisbane and Perth. Joining the Poreotics will be the dance crew “Yomama Crew”,“The ArchiTEKS,” \"Just Kidding Films\" and many other local dance crews. Joining these dance crews will be singing acts, “Joseph Vincent” & “JR Aquino\" and MyChonny as host.\nPoreotics became the first \"America's Best Dance Crew\" winners to have created a second sector of their crew after their victory. They held auditions for children ages 16 and under, who if selected would become a part of the first generation \"Mini\"-otics (Mini Poreotics). Miniotics is currently Poreotics' Junior Division as well as their only other division of the crew as of now. It is unknown whether Miniotics will perform wherever Poreotics performs, or if the two will perform separately for most of the time. Rehearsals and preparation have reportedly gone underway. They debuted alongside Poreotics at the Vibe 16 dance competition in Irvine, CA, on January 30, 2011.\nMiniotics later competed at Hip Hop Internationals in Las Vegas, Nevada and placed second in the Junior division representing the United States. Miniotics auditioned in ABDC Season 7 but they did not pass the audition.\nPoreotics continues to dance as a group and teaches various workshops including Urban Dance Camp. Through this, they are not only growing to improve themselves but also help develop the community of dancers.\nThey were most notably made famous by there many appearances on \"Just Kidding Films\", \"Just Kidding News, \"Just Kidding Party\" as well as the vlog channels of the members of JK.\nPoreotics worked with many other individuals and groups including YouTube stars like Kevjumba and dancers like I.aM.mE crew. They continued to gain more fame on YouTube after winning and performing at several different competitions like the HIP-HOP Internationals and World of Dance.\nHe is part of \"The Mob.\"","Titanium (song)\n\"Titanium\" is a song by French <a href=\"disc%20jockey\">DJ</a> and music producer <a href=\"David%20Guetta\">David Guetta</a>, featuring vocals by Australian recording artist <a href=\"Sia%20%28musician%29\">Sia</a>. Taken from Guetta's fifth studio album, \"<a href=\"Nothing%20but%20the%20Beat\">Nothing but the Beat</a>\", the song was written by Sia, David Guetta, Giorgio Tuinfort and <a href=\"Afrojack\">Afrojack</a>. Production was also handled by Guetta, Tuinfort and Afrojack. \"Titanium\" was initially released for <a href=\"music%20download\">digital download</a> on August 8, 2011, as the first of four <a href=\"promotional%20single\">promotional single</a>s from the album. It was later released as the album's fourth single in December 2011. The song originally featured the vocals of American recording artist <a href=\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\">Mary J. Blige</a>, whose version of the song <a href=\"Internet%20leak\">leaked online</a> in July 2011.\n\"Titanium\" is a <a href=\"Ballad%20%28music%29\">ballad</a> which draws from the genres of <a href=\"house%20music\">house</a> and <a href=\"urban%20contemporary\">urban</a>-<a href=\"Dance%20music\">dance</a>. The song's lyrics are about inner strength. Sia's vocals on \"Titanium\" received comparisons to those by <a href=\"Fergie%20%28singer%29\">Fergie</a> and the song was also musically compared to <a href=\"Coldplay\">Coldplay</a>'s work. Critics were positive towards the song and noted it as one of the standout tracks from \"Nothing but the Beat\". \"Titanium\" attained top 10 positions in several major music markets, including Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at number one, becoming Guetta's fifth number-one single on the chart and Sia's first.\nThe song's accompanying <a href=\"music%20video\">music video</a> premiered on December 21, 2011 but does not feature appearances by Guetta or Sia. Instead, the video focuses on a young boy, played by actor <a href=\"Ryan%20Lee%20%28actor%29\">Ryan Lee</a>, with <a href=\"supernatural\">supernatural</a> powers. Along with other songs, \"Titanium\" was pulled from radio stations in the US after the <a href=\"Sandy%20Hook%20Elementary%20School%20shooting\">Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting</a>.\n\"Titanium\" was written by Sia, David Guetta, Giorgio Tuinfort and Afrojack. Production was also handled by Guetta, Tuinfort and Afrojack. After discovering Sia's music online, Guetta picked her to appear on his fifth studio album, \"<a href=\"Nothing%20but%20the%20Beat\">Nothing but the Beat</a>\". Guetta told an insider from <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>, \"I was totally amazed by Sia ... This has made me more curious to study her music more because I was really impressed. I have the biggest people on the album and she has a different profile, more like an indie kind of artist and it makes her song even more special, it makes it stand out I think.\"\nThe song originally featured vocals from American recording artist <a href=\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\">Mary J. Blige</a>, whose version of the song <a href=\"Internet%20leak\">leaked online</a> in July 2011. In an interview with <a href=\"News%20Limited%23Websites\">News.com.au</a>, Guetta spoke about its leak, saying, \"You shouldn't even know about that ... I'd rather not speak about it. That was annoying. It wasn't supposed to be out there.\" Sia recorded a <a href=\"Demo%20%28music%29\">demo</a> of the song, which was then sent to Blige and other artists. Eventually, Guetta decided to stay with her version. He explained, \"The first time I heard what Sia did, because she was not in the studio with me, I fell in love with it ... I didn't even want to give it to anyone else; it was perfect the way it was. It's not only about how big you are in America, it's about the song and the voice.\" American <a href=\"pop%20music\">pop</a> singer <a href=\"Katy%20Perry\">Katy Perry</a> was the first person to be offered the track but turned it down because she felt its message was too similar to that of her song \"<a href=\"Firework%20%28Katy%20Perry%20song%29\">Firework</a>\". An insider told <a href=\"Take%2040%20Australia\">Take 40 Australia</a>, \"So that 'Titanium' song, Sia wrote it for Katy, but [Katy] didn't want to do a song with Guetta ... \" According to Sia's manager, Jonathan Daniel of Crush Management, Sia wrote the song for American <a href=\"Contemporary%20R%26amp%3BB\">R&B</a> singer <a href=\"Alicia%20Keys\">Alicia Keys</a>. Guetta considered approaching other female singers to record on the song, however Perry advised him to keep Sia on the track. Guetta ultimately followed this suggestion. Sia revealed that Guetta put her vocals on the song without asking for permission:\n\"And then Mary J. Blige sang it. And then he took her vocal off it, and put my vocal back on, my demo vocal, without asking and released it. And I never even knew it was gonna happen, and I was really upset. Because I had just retired, I was trying to be a pop songwriter, not an artist.\"\n\"Titanium\" was released for <a href=\"music%20download\">digital download</a> on August 8, 2011, as the first of four <a href=\"promotional%20recording\">promotional single</a>s from the album, as part of the <a href=\"iTunes%20Store\">iTunes Store</a>'s countdown to the album's release.\n\"Titanium\" is a <a href=\"House%20music\">house</a> and <a href=\"urban%20contemporary\">urban</a>-<a href=\"Dance%20music\">dance</a> song. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by <a href=\"Sony/ATV%20Music%20Publishing\">Sony/ATV Music Publishing</a>, the song is set in <a href=\"common%20time\">common time</a> with a <a href=\"tempo\">tempo</a> of 126 <a href=\"beats%20per%20minute\">beats per minute</a>. The verses are in the <a href=\"Key%20%28music%29\">key</a> of <a href=\"E%E2%99%AD%20major\">E♭ major</a>, with a chord progression of E♭–B♭–Cm. The chorus and breakdown are set in the key of <a href=\"C%20minor\">C minor</a>, with a chord progression of A♭–B♭–Gm–Cm. Sia's vocal range span from the note of G to the note of E♭.\nAccording to Andrew Gregory of \"<a href=\"The%20Daily%20Telegraph%20%28Australia%29\">The Daily Telegraph</a>\", the song's <a href=\"introduction%20%28music%29\">intro</a> features \"a hint of 80s flavour\". Al Fox of <a href=\"BBC%20Music\">BBC Music</a> wrote that on the song, Sia has \"ghostly mandolin-esque vocals\". Cameron Adams of \"<a href=\"Herald%20Sun\">Herald Sun</a>\" called them \"square-peg\", while Melinda Newman of <a href=\"HitFix\">HitFix</a> compared her vocals to those by <a href=\"Fergie%20%28singer%29\">Fergie</a>. Genevieve Koski of \"<a href=\"The%20A.V.%20Club\">The A.V. Club</a>\" wrote that on the song, Sia \"manage[s] to keep [her] head above the waves of synths ... by amping up [her] vocals to match the outsized beats.\" David Jeffries of <a href=\"Allmusic\">Allmusic</a> compared the song to the music of <a href=\"Coldplay\">Coldplay</a>.\n\"Titanium\" garnered critical acclaim from <a href=\"Music%20criticism\">music critics</a>. David Byrne and Tony Peregrin of \"<a href=\"Windy%20City%20Times\">Windy City Times</a>\" described \"Titanium\" as \"epic and \"energizing\", writing, \"it is Sia who steals the show\" on \"Nothing but the Beat\". Robert Copsey of <a href=\"Digital%20Spy\">Digital Spy</a> agreed, calling the song one of \"the record's standouts\". Tom Ewing of \"<a href=\"The%20Guardian\">The Guardian</a>\" wrote, \"Sia, on 'Titanium', handles the album's best hook well.\" Rich Lopez of \"<a href=\"Dallas%20Voice\">Dallas Voice</a>\" wrote that the \"collaborative lyrics elevate this song to a higher level than any previous track\" from the album, and called it \"clever writing\" from Sia. David Griffiths off <a href=\"4Music\">4Music</a> called it \"The most intriguing hook-up\" on the album, writing that Titanium' sees Guetta giving the Australian songstress some long overdue commercial appeal, while Sia's vocals bring a quirky twist.\" Kerri Mason of \"<a href=\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\">Billboard</a>\" magazine described the song as \"Guetta's quirkiest and most epic track to date (in itself an unusual combination).\" Jamie Horne of \"<a href=\"The%20Border%20Mail\">The Border Mail</a>\" called it a \"strong\" track. Joe Copplestone of <a href=\"PopMatters\">PopMatters</a> noted that songs on the album such as \"Titanium\" and \"<a href=\"Night%20of%20Your%20Life%20%28David%20Guetta%20song%29\">Night of Your Life</a>\", \"recall the power\" of Guetta's previous collaborations with <a href=\"Kelly%20Rowland\">Kelly Rowland</a> on \"<a href=\"When%20Love%20Takes%20Over\">When Love Takes Over</a>\" (2009) and \"<a href=\"Commander%20%28song%29\">Commander</a>\" (2010). \"Titanium\" was nominated for Dance Work of the Year at the <a href=\"APRA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202012\">2012 APRA Music Awards</a>, but lost to \"From the Music\" by <a href=\"The%20Potbelleez\">The Potbelleez</a>.\nAfter the <a href=\"Sandy%20Hook%20Elementary%20School%20shooting\">Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting</a> in December 2012, \"Titanium\" was pulled from radio stations in the United States due to the use of gun-related lyrics in the song. \"Titanium\" is part of a group of songs that have been taken off the air, including <a href=\"Kesha\">Kesha</a>'s \"<a href=\"Die%20Young%20%28Kesha%20song%29\">Die Young</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Pumped%20Up%20Kicks\">Pumped Up Kicks</a>\" by <a href=\"Foster%20the%20People\">Foster the People</a>.\nOn the <a href=\"Syndicat%20National%20de%20l%27%C3%89dition%20Phonographique\">French Singles Chart</a>, \"Titanium\" debuted at number nine on August 13, 2011. After weeks of ascending and descending the chart, the song peaked at number three on January 7, 2012, giving Guetta his thirteenth top 10 hit in France. In Australia, the song debuted at number 31 on the <a href=\"ARIA%20Charts\">ARIA Singles Chart</a> on August 15, 2011, and peaked at number five on September 5, 2011. It was certified five times platinum by the <a href=\"Australian%20Recording%20Industry%20Association\">Australian Recording Industry Association</a> (ARIA), denoting sales of 350,000 copies. \"Titanium\" became Sia's second highest charting single as a solo artist in the country as well as Guetta's ninth top 10 hit there. On the <a href=\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20New%20Zealand\">New Zealand Singles Chart</a>, it debuted at number 18 on August 15, 2011. The following week, the song fell to number 39 and eventually fell out of the top 40. Upon its release as a single in December 2011, \"Titanium\" re-entered the chart at number 12 on December 5, 2011, and peaked at number three on January 30, 2012. It was certified triple platinum by the <a href=\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20New%20Zealand\">Recording Industry Association of New Zealand</a> (RIANZ), denoting sales of 45,000 copies. In Austria, \"Titanium\" debuted and peaked at number three on August 19, 2011, and remained in the top 10 for ten consecutive weeks. The song was certified platinum by the <a href=\"International%20Federation%20of%20the%20Phonographic%20Industry\">International Federation of the Phonographic Industry</a> (IFPI), denoting sales of 30,000 copies.\n\"Titanium\" also reached the top 10 in the charts of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. On the <a href=\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\">UK Singles Chart</a>, \"Titanium\" debuted at number 16 on August 20, 2011, and fell to number 31 the following week. The song descended the UK Singles Chart for three consecutive weeks and eventually fell out of the top 100. Upon its release as a single in December 2011, \"Titanium\" re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 61 on January 14, 2012, and climbed to number eight the following week. On February 11, 2012, it peaked at number one, and became Guetta's fifth number-one single on the chart and Sia's first. The song also reached number one on the <a href=\"UK%20Dance%20Chart\">UK Dance Chart</a>. \"Titanium\" was certified platinum by the <a href=\"British%20Phonographic%20Industry\">British Phonographic Industry</a> (BPI), denoting shipments of 600,000 copies. \"Titanium\" was the fourth best-selling single of 2012 in the UK, and it has sold over one million copies there as of February 2013.\nIn the United States, the song debuted on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a> at number 66 on the issue dated August 27, 2011. After it was released to US radio in April 2012, \"Titanium\" reached a new peak of number seven on the issue dated July 21, 2012, and became Guetta's fourth top-ten single on the Hot 100. It also peaked at number three on the <a href=\"Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs\">Hot Dance Club Songs</a> chart, and number three on the <a href=\"Mainstream%20Top%2040\">Mainstream Top 40</a> chart. \"Titanium\" was certified double platinum by the <a href=\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20America\">Recording Industry Association of America</a> (RIAA). As of March 2014, the song has sold 3,852,000 copies in the U.S.\nThe <a href=\"music%20video\">music video</a> for \"Titanium\" was directed by <a href=\"David%20Wilson%20%28director%29\">David Wilson</a>. It was filmed in December 2011 in <a href=\"Sainte-Marthe-sur-le-Lac\">Sainte-Marthe-sur-le-Lac</a> and at Dorval-Jean XXIII High School, in the province of <a href=\"Quebec\">Quebec</a>, <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a>. A 14-second preview of the video was uploaded to Guetta's official <a href=\"YouTube\">YouTube</a> account on December 16, 2011. The preview showed a young boy (played by actor <a href=\"Ryan%20Lee%20%28actor%29\">Ryan Lee</a>) in the smoky <a href=\"Woodland\">woods</a> running away from a <a href=\"SWAT\">SWAT</a> team of men. The video then closes with the caption, \"The Music Video Coming Soon\". The full video premiered online on December 20, 2011. Neither Guetta nor Sia appear in the video. Jason Lipshutz of \"Billboard\" magazine noted that \"the supernatural scene and suburban setting\" in the video recall the science fiction film \"<a href=\"Super%208%20%28film%29\">Super 8</a>\" (2011), in which Lee stars. Becky Bain of <a href=\"Idolator%20%28website%29\">Idolator</a> wrote that, \"The video is beautifully shot, and is courageous enough not to answer all its mysteries.\" A writer for <a href=\"Capital%20%28radio%20network%29\">Capital FM</a> called it a \"very cinematic video\".\nThe video opens in a deserted, destroyed school hallway with Lee's character shown sitting on the ground. As the first verse begins, he slowly begins to stand up and makes his way through the hallway. The boy then sees a female teacher in a classroom who's stricken with fear and closes the door, realizing that the boy is the cause of the damage. As the boy makes his way outside the school building, a police car arrives and the teacher rushes outside to tell the policeman about the boy, who then quickly rides a bicycle home to pack his things. While at home, he sees a news report about the incident, causing him to quickly gather his things to flee. Several policemen then appear outside the front door of the boy's house, while he tries to escape through the back door. The boy realizes that the door is locked so he uses his <a href=\"telekinesis\">telekinetic</a> powers to grab the keys from the kitchen bench. The policemen then enter the house to find that the boy has escaped, but find a teddy bear and a plush frog floating in the air. The final scene shows the boy running away from a SWAT team in the woods. The boy is caught by one of the men who pushes him to the ground. The video ends with the boy using his supernatural powers once again to push the men away in a burst of power; this references how the boy destroyed the school in the first place, as he's in the same position he was in at the beginning of the video. The aftermath of the outburst in the end, however, remains unknown.\n\"Titanium\" was used in the <a href=\"Gossip%20Girl%20%28season%205%29\">fifth season</a> of the American television show \"<a href=\"Gossip%20Girl\">Gossip Girl</a>\" episode \"I Am Number Nine\", which aired on November 7, 2011. It also appears on the soundtrack of the 2014 film \"<a href=\"Wild%20Tales%20%28film%29\">Wild Tales</a>\". Scottish recording artist <a href=\"Emeli%20Sand%C3%A9\">Emeli Sandé</a> performed \"Titanium\" with Guetta at the <a href=\"NRJ%20Music%20Award\">NRJ Music Award</a>s, held in France on January 29, 2012. On April 21, 2012, Sia made a surprise appearance during Guetta's set for the second weekend of <a href=\"Coachella%20Valley%20Music%20and%20Arts%20Festival\">Coachella</a> in <a href=\"Indio%2C%20California\">Indio, California</a>, where they performed \"Titanium\". The song also appears in the 2016 <a href=\"dance%20video%20game\">dance video game</a> \"<a href=\"Just%20Dance%202017\">Just Dance 2017</a>\". Sia performed the song throughout 2016 as a part of the setlist of her festival tour. It was performed by <a href=\"Anna%20Kendrick\">Anna Kendrick</a> and <a href=\"Brittany%20Snow\">Brittany Snow</a> in the <a href=\"Pitch%20Perfect\">Pitch Perfect</a> bathroom acappella scene.\nCredits adapted from the liner notes for \"Nothing but the Beat\".\nIn May 2012, \"Titanium\" was covered by British recording artist <a href=\"Tulisa%20Contostavlos\">Tulisa Contostavlos</a> on <a href=\"BBC%20Radio%201\">BBC Radio 1</a>'s <a href=\"Live%20Lounge\">Live Lounge</a>. An a cappella version of the song was sung by <a href=\"Anna%20Kendrick\">Anna Kendrick</a> and <a href=\"Brittany%20Snow\">Brittany Snow</a> during a shower scene in the film \"<a href=\"Pitch%20Perfect\">Pitch Perfect</a>\" (2012). On October 22, 2012, former <a href=\"Lady%20Gaga\">Lady Gaga</a> backup singer Chevonne and 16-year-old <a href=\"Avery%20Wilson\">Avery Wilson</a> performed \"Titanium\" as a duet during the October battle rounds of the <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20season%203%29\">third season</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%29\">The Voice US</a>\". Dutch <a href=\"symphonic%20rock\">symphonic rock</a> band <a href=\"Within%20Temptation\">Within Temptation</a> covered the song during their special program \"Within Temptation Friday\" on the <a href=\"Belgian\">Belgian</a> radio station Q Music, where the band choose songs to cover not related to their style of music. Their version was then included on their cover album \"<a href=\"The%20Q-Music%20Sessions\">The Q-Music Sessions</a>\", released in April 2013. On April 23, 2013, <a href=\"Michelle%20Chamuel\">Michelle Chamuel</a> and Chelea M. performed \"Titanium\" as a duet during the battle rounds of the <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20season%204%29\">fourth season</a> of \"The Voice US\". On May 10, 2013, <a href=\"Demi%20Lovato\">Demi Lovato</a> covered the song during a concert in San Diego, California. On May 16, 2013, <a href=\"Adam%20Lambert\">Adam Lambert</a> and <a href=\"Angie%20Miller%20%28American%20singer%29\">Angie Miller</a> performed a duet of the song on the finale of the <a href=\"American%20Idol%20%28season%2012%29\">twelfth season</a> of \"<a href=\"American%20Idol\">American Idol</a>\", where Miller was a finalist. <a href=\"Madilyn%20Bailey\">Madilyn Bailey</a>'s version of \"Titanium\" reached number 13 on the French singles chart in 2015 and spent 34 weeks there. It also appeared on the Belgian French Wallonia <a href=\"Ultratop\">Ultratop</a> chart, peaking at number 23.\nOn October 31, 2011, Andrew Wishart covered \"Titanium\" in the <a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28Australia%20series%203%29\">third series</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28Australia%29\">The X Factor Australia</a>\". \"Titanium\" was also covered by Martin Madeja on the <a href=\"X%20Factor%20%28Germany%20season%202%29\">second season</a> of \"<a href=\"X%20Factor%20%28Germany%29\">X Factor Germany</a>\" on November 8, 2011. On February 10, 2012, Morten Benjamin performed the song on the fifth season of \"<a href=\"X%20Factor%20%28Denmark%29\">X Factor Denmark</a>\". On October 11, 2012, 13-year-old <a href=\"Beatrice%20Miller\">Beatrice Miller</a> performed \"Titanium\" during the judges' houses round of the <a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20season%202%29\">second season</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%29\">The X Factor USA</a>\". The song was also performed by <a href=\"Jahm%C3%A9ne%20Douglas\">Jahméne Douglas</a> during the judges' houses round and <a href=\"Lucy%20Spraggan\">Lucy Spraggan</a> during the third live show of the <a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28UK%20series%209%29\">ninth series</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28UK%29\">The X Factor UK</a>\" on October 20, 2012. Spraggan's version had her own verses rather than those of the original song, and used the second half of Titanium's chorus as its own. On November 7, 2013, <a href=\"Ellona%20Santiago\">Ellona Santiago</a> performed \"Titanium\" during Week 2 on Night 2 of the <a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20season%203%29\">third season</a> of \"The X Factor USA\", where all the contestants had to sing their Save Me song due to graphic issues.\nBritish pop and soul singer <a href=\"Jahm%C3%A9ne%20Douglas\">Jahméne Douglas</a> released a cover version of \"Titanium\" on July 22, 2013 as the lead single from his debut studio album, \"<a href=\"Love%20Never%20Fails%20%28Jahm%C3%A9ne%20Douglas%20album%29\">Love Never Fails</a>\" (2013). Douglas' version peaked at number 94 on the <a href=\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\">UK Singles Chart</a>. Talking to \"<a href=\"Digital%20Spy\">Digital Spy</a>\", Douglas said: \"It's very hard to sing. I was scared to do it because it's a big chart song and I'm quite old school. For me, the song is about strength and the music video is based around domestic violence and how a woman gets out of it. The lyrics are so powerful for that interpretation. Hopefully if someone is in that situation and watches it, they'll think, I can get out.\" A music video to accompany the release of \"Titanium\" was first released onto YouTube on June 12, 2013 at a total length of three minutes and fifty-four seconds. The music video shows Douglas next to a piano, while a story of domestic abuse plays out.","America's Best Dance Crew (season 2)\nThe second season of \"<a href=\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew\">America's Best Dance Crew</a>\" premiered on June 19, 2008. The live auditions special took place on June 7, 2008. The season was hosted by <a href=\"Mario%20Lopez\">Mario Lopez</a>, featured <a href=\"Layla%20Kayleigh\">Layla Kayleigh</a> as the backstage correspondent, and included <a href=\"Lil%20Mama\">Lil Mama</a>, <a href=\"JC%20Chasez\">JC Chasez</a>, and <a href=\"Shane%20Sparks\">Shane Sparks</a> as judges. In the live finale, which aired on August 21, 2008, <a href=\"Super%20CR3W\">Super CR3W</a> was declared the winner.\nFor the second season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", the dance crews auditioned in four cities: <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, <a href=\"Atlanta\">Atlanta</a>, <a href=\"Houston\">Houston</a>, and <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>. A total of fourteen dance crews were selected from the four cities and then categorized into four regions: Midwest, South, East Coast, and West Coast. Following the live casting special on June 7, 2008, the initial pool of dance crews was narrowed down to ten.\n<a href=\"%23ref_1\">^Note 1</a> : The live auditions special determined the ten spots for the season premiere.<br>\n<a href=\"%23ref_2\">^Note 2</a> : A non-elimination episode meant to showcase the two finalists.\nFourteen dance crews competed in a live casting special for \"America's Best Dance Crew\". The reigning champions, <a href=\"JabbaWockeeZ\">JabbaWockeeZ</a>, performed to a remix of \"<a href=\"The%20Boss%20%28Rick%20Ross%20song%29\">The Boss</a>\" by <a href=\"Rick%20Ross%20%28rapper%29\">Rick Ross</a> featuring <a href=\"T-Pain\">T-Pain</a> at the end of the episode.\nEach crew performed to songs of their own choosing.\nThe crews created routines inspired by iconic music videos.\nEach crew utilized a physical transformation to visually illustrate the title of their song.\nThe crews had to transition from a slow tempo song to a faster one while still remaining on beat.\nThe episode began with a group performance to <a href=\"Janet%20Jackson\">Janet Jackson</a>'s \"<a href=\"Rhythm%20Nation\">Rhythm Nation</a>\". Then, each crew was given a Janet Jackson song and had to incorporate her signature style and moves into their dance.\nThe crews were assigned a song and a school activity. They were required to utilize the stage props, themed after a high school gym, to create the beats for their routine.\nThe episode opened with a group performance to <a href=\"Missy%20Elliott\">Missy Elliott</a>'s \"<a href=\"Shake%20Your%20Pom%20Pom\">Shake Your Pom Pom</a>\". Afterwards, the crews adapted the footwork from her music videos to showcase their own style. Elliott starred as the first guest judge on \"America's Best Dance Crew\", helping the regular judges select which crew was eliminated.\nThe remaining three crews competed in two challenges inspired by the 1980s.\nEach crew built routines featuring popular party dances from the '80s. In addition, the crews had to complete the physical task assigned to them.\nThe crews crafted routines that incorporated elements of classic '80s films. The crews were given remixed versions of the songs from their respective movies.\nIn a non-elimination episode, the final two crews faced off in three rounds of challenges.\nDancing to the same mix of songs, the crews created routines that included different dance styles from around the world.\nWorking with music producers to write and create an original soundtrack, the crews had to create their own dance craze.\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a regional collaboration. Instead of going head-to-head, Super CR3W and SoReal Cru teamed up for their last performance.\nAt the beginning of the show, champions JabbaWockeeZ and Super CR3W performed to a remix of \"<a href=\"We%20Are%20the%20Champions\">We Are the Champions</a>\" by <a href=\"Queen%20%28band%29\">Queen</a>.\nFive crews from the first and second seasons were given music videos nominated for \"Best Dancing in a Video\" at the <a href=\"2008%20MTV%20Video%20Music%20Awards\">2008 MTV Video Music Awards</a>. The crews had to incorporate the moves from the videos while retaining their own style. In the end, the judges chose their three favorite performances. After votes were cast, the two crews with the highest number of votes would perform at the VMA preshow.\nFanny Pak and <a href=\"Kaba%20Modern\">Kaba Modern</a> were eventually selected to compete against each other at the preshow.\nFanny Pak danced to \"<a href=\"Damaged%20%28Danity%20Kane%20song%29\">Damaged</a>\" by <a href=\"Danity%20Kane\">Danity Kane</a>, while <a href=\"Kaba%20Modern\">Kaba Modern</a> danced to \"<a href=\"Closer%20%28Ne-Yo%20song%29\">Closer</a>\" by <a href=\"Ne-Yo\">Ne-Yo</a>. <a href=\"Lindsay%20Lohan\">Lindsay Lohan</a> and <a href=\"Ciara\">Ciara</a> later announced that Fanny Pak was the winner of the battle and received $25,000 (<a href=\"United%20States%20dollar\">USD</a>) for charity.","America's Best Dance Crew (season 3)\nThe third season of \"<a href=\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew\">America's Best Dance Crew</a>\" premiered on January 15, 2009. The season was once again hosted by <a href=\"Mario%20Lopez\">Mario Lopez</a> and featured <a href=\"Layla%20Kayleigh\">Layla Kayleigh</a> as the backstage correspondent. <a href=\"Lil%20Mama\">Lil Mama</a>, <a href=\"JC%20Chasez\">JC Chasez</a>, and <a href=\"Shane%20Sparks\">Shane Sparks</a> returned as the judging panel. This was the first season without a special casting episode. In the live finale, which aired on March 5, 2009, <a href=\"Quest%20Crew\">Quest Crew</a> was declared the winner.\nSimilar to the <a href=\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew%20%28season%201%29\">first season</a>, nine dance crews were selected to compete on \"America's Best Dance Crew\", as opposed to ten. While the crews were not officially divided into the usual four regions (East Coast, West Coast, Midwest, and South) as with the previous two seasons, the regions were still listed on each crew's banner. This was also the first season to showcase a crew from the <a href=\"Caribbean\">Caribbean</a>. Team Millennia, who was eliminated during the <a href=\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew%20%28season%202%29\">Season 2</a> casting special, returned as one of the nine official dance crews.\nThe crews performed to the songs of their choosing. Then, the judges chose the bottom three crews to compete in a sudden death dance battle to \"<a href=\"Live%20Your%20Life%20%28T.I.%20song%29\">Live Your Life</a>\" by <a href=\"T.I.\">T.I.</a> Rynan \"Kid Rainen\" Paguio from <a href=\"JabbaWockeeZ\">JabbaWockeeZ</a> temporarily guest judged in place of JC Chasez, who later returned the following episode.\nEach crew was given a physical activity/exercise to incorporate into their routine.\nThe crews took inspiration from <a href=\"Britney%20Spears\">Britney Spears</a>' music videos to create their routines. Andre Fuentes, Spears' choreographer, assigned additional challenges for the crews to complete.\nThe crews performed to <a href=\"clich%C3%A9\">cliché</a> songs that spurred uncool and silly dance crazes. Each crew had to incorporate their respective song's dance into their routines, while also trying to make the moves look fresh.\nThe crews had to perform their routines utilizing various magic tricks and illusions.\nThe episode started off with a group performance, choreographed by <a href=\"Napoleon%20D%27umo\">Napoleon</a> and <a href=\"Tabitha%20D%27umo\">Tabitha D'umo</a>, featuring <a href=\"Ludacris\">Ludacris</a>' \"<a href=\"What%20Them%20Girls%20Like\">What Them Girls Like</a>\" and <a href=\"Beyonc%C3%A9\">Beyoncé</a>'s \"<a href=\"Single%20Ladies%20%28Put%20a%20Ring%20on%20It%29\">Single Ladies</a>\".\nThe two remaining male crews then battled against the two remaining female crews. Each crew had to emulate a male or female superstar's music video, and were challenged to incorporate the spirit of the video into their choreography.\nThe crews competed against each other in two challenges: the Hip-Hop Decathlon and the Last Chance Challenge. After the mid-show elimination, the top two crews performed their routines for the Last Chance Challenge.\nThe three remaining crews had to demonstrate their versatility by creating a routine that incorporated five different hip hop dance styles. The competitors were given the same five styles and songs, and received help from five guest \"ABDC\" alumni from the previous two seasons. Each alumnus/alumna was assigned to one of the dance styles the crews were responsible for.\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a collaboration. The judges each picked three crews that complemented each other and their dance styles. Instead of going head-to-head, Quest Crew and Beat Freaks teamed up for their last performance.","Live My Life (song)\n\"Live My Life\" is a song by American group <a href=\"Far%20East%20Movement\">Far East Movement</a> from their fourth studio album \"<a href=\"Dirty%20Bass\">Dirty Bass</a>\". The song was released on February 25, 2012 as the album's lead single. It features vocals from Canadian pop singer <a href=\"Justin%20Bieber\">Justin Bieber</a>. The song was produced by <a href=\"RedOne\">RedOne</a> and De Paris.\nThe official remix of the song, subtitled \"Live My Life (Party Rock Remix)\", features vocals from <a href=\"Redfoo\">Redfoo</a> of <a href=\"LMFAO\">LMFAO</a>. The track was released on March 6, 2012 as a digital download. Also, it was included as the last track of the standard edition of \"Dirty Bass\".\nA music video to accompany the release of \"Live My Life\" was first released onto YouTube on April 5, 2012 through Far East Movement's <a href=\"Vevo\">Vevo</a> channel at a total length of four minutes and forty-three seconds. Justin Bieber do not appear in the video, but Redfoo and the Party Rock crew does. They are seen throughout the video touring and partying through the streets of <a href=\"Amsterdam\">Amsterdam</a> in the Party Rock bus. They also perform a synchronized dance routine in a <a href=\"flash%20mob\">flash mob</a>-style. Far East Movement perform their respective verses. Dutch singer <a href=\"Eva%20Simons\">Eva Simons</a> cameos in the video, seen entering the party bus midway through the video, as well as Dutch DJs Sidney Samson, Sick Individuals and Quintino. The music video has over 30 million views.\nAn alternate video edit was made for the Party Rock Remix at a total length of four minutes and thirty-eight seconds. It features the same scenes from the original and includes Redfoo performing his verse. This version has over 16 million views.\nThe videos were written by Redfoo and Kelly Covell and directed by Mickey Finnegan (who has previously directed music videos for LMFAO's songs such as \"<a href=\"Party%20Rock%20Anthem\">Party Rock Anthem</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Sexy%20and%20I%20Know%20It\">Sexy and I Know It</a>\" among others) while production was handled by Cisco Newman and Alexa Dedlow.\nThe video makes a reference to John Cusack's character from the film \"<a href=\"Say%20Anything%20%28film%29\">Say Anything</a>\"; it begins with Kev Nish holding up a <a href=\"boombox\">boombox</a> while standing outside of a female lead's apartment window, and ends with him taking her home.","Turn Around (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)\n\"Turn Around (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)\" is a song by American rapper <a href=\"Flo%20Rida\">Flo Rida</a> from his third studio album, \"<a href=\"Only%20One%20Flo%20%28Part%201%29\">Only One Flo (Part 1)</a>\". It was released as the second single on 8 November 2010 in the United States. The song contains samples of \"<a href=\"Din%20Daa%20Daa\">Din Daa Daa</a>\" by German dance singer <a href=\"George%20Kranz\">George Kranz</a>, and \"<a href=\"Oh%20Yeah%20%28Yello%20song%29\">Oh Yeah</a>\" by Swiss electronica band <a href=\"Yello\">Yello</a>. It debuted at number 98 on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a> and was featured prominently in the closing credits of \"<a href=\"The%20Hangover%20Part%20II\">The Hangover Part II</a>\". It was the second such use of a Flo Rida song in the closing credits of a film from \"The Hangover\" franchise—the first was \"<a href=\"Right%20Round\">Right Round</a>\", which also featured DJ Frank E and was used in the closing credits of \"<a href=\"The%20Hangover\">The Hangover</a>\".\nRobert Copsey of <a href=\"Digital%20Spy\">Digital Spy</a> gave the song 3 stars out of 5 and stated \"this follow-up [to \"<a href=\"Club%20Can%27t%20Handle%20Me\">Club Can't Handle Me</a>\"] isn't quite as instant, nor is it as lyrically ear-snagging, but it's nice to see him having another crack at this singing malarkey [...] What's more, the electro-trance backdrop is \"so\" last summer, but it was worth bringing back for those \"Mmm Da-Da\"s alone\".\nA sequel to \"Turn Around (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)\" called \"Turn Around, Pt. 2\" with <a href=\"Pitbull%20%28rapper%29\">Pitbull</a>'s vocals, was released on iTunes on May 17, 2011. It was used in the end credits of \"<a href=\"The%20Hangover%20Part%20II\">The Hangover Part II</a>\".\nIn the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a>, broadcasting regulator <a href=\"Ofcom\">Ofcom</a> received three viewer complaints after the video was broadcast on British music channel <a href=\"4Music\">4Music</a> at approximately 1400 and 1800 <a href=\"Coordinated%20Universal%20Time\">UTC</a> during December 2010 - January 2011, long before the 2100 <a href=\"Watershed%20%28television%29\">watershed</a>, \"at the time when children are most likely to watch TV\". The complainants claimed the video consisted of \"extreme crudeness and filth\" in a \"sexist and offensive video which mostly comprises women in thong bikini bottoms acting in a <a href=\"Pornography\">pornographic</a> manner\". One complainant \"was shocked to see women in <a href=\"Thong%20%28clothing%29\">thongs</a> and <a href=\"Brassiere\">bras</a> <a href=\"wikt%3Agyrate\">gyrating</a> and basically <a href=\"Non-penetrative%20sex\">dry humping</a> men in this video\". In the opinion of one viewer, \"this objectification of women at such an early time and on a channel that appeals to young people really concerns me\".\nAt approximately the same time, rival music video channels <a href=\"MTV%20Base\">MTV Base</a> and <a href=\"MTV%20Dance\">MTV Dance</a> generated three further viewer complaints for broadcasting the same video at 1750, 1900 and 1450 respectively. Expressing concern about younger viewers, the video was \"effectively soft porn\" and was given \"far too early\" a broadcast time, according to the MTV Base complainaints. The MTV Base complainaint claimed the \"rude\" and \"filthy\" video was \"too explicit for daytime TV\" and that \"ladies shaking their rear-end provocatively should not be promoted by <a href=\"MTV\">MTV</a>\".\n<a href=\"Box%20Television\">Box Television</a>, the company owning 4Music, apologised for any offence viewers may have experienced but claimed that the video did comply with Ofcom regulations as, in the video, \"female dancers [wear] thong bikinis and Carnival attire, synonymous with <a href=\"Brazilian%20Carnival\">Brazilian Carnival</a>, there is no nudity, inappropriate touching of the dancers or explicit sexual display\". The company also stated that they had \"placed a scheduling restriction so that it would not play in the pre-school (0700 – 1000) Breakfast Fix.\"\nMTV Base responded to the allegations by claiming that the females featured in the video were \"portrayed as <a href=\"Copacabana%20%28Rio%20de%20Janeiro%29\">Copacabana</a> girls, happy to dance, to be confident in their bodies and to celebrate the Brazilian party lifestyle\" as opposed to \"an expression of sex\". The channel noted that \"dancers are at all times clothed and although the clothing may be scant – it is not inappropriate dress for beach attire or carnival\". MTV Dance replied in a similar manner, adding: \"MTV Dance is a niche channel and its main audience being 16 – 34 year olds\".\nIn both cases, Ofcom concluded that the music video was in breach of Rule 1.3 of their Broadcasting Code, which says: \"Children must also be protected by appropriate scheduling from material that is unsuitable for them.\"\nSource:","Wild Ones (song)\n\"Wild Ones\" is a song by American <a href=\"Rapping\">rapper</a> <a href=\"Flo%20Rida\">Flo Rida</a> from his <a href=\"Wild%20Ones%20%28Flo%20Rida%20album%29\">fourth studio album of the same name</a>. The song features vocals by Australian recording artist <a href=\"Sia%20Furler\">Sia</a>. It was produced by <a href=\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\">soFLY & Nius</a> and <a href=\"Axwell\">Axwell</a>, whilst the lyrical content was written by <a href=\"Flo%20Rida\">Rida</a>, <a href=\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\">soFLY & Nius</a>, Sia, <a href=\"Axwell\">Axwell</a>, Jacob Luttrell, Marcus Cooper and Niklaas Vogel-Kern. The engineering and recording of the record was handled by <a href=\"Skylar%20Mones\">Skylar Mones</a>. Lyrically, the song contracts themes including <a href=\"partying\">partying</a>, <a href=\"love\">love</a> and dancing while the musical composition is an uptempo dance-pop song that is influenced by <a href=\"house%20music\">house music</a> and <a href=\"electro%20house\">electro house</a>.\nIt was released as the album's second single and title track on December 19, 2011 in the United States. The single peaked at number one in New Zealand, Australia, Canada and Norway, whilst it peaked inside the top forty in every country chart it charted on. It charted at number five on the US <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a>.\nThe music video was released, featuring Flo Rida having fun with his friends. Furler, however was not featured in the final video. This song along with \"<a href=\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\">Good Feeling</a>\" was selected to serve as one of the official theme songs to <a href=\"WrestleMania%20XXVIII\">WrestleMania XXVIII</a> and it was also featured in <a href=\"Dwayne%20Johnson\">The Rock's</a> Road to Wrestlemania vignettes where he prepares for his match with <a href=\"John%20Cena\">John Cena</a> at the event. Flo Rida performed the songs \"Good Feeling\" and \"Wild Ones\" live at the event to precede Rock's entrance for the match. With 6.5 million copies sold globally as of December 2012, it is <a href=\"List%20of%20best-selling%20singles\">one of the best-selling singles in history</a>.\nThe \"<a href=\"Titanium%20%28song%29\">Titanium</a>\" project got Sia into Guetta's powerful inner circle, including Atlantic Records director of A&R Ben Maddahi, who then introduced Sia to Flo Rida and his team, yielding \"Wild Ones\". The song serves as the second official single from <a href=\"Flo%20Rida\">Flo Rida</a>'s \"<a href=\"Wild%20Ones%20%28Flo%20Rida%20album%29\">Wild Ones</a>\".\nThe song features vocals by Australian recording artist <a href=\"Sia%20Furler\">Sia Furler</a>. It was produced by <a href=\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\">soFLY & Nius</a> and <a href=\"Axwell\">Axwell</a>, whilst the lyrical content was written by Rida, <a href=\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\">soFLY & Nius</a>, <a href=\"Sia%20Furler\">Sia Furler</a>, <a href=\"Axwell\">Axwell</a>, Jacob Luttrell, Marcus Cooper and Benjamin Maddahi.\nSia wrote the song in 15 minutes. She later said: \"They asked me to record [\"Wild Ones\"] over and over for almost six months. Eventually I said, 'OK, but don't put my name on it.' I was angry because we had already had this discussion. <a href=\"Crush%20Management\">Jonathan</a> said to me, 'I don't think I really believed you that you didn't want to be credited or get the recognition you deserve.'\" The song's chorus was written by Furler and was intended to feature <a href=\"Katy%20Perry\">Katy Perry</a>. However, Perry never received the song.\n\"Wild Ones\" is an uptempo dance-pop song that includes influences of <a href=\"house%20music\">house music</a> and <a href=\"electro%20house\">electro house</a>. According to Bill Lamb from About.com, \"There is clearly a well worn formula to Flo Rida's blend of hip hop, dance, and pop. [...] he has not worn out his welcome. It is the moments when \"Wild Ones\" breaks down into that simple combination of synth keyboards and Sia's voice that the song commands our attention.\" David Jeffries from <a href=\"Allmusic\">Allmusic</a> compared the song to <a href=\"Katy%20Perry\">Katy Perry</a>'s <a href=\"Firework%20%28song%29\">Firework</a>\", which was released one year previous, saying \"The title cut [Wild Ones] with [Sia] is close to Katy Perry's \"Fireworks\" but crafted to support a sports highlight reel instead of teenage dreams [...]\"\nIn the lyrics, Sia starts off singing \"Hey I heard you were a wild one, ooh / If I took you home it'd be a home run / Show me how you do / I want to shut down the club with you / Hey I heard you like the wild ones, ooh.\" After her introduction, Flo Rida raps \"I like crazy, foolish, stupid / Party going wild, fist pumping music / I might lose it / Blast to the roof, that's how we do'z it / I don't care the night, she don't care we like / Almost there, the right vibe / Ready to get live / Ain't no surprise, take me so high.\"\n\"Billboard\" described Sia's voice as a \"bell-clear, campfire-warm voice [that] has mostly been applied to her own elegantly quirky creations\". DJBooth.com compared the song to \"<a href=\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\">Good Feeling</a>\", stating that it is a \"slightly more subdued, but equally dancefloor/radio-ready follow-up\". Tim Byron from \"<a href=\"The%20Vine\">The Vine</a>\" stated, \"When [Sia] sings the chorus, phrases like 'I heard' and 'if I took you home' speak of uncertainty. She likes the idea of wildness, but isn't certain how it will go. Flo Rida's role in the song is to convince her that she actually does want to be a wild one, to convince her that it is okay to let go, to obliterate herself.\"\nThe song was nominated to the <a href=\"Grammy%20Award\">Grammy Award</a> for <a href=\"Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Rap/Sung%20Collaboration\">Best Rap/Sung Collaboration</a> at the <a href=\"2013%20Grammy%20Awards\">2013 Grammy Awards</a>.\nThe song made its debut at number twelve on the <a href=\"New%20Zealand%20Singles%20Chart\">New Zealand Singles Chart</a>. In its second week, it entered the top ten on ten, and in its third week it peaked atop of the charts. It became Flo Rida's second number-one single in that country and Furler's first number-one. The song was certified Gold in its first month and eventually received double platinum in May 2012, staying in the charts for twenty-two weeks. In Furler's native <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a>, it debuted at twenty-nine. In its third week, it rose to number two and eventually peaked at one for six consecutive weeks, pushing <a href=\"Foster%20The%20People\">Foster The People</a>'s single \"<a href=\"Pumped%20Up%20Kicks\">Pumped Up Kicks</a>\" off the top spot. It became Furler's first number-one and only, while it was Flo Rida's third number-one. The song received septuple platinum in Australia, selling over 500,000 copies there and had over five songs that received certifications in one year.\nIn France, the song debuted at seventy-six. Despite a slow start, it eventually peaked at number eleven on the chart, being one position off the top ten. The song debuted at twenty-nine on the <a href=\"Swedish%20Singles%20Chart\">Swedish Singles Chart</a>, during the <a href=\"New%20Year%27s%20Day\">New Year's Day</a> week. The song eventually peaked at number three on the chart and was certified quintuple platinum by the <a href=\"IFPI\">IFPI</a>, selling over 200,000 copies and is the eighty-third best-selling single in that country. In Norway, the song entered at fifteen on their native singles chart and eventually peaked at number one in its fifth week, and in total, spent twenty-one weeks on the chart.\n\"Wild Ones\" made its official debut at number fifty-seven on the US <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a>. The single eventually peaked at number five on the chart, and stayed for thirty-six weeks on the chart, making it Flo Rida's third-longest charting single, just behind \"<a href=\"Low%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\">Low</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\">Good Feeling</a>\". The song also achieved success on its component charts, peaking at two on the <a href=\"Mainstream%20Top%2040\">Mainstream Top 40</a>, eight on the <a href=\"Rap%20Songs\">Rap Songs</a> and thirty on the <a href=\"Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs\">Hot Dance Club Songs</a>. It was certified triple platinum by <a href=\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20America\">Recording Industry Association of America</a> (RIAA), with over 3,000,000 sales sold there. In the United Kingdom, the song peaked at number four on their singles chart after debuting at number four. It sold 695,000 copies in the UK in 2012, making it the 10th best-selling single of 2012.\nIn New Zealand, the song was the sixth best-selling single of 2012, while his then-next single \"<a href=\"Whistle%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\">Whistle</a>\" was the fifth best selling single that same year. In Canada, the song was the eighth best-selling single of 2012, while in the United Kingdom, it was the tenth best selling single. In the United States, the song was the eleventh top-selling single according to <a href=\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\">Billboard</a>.\nAs of December 2012, the song has sold 3,444,000 digital copies in the United States and 6.5 million copies worldwide.\nAs with the sales of Flo Rida's \"Wild Ones\" and his other singles; \"<a href=\"Low%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\">Low</a>\" (6,786,026), \"<a href=\"Right%20Round%20%28song%29\">Right Round</a>\" (5,475,096), \"<a href=\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\">Good Feeling</a>\" (3,903,872), \"<a href=\"Whistle%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\">Whistle</a>\" (3,791,107) and \"<a href=\"Club%20Can%27t%20Handle%20Me\">Club Can't Handle Me</a> (3,079,302), the sales all tally over 26 million sales worldwide, making him the best selling rapper in the digital music era.\nThe video directed by <a href=\"Erik%20White\">Erik White</a> was released on February 9, 2012 showing Flo Rida partying in <a href=\"Dubai\">Dubai</a> and <a href=\"Miami\">Miami</a>. In Dubai, it shows the <a href=\"Infinity%20Tower\">Infinity Tower</a>, <a href=\"Burj%20Al%20Arab\">Burj Al Arab</a>, and <a href=\"Palm%20Jumeirah\">Palm Jumeirah</a>. While the song features artist <a href=\"Sia%20Furler\">Sia Furler</a>, she does not appear in the video. Sia's vocals were lipsynched by Analicia Chaves. The video also features Cuban model Dayami Padron on the boat scenes to the left of Flo Rida.\n<a href=\"Flo%20Rida\">Flo Rida</a> performed the song on the finale of <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20season%202%29\">second season</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%29\">The Voice</a>\" with contestant Juliet Simms singing the chorus. He also performed the song with <a href=\"Carly%20Rae%20Jepsen\">Carly Rae Jepsen</a> at the <a href=\"2012%20MuchMusic%20Video%20Awards\">2012 MuchMusic Video Awards</a>, with Stayc Reigns at the <a href=\"2012%20Teen%20Choice%20Awards\">2012 Teen Choice Awards</a> and the <a href=\"2012%20Premios%20Juventud\">2012 Premios Juventud</a> and also performed the song live at <a href=\"WrestleMania%20XXVIII\">WrestleMania XXVIII</a> prior to The Rock entrance for his \"Once In A Lifetime\" match against John Cena. He performed a mash-up of this song along with two more of his famous music on July 21, 2014 on WWE RAW MIAMI. It also appeared in the trailer of \"<a href=\"Kung%20Fu%20Panda%203\">Kung Fu Panda 3</a>\".\nA remix version entitled \"Wild One Two\" by Jack Back featuring <a href=\"David%20Guetta\">David Guetta</a>, <a href=\"Nicky%20Romero\">Nicky Romero</a> and Sia was released on February 14, 2012. An edited version of the song appears in the 2012 re-release of Guetta's album \"<a href=\"Nothing%20but%20the%20Beat%23Re-releases\">Nothing but the Beat 2.0</a>\".\n","Got Money\n\"Got Money\" is the third single by American rapper <a href=\"Lil%20Wayne\">Lil Wayne</a> from his album \"<a href=\"Tha%20Carter%20III\">Tha Carter III</a>\" (2008). The single features American rapper <a href=\"T-Pain\">T-Pain</a>. Both Lil Wayne and T-Pain use the <a href=\"Auto-Tune\">Auto-Tune</a> effect in the song. The single was released as a digital download on iTunes on May 27, 2008. Lil Wayne and T-Pain performed the song at the <a href=\"Black%20Entertainment%20Television\">BET</a> 2008 awards and the 2008 MTV Music Video Awards. MTV also ranked the song as the #19 Hip-Hop song of 2008.\nThe UK radio edit version, released by <a href=\"Universal%20Music%20Group\">Universal</a> <a href=\"Ireland\">Ireland</a>, removes the intros and the outros of the song. Its duration is 2:38.\nThe official remix, featuring <a href=\"Young%20Money%20Entertainment\">Young Money Entertainment</a> artist <a href=\"Mack%20Maine\">Mack Maine</a>, was used to make the <a href=\"music%20video\">music video</a>. The video was shot and released on June 23, 2008, the same day the video for \"<a href=\"A%20Milli\">A Milli</a>\" was shot, in <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\">Los Angeles</a> and is a follow up to the cliffhanger of \"A Milli.\" The video is directed by <a href=\"Gil%20Green%20%28director%29\">Gil Green</a>. Lil Wayne has claimed on his video blog that this video is based on the film \"<a href=\"Inside%20Man%202\">Inside Man 2</a>\". <a href=\"Ray%20J\">Ray J</a>, <a href=\"Shorty%20Mack\">Shorty Mack</a>, <a href=\"Drake%20%28rapper%29\">Drake</a>, <a href=\"Nicki%20Minaj\">Nicki Minaj</a>, <a href=\"Birdman%20%28rapper%29\">Birdman</a>, <a href=\"Tyga\">Tyga</a>, Brisco, <a href=\"Lil%20Twist\">Lil Twist</a>, Lil Chuckee, <a href=\"Jay%20Rock\">Jay Rock</a>, <a href=\"2%20Chainz\">2 Chainz</a>, Kidd Kidd, and the producers of the song, Play-n-Skillz, make cameos in the video. The bank lobby shots are the same bank used in the film \"<a href=\"Set%20It%20Off%20%28film%29\">Set It Off</a>\". The music video premiered on multiple MTV channels on June 23, 2008. In the end, Lil Wayne is the only one arrested while the crew escapes with the money, including Mack Maine and Birdman.\nThe song was covered by <a href=\"Korn\">Korn</a> vocalist <a href=\"Jonathan%20Davis\">Jonathan Davis</a>. The cover features <a href=\"Slipknot%20%28band%29\">Slipknot</a> and ex-<a href=\"Stone%20Sour\">Stone Sour</a> <a href=\"guitarist\">guitarist</a> <a href=\"Jim%20Root\">Jim Root</a> and <a href=\"Korn\">Korn</a> drummer <a href=\"Ray%20Luzier\">Ray Luzier</a> and was released on <a href=\"Jonathan%20Davis%20and%20the%20SFA\">Jonathan Davis' solo band</a> website, and is available on <a href=\"iTunes\">iTunes</a>.\nThere are multiple freestyles on the internet, such as the ones done by <a href=\"rappers\">rappers</a> <a href=\"Yung%20Joc\">Yung Joc</a> and <a href=\"Pitbull%20%28rapper%29\">Pitbull</a>. The official <a href=\"remix\">remix</a> features <a href=\"Mack%20Maine\">Mack Maine</a>.\n<a href=\"Travis%20Barker\">Travis Barker</a> recorded a remix to the song.\n<a href=\"Juelz%20Santana\">Juelz Santana</a> and Skull Gang Recorded a freestyle to the song entitled \"What You Reppin?\" and on the \"Skull Gang Takeover\" mixtape.\nThe song was the \"Hot Shot Debut\" of the week on the \"<a href=\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\">Billboard</a>\" <a href=\"Hot%20100\">Hot 100</a>, entering at #13, making it Lil Wayne's second highest debut. This also made it his second highest peaking song in his solo career, although it's now his third highest peaking. 15 weeks following its Hot 100 debut, the song rose to a new peak on the chart of #10, giving Lil Wayne his third consecutive top ten hit from \"Tha Carter III\". It has become his fifth top ten on <a href=\"Hot%20Rap%20Tracks\">Hot Rap Tracks</a>, thus far peaking at #2. It has been most successful on U.S. Rhythmic stations, reaching number one on the <a href=\"Rhythmic%20Top%2040\">Rhythmic Top 40</a>. \"Got Money\" has also been nominated for the Best Rap/Sung Collaboration at the 51st Grammy awards.\nIn June 2011, producers Play-N-Skillz sued <a href=\"Lil%20Wayne\">Lil Wayne</a> for $1 million over the \"Got Money\" rights.\n","House dance\nHouse dance is a <a href=\"social%20dance\">social dance</a> primarily danced to <a href=\"house%20music\">house music</a> that has roots in the clubs of <a href=\"Chicago\">Chicago</a> and of <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a>. The main elements of House dance include \"<a href=\"Footwork%20%28genre%29\">Footwork</a>\", \"<a href=\"Jacking\">Jacking</a>\", and \"Lofting\". House dance is often improvised and emphasizes fast and complex foot-oriented steps combined with fluid movements in the torso, as well as <a href=\"floor%20work\">floor work</a>.\n\"\"House Dance is an amalgamation of the post-disco era. A lot of their movements and what took place in certain key places, the Jack and a number of clubs after that. It was a community based dance so vocal points were surrounded by music and <a href=\"disc%20jockey\">DJs</a>, but many of the dancers who were not looking to create, ended up becoming a part of that dance vocabulary.\"\"\nThe major source in house dance movement stems directly from the music and the elements within the music such as <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a>, <a href=\"African%20music%20%28genre%29\">African</a>, <a href=\"Latin%20music%20%28genre%29\">Latin</a>, <a href=\"soul%20music\">soul</a>, <a href=\"R%26amp%3BB\">R&B</a>, <a href=\"funk\">funk</a>, <a href=\"hip%20hop%20music\">hip hop</a>, etc. The other source is the people, the individuals and their characteristics, ethnicities, origin, etc. You have people of all walks of life partying under one roof. Thus you have exchanges of information (<a href=\"body%20language\">body language</a>) house dance is a social dance before these competitions.\nIn house dancing, there is an emphasis on the subtle rhythms and <a href=\"riff\">riff</a>s of the music, and the footwork follows them closely. This is one of the main features that distinguishes house dancing from dancing that was done to <a href=\"disco\">disco</a> before house emerged and current dancing that is done to <a href=\"electronic%20dance%20music\">electronic dance music</a> as part of the rave culture.\nIn the early progressions of the dance, there were hundreds of phenomenal dancers that were key in its progression in this social dance scene. However, out of the many there were few instrumental in the introduction of New York house dance culture across the globe. Some of these dancers are Ejoe Wilson, Brian \"Footwork\" Green, Tony McGregor, Marjory Smarth, Caleaf Sellers, \"Brooklyn\" Terry Wright, Kim D. Holmes, Shannon Mabra, Tony \"Sekou\" Williams, Shannon Selby (aka Shan S), Voodoo Ray, and others.\nvideo showing of popular house dance steps by Brian \" Footwork \" Green\nCompetitions and festivals:","America's Best Dance Crew (season 1)\nThe first season of \"<a href=\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew\">America's Best Dance Crew</a>\" premiered on February 7, 2008. The season, hosted by <a href=\"Mario%20Lopez\">Mario Lopez</a>, featured a judging panel consisting of <a href=\"Lil%20Mama\">Lil Mama</a>, <a href=\"JC%20Chasez\">JC Chasez</a>, and <a href=\"Shane%20Sparks\">Shane Sparks</a>. In the live finale, which aired on March 27, 2008, <a href=\"JabbaWockeeZ\">JabbaWockeeZ</a> was declared the winner.\nFor the first season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\", the competitors auditioned in four cities: <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, <a href=\"Atlanta\">Atlanta</a>, <a href=\"Chicago\">Chicago</a>, and <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>. A total of twelve dance crews were selected from the four cities and then categorized into four regions: Midwest, South, East Coast, and West Coast. Following the live casting special on January 26, 2008, the initial pool of dance crews was narrowed down to nine.\n<a href=\"%23ref_1\">^Note 1</a> : The live auditions special determined the nine spots for the season premiere.\nTwelve dance crews competed in a live casting special for \"America's Best Dance Crew\".\nEach crew performed to a mix of their favorite dance track. The crews were broken up into groups of three. The judges selected one crew from each group (\"italicized\") to be safe from elimination and move on to the next week. Afterwards, the judges picked the bottom two crews to compete in a sudden death dance-off to guest performer <a href=\"Flo%20Rida\">Flo Rida</a>'s song \"<a href=\"Low%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\">Low</a>\".\nEach crew was given a different music video containing a dance sequence, which they had to perform while maintaining their own style.\nEach crew performed a popular dance, also known as a \"dance craze\", while preserving their own style. Since some of the dance crazes were very simple to execute, each team had to complete an additional challenge while performing.\nThe crews portrayed movie characters through dance.\nEach crew performed to a track from <a href=\"Michael%20Jackson\">Michael Jackson</a>'s \"<a href=\"Thriller%20%28Michael%20Jackson%20album%29\">Thriller</a>\" album, in honor of its 25th anniversary, and incorporated Jackson's signature moves into their routine.\nAt the beginning of the show, the crews teamed up to perform a routine to a hip hop remix of \"<a href=\"Annie%20%28musical%29\">Annie's</a>\" \"<a href=\"It%27s%20the%20Hard%20Knock%20Life\">It's the Hard Knock Life</a>\". Then, each crew had to transform a traditional <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a> number into a hip hop routine.\nAll three crews performed to a same remix highlighting the evolution of street dancing over the past 30 years.\nThe two finalists compete in an encore \"do or die\" round.\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a regional collaboration. Instead of going head-to-head, JabbaWockeeZ and Status Quo teamed up for their last performance.","Let It Rock (Kevin Rudolf song)\n\"Let It Rock\" is the debut single of <a href=\"Kevin%20Rudolf\">Kevin Rudolf</a>. It was produced by Rudolf for his debut album, \"<a href=\"In%20the%20City%20%28Kevin%20Rudolf%20album%29\">In the City</a>\" and features a verse from rapper <a href=\"Lil%20Wayne\">Lil Wayne</a>.\nIn the U.S. and Canada, the song reached #5 on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a>, number #6 on the <a href=\"Pop%20100\">Pop 100</a> and #2 on the <a href=\"Canadian%20Hot%20100\">Canadian Hot 100</a>. The first week, the song debuted at number 45 on the <a href=\"Australian%20Singles%20Chart\">Australian Singles Chart</a> and eventually reached number 3. In the United Kingdom, the song climbed to number 40 on physical release but due to an increase in airplay, due to <a href=\"BBC%20Radio%201\">BBC Radio 1</a> adding it to their A-list, the song climbed thirty places to number 10 in the song's second week on the chart; then it rose to number 5 the following week. \"Let It Rock\" was number 28 on \"<a href=\"Rolling%20Stone\">Rolling Stone</a>\"' s list of the 100 Best Songs of 2008. The single was also the official theme song for <a href=\"WWE\">WWE</a>'s 2009 <a href=\"Royal%20Rumble%20%282009%29\">Royal Rumble</a>. It is also featured in the <a href=\"video%20game\">video game</a> \"<a href=\"Madden%20NFL%2011\">Madden NFL 11</a>\" and <a href=\"Guitar%20Hero%20Live\">Guitar Hero Live</a>. According to in-game files, the song was also originally meant to appear on \"<a href=\"Grand%20Theft%20Auto%20V\">Grand Theft Auto V</a>\"'s Non-Stop-Pop FM radio station, but it was not included in the final release of the game.\nLet It Rock was featured in the 2013 <a href=\"Atlantic%20City%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Atlantic City, New Jersey</a> tourism commercials.\n\"Let It Rock\" was certified Triple Platinum by the <a href=\"RIAA\">RIAA</a> on May 5, 2009. As of July 2011, the song has sold 4,000,000 <a href=\"music%20download\">digital downloads</a>, making it Lil Wayne's third 4-million-seller.\nThe single was certified platinum in the U.S. on December 15, 2008.\nThe music video for \"Let It Rock\" features Kevin Rudolf and Lil Wayne performing in front of both a crowd and a dark background, sometimes lit with various effects such as strobe and laser lights. The \"<a href=\"NBA%20on%20TNT\">NBA on TNT</a>\" features a version of the music video to promote the <a href=\"2009%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game\">2009 NBA All-Star Game</a> featuring the players competing in the event.\nThe song's chorus is sampled in the <a href=\"Iyaz\">Iyaz</a> song \"Damn They Hot\", which features Rudolf himself. The song is also sampled and incorporated into <a href=\"Natasha%20Bedingfield\">Natasha Bedingfield</a>'s song \"All I Need\" from her album \"<a href=\"Strip%20Me%20%28Natasha%20Bedingfield%20album%29\">Strip Me</a>,\" which also features Rudolf.\n","Sexy and I Know It\n\"Sexy and I Know It\" is a hit song by American duo <a href=\"LMFAO\">LMFAO</a> from their second studio album, \"<a href=\"Sorry%20for%20Party%20Rocking\">Sorry for Party Rocking</a>\". It was released as the third single from the album on 16 September 2011. The song was written by Stefan Kendal Gordy, <a href=\"GoonRock\">GoonRock</a>, <a href=\"Erin%20Beck\">Erin Beck</a>, George M. Robertson and Kenneth Oliver, and it was produced by Party Rock. It went to number one on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a> on January 7, 2012 and remained there for two weeks.\nThe song became LMFAO's second number one hit (after \"<a href=\"Party%20Rock%20Anthem\">Party Rock Anthem</a>\") on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 in the United States, making them the first duo to have two successive number-one singles since <a href=\"Outkast\">Outkast</a>'s \"<a href=\"Hey%20Ya%21\">Hey Ya!</a>\" (2003) and \"<a href=\"The%20Way%20You%20Move\">The Way You Move</a>\" (2004). The song also reached number one in Australia, Canada and New Zealand, and charted within the top ten in nearly every country in which it charted. The song was featured in the <a href=\"Gossip%20Girl%20%28season%205%29\">season 5</a>, episode 12 of \"<a href=\"Gossip%20Girl\">Gossip Girl</a>\". and in the \"<a href=\"Glee%20%28TV%20series%29\">Glee</a>\" episode, \"<a href=\"The%20Spanish%20Teacher\">The Spanish Teacher</a>\". <a href=\"%26quot%3BWeird%20Al%26quot%3B%20Yankovic\">\"Weird Al\" Yankovic</a> recorded a cover as part of his polka medley \"<a href=\"List%20of%20%26quot%3BWeird%20Al%26quot%3B%20Yankovic%20polka%20medleys%23%26quot%3BNOW%20That%27s%20What%20I%20Call%20Polka%21%26quot%3B\">NOW That's What I Call Polka!</a>\" for his 2014 album \"<a href=\"Mandatory%20Fun\">Mandatory Fun</a>\" as well as in an <a href=\"M%26amp%3BM%27s\">M&M's</a> commercial and <a href=\"Specsavers\">Specsavers</a> advert. The song is also featured in the films \"<a href=\"Hotel%20Transylvania\">Hotel Transylvania</a>, <a href=\"American%20Reunion\">American Reunion</a>, <a href=\"At%C3%A9%20que%20a%20Sorte%20nos%20Separe%202\">Ate que a Sorte nos Separe 2</a>, <a href=\"Tapped%20Out%20%28film%29\">Tapped Out</a>, <a href=\"Think%20Like%20a%20Man%20Too\">Think Like a Man Too</a>,\" and \".\" It's also used in other television shows including \"<a href=\"Gossip%20Girl\">Gossip Girl</a>, <a href=\"Mulheres%20Ricas\">Mulheres Ricas</a>, <a href=\"Grey%27s%20Anatomy\">Grey's Anatomy</a>, <a href=\"New%20Girl\">New Girl</a>, <a href=\"Polizeiruf%20110\">Polizeiruf 110</a>, <a href=\"Las%20Vega%27s\">Las Vega's</a>, <a href=\"Boom%20Town%20%282013%20TV%20series%29\">Boom Town</a>, <a href=\"Girls%20%28TV%20series%29\">Girls</a>,\" and \"<a href=\"Mike%20%26amp%3B%20Mike\">Mike & Mike</a>.\"\nThe song is composed in the key of <a href=\"G%20minor\">G minor</a>, with a tempo of 124 beats per minute. The song is similar in humor to the <a href=\"Right%20Said%20Fred\">Right Said Fred</a> song <a href=\"I%27m%20Too%20Sexy\">I'm Too Sexy</a>.\nThe music video for \"Sexy and I Know It\" was filmed in <a href=\"Venice%2C%20California\">Venice, California</a>, and uploaded on LMFAO's <a href=\"YouTube\">YouTube</a> channel on September 16, 2011. It features <a href=\"Redfoo\">Redfoo</a> and a group of men including <a href=\"Hokuto%20%26quot%3BHok%26quot%3B%20Konishi\">Hok</a> from <a href=\"Quest%20Crew\">Quest Crew</a>, The <a href=\"Shuffle%20Bot\">Shuffle Bot</a>, Nathan Pasley and Q dancing around town in <a href=\"Swim%20briefs\">speedos</a> in front of women. In several scenes it shows Redfoo lifting weights. Chelsea Korka, <a href=\"Ron%20Jeremy\">Ron Jeremy</a>, <a href=\"Wilmer%20Valderrama\">Wilmer Valderrama</a>, <a href=\"Alistair%20Overeem\">Alistair Overeem</a>, <a href=\"Victor%20Kim\">Victor Kim</a>, Steve Terada, <a href=\"Lola%20Blanc\">Lola Blanc</a>, <a href=\"Ryan%20Conferido\">Ryan Conferido</a>, Ryan Feng of Quest Crew, <a href=\"Mindy%20Robinson\">Mindy Robinson</a>, Angelo Marconi, Darren Mabee, Darla George, and <a href=\"Simon%20Rex\">Simon Rex</a> all have cameos in the video. The music video on YouTube was flagged for sexual content. The final shot of the video pays homage to the final shot of \"<a href=\"Michael%20Jackson%27s%20Thriller%20%28music%20video%29\">Michael Jackson's Thriller</a>\": it shows Shuffle Bot leaving with the girls while it turns its head towards the camera behind it and the image freezes."],"string":"[\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 7)\\nThe seventh season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", also known as America's Best Dance Crew: Return of the Superstars, premiered on April 11, 2012. \\\"Return of the Superstars\\\" used the same show format of the previous season, in which the crews performed to the music of one specific artist each week. The season featured artists including Rihanna, Britney Spears, Madonna, Pitbull, David Guetta, LMFAO, Jennifer Lopez, Drake, Flo Rida, and Katy Perry. In the live finale, which aired on June 13, 2012, Elektrolytes was declared the winner.\\nAuditions for the seventh season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" were held in four cities: Chicago, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. Similar to the previous season, there was no age restriction. Dance crews who had previously competed on the show were also encouraged to audition again.\\nThe cast consisted of nine new dance crews and one returning crew. The appearance of Fanny Pak, who were originally contestants in the second season of \\\"ABDC\\\", marked the first time a crew appeared to compete on the show a second time. Each dance crew's hometown and representative region were displayed on their banner during the course of the competition.\\n^Note 1 : The bottom crew from the first episode battled the bottom crew from the second episode to determine the first elimination of the season.<br>\\n^Note 2 : The judges saved both crews from elimination.\\nThe season kicked off with the first round of crews dancing to a remix of \\\"I Wanna Go\\\". Then, the crews incorporated Spears' hits into their routines. The judges selected four crews to advance to the next round, while the crew who did not make the cut faced elimination in the following week's episode.\\nThe other five competing crews danced to \\\"Wild Ones\\\" featuring Sia, with Flo Rida performing alongside with them. Flo Rida then joined the judges table as a special guest judge. Later, the crews crafted their own routines inspired by his songs. After the judges decided the four dance crews that were safe, the bottom crew battled Mix'd Elements to a remix of \\\"Turn Around\\\" to determine which one would be the first eliminated.\\nThe nine remaining crews choreographed routines inspired by Madonna's music videos. Each crew had to incorporate their music video's signature dance style into their routine. In this episode, two teams were sent home after a double-elimination.\\nThe seven remaining crews selected lyrics from their assigned Drake songs and \\\"brought them to life.\\\"\\nThe six remaining crews paid tribute to Jennifer Lopez. Her choreographer, Beau \\\"Casper\\\" Smart, worked with the crews during rehearsals. Each crew's challenge was to highlight a defining moment in Lopez's career. Smart also gave them an additional challenge that linked to their initial challenge.\\nThe five remaining dance crews began the episode with a dance number to \\\"I Like: The Remix\\\" featuring Enrique Iglesias and The WAV.s, alongside Season 6 runner-up ICONic Boyz. Then, each crew was given a country and an international dance style to incorporate into their routines. In a two-way tie, the Bottom 2 crews advanced to the next round, marking the first time the judges saved both bottom crews from elimination.\\nThe five remaining crews created dance routines inspired by Rihanna, beginning with a group performance to \\\"We Found Love\\\" featuring Calvin Harris. Unlike last season, where her choreographer distributed the challenges, Rihanna delivered them to the crews herself.\\nThe four remaining crews danced to songs by LMFAO, beginning with a group performance to \\\"Live My Life\\\" by Far East Movement featuring Justin Bieber. Redfoo from LMFAO handed out the dance challenges, and Season 3 champion Quest Crew visited the rehearsal studio to work with the crews.\\nThe top three crews competed for the two spots in the championship round to the music of David Guetta. Unlike the format from previous episodes, the crews performed first before the voting results were revealed. Guetta gave each crew the same song mix and challenges to incorporate into their routines. Then, they did a group number to \\\"Titanium\\\" featuring Sia.\\nAfter the Bottom 2 was announced, the two crews had to dance battle to determine which one would advance to the finale.\\nThe final two crews danced to music from the concert film, \\\"\\\", after meeting the pop starlet. Then, the winner was crowned. The show also featured performances by past \\\"ABDC\\\" champions.\",\n \"Quest Crew\\nQuest Crew is an American hip-hop dance crew from Los Angeles, California who were declared winners of the third season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\". They made their first few appearances individually on shows like \\\"So You Think You Can Dance\\\" and at events such as Kollaboration 8 and World of Dance. They are currently helping with choreography for well-known artists such as LMFAO and touring with them as well. On August 29, 2015, Quest Crew was declared all-star champions of Season 8 of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" (ABDC). This is the crew's second time being declared champion of MTV's hit show.\\nThe name \\\"Quest Crew\\\" reflects the support that the Quest Learning Center, located in Artesia, California, has had on growth within the team and individually. Quest Crew won the title of America's Best Dance Crew on the third season of the show and consists of eleven members. Team members originally performed with the \\\"SickStep\\\" dance troupe, but later disbanded to recreate and include dancers to form Quest. D-Trix and Victor Kim are also part of the b-boy crew Fallen Kings, formally known as Flexible Flave, which won Freestyle session.\\nThe entire crew appeared in the Far East Movement music video \\\"Dance Like Michael Jackson\\\" and LMFAO's \\\"Party Rock Anthem\\\", \\\"Champagne Showers\\\", \\\"Sexy And I Know It\\\" and \\\"Sorry for Party Rocking\\\". Quest Crew also performed on \\\"Idol Gives Back\\\" in 2008.\\nFive out of the ten active members of Quest Crew have appeared on \\\"So You Think You Can Dance\\\". Ryan and Hok auditioned for season one with another member of their former crew Sick Step; crew member Ryan 'Ryanimay' Conferido appeared on the first season as a finalist and Hok did not make it. Ryan was eliminated in the fourth week of season one. Steve Terada, Victor Kim, and Hokuto 'Hok' Konishi had all auditioned for the second season (this being Hok's second time). Steve and Victor were both eliminated in the choreography rounds. Hok nearly made it to the top 20, but was only in the United States on a student visa, and was ineligible to be employed which led to his dismissal from the program. After obtaining a work permit, Hok had returned for the third season along with Dominic 'D-Trix' Sandoval. This time, both made it to the top 20. Hok was eliminated during the fifth week of competition and D-Trix was eliminated in the seventh week. Both D-Trix and Hok went on tour with the rest of the top 10 dancers with D-Trix as a featured dancer and Hok serving as a substitute/swing dancer. In 2008, Victor auditioned again for the fourth season but was cut early on in the choreography rounds. In 2017, Mark Villaver auditioned and made it all the way to the top 10 for the fourteenth season alongside his all-star Comfort.\\nIn 2009 Quest Crew became the winners of season three of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\". The seven members who competed were Hok, Feng, D-Trix, Brian, Victor, Steve, and Ryan. Lydia Paek, who is also a member of Quest Crew, decided to perform with the Boxcuttuhz due to the show's 7 member limit rule, meaning she could not dance with Quest. Aris Paracuelles and Andy Luo did not compete due to the seven member limit. Quest Crew originally auditioned for season one but were unable to take part of the show because crew members D-Trix and Hok's original contract with \\\"So You Think You Can Dance\\\".\\nDuring the , Quest Crew performed to their own master mix featuring Hero by Nas. They received overwhelmingly positive comments from the judges and were saved from elimination. Kid Rainen, a member of the JabbaWockeeZ served as a guest judge in place of JC Chasez. He complimented D-Trix's double halos and shoulder halos b-boy moves. Lil' Mama complimented Ryan on performing a highflip and landing on his head (describing him as 'crazy'). Shane Sparks also praised them, and said, \\\"The battle is on.\\\"\\nDuring the , Quest Crew was given the challenge of Kickboxing. This challenge was performed to a master mix of Kevin Rudolf ft. Lil Wayne's \\\"Let It Rock.\\\" Steve is a martial arts instructor, and he took them through all the basic punches and kicks. The crew relied on him to deliver those heavy blow ups. JC said they had great moments but thought the performance seemed a little too \\\"Tae Bo\\\" and said they had too much posing. Lil Mama agreed. However, Shane Sparks thought there were many moments in their performance where they killed the show and praised them. Nevertheless, they were saved from elimination that night.\\nDuring the , the Britney Spears song that Quest Crew received was \\\"Toxic\\\". For this challenge, they had to perform a portion of their routine blindfolded.\\nTheir performance was given positive remarks from the judges with judge JC Chasez calling it his favorite performance of the night. Shane Sparks, stated that the crew \\\"killed the stage\\\" when they incorporated a little feminine vibe into their routine. Shane Sparks also complimented Ryan on his \\\"Shablam,\\\" and calling him 'crazy' for doing that. Originally, Dominic was supposed to do the solo, performing fouettes into airflares, but injured his shoulder in rehearsal. At last minute, Ryan created the back flip \\\"Shablam\\\" but ironically, after the episode he injured his knee. After the airing of the episode, Dominic and Ryan both commented that the Britney Spears Challenge was cursed on account of both getting injured.\\nDuring the , Quest Crew got You Got It (The Right Stuff) by New Kids on the Block as their whack track.\\nThe crew chose to do the crotch grab pendulum and their routine featured Hok looking like he was on his hands but in reality he had switched his clothes around and eventually changed back into regular attire. The performance was again praised due to Quest's creativity and getting Hok in and out cleanly.\\nAfter this performance, there were controversies by some fans of the show throughout the internet. It was pointed out that the move done by Hok had been performed by Korean B-Boy crew, Project Seoul. Quest was accused of being \\\"biters\\\", however D-Trix soon issued an apology through a bboy forum.\\nDuring the , Quest Crew had to put an object through their body. The crew chose to perform to a master mix of Got Money by Lil Wayne feat. T-Pain. In their performance, Feng \\\"stabbed\\\" Brian Hirano with a coat rack and broke it off.\\nJC criticized their performance by pointing out that there was too much posing. JC also criticized Quest on their transitions. Some fans in the audience did not approve of JC's comments and responded with 'boos.' However, Lil Mama responded by instructing the fans in the audience not to boo because that would not enable Quest to listen to their \\\"Words of Wisdom.\\\" Shane Sparks also stated to Quest that \\\"Beat Freaks are on y'all butts\\\", with Victor jokingly looking behind him and responding backstage saying \\\"I'm honored that they're on our butts. I like them there, actually.\\\"\\nDuring the Battle of the Sexes Challenge, it was between two male crews, and two female crews. Quest Crew had to dance to the song \\\"Forever\\\" by Chris Brown. The crew decided they would imitate the smooth moves and gliding from the video. The judges complimented their performance and Shane complimented D-Trix (Dominic Sandoval) on having the cleanest air flares on the show.\\nDuring the , Quest was put into the bottom two for the first time against Fly Khicks. The crew had to incorporate five styles of hip hop into their routine: threading, krumping, housing, tutting and waving. Hok was familiar with tutting and Ryan Conferido knew how to thread so the crew depended on them to work on those sections. Songs performed in the Hip Hop Decathlon were: Poker Face by Lady Gaga (Threading), Love Lockdown by Kanye West (Tutting), I'm in Miami trick by LMFAO (Waving), Closer by Ne-Yo (Housing), and Get Up by 50 Cent (Krumping). The performance received a standing ovation from the judges and audience. The judges highly praised the crew. D-Trix performed elbow airflares, which received compliments from Shane Sparks, Hirano receiving compliments for being buff - since he ripped his shirt off during the krumping section - and Steve Terada performed a backflip from a sitting Indian-style position. Victor Kim performed threaded handhops, and Hok Konishi choreographed the tutting section. JC praised Hok in his tutting by calling him a true Egyptian and stating that Hok should be called \\\"King Tut\\\".\\nThe second challenge involved creating their own song, much like season 1 and season 2's last chance challenge. Quest's song was titled \\\"orQUESTra\\\". The song included Ryan Conferido's own piano piece. Ryan actually played the piano during the middle of the performance while D-Trix performed headspins to the alternating tempos on top of the piano. After a box split and locking solo by Hok, Victor Kim performed a hollowback into an invert. At the end of the performance, D-Trix pushed Steve Terada who was in the middle of a vertical back flip sideways over Hok and Victor, and ended with the Quest Crew Salute. This performance is number two on Randy Jackson's list of top 10 performances of all time.\\nFor the finale Quest performed in a dance collaboration with Strikers All Stars and Dynamic Edition. This group which was chosen by Shane Sparks had to dance to the song \\\"Right Round\\\" by Flo Rida. Later that same night Quest performed a routine with fellow finalist Beat Freaks to a mastermix \\\"Beggin'\\\" by Madcon. After nearly 20 million votes were cast, Quest was declared the winners of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" season 3. Their victory dance was to \\\"On Top of the World\\\" by T.I. ft Ludacris.\\nOn April 15, 2010 America's Best Dance Crew held a special charity episode featuring the winners of the first five seasons. Each dance crew was partnered with a charity organization. Quest Crew supported the DoSomething.org volunteer organization which inspires young people into action to better their community. Quest spent time with Jordan Coleman, the fourteen-year-old from Hackensack, NJ, who developed and released the film “Say It Loud” to promote the importance of education. Hok held the honor of presenting Jordan with a donation check worth $10,000. They performed to \\\"Sing, Sing, Sing\\\" by Swing Kids.\\nOn June 5, 2011, Quest Crew performed on the sixth season finale of MTV's America's Best Dance Crew. The crew performed to \\\"Party Rock Anthem\\\" by LMFAO. This was the first performance where D-Trix did not dance with Quest Crew on ABDC, as D-Trix himself was on the judging panel. Naturally, D-Trix gave Quest his judging commentary, where he praised their routine as well as the bond they share as a dance crew that caused them to pull off their performance.\\n\",\n \"Elektrolytes\\nThe Elektrolytes are an all-male dance crew formed by a group of local dancers within the area of Gilbert, Arizona in 2006. They are the winner of the seventh season of America's Best Dance Crew. They are also the winners of Hip Hop International USA 2011 Adult Division, and finished seventh in the World Hip Hop International 2011 Finals.\\nBefore forming Elektrolytes, they were all friends in school. Years later, they decided to make a dance crew naming themselves Elektrolytes as dance fuels their body and it's what plants crave.\\nThe crew auditioned for America's Best Dance Crew three times, failing to pass each time. After placing first at HHI 2011 USA for the Adult Division, the crew decided to audition for ABDC and passed.\\nElektrolytes were declared ABDC Champions on the Live Finale June 13, 2012.\\nMember Chris Thomas injured his knee during rehearsal and missed the performances of weeks 2 and 3.\\nAfter ABDC, the Elektrolytes competed again at the 2012 Hip Hop International. They received silver in the USA Adult Division and 4th Place in the World Adult Division. The Elektrolytes were dancing while traveling on tour, but now are on ABDC season 8.\",\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 5)\\nThe fifth season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" premiered on January 28, 2010. Similar to the live casting specials featured in the first two seasons, the first three episodes consisted of separate regional auditions before proceeding to the official national-level competition. Shane Sparks did not return as a judge this season, due to his arrest, and was replaced by Omarion. In the live finale, which aired on April 8, 2010, Poreotix was declared the winner.\\nFor the fifth season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", auditions were held in six cities: Atlanta, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, Boston, and New York City. Fifteen dance crews were selected and then categorized into three regions: South, East Coast, and West Coast. Following the regional competitions, the initial pool of dance crews was narrowed down to nine.\\n^Note 1 : No crews were eliminated due to technical errors in voting.<br>\\n^Note 2 : Blueprint Cru received immunity from the double-elimination for having the judges' favorite performance during the previous episode.\\nThe five top dance crews from the South, selected by Lil Mama, JC Chasez, and guest judge Hokuto \\\"Hok\\\" Konishi from Quest Crew, competed to represent their region in the Season 5 opener. After the Bottom 3 was chosen, each crew had to face off in a dance battle to \\\"Outta Control\\\" by Baby Bash featuring Pitbull.\\nThe five top dance crews from the East Coast, selected by Lil Mama and guest judge Kevin \\\"KB\\\" Brewer from the JabbaWockeeZ, auditioned for a chance to move on in the competition. After the Bottom 3 was chosen, the crews participated in a dance battle to \\\"Hip Hop Is Dead\\\" by Nas featuring will.i.am.\\nThe five top dance crews from the West Coast, selected by JC Chasez, Omarion, and guest judge Nichelle Thrower from We Are Heroes, performed for the opportunity to win a spot on the show. After the Bottom 3 was chosen, the crews battled each other to \\\"Showdown\\\" by The Black Eyed Peas.\\nEach crew was assigned a hit song that served as inspiration for their dance routines. The lowest ranked crew in each region danced in a battle for 30 seconds each to \\\"TiK ToK\\\" by Kesha.\\nThe eight remaining crews emulated popular music videos from the past decade, featuring videos from artists such as Britney Spears, Shakira, Rihanna, and Omarion.\\nThe seven remaining crews choreographed routines inspired by Lady Gaga. There were no eliminations due to voting issues. At the end of the episode, the judges chose the crew with the best performance to receive immunity from the double-elimination next week.\\nThe seven remaining crews incorporated classic disco moves into their dance routines. In addition to the challenge, all the crews had to incorporate a lift into their routines. This week featured a double-elimination due to last week's non-elimination episode.\\nThe five remaining crews took inspiration from Usher's music videos. Usher himself gave each crew their challenges through video.\\nJust like its predecessor in Season 3, the remaining four crews incorporated an illusion or magic act into their performance set. The crews kicked off the show with a group performance to \\\"Take It Off\\\" by Kesha with judge Lil Mama performing in the routine. Magician Franz Harary returned as the magic instructor for the crews.\\nThe three remaining crews demonstrated hip hop styles from across the country in the penultimate challenge of the season. For both challenges, the crews got to collaborate with producer Swizz Beatz.\\nThe remaining crews displayed their mastery of hip hop styles from around the nation. One crew was eliminated halfway through the show. The crews received help from three guest \\\"ABDC\\\" alumni from past seasons. Each alumnus was assigned to one of the dance styles the crews were responsible for.\\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a regional collaboration. Instead of going head-to-head, Poreotix and Blueprint Cru teamed up for their last performance.\\n\\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" hosted a charity event featuring all five champions. The five crews opened up the show with a group performance to \\\"All I Do Is Win\\\" by DJ Khaled.\",\n \"Fanny Pak\\nFanny Pak is a ten-member contemporary, hip-hop and jazz-trained dance crew from Los Angeles, California that gained popularity after appearing on the second season of MTV's \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" (ABDC). Often while performing, the crew wears bright clothes and bold patterns reminiscent of the 1980s as well as fanny packs, which is where their crew name originated. In addition, all of the members were born in the 1980s. The crew returned to ABDC on the seventh season, placing fifth in the competition.\\nMatt Cady (born October 17, 1985) formed Fanny Pak while he was teaching at Debbie Reynolds Dance Studio in North Hollywood, California. Other than teaching at Debbie Reynolds, Matt choreographed the stage show \\\"Grease\\\" for the 2004 Fringe Festival in Scotland. He also choreographed a music video and a promotional tour for the independent singer Natalise. His dancing credits include Missy Elliott, ABC Family's \\\"The Secret Life of the American Teenager\\\", Jessica Simpson, Finger 11, and Erin Hamilton. Aside from Fanny Pak, Matt is also a member of Collide Dance Company and Unity Dance Ensemble.\\nBefore appearing on MTV, Matt and his fellow crew members performed at , a monthly performance showcase for dancers/choreographers to perform in front of other professional dancers. He is a faculty member at the Edge Performing Arts Center, Triple Threat Dance, and Intrigue Dance. He is represented by DDO Artists Agency.\\nBeau Fournier (born July 1, 1983) is from the San Fernando Valley in Southern California. At the late age of 19, Beau started dance and it turned into a career. He is currently signed with DDO Artists Agency and Artist's International. Some of Beau's credits include: Angel Faith VH1 Save the Music Tour, Paula DeAnda, Diet Pepsi, , ABC Family's \\\"The Secret Life of the American Teenager\\\", Missy Elliott, Lil Mama, and the MTV Video Music Awards. He also worked with dance groups such as the California State University, Northridge Hip Hop Team, Expressive Doubt LA, and Asylum Dance Company. Beau is an instructor at Jayvee Dance Center. At Jayvee, he created two dance companies: Mischief Makers, an adult exhibition team and Trouble Makers, his teen competing team\\nNatalie Gilmore (born December 30, 1985) grew up in Seattle, Washington. She has been dancing since the age of 5, training in all areas including ballet, tap, jazz, and hip-hop. Natalie moved to Los Angeles at age 19 and since then has trained under many teacher/choreographers including Marty Kudelka, David Moore, and Tessandra Chavez. Natalie toured the world as a back-up dancer for Avril Lavigne and worked with Joe Jonas promoting his newest solo album \\\"Fastlife.\\\" She is currently on tour with Justin Timberlake for his \\\"20/20 Experience\\\" Tour.\\nOriginally from Antioch, California, Tiffani began dancing her freshmen year at Deer Valley High School where she trained in jazz, modern, ballet, African, hula, and jazz-funk. Dance carried over into her college education at California State University, Northridge where she trained in modern and ballet on her path to become a dance therapist. Since her move to southern California she's studied with various choreographers such as Tony G., Travis Payne, and Keith Young. Before she discovered her passion for dance, Tiffani was a cheerleader and coached nationally ranked youth cheerleading and hip-hop teams. She still choreographs pom competition routines for her former high school. She became a song leading instructor for the United Spirit Association where she teaches cheer camps to high school and middle school students all over the west coast. Tiffani did not compete on season seven of ABDC in order to focus on school, but she is still part of Fanny Pak.\\nCara \\\"Barracuda\\\" Horibe (born May 31, 1984) started dancing at the age of 9 in Hawaii. She began teaching with 24-VII Danceforce while training in jazz, hip-hop, ballet, contemporary, swing, and gymnastics. Cara moved to Los Angeles in 2006 to pursue a career in dance. She has continued to train and assist under various choreographers such as Erica Sobol, Gil Duldalao, Kevin Maher, and \\\"So You Think You Can Dance\\\" alumnus Mark Kanemura. She also became a member of the contemporary dance company Collide under the direction of Erica Sobol in 2007 and joined Fanny Pak in 2008. Cara is a faculty member for Boogiezone and Broadway Dance Center. Her dance credits include Missy Elliott, Lil Mama, MTV Video Music Awards, \\\"High School Musical 3\\\", Canon Electronics, and LA Fashion Week. Cara also appeared as one of the back-up dancers in the 2009 Janet Jackson music video, \\\"Make Me\\\".\\nMegan Lawson (born November 19, 1985) began training in tap, jazz, ballet, contemporary, and hip-hop in her hometown Calgary, Alberta, Canada at Dance Spectrum Inc. Megan later became a faculty member for Triple Threat Dance Convention in Vancouver. In 2006, Megan moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in dance. Other than being a member of Fanny Pak, Megan's credits include Missy Elliott, Lil Mama, MTV's Video Music Awards, \\\"Another Cinderella Story\\\", Canon Electronics, New Balance, BODOG Poker, SONY, Boogiezone's World Hip Hop Showcase, and LA Fashion week.\\nGlenda Morales (born October 23, 1987) started training and competing in gymnastics before deciding to get serious with dance. She started ballet, jazz, tap, lyrical, and modern at age 11 and began competing right away. At California State University, Fullerton, Glenda began as a dance major and was performing at Disneyland as a dancer and acrobat until she was offered representation by DDO Artists Agency. Her major changed from dance to communications with emphasis in entertainment studies. Since joining DDO, Glenda has danced for artists such as including Keke Palmer, Raven-Symoné, and Ashley Tisdale. She also appeared in the 2009 cheerleading movie \\\"Fired Up!\\\". Glenda was on the cover of the new Harlequin book, Chasing Romeo, and was featured in the 12th episode of the sixth season of \\\"The Office\\\" as one of \\\"Scott's Tots.\\\" She also appeared as a dancer on \\\"Glee\\\" in the episode \\\"Funk.\\\"\\nPreston Mui is a professional dancer, choreographer, and actor, who joined Fanny Pak before their second appearance on America's Best Dance Crew. He has been featured in music videos and international tours for major label performing artists, including Janet Jackson, Britney Spears, Mariah Carey, Christina Aguilera, JLo, Black Eyed Peas, and Paulina Rubio. As an actor, he has appeared in national commercials for McDonald's, Old Navy, and Target, and in network TV shows like \\\"The Voice\\\", \\\"2 Broke Girls\\\", \\\"Parenthood\\\" and \\\"American Idol\\\". He has also worked as a personal stylist for New Kids on the Block and the Glee tour. Currently, Preston Mui teaches at The Edge Performing Arts Center in Hollywood, CA, on tour with the Dance League Convention and is the creative director of an all-Asian female dance crew called \\\"The Dynasties.\\\"\\nIn 2008, Fanny Pak appeared on the second season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" and finished in third place behind runner-up, SoReal Cru, and the season champion, Super Cr3w. Ironically, the judges voted them off on the episode themed \\\"80's night\\\", where each crew had to make up a routine using music and dances that were made popular in the 1980s.\\nAfter the second season was over, they returned for a two-part ABDC special, \\\"Battle of the VMA's\\\". During the MTV special presentation, popular crews from seasons one and two competed for an opportunity to win $25,000 for charity and to present the 2008 VMA for Best Dancing in a Video.\\nOther than Fanny Pak, alumni crews BreakSk8, SoReal Cru, Kaba Modern, and Status Quo participated in the event. BreakSk8 and Status Quo were eliminated in the preliminary rounds. After the public voted, Fanny Pak and Kaba Modern moved on, eliminating SoReal Cru for having the least votes. After a dance off, the public voted once again, and it was announced during the VMA's that Fanny Pak won. They are the only dance crew to ever receive an award at the MTV Video Music Awards. They later went on the \\\"America's Best Dance Crew Live\\\" tour with Jabbawockeez, Super Cr3w, Breaksk8, and ASIID.\\nIn 2012, it was announced that Fanny Pak had been selected to compete in the seventh season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", which marked the first time a dance crew appeared to compete on the show twice. Fanny Pak had five of the same members from season two and four new members. Previous member Phil left Fanny Pak a year prior to pursue other projects, while Tiffani was focusing on college and chose not to participate. The crew was eliminated during the seventh week, placing fifth overall.\\nOutside of ABDC, Fanny Pak has continued to find success. They choreographed and danced in Lil Mama's \\\"\\\"Truly In Love\\\"\\\" video which featured season four \\\"So You Think You Can Dance\\\" alumnus Mark Kanemura as well as Supreme Soul crew members Frost and George. The video was choreographed by Matt Cady. They also had a line of sneakers, the Battle collection, through the independent shoe company, MilkShake Kicks in New York City. The Battle I and the Battle Black were released in September 2009. Fanny Pak choreographed, and was featured in, a commercial for the relaunch of the Hasbro children's toy Bop It. Fanny Pak is also mentioned in the 2009 Lil Wayne song \\\"\\\"Watch My Shoes\\\"\\\". They made an appearance in the Toni Braxton music video \\\"Make My Heart.\\\" Fanny Pak is featured in the film \\\"Honey 2\\\" starring Katerina Graham and Randy Wayne which was released in cinemas on June 10, 2011. Matt Cady choreographed French house group Yelle's double music video \\\"Safari Disco Club/Que Veux-Tu\\\". The rest of Fanny Pak appeared in the video as featured dancers.\\nFanny Pak released a full length dance album featuring all seven crew members from season two and special guest appearances from artists such as Taboo from The Black Eyed Peas, Chonique Sneed, and Far East Movement. The first single from their debut album, \\\"\\\"Something Sick\\\"\\\" was featured in a segment about Fanny Pak on The Logo Channel's \\\"NewNowNextPopLab.\\\" The crew recorded the album with District 78, the producers behind the master mixes for \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\". A preview EP, entitled \\\"A Touch of Fanny\\\" was released on August 17, 2010. The songs released on the EP were \\\"Something Sick,\\\" \\\"Show Out,\\\" and \\\"Close to You.\\\"\\nFanny Pak is represented by \\\"Artist International\\\" in Los Angeles. Arnel Calvario, the founder of Kaba Modern, and Joel Newton are Fanny Pak's managers.\",\n \"SoReal Cru\\nSoReal Cru is a hip-hop dance crew from Houston, Texas who gained fame as the runner-up on the second season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" (ABDC). Before ABDC, they won first place at the World of Dance competition in Pomona in 2008. After the second season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" was over, they returned to MTV for a two-part ABDC special, \\\"Battle of the VMA's\\\". In the spin-off, popular crews from seasons one and two competed for an opportunity to win $25,000 for charity and to present the 2008 VMA for Best Dancing in a Video. Alumni crews BreakSk8, Fanny Pak, Kaba Modern, Status Quo, and SoReal Cru participated in the event. SoReal Cru danced to \\\"Forever\\\" by Chris Brown and made the cut in the preliminary rounds while BreakSk8 and Status Quo were eliminated. After the public voted, SoReal Cru lost to Fanny Pak and Kaba Modern for having the least amount of votes. After a dance off at the VMA Preshow, the public voted again, and it was announced during the VMA's that Fanny Pak won.\\nAndrew Baterina also choreographs for famous Korean-American singer Jay Park. SoReal Cru performed with Jay Park to his song \\\"Abandoned\\\" at The Korean Music Festival. They have a hip-hop dance studio, SoReal Studios, in Houston, Texas. Crew member Brian Puspos competed once again on the seventh season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" as a member of Mos Wanted Crew.\\nDuring an interview with crew member Brian Puspos, it was stated that the crew never broke up but \\\"retired\\\". The crew members split into different subdivisions such as: SoReal Pac and ArchiTeks. For instance, Andrew Baterina and Jackie Lautchang are lead choreographers for SoReal Pac while Brian Puspos, Mark Fucanan, Brian Fucanan, Pat Lam and Ailyn Isidro are current members of the ArchiTeks. Brian Puspos also became a member of Mos Wanted Crew to represent ArchiTeks\\n\",\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 8)\\nAmerica’s Best Dance Crew All-Stars: Road to the VMAs was the eighth season of the competitive dance reality television series \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\". The revival of the series was announced by MTV on January 10, 2015, following the show's cancellation in 2012. The season, which premiered on July 29, 2015, was hosted by television presenter Jason Dundas. The season consisted of six \\\"Video Music Award\\\"–themed episodes; the winner was crowned in a live episode finale airing before the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. Hip hop artist T-Pain, recording artist Teyana Taylor, and Broadway performer Frankie Grande formed the new judging panel.\\nThe eighth season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" features six dance crews, including five previous winners. The past champions are joined by one new dance crew, which includes members from Season 1 winner JabbaWockeeZ and fellow competitors Kaba Modern.\\n^Note 1 : The bottom crew from the first episode battled the bottom crew from the second episode to determine the first elimination of the season.<br>\\n^Note 2 : All three crews advanced to the final episode.\\nThe season kicked off with all six crews dancing alongside American R&B singer, Ne-Yo, to a medley of his own songs including '\\\"She Knows\\\", \\\"Coming with You\\\", and \\\"Time of Our Lives\\\". Then, the crews incorporated hits from VMA-nominated artists into their routines. All six crews advanced to the next round, but We Are Heroes were put at risk and set to face elimination against another crew in the next episode.\\nThe episode started off with all six crews dancing to a master mix of \\\"Started from the Bottom\\\" by Canadian rapper Drake. Then, each crew was assigned a VMA Icon and chose a track from their legendary catalog.\\nThe episode started off with the remaining crews performing a martial arts-inspired dance to a master mix of \\\"Bad Blood\\\" by Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar. The crews were then given a challenge to incorporate fashion and wardrobe into their routines.\\nThe four remaining crews competed against each other in two challenges: the VMA Megacrew Challenge, in which each crew was split into teams of two and given the task of creating a routine that would keep them from the bottom two, and the Crews' Control Challenge, where the remaining crews were given artistic freedom to create a routine that would save them from elimination.\\nAt the end of the episode, Di \\\"Moon\\\" Zhang of I.aM.mE proposed to his girlfriend on stage, to which she accepted and the couple became engaged.\\nThe remaining four crews were split into two teams of two crews and each team was given the task to create a unique dance number together. The crews in the team chosen by the judges would be safe, while the other team would make up the bottom two for the next challenge.\\nThe four remaining crews were given full freedom to use lighting, camera work, stage layout, etc. to create a unique performance of their very own.\\nThe three remaining crews competed against each other in two challenges: the VMA Nominee Challenge, where they chose a VMA-nominated song to perform to in order to stay safe from elimination this week, and the Final Statement Challenge, where, like previous seasons' Last Chance Challenge, the crews chose a song to perform to in a bid to win the competition.\\nIn a surprise twist, it was revealed the judges made the decision of sending all three remaining crews straight to the finale.\\nThe remaining three crews chose a VMA-nominated song to perform a routine to in order to advance to the finals.\\nSimilar to previous seasons, the remaining three crews were given one last chance to perform before voting lines opened up for the finale.\\nThe episode started off with the remaining three finalists dancing alongside the eliminated crews to a master mix of \\\"All That\\\" by Dillon Francis featuring Twista and The Rej3ctz. The three finalists then performed one last routine before the winner was officially announced.\\n\",\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 6)\\nThe sixth season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", also known as America's Best Dance Crew: Season of the Superstars, premiered on April 7, 2011. Taking a different route from past seasons, the crews performed to the music of one specific artist each week, including Rihanna, Lil Wayne, and other stars. The season also featured special guest appearances by various music celebrities including Justin Bieber, The Black Eyed Peas, Katy Perry, Kesha, Nicki Minaj, and Kanye West. Dominic \\\"D-Trix\\\" Sandoval, a former member of Quest Crew, the winner of the third season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", joined returning judges Lil Mama and JC Chasez as the newest judge. In the season finale, which aired on June 5, 2011, I.aM.mE was declared the winner.\\nFor the sixth season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", auditions were held in four cities: Chicago, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. The age requirement for auditioning, used in the previous five seasons, was dropped. A total of ten dance crews were selected to compete. This was the first season to showcase a crew from the Pacific region.\\n^Note 1 : A non-elimination episode meant to showcase the two finalists.\\nThe first five crews auditioned for a chance to move on in the competition during the season premiere, beginning with a group performance to \\\"6 Foot 7 Foot\\\" featuring Cory Gunz.\\nThe next five crews performed to Ke$ha hits to compete for a chance to move on to the next round, starting with a dance number to \\\"We R Who We R\\\".\\nThe Black Eyed Peas assigned each crew a different song and challenge to incorporate into their routines.\\nKaty Perry handed out dance challenges to the seven remaining crews.\\nThe six remaining crews choreographed routines inspired by Rihanna. Rihanna's choreographer, Tanisha Scott, gave each crew a dancehall move to be incorporated.\\nJustin Bieber handed out dance challenges to the five remaining crews. All the challenges were based on moments from Bieber's documentary \\\"\\\".\\nThe final four crews kicked off the show with a group number to \\\"Massive Attack\\\" featuring Sean Garrett. Then, Nicki Minaj dropped by and challenged the four remaining crews to choreograph routines inspired by one of her alter egos.\\nThe episode began with the three remaining crews performing a group number to \\\"All of the Lights\\\" featuring Rihanna. Season 5 winner Poreotix delivered the challenges to the crews. After the mid-show elimination, the final two crews performed their prepared routines to make their one last plea for votes.\\nThe crews had to demonstrate their versatility by creating a routine that incorporated three different styles of dance. All crews were given the same styles and songs.\\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\\nThe final two crews faced off in the penultimate episode of Season 6, which also featured a look back at their accomplishments so far.\\nFor the first challenge, the judges chose one routine from the past weeks in which the crews must improve upon and perform again. The judges selected I.aM.mE's Week 5 Rihanna performance and ICONic Boyz' Week 6 Justin Bieber routine.\\nThe two crews then performed in a three-round dance battle. Swizz Beatz returned to provide the music for the battle.\\nThe winner was crowned in the Season 6 finale, which also featured performances by the past winners. In contrast to previous seasons of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", the finale was pre-recorded; each crew taped a faux winning and losing reaction, as well as their victory performance, and were unaware of the results until the final cut of the episode was aired prior to the 2011 MTV Movie Awards.\",\n \"Poreotics\\nPoreotics, also known as Poreotix, is an Asian American all-male dance crew from Westminster, California. The crew was formed in 2007 by Matthew \\\"Dumbo\\\" Nguyen and specializes in popping, choreography and robotics, hence the name Po-reo-tics. They have performed in numerous hip hop dance competitions, most notably coming in 1st place in the USA division of the 2009 and 2010 Hip-Hop Internationals and in other dance programs and competitions including the Vibe 15, FUSION X, Body Rock, and World Of Dance. On April 8, 2010, they were crowned the champions on the fifth season of America's Best Dance Crew. On January 14, 2011 they were crowned as \\\"Team of the Year\\\" at the World of Dance awards.\\nThey are known for their shades, dark glasses which they wear for all of their performances. Jet Li stated that they wear the shades because it gives them character. All of them are of Southeast Asian heritage. Matthew \\\"Dumbo\\\" Nguyen, Can Trong Nguyen, and Charles Viet Nguyen are Vietnamese while Andrew-Chad \\\"Chad\\\" Fausto Mayate, Lawrence \\\"Law\\\" Bravo Devera, and Justin \\\"Jet Li\\\" Valles are Filipino.\\nThey are a group of young Asian males with their signature image of sunglasses. They are worn for every performance on the show and eventually signify who they are. They stand out further with the unique highlighted hair. Poreotics was formed in Westminster, California by Matthew \\\"Dumbo\\\" Nguyen, Can \\\"Candy\\\" Nguyen, and Charles Viet Nguyen in December 2007. Supposedly, Dumbo met Can at a movie theater and battled his brother. Can \\\" Candy\\\" Nguyen attended Garden Grove High School and Matthew Nguyen attended Rancho Alamitos High School. Subsequently the group expanded with new members Lawrence \\\"Law\\\" Devera and Justin \\\"Jet-Li\\\" Valles. In 2009, the team chose Andrew \\\"Chad\\\" Fausto Mayate to substitute for Justin \\\"Jet-Li\\\" Valles in the 2009 Hip Hop Dance Championships. The team won first place and Andrew-Chad Fausto Mayate became a permanent member. Five out of the six crew members (Dumbo, Can, Charles, Law, and Chad) were also members of PAC Modern Dance Troupe. In 2008, both Matthew (Dumbo) and Lawrence (Law) competed on Season 3 of \\\"America's Got Talent\\\" with the crew Sick Step.\\nOn February 11, 2010 Poreotics competed on the fifth season of Randy Jackson Presents America's Best Dance Crew. The crew danced to several songs including those of Taylor Swift and Beyonce. Through their creative ideas and synchronized choreography, they managed to utilize the stage to its fullest and become extremely popular with the audience. They brought comedy mixed with popping to America's Best Dance Crew. The live season finale aired on April 8, 2010 and Poreotix was crowned the champions of season 5 and also perform in the finale of season 7 alongside season 7 champions Elektrolytes.\\nPoreotics traveled to Australia to hold their first ever official tour, called the \\\"Tic Tic Tour\\\". The tour consisted of 3 actual shows which took place in three major cities (Melbourne, Sydney & Adelaide). The tour also consisted of four dance workshops, performances by local Australian dance crews, and a meeting with the fans. The full tour ran from September 30 to October 10.\\nIn August 2011, Poreotics came back to Australia and held the 2nd tic tic tour called 'Tic Tic 2 tour' like in the first tic tic they visited many major cities Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide and for the first time Brisbane and Perth. Joining the Poreotics will be the dance crew “Yomama Crew”,“The ArchiTEKS,” \\\"Just Kidding Films\\\" and many other local dance crews. Joining these dance crews will be singing acts, “Joseph Vincent” & “JR Aquino\\\" and MyChonny as host.\\nPoreotics became the first \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" winners to have created a second sector of their crew after their victory. They held auditions for children ages 16 and under, who if selected would become a part of the first generation \\\"Mini\\\"-otics (Mini Poreotics). Miniotics is currently Poreotics' Junior Division as well as their only other division of the crew as of now. It is unknown whether Miniotics will perform wherever Poreotics performs, or if the two will perform separately for most of the time. Rehearsals and preparation have reportedly gone underway. They debuted alongside Poreotics at the Vibe 16 dance competition in Irvine, CA, on January 30, 2011.\\nMiniotics later competed at Hip Hop Internationals in Las Vegas, Nevada and placed second in the Junior division representing the United States. Miniotics auditioned in ABDC Season 7 but they did not pass the audition.\\nPoreotics continues to dance as a group and teaches various workshops including Urban Dance Camp. Through this, they are not only growing to improve themselves but also help develop the community of dancers.\\nThey were most notably made famous by there many appearances on \\\"Just Kidding Films\\\", \\\"Just Kidding News, \\\"Just Kidding Party\\\" as well as the vlog channels of the members of JK.\\nPoreotics worked with many other individuals and groups including YouTube stars like Kevjumba and dancers like I.aM.mE crew. They continued to gain more fame on YouTube after winning and performing at several different competitions like the HIP-HOP Internationals and World of Dance.\\nHe is part of \\\"The Mob.\\\"\",\n \"Titanium (song)\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" is a song by French <a href=\\\"disc%20jockey\\\">DJ</a> and music producer <a href=\\\"David%20Guetta\\\">David Guetta</a>, featuring vocals by Australian recording artist <a href=\\\"Sia%20%28musician%29\\\">Sia</a>. Taken from Guetta's fifth studio album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Nothing%20but%20the%20Beat\\\">Nothing but the Beat</a>\\\", the song was written by Sia, David Guetta, Giorgio Tuinfort and <a href=\\\"Afrojack\\\">Afrojack</a>. Production was also handled by Guetta, Tuinfort and Afrojack. \\\"Titanium\\\" was initially released for <a href=\\\"music%20download\\\">digital download</a> on August 8, 2011, as the first of four <a href=\\\"promotional%20single\\\">promotional single</a>s from the album. It was later released as the album's fourth single in December 2011. The song originally featured the vocals of American recording artist <a href=\\\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\\\">Mary J. Blige</a>, whose version of the song <a href=\\\"Internet%20leak\\\">leaked online</a> in July 2011.\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" is a <a href=\\\"Ballad%20%28music%29\\\">ballad</a> which draws from the genres of <a href=\\\"house%20music\\\">house</a> and <a href=\\\"urban%20contemporary\\\">urban</a>-<a href=\\\"Dance%20music\\\">dance</a>. The song's lyrics are about inner strength. Sia's vocals on \\\"Titanium\\\" received comparisons to those by <a href=\\\"Fergie%20%28singer%29\\\">Fergie</a> and the song was also musically compared to <a href=\\\"Coldplay\\\">Coldplay</a>'s work. Critics were positive towards the song and noted it as one of the standout tracks from \\\"Nothing but the Beat\\\". \\\"Titanium\\\" attained top 10 positions in several major music markets, including Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at number one, becoming Guetta's fifth number-one single on the chart and Sia's first.\\nThe song's accompanying <a href=\\\"music%20video\\\">music video</a> premiered on December 21, 2011 but does not feature appearances by Guetta or Sia. Instead, the video focuses on a young boy, played by actor <a href=\\\"Ryan%20Lee%20%28actor%29\\\">Ryan Lee</a>, with <a href=\\\"supernatural\\\">supernatural</a> powers. Along with other songs, \\\"Titanium\\\" was pulled from radio stations in the US after the <a href=\\\"Sandy%20Hook%20Elementary%20School%20shooting\\\">Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting</a>.\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" was written by Sia, David Guetta, Giorgio Tuinfort and Afrojack. Production was also handled by Guetta, Tuinfort and Afrojack. After discovering Sia's music online, Guetta picked her to appear on his fifth studio album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Nothing%20but%20the%20Beat\\\">Nothing but the Beat</a>\\\". Guetta told an insider from <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>, \\\"I was totally amazed by Sia ... This has made me more curious to study her music more because I was really impressed. I have the biggest people on the album and she has a different profile, more like an indie kind of artist and it makes her song even more special, it makes it stand out I think.\\\"\\nThe song originally featured vocals from American recording artist <a href=\\\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\\\">Mary J. Blige</a>, whose version of the song <a href=\\\"Internet%20leak\\\">leaked online</a> in July 2011. In an interview with <a href=\\\"News%20Limited%23Websites\\\">News.com.au</a>, Guetta spoke about its leak, saying, \\\"You shouldn't even know about that ... I'd rather not speak about it. That was annoying. It wasn't supposed to be out there.\\\" Sia recorded a <a href=\\\"Demo%20%28music%29\\\">demo</a> of the song, which was then sent to Blige and other artists. Eventually, Guetta decided to stay with her version. He explained, \\\"The first time I heard what Sia did, because she was not in the studio with me, I fell in love with it ... I didn't even want to give it to anyone else; it was perfect the way it was. It's not only about how big you are in America, it's about the song and the voice.\\\" American <a href=\\\"pop%20music\\\">pop</a> singer <a href=\\\"Katy%20Perry\\\">Katy Perry</a> was the first person to be offered the track but turned it down because she felt its message was too similar to that of her song \\\"<a href=\\\"Firework%20%28Katy%20Perry%20song%29\\\">Firework</a>\\\". An insider told <a href=\\\"Take%2040%20Australia\\\">Take 40 Australia</a>, \\\"So that 'Titanium' song, Sia wrote it for Katy, but [Katy] didn't want to do a song with Guetta ... \\\" According to Sia's manager, Jonathan Daniel of Crush Management, Sia wrote the song for American <a href=\\\"Contemporary%20R%26amp%3BB\\\">R&B</a> singer <a href=\\\"Alicia%20Keys\\\">Alicia Keys</a>. Guetta considered approaching other female singers to record on the song, however Perry advised him to keep Sia on the track. Guetta ultimately followed this suggestion. Sia revealed that Guetta put her vocals on the song without asking for permission:\\n\\\"And then Mary J. Blige sang it. And then he took her vocal off it, and put my vocal back on, my demo vocal, without asking and released it. And I never even knew it was gonna happen, and I was really upset. Because I had just retired, I was trying to be a pop songwriter, not an artist.\\\"\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" was released for <a href=\\\"music%20download\\\">digital download</a> on August 8, 2011, as the first of four <a href=\\\"promotional%20recording\\\">promotional single</a>s from the album, as part of the <a href=\\\"iTunes%20Store\\\">iTunes Store</a>'s countdown to the album's release.\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" is a <a href=\\\"House%20music\\\">house</a> and <a href=\\\"urban%20contemporary\\\">urban</a>-<a href=\\\"Dance%20music\\\">dance</a> song. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by <a href=\\\"Sony/ATV%20Music%20Publishing\\\">Sony/ATV Music Publishing</a>, the song is set in <a href=\\\"common%20time\\\">common time</a> with a <a href=\\\"tempo\\\">tempo</a> of 126 <a href=\\\"beats%20per%20minute\\\">beats per minute</a>. The verses are in the <a href=\\\"Key%20%28music%29\\\">key</a> of <a href=\\\"E%E2%99%AD%20major\\\">E♭ major</a>, with a chord progression of E♭–B♭–Cm. The chorus and breakdown are set in the key of <a href=\\\"C%20minor\\\">C minor</a>, with a chord progression of A♭–B♭–Gm–Cm. Sia's vocal range span from the note of G to the note of E♭.\\nAccording to Andrew Gregory of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Daily%20Telegraph%20%28Australia%29\\\">The Daily Telegraph</a>\\\", the song's <a href=\\\"introduction%20%28music%29\\\">intro</a> features \\\"a hint of 80s flavour\\\". Al Fox of <a href=\\\"BBC%20Music\\\">BBC Music</a> wrote that on the song, Sia has \\\"ghostly mandolin-esque vocals\\\". Cameron Adams of \\\"<a href=\\\"Herald%20Sun\\\">Herald Sun</a>\\\" called them \\\"square-peg\\\", while Melinda Newman of <a href=\\\"HitFix\\\">HitFix</a> compared her vocals to those by <a href=\\\"Fergie%20%28singer%29\\\">Fergie</a>. Genevieve Koski of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20A.V.%20Club\\\">The A.V. Club</a>\\\" wrote that on the song, Sia \\\"manage[s] to keep [her] head above the waves of synths ... by amping up [her] vocals to match the outsized beats.\\\" David Jeffries of <a href=\\\"Allmusic\\\">Allmusic</a> compared the song to the music of <a href=\\\"Coldplay\\\">Coldplay</a>.\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" garnered critical acclaim from <a href=\\\"Music%20criticism\\\">music critics</a>. David Byrne and Tony Peregrin of \\\"<a href=\\\"Windy%20City%20Times\\\">Windy City Times</a>\\\" described \\\"Titanium\\\" as \\\"epic and \\\"energizing\\\", writing, \\\"it is Sia who steals the show\\\" on \\\"Nothing but the Beat\\\". Robert Copsey of <a href=\\\"Digital%20Spy\\\">Digital Spy</a> agreed, calling the song one of \\\"the record's standouts\\\". Tom Ewing of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Guardian\\\">The Guardian</a>\\\" wrote, \\\"Sia, on 'Titanium', handles the album's best hook well.\\\" Rich Lopez of \\\"<a href=\\\"Dallas%20Voice\\\">Dallas Voice</a>\\\" wrote that the \\\"collaborative lyrics elevate this song to a higher level than any previous track\\\" from the album, and called it \\\"clever writing\\\" from Sia. David Griffiths off <a href=\\\"4Music\\\">4Music</a> called it \\\"The most intriguing hook-up\\\" on the album, writing that Titanium' sees Guetta giving the Australian songstress some long overdue commercial appeal, while Sia's vocals bring a quirky twist.\\\" Kerri Mason of \\\"<a href=\\\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\\\">Billboard</a>\\\" magazine described the song as \\\"Guetta's quirkiest and most epic track to date (in itself an unusual combination).\\\" Jamie Horne of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Border%20Mail\\\">The Border Mail</a>\\\" called it a \\\"strong\\\" track. Joe Copplestone of <a href=\\\"PopMatters\\\">PopMatters</a> noted that songs on the album such as \\\"Titanium\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Night%20of%20Your%20Life%20%28David%20Guetta%20song%29\\\">Night of Your Life</a>\\\", \\\"recall the power\\\" of Guetta's previous collaborations with <a href=\\\"Kelly%20Rowland\\\">Kelly Rowland</a> on \\\"<a href=\\\"When%20Love%20Takes%20Over\\\">When Love Takes Over</a>\\\" (2009) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Commander%20%28song%29\\\">Commander</a>\\\" (2010). \\\"Titanium\\\" was nominated for Dance Work of the Year at the <a href=\\\"APRA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202012\\\">2012 APRA Music Awards</a>, but lost to \\\"From the Music\\\" by <a href=\\\"The%20Potbelleez\\\">The Potbelleez</a>.\\nAfter the <a href=\\\"Sandy%20Hook%20Elementary%20School%20shooting\\\">Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting</a> in December 2012, \\\"Titanium\\\" was pulled from radio stations in the United States due to the use of gun-related lyrics in the song. \\\"Titanium\\\" is part of a group of songs that have been taken off the air, including <a href=\\\"Kesha\\\">Kesha</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Die%20Young%20%28Kesha%20song%29\\\">Die Young</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Pumped%20Up%20Kicks\\\">Pumped Up Kicks</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Foster%20the%20People\\\">Foster the People</a>.\\nOn the <a href=\\\"Syndicat%20National%20de%20l%27%C3%89dition%20Phonographique\\\">French Singles Chart</a>, \\\"Titanium\\\" debuted at number nine on August 13, 2011. After weeks of ascending and descending the chart, the song peaked at number three on January 7, 2012, giving Guetta his thirteenth top 10 hit in France. In Australia, the song debuted at number 31 on the <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Charts\\\">ARIA Singles Chart</a> on August 15, 2011, and peaked at number five on September 5, 2011. It was certified five times platinum by the <a href=\\\"Australian%20Recording%20Industry%20Association\\\">Australian Recording Industry Association</a> (ARIA), denoting sales of 350,000 copies. \\\"Titanium\\\" became Sia's second highest charting single as a solo artist in the country as well as Guetta's ninth top 10 hit there. On the <a href=\\\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">New Zealand Singles Chart</a>, it debuted at number 18 on August 15, 2011. The following week, the song fell to number 39 and eventually fell out of the top 40. Upon its release as a single in December 2011, \\\"Titanium\\\" re-entered the chart at number 12 on December 5, 2011, and peaked at number three on January 30, 2012. It was certified triple platinum by the <a href=\\\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20New%20Zealand\\\">Recording Industry Association of New Zealand</a> (RIANZ), denoting sales of 45,000 copies. In Austria, \\\"Titanium\\\" debuted and peaked at number three on August 19, 2011, and remained in the top 10 for ten consecutive weeks. The song was certified platinum by the <a href=\\\"International%20Federation%20of%20the%20Phonographic%20Industry\\\">International Federation of the Phonographic Industry</a> (IFPI), denoting sales of 30,000 copies.\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" also reached the top 10 in the charts of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. On the <a href=\\\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\\\">UK Singles Chart</a>, \\\"Titanium\\\" debuted at number 16 on August 20, 2011, and fell to number 31 the following week. The song descended the UK Singles Chart for three consecutive weeks and eventually fell out of the top 100. Upon its release as a single in December 2011, \\\"Titanium\\\" re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 61 on January 14, 2012, and climbed to number eight the following week. On February 11, 2012, it peaked at number one, and became Guetta's fifth number-one single on the chart and Sia's first. The song also reached number one on the <a href=\\\"UK%20Dance%20Chart\\\">UK Dance Chart</a>. \\\"Titanium\\\" was certified platinum by the <a href=\\\"British%20Phonographic%20Industry\\\">British Phonographic Industry</a> (BPI), denoting shipments of 600,000 copies. \\\"Titanium\\\" was the fourth best-selling single of 2012 in the UK, and it has sold over one million copies there as of February 2013.\\nIn the United States, the song debuted on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a> at number 66 on the issue dated August 27, 2011. After it was released to US radio in April 2012, \\\"Titanium\\\" reached a new peak of number seven on the issue dated July 21, 2012, and became Guetta's fourth top-ten single on the Hot 100. It also peaked at number three on the <a href=\\\"Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs\\\">Hot Dance Club Songs</a> chart, and number three on the <a href=\\\"Mainstream%20Top%2040\\\">Mainstream Top 40</a> chart. \\\"Titanium\\\" was certified double platinum by the <a href=\\\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20America\\\">Recording Industry Association of America</a> (RIAA). As of March 2014, the song has sold 3,852,000 copies in the U.S.\\nThe <a href=\\\"music%20video\\\">music video</a> for \\\"Titanium\\\" was directed by <a href=\\\"David%20Wilson%20%28director%29\\\">David Wilson</a>. It was filmed in December 2011 in <a href=\\\"Sainte-Marthe-sur-le-Lac\\\">Sainte-Marthe-sur-le-Lac</a> and at Dorval-Jean XXIII High School, in the province of <a href=\\\"Quebec\\\">Quebec</a>, <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a>. A 14-second preview of the video was uploaded to Guetta's official <a href=\\\"YouTube\\\">YouTube</a> account on December 16, 2011. The preview showed a young boy (played by actor <a href=\\\"Ryan%20Lee%20%28actor%29\\\">Ryan Lee</a>) in the smoky <a href=\\\"Woodland\\\">woods</a> running away from a <a href=\\\"SWAT\\\">SWAT</a> team of men. The video then closes with the caption, \\\"The Music Video Coming Soon\\\". The full video premiered online on December 20, 2011. Neither Guetta nor Sia appear in the video. Jason Lipshutz of \\\"Billboard\\\" magazine noted that \\\"the supernatural scene and suburban setting\\\" in the video recall the science fiction film \\\"<a href=\\\"Super%208%20%28film%29\\\">Super 8</a>\\\" (2011), in which Lee stars. Becky Bain of <a href=\\\"Idolator%20%28website%29\\\">Idolator</a> wrote that, \\\"The video is beautifully shot, and is courageous enough not to answer all its mysteries.\\\" A writer for <a href=\\\"Capital%20%28radio%20network%29\\\">Capital FM</a> called it a \\\"very cinematic video\\\".\\nThe video opens in a deserted, destroyed school hallway with Lee's character shown sitting on the ground. As the first verse begins, he slowly begins to stand up and makes his way through the hallway. The boy then sees a female teacher in a classroom who's stricken with fear and closes the door, realizing that the boy is the cause of the damage. As the boy makes his way outside the school building, a police car arrives and the teacher rushes outside to tell the policeman about the boy, who then quickly rides a bicycle home to pack his things. While at home, he sees a news report about the incident, causing him to quickly gather his things to flee. Several policemen then appear outside the front door of the boy's house, while he tries to escape through the back door. The boy realizes that the door is locked so he uses his <a href=\\\"telekinesis\\\">telekinetic</a> powers to grab the keys from the kitchen bench. The policemen then enter the house to find that the boy has escaped, but find a teddy bear and a plush frog floating in the air. The final scene shows the boy running away from a SWAT team in the woods. The boy is caught by one of the men who pushes him to the ground. The video ends with the boy using his supernatural powers once again to push the men away in a burst of power; this references how the boy destroyed the school in the first place, as he's in the same position he was in at the beginning of the video. The aftermath of the outburst in the end, however, remains unknown.\\n\\\"Titanium\\\" was used in the <a href=\\\"Gossip%20Girl%20%28season%205%29\\\">fifth season</a> of the American television show \\\"<a href=\\\"Gossip%20Girl\\\">Gossip Girl</a>\\\" episode \\\"I Am Number Nine\\\", which aired on November 7, 2011. It also appears on the soundtrack of the 2014 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Wild%20Tales%20%28film%29\\\">Wild Tales</a>\\\". Scottish recording artist <a href=\\\"Emeli%20Sand%C3%A9\\\">Emeli Sandé</a> performed \\\"Titanium\\\" with Guetta at the <a href=\\\"NRJ%20Music%20Award\\\">NRJ Music Award</a>s, held in France on January 29, 2012. On April 21, 2012, Sia made a surprise appearance during Guetta's set for the second weekend of <a href=\\\"Coachella%20Valley%20Music%20and%20Arts%20Festival\\\">Coachella</a> in <a href=\\\"Indio%2C%20California\\\">Indio, California</a>, where they performed \\\"Titanium\\\". The song also appears in the 2016 <a href=\\\"dance%20video%20game\\\">dance video game</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Just%20Dance%202017\\\">Just Dance 2017</a>\\\". Sia performed the song throughout 2016 as a part of the setlist of her festival tour. It was performed by <a href=\\\"Anna%20Kendrick\\\">Anna Kendrick</a> and <a href=\\\"Brittany%20Snow\\\">Brittany Snow</a> in the <a href=\\\"Pitch%20Perfect\\\">Pitch Perfect</a> bathroom acappella scene.\\nCredits adapted from the liner notes for \\\"Nothing but the Beat\\\".\\nIn May 2012, \\\"Titanium\\\" was covered by British recording artist <a href=\\\"Tulisa%20Contostavlos\\\">Tulisa Contostavlos</a> on <a href=\\\"BBC%20Radio%201\\\">BBC Radio 1</a>'s <a href=\\\"Live%20Lounge\\\">Live Lounge</a>. An a cappella version of the song was sung by <a href=\\\"Anna%20Kendrick\\\">Anna Kendrick</a> and <a href=\\\"Brittany%20Snow\\\">Brittany Snow</a> during a shower scene in the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Pitch%20Perfect\\\">Pitch Perfect</a>\\\" (2012). On October 22, 2012, former <a href=\\\"Lady%20Gaga\\\">Lady Gaga</a> backup singer Chevonne and 16-year-old <a href=\\\"Avery%20Wilson\\\">Avery Wilson</a> performed \\\"Titanium\\\" as a duet during the October battle rounds of the <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20season%203%29\\\">third season</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%29\\\">The Voice US</a>\\\". Dutch <a href=\\\"symphonic%20rock\\\">symphonic rock</a> band <a href=\\\"Within%20Temptation\\\">Within Temptation</a> covered the song during their special program \\\"Within Temptation Friday\\\" on the <a href=\\\"Belgian\\\">Belgian</a> radio station Q Music, where the band choose songs to cover not related to their style of music. Their version was then included on their cover album \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Q-Music%20Sessions\\\">The Q-Music Sessions</a>\\\", released in April 2013. On April 23, 2013, <a href=\\\"Michelle%20Chamuel\\\">Michelle Chamuel</a> and Chelea M. performed \\\"Titanium\\\" as a duet during the battle rounds of the <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20season%204%29\\\">fourth season</a> of \\\"The Voice US\\\". On May 10, 2013, <a href=\\\"Demi%20Lovato\\\">Demi Lovato</a> covered the song during a concert in San Diego, California. On May 16, 2013, <a href=\\\"Adam%20Lambert\\\">Adam Lambert</a> and <a href=\\\"Angie%20Miller%20%28American%20singer%29\\\">Angie Miller</a> performed a duet of the song on the finale of the <a href=\\\"American%20Idol%20%28season%2012%29\\\">twelfth season</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Idol\\\">American Idol</a>\\\", where Miller was a finalist. <a href=\\\"Madilyn%20Bailey\\\">Madilyn Bailey</a>'s version of \\\"Titanium\\\" reached number 13 on the French singles chart in 2015 and spent 34 weeks there. It also appeared on the Belgian French Wallonia <a href=\\\"Ultratop\\\">Ultratop</a> chart, peaking at number 23.\\nOn October 31, 2011, Andrew Wishart covered \\\"Titanium\\\" in the <a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28Australia%20series%203%29\\\">third series</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28Australia%29\\\">The X Factor Australia</a>\\\". \\\"Titanium\\\" was also covered by Martin Madeja on the <a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20%28Germany%20season%202%29\\\">second season</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20%28Germany%29\\\">X Factor Germany</a>\\\" on November 8, 2011. On February 10, 2012, Morten Benjamin performed the song on the fifth season of \\\"<a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20%28Denmark%29\\\">X Factor Denmark</a>\\\". On October 11, 2012, 13-year-old <a href=\\\"Beatrice%20Miller\\\">Beatrice Miller</a> performed \\\"Titanium\\\" during the judges' houses round of the <a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20season%202%29\\\">second season</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%29\\\">The X Factor USA</a>\\\". The song was also performed by <a href=\\\"Jahm%C3%A9ne%20Douglas\\\">Jahméne Douglas</a> during the judges' houses round and <a href=\\\"Lucy%20Spraggan\\\">Lucy Spraggan</a> during the third live show of the <a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28UK%20series%209%29\\\">ninth series</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28UK%29\\\">The X Factor UK</a>\\\" on October 20, 2012. Spraggan's version had her own verses rather than those of the original song, and used the second half of Titanium's chorus as its own. On November 7, 2013, <a href=\\\"Ellona%20Santiago\\\">Ellona Santiago</a> performed \\\"Titanium\\\" during Week 2 on Night 2 of the <a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20season%203%29\\\">third season</a> of \\\"The X Factor USA\\\", where all the contestants had to sing their Save Me song due to graphic issues.\\nBritish pop and soul singer <a href=\\\"Jahm%C3%A9ne%20Douglas\\\">Jahméne Douglas</a> released a cover version of \\\"Titanium\\\" on July 22, 2013 as the lead single from his debut studio album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Love%20Never%20Fails%20%28Jahm%C3%A9ne%20Douglas%20album%29\\\">Love Never Fails</a>\\\" (2013). Douglas' version peaked at number 94 on the <a href=\\\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\\\">UK Singles Chart</a>. Talking to \\\"<a href=\\\"Digital%20Spy\\\">Digital Spy</a>\\\", Douglas said: \\\"It's very hard to sing. I was scared to do it because it's a big chart song and I'm quite old school. For me, the song is about strength and the music video is based around domestic violence and how a woman gets out of it. The lyrics are so powerful for that interpretation. Hopefully if someone is in that situation and watches it, they'll think, I can get out.\\\" A music video to accompany the release of \\\"Titanium\\\" was first released onto YouTube on June 12, 2013 at a total length of three minutes and fifty-four seconds. The music video shows Douglas next to a piano, while a story of domestic abuse plays out.\",\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 2)\\nThe second season of \\\"<a href=\\\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew\\\">America's Best Dance Crew</a>\\\" premiered on June 19, 2008. The live auditions special took place on June 7, 2008. The season was hosted by <a href=\\\"Mario%20Lopez\\\">Mario Lopez</a>, featured <a href=\\\"Layla%20Kayleigh\\\">Layla Kayleigh</a> as the backstage correspondent, and included <a href=\\\"Lil%20Mama\\\">Lil Mama</a>, <a href=\\\"JC%20Chasez\\\">JC Chasez</a>, and <a href=\\\"Shane%20Sparks\\\">Shane Sparks</a> as judges. In the live finale, which aired on August 21, 2008, <a href=\\\"Super%20CR3W\\\">Super CR3W</a> was declared the winner.\\nFor the second season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", the dance crews auditioned in four cities: <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, <a href=\\\"Atlanta\\\">Atlanta</a>, <a href=\\\"Houston\\\">Houston</a>, and <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>. A total of fourteen dance crews were selected from the four cities and then categorized into four regions: Midwest, South, East Coast, and West Coast. Following the live casting special on June 7, 2008, the initial pool of dance crews was narrowed down to ten.\\n<a href=\\\"%23ref_1\\\">^Note 1</a> : The live auditions special determined the ten spots for the season premiere.<br>\\n<a href=\\\"%23ref_2\\\">^Note 2</a> : A non-elimination episode meant to showcase the two finalists.\\nFourteen dance crews competed in a live casting special for \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\". The reigning champions, <a href=\\\"JabbaWockeeZ\\\">JabbaWockeeZ</a>, performed to a remix of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Boss%20%28Rick%20Ross%20song%29\\\">The Boss</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Rick%20Ross%20%28rapper%29\\\">Rick Ross</a> featuring <a href=\\\"T-Pain\\\">T-Pain</a> at the end of the episode.\\nEach crew performed to songs of their own choosing.\\nThe crews created routines inspired by iconic music videos.\\nEach crew utilized a physical transformation to visually illustrate the title of their song.\\nThe crews had to transition from a slow tempo song to a faster one while still remaining on beat.\\nThe episode began with a group performance to <a href=\\\"Janet%20Jackson\\\">Janet Jackson</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Rhythm%20Nation\\\">Rhythm Nation</a>\\\". Then, each crew was given a Janet Jackson song and had to incorporate her signature style and moves into their dance.\\nThe crews were assigned a song and a school activity. They were required to utilize the stage props, themed after a high school gym, to create the beats for their routine.\\nThe episode opened with a group performance to <a href=\\\"Missy%20Elliott\\\">Missy Elliott</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Shake%20Your%20Pom%20Pom\\\">Shake Your Pom Pom</a>\\\". Afterwards, the crews adapted the footwork from her music videos to showcase their own style. Elliott starred as the first guest judge on \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", helping the regular judges select which crew was eliminated.\\nThe remaining three crews competed in two challenges inspired by the 1980s.\\nEach crew built routines featuring popular party dances from the '80s. In addition, the crews had to complete the physical task assigned to them.\\nThe crews crafted routines that incorporated elements of classic '80s films. The crews were given remixed versions of the songs from their respective movies.\\nIn a non-elimination episode, the final two crews faced off in three rounds of challenges.\\nDancing to the same mix of songs, the crews created routines that included different dance styles from around the world.\\nWorking with music producers to write and create an original soundtrack, the crews had to create their own dance craze.\\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a regional collaboration. Instead of going head-to-head, Super CR3W and SoReal Cru teamed up for their last performance.\\nAt the beginning of the show, champions JabbaWockeeZ and Super CR3W performed to a remix of \\\"<a href=\\\"We%20Are%20the%20Champions\\\">We Are the Champions</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Queen%20%28band%29\\\">Queen</a>.\\nFive crews from the first and second seasons were given music videos nominated for \\\"Best Dancing in a Video\\\" at the <a href=\\\"2008%20MTV%20Video%20Music%20Awards\\\">2008 MTV Video Music Awards</a>. The crews had to incorporate the moves from the videos while retaining their own style. In the end, the judges chose their three favorite performances. After votes were cast, the two crews with the highest number of votes would perform at the VMA preshow.\\nFanny Pak and <a href=\\\"Kaba%20Modern\\\">Kaba Modern</a> were eventually selected to compete against each other at the preshow.\\nFanny Pak danced to \\\"<a href=\\\"Damaged%20%28Danity%20Kane%20song%29\\\">Damaged</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Danity%20Kane\\\">Danity Kane</a>, while <a href=\\\"Kaba%20Modern\\\">Kaba Modern</a> danced to \\\"<a href=\\\"Closer%20%28Ne-Yo%20song%29\\\">Closer</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Ne-Yo\\\">Ne-Yo</a>. <a href=\\\"Lindsay%20Lohan\\\">Lindsay Lohan</a> and <a href=\\\"Ciara\\\">Ciara</a> later announced that Fanny Pak was the winner of the battle and received $25,000 (<a href=\\\"United%20States%20dollar\\\">USD</a>) for charity.\",\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 3)\\nThe third season of \\\"<a href=\\\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew\\\">America's Best Dance Crew</a>\\\" premiered on January 15, 2009. The season was once again hosted by <a href=\\\"Mario%20Lopez\\\">Mario Lopez</a> and featured <a href=\\\"Layla%20Kayleigh\\\">Layla Kayleigh</a> as the backstage correspondent. <a href=\\\"Lil%20Mama\\\">Lil Mama</a>, <a href=\\\"JC%20Chasez\\\">JC Chasez</a>, and <a href=\\\"Shane%20Sparks\\\">Shane Sparks</a> returned as the judging panel. This was the first season without a special casting episode. In the live finale, which aired on March 5, 2009, <a href=\\\"Quest%20Crew\\\">Quest Crew</a> was declared the winner.\\nSimilar to the <a href=\\\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew%20%28season%201%29\\\">first season</a>, nine dance crews were selected to compete on \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", as opposed to ten. While the crews were not officially divided into the usual four regions (East Coast, West Coast, Midwest, and South) as with the previous two seasons, the regions were still listed on each crew's banner. This was also the first season to showcase a crew from the <a href=\\\"Caribbean\\\">Caribbean</a>. Team Millennia, who was eliminated during the <a href=\\\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew%20%28season%202%29\\\">Season 2</a> casting special, returned as one of the nine official dance crews.\\nThe crews performed to the songs of their choosing. Then, the judges chose the bottom three crews to compete in a sudden death dance battle to \\\"<a href=\\\"Live%20Your%20Life%20%28T.I.%20song%29\\\">Live Your Life</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"T.I.\\\">T.I.</a> Rynan \\\"Kid Rainen\\\" Paguio from <a href=\\\"JabbaWockeeZ\\\">JabbaWockeeZ</a> temporarily guest judged in place of JC Chasez, who later returned the following episode.\\nEach crew was given a physical activity/exercise to incorporate into their routine.\\nThe crews took inspiration from <a href=\\\"Britney%20Spears\\\">Britney Spears</a>' music videos to create their routines. Andre Fuentes, Spears' choreographer, assigned additional challenges for the crews to complete.\\nThe crews performed to <a href=\\\"clich%C3%A9\\\">cliché</a> songs that spurred uncool and silly dance crazes. Each crew had to incorporate their respective song's dance into their routines, while also trying to make the moves look fresh.\\nThe crews had to perform their routines utilizing various magic tricks and illusions.\\nThe episode started off with a group performance, choreographed by <a href=\\\"Napoleon%20D%27umo\\\">Napoleon</a> and <a href=\\\"Tabitha%20D%27umo\\\">Tabitha D'umo</a>, featuring <a href=\\\"Ludacris\\\">Ludacris</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"What%20Them%20Girls%20Like\\\">What Them Girls Like</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"Beyonc%C3%A9\\\">Beyoncé</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Single%20Ladies%20%28Put%20a%20Ring%20on%20It%29\\\">Single Ladies</a>\\\".\\nThe two remaining male crews then battled against the two remaining female crews. Each crew had to emulate a male or female superstar's music video, and were challenged to incorporate the spirit of the video into their choreography.\\nThe crews competed against each other in two challenges: the Hip-Hop Decathlon and the Last Chance Challenge. After the mid-show elimination, the top two crews performed their routines for the Last Chance Challenge.\\nThe three remaining crews had to demonstrate their versatility by creating a routine that incorporated five different hip hop dance styles. The competitors were given the same five styles and songs, and received help from five guest \\\"ABDC\\\" alumni from the previous two seasons. Each alumnus/alumna was assigned to one of the dance styles the crews were responsible for.\\nThe two finalists were given one last chance to perform before the lines opened for the final voting session of the season.\\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a collaboration. The judges each picked three crews that complemented each other and their dance styles. Instead of going head-to-head, Quest Crew and Beat Freaks teamed up for their last performance.\",\n \"Live My Life (song)\\n\\\"Live My Life\\\" is a song by American group <a href=\\\"Far%20East%20Movement\\\">Far East Movement</a> from their fourth studio album \\\"<a href=\\\"Dirty%20Bass\\\">Dirty Bass</a>\\\". The song was released on February 25, 2012 as the album's lead single. It features vocals from Canadian pop singer <a href=\\\"Justin%20Bieber\\\">Justin Bieber</a>. The song was produced by <a href=\\\"RedOne\\\">RedOne</a> and De Paris.\\nThe official remix of the song, subtitled \\\"Live My Life (Party Rock Remix)\\\", features vocals from <a href=\\\"Redfoo\\\">Redfoo</a> of <a href=\\\"LMFAO\\\">LMFAO</a>. The track was released on March 6, 2012 as a digital download. Also, it was included as the last track of the standard edition of \\\"Dirty Bass\\\".\\nA music video to accompany the release of \\\"Live My Life\\\" was first released onto YouTube on April 5, 2012 through Far East Movement's <a href=\\\"Vevo\\\">Vevo</a> channel at a total length of four minutes and forty-three seconds. Justin Bieber do not appear in the video, but Redfoo and the Party Rock crew does. They are seen throughout the video touring and partying through the streets of <a href=\\\"Amsterdam\\\">Amsterdam</a> in the Party Rock bus. They also perform a synchronized dance routine in a <a href=\\\"flash%20mob\\\">flash mob</a>-style. Far East Movement perform their respective verses. Dutch singer <a href=\\\"Eva%20Simons\\\">Eva Simons</a> cameos in the video, seen entering the party bus midway through the video, as well as Dutch DJs Sidney Samson, Sick Individuals and Quintino. The music video has over 30 million views.\\nAn alternate video edit was made for the Party Rock Remix at a total length of four minutes and thirty-eight seconds. It features the same scenes from the original and includes Redfoo performing his verse. This version has over 16 million views.\\nThe videos were written by Redfoo and Kelly Covell and directed by Mickey Finnegan (who has previously directed music videos for LMFAO's songs such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Party%20Rock%20Anthem\\\">Party Rock Anthem</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Sexy%20and%20I%20Know%20It\\\">Sexy and I Know It</a>\\\" among others) while production was handled by Cisco Newman and Alexa Dedlow.\\nThe video makes a reference to John Cusack's character from the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Say%20Anything%20%28film%29\\\">Say Anything</a>\\\"; it begins with Kev Nish holding up a <a href=\\\"boombox\\\">boombox</a> while standing outside of a female lead's apartment window, and ends with him taking her home.\",\n \"Turn Around (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)\\n\\\"Turn Around (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)\\\" is a song by American rapper <a href=\\\"Flo%20Rida\\\">Flo Rida</a> from his third studio album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Only%20One%20Flo%20%28Part%201%29\\\">Only One Flo (Part 1)</a>\\\". It was released as the second single on 8 November 2010 in the United States. The song contains samples of \\\"<a href=\\\"Din%20Daa%20Daa\\\">Din Daa Daa</a>\\\" by German dance singer <a href=\\\"George%20Kranz\\\">George Kranz</a>, and \\\"<a href=\\\"Oh%20Yeah%20%28Yello%20song%29\\\">Oh Yeah</a>\\\" by Swiss electronica band <a href=\\\"Yello\\\">Yello</a>. It debuted at number 98 on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a> and was featured prominently in the closing credits of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hangover%20Part%20II\\\">The Hangover Part II</a>\\\". It was the second such use of a Flo Rida song in the closing credits of a film from \\\"The Hangover\\\" franchise—the first was \\\"<a href=\\\"Right%20Round\\\">Right Round</a>\\\", which also featured DJ Frank E and was used in the closing credits of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hangover\\\">The Hangover</a>\\\".\\nRobert Copsey of <a href=\\\"Digital%20Spy\\\">Digital Spy</a> gave the song 3 stars out of 5 and stated \\\"this follow-up [to \\\"<a href=\\\"Club%20Can%27t%20Handle%20Me\\\">Club Can't Handle Me</a>\\\"] isn't quite as instant, nor is it as lyrically ear-snagging, but it's nice to see him having another crack at this singing malarkey [...] What's more, the electro-trance backdrop is \\\"so\\\" last summer, but it was worth bringing back for those \\\"Mmm Da-Da\\\"s alone\\\".\\nA sequel to \\\"Turn Around (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)\\\" called \\\"Turn Around, Pt. 2\\\" with <a href=\\\"Pitbull%20%28rapper%29\\\">Pitbull</a>'s vocals, was released on iTunes on May 17, 2011. It was used in the end credits of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hangover%20Part%20II\\\">The Hangover Part II</a>\\\".\\nIn the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a>, broadcasting regulator <a href=\\\"Ofcom\\\">Ofcom</a> received three viewer complaints after the video was broadcast on British music channel <a href=\\\"4Music\\\">4Music</a> at approximately 1400 and 1800 <a href=\\\"Coordinated%20Universal%20Time\\\">UTC</a> during December 2010 - January 2011, long before the 2100 <a href=\\\"Watershed%20%28television%29\\\">watershed</a>, \\\"at the time when children are most likely to watch TV\\\". The complainants claimed the video consisted of \\\"extreme crudeness and filth\\\" in a \\\"sexist and offensive video which mostly comprises women in thong bikini bottoms acting in a <a href=\\\"Pornography\\\">pornographic</a> manner\\\". One complainant \\\"was shocked to see women in <a href=\\\"Thong%20%28clothing%29\\\">thongs</a> and <a href=\\\"Brassiere\\\">bras</a> <a href=\\\"wikt%3Agyrate\\\">gyrating</a> and basically <a href=\\\"Non-penetrative%20sex\\\">dry humping</a> men in this video\\\". In the opinion of one viewer, \\\"this objectification of women at such an early time and on a channel that appeals to young people really concerns me\\\".\\nAt approximately the same time, rival music video channels <a href=\\\"MTV%20Base\\\">MTV Base</a> and <a href=\\\"MTV%20Dance\\\">MTV Dance</a> generated three further viewer complaints for broadcasting the same video at 1750, 1900 and 1450 respectively. Expressing concern about younger viewers, the video was \\\"effectively soft porn\\\" and was given \\\"far too early\\\" a broadcast time, according to the MTV Base complainaints. The MTV Base complainaint claimed the \\\"rude\\\" and \\\"filthy\\\" video was \\\"too explicit for daytime TV\\\" and that \\\"ladies shaking their rear-end provocatively should not be promoted by <a href=\\\"MTV\\\">MTV</a>\\\".\\n<a href=\\\"Box%20Television\\\">Box Television</a>, the company owning 4Music, apologised for any offence viewers may have experienced but claimed that the video did comply with Ofcom regulations as, in the video, \\\"female dancers [wear] thong bikinis and Carnival attire, synonymous with <a href=\\\"Brazilian%20Carnival\\\">Brazilian Carnival</a>, there is no nudity, inappropriate touching of the dancers or explicit sexual display\\\". The company also stated that they had \\\"placed a scheduling restriction so that it would not play in the pre-school (0700 – 1000) Breakfast Fix.\\\"\\nMTV Base responded to the allegations by claiming that the females featured in the video were \\\"portrayed as <a href=\\\"Copacabana%20%28Rio%20de%20Janeiro%29\\\">Copacabana</a> girls, happy to dance, to be confident in their bodies and to celebrate the Brazilian party lifestyle\\\" as opposed to \\\"an expression of sex\\\". The channel noted that \\\"dancers are at all times clothed and although the clothing may be scant – it is not inappropriate dress for beach attire or carnival\\\". MTV Dance replied in a similar manner, adding: \\\"MTV Dance is a niche channel and its main audience being 16 – 34 year olds\\\".\\nIn both cases, Ofcom concluded that the music video was in breach of Rule 1.3 of their Broadcasting Code, which says: \\\"Children must also be protected by appropriate scheduling from material that is unsuitable for them.\\\"\\nSource:\",\n \"Wild Ones (song)\\n\\\"Wild Ones\\\" is a song by American <a href=\\\"Rapping\\\">rapper</a> <a href=\\\"Flo%20Rida\\\">Flo Rida</a> from his <a href=\\\"Wild%20Ones%20%28Flo%20Rida%20album%29\\\">fourth studio album of the same name</a>. The song features vocals by Australian recording artist <a href=\\\"Sia%20Furler\\\">Sia</a>. It was produced by <a href=\\\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\\\">soFLY & Nius</a> and <a href=\\\"Axwell\\\">Axwell</a>, whilst the lyrical content was written by <a href=\\\"Flo%20Rida\\\">Rida</a>, <a href=\\\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\\\">soFLY & Nius</a>, Sia, <a href=\\\"Axwell\\\">Axwell</a>, Jacob Luttrell, Marcus Cooper and Niklaas Vogel-Kern. The engineering and recording of the record was handled by <a href=\\\"Skylar%20Mones\\\">Skylar Mones</a>. Lyrically, the song contracts themes including <a href=\\\"partying\\\">partying</a>, <a href=\\\"love\\\">love</a> and dancing while the musical composition is an uptempo dance-pop song that is influenced by <a href=\\\"house%20music\\\">house music</a> and <a href=\\\"electro%20house\\\">electro house</a>.\\nIt was released as the album's second single and title track on December 19, 2011 in the United States. The single peaked at number one in New Zealand, Australia, Canada and Norway, whilst it peaked inside the top forty in every country chart it charted on. It charted at number five on the US <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a>.\\nThe music video was released, featuring Flo Rida having fun with his friends. Furler, however was not featured in the final video. This song along with \\\"<a href=\\\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\\\">Good Feeling</a>\\\" was selected to serve as one of the official theme songs to <a href=\\\"WrestleMania%20XXVIII\\\">WrestleMania XXVIII</a> and it was also featured in <a href=\\\"Dwayne%20Johnson\\\">The Rock's</a> Road to Wrestlemania vignettes where he prepares for his match with <a href=\\\"John%20Cena\\\">John Cena</a> at the event. Flo Rida performed the songs \\\"Good Feeling\\\" and \\\"Wild Ones\\\" live at the event to precede Rock's entrance for the match. With 6.5 million copies sold globally as of December 2012, it is <a href=\\\"List%20of%20best-selling%20singles\\\">one of the best-selling singles in history</a>.\\nThe \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanium%20%28song%29\\\">Titanium</a>\\\" project got Sia into Guetta's powerful inner circle, including Atlantic Records director of A&R Ben Maddahi, who then introduced Sia to Flo Rida and his team, yielding \\\"Wild Ones\\\". The song serves as the second official single from <a href=\\\"Flo%20Rida\\\">Flo Rida</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Wild%20Ones%20%28Flo%20Rida%20album%29\\\">Wild Ones</a>\\\".\\nThe song features vocals by Australian recording artist <a href=\\\"Sia%20Furler\\\">Sia Furler</a>. It was produced by <a href=\\\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\\\">soFLY & Nius</a> and <a href=\\\"Axwell\\\">Axwell</a>, whilst the lyrical content was written by Rida, <a href=\\\"soFLY%20%26amp%3B%20Nius\\\">soFLY & Nius</a>, <a href=\\\"Sia%20Furler\\\">Sia Furler</a>, <a href=\\\"Axwell\\\">Axwell</a>, Jacob Luttrell, Marcus Cooper and Benjamin Maddahi.\\nSia wrote the song in 15 minutes. She later said: \\\"They asked me to record [\\\"Wild Ones\\\"] over and over for almost six months. Eventually I said, 'OK, but don't put my name on it.' I was angry because we had already had this discussion. <a href=\\\"Crush%20Management\\\">Jonathan</a> said to me, 'I don't think I really believed you that you didn't want to be credited or get the recognition you deserve.'\\\" The song's chorus was written by Furler and was intended to feature <a href=\\\"Katy%20Perry\\\">Katy Perry</a>. However, Perry never received the song.\\n\\\"Wild Ones\\\" is an uptempo dance-pop song that includes influences of <a href=\\\"house%20music\\\">house music</a> and <a href=\\\"electro%20house\\\">electro house</a>. According to Bill Lamb from About.com, \\\"There is clearly a well worn formula to Flo Rida's blend of hip hop, dance, and pop. [...] he has not worn out his welcome. It is the moments when \\\"Wild Ones\\\" breaks down into that simple combination of synth keyboards and Sia's voice that the song commands our attention.\\\" David Jeffries from <a href=\\\"Allmusic\\\">Allmusic</a> compared the song to <a href=\\\"Katy%20Perry\\\">Katy Perry</a>'s <a href=\\\"Firework%20%28song%29\\\">Firework</a>\\\", which was released one year previous, saying \\\"The title cut [Wild Ones] with [Sia] is close to Katy Perry's \\\"Fireworks\\\" but crafted to support a sports highlight reel instead of teenage dreams [...]\\\"\\nIn the lyrics, Sia starts off singing \\\"Hey I heard you were a wild one, ooh / If I took you home it'd be a home run / Show me how you do / I want to shut down the club with you / Hey I heard you like the wild ones, ooh.\\\" After her introduction, Flo Rida raps \\\"I like crazy, foolish, stupid / Party going wild, fist pumping music / I might lose it / Blast to the roof, that's how we do'z it / I don't care the night, she don't care we like / Almost there, the right vibe / Ready to get live / Ain't no surprise, take me so high.\\\"\\n\\\"Billboard\\\" described Sia's voice as a \\\"bell-clear, campfire-warm voice [that] has mostly been applied to her own elegantly quirky creations\\\". DJBooth.com compared the song to \\\"<a href=\\\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\\\">Good Feeling</a>\\\", stating that it is a \\\"slightly more subdued, but equally dancefloor/radio-ready follow-up\\\". Tim Byron from \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Vine\\\">The Vine</a>\\\" stated, \\\"When [Sia] sings the chorus, phrases like 'I heard' and 'if I took you home' speak of uncertainty. She likes the idea of wildness, but isn't certain how it will go. Flo Rida's role in the song is to convince her that she actually does want to be a wild one, to convince her that it is okay to let go, to obliterate herself.\\\"\\nThe song was nominated to the <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award\\\">Grammy Award</a> for <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Rap/Sung%20Collaboration\\\">Best Rap/Sung Collaboration</a> at the <a href=\\\"2013%20Grammy%20Awards\\\">2013 Grammy Awards</a>.\\nThe song made its debut at number twelve on the <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand%20Singles%20Chart\\\">New Zealand Singles Chart</a>. In its second week, it entered the top ten on ten, and in its third week it peaked atop of the charts. It became Flo Rida's second number-one single in that country and Furler's first number-one. The song was certified Gold in its first month and eventually received double platinum in May 2012, staying in the charts for twenty-two weeks. In Furler's native <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a>, it debuted at twenty-nine. In its third week, it rose to number two and eventually peaked at one for six consecutive weeks, pushing <a href=\\\"Foster%20The%20People\\\">Foster The People</a>'s single \\\"<a href=\\\"Pumped%20Up%20Kicks\\\">Pumped Up Kicks</a>\\\" off the top spot. It became Furler's first number-one and only, while it was Flo Rida's third number-one. The song received septuple platinum in Australia, selling over 500,000 copies there and had over five songs that received certifications in one year.\\nIn France, the song debuted at seventy-six. Despite a slow start, it eventually peaked at number eleven on the chart, being one position off the top ten. The song debuted at twenty-nine on the <a href=\\\"Swedish%20Singles%20Chart\\\">Swedish Singles Chart</a>, during the <a href=\\\"New%20Year%27s%20Day\\\">New Year's Day</a> week. The song eventually peaked at number three on the chart and was certified quintuple platinum by the <a href=\\\"IFPI\\\">IFPI</a>, selling over 200,000 copies and is the eighty-third best-selling single in that country. In Norway, the song entered at fifteen on their native singles chart and eventually peaked at number one in its fifth week, and in total, spent twenty-one weeks on the chart.\\n\\\"Wild Ones\\\" made its official debut at number fifty-seven on the US <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a>. The single eventually peaked at number five on the chart, and stayed for thirty-six weeks on the chart, making it Flo Rida's third-longest charting single, just behind \\\"<a href=\\\"Low%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\\\">Low</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\\\">Good Feeling</a>\\\". The song also achieved success on its component charts, peaking at two on the <a href=\\\"Mainstream%20Top%2040\\\">Mainstream Top 40</a>, eight on the <a href=\\\"Rap%20Songs\\\">Rap Songs</a> and thirty on the <a href=\\\"Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs\\\">Hot Dance Club Songs</a>. It was certified triple platinum by <a href=\\\"Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20America\\\">Recording Industry Association of America</a> (RIAA), with over 3,000,000 sales sold there. In the United Kingdom, the song peaked at number four on their singles chart after debuting at number four. It sold 695,000 copies in the UK in 2012, making it the 10th best-selling single of 2012.\\nIn New Zealand, the song was the sixth best-selling single of 2012, while his then-next single \\\"<a href=\\\"Whistle%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\\\">Whistle</a>\\\" was the fifth best selling single that same year. In Canada, the song was the eighth best-selling single of 2012, while in the United Kingdom, it was the tenth best selling single. In the United States, the song was the eleventh top-selling single according to <a href=\\\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\\\">Billboard</a>.\\nAs of December 2012, the song has sold 3,444,000 digital copies in the United States and 6.5 million copies worldwide.\\nAs with the sales of Flo Rida's \\\"Wild Ones\\\" and his other singles; \\\"<a href=\\\"Low%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\\\">Low</a>\\\" (6,786,026), \\\"<a href=\\\"Right%20Round%20%28song%29\\\">Right Round</a>\\\" (5,475,096), \\\"<a href=\\\"Good%20Feeling%20%28song%29\\\">Good Feeling</a>\\\" (3,903,872), \\\"<a href=\\\"Whistle%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\\\">Whistle</a>\\\" (3,791,107) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Club%20Can%27t%20Handle%20Me\\\">Club Can't Handle Me</a> (3,079,302), the sales all tally over 26 million sales worldwide, making him the best selling rapper in the digital music era.\\nThe video directed by <a href=\\\"Erik%20White\\\">Erik White</a> was released on February 9, 2012 showing Flo Rida partying in <a href=\\\"Dubai\\\">Dubai</a> and <a href=\\\"Miami\\\">Miami</a>. In Dubai, it shows the <a href=\\\"Infinity%20Tower\\\">Infinity Tower</a>, <a href=\\\"Burj%20Al%20Arab\\\">Burj Al Arab</a>, and <a href=\\\"Palm%20Jumeirah\\\">Palm Jumeirah</a>. While the song features artist <a href=\\\"Sia%20Furler\\\">Sia Furler</a>, she does not appear in the video. Sia's vocals were lipsynched by Analicia Chaves. The video also features Cuban model Dayami Padron on the boat scenes to the left of Flo Rida.\\n<a href=\\\"Flo%20Rida\\\">Flo Rida</a> performed the song on the finale of <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20season%202%29\\\">second season</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%29\\\">The Voice</a>\\\" with contestant Juliet Simms singing the chorus. He also performed the song with <a href=\\\"Carly%20Rae%20Jepsen\\\">Carly Rae Jepsen</a> at the <a href=\\\"2012%20MuchMusic%20Video%20Awards\\\">2012 MuchMusic Video Awards</a>, with Stayc Reigns at the <a href=\\\"2012%20Teen%20Choice%20Awards\\\">2012 Teen Choice Awards</a> and the <a href=\\\"2012%20Premios%20Juventud\\\">2012 Premios Juventud</a> and also performed the song live at <a href=\\\"WrestleMania%20XXVIII\\\">WrestleMania XXVIII</a> prior to The Rock entrance for his \\\"Once In A Lifetime\\\" match against John Cena. He performed a mash-up of this song along with two more of his famous music on July 21, 2014 on WWE RAW MIAMI. It also appeared in the trailer of \\\"<a href=\\\"Kung%20Fu%20Panda%203\\\">Kung Fu Panda 3</a>\\\".\\nA remix version entitled \\\"Wild One Two\\\" by Jack Back featuring <a href=\\\"David%20Guetta\\\">David Guetta</a>, <a href=\\\"Nicky%20Romero\\\">Nicky Romero</a> and Sia was released on February 14, 2012. An edited version of the song appears in the 2012 re-release of Guetta's album \\\"<a href=\\\"Nothing%20but%20the%20Beat%23Re-releases\\\">Nothing but the Beat 2.0</a>\\\".\\n\",\n \"Got Money\\n\\\"Got Money\\\" is the third single by American rapper <a href=\\\"Lil%20Wayne\\\">Lil Wayne</a> from his album \\\"<a href=\\\"Tha%20Carter%20III\\\">Tha Carter III</a>\\\" (2008). The single features American rapper <a href=\\\"T-Pain\\\">T-Pain</a>. Both Lil Wayne and T-Pain use the <a href=\\\"Auto-Tune\\\">Auto-Tune</a> effect in the song. The single was released as a digital download on iTunes on May 27, 2008. Lil Wayne and T-Pain performed the song at the <a href=\\\"Black%20Entertainment%20Television\\\">BET</a> 2008 awards and the 2008 MTV Music Video Awards. MTV also ranked the song as the #19 Hip-Hop song of 2008.\\nThe UK radio edit version, released by <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music%20Group\\\">Universal</a> <a href=\\\"Ireland\\\">Ireland</a>, removes the intros and the outros of the song. Its duration is 2:38.\\nThe official remix, featuring <a href=\\\"Young%20Money%20Entertainment\\\">Young Money Entertainment</a> artist <a href=\\\"Mack%20Maine\\\">Mack Maine</a>, was used to make the <a href=\\\"music%20video\\\">music video</a>. The video was shot and released on June 23, 2008, the same day the video for \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Milli\\\">A Milli</a>\\\" was shot, in <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\\\">Los Angeles</a> and is a follow up to the cliffhanger of \\\"A Milli.\\\" The video is directed by <a href=\\\"Gil%20Green%20%28director%29\\\">Gil Green</a>. Lil Wayne has claimed on his video blog that this video is based on the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Inside%20Man%202\\\">Inside Man 2</a>\\\". <a href=\\\"Ray%20J\\\">Ray J</a>, <a href=\\\"Shorty%20Mack\\\">Shorty Mack</a>, <a href=\\\"Drake%20%28rapper%29\\\">Drake</a>, <a href=\\\"Nicki%20Minaj\\\">Nicki Minaj</a>, <a href=\\\"Birdman%20%28rapper%29\\\">Birdman</a>, <a href=\\\"Tyga\\\">Tyga</a>, Brisco, <a href=\\\"Lil%20Twist\\\">Lil Twist</a>, Lil Chuckee, <a href=\\\"Jay%20Rock\\\">Jay Rock</a>, <a href=\\\"2%20Chainz\\\">2 Chainz</a>, Kidd Kidd, and the producers of the song, Play-n-Skillz, make cameos in the video. The bank lobby shots are the same bank used in the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Set%20It%20Off%20%28film%29\\\">Set It Off</a>\\\". The music video premiered on multiple MTV channels on June 23, 2008. In the end, Lil Wayne is the only one arrested while the crew escapes with the money, including Mack Maine and Birdman.\\nThe song was covered by <a href=\\\"Korn\\\">Korn</a> vocalist <a href=\\\"Jonathan%20Davis\\\">Jonathan Davis</a>. The cover features <a href=\\\"Slipknot%20%28band%29\\\">Slipknot</a> and ex-<a href=\\\"Stone%20Sour\\\">Stone Sour</a> <a href=\\\"guitarist\\\">guitarist</a> <a href=\\\"Jim%20Root\\\">Jim Root</a> and <a href=\\\"Korn\\\">Korn</a> drummer <a href=\\\"Ray%20Luzier\\\">Ray Luzier</a> and was released on <a href=\\\"Jonathan%20Davis%20and%20the%20SFA\\\">Jonathan Davis' solo band</a> website, and is available on <a href=\\\"iTunes\\\">iTunes</a>.\\nThere are multiple freestyles on the internet, such as the ones done by <a href=\\\"rappers\\\">rappers</a> <a href=\\\"Yung%20Joc\\\">Yung Joc</a> and <a href=\\\"Pitbull%20%28rapper%29\\\">Pitbull</a>. The official <a href=\\\"remix\\\">remix</a> features <a href=\\\"Mack%20Maine\\\">Mack Maine</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Travis%20Barker\\\">Travis Barker</a> recorded a remix to the song.\\n<a href=\\\"Juelz%20Santana\\\">Juelz Santana</a> and Skull Gang Recorded a freestyle to the song entitled \\\"What You Reppin?\\\" and on the \\\"Skull Gang Takeover\\\" mixtape.\\nThe song was the \\\"Hot Shot Debut\\\" of the week on the \\\"<a href=\\\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\\\">Billboard</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Hot%20100\\\">Hot 100</a>, entering at #13, making it Lil Wayne's second highest debut. This also made it his second highest peaking song in his solo career, although it's now his third highest peaking. 15 weeks following its Hot 100 debut, the song rose to a new peak on the chart of #10, giving Lil Wayne his third consecutive top ten hit from \\\"Tha Carter III\\\". It has become his fifth top ten on <a href=\\\"Hot%20Rap%20Tracks\\\">Hot Rap Tracks</a>, thus far peaking at #2. It has been most successful on U.S. Rhythmic stations, reaching number one on the <a href=\\\"Rhythmic%20Top%2040\\\">Rhythmic Top 40</a>. \\\"Got Money\\\" has also been nominated for the Best Rap/Sung Collaboration at the 51st Grammy awards.\\nIn June 2011, producers Play-N-Skillz sued <a href=\\\"Lil%20Wayne\\\">Lil Wayne</a> for $1 million over the \\\"Got Money\\\" rights.\\n\",\n \"House dance\\nHouse dance is a <a href=\\\"social%20dance\\\">social dance</a> primarily danced to <a href=\\\"house%20music\\\">house music</a> that has roots in the clubs of <a href=\\\"Chicago\\\">Chicago</a> and of <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a>. The main elements of House dance include \\\"<a href=\\\"Footwork%20%28genre%29\\\">Footwork</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Jacking\\\">Jacking</a>\\\", and \\\"Lofting\\\". House dance is often improvised and emphasizes fast and complex foot-oriented steps combined with fluid movements in the torso, as well as <a href=\\\"floor%20work\\\">floor work</a>.\\n\\\"\\\"House Dance is an amalgamation of the post-disco era. A lot of their movements and what took place in certain key places, the Jack and a number of clubs after that. It was a community based dance so vocal points were surrounded by music and <a href=\\\"disc%20jockey\\\">DJs</a>, but many of the dancers who were not looking to create, ended up becoming a part of that dance vocabulary.\\\"\\\"\\nThe major source in house dance movement stems directly from the music and the elements within the music such as <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a>, <a href=\\\"African%20music%20%28genre%29\\\">African</a>, <a href=\\\"Latin%20music%20%28genre%29\\\">Latin</a>, <a href=\\\"soul%20music\\\">soul</a>, <a href=\\\"R%26amp%3BB\\\">R&B</a>, <a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a>, <a href=\\\"hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip hop</a>, etc. The other source is the people, the individuals and their characteristics, ethnicities, origin, etc. You have people of all walks of life partying under one roof. Thus you have exchanges of information (<a href=\\\"body%20language\\\">body language</a>) house dance is a social dance before these competitions.\\nIn house dancing, there is an emphasis on the subtle rhythms and <a href=\\\"riff\\\">riff</a>s of the music, and the footwork follows them closely. This is one of the main features that distinguishes house dancing from dancing that was done to <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco</a> before house emerged and current dancing that is done to <a href=\\\"electronic%20dance%20music\\\">electronic dance music</a> as part of the rave culture.\\nIn the early progressions of the dance, there were hundreds of phenomenal dancers that were key in its progression in this social dance scene. However, out of the many there were few instrumental in the introduction of New York house dance culture across the globe. Some of these dancers are Ejoe Wilson, Brian \\\"Footwork\\\" Green, Tony McGregor, Marjory Smarth, Caleaf Sellers, \\\"Brooklyn\\\" Terry Wright, Kim D. Holmes, Shannon Mabra, Tony \\\"Sekou\\\" Williams, Shannon Selby (aka Shan S), Voodoo Ray, and others.\\nvideo showing of popular house dance steps by Brian \\\" Footwork \\\" Green\\nCompetitions and festivals:\",\n \"America's Best Dance Crew (season 1)\\nThe first season of \\\"<a href=\\\"America%27s%20Best%20Dance%20Crew\\\">America's Best Dance Crew</a>\\\" premiered on February 7, 2008. The season, hosted by <a href=\\\"Mario%20Lopez\\\">Mario Lopez</a>, featured a judging panel consisting of <a href=\\\"Lil%20Mama\\\">Lil Mama</a>, <a href=\\\"JC%20Chasez\\\">JC Chasez</a>, and <a href=\\\"Shane%20Sparks\\\">Shane Sparks</a>. In the live finale, which aired on March 27, 2008, <a href=\\\"JabbaWockeeZ\\\">JabbaWockeeZ</a> was declared the winner.\\nFor the first season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\", the competitors auditioned in four cities: <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, <a href=\\\"Atlanta\\\">Atlanta</a>, <a href=\\\"Chicago\\\">Chicago</a>, and <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>. A total of twelve dance crews were selected from the four cities and then categorized into four regions: Midwest, South, East Coast, and West Coast. Following the live casting special on January 26, 2008, the initial pool of dance crews was narrowed down to nine.\\n<a href=\\\"%23ref_1\\\">^Note 1</a> : The live auditions special determined the nine spots for the season premiere.\\nTwelve dance crews competed in a live casting special for \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\".\\nEach crew performed to a mix of their favorite dance track. The crews were broken up into groups of three. The judges selected one crew from each group (\\\"italicized\\\") to be safe from elimination and move on to the next week. Afterwards, the judges picked the bottom two crews to compete in a sudden death dance-off to guest performer <a href=\\\"Flo%20Rida\\\">Flo Rida</a>'s song \\\"<a href=\\\"Low%20%28Flo%20Rida%20song%29\\\">Low</a>\\\".\\nEach crew was given a different music video containing a dance sequence, which they had to perform while maintaining their own style.\\nEach crew performed a popular dance, also known as a \\\"dance craze\\\", while preserving their own style. Since some of the dance crazes were very simple to execute, each team had to complete an additional challenge while performing.\\nThe crews portrayed movie characters through dance.\\nEach crew performed to a track from <a href=\\\"Michael%20Jackson\\\">Michael Jackson</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Thriller%20%28Michael%20Jackson%20album%29\\\">Thriller</a>\\\" album, in honor of its 25th anniversary, and incorporated Jackson's signature moves into their routine.\\nAt the beginning of the show, the crews teamed up to perform a routine to a hip hop remix of \\\"<a href=\\\"Annie%20%28musical%29\\\">Annie's</a>\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"It%27s%20the%20Hard%20Knock%20Life\\\">It's the Hard Knock Life</a>\\\". Then, each crew had to transform a traditional <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a> number into a hip hop routine.\\nAll three crews performed to a same remix highlighting the evolution of street dancing over the past 30 years.\\nThe two finalists compete in an encore \\\"do or die\\\" round.\\nThe eliminated crews returned and performed with the finalists for a regional collaboration. Instead of going head-to-head, JabbaWockeeZ and Status Quo teamed up for their last performance.\",\n \"Let It Rock (Kevin Rudolf song)\\n\\\"Let It Rock\\\" is the debut single of <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Rudolf\\\">Kevin Rudolf</a>. It was produced by Rudolf for his debut album, \\\"<a href=\\\"In%20the%20City%20%28Kevin%20Rudolf%20album%29\\\">In the City</a>\\\" and features a verse from rapper <a href=\\\"Lil%20Wayne\\\">Lil Wayne</a>.\\nIn the U.S. and Canada, the song reached #5 on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a>, number #6 on the <a href=\\\"Pop%20100\\\">Pop 100</a> and #2 on the <a href=\\\"Canadian%20Hot%20100\\\">Canadian Hot 100</a>. The first week, the song debuted at number 45 on the <a href=\\\"Australian%20Singles%20Chart\\\">Australian Singles Chart</a> and eventually reached number 3. In the United Kingdom, the song climbed to number 40 on physical release but due to an increase in airplay, due to <a href=\\\"BBC%20Radio%201\\\">BBC Radio 1</a> adding it to their A-list, the song climbed thirty places to number 10 in the song's second week on the chart; then it rose to number 5 the following week. \\\"Let It Rock\\\" was number 28 on \\\"<a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone\\\">Rolling Stone</a>\\\"' s list of the 100 Best Songs of 2008. The single was also the official theme song for <a href=\\\"WWE\\\">WWE</a>'s 2009 <a href=\\\"Royal%20Rumble%20%282009%29\\\">Royal Rumble</a>. It is also featured in the <a href=\\\"video%20game\\\">video game</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Madden%20NFL%2011\\\">Madden NFL 11</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"Guitar%20Hero%20Live\\\">Guitar Hero Live</a>. According to in-game files, the song was also originally meant to appear on \\\"<a href=\\\"Grand%20Theft%20Auto%20V\\\">Grand Theft Auto V</a>\\\"'s Non-Stop-Pop FM radio station, but it was not included in the final release of the game.\\nLet It Rock was featured in the 2013 <a href=\\\"Atlantic%20City%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Atlantic City, New Jersey</a> tourism commercials.\\n\\\"Let It Rock\\\" was certified Triple Platinum by the <a href=\\\"RIAA\\\">RIAA</a> on May 5, 2009. As of July 2011, the song has sold 4,000,000 <a href=\\\"music%20download\\\">digital downloads</a>, making it Lil Wayne's third 4-million-seller.\\nThe single was certified platinum in the U.S. on December 15, 2008.\\nThe music video for \\\"Let It Rock\\\" features Kevin Rudolf and Lil Wayne performing in front of both a crowd and a dark background, sometimes lit with various effects such as strobe and laser lights. The \\\"<a href=\\\"NBA%20on%20TNT\\\">NBA on TNT</a>\\\" features a version of the music video to promote the <a href=\\\"2009%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game\\\">2009 NBA All-Star Game</a> featuring the players competing in the event.\\nThe song's chorus is sampled in the <a href=\\\"Iyaz\\\">Iyaz</a> song \\\"Damn They Hot\\\", which features Rudolf himself. The song is also sampled and incorporated into <a href=\\\"Natasha%20Bedingfield\\\">Natasha Bedingfield</a>'s song \\\"All I Need\\\" from her album \\\"<a href=\\\"Strip%20Me%20%28Natasha%20Bedingfield%20album%29\\\">Strip Me</a>,\\\" which also features Rudolf.\\n\",\n \"Sexy and I Know It\\n\\\"Sexy and I Know It\\\" is a hit song by American duo <a href=\\\"LMFAO\\\">LMFAO</a> from their second studio album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Sorry%20for%20Party%20Rocking\\\">Sorry for Party Rocking</a>\\\". It was released as the third single from the album on 16 September 2011. The song was written by Stefan Kendal Gordy, <a href=\\\"GoonRock\\\">GoonRock</a>, <a href=\\\"Erin%20Beck\\\">Erin Beck</a>, George M. Robertson and Kenneth Oliver, and it was produced by Party Rock. It went to number one on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a> on January 7, 2012 and remained there for two weeks.\\nThe song became LMFAO's second number one hit (after \\\"<a href=\\\"Party%20Rock%20Anthem\\\">Party Rock Anthem</a>\\\") on the \\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100 in the United States, making them the first duo to have two successive number-one singles since <a href=\\\"Outkast\\\">Outkast</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Hey%20Ya%21\\\">Hey Ya!</a>\\\" (2003) and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Way%20You%20Move\\\">The Way You Move</a>\\\" (2004). The song also reached number one in Australia, Canada and New Zealand, and charted within the top ten in nearly every country in which it charted. The song was featured in the <a href=\\\"Gossip%20Girl%20%28season%205%29\\\">season 5</a>, episode 12 of \\\"<a href=\\\"Gossip%20Girl\\\">Gossip Girl</a>\\\". and in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Glee%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Glee</a>\\\" episode, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Spanish%20Teacher\\\">The Spanish Teacher</a>\\\". <a href=\\\"%26quot%3BWeird%20Al%26quot%3B%20Yankovic\\\">\\\"Weird Al\\\" Yankovic</a> recorded a cover as part of his polka medley \\\"<a href=\\\"List%20of%20%26quot%3BWeird%20Al%26quot%3B%20Yankovic%20polka%20medleys%23%26quot%3BNOW%20That%27s%20What%20I%20Call%20Polka%21%26quot%3B\\\">NOW That's What I Call Polka!</a>\\\" for his 2014 album \\\"<a href=\\\"Mandatory%20Fun\\\">Mandatory Fun</a>\\\" as well as in an <a href=\\\"M%26amp%3BM%27s\\\">M&M's</a> commercial and <a href=\\\"Specsavers\\\">Specsavers</a> advert. The song is also featured in the films \\\"<a href=\\\"Hotel%20Transylvania\\\">Hotel Transylvania</a>, <a href=\\\"American%20Reunion\\\">American Reunion</a>, <a href=\\\"At%C3%A9%20que%20a%20Sorte%20nos%20Separe%202\\\">Ate que a Sorte nos Separe 2</a>, <a href=\\\"Tapped%20Out%20%28film%29\\\">Tapped Out</a>, <a href=\\\"Think%20Like%20a%20Man%20Too\\\">Think Like a Man Too</a>,\\\" and \\\".\\\" It's also used in other television shows including \\\"<a href=\\\"Gossip%20Girl\\\">Gossip Girl</a>, <a href=\\\"Mulheres%20Ricas\\\">Mulheres Ricas</a>, <a href=\\\"Grey%27s%20Anatomy\\\">Grey's Anatomy</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20Girl\\\">New Girl</a>, <a href=\\\"Polizeiruf%20110\\\">Polizeiruf 110</a>, <a href=\\\"Las%20Vega%27s\\\">Las Vega's</a>, <a href=\\\"Boom%20Town%20%282013%20TV%20series%29\\\">Boom Town</a>, <a href=\\\"Girls%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Girls</a>,\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Mike%20%26amp%3B%20Mike\\\">Mike & Mike</a>.\\\"\\nThe song is composed in the key of <a href=\\\"G%20minor\\\">G minor</a>, with a tempo of 124 beats per minute. The song is similar in humor to the <a href=\\\"Right%20Said%20Fred\\\">Right Said Fred</a> song <a href=\\\"I%27m%20Too%20Sexy\\\">I'm Too Sexy</a>.\\nThe music video for \\\"Sexy and I Know It\\\" was filmed in <a href=\\\"Venice%2C%20California\\\">Venice, California</a>, and uploaded on LMFAO's <a href=\\\"YouTube\\\">YouTube</a> channel on September 16, 2011. It features <a href=\\\"Redfoo\\\">Redfoo</a> and a group of men including <a href=\\\"Hokuto%20%26quot%3BHok%26quot%3B%20Konishi\\\">Hok</a> from <a href=\\\"Quest%20Crew\\\">Quest Crew</a>, The <a href=\\\"Shuffle%20Bot\\\">Shuffle Bot</a>, Nathan Pasley and Q dancing around town in <a href=\\\"Swim%20briefs\\\">speedos</a> in front of women. In several scenes it shows Redfoo lifting weights. Chelsea Korka, <a href=\\\"Ron%20Jeremy\\\">Ron Jeremy</a>, <a href=\\\"Wilmer%20Valderrama\\\">Wilmer Valderrama</a>, <a href=\\\"Alistair%20Overeem\\\">Alistair Overeem</a>, <a href=\\\"Victor%20Kim\\\">Victor Kim</a>, Steve Terada, <a href=\\\"Lola%20Blanc\\\">Lola Blanc</a>, <a href=\\\"Ryan%20Conferido\\\">Ryan Conferido</a>, Ryan Feng of Quest Crew, <a href=\\\"Mindy%20Robinson\\\">Mindy Robinson</a>, Angelo Marconi, Darren Mabee, Darla George, and <a href=\\\"Simon%20Rex\\\">Simon Rex</a> all have cameos in the video. The music video on YouTube was flagged for sexual content. The final shot of the video pays homage to the final shot of \\\"<a href=\\\"Michael%20Jackson%27s%20Thriller%20%28music%20video%29\\\">Michael Jackson's Thriller</a>\\\": it shows Shuffle Bot leaving with the girls while it turns its head towards the camera behind it and the image freezes.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The fifth season of \"America's Best Dance Crew\" premiered on January 28, 2010. Similar to the live casting specials featured in the first two seasons, the first three episodes consisted of separate regional auditions before proceeding to the official national-level competition. Shane Sparks did not return as a judge this season, due to his arrest, and was replaced by Omarion. In the live finale, which aired on April 8, 2010, Poreotix was declared the winner.","Poreotics, also known as Poreotix, is an Asian American all-male dance crew from Westminster, California. The crew was formed in 2007 by Matthew \"Dumbo\" Nguyen and specializes in popping, choreography and robotics, hence the name Po-reo-tics. They have performed in numerous hip hop dance competitions, most notably coming in 1st place in the USA division of the 2009 and 2010 Hip-Hop Internationals and in other dance programs and competitions including the Vibe 15, FUSION X, Body Rock, and World Of Dance. On April 8, 2010, they were crowned the champions on the fifth season of America's Best Dance Crew. On January 14, 2011 they were crowned as \"Team of the Year\" at the World of Dance awards."],"string":"[\n \"The fifth season of \\\"America's Best Dance Crew\\\" premiered on January 28, 2010. Similar to the live casting specials featured in the first two seasons, the first three episodes consisted of separate regional auditions before proceeding to the official national-level competition. Shane Sparks did not return as a judge this season, due to his arrest, and was replaced by Omarion. In the live finale, which aired on April 8, 2010, Poreotix was declared the winner.\",\n \"Poreotics, also known as Poreotix, is an Asian American all-male dance crew from Westminster, California. The crew was formed in 2007 by Matthew \\\"Dumbo\\\" Nguyen and specializes in popping, choreography and robotics, hence the name Po-reo-tics. They have performed in numerous hip hop dance competitions, most notably coming in 1st place in the USA division of the 2009 and 2010 Hip-Hop Internationals and in other dance programs and competitions including the Vibe 15, FUSION X, Body Rock, and World Of Dance. On April 8, 2010, they were crowned the champions on the fifth season of America's Best Dance Crew. On January 14, 2011 they were crowned as \\\"Team of the Year\\\" at the World of Dance awards.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":53,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What source book provides rules for running games like GURPS Space in a fantasy setting?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"GURPS Fantasy"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["GURPS Mysteries\nGURPS Mysteries is a source book for the \"GURPS\" Role-playing game.\n\"GURPS Mysteries\" covers the mystery genre by describing a crime and the motivation behind it to its detection via explaining its clues and witnesses. Several crimes are described, including arson, blackmail, burglary, and kidnapping, but homicide or murder is the book's focus. \"GURPS Mysteries\" covers eras from Ancient Rome and the Middle Ages to modern times and the far future with some coverage of the paranormal as well. The book includes a complete chapter devoted to the low-tech mystery and the low-tech investigator. It addresses some of the issues of roleplaying the historical mystery scenario, from the need for the sleuth to have status if he is to be free to investigate to the players being too aware, both in terms of the genre and technology.\nThe book covers creating and running \"mystery\" based adventures and campaigns, crime scenes, and advanced rules for questioning and interrogating NPCs.\nSteve Jackson Games released the 4th edition genre book \"GURPS Mysteries\" in 2005 as an e-book (with a print-on-demand book later available) through its online PDF store, e23. The book's author is a criminal defense attorney.\nMatthew Pook reviewed \"GURPS Mysteries\" for \"Pyramid\" magazine #10 (August 2009). He comments that \"this book serves as an invaluable guide to the genre\".\n","GURPS Space\nGURPS Space is a \"genre toolkit\" for creating Science Fiction campaigns using the GURPS role-playing game. It performs a similar purpose as GURPS Fantasy does for Fantasy games. Rules and guidelines are provided for running games from science fantasy and space opera to hard science fiction, creating worlds and planets and notes about aliens races. The first edition was published in 1988.\nThe Third Edition of GURPS Space had several differences from the Fourth Edition book. The biggest difference was the inclusion of a small subset of the GURPS Vehicles rules and some high-tech weaponry. Unlike the above-mentioned GURPS Fantasy's Third Edition analog, it was also a genre toolkit.\nGURPS Space was released March 2006. It covers the creation of star systems, worlds and alien races, either completely randomly or with any amount of GM intervention during the process. Advice is also provided on planning campaigns and other related material, as is common in other books for fourth edition GURPS.\nCoverage of spacecraft is aimed at setting level issues such as choosing the technology used by spacecraft in the game. This section does not worry about game mechanics issues, but rather helps players and gamemasters determine the broad capabilities of the vessel in question.\nIn a controversial move, the book breaks with the format of earlier editions and does not contain rules for spaceship design or high tech guns. Those topics will be covered by the forthcoming books GURPS Vehicles (4e) and GURPS Ultra-Tech (4e) respectively. The rationale for this decision was explained in a series of official statements made on the sjgames forums by Managing Editor Chris Aylott and Line Editor Sean Punch. GURPS Spaceships, a 4e supplement of rules for spaceship design, is now available through Steve Jackson Games as a digital purchase.\n\"GURPS Space\" was designed by Steve Jackson and William Barton, and published by Steve Jackson Games as a 128-page book. The book features additional material by W. G. Armintrout, Stephen Beeman, Ben Ellinger, John M. Ford, Don Gallagher, J. David George, Mike Hurst, David Ladyman, and Mike Moe, and a cover illustration by Michael Goodwin.\n\"GURPS Space\" was one of the broad genre books that followed the publication of the \"GURPS Basic Set\". This first tier genre book was supported by several second-tier sourcebooks including the \"GURPS Space Atlases\" (1988-1991), \"GURPS Space Bestiary\" (1990) and \"GURPS Aliens\" (1990), which helped fill out the \"GURPS Space\" world.\n\"GURPS Space\" for 4e was published in 2006, one of several genre books published by Steve Jackson Games for the new edition.\nJim Bambra reviewed the first edition of \"GURPS Space\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #141 (January 1989). Bambra comments in his evaluation: \"Even if you never intend to play the \"GURPS\" game, the \"GURPS Space\" game is worth picking up on the basis of its ideas alone. For GMs who enjoy designing unique backgrounds for their players, and for GURPS players everywhere, this book is well worth getting.\"\n\"GURPS Space\" won the 1988 Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Supplement.\nSecond edition reviewed in \"Games Review\" vol. 2 #9","GURPS Infinite Worlds\nGURPS Infinite Worlds is a supplement for the Fourth Edition of the \"GURPS\" role-playing game, published by Steve Jackson Games in 2005 and written by Kenneth Hite, Steve Jackson, and John M. Ford. It expands upon the campaign setting of conflict between the \"Infinity Patrol\", which is the time-travel agency on \"our\" Earth, referred to as Homeline, and \"Centrum\" across a multiplicity of alternate history Earths. This was presented in the \"Fourth Edition GURPS Basic Set\" (and originated in the Third Edition supplements \"GURPS Time Travel\", \"GURPS Alternate Earths\", and \"GURPS Alternate Earths II\").\n\"GURPS Infinite Worlds\" builds on the genre-hopping possibilities of player characters travelling from one world to another for the fourth edition of \"GURPS\".\nGURPS Infinite Worlds has eight chapters: Infinity Unlimited, Enemies Everywhen, Present at the Creation, Worlds Enough, ...And Time, Infinite characters, Infinite Campaigns, and Alternate Infinities.\nThis chapter describes one of the two worlds (known locally as Homeline) that have full-fledged, public \"parachronics\" programs (the technology behind traveling between parallel universes) Travel between worlds is generally done through ground-based equipment (\"projectors\") or vehicles (\"conveyors\"), but magic, parahuman abilities and even stranger methods can and have been utilized by both. Alternate worlds (also known as realities or worldlines) are grouped into \"quanta\", which have varying degrees of ease of access not only to Homeline but to her opponents\nThis is the chapter that describes Homeline's adversaries and hazards. The major adversary is Centrum, the only other reality known to have a public parachronics program, who can be played as a deadly adversary, occasional opponents or grudging allies depending on the GM's preference.\nThe secondary adversary is Reich-5, the worst of the five known 'Nazis win/survive WWII' realities in the setting. An ill-advised raid by Spetsnaz troops from Homeline Russia resulted in the capture of a troop conveyor, a handful of live prisoners, and the corpse of a scout with a genetically-linked psionic world-jumping ability. A quick-thinking local Brigadeführer made a deal with the mystical SS society of the Ahnenerbe to take possession of the booty (and to keep it all secret from the mainstream Nazi hierarchy); Reich-5 scientists and sorcerers are using occult rituals and horrific medical experiments to slowly spread their Thousand Year Reich to other realities.\nThis chapter describes how to create your own alternate reality and offering inspirational concepts to look at such as the Great Man, Great Moment, and Great Motherland.\nThis is the chapter on some of the alternate worlds in the setting. Reich-5, Caliph, Dixie, Ezcalli, Gernsback, Roma Aeterna, and Shikaku-Mon all appeared in slightly different forms in the older \"Alternate Earths\" volumes.\nSo named because it is the second world discovered by the Infinity Patrol in which the Spanish Armada was victorious over the English in 1588, Armada-2 is a world just now (in \"current year\" 1812) emerging from the shadow of Catholic Spanish hegemony, with Sweden, an industrialised Egypt and Huguenot Nouvelle France as other powers.\nA parallel where city-razing Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan destroyed first Beijing and then all the cities of Europe, where now their descendants (in \"current year\" 2004) rule an entirely nomadic continent. The world was mistakenly named for Attila the Hun by early Infinity Patrol researchers who were confused as to which nomadic leader was responsible for the destruction. Meanwhile, Japan trades across the Pacific Ocean with the urbanized tribes of North and South America, and city-states dot Africa, where steam engines have just been developed.\nWhen Isaac Newton discovered the secret of the philosopher's stone in 1693, he paved the way for an Alchemical Revolution that has left Azoth-7 dominated by the magical might of Britain, Venice, Prussia, and Spain by \"current year\" 1780. Notable for having space travel though whatever Polaris and Sirius may be they are \"not\" balls of hydrogen tens or hundreds of light-years away from Earth\nIn Bonaparte-4, Napoleon sacrificed the romance of an Egyptian campaign (which he conducted in 1798 in our timeline) for a stealthy invasion of Ireland, granting him victory over Britain. By \"current year\" 2024, the world is divided between French, Japanese, Russian, and Brazilian Empires, along with the United States and the Russian Republic, and the world has achieved a stage of technological achievement and social disaffection and tension reminiscent of cyberpunk.\nThe success of the rebellion of James, Duke of Monmouth against James II of England in 1685 is the point of divergence between our own world and Britannica-3; wiser and more Protestant rule in Britain meant that tensions with the North American colonies never reached the point of rebellion as they did in real history. Despite the rise of other strong European powers, the world is free of major conflicts, which can be attributed to the strong influence of Centrum in this parallel.\nIn this world the printing press was invented in Baghdad in 796 and was shortly followed by the widespread adaptation of the scientific method and an oil-based industrial revolution. The current year here is 1684, but the technological acceleration stemming from these changes has resulted in a society seemingly centuries ahead of Homeline. Unfortunately a burgeoning global war between the tradition-minded major states (Sofala, Persia, Andalus, the Bulgarian Caliphate and the Ummah) and the technocratic Jamahiriya of the western continents threatens the existence of this advanced society.\nNamed for the early death of influential science fiction editor John W. Campbell which occurred in this parallel but not in real history, Campbell is a world notable for the poverty of its scientific advancement. While military applications of scientific research advanced rapidly enough, science as an intellectual pursuit became associated exclusively with death, destruction, and catastrophe (especially after World War II ended with the bombardment of Germany with radioactive dust, killing hundreds of thousands of people). This led to an anti-scientific wave of pacifist Luddism and charismatic religious revival in the 1960s. Lacking the positive fruits of scientific inquiry, the world heads (in \"current year\" 2004) through ecological disaster and failing economies to a nigh-inevitable showdown between its capitalist and communist societies.\nThe nominal villains of the campaign, Centrum is a totalitarian, homogenized world-state, and the only world other than Homeline to have a major parachronic program. Its point of departure was in 1120, when the White Ship carrying William the Aetheling, the heir of Henry I of England, did not hit a rock in the English Channel. William's survival precluded The Anarchy and the Hundred Years War, and ultimately the \"Anglo-French Empire\" became a world-spanning power, with technological progress centuries beyond that of Homeline.\nHowever unbearable tensions existed just below the surface, and in 1902 unknown parties decapitated the ruling house by detonating a nuclear device in London. The resulting succession wars included nuclear and biological weapons, wiped out much of humanity and reduced most of the survivors to preindustrial barbarism. But Terraustralis (Homeline Australia) escaped much of the destruction, and the techno-military cabal known as \"The Centrum\" that took control there ultimately extended its authority across the globe.\nCentrum is a socialist technocratic meritocracy; the government provides all employment and handles the economy, which is bolstered by the massive resources acquired from other worldlines. They believe other worlds should be aiming to follow their example and have a dedicated program of supporting political and economic groups that reflect their own values—stability, meritocracy and an unconscious prejudice against non-English speakers. They view the mix of competing government agencies and private companies from Homeline as dangerously reminiscent of the period prior to their own \"Final War\".\nOne of the most important parallel Earths from the Infinity Patrol's point of view, Centrum Beta appears to be an exact copy of the home parallel of Centrum - except that the \"current year\" is only 1895. Understanding Centrum Beta as it is now might give the Infinity Patrol the key to understanding and besting Centrum proper.\nAlso known generally as \"Reality Vanish\", there are at least 41 parachronic coordinate settings where people or objects sent into them never return. These are assumed to be worlds where the laws of physics are sufficiently different from that of our own universe to kill visitors and/or cripple their equipment (see Rustic under Puzzle Worlds, below).\nIn this world, William Walker succeeded in conquering Nicaragua in 1856; during the American Civil War this provided a way around the Union blockade for the Confederacy that ultimately ensured their victory. In revenge for British support of the rebels, the United States invaded and annexed most of Canada; meanwhile the Southrons reintroduced their \"peculiar institution\" into Central America and the Caribbean at gunpoint. Today (\"current year\" 1993) the U.S.A. and C.S.A. watch each other warily across an armed border that stretches to the Pacific, while India, the Chinese republics and their neighbors expand their economies at the expense of the moribund European monarchies that never fell after 1918. (See American Civil War alternate histories).\nHere the Columbian Exchange occurred two thousand years early, when a Carthaginian fleet was blown across the Atlantic to discover the New World. This premature contact gave the Native American civilizations time to recover from the shock of new diseases and adopt the newcomers' technology; in addition, the early introduction of maize and the potato to the Old World eventually reduced Rome's ability to control its subjects through Egyptian grain. The Empire ended with Nero, and the patchwork of European successor states were ill-equipped to resist subsequent barbarian invasions. In the \"current year\" of 1848, the expansionist, steam-powered Tenochca Empire faces off against the Hotinohsavannih League to the north and the Songhay Empire (the last remnant of Roman culture) to the east; whoever wins is likely fated to take on the somnolent but fearsomely large Mongol Khaganate that covers most of Eurasia.\nThis parallel world is named for the Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa, who in this timeline managed to be the great imperial unifier and conqueror that the vagaries of fortune prevented him from being in our history. In \"current year\" 1219, seventeen years after his death, Friedrich is notable for being a hotbed of activity by the SS Raven Division from the Nazi-dominated parallel Reich-5, who seek to turn his Holy Roman Empire into a First Reich and breeding ground for Aryan warriors.\nGallatin is named for Albert Gallatin, the dominant member of Thomas Jefferson's government due to Alexander Hamilton having died in the Battle of Trenton. Without Hamilton to defend and explain the United States Constitution in the \"Federalist Papers\", it was never ratified and the independent colonies balkanized into nine separate republics across the continent by 1860. In \"current year\" 2004, Gallatin's great powers include Texas (whose nuclear arsenal shields the other libertarian American republics), German-dominated Europaverein, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and the Japanese Empire; peace is maintained by the fear of mutual destruction in an atomic war.\nThis parallel world is named after editor Hugo Gernsback, due to the futuristic architecture and technology being used there. The divergence happened in 1893, when Nikola Tesla married Anne Morgan, daughter of millionaire and philanthropist J. P. Morgan, an event that helped him to stabilize his life and make many of his inventions reality thanks to the support of his father-in-law. In 1902, he created a radio tower that broadcast to the entire world from Long Island, and he later managed to develop wireless electricity broadcasting, which eventually helped Germany to stabilize and avoid falling under the control of Adolf Hitler and Nazism, and strengthening the League of Nations, avoiding World War II. When, in 1951, Andrei Sakharov managed to defect to the West and tell of Stalin's plans to create atomic weapons, the League of Nations declared war on the Soviet Union, which fell on April 30, 1953, with the death of Joseph Stalin. In \"current year\" 1965, the World Science Council and the League of Nations are putting down all threats to the techno-utopia that has resulted from the inventions derived from Tesla's work. However, this is a world where race and sex discrimination still run rampant. The main mission of the I-Cops in here is to prevent Centrum from taking over, as Centrum regards Gernsback as a potential ally.\nMany timelines have suffered catastrophes (some natural, others man-made) that have rendered humanity either extinct or nearly so. These are colloquially known as the \"hell worlds\". Examples include Ariane (where the Spanish Flu killed 99.9% of the population), Lenin-2 (where nuclear war and unconstrained industry have combined to crash the biosphere) and the worrisome Gotha parallels (where a prion-based disease has turned almost all humans into bloodthirsty cannibals on 19 otherwise dissimilar worlds).\nThe main world in the game. The world of \"our\" timeline (apart from the development of parachronics) and home base of Infinity Patrol, and of players in the game. Seeks to counteract Centrum and its efforts to interfere with natural development of alternate worlds.\nHere Franklin D. Roosevelt maintained Henry A. Wallace as his vice president when he was reelected in 1944; consequently Wallace became president on April 12, 1945 upon Roosevelt's death. His passive stance (and that of his successors) against the Soviet Union resulted in the steady expansion of Communism across the globe. In the \"current year\" of 1989, the isolated and malaise-stricken United States is essentially the sole remaining capitalist country on the planet.\nNamed after the wizard of that name, Merlin-1 is a world where magic entered the world due to the Trinity nuclear test in August 1945. In \"current year\" 2004 America (where much of the magic is centred) uses both magic and technology to be the dominant superpower. Homeline has begun investigating this world to obtain information about this mana-rich reality, but unbeknownst to them the Merlin-1 American government is aware of their actions and has begun spying on them in return. The setting of \"GURPS Technomancer\".\nA world where magic entered the world in 1916, and is centered in Germany. In \"current year\" 1942, World War II is being fought with magic. The setting of \"GURPS WWII: Weird War II\".\nMany worlds have inhabitants that closely resemble characters from the myths, legends and stories of Homeline. The characters from the Arabian Nights stories, three different King Arthurs (Riothamus, the Vulgate Cycle Arthur, and Thomas Malory's version) and Sherlock Holmes are all represented by various worlds, along with hundreds of others.\nShalmaneser III of Assyria wiped out Jerusalem and Tyre in this world in 854 B.C., and his successors destroyed the Greek city-states a century later. In the \"current year\" of 1678, various empires based on slavery and human sacrifice cover the globe (except for an Infinity Patrol-supported haven in southern Africa) while an anomalous ice age threatens to wipe out those unfortunate to live in a world where monotheism, democracy and the Greek and Latin alphabets were destroyed almost before they could begin.\nSome worlds that do not follow the generally accepted laws of physics in one way or another or otherwise demonstrate unusual characteristics—it is important to note that in the Infinite Worlds setting, most magic fits under the category of \"accepted laws of physics\". Rustic (where artificial electric discharges are impossible to generate), Enigma (where the entire population of the world disappeared on July 12, 1982) and Blip (where one day spent there is equal to a little over six minutes on other worlds) are some examples.\nWidely regarded as one of the most disturbing and potentially dangerous worlds so far discovered, in this parallel Giuseppe Zangara succeeded in assassinating Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1933. His successors Garner, Lindbergh and Wallace proved unable to handle the Great Depression, and America stood by while Hitler conquered Europe and Japan took over most of Asia. In 1944, Japan attacked Guam, the Philippines and Hawaii; in the ensuing chaos William Dudley Pelley was elected President. Pelley quickly assumed dictatorial powers, and his blatant theft of the 1948 election from Robert A. Taft triggered wholesale civil war. The president called for aid from Nazi Germany, which quickly sent 40 Wehrmacht divisions through Canada. The pro-democracy resistance collapsed after Werner Heisenberg developed the atomic bomb which was used on four American cities in 1950. A second attempt at rebellion in 1976 failed, and America is now a (very) junior partner of the World-Axis that dominates the planet. Reich-5's technology (military or otherwise) is superior to that of any Homeline country, and despite being the only timeline besides Homeline and Centrum to possess world-jumping technology, their parachronic program is well behind those of the other two.\nHere Nero Claudius Drusus did not die in 9 B.C. In turn, he became the successor to Augustus instead of Tiberius. The imperial line that followed was so successful that when the First Empire fell apart in the 5th century the guiding ideals of Rome were never discarded and were ultimately restored. After the Mongol invasions broke the Second Empire in the 14th century, colonies in the Hesperides preserved these ideals in turn and ultimately re-restored the empire in the late 18th century. The \"current year\" is 1893, and the musket-wielding legions of the Third Empire are found from the Magna Campania to the Ganges, with no sign of retreating anytime soon.\nIn this \"four-cornered world\" Juan, Prince of Asturias, the son of King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain survived to take the Spanish throne as King John III. The resulting changes in history spread all the way to Japan, where an increased Jesuit presence prolonged the life of Oda Nobunaga and prevented the closing of the country by the Tokugawa shogunate. In the resulting cyberpunk \"current year\" of 2027, the dominant powers include a Japanese Empire that covers China, India, New Zealand, and much of East Asia, the economic superpower of Brazil, the totalitarian Swedish Empire and the technologically advanced Kingdom of France.\nA world very similar to our own, except reptilian creatures descended from a species of Troodon are the dominant sentient lifeform. The similarities exist down to cultural and political divisions (resulting in this world's colloquial name) and are assumed by Homeline scientists to be evidence of a \"law of temporal inertia\" (or \"gods with a strange sense of humour\").\nA fantasy world, inhabited by humans, dwarves, elves etc., all of whom have been involuntarily taken from other worldlines. The setting of \"GURPS Banestorm\".\nThis chapter deals with the many theories of Temporal Physics both real and fictional that exist.\nThere are some other ideas provided to make things either easier or more difficult for your intrepid travelers such as Linearity Principle, Oscillating Time, Recency Effect, and Temporal Exclusion as well how communication works.\nSpecial notes on certain rules in the setting and character templates.\nDesigning the campaign's scope and direction.\nThis chapter provides alternatives to the \"default\" Infinity setting.\n\"GURPS Infinite Worlds\" was designed by Kenneth Hite, Steve Jackson, and John M. Ford, and published by Steve Jackson Games in 2005.\n\"GURPS Infinite Worlds\" won the 2005 Origins Award as Best Game Supplement.","GURPS Bio-Tech\nGURPS Bio-Tech is a GURPS, the Generic Universal Role Playing Game, sourcebook that covers the implementation of biotechnology in the game. The first edition of the book was written for GURPS Third Edition, while the second edition of GURPS Bio-Tech was written for GURPS Fourth Edition. Both editions of the game are primarily focused on providing supplemental rules, campaign material, and examples of the uses of biotechnology for the players and game-master alike. The second edition contains two outlines for campaign settings (\"Alexander Athanatos\" and \"Draconis\") but is primarily focused on providing rules and examples of devices that Game Masters could adapt for use in their own campaigns.\nGURPS, is a game where players and game-masters can, and are encouraged to, create whatever characters and settings they choose. The GURPS Bio-Tech sourcebook gives them a resource to use should they wish to incorporate elements of biotechnology into their games. The books contains rules and advice for creating a wide variety of possible characters, scenarios, story lines, and campaigns that are influenced by either real world theories and practices of bio-technology, or the science fiction of advanced genetic alteration, enhancement, and augmentation.\nThe first edition of GURPS Bio-Tech was written by David L. Pulver. The second edition was written by both Pulver and David Morgan-Mar. David Pulver has written a number of books for GURPS in both its third and fourth editions. Morgan-Mar is a regular contributor to Pyramid Magazine, Steve Jackson Games' online game and hobby magazine, and has co-written several books for GURPS Fourth Edition.\nGURPS Bio-Tech includes a detailed introduction into biotechnology, speaking about both its practices in a real world sense, and its applications in science fiction and fantasy. In addition to new and supplemental rules for the game, the book goes into great detail discussing what the world would (potentially) be like if biotechnology were to continue to advance. Anti-aging treatments, human (and nonhuman) augmentation and enhancement, chemical warfare, cloning, and many other subjects are detailed, along with advise for game-masters should they wish to implement such things into their games. Because GURPS is meant to be open ended for the game-master to develop their own setting, many possibilities are left open for their interpretation, such as potential social and political ramifications of these advancements. How does the general public react to extreme modification? What religious concerns does it bring up? How does humanity deal with the population increase caused by anti-aging treatments? GURPS Bio-Tech leaves the answers to these questions up to the game-masters, allowing them to weave such elements into their stories as much or as little as they desire. This is also the first 4th edition book to make significant changes to the page layout introduced with the 4th edition, most noticeably with a return to a two column layout.\nGURPS Bio-Tech draws inspiration from a varied collection of sources.\nThe first edition of \"GURPS Bio-Tech\" was written by David Pulver, and published by Steve Jackson Games as a 144-page book. The first edition of GURPS Bio-Tech was written in 1997, and published by Steve Jackson Games, the creators of GURPS, the Munchkin card game, and many others.\nA new \"GURPS Bio-Tech\" (2006) was one of the tech books published for \"GURPS\" 4e. The second edition, published in 2006, was also produced by Steve Jackson Games. The first edition had two print runs, which the second edition is still on its first.\nJoe Kushner reviewed the first \"GURPS Bio-Tech\" in \"Shadis\" #48. Kushner comments: \"Overall the book is very clear and easy to use. The majority of the text has comments by various individuals which make it easier to read. The art is all done by Dan Smith, so even if you don't like his art, it still has a uniform feel to it.\"\nIt was an Origins Award nominee as Best Roleplaying Game Supplement in 2007.","GURPS Magic\nGURPS Magic is a source book for the GURPS Role-playing game from Steve Jackson Games that provides in depth coverage of magic in the context of GURPS. The book expands on the material outlined in the Basic Set, provides alternative forms of magic for GMs to use, and contains much more material. The first edition was published in 1989.\n\"GURPS Magic\" is a supplement of magic rules for use in fantasy milieus, an expansion and replacement of the rules in 1st edition \"GURPS Fantasy\", entirely revised for use with the \"GURPS\" 3rd edition. The book is very detailed, and the spell rules enable the player to custom-design a character's magical abilities, although this can take a fair amount of time and effort. The book includes and extensive spell list.\nThis 240-page hardcover book with full color illustrations covers the third edition source books GURPS Magic and GURPS Grimoire and adds additional material. It is the latest version of GURPS Magic.\n\"GURPS Magic\" was originally written by Steve Jackson with Marc Janssen, Walter Milliken, Steffan O'Sullivan, W. Dow Rieder, Brett Slocum, and Daniel U. Thibault, with a cover by Guy Burchak, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1989 as a 112-page book.\nKen Rolston reviewed the first edition of \"GURPS Magic\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #147 (July 1989). Rolston comments in his evaluation: \"The \"GURPS Magic\" game is an excellent supplement for the \"GURPS\" system, an effective expansion of the game's original fantasy magic rules with added features and wise campaign-design guidance. As a FRPG magic supplement, it boasts exceptional virtues in systems and conceptions. As a generic supplement, however, it lacks the distinctive charm and atmosphere of a specific fantasy campaign setting. As a source book for enriching the magical elements in your FRPG campaign, it is useful—perhaps inspirational—regardless of the system you use.\"\nRick Swan reviewed the second edition of \"GURPS Magic\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #206 (June 1994). Swan comments in his evalutation: \"Jackson made a few design choices that may not be to everyone's liking. In order to pack in as many spells as possible, he occasionally skimps on descriptions. [...] Nor does he dictate how much detail the spell provides. The magical-item rules make it difficult to create off-the-wall oddities favored by \"AD&D\" mages, like the \"portable hole\" and \"bag of beans\". Also, the small amount of new material - a system for limiting the power of wizards, flow charts that show the prerequisites for spells from all colleges - barely justifies a second edition; owners of the first edition can put their money away. These are nitpicks though, irrelevant to the overall impact. A dazzling performance by a virtuoso designer, \"GURPS Magic\" is a knock-out.\"\nDavid L. Pulver reviewed the second edition of \"GURPS Magic\" for \"White Wolf\" magazine #49 (September 1994), rating it a 4 out of 5 overall. Pulver comments: \"If you already have the first edition of \"GURPS Magic\", there's no need ot buy this one unless your copy is worn out. If you don't have it, and you want to use magic in \"GURPS\", the material offered here is a vast improvement over the skeletal rules of the \"Basic Set\".\"","GURPS Martial Arts\nGURPS Martial Arts is a source book for the GURPS role-playing game, published by Steve Jackson Games; the most recent edition was scheduled to be released in 2007. \"GURPS Martial Arts\" includes new perks, skills, techniques, styles, weapons, and combat rules for GURPS, as well as history on the martial arts, pregenerated NPCs, and ideas for martial-arts campaigns. The book is an essential for any game that features large amounts of melee combat, in any genre or setting.\nThis is a greatly expanded version of the third-edition \"GURPS Martial Arts\" source book, revised to work with the fourth-edition GURPS rules. It adds updated versions of combat rules from third-edition books like GURPS Compendium II, many of the weapons and weapon customization rules from GURPS Low Tech, and martial arts-related elements taken from third-edition historical worldbooks such as GURPS Japan and GURPS Swashbucklers. Detailed rules for low-tech battlefield weapons and armor will be reserved for GURPS Low Tech, while rules for firearms and \"Gun Fu\" will be covered in the fourth-edition version of GURPS High-Tech.\nGame designer C.J. Carella got his start in the RPG industry with \"GURPS Martial Arts\", published in 1990.\nThe authors are \"Peter Dell'Orto\" and \"Sean Punch\", who were inspired by but did not reuse the original text written by \"CJ Carella\".\nReviewed in White Wolf #27\nList of GURPS books\n","GURPS Fantasy\nGURPS Fantasy is a \"Genre Toolkit\" source book for the GURPS Role-playing game. The fourth edition of GURPS separates the fantasy parts into fantasy and a setting book called GURPS Banestorm\nThe first edition of \"GURPS Fantasy\" (1986) delivers the GURPS magic system and the background to the campaign world; with over 300 spells and 20 colleges of magic, the magic system is wide, varied, and detailed. Snatched from Earth the Crusaders still wage war on their ancient enemy, the Saracens, simultaneously contending with a wide range of ravaging monsters. Extensive commentary on the countries of Yrth and plenty of staging tips are included.\nThe first edition is a \"GURPS\" supplement of fantasy rules, with a campaign setting. The rules cover magic (spell-point system) and spells (over 300), character creation, nonhuman races, magical creatures, and monsters. The campaign setting describes the world of Yrth (focusing on the country of Caithness), several other lands of humans and dwarves, plus data on culture and customs. It includes a color map. The original was supplanted by \"GURPS Fantasy\" 2nd edition and \"GURPS Magic\".\n\"GURPS Fantasy\" used the fantasy world of Yrth, which was introduced in \"Orcslayer\" (1985), the single supplement for \"Man to Man\". The magic rules for \"GURPS\" were not included in the original \"GURPS Basic Set\", but were released in \"GURPS Fantasy\" (1986), which was also the first setting book for \"GURPS\" and added more detail on the world of Yrth.\nThe second edition - \"GURPS Fantasy: The Magical World of Yrth\", 1990, second edition 1995 - is actually a completely new product based on the campaign-setting material in the first edition. The world of Yrth is described in much greater detail; the descriptions of the various kingdoms take 70 pages. The chief religions of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism receive much more attention, and there are a lot of guidelines on how to set up an Yrth campaign, such as what elements to include in a game, and what to emphasize and what to play down. A two-color map is included. The magic rules were expanded and re-issued in their own book, \"GURPS Magic\" (first edition 1989, second edition 1994).\nThe background for Yrth was expanded even more in \"GURPS Fantasy Second Edition: The Magical World of Yrth\", after the magic rules were moved to the main \"GURPS\" box.\n\"GURPS Fantasy\" for 4e covers creation of many different types of Fantasy settings include \"High\" and \"Low\", \"Dark\" and \"Light\", Swords and Sorcery, and Myth. Example races are provided for all the standard fantasy Tropes as templates. The Yrth setting was moved out entirely to a new book called GURPS Banestorm, released in October 2005.\nOne chapter is spent on describing an example setting called Roma Arcana, based on a fantastical Rome that never completely fell.\n\"Note: Although the early editions of GURPS Fantasy contained information on Yrth, in GURPS 4E this is now in a separate book called GURPS Banestorm (2005)\"\nA basic premise of the setting is that magical \"banestorms\" pick up people and whole villages from other worlds (including Earth) and deposit them on Yrth. As a result, many of the societies and cultures are reminiscent of a Crusades-era Earth, albeit with magic. One significant difference this brings is that, unlike many fantasy settings, Yrth has many of the major Earth faiths as its core religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and others.\nThe settings's official timeline syncs up with our own, so that a \"normal\" campaign would be set in 2005 or 2006. The Banestorm started about 1,000 years ago when a group of \"Dark Elves\" completed a magical ritual designed to banish all Orcs from Yrth. The spell backfired horribly, and instead brought people from other worlds. Although the majority of Banestorm strikes occurred shortly after the initial backfire, giving the world its fantasy-medieval flavor, occasional flare-ups have occurred since then. For instance, in the 16th century a number of humans were transported to Yrth from France, bringing with them dangerous knowledge of Protestantism, and gunpowder. The latter has since been suppressed due to concerns by the Empire of Megalos about too much technological progress.\nYrth was designed such that each region enables a different flavor of campaign. Araterre, for instance, is a seafaring nation inhabited by the descendants of those brought to Yrth from France in the 16th century. Light or no armor, swashbuckling, and courtly intrigue are the rule of the day. Sahud is the Asian mish-mash country, and would be suitable for a wuxia style game, or even something akin to Legend of the Five Rings. Some countries are almost entirely human-dominated, and others are mixed, while there are still some area completely under the control of Elves, Orcs, Dwarves, or Reptile Men.\n\"GURPS Fantasy\" was written by Steve Jackson, with a cover by Denis Loubet, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1986 as a 100-page book. The second edition, \"GURPS Fantasy: The Magical World of Yrth\" was written by Kirk Tate and Janet Naylor, with a cover by Kirk Reinert, and was published by Steve Jackson Games in 1990 as a 144-page book.\n\"GURPS Fantasy II: Adventures in the Mad Lands\" (1993) was designed by Robin D. Laws with editing by Steve Jackson, and published by Steve Jackson Games as a 128-page softcover book with one 15\" × 20\" map sheet. It featured illustrations by John Hartwell, a map by Laura Eisenhour, and a cover by Rob Prior. \"Alarums & Excursions\" led Robin Laws to write \"GURPS Fantasy II\" for Steve Jackson Games in 1992.\n\"GURPS Fantasy\" for 4e was published in 2004, one of several genre books published by Steve Jackson Games for the new edition.\nJim Bambra reviewed \"GURPS Fantasy\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #131 (March 1988). He felt that the book presents the magic system and background to the campaign world \"in a highly satisfying way\" and that \"Best of all, it works!\" On the campaign world, he comments: \"Rich in background and plundering freely from Earth history and religion, the world of Yrth is easily accessible and nicely presented.\" Bambra concludes: \"Extensive commentary on the countries of Yrth and plenty of staging tips make this a strong contender on the campaign front. \"GURPS Fantasy\" is an impressive product that is well worth a look.\"\nReviewed in Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer #81.\nThe first edition of \"GURPS Fantasy\" was a Gamers' Choice award-winner.\n\"GURPS Fantasy\" received the Origins Award nomination for Best Roleplaying Supplement of 1986.\nRick Swan reviewed \"GURPS Fantasy II\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #198 (October 1993). Swan comments in his evaluation: \"I suspect that Laws wants us to be intrigued by the contrast between the utopian tribesmen and the chaotic deities. But I was never intrigued as much as I was amused, perhaps because it's hard to get worked up over a deity resembling a giant moose. The nuts and bolts of the relationship between the deities and the tribesmen remain unclear; as that's the crux of the book, it's a significant flaw. Despite the tantalizing possibilities, Laws hedges his bets and never cuts loose. I'd liked to have seen something really mad, like a village of Footless, or a gang war between the Gopher God and Mr. Moose. \"Adventures in the Mad Lands\" boasts an exquisite premise, but it could use a bolder vision.\"","GURPS Bestiary\nGURPS Bestiary is a source book for the GURPS role-playing game system containing information and statistics of animals. It also contains information animal player character templates, and tips for fitting animals into adventures. The first edition was published in 1988.\nThe \"GURPS Bestiary\" contains over 200 creatures to populate the various worlds of the \"GURPS\" universe. The book classifies creatures by terrain type, and deals with normal animals, legendary beasts, and otherworld creatures. The book also contains GM commentaries on handling animal encounters, hunting and trapping, animals as companions, and how to create new animals.\nThis supplement describes several hundred animals and monsters, mostly organized by habitat (e.g., arctic, desert, forest, jungle, swamp and subterranean) plus dinosaurs, domestic animals, otherworldly creatures, and \"loathsome crawlers\"; the book also includes rules and guidelines for game-mastering animals, animal companions, and hunting.\n\"GURPS Bestiary\" was a universal sourcebook for \"GURPS\" that could be used with many different worlds.\nThe 1st edition of the \"GURPS Bestiary\" was written by Steffan O'Sullivan, with a cover by Ken Kelly and illustrations by Dan Carroll, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1988 as a 112-page book.\nThe 2nd edition of \"GURPS Bestiary\" was updated by Chris McCubbin and Bob Schroeck, and had rules for were-creatures that wound up in \"GURPS Shapeshifters\" (2003). McCubbin and Schroeck wrote an article in a 1993 issue of \"Pyramid\" (a magazine published by Steve Jackson Games), offering extra material for the book.\nThe current version of \"GURPS Bestiary\" is the 3rd edition, which was revised by Hunter Johnson and again featured Ken Kelly's cover art. Released in 2000, this expanded edition is 128 pages in length. Johnson published extra material for the 3rd edition in a 2000 issue of \"Pyramid\". As of August 2014, the 3rd edition of \"GURPS Bestiary\" was out of print, and a 4th edition had not yet been released for the 4th edition GURPS RPG system.\nAll three editions featured the same cover image by Ken Kelly.\nJim Bambra reviewed \"GURPS Bestiary\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #140 (December 1988). He comments on the book: \"The art is fairly poor — about the same standard as that in the \"Monster Manual\" — so don't expect to be thrilled by the illustrations. The \"GURPS Bestiary\" has much to offer \"GURPS\" GMs, but it is of limited use to anyone looking for new critters to add to his favorite game system.\"","GURPS Banestorm\nGURPS Banestorm, written by Phil Masters and Jonathan Woodward, was released in October 2005. It is a setting sourcebook for the fourth edition of the GURPS Role-playing game. It details a fantasy setting called \"Yrth\" that has been updated from the older GURPS Fantasy source books Orcslayer and GURPS Magic (first edition). The standard fantasy elements such as Wizards, Orcs, Elves, and Dwarves are present, along with connections to Infinite Worlds. There are also some more unusual fantastic races like the Reptile Men, and several others which can be added in as desired by the game master.\nA basic premise of the setting is that magical \"banestorms\" pick up people and whole villages from other worlds (including Earth) and deposit them on Yrth. As a result, many of the societies and cultures are reminiscent of a Crusades-era Earth, albeit with magic. One significant difference this brings is that, unlike many fantasy settings, Yrth has many of the major Earth faiths as its core religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and others.\nThe settings's official timeline syncs up with our own, so that a \"normal\" campaign would be set in 2005 or 2006. The Banestorm started about 1,000 years ago when a group of \"Dark Elves\" completed a magical ritual designed to banish all Orcs from Yrth. The spell backfired horribly, and instead brought people from other worlds. Although the majority of Banestorm strikes occurred shortly after the initial backfire, giving the world its fantasy-medieval flavor, occasional flare-ups have occurred since then. For instance, in the 16th century a number of humans were transported to Yrth from France, bringing with them dangerous knowledge of Protestantism, and gunpowder. The latter has since been suppressed due to concerns by the Empire of Megalos about too much technological progress.\nOne of the interesting things about the setting is that a different flavor of fantasy campaign can be had depending on which region of Yrth one uses. Araterre, for instance, is a seafaring nation inhabited by the descendants of those brought to Yrth from France in the 16th century. Light or no armor, swashbuckling, and courtly intrigue are the rule of the day. Sahud is the Asian mish-mash country, and would be suitable for a wuxia style game, or even something akin to Legend of the Five Rings. Some countries are almost entirely human-dominated, and others are mixed, while there are still some area completely under the control of Elves, Orcs, Dwarves, or Reptile Men.\nIn third edition GURPS, the book GURPS Fantasy covered the Yrth setting rather than being a genre toolkit. It was among the inspiration sources for the Media Computing Group of the RWTH Aachen University for the development of the REXplorer mobile game. GURPS Fantasy: Tredroy and GURPS Fantasy: Harkwood provide additional setting information about Yrth.\n\"GURPS Banestorm\" was published in 2005, a return to the world of Yrth for fourth edition.","D20 Past\nd20 Past is a d20 based role-playing game released by Wizards of the Coast in 2005 as a supplement to \"d20 Modern\", providing a framework and new rules for campaigns set any historic settings from the Renaissance to World War II, including new character options and rules for early modern firearms. It begins with an exploration of the historical period between around 1450 and 1950, then provides rules for creating characters and campaigns that blend realism and fantasy. \"d20 Past\" also presents alternative campaign models, along with all the rules needed to play swashbuckling pirate adventures, Victorian horror investigations, thrilling Pulp Era escapades, and more, including three ready-to-play campaign modules.\nThe book itself is divided into an introduction and five chapters:\nFurther period background information was made available as a Web Enhancement\nAccording to Wizards of the Coast a Progress Level (PL) is an indication of the state of technology that exists in a particular society or Progress Levels are arbitrary measurements of how advanced a culture is, based on developments in technology and society. The concept was introduced in d20 Future (and even earlier in TSR's Alternity manuals by Bill Slavicsek), to describe both the level of technology in the campaign as well as the technology levels of other species comparative to the human one. They are similar to the Tech Levels in GURPS. Progress levels of six and higher were studied in \"d20 Future\", with the default \"d20 Modern\" setting encompassing progress level five. In \"d20 Past\", two progress levels are available: Progress level three (the age of reason) and progress level four (the industrial age).\nSkills and feats have deviated remarkably from their \"d20 Modern\" standards to accommodate for the differences in technology. For example, certain uses of a skill that were acceptable under a modern standard may no longer apply to a campaign setting where the technologies to perform these actions may not have been available. Similarly, some feats may represent modern knowledge or techniques that were not available to people centuries prior. It also includes new uses of skills and feats that might be more appropriate for a historic campaign.\n","Pyramid (magazine)\nPyramid is a <a href=\"game\">gaming</a> magazine, publishing articles primarily on <a href=\"role-playing%20game\">role-playing game</a>s, but including <a href=\"board%20game\">board game</a>s, <a href=\"card%20game\">card game</a>s, and other sorts of games. It began life in 1993 as a print publication of <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a> for its first 30 issues, though it has been published on the Internet since March 1998. Print issues were bimonthly; the first online version published new articles each week; the second online version is monthly. \"Pyramid\" is headquartered in Austin, Texas. It replaced Steve Jackson Games' previous magazine \"<a href=\"Roleplayer%20%28magazine%29\">Roleplayer</a>\".\n\"Pyramid\" features general gaming articles by freelance authors, as well as Designer's Notes by Steve Jackson Games product developers, industry news, cartoons, and gaming product reviews. Although articles tend to concentrate on Steve Jackson Games products such as \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\", it has published articles on other games such as \"<a href=\"d20%20System\">d20 System</a>\", \"<a href=\"Talisman%20%28board%20game%29\">Talisman</a>\", \"<a href=\"Nobilis\">Nobilis</a>\", \"<a href=\"Hero%20System\">Hero System</a>\", and has featured various comic strips and single-panel cartoons (currently \"<a href=\"Murphy%27s%20Rules\">Murphy's Rules</a>\"). Steve Jackson Games also briefly published another online magazine, \"d20 Weekly\" for several months using a very similar model to that of Pyramid. However, the venture was not a success, and was eventually folded into a slightly expanded \"Pyramid\".\nThe online subscription system used for \"Pyramid\" also granted access to subscriber forums, a dedicated chat server, and occasional pre-publication playtest material for Steve Jackson Games and other companies' products. In 2008 this was changed: Pyramid is available as a <a href=\"PDF\">PDF</a> download from <a href=\"e23%20%28online%20service%29\">e23</a>, and the subscriber forums have been discontinued. Access to playtest material is contingent on participation in an actual playtest.\nThere are 1877 samples of articles released in it.\nIssues:\nArticles:","Sean Punch\nSean Punch (born July 27, 1967) is a Canadian <a href=\"writer\">writer</a> and <a href=\"game%20designer\">game designer</a>. He is the author of the fourth edition of the \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\" <a href=\"role-playing%20game\">role-playing game</a>. Before he turned to writing he was a student of <a href=\"particle%20physics\">particle physics</a>.\nAfter writing, editing, and contributing to dozens of books for \"GURPS\", Sean Punch took over from the game's original designer <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\">Steve Jackson</a> as the \"GURPS\" Line Editor in 1995, and slowly reshaped the line. Assisted by <a href=\"David%20L.%20Pulver\">David L. Pulver</a>, another Canadian and veteran role-playing game designer, he took on the task of re-designing the entire rule system for the a fourth edition of \"GURPS\" beginning in September 2002.\nSean Punch remains the Line Editor for \"GURPS\" - equivalent to being editor-in-chief of a book series, and the key decision-maker for new rules expansions.\nHe lives in <a href=\"Montr%C3%A9al\">Montréal</a>, <a href=\"Qu%C3%A9bec\">Québec</a>.\nIn an attempt to acknowledge the quality and quantity of his work, some \"GURPS\" players have used his online nickname (\"Kromm\") to create a tongue-in-cheek cult. They leave messages in discussion groups pretending to \"praise Kromm.\"\nSean Punch has appeared in the following newspaper and magazine articles, websites and podcasts.","GURPS Basic Set\nGURPS Basic Set is a <a href=\"hardcover\">hard-bound</a> two volume set written by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\">Steve Jackson</a>, <a href=\"Sean%20Punch\">Sean M. Punch</a>, and <a href=\"David%20Pulver\">David L. Pulver</a>. The first edition \"GURPS Basic Set\" was published in 1986.\n\"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\" stands for Generic Universal Role-Playing System – that is essentially a very flexible descendant of \"<a href=\"The%20Fantasy%20Trip\">The Fantasy Trip</a>\". Basic combat is simple, but advance combat is very position-oriented, almost a complicated boardgame. The level of complexity used is completely up to the players. The character improvement system is skill-based. The many additional supplements to the \"Basic Set\" enable \"GURPS\" characters to move easily from one gaming genre to another.\nThe \"Basic Set\" includes a \"Characters\" book (72 pages, covers character creation and development, skills, and basic equipment), \"Adventuring\" (80 pages, covers success rolls, combat, damage, running the game, game and campaign backgrounds, and animals), a 24-page book of charts and tables, and a 32-page book of two introductory scenarios, one a solo.\nThe original \"GURPS Basic Set\" included the combat rules from the previously published \"<a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%27s%20Man%20to%20Man\">Man to Man</a>\". Magic rules were omitted, but were released in \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Fantasy\">GURPS Fantasy</a>\" (1986).\nThe third edition \"GURPS Basic Set\" combines all the books from the previous sets into one volume.\nThe \"GURPS Basic Set\" for the fourth edition of \"GURPS\" was published in 2004 by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a> and contains the <a href=\"role-playing%20game%20system\">core rules</a> for the fourth edition of \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\". The first volume, \"Characters\" (<a href=\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\">ISBN</a> ), addresses what players need to know to create a \"GURPS\" character and play the game. Eight sample characters are included. The second volume is titled \"Campaigns\" (<a href=\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\">ISBN</a> ) and addresses the information a GM needs to build a world. All the basic information needed to run a \"GURPS\" campaign is here with genre or world-specific information in other books.\nThe previous edition of the \"GURPS\" rules consisted of a Basic Set as the core rule book, with <a href=\"List%20of%20GURPS%20books\">\"GURPS Compendium 1\"</a> and <a href=\"List%20of%20GURPS%20books\">\"GURPS Compendium 2\"</a> released later to collate alternative and advanced rules in a logical place. Many source books published after the release of the compendiums required them for play. The fourth edition basic set shifts the majority of that material into the core rule books.\nIn a move from previous editions, the books are hardbound and in color, a trend which has been followed in successive GURPS 4e books, with mixed reactions from players.\nTo facilitate the transition from third edition to fourth, a free <a href=\"PDF\">PDF</a> update was released. It includes a quick but comprehensive guide to change characters or source book information to the new rules.\nThe first edition \"GURPS Basic Set\" was written by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\">Steve Jackson</a> with <a href=\"Creede%20Lambard\">Creede Lambard</a> and <a href=\"Sharleen%20Lambard\">Sharleen Lambard</a>, with a cover by <a href=\"Denis%20Loubet\">Denis Loubet</a>, and was published by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a> in 1986 as a boxed set containing four books (80, 72, 32, and 24 pages), sample character record sheets, and cardstock miniatures. The boxed \"GURPS Basic Set\" appeared at <a href=\"Origins%20Game%20Fair\">Origins</a> in 1986. Steve Jackson Games began regularly supporting the game with supplements following the publication of the first \"GURPS Basic Set\".\nThe second edition revised \"GURPS Basic Set\" was published in 1987. The third edition \"GURPS Basic Set\" featured a cover by <a href=\"Michael%20Presley\">Michael Presley</a>, and was published in 1988 as a 256-page book with a 16-page pamphlet.\nThe first edition of the \"GURPS Basic Set\" was reviewed by <a href=\"Marcus%20Rowland%20%28author%29\">Marcus L. Rowland</a> in issue 83 of \"<a href=\"White%20Dwarf%20%28magazine%29\">White Dwarf</a>\" magazine (November 1986). Rowland comments: \"While I can applaud the idea behind the system, I can't really recommend \"GURPS\" at its present stage of development. In the long run, \"GURPS\" and all its supplements may cover more ground than other systems, possibly at less expense, but in the short term there isn't enough support material to run a fully rounded game of any type, apart from gladitorial combat and medieval adventures.\"\n\"Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer\" #79\n\"Different Worlds\" #47\n\"Aventurer\" #6\nSecond edition Basic Set reviewed in \"White Wolf\" #13\nMichael DeWolfe reviewed the third edition of the \"GURPS Basic Set\" in \"<a href=\"The%20Space%20Gamer\">Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer</a>\" #85. DeWolfe comments in his summary: \"This game has looked at its peers and built on all of them; avoiding their mistakes and following their successes. If you're looking for a good point generation system, get \"GURPS\". If you're looking for a truly generic system, get \"GURPS\". If you're looking for a painstakingly coherent system, get \"GURPS\". If you want a fine RPG, get this game. It is worth it.\"\n<a href=\"Jim%20Bambra\">Jim Bambra</a> reviewed the third edition of the \"GURPS Basic Set\" for \"<a href=\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\">Dragon</a>\" magazine #149 (September 1989). Bambra comments: \"Now in its third incarnation, the \"GURPS Basic Set\" is better than ever. [...] It's a game designed to be used with an unlimited variety of backgrounds and settings; to its credit, the GURPS game does so admirably.\"\n\"Games Review\" #5\nThe third edition \"GURPS Basic Set\" was an ORIGINS and Gamers' Choice award-winner.","John M. Ford\nJohn Milo \"Mike\" Ford (April 10, 1957 – September 25, 2006) was an American science fiction and <a href=\"fantasy\">fantasy</a> writer, <a href=\"game%20designer\">game designer</a>, and poet.\nA contributor to several <a href=\"online%20discussion\">online discussion</a>s, he composed poems, often improvised, in both complicated forms and <a href=\"blank%20verse\">blank verse</a>, notably Shakespearean <a href=\"pastiche\">pastiche</a>; he also wrote pastiches and <a href=\"parody\">parodies</a> of many other authors and styles. At <a href=\"Minicon\">Minicon</a> and other <a href=\"science%20fiction%20convention\">science fiction convention</a>s he would perform \"Ask Dr. Mike\", giving humorous answers to scientific and other questions in a lab coat before a whiteboard.\nFord was born in <a href=\"East%20Chicago%2C%20Indiana\">East Chicago, Indiana</a>, and raised in <a href=\"Whiting%2C%20Indiana\">Whiting, Indiana</a>. In the mid-1970s he attended <a href=\"Indiana%20University%20Bloomington\">Indiana University Bloomington</a>, where he was active in the IU <a href=\"science%20fiction%20club\">science fiction club</a> and <a href=\"Society%20for%20Creative%20Anachronism\">Society for Creative Anachronism</a> (using the name Miles Atherton de Grey); while there, he published his first short story \"This, Too, We Reconcile\" in the May 1976 \"<a href=\"Analog%20Science%20Fiction%20and%20Fact\">Analog</a>\".\nFord left IU and moved to New York to work on the newly founded \"<a href=\"Isaac%20Asimov%27s%20Science%20Fiction%20Magazine\">Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine</a>\", where, starting in mid-1978, he published poetry, fiction, articles, and game reviews. Although his last non-fiction appeared there in September 1981, he was tenth most frequent contributor for the 1977–2002 period. About 1990, he moved to <a href=\"Minneapolis\">Minneapolis</a>. In addition to writing, he worked at various times as a hospital orderly, computer consultant, <a href=\"slush%20pile\">slush pile</a> reader, and <a href=\"copy%20editing\">copy editor</a>.\nFord suffered from complications related to <a href=\"diabetes\">diabetes</a> since childhood and also had <a href=\"kidney\">renal</a> dysfunction which required <a href=\"dialysis\">dialysis</a> and, in 2000, a <a href=\"kidney%20transplant\">kidney transplant</a>, which improved his quality of life considerably. He was found dead from natural causes in his Minneapolis home on September 25, 2006, by his partner since the mid-1990s, <a href=\"Elise%20Matthesen\">Elise Matthesen</a>. He was a prominent member of the \"Friends of the <a href=\"Minneapolis%20Public%20Library\">Minneapolis Public Library</a>\", which established a \"John M. Ford Book Endowment\" after his death with the donations to be used as <a href=\"interest\">interest</a>-generating capital for yearly purchase of new books.\nThough Ford's novels varied in setting and style, several were of the <a href=\"Bildungsroman\">Bildungsroman</a> (coming-of-age) type: in \"Web of Angels\", \"<a href=\"The%20Final%20Reflection\">The Final Reflection</a>\", \"Princes of the Air\", \"<a href=\"Growing%20Up%20Weightless\">Growing Up Weightless</a>\", and \"The Last Hot Time\", Ford wrote variations on the theme of growing up, learning about one's world and one's place in it, and taking responsibility for it – which involves taking on the power and wisdom to influence events, to help make the world a better place.\nFord's 1983 book \"The Klingons\" for <a href=\"FASA\">FASA</a>'s influenced later Paramount productions. Ford authored the award-winning adventure \"<a href=\"The%20Yellow%20Clearance%20Black%20Box%20Blues\">The Yellow Clearance Black Box Blues</a>\" (1985) for <a href=\"West%20End%20Games\">West End Games</a>' \"<a href=\"Paranoia%20%28role-playing%20game%29\">Paranoia</a>\" role-playing game.\nOtherwise, Ford's works are characterized by an aversion to doing things that have been done before. This is perhaps most notable in his two <a href=\"Star%20Trek\">Star Trek</a> novels, \"<a href=\"The%20Final%20Reflection\">The Final Reflection</a>\" (1984) and \"<a href=\"How%20Much%20for%20Just%20the%20Planet%3F\">How Much for Just the Planet?</a>\" (1987). \"The Final Reflection\" is the story of a small group of <a href=\"Klingon\">Klingon</a>s who prevent a war between the <a href=\"Klingon%20Empire\">Klingon Empire</a> and the <a href=\"United%20Federation%20of%20Planets\">Federation</a> while the regular series characters are relegated to cameo appearances. (This novel introduced the <a href=\"fictional%20language\">fictional language</a> \"<a href=\"Klingonaase\">Klingonaase</a>\".) In the comedic \"<a href=\"How%20Much%20for%20Just%20the%20Planet%3F\">How Much for Just the Planet?</a>\", the \"Enterprise\" crew compete with a Klingon crew for control of a planet, whose colonists are not happy with this and defend their peace in inventive ways, which soon make everything a <a href=\"farce\">farce</a>, including a <a href=\"Vaudeville\">Vaudevillian</a> pie fight. The book includes song <a href=\"lyrics\">lyrics</a> that satirize many 20th century stage <a href=\"music%20theater\">musicals</a>. Both novels present the Klingons in a more positive light, not just as the token evil menace of the week.\nFord avoided repetition not only of the work of others, but also of his own work. Where many writers make a name for themselves by developing a known style that repeats in many books, Ford always surprised with his ability to use a variety of styles that best suited the world, characters, and situations he had chosen to write about. (<a href=\"John%20Clute\">John Clute</a> expressed this in 1993 \"<a href=\"The%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Science%20Fiction\">The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction</a>\" as \"Two decades into his career, there remains some sense that JMF remains unwilling or unable to create a definitive style or mode; but his originality is evident, a shifting feisty energy informs almost everything he writes, and that career is still young.\") This might have limited his readership, however he was much respected by his fellow writers, editors, critics and fans. <a href=\"Robert%20Jordan\">Robert Jordan</a>, Ford's lifelong close friend, called Ford \"the best writer in America – bar none.\" <a href=\"Neil%20Gaiman\">Neil Gaiman</a> called Ford \"my best critic … the best writer I knew.\" <a href=\"Patrick%20Nielsen%20Hayden\">Patrick Nielsen Hayden</a> said \"Most normal people had the slight sense that something large and super-intelligent and trans-human had sort of flown over ... There would be a point where basically the plot would become so knotted and complex he would lose all of us.\"\nMuch of his work is out of print, despite accolades; this appears to be a deliberate effort by his heirs, who did not approve of his writing.\nWith <a href=\"Darrell%20Schweitzer\">Darrell Schweitzer</a> and <a href=\"George%20H.%20Scithers\">George H. Scithers</a>, Ford co-authored \"On Writing Science Fiction (The Editors Strike Back!)\" (1981, Owlswick Press, <a href=\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\">ISBN</a> ; <a href=\"Wildside%20Press\">Wildside Press</a> 2000, <a href=\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\">ISBN</a> ), a writers' manual with advice illustrated by short stories that were first sales to \"IASFM\".\nFord published a variety of short fiction and poetry, from <a href=\"short%20short%20story\">short short stories</a> that are essentially fantastic jokes, to novellas revealing a deep understanding of human frailties and emotions. His poem \"Winter Solstice, Camelot Station\" won the <a href=\"World%20Fantasy%20Award\">World Fantasy Award</a> for <a href=\"World%20Fantasy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Short%20Fiction\">Short Fiction</a> in 1989.\nFord published some children's fiction under pseudonyms that he did not make public, and two children's <a href=\"gamebook\">gamebook</a>s under <a href=\"pen%20name%23%26quot%3BHouse%26quot%3B%20name\">house names</a> Michael J. Dodge (\"Star Trek: Voyage to Adventure\", 1984) and Milo Dennison (\"The Case of the Gentleman Ghost\", 1985).\nFord plotted three issues of the \"<a href=\"Captain%20Confederacy\">Captain Confederacy</a>\" <a href=\"alternate%20history\">alternate history</a> comics in the late 1980s and wrote issue number 10, \"Driving North.\"\nFord also contributed to \"The World of Robert Jordan's <a href=\"The%20Wheel%20of%20Time\">The Wheel of Time</a>\" (2001, Tor Books, <a href=\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\">ISBN</a> ), drawing some of the maps.\nFord further wrote Klingon manuals for the , and a number of <a href=\"role-playing%20game\">RPG</a> articles, which appeared in \"Autoduel Quarterly\", \"<a href=\"Pyramid%20%28magazine%29\">Pyramid</a>\", \"Roleplayer\", \"Space Gamer\", and \"Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society\".\nIn \"<a href=\"The%20Final%20Reflection\">The Final Reflection</a>\" he described a chess-like game played by Klingons, \"<a href=\"http%3A//www.tasigh.org/takzh/\">klin zha</a>,\" which has been adopted by Klingon fandom.","David Ladyman\nDavid Ladyman is a <a href=\"game%20designer\">game designer</a> who has worked primarily on <a href=\"role-playing%20game\">role-playing game</a>s.\nAs a staffer for <a href=\"Mayfair%20Games\">Mayfair Games</a>, David Ladyman worked with <a href=\"Troy%20Denning\">Troy Denning</a>, <a href=\"Louis%20Prosperi\">Louis Prosperi</a>, and <a href=\"Jeff%20R.%20Leason\">Jeff Leason</a> on the second edition of \"<a href=\"Chill%20%28role-playing%20game%29\">Chill</a>\" (1990).\nHis \"<a href=\"Dungeons%20%26amp%3B%20Dragons\">D&D</a>\" work includes writing and editing on \"<a href=\"Tales%20of%20the%20Outer%20Planes\">Tales of the Outer Planes</a>\" (1988), \"<a href=\"Dragon%20Magic%20%28module%29\">Dragon Magic</a>\" (1989), and \"<a href=\"Dragon%20Dawn\">Dragon Dawn</a>\" (1990).\nHe also authored the <a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a> adaptation of <a href=\"The%20Prisoner\">The Prisoner</a> television program for <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a>.","GURPS Ultra-Tech\nGURPS Ultra-Tech is a <a href=\"sourcebook\">sourcebook</a> for \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\".\n\"GURPS Ultra-Tech\" is an equipment guide, a universal sourcebook for \"GURPS\" that could be used with many different worlds.\n\"GURPS Ultra-Tech\" was written by <a href=\"David%20Pulver\">David Pulver</a> and published by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a> in 1989.\nA new \"GURPS Ultra-Tech\" (2007) was one of the tech books published for \"GURPS\" 4e.\n","GURPS Aliens\nGURPS Aliens is a <a href=\"sourcebook\">sourcebook</a> for \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\" published in 1990.\n\"GURPS Aliens\" is a complete sourcebook on extraterrestrials, intended for use with \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Space\">GURPS Space</a>\", \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Horror\">GURPS Horror</a>\", or \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Supers\">GURPS Supers</a>\".\n\"GURPS Aliens\" is a \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\" supplement describing 28 alien races for use with \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Space\">GURPS Space</a>\", including the An Phar, \"pig-like humanoids with a love of philosophy,\" the Banduch, \"super-powerful psychic dinosaurs,\" and the Verms: \"Their ambition is to eat the galaxy.\"\nAliens came out before the more successful Fantasy Folk. The supplemental rules forming about a third of the book were largely outmoded by the revised edition of Supers.\n\"GURPS Aliens\" was written by <a href=\"Chris%20W.%20McCubbin\">Chris W. McCubbin</a> with <a href=\"W.G.%20Armintrout\">W.G. Armintrout</a>, <a href=\"William%20Barton%20%28game%20designer%29\">William A. Barton</a>, <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\">Steve Jackson</a>, <a href=\"Creede%20Lambard\">Creede Lambard</a>, and <a href=\"Sharleen%20Lambard\">Sharleen Lambard</a>, with a cover by <a href=\"Michael%20Whelan\">Michael Whelan</a>, and was published by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a> in 1990 as a 128-page book. \"GURPS Aliens\" requires the \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Basic%20Set\">GURPS Basic Set</a>\" to use. \"GURPS Aliens\" was one of several sourcebooks to help fill out the \"<a href=\"GURPS%20Space\">GURPS Space</a>\" world.\n<a href=\"David%20L.%20Pulver\">David L. Pulver</a> reviewed \"GURPS Aliens\" for \"<a href=\"Challenge%20%28game%20magazine%29\">Challenge</a>\" #49. Pulver comments in his conclusion: \"\"GURPS Aliens\"' imaginative array of extraterrestrial races coupled with its lucid organization makes it a pleasure to read and to use. I have no hesitation in giving it a whole-hearted recommendation, not only as an invaluable sourcebook for \"GURPS\", but as a useful source of ideas for any science-fiction RPG.\"","GURPS Vehicles\nGURPS Vehicles is a <a href=\"sourcebook\">sourcebook</a> for \"<a href=\"GURPS\">GURPS</a>\". The first edition was published in 1993.\n\"GURPS Vehicles\" explains how to build and operate an array of conveyances, from sailboats to starships to witches' brooms. Step-by-step instructions show how to select the structural frame, propulsion system, and thrust factor for vehicles such as a nuclear-powered tilt-rotor mini-copter.The book includes a very mathematical vehicle construction system as part of its complex and intricate mechanics.\nThe second edition of \"GURPS Vehicles\" offers a complete vehicle design system for players and referees. The entire book has been re-written, revised and updated, and features many more options and accessories. It contains expanded rules for spacecraft and locomotives, and a comprehensive weapons design system.\n\"GURPS Vehicles\" was written by <a href=\"David%20Pulver\">David Pulver</a> and published by <a href=\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\">Steve Jackson Games</a>. After the <a href=\"United%20States%20Secret%20Service\">Secret Service</a> raid on SJG, the company stopped printing adventures for financial reasons, and as a result put out standalone \"GURPS\" books; this included more universal books such as \"GURPS Vehicles\".\n<a href=\"Rick%20Swan\">Rick Swan</a> reviewed \"GURPS Vehicles\" for \"<a href=\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\">Dragon</a>\" magazine #205 (May 1994). He comments that the book has \"some of the year's most literate writing and meticulous research, courtesy of ace designer David Pulver\". Swan concludes that although the material is \"presented in \"GURPS\"-speak, a referee with a calculator should be able to reconfigure the statistics for other games\".\nAndy Butcher reviewed \"GURPS Vehicles 2nd Edition\" for \"Arcane\" magazine, rating it a 7 out of 10 overall. He comments that \"the actual design process has been simplified, making it easier to use without sacrificing detail, and the designs are fully compatible with \"GURPS Robots\". This last point is not particularly surprising, considering that this book has been written by the same author, David L. Pulver.\" Butcher commented that the design process is \"pleasantly logical\" and added that \"\"GURPS Vehicles\" is admirably flexible and enables you to design pretty much anything you like\" however he concluded: \"you can't help but wonder just how this book's going to be useful. Certainly, if you're running a vehicle-heavy campaign, and want some degree of consistency in the designs, or intend to allow your players to build custom vehicles, then \"GURPS Vehicles 2nd Edition\" will be very handy indeed. For most campaigns, though, I can't imagine it's going to be required reading. Still, it certainly achieves what it sets out to do well.\"\n<a href=\"Rick%20Swan\">Rick Swan</a> reviewed \"GURPS Vehicles, Second Edition\" for \"<a href=\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\">Dragon</a>\" magazine #240 (October 1997). Swan comments: \"if you can drive it, fly it, or hitch it to a donkey, you'll find it in \"GURPS Vehicles\", a staggeringly complete collection of conveyances for the \"GURPS\" game (but adaptable to other game systems with a little effort). New to this edition are the plethora of starships, a slew of new accessories, and all the nips and tucks necessary to ensure compatibility with \"GURPS Robots\" (also by Pulver). But the main attraction remains the same: easy-to-follow guidelines for building game-ready versions of everything from skateboards to time machines.\"","Jim Bambra\nJim Bambra (born 1956) is a British designer and reviewer of <a href=\"fantasy\">fantasy</a> <a href=\"roleplaying%20games\">roleplaying games</a> (RPG), and a former company director. He is particularly known for his contributions to \"<a href=\"Dungeons%20and%20Dragons\">Dungeons and Dragons</a>\", \"<a href=\"Fighting%20Fantasy\">Fighting Fantasy</a>\", \"<a href=\"Warhammer%20Fantasy%20Roleplay\">Warhammer</a>\", and \"\" which was based on the \"<a href=\"Star%20Wars\">Star Wars</a>\" films. Later he became head of design at <a href=\"MicroProse\">MicroProse</a>, then managing director of <a href=\"Pivotal%20Games\">Pivotal Games</a>, a publisher of <a href=\"video%20games\">video games</a> including \"\".\nJim Bambra worked on game design and materials for various companies during the 1980s and early 1990s, including <a href=\"TSR%20%28company%29\">TSR</a> (publisher of \"Dungeons and Dragons\"), <a href=\"Games%20Workshop\">Games Workshop</a> (\"Warhammer\"), and <a href=\"West%20End%20Games\">West End Games</a> (\"Star Wars RPG\").\nIn 1983, Bambra wrote \"The Beginner’s Guide to Roleplaying Games\" (with Paul Ruiz), published in \"<a href=\"Imagine%20%28AD%26amp%3BD%20magazine%29\">Imagine</a>\" magazine Issue 6 (Sept 1983), explaining what an RPG is and accompanied by a comic strip, \"The Adventures of Nic Novice\". He was a reviewer and writer for Imagine magazine 1983-1985, and reviewer for <a href=\"White%20Dwarf%20%28magazine%29\">White Dwarf</a> and <a href=\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\">Dragon</a> magazines during the late 1980s and early 1990s.\nIn 1989, Bambra co-wrote the <a href=\"Fighting%20Fantasy\">Fighting Fantasy</a> <a href=\"gamebook\">gamebook</a> <a href=\"Dead%20of%20Night%20%28Fighting%20Fantasy%29\">Dead of Night</a> for <a href=\"Puffin%20Books\">Puffins</a>, a <a href=\"Penguin%20Group\">Penguin</a> inprint, with <a href=\"Stephen%20Hand\">Stephen Hand</a>.\nDuring the 1990s he was Head of Design at <a href=\"MicroProse\">MicroProse</a>, where he worked on projects including \"<a href=\"Fields%20of%20Glory\">Fields of Glory</a>\", \"<a href=\"Formula%20One%20Grand%20Prix%20%28video%20game%29\">Grand Prix</a>\", \"<a href=\"Special%20Forces%20%28video%20game%29\">Special Forces</a>\", various <a href=\"X-COM\">X-COM</a> products, and \"<a href=\"Gunship%20%28video%20game%29\">Gunship</a>\".\nIn 1996 Bambra founded <a href=\"Pumpkin%20Studios\">Pumpkin Studios</a>, which achieved success with \"<a href=\"Warzone%202100\">Warzone 2100</a>\", a <a href=\"computer%20game\">computer game</a> with a post-nuclear scenario. This company closed in 2000 after <a href=\"Eidos%20Interactive\">Eidos Interactive</a> cancelled its then current project, \"Saboteur\", a <a href=\"PlayStation%20%28console%29\">PlayStation</a> video game.\nIn 2003 he became managing director at <a href=\"Pivotal%20Games\">Pivotal Games</a> Ltd, a videogame development company based in <a href=\"Bath%2C%20Somerset\">Bath</a> and owned by <a href=\"SCi\">SCi</a> Ltd. During his period at the firm it published the series of \"Conflict:\" videogames, the most successful of which was \"\". He remained as director until 2008, when SCi closed down the company. Between 2005 and 2009 he was also a board member of <a href=\"The%20Independent%20Games%20Developers%20Association\">The Independent Games Developers Association</a> Ltd.\nJim Bambra produced the following gamebooks and materials for roleplaying games, many in collaboration with other authors:\n\"Echoes of the Jedi: Episode IV of Star Wars: Dawn of Defiance\" was dedicated to \"Jim Bambra and all the unsung authors of the early Star Wars Expanded Universe\".\n","Robert A. Taft\nRobert Alphonso Taft Sr. (September 8, 1889 – July 31, 1953) was an American <a href=\"conservatism%20in%20the%20United%20States\">conservative</a> politician, lawyer, and scion of the <a href=\"Taft%20family\">Taft family</a>. A member of the <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican Party</a>, he represented <a href=\"Ohio\">Ohio</a> in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate\">United States Senate</a> and briefly served as <a href=\"Party%20leaders%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\">Senate Majority Leader</a>.\nThe elder son of <a href=\"William%20Howard%20Taft\">William Howard Taft</a>, the <a href=\"List%20of%20Presidents%20of%20the%20United%20States\">27th</a> <a href=\"President%20of%20the%20United%20States\">President of the United States</a>, Robert Taft was born in <a href=\"Cincinnati%2C%20Ohio\">Cincinnati, Ohio</a>. He pursued a legal career in Cincinnati after graduating from <a href=\"Harvard%20Law%20School\">Harvard Law School</a> in 1913. Along with his brother, <a href=\"Charles%20Phelps%20Taft%20II\">Charles Phelps Taft II</a>, he co-founded the law partnership of <a href=\"Taft%20Stettinius%20%26amp%3B%20Hollister\">Taft Stettinius & Hollister</a>. Taft served in the <a href=\"Ohio%20House%20of%20Representatives\">Ohio House of Representatives</a> from 1921 to 1931 and in the <a href=\"Ohio%20Senate\">Ohio Senate</a> from 1931 to 1933. Though he lost re-election in 1932, he remained a powerful force in state and local politics.\nTaft won election to the United States Senate in <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201938\">1938</a>, defeating incumbent Democrat <a href=\"Robert%20J.%20Bulkley\">Robert J. Bulkley</a>. He became a leader of the <a href=\"conservative%20coalition\">conservative coalition</a> of Republicans and conservative Democrats who successfully opposed expansion of the <a href=\"New%20Deal\">New Deal</a> after 1938. He also emerged as a prominent <a href=\"Non-interventionism\">non-interventionist</a> and opposed U.S. involvement into <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a> prior to the <a href=\"Japan\">Japan</a>ese <a href=\"Attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>. After the war, he opposed the creation of <a href=\"NATO\">NATO</a> and criticized President <a href=\"Harry%20Truman\">Harry Truman</a>'s handling of the <a href=\"Korean%20War\">Korean War</a>. He also cosponsored the <a href=\"Labor%20Management%20Relations%20Act%20of%201947\">Labor Management Relations Act of 1947</a>, which banned <a href=\"closed%20shop\">closed shop</a>s and other labor practices.\nAfter winning election to the Senate, Taft repeatedly sought the Republican presidential nomination, often battling for control of the party with the moderate faction of Republicans led by <a href=\"Thomas%20E.%20Dewey\">Thomas E. Dewey</a>. Taft's non-interventionist stances damaged his 1940 candidacy, and the <a href=\"1940%20Republican%20National%20Convention\">1940 Republican National Convention</a> nominated <a href=\"Wendell%20Willkie\">Wendell Willkie</a>. Taft sought the presidency again in 1948, but he lost to Dewey at the <a href=\"1948%20Republican%20National%20Convention\">1948 Republican National Convention</a>. Taft sought the presidential nomination a third time in 1952 and was widely viewed as the frontrunner. However, Dewey and other moderates convinced General <a href=\"Dwight%20D.%20Eisenhower\">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> to enter the race, and Eisenhower narrowly prevailed at the <a href=\"1952%20Republican%20National%20Convention\">1952 Republican National Convention</a> and went on to win the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201952\">1952 presidential election</a>. Taft was elected Senate Majority Leader in 1953 but died of pancreatic cancer later that year. A 1957 Senate committee named Taft as one of America's five greatest senators, along with <a href=\"Henry%20Clay\">Henry Clay</a>, <a href=\"Daniel%20Webster\">Daniel Webster</a>, <a href=\"John%20C.%20Calhoun\">John C. Calhoun</a>, and <a href=\"Robert%20M.%20La%20Follette%2C%20Sr.\">Robert M. La Follette, Sr.</a>\nTaft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, a product of one of America's most prominent political families. He was a grandson of <a href=\"United%20States%20Attorney%20General\">Attorney General</a> and <a href=\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20War\">Secretary of War</a> <a href=\"Alphonso%20Taft\">Alphonso Taft</a>, and the elder son of President and Chief Justice <a href=\"William%20Howard%20Taft\">William Howard Taft</a> and <a href=\"Helen%20Herron%20Taft\">Helen Louise \"Nellie\" Herron</a>. His younger brother, <a href=\"Charles%20Phelps%20Taft%20II\">Charles Phelps Taft II</a>, served as the <a href=\"Mayor\">Mayor</a> of <a href=\"Cincinnati\">Cincinnati</a> and was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for Ohio Governor in 1952. As a boy he spent four years in the <a href=\"Philippines\">Philippines</a>, where his father was <a href=\"Governor-General%20of%20the%20Philippines\">governor</a>. He was first in his class at the <a href=\"Taft%20School\">Taft School</a> (run by his uncle), at <a href=\"Yale%20College\">Yale College</a> (1910), and at <a href=\"Harvard%20Law%20School\">Harvard Law School</a> (1913). He was a member of <a href=\"Psi%20Upsilon\">Psi Upsilon</a>, his father's fraternity and <a href=\"Skull%20and%20Bones\">Skull and Bones</a>, and edited the \"<a href=\"Harvard%20Law%20Review\">Harvard Law Review</a>\". In 1913, Taft scored the highest in the state on the Ohio bar exam. He then practiced for four years with the firm of Maxwell and Ramsey (now Graydon Head & Ritchey LLP) in <a href=\"Cincinnati\">Cincinnati</a>, his family's ancestral city. After a two-year stint in Washington working for the <a href=\"Food%20and%20Drug%20Administration%20%28United%20States%29\">Food and Drug Administration</a>, he returned to Cincinnati and opened his own law office. In 1924 he and his brother, Charles, helped form the law partnership <a href=\"Taft%2C%20Stettinius%2C%20and%20Hollister\">Taft, Stettinius, and Hollister</a> with which he continued to be associated until his death and continues to carry his name today.\nOn October 17, 1914, he married Martha Wheaton Bowers (1889–1958), daughter of <a href=\"Lloyd%20Wheaton%20Bowers\">Lloyd Wheaton Bowers</a> and Louisa Bennett Wilson. Taft himself appeared taciturn and coldly intellectual, characteristics that were offset by his gregarious wife, who served the same role his mother had for his father, as a confidante and powerful asset to her husband's political career. In May 1950, Martha suffered a severe <a href=\"stroke\">stroke</a> that left her an invalid, leaving her confined to a wheelchair, unable to take care of herself, and reliant upon her husband, children, and nurses for support. A biographer called his wife's stroke \"the deepest personal blow of [Taft's] life...there was no denying that he suffered.\" Following her stroke, Taft faithfully assisted his wife, called her every night when he was away on business, read stories to her at night when he was at home, \"pushed her about in her wheelchair, lifted her in and out of cars...tenderly did his best to make her feel comfortable and happy, and helped feed and take care of her at public functions\" - facts which, his admirers noted, belied his public image as a cold and uncaring person. They had four sons: <a href=\"William%20Howard%20Taft%20III\">William Howard Taft III</a> (1915–1991), who became ambassador to Ireland; <a href=\"Robert%20Taft%20Jr.\">Robert Alphonso Taft Jr.</a> (1917–1993), who was also elected to the U.S. Senate; Lloyd Bowers Taft (1923–1985), who worked as an investment banker in Cincinnati, and Horace Dwight Taft (1925–1983), who became a professor of physics and dean at Yale. Two of Robert and Martha's grandsons are <a href=\"Bob%20Taft\">Robert Alphonso \"Bob\" Taft III</a> (born 1942), <a href=\"Governor%20of%20Ohio\">Governor of Ohio</a> from 1999 to 2007, and <a href=\"William%20Howard%20Taft%20IV\">William Howard Taft IV</a> (born 1945), <a href=\"United%20States%20Deputy%20Secretary%20of%20Defense\">Deputy Secretary of Defense</a> from 1984 to 1989.\nIn 1917, Taft and his wife bought a 46 acre farm in <a href=\"Indian%20Hill%2C%20Ohio\">Indian Hill</a>, a well-to-do suburb of Cincinnati. Called Sky Farm, it would serve as Taft's primary residence for the rest of his life. The Tafts gradually made extensive renovations that turned the small farmhouse into a sixteen-room mansion. On the farm Taft enjoyed growing <a href=\"strawberries\">strawberries</a>, <a href=\"asparagus\">asparagus</a>, and <a href=\"potatoes\">potatoes</a> for profit. During the summer, Taft often vacationed with his wife and children at the Taft family's summer home at <a href=\"La%20Malbaie\">Murray Bay</a>, in <a href=\"Quebec\">Quebec</a>, <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a>. Although he was nominally a member of the <a href=\"Episcopal%20Church%20%28United%20States%29\">Episcopal</a> church, his biographer James Patterson noted that Taft's \"religious inclinations were weak\" and that he was a \"Sunday morning golfer, not a church-going Episcopalian.\" When reporters asked his wife Martha what church he attended, she jokingly replied, \"I'd have to say the <a href=\"Burning%20Tree%20Club\">Burning Tree</a>\", an exclusive country club and golf course in suburban Washington.\nWhen the United States entered <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a> in April 1917, Taft attempted to join the army but was rejected due to his poor eyesight. Instead, he joined the legal staff of the <a href=\"Food%20and%20Drug%20Administration%20%28United%20States%29\">Food and Drug Administration</a> where he met <a href=\"Herbert%20Hoover\">Herbert Hoover</a>, who became his idol. In 1918 and 1919, he was in <a href=\"Paris\">Paris</a> as legal adviser for the <a href=\"American%20Relief%20Administration\">American Relief Administration</a>, Hoover's agency to distribute food to wartorn Europe. He came to distrust governmental bureaucracy as inefficient and detrimental to the rights of the individual, a principle he promoted throughout his career. He urged membership in the <a href=\"League%20of%20Nations\">League of Nations</a> but generally distrusted European politicians. He endorsed the idea of a powerful world court to enforce international law, but no such idealized court ever existed during his lifetime. He returned to Cincinnati in late 1919, promoted Hoover for president in 1920, and opened a law firm with his brother, Charles Taft. In 1920 he was elected to the <a href=\"Ohio%20House%20of%20Representatives\">Ohio House of Representatives</a>, where he served as Speaker of the House in 1926. In 1930, he was elected to the <a href=\"Ohio%20Senate\">Ohio Senate</a>, but was defeated for re-election in 1932; it would be the only general election defeat of his career. He was an outspoken opponent of the <a href=\"Ku%20Klux%20Klan\">Ku Klux Klan</a>, and he did not support <a href=\"prohibition\">prohibition</a>. In 1925 he voted against a bill, sponsored by Ohio state representatives who were members of the Ku Klux Klan, to outlaw dancing on Sundays, and he led the fight against a Klan-sponsored bill requiring all Ohio public school teachers to read at least ten verses of the Bible each day in class. In his speech opposing the bill, Taft stated that religion should be taught in churches, not public schools, and while the Bible was great literature, \"in it religion overshadows all else.\" The bill passed the legislature over the opposition of Taft and his allies, but it was later vetoed by Ohio's governor.\nTaft's period of service in the Ohio state legislature was most notable for his efforts to reform and modernize the state's antiquated tax laws.\nThroughout the 1920s and 1930s, Taft was a powerful figure in local and state political and legal circles, and he was known as a loyal Republican who never threatened to bolt the party. He confessed in 1922 that \"while I have no difficulty talking, I don't know how to do any of the eloquence business which makes for enthusiasm or applause.\" A lackluster speaker who did not mix well or glad-hand supporters, Taft was still a tireless worker with a broad range of policy and political interests. His total grasp of the complex details of every issue impressed reporters and politicians. (Democrats joked, \"Taft has the best mind in Washington, until he makes it up.\")\nTaft's loyalty to the conservative politicians who controlled Ohio's Republican Party had a price, as it often caused conflict with his younger brother, Charles, who as a local politician in Cincinnati had gained a reputation as a party <a href=\"wikt%3Amaverick\">maverick</a> and liberal. However, despite their occasional policy disagreements, Charles loyally supported all three of his brother's presidential bids.\nTaft was elected to the first of his three terms as US Senator in <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201938\">1938</a>. He first defeated Ohio Supreme Court justice <a href=\"Arthur%20H.%20Day\">Arthur H. Day</a> in the Republican primary, and then defeated the Democratic incumbent, <a href=\"Robert%20Bulkley\">Robert Bulkley</a>, in the general election. Taft engaged Bulkley in several debates and was generally regarded as the winner. He struggled in the earlier debates but later came out on top through assistance from his wife, Martha, who would be regarded as the most valuable asset in his campaign. As a result, Taft gained the upper hand against Bulkley, who had earlier been regarded as the frontrunner in the race, and won the election by nearly 171,000 votes, or 53.6% of the total vote. During his first two years as a Senator, the Tafts rented a home in Washington, but in 1941 they purchased a brick Victorian home, built in the 1880s, in the city's <a href=\"Georgetown%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\">Georgetown</a> neighborhood. The home – despite lacking \"the grace and amenities of Sky Farm\", their home in Ohio – remained their Washington residence until Taft's death in 1953.\nCo-operating with <a href=\"Conservative%20Democrats\">Conservative Democrats</a>, he led the <a href=\"Conservative%20coalition\">Conservative Coalition</a> that opposed the <a href=\"New%20Deal\">New Deal</a>. The Republican gains in the 1938 elections, combined with the creation of the Conservative Coalition, had stopped the expansion of the New Deal. However, Taft saw his mission as not only stopping the growth of the New Deal but also eliminating many of its government programs.\nDuring his first term in the Senate, Taft criticized what he believed was the inefficiency and waste of many New Deal programs and of the need to let private enterprise and businesses restore the nation's economy instead of relying upon government programs to end the <a href=\"Great%20Depression\">Great Depression</a>. He condemned the New Deal as socialist and attacked deficit spending, high farm subsidies, governmental bureaucracy, the National Labor Relations Board, and nationalized health insurance. However, he did not always follow conservative ideology; for instance, after investigating the lack of adequate housing in the nation, he supported <a href=\"public%20housing\">public housing</a> programs. He also supported federal aid to the states to fund public schools.\nTaft set forward a conservative domestic program that promoted limited government spending, a balanced federal budget, low taxes, pro-business policies to spur economic growth, a limited number of social welfare programs (such as <a href=\"Social%20Security%20%28United%20States%29\">Social Security</a>, a minimum wage, public housing and federal aid to public education), and an adequate national defense focused on strengthening the <a href=\"Navy\">Navy</a> and <a href=\"Air%20Force\">Air Force</a>. In foreign policy, he advocated noninvolvement in European wars and military alliances. He also strongly opposed the military <a href=\"conscription\">draft</a> on the principle that it limited a young man's freedom of choice. Various historians have described Taft, in terms of political philosophy, as a <a href=\"libertarianism%20in%20the%20United%20States\">libertarian</a>; he opposed nearly all forms of governmental interference in both the national economy and in the private lives of citizens.\nTaft's greatest prominence during his first term came not from his fight against the New Deal but rather from his vigorous opposition to US involvement in the <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">Second World War</a>. A staunch <a href=\"non-interventionism\">non-interventionist</a>, Taft believed that America should avoid any involvement in European or Asian wars and concentrate instead on solving its domestic problems. He believed that a strong military, combined with the natural geographic protection of the <a href=\"Atlantic\">Atlantic</a> and <a href=\"Pacific\">Pacific</a> Oceans, would be adequate to protect America even if Germany overran all of Europe. Between the outbreak of war in September, 1939 and the Japanese <a href=\"attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> in December 1941 Taft opposed nearly all attempts to aid countries fighting Germany. That brought him strong criticism from many liberal Republicans, such as <a href=\"Wendell%20Willkie\">Wendell Willkie</a> and <a href=\"Thomas%20E.%20Dewey\">Thomas E. Dewey</a>, who felt that America could best protect itself by supporting the British and their allies. Although Taft fully supported the American war effort after Pearl Harbor, he continued to harbor a deep suspicion of American involvement in postwar military alliances, including the <a href=\"North%20Atlantic%20Treaty%20Organization\">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a>. Taft was the representative to speak in opposition to <a href=\"Japanese-American%20internment\">Japanese-American internment</a>.\nIn <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201944\">1944</a> Taft was nearly defeated in his bid for a second term in the Senate. His Democratic opponent, <a href=\"William%20G.%20Pickrel\">William G. Pickrel</a>, received major support from Ohio's <a href=\"labor%20union\">labor union</a>s and <a href=\"Internationalism%20%28politics%29\">internationalists</a>, and lost by fewer than 18,000 votes out of nearly three million cast, or a margin of less than one percent. Taft lost Cleveland, the state's largest city, by 96,000 votes, and he trailed in most of Ohio's largest urban areas, but he ran strong in the state's rural regions and small towns, carried 71 of Ohio's 88 counties, and so avoided defeat. His near-defeat in 1944 \"was ever to confound Taft's insistence that he was a potent vote getter\", and played a role in his failure to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1948. Following his re-election, Taft became chairman of the <a href=\"Senate%20Republican%20Conference\">Senate Republican Conference</a> in 1944.\nTaft condemned the postwar <a href=\"Nuremberg%20Trials\">Nuremberg Trials</a> as <a href=\"victor%27s%20justice\">victor's justice</a> under <a href=\"ex%20post%20facto%20law\">ex post facto law</a>s, in which the people who won the war were the prosecutors, the judges, and the alleged victims, all at the same time. Taft condemned the trials as a violation of the most basic principles of American justice and internationally accepted standards in favor of a politicized version of justice in which court proceedings became an excuse for vengeance against the defeated.\nI question whether the hanging of those, who, however despicable, were the leaders of the German people, will ever discourage the making of aggressive war, for no one makes aggressive war unless he expects to win. About this whole judgment there is the spirit of vengeance, and vengeance is seldom justice. The hanging of the eleven men convicted will be a blot on the American record, which we shall long regret.\nHis opposition to the trials was strongly criticized by Republicans and Democrats alike, and it is sometimes given as the main reason for his failure to secure the Republican nomination for president. Other observers, such as Senator <a href=\"John%20F.%20Kennedy\">John F. Kennedy</a> (in \"<a href=\"Profiles%20in%20Courage\">Profiles in Courage</a>\"), applauded Taft's principled stand even in the face of great bipartisan criticism.\nWhen the Republicans took control of Congress in 1947, he focused on labor-management relations as Chair of the Senate Labor Committee. Decrying the effect of the <a href=\"Wagner%20Act\">Wagner Act</a> in tilting the balance toward labor unions, he wrote the 1947 <a href=\"Taft%E2%80%93Hartley%20Act\">Taft–Hartley Act</a>, which remains the basic labor law. It bans \"unfair\" union practices, outlaws <a href=\"closed%20shops\">closed shops</a>, and authorizes the President to seek federal court injunctions to impose an 80-day cooling-off period if a strike threatened the national interest. Taft displayed all of his parliamentary skills in getting the bill through Congress. When President <a href=\"Harry%20Truman\">Harry Truman</a> vetoed it, Taft then convinced both houses of Congress to override the veto.\nFrom 1947 to 1949, when the Republicans controlled the Senate, Taft was his party's leading voice in <a href=\"domestic%20policy\">domestic policy</a>. He was reluctant to support farm subsidies, a position that hurt the party in <a href=\"rural%20area\">rural area</a>s (especially in the <a href=\"Midwestern%20United%20States\">Midwest</a>) in the 1948 elections. Taft engineered the passage of the <a href=\"Housing%20Act%20of%201949\">Housing Act of 1949</a>, which funded <a href=\"slum%20clearance\">slum clearance</a> and the construction of 810,000 units of low-income housing over a period of six years. It was one of the few <a href=\"Fair%20Deal\">Fair Deal</a> proposals of Truman that he liked.\nIn foreign policy, he was non-interventionist and did not see Stalin's <a href=\"Soviet%20Union\">Soviet Union</a> as a major threat. However, he called <a href=\"David%20Lilienthal\">David Lilienthal</a> \"soft on the subject of Communism.\" The true danger, he believed, was big government and runaway spending. He supported the <a href=\"Truman%20Doctrine\">Truman Doctrine</a> and reluctantly approved the <a href=\"Marshall%20Plan\">Marshall Plan</a> but opposed <a href=\"NATO\">NATO</a>, as unnecessary and provocative to the Soviets. He took the lead among Republicans in condemning Truman's handling of the <a href=\"Korean%20War\">Korean War</a> and questioning the <a href=\"War%20Powers%20Clause\">constitutionality</a> of the war itself:: \"My conclusion, therefore, is that in the case of Korea, where a war was already under way, we had no right to send troops to a nation, with whom we had no treaty, to defend it against attack by another nation, no matter how unprincipled that aggression might be, unless the whole matter was submitted to Congress and a <a href=\"declaration%20of%20war\">declaration of war</a> or some other direct authority obtained.\"\nTaft was a supporter of the new state of Israel, called for an end to the arms embargo to the Middle East, and supported arms shipments and other military aid to the new country.\nIn <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201950\">1950</a>, Taft ran a more effective campaign for re-election to the Senate. Wooing factory workers, he visited 334 industrial plants and gave 873 speeches. He won a third term by 431,184 votes, the second largest victory margin in Ohio Senate election history until then. He benefited from a weak Democratic opponent – one observer reportedly said of \"Jumping Joe\" Ferguson, the <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20Auditor\">State Auditor</a>, \"If the Democrats want to win, they should send Ferguson on a mission abroad,\" but more importantly, Ohio's unions failed to use the <a href=\"Taft-Hartley%20Act%20of%201947\">Taft-Hartley Act of 1947</a>, which they denounced as a \"slave labor law,\" against him. Additionally, Democratic Governor <a href=\"Frank%20Lausche\">Frank Lausche</a> did not endorse Ferguson and, according to journalist Sidney Lubell, almost openly supported Taft. In a post-election survey of voters, Lubell found that the overly aggressive, labor-backed anti-Taft campaign angered some Democrats.\nEven many union members reportedly voted Republican to express their opposition to local union leaders, to support Taft-Hartley's ban on the closed shop, or to prevent, as one told Lubell, \"the Socialists from taking over the Democratic party.\"\nBy the start of his third Senate term, Taft had been given the nickname \"Mr. Republican.\" He was the chief congressional ideologue and spokesman for the <a href=\"conservatism\">conservatism</a> of the Republican Party and the acknowledged national leader of its conservative faction.\nWhile outsiders thought Taft was the epitome of conservative Republicanism, inside the party, he was repeatedly criticized by hardliners alarmed by his sponsorship of <a href=\"New%20Deal\">New Deal</a>-like programs, especially federal housing for the poor. The real estate lobby was especially fearful about public housing. Senator <a href=\"Kenneth%20S.%20Wherry\">Kenneth S. Wherry</a> discerned a \"touch of socialism\" in Taft, and his Ohio colleague, Senator <a href=\"John%20Bricker\">John Bricker</a>, speculated that perhaps the \"socialists have gotten to Bob Taft.\" The distrust on the right hurt Taft's 1948 presidential ambitions.\nTaft first sought the Republican presidential nomination in <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29%20presidential%20primaries%2C%201940\">1940</a> but lost to <a href=\"Wendell%20Willkie\">Wendell Willkie</a>. Taft was regarded as a strong contender, but his outspoken support of a non-interventionist foreign policy, and his opposition to the <a href=\"New%20Deal\">New Deal</a> in domestic policy led many liberal Republicans to reject his candidacy. At the 1940 Republican Convention, Willkie, once a Democrat, and a corporate executive who had never run for political office, came from behind to beat Taft and several other candidates for the nomination. That year, Taft first clashed with <a href=\"Thomas%20E.%20Dewey\">Thomas E. Dewey</a>, then a New York <a href=\"District%20Attorney\">District Attorney</a>, who had become nationally famous for successfully prosecuting several prominent organized-crime figures, especially New York mob boss <a href=\"%26quot%3BLucky%26quot%3B%20Luciano\">\"Lucky\" Luciano</a>. Taft felt that Dewey was not conservative or consistent enough in his principles for the Republican Party: \"Tom Dewey has no real courage to stand up against the crowd that wants to smear any Republican who takes a forthright position against the New Deal... there is only one way to beat the New Deal, and that is head on. You can't outdeal them.\" In other letters, Taft described Dewey as \"very arrogant and bossy\" and worried that \"advisers will talk Dewey into too much internationalism...he comes from New York and sees the group opinions there as a lot more important than they are.\"\nIn the 1944 presidential campaign Taft was not a candidate. He supported Governor <a href=\"John%20W.%20Bricker\">John W. Bricker</a> of Ohio, a fellow conservative, for the nomination. However, Bricker was defeated by Dewey, who had become the Governor of New York in 1943. Dewey named Bricker as his running mate; the ticket would go on to lose to Roosevelt in the general election.\nIn <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29%20presidential%20primaries%2C%201948\">1948</a>, Taft made a second try for the nomination but again was defeated by his archrival, Dewey, who led the GOP's moderate/liberal wing. In the <a href=\"1948%20presidential%20election\">1948 presidential election</a>, Dewey was defeated by the Democratic presidential candidate, <a href=\"Harry%20S.%20Truman\">Harry S. Truman</a>.\nTaft sought to reach out to southern Democratic voters in his <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29%20presidential%20primaries%2C%201952\">1952</a> campaign. It was his third and final try for the nomination; it also proved to be his strongest effort. At the Republican State Convention in <a href=\"Little%20Rock%2C%20Arkansas\">Little Rock</a>, he declared:\nI believe a Republican could carry a number of southern states if he conducts the right kind of campaign... Whether we win or lose in the South, we cannot afford to ignore public opinion in the southern states, because it influences national public opinion, and that opinion finally decides the election... It is said that southern Democrats will not vote for a Republican candidate. They have frequently done so. They did so in Little Rock last November [1951] when they elected <a href=\"Pratt%20Remmel\">Pratt Remmel</a> mayor. I refuse to admit that if the issues are clearly presented, the southern voters will not vote on the basis of principle...\nTaft had the solid backing of the party's conservative wing. Former US Representative <a href=\"Howard%20Buffett\">Howard Buffett</a> of <a href=\"Nebraska\">Nebraska</a> (father of billionaire <a href=\"Warren%20Buffett\">Warren Buffett</a>) served as one of his campaign managers. With Dewey no longer an active candidate, many political <a href=\"Pundit%20%28expert%29\">pundits</a> regarded Taft as the frontrunner. However, the race changed when Dewey and other moderates were able to convince <a href=\"Dwight%20D.%20Eisenhower\">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, the most popular general of <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, to run for the nomination. Eisenhower ran because of his fear that Taft's non-interventionist views in foreign policy, especially his opposition to <a href=\"NATO\">NATO</a>, might benefit the <a href=\"Soviet%20Union\">Soviet Union</a> in the <a href=\"Cold%20War\">Cold War</a>.\nThe fight between Taft and Eisenhower for the nomination was one of the closest and most bitter in American political history. When the Republican Convention opened in Chicago in July 1952, Taft and Eisenhower were neck-and-neck in delegate votes. On the convention's first day, Eisenhower's managers complained that Taft's forces had unfairly denied Eisenhower supporters delegate slots in several Southern states, including Texas, where the state chairman, <a href=\"Orville%20Bullington\">Orville Bullington</a>, was committed to Taft. The Eisenhower partisans proposed to remove pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called their proposal \"Fair Play.\" Although Taft angrily denied having stolen any delegate votes, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and the Texans voted 33–5 for Eisenhower as a result. In addition, several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, agreed to support Eisenhower.\nThe addition of the uncommitted state delegations, combined with Taft's loss of many Southern delegates by the Fair Play proposal, decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor. Despite his bitterness at his narrow defeat and his belief that he had been unfairly ambushed by the Eisenhower forces (including Dewey), Taft issued a brief statement after the convention conveying his congratulations and support to Eisenhower. Thereafter, however, he brooded in silence at his summer home in Quebec, complaining, \"Every Republican candidate for President since 1936 has been nominated by the <a href=\"Chase%20%28bank%29\">Chase National Bank</a>.\" As the weeks passed, Eisenhower's aides worried that Taft and his supporters would sit on their hands during the campaign and that as a result Eisenhower might lose the election. In September 1952, Taft finally agreed to meet with Eisenhower, at <a href=\"Morningside%20Heights\">Morningside Heights</a> in New York City. There, to gain Taft's support, Eisenhower promised that he would take no reprisals against Taft partisans, would cut federal spending, and would fight \"creeping socialism in every domestic field.\" In fact, Eisenhower and Taft agreed on most domestic issues; their disagreements were primarily in foreign policy.\nEisenhower firmly believed in <a href=\"NATO\">NATO</a> and was committed to the US support of anticommunism in the <a href=\"Cold%20War\">Cold War</a>.\nFollowing Eisenhower's election and the Republican takeover of Congress, Taft served as <a href=\"Senate%20Majority%20Leader\">Senate Majority Leader</a> in 1953, and he strongly supported Eisenhower's domestic proposals. He worked hard to assist the inexperienced new officials of the administration. He even tried, with little success, to curb the excesses of <a href=\"red-baiting\">red-baiting</a> US Senator <a href=\"Joseph%20McCarthy\">Joseph McCarthy</a>. By April, Eisenhower and Taft were friends and golfing companions, and Taft was praising his former adversary. Defeat in 1952, it seemed, had softened Taft. No longer burdened by presidential ambitions, he had become less partisan, less abrasive, and more conciliatory; he was now widely regarded as the most powerful man in Congress.\nOn May 26, 1953, Taft delivered his final speech, in which he presciently warned of the dangers of America's emerging <a href=\"Cold%20War\">Cold War</a> foreign policy, specifically against US military involvement in <a href=\"Southeast%20Asia\">Southeast Asia</a>, which would later become the <a href=\"Vietnam%20War\">Vietnam War</a>:\nIn early 1953, Taft began to feel pain in his hips, and after a painful golf outing with President Eisenhower in April 1953 he entered <a href=\"Walter%20Reed%20Hospital\">Walter Reed Hospital</a> for initial tests which led physicians to suspect a tumor or arthritis. On May 26 he entered Holmes Hospital in Cincinnati for more extensive tests. The physicians there discovered nodules on his forehead and abdomen, and after doing biopsies of samples of the nodules, found that they were malignant. On June 7, he entered <a href=\"New%20York%20Hospital\">New York Hospital</a> for more tests and treatment; to keep the news that he might have cancer a secret he registered under the assumed name \"Howard Roberts, Jr.\". His physicians there agreed with the diagnosis of cancer, but disagreed as to the source of the primary tumor and method of treatment. Some of his doctors advocated exploratory surgery to keep the malignancy from spreading, while other physicians thought the tumors had spread too far, were inoperable, and recommended x-ray therapy to keep him comfortable. After his death, an autopsy determined that Taft had been stricken with <a href=\"pancreatic%20cancer\">pancreatic cancer</a>, which had quickly reached <a href=\"metastasis\">metastasis</a> and spread throughout his body. On June 10, 1953, Taft transferred his duties as Senate Majority Leader to Senator <a href=\"William%20F.%20Knowland\">William F. Knowland</a> of California. He did not resign his Senate seat and told reporters that he expected to recover and return to work. However, his condition rapidly worsened, and Taft returned to New York Hospital for surgery on July 4 during a Senate recess. The surgery \"did not take long, for the doctors discovered cancer everywhere...there was no longer any doubt\" that his condition was terminal. He died at New York Hospital on July 31, following a final brain hemorrhage just hours after his wife's final visit. His body lay in state in the <a href=\"Rotunda%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Capitol\">Rotunda of the United States Capitol</a>, where thousands of mourners offered their respects at his coffin. On August 3, 1953, a memorial service was held in the rotunda; in addition to his family the service was attended by Eisenhower, Vice-President <a href=\"Nixon\">Nixon</a>, the cabinet, members of the Supreme Court, and Taft's congressional colleagues. Following the service his body was flown to <a href=\"Cincinnati%2C%20Ohio\">Cincinnati</a>, where he was buried in a private ceremony at Indian Hill Episcopal Church Cemetery.\nIn 1957, a committee led by Senator <a href=\"John%20F.%20Kennedy\">John F. Kennedy</a> selected Taft as one of five great senators whose portraits would adorn the President's Room off the Senate floor. Kennedy would feature him in \"<a href=\"Profiles%20in%20Courage\">Profiles in Courage</a>\", and Taft continues to be regarded by historians as one of the most powerful senators of the 20th century.\nThe Robert A. Taft Memorial, featuring a 10 ft statue by the sculptor <a href=\"Wheeler%20Williams\">Wheeler Williams</a> and a bell tower, is located north of the Capitol on Constitution Avenue. The inscription on the tower face behind him reads:\n\"This Memorial to Robert A. Taft, presented by the people to the Congress of the United States, stands as a tribute to the honesty, indomitable courage, and high principles of free government symbolized by his life.\"\nTaft is mentioned in the 2015 novel \"<a href=\"The%20Madagaskar%20Plan\">The Madagaskar Plan</a>\", an <a href=\"alternative%20history%20%28literary%20genre%29\">alternative history</a> in which the United States remains <a href=\"United%20States%20non-interventionism\">isolationist</a> allowing <a href=\"Nazi%20Germany\">Nazi Germany</a> to conquer Europe and <a href=\"Africa\">Africa</a>. In the novel Taft wins the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201952\">1952 Presidential Election</a>. Without a European war, <a href=\"Dwight%20Eisenhower\">Dwight Eisenhower</a> does not become a revered general and thus is not there to defeat Taft for nomination.\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"GURPS Mysteries\\nGURPS Mysteries is a source book for the \\\"GURPS\\\" Role-playing game.\\n\\\"GURPS Mysteries\\\" covers the mystery genre by describing a crime and the motivation behind it to its detection via explaining its clues and witnesses. Several crimes are described, including arson, blackmail, burglary, and kidnapping, but homicide or murder is the book's focus. \\\"GURPS Mysteries\\\" covers eras from Ancient Rome and the Middle Ages to modern times and the far future with some coverage of the paranormal as well. The book includes a complete chapter devoted to the low-tech mystery and the low-tech investigator. It addresses some of the issues of roleplaying the historical mystery scenario, from the need for the sleuth to have status if he is to be free to investigate to the players being too aware, both in terms of the genre and technology.\\nThe book covers creating and running \\\"mystery\\\" based adventures and campaigns, crime scenes, and advanced rules for questioning and interrogating NPCs.\\nSteve Jackson Games released the 4th edition genre book \\\"GURPS Mysteries\\\" in 2005 as an e-book (with a print-on-demand book later available) through its online PDF store, e23. The book's author is a criminal defense attorney.\\nMatthew Pook reviewed \\\"GURPS Mysteries\\\" for \\\"Pyramid\\\" magazine #10 (August 2009). He comments that \\\"this book serves as an invaluable guide to the genre\\\".\\n\",\n \"GURPS Space\\nGURPS Space is a \\\"genre toolkit\\\" for creating Science Fiction campaigns using the GURPS role-playing game. It performs a similar purpose as GURPS Fantasy does for Fantasy games. Rules and guidelines are provided for running games from science fantasy and space opera to hard science fiction, creating worlds and planets and notes about aliens races. The first edition was published in 1988.\\nThe Third Edition of GURPS Space had several differences from the Fourth Edition book. The biggest difference was the inclusion of a small subset of the GURPS Vehicles rules and some high-tech weaponry. Unlike the above-mentioned GURPS Fantasy's Third Edition analog, it was also a genre toolkit.\\nGURPS Space was released March 2006. It covers the creation of star systems, worlds and alien races, either completely randomly or with any amount of GM intervention during the process. Advice is also provided on planning campaigns and other related material, as is common in other books for fourth edition GURPS.\\nCoverage of spacecraft is aimed at setting level issues such as choosing the technology used by spacecraft in the game. This section does not worry about game mechanics issues, but rather helps players and gamemasters determine the broad capabilities of the vessel in question.\\nIn a controversial move, the book breaks with the format of earlier editions and does not contain rules for spaceship design or high tech guns. Those topics will be covered by the forthcoming books GURPS Vehicles (4e) and GURPS Ultra-Tech (4e) respectively. The rationale for this decision was explained in a series of official statements made on the sjgames forums by Managing Editor Chris Aylott and Line Editor Sean Punch. GURPS Spaceships, a 4e supplement of rules for spaceship design, is now available through Steve Jackson Games as a digital purchase.\\n\\\"GURPS Space\\\" was designed by Steve Jackson and William Barton, and published by Steve Jackson Games as a 128-page book. The book features additional material by W. G. Armintrout, Stephen Beeman, Ben Ellinger, John M. Ford, Don Gallagher, J. David George, Mike Hurst, David Ladyman, and Mike Moe, and a cover illustration by Michael Goodwin.\\n\\\"GURPS Space\\\" was one of the broad genre books that followed the publication of the \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\". This first tier genre book was supported by several second-tier sourcebooks including the \\\"GURPS Space Atlases\\\" (1988-1991), \\\"GURPS Space Bestiary\\\" (1990) and \\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" (1990), which helped fill out the \\\"GURPS Space\\\" world.\\n\\\"GURPS Space\\\" for 4e was published in 2006, one of several genre books published by Steve Jackson Games for the new edition.\\nJim Bambra reviewed the first edition of \\\"GURPS Space\\\" for \\\"Dragon\\\" magazine #141 (January 1989). Bambra comments in his evaluation: \\\"Even if you never intend to play the \\\"GURPS\\\" game, the \\\"GURPS Space\\\" game is worth picking up on the basis of its ideas alone. For GMs who enjoy designing unique backgrounds for their players, and for GURPS players everywhere, this book is well worth getting.\\\"\\n\\\"GURPS Space\\\" won the 1988 Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Supplement.\\nSecond edition reviewed in \\\"Games Review\\\" vol. 2 #9\",\n \"GURPS Infinite Worlds\\nGURPS Infinite Worlds is a supplement for the Fourth Edition of the \\\"GURPS\\\" role-playing game, published by Steve Jackson Games in 2005 and written by Kenneth Hite, Steve Jackson, and John M. Ford. It expands upon the campaign setting of conflict between the \\\"Infinity Patrol\\\", which is the time-travel agency on \\\"our\\\" Earth, referred to as Homeline, and \\\"Centrum\\\" across a multiplicity of alternate history Earths. This was presented in the \\\"Fourth Edition GURPS Basic Set\\\" (and originated in the Third Edition supplements \\\"GURPS Time Travel\\\", \\\"GURPS Alternate Earths\\\", and \\\"GURPS Alternate Earths II\\\").\\n\\\"GURPS Infinite Worlds\\\" builds on the genre-hopping possibilities of player characters travelling from one world to another for the fourth edition of \\\"GURPS\\\".\\nGURPS Infinite Worlds has eight chapters: Infinity Unlimited, Enemies Everywhen, Present at the Creation, Worlds Enough, ...And Time, Infinite characters, Infinite Campaigns, and Alternate Infinities.\\nThis chapter describes one of the two worlds (known locally as Homeline) that have full-fledged, public \\\"parachronics\\\" programs (the technology behind traveling between parallel universes) Travel between worlds is generally done through ground-based equipment (\\\"projectors\\\") or vehicles (\\\"conveyors\\\"), but magic, parahuman abilities and even stranger methods can and have been utilized by both. Alternate worlds (also known as realities or worldlines) are grouped into \\\"quanta\\\", which have varying degrees of ease of access not only to Homeline but to her opponents\\nThis is the chapter that describes Homeline's adversaries and hazards. The major adversary is Centrum, the only other reality known to have a public parachronics program, who can be played as a deadly adversary, occasional opponents or grudging allies depending on the GM's preference.\\nThe secondary adversary is Reich-5, the worst of the five known 'Nazis win/survive WWII' realities in the setting. An ill-advised raid by Spetsnaz troops from Homeline Russia resulted in the capture of a troop conveyor, a handful of live prisoners, and the corpse of a scout with a genetically-linked psionic world-jumping ability. A quick-thinking local Brigadeführer made a deal with the mystical SS society of the Ahnenerbe to take possession of the booty (and to keep it all secret from the mainstream Nazi hierarchy); Reich-5 scientists and sorcerers are using occult rituals and horrific medical experiments to slowly spread their Thousand Year Reich to other realities.\\nThis chapter describes how to create your own alternate reality and offering inspirational concepts to look at such as the Great Man, Great Moment, and Great Motherland.\\nThis is the chapter on some of the alternate worlds in the setting. Reich-5, Caliph, Dixie, Ezcalli, Gernsback, Roma Aeterna, and Shikaku-Mon all appeared in slightly different forms in the older \\\"Alternate Earths\\\" volumes.\\nSo named because it is the second world discovered by the Infinity Patrol in which the Spanish Armada was victorious over the English in 1588, Armada-2 is a world just now (in \\\"current year\\\" 1812) emerging from the shadow of Catholic Spanish hegemony, with Sweden, an industrialised Egypt and Huguenot Nouvelle France as other powers.\\nA parallel where city-razing Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan destroyed first Beijing and then all the cities of Europe, where now their descendants (in \\\"current year\\\" 2004) rule an entirely nomadic continent. The world was mistakenly named for Attila the Hun by early Infinity Patrol researchers who were confused as to which nomadic leader was responsible for the destruction. Meanwhile, Japan trades across the Pacific Ocean with the urbanized tribes of North and South America, and city-states dot Africa, where steam engines have just been developed.\\nWhen Isaac Newton discovered the secret of the philosopher's stone in 1693, he paved the way for an Alchemical Revolution that has left Azoth-7 dominated by the magical might of Britain, Venice, Prussia, and Spain by \\\"current year\\\" 1780. Notable for having space travel though whatever Polaris and Sirius may be they are \\\"not\\\" balls of hydrogen tens or hundreds of light-years away from Earth\\nIn Bonaparte-4, Napoleon sacrificed the romance of an Egyptian campaign (which he conducted in 1798 in our timeline) for a stealthy invasion of Ireland, granting him victory over Britain. By \\\"current year\\\" 2024, the world is divided between French, Japanese, Russian, and Brazilian Empires, along with the United States and the Russian Republic, and the world has achieved a stage of technological achievement and social disaffection and tension reminiscent of cyberpunk.\\nThe success of the rebellion of James, Duke of Monmouth against James II of England in 1685 is the point of divergence between our own world and Britannica-3; wiser and more Protestant rule in Britain meant that tensions with the North American colonies never reached the point of rebellion as they did in real history. Despite the rise of other strong European powers, the world is free of major conflicts, which can be attributed to the strong influence of Centrum in this parallel.\\nIn this world the printing press was invented in Baghdad in 796 and was shortly followed by the widespread adaptation of the scientific method and an oil-based industrial revolution. The current year here is 1684, but the technological acceleration stemming from these changes has resulted in a society seemingly centuries ahead of Homeline. Unfortunately a burgeoning global war between the tradition-minded major states (Sofala, Persia, Andalus, the Bulgarian Caliphate and the Ummah) and the technocratic Jamahiriya of the western continents threatens the existence of this advanced society.\\nNamed for the early death of influential science fiction editor John W. Campbell which occurred in this parallel but not in real history, Campbell is a world notable for the poverty of its scientific advancement. While military applications of scientific research advanced rapidly enough, science as an intellectual pursuit became associated exclusively with death, destruction, and catastrophe (especially after World War II ended with the bombardment of Germany with radioactive dust, killing hundreds of thousands of people). This led to an anti-scientific wave of pacifist Luddism and charismatic religious revival in the 1960s. Lacking the positive fruits of scientific inquiry, the world heads (in \\\"current year\\\" 2004) through ecological disaster and failing economies to a nigh-inevitable showdown between its capitalist and communist societies.\\nThe nominal villains of the campaign, Centrum is a totalitarian, homogenized world-state, and the only world other than Homeline to have a major parachronic program. Its point of departure was in 1120, when the White Ship carrying William the Aetheling, the heir of Henry I of England, did not hit a rock in the English Channel. William's survival precluded The Anarchy and the Hundred Years War, and ultimately the \\\"Anglo-French Empire\\\" became a world-spanning power, with technological progress centuries beyond that of Homeline.\\nHowever unbearable tensions existed just below the surface, and in 1902 unknown parties decapitated the ruling house by detonating a nuclear device in London. The resulting succession wars included nuclear and biological weapons, wiped out much of humanity and reduced most of the survivors to preindustrial barbarism. But Terraustralis (Homeline Australia) escaped much of the destruction, and the techno-military cabal known as \\\"The Centrum\\\" that took control there ultimately extended its authority across the globe.\\nCentrum is a socialist technocratic meritocracy; the government provides all employment and handles the economy, which is bolstered by the massive resources acquired from other worldlines. They believe other worlds should be aiming to follow their example and have a dedicated program of supporting political and economic groups that reflect their own values—stability, meritocracy and an unconscious prejudice against non-English speakers. They view the mix of competing government agencies and private companies from Homeline as dangerously reminiscent of the period prior to their own \\\"Final War\\\".\\nOne of the most important parallel Earths from the Infinity Patrol's point of view, Centrum Beta appears to be an exact copy of the home parallel of Centrum - except that the \\\"current year\\\" is only 1895. Understanding Centrum Beta as it is now might give the Infinity Patrol the key to understanding and besting Centrum proper.\\nAlso known generally as \\\"Reality Vanish\\\", there are at least 41 parachronic coordinate settings where people or objects sent into them never return. These are assumed to be worlds where the laws of physics are sufficiently different from that of our own universe to kill visitors and/or cripple their equipment (see Rustic under Puzzle Worlds, below).\\nIn this world, William Walker succeeded in conquering Nicaragua in 1856; during the American Civil War this provided a way around the Union blockade for the Confederacy that ultimately ensured their victory. In revenge for British support of the rebels, the United States invaded and annexed most of Canada; meanwhile the Southrons reintroduced their \\\"peculiar institution\\\" into Central America and the Caribbean at gunpoint. Today (\\\"current year\\\" 1993) the U.S.A. and C.S.A. watch each other warily across an armed border that stretches to the Pacific, while India, the Chinese republics and their neighbors expand their economies at the expense of the moribund European monarchies that never fell after 1918. (See American Civil War alternate histories).\\nHere the Columbian Exchange occurred two thousand years early, when a Carthaginian fleet was blown across the Atlantic to discover the New World. This premature contact gave the Native American civilizations time to recover from the shock of new diseases and adopt the newcomers' technology; in addition, the early introduction of maize and the potato to the Old World eventually reduced Rome's ability to control its subjects through Egyptian grain. The Empire ended with Nero, and the patchwork of European successor states were ill-equipped to resist subsequent barbarian invasions. In the \\\"current year\\\" of 1848, the expansionist, steam-powered Tenochca Empire faces off against the Hotinohsavannih League to the north and the Songhay Empire (the last remnant of Roman culture) to the east; whoever wins is likely fated to take on the somnolent but fearsomely large Mongol Khaganate that covers most of Eurasia.\\nThis parallel world is named for the Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa, who in this timeline managed to be the great imperial unifier and conqueror that the vagaries of fortune prevented him from being in our history. In \\\"current year\\\" 1219, seventeen years after his death, Friedrich is notable for being a hotbed of activity by the SS Raven Division from the Nazi-dominated parallel Reich-5, who seek to turn his Holy Roman Empire into a First Reich and breeding ground for Aryan warriors.\\nGallatin is named for Albert Gallatin, the dominant member of Thomas Jefferson's government due to Alexander Hamilton having died in the Battle of Trenton. Without Hamilton to defend and explain the United States Constitution in the \\\"Federalist Papers\\\", it was never ratified and the independent colonies balkanized into nine separate republics across the continent by 1860. In \\\"current year\\\" 2004, Gallatin's great powers include Texas (whose nuclear arsenal shields the other libertarian American republics), German-dominated Europaverein, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and the Japanese Empire; peace is maintained by the fear of mutual destruction in an atomic war.\\nThis parallel world is named after editor Hugo Gernsback, due to the futuristic architecture and technology being used there. The divergence happened in 1893, when Nikola Tesla married Anne Morgan, daughter of millionaire and philanthropist J. P. Morgan, an event that helped him to stabilize his life and make many of his inventions reality thanks to the support of his father-in-law. In 1902, he created a radio tower that broadcast to the entire world from Long Island, and he later managed to develop wireless electricity broadcasting, which eventually helped Germany to stabilize and avoid falling under the control of Adolf Hitler and Nazism, and strengthening the League of Nations, avoiding World War II. When, in 1951, Andrei Sakharov managed to defect to the West and tell of Stalin's plans to create atomic weapons, the League of Nations declared war on the Soviet Union, which fell on April 30, 1953, with the death of Joseph Stalin. In \\\"current year\\\" 1965, the World Science Council and the League of Nations are putting down all threats to the techno-utopia that has resulted from the inventions derived from Tesla's work. However, this is a world where race and sex discrimination still run rampant. The main mission of the I-Cops in here is to prevent Centrum from taking over, as Centrum regards Gernsback as a potential ally.\\nMany timelines have suffered catastrophes (some natural, others man-made) that have rendered humanity either extinct or nearly so. These are colloquially known as the \\\"hell worlds\\\". Examples include Ariane (where the Spanish Flu killed 99.9% of the population), Lenin-2 (where nuclear war and unconstrained industry have combined to crash the biosphere) and the worrisome Gotha parallels (where a prion-based disease has turned almost all humans into bloodthirsty cannibals on 19 otherwise dissimilar worlds).\\nThe main world in the game. The world of \\\"our\\\" timeline (apart from the development of parachronics) and home base of Infinity Patrol, and of players in the game. Seeks to counteract Centrum and its efforts to interfere with natural development of alternate worlds.\\nHere Franklin D. Roosevelt maintained Henry A. Wallace as his vice president when he was reelected in 1944; consequently Wallace became president on April 12, 1945 upon Roosevelt's death. His passive stance (and that of his successors) against the Soviet Union resulted in the steady expansion of Communism across the globe. In the \\\"current year\\\" of 1989, the isolated and malaise-stricken United States is essentially the sole remaining capitalist country on the planet.\\nNamed after the wizard of that name, Merlin-1 is a world where magic entered the world due to the Trinity nuclear test in August 1945. In \\\"current year\\\" 2004 America (where much of the magic is centred) uses both magic and technology to be the dominant superpower. Homeline has begun investigating this world to obtain information about this mana-rich reality, but unbeknownst to them the Merlin-1 American government is aware of their actions and has begun spying on them in return. The setting of \\\"GURPS Technomancer\\\".\\nA world where magic entered the world in 1916, and is centered in Germany. In \\\"current year\\\" 1942, World War II is being fought with magic. The setting of \\\"GURPS WWII: Weird War II\\\".\\nMany worlds have inhabitants that closely resemble characters from the myths, legends and stories of Homeline. The characters from the Arabian Nights stories, three different King Arthurs (Riothamus, the Vulgate Cycle Arthur, and Thomas Malory's version) and Sherlock Holmes are all represented by various worlds, along with hundreds of others.\\nShalmaneser III of Assyria wiped out Jerusalem and Tyre in this world in 854 B.C., and his successors destroyed the Greek city-states a century later. In the \\\"current year\\\" of 1678, various empires based on slavery and human sacrifice cover the globe (except for an Infinity Patrol-supported haven in southern Africa) while an anomalous ice age threatens to wipe out those unfortunate to live in a world where monotheism, democracy and the Greek and Latin alphabets were destroyed almost before they could begin.\\nSome worlds that do not follow the generally accepted laws of physics in one way or another or otherwise demonstrate unusual characteristics—it is important to note that in the Infinite Worlds setting, most magic fits under the category of \\\"accepted laws of physics\\\". Rustic (where artificial electric discharges are impossible to generate), Enigma (where the entire population of the world disappeared on July 12, 1982) and Blip (where one day spent there is equal to a little over six minutes on other worlds) are some examples.\\nWidely regarded as one of the most disturbing and potentially dangerous worlds so far discovered, in this parallel Giuseppe Zangara succeeded in assassinating Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1933. His successors Garner, Lindbergh and Wallace proved unable to handle the Great Depression, and America stood by while Hitler conquered Europe and Japan took over most of Asia. In 1944, Japan attacked Guam, the Philippines and Hawaii; in the ensuing chaos William Dudley Pelley was elected President. Pelley quickly assumed dictatorial powers, and his blatant theft of the 1948 election from Robert A. Taft triggered wholesale civil war. The president called for aid from Nazi Germany, which quickly sent 40 Wehrmacht divisions through Canada. The pro-democracy resistance collapsed after Werner Heisenberg developed the atomic bomb which was used on four American cities in 1950. A second attempt at rebellion in 1976 failed, and America is now a (very) junior partner of the World-Axis that dominates the planet. Reich-5's technology (military or otherwise) is superior to that of any Homeline country, and despite being the only timeline besides Homeline and Centrum to possess world-jumping technology, their parachronic program is well behind those of the other two.\\nHere Nero Claudius Drusus did not die in 9 B.C. In turn, he became the successor to Augustus instead of Tiberius. The imperial line that followed was so successful that when the First Empire fell apart in the 5th century the guiding ideals of Rome were never discarded and were ultimately restored. After the Mongol invasions broke the Second Empire in the 14th century, colonies in the Hesperides preserved these ideals in turn and ultimately re-restored the empire in the late 18th century. The \\\"current year\\\" is 1893, and the musket-wielding legions of the Third Empire are found from the Magna Campania to the Ganges, with no sign of retreating anytime soon.\\nIn this \\\"four-cornered world\\\" Juan, Prince of Asturias, the son of King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain survived to take the Spanish throne as King John III. The resulting changes in history spread all the way to Japan, where an increased Jesuit presence prolonged the life of Oda Nobunaga and prevented the closing of the country by the Tokugawa shogunate. In the resulting cyberpunk \\\"current year\\\" of 2027, the dominant powers include a Japanese Empire that covers China, India, New Zealand, and much of East Asia, the economic superpower of Brazil, the totalitarian Swedish Empire and the technologically advanced Kingdom of France.\\nA world very similar to our own, except reptilian creatures descended from a species of Troodon are the dominant sentient lifeform. The similarities exist down to cultural and political divisions (resulting in this world's colloquial name) and are assumed by Homeline scientists to be evidence of a \\\"law of temporal inertia\\\" (or \\\"gods with a strange sense of humour\\\").\\nA fantasy world, inhabited by humans, dwarves, elves etc., all of whom have been involuntarily taken from other worldlines. The setting of \\\"GURPS Banestorm\\\".\\nThis chapter deals with the many theories of Temporal Physics both real and fictional that exist.\\nThere are some other ideas provided to make things either easier or more difficult for your intrepid travelers such as Linearity Principle, Oscillating Time, Recency Effect, and Temporal Exclusion as well how communication works.\\nSpecial notes on certain rules in the setting and character templates.\\nDesigning the campaign's scope and direction.\\nThis chapter provides alternatives to the \\\"default\\\" Infinity setting.\\n\\\"GURPS Infinite Worlds\\\" was designed by Kenneth Hite, Steve Jackson, and John M. Ford, and published by Steve Jackson Games in 2005.\\n\\\"GURPS Infinite Worlds\\\" won the 2005 Origins Award as Best Game Supplement.\",\n \"GURPS Bio-Tech\\nGURPS Bio-Tech is a GURPS, the Generic Universal Role Playing Game, sourcebook that covers the implementation of biotechnology in the game. The first edition of the book was written for GURPS Third Edition, while the second edition of GURPS Bio-Tech was written for GURPS Fourth Edition. Both editions of the game are primarily focused on providing supplemental rules, campaign material, and examples of the uses of biotechnology for the players and game-master alike. The second edition contains two outlines for campaign settings (\\\"Alexander Athanatos\\\" and \\\"Draconis\\\") but is primarily focused on providing rules and examples of devices that Game Masters could adapt for use in their own campaigns.\\nGURPS, is a game where players and game-masters can, and are encouraged to, create whatever characters and settings they choose. The GURPS Bio-Tech sourcebook gives them a resource to use should they wish to incorporate elements of biotechnology into their games. The books contains rules and advice for creating a wide variety of possible characters, scenarios, story lines, and campaigns that are influenced by either real world theories and practices of bio-technology, or the science fiction of advanced genetic alteration, enhancement, and augmentation.\\nThe first edition of GURPS Bio-Tech was written by David L. Pulver. The second edition was written by both Pulver and David Morgan-Mar. David Pulver has written a number of books for GURPS in both its third and fourth editions. Morgan-Mar is a regular contributor to Pyramid Magazine, Steve Jackson Games' online game and hobby magazine, and has co-written several books for GURPS Fourth Edition.\\nGURPS Bio-Tech includes a detailed introduction into biotechnology, speaking about both its practices in a real world sense, and its applications in science fiction and fantasy. In addition to new and supplemental rules for the game, the book goes into great detail discussing what the world would (potentially) be like if biotechnology were to continue to advance. Anti-aging treatments, human (and nonhuman) augmentation and enhancement, chemical warfare, cloning, and many other subjects are detailed, along with advise for game-masters should they wish to implement such things into their games. Because GURPS is meant to be open ended for the game-master to develop their own setting, many possibilities are left open for their interpretation, such as potential social and political ramifications of these advancements. How does the general public react to extreme modification? What religious concerns does it bring up? How does humanity deal with the population increase caused by anti-aging treatments? GURPS Bio-Tech leaves the answers to these questions up to the game-masters, allowing them to weave such elements into their stories as much or as little as they desire. This is also the first 4th edition book to make significant changes to the page layout introduced with the 4th edition, most noticeably with a return to a two column layout.\\nGURPS Bio-Tech draws inspiration from a varied collection of sources.\\nThe first edition of \\\"GURPS Bio-Tech\\\" was written by David Pulver, and published by Steve Jackson Games as a 144-page book. The first edition of GURPS Bio-Tech was written in 1997, and published by Steve Jackson Games, the creators of GURPS, the Munchkin card game, and many others.\\nA new \\\"GURPS Bio-Tech\\\" (2006) was one of the tech books published for \\\"GURPS\\\" 4e. The second edition, published in 2006, was also produced by Steve Jackson Games. The first edition had two print runs, which the second edition is still on its first.\\nJoe Kushner reviewed the first \\\"GURPS Bio-Tech\\\" in \\\"Shadis\\\" #48. Kushner comments: \\\"Overall the book is very clear and easy to use. The majority of the text has comments by various individuals which make it easier to read. The art is all done by Dan Smith, so even if you don't like his art, it still has a uniform feel to it.\\\"\\nIt was an Origins Award nominee as Best Roleplaying Game Supplement in 2007.\",\n \"GURPS Magic\\nGURPS Magic is a source book for the GURPS Role-playing game from Steve Jackson Games that provides in depth coverage of magic in the context of GURPS. The book expands on the material outlined in the Basic Set, provides alternative forms of magic for GMs to use, and contains much more material. The first edition was published in 1989.\\n\\\"GURPS Magic\\\" is a supplement of magic rules for use in fantasy milieus, an expansion and replacement of the rules in 1st edition \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\", entirely revised for use with the \\\"GURPS\\\" 3rd edition. The book is very detailed, and the spell rules enable the player to custom-design a character's magical abilities, although this can take a fair amount of time and effort. The book includes and extensive spell list.\\nThis 240-page hardcover book with full color illustrations covers the third edition source books GURPS Magic and GURPS Grimoire and adds additional material. It is the latest version of GURPS Magic.\\n\\\"GURPS Magic\\\" was originally written by Steve Jackson with Marc Janssen, Walter Milliken, Steffan O'Sullivan, W. Dow Rieder, Brett Slocum, and Daniel U. Thibault, with a cover by Guy Burchak, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1989 as a 112-page book.\\nKen Rolston reviewed the first edition of \\\"GURPS Magic\\\" for \\\"Dragon\\\" magazine #147 (July 1989). Rolston comments in his evaluation: \\\"The \\\"GURPS Magic\\\" game is an excellent supplement for the \\\"GURPS\\\" system, an effective expansion of the game's original fantasy magic rules with added features and wise campaign-design guidance. As a FRPG magic supplement, it boasts exceptional virtues in systems and conceptions. As a generic supplement, however, it lacks the distinctive charm and atmosphere of a specific fantasy campaign setting. As a source book for enriching the magical elements in your FRPG campaign, it is useful—perhaps inspirational—regardless of the system you use.\\\"\\nRick Swan reviewed the second edition of \\\"GURPS Magic\\\" for \\\"Dragon\\\" magazine #206 (June 1994). Swan comments in his evalutation: \\\"Jackson made a few design choices that may not be to everyone's liking. In order to pack in as many spells as possible, he occasionally skimps on descriptions. [...] Nor does he dictate how much detail the spell provides. The magical-item rules make it difficult to create off-the-wall oddities favored by \\\"AD&D\\\" mages, like the \\\"portable hole\\\" and \\\"bag of beans\\\". Also, the small amount of new material - a system for limiting the power of wizards, flow charts that show the prerequisites for spells from all colleges - barely justifies a second edition; owners of the first edition can put their money away. These are nitpicks though, irrelevant to the overall impact. A dazzling performance by a virtuoso designer, \\\"GURPS Magic\\\" is a knock-out.\\\"\\nDavid L. Pulver reviewed the second edition of \\\"GURPS Magic\\\" for \\\"White Wolf\\\" magazine #49 (September 1994), rating it a 4 out of 5 overall. Pulver comments: \\\"If you already have the first edition of \\\"GURPS Magic\\\", there's no need ot buy this one unless your copy is worn out. If you don't have it, and you want to use magic in \\\"GURPS\\\", the material offered here is a vast improvement over the skeletal rules of the \\\"Basic Set\\\".\\\"\",\n \"GURPS Martial Arts\\nGURPS Martial Arts is a source book for the GURPS role-playing game, published by Steve Jackson Games; the most recent edition was scheduled to be released in 2007. \\\"GURPS Martial Arts\\\" includes new perks, skills, techniques, styles, weapons, and combat rules for GURPS, as well as history on the martial arts, pregenerated NPCs, and ideas for martial-arts campaigns. The book is an essential for any game that features large amounts of melee combat, in any genre or setting.\\nThis is a greatly expanded version of the third-edition \\\"GURPS Martial Arts\\\" source book, revised to work with the fourth-edition GURPS rules. It adds updated versions of combat rules from third-edition books like GURPS Compendium II, many of the weapons and weapon customization rules from GURPS Low Tech, and martial arts-related elements taken from third-edition historical worldbooks such as GURPS Japan and GURPS Swashbucklers. Detailed rules for low-tech battlefield weapons and armor will be reserved for GURPS Low Tech, while rules for firearms and \\\"Gun Fu\\\" will be covered in the fourth-edition version of GURPS High-Tech.\\nGame designer C.J. Carella got his start in the RPG industry with \\\"GURPS Martial Arts\\\", published in 1990.\\nThe authors are \\\"Peter Dell'Orto\\\" and \\\"Sean Punch\\\", who were inspired by but did not reuse the original text written by \\\"CJ Carella\\\".\\nReviewed in White Wolf #27\\nList of GURPS books\\n\",\n \"GURPS Fantasy\\nGURPS Fantasy is a \\\"Genre Toolkit\\\" source book for the GURPS Role-playing game. The fourth edition of GURPS separates the fantasy parts into fantasy and a setting book called GURPS Banestorm\\nThe first edition of \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" (1986) delivers the GURPS magic system and the background to the campaign world; with over 300 spells and 20 colleges of magic, the magic system is wide, varied, and detailed. Snatched from Earth the Crusaders still wage war on their ancient enemy, the Saracens, simultaneously contending with a wide range of ravaging monsters. Extensive commentary on the countries of Yrth and plenty of staging tips are included.\\nThe first edition is a \\\"GURPS\\\" supplement of fantasy rules, with a campaign setting. The rules cover magic (spell-point system) and spells (over 300), character creation, nonhuman races, magical creatures, and monsters. The campaign setting describes the world of Yrth (focusing on the country of Caithness), several other lands of humans and dwarves, plus data on culture and customs. It includes a color map. The original was supplanted by \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" 2nd edition and \\\"GURPS Magic\\\".\\n\\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" used the fantasy world of Yrth, which was introduced in \\\"Orcslayer\\\" (1985), the single supplement for \\\"Man to Man\\\". The magic rules for \\\"GURPS\\\" were not included in the original \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\", but were released in \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" (1986), which was also the first setting book for \\\"GURPS\\\" and added more detail on the world of Yrth.\\nThe second edition - \\\"GURPS Fantasy: The Magical World of Yrth\\\", 1990, second edition 1995 - is actually a completely new product based on the campaign-setting material in the first edition. The world of Yrth is described in much greater detail; the descriptions of the various kingdoms take 70 pages. The chief religions of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism receive much more attention, and there are a lot of guidelines on how to set up an Yrth campaign, such as what elements to include in a game, and what to emphasize and what to play down. A two-color map is included. The magic rules were expanded and re-issued in their own book, \\\"GURPS Magic\\\" (first edition 1989, second edition 1994).\\nThe background for Yrth was expanded even more in \\\"GURPS Fantasy Second Edition: The Magical World of Yrth\\\", after the magic rules were moved to the main \\\"GURPS\\\" box.\\n\\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" for 4e covers creation of many different types of Fantasy settings include \\\"High\\\" and \\\"Low\\\", \\\"Dark\\\" and \\\"Light\\\", Swords and Sorcery, and Myth. Example races are provided for all the standard fantasy Tropes as templates. The Yrth setting was moved out entirely to a new book called GURPS Banestorm, released in October 2005.\\nOne chapter is spent on describing an example setting called Roma Arcana, based on a fantastical Rome that never completely fell.\\n\\\"Note: Although the early editions of GURPS Fantasy contained information on Yrth, in GURPS 4E this is now in a separate book called GURPS Banestorm (2005)\\\"\\nA basic premise of the setting is that magical \\\"banestorms\\\" pick up people and whole villages from other worlds (including Earth) and deposit them on Yrth. As a result, many of the societies and cultures are reminiscent of a Crusades-era Earth, albeit with magic. One significant difference this brings is that, unlike many fantasy settings, Yrth has many of the major Earth faiths as its core religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and others.\\nThe settings's official timeline syncs up with our own, so that a \\\"normal\\\" campaign would be set in 2005 or 2006. The Banestorm started about 1,000 years ago when a group of \\\"Dark Elves\\\" completed a magical ritual designed to banish all Orcs from Yrth. The spell backfired horribly, and instead brought people from other worlds. Although the majority of Banestorm strikes occurred shortly after the initial backfire, giving the world its fantasy-medieval flavor, occasional flare-ups have occurred since then. For instance, in the 16th century a number of humans were transported to Yrth from France, bringing with them dangerous knowledge of Protestantism, and gunpowder. The latter has since been suppressed due to concerns by the Empire of Megalos about too much technological progress.\\nYrth was designed such that each region enables a different flavor of campaign. Araterre, for instance, is a seafaring nation inhabited by the descendants of those brought to Yrth from France in the 16th century. Light or no armor, swashbuckling, and courtly intrigue are the rule of the day. Sahud is the Asian mish-mash country, and would be suitable for a wuxia style game, or even something akin to Legend of the Five Rings. Some countries are almost entirely human-dominated, and others are mixed, while there are still some area completely under the control of Elves, Orcs, Dwarves, or Reptile Men.\\n\\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" was written by Steve Jackson, with a cover by Denis Loubet, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1986 as a 100-page book. The second edition, \\\"GURPS Fantasy: The Magical World of Yrth\\\" was written by Kirk Tate and Janet Naylor, with a cover by Kirk Reinert, and was published by Steve Jackson Games in 1990 as a 144-page book.\\n\\\"GURPS Fantasy II: Adventures in the Mad Lands\\\" (1993) was designed by Robin D. Laws with editing by Steve Jackson, and published by Steve Jackson Games as a 128-page softcover book with one 15\\\" × 20\\\" map sheet. It featured illustrations by John Hartwell, a map by Laura Eisenhour, and a cover by Rob Prior. \\\"Alarums & Excursions\\\" led Robin Laws to write \\\"GURPS Fantasy II\\\" for Steve Jackson Games in 1992.\\n\\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" for 4e was published in 2004, one of several genre books published by Steve Jackson Games for the new edition.\\nJim Bambra reviewed \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" for \\\"Dragon\\\" magazine #131 (March 1988). He felt that the book presents the magic system and background to the campaign world \\\"in a highly satisfying way\\\" and that \\\"Best of all, it works!\\\" On the campaign world, he comments: \\\"Rich in background and plundering freely from Earth history and religion, the world of Yrth is easily accessible and nicely presented.\\\" Bambra concludes: \\\"Extensive commentary on the countries of Yrth and plenty of staging tips make this a strong contender on the campaign front. \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" is an impressive product that is well worth a look.\\\"\\nReviewed in Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer #81.\\nThe first edition of \\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" was a Gamers' Choice award-winner.\\n\\\"GURPS Fantasy\\\" received the Origins Award nomination for Best Roleplaying Supplement of 1986.\\nRick Swan reviewed \\\"GURPS Fantasy II\\\" for \\\"Dragon\\\" magazine #198 (October 1993). Swan comments in his evaluation: \\\"I suspect that Laws wants us to be intrigued by the contrast between the utopian tribesmen and the chaotic deities. But I was never intrigued as much as I was amused, perhaps because it's hard to get worked up over a deity resembling a giant moose. The nuts and bolts of the relationship between the deities and the tribesmen remain unclear; as that's the crux of the book, it's a significant flaw. Despite the tantalizing possibilities, Laws hedges his bets and never cuts loose. I'd liked to have seen something really mad, like a village of Footless, or a gang war between the Gopher God and Mr. Moose. \\\"Adventures in the Mad Lands\\\" boasts an exquisite premise, but it could use a bolder vision.\\\"\",\n \"GURPS Bestiary\\nGURPS Bestiary is a source book for the GURPS role-playing game system containing information and statistics of animals. It also contains information animal player character templates, and tips for fitting animals into adventures. The first edition was published in 1988.\\nThe \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" contains over 200 creatures to populate the various worlds of the \\\"GURPS\\\" universe. The book classifies creatures by terrain type, and deals with normal animals, legendary beasts, and otherworld creatures. The book also contains GM commentaries on handling animal encounters, hunting and trapping, animals as companions, and how to create new animals.\\nThis supplement describes several hundred animals and monsters, mostly organized by habitat (e.g., arctic, desert, forest, jungle, swamp and subterranean) plus dinosaurs, domestic animals, otherworldly creatures, and \\\"loathsome crawlers\\\"; the book also includes rules and guidelines for game-mastering animals, animal companions, and hunting.\\n\\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" was a universal sourcebook for \\\"GURPS\\\" that could be used with many different worlds.\\nThe 1st edition of the \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" was written by Steffan O'Sullivan, with a cover by Ken Kelly and illustrations by Dan Carroll, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1988 as a 112-page book.\\nThe 2nd edition of \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" was updated by Chris McCubbin and Bob Schroeck, and had rules for were-creatures that wound up in \\\"GURPS Shapeshifters\\\" (2003). McCubbin and Schroeck wrote an article in a 1993 issue of \\\"Pyramid\\\" (a magazine published by Steve Jackson Games), offering extra material for the book.\\nThe current version of \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" is the 3rd edition, which was revised by Hunter Johnson and again featured Ken Kelly's cover art. Released in 2000, this expanded edition is 128 pages in length. Johnson published extra material for the 3rd edition in a 2000 issue of \\\"Pyramid\\\". As of August 2014, the 3rd edition of \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" was out of print, and a 4th edition had not yet been released for the 4th edition GURPS RPG system.\\nAll three editions featured the same cover image by Ken Kelly.\\nJim Bambra reviewed \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" for \\\"Dragon\\\" magazine #140 (December 1988). He comments on the book: \\\"The art is fairly poor — about the same standard as that in the \\\"Monster Manual\\\" — so don't expect to be thrilled by the illustrations. The \\\"GURPS Bestiary\\\" has much to offer \\\"GURPS\\\" GMs, but it is of limited use to anyone looking for new critters to add to his favorite game system.\\\"\",\n \"GURPS Banestorm\\nGURPS Banestorm, written by Phil Masters and Jonathan Woodward, was released in October 2005. It is a setting sourcebook for the fourth edition of the GURPS Role-playing game. It details a fantasy setting called \\\"Yrth\\\" that has been updated from the older GURPS Fantasy source books Orcslayer and GURPS Magic (first edition). The standard fantasy elements such as Wizards, Orcs, Elves, and Dwarves are present, along with connections to Infinite Worlds. There are also some more unusual fantastic races like the Reptile Men, and several others which can be added in as desired by the game master.\\nA basic premise of the setting is that magical \\\"banestorms\\\" pick up people and whole villages from other worlds (including Earth) and deposit them on Yrth. As a result, many of the societies and cultures are reminiscent of a Crusades-era Earth, albeit with magic. One significant difference this brings is that, unlike many fantasy settings, Yrth has many of the major Earth faiths as its core religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and others.\\nThe settings's official timeline syncs up with our own, so that a \\\"normal\\\" campaign would be set in 2005 or 2006. The Banestorm started about 1,000 years ago when a group of \\\"Dark Elves\\\" completed a magical ritual designed to banish all Orcs from Yrth. The spell backfired horribly, and instead brought people from other worlds. Although the majority of Banestorm strikes occurred shortly after the initial backfire, giving the world its fantasy-medieval flavor, occasional flare-ups have occurred since then. For instance, in the 16th century a number of humans were transported to Yrth from France, bringing with them dangerous knowledge of Protestantism, and gunpowder. The latter has since been suppressed due to concerns by the Empire of Megalos about too much technological progress.\\nOne of the interesting things about the setting is that a different flavor of fantasy campaign can be had depending on which region of Yrth one uses. Araterre, for instance, is a seafaring nation inhabited by the descendants of those brought to Yrth from France in the 16th century. Light or no armor, swashbuckling, and courtly intrigue are the rule of the day. Sahud is the Asian mish-mash country, and would be suitable for a wuxia style game, or even something akin to Legend of the Five Rings. Some countries are almost entirely human-dominated, and others are mixed, while there are still some area completely under the control of Elves, Orcs, Dwarves, or Reptile Men.\\nIn third edition GURPS, the book GURPS Fantasy covered the Yrth setting rather than being a genre toolkit. It was among the inspiration sources for the Media Computing Group of the RWTH Aachen University for the development of the REXplorer mobile game. GURPS Fantasy: Tredroy and GURPS Fantasy: Harkwood provide additional setting information about Yrth.\\n\\\"GURPS Banestorm\\\" was published in 2005, a return to the world of Yrth for fourth edition.\",\n \"D20 Past\\nd20 Past is a d20 based role-playing game released by Wizards of the Coast in 2005 as a supplement to \\\"d20 Modern\\\", providing a framework and new rules for campaigns set any historic settings from the Renaissance to World War II, including new character options and rules for early modern firearms. It begins with an exploration of the historical period between around 1450 and 1950, then provides rules for creating characters and campaigns that blend realism and fantasy. \\\"d20 Past\\\" also presents alternative campaign models, along with all the rules needed to play swashbuckling pirate adventures, Victorian horror investigations, thrilling Pulp Era escapades, and more, including three ready-to-play campaign modules.\\nThe book itself is divided into an introduction and five chapters:\\nFurther period background information was made available as a Web Enhancement\\nAccording to Wizards of the Coast a Progress Level (PL) is an indication of the state of technology that exists in a particular society or Progress Levels are arbitrary measurements of how advanced a culture is, based on developments in technology and society. The concept was introduced in d20 Future (and even earlier in TSR's Alternity manuals by Bill Slavicsek), to describe both the level of technology in the campaign as well as the technology levels of other species comparative to the human one. They are similar to the Tech Levels in GURPS. Progress levels of six and higher were studied in \\\"d20 Future\\\", with the default \\\"d20 Modern\\\" setting encompassing progress level five. In \\\"d20 Past\\\", two progress levels are available: Progress level three (the age of reason) and progress level four (the industrial age).\\nSkills and feats have deviated remarkably from their \\\"d20 Modern\\\" standards to accommodate for the differences in technology. For example, certain uses of a skill that were acceptable under a modern standard may no longer apply to a campaign setting where the technologies to perform these actions may not have been available. Similarly, some feats may represent modern knowledge or techniques that were not available to people centuries prior. It also includes new uses of skills and feats that might be more appropriate for a historic campaign.\\n\",\n \"Pyramid (magazine)\\nPyramid is a <a href=\\\"game\\\">gaming</a> magazine, publishing articles primarily on <a href=\\\"role-playing%20game\\\">role-playing game</a>s, but including <a href=\\\"board%20game\\\">board game</a>s, <a href=\\\"card%20game\\\">card game</a>s, and other sorts of games. It began life in 1993 as a print publication of <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a> for its first 30 issues, though it has been published on the Internet since March 1998. Print issues were bimonthly; the first online version published new articles each week; the second online version is monthly. \\\"Pyramid\\\" is headquartered in Austin, Texas. It replaced Steve Jackson Games' previous magazine \\\"<a href=\\\"Roleplayer%20%28magazine%29\\\">Roleplayer</a>\\\".\\n\\\"Pyramid\\\" features general gaming articles by freelance authors, as well as Designer's Notes by Steve Jackson Games product developers, industry news, cartoons, and gaming product reviews. Although articles tend to concentrate on Steve Jackson Games products such as \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\", it has published articles on other games such as \\\"<a href=\\\"d20%20System\\\">d20 System</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Talisman%20%28board%20game%29\\\">Talisman</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Nobilis\\\">Nobilis</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Hero%20System\\\">Hero System</a>\\\", and has featured various comic strips and single-panel cartoons (currently \\\"<a href=\\\"Murphy%27s%20Rules\\\">Murphy's Rules</a>\\\"). Steve Jackson Games also briefly published another online magazine, \\\"d20 Weekly\\\" for several months using a very similar model to that of Pyramid. However, the venture was not a success, and was eventually folded into a slightly expanded \\\"Pyramid\\\".\\nThe online subscription system used for \\\"Pyramid\\\" also granted access to subscriber forums, a dedicated chat server, and occasional pre-publication playtest material for Steve Jackson Games and other companies' products. In 2008 this was changed: Pyramid is available as a <a href=\\\"PDF\\\">PDF</a> download from <a href=\\\"e23%20%28online%20service%29\\\">e23</a>, and the subscriber forums have been discontinued. Access to playtest material is contingent on participation in an actual playtest.\\nThere are 1877 samples of articles released in it.\\nIssues:\\nArticles:\",\n \"Sean Punch\\nSean Punch (born July 27, 1967) is a Canadian <a href=\\\"writer\\\">writer</a> and <a href=\\\"game%20designer\\\">game designer</a>. He is the author of the fourth edition of the \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"role-playing%20game\\\">role-playing game</a>. Before he turned to writing he was a student of <a href=\\\"particle%20physics\\\">particle physics</a>.\\nAfter writing, editing, and contributing to dozens of books for \\\"GURPS\\\", Sean Punch took over from the game's original designer <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\\\">Steve Jackson</a> as the \\\"GURPS\\\" Line Editor in 1995, and slowly reshaped the line. Assisted by <a href=\\\"David%20L.%20Pulver\\\">David L. Pulver</a>, another Canadian and veteran role-playing game designer, he took on the task of re-designing the entire rule system for the a fourth edition of \\\"GURPS\\\" beginning in September 2002.\\nSean Punch remains the Line Editor for \\\"GURPS\\\" - equivalent to being editor-in-chief of a book series, and the key decision-maker for new rules expansions.\\nHe lives in <a href=\\\"Montr%C3%A9al\\\">Montréal</a>, <a href=\\\"Qu%C3%A9bec\\\">Québec</a>.\\nIn an attempt to acknowledge the quality and quantity of his work, some \\\"GURPS\\\" players have used his online nickname (\\\"Kromm\\\") to create a tongue-in-cheek cult. They leave messages in discussion groups pretending to \\\"praise Kromm.\\\"\\nSean Punch has appeared in the following newspaper and magazine articles, websites and podcasts.\",\n \"GURPS Basic Set\\nGURPS Basic Set is a <a href=\\\"hardcover\\\">hard-bound</a> two volume set written by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\\\">Steve Jackson</a>, <a href=\\\"Sean%20Punch\\\">Sean M. Punch</a>, and <a href=\\\"David%20Pulver\\\">David L. Pulver</a>. The first edition \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" was published in 1986.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\" stands for Generic Universal Role-Playing System – that is essentially a very flexible descendant of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Fantasy%20Trip\\\">The Fantasy Trip</a>\\\". Basic combat is simple, but advance combat is very position-oriented, almost a complicated boardgame. The level of complexity used is completely up to the players. The character improvement system is skill-based. The many additional supplements to the \\\"Basic Set\\\" enable \\\"GURPS\\\" characters to move easily from one gaming genre to another.\\nThe \\\"Basic Set\\\" includes a \\\"Characters\\\" book (72 pages, covers character creation and development, skills, and basic equipment), \\\"Adventuring\\\" (80 pages, covers success rolls, combat, damage, running the game, game and campaign backgrounds, and animals), a 24-page book of charts and tables, and a 32-page book of two introductory scenarios, one a solo.\\nThe original \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" included the combat rules from the previously published \\\"<a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%27s%20Man%20to%20Man\\\">Man to Man</a>\\\". Magic rules were omitted, but were released in \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Fantasy\\\">GURPS Fantasy</a>\\\" (1986).\\nThe third edition \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" combines all the books from the previous sets into one volume.\\nThe \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" for the fourth edition of \\\"GURPS\\\" was published in 2004 by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a> and contains the <a href=\\\"role-playing%20game%20system\\\">core rules</a> for the fourth edition of \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\". The first volume, \\\"Characters\\\" (<a href=\\\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\\\">ISBN</a> ), addresses what players need to know to create a \\\"GURPS\\\" character and play the game. Eight sample characters are included. The second volume is titled \\\"Campaigns\\\" (<a href=\\\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\\\">ISBN</a> ) and addresses the information a GM needs to build a world. All the basic information needed to run a \\\"GURPS\\\" campaign is here with genre or world-specific information in other books.\\nThe previous edition of the \\\"GURPS\\\" rules consisted of a Basic Set as the core rule book, with <a href=\\\"List%20of%20GURPS%20books\\\">\\\"GURPS Compendium 1\\\"</a> and <a href=\\\"List%20of%20GURPS%20books\\\">\\\"GURPS Compendium 2\\\"</a> released later to collate alternative and advanced rules in a logical place. Many source books published after the release of the compendiums required them for play. The fourth edition basic set shifts the majority of that material into the core rule books.\\nIn a move from previous editions, the books are hardbound and in color, a trend which has been followed in successive GURPS 4e books, with mixed reactions from players.\\nTo facilitate the transition from third edition to fourth, a free <a href=\\\"PDF\\\">PDF</a> update was released. It includes a quick but comprehensive guide to change characters or source book information to the new rules.\\nThe first edition \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" was written by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\\\">Steve Jackson</a> with <a href=\\\"Creede%20Lambard\\\">Creede Lambard</a> and <a href=\\\"Sharleen%20Lambard\\\">Sharleen Lambard</a>, with a cover by <a href=\\\"Denis%20Loubet\\\">Denis Loubet</a>, and was published by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a> in 1986 as a boxed set containing four books (80, 72, 32, and 24 pages), sample character record sheets, and cardstock miniatures. The boxed \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" appeared at <a href=\\\"Origins%20Game%20Fair\\\">Origins</a> in 1986. Steve Jackson Games began regularly supporting the game with supplements following the publication of the first \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\".\\nThe second edition revised \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" was published in 1987. The third edition \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" featured a cover by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Presley\\\">Michael Presley</a>, and was published in 1988 as a 256-page book with a 16-page pamphlet.\\nThe first edition of the \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" was reviewed by <a href=\\\"Marcus%20Rowland%20%28author%29\\\">Marcus L. Rowland</a> in issue 83 of \\\"<a href=\\\"White%20Dwarf%20%28magazine%29\\\">White Dwarf</a>\\\" magazine (November 1986). Rowland comments: \\\"While I can applaud the idea behind the system, I can't really recommend \\\"GURPS\\\" at its present stage of development. In the long run, \\\"GURPS\\\" and all its supplements may cover more ground than other systems, possibly at less expense, but in the short term there isn't enough support material to run a fully rounded game of any type, apart from gladitorial combat and medieval adventures.\\\"\\n\\\"Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer\\\" #79\\n\\\"Different Worlds\\\" #47\\n\\\"Aventurer\\\" #6\\nSecond edition Basic Set reviewed in \\\"White Wolf\\\" #13\\nMichael DeWolfe reviewed the third edition of the \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Space%20Gamer\\\">Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer</a>\\\" #85. DeWolfe comments in his summary: \\\"This game has looked at its peers and built on all of them; avoiding their mistakes and following their successes. If you're looking for a good point generation system, get \\\"GURPS\\\". If you're looking for a truly generic system, get \\\"GURPS\\\". If you're looking for a painstakingly coherent system, get \\\"GURPS\\\". If you want a fine RPG, get this game. It is worth it.\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Jim%20Bambra\\\">Jim Bambra</a> reviewed the third edition of the \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" for \\\"<a href=\\\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\\\">Dragon</a>\\\" magazine #149 (September 1989). Bambra comments: \\\"Now in its third incarnation, the \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" is better than ever. [...] It's a game designed to be used with an unlimited variety of backgrounds and settings; to its credit, the GURPS game does so admirably.\\\"\\n\\\"Games Review\\\" #5\\nThe third edition \\\"GURPS Basic Set\\\" was an ORIGINS and Gamers' Choice award-winner.\",\n \"John M. Ford\\nJohn Milo \\\"Mike\\\" Ford (April 10, 1957 – September 25, 2006) was an American science fiction and <a href=\\\"fantasy\\\">fantasy</a> writer, <a href=\\\"game%20designer\\\">game designer</a>, and poet.\\nA contributor to several <a href=\\\"online%20discussion\\\">online discussion</a>s, he composed poems, often improvised, in both complicated forms and <a href=\\\"blank%20verse\\\">blank verse</a>, notably Shakespearean <a href=\\\"pastiche\\\">pastiche</a>; he also wrote pastiches and <a href=\\\"parody\\\">parodies</a> of many other authors and styles. At <a href=\\\"Minicon\\\">Minicon</a> and other <a href=\\\"science%20fiction%20convention\\\">science fiction convention</a>s he would perform \\\"Ask Dr. Mike\\\", giving humorous answers to scientific and other questions in a lab coat before a whiteboard.\\nFord was born in <a href=\\\"East%20Chicago%2C%20Indiana\\\">East Chicago, Indiana</a>, and raised in <a href=\\\"Whiting%2C%20Indiana\\\">Whiting, Indiana</a>. In the mid-1970s he attended <a href=\\\"Indiana%20University%20Bloomington\\\">Indiana University Bloomington</a>, where he was active in the IU <a href=\\\"science%20fiction%20club\\\">science fiction club</a> and <a href=\\\"Society%20for%20Creative%20Anachronism\\\">Society for Creative Anachronism</a> (using the name Miles Atherton de Grey); while there, he published his first short story \\\"This, Too, We Reconcile\\\" in the May 1976 \\\"<a href=\\\"Analog%20Science%20Fiction%20and%20Fact\\\">Analog</a>\\\".\\nFord left IU and moved to New York to work on the newly founded \\\"<a href=\\\"Isaac%20Asimov%27s%20Science%20Fiction%20Magazine\\\">Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine</a>\\\", where, starting in mid-1978, he published poetry, fiction, articles, and game reviews. Although his last non-fiction appeared there in September 1981, he was tenth most frequent contributor for the 1977–2002 period. About 1990, he moved to <a href=\\\"Minneapolis\\\">Minneapolis</a>. In addition to writing, he worked at various times as a hospital orderly, computer consultant, <a href=\\\"slush%20pile\\\">slush pile</a> reader, and <a href=\\\"copy%20editing\\\">copy editor</a>.\\nFord suffered from complications related to <a href=\\\"diabetes\\\">diabetes</a> since childhood and also had <a href=\\\"kidney\\\">renal</a> dysfunction which required <a href=\\\"dialysis\\\">dialysis</a> and, in 2000, a <a href=\\\"kidney%20transplant\\\">kidney transplant</a>, which improved his quality of life considerably. He was found dead from natural causes in his Minneapolis home on September 25, 2006, by his partner since the mid-1990s, <a href=\\\"Elise%20Matthesen\\\">Elise Matthesen</a>. He was a prominent member of the \\\"Friends of the <a href=\\\"Minneapolis%20Public%20Library\\\">Minneapolis Public Library</a>\\\", which established a \\\"John M. Ford Book Endowment\\\" after his death with the donations to be used as <a href=\\\"interest\\\">interest</a>-generating capital for yearly purchase of new books.\\nThough Ford's novels varied in setting and style, several were of the <a href=\\\"Bildungsroman\\\">Bildungsroman</a> (coming-of-age) type: in \\\"Web of Angels\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Final%20Reflection\\\">The Final Reflection</a>\\\", \\\"Princes of the Air\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Growing%20Up%20Weightless\\\">Growing Up Weightless</a>\\\", and \\\"The Last Hot Time\\\", Ford wrote variations on the theme of growing up, learning about one's world and one's place in it, and taking responsibility for it – which involves taking on the power and wisdom to influence events, to help make the world a better place.\\nFord's 1983 book \\\"The Klingons\\\" for <a href=\\\"FASA\\\">FASA</a>'s influenced later Paramount productions. Ford authored the award-winning adventure \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Yellow%20Clearance%20Black%20Box%20Blues\\\">The Yellow Clearance Black Box Blues</a>\\\" (1985) for <a href=\\\"West%20End%20Games\\\">West End Games</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"Paranoia%20%28role-playing%20game%29\\\">Paranoia</a>\\\" role-playing game.\\nOtherwise, Ford's works are characterized by an aversion to doing things that have been done before. This is perhaps most notable in his two <a href=\\\"Star%20Trek\\\">Star Trek</a> novels, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Final%20Reflection\\\">The Final Reflection</a>\\\" (1984) and \\\"<a href=\\\"How%20Much%20for%20Just%20the%20Planet%3F\\\">How Much for Just the Planet?</a>\\\" (1987). \\\"The Final Reflection\\\" is the story of a small group of <a href=\\\"Klingon\\\">Klingon</a>s who prevent a war between the <a href=\\\"Klingon%20Empire\\\">Klingon Empire</a> and the <a href=\\\"United%20Federation%20of%20Planets\\\">Federation</a> while the regular series characters are relegated to cameo appearances. (This novel introduced the <a href=\\\"fictional%20language\\\">fictional language</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Klingonaase\\\">Klingonaase</a>\\\".) In the comedic \\\"<a href=\\\"How%20Much%20for%20Just%20the%20Planet%3F\\\">How Much for Just the Planet?</a>\\\", the \\\"Enterprise\\\" crew compete with a Klingon crew for control of a planet, whose colonists are not happy with this and defend their peace in inventive ways, which soon make everything a <a href=\\\"farce\\\">farce</a>, including a <a href=\\\"Vaudeville\\\">Vaudevillian</a> pie fight. The book includes song <a href=\\\"lyrics\\\">lyrics</a> that satirize many 20th century stage <a href=\\\"music%20theater\\\">musicals</a>. Both novels present the Klingons in a more positive light, not just as the token evil menace of the week.\\nFord avoided repetition not only of the work of others, but also of his own work. Where many writers make a name for themselves by developing a known style that repeats in many books, Ford always surprised with his ability to use a variety of styles that best suited the world, characters, and situations he had chosen to write about. (<a href=\\\"John%20Clute\\\">John Clute</a> expressed this in 1993 \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Science%20Fiction\\\">The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction</a>\\\" as \\\"Two decades into his career, there remains some sense that JMF remains unwilling or unable to create a definitive style or mode; but his originality is evident, a shifting feisty energy informs almost everything he writes, and that career is still young.\\\") This might have limited his readership, however he was much respected by his fellow writers, editors, critics and fans. <a href=\\\"Robert%20Jordan\\\">Robert Jordan</a>, Ford's lifelong close friend, called Ford \\\"the best writer in America – bar none.\\\" <a href=\\\"Neil%20Gaiman\\\">Neil Gaiman</a> called Ford \\\"my best critic … the best writer I knew.\\\" <a href=\\\"Patrick%20Nielsen%20Hayden\\\">Patrick Nielsen Hayden</a> said \\\"Most normal people had the slight sense that something large and super-intelligent and trans-human had sort of flown over ... There would be a point where basically the plot would become so knotted and complex he would lose all of us.\\\"\\nMuch of his work is out of print, despite accolades; this appears to be a deliberate effort by his heirs, who did not approve of his writing.\\nWith <a href=\\\"Darrell%20Schweitzer\\\">Darrell Schweitzer</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20H.%20Scithers\\\">George H. Scithers</a>, Ford co-authored \\\"On Writing Science Fiction (The Editors Strike Back!)\\\" (1981, Owlswick Press, <a href=\\\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\\\">ISBN</a> ; <a href=\\\"Wildside%20Press\\\">Wildside Press</a> 2000, <a href=\\\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\\\">ISBN</a> ), a writers' manual with advice illustrated by short stories that were first sales to \\\"IASFM\\\".\\nFord published a variety of short fiction and poetry, from <a href=\\\"short%20short%20story\\\">short short stories</a> that are essentially fantastic jokes, to novellas revealing a deep understanding of human frailties and emotions. His poem \\\"Winter Solstice, Camelot Station\\\" won the <a href=\\\"World%20Fantasy%20Award\\\">World Fantasy Award</a> for <a href=\\\"World%20Fantasy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Short%20Fiction\\\">Short Fiction</a> in 1989.\\nFord published some children's fiction under pseudonyms that he did not make public, and two children's <a href=\\\"gamebook\\\">gamebook</a>s under <a href=\\\"pen%20name%23%26quot%3BHouse%26quot%3B%20name\\\">house names</a> Michael J. Dodge (\\\"Star Trek: Voyage to Adventure\\\", 1984) and Milo Dennison (\\\"The Case of the Gentleman Ghost\\\", 1985).\\nFord plotted three issues of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Captain%20Confederacy\\\">Captain Confederacy</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"alternate%20history\\\">alternate history</a> comics in the late 1980s and wrote issue number 10, \\\"Driving North.\\\"\\nFord also contributed to \\\"The World of Robert Jordan's <a href=\\\"The%20Wheel%20of%20Time\\\">The Wheel of Time</a>\\\" (2001, Tor Books, <a href=\\\"International%20Standard%20Book%20Number\\\">ISBN</a> ), drawing some of the maps.\\nFord further wrote Klingon manuals for the , and a number of <a href=\\\"role-playing%20game\\\">RPG</a> articles, which appeared in \\\"Autoduel Quarterly\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Pyramid%20%28magazine%29\\\">Pyramid</a>\\\", \\\"Roleplayer\\\", \\\"Space Gamer\\\", and \\\"Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society\\\".\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Final%20Reflection\\\">The Final Reflection</a>\\\" he described a chess-like game played by Klingons, \\\"<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.tasigh.org/takzh/\\\">klin zha</a>,\\\" which has been adopted by Klingon fandom.\",\n \"David Ladyman\\nDavid Ladyman is a <a href=\\\"game%20designer\\\">game designer</a> who has worked primarily on <a href=\\\"role-playing%20game\\\">role-playing game</a>s.\\nAs a staffer for <a href=\\\"Mayfair%20Games\\\">Mayfair Games</a>, David Ladyman worked with <a href=\\\"Troy%20Denning\\\">Troy Denning</a>, <a href=\\\"Louis%20Prosperi\\\">Louis Prosperi</a>, and <a href=\\\"Jeff%20R.%20Leason\\\">Jeff Leason</a> on the second edition of \\\"<a href=\\\"Chill%20%28role-playing%20game%29\\\">Chill</a>\\\" (1990).\\nHis \\\"<a href=\\\"Dungeons%20%26amp%3B%20Dragons\\\">D&D</a>\\\" work includes writing and editing on \\\"<a href=\\\"Tales%20of%20the%20Outer%20Planes\\\">Tales of the Outer Planes</a>\\\" (1988), \\\"<a href=\\\"Dragon%20Magic%20%28module%29\\\">Dragon Magic</a>\\\" (1989), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Dragon%20Dawn\\\">Dragon Dawn</a>\\\" (1990).\\nHe also authored the <a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a> adaptation of <a href=\\\"The%20Prisoner\\\">The Prisoner</a> television program for <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a>.\",\n \"GURPS Ultra-Tech\\nGURPS Ultra-Tech is a <a href=\\\"sourcebook\\\">sourcebook</a> for \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\".\\n\\\"GURPS Ultra-Tech\\\" is an equipment guide, a universal sourcebook for \\\"GURPS\\\" that could be used with many different worlds.\\n\\\"GURPS Ultra-Tech\\\" was written by <a href=\\\"David%20Pulver\\\">David Pulver</a> and published by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a> in 1989.\\nA new \\\"GURPS Ultra-Tech\\\" (2007) was one of the tech books published for \\\"GURPS\\\" 4e.\\n\",\n \"GURPS Aliens\\nGURPS Aliens is a <a href=\\\"sourcebook\\\">sourcebook</a> for \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\" published in 1990.\\n\\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" is a complete sourcebook on extraterrestrials, intended for use with \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Space\\\">GURPS Space</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Horror\\\">GURPS Horror</a>\\\", or \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Supers\\\">GURPS Supers</a>\\\".\\n\\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" is a \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\" supplement describing 28 alien races for use with \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Space\\\">GURPS Space</a>\\\", including the An Phar, \\\"pig-like humanoids with a love of philosophy,\\\" the Banduch, \\\"super-powerful psychic dinosaurs,\\\" and the Verms: \\\"Their ambition is to eat the galaxy.\\\"\\nAliens came out before the more successful Fantasy Folk. The supplemental rules forming about a third of the book were largely outmoded by the revised edition of Supers.\\n\\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" was written by <a href=\\\"Chris%20W.%20McCubbin\\\">Chris W. McCubbin</a> with <a href=\\\"W.G.%20Armintrout\\\">W.G. Armintrout</a>, <a href=\\\"William%20Barton%20%28game%20designer%29\\\">William A. Barton</a>, <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20%28US%20game%20designer%29\\\">Steve Jackson</a>, <a href=\\\"Creede%20Lambard\\\">Creede Lambard</a>, and <a href=\\\"Sharleen%20Lambard\\\">Sharleen Lambard</a>, with a cover by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Whelan\\\">Michael Whelan</a>, and was published by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a> in 1990 as a 128-page book. \\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" requires the \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Basic%20Set\\\">GURPS Basic Set</a>\\\" to use. \\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" was one of several sourcebooks to help fill out the \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS%20Space\\\">GURPS Space</a>\\\" world.\\n<a href=\\\"David%20L.%20Pulver\\\">David L. Pulver</a> reviewed \\\"GURPS Aliens\\\" for \\\"<a href=\\\"Challenge%20%28game%20magazine%29\\\">Challenge</a>\\\" #49. Pulver comments in his conclusion: \\\"\\\"GURPS Aliens\\\"' imaginative array of extraterrestrial races coupled with its lucid organization makes it a pleasure to read and to use. I have no hesitation in giving it a whole-hearted recommendation, not only as an invaluable sourcebook for \\\"GURPS\\\", but as a useful source of ideas for any science-fiction RPG.\\\"\",\n \"GURPS Vehicles\\nGURPS Vehicles is a <a href=\\\"sourcebook\\\">sourcebook</a> for \\\"<a href=\\\"GURPS\\\">GURPS</a>\\\". The first edition was published in 1993.\\n\\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\" explains how to build and operate an array of conveyances, from sailboats to starships to witches' brooms. Step-by-step instructions show how to select the structural frame, propulsion system, and thrust factor for vehicles such as a nuclear-powered tilt-rotor mini-copter.The book includes a very mathematical vehicle construction system as part of its complex and intricate mechanics.\\nThe second edition of \\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\" offers a complete vehicle design system for players and referees. The entire book has been re-written, revised and updated, and features many more options and accessories. It contains expanded rules for spacecraft and locomotives, and a comprehensive weapons design system.\\n\\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\" was written by <a href=\\\"David%20Pulver\\\">David Pulver</a> and published by <a href=\\\"Steve%20Jackson%20Games\\\">Steve Jackson Games</a>. After the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Secret%20Service\\\">Secret Service</a> raid on SJG, the company stopped printing adventures for financial reasons, and as a result put out standalone \\\"GURPS\\\" books; this included more universal books such as \\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\".\\n<a href=\\\"Rick%20Swan\\\">Rick Swan</a> reviewed \\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\" for \\\"<a href=\\\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\\\">Dragon</a>\\\" magazine #205 (May 1994). He comments that the book has \\\"some of the year's most literate writing and meticulous research, courtesy of ace designer David Pulver\\\". Swan concludes that although the material is \\\"presented in \\\"GURPS\\\"-speak, a referee with a calculator should be able to reconfigure the statistics for other games\\\".\\nAndy Butcher reviewed \\\"GURPS Vehicles 2nd Edition\\\" for \\\"Arcane\\\" magazine, rating it a 7 out of 10 overall. He comments that \\\"the actual design process has been simplified, making it easier to use without sacrificing detail, and the designs are fully compatible with \\\"GURPS Robots\\\". This last point is not particularly surprising, considering that this book has been written by the same author, David L. Pulver.\\\" Butcher commented that the design process is \\\"pleasantly logical\\\" and added that \\\"\\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\" is admirably flexible and enables you to design pretty much anything you like\\\" however he concluded: \\\"you can't help but wonder just how this book's going to be useful. Certainly, if you're running a vehicle-heavy campaign, and want some degree of consistency in the designs, or intend to allow your players to build custom vehicles, then \\\"GURPS Vehicles 2nd Edition\\\" will be very handy indeed. For most campaigns, though, I can't imagine it's going to be required reading. Still, it certainly achieves what it sets out to do well.\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Rick%20Swan\\\">Rick Swan</a> reviewed \\\"GURPS Vehicles, Second Edition\\\" for \\\"<a href=\\\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\\\">Dragon</a>\\\" magazine #240 (October 1997). Swan comments: \\\"if you can drive it, fly it, or hitch it to a donkey, you'll find it in \\\"GURPS Vehicles\\\", a staggeringly complete collection of conveyances for the \\\"GURPS\\\" game (but adaptable to other game systems with a little effort). New to this edition are the plethora of starships, a slew of new accessories, and all the nips and tucks necessary to ensure compatibility with \\\"GURPS Robots\\\" (also by Pulver). But the main attraction remains the same: easy-to-follow guidelines for building game-ready versions of everything from skateboards to time machines.\\\"\",\n \"Jim Bambra\\nJim Bambra (born 1956) is a British designer and reviewer of <a href=\\\"fantasy\\\">fantasy</a> <a href=\\\"roleplaying%20games\\\">roleplaying games</a> (RPG), and a former company director. He is particularly known for his contributions to \\\"<a href=\\\"Dungeons%20and%20Dragons\\\">Dungeons and Dragons</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Fighting%20Fantasy\\\">Fighting Fantasy</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Warhammer%20Fantasy%20Roleplay\\\">Warhammer</a>\\\", and \\\"\\\" which was based on the \\\"<a href=\\\"Star%20Wars\\\">Star Wars</a>\\\" films. Later he became head of design at <a href=\\\"MicroProse\\\">MicroProse</a>, then managing director of <a href=\\\"Pivotal%20Games\\\">Pivotal Games</a>, a publisher of <a href=\\\"video%20games\\\">video games</a> including \\\"\\\".\\nJim Bambra worked on game design and materials for various companies during the 1980s and early 1990s, including <a href=\\\"TSR%20%28company%29\\\">TSR</a> (publisher of \\\"Dungeons and Dragons\\\"), <a href=\\\"Games%20Workshop\\\">Games Workshop</a> (\\\"Warhammer\\\"), and <a href=\\\"West%20End%20Games\\\">West End Games</a> (\\\"Star Wars RPG\\\").\\nIn 1983, Bambra wrote \\\"The Beginner’s Guide to Roleplaying Games\\\" (with Paul Ruiz), published in \\\"<a href=\\\"Imagine%20%28AD%26amp%3BD%20magazine%29\\\">Imagine</a>\\\" magazine Issue 6 (Sept 1983), explaining what an RPG is and accompanied by a comic strip, \\\"The Adventures of Nic Novice\\\". He was a reviewer and writer for Imagine magazine 1983-1985, and reviewer for <a href=\\\"White%20Dwarf%20%28magazine%29\\\">White Dwarf</a> and <a href=\\\"Dragon%20%28magazine%29\\\">Dragon</a> magazines during the late 1980s and early 1990s.\\nIn 1989, Bambra co-wrote the <a href=\\\"Fighting%20Fantasy\\\">Fighting Fantasy</a> <a href=\\\"gamebook\\\">gamebook</a> <a href=\\\"Dead%20of%20Night%20%28Fighting%20Fantasy%29\\\">Dead of Night</a> for <a href=\\\"Puffin%20Books\\\">Puffins</a>, a <a href=\\\"Penguin%20Group\\\">Penguin</a> inprint, with <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Hand\\\">Stephen Hand</a>.\\nDuring the 1990s he was Head of Design at <a href=\\\"MicroProse\\\">MicroProse</a>, where he worked on projects including \\\"<a href=\\\"Fields%20of%20Glory\\\">Fields of Glory</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Formula%20One%20Grand%20Prix%20%28video%20game%29\\\">Grand Prix</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Special%20Forces%20%28video%20game%29\\\">Special Forces</a>\\\", various <a href=\\\"X-COM\\\">X-COM</a> products, and \\\"<a href=\\\"Gunship%20%28video%20game%29\\\">Gunship</a>\\\".\\nIn 1996 Bambra founded <a href=\\\"Pumpkin%20Studios\\\">Pumpkin Studios</a>, which achieved success with \\\"<a href=\\\"Warzone%202100\\\">Warzone 2100</a>\\\", a <a href=\\\"computer%20game\\\">computer game</a> with a post-nuclear scenario. This company closed in 2000 after <a href=\\\"Eidos%20Interactive\\\">Eidos Interactive</a> cancelled its then current project, \\\"Saboteur\\\", a <a href=\\\"PlayStation%20%28console%29\\\">PlayStation</a> video game.\\nIn 2003 he became managing director at <a href=\\\"Pivotal%20Games\\\">Pivotal Games</a> Ltd, a videogame development company based in <a href=\\\"Bath%2C%20Somerset\\\">Bath</a> and owned by <a href=\\\"SCi\\\">SCi</a> Ltd. During his period at the firm it published the series of \\\"Conflict:\\\" videogames, the most successful of which was \\\"\\\". He remained as director until 2008, when SCi closed down the company. Between 2005 and 2009 he was also a board member of <a href=\\\"The%20Independent%20Games%20Developers%20Association\\\">The Independent Games Developers Association</a> Ltd.\\nJim Bambra produced the following gamebooks and materials for roleplaying games, many in collaboration with other authors:\\n\\\"Echoes of the Jedi: Episode IV of Star Wars: Dawn of Defiance\\\" was dedicated to \\\"Jim Bambra and all the unsung authors of the early Star Wars Expanded Universe\\\".\\n\",\n \"Robert A. Taft\\nRobert Alphonso Taft Sr. (September 8, 1889 – July 31, 1953) was an American <a href=\\\"conservatism%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">conservative</a> politician, lawyer, and scion of the <a href=\\\"Taft%20family\\\">Taft family</a>. A member of the <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican Party</a>, he represented <a href=\\\"Ohio\\\">Ohio</a> in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate\\\">United States Senate</a> and briefly served as <a href=\\\"Party%20leaders%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\\\">Senate Majority Leader</a>.\\nThe elder son of <a href=\\\"William%20Howard%20Taft\\\">William Howard Taft</a>, the <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Presidents%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">27th</a> <a href=\\\"President%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">President of the United States</a>, Robert Taft was born in <a href=\\\"Cincinnati%2C%20Ohio\\\">Cincinnati, Ohio</a>. He pursued a legal career in Cincinnati after graduating from <a href=\\\"Harvard%20Law%20School\\\">Harvard Law School</a> in 1913. Along with his brother, <a href=\\\"Charles%20Phelps%20Taft%20II\\\">Charles Phelps Taft II</a>, he co-founded the law partnership of <a href=\\\"Taft%20Stettinius%20%26amp%3B%20Hollister\\\">Taft Stettinius & Hollister</a>. Taft served in the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">Ohio House of Representatives</a> from 1921 to 1931 and in the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Senate\\\">Ohio Senate</a> from 1931 to 1933. Though he lost re-election in 1932, he remained a powerful force in state and local politics.\\nTaft won election to the United States Senate in <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201938\\\">1938</a>, defeating incumbent Democrat <a href=\\\"Robert%20J.%20Bulkley\\\">Robert J. Bulkley</a>. He became a leader of the <a href=\\\"conservative%20coalition\\\">conservative coalition</a> of Republicans and conservative Democrats who successfully opposed expansion of the <a href=\\\"New%20Deal\\\">New Deal</a> after 1938. He also emerged as a prominent <a href=\\\"Non-interventionism\\\">non-interventionist</a> and opposed U.S. involvement into <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a> prior to the <a href=\\\"Japan\\\">Japan</a>ese <a href=\\\"Attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\\\">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>. After the war, he opposed the creation of <a href=\\\"NATO\\\">NATO</a> and criticized President <a href=\\\"Harry%20Truman\\\">Harry Truman</a>'s handling of the <a href=\\\"Korean%20War\\\">Korean War</a>. He also cosponsored the <a href=\\\"Labor%20Management%20Relations%20Act%20of%201947\\\">Labor Management Relations Act of 1947</a>, which banned <a href=\\\"closed%20shop\\\">closed shop</a>s and other labor practices.\\nAfter winning election to the Senate, Taft repeatedly sought the Republican presidential nomination, often battling for control of the party with the moderate faction of Republicans led by <a href=\\\"Thomas%20E.%20Dewey\\\">Thomas E. Dewey</a>. Taft's non-interventionist stances damaged his 1940 candidacy, and the <a href=\\\"1940%20Republican%20National%20Convention\\\">1940 Republican National Convention</a> nominated <a href=\\\"Wendell%20Willkie\\\">Wendell Willkie</a>. Taft sought the presidency again in 1948, but he lost to Dewey at the <a href=\\\"1948%20Republican%20National%20Convention\\\">1948 Republican National Convention</a>. Taft sought the presidential nomination a third time in 1952 and was widely viewed as the frontrunner. However, Dewey and other moderates convinced General <a href=\\\"Dwight%20D.%20Eisenhower\\\">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> to enter the race, and Eisenhower narrowly prevailed at the <a href=\\\"1952%20Republican%20National%20Convention\\\">1952 Republican National Convention</a> and went on to win the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201952\\\">1952 presidential election</a>. Taft was elected Senate Majority Leader in 1953 but died of pancreatic cancer later that year. A 1957 Senate committee named Taft as one of America's five greatest senators, along with <a href=\\\"Henry%20Clay\\\">Henry Clay</a>, <a href=\\\"Daniel%20Webster\\\">Daniel Webster</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20C.%20Calhoun\\\">John C. Calhoun</a>, and <a href=\\\"Robert%20M.%20La%20Follette%2C%20Sr.\\\">Robert M. La Follette, Sr.</a>\\nTaft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, a product of one of America's most prominent political families. He was a grandson of <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Attorney%20General\\\">Attorney General</a> and <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20War\\\">Secretary of War</a> <a href=\\\"Alphonso%20Taft\\\">Alphonso Taft</a>, and the elder son of President and Chief Justice <a href=\\\"William%20Howard%20Taft\\\">William Howard Taft</a> and <a href=\\\"Helen%20Herron%20Taft\\\">Helen Louise \\\"Nellie\\\" Herron</a>. His younger brother, <a href=\\\"Charles%20Phelps%20Taft%20II\\\">Charles Phelps Taft II</a>, served as the <a href=\\\"Mayor\\\">Mayor</a> of <a href=\\\"Cincinnati\\\">Cincinnati</a> and was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for Ohio Governor in 1952. As a boy he spent four years in the <a href=\\\"Philippines\\\">Philippines</a>, where his father was <a href=\\\"Governor-General%20of%20the%20Philippines\\\">governor</a>. He was first in his class at the <a href=\\\"Taft%20School\\\">Taft School</a> (run by his uncle), at <a href=\\\"Yale%20College\\\">Yale College</a> (1910), and at <a href=\\\"Harvard%20Law%20School\\\">Harvard Law School</a> (1913). He was a member of <a href=\\\"Psi%20Upsilon\\\">Psi Upsilon</a>, his father's fraternity and <a href=\\\"Skull%20and%20Bones\\\">Skull and Bones</a>, and edited the \\\"<a href=\\\"Harvard%20Law%20Review\\\">Harvard Law Review</a>\\\". In 1913, Taft scored the highest in the state on the Ohio bar exam. He then practiced for four years with the firm of Maxwell and Ramsey (now Graydon Head & Ritchey LLP) in <a href=\\\"Cincinnati\\\">Cincinnati</a>, his family's ancestral city. After a two-year stint in Washington working for the <a href=\\\"Food%20and%20Drug%20Administration%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Food and Drug Administration</a>, he returned to Cincinnati and opened his own law office. In 1924 he and his brother, Charles, helped form the law partnership <a href=\\\"Taft%2C%20Stettinius%2C%20and%20Hollister\\\">Taft, Stettinius, and Hollister</a> with which he continued to be associated until his death and continues to carry his name today.\\nOn October 17, 1914, he married Martha Wheaton Bowers (1889–1958), daughter of <a href=\\\"Lloyd%20Wheaton%20Bowers\\\">Lloyd Wheaton Bowers</a> and Louisa Bennett Wilson. Taft himself appeared taciturn and coldly intellectual, characteristics that were offset by his gregarious wife, who served the same role his mother had for his father, as a confidante and powerful asset to her husband's political career. In May 1950, Martha suffered a severe <a href=\\\"stroke\\\">stroke</a> that left her an invalid, leaving her confined to a wheelchair, unable to take care of herself, and reliant upon her husband, children, and nurses for support. A biographer called his wife's stroke \\\"the deepest personal blow of [Taft's] life...there was no denying that he suffered.\\\" Following her stroke, Taft faithfully assisted his wife, called her every night when he was away on business, read stories to her at night when he was at home, \\\"pushed her about in her wheelchair, lifted her in and out of cars...tenderly did his best to make her feel comfortable and happy, and helped feed and take care of her at public functions\\\" - facts which, his admirers noted, belied his public image as a cold and uncaring person. They had four sons: <a href=\\\"William%20Howard%20Taft%20III\\\">William Howard Taft III</a> (1915–1991), who became ambassador to Ireland; <a href=\\\"Robert%20Taft%20Jr.\\\">Robert Alphonso Taft Jr.</a> (1917–1993), who was also elected to the U.S. Senate; Lloyd Bowers Taft (1923–1985), who worked as an investment banker in Cincinnati, and Horace Dwight Taft (1925–1983), who became a professor of physics and dean at Yale. Two of Robert and Martha's grandsons are <a href=\\\"Bob%20Taft\\\">Robert Alphonso \\\"Bob\\\" Taft III</a> (born 1942), <a href=\\\"Governor%20of%20Ohio\\\">Governor of Ohio</a> from 1999 to 2007, and <a href=\\\"William%20Howard%20Taft%20IV\\\">William Howard Taft IV</a> (born 1945), <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Deputy%20Secretary%20of%20Defense\\\">Deputy Secretary of Defense</a> from 1984 to 1989.\\nIn 1917, Taft and his wife bought a 46 acre farm in <a href=\\\"Indian%20Hill%2C%20Ohio\\\">Indian Hill</a>, a well-to-do suburb of Cincinnati. Called Sky Farm, it would serve as Taft's primary residence for the rest of his life. The Tafts gradually made extensive renovations that turned the small farmhouse into a sixteen-room mansion. On the farm Taft enjoyed growing <a href=\\\"strawberries\\\">strawberries</a>, <a href=\\\"asparagus\\\">asparagus</a>, and <a href=\\\"potatoes\\\">potatoes</a> for profit. During the summer, Taft often vacationed with his wife and children at the Taft family's summer home at <a href=\\\"La%20Malbaie\\\">Murray Bay</a>, in <a href=\\\"Quebec\\\">Quebec</a>, <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a>. Although he was nominally a member of the <a href=\\\"Episcopal%20Church%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Episcopal</a> church, his biographer James Patterson noted that Taft's \\\"religious inclinations were weak\\\" and that he was a \\\"Sunday morning golfer, not a church-going Episcopalian.\\\" When reporters asked his wife Martha what church he attended, she jokingly replied, \\\"I'd have to say the <a href=\\\"Burning%20Tree%20Club\\\">Burning Tree</a>\\\", an exclusive country club and golf course in suburban Washington.\\nWhen the United States entered <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a> in April 1917, Taft attempted to join the army but was rejected due to his poor eyesight. Instead, he joined the legal staff of the <a href=\\\"Food%20and%20Drug%20Administration%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Food and Drug Administration</a> where he met <a href=\\\"Herbert%20Hoover\\\">Herbert Hoover</a>, who became his idol. In 1918 and 1919, he was in <a href=\\\"Paris\\\">Paris</a> as legal adviser for the <a href=\\\"American%20Relief%20Administration\\\">American Relief Administration</a>, Hoover's agency to distribute food to wartorn Europe. He came to distrust governmental bureaucracy as inefficient and detrimental to the rights of the individual, a principle he promoted throughout his career. He urged membership in the <a href=\\\"League%20of%20Nations\\\">League of Nations</a> but generally distrusted European politicians. He endorsed the idea of a powerful world court to enforce international law, but no such idealized court ever existed during his lifetime. He returned to Cincinnati in late 1919, promoted Hoover for president in 1920, and opened a law firm with his brother, Charles Taft. In 1920 he was elected to the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">Ohio House of Representatives</a>, where he served as Speaker of the House in 1926. In 1930, he was elected to the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Senate\\\">Ohio Senate</a>, but was defeated for re-election in 1932; it would be the only general election defeat of his career. He was an outspoken opponent of the <a href=\\\"Ku%20Klux%20Klan\\\">Ku Klux Klan</a>, and he did not support <a href=\\\"prohibition\\\">prohibition</a>. In 1925 he voted against a bill, sponsored by Ohio state representatives who were members of the Ku Klux Klan, to outlaw dancing on Sundays, and he led the fight against a Klan-sponsored bill requiring all Ohio public school teachers to read at least ten verses of the Bible each day in class. In his speech opposing the bill, Taft stated that religion should be taught in churches, not public schools, and while the Bible was great literature, \\\"in it religion overshadows all else.\\\" The bill passed the legislature over the opposition of Taft and his allies, but it was later vetoed by Ohio's governor.\\nTaft's period of service in the Ohio state legislature was most notable for his efforts to reform and modernize the state's antiquated tax laws.\\nThroughout the 1920s and 1930s, Taft was a powerful figure in local and state political and legal circles, and he was known as a loyal Republican who never threatened to bolt the party. He confessed in 1922 that \\\"while I have no difficulty talking, I don't know how to do any of the eloquence business which makes for enthusiasm or applause.\\\" A lackluster speaker who did not mix well or glad-hand supporters, Taft was still a tireless worker with a broad range of policy and political interests. His total grasp of the complex details of every issue impressed reporters and politicians. (Democrats joked, \\\"Taft has the best mind in Washington, until he makes it up.\\\")\\nTaft's loyalty to the conservative politicians who controlled Ohio's Republican Party had a price, as it often caused conflict with his younger brother, Charles, who as a local politician in Cincinnati had gained a reputation as a party <a href=\\\"wikt%3Amaverick\\\">maverick</a> and liberal. However, despite their occasional policy disagreements, Charles loyally supported all three of his brother's presidential bids.\\nTaft was elected to the first of his three terms as US Senator in <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201938\\\">1938</a>. He first defeated Ohio Supreme Court justice <a href=\\\"Arthur%20H.%20Day\\\">Arthur H. Day</a> in the Republican primary, and then defeated the Democratic incumbent, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Bulkley\\\">Robert Bulkley</a>, in the general election. Taft engaged Bulkley in several debates and was generally regarded as the winner. He struggled in the earlier debates but later came out on top through assistance from his wife, Martha, who would be regarded as the most valuable asset in his campaign. As a result, Taft gained the upper hand against Bulkley, who had earlier been regarded as the frontrunner in the race, and won the election by nearly 171,000 votes, or 53.6% of the total vote. During his first two years as a Senator, the Tafts rented a home in Washington, but in 1941 they purchased a brick Victorian home, built in the 1880s, in the city's <a href=\\\"Georgetown%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\\\">Georgetown</a> neighborhood. The home – despite lacking \\\"the grace and amenities of Sky Farm\\\", their home in Ohio – remained their Washington residence until Taft's death in 1953.\\nCo-operating with <a href=\\\"Conservative%20Democrats\\\">Conservative Democrats</a>, he led the <a href=\\\"Conservative%20coalition\\\">Conservative Coalition</a> that opposed the <a href=\\\"New%20Deal\\\">New Deal</a>. The Republican gains in the 1938 elections, combined with the creation of the Conservative Coalition, had stopped the expansion of the New Deal. However, Taft saw his mission as not only stopping the growth of the New Deal but also eliminating many of its government programs.\\nDuring his first term in the Senate, Taft criticized what he believed was the inefficiency and waste of many New Deal programs and of the need to let private enterprise and businesses restore the nation's economy instead of relying upon government programs to end the <a href=\\\"Great%20Depression\\\">Great Depression</a>. He condemned the New Deal as socialist and attacked deficit spending, high farm subsidies, governmental bureaucracy, the National Labor Relations Board, and nationalized health insurance. However, he did not always follow conservative ideology; for instance, after investigating the lack of adequate housing in the nation, he supported <a href=\\\"public%20housing\\\">public housing</a> programs. He also supported federal aid to the states to fund public schools.\\nTaft set forward a conservative domestic program that promoted limited government spending, a balanced federal budget, low taxes, pro-business policies to spur economic growth, a limited number of social welfare programs (such as <a href=\\\"Social%20Security%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Social Security</a>, a minimum wage, public housing and federal aid to public education), and an adequate national defense focused on strengthening the <a href=\\\"Navy\\\">Navy</a> and <a href=\\\"Air%20Force\\\">Air Force</a>. In foreign policy, he advocated noninvolvement in European wars and military alliances. He also strongly opposed the military <a href=\\\"conscription\\\">draft</a> on the principle that it limited a young man's freedom of choice. Various historians have described Taft, in terms of political philosophy, as a <a href=\\\"libertarianism%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">libertarian</a>; he opposed nearly all forms of governmental interference in both the national economy and in the private lives of citizens.\\nTaft's greatest prominence during his first term came not from his fight against the New Deal but rather from his vigorous opposition to US involvement in the <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">Second World War</a>. A staunch <a href=\\\"non-interventionism\\\">non-interventionist</a>, Taft believed that America should avoid any involvement in European or Asian wars and concentrate instead on solving its domestic problems. He believed that a strong military, combined with the natural geographic protection of the <a href=\\\"Atlantic\\\">Atlantic</a> and <a href=\\\"Pacific\\\">Pacific</a> Oceans, would be adequate to protect America even if Germany overran all of Europe. Between the outbreak of war in September, 1939 and the Japanese <a href=\\\"attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\\\">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> in December 1941 Taft opposed nearly all attempts to aid countries fighting Germany. That brought him strong criticism from many liberal Republicans, such as <a href=\\\"Wendell%20Willkie\\\">Wendell Willkie</a> and <a href=\\\"Thomas%20E.%20Dewey\\\">Thomas E. Dewey</a>, who felt that America could best protect itself by supporting the British and their allies. Although Taft fully supported the American war effort after Pearl Harbor, he continued to harbor a deep suspicion of American involvement in postwar military alliances, including the <a href=\\\"North%20Atlantic%20Treaty%20Organization\\\">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a>. Taft was the representative to speak in opposition to <a href=\\\"Japanese-American%20internment\\\">Japanese-American internment</a>.\\nIn <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201944\\\">1944</a> Taft was nearly defeated in his bid for a second term in the Senate. His Democratic opponent, <a href=\\\"William%20G.%20Pickrel\\\">William G. Pickrel</a>, received major support from Ohio's <a href=\\\"labor%20union\\\">labor union</a>s and <a href=\\\"Internationalism%20%28politics%29\\\">internationalists</a>, and lost by fewer than 18,000 votes out of nearly three million cast, or a margin of less than one percent. Taft lost Cleveland, the state's largest city, by 96,000 votes, and he trailed in most of Ohio's largest urban areas, but he ran strong in the state's rural regions and small towns, carried 71 of Ohio's 88 counties, and so avoided defeat. His near-defeat in 1944 \\\"was ever to confound Taft's insistence that he was a potent vote getter\\\", and played a role in his failure to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1948. Following his re-election, Taft became chairman of the <a href=\\\"Senate%20Republican%20Conference\\\">Senate Republican Conference</a> in 1944.\\nTaft condemned the postwar <a href=\\\"Nuremberg%20Trials\\\">Nuremberg Trials</a> as <a href=\\\"victor%27s%20justice\\\">victor's justice</a> under <a href=\\\"ex%20post%20facto%20law\\\">ex post facto law</a>s, in which the people who won the war were the prosecutors, the judges, and the alleged victims, all at the same time. Taft condemned the trials as a violation of the most basic principles of American justice and internationally accepted standards in favor of a politicized version of justice in which court proceedings became an excuse for vengeance against the defeated.\\nI question whether the hanging of those, who, however despicable, were the leaders of the German people, will ever discourage the making of aggressive war, for no one makes aggressive war unless he expects to win. About this whole judgment there is the spirit of vengeance, and vengeance is seldom justice. The hanging of the eleven men convicted will be a blot on the American record, which we shall long regret.\\nHis opposition to the trials was strongly criticized by Republicans and Democrats alike, and it is sometimes given as the main reason for his failure to secure the Republican nomination for president. Other observers, such as Senator <a href=\\\"John%20F.%20Kennedy\\\">John F. Kennedy</a> (in \\\"<a href=\\\"Profiles%20in%20Courage\\\">Profiles in Courage</a>\\\"), applauded Taft's principled stand even in the face of great bipartisan criticism.\\nWhen the Republicans took control of Congress in 1947, he focused on labor-management relations as Chair of the Senate Labor Committee. Decrying the effect of the <a href=\\\"Wagner%20Act\\\">Wagner Act</a> in tilting the balance toward labor unions, he wrote the 1947 <a href=\\\"Taft%E2%80%93Hartley%20Act\\\">Taft–Hartley Act</a>, which remains the basic labor law. It bans \\\"unfair\\\" union practices, outlaws <a href=\\\"closed%20shops\\\">closed shops</a>, and authorizes the President to seek federal court injunctions to impose an 80-day cooling-off period if a strike threatened the national interest. Taft displayed all of his parliamentary skills in getting the bill through Congress. When President <a href=\\\"Harry%20Truman\\\">Harry Truman</a> vetoed it, Taft then convinced both houses of Congress to override the veto.\\nFrom 1947 to 1949, when the Republicans controlled the Senate, Taft was his party's leading voice in <a href=\\\"domestic%20policy\\\">domestic policy</a>. He was reluctant to support farm subsidies, a position that hurt the party in <a href=\\\"rural%20area\\\">rural area</a>s (especially in the <a href=\\\"Midwestern%20United%20States\\\">Midwest</a>) in the 1948 elections. Taft engineered the passage of the <a href=\\\"Housing%20Act%20of%201949\\\">Housing Act of 1949</a>, which funded <a href=\\\"slum%20clearance\\\">slum clearance</a> and the construction of 810,000 units of low-income housing over a period of six years. It was one of the few <a href=\\\"Fair%20Deal\\\">Fair Deal</a> proposals of Truman that he liked.\\nIn foreign policy, he was non-interventionist and did not see Stalin's <a href=\\\"Soviet%20Union\\\">Soviet Union</a> as a major threat. However, he called <a href=\\\"David%20Lilienthal\\\">David Lilienthal</a> \\\"soft on the subject of Communism.\\\" The true danger, he believed, was big government and runaway spending. He supported the <a href=\\\"Truman%20Doctrine\\\">Truman Doctrine</a> and reluctantly approved the <a href=\\\"Marshall%20Plan\\\">Marshall Plan</a> but opposed <a href=\\\"NATO\\\">NATO</a>, as unnecessary and provocative to the Soviets. He took the lead among Republicans in condemning Truman's handling of the <a href=\\\"Korean%20War\\\">Korean War</a> and questioning the <a href=\\\"War%20Powers%20Clause\\\">constitutionality</a> of the war itself:: \\\"My conclusion, therefore, is that in the case of Korea, where a war was already under way, we had no right to send troops to a nation, with whom we had no treaty, to defend it against attack by another nation, no matter how unprincipled that aggression might be, unless the whole matter was submitted to Congress and a <a href=\\\"declaration%20of%20war\\\">declaration of war</a> or some other direct authority obtained.\\\"\\nTaft was a supporter of the new state of Israel, called for an end to the arms embargo to the Middle East, and supported arms shipments and other military aid to the new country.\\nIn <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20elections%2C%201950\\\">1950</a>, Taft ran a more effective campaign for re-election to the Senate. Wooing factory workers, he visited 334 industrial plants and gave 873 speeches. He won a third term by 431,184 votes, the second largest victory margin in Ohio Senate election history until then. He benefited from a weak Democratic opponent – one observer reportedly said of \\\"Jumping Joe\\\" Ferguson, the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20Auditor\\\">State Auditor</a>, \\\"If the Democrats want to win, they should send Ferguson on a mission abroad,\\\" but more importantly, Ohio's unions failed to use the <a href=\\\"Taft-Hartley%20Act%20of%201947\\\">Taft-Hartley Act of 1947</a>, which they denounced as a \\\"slave labor law,\\\" against him. Additionally, Democratic Governor <a href=\\\"Frank%20Lausche\\\">Frank Lausche</a> did not endorse Ferguson and, according to journalist Sidney Lubell, almost openly supported Taft. In a post-election survey of voters, Lubell found that the overly aggressive, labor-backed anti-Taft campaign angered some Democrats.\\nEven many union members reportedly voted Republican to express their opposition to local union leaders, to support Taft-Hartley's ban on the closed shop, or to prevent, as one told Lubell, \\\"the Socialists from taking over the Democratic party.\\\"\\nBy the start of his third Senate term, Taft had been given the nickname \\\"Mr. Republican.\\\" He was the chief congressional ideologue and spokesman for the <a href=\\\"conservatism\\\">conservatism</a> of the Republican Party and the acknowledged national leader of its conservative faction.\\nWhile outsiders thought Taft was the epitome of conservative Republicanism, inside the party, he was repeatedly criticized by hardliners alarmed by his sponsorship of <a href=\\\"New%20Deal\\\">New Deal</a>-like programs, especially federal housing for the poor. The real estate lobby was especially fearful about public housing. Senator <a href=\\\"Kenneth%20S.%20Wherry\\\">Kenneth S. Wherry</a> discerned a \\\"touch of socialism\\\" in Taft, and his Ohio colleague, Senator <a href=\\\"John%20Bricker\\\">John Bricker</a>, speculated that perhaps the \\\"socialists have gotten to Bob Taft.\\\" The distrust on the right hurt Taft's 1948 presidential ambitions.\\nTaft first sought the Republican presidential nomination in <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29%20presidential%20primaries%2C%201940\\\">1940</a> but lost to <a href=\\\"Wendell%20Willkie\\\">Wendell Willkie</a>. Taft was regarded as a strong contender, but his outspoken support of a non-interventionist foreign policy, and his opposition to the <a href=\\\"New%20Deal\\\">New Deal</a> in domestic policy led many liberal Republicans to reject his candidacy. At the 1940 Republican Convention, Willkie, once a Democrat, and a corporate executive who had never run for political office, came from behind to beat Taft and several other candidates for the nomination. That year, Taft first clashed with <a href=\\\"Thomas%20E.%20Dewey\\\">Thomas E. Dewey</a>, then a New York <a href=\\\"District%20Attorney\\\">District Attorney</a>, who had become nationally famous for successfully prosecuting several prominent organized-crime figures, especially New York mob boss <a href=\\\"%26quot%3BLucky%26quot%3B%20Luciano\\\">\\\"Lucky\\\" Luciano</a>. Taft felt that Dewey was not conservative or consistent enough in his principles for the Republican Party: \\\"Tom Dewey has no real courage to stand up against the crowd that wants to smear any Republican who takes a forthright position against the New Deal... there is only one way to beat the New Deal, and that is head on. You can't outdeal them.\\\" In other letters, Taft described Dewey as \\\"very arrogant and bossy\\\" and worried that \\\"advisers will talk Dewey into too much internationalism...he comes from New York and sees the group opinions there as a lot more important than they are.\\\"\\nIn the 1944 presidential campaign Taft was not a candidate. He supported Governor <a href=\\\"John%20W.%20Bricker\\\">John W. Bricker</a> of Ohio, a fellow conservative, for the nomination. However, Bricker was defeated by Dewey, who had become the Governor of New York in 1943. Dewey named Bricker as his running mate; the ticket would go on to lose to Roosevelt in the general election.\\nIn <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29%20presidential%20primaries%2C%201948\\\">1948</a>, Taft made a second try for the nomination but again was defeated by his archrival, Dewey, who led the GOP's moderate/liberal wing. In the <a href=\\\"1948%20presidential%20election\\\">1948 presidential election</a>, Dewey was defeated by the Democratic presidential candidate, <a href=\\\"Harry%20S.%20Truman\\\">Harry S. Truman</a>.\\nTaft sought to reach out to southern Democratic voters in his <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29%20presidential%20primaries%2C%201952\\\">1952</a> campaign. It was his third and final try for the nomination; it also proved to be his strongest effort. At the Republican State Convention in <a href=\\\"Little%20Rock%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Little Rock</a>, he declared:\\nI believe a Republican could carry a number of southern states if he conducts the right kind of campaign... Whether we win or lose in the South, we cannot afford to ignore public opinion in the southern states, because it influences national public opinion, and that opinion finally decides the election... It is said that southern Democrats will not vote for a Republican candidate. They have frequently done so. They did so in Little Rock last November [1951] when they elected <a href=\\\"Pratt%20Remmel\\\">Pratt Remmel</a> mayor. I refuse to admit that if the issues are clearly presented, the southern voters will not vote on the basis of principle...\\nTaft had the solid backing of the party's conservative wing. Former US Representative <a href=\\\"Howard%20Buffett\\\">Howard Buffett</a> of <a href=\\\"Nebraska\\\">Nebraska</a> (father of billionaire <a href=\\\"Warren%20Buffett\\\">Warren Buffett</a>) served as one of his campaign managers. With Dewey no longer an active candidate, many political <a href=\\\"Pundit%20%28expert%29\\\">pundits</a> regarded Taft as the frontrunner. However, the race changed when Dewey and other moderates were able to convince <a href=\\\"Dwight%20D.%20Eisenhower\\\">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, the most popular general of <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, to run for the nomination. Eisenhower ran because of his fear that Taft's non-interventionist views in foreign policy, especially his opposition to <a href=\\\"NATO\\\">NATO</a>, might benefit the <a href=\\\"Soviet%20Union\\\">Soviet Union</a> in the <a href=\\\"Cold%20War\\\">Cold War</a>.\\nThe fight between Taft and Eisenhower for the nomination was one of the closest and most bitter in American political history. When the Republican Convention opened in Chicago in July 1952, Taft and Eisenhower were neck-and-neck in delegate votes. On the convention's first day, Eisenhower's managers complained that Taft's forces had unfairly denied Eisenhower supporters delegate slots in several Southern states, including Texas, where the state chairman, <a href=\\\"Orville%20Bullington\\\">Orville Bullington</a>, was committed to Taft. The Eisenhower partisans proposed to remove pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called their proposal \\\"Fair Play.\\\" Although Taft angrily denied having stolen any delegate votes, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and the Texans voted 33–5 for Eisenhower as a result. In addition, several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, agreed to support Eisenhower.\\nThe addition of the uncommitted state delegations, combined with Taft's loss of many Southern delegates by the Fair Play proposal, decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor. Despite his bitterness at his narrow defeat and his belief that he had been unfairly ambushed by the Eisenhower forces (including Dewey), Taft issued a brief statement after the convention conveying his congratulations and support to Eisenhower. Thereafter, however, he brooded in silence at his summer home in Quebec, complaining, \\\"Every Republican candidate for President since 1936 has been nominated by the <a href=\\\"Chase%20%28bank%29\\\">Chase National Bank</a>.\\\" As the weeks passed, Eisenhower's aides worried that Taft and his supporters would sit on their hands during the campaign and that as a result Eisenhower might lose the election. In September 1952, Taft finally agreed to meet with Eisenhower, at <a href=\\\"Morningside%20Heights\\\">Morningside Heights</a> in New York City. There, to gain Taft's support, Eisenhower promised that he would take no reprisals against Taft partisans, would cut federal spending, and would fight \\\"creeping socialism in every domestic field.\\\" In fact, Eisenhower and Taft agreed on most domestic issues; their disagreements were primarily in foreign policy.\\nEisenhower firmly believed in <a href=\\\"NATO\\\">NATO</a> and was committed to the US support of anticommunism in the <a href=\\\"Cold%20War\\\">Cold War</a>.\\nFollowing Eisenhower's election and the Republican takeover of Congress, Taft served as <a href=\\\"Senate%20Majority%20Leader\\\">Senate Majority Leader</a> in 1953, and he strongly supported Eisenhower's domestic proposals. He worked hard to assist the inexperienced new officials of the administration. He even tried, with little success, to curb the excesses of <a href=\\\"red-baiting\\\">red-baiting</a> US Senator <a href=\\\"Joseph%20McCarthy\\\">Joseph McCarthy</a>. By April, Eisenhower and Taft were friends and golfing companions, and Taft was praising his former adversary. Defeat in 1952, it seemed, had softened Taft. No longer burdened by presidential ambitions, he had become less partisan, less abrasive, and more conciliatory; he was now widely regarded as the most powerful man in Congress.\\nOn May 26, 1953, Taft delivered his final speech, in which he presciently warned of the dangers of America's emerging <a href=\\\"Cold%20War\\\">Cold War</a> foreign policy, specifically against US military involvement in <a href=\\\"Southeast%20Asia\\\">Southeast Asia</a>, which would later become the <a href=\\\"Vietnam%20War\\\">Vietnam War</a>:\\nIn early 1953, Taft began to feel pain in his hips, and after a painful golf outing with President Eisenhower in April 1953 he entered <a href=\\\"Walter%20Reed%20Hospital\\\">Walter Reed Hospital</a> for initial tests which led physicians to suspect a tumor or arthritis. On May 26 he entered Holmes Hospital in Cincinnati for more extensive tests. The physicians there discovered nodules on his forehead and abdomen, and after doing biopsies of samples of the nodules, found that they were malignant. On June 7, he entered <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Hospital\\\">New York Hospital</a> for more tests and treatment; to keep the news that he might have cancer a secret he registered under the assumed name \\\"Howard Roberts, Jr.\\\". His physicians there agreed with the diagnosis of cancer, but disagreed as to the source of the primary tumor and method of treatment. Some of his doctors advocated exploratory surgery to keep the malignancy from spreading, while other physicians thought the tumors had spread too far, were inoperable, and recommended x-ray therapy to keep him comfortable. After his death, an autopsy determined that Taft had been stricken with <a href=\\\"pancreatic%20cancer\\\">pancreatic cancer</a>, which had quickly reached <a href=\\\"metastasis\\\">metastasis</a> and spread throughout his body. On June 10, 1953, Taft transferred his duties as Senate Majority Leader to Senator <a href=\\\"William%20F.%20Knowland\\\">William F. Knowland</a> of California. He did not resign his Senate seat and told reporters that he expected to recover and return to work. However, his condition rapidly worsened, and Taft returned to New York Hospital for surgery on July 4 during a Senate recess. The surgery \\\"did not take long, for the doctors discovered cancer everywhere...there was no longer any doubt\\\" that his condition was terminal. He died at New York Hospital on July 31, following a final brain hemorrhage just hours after his wife's final visit. His body lay in state in the <a href=\\\"Rotunda%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Capitol\\\">Rotunda of the United States Capitol</a>, where thousands of mourners offered their respects at his coffin. On August 3, 1953, a memorial service was held in the rotunda; in addition to his family the service was attended by Eisenhower, Vice-President <a href=\\\"Nixon\\\">Nixon</a>, the cabinet, members of the Supreme Court, and Taft's congressional colleagues. Following the service his body was flown to <a href=\\\"Cincinnati%2C%20Ohio\\\">Cincinnati</a>, where he was buried in a private ceremony at Indian Hill Episcopal Church Cemetery.\\nIn 1957, a committee led by Senator <a href=\\\"John%20F.%20Kennedy\\\">John F. Kennedy</a> selected Taft as one of five great senators whose portraits would adorn the President's Room off the Senate floor. Kennedy would feature him in \\\"<a href=\\\"Profiles%20in%20Courage\\\">Profiles in Courage</a>\\\", and Taft continues to be regarded by historians as one of the most powerful senators of the 20th century.\\nThe Robert A. Taft Memorial, featuring a 10 ft statue by the sculptor <a href=\\\"Wheeler%20Williams\\\">Wheeler Williams</a> and a bell tower, is located north of the Capitol on Constitution Avenue. The inscription on the tower face behind him reads:\\n\\\"This Memorial to Robert A. Taft, presented by the people to the Congress of the United States, stands as a tribute to the honesty, indomitable courage, and high principles of free government symbolized by his life.\\\"\\nTaft is mentioned in the 2015 novel \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Madagaskar%20Plan\\\">The Madagaskar Plan</a>\\\", an <a href=\\\"alternative%20history%20%28literary%20genre%29\\\">alternative history</a> in which the United States remains <a href=\\\"United%20States%20non-interventionism\\\">isolationist</a> allowing <a href=\\\"Nazi%20Germany\\\">Nazi Germany</a> to conquer Europe and <a href=\\\"Africa\\\">Africa</a>. In the novel Taft wins the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201952\\\">1952 Presidential Election</a>. Without a European war, <a href=\\\"Dwight%20Eisenhower\\\">Dwight Eisenhower</a> does not become a revered general and thus is not there to defeat Taft for nomination.\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["GURPS Space is a \"genre toolkit\" for creating Science Fiction campaigns using the GURPS role-playing game. It performs a similar purpose as GURPS Fantasy does for Fantasy games. Rules and guidelines are provided for running games from science fantasy and space opera to hard science fiction, creating worlds and planets and notes about aliens races. The first edition was published in 1988.","GURPS Fantasy is a \"Genre Toolkit\" source book for the GURPS Role-playing game. The fourth edition of GURPS separates the fantasy parts into fantasy and a setting book called GURPS Banestorm"],"string":"[\n \"GURPS Space is a \\\"genre toolkit\\\" for creating Science Fiction campaigns using the GURPS role-playing game. It performs a similar purpose as GURPS Fantasy does for Fantasy games. Rules and guidelines are provided for running games from science fantasy and space opera to hard science fiction, creating worlds and planets and notes about aliens races. The first edition was published in 1988.\",\n \"GURPS Fantasy is a \\\"Genre Toolkit\\\" source book for the GURPS Role-playing game. The fourth edition of GURPS separates the fantasy parts into fantasy and a setting book called GURPS Banestorm\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":54,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the birthdate of this mother of three-time Heavyweight Champion, who was married to Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"February 12, 1917"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.\nCassius Marcellus Clay (November 11, 1912 – February 8, 1990) was an American painter and musician. He was the father of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandfather of Laila Ali. He married Odessa Lee O'Grady in the 1930s and worked as a painter and a musician. He was described as \"a handsome, mercurial, noisy, combative failed dreamer\" and a \"hard-drinking, skirt-chasing dandy of a daddy\". His son Muhammad Ali described him as \"the fanciest dancer in Louisville\".\nClay was born in Jefferson County, Kentucky, the son of Herman H. Clay (March 1876 – February 1, 1954) and Edith E. Greathouse (December 1890 – December 30, 1971). He had a sister and four brothers, including Nathaniel Clay. Clay's paternal grandparents were John Clay and Sallie Anne Clay. His sister Eva said that Sallie was a native of Madagascar. He was named after the 19th-century Republican politician and staunch abolitionist, Cassius Marcellus Clay, also from the state of Kentucky.\nClay painted billboards and signs. He also played the piano, took piano lessons and wrote music. Around 1933, he married Odessa Lee O'Grady. He was a heavy drinker, which led to legal entanglements for reckless driving, disorderly conduct, and assault and battery. When asked in 1970 why he had not become a Muslim as his son had done, he said: \"my religion is my talent, that which supports me.\"\nClay died at the age of 77 on February 8, 1990, after suffering a heart attack while leaving a department store in Jefferson County, Kentucky.\nClay was portrayed by Arthur Adams in the 1977 film, \"The Greatest\" and by Giancarlo Esposito in the 2001 Oscar-nominated film \"Ali\".","Odessa Grady Clay\nOdessa Lee Clay (née O'Grady; February 12, 1917 – August 20, 1994) was the mother of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandmother of Laila Ali. She married Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr. in the 1930s and worked for some time as a household domestic to help support her young children.\nShe was born in Hopkins County, Kentucky, one of six children of John Lewis O'Grady and Birdie B. Morehead. Her paternal grandfather was a white Irishman named Abe O'Grady, who emigrated to the United States from Ennis, County Clare, soon after the Civil War and married a daughter of Lewis and Amanda J. \"Mandy\" Walker of Todd County, Kentucky. Her maternal grandfather, Tom Morehead, was the son of a white Morehead and a slave named Dinah. Morehead served in the 122nd USCT.\nClay's parents separated when she was young, and her mother worked as a maid, taking care of the household chores and the young children of a white family. Clay was raised partly by her aunt. When she became an adolescent, she dropped out of school and also found work as a domestic. Then, when she was sixteen years old, she met twenty-year-old Cassius, whom everyone referred to as \"Cash\". They soon married and settled into their own house in Louisville, Kentucky. The Clays' marriage was troubled. Ali told boxing promoters, \"She's afraid of him.\"\nThrough her strong Christian belief, Clay had a great influence on the life and spiritual upbringing of both of her sons. Muhammad Ali later said, \"My mother is a Baptist, and when I was growing up, she taught me all she knew about God. Every Sunday, she dressed me up, took me and my brother to church, and taught us the way she thought was right. She taught us to love people and treat everybody with kindness. She taught us it was wrong to be prejudiced or hate. I've changed my religion and some of my beliefs since then, but her God is still God; I just call him by a different name. And my mother, I'll tell you what I've told people for a long time. She's a sweet, fat, wonderful woman, who loves to cook, eat, make clothes, and be with family. She doesn't drink, smoke, meddle in other people's business, or bother anyone, and there's no one who's been better to me my whole life.\"\nClay supported and inspired her son throughout his boxing career. At small gyms early in her son's career and later at international arenas when he became world-famous, Clay traveled with her son and was a ring-side regular at his bouts. Muhammad Ali was much closer to his mother, whom he lovingly called \"Bird\", than to his father. After discovering boxing, it was his mother with whom he shared his dreams of greatness.\nClay's husband died in 1990. Odessa Clay died of heart failure on August 18, 1994, at Hurstbourne Health Center, a nursing home in the Louisville, Kentucky area. She had been disabled by a stroke since February 1994, according to a family friend.\nOdessa Clay appeared as herself in the film documentaries \"Muhammad Ali: The Whole Story\" (1996) and \"When We Were Kings\" (1996). In the 1977 film \"The Greatest\" Odessa Clay was portrayed by Dorothy Meyer, and in the 2001 film \"Ali\" she was portrayed by Candy Ann Brown.","A.k.a. Cassius Clay\nA.k.a. Cassius Clay (styled as a.k.a. Cassius Clay) is a 1970 boxing documentary film about the former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali.\nDirected by Jimmy Jacobs, the film was made during Ali's exile from the sport for refusing to be inducted into the US Army on religious grounds. Narrated by Richard Kiley, the film gives an overview of Ali's career to that point. The film features archival footage of people associated with Ali, such as Angelo Dundee, Malcolm X, and Drew Bundini Brown, and clips of his fights with Sonny Liston, Henry Cooper, George Chuvalo and Floyd Patterson. These are intercut with scenes featuring Ali and veteran boxing trainer Cus D'Amato discussing his career and how he would have fared against past champions such as Joe Louis.\n","UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship\nThe UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship is the primary singles championship title in Ultra Championship Wrestling-Zero. It was first won by Blitz Mason in March 2003 and defended throughout the state of Utah, most often Salt Lake City, Utah, but also in the Rocky Mountains and the Southwest United States. The title was formerly recognized by AWA Superstars from 2005 to 2007, and then by the National Wrestling Alliance when the promotion became an NWA territory that same year. On February 26, 2011, the UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship was around the waist of Los Mochis Paco until it was stolen by Tyler Cintron after Junior X attacked Paco. Later, Paco retrieved his belt back from Tyler Cintron. The following show however, Tyler Cintron walks into the ring with his own UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship. UCW Director Blitz decide to make a Triple Threat TLC Match to determine the Undisputed UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion which took place on June 4, 2011. Los Mochis Paco was the victor to become the Undisputed Heavyweight Champion. It would however be short lived because Los Mochis Paco was attacked by Black Out in the back and broke his leg and was unable to defend it. Two Weeks later on June 18, 2011, Director for the night and Former 4 time UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion Martin Casaus made a Gauntlet Match to determine a New Champion. In the end, it was Junior X that prevailed and became the NEW UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion. 2011 Rocky Mountain Rumble Champion Kid Kade went on to win the UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion after defeating Junior X at \"Meltdown Mayhem\" on August 13, 2011.","Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)\nCassius Marcellus Clay ( ; October 19, 1810 – July 22, 1903), nicknamed the \"Lion of White Hall\", was a Kentucky planter, politician, and emancipationist who worked for the abolition of slavery. He freed the slaves that were handed down as his inheritance from his father. Those freed slaves were allowed to stay and were paid a wage. He was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln as the United States minister to Russia during the American Civil War, and is credited with gaining Russian support for the Union.\nCassius Marcellus Clay was born to Green Clay, one of the wealthiest planters and slaveholders in Kentucky, who became a prominent politician, and his wife Sally Lewis. He was one of six children who survived to adulthood, of seven born.\nClay was a member of a large and influential political family. His older brother Brutus J. Clay became a politician at the state and federal levels. They were cousins of both Kentucky politician Henry Clay and Alabama governor Clement Comer Clay. Cassius' sister Elizabeth Lewis Clay (1798–1887) married John Speed Smith, who also became a state and US politician. Their son, Green Clay Smith, became a state politician and was elected to Congress.\nThe younger Clay attended Transylvania University and then graduated from Yale College in 1832. While at Yale, he heard abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison speak, and his lecture inspired Clay to join the anti-slavery movement. Garrison's arguments were to him \"as water is to a thirsty wayfarer.\" Clay was politically pragmatic, supporting gradual legal change rather than calling for immediate abolition the way Garrison and his supporters did.\nIn 1833, Clay married Mary Jane Warfield, daughter of Dr. Elisha Warfield and Mary Barr. They had seven children of their own: Elisha Warfield, son Green, Mary Barr, Sally, Laura, Brutus J., II, and Anne, and adopted Henry Launey Clay (believed to be his son by an extra-marital relationship while in Russia).\nCassius Clay was a pioneer as an early southern planter who became a prominent anti-slavery crusader. Clay worked toward emancipation, both as a Kentucky state representative and as an early member of the Republican Party.\nClay was elected to three terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives, but he lost support among Kentucky voters as he promoted ending slavery. His anti-slavery activism earned him violent enemies. During a political debate in 1843, he survived an assassination attempt by a hired gun, named Sam Brown. Despite being shot in the chest, Clay drew his Bowie knife, tackled Brown, cut out his eyes, and finally threw him over an embankment.\nIn 1845, Clay began publishing an anti-slavery newspaper, \"True American\", in Lexington, Kentucky. Within a month he received death threats, had to arm himself, and regularly barricaded the armored doors of his newspaper office for protection, besides setting up two four-pounder cannons inside. Shortly after, a mob of about 60 men broke into his office and seized his printing equipment. To protect his venture, Clay set up a publication center in Cincinnati, Ohio, a center of abolitionists in the free state, but continued to reside in Kentucky.\nClay served in the Mexican-American War as a captain with the 1st Kentucky Cavalry from 1846 to 1847. He opposed the annexation of Texas and expansion of slavery into the Southwest. While making a speech for abolition in 1849, Clay was attacked by the six Turner brothers, who beat, stabbed and tried to shoot him. In the ensuing fight, Clay fought off all six and, using his Bowie knife, killed Cyrus Turner.\nIn 1853, Clay granted 10 acres of his expansive lands to John G. Fee, an abolitionist, who founded the town of Berea. In 1855 Fee founded Berea College, open to all races.\nClay's connections to the northern antislavery movement remained strong. He was a founder of the Republican Party in Kentucky and became a friend of Abraham Lincoln, supporting him for the presidency in 1860. Clay was briefly a candidate for the vice presidency at the 1860 Republican National Convention, but lost the nomination to Hannibal Hamlin.\nPresident Lincoln appointed Clay to the post of Minister to the Russian court at St. Petersburg on March 28, 1861. The Civil War started before he departed and, as there were no Federal troops in Washington at the time, Clay organized a group of 300 volunteers to protect the White House and US Naval Yard from a possible Confederate attack. These men became known as Cassius M. Clay's Washington Guards. President Lincoln gave Clay a presentation Colt revolver in recognition. When Federal troops arrived, Clay and his family embarked for Russia.\nAs Minister to Russia, Clay witnessed the Tsar's emancipation edict. Recalled to the United States in 1862 to accept a commission from Lincoln as a major general with the Union Army, Clay publicly refused to accept it unless Lincoln would agree to emancipate slaves under Confederate control. Lincoln sent Clay to Kentucky to assess the mood for emancipation there and in the other border states. Following Clay's return to Washington, DC, Lincoln issued the proclamation in late 1862, to take effect in January 1863.\nClay resigned his commission in March 1863 and returned to Russia, where he served until 1869. He was influential in the negotiations for the purchase of Alaska.\nLater, Clay founded the Cuban Charitable Aid Society to help the Cuban independence movement of Jose Marti. He also spoke in favor of nationalizing the railroads, and later against the power being accrued by industrialists.\nIn 1869, Clay left the Republican Party. This was partly due to his opposition to President Grant's military interference in Haiti. He also disapproved of the Republican Radicals' reconstruction policy after Lincoln's assassination.\nIn 1872, Clay was one of the organizers of the Liberal Republican revolt. He was instrumental in securing the nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the\npolitical campaigns of 1876 and 1880, Clay supported the Democratic Party candidates. He rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of 1884.\nClay had a reputation as a rebel and a fighter. Due to threats on his life, he had become accustomed to carrying two pistols and a knife for protection. He installed a cannon to protect his home and office. As he aged, Clay became increasingly eccentric and paranoid.\nIn 1878 after 45 years of marriage, Clay divorced his wife, Mary Jane (Warfield) Clay, claiming abandonment after she no longer would tolerate his marital infidelities.\nIn 1894, the 84-year-old Clay married Dora Richardson, the 15-year-old orphaned sister of one of his sharecropping tenants.\nCassius Clay died at his home on July 22, 1903 of \"general exhaustion.\" Survivors included his daughters, Laura Clay and Mary Barr Clay, who were both women's rights activists.\nHis family home, White Hall, is maintained by the Commonwealth of Kentucky as White Hall State Historic Shrine.\nDuring the Civil War, Russia came to the aid of the Union, threatening war against Britain and France if they officially recognized the Confederacy. Cassius Clay, as minister to Russia during that time, was instrumental in securing Russia's aid. Tsar Alexander II of Russia gave sealed orders to the commanders of both his Atlantic and Pacific fleets, and sent them to the East and West coasts of America. They were instructed that the sealed orders were to be opened only if Britain and France entered the war on the side of the Confederacy. When the Russian Atlantic fleet entered New York harbor, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles wrote in his diary:\nIn sending these ships to this country, there is something significant. What will be its effect on France, and French policy, we shall learn in due time. It may be moderate, it may exacerbate. God bless the Russians.\nThis action of Tsar Alexander II was confirmed in 1904 by Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania, who in 1878 was the financial agent in the United States of the Russian government.\nHerman Heaton Clay, a descendant of African-American slaves, named his son Cassius Marcellus Clay—who was born nine years after the death of the emancipationist in tribute to him. This Cassius Clay gave his own son the same name, Cassius M. Clay, Jr., a heavyweight champion boxer who gained international renown and changed his name to Muhammad Ali.\n","The Soul of a Butterfly\nThe Soul of a Butterfly is the autobiography of Muhammad Ali, born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr., a former heavyweight boxer who was a three time World Heavyweight Champion and is the greatest heavyweight of all time.\nIt is written in collaboration with his daughter, Hana Yasmeen Ali. It is not a comprehensive autobiography but a breakdown of the important events and experiences in his life; this is suggested in the book's subtitle, \"Reflections on Life's Journey\".\nThe book includes some of his and his daughter's poetry, and snippets of Sufi thought.\nA chapter of the book is written solely by his daughter, Hana, where she recounts an experience with her father, and goes on to reflect upon what she means to him and what she has learned from him.\nA review in the \"New York Times\" describes the book as \"an elliptical, collagelike memoir that offered a philosophical look back at his life.\"\n","Brutus J. Clay\nBrutus Junius Clay (July 1, 1808 – October 11, 1878) was a U.S. Representative from Kentucky, and a son of Green Clay. His brother Cassius Marcellus Clay also was a politician in the state, and they both joined the Unionist Party at the time of the American Civil War.\nBorn in Richmond, Kentucky to Green Clay and his wife Sally Lewis (died 1867), Clay attended the common schools. One of six children who survived to adulthood out of seven born, Brutus had sisters Elizabeth Lewis Clay (1798-1887), Pauline, Rodes and Sallie, an older brother Sidney, and younger brother Cassius Marcellus Clay (b.1810).\nIn 1815 Elizabeth married John Speed Smith, who also became a politician in Kentucky, as did their son Green Clay Smith.\nBrutus Clay graduated from Centre College, Danville, Kentucky. He entered into agricultural pursuits and stock raising. His father, who had interests in tens of thousands of acres of land, distilleries and ferries, was considered one of the wealthiest men in Kentucky and had become an influential politician.\nIn 1827 Brutus Clay settled in Bourbon County, where he became deeply involved in agriculture and breeding livestock. He became recognized in central Kentucky as one of its \"most successful stock raisers.\" It as a key part of the Inner Bluegrass region economy.\nHaving gotten established, on February 10, 1831, Clay married Amelia Field (1812-1843) of Madison County, daughter of Ezekiel H. and Patsy (Irvine) Field. They had four children: Martha, Christopher Field, Green, and Ezekiel Field Clay. The latter served as a Colonel in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. Afterward he went into stock raising, particularly of Thoroughbreds.\nThe widower Clay married again on November 8, 1844, to Ann Field (1822-1881), a sister of his first wife Amelia. They had one son, Cassius M. Clay, who lived at the Clay homestead in Bourbon County after his parents' deaths.\nClay was elected in 1840 as a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. His younger brother Cassius also became a politician in the state.\nThat year, Clay was also elected president of Bourbon County Agricultural Association, which he served for thirty years. He served as president of the Kentucky Agricultural Association 1853-1861.\nIn 1860 Clay was elected again as a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. During the American Civil War, Clay and his brother were Unionists. He was elected as a Unionist to the Thirty-eighth Congress, serving March 4, 1863 – March 3, 1865. He served as chairman of the Committee on Agriculture (Thirty-eighth Congress).\nHe was not a candidate for reelection and returned to Kentucky to resume his former pursuits. He died near Paris, Kentucky on October 11, 1878. He was interred in his family burial ground at \"Auvergne,\" near Paris.\n This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http://bioguide.congress.gov.","Facing Ali\nFacing Ali is a 2009 documentary directed by Pete McCormack about Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. in Louisville, Kentucky) as told from the perspectives of some of the notable opponents he faced during his career: George Chuvalo, Sir Henry Cooper, George Foreman, \"Smokin'\" Joe Frazier, Larry Holmes (a former sparring partner of Ali), Ron Lyle, Ken Norton, Earnie Shavers, Leon Spinks and Ernie Terrell.\nProduction is credited to Canadian producer Derik Murray and his company, Network Entertainment, Lions Gate Entertainment, and Spike Sports in association with Muhammad Ali Enterprises.\nThe fighters discuss their bouts against Muhammad Ali as well as their own lives and careers; Ali's fights against other opponents; his conversion to Islam and the assumption of the name Muhammad Ali; his relationship with the Nation of Islam organization (frequently referred to as the \"black Muslims\"), its leader, Elijah Muhammad (who bestowed Ali with his new name after he was briefly called Cassius X), and the Nation of Islam's most prominent minister, Malcolm X; Ali's refusal to be inducted into the United States Army to serve in the ongoing Vietnam War in 1967 on moral and religious grounds; the decision by the New York State Athletic Commission to strip him of his championship; his legal case and his reinstatement after the favorable June 28, 1970 decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. The Justices decided 8-0 (with Thurgood Marshall abstaining), that \"... for the reasons stated, that the Department [of Justice] was simply wrong as a matter of law in advising that the petitioner's beliefs were not religiously based and were not sincerely held\".\nSonny Liston, who died in 1970, appears in archival footage. Liston and Ali fought in two notable matches in 1964 and 1965, respectively. The cover art for the DVD is Neil Leifer's iconic photograph from their controversial second fight in Lewiston, Maine in which many, such as George Chuvalo, allege that Sonny Liston deliberately lost.\nFormer British champion Sir Henry Cooper briefly discusses the cumulative effects of boxing on Muhammad Ali's health. He states that Ali actually suffers from \"Parkinson's Syndrome\" rather than Parkinson's Disease and that Ali's doctor had personally told him that the cause was Ali taking frequent punches to the back of his neck and that these blows killed brain cells which trigger the release of an important chemical. George Chuvalo stated that he believes Ali's condition was caused either by boxing and or a predisposition for the disease.\nAlthough eligible for nomination for an Academy Award in the documentary feature category, it was not so honored. However, it won awards at the Vancouver Film Critics Circle and the Vancouver International Film Festival.","Botherum\nBotherum was built for Madison C. Johnson in 1850 or 1851 (sources vary) by John McMurtry, a well-known architect and builder based in Lexington. The house was intended, in part, as a shrine to Johnson's late wife Sally Ann, a sister of Cassius Marcellus Clay who died giving birth in 1828.\nAlthough McMurtry was known for his Gothic Revival architecture, and is credited with establishing the popularity of that style in central Kentucky, Botherum shows an unusual combination of Greek, Roman, and Gothic architectural elements.\nA large ginkgo tree that stands on the property is said to have been a gift to Johnson from Henry Clay. The original 36-acre estate faced High Street, but the house now sits on a 3/4 acre lot and is approached from Madison Place, to the side.\nIn 1886, Johnson's heirs sold the estate to J. C. Woodward, who subdivided much of it into Woodward Heights, selling the lots individually.\nJohn Cavendish owned the house from 1983 until 2012, and in the mid-1980s he added a high stone wall that hides the single-story house from the street and a two-story guest house.","The Greatest (1977 film)\nThe Greatest is a 1977 film about the life of boxer <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a>, in which Ali plays himself. It was directed by <a href=\"Tom%20Gries\">Tom Gries</a> and <a href=\"Monte%20Hellman\">Monte Hellman</a>. The film follows Ali's life from the 1960 Olympics to his regaining the heavyweight crown from <a href=\"George%20Foreman\">George Foreman</a> in their famous \"<a href=\"Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\">Rumble in the Jungle</a>\" fight in 1974. The footage of the boxing matches themselves are largely the actual footage from the time involved.\nThe movie is based on the book \"\" written by Muhammad Ali and Richard Durham and edited by <a href=\"Toni%20Morrison\">Toni Morrison</a>.\nThe song \"<a href=\"The%20Greatest%20Love%20of%20All\">The Greatest Love of All</a>\" was written for this film and sung by <a href=\"George%20Benson\">George Benson</a>; it was later covered by <a href=\"Whitney%20Houston\">Whitney Houston</a>.\n<a href=\"Rahman%20Ali\">Rahman Ali</a>, <a href=\"Howard%20Bingham\">Howard Bingham</a>, <a href=\"Harold%20Conrad\">Harold Conrad</a>, <a href=\"Don%20Dunphy\">Don Dunphy</a>, <a href=\"Lloyd%20Wells\">Lloyd Wells</a>, <a href=\"Pat%20Patterson%20%28sportscaster%29\">Pat Patterson</a>, and <a href=\"Gene%20Kilroy\">Gene Kilroy</a> appear as themselves.\nThere are many uncredited roles in the film including some major characters, such as Ruby Sanderson and his girlfriend, Belinda Board, who became his wife, and Herbert Mohammed, son of <a href=\"Elijah%20Muhammad\">Elijah Muhammad</a>, who was Ali's manager at one point.\n<a href=\"Lonette%20McKee\">Lonette McKee</a> was originally going to portray the role played by Annazette Chase.\nAll music composed and produced by <a href=\"Michael%20Masser\">Michael Masser</a>, and arranged by Masser and <a href=\"Lee%20Holdridge\">Lee Holdridge</a>.\n","Laila Ali\nLaila Amaria Ali (born December 30, 1977) is an American former <a href=\"professional%20boxer\">professional boxer</a> who competed from 1999 to 2007. She is the daughter of legendary boxing champion <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a> with his third wife, <a href=\"Veronica%20Porch%C3%A9%20Ali\">Veronica Porché Ali</a>, and is the eighth of her father's nine children. During her career, from which she retired undefeated, she held the <a href=\"World%20Boxing%20Council\">WBC</a>, <a href=\"Women%27s%20International%20Boxing%20Association\">WIBA</a>, <a href=\"International%20Women%27s%20Boxing%20Federation\">IWBF</a> and <a href=\"International%20Boxing%20Association%20%28professional%20body%29\">IBA</a> female <a href=\"super%20middleweight\">super middleweight</a> titles, and the IWBF <a href=\"light%20heavyweight\">light heavyweight</a> title.\nLaila Amaria Ali was born December 30, 1977, in <a href=\"Miami%20Beach%2C%20Florida\">Miami Beach, Florida</a>, the daughter of boxer <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a> and his third wife, <a href=\"Veronica%20Porch%C3%A9%20Ali\">Veronica Porché Ali</a>. Ali was a manicurist at age 16. She graduated from <a href=\"California\">California</a>'s <a href=\"Santa%20Monica%20College\">Santa Monica College</a> with a business degree. She owned her own nail salon before she began boxing.\nAli began boxing when she was 18 years old, after having first noticed women's boxing when watching a <a href=\"Christy%20Martin%20%28boxer%29\">Christy Martin</a> fight. She first publicized her decision to become a professional boxer in a \"<a href=\"Good%20Morning%20America\">Good Morning America</a>\" interview with <a href=\"Diane%20Sawyer\">Diane Sawyer</a>. When she first told her father, Muhammad Ali, that she was planning to box professionally, he was unhappy about her entering such a dangerous profession.\nIn her first match, on October 8, 1999, the 5'10\", 166 lbs, 21-year-old Ali boxed April Fowler of Michigan City, Indiana. They fought at the <a href=\"Turning%20Stone%20Resort%20%26amp%3B%20Casino\">Turning Stone Resort & Casino</a> on the <a href=\"Oneida%20Indian%20Nation\">Oneida Indian Nation</a> in <a href=\"Verona%2C%20New%20York\">Verona, New York</a>. Although this was Ali's first match, many journalists and fans attended, largely because she was Muhammad Ali's daughter. Attention to Ali's ring debut was further boosted because it occurred on the eve of what was supposed to be the first male-female professional bout ever to be sanctioned by a US state boxing commission ... later ruled an exhibition. As WomenBoxing.com explains: \"The near-alignment of the two events focused more attention on female professional boxing than there had been since Christy Martin's 1996 <a href=\"pay-per-view\">pay-per-view</a> fight with <a href=\"Deirdre%20Gogarty\">Deirdre Gogarty</a>.\" Ali <a href=\"knockout\">knocked out</a> April Fowler – described by WomenBoxing.com as an \"out-of-shape novice\" – in the first round.\nAli also won her second match by a <a href=\"technical%20knockout\">TKO</a> with only 3 seconds left on the clock. In that match her opponent was 5'4\" Shadina Pennybaker, from Pittsburgh, who was making a pro debut after earning a 2–1 record as an amateur. They fought at the <a href=\"Mountaineer%20Casino%2C%20Racetrack%20and%20Resort\">Mountaineer Casino, Racetrack and Resort</a> in <a href=\"Chester%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Chester, West Virginia</a>.\nAli captured eight wins in a row and many boxing fans expressed a desire to see her square off in a boxing ring with <a href=\"George%20Foreman\">George Foreman</a>'s daughter, Freeda Foreman or <a href=\"Joe%20Frazier\">Joe Frazier</a>'s daughter, <a href=\"Jackie%20Frazier-Lyde\">Jackie Frazier-Lyde</a>. On the evening of June 8, 2001, Ali and Frazier finally met. The fight was nicknamed \"Ali/Frazier IV\" in allusion to their fathers' famous fight trilogy. Ali won by a majority judges' decision in eight rounds. This match by Ali and Frazier was the first main-event pay-per-view match between two women.\nAfter a year's hiatus, on June 7, 2002, Ali beat Shirvelle Williams in a six-round decision.\nShe won the <a href=\"International%20Boxing%20Association%20%28professional%20body%29\">IBA</a> title with a second-round knockout of Suzette Taylor on August 17, 2002, in Las Vegas.\nOn November 8, she retained that title and unified the crown by adding the <a href=\"Women%27s%20International%20Boxing%20Association\">WIBA</a> and <a href=\"International%20Women%27s%20Boxing%20Federation\">IWBF</a> belts with an eight-round TKO win over her division's other world champion, <a href=\"Valerie%20Mahfood\">Valerie Mahfood</a>, in Las Vegas. Ali stopped a bloodied Mahfood in eight rounds.\nOn June 21, 2003, Mahfood and Ali fought a rematch, this time in Los Angeles. Once again bloodied by Ali, Mahfood lost by TKO in six rounds while trying to recover her world title. Nevertheless, for the first time in Ali's boxing career, she suffered a bad cut on her right eyelid and a bloodied nose, inflicted by Mahfood, something no other female boxer has done to Ali to this day.\nOn August 23, 2003, Ali fought her original inspiration, <a href=\"Christy%20Martin%20%28boxer%29\">Christy Martin</a>, beating Martin by a knockout in four rounds.\nOn July 17, 2004, Ali retained her world title, knocking out Nikki Eplion in four rounds.\nOn July 30, 2004, she stopped <a href=\"Monica%20Nunez\">Monica Nunez</a> in nine rounds, in her father's native city of <a href=\"Louisville%2C%20Kentucky\">Louisville, Kentucky</a>. This fight was part of the <a href=\"Undercard%23Undercard\">undercard</a> for the fight in which <a href=\"Mike%20Tyson\">Mike Tyson</a> was surprisingly knocked out by fringe contender <a href=\"Danny%20Williams%20%28boxer%29\">Danny Williams</a>.\nOn September 24, 2004, Ali added the IWBF Light Heavyweight title to her resume by beating Gwendolyn O'Neil (whom she had earlier canceled a fight against) by a knockout in three rounds, at <a href=\"Atlanta\">Atlanta, Georgia</a>.\nOn February 1, 2005, in Atlanta, Ali scored a commanding and decisive eighth-round technical knockout over Cassandra Geiggar in a ten-round fight.\nOn June 11, 2005, on the undercard to the Tyson-<a href=\"Kevin%20McBride\">Kevin McBride</a> fight, Ali defeated <a href=\"Erin%20Toughill\">Erin Toughill</a> in round three to remain undefeated and won the <a href=\"World%20Boxing%20Council\">World Boxing Council</a> title in addition to defending her WIBA crown. She was the second woman to win a WBC title (<a href=\"Jackie%20Nava\">Jackie Nava</a> was the first). Toughill and Ali disliked each other, and prior to the fight Toughill joked about Ali. Ali promised she would punish Toughill, much like her father did with <a href=\"Ernie%20Terrell\">Ernie Terrell</a> back in 1967.\nOn December 17, 2005, in <a href=\"Berlin\">Berlin</a>, Ali fought and defeated <a href=\"%C3%85sa%20Sandell\">Åsa Sandell</a> by TKO in the fifth round. Following Ali's hard right to Sandell's face with 17 seconds remaining in Round 5, Sandell was struck by numerous undefended shots to her head. The referee stopped the bout with 12 seconds remaining. Muhammad Ali was in attendance and kissed his daughter.\nWhile a guest on \"<a href=\"Quite%20Frankly%20with%20Stephen%20A.%20Smith\">Quite Frankly with Stephen A. Smith</a>\" on June 7, 2006, Ali announced that she would be making a world tour, and said that she was looking forward to fighting <a href=\"Ann%20Wolfe\">Ann Wolfe</a> on October 2006. However, the fight with Wolfe never materialized. Instead, on November 11, 2006, Ali fought and defeated Shelley Burton by TKO in the fourth round. Ali was rescheduled to fight O'Neil in <a href=\"Cape%20Town%2C%20South%20Africa\">Cape Town</a>, on August 5, 2006, but Ali pulled out amid allegations of fraud. The match eventually took place in South Africa on February 2, 2007. Ali defeated O'Neil in the first-round by technical knockout. It was Ali's last professional fight.\nOther top women's boxing champions such as <a href=\"Ann%20Wolfe\">Ann Wolfe</a> (24–1) have claimed in interviews that they have challenged Ali unofficially, but Ali found ways of avoiding them. Fringe boxing writers have expressed disappointment in Ali's perceived avoidance of some contenders. However, Ali has contended that other boxers want unrealistic amounts of money and \"play themselves right out of the deal\" during negotiations intentionally because their names will have no value after they've fought Ali.\nIn early 2002, Ali appeared in a boxing role for the <a href=\"music%20video\">music video</a> \"<a href=\"Deny%20%28Default%20song%29\">Deny</a>\" by Canadian <a href=\"hard%20rock\">hard rock</a> band <a href=\"Default%20%28band%29\">Default</a>. The video gained airplay on music channels including <a href=\"MTV2\">MTV2</a> and <a href=\"Fuse%20TV\">MMUSA</a>.\nIn 2004, Ali appeared on the \"<a href=\"George%20Lopez%20%28TV%20series%29\">George Lopez</a>\" show, where she owned a gym, as well as on \"<a href=\"Real%20Husbands%20of%20Hollywood\">Real Husbands of Hollywood</a>\".\nIn mid-2007, Ali was a participant in <a href=\"Dancing%20with%20the%20Stars%20%28US%20season%204%29\">season four</a> of the American version of the television show \"<a href=\"Dancing%20with%20the%20Stars%20%28US%20TV%20series%29\">Dancing with the Stars</a>\"; she had no previous dancing experience. She and her professional dancing partner, <a href=\"Maksim%20Chmerkovskiy\">Maksim Chmerkovskiy</a>, were widely praised by the judges, receiving the first \"10\" from judge <a href=\"Len%20Goodman\">Len Goodman</a> for their <a href=\"Rhumba\">rumba</a>. They came in third place in the competition, losing to <a href=\"Apolo%20Anton%20Ohno\">Apolo Anton Ohno</a> (with <a href=\"Julianne%20Hough\">Julianne Hough</a>) and <a href=\"Joey%20Fatone\">Joey Fatone</a> (with <a href=\"Kym%20Johnson\">Kym Johnson</a>).\nAli hosted the revival of \"<a href=\"American%20Gladiators%20%282008%20TV%20series%29\">American Gladiators</a>\" alongside <a href=\"Hulk%20Hogan\">Hulk Hogan</a>. The show premiered in January 2008.\nAli and the cast of \"American Gladiators\" appeared on the <a href=\"NBC\">NBC</a> show \"<a href=\"Celebrity%20Family%20Feud\">Celebrity Family Feud</a>\" in an episode that aired on July 8, 2008.\nAli joined the CBS team as a contributing correspondent on \"<a href=\"The%20Early%20Show\">The Early Show</a>\" with her first appearance in early January 2008.\nShe hosted \"<a href=\"The%20N%27s%20Student%20Body\">The N's Student Body</a>\", a reality show on <a href=\"The%20N\">The N</a>.\nAli also appeared in a 2007 episode of \"<a href=\"Yo%20Gabba%20Gabba%21\">Yo Gabba Gabba!</a>\", titled \"Train\", in a brief dance number, and on \"Love That Girl\", episode 3.4, \"Fighting Shape\".\nIn 2012, Ali was picked to co-host \"Everyday Health\" with <a href=\"Ethan%20Zohn\">Ethan Zohn</a> and <a href=\"Jenna%20Morasca\">Jenna Morasca</a>. The show aired on <a href=\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\">ABC</a> Saturday mornings and profiled everyday people living with health issues, who aspired to not let their issues keep them from helping others or doing extraordinary things.\nAlso in 2012, Ali appeared in a <a href=\"Kohl%27s\">Kohl's</a> commercial with a tag line, \"I box to win; I shop to win.\".\nAli was a contestant on the <a href=\"NBC\">NBC</a> celebrity reality competition series called \"<a href=\"Stars%20Earn%20Stripes\">Stars Earn Stripes</a>\" from August 2012 to September 2012.\nOn February 4, 2013, Ali appeared on the NBC reality series, \"<a href=\"The%20Biggest%20Loser\">The Biggest Loser</a>\" in the episode \"Lead By Example\". In the episode, she boxed alongside \"<a href=\"Dolvett%20Quince\">Dolvett Quince</a>\"'s team consisting of Jackson Carter, Joe Ostaszewski and Francelina Morillo.\nIn March 2013, Ali started appearing as a co-host on multiple episodes of \"<a href=\"E%21\">E!</a>\" talk show series \"<a href=\"Fashion%20Police\">Fashion Police</a>\" filling in for \"<a href=\"Giuliana%20Rancic\">Giuliana Rancic</a>\", who was on maternity leave. In May 2013, Ali once again filled in for Rancic, who had other commitments and was unable attend the show.\nIn May 2014, Ali participated in an episode of \"<a href=\"Celebrity%20Wife%20Swap\">Celebrity Wife Swap</a>\". She swapped places with singer <a href=\"Angie%20Stone\">Angie Stone</a> and tried to instill healthier habits on the family.\nIn April 2013, Ali participated in two episodes of \"<a href=\"Chopped%20%28TV%20series%29\">Chopped: All Stars</a>\", making it to the final round, competing for a favorite charity.\nIn September 2013, Ali began hosting \"All In with Laila Ali\", a new show in the CBS Saturday morning lineup \"<a href=\"CBS%20Dream%20Team\">CBS Dream Team</a>\". The following year, she began hosting \"Late Night Chef Fight\" on the cable network <a href=\"FYI%20%28U.S.%20TV%20channel%29\">FYI</a>. In 2014, she appeared in the film \"<a href=\"Falcon%20Rising\">Falcon Rising</a>\".\nShe was a participant of \"<a href=\"The%20New%20Celebrity%20Apprentice\">The New Celebrity Apprentice</a>\" (also known as \"<a href=\"The%20Apprentice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">The Apprentice</a> 15\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Celebrity%20Apprentice\">The Celebrity Apprentice</a> 8\") but terminated after 11th task.\nIn 2002, Ali wrote (with co-author <a href=\"David%20Ritz\">David Ritz</a>) the book \"Reach! Finding Strength, Spirit, and Personal Power\", meant to motivate and inspire young people. In this book, she confides that she felt isolated at times because of her parents' fame. Ali has also spent some time in jail, and describes her arrests and the physical abuse she experienced in jail. Critics say that Ali's book has a good foundation but she does not give the readers advice; rather she just talks about her own experiences.\nAli married Johnny \"Yahya\" McClain on August 27, 2000. She met McClain through her sister Hana at her father's 57th birthday party. McClain became Ali's manager and helped guide her career. In late 2005, Ali and McClain divorced and McClain quit managing Ali.\nOn July 23, 2007, Ali married former <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a> player <a href=\"Curtis%20Conway\">Curtis Conway</a> in Los Angeles. They have two children together: son Curtis Muhammad Conway, Jr. (born August 26, 2008), and daughter Sydney Jurldine Conway (born April 4, 2011). Ali is the stepmother of Conway's three children: twin sons Cameron and Kelton (born 1995) and daughter Leilani (born 1999).\nProfessional wrestling legend <a href=\"Hulk%20Hogan\">Hulk Hogan</a> credits Laila Ali with saving his life by telephoning him when he was depressed and suicidal.\nAlthough raised as a Muslim, Laila Ali does not follow the Islamic faith.\nAli is the sister-in-law of professional mixed martial artist <a href=\"Kevin%20Casey%20%28fighter%29\">Kevin Casey</a>, who is married to her sister Hana.","Ali (film)\nAli is a 2001 American <a href=\"Biographical%20film\">biographical</a> <a href=\"Sports%20film\">sports</a> <a href=\"Drama%20%28film%20and%20television%29\">drama film</a> written, produced and directed by <a href=\"Michael%20Mann%20%28director%29\">Michael Mann</a>. The film focuses on ten years in the life of the <a href=\"boxing\">boxer</a> <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a>, played by <a href=\"Will%20Smith\">Will Smith</a>, from 1964 to 1974, featuring his capture of the heavyweight title <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali%20vs.%20Sonny%20Liston\">from Sonny Liston</a>, his conversion to <a href=\"Islam\">Islam</a>, criticism of the <a href=\"Vietnam%20War\">Vietnam War</a>, and banishment from boxing, his return to <a href=\"Fight%20of%20the%20Century\">fight Joe Frazier</a> in 1971, and, finally, his reclaiming the title from <a href=\"George%20Foreman\">George Foreman</a> in <a href=\"the%20Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\">the Rumble in the Jungle</a> fight of 1974. It also touches on the great social and political upheaval in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> following the assassinations of <a href=\"Malcolm%20X%23Assassination\">Malcolm X</a> and <a href=\"Assassination%20of%20Martin%20Luther%20King%2C%20Jr.\">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a>\nThe film was well received by critics, but was a failure at the box office. Smith and <a href=\"Jon%20Voight\">Jon Voight</a> received <a href=\"Academy%20Awards\">Academy Award</a> nominations for <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actor\">Best Actor</a> and <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Supporting%20Actor\">Best Supporting Actor</a>, respectively.\nThe film begins with <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Cassius Clay, Jr.</a> before his championship debut against then <a href=\"List%20of%20heavyweight%20boxing%20champions\">heavyweight champion</a> <a href=\"Sonny%20Liston\">Sonny Liston</a>. During the pre-fight <a href=\"weigh-in\">weigh-in</a> Clay heavily taunts Liston (such as calling Liston a \"big ugly bear\"). In the fight Clay is able to dominate the early rounds of the match, but halfway through he complains of a burning feeling in his eyes (implying that Liston has tried to cheat) and says he is unable to continue. However, his trainer/manager <a href=\"Angelo%20Dundee\">Angelo Dundee</a> gets him to keep fighting. Once Clay is able to see again he easily dominates the fight and right before round seven Liston quits, making Clay the second youngest heavyweight champion at the time after <a href=\"Floyd%20Patterson\">Floyd Patterson</a>. Clay spends valued time with <a href=\"Malcolm%20X\">Malcolm X</a> and the two decide to take a trip to <a href=\"Africa\">Africa</a>.\nClay is then invited to the home of <a href=\"Nation%20of%20Islam\">Nation of Islam</a> leader <a href=\"Elijah%20Muhammad\">Elijah Muhammad</a> where he is granted the name Muhammad Ali due to his status of World Heavyweight Champion. His father, Cassius Clay Sr. disapproves of this. Ali marries Sonji Roi, an ex-<a href=\"Playboy%20Bunny\">Playboy Bunny</a>, despite her not being <a href=\"Muslim\">Muslim</a> and <a href=\"Gender%20segregation%20and%20Muslims\">not abiding by sex segregation</a>. While at home with his wife and children, Malcolm X is called by the Nation of Islam and is informed that his suspension has been extended and Ali will not go to Africa. However, Ali takes the trip to Africa where he finds Malcolm X, but later refuses to speak to him, honoring the wishes of Elijah Muhammad. He is extremely distraught when Malcolm is <a href=\"Malcolm%20X%23Assassination\">later assassinated</a>.\nUpon returning to <a href=\"United%20States\">America</a>, Ali goes against Sonny Liston a second time and knocks him out in the first round. He and Sonji divorce after she continually objects to certain obligations Muslim women have, notably wearing a <a href=\"hijab\">hijab</a>.\nAfter being officially called to fight in the <a href=\"Vietnam%20War\">Vietnam War</a> with the <a href=\"United%20States%20Army\">U.S. Army</a>, Ali refuses, and is subsequently stripped of his boxing license, passport and title, additionally facing five years in prison. Ali marries 17-year-old <a href=\"Khalilah%20Ali\">Belinda Boyd</a>. After a three-year hiatus, his <a href=\"Clay%20v.%20United%20States\">conviction is overturned</a> and in his comeback fight, he goes against <a href=\"Jerry%20Quarry\">Jerry Quarry</a> and wins by technical knockout in three rounds when Quarry gets a cut in his eye.\nAli attempts to regain the Heavyweight Championship against <a href=\"Joe%20Frazier\">Joe Frazier</a>. Dubbed the <a href=\"Fight%20of%20the%20Century\">Fight of the Century</a>, Frazier has the upper hand against Ali for most of the rounds. In the fifteenth round, he defeats Ali by decision, giving Ali the first loss of his career. When Frazier loses the championship to <a href=\"George%20Foreman\">George Foreman</a>, Ali makes a decision to fight Foreman and become the first boxer to win his title a second time.\nForeman and Ali go to <a href=\"Kinshasa\">Kinshasa, Zaire</a> for <a href=\"the%20Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\">the Rumble in the Jungle</a> fight. While there, Ali meets a woman named <a href=\"Veronica%20Porch%C3%A9%20Ali\">Veronica Porché</a>, and has an affair with her. After reading rumors of his infidelity through newspapers, his wife Belinda travels to Zaire to confront him about this. Ali says he is unsure as to whether he really loves Veronica or not, and just wants to focus on his upcoming title shot.\nFor a good portion of the fight against Foreman, Ali leans back against the ropes and covers up, letting Foreman wildly throw punches at him. During the fight, Ali realizes that he has to react sooner or else he will be knocked out or possibly die in the ring. As the rounds go on, Foreman tires himself out and Ali takes advantage. He quickly knocks out the tired Foreman, and the film ends with Ali regaining the Heavyweight Championship of which he was previously stripped.\nThe project began in 1992 when Producer Paul Ardaji optioned the movie rights to Muhammad Ali's life story. Nearing the end of his option period, Ardaji signed a contract with Sony Pictures, joining forces with Producer Jon Peters as producing partner. Producer <a href=\"Jon%20Peters\">Jon Peters</a> started developing the film in 1994. <a href=\"Gregory%20Allen%20Howard\">Gregory Allen Howard</a> wrote the initial draft of the script, which had the working title \"Power and Grace\". Howard's draft focused on Ali's life from 12 to 40 years old, and his relationship with his father. Howard was replaced by writers Stephen J. Rivele and Chris Wilkinson, and by 1998 the biopic was set up at <a href=\"Columbia%20Pictures\">Columbia Pictures</a>, with Will Smith attached to star and the possibility of <a href=\"Ron%20Howard\">Ron Howard</a> directing. During the filming of \"<a href=\"Wild%20Wild%20West\">Wild Wild West</a>\", Smith presented director <a href=\"Barry%20Sonnenfeld\">Barry Sonnenfeld</a> with the script. Columbia was hoping for filming to start towards the end of 1998, but it was pushed back, and Sonnenfeld exited in November 1999. It was speculated the Columbia was hesitant to move forward with Sonnenfeld following the disappointing box office performance of \"Wild Wild West\". In February 2000, it was announced that <a href=\"Michael%20Mann%20%28director%29\">Michael Mann</a> had taken over as director, following his Academy Award nomination for \"<a href=\"The%20Insider%20%28film%29\">The Insider</a>\". With this commitment to \"Ali\", Mann turned down the opportunity to direct early versions of \"<a href=\"The%20Aviator%20%282004%20film%29\">The Aviator</a>\", \"<a href=\"Shooter%20%282007%20film%29\">Shooter</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Savages%20%282012%20film%29\">Savages</a>\", and brought <a href=\"Eric%20Roth\">Eric Roth</a> to co-write the script. After years of being attached to the Ali biopic, Smith officially signed on in May 2000 with a $20 million salary.\nFilming began in Los Angeles on January 11, 2001 on a $105 million budget. Shooting also took place in New York city, Chicago, Miami and Mozambique.\nSmith spent approximately one year learning all aspects of Ali's life. These included boxing training (up to seven hours a day), Islamic studies and dialect training. Smith has said that his portrayal of Ali is his proudest work to date.\nOne of the selling points of the film is the realism of the fight scenes. Smith worked alongside boxing promoter Guy Sharpe from SharpeShooter Entertainment, and his lead fighter Ross Kent, to get the majority of his boxing tips for the film. All of the boxers in the film are former or current world heavyweight championship caliber boxers. It was quickly decided that 'Hollywood fighting'—passing the fist (or foot) between the camera and the face to create the illusion of a hit—would not be used in favor of actual boxing. The only limitation placed upon the fighters was for Charles Shufford (who plays <a href=\"George%20Foreman\">George Foreman</a>). He was permitted to hit Smith as hard as he could, so long as he did not actually knock the actor out.\nSmith had to gain a significant amount of weight to look the part of Muhammad Ali.\n\"Ali\" opened on Christmas Day, 2001 and grossed a total of $14.7 million in 2,446 theaters during its opening weekend. The film went on to gross a total of $87.7 million worldwide. \"Ali\" holds a 67% \"fresh\" rating at <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>. In spite of the positive reviews, the film lost an estimated $63.1 million.\nThe film had generally favorable reviews, with the performances of Smith and Voight being well received by critics in general. <a href=\"Roger%20Ebert\">Roger Ebert</a> derided the film with two stars in his review for the \"<a href=\"Chicago%20Sun-Times\">Chicago Sun-Times</a>\", and mentioned, \"it lacks much of the flash, fire and humor of Muhammad Ali and is shot more in the tone of a eulogy than a celebration\". In \"<a href=\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\">Variety</a>\" magazine, Todd McCarthy wrote, \"The director's visual and aural dapplings are strikingly effective at their best, but over the long haul don't represent a satisfactory alternative to in-depth dramatic scenes; one longs, for example, for even one sequence in which Ali and Dundee discuss boxing strategy or assess an opponent\", but he did have praise for the performances: \"The cast is outstanding, from Smith, who carries the picture with consummate skill, and Voight, who is unrecognizable under all the makeup but nails Cosell's distinctive vocal cadences\". \"<a href=\"USA%20Today\">USA Today</a>\" gave the film two and half stars out of four and stated that, \"for many Ali fans, the movie may be good enough, but some perspective is in order. The documentaries \"<a href=\"a.k.a.%20Cassius%20Clay\">a.k.a. Cassius Clay</a>\" and the Oscar-winning \"<a href=\"When%20We%20Were%20Kings\">When We Were Kings</a>\" cover a lot of the same ground and are consistently more engaging\".\nIn \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\", Elvis Mitchell proclaimed \"Ali\" to be a \"breakthrough\" film for Mann, adding that it was his \"first movie with feeling\" and that \"his overwhelming love of its subject will turn audiences into exuberant, thrilled fight crowds\". <a href=\"J.%20Hoberman\">J. Hoberman</a>, in his review for the \"<a href=\"Village%20Voice\">Village Voice</a>\", felt that the \"first half percolates wonderfully — and the first half hour is even better than that. Mann opens with a thrilling montage that, spinning in and out of a nightclub performance by <a href=\"Sam%20Cooke\">Sam Cooke</a>, contextualizes the hero in his times\", and concluded that, \"Ali's astonishing personality is skillfully evoked but, in the end, remains a mystery\".\nWhen Ali died in June 2016, Smith was chosen to be one of Ali's pallbearers for the memorial service in Louisville.\nThe film was released theatrically in 2001 at a length of 157 minutes. This version was released on DVD on April 30, 2002. Mann then re-edited the film, creating a new cut that ran 165 minutes and was released on DVD on June 1, 2004 as \"The Director's Cut\". Approximately 4 minutes of theatrical footage was removed, while 14 minutes of previously unseen footage was placed back in by Mann. The Director's Cut also featured an audio commentary by Mann. The theatrical cut of the film was released on <a href=\"Blu-ray\">Blu-ray</a> in France in 2009 and in Germany in 2012. In 2016 Mann created a third cut, significantly re-editing the film in the aftermath of Ali's death. He deleted one fight and added scenes and footage focusing on the political side of Ali's life. This version runs 152 minutes and was released on January 17, 2017 on Blu-Ray in the US as the \"Commemorative Edition\".\n","List of heavyweight boxing champions\nThis is a chronological list of world heavyweight boxing champions since the introduction of the <a href=\"Marquess%20of%20Queensberry%20rules\">Marquess of Queensberry rules</a> in about 1884. It does not include fights fought under <a href=\"Jack%20Broughton\">Jack Broughton's rules</a> or the <a href=\"London%20Prize%20Ring%20Rules\">London Prize Ring Rules</a>.\nChampions were recognized by public acclamation. A champion in that era was a fighter who had a notable win over another fighter and kept winning afterward. Retirements or disputed results could lead to a championship being split among several men for periods of time. With only minor exceptions, the heavyweight division remained free from dual title-holders until the 1960s. For an early example, see the <a href=\"1896%20World%20Heavyweight%20Championship\">1896 World Heavyweight Championship</a>.\nGradually, the role of recognizing champions in the division evolved into a more formal affair, with public acclamation being supplemented (or in some cases, contradicted) by recognition by one or more athletic commissions, sanctioning organizations, or a combination of them. The most notable examples with respect to the heavyweight division have included:\nOther bodies also recognize world champions, with varying degrees of legitimacy bestowed upon such recognition by the public at large. Current examples of such groups include the <a href=\"International%20Boxing%20Council\">International Boxing Council</a>, <a href=\"International%20Boxing%20Organization\">International Boxing Organization</a>, <a href=\"World%20Boxing%20Federation\">World Boxing Federation</a> and <a href=\"World%20Boxing%20Union\">World Boxing Union</a>.\nInternational Boxing Federation\nInternational Boxing Organization\nWorld Boxing Association\nWorld Boxing Council\nWorld Boxing Organization\n\"As of November 28, 2015\". Only Top 10 of them are shown there. This list includes only major titles, and it does not include \"lineal\" championships.\nKeys:","Rahman Ali\nRahman Ali (born Rudolph Valentino Clay ; July 18, 1943) is an American former heavyweight boxer. He is the younger brother of the late <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a>.\nAli was born to <a href=\"Cassius%20Marcellus%20Clay%2C%20Sr.\">Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr.</a> and <a href=\"Odessa%20Clay\">Odessa Clay</a> on July 18, 1943, 18 months after his brother <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a>. Rahman and Muhammad started boxing in a <a href=\"Louisville%2C%20Kentucky\">Louisville, Kentucky</a> amateur boxing league. While his brother went to the <a href=\"1960%20Summer%20Olympics\">1960 Olympics</a>, Rahman was not selected and remained amateur until February 25, 1964, the night his brother won one of his heavyweight titles over <a href=\"Sonny%20Liston\">Sonny Liston</a>. As a professional boxer, Rahman won 14 bouts, lost 3, and had one draw. In his career he knocked out seven opponents and was himself knocked out once. After back to back losses ending with Rahman being knocked out by <a href=\"Jack%20O%27Halloran\">Jack O'Halloran</a> he retired from professional boxing. Rahman released his autobiography on January 17, 2015 with a book titled, \"That's Muhammad Ali's Brother! My Life on the Undercard\", which is coauthored by H.Ron Brashear and the foreword written by Gene Kilroy - the longtime business manager of Muhammad Miller.","When We Were Kings\nWhen We Were Kings is a 1996 <a href=\"Academy%20Award\">Academy Award</a> winning <a href=\"documentary%20film\">documentary film</a> directed by <a href=\"Leon%20Gast\">Leon Gast</a> about the famous \"<a href=\"The%20Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\">Rumble in the Jungle</a>\" <a href=\"heavyweight\">heavyweight</a> championship match between <a href=\"Muhammad%20Ali\">Muhammad Ali</a> and <a href=\"George%20Foreman\">George Foreman</a>. The fight was held in <a href=\"Zaire\">Zaire</a> (now the <a href=\"Democratic%20Republic%20of%20the%20Congo\">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>) on October 30, 1974.\nThe film features a number of celebrities, including <a href=\"James%20Brown\">James Brown</a>, <a href=\"Jim%20Brown\">Jim Brown</a>, <a href=\"B.B.%20King\">B.B. King</a>, <a href=\"Norman%20Mailer\">Norman Mailer</a>, <a href=\"George%20Plimpton\">George Plimpton</a>, <a href=\"Spike%20Lee\">Spike Lee</a> and <a href=\"Thomas%20Hauser\">Thomas Hauser</a>.\n\"When We Were Kings\" was released in 1996 to strong reviews, and won the 1996 <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Documentary%20Feature\">Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature</a>.\nIt took Gast 22 years to edit and finance the documentary before it was finally released.\nThe film shows the buildup to the fight. Ali is shown talking about his beliefs regarding <a href=\"Africans\">Africans</a> and African-Americans, speaking of the inherent dignity of the native Africans and his hopes for African-Americans in the future. His relationship with the people of Zaire is shown, with the mutual love between Ali and the people of the nation contrasted with Foreman's awkward and unsuccessful efforts to build his own popularity. Promoter <a href=\"Don%20King%20%28boxing%20promoter%29\">Don King</a> is shown working on his first big promotion, and singers <a href=\"James%20Brown%20%28musician%29\">James Brown</a> and <a href=\"B.%20B.%20King\">B. B. King</a> performing in Zaire. The film contains footage of the \"black <a href=\"Woodstock\">Woodstock</a>\" <a href=\"soul%20music\">soul music</a> festival accompanying the fight, which is more fully documented in the 2008 film \"<a href=\"Soul%20Power%20%28film%29\">Soul Power</a>\". The film also emphasises the questionable ethics of locating the fight in Zaïre, as it was funded by the brutal <a href=\"dictatorship\">dictatorship</a> of <a href=\"Mobutu%20Sese%20Seko\">Mobutu Sese Seko</a>.\n<a href=\"Norman%20Mailer\">Norman Mailer</a>, <a href=\"George%20Plimpton\">George Plimpton</a>, <a href=\"Spike%20Lee\">Spike Lee</a>, <a href=\"Malik%20Bowens\">Malik Bowens</a> and <a href=\"Thomas%20Hauser\">Thomas Hauser</a> gave interviews for the film, describing their impressions of Zaire, the fight itself, and particularly their impressions of Ali. The film itself contains these interviews, with many news clips and photos.\nThe film shows much of the fight itself, particularly Ali's famous \"<a href=\"rope-a-dope\">rope-a-dope</a>\" which caused Foreman to expend too much energy and resulted in his eighth-round knockout. It describes in detail Ali's repeated use of the \"right-hand lead\" in the early rounds, a rarely used punch in professional boxing because it opens the boxer up for easy counterattacks, and therefore the punch that Foreman was least prepared for. Ali is shown taking what look like heavy blows from the hard-throwing Foreman, which are lessened by Ali's quick reflexes and use of the ropes. As Foreman throws with power, Ali is able to use his trademark quick hands to damage the heavyweight champion, and in the eighth round Ali knocks out the exhausted Foreman, regaining the championship taken from him for his refusal to be <a href=\"Conscription\">drafted</a> into the <a href=\"United%20States%20Army\">United States Army</a> during the <a href=\"Vietnam%20War\">Vietnam War</a>.\nA soundtrack album was released in 1997. It features live festival performances in addition to new music by Zelma Davis, the duet \"When We Were Kings\" performed by <a href=\"Brian%20McKnight\">Brian McKnight</a> and <a href=\"Diana%20King\">Diana King</a>, and \"Rumble In The Jungle\", the final recording done by <a href=\"The%20Fugees\">The Fugees</a>, in a collaboration with <a href=\"A%20Tribe%20Called%20Quest\">A Tribe Called Quest</a> and <a href=\"Busta%20Rhymes\">Busta Rhymes</a>.\n\"When We Were Kings\" is frequently regarded as one of the best boxing documentaries ever, and maintains a 98% positive rating at <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>. The film received strong reviews from critics such as <a href=\"Roger%20Ebert\">Roger Ebert</a> and Edward Guthmann. It was nominated for the <a href=\"NAACP%20Image%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20News%2C%20Talk%20or%20Information%20-%20Special\">NAACP Image Award for Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Special</a> in 1998 but lost to \"Dinner with Oprah: A Lifetime Exclusive - Toni Morrison\".\nThe film won the 1996 <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Documentary%20Feature\">Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature</a>. At the presentation, both Ali and Foreman came up to join the filmmakers to make it clear they had long made peace since that match, with Foreman even helping Ali up the stairs. It was also nominated for the <a href=\"Grand%20Prix%20%28Belgian%20Syndicate%20of%20Cinema%20Critics%29\">Grand Prix</a> of the <a href=\"Belgian%20Syndicate%20of%20Cinema%20Critics\">Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics</a>.","Ennis\nEnnis ( ; <a href=\"Irish%20language\">Irish</a>: \"Inis\" , meaning \"island\" ) is the <a href=\"county%20town\">county town</a> of <a href=\"County%20Clare\">Clare</a>, <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Ireland\">Ireland</a>. The Irish name is short for \"Inis Cluain Ramh Fhada \" (\"island of the long rowing meadow\"). The town is on the <a href=\"River%20Fergus\">River Fergus</a>, north of where it enters the <a href=\"Shannon%20Estuary\">Shannon Estuary</a>, 19 km (12 mi) from <a href=\"Shannon%20Airport\">Shannon Airport</a>. In 2016, Ennis had a population of 25,276, making it the largest town in Clare and the <a href=\"List%20of%20towns%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland%20by%20population\">12th largest</a> in Ireland.\nThe name Ennis comes from the Irish word \"Inis\", meaning \"island\". This name relates to an island formed between two courses of the River Fergus on which the <a href=\"Ennis%20Friary\">Franciscan Friary</a> was built. The past of Ennis is closely associated with the O'Brien family, who were descendants of <a href=\"Brian%20Boru\">Brian Boru</a>. In the 12th century, the O'Briens, who were <a href=\"Kings%20of%20Thomond\">Kings of Thomond</a>, left their seat of power in <a href=\"Limerick\">Limerick</a> and built a royal residence at Clonroad on what was then an island. In 1240, King Donnchadh O'Brien ordered the construction of an extensive church which he later donated to the <a href=\"Order%20of%20Friars%20Minor\">Franciscans</a>. The centuries which followed bore great activity. The Friary was expanded and students came in great flocks to study at the theological college. The Friars, who were free to move about, met the spiritual needs of the local population. It was a religious centre until the <a href=\"Dissolution%20of%20the%20Monasteries\">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a>.\nBecause it never had town walls, Ennis became a location for merchants from Limerick when Catholics were forbidden to reside in the walled towns by the <a href=\"Penal%20Laws\">Penal Laws</a>, and much of its past prosperity is attributable to this influx. It became a thriving market town in the late 18th century and this expansion continued unabated throughout the 19th century, except the period after the <a href=\"Great%20Famine%20%28Ireland%29\">Famine</a> c. 1850.\nin the colonial period, a number of landmark structures were constructed, including the Mill and Courthouse. The town contains a number of old military barracks, most notably the Old Military Barracks on the Kilrush road. Many locals served in the <a href=\"British%20Army\">British Army</a> in the <a href=\"First%20World%20War\">First World War</a>. The Clare Road and Clonroad areas contain terraced cottages built in the early 20th century to house soldiers. On Station Road, then called Jail Road, a gaol once stood.\nEnnis was governed by a town council from around the 17th century onwards, before the <a href=\"Local%20Government%20Reform%20Act%202014\">Local Government Reform Act 2014</a> effectively dissolved this with the creation of the Ennis Municipal District under the authority of <a href=\"Clare%20County%20Council\">Clare County Council</a>. Politically, Ennis has always been considered a <a href=\"Fianna%20F%C3%A1il\">Fianna Fáil</a> stronghold. However, in the 2009 local elections the party was reduced to just one member out of nine on Ennis Town Council. A monument to <a href=\"%C3%89amon%20de%20Valera\">Éamon de Valera</a>, founder of the party and former President of Ireland, stands outside Ennis Courthouse.\nThe River Fergus runs through the middle of Ennis, and is a well-known trout and salmon fishery. At one time, small sailing boats made their way up river from the Shannon and berthed in the centre of the town at Woodquay. This area of the town along with Parnell Street and Mill Road was routinely susceptible to flooding, but the flood defence system put an end to the event in Parnell Street and the Mill Road areas, although in November 2009 other parts of the town experienced severe flooding. A new <a href=\"pedestrian%20bridge\">pedestrian bridge</a>, Harmony Row Bridge, was built over the river Fergus in June 2009.\nClare became a county under the rule of <a href=\"Elizabeth%20I\">Elizabeth I</a> and Ennis was chosen as its capital by the <a href=\"Earl%20of%20Thomond\">Earls of Thomond</a> because of its central location and great influence. Ennis received a grant to hold fairs and markets in 1610 and some years later a Charter for a Corporation with a Provost, Free Burgesses, Commonalty and a Town Clerk.\nEnnis continued to expand in the following centuries, mainly as a market town and later as a manufacturing and distributing centre. Many commodities were conveyed by river to <a href=\"Clarecastle\">Clarecastle</a> for shipment abroad.\nEnnis is an historically important <a href=\"market%20town\">market town</a>. The <a href=\"market%20square\">market square</a> is still home to <a href=\"market%20stall\">market stall</a>s on each Saturday through the year, although with the rise in the town's commercial retail sector it has shifted from agricultural produce to mainly textiles and home hardware. The market also has an organic farming element.\nThe town centre consists of medieval narrow streets and laneways, overshadowed by structures built over the last thousand years. Of the main thoroughfares, Parnell Street has been <a href=\"pedestrian%20street\">pedestrianised</a>, while the others, O'Connell Street, Bindon Street and Abbey Street, are <a href=\"one-way%20street\">one way</a>. <a href=\"Ennis%20Cathedral\">The Cathedral of Saint Peter and Saint Paul</a> is on the fringe of the old town centre.\nEnnis serves as a major regional hub for County Clare. Among its emergency services, it contains the Ennis Regional Hospital, the HQ of the Clare Divisional Garda, the Clare Fire Brigade and Civil Defence. Ennis also includes many relief organisations, such as The Samaratans, Clare Care and St. Vincent De Paul. Among its civil services, it contains Clare County Council, as well as Social and Family affairs.\nEnnis has been a centre for <a href=\"Irish%20Traditional%20Music\">Irish Traditional Music</a>, and since 1974 has hosted the \"<a href=\"Fleadh%20Nua\">Fleadh Nua</a>\" in late May each year, the second largest traditional music festival in Ireland. There are other traditional festivals held in the town as well such as the Ennis Trad Festival held annually in November.\nEnnis is served by both bus and rail links to all major cities and towns in Ireland. The main bus depot is adjacent to the town's train station and both are about one kilometre from the town centre. <a href=\"Ennis%20railway%20station\">Ennis railway station</a> is on the <a href=\"Clon%20Road\">Clon Road</a> toward the east of the town, which links to the main N18 in either direction.\nBus services are provided to <a href=\"Shannon%20Airport\">Shannon Airport</a>, <a href=\"Galway\">Galway</a>, <a href=\"Limerick\">Limerick</a>, <a href=\"Cork%20%28city%29\">Cork</a>, Dublin and all routes in between and run nearly every hour. Shannon Airport is 15 minutes from Ennis, providing daily flights to European and US destinations.\nIn 1976, passenger trains were withdrawn on the railway line from Limerick to <a href=\"Claremorris\">Claremorris</a> via Ennis. County Clare thus became the only Irish county outside <a href=\"Ulster\">Ulster</a> without a passenger train service. The closure of Ennis station proved to be only temporary; twenty rail services per day are now provided to and from <a href=\"Limerick%20railway%20station\">Limerick</a>, from where connecting rail services are available to both <a href=\"Dublin%20Heuston\">Dublin Heuston</a> and <a href=\"Cork%20railway%20station\">Cork</a>. The <a href=\"Western%20Railway%20Corridor\">Western Railway Corridor</a> north of Ennis (to <a href=\"Athenry\">Athenry</a> and Galway) reopened on 30 March 2010 with five return services daily. The next phase, to <a href=\"Tuam\">Tuam</a> and Claremorris, originally scheduled to reopen by 2014, is subject to budget review.\nEnnis was formerly the starting point of the <a href=\"West%20Clare%20Railway\">West Clare Railway</a>, a narrow gauge railway which ran from Ennis to <a href=\"Ennistymon\">Ennistymon</a>, <a href=\"Milltown%20Malbay\">Milltown Malbay</a> and onwards to the towns and villages along the West Clare coastline. Trains ran from the same railway station as still used by mainline <a href=\"Rail%20transport%20in%20Ireland\">Irish railway services</a>. The line was <a href=\"CI%C3%89\">CIÉ</a>'s last narrow gauge railway and finally closed in 1961, despite investment in new diesel trains in the early/mid-1950s.\n<a href=\"Ennis%20railway%20station\">Ennis railway station</a> connects with Galway and with <a href=\"Limerick%20railway%20station\">Limerick</a> where onward trains run to Dublin, <a href=\"Cork%20railway%20station\">Cork</a> via <a href=\"Limerick%20Junction\">Limerick Junction</a> (for connections to <a href=\"Tipperary%20railway%20station\">Tipperary</a>, <a href=\"Cahir%20railway%20station\">Cahir</a>, <a href=\"Clonmel%20railway%20station\">Clonmel</a>, <a href=\"Carrick-on-Suir%20railway%20station\">Carrick-on-Suir</a> and <a href=\"Waterford%20railway%20station\">Waterford</a>) and <a href=\"Mallow%20railway%20station\">Mallow</a> (for connections to <a href=\"Killarney%20railway%20station\">Killarney</a> and <a href=\"Tralee%20railway%20station\">Tralee</a>). Ennis is also served by local charity clare bus who provide a fully wheelchair accessible bus service around the clare area.\nPrimary Schools in Ennis include <a href=\"Ennis%20National%20School\">Ennis National School</a>, established in 1897 (formerly Boys National School), <a href=\"Cloughleigh\">Cloughleigh</a> National School, Gaelscoil Mhichíl Cíosóg, Holy Family School, CBS and the multi-denominational Ennis <a href=\"Educate%20Together\">Educate Together</a> National School which opened in 1998. There are several secondary level schools in Ennis, including <a href=\"Rice%20College\">Rice College</a>, Ennis Community College, <a href=\"Col%C3%A1iste%20Muire\">Coláiste Muire</a>, <a href=\"St.%20Flannan%27s%20College\">St. Flannan's College</a>, and Gaelcholaiste an Chláir. Mid-West Management Training is a FETAC approved provider of further education and training up to Level 6 of the National Framework of Qualifications. The Ennis Business college is one of Ennis's third level facilities.\nEnnis is a stronghold of <a href=\"Irish%20Music\">traditional music</a> with many musicians in residence and regularly playing locally.\nThe Ennis Book Club Festival, in association with Clare County Library, runs annually on the first weekend in March. It attracts readers and authors from all over Ireland and beyond. <a href=\"Gl%C3%B3r%20Theatre\">Glór Theatre</a> is a concert and events venue in the town centre.\nIn 2016 Ennis hosted the <a href=\"Fleadh%20Cheoil\">Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann</a> music competition. It is the first time that the town has hosted the event since 1977.\n<a href=\"Cusack%20Park%20%28Ennis%29\">Cusack Park</a> on Francis Street in the town centre is the main county <a href=\"Gaelic%20Athletic%20Association\">Gaelic Athletic Association</a> (GAA) playing grounds and the home of <a href=\"Clare%20GAA\">Clare GAA</a>. Ennis has numerous football clubs (soccer, GAA and rugby) that play in various leagues from schoolboys to senior.\nThe Lees Road Sports and Amenity Park, 1 km from the town centre, is set in 134 acres of wood and parkland. There is ample car parking and the main building includes modern changing rooms, showers and toilets. Among the facilities available are four conventional playing pitches, full size all weather floodlit playing pitch, floodlit 400 m synthetic running track and a purpose built cross country running track. There is a children's playground and skateboard park and marked walks and trails throughout the woodland area. Ennis Leisure Centre has a fully equipped gym with a 25m pool, saunas etc. There are a number of hotels around Ennis that have their own leisure facilities including gyms and 15m to 20m pools.\nEnnis is <a href=\"sister%20city\">twinned</a> with <a href=\"Phoenix%2C%20Arizona\">Phoenix, Arizona</a>. Each summer an average of four 4th/5th year students partake in the Phoenix Youth Ambassador Program, which is facilitated by the city of Phoenix twinning committee and the Ennis Chamber of Commerce.\nIt is also twinned with the town of <a href=\"Saint-Paul-de-Fenouillet\">Saint-Paul-de-Fenouillet</a> in southern France.\nEnnis is also twinned with the town of <a href=\"Clare%2C%20South%20Australia\">Clare, South Australia</a> and the city of <a href=\"Clare%2C%20Michigan\">Clare, Michigan</a>, United States\nIn September 1997, Ennis became Ireland's first and only Information Age Town. The town was greatly enhanced by the project's IR£15 million investment, which saw 4200 computers provided to residents, a computer lab for every school and every primary school classroom been provided with a computer. Elderly residents were given the chance to become computer users also as a result. The project also gave Ennis Ireland's first high speed ISDN line infrastructure, which connected all the town's businesses together. Ennis was also used as a test site for VISA Cash, which allowed users to top up a <a href=\"Chip%20and%20PIN\">Chip and PIN</a> card with petty cash and purchase goods in local stores. Funding for the project ran out in 2000.\nIn 2012 and 2013, Ennis won the <a href=\"Irish%20Tidy%20Towns%20Competition\">Irish Tidy Towns Competition</a> in the Large Urban Centre category.\nThe town of Ennis is situated in parts of the civil parishes of <a href=\"Doora%2C%20County%20Clare\">Doora</a>, <a href=\"Drumcliff%2C%20County%20Clare\">Drumcliff</a>, <a href=\"Kilraghtis\">Kilraghtis</a> and <a href=\"Templemaley\">Templemaley</a>. <a href=\"Townland\">Townland</a>s are:\n\n","Hopkins County, Kentucky\nHopkins County is a <a href=\"County%20%28United%20States%29\">county</a> located in the <a href=\"U.S.%20state\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\"Kentucky\">Kentucky</a>. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>, the population was 46,920. Its <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> is <a href=\"Madisonville%2C%20Kentucky\">Madisonville</a>. The county was formed in 1806 and named for <a href=\"General%20officer\">General</a> <a href=\"Samuel%20Hopkins%20%28congressman%29\">Samuel Hopkins</a>, an <a href=\"officer%20%28armed%20forces%29\">officer</a> in both the <a href=\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\">American Revolutionary War</a> and <a href=\"War%20of%201812\">War of 1812</a>, and later a Kentucky legislator and <a href=\"U.S.%20Congressman\">U.S. Congressman</a>.\nThe Madisonville, KY <a href=\"Micropolitan%20Statistical%20Area\">Micropolitan Statistical Area</a> includes all of Hopkins County.\nThe topography ranges from flatlands along the broad river valleys of the <a href=\"Pond%20River\">Pond River</a>, <a href=\"Tradewater%20River\">Tradewater River</a>, and <a href=\"Green%20River%20%28Kentucky%29\">Green River</a>, to hilly and rolling land in the southern and central parts of the county. <a href=\"Coal%20mines\">Coal mines</a> operate in the southern part of Hopkins County and agriculture is a mainstay in the northern part. Major crops are soybeans, corn, and tobacco. Along with coal, resources include oil and natural gas.\nThe earliest inhabitants were prehistoric Native Americans who lived, hunted, and farmed in the region. One of their settlements was a rough stone structure on Fort Ridge, which has since been destroyed by strip mining for coal. Some of the early settlers were <a href=\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\">Revolutionary War</a> veterans who received land grants for their service from <a href=\"Virginia\">Virginia</a> in the area southwest of the Green River. Among these was <a href=\"Baron%20Von%20Steuben\">Baron Von Steuben</a>, a <a href=\"Prussian\">Prussian</a> general who had trained <a href=\"George%20Washington\">George Washington</a>'s <a href=\"Continental%20Army\">Continental Army</a> at <a href=\"Valley%20Forge\">Valley Forge</a> during the winter of 1776-77. He had received a grant of several thousand acres in the northwest part of the county. According to tradition, Von Steuben was wounded in an Indian attack on his first visit to Kentucky. He then quit-claimed his property. Nevertheless, a salt spring on his grant came to be known as Steuben's Lick. By the 1880s, the community that grew up around the lick was known as <a href=\"Manitou\">Manitou</a>.\nRoads in the county often followed animal trails that led to salt and mineral springs. The major traces were those which connected the county seat at Madisonville with Henderson to the north, Hopkinsville to the south, and Russellville to the southeast. Numerous other trails led to the mills and ferries on the Pond and Tradewater Rivers and their tributaries.\nOn January 3, 1829, Ashbyburg in the northeastern part of the county was incorporated. Located on the Green River, it thrived as a steamboat landing during the 19th century. Other antebellum communities included <a href=\"Nebo%2C%20Kentucky\">Nebo, Kentucky</a>, northwest of Madisonville, and <a href=\"Charleston%2C%20Kentucky\">Charleston, Kentucky</a>, named after \"Free Charles,\" a black freedman who operated a tavern in the southwest part of the county.\nHopkins County was divided by the <a href=\"American%20Civil%20War\">American Civil War</a>. Union supporters joined the 35th Kentucky Mounted Infantry, a regiment recruited locally by <a href=\"James%20M.%20Shackelford\">James M. Shackelford</a>, while <a href=\"Adam%20Rankin%20Johnson\">Adam Rankin Johnson</a> had earlier recruited <a href=\"Confederate%20States%20of%20America\">Confederate</a> troops for his 10th Kentucky Cavalry Regiment. The courthouse in Madisonville was burned by Kentucky Confederates led by Gen. <a href=\"Hylan%20Benton%20Lyon\">Hylan Benton Lyon</a> on December 17, 1864, as they passed through western Kentucky, since it was being used to house Union soldiers. However, the harsh policies imposed by the occupying Union armies caused much more resentment and served to increase the sympathy for the Confederate cause. Ever since then, local politics have been heavily dominated by the Democratic party.\nFarming was the major occupation in Hopkins County for most of the 19th century, with <a href=\"tobacco\">tobacco</a> the leading crop. Around 1837 local blacksmith James Woolfolk found an outcropping of coal on his land. John Bayless Earle, for whom the town of <a href=\"Earlington%2C%20Kentucky\">Earlington, Kentucky</a> was named, opened the first coal mine in the county in 1869. Mining did not become a major industry until the <a href=\"Louisville%20%26amp%3B%20Nashville%20Railroad\">Louisville & Nashville Railroad</a> pushed its line southward from Henderson through Madisonville and toward Nashville in 1870. Two years later, the <a href=\"Elizabethtown%20and%20Paducah%20Railroad\">Elizabethtown and Paducah Railroad</a> (now <a href=\"Paducah%20%26amp%3B%20Louisville%20Railway\">Paducah and Louisville Railway</a>) entered the county from the east. Many communities grew quickly as railroad stops, including <a href=\"Mortons%20Gap%2C%20Kentucky\">Mortons Gap, Kentucky</a>, <a href=\"Hanson%2C%20Kentucky\">Hanson, Kentucky</a>, <a href=\"Nortonville%2C%20Kentucky\">Nortonville, Kentucky</a>, and <a href=\"White%20Plains%2C%20Kentucky\">White Plains, Kentucky</a>. <a href=\"Dawson%20Springs%2C%20Kentucky\">Dawson Springs, Kentucky</a>, in the southwestern part of the county, began to thrive in the 1880s as a health resort, but its popularity had faded by the time of the <a href=\"Great%20Depression\">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s.\nBy 1970 Hopkins County was the second largest producer of coal in the Western Coal Field, after <a href=\"Muhlenberg%20County\">Muhlenberg County</a>, and the third-largest coal producer in the entire state after Muhlenberg and <a href=\"Pike%20County%2C%20Kentucky\">Pike County</a>. In 1971 the county also ranked fifth in Kentucky in oil production. Coal and oil-related businesses were major county employers by 1990. Development of resources was aided by the construction of the north-south <a href=\"Pennyrile%20Parkway\">Pennyrile Parkway</a> and the east-west <a href=\"Western%20Kentucky%20Parkway\">Western Kentucky Parkway</a> through the county by the early 1970s. In 1987 farms occupied 41 percent of the land area, with 72 percent of farmland under cultivation.\nAccording to the <a href=\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 554 sqmi , of which 542 sqmi is land and 12 sqmi (2.2%) is water.\nThe USA eclipse will fall directly over Hopkinsville, Ky on August 21, 2017 17:16\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 46,519 people, 18,820 households, and 13,399 families residing in the county. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 84 /sqmi . There were 20,668 housing units at an average density of 38 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the county was 92.02% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">White</a>, 6.21% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Black</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.19% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 0.34% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.02% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.37% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 0.86% from two or more races. 0.91% of the population were <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race.\nThere were 18,820 households out of which 31.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.30% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 11.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.80% were non-families. 25.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.91.\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 24.20% under the age of 18, 8.30% from 18 to 24, 28.20% from 25 to 44, 24.60% from 45 to 64, and 14.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.70 males.\nThe median income for a household in the county was $30,868, and the median income for a family was $36,794. Males had a median income of $31,400 versus $20,014 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the county was $17,382. About 13.60% of families and 16.50% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 24.40% of those under age 18 and 10.50% of those age 65 or over.\nTwo public school districts operate in the county. <a href=\"Hopkins%20County%20Schools\">Hopkins County Schools</a> serves most of the county, except for the city of Dawson Springs, which is covered by the <a href=\"Dawson%20Springs%20Independent%20School%20District\">Dawson Springs Independent School District</a>. The Dawson Springs district operates a single K-12 facility, <a href=\"Dawson%20Springs%20Community%20School\">Dawson Springs Community School</a>.\nAs of July 2017, Hopkins County Schools' adopted a tobacco-free policy that stated that all tobacco products, including alternative nicotine products and vapor products were prohibited for use by anyone, anywhere on district grounds. The ban extends to outdoor events and inside vehicles on district grounds. The policy also applies to community groups that use school facilities and to field trips and any school-sponsored activity.\n","County Clare\nCounty Clare (<a href=\"Irish%20language\">Irish</a>: \"Contae an Chláir\" ) is a <a href=\"Counties%20of%20Ireland\">county</a> in <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Ireland\">Ireland</a>, in the <a href=\"Mid-West%20Region%2C%20Ireland\">Mid-West Region</a> and the <a href=\"Provinces%20of%20Ireland\">province</a> of <a href=\"Munster\">Munster</a>, bordered on the West by the Atlantic Ocean. There is debate if it should be historically considered a part of <a href=\"Connacht\">Connacht</a>. <a href=\"Clare%20County%20Council\">Clare County Council</a> is the <a href=\"Local%20government%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\">local authority</a>. The county had a population of 117,196 at the 2011 census.\nClare is north-west of the <a href=\"River%20Shannon\">River Shannon</a> covering a total area of 3,400 km2 . Clare was founded by the noble Luke Fitzgerald, a knight of Internal Audit . Clare is the 7th largest of Ireland's 32 traditional counties in area and the 19th largest in terms of population. It is bordered by two counties in Munster and one county in Connacht: <a href=\"County%20Limerick\">County Limerick</a> to the south, <a href=\"County%20Tipperary\">County Tipperary</a> to the east and <a href=\"County%20Galway\">County Galway</a> to the north. Clare's nickname is \"the Banner County\".\nThe county is divided into the <a href=\"Barony%20%28Ireland%29\">baronies</a> of <a href=\"Bunratty%20Lower\">Bunratty Lower</a>, <a href=\"Bunratty%20Upper\">Bunratty Upper</a>, <a href=\"Barony%20of%20Burren\">Burren</a>, <a href=\"Clonderalaw\">Clonderalaw</a>, <a href=\"Barony%20of%20Corcomroe\">Corcomroe</a>, <a href=\"Ibrickan\">Ibrickan</a>, <a href=\"Inchiquin\">Inchiquin</a>, <a href=\"Barony%20of%20Islands\">Islands</a>, <a href=\"Barony%20of%20Moyarta\">Moyarta</a>, <a href=\"Tulla%20Lower\">Tulla Lower</a> and <a href=\"Tulla%20Upper\">Tulla Upper</a>. These in turn are divided into <a href=\"List%20of%20civil%20parishes%20of%20County%20Clare\">civil parishes</a>, which are divided into <a href=\"townland\">townland</a>s. These divisions are <a href=\"cadastre\">cadastral</a>, defining land boundaries and ownership, rather than administrative.\nBodies of water define much of the physical boundaries of Clare. To the southeast is the <a href=\"River%20Shannon\">River Shannon</a>, Ireland's longest river, and to the south is the <a href=\"Shannon%20Estuary\">Shannon Estuary</a>. The border to the northeast is defined by <a href=\"Lough%20Derg%20%28Shannon%29\">Lough Derg</a> which is the third largest lake on Ireland. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the north is <a href=\"Galway%20Bay\">Galway Bay</a>.\nCounty Clare contains <a href=\"The%20Burren\">The Burren</a>, a unique <a href=\"karst\">karst</a> region, which contains rare flowers and fauna. At the western edge of The Burren, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are the <a href=\"Cliffs%20of%20Moher\">Cliffs of Moher</a>. The highest point in County Clare is <a href=\"Moylussa\">Moylussa</a>, 532 m, in the <a href=\"Slieve%20Bernagh\">Slieve Bernagh</a> range in the east of the county.\nThe following islands lie off the coast of the county:\nThere was a <a href=\"Neolithic\">Neolithic</a> civilisation in the Clare area — the name of the peoples is unknown, but the <a href=\"Bronze%20Age%20Europe\">Prehistoric</a> peoples left evidence behind in the form of ancient <a href=\"dolmen\">dolmen</a>: single-chamber <a href=\"megalithic%20tomb\">megalithic tomb</a>s, usually consisting of three or more <a href=\"megalith\">upright stones</a>. Clare is one of the richest places in Ireland for these tombs. The most noted one is in <a href=\"The%20Burren\">The Burren</a> area; it is known as \"<a href=\"Poulnabrone%20dolmen\">Poulnabrone dolmen</a>\", which translates to \"hole of sorrows\". The remains of the people inside the tomb have been excavated and dated to 3800 BC.\n<a href=\"Ptolemy\">Ptolemy</a> created a map of Ireland in his \"<a href=\"Geographia\">Geographia</a>\" with information dating from 100 AD; it is the oldest written account of the island that includes geographical features. Within his map, Ptolemy names the <a href=\"Celtic%20tribes\">Gaelic tribes</a> inhabiting it and the areas in which they resided; in the area of Clare, he identified a tribe known as the \"Gangani\". Historians have found the tribes on the west of Ireland the most difficult to identify with known peoples; however, historians <a href=\"William%20Camden\">William Camden</a> and <a href=\"Charles%20O%27Conor%20%28historian%29\">Charles O'Conor</a> speculated a possible connection between the Gangani and the \"Concani\", one of the eleven tribes in the confederacy of the <a href=\"Cantabri\">Cantabri</a> in the northern part of the <a href=\"Iberian%20Peninsula\">Iberian Peninsula</a>.\nDuring the <a href=\"Early%20Middle%20Ages\">Early Middle Ages</a>, the area was part of the <a href=\"Connacht\">Kingdom of Connacht</a> ruled by the <a href=\"U%C3%AD%20Fiachrach%20Aidhne\">Uí Fiachrach Aidhne</a>. In the mid-10th century, it was annexed to the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Munster\">Kingdom of Munster</a> to be settled by the <a href=\"Dalcassian\">Dalcassian</a>s. It was renamed Thomond, meaning North Munster. <a href=\"Brian%20Boru\">Brian Boru</a> became a leader from here during this period, perhaps the most noted <a href=\"High%20King%20of%20Ireland\">High King of Ireland</a>.\nFrom 1118 onwards the <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Thomond\">Kingdom of Thomond</a> was in place as its own petty kingdom, ruled by the <a href=\"O%27Brien%20Clan\">O'Brien Clan</a>. After the <a href=\"Norman%20invasion%20of%20Ireland\">Norman invasion of Ireland</a>, <a href=\"Thomas%20de%20Clare%2C%20Lord%20of%20Thomond\">Thomas de Clare</a> established a short-lived Norman lordship of Thomond, extinguished at the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Dysert%20O%27Dea\">Battle of Dysert O'Dea</a> in 1318 during <a href=\"Bruce%20campaign%20in%20Ireland\">Edward Bruce's invasion</a>.\nThere are two main hypotheses for the origins of the county name \"Clare\". One is that the name is derived from <a href=\"Thomas_de_Clare%2C_Lord_of_Thomond\">Thomas de Clare</a> who was deeply embroiled in local politics and fighting in the 1270s and 1280s. An alternative hypothesis is that the county name \"Clare\" comes from the settlement of Clare (now <a href=\"Clarecastle\">Clarecastle</a>), whose Irish name \"Clár\" (plank bridge) refers to a crossing over the <a href=\"River%20Fergus\">River Fergus</a>.\nIn 1543, during the <a href=\"Tudor%20conquest%20of%20Ireland\">Tudor conquest of Ireland</a>, <a href=\"Murrough%20O%27Brien%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Thomond\">Murrough O'Brien</a>, by <a href=\"surrender%20and%20regrant\">surrender and regrant</a> to <a href=\"Henry%20VIII\">Henry VIII</a>, became <a href=\"Earl%20of%20Thomond\">Earl of Thomond</a> within Henry's <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Ireland\">Kingdom of Ireland</a>. <a href=\"Henry%20Sidney\">Henry Sidney</a> as <a href=\"Lord%20Deputy%20of%20Ireland\">Lord Deputy of Ireland</a> responded to the <a href=\"Desmond%20Rebellion\">Desmond Rebellion</a> by creating the <a href=\"Lord%20President%20of%20Connaught\">presidency of Connaught</a> in 1569 and <a href=\"Lord%20President%20of%20Munster\">presidency of Munster</a> in 1570. He transferred Thomond from Munster to Connaught, which he <a href=\"shire\">shire</a>d, Thomond becoming County Clare.\nAbout 1600, Clare was removed from the presidency of Connaught and made a presidency in its own right under the Earl of Thomond. When <a href=\"Henry%20O%27Brien%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Thomond\">Henry O'Brien, 5th Earl of Thomond</a> died in 1639, Lord Deputy <a href=\"Thomas%20Wentworth%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Strafford\">Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford</a> decreed Clare should return to the presidency of Munster, but the <a href=\"Wars%20of%20the%20Three%20Kingdoms\">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> delayed this until <a href=\"Restoration%20%28England%29\">the Restoration</a> of 1660.\nClare's <a href=\"List%20of%20Irish%20county%20nicknames\">county nickname</a> is the \"Banner County\", for which various origins have been suggested: the banners captured by <a href=\"Clare%27s%20Dragoons\">Clare's Dragoons</a> at the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Ramillies\">Battle of Ramillies</a>; or the banner of \"<a href=\"Catholic%20emancipation\">Catholic emancipation</a>\" raised by <a href=\"Daniel%20O%27Connell\">Daniel O'Connell</a>'s victory in <a href=\"Clare%20by-election%2C%201828\">an 1828 by-election for County Clare</a> that led to Parliament passing the <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Relief%20Act%201829\">Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829</a>.\n<a href=\"Scattery%20Island\">Scattery Island</a>, in the <a href=\"Mouth%20of%20the%20Shannon\">Mouth of the Shannon</a> off the Clare coast, was transferred to <a href=\"Limerick%20Corporation\">Limerick Corporation</a> and the <a href=\"county%20of%20the%20city\">county of the city</a> of Limerick after the <a href=\"dissolution%20of%20the%20monasteries\">dissolution of the monasteries</a> in the mid-16th century. It was assigned to County Clare after the <a href=\"Municipal%20Corporations%20%28Ireland%29%20Act%201840\">Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840</a>. Under the <a href=\"Local%20Government%20%28Ireland%29%20Act%201898\">Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898</a>, part of the judicial county of Galway (Drummaan, Inishcaltra North and Mountshannon electoral divisions) was transferred to county Clare. This area contains the village of <a href=\"Mountshannon\">Mountshannon</a> on the north-western shore of <a href=\"Lough%20Derg%20%28Shannon%29\">Lough Derg</a>.\nThe county seat is at Ennis, which also serves as a major regional hub for County Clare. Among its emergency services, it contains the Ennis Regional Hospital, the HQ of the Clare Divisional Garda, the Clare Fire Brigade and Civil Defence.\nSince indedpendence in 1921, <a href=\"Clare%20%28D%C3%A1il%20%C3%89ireann%20constituency%29\">Clare</a> is represented by its own <a href=\"parliamentary%20constituency\">parliamentary constituency</a> in <a href=\"D%C3%A1il%20%C3%89ireann\">Dáil Éireann</a>, the powerful lower house of the Irish parliament, known as <a href=\"Oireachtas\">Oireachtas</a>. Clare is currently served by four <a href=\"Teachta%20D%C3%A1la\">Teachta Dála</a>, representatives referred to as TDs. Briefly a small area of Clare was in the <a href=\"Clare%E2%80%93Galway%20South%20%28D%C3%A1il%20%C3%89ireann%20constituency%29\">Clare–Galway South</a> constituency during the 1970s before its <a href=\"Electoral%20%28Amendment%29%20Act%201974\">abolition</a>.\nThe second tier of <a href=\"Local%20government%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\">local governance</a> is represented by the <a href=\"Town%20Councils%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\">town councils</a>—Clare has four in the form of <a href=\"Ennis\">Ennis</a>, <a href=\"Kilrush\">Kilrush</a>, <a href=\"Kilkee\">Kilkee</a> and <a href=\"Shannon%2C%20County%20Clare\">Shannon</a>.\nThe constituency has historically been a <a href=\"Fianna%20F%C3%A1il\">Fianna Fáil</a> stronghold. However <a href=\"Fianna%20F%C3%A1il\">Fianna Fáil</a> lost its overall majority on the council in 2004. As of the <a href=\"Irish%20local%20elections%2C%202009\">2009 local elections</a>, <a href=\"Fine%20Gael\">Fine Gael</a> is the largest party, controlling 12 seats. It won 40% of the vote in the Clare constituency in the <a href=\"Irish%20general%20election%2C%202011\">2011 Irish general election</a>.\nProminent historic TDs for Clare include <a href=\"%C3%89amon%20de%20Valera\">Éamon de Valera</a>, who became <a href=\"Taoiseach\">Taoiseach</a> and <a href=\"President%20of%20Ireland\">President</a>, former president <a href=\"Patrick%20Hillery\">Patrick Hillery</a>, and former Cabinet Minister <a href=\"Brendan%20Daly%20%28politician%29\">Brendan Daly</a>.\nThe population of Clare accounted for 117,196 people at the <a href=\"Irish%20population%20analysis\">most recent census</a> in 2011. The main urban areas are <a href=\"Ennis\">Ennis</a> with a population of 25,360 and <a href=\"Shannon%2C%20County%20Clare\">Shannon</a> with 9,673. The demographic profile for Clare in general is fairly young: 22% are under age 14, while 12% are over 65, compared to the national average of 20% and 11%, respectively. There is a slightly higher percentage of males with 50.5%, while females number 49.5%.\nEnglish is the main language spoken in Clare. The vast majority of the population are <a href=\"Irish%20people\">Irish people</a>, accounting for 86%. Most immigrants are Europeans, totaling an additional 7,520; there is also a small African minority of 1,124 people, while other ethnic groups are very small in number.\nIn addition, Clare had a large <a href=\"Irish%20diaspora\">diaspora</a> due to vast emigration during the 19th century. There are millions of people around the world who can trace their family background to Clare; such descendants are found mostly in North America, Great Britain, Australia, South Africa, Argentina and New Zealand. Many people from the Irish diaspora visit the Clare area to trace their family roots and background.\nMost of the names in Clare are derived from sept members of the <a href=\"Dalcassian\">Dalcassian</a> race of <a href=\"Gaels\">Gaels</a>. Some of the most common examples are <a href=\"O%27Brien%20dynasty\">O'Brien</a>, <a href=\"O%27Dea\">O'Dea</a>, <a href=\"McMahon\">McMahon</a>, <a href=\"McInerney\">McInerney</a>, <a href=\"McNamara\">McNamara</a>, <a href=\"McGarry%20%28disambiguation%29\">McGarry</a>, <a href=\"Moloney%20%28surname%29\">Moloney</a>, <a href=\"O%27Grady\">O'Grady</a>, <a href=\"Hogan%20%28surname%29\">Hogan</a>, <a href=\"Considine\">Considine</a>, <a href=\"Griffin%20%28surname%29\">Griffey/Griffin</a> and <a href=\"Lynch%20%28surname%29\">Lynch</a>. Names of assimilated <a href=\"Normans\">Norman</a> origin include <a href=\"Burke%20%28name%29\">Burke</a>, <a href=\"Dalton%20%28surname%29\">Dalton</a>, and <a href=\"Clan%20Cumming\">Comyn</a>.\nThe great majority of the population follow <a href=\"Christianity\">Christianity</a>; at least 92% of the people in the area polled as part of the <a href=\"Irish%20population%20analysis\">Ireland Census 2006</a> identified as Christians. There are numerous <a href=\"List%20of%20abbeys%20and%20priories%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland%23County%20Clare\">abbeys and priories</a> in Clare. Some of the ruins of such structures, such as <a href=\"Scattery%20Island%20Cathedral%20and%20Monastery\">Scattery Island</a>, Bishop's Island, and Drumcliff monasteries, are ancient, dating to the 6th century when Christianity was first introduced to Ireland. The former was founded by <a href=\"Saint%20Senan\">Saint Senan</a>, who was born locally near Kilrush in 488 and is counted amongst the <a href=\"Twelve%20Apostles%20of%20Ireland\">Twelve Apostles of Ireland</a>.\nNumerous <a href=\"List%20of%20saints%20of%20Ireland\">other saints</a> came from Clare, such as <a href=\"Saint%20Flannan\">Flannan</a>, Mochulleus, <a href=\"Saint%20Molua\">Moula</a>, Caimin, <a href=\"Maccreiche\">Maccreiche</a>, <a href=\"Munchin\">Munchin</a> and more. In the present day, the <a href=\"Catholic%20Church\">Catholic Church</a> still commands a large majority, with 88% of the populace declaring themselves as followers of the religion. This percentage is slightly higher than <a href=\"Religion%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\">the national average</a>.\nMost of Clare falls under the Catholic <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Killaloe\">Diocese of Killaloe</a>, which is part of the ecclesiastical province of <a href=\"Archdiocese%20of%20Cashel%20and%20Emly\">Cashel and Emly</a>. The Bishop of Killaloe is seated at the <a href=\"St%20Peter%20and%20St%20Paul%20Cathedral%2C%20Ennis\">St Peter and Paul Cathedral</a> in Ennis. A small portion of the north-western part of Clare falls under the <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Galway%2C%20Kilmacduagh%20and%20Kilfenora\">Diocese of Galway, Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora</a>.\nAs part of the local council's architectural conservation project, around eighty Christian churches have been designated as protected structures. Among the more notable structures are the ruins of <a href=\"Corcomroe%20Abbey\">Corcomroe Abbey</a>, <a href=\"Quin%20Abbey\">Quin Abbey</a>, and <a href=\"Dysert%20O%20Dea%20monastery\">Dysert O Dea Monastery</a>.\nThe largest religious minority is the <a href=\"Church%20of%20Ireland\">Church of Ireland</a>, which is part of the <a href=\"Anglican%20Communion\">Anglican Communion</a>. It has just under 2000 adherents in Clare. The county is part of the <a href=\"Bishop%20of%20Limerick%20and%20Killaloe\">Diocese of Limerick and Killaloe</a>, one of the three cathedrals of the diocese being St Flannan's Cathedral in Killaloe. Other religious communities in Clare are very small in comparison. A minority declare no religion.\nCounty Clare is known for beautiful natural scenery.\nWest Clare and some pockets in East Clare were recognised as part of the <a href=\"Gaeltacht\">Gaeltacht</a>, or Irish-speaking area, by the <a href=\"Irish%20Free%20State\">Irish Free State</a> government in the original \"<a href=\"Coimisi%C3%BAn%20na%20Gaeltachta\">Coimisiún na Gaeltachta</a>\" in 1926. The most prominent of these areas with native <a href=\"Irish%20language\">Irish language</a> speakers were west of <a href=\"Ennis\">Ennis</a> in <a href=\"Kilmihil\">Kilmihil</a>, <a href=\"Kilrush\">Kilrush</a>, <a href=\"Doonbeg\">Doonbeg</a>, <a href=\"Doolin\">Doolin</a>, <a href=\"Ennistimon\">Ennistimon</a>, <a href=\"Carrigaholt\">Carrigaholt</a>, <a href=\"Lisdoonvarna\">Lisdoonvarna</a> and <a href=\"Ballyvaughan\">Ballyvaughan</a>. However, by the time of the second \"Coimisiún na Gaeltachta\" in 1956, the decline in the number of Gaelic speakers had been such that West Clare was removed from the list. It remained covered by the Gaeltacht (Housing) Acts until 2001.\nClose geographic proximity to the <a href=\"Aran%20Islands\">Aran Islands</a> (which were once part of <a href=\"Thomond\">Thomond</a>) and local trade with fishermen from there meant that the language was used by residents of <a href=\"Fanore\">Fanore</a>, <a href=\"Murroogh\">Murroogh</a>, <a href=\"Doolin\">Doolin</a> and <a href=\"Quilty%2C%20County%20Clare\">Quilty</a> more than in other places. The last native Clare Irish speaker, the \"<a href=\"seancha%C3%AD\">seanchaí</a>\" Paddy Pharaic Mhichil Shannon of Fisherstreet, Doolin, died in the early 1990s.\nIn the early 21st century, the pressure group \"Coiste Forbartha Gaeltachta Chontae an Chláir\" has sought to restore the official status of West Clare as a Gaeltacht area. They are encouraging immersion classes to revive use of the language.\nCounty Clare has a strong history of Traditional music. It is the home of the <a href=\"Kilfenora%20C%C3%A9il%C3%AD%20Band\">Kilfenora Céilí Band</a>, the <a href=\"Tulla%20C%C3%A9il%C3%AD%20Band\">Tulla Céilí Band</a>, <a href=\"Stockton%27s%20Wing\">Stockton's Wing</a>, <a href=\"Sharon%20Shannon\">Sharon Shannon</a>, <a href=\"Noel%20Hill%20%28musician%29\">Noel Hill</a>, <a href=\"Peadar%20O%27Loughlin\">Peadar O'Loughlin</a>, <a href=\"Martin%20Hayes%20%28musician%29\">Martin Hayes</a> and legendary tin-whistler <a href=\"Micho%20Russell\">Micho Russell</a>. Ennis in County Clare is also the birthplace of Grammy-nominated songstress <a href=\"Maura%20O%27Connell\">Maura O'Connell</a> whose grandmother started a fish market in the town. The county has many traditional music festivals and one of the most well known is the <a href=\"Willie%20Clancy%20Summer%20School\">Willie Clancy Summer School</a>, which is held every July in the town of <a href=\"Milltown%20Malbay\">Milltown Malbay</a> in memory of the renowned <a href=\"uilleann\">uilleann</a> piper, <a href=\"Willie%20Clancy%20%28musician%29\">Willie Clancy</a>.\n<a href=\"Andy%20Irvine%20%28musician%29\">Andy Irvine</a> has written two songs celebrating County Clare: one is \"West Coast of Clare\" (recorded with <a href=\"Planxty\">Planxty</a> in 1973), in which he mentions <a href=\"Spanish%20Point%2C%20County%20Clare\">Spanish Point</a> and Milltown Malbay. The other is \"My Heart's Tonight In Ireland\" (recorded on his solo album \"<a href=\"Rain%20on%20the%20Roof%20%28Andy%20Irvine%20album%29\">Rain on the Roof</a>\" in 1996, and again on \"<a href=\"Changing%20Trains\">Changing Trains</a>\" in 2005), in which he mentions several towns and villages in County Clare: Milltown Malbay, <a href=\"Scariff\">Scariff</a>, <a href=\"Kilrush\">Kilrush</a>, <a href=\"Sixmilebridge\">Sixmilebridge</a>, Kilkishen, <a href=\"Lahinch\">Lahinch</a>, <a href=\"Ennistymon\">Ennistymon</a>, <a href=\"Liscannor\">Liscannor</a> and <a href=\"Kilkee\">Kilkee</a>, and also makes two references to the music of Willie Clancy:\n<poem>In the town of Scarriff the sun was shining in the sky\nWhen Willie Clancy played his pipes and the tears welled in my eyes\nMany years have passed and gone since the time we had there\nBut my heart's tonight in Ireland in the sweet County Clare.\nLahinch and Ennistymon, Liscannor and Kilkee\nBut best of all was Milltown when the music flowed so free\nWillie Clancy and the County Clare I'm ever in your debt\nFor the sights and sounds of yesterday are shining memories yet.</poem>\nMilltown Malbay is home to Oidhreacht an Chlair, an institute for higher education in all aspects of Irish tradition, history and literature.\nThe <a href=\"Clare%20GAA\">Clare</a> <a href=\"hurling\">hurling</a> team has one of the best records of success in the country in recent years with many cups such as the <a href=\"Liam%20MacCarthy%20Cup\">Liam MacCarthy Cup</a> having been won in 1995, 1997 and 2013 and also finalists in 2002. Clare won the Munster Final in football in 1992 beating Kerry. There is a strong <a href=\"Gaelic%20Athletic%20Association\">Gaelic Athletic Association</a>(GAA) presence in County Clare with the founder of the GAA, <a href=\"Michael%20Cusack\">Michael Cusack</a>, having been born in <a href=\"Carron%2C%20County%20Clare\">Carron</a> which is situated in the heart of <a href=\"The%20Burren\">The Burren</a> in North Clare. Irish rugby internationals from Clare include Keith Wood, Anthony Foley & Marcus Horan.\nClare is served by two <a href=\"national%20primary%20road\">national primary road</a>s—a classification referring to the major routes between major urban centres <a href=\"roads%20in%20Ireland\">in Ireland</a>. This includes the <a href=\"N18%20road%20%28Ireland%29\">N18</a> connecting <a href=\"Limerick\">Limerick</a> to <a href=\"Galway\">Galway</a>, which passes through Ennis and by route of the <a href=\"N19%20road%20%28Ireland%29\">N19</a>—Shannon. These two roads are part of the wider Western and Southern Corridor connecting many of the major settlements right across the island in these areas. There are also some significant <a href=\"national%20secondary%20road\">national secondary road</a>s—across the coast, stretching from <a href=\"Ballyvaughan\">Ballyvaughan</a>, through <a href=\"Ennistymon\">Ennistymon</a> and <a href=\"Kilkee\">Kilkee</a>, before arriving at <a href=\"Kilrush\">Kilrush</a> is the <a href=\"N67%20road%20%28Ireland%29\">N67</a>. In addition to this the <a href=\"N68%20road%20%28Ireland%29\">N68</a> connects Kilrush to Ennis, while Ennis is connected to Ennistymon via the <a href=\"N85%20road%20%28Ireland%29\">N85</a>.\nMainland public transport is mostly limited to buses ran by <a href=\"Irish%20Government\">Irish Government</a> owned company <a href=\"Bus%20%C3%89ireann\">Bus Éireann</a>; there are around 25 buses running frequent routes which pass through the majority of large settlements in Clare. Clare Bus, runs a limited number of \"accessible buslines\". The <a href=\"Ennis%20railway%20station\">Ennis railway station</a> operated by government owned <a href=\"Iarnr%C3%B3d%20%C3%89ireann\">Iarnród Éireann</a> is the most significant railway station in Clare today; it was opened on 2 July 1859. By route of <a href=\"Limerick\">Limerick</a> the trains run from Ennis to <a href=\"Dublin%20Heuston%20railway%20station\">Dublin</a> and it generally takes 3 hours to complete the journey. There was previously a far more extensive local railway network in Clare, laid while part of the United Kingdom, the <a href=\"West%20Clare%20Railway\">West Clare Railway</a> was in existence from its opening in 1887 by <a href=\"Charles%20Stewart%20Parnell\">Charles Stewart Parnell</a> until 1961 covering much of the county. It was quite inefficient however, leading <a href=\"Percy%20French\">Percy French</a> to write the song \"<a href=\"Are%20Ye%20Right%20There%20Michael\">Are Ye Right There Michael?</a>\" about his experience. Much of it was dug up and dismantled by the Irish government from the 1950s—1970s after being deemed uneconomic, however there remains local <a href=\"advocacy%20group\">advocacy group</a>s who wish to conserve and restore parts of it.\nThe third busiest airport in Ireland is located in Clare with the <a href=\"Shannon%20Airport\">Shannon Airport</a>, which officially opened in 1945. Along with <a href=\"Dublin%20Airport\">Dublin Airport</a> and <a href=\"Cork%20Airport\">Cork Airport</a> it is one of the three primary airports in the country, handling 3.62 million passengers in 2007. Shannon was the first airport in Ireland to receive <a href=\"transatlantic%20flight\">transatlantic flight</a>s. <a href=\"Ryanair\">Ryanair</a> is the main airline handling flights with Great Britain and Continental European countries such as Spain, France, and Germany as the primary destinations. Much traffic from the United States is received, which <a href=\"Aer%20Lingus\">Aer Lingus</a> mostly handles; it is sometimes used as a military stopover which has caused some controversy in the country, but nonetheless has generated significant revenue for the airport. There are some local <a href=\"ferry\">ferry</a> services as much of the county is surrounded by water; there is one from Killimer to <a href=\"Tarbert%2C%20County%20Kerry\">Tarbert Island</a> in Kerry and also from <a href=\"Doolin\">Doolin</a> to the <a href=\"Aran%20Islands\">Aran Islands</a> of <a href=\"Inisheer\">Inisheer</a> and <a href=\"Inishmore\">Inishmore</a>."],"string":"[\n \"Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr.\\nCassius Marcellus Clay (November 11, 1912 – February 8, 1990) was an American painter and musician. He was the father of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandfather of Laila Ali. He married Odessa Lee O'Grady in the 1930s and worked as a painter and a musician. He was described as \\\"a handsome, mercurial, noisy, combative failed dreamer\\\" and a \\\"hard-drinking, skirt-chasing dandy of a daddy\\\". His son Muhammad Ali described him as \\\"the fanciest dancer in Louisville\\\".\\nClay was born in Jefferson County, Kentucky, the son of Herman H. Clay (March 1876 – February 1, 1954) and Edith E. Greathouse (December 1890 – December 30, 1971). He had a sister and four brothers, including Nathaniel Clay. Clay's paternal grandparents were John Clay and Sallie Anne Clay. His sister Eva said that Sallie was a native of Madagascar. He was named after the 19th-century Republican politician and staunch abolitionist, Cassius Marcellus Clay, also from the state of Kentucky.\\nClay painted billboards and signs. He also played the piano, took piano lessons and wrote music. Around 1933, he married Odessa Lee O'Grady. He was a heavy drinker, which led to legal entanglements for reckless driving, disorderly conduct, and assault and battery. When asked in 1970 why he had not become a Muslim as his son had done, he said: \\\"my religion is my talent, that which supports me.\\\"\\nClay died at the age of 77 on February 8, 1990, after suffering a heart attack while leaving a department store in Jefferson County, Kentucky.\\nClay was portrayed by Arthur Adams in the 1977 film, \\\"The Greatest\\\" and by Giancarlo Esposito in the 2001 Oscar-nominated film \\\"Ali\\\".\",\n \"Odessa Grady Clay\\nOdessa Lee Clay (née O'Grady; February 12, 1917 – August 20, 1994) was the mother of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandmother of Laila Ali. She married Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr. in the 1930s and worked for some time as a household domestic to help support her young children.\\nShe was born in Hopkins County, Kentucky, one of six children of John Lewis O'Grady and Birdie B. Morehead. Her paternal grandfather was a white Irishman named Abe O'Grady, who emigrated to the United States from Ennis, County Clare, soon after the Civil War and married a daughter of Lewis and Amanda J. \\\"Mandy\\\" Walker of Todd County, Kentucky. Her maternal grandfather, Tom Morehead, was the son of a white Morehead and a slave named Dinah. Morehead served in the 122nd USCT.\\nClay's parents separated when she was young, and her mother worked as a maid, taking care of the household chores and the young children of a white family. Clay was raised partly by her aunt. When she became an adolescent, she dropped out of school and also found work as a domestic. Then, when she was sixteen years old, she met twenty-year-old Cassius, whom everyone referred to as \\\"Cash\\\". They soon married and settled into their own house in Louisville, Kentucky. The Clays' marriage was troubled. Ali told boxing promoters, \\\"She's afraid of him.\\\"\\nThrough her strong Christian belief, Clay had a great influence on the life and spiritual upbringing of both of her sons. Muhammad Ali later said, \\\"My mother is a Baptist, and when I was growing up, she taught me all she knew about God. Every Sunday, she dressed me up, took me and my brother to church, and taught us the way she thought was right. She taught us to love people and treat everybody with kindness. She taught us it was wrong to be prejudiced or hate. I've changed my religion and some of my beliefs since then, but her God is still God; I just call him by a different name. And my mother, I'll tell you what I've told people for a long time. She's a sweet, fat, wonderful woman, who loves to cook, eat, make clothes, and be with family. She doesn't drink, smoke, meddle in other people's business, or bother anyone, and there's no one who's been better to me my whole life.\\\"\\nClay supported and inspired her son throughout his boxing career. At small gyms early in her son's career and later at international arenas when he became world-famous, Clay traveled with her son and was a ring-side regular at his bouts. Muhammad Ali was much closer to his mother, whom he lovingly called \\\"Bird\\\", than to his father. After discovering boxing, it was his mother with whom he shared his dreams of greatness.\\nClay's husband died in 1990. Odessa Clay died of heart failure on August 18, 1994, at Hurstbourne Health Center, a nursing home in the Louisville, Kentucky area. She had been disabled by a stroke since February 1994, according to a family friend.\\nOdessa Clay appeared as herself in the film documentaries \\\"Muhammad Ali: The Whole Story\\\" (1996) and \\\"When We Were Kings\\\" (1996). In the 1977 film \\\"The Greatest\\\" Odessa Clay was portrayed by Dorothy Meyer, and in the 2001 film \\\"Ali\\\" she was portrayed by Candy Ann Brown.\",\n \"A.k.a. Cassius Clay\\nA.k.a. Cassius Clay (styled as a.k.a. Cassius Clay) is a 1970 boxing documentary film about the former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali.\\nDirected by Jimmy Jacobs, the film was made during Ali's exile from the sport for refusing to be inducted into the US Army on religious grounds. Narrated by Richard Kiley, the film gives an overview of Ali's career to that point. The film features archival footage of people associated with Ali, such as Angelo Dundee, Malcolm X, and Drew Bundini Brown, and clips of his fights with Sonny Liston, Henry Cooper, George Chuvalo and Floyd Patterson. These are intercut with scenes featuring Ali and veteran boxing trainer Cus D'Amato discussing his career and how he would have fared against past champions such as Joe Louis.\\n\",\n \"UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship\\nThe UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship is the primary singles championship title in Ultra Championship Wrestling-Zero. It was first won by Blitz Mason in March 2003 and defended throughout the state of Utah, most often Salt Lake City, Utah, but also in the Rocky Mountains and the Southwest United States. The title was formerly recognized by AWA Superstars from 2005 to 2007, and then by the National Wrestling Alliance when the promotion became an NWA territory that same year. On February 26, 2011, the UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship was around the waist of Los Mochis Paco until it was stolen by Tyler Cintron after Junior X attacked Paco. Later, Paco retrieved his belt back from Tyler Cintron. The following show however, Tyler Cintron walks into the ring with his own UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship. UCW Director Blitz decide to make a Triple Threat TLC Match to determine the Undisputed UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion which took place on June 4, 2011. Los Mochis Paco was the victor to become the Undisputed Heavyweight Champion. It would however be short lived because Los Mochis Paco was attacked by Black Out in the back and broke his leg and was unable to defend it. Two Weeks later on June 18, 2011, Director for the night and Former 4 time UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion Martin Casaus made a Gauntlet Match to determine a New Champion. In the end, it was Junior X that prevailed and became the NEW UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion. 2011 Rocky Mountain Rumble Champion Kid Kade went on to win the UCW-Zero Heavyweight Champion after defeating Junior X at \\\"Meltdown Mayhem\\\" on August 13, 2011.\",\n \"Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)\\nCassius Marcellus Clay ( ; October 19, 1810 – July 22, 1903), nicknamed the \\\"Lion of White Hall\\\", was a Kentucky planter, politician, and emancipationist who worked for the abolition of slavery. He freed the slaves that were handed down as his inheritance from his father. Those freed slaves were allowed to stay and were paid a wage. He was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln as the United States minister to Russia during the American Civil War, and is credited with gaining Russian support for the Union.\\nCassius Marcellus Clay was born to Green Clay, one of the wealthiest planters and slaveholders in Kentucky, who became a prominent politician, and his wife Sally Lewis. He was one of six children who survived to adulthood, of seven born.\\nClay was a member of a large and influential political family. His older brother Brutus J. Clay became a politician at the state and federal levels. They were cousins of both Kentucky politician Henry Clay and Alabama governor Clement Comer Clay. Cassius' sister Elizabeth Lewis Clay (1798–1887) married John Speed Smith, who also became a state and US politician. Their son, Green Clay Smith, became a state politician and was elected to Congress.\\nThe younger Clay attended Transylvania University and then graduated from Yale College in 1832. While at Yale, he heard abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison speak, and his lecture inspired Clay to join the anti-slavery movement. Garrison's arguments were to him \\\"as water is to a thirsty wayfarer.\\\" Clay was politically pragmatic, supporting gradual legal change rather than calling for immediate abolition the way Garrison and his supporters did.\\nIn 1833, Clay married Mary Jane Warfield, daughter of Dr. Elisha Warfield and Mary Barr. They had seven children of their own: Elisha Warfield, son Green, Mary Barr, Sally, Laura, Brutus J., II, and Anne, and adopted Henry Launey Clay (believed to be his son by an extra-marital relationship while in Russia).\\nCassius Clay was a pioneer as an early southern planter who became a prominent anti-slavery crusader. Clay worked toward emancipation, both as a Kentucky state representative and as an early member of the Republican Party.\\nClay was elected to three terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives, but he lost support among Kentucky voters as he promoted ending slavery. His anti-slavery activism earned him violent enemies. During a political debate in 1843, he survived an assassination attempt by a hired gun, named Sam Brown. Despite being shot in the chest, Clay drew his Bowie knife, tackled Brown, cut out his eyes, and finally threw him over an embankment.\\nIn 1845, Clay began publishing an anti-slavery newspaper, \\\"True American\\\", in Lexington, Kentucky. Within a month he received death threats, had to arm himself, and regularly barricaded the armored doors of his newspaper office for protection, besides setting up two four-pounder cannons inside. Shortly after, a mob of about 60 men broke into his office and seized his printing equipment. To protect his venture, Clay set up a publication center in Cincinnati, Ohio, a center of abolitionists in the free state, but continued to reside in Kentucky.\\nClay served in the Mexican-American War as a captain with the 1st Kentucky Cavalry from 1846 to 1847. He opposed the annexation of Texas and expansion of slavery into the Southwest. While making a speech for abolition in 1849, Clay was attacked by the six Turner brothers, who beat, stabbed and tried to shoot him. In the ensuing fight, Clay fought off all six and, using his Bowie knife, killed Cyrus Turner.\\nIn 1853, Clay granted 10 acres of his expansive lands to John G. Fee, an abolitionist, who founded the town of Berea. In 1855 Fee founded Berea College, open to all races.\\nClay's connections to the northern antislavery movement remained strong. He was a founder of the Republican Party in Kentucky and became a friend of Abraham Lincoln, supporting him for the presidency in 1860. Clay was briefly a candidate for the vice presidency at the 1860 Republican National Convention, but lost the nomination to Hannibal Hamlin.\\nPresident Lincoln appointed Clay to the post of Minister to the Russian court at St. Petersburg on March 28, 1861. The Civil War started before he departed and, as there were no Federal troops in Washington at the time, Clay organized a group of 300 volunteers to protect the White House and US Naval Yard from a possible Confederate attack. These men became known as Cassius M. Clay's Washington Guards. President Lincoln gave Clay a presentation Colt revolver in recognition. When Federal troops arrived, Clay and his family embarked for Russia.\\nAs Minister to Russia, Clay witnessed the Tsar's emancipation edict. Recalled to the United States in 1862 to accept a commission from Lincoln as a major general with the Union Army, Clay publicly refused to accept it unless Lincoln would agree to emancipate slaves under Confederate control. Lincoln sent Clay to Kentucky to assess the mood for emancipation there and in the other border states. Following Clay's return to Washington, DC, Lincoln issued the proclamation in late 1862, to take effect in January 1863.\\nClay resigned his commission in March 1863 and returned to Russia, where he served until 1869. He was influential in the negotiations for the purchase of Alaska.\\nLater, Clay founded the Cuban Charitable Aid Society to help the Cuban independence movement of Jose Marti. He also spoke in favor of nationalizing the railroads, and later against the power being accrued by industrialists.\\nIn 1869, Clay left the Republican Party. This was partly due to his opposition to President Grant's military interference in Haiti. He also disapproved of the Republican Radicals' reconstruction policy after Lincoln's assassination.\\nIn 1872, Clay was one of the organizers of the Liberal Republican revolt. He was instrumental in securing the nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the\\npolitical campaigns of 1876 and 1880, Clay supported the Democratic Party candidates. He rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of 1884.\\nClay had a reputation as a rebel and a fighter. Due to threats on his life, he had become accustomed to carrying two pistols and a knife for protection. He installed a cannon to protect his home and office. As he aged, Clay became increasingly eccentric and paranoid.\\nIn 1878 after 45 years of marriage, Clay divorced his wife, Mary Jane (Warfield) Clay, claiming abandonment after she no longer would tolerate his marital infidelities.\\nIn 1894, the 84-year-old Clay married Dora Richardson, the 15-year-old orphaned sister of one of his sharecropping tenants.\\nCassius Clay died at his home on July 22, 1903 of \\\"general exhaustion.\\\" Survivors included his daughters, Laura Clay and Mary Barr Clay, who were both women's rights activists.\\nHis family home, White Hall, is maintained by the Commonwealth of Kentucky as White Hall State Historic Shrine.\\nDuring the Civil War, Russia came to the aid of the Union, threatening war against Britain and France if they officially recognized the Confederacy. Cassius Clay, as minister to Russia during that time, was instrumental in securing Russia's aid. Tsar Alexander II of Russia gave sealed orders to the commanders of both his Atlantic and Pacific fleets, and sent them to the East and West coasts of America. They were instructed that the sealed orders were to be opened only if Britain and France entered the war on the side of the Confederacy. When the Russian Atlantic fleet entered New York harbor, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles wrote in his diary:\\nIn sending these ships to this country, there is something significant. What will be its effect on France, and French policy, we shall learn in due time. It may be moderate, it may exacerbate. God bless the Russians.\\nThis action of Tsar Alexander II was confirmed in 1904 by Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania, who in 1878 was the financial agent in the United States of the Russian government.\\nHerman Heaton Clay, a descendant of African-American slaves, named his son Cassius Marcellus Clay—who was born nine years after the death of the emancipationist in tribute to him. This Cassius Clay gave his own son the same name, Cassius M. Clay, Jr., a heavyweight champion boxer who gained international renown and changed his name to Muhammad Ali.\\n\",\n \"The Soul of a Butterfly\\nThe Soul of a Butterfly is the autobiography of Muhammad Ali, born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr., a former heavyweight boxer who was a three time World Heavyweight Champion and is the greatest heavyweight of all time.\\nIt is written in collaboration with his daughter, Hana Yasmeen Ali. It is not a comprehensive autobiography but a breakdown of the important events and experiences in his life; this is suggested in the book's subtitle, \\\"Reflections on Life's Journey\\\".\\nThe book includes some of his and his daughter's poetry, and snippets of Sufi thought.\\nA chapter of the book is written solely by his daughter, Hana, where she recounts an experience with her father, and goes on to reflect upon what she means to him and what she has learned from him.\\nA review in the \\\"New York Times\\\" describes the book as \\\"an elliptical, collagelike memoir that offered a philosophical look back at his life.\\\"\\n\",\n \"Brutus J. Clay\\nBrutus Junius Clay (July 1, 1808 – October 11, 1878) was a U.S. Representative from Kentucky, and a son of Green Clay. His brother Cassius Marcellus Clay also was a politician in the state, and they both joined the Unionist Party at the time of the American Civil War.\\nBorn in Richmond, Kentucky to Green Clay and his wife Sally Lewis (died 1867), Clay attended the common schools. One of six children who survived to adulthood out of seven born, Brutus had sisters Elizabeth Lewis Clay (1798-1887), Pauline, Rodes and Sallie, an older brother Sidney, and younger brother Cassius Marcellus Clay (b.1810).\\nIn 1815 Elizabeth married John Speed Smith, who also became a politician in Kentucky, as did their son Green Clay Smith.\\nBrutus Clay graduated from Centre College, Danville, Kentucky. He entered into agricultural pursuits and stock raising. His father, who had interests in tens of thousands of acres of land, distilleries and ferries, was considered one of the wealthiest men in Kentucky and had become an influential politician.\\nIn 1827 Brutus Clay settled in Bourbon County, where he became deeply involved in agriculture and breeding livestock. He became recognized in central Kentucky as one of its \\\"most successful stock raisers.\\\" It as a key part of the Inner Bluegrass region economy.\\nHaving gotten established, on February 10, 1831, Clay married Amelia Field (1812-1843) of Madison County, daughter of Ezekiel H. and Patsy (Irvine) Field. They had four children: Martha, Christopher Field, Green, and Ezekiel Field Clay. The latter served as a Colonel in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. Afterward he went into stock raising, particularly of Thoroughbreds.\\nThe widower Clay married again on November 8, 1844, to Ann Field (1822-1881), a sister of his first wife Amelia. They had one son, Cassius M. Clay, who lived at the Clay homestead in Bourbon County after his parents' deaths.\\nClay was elected in 1840 as a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. His younger brother Cassius also became a politician in the state.\\nThat year, Clay was also elected president of Bourbon County Agricultural Association, which he served for thirty years. He served as president of the Kentucky Agricultural Association 1853-1861.\\nIn 1860 Clay was elected again as a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. During the American Civil War, Clay and his brother were Unionists. He was elected as a Unionist to the Thirty-eighth Congress, serving March 4, 1863 – March 3, 1865. He served as chairman of the Committee on Agriculture (Thirty-eighth Congress).\\nHe was not a candidate for reelection and returned to Kentucky to resume his former pursuits. He died near Paris, Kentucky on October 11, 1878. He was interred in his family burial ground at \\\"Auvergne,\\\" near Paris.\\n This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http://bioguide.congress.gov.\",\n \"Facing Ali\\nFacing Ali is a 2009 documentary directed by Pete McCormack about Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. in Louisville, Kentucky) as told from the perspectives of some of the notable opponents he faced during his career: George Chuvalo, Sir Henry Cooper, George Foreman, \\\"Smokin'\\\" Joe Frazier, Larry Holmes (a former sparring partner of Ali), Ron Lyle, Ken Norton, Earnie Shavers, Leon Spinks and Ernie Terrell.\\nProduction is credited to Canadian producer Derik Murray and his company, Network Entertainment, Lions Gate Entertainment, and Spike Sports in association with Muhammad Ali Enterprises.\\nThe fighters discuss their bouts against Muhammad Ali as well as their own lives and careers; Ali's fights against other opponents; his conversion to Islam and the assumption of the name Muhammad Ali; his relationship with the Nation of Islam organization (frequently referred to as the \\\"black Muslims\\\"), its leader, Elijah Muhammad (who bestowed Ali with his new name after he was briefly called Cassius X), and the Nation of Islam's most prominent minister, Malcolm X; Ali's refusal to be inducted into the United States Army to serve in the ongoing Vietnam War in 1967 on moral and religious grounds; the decision by the New York State Athletic Commission to strip him of his championship; his legal case and his reinstatement after the favorable June 28, 1970 decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. The Justices decided 8-0 (with Thurgood Marshall abstaining), that \\\"... for the reasons stated, that the Department [of Justice] was simply wrong as a matter of law in advising that the petitioner's beliefs were not religiously based and were not sincerely held\\\".\\nSonny Liston, who died in 1970, appears in archival footage. Liston and Ali fought in two notable matches in 1964 and 1965, respectively. The cover art for the DVD is Neil Leifer's iconic photograph from their controversial second fight in Lewiston, Maine in which many, such as George Chuvalo, allege that Sonny Liston deliberately lost.\\nFormer British champion Sir Henry Cooper briefly discusses the cumulative effects of boxing on Muhammad Ali's health. He states that Ali actually suffers from \\\"Parkinson's Syndrome\\\" rather than Parkinson's Disease and that Ali's doctor had personally told him that the cause was Ali taking frequent punches to the back of his neck and that these blows killed brain cells which trigger the release of an important chemical. George Chuvalo stated that he believes Ali's condition was caused either by boxing and or a predisposition for the disease.\\nAlthough eligible for nomination for an Academy Award in the documentary feature category, it was not so honored. However, it won awards at the Vancouver Film Critics Circle and the Vancouver International Film Festival.\",\n \"Botherum\\nBotherum was built for Madison C. Johnson in 1850 or 1851 (sources vary) by John McMurtry, a well-known architect and builder based in Lexington. The house was intended, in part, as a shrine to Johnson's late wife Sally Ann, a sister of Cassius Marcellus Clay who died giving birth in 1828.\\nAlthough McMurtry was known for his Gothic Revival architecture, and is credited with establishing the popularity of that style in central Kentucky, Botherum shows an unusual combination of Greek, Roman, and Gothic architectural elements.\\nA large ginkgo tree that stands on the property is said to have been a gift to Johnson from Henry Clay. The original 36-acre estate faced High Street, but the house now sits on a 3/4 acre lot and is approached from Madison Place, to the side.\\nIn 1886, Johnson's heirs sold the estate to J. C. Woodward, who subdivided much of it into Woodward Heights, selling the lots individually.\\nJohn Cavendish owned the house from 1983 until 2012, and in the mid-1980s he added a high stone wall that hides the single-story house from the street and a two-story guest house.\",\n \"The Greatest (1977 film)\\nThe Greatest is a 1977 film about the life of boxer <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a>, in which Ali plays himself. It was directed by <a href=\\\"Tom%20Gries\\\">Tom Gries</a> and <a href=\\\"Monte%20Hellman\\\">Monte Hellman</a>. The film follows Ali's life from the 1960 Olympics to his regaining the heavyweight crown from <a href=\\\"George%20Foreman\\\">George Foreman</a> in their famous \\\"<a href=\\\"Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\\\">Rumble in the Jungle</a>\\\" fight in 1974. The footage of the boxing matches themselves are largely the actual footage from the time involved.\\nThe movie is based on the book \\\"\\\" written by Muhammad Ali and Richard Durham and edited by <a href=\\\"Toni%20Morrison\\\">Toni Morrison</a>.\\nThe song \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Greatest%20Love%20of%20All\\\">The Greatest Love of All</a>\\\" was written for this film and sung by <a href=\\\"George%20Benson\\\">George Benson</a>; it was later covered by <a href=\\\"Whitney%20Houston\\\">Whitney Houston</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Rahman%20Ali\\\">Rahman Ali</a>, <a href=\\\"Howard%20Bingham\\\">Howard Bingham</a>, <a href=\\\"Harold%20Conrad\\\">Harold Conrad</a>, <a href=\\\"Don%20Dunphy\\\">Don Dunphy</a>, <a href=\\\"Lloyd%20Wells\\\">Lloyd Wells</a>, <a href=\\\"Pat%20Patterson%20%28sportscaster%29\\\">Pat Patterson</a>, and <a href=\\\"Gene%20Kilroy\\\">Gene Kilroy</a> appear as themselves.\\nThere are many uncredited roles in the film including some major characters, such as Ruby Sanderson and his girlfriend, Belinda Board, who became his wife, and Herbert Mohammed, son of <a href=\\\"Elijah%20Muhammad\\\">Elijah Muhammad</a>, who was Ali's manager at one point.\\n<a href=\\\"Lonette%20McKee\\\">Lonette McKee</a> was originally going to portray the role played by Annazette Chase.\\nAll music composed and produced by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Masser\\\">Michael Masser</a>, and arranged by Masser and <a href=\\\"Lee%20Holdridge\\\">Lee Holdridge</a>.\\n\",\n \"Laila Ali\\nLaila Amaria Ali (born December 30, 1977) is an American former <a href=\\\"professional%20boxer\\\">professional boxer</a> who competed from 1999 to 2007. She is the daughter of legendary boxing champion <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a> with his third wife, <a href=\\\"Veronica%20Porch%C3%A9%20Ali\\\">Veronica Porché Ali</a>, and is the eighth of her father's nine children. During her career, from which she retired undefeated, she held the <a href=\\\"World%20Boxing%20Council\\\">WBC</a>, <a href=\\\"Women%27s%20International%20Boxing%20Association\\\">WIBA</a>, <a href=\\\"International%20Women%27s%20Boxing%20Federation\\\">IWBF</a> and <a href=\\\"International%20Boxing%20Association%20%28professional%20body%29\\\">IBA</a> female <a href=\\\"super%20middleweight\\\">super middleweight</a> titles, and the IWBF <a href=\\\"light%20heavyweight\\\">light heavyweight</a> title.\\nLaila Amaria Ali was born December 30, 1977, in <a href=\\\"Miami%20Beach%2C%20Florida\\\">Miami Beach, Florida</a>, the daughter of boxer <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a> and his third wife, <a href=\\\"Veronica%20Porch%C3%A9%20Ali\\\">Veronica Porché Ali</a>. Ali was a manicurist at age 16. She graduated from <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>'s <a href=\\\"Santa%20Monica%20College\\\">Santa Monica College</a> with a business degree. She owned her own nail salon before she began boxing.\\nAli began boxing when she was 18 years old, after having first noticed women's boxing when watching a <a href=\\\"Christy%20Martin%20%28boxer%29\\\">Christy Martin</a> fight. She first publicized her decision to become a professional boxer in a \\\"<a href=\\\"Good%20Morning%20America\\\">Good Morning America</a>\\\" interview with <a href=\\\"Diane%20Sawyer\\\">Diane Sawyer</a>. When she first told her father, Muhammad Ali, that she was planning to box professionally, he was unhappy about her entering such a dangerous profession.\\nIn her first match, on October 8, 1999, the 5'10\\\", 166 lbs, 21-year-old Ali boxed April Fowler of Michigan City, Indiana. They fought at the <a href=\\\"Turning%20Stone%20Resort%20%26amp%3B%20Casino\\\">Turning Stone Resort & Casino</a> on the <a href=\\\"Oneida%20Indian%20Nation\\\">Oneida Indian Nation</a> in <a href=\\\"Verona%2C%20New%20York\\\">Verona, New York</a>. Although this was Ali's first match, many journalists and fans attended, largely because she was Muhammad Ali's daughter. Attention to Ali's ring debut was further boosted because it occurred on the eve of what was supposed to be the first male-female professional bout ever to be sanctioned by a US state boxing commission ... later ruled an exhibition. As WomenBoxing.com explains: \\\"The near-alignment of the two events focused more attention on female professional boxing than there had been since Christy Martin's 1996 <a href=\\\"pay-per-view\\\">pay-per-view</a> fight with <a href=\\\"Deirdre%20Gogarty\\\">Deirdre Gogarty</a>.\\\" Ali <a href=\\\"knockout\\\">knocked out</a> April Fowler – described by WomenBoxing.com as an \\\"out-of-shape novice\\\" – in the first round.\\nAli also won her second match by a <a href=\\\"technical%20knockout\\\">TKO</a> with only 3 seconds left on the clock. In that match her opponent was 5'4\\\" Shadina Pennybaker, from Pittsburgh, who was making a pro debut after earning a 2–1 record as an amateur. They fought at the <a href=\\\"Mountaineer%20Casino%2C%20Racetrack%20and%20Resort\\\">Mountaineer Casino, Racetrack and Resort</a> in <a href=\\\"Chester%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Chester, West Virginia</a>.\\nAli captured eight wins in a row and many boxing fans expressed a desire to see her square off in a boxing ring with <a href=\\\"George%20Foreman\\\">George Foreman</a>'s daughter, Freeda Foreman or <a href=\\\"Joe%20Frazier\\\">Joe Frazier</a>'s daughter, <a href=\\\"Jackie%20Frazier-Lyde\\\">Jackie Frazier-Lyde</a>. On the evening of June 8, 2001, Ali and Frazier finally met. The fight was nicknamed \\\"Ali/Frazier IV\\\" in allusion to their fathers' famous fight trilogy. Ali won by a majority judges' decision in eight rounds. This match by Ali and Frazier was the first main-event pay-per-view match between two women.\\nAfter a year's hiatus, on June 7, 2002, Ali beat Shirvelle Williams in a six-round decision.\\nShe won the <a href=\\\"International%20Boxing%20Association%20%28professional%20body%29\\\">IBA</a> title with a second-round knockout of Suzette Taylor on August 17, 2002, in Las Vegas.\\nOn November 8, she retained that title and unified the crown by adding the <a href=\\\"Women%27s%20International%20Boxing%20Association\\\">WIBA</a> and <a href=\\\"International%20Women%27s%20Boxing%20Federation\\\">IWBF</a> belts with an eight-round TKO win over her division's other world champion, <a href=\\\"Valerie%20Mahfood\\\">Valerie Mahfood</a>, in Las Vegas. Ali stopped a bloodied Mahfood in eight rounds.\\nOn June 21, 2003, Mahfood and Ali fought a rematch, this time in Los Angeles. Once again bloodied by Ali, Mahfood lost by TKO in six rounds while trying to recover her world title. Nevertheless, for the first time in Ali's boxing career, she suffered a bad cut on her right eyelid and a bloodied nose, inflicted by Mahfood, something no other female boxer has done to Ali to this day.\\nOn August 23, 2003, Ali fought her original inspiration, <a href=\\\"Christy%20Martin%20%28boxer%29\\\">Christy Martin</a>, beating Martin by a knockout in four rounds.\\nOn July 17, 2004, Ali retained her world title, knocking out Nikki Eplion in four rounds.\\nOn July 30, 2004, she stopped <a href=\\\"Monica%20Nunez\\\">Monica Nunez</a> in nine rounds, in her father's native city of <a href=\\\"Louisville%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Louisville, Kentucky</a>. This fight was part of the <a href=\\\"Undercard%23Undercard\\\">undercard</a> for the fight in which <a href=\\\"Mike%20Tyson\\\">Mike Tyson</a> was surprisingly knocked out by fringe contender <a href=\\\"Danny%20Williams%20%28boxer%29\\\">Danny Williams</a>.\\nOn September 24, 2004, Ali added the IWBF Light Heavyweight title to her resume by beating Gwendolyn O'Neil (whom she had earlier canceled a fight against) by a knockout in three rounds, at <a href=\\\"Atlanta\\\">Atlanta, Georgia</a>.\\nOn February 1, 2005, in Atlanta, Ali scored a commanding and decisive eighth-round technical knockout over Cassandra Geiggar in a ten-round fight.\\nOn June 11, 2005, on the undercard to the Tyson-<a href=\\\"Kevin%20McBride\\\">Kevin McBride</a> fight, Ali defeated <a href=\\\"Erin%20Toughill\\\">Erin Toughill</a> in round three to remain undefeated and won the <a href=\\\"World%20Boxing%20Council\\\">World Boxing Council</a> title in addition to defending her WIBA crown. She was the second woman to win a WBC title (<a href=\\\"Jackie%20Nava\\\">Jackie Nava</a> was the first). Toughill and Ali disliked each other, and prior to the fight Toughill joked about Ali. Ali promised she would punish Toughill, much like her father did with <a href=\\\"Ernie%20Terrell\\\">Ernie Terrell</a> back in 1967.\\nOn December 17, 2005, in <a href=\\\"Berlin\\\">Berlin</a>, Ali fought and defeated <a href=\\\"%C3%85sa%20Sandell\\\">Åsa Sandell</a> by TKO in the fifth round. Following Ali's hard right to Sandell's face with 17 seconds remaining in Round 5, Sandell was struck by numerous undefended shots to her head. The referee stopped the bout with 12 seconds remaining. Muhammad Ali was in attendance and kissed his daughter.\\nWhile a guest on \\\"<a href=\\\"Quite%20Frankly%20with%20Stephen%20A.%20Smith\\\">Quite Frankly with Stephen A. Smith</a>\\\" on June 7, 2006, Ali announced that she would be making a world tour, and said that she was looking forward to fighting <a href=\\\"Ann%20Wolfe\\\">Ann Wolfe</a> on October 2006. However, the fight with Wolfe never materialized. Instead, on November 11, 2006, Ali fought and defeated Shelley Burton by TKO in the fourth round. Ali was rescheduled to fight O'Neil in <a href=\\\"Cape%20Town%2C%20South%20Africa\\\">Cape Town</a>, on August 5, 2006, but Ali pulled out amid allegations of fraud. The match eventually took place in South Africa on February 2, 2007. Ali defeated O'Neil in the first-round by technical knockout. It was Ali's last professional fight.\\nOther top women's boxing champions such as <a href=\\\"Ann%20Wolfe\\\">Ann Wolfe</a> (24–1) have claimed in interviews that they have challenged Ali unofficially, but Ali found ways of avoiding them. Fringe boxing writers have expressed disappointment in Ali's perceived avoidance of some contenders. However, Ali has contended that other boxers want unrealistic amounts of money and \\\"play themselves right out of the deal\\\" during negotiations intentionally because their names will have no value after they've fought Ali.\\nIn early 2002, Ali appeared in a boxing role for the <a href=\\\"music%20video\\\">music video</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Deny%20%28Default%20song%29\\\">Deny</a>\\\" by Canadian <a href=\\\"hard%20rock\\\">hard rock</a> band <a href=\\\"Default%20%28band%29\\\">Default</a>. The video gained airplay on music channels including <a href=\\\"MTV2\\\">MTV2</a> and <a href=\\\"Fuse%20TV\\\">MMUSA</a>.\\nIn 2004, Ali appeared on the \\\"<a href=\\\"George%20Lopez%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">George Lopez</a>\\\" show, where she owned a gym, as well as on \\\"<a href=\\\"Real%20Husbands%20of%20Hollywood\\\">Real Husbands of Hollywood</a>\\\".\\nIn mid-2007, Ali was a participant in <a href=\\\"Dancing%20with%20the%20Stars%20%28US%20season%204%29\\\">season four</a> of the American version of the television show \\\"<a href=\\\"Dancing%20with%20the%20Stars%20%28US%20TV%20series%29\\\">Dancing with the Stars</a>\\\"; she had no previous dancing experience. She and her professional dancing partner, <a href=\\\"Maksim%20Chmerkovskiy\\\">Maksim Chmerkovskiy</a>, were widely praised by the judges, receiving the first \\\"10\\\" from judge <a href=\\\"Len%20Goodman\\\">Len Goodman</a> for their <a href=\\\"Rhumba\\\">rumba</a>. They came in third place in the competition, losing to <a href=\\\"Apolo%20Anton%20Ohno\\\">Apolo Anton Ohno</a> (with <a href=\\\"Julianne%20Hough\\\">Julianne Hough</a>) and <a href=\\\"Joey%20Fatone\\\">Joey Fatone</a> (with <a href=\\\"Kym%20Johnson\\\">Kym Johnson</a>).\\nAli hosted the revival of \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Gladiators%20%282008%20TV%20series%29\\\">American Gladiators</a>\\\" alongside <a href=\\\"Hulk%20Hogan\\\">Hulk Hogan</a>. The show premiered in January 2008.\\nAli and the cast of \\\"American Gladiators\\\" appeared on the <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC</a> show \\\"<a href=\\\"Celebrity%20Family%20Feud\\\">Celebrity Family Feud</a>\\\" in an episode that aired on July 8, 2008.\\nAli joined the CBS team as a contributing correspondent on \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Early%20Show\\\">The Early Show</a>\\\" with her first appearance in early January 2008.\\nShe hosted \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20N%27s%20Student%20Body\\\">The N's Student Body</a>\\\", a reality show on <a href=\\\"The%20N\\\">The N</a>.\\nAli also appeared in a 2007 episode of \\\"<a href=\\\"Yo%20Gabba%20Gabba%21\\\">Yo Gabba Gabba!</a>\\\", titled \\\"Train\\\", in a brief dance number, and on \\\"Love That Girl\\\", episode 3.4, \\\"Fighting Shape\\\".\\nIn 2012, Ali was picked to co-host \\\"Everyday Health\\\" with <a href=\\\"Ethan%20Zohn\\\">Ethan Zohn</a> and <a href=\\\"Jenna%20Morasca\\\">Jenna Morasca</a>. The show aired on <a href=\\\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">ABC</a> Saturday mornings and profiled everyday people living with health issues, who aspired to not let their issues keep them from helping others or doing extraordinary things.\\nAlso in 2012, Ali appeared in a <a href=\\\"Kohl%27s\\\">Kohl's</a> commercial with a tag line, \\\"I box to win; I shop to win.\\\".\\nAli was a contestant on the <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC</a> celebrity reality competition series called \\\"<a href=\\\"Stars%20Earn%20Stripes\\\">Stars Earn Stripes</a>\\\" from August 2012 to September 2012.\\nOn February 4, 2013, Ali appeared on the NBC reality series, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Biggest%20Loser\\\">The Biggest Loser</a>\\\" in the episode \\\"Lead By Example\\\". In the episode, she boxed alongside \\\"<a href=\\\"Dolvett%20Quince\\\">Dolvett Quince</a>\\\"'s team consisting of Jackson Carter, Joe Ostaszewski and Francelina Morillo.\\nIn March 2013, Ali started appearing as a co-host on multiple episodes of \\\"<a href=\\\"E%21\\\">E!</a>\\\" talk show series \\\"<a href=\\\"Fashion%20Police\\\">Fashion Police</a>\\\" filling in for \\\"<a href=\\\"Giuliana%20Rancic\\\">Giuliana Rancic</a>\\\", who was on maternity leave. In May 2013, Ali once again filled in for Rancic, who had other commitments and was unable attend the show.\\nIn May 2014, Ali participated in an episode of \\\"<a href=\\\"Celebrity%20Wife%20Swap\\\">Celebrity Wife Swap</a>\\\". She swapped places with singer <a href=\\\"Angie%20Stone\\\">Angie Stone</a> and tried to instill healthier habits on the family.\\nIn April 2013, Ali participated in two episodes of \\\"<a href=\\\"Chopped%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Chopped: All Stars</a>\\\", making it to the final round, competing for a favorite charity.\\nIn September 2013, Ali began hosting \\\"All In with Laila Ali\\\", a new show in the CBS Saturday morning lineup \\\"<a href=\\\"CBS%20Dream%20Team\\\">CBS Dream Team</a>\\\". The following year, she began hosting \\\"Late Night Chef Fight\\\" on the cable network <a href=\\\"FYI%20%28U.S.%20TV%20channel%29\\\">FYI</a>. In 2014, she appeared in the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Falcon%20Rising\\\">Falcon Rising</a>\\\".\\nShe was a participant of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20Celebrity%20Apprentice\\\">The New Celebrity Apprentice</a>\\\" (also known as \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Apprentice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Apprentice</a> 15\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Celebrity%20Apprentice\\\">The Celebrity Apprentice</a> 8\\\") but terminated after 11th task.\\nIn 2002, Ali wrote (with co-author <a href=\\\"David%20Ritz\\\">David Ritz</a>) the book \\\"Reach! Finding Strength, Spirit, and Personal Power\\\", meant to motivate and inspire young people. In this book, she confides that she felt isolated at times because of her parents' fame. Ali has also spent some time in jail, and describes her arrests and the physical abuse she experienced in jail. Critics say that Ali's book has a good foundation but she does not give the readers advice; rather she just talks about her own experiences.\\nAli married Johnny \\\"Yahya\\\" McClain on August 27, 2000. She met McClain through her sister Hana at her father's 57th birthday party. McClain became Ali's manager and helped guide her career. In late 2005, Ali and McClain divorced and McClain quit managing Ali.\\nOn July 23, 2007, Ali married former <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a> player <a href=\\\"Curtis%20Conway\\\">Curtis Conway</a> in Los Angeles. They have two children together: son Curtis Muhammad Conway, Jr. (born August 26, 2008), and daughter Sydney Jurldine Conway (born April 4, 2011). Ali is the stepmother of Conway's three children: twin sons Cameron and Kelton (born 1995) and daughter Leilani (born 1999).\\nProfessional wrestling legend <a href=\\\"Hulk%20Hogan\\\">Hulk Hogan</a> credits Laila Ali with saving his life by telephoning him when he was depressed and suicidal.\\nAlthough raised as a Muslim, Laila Ali does not follow the Islamic faith.\\nAli is the sister-in-law of professional mixed martial artist <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Casey%20%28fighter%29\\\">Kevin Casey</a>, who is married to her sister Hana.\",\n \"Ali (film)\\nAli is a 2001 American <a href=\\\"Biographical%20film\\\">biographical</a> <a href=\\\"Sports%20film\\\">sports</a> <a href=\\\"Drama%20%28film%20and%20television%29\\\">drama film</a> written, produced and directed by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Mann%20%28director%29\\\">Michael Mann</a>. The film focuses on ten years in the life of the <a href=\\\"boxing\\\">boxer</a> <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a>, played by <a href=\\\"Will%20Smith\\\">Will Smith</a>, from 1964 to 1974, featuring his capture of the heavyweight title <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali%20vs.%20Sonny%20Liston\\\">from Sonny Liston</a>, his conversion to <a href=\\\"Islam\\\">Islam</a>, criticism of the <a href=\\\"Vietnam%20War\\\">Vietnam War</a>, and banishment from boxing, his return to <a href=\\\"Fight%20of%20the%20Century\\\">fight Joe Frazier</a> in 1971, and, finally, his reclaiming the title from <a href=\\\"George%20Foreman\\\">George Foreman</a> in <a href=\\\"the%20Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\\\">the Rumble in the Jungle</a> fight of 1974. It also touches on the great social and political upheaval in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> following the assassinations of <a href=\\\"Malcolm%20X%23Assassination\\\">Malcolm X</a> and <a href=\\\"Assassination%20of%20Martin%20Luther%20King%2C%20Jr.\\\">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a>\\nThe film was well received by critics, but was a failure at the box office. Smith and <a href=\\\"Jon%20Voight\\\">Jon Voight</a> received <a href=\\\"Academy%20Awards\\\">Academy Award</a> nominations for <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actor\\\">Best Actor</a> and <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Supporting%20Actor\\\">Best Supporting Actor</a>, respectively.\\nThe film begins with <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Cassius Clay, Jr.</a> before his championship debut against then <a href=\\\"List%20of%20heavyweight%20boxing%20champions\\\">heavyweight champion</a> <a href=\\\"Sonny%20Liston\\\">Sonny Liston</a>. During the pre-fight <a href=\\\"weigh-in\\\">weigh-in</a> Clay heavily taunts Liston (such as calling Liston a \\\"big ugly bear\\\"). In the fight Clay is able to dominate the early rounds of the match, but halfway through he complains of a burning feeling in his eyes (implying that Liston has tried to cheat) and says he is unable to continue. However, his trainer/manager <a href=\\\"Angelo%20Dundee\\\">Angelo Dundee</a> gets him to keep fighting. Once Clay is able to see again he easily dominates the fight and right before round seven Liston quits, making Clay the second youngest heavyweight champion at the time after <a href=\\\"Floyd%20Patterson\\\">Floyd Patterson</a>. Clay spends valued time with <a href=\\\"Malcolm%20X\\\">Malcolm X</a> and the two decide to take a trip to <a href=\\\"Africa\\\">Africa</a>.\\nClay is then invited to the home of <a href=\\\"Nation%20of%20Islam\\\">Nation of Islam</a> leader <a href=\\\"Elijah%20Muhammad\\\">Elijah Muhammad</a> where he is granted the name Muhammad Ali due to his status of World Heavyweight Champion. His father, Cassius Clay Sr. disapproves of this. Ali marries Sonji Roi, an ex-<a href=\\\"Playboy%20Bunny\\\">Playboy Bunny</a>, despite her not being <a href=\\\"Muslim\\\">Muslim</a> and <a href=\\\"Gender%20segregation%20and%20Muslims\\\">not abiding by sex segregation</a>. While at home with his wife and children, Malcolm X is called by the Nation of Islam and is informed that his suspension has been extended and Ali will not go to Africa. However, Ali takes the trip to Africa where he finds Malcolm X, but later refuses to speak to him, honoring the wishes of Elijah Muhammad. He is extremely distraught when Malcolm is <a href=\\\"Malcolm%20X%23Assassination\\\">later assassinated</a>.\\nUpon returning to <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">America</a>, Ali goes against Sonny Liston a second time and knocks him out in the first round. He and Sonji divorce after she continually objects to certain obligations Muslim women have, notably wearing a <a href=\\\"hijab\\\">hijab</a>.\\nAfter being officially called to fight in the <a href=\\\"Vietnam%20War\\\">Vietnam War</a> with the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Army\\\">U.S. Army</a>, Ali refuses, and is subsequently stripped of his boxing license, passport and title, additionally facing five years in prison. Ali marries 17-year-old <a href=\\\"Khalilah%20Ali\\\">Belinda Boyd</a>. After a three-year hiatus, his <a href=\\\"Clay%20v.%20United%20States\\\">conviction is overturned</a> and in his comeback fight, he goes against <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Quarry\\\">Jerry Quarry</a> and wins by technical knockout in three rounds when Quarry gets a cut in his eye.\\nAli attempts to regain the Heavyweight Championship against <a href=\\\"Joe%20Frazier\\\">Joe Frazier</a>. Dubbed the <a href=\\\"Fight%20of%20the%20Century\\\">Fight of the Century</a>, Frazier has the upper hand against Ali for most of the rounds. In the fifteenth round, he defeats Ali by decision, giving Ali the first loss of his career. When Frazier loses the championship to <a href=\\\"George%20Foreman\\\">George Foreman</a>, Ali makes a decision to fight Foreman and become the first boxer to win his title a second time.\\nForeman and Ali go to <a href=\\\"Kinshasa\\\">Kinshasa, Zaire</a> for <a href=\\\"the%20Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\\\">the Rumble in the Jungle</a> fight. While there, Ali meets a woman named <a href=\\\"Veronica%20Porch%C3%A9%20Ali\\\">Veronica Porché</a>, and has an affair with her. After reading rumors of his infidelity through newspapers, his wife Belinda travels to Zaire to confront him about this. Ali says he is unsure as to whether he really loves Veronica or not, and just wants to focus on his upcoming title shot.\\nFor a good portion of the fight against Foreman, Ali leans back against the ropes and covers up, letting Foreman wildly throw punches at him. During the fight, Ali realizes that he has to react sooner or else he will be knocked out or possibly die in the ring. As the rounds go on, Foreman tires himself out and Ali takes advantage. He quickly knocks out the tired Foreman, and the film ends with Ali regaining the Heavyweight Championship of which he was previously stripped.\\nThe project began in 1992 when Producer Paul Ardaji optioned the movie rights to Muhammad Ali's life story. Nearing the end of his option period, Ardaji signed a contract with Sony Pictures, joining forces with Producer Jon Peters as producing partner. Producer <a href=\\\"Jon%20Peters\\\">Jon Peters</a> started developing the film in 1994. <a href=\\\"Gregory%20Allen%20Howard\\\">Gregory Allen Howard</a> wrote the initial draft of the script, which had the working title \\\"Power and Grace\\\". Howard's draft focused on Ali's life from 12 to 40 years old, and his relationship with his father. Howard was replaced by writers Stephen J. Rivele and Chris Wilkinson, and by 1998 the biopic was set up at <a href=\\\"Columbia%20Pictures\\\">Columbia Pictures</a>, with Will Smith attached to star and the possibility of <a href=\\\"Ron%20Howard\\\">Ron Howard</a> directing. During the filming of \\\"<a href=\\\"Wild%20Wild%20West\\\">Wild Wild West</a>\\\", Smith presented director <a href=\\\"Barry%20Sonnenfeld\\\">Barry Sonnenfeld</a> with the script. Columbia was hoping for filming to start towards the end of 1998, but it was pushed back, and Sonnenfeld exited in November 1999. It was speculated the Columbia was hesitant to move forward with Sonnenfeld following the disappointing box office performance of \\\"Wild Wild West\\\". In February 2000, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Michael%20Mann%20%28director%29\\\">Michael Mann</a> had taken over as director, following his Academy Award nomination for \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Insider%20%28film%29\\\">The Insider</a>\\\". With this commitment to \\\"Ali\\\", Mann turned down the opportunity to direct early versions of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Aviator%20%282004%20film%29\\\">The Aviator</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Shooter%20%282007%20film%29\\\">Shooter</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Savages%20%282012%20film%29\\\">Savages</a>\\\", and brought <a href=\\\"Eric%20Roth\\\">Eric Roth</a> to co-write the script. After years of being attached to the Ali biopic, Smith officially signed on in May 2000 with a $20 million salary.\\nFilming began in Los Angeles on January 11, 2001 on a $105 million budget. Shooting also took place in New York city, Chicago, Miami and Mozambique.\\nSmith spent approximately one year learning all aspects of Ali's life. These included boxing training (up to seven hours a day), Islamic studies and dialect training. Smith has said that his portrayal of Ali is his proudest work to date.\\nOne of the selling points of the film is the realism of the fight scenes. Smith worked alongside boxing promoter Guy Sharpe from SharpeShooter Entertainment, and his lead fighter Ross Kent, to get the majority of his boxing tips for the film. All of the boxers in the film are former or current world heavyweight championship caliber boxers. It was quickly decided that 'Hollywood fighting'—passing the fist (or foot) between the camera and the face to create the illusion of a hit—would not be used in favor of actual boxing. The only limitation placed upon the fighters was for Charles Shufford (who plays <a href=\\\"George%20Foreman\\\">George Foreman</a>). He was permitted to hit Smith as hard as he could, so long as he did not actually knock the actor out.\\nSmith had to gain a significant amount of weight to look the part of Muhammad Ali.\\n\\\"Ali\\\" opened on Christmas Day, 2001 and grossed a total of $14.7 million in 2,446 theaters during its opening weekend. The film went on to gross a total of $87.7 million worldwide. \\\"Ali\\\" holds a 67% \\\"fresh\\\" rating at <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>. In spite of the positive reviews, the film lost an estimated $63.1 million.\\nThe film had generally favorable reviews, with the performances of Smith and Voight being well received by critics in general. <a href=\\\"Roger%20Ebert\\\">Roger Ebert</a> derided the film with two stars in his review for the \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicago%20Sun-Times\\\">Chicago Sun-Times</a>\\\", and mentioned, \\\"it lacks much of the flash, fire and humor of Muhammad Ali and is shot more in the tone of a eulogy than a celebration\\\". In \\\"<a href=\\\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\\\">Variety</a>\\\" magazine, Todd McCarthy wrote, \\\"The director's visual and aural dapplings are strikingly effective at their best, but over the long haul don't represent a satisfactory alternative to in-depth dramatic scenes; one longs, for example, for even one sequence in which Ali and Dundee discuss boxing strategy or assess an opponent\\\", but he did have praise for the performances: \\\"The cast is outstanding, from Smith, who carries the picture with consummate skill, and Voight, who is unrecognizable under all the makeup but nails Cosell's distinctive vocal cadences\\\". \\\"<a href=\\\"USA%20Today\\\">USA Today</a>\\\" gave the film two and half stars out of four and stated that, \\\"for many Ali fans, the movie may be good enough, but some perspective is in order. The documentaries \\\"<a href=\\\"a.k.a.%20Cassius%20Clay\\\">a.k.a. Cassius Clay</a>\\\" and the Oscar-winning \\\"<a href=\\\"When%20We%20Were%20Kings\\\">When We Were Kings</a>\\\" cover a lot of the same ground and are consistently more engaging\\\".\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\", Elvis Mitchell proclaimed \\\"Ali\\\" to be a \\\"breakthrough\\\" film for Mann, adding that it was his \\\"first movie with feeling\\\" and that \\\"his overwhelming love of its subject will turn audiences into exuberant, thrilled fight crowds\\\". <a href=\\\"J.%20Hoberman\\\">J. Hoberman</a>, in his review for the \\\"<a href=\\\"Village%20Voice\\\">Village Voice</a>\\\", felt that the \\\"first half percolates wonderfully — and the first half hour is even better than that. Mann opens with a thrilling montage that, spinning in and out of a nightclub performance by <a href=\\\"Sam%20Cooke\\\">Sam Cooke</a>, contextualizes the hero in his times\\\", and concluded that, \\\"Ali's astonishing personality is skillfully evoked but, in the end, remains a mystery\\\".\\nWhen Ali died in June 2016, Smith was chosen to be one of Ali's pallbearers for the memorial service in Louisville.\\nThe film was released theatrically in 2001 at a length of 157 minutes. This version was released on DVD on April 30, 2002. Mann then re-edited the film, creating a new cut that ran 165 minutes and was released on DVD on June 1, 2004 as \\\"The Director's Cut\\\". Approximately 4 minutes of theatrical footage was removed, while 14 minutes of previously unseen footage was placed back in by Mann. The Director's Cut also featured an audio commentary by Mann. The theatrical cut of the film was released on <a href=\\\"Blu-ray\\\">Blu-ray</a> in France in 2009 and in Germany in 2012. In 2016 Mann created a third cut, significantly re-editing the film in the aftermath of Ali's death. He deleted one fight and added scenes and footage focusing on the political side of Ali's life. This version runs 152 minutes and was released on January 17, 2017 on Blu-Ray in the US as the \\\"Commemorative Edition\\\".\\n\",\n \"List of heavyweight boxing champions\\nThis is a chronological list of world heavyweight boxing champions since the introduction of the <a href=\\\"Marquess%20of%20Queensberry%20rules\\\">Marquess of Queensberry rules</a> in about 1884. It does not include fights fought under <a href=\\\"Jack%20Broughton\\\">Jack Broughton's rules</a> or the <a href=\\\"London%20Prize%20Ring%20Rules\\\">London Prize Ring Rules</a>.\\nChampions were recognized by public acclamation. A champion in that era was a fighter who had a notable win over another fighter and kept winning afterward. Retirements or disputed results could lead to a championship being split among several men for periods of time. With only minor exceptions, the heavyweight division remained free from dual title-holders until the 1960s. For an early example, see the <a href=\\\"1896%20World%20Heavyweight%20Championship\\\">1896 World Heavyweight Championship</a>.\\nGradually, the role of recognizing champions in the division evolved into a more formal affair, with public acclamation being supplemented (or in some cases, contradicted) by recognition by one or more athletic commissions, sanctioning organizations, or a combination of them. The most notable examples with respect to the heavyweight division have included:\\nOther bodies also recognize world champions, with varying degrees of legitimacy bestowed upon such recognition by the public at large. Current examples of such groups include the <a href=\\\"International%20Boxing%20Council\\\">International Boxing Council</a>, <a href=\\\"International%20Boxing%20Organization\\\">International Boxing Organization</a>, <a href=\\\"World%20Boxing%20Federation\\\">World Boxing Federation</a> and <a href=\\\"World%20Boxing%20Union\\\">World Boxing Union</a>.\\nInternational Boxing Federation\\nInternational Boxing Organization\\nWorld Boxing Association\\nWorld Boxing Council\\nWorld Boxing Organization\\n\\\"As of November 28, 2015\\\". Only Top 10 of them are shown there. This list includes only major titles, and it does not include \\\"lineal\\\" championships.\\nKeys:\",\n \"Rahman Ali\\nRahman Ali (born Rudolph Valentino Clay ; July 18, 1943) is an American former heavyweight boxer. He is the younger brother of the late <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a>.\\nAli was born to <a href=\\\"Cassius%20Marcellus%20Clay%2C%20Sr.\\\">Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr.</a> and <a href=\\\"Odessa%20Clay\\\">Odessa Clay</a> on July 18, 1943, 18 months after his brother <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a>. Rahman and Muhammad started boxing in a <a href=\\\"Louisville%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Louisville, Kentucky</a> amateur boxing league. While his brother went to the <a href=\\\"1960%20Summer%20Olympics\\\">1960 Olympics</a>, Rahman was not selected and remained amateur until February 25, 1964, the night his brother won one of his heavyweight titles over <a href=\\\"Sonny%20Liston\\\">Sonny Liston</a>. As a professional boxer, Rahman won 14 bouts, lost 3, and had one draw. In his career he knocked out seven opponents and was himself knocked out once. After back to back losses ending with Rahman being knocked out by <a href=\\\"Jack%20O%27Halloran\\\">Jack O'Halloran</a> he retired from professional boxing. Rahman released his autobiography on January 17, 2015 with a book titled, \\\"That's Muhammad Ali's Brother! My Life on the Undercard\\\", which is coauthored by H.Ron Brashear and the foreword written by Gene Kilroy - the longtime business manager of Muhammad Miller.\",\n \"When We Were Kings\\nWhen We Were Kings is a 1996 <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award\\\">Academy Award</a> winning <a href=\\\"documentary%20film\\\">documentary film</a> directed by <a href=\\\"Leon%20Gast\\\">Leon Gast</a> about the famous \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Rumble%20in%20the%20Jungle\\\">Rumble in the Jungle</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"heavyweight\\\">heavyweight</a> championship match between <a href=\\\"Muhammad%20Ali\\\">Muhammad Ali</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20Foreman\\\">George Foreman</a>. The fight was held in <a href=\\\"Zaire\\\">Zaire</a> (now the <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Republic%20of%20the%20Congo\\\">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>) on October 30, 1974.\\nThe film features a number of celebrities, including <a href=\\\"James%20Brown\\\">James Brown</a>, <a href=\\\"Jim%20Brown\\\">Jim Brown</a>, <a href=\\\"B.B.%20King\\\">B.B. King</a>, <a href=\\\"Norman%20Mailer\\\">Norman Mailer</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Plimpton\\\">George Plimpton</a>, <a href=\\\"Spike%20Lee\\\">Spike Lee</a> and <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hauser\\\">Thomas Hauser</a>.\\n\\\"When We Were Kings\\\" was released in 1996 to strong reviews, and won the 1996 <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Documentary%20Feature\\\">Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature</a>.\\nIt took Gast 22 years to edit and finance the documentary before it was finally released.\\nThe film shows the buildup to the fight. Ali is shown talking about his beliefs regarding <a href=\\\"Africans\\\">Africans</a> and African-Americans, speaking of the inherent dignity of the native Africans and his hopes for African-Americans in the future. His relationship with the people of Zaire is shown, with the mutual love between Ali and the people of the nation contrasted with Foreman's awkward and unsuccessful efforts to build his own popularity. Promoter <a href=\\\"Don%20King%20%28boxing%20promoter%29\\\">Don King</a> is shown working on his first big promotion, and singers <a href=\\\"James%20Brown%20%28musician%29\\\">James Brown</a> and <a href=\\\"B.%20B.%20King\\\">B. B. King</a> performing in Zaire. The film contains footage of the \\\"black <a href=\\\"Woodstock\\\">Woodstock</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"soul%20music\\\">soul music</a> festival accompanying the fight, which is more fully documented in the 2008 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Soul%20Power%20%28film%29\\\">Soul Power</a>\\\". The film also emphasises the questionable ethics of locating the fight in Zaïre, as it was funded by the brutal <a href=\\\"dictatorship\\\">dictatorship</a> of <a href=\\\"Mobutu%20Sese%20Seko\\\">Mobutu Sese Seko</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Norman%20Mailer\\\">Norman Mailer</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Plimpton\\\">George Plimpton</a>, <a href=\\\"Spike%20Lee\\\">Spike Lee</a>, <a href=\\\"Malik%20Bowens\\\">Malik Bowens</a> and <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hauser\\\">Thomas Hauser</a> gave interviews for the film, describing their impressions of Zaire, the fight itself, and particularly their impressions of Ali. The film itself contains these interviews, with many news clips and photos.\\nThe film shows much of the fight itself, particularly Ali's famous \\\"<a href=\\\"rope-a-dope\\\">rope-a-dope</a>\\\" which caused Foreman to expend too much energy and resulted in his eighth-round knockout. It describes in detail Ali's repeated use of the \\\"right-hand lead\\\" in the early rounds, a rarely used punch in professional boxing because it opens the boxer up for easy counterattacks, and therefore the punch that Foreman was least prepared for. Ali is shown taking what look like heavy blows from the hard-throwing Foreman, which are lessened by Ali's quick reflexes and use of the ropes. As Foreman throws with power, Ali is able to use his trademark quick hands to damage the heavyweight champion, and in the eighth round Ali knocks out the exhausted Foreman, regaining the championship taken from him for his refusal to be <a href=\\\"Conscription\\\">drafted</a> into the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Army\\\">United States Army</a> during the <a href=\\\"Vietnam%20War\\\">Vietnam War</a>.\\nA soundtrack album was released in 1997. It features live festival performances in addition to new music by Zelma Davis, the duet \\\"When We Were Kings\\\" performed by <a href=\\\"Brian%20McKnight\\\">Brian McKnight</a> and <a href=\\\"Diana%20King\\\">Diana King</a>, and \\\"Rumble In The Jungle\\\", the final recording done by <a href=\\\"The%20Fugees\\\">The Fugees</a>, in a collaboration with <a href=\\\"A%20Tribe%20Called%20Quest\\\">A Tribe Called Quest</a> and <a href=\\\"Busta%20Rhymes\\\">Busta Rhymes</a>.\\n\\\"When We Were Kings\\\" is frequently regarded as one of the best boxing documentaries ever, and maintains a 98% positive rating at <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>. The film received strong reviews from critics such as <a href=\\\"Roger%20Ebert\\\">Roger Ebert</a> and Edward Guthmann. It was nominated for the <a href=\\\"NAACP%20Image%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20News%2C%20Talk%20or%20Information%20-%20Special\\\">NAACP Image Award for Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Special</a> in 1998 but lost to \\\"Dinner with Oprah: A Lifetime Exclusive - Toni Morrison\\\".\\nThe film won the 1996 <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Documentary%20Feature\\\">Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature</a>. At the presentation, both Ali and Foreman came up to join the filmmakers to make it clear they had long made peace since that match, with Foreman even helping Ali up the stairs. It was also nominated for the <a href=\\\"Grand%20Prix%20%28Belgian%20Syndicate%20of%20Cinema%20Critics%29\\\">Grand Prix</a> of the <a href=\\\"Belgian%20Syndicate%20of%20Cinema%20Critics\\\">Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics</a>.\",\n \"Ennis\\nEnnis ( ; <a href=\\\"Irish%20language\\\">Irish</a>: \\\"Inis\\\" , meaning \\\"island\\\" ) is the <a href=\\\"county%20town\\\">county town</a> of <a href=\\\"County%20Clare\\\">Clare</a>, <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Ireland\\\">Ireland</a>. The Irish name is short for \\\"Inis Cluain Ramh Fhada \\\" (\\\"island of the long rowing meadow\\\"). The town is on the <a href=\\\"River%20Fergus\\\">River Fergus</a>, north of where it enters the <a href=\\\"Shannon%20Estuary\\\">Shannon Estuary</a>, 19 km (12 mi) from <a href=\\\"Shannon%20Airport\\\">Shannon Airport</a>. In 2016, Ennis had a population of 25,276, making it the largest town in Clare and the <a href=\\\"List%20of%20towns%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland%20by%20population\\\">12th largest</a> in Ireland.\\nThe name Ennis comes from the Irish word \\\"Inis\\\", meaning \\\"island\\\". This name relates to an island formed between two courses of the River Fergus on which the <a href=\\\"Ennis%20Friary\\\">Franciscan Friary</a> was built. The past of Ennis is closely associated with the O'Brien family, who were descendants of <a href=\\\"Brian%20Boru\\\">Brian Boru</a>. In the 12th century, the O'Briens, who were <a href=\\\"Kings%20of%20Thomond\\\">Kings of Thomond</a>, left their seat of power in <a href=\\\"Limerick\\\">Limerick</a> and built a royal residence at Clonroad on what was then an island. In 1240, King Donnchadh O'Brien ordered the construction of an extensive church which he later donated to the <a href=\\\"Order%20of%20Friars%20Minor\\\">Franciscans</a>. The centuries which followed bore great activity. The Friary was expanded and students came in great flocks to study at the theological college. The Friars, who were free to move about, met the spiritual needs of the local population. It was a religious centre until the <a href=\\\"Dissolution%20of%20the%20Monasteries\\\">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a>.\\nBecause it never had town walls, Ennis became a location for merchants from Limerick when Catholics were forbidden to reside in the walled towns by the <a href=\\\"Penal%20Laws\\\">Penal Laws</a>, and much of its past prosperity is attributable to this influx. It became a thriving market town in the late 18th century and this expansion continued unabated throughout the 19th century, except the period after the <a href=\\\"Great%20Famine%20%28Ireland%29\\\">Famine</a> c. 1850.\\nin the colonial period, a number of landmark structures were constructed, including the Mill and Courthouse. The town contains a number of old military barracks, most notably the Old Military Barracks on the Kilrush road. Many locals served in the <a href=\\\"British%20Army\\\">British Army</a> in the <a href=\\\"First%20World%20War\\\">First World War</a>. The Clare Road and Clonroad areas contain terraced cottages built in the early 20th century to house soldiers. On Station Road, then called Jail Road, a gaol once stood.\\nEnnis was governed by a town council from around the 17th century onwards, before the <a href=\\\"Local%20Government%20Reform%20Act%202014\\\">Local Government Reform Act 2014</a> effectively dissolved this with the creation of the Ennis Municipal District under the authority of <a href=\\\"Clare%20County%20Council\\\">Clare County Council</a>. Politically, Ennis has always been considered a <a href=\\\"Fianna%20F%C3%A1il\\\">Fianna Fáil</a> stronghold. However, in the 2009 local elections the party was reduced to just one member out of nine on Ennis Town Council. A monument to <a href=\\\"%C3%89amon%20de%20Valera\\\">Éamon de Valera</a>, founder of the party and former President of Ireland, stands outside Ennis Courthouse.\\nThe River Fergus runs through the middle of Ennis, and is a well-known trout and salmon fishery. At one time, small sailing boats made their way up river from the Shannon and berthed in the centre of the town at Woodquay. This area of the town along with Parnell Street and Mill Road was routinely susceptible to flooding, but the flood defence system put an end to the event in Parnell Street and the Mill Road areas, although in November 2009 other parts of the town experienced severe flooding. A new <a href=\\\"pedestrian%20bridge\\\">pedestrian bridge</a>, Harmony Row Bridge, was built over the river Fergus in June 2009.\\nClare became a county under the rule of <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20I\\\">Elizabeth I</a> and Ennis was chosen as its capital by the <a href=\\\"Earl%20of%20Thomond\\\">Earls of Thomond</a> because of its central location and great influence. Ennis received a grant to hold fairs and markets in 1610 and some years later a Charter for a Corporation with a Provost, Free Burgesses, Commonalty and a Town Clerk.\\nEnnis continued to expand in the following centuries, mainly as a market town and later as a manufacturing and distributing centre. Many commodities were conveyed by river to <a href=\\\"Clarecastle\\\">Clarecastle</a> for shipment abroad.\\nEnnis is an historically important <a href=\\\"market%20town\\\">market town</a>. The <a href=\\\"market%20square\\\">market square</a> is still home to <a href=\\\"market%20stall\\\">market stall</a>s on each Saturday through the year, although with the rise in the town's commercial retail sector it has shifted from agricultural produce to mainly textiles and home hardware. The market also has an organic farming element.\\nThe town centre consists of medieval narrow streets and laneways, overshadowed by structures built over the last thousand years. Of the main thoroughfares, Parnell Street has been <a href=\\\"pedestrian%20street\\\">pedestrianised</a>, while the others, O'Connell Street, Bindon Street and Abbey Street, are <a href=\\\"one-way%20street\\\">one way</a>. <a href=\\\"Ennis%20Cathedral\\\">The Cathedral of Saint Peter and Saint Paul</a> is on the fringe of the old town centre.\\nEnnis serves as a major regional hub for County Clare. Among its emergency services, it contains the Ennis Regional Hospital, the HQ of the Clare Divisional Garda, the Clare Fire Brigade and Civil Defence. Ennis also includes many relief organisations, such as The Samaratans, Clare Care and St. Vincent De Paul. Among its civil services, it contains Clare County Council, as well as Social and Family affairs.\\nEnnis has been a centre for <a href=\\\"Irish%20Traditional%20Music\\\">Irish Traditional Music</a>, and since 1974 has hosted the \\\"<a href=\\\"Fleadh%20Nua\\\">Fleadh Nua</a>\\\" in late May each year, the second largest traditional music festival in Ireland. There are other traditional festivals held in the town as well such as the Ennis Trad Festival held annually in November.\\nEnnis is served by both bus and rail links to all major cities and towns in Ireland. The main bus depot is adjacent to the town's train station and both are about one kilometre from the town centre. <a href=\\\"Ennis%20railway%20station\\\">Ennis railway station</a> is on the <a href=\\\"Clon%20Road\\\">Clon Road</a> toward the east of the town, which links to the main N18 in either direction.\\nBus services are provided to <a href=\\\"Shannon%20Airport\\\">Shannon Airport</a>, <a href=\\\"Galway\\\">Galway</a>, <a href=\\\"Limerick\\\">Limerick</a>, <a href=\\\"Cork%20%28city%29\\\">Cork</a>, Dublin and all routes in between and run nearly every hour. Shannon Airport is 15 minutes from Ennis, providing daily flights to European and US destinations.\\nIn 1976, passenger trains were withdrawn on the railway line from Limerick to <a href=\\\"Claremorris\\\">Claremorris</a> via Ennis. County Clare thus became the only Irish county outside <a href=\\\"Ulster\\\">Ulster</a> without a passenger train service. The closure of Ennis station proved to be only temporary; twenty rail services per day are now provided to and from <a href=\\\"Limerick%20railway%20station\\\">Limerick</a>, from where connecting rail services are available to both <a href=\\\"Dublin%20Heuston\\\">Dublin Heuston</a> and <a href=\\\"Cork%20railway%20station\\\">Cork</a>. The <a href=\\\"Western%20Railway%20Corridor\\\">Western Railway Corridor</a> north of Ennis (to <a href=\\\"Athenry\\\">Athenry</a> and Galway) reopened on 30 March 2010 with five return services daily. The next phase, to <a href=\\\"Tuam\\\">Tuam</a> and Claremorris, originally scheduled to reopen by 2014, is subject to budget review.\\nEnnis was formerly the starting point of the <a href=\\\"West%20Clare%20Railway\\\">West Clare Railway</a>, a narrow gauge railway which ran from Ennis to <a href=\\\"Ennistymon\\\">Ennistymon</a>, <a href=\\\"Milltown%20Malbay\\\">Milltown Malbay</a> and onwards to the towns and villages along the West Clare coastline. Trains ran from the same railway station as still used by mainline <a href=\\\"Rail%20transport%20in%20Ireland\\\">Irish railway services</a>. The line was <a href=\\\"CI%C3%89\\\">CIÉ</a>'s last narrow gauge railway and finally closed in 1961, despite investment in new diesel trains in the early/mid-1950s.\\n<a href=\\\"Ennis%20railway%20station\\\">Ennis railway station</a> connects with Galway and with <a href=\\\"Limerick%20railway%20station\\\">Limerick</a> where onward trains run to Dublin, <a href=\\\"Cork%20railway%20station\\\">Cork</a> via <a href=\\\"Limerick%20Junction\\\">Limerick Junction</a> (for connections to <a href=\\\"Tipperary%20railway%20station\\\">Tipperary</a>, <a href=\\\"Cahir%20railway%20station\\\">Cahir</a>, <a href=\\\"Clonmel%20railway%20station\\\">Clonmel</a>, <a href=\\\"Carrick-on-Suir%20railway%20station\\\">Carrick-on-Suir</a> and <a href=\\\"Waterford%20railway%20station\\\">Waterford</a>) and <a href=\\\"Mallow%20railway%20station\\\">Mallow</a> (for connections to <a href=\\\"Killarney%20railway%20station\\\">Killarney</a> and <a href=\\\"Tralee%20railway%20station\\\">Tralee</a>). Ennis is also served by local charity clare bus who provide a fully wheelchair accessible bus service around the clare area.\\nPrimary Schools in Ennis include <a href=\\\"Ennis%20National%20School\\\">Ennis National School</a>, established in 1897 (formerly Boys National School), <a href=\\\"Cloughleigh\\\">Cloughleigh</a> National School, Gaelscoil Mhichíl Cíosóg, Holy Family School, CBS and the multi-denominational Ennis <a href=\\\"Educate%20Together\\\">Educate Together</a> National School which opened in 1998. There are several secondary level schools in Ennis, including <a href=\\\"Rice%20College\\\">Rice College</a>, Ennis Community College, <a href=\\\"Col%C3%A1iste%20Muire\\\">Coláiste Muire</a>, <a href=\\\"St.%20Flannan%27s%20College\\\">St. Flannan's College</a>, and Gaelcholaiste an Chláir. Mid-West Management Training is a FETAC approved provider of further education and training up to Level 6 of the National Framework of Qualifications. The Ennis Business college is one of Ennis's third level facilities.\\nEnnis is a stronghold of <a href=\\\"Irish%20Music\\\">traditional music</a> with many musicians in residence and regularly playing locally.\\nThe Ennis Book Club Festival, in association with Clare County Library, runs annually on the first weekend in March. It attracts readers and authors from all over Ireland and beyond. <a href=\\\"Gl%C3%B3r%20Theatre\\\">Glór Theatre</a> is a concert and events venue in the town centre.\\nIn 2016 Ennis hosted the <a href=\\\"Fleadh%20Cheoil\\\">Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann</a> music competition. It is the first time that the town has hosted the event since 1977.\\n<a href=\\\"Cusack%20Park%20%28Ennis%29\\\">Cusack Park</a> on Francis Street in the town centre is the main county <a href=\\\"Gaelic%20Athletic%20Association\\\">Gaelic Athletic Association</a> (GAA) playing grounds and the home of <a href=\\\"Clare%20GAA\\\">Clare GAA</a>. Ennis has numerous football clubs (soccer, GAA and rugby) that play in various leagues from schoolboys to senior.\\nThe Lees Road Sports and Amenity Park, 1 km from the town centre, is set in 134 acres of wood and parkland. There is ample car parking and the main building includes modern changing rooms, showers and toilets. Among the facilities available are four conventional playing pitches, full size all weather floodlit playing pitch, floodlit 400 m synthetic running track and a purpose built cross country running track. There is a children's playground and skateboard park and marked walks and trails throughout the woodland area. Ennis Leisure Centre has a fully equipped gym with a 25m pool, saunas etc. There are a number of hotels around Ennis that have their own leisure facilities including gyms and 15m to 20m pools.\\nEnnis is <a href=\\\"sister%20city\\\">twinned</a> with <a href=\\\"Phoenix%2C%20Arizona\\\">Phoenix, Arizona</a>. Each summer an average of four 4th/5th year students partake in the Phoenix Youth Ambassador Program, which is facilitated by the city of Phoenix twinning committee and the Ennis Chamber of Commerce.\\nIt is also twinned with the town of <a href=\\\"Saint-Paul-de-Fenouillet\\\">Saint-Paul-de-Fenouillet</a> in southern France.\\nEnnis is also twinned with the town of <a href=\\\"Clare%2C%20South%20Australia\\\">Clare, South Australia</a> and the city of <a href=\\\"Clare%2C%20Michigan\\\">Clare, Michigan</a>, United States\\nIn September 1997, Ennis became Ireland's first and only Information Age Town. The town was greatly enhanced by the project's IR£15 million investment, which saw 4200 computers provided to residents, a computer lab for every school and every primary school classroom been provided with a computer. Elderly residents were given the chance to become computer users also as a result. The project also gave Ennis Ireland's first high speed ISDN line infrastructure, which connected all the town's businesses together. Ennis was also used as a test site for VISA Cash, which allowed users to top up a <a href=\\\"Chip%20and%20PIN\\\">Chip and PIN</a> card with petty cash and purchase goods in local stores. Funding for the project ran out in 2000.\\nIn 2012 and 2013, Ennis won the <a href=\\\"Irish%20Tidy%20Towns%20Competition\\\">Irish Tidy Towns Competition</a> in the Large Urban Centre category.\\nThe town of Ennis is situated in parts of the civil parishes of <a href=\\\"Doora%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Doora</a>, <a href=\\\"Drumcliff%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Drumcliff</a>, <a href=\\\"Kilraghtis\\\">Kilraghtis</a> and <a href=\\\"Templemaley\\\">Templemaley</a>. <a href=\\\"Townland\\\">Townland</a>s are:\\n\\n\",\n \"Hopkins County, Kentucky\\nHopkins County is a <a href=\\\"County%20%28United%20States%29\\\">county</a> located in the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20state\\\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\\\"Kentucky\\\">Kentucky</a>. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>, the population was 46,920. Its <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> is <a href=\\\"Madisonville%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Madisonville</a>. The county was formed in 1806 and named for <a href=\\\"General%20officer\\\">General</a> <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Hopkins%20%28congressman%29\\\">Samuel Hopkins</a>, an <a href=\\\"officer%20%28armed%20forces%29\\\">officer</a> in both the <a href=\\\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\\\">American Revolutionary War</a> and <a href=\\\"War%20of%201812\\\">War of 1812</a>, and later a Kentucky legislator and <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Congressman\\\">U.S. Congressman</a>.\\nThe Madisonville, KY <a href=\\\"Micropolitan%20Statistical%20Area\\\">Micropolitan Statistical Area</a> includes all of Hopkins County.\\nThe topography ranges from flatlands along the broad river valleys of the <a href=\\\"Pond%20River\\\">Pond River</a>, <a href=\\\"Tradewater%20River\\\">Tradewater River</a>, and <a href=\\\"Green%20River%20%28Kentucky%29\\\">Green River</a>, to hilly and rolling land in the southern and central parts of the county. <a href=\\\"Coal%20mines\\\">Coal mines</a> operate in the southern part of Hopkins County and agriculture is a mainstay in the northern part. Major crops are soybeans, corn, and tobacco. Along with coal, resources include oil and natural gas.\\nThe earliest inhabitants were prehistoric Native Americans who lived, hunted, and farmed in the region. One of their settlements was a rough stone structure on Fort Ridge, which has since been destroyed by strip mining for coal. Some of the early settlers were <a href=\\\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\\\">Revolutionary War</a> veterans who received land grants for their service from <a href=\\\"Virginia\\\">Virginia</a> in the area southwest of the Green River. Among these was <a href=\\\"Baron%20Von%20Steuben\\\">Baron Von Steuben</a>, a <a href=\\\"Prussian\\\">Prussian</a> general who had trained <a href=\\\"George%20Washington\\\">George Washington</a>'s <a href=\\\"Continental%20Army\\\">Continental Army</a> at <a href=\\\"Valley%20Forge\\\">Valley Forge</a> during the winter of 1776-77. He had received a grant of several thousand acres in the northwest part of the county. According to tradition, Von Steuben was wounded in an Indian attack on his first visit to Kentucky. He then quit-claimed his property. Nevertheless, a salt spring on his grant came to be known as Steuben's Lick. By the 1880s, the community that grew up around the lick was known as <a href=\\\"Manitou\\\">Manitou</a>.\\nRoads in the county often followed animal trails that led to salt and mineral springs. The major traces were those which connected the county seat at Madisonville with Henderson to the north, Hopkinsville to the south, and Russellville to the southeast. Numerous other trails led to the mills and ferries on the Pond and Tradewater Rivers and their tributaries.\\nOn January 3, 1829, Ashbyburg in the northeastern part of the county was incorporated. Located on the Green River, it thrived as a steamboat landing during the 19th century. Other antebellum communities included <a href=\\\"Nebo%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Nebo, Kentucky</a>, northwest of Madisonville, and <a href=\\\"Charleston%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Charleston, Kentucky</a>, named after \\\"Free Charles,\\\" a black freedman who operated a tavern in the southwest part of the county.\\nHopkins County was divided by the <a href=\\\"American%20Civil%20War\\\">American Civil War</a>. Union supporters joined the 35th Kentucky Mounted Infantry, a regiment recruited locally by <a href=\\\"James%20M.%20Shackelford\\\">James M. Shackelford</a>, while <a href=\\\"Adam%20Rankin%20Johnson\\\">Adam Rankin Johnson</a> had earlier recruited <a href=\\\"Confederate%20States%20of%20America\\\">Confederate</a> troops for his 10th Kentucky Cavalry Regiment. The courthouse in Madisonville was burned by Kentucky Confederates led by Gen. <a href=\\\"Hylan%20Benton%20Lyon\\\">Hylan Benton Lyon</a> on December 17, 1864, as they passed through western Kentucky, since it was being used to house Union soldiers. However, the harsh policies imposed by the occupying Union armies caused much more resentment and served to increase the sympathy for the Confederate cause. Ever since then, local politics have been heavily dominated by the Democratic party.\\nFarming was the major occupation in Hopkins County for most of the 19th century, with <a href=\\\"tobacco\\\">tobacco</a> the leading crop. Around 1837 local blacksmith James Woolfolk found an outcropping of coal on his land. John Bayless Earle, for whom the town of <a href=\\\"Earlington%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Earlington, Kentucky</a> was named, opened the first coal mine in the county in 1869. Mining did not become a major industry until the <a href=\\\"Louisville%20%26amp%3B%20Nashville%20Railroad\\\">Louisville & Nashville Railroad</a> pushed its line southward from Henderson through Madisonville and toward Nashville in 1870. Two years later, the <a href=\\\"Elizabethtown%20and%20Paducah%20Railroad\\\">Elizabethtown and Paducah Railroad</a> (now <a href=\\\"Paducah%20%26amp%3B%20Louisville%20Railway\\\">Paducah and Louisville Railway</a>) entered the county from the east. Many communities grew quickly as railroad stops, including <a href=\\\"Mortons%20Gap%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Mortons Gap, Kentucky</a>, <a href=\\\"Hanson%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Hanson, Kentucky</a>, <a href=\\\"Nortonville%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Nortonville, Kentucky</a>, and <a href=\\\"White%20Plains%2C%20Kentucky\\\">White Plains, Kentucky</a>. <a href=\\\"Dawson%20Springs%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Dawson Springs, Kentucky</a>, in the southwestern part of the county, began to thrive in the 1880s as a health resort, but its popularity had faded by the time of the <a href=\\\"Great%20Depression\\\">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s.\\nBy 1970 Hopkins County was the second largest producer of coal in the Western Coal Field, after <a href=\\\"Muhlenberg%20County\\\">Muhlenberg County</a>, and the third-largest coal producer in the entire state after Muhlenberg and <a href=\\\"Pike%20County%2C%20Kentucky\\\">Pike County</a>. In 1971 the county also ranked fifth in Kentucky in oil production. Coal and oil-related businesses were major county employers by 1990. Development of resources was aided by the construction of the north-south <a href=\\\"Pennyrile%20Parkway\\\">Pennyrile Parkway</a> and the east-west <a href=\\\"Western%20Kentucky%20Parkway\\\">Western Kentucky Parkway</a> through the county by the early 1970s. In 1987 farms occupied 41 percent of the land area, with 72 percent of farmland under cultivation.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\\\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 554 sqmi , of which 542 sqmi is land and 12 sqmi (2.2%) is water.\\nThe USA eclipse will fall directly over Hopkinsville, Ky on August 21, 2017 17:16\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 46,519 people, 18,820 households, and 13,399 families residing in the county. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 84 /sqmi . There were 20,668 housing units at an average density of 38 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the county was 92.02% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 6.21% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Black</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.19% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 0.34% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.02% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.37% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 0.86% from two or more races. 0.91% of the population were <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race.\\nThere were 18,820 households out of which 31.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.30% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 11.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.80% were non-families. 25.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.91.\\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 24.20% under the age of 18, 8.30% from 18 to 24, 28.20% from 25 to 44, 24.60% from 45 to 64, and 14.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.70 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the county was $30,868, and the median income for a family was $36,794. Males had a median income of $31,400 versus $20,014 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the county was $17,382. About 13.60% of families and 16.50% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 24.40% of those under age 18 and 10.50% of those age 65 or over.\\nTwo public school districts operate in the county. <a href=\\\"Hopkins%20County%20Schools\\\">Hopkins County Schools</a> serves most of the county, except for the city of Dawson Springs, which is covered by the <a href=\\\"Dawson%20Springs%20Independent%20School%20District\\\">Dawson Springs Independent School District</a>. The Dawson Springs district operates a single K-12 facility, <a href=\\\"Dawson%20Springs%20Community%20School\\\">Dawson Springs Community School</a>.\\nAs of July 2017, Hopkins County Schools' adopted a tobacco-free policy that stated that all tobacco products, including alternative nicotine products and vapor products were prohibited for use by anyone, anywhere on district grounds. The ban extends to outdoor events and inside vehicles on district grounds. The policy also applies to community groups that use school facilities and to field trips and any school-sponsored activity.\\n\",\n \"County Clare\\nCounty Clare (<a href=\\\"Irish%20language\\\">Irish</a>: \\\"Contae an Chláir\\\" ) is a <a href=\\\"Counties%20of%20Ireland\\\">county</a> in <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Ireland\\\">Ireland</a>, in the <a href=\\\"Mid-West%20Region%2C%20Ireland\\\">Mid-West Region</a> and the <a href=\\\"Provinces%20of%20Ireland\\\">province</a> of <a href=\\\"Munster\\\">Munster</a>, bordered on the West by the Atlantic Ocean. There is debate if it should be historically considered a part of <a href=\\\"Connacht\\\">Connacht</a>. <a href=\\\"Clare%20County%20Council\\\">Clare County Council</a> is the <a href=\\\"Local%20government%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\\\">local authority</a>. The county had a population of 117,196 at the 2011 census.\\nClare is north-west of the <a href=\\\"River%20Shannon\\\">River Shannon</a> covering a total area of 3,400 km2 . Clare was founded by the noble Luke Fitzgerald, a knight of Internal Audit . Clare is the 7th largest of Ireland's 32 traditional counties in area and the 19th largest in terms of population. It is bordered by two counties in Munster and one county in Connacht: <a href=\\\"County%20Limerick\\\">County Limerick</a> to the south, <a href=\\\"County%20Tipperary\\\">County Tipperary</a> to the east and <a href=\\\"County%20Galway\\\">County Galway</a> to the north. Clare's nickname is \\\"the Banner County\\\".\\nThe county is divided into the <a href=\\\"Barony%20%28Ireland%29\\\">baronies</a> of <a href=\\\"Bunratty%20Lower\\\">Bunratty Lower</a>, <a href=\\\"Bunratty%20Upper\\\">Bunratty Upper</a>, <a href=\\\"Barony%20of%20Burren\\\">Burren</a>, <a href=\\\"Clonderalaw\\\">Clonderalaw</a>, <a href=\\\"Barony%20of%20Corcomroe\\\">Corcomroe</a>, <a href=\\\"Ibrickan\\\">Ibrickan</a>, <a href=\\\"Inchiquin\\\">Inchiquin</a>, <a href=\\\"Barony%20of%20Islands\\\">Islands</a>, <a href=\\\"Barony%20of%20Moyarta\\\">Moyarta</a>, <a href=\\\"Tulla%20Lower\\\">Tulla Lower</a> and <a href=\\\"Tulla%20Upper\\\">Tulla Upper</a>. These in turn are divided into <a href=\\\"List%20of%20civil%20parishes%20of%20County%20Clare\\\">civil parishes</a>, which are divided into <a href=\\\"townland\\\">townland</a>s. These divisions are <a href=\\\"cadastre\\\">cadastral</a>, defining land boundaries and ownership, rather than administrative.\\nBodies of water define much of the physical boundaries of Clare. To the southeast is the <a href=\\\"River%20Shannon\\\">River Shannon</a>, Ireland's longest river, and to the south is the <a href=\\\"Shannon%20Estuary\\\">Shannon Estuary</a>. The border to the northeast is defined by <a href=\\\"Lough%20Derg%20%28Shannon%29\\\">Lough Derg</a> which is the third largest lake on Ireland. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the north is <a href=\\\"Galway%20Bay\\\">Galway Bay</a>.\\nCounty Clare contains <a href=\\\"The%20Burren\\\">The Burren</a>, a unique <a href=\\\"karst\\\">karst</a> region, which contains rare flowers and fauna. At the western edge of The Burren, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are the <a href=\\\"Cliffs%20of%20Moher\\\">Cliffs of Moher</a>. The highest point in County Clare is <a href=\\\"Moylussa\\\">Moylussa</a>, 532 m, in the <a href=\\\"Slieve%20Bernagh\\\">Slieve Bernagh</a> range in the east of the county.\\nThe following islands lie off the coast of the county:\\nThere was a <a href=\\\"Neolithic\\\">Neolithic</a> civilisation in the Clare area — the name of the peoples is unknown, but the <a href=\\\"Bronze%20Age%20Europe\\\">Prehistoric</a> peoples left evidence behind in the form of ancient <a href=\\\"dolmen\\\">dolmen</a>: single-chamber <a href=\\\"megalithic%20tomb\\\">megalithic tomb</a>s, usually consisting of three or more <a href=\\\"megalith\\\">upright stones</a>. Clare is one of the richest places in Ireland for these tombs. The most noted one is in <a href=\\\"The%20Burren\\\">The Burren</a> area; it is known as \\\"<a href=\\\"Poulnabrone%20dolmen\\\">Poulnabrone dolmen</a>\\\", which translates to \\\"hole of sorrows\\\". The remains of the people inside the tomb have been excavated and dated to 3800 BC.\\n<a href=\\\"Ptolemy\\\">Ptolemy</a> created a map of Ireland in his \\\"<a href=\\\"Geographia\\\">Geographia</a>\\\" with information dating from 100 AD; it is the oldest written account of the island that includes geographical features. Within his map, Ptolemy names the <a href=\\\"Celtic%20tribes\\\">Gaelic tribes</a> inhabiting it and the areas in which they resided; in the area of Clare, he identified a tribe known as the \\\"Gangani\\\". Historians have found the tribes on the west of Ireland the most difficult to identify with known peoples; however, historians <a href=\\\"William%20Camden\\\">William Camden</a> and <a href=\\\"Charles%20O%27Conor%20%28historian%29\\\">Charles O'Conor</a> speculated a possible connection between the Gangani and the \\\"Concani\\\", one of the eleven tribes in the confederacy of the <a href=\\\"Cantabri\\\">Cantabri</a> in the northern part of the <a href=\\\"Iberian%20Peninsula\\\">Iberian Peninsula</a>.\\nDuring the <a href=\\\"Early%20Middle%20Ages\\\">Early Middle Ages</a>, the area was part of the <a href=\\\"Connacht\\\">Kingdom of Connacht</a> ruled by the <a href=\\\"U%C3%AD%20Fiachrach%20Aidhne\\\">Uí Fiachrach Aidhne</a>. In the mid-10th century, it was annexed to the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Munster\\\">Kingdom of Munster</a> to be settled by the <a href=\\\"Dalcassian\\\">Dalcassian</a>s. It was renamed Thomond, meaning North Munster. <a href=\\\"Brian%20Boru\\\">Brian Boru</a> became a leader from here during this period, perhaps the most noted <a href=\\\"High%20King%20of%20Ireland\\\">High King of Ireland</a>.\\nFrom 1118 onwards the <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Thomond\\\">Kingdom of Thomond</a> was in place as its own petty kingdom, ruled by the <a href=\\\"O%27Brien%20Clan\\\">O'Brien Clan</a>. After the <a href=\\\"Norman%20invasion%20of%20Ireland\\\">Norman invasion of Ireland</a>, <a href=\\\"Thomas%20de%20Clare%2C%20Lord%20of%20Thomond\\\">Thomas de Clare</a> established a short-lived Norman lordship of Thomond, extinguished at the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Dysert%20O%27Dea\\\">Battle of Dysert O'Dea</a> in 1318 during <a href=\\\"Bruce%20campaign%20in%20Ireland\\\">Edward Bruce's invasion</a>.\\nThere are two main hypotheses for the origins of the county name \\\"Clare\\\". One is that the name is derived from <a href=\\\"Thomas_de_Clare%2C_Lord_of_Thomond\\\">Thomas de Clare</a> who was deeply embroiled in local politics and fighting in the 1270s and 1280s. An alternative hypothesis is that the county name \\\"Clare\\\" comes from the settlement of Clare (now <a href=\\\"Clarecastle\\\">Clarecastle</a>), whose Irish name \\\"Clár\\\" (plank bridge) refers to a crossing over the <a href=\\\"River%20Fergus\\\">River Fergus</a>.\\nIn 1543, during the <a href=\\\"Tudor%20conquest%20of%20Ireland\\\">Tudor conquest of Ireland</a>, <a href=\\\"Murrough%20O%27Brien%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Thomond\\\">Murrough O'Brien</a>, by <a href=\\\"surrender%20and%20regrant\\\">surrender and regrant</a> to <a href=\\\"Henry%20VIII\\\">Henry VIII</a>, became <a href=\\\"Earl%20of%20Thomond\\\">Earl of Thomond</a> within Henry's <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Ireland\\\">Kingdom of Ireland</a>. <a href=\\\"Henry%20Sidney\\\">Henry Sidney</a> as <a href=\\\"Lord%20Deputy%20of%20Ireland\\\">Lord Deputy of Ireland</a> responded to the <a href=\\\"Desmond%20Rebellion\\\">Desmond Rebellion</a> by creating the <a href=\\\"Lord%20President%20of%20Connaught\\\">presidency of Connaught</a> in 1569 and <a href=\\\"Lord%20President%20of%20Munster\\\">presidency of Munster</a> in 1570. He transferred Thomond from Munster to Connaught, which he <a href=\\\"shire\\\">shire</a>d, Thomond becoming County Clare.\\nAbout 1600, Clare was removed from the presidency of Connaught and made a presidency in its own right under the Earl of Thomond. When <a href=\\\"Henry%20O%27Brien%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Thomond\\\">Henry O'Brien, 5th Earl of Thomond</a> died in 1639, Lord Deputy <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Wentworth%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Strafford\\\">Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford</a> decreed Clare should return to the presidency of Munster, but the <a href=\\\"Wars%20of%20the%20Three%20Kingdoms\\\">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> delayed this until <a href=\\\"Restoration%20%28England%29\\\">the Restoration</a> of 1660.\\nClare's <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Irish%20county%20nicknames\\\">county nickname</a> is the \\\"Banner County\\\", for which various origins have been suggested: the banners captured by <a href=\\\"Clare%27s%20Dragoons\\\">Clare's Dragoons</a> at the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Ramillies\\\">Battle of Ramillies</a>; or the banner of \\\"<a href=\\\"Catholic%20emancipation\\\">Catholic emancipation</a>\\\" raised by <a href=\\\"Daniel%20O%27Connell\\\">Daniel O'Connell</a>'s victory in <a href=\\\"Clare%20by-election%2C%201828\\\">an 1828 by-election for County Clare</a> that led to Parliament passing the <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Relief%20Act%201829\\\">Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Scattery%20Island\\\">Scattery Island</a>, in the <a href=\\\"Mouth%20of%20the%20Shannon\\\">Mouth of the Shannon</a> off the Clare coast, was transferred to <a href=\\\"Limerick%20Corporation\\\">Limerick Corporation</a> and the <a href=\\\"county%20of%20the%20city\\\">county of the city</a> of Limerick after the <a href=\\\"dissolution%20of%20the%20monasteries\\\">dissolution of the monasteries</a> in the mid-16th century. It was assigned to County Clare after the <a href=\\\"Municipal%20Corporations%20%28Ireland%29%20Act%201840\\\">Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840</a>. Under the <a href=\\\"Local%20Government%20%28Ireland%29%20Act%201898\\\">Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898</a>, part of the judicial county of Galway (Drummaan, Inishcaltra North and Mountshannon electoral divisions) was transferred to county Clare. This area contains the village of <a href=\\\"Mountshannon\\\">Mountshannon</a> on the north-western shore of <a href=\\\"Lough%20Derg%20%28Shannon%29\\\">Lough Derg</a>.\\nThe county seat is at Ennis, which also serves as a major regional hub for County Clare. Among its emergency services, it contains the Ennis Regional Hospital, the HQ of the Clare Divisional Garda, the Clare Fire Brigade and Civil Defence.\\nSince indedpendence in 1921, <a href=\\\"Clare%20%28D%C3%A1il%20%C3%89ireann%20constituency%29\\\">Clare</a> is represented by its own <a href=\\\"parliamentary%20constituency\\\">parliamentary constituency</a> in <a href=\\\"D%C3%A1il%20%C3%89ireann\\\">Dáil Éireann</a>, the powerful lower house of the Irish parliament, known as <a href=\\\"Oireachtas\\\">Oireachtas</a>. Clare is currently served by four <a href=\\\"Teachta%20D%C3%A1la\\\">Teachta Dála</a>, representatives referred to as TDs. Briefly a small area of Clare was in the <a href=\\\"Clare%E2%80%93Galway%20South%20%28D%C3%A1il%20%C3%89ireann%20constituency%29\\\">Clare–Galway South</a> constituency during the 1970s before its <a href=\\\"Electoral%20%28Amendment%29%20Act%201974\\\">abolition</a>.\\nThe second tier of <a href=\\\"Local%20government%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\\\">local governance</a> is represented by the <a href=\\\"Town%20Councils%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\\\">town councils</a>—Clare has four in the form of <a href=\\\"Ennis\\\">Ennis</a>, <a href=\\\"Kilrush\\\">Kilrush</a>, <a href=\\\"Kilkee\\\">Kilkee</a> and <a href=\\\"Shannon%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Shannon</a>.\\nThe constituency has historically been a <a href=\\\"Fianna%20F%C3%A1il\\\">Fianna Fáil</a> stronghold. However <a href=\\\"Fianna%20F%C3%A1il\\\">Fianna Fáil</a> lost its overall majority on the council in 2004. As of the <a href=\\\"Irish%20local%20elections%2C%202009\\\">2009 local elections</a>, <a href=\\\"Fine%20Gael\\\">Fine Gael</a> is the largest party, controlling 12 seats. It won 40% of the vote in the Clare constituency in the <a href=\\\"Irish%20general%20election%2C%202011\\\">2011 Irish general election</a>.\\nProminent historic TDs for Clare include <a href=\\\"%C3%89amon%20de%20Valera\\\">Éamon de Valera</a>, who became <a href=\\\"Taoiseach\\\">Taoiseach</a> and <a href=\\\"President%20of%20Ireland\\\">President</a>, former president <a href=\\\"Patrick%20Hillery\\\">Patrick Hillery</a>, and former Cabinet Minister <a href=\\\"Brendan%20Daly%20%28politician%29\\\">Brendan Daly</a>.\\nThe population of Clare accounted for 117,196 people at the <a href=\\\"Irish%20population%20analysis\\\">most recent census</a> in 2011. The main urban areas are <a href=\\\"Ennis\\\">Ennis</a> with a population of 25,360 and <a href=\\\"Shannon%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Shannon</a> with 9,673. The demographic profile for Clare in general is fairly young: 22% are under age 14, while 12% are over 65, compared to the national average of 20% and 11%, respectively. There is a slightly higher percentage of males with 50.5%, while females number 49.5%.\\nEnglish is the main language spoken in Clare. The vast majority of the population are <a href=\\\"Irish%20people\\\">Irish people</a>, accounting for 86%. Most immigrants are Europeans, totaling an additional 7,520; there is also a small African minority of 1,124 people, while other ethnic groups are very small in number.\\nIn addition, Clare had a large <a href=\\\"Irish%20diaspora\\\">diaspora</a> due to vast emigration during the 19th century. There are millions of people around the world who can trace their family background to Clare; such descendants are found mostly in North America, Great Britain, Australia, South Africa, Argentina and New Zealand. Many people from the Irish diaspora visit the Clare area to trace their family roots and background.\\nMost of the names in Clare are derived from sept members of the <a href=\\\"Dalcassian\\\">Dalcassian</a> race of <a href=\\\"Gaels\\\">Gaels</a>. Some of the most common examples are <a href=\\\"O%27Brien%20dynasty\\\">O'Brien</a>, <a href=\\\"O%27Dea\\\">O'Dea</a>, <a href=\\\"McMahon\\\">McMahon</a>, <a href=\\\"McInerney\\\">McInerney</a>, <a href=\\\"McNamara\\\">McNamara</a>, <a href=\\\"McGarry%20%28disambiguation%29\\\">McGarry</a>, <a href=\\\"Moloney%20%28surname%29\\\">Moloney</a>, <a href=\\\"O%27Grady\\\">O'Grady</a>, <a href=\\\"Hogan%20%28surname%29\\\">Hogan</a>, <a href=\\\"Considine\\\">Considine</a>, <a href=\\\"Griffin%20%28surname%29\\\">Griffey/Griffin</a> and <a href=\\\"Lynch%20%28surname%29\\\">Lynch</a>. Names of assimilated <a href=\\\"Normans\\\">Norman</a> origin include <a href=\\\"Burke%20%28name%29\\\">Burke</a>, <a href=\\\"Dalton%20%28surname%29\\\">Dalton</a>, and <a href=\\\"Clan%20Cumming\\\">Comyn</a>.\\nThe great majority of the population follow <a href=\\\"Christianity\\\">Christianity</a>; at least 92% of the people in the area polled as part of the <a href=\\\"Irish%20population%20analysis\\\">Ireland Census 2006</a> identified as Christians. There are numerous <a href=\\\"List%20of%20abbeys%20and%20priories%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland%23County%20Clare\\\">abbeys and priories</a> in Clare. Some of the ruins of such structures, such as <a href=\\\"Scattery%20Island%20Cathedral%20and%20Monastery\\\">Scattery Island</a>, Bishop's Island, and Drumcliff monasteries, are ancient, dating to the 6th century when Christianity was first introduced to Ireland. The former was founded by <a href=\\\"Saint%20Senan\\\">Saint Senan</a>, who was born locally near Kilrush in 488 and is counted amongst the <a href=\\\"Twelve%20Apostles%20of%20Ireland\\\">Twelve Apostles of Ireland</a>.\\nNumerous <a href=\\\"List%20of%20saints%20of%20Ireland\\\">other saints</a> came from Clare, such as <a href=\\\"Saint%20Flannan\\\">Flannan</a>, Mochulleus, <a href=\\\"Saint%20Molua\\\">Moula</a>, Caimin, <a href=\\\"Maccreiche\\\">Maccreiche</a>, <a href=\\\"Munchin\\\">Munchin</a> and more. In the present day, the <a href=\\\"Catholic%20Church\\\">Catholic Church</a> still commands a large majority, with 88% of the populace declaring themselves as followers of the religion. This percentage is slightly higher than <a href=\\\"Religion%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland\\\">the national average</a>.\\nMost of Clare falls under the Catholic <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Killaloe\\\">Diocese of Killaloe</a>, which is part of the ecclesiastical province of <a href=\\\"Archdiocese%20of%20Cashel%20and%20Emly\\\">Cashel and Emly</a>. The Bishop of Killaloe is seated at the <a href=\\\"St%20Peter%20and%20St%20Paul%20Cathedral%2C%20Ennis\\\">St Peter and Paul Cathedral</a> in Ennis. A small portion of the north-western part of Clare falls under the <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Galway%2C%20Kilmacduagh%20and%20Kilfenora\\\">Diocese of Galway, Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora</a>.\\nAs part of the local council's architectural conservation project, around eighty Christian churches have been designated as protected structures. Among the more notable structures are the ruins of <a href=\\\"Corcomroe%20Abbey\\\">Corcomroe Abbey</a>, <a href=\\\"Quin%20Abbey\\\">Quin Abbey</a>, and <a href=\\\"Dysert%20O%20Dea%20monastery\\\">Dysert O Dea Monastery</a>.\\nThe largest religious minority is the <a href=\\\"Church%20of%20Ireland\\\">Church of Ireland</a>, which is part of the <a href=\\\"Anglican%20Communion\\\">Anglican Communion</a>. It has just under 2000 adherents in Clare. The county is part of the <a href=\\\"Bishop%20of%20Limerick%20and%20Killaloe\\\">Diocese of Limerick and Killaloe</a>, one of the three cathedrals of the diocese being St Flannan's Cathedral in Killaloe. Other religious communities in Clare are very small in comparison. A minority declare no religion.\\nCounty Clare is known for beautiful natural scenery.\\nWest Clare and some pockets in East Clare were recognised as part of the <a href=\\\"Gaeltacht\\\">Gaeltacht</a>, or Irish-speaking area, by the <a href=\\\"Irish%20Free%20State\\\">Irish Free State</a> government in the original \\\"<a href=\\\"Coimisi%C3%BAn%20na%20Gaeltachta\\\">Coimisiún na Gaeltachta</a>\\\" in 1926. The most prominent of these areas with native <a href=\\\"Irish%20language\\\">Irish language</a> speakers were west of <a href=\\\"Ennis\\\">Ennis</a> in <a href=\\\"Kilmihil\\\">Kilmihil</a>, <a href=\\\"Kilrush\\\">Kilrush</a>, <a href=\\\"Doonbeg\\\">Doonbeg</a>, <a href=\\\"Doolin\\\">Doolin</a>, <a href=\\\"Ennistimon\\\">Ennistimon</a>, <a href=\\\"Carrigaholt\\\">Carrigaholt</a>, <a href=\\\"Lisdoonvarna\\\">Lisdoonvarna</a> and <a href=\\\"Ballyvaughan\\\">Ballyvaughan</a>. However, by the time of the second \\\"Coimisiún na Gaeltachta\\\" in 1956, the decline in the number of Gaelic speakers had been such that West Clare was removed from the list. It remained covered by the Gaeltacht (Housing) Acts until 2001.\\nClose geographic proximity to the <a href=\\\"Aran%20Islands\\\">Aran Islands</a> (which were once part of <a href=\\\"Thomond\\\">Thomond</a>) and local trade with fishermen from there meant that the language was used by residents of <a href=\\\"Fanore\\\">Fanore</a>, <a href=\\\"Murroogh\\\">Murroogh</a>, <a href=\\\"Doolin\\\">Doolin</a> and <a href=\\\"Quilty%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Quilty</a> more than in other places. The last native Clare Irish speaker, the \\\"<a href=\\\"seancha%C3%AD\\\">seanchaí</a>\\\" Paddy Pharaic Mhichil Shannon of Fisherstreet, Doolin, died in the early 1990s.\\nIn the early 21st century, the pressure group \\\"Coiste Forbartha Gaeltachta Chontae an Chláir\\\" has sought to restore the official status of West Clare as a Gaeltacht area. They are encouraging immersion classes to revive use of the language.\\nCounty Clare has a strong history of Traditional music. It is the home of the <a href=\\\"Kilfenora%20C%C3%A9il%C3%AD%20Band\\\">Kilfenora Céilí Band</a>, the <a href=\\\"Tulla%20C%C3%A9il%C3%AD%20Band\\\">Tulla Céilí Band</a>, <a href=\\\"Stockton%27s%20Wing\\\">Stockton's Wing</a>, <a href=\\\"Sharon%20Shannon\\\">Sharon Shannon</a>, <a href=\\\"Noel%20Hill%20%28musician%29\\\">Noel Hill</a>, <a href=\\\"Peadar%20O%27Loughlin\\\">Peadar O'Loughlin</a>, <a href=\\\"Martin%20Hayes%20%28musician%29\\\">Martin Hayes</a> and legendary tin-whistler <a href=\\\"Micho%20Russell\\\">Micho Russell</a>. Ennis in County Clare is also the birthplace of Grammy-nominated songstress <a href=\\\"Maura%20O%27Connell\\\">Maura O'Connell</a> whose grandmother started a fish market in the town. The county has many traditional music festivals and one of the most well known is the <a href=\\\"Willie%20Clancy%20Summer%20School\\\">Willie Clancy Summer School</a>, which is held every July in the town of <a href=\\\"Milltown%20Malbay\\\">Milltown Malbay</a> in memory of the renowned <a href=\\\"uilleann\\\">uilleann</a> piper, <a href=\\\"Willie%20Clancy%20%28musician%29\\\">Willie Clancy</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Andy%20Irvine%20%28musician%29\\\">Andy Irvine</a> has written two songs celebrating County Clare: one is \\\"West Coast of Clare\\\" (recorded with <a href=\\\"Planxty\\\">Planxty</a> in 1973), in which he mentions <a href=\\\"Spanish%20Point%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Spanish Point</a> and Milltown Malbay. The other is \\\"My Heart's Tonight In Ireland\\\" (recorded on his solo album \\\"<a href=\\\"Rain%20on%20the%20Roof%20%28Andy%20Irvine%20album%29\\\">Rain on the Roof</a>\\\" in 1996, and again on \\\"<a href=\\\"Changing%20Trains\\\">Changing Trains</a>\\\" in 2005), in which he mentions several towns and villages in County Clare: Milltown Malbay, <a href=\\\"Scariff\\\">Scariff</a>, <a href=\\\"Kilrush\\\">Kilrush</a>, <a href=\\\"Sixmilebridge\\\">Sixmilebridge</a>, Kilkishen, <a href=\\\"Lahinch\\\">Lahinch</a>, <a href=\\\"Ennistymon\\\">Ennistymon</a>, <a href=\\\"Liscannor\\\">Liscannor</a> and <a href=\\\"Kilkee\\\">Kilkee</a>, and also makes two references to the music of Willie Clancy:\\n<poem>In the town of Scarriff the sun was shining in the sky\\nWhen Willie Clancy played his pipes and the tears welled in my eyes\\nMany years have passed and gone since the time we had there\\nBut my heart's tonight in Ireland in the sweet County Clare.\\nLahinch and Ennistymon, Liscannor and Kilkee\\nBut best of all was Milltown when the music flowed so free\\nWillie Clancy and the County Clare I'm ever in your debt\\nFor the sights and sounds of yesterday are shining memories yet.</poem>\\nMilltown Malbay is home to Oidhreacht an Chlair, an institute for higher education in all aspects of Irish tradition, history and literature.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Clare%20GAA\\\">Clare</a> <a href=\\\"hurling\\\">hurling</a> team has one of the best records of success in the country in recent years with many cups such as the <a href=\\\"Liam%20MacCarthy%20Cup\\\">Liam MacCarthy Cup</a> having been won in 1995, 1997 and 2013 and also finalists in 2002. Clare won the Munster Final in football in 1992 beating Kerry. There is a strong <a href=\\\"Gaelic%20Athletic%20Association\\\">Gaelic Athletic Association</a>(GAA) presence in County Clare with the founder of the GAA, <a href=\\\"Michael%20Cusack\\\">Michael Cusack</a>, having been born in <a href=\\\"Carron%2C%20County%20Clare\\\">Carron</a> which is situated in the heart of <a href=\\\"The%20Burren\\\">The Burren</a> in North Clare. Irish rugby internationals from Clare include Keith Wood, Anthony Foley & Marcus Horan.\\nClare is served by two <a href=\\\"national%20primary%20road\\\">national primary road</a>s—a classification referring to the major routes between major urban centres <a href=\\\"roads%20in%20Ireland\\\">in Ireland</a>. This includes the <a href=\\\"N18%20road%20%28Ireland%29\\\">N18</a> connecting <a href=\\\"Limerick\\\">Limerick</a> to <a href=\\\"Galway\\\">Galway</a>, which passes through Ennis and by route of the <a href=\\\"N19%20road%20%28Ireland%29\\\">N19</a>—Shannon. These two roads are part of the wider Western and Southern Corridor connecting many of the major settlements right across the island in these areas. There are also some significant <a href=\\\"national%20secondary%20road\\\">national secondary road</a>s—across the coast, stretching from <a href=\\\"Ballyvaughan\\\">Ballyvaughan</a>, through <a href=\\\"Ennistymon\\\">Ennistymon</a> and <a href=\\\"Kilkee\\\">Kilkee</a>, before arriving at <a href=\\\"Kilrush\\\">Kilrush</a> is the <a href=\\\"N67%20road%20%28Ireland%29\\\">N67</a>. In addition to this the <a href=\\\"N68%20road%20%28Ireland%29\\\">N68</a> connects Kilrush to Ennis, while Ennis is connected to Ennistymon via the <a href=\\\"N85%20road%20%28Ireland%29\\\">N85</a>.\\nMainland public transport is mostly limited to buses ran by <a href=\\\"Irish%20Government\\\">Irish Government</a> owned company <a href=\\\"Bus%20%C3%89ireann\\\">Bus Éireann</a>; there are around 25 buses running frequent routes which pass through the majority of large settlements in Clare. Clare Bus, runs a limited number of \\\"accessible buslines\\\". The <a href=\\\"Ennis%20railway%20station\\\">Ennis railway station</a> operated by government owned <a href=\\\"Iarnr%C3%B3d%20%C3%89ireann\\\">Iarnród Éireann</a> is the most significant railway station in Clare today; it was opened on 2 July 1859. By route of <a href=\\\"Limerick\\\">Limerick</a> the trains run from Ennis to <a href=\\\"Dublin%20Heuston%20railway%20station\\\">Dublin</a> and it generally takes 3 hours to complete the journey. There was previously a far more extensive local railway network in Clare, laid while part of the United Kingdom, the <a href=\\\"West%20Clare%20Railway\\\">West Clare Railway</a> was in existence from its opening in 1887 by <a href=\\\"Charles%20Stewart%20Parnell\\\">Charles Stewart Parnell</a> until 1961 covering much of the county. It was quite inefficient however, leading <a href=\\\"Percy%20French\\\">Percy French</a> to write the song \\\"<a href=\\\"Are%20Ye%20Right%20There%20Michael\\\">Are Ye Right There Michael?</a>\\\" about his experience. Much of it was dug up and dismantled by the Irish government from the 1950s—1970s after being deemed uneconomic, however there remains local <a href=\\\"advocacy%20group\\\">advocacy group</a>s who wish to conserve and restore parts of it.\\nThe third busiest airport in Ireland is located in Clare with the <a href=\\\"Shannon%20Airport\\\">Shannon Airport</a>, which officially opened in 1945. Along with <a href=\\\"Dublin%20Airport\\\">Dublin Airport</a> and <a href=\\\"Cork%20Airport\\\">Cork Airport</a> it is one of the three primary airports in the country, handling 3.62 million passengers in 2007. Shannon was the first airport in Ireland to receive <a href=\\\"transatlantic%20flight\\\">transatlantic flight</a>s. <a href=\\\"Ryanair\\\">Ryanair</a> is the main airline handling flights with Great Britain and Continental European countries such as Spain, France, and Germany as the primary destinations. Much traffic from the United States is received, which <a href=\\\"Aer%20Lingus\\\">Aer Lingus</a> mostly handles; it is sometimes used as a military stopover which has caused some controversy in the country, but nonetheless has generated significant revenue for the airport. There are some local <a href=\\\"ferry\\\">ferry</a> services as much of the county is surrounded by water; there is one from Killimer to <a href=\\\"Tarbert%2C%20County%20Kerry\\\">Tarbert Island</a> in Kerry and also from <a href=\\\"Doolin\\\">Doolin</a> to the <a href=\\\"Aran%20Islands\\\">Aran Islands</a> of <a href=\\\"Inisheer\\\">Inisheer</a> and <a href=\\\"Inishmore\\\">Inishmore</a>.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cassius Marcellus Clay (November 11, 1912 – February 8, 1990) was an American painter and musician. He was the father of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandfather of Laila Ali. He married Odessa Lee O'Grady in the 1930s and worked as a painter and a musician. He was described as \"a handsome, mercurial, noisy, combative failed dreamer\" and a \"hard-drinking, skirt-chasing dandy of a daddy\". His son Muhammad Ali described him as \"the fanciest dancer in Louisville\".","Odessa Lee Clay (née O'Grady; February 12, 1917 – August 20, 1994) was the mother of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandmother of Laila Ali. She married Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr. in the 1930s and worked for some time as a household domestic to help support her young children."],"string":"[\n \"Cassius Marcellus Clay (November 11, 1912 – February 8, 1990) was an American painter and musician. He was the father of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandfather of Laila Ali. He married Odessa Lee O'Grady in the 1930s and worked as a painter and a musician. He was described as \\\"a handsome, mercurial, noisy, combative failed dreamer\\\" and a \\\"hard-drinking, skirt-chasing dandy of a daddy\\\". His son Muhammad Ali described him as \\\"the fanciest dancer in Louisville\\\".\",\n \"Odessa Lee Clay (née O'Grady; February 12, 1917 – August 20, 1994) was the mother of three-time World Heavyweight Champion Muhammad Ali and Rahman Ali, and the grandmother of Laila Ali. She married Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr. in the 1930s and worked for some time as a household domestic to help support her young children.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":55,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who was convicted in 1999 of the murder of a resident of a town 65 miles north of Denver?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Timothy Lee \"Tim\" Masters"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ridgebury, New York\nRidgebury, New York is one of the eight Hamlets in the town of Wawayanda, New York. The hamlet and its township are located in Orange County, New York, approximately 65 miles north of New York City.\nFor a time, Ridgebury was also home to Moses D. Stivers (December 30, 1828 - February 2, 1895), a former U.S. Representative from New York, who moved in 1845 and completed his education there.\nIn the spring of 2008, the area's natural bodies of water, including Catlin Creek and Ridgebury Lake, were infested with groups of Northern snakehead, a highly predatory fish that has recently been found unintentionally spreading around the United States. In Ridgebury, the snakeheads have been removed with poisoning by the DEC, and all water has been restocked with native species.\n","Stramshall\nStramshall is a village within the civil parish of Uttoxeter Rural in the county of Staffordshire, England. The village is 2.1 miles north of the town of Uttoxeter, 16.3 miles north east of Stafford and 143 miles north west of London. The village lies 0.8 miles north of the A50 that links Warrington to Leicester. The nearest railway station is at Uttoxeter for the Crewe to Derby line. The nearest airport is East Midlands Airport.\nStramshall has an entry in the Domesday Book of 1085. In the great book Stramshall is recorded by the name \"Stagrigesholle\". The manor was owned by the King. The main tenant was Alric who had owned the manor before the Norman Conquest.\nStramshall falls within the civil parish known as Uttoxeter Rural. The council meets once a month and they hold their meetings in the village halls of both Stramshall and the nearby village of Bramshall which they use alternately each month. The village hall in Stramshall was built in 1979 and is located in Vicarage Drive.\nThe parish church was built between 1850 and 1852 and was made a separate ecclesiastic parish in 1853.\nStramshall Football Club is an amateur club based in the Staffordshire area. It was founded in 2005 to raise funds to refurbish the local playing field. Their kit consists of a yellow shirt with black sleeves, black Shorts and white socks. The team hold a Lads v Dads charity football game annually to help with this cause.\n","Mount Miller\nMount Miller is an isolated peak of the Saint Elias Mountains in Alaska, United States. It is notable for its position among spectacular icefields, its distance from any inhabited place, and its large rise above local terrain. It is over 65 miles (110 km) from McCarthy, the nearest habitation, and over 105 miles (170 km) away from Yakutat, the nearest significant town. Exemplifying the size of the mountain, the south flank rises 9000 feet (2743 m) above the Duktoth River valley to the south in approximately 9 horizontal miles (14.5 km).\nMount Miller is the high point of the east-west trending Barkley Ridge, located on the south side of the Bagley Icefield, one of the largest icefields in North America. The Bering Glacier flows from the Bagley Icefield at the western end of the ridge, while the southeast slopes of the ridge head the Yahtse Glacier. The only side of the ridge that is not completely glaciated is the south side, where the Robinson Mountains lie between Barkley Ridge and the Gulf of Alaska.\nSince Mount Miller is so isolated, and is not of extraordinary absolute elevation by Alaskan standards, it was not climbed until very recently. The first ascent of the peak was made in 1996 by Charlie Sassara, Ruedi Homberger, Reto Ruesh, Paul Claus, and Carlos Buhler, via the West Ridge.\n","Los Barriles, Baja California Sur\nLos Barriles (\"The Barrels\") is a town (population 1,174) in La Paz Municipality, Baja California Sur, Mexico. It is situated along Highway 1, 40 miles north of San José del Cabo and 65 miles south of La Paz. Punta Pescadero Airstrip is 9 miles to the north; Rancho Leonero, a vacation resort, is to the south. Adjacent to Buena Vista, the rural towns straddle the head of Bahía las Palmas on the Gulf of California, where winter westerlies average 20 - . Los Barriles is within the transition area of the Baja California peninsula's Sierra de la Laguna where the hills become sandy flats.\nKnown for its flyfishing, Los Barriles is also Baja's kitesurfing and windsurfing capital. The town's port was closed on 2 September during the 2013 Pacific hurricane season's Tropical Storm Lorena. In 2006, the Shakespeare Theatre Association's annual conference was held in Los Barriles.\n","Timworth\nTimworth is a village and civil parish 65 miles (104km) north east of London and 26 miles (42 km) east of Cambridge in the St Edmundsbury district of Suffolk, eastern England. Located around two miles north of Bury St Edmunds, its 2005 population was 50. At the 2011 Census the appropriate Postal Code (IP31 1HS) showed the population as being included in Ampton.\nThe village name is Old English for ‘Enclosure of a man called *Tima’ and was mentioned in the Doomesday Book as \"Timeworda\".\nIn the early industrial revolution the village was the setting for \"the great Gleaning Case.\"\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons","Tarhuna\nTarhuna ( ; Arabic: ترهونة ), also Tarhoona or Tarhunah, is a Libyan town 65 km to the southeast of Tripoli, in the Murqub District. The city derives its name from that of its pre-Roman-era inhabitants, a Berber tribe. The city was known as al-Boirat during the 19th through mid 20th century, but assumed it current name after Libyan independence. The Tarhuna district, including the city of Msallata, had an urban population of about 296,000 (est. 2003) Geographical boundaries: from the \"Valley of the famm Molgha\" west - to \"Burkaat Oueny\" eastward. Then from the \"Suq al Juma (Al-msab`ha)\" north, \" Al-mzawgha and Marghna\" south, while population in Tarhuna proper was calculated to be 13,264 in 2011.\nIn the city centre of Tarhuna, just opposite the Tarhuna mosque, there is a memorial to Ali Swidan Alhatmy, who was a hero in the 18 June 1915 Battle of El-Shqiga against the Italians. He was captured in 1922 and hanged by the Italians in the town square.\nPopulation generally belongs to the Tarhuna tribe, which was favoured during the regime of Muammar Gaddafi. In late August 2011 (as part of the Libyan Civil War), opposition forces from the National Liberation Amy entered Tarhuna, amidst mixed feelings from the citizens. It is known that Khamis Gaddafi, son of Muammar Gaddafi, died in clashes near Tarhuna.\nOn 23 August 2012 Interior ministry spokesman Abdelmonem al-Hur stated that more than a hundred tanks and twenty-six rocket launchers were seized from an alleged pro-Gaddafi militia (named \"Katibat Al-Awfiyah\", or Brigade of the Faithful), during a raid on their campsite in Tarhuna. The operation ended with one of the suspects killed, eight wounded and thirteen detainees, accused of being linked with the 19 August Tripoli bombings.\nTarhuna is a leading producer of olive oil, cereals, figs, grapes, sparto grass, and various nuts.\nThe Faculty of Law of Al Nasser University is located north of town.\nFounded in Tarhunah many sports clubs: Al-Noor School club ( teachers club ) - Al-Amal Club was founded in 1960 - the hero of the Football League in the central region - currently playing in the third division Al-Shabeba Club Club Soqor Al-Sag`ya\n","Fripp Island, South Carolina\nFripp Island is a 6.546 sq mi (16.954 km²) barrier island located along the Atlantic coast of the lowcountry part of South Carolina. It is approximately 21 miles from Beaufort, 96 miles south of Charleston, and 65 miles north of Savannah, Georgia. Some of the neighboring islands include Hunting Island, St. Helena Island, and Lady's Island. The island mostly serves as a residential vacation resort, but several hundred residents make it their permanent home. It is also the most seaward of the South Carolina Sea Islands. Fripp is renowned for its resort amenities and natural conservation.\nAlthough it has had several names over its history, the island is presently named after Captain Johannes Fripp, a British sailor charged with protecting the Carolina colony from Spanish attacks. Local folklore history has long suspected Fripp to be the location where Edward Teach, the pirate known as Blackbeard, had stowed away some of his treasures. There may have been pirates who stopped at the island, but treasure was seldom brief by 18th-century sea rovers.\nDue to its relatively remote location, the island was utilized primarily as a private hunting range for most of its history. In the mid-20th century, completion of bridges connecting Beaufort with nearby Hunting Island State Park, investors looked to develop a residential resort community on Fripp. Upon securing bonds and establishing a public service district, a bridge was built in 1961 that connected Fripp with Hunting Island, U.S. Highway 21, and nearby Beaufort and began to stimulate residential development. Within 10 years, developers had built the Ocean Point Golf Links, a Racquet Club for tennis, a marina and a variety of homes and condominium units that would serve as the benchmark for development for the next thirty years.\nIn 1994, the island underwent its final major development phase on its southwestern end. Ocean Creek golf course designed by Davis Love III was built, as well as a new amenities center. Additional housing styles were offered and the marina was expanded. Though the island will not undergo any future expansion, nearly one-third of the lots on the island remain undeveloped.\nThe need for a fire department was determined in 1962 by legislation establishing the Fripp Island Public Service District. Originally, the fire department and first fire truck was housed in a three-sided building. The fire department started as a volunteer effort and was later recognized by South Carolina as a volunteer organization. In 1982, a new fire station was built to park the two trucks owned by the department. Four years later the Public Service District hired its first professional Fire Chief to operate the department on a daily basis. The fire station that serves as the island's current station was built in 1999. A full-time paramedic was later hired by the county in 2001. The department is composed of 34 volunteers and 19 paid personnel. The department has owned two fire truck pumpers, a squad truck, a Quick Response Vehicle, and a 6-wheeled Beach Rescue ATV since 2006. The fire department's main services include Fire Suppression, Search and Rescue, Medical Emergency Response, Vehicle Extrication, Top Water Rescue, and Fire Prevention and Public Fire Education.\nIn the early days of the island's population, all drinkable water had to be transported onto the island. St. Helena Island started to pump water into Fripp's central water tank by 1965. By 1980, all water was bought from the Beaufort-Jasper Water and Sewer Authority and pumps an average 172 million gallons a year into the island for use by the public.\nThe main bridge leading to Fripp Island was completed in 1964. The legislation authorizing the 2,067 foot bridge called for a two dollar toll; it is now toll-free. The bridge is owned and managed by the Fripp Island Public Service District.\nGeologically speaking, Fripp Island is considered to be a barrier island. The island is the most seaward of the Sea Islands and forms a \"de facto\" cape. Located halfway between Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia along the coast, it is locally positioned between Hunting Island State Park to the north and Pritchards Island to the southwest. A wide marsh and estuarine system separates these islands from the larger St. Helena's Island to the northwest. The upland acreage of the island is approximately 3000 acre . Fripp has approximately three miles of beachfront along the Atlantic, though some parts of beach are fully submerged at high tide.\nFripp Island is located approximately 20 miles (30 km) from Beaufort and is connected with the city via U.S. 21. Savannah is approximately a 75-minute drive by car while Charleston is approximately 1 hour and 45 minutes away. Bermuda lies 900 miles (1,450 km) due east of Fripp.\nAccording to the 2000 census, Fripp Island has a year-round primary population of 887 residents. The realistic figure is likely higher than reported because many homeowners consider Fripp Island property as second homes and may spend weeks or months on the island, but do not consider it their primary residence. In summer months the island's population can rise to about 5,000 due to an increase in visitors.\nFripp Island is a private, gated community, run by the Fripp Island Property Owners Association (FIPOA) since the mid-1980s. It is not a municipality or a census designated place, though it maintains island operations via a public service district and property owners association. In addition to providing a security force and fire/rescue squad, the island also maintains its own bridges, roads, paths, parks, and beach access routes. Meetings and gatherings are typically held at the Fripp Island Community Centre. An all-faiths chapel is also located on the island.\nAlthough cars and trucks are allowed on roads and streets, golf carts are the prevailing method of transportation on the island. Bicycles are also popular and are used among residents and visitors alike and several streets offer parallel bike trails to separate bicyclists from motor vehicles.\nAll amenities are owned and operated by Fripp Resorts. These include all restaurants, golf courses, tennis courts, pools and stores. The initiation fee is $20,000. There are three levels of membership with an annual fee depending on the membership level.\nMost of the island's trees are loblolly pine, though there are some hardwood live oak and magnolia stands located throughout the island. Spanish moss is a prevalent feature as well.\nPrior to human development, the island was fertile ground for several wild animals, including wild hogs. Development though has been carefully undertaken to preserve much of the wildlife habitat that existed beforehand. It is common to see deer in any area across the island, and population control of deer has been a major concern for the island. There are several small mammals that inhabit Fripp, including squirrels, raccoons, opossums, bats, and armadillos. Most interior lagoons contain an alligator population.\nFripp and its surrounding areas are home to dozens of species of birds. Among the most striking include populations of egrets, herons, osprey, and pelicans, though seagulls are the most common. Island residents established an Audubon Club in 1978 and the entire island is an Audubon-designated bird preserve.\nThe island is a major loggerhead turtle hatchery and an active group of residents works to make the beaches safe for the laying turtles by observing outside lighting precautions during nesting seasons and protecting nests from predation by humans, raccoons and other animals.\nNumerous fish and crustacean species can be found in the waterways and estuaries that surround the island, and the island remains a popular destination for fishing and crabbing. Fiddler crab is the most common of crab species, while blue crab is the most common species caught.\n","Peggy Hettrick murder case\nThe Peggy Hettrick murder case concerns the unsolved 1987 death of Peggy Hettrick in Fort Collins, Colorado. Timothy Lee \"Tim\" Masters enlisted in the Navy following a high school career plagued by police accusation of murder when he was a sophomore at Fort Collins High School. After eight years in the Navy, he was honorably discharged. Masters worked for Learjet as an aviation mechanic until 1997, when he was arrested for the murder of Peggy Hettrick. He was charged and convicted of the Hettrick murder in 1999 and sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. His sentence was vacated in January 2008 when DNA evidence from the original crime scene indicated that he was not the responsible party. Three years after his release from prison, Masters was exonerated by the Colorado Attorney General on June 28, 2011. To date, no one else has been charged with Hettrick's murder.\nOn the morning of February 11, 1987, a bicyclist investigated what he thought was a mannequin and discovered the dead body of 37-year-old Peggy Hettrick in a field in southern Fort Collins. According to the coroner, she died from a single stab wound in the upper left back, likely very early in the morning. Her body had been \"sexually mutilated,\" with the precise removal of her left nipple and areola, as well as a female \"circumcision\", including what one doctor described as a partial vulvectomy; a procedure that requires high skill and quality surgical equipment to perform.\nBefore the bicyclist found the body, 15-year-old Timothy Masters saw it while walking to school at daybreak. Thinking it was a mannequin left as a prank, Masters did not report the body to the police. After Masters' father Clyde Masters told canvassing police that he'd seen his son deviate from his usual path across the field to the bus that morning, police pulled \"Toothpick\" Masters, then a five-foot-ten, 120-pound high school sophomore, out of class for questioning.\nEarly in the investigation, lead investigator Fort Collins detective Jim Broderick centered on Masters as the primary suspect due to his failure to report the body found on his way to school. However, no physical evidence linking Masters to the crime was found.\nOn February 12, investigators searched his home, including the sinks for blood, and his school locker. They found 2,200 pages of writings and violent artwork by Masters in his bedroom, backpack and school locker, along with a knife collection and pornography. The local newspaper with the account of the body's discovery was found on his dresser next to his knife collection. However, no trace of Hettrick's blood or hair was found in Masters' room or among his belongings, including his clothes and knife collection.\nDespite hours of police questioning without an adult present, wherein policemen repeatedly told Masters they knew he'd committed the murder, the 15-year-old Masters maintained his innocence. The adolescent was administered a lie detector test after police interrogation; the results were inconclusive.\nOver 1,000 pages of Masters' violent artwork were admitted into evidence.\nTwo hairs were found on Hettrick, but they did not match Masters. Investigators also found unknown fingerprints in Hettrick's purse, but these did not match Masters either. With no new leads, on February 12, 1988, investigators planted an article containing false information in the local newspaper, in an attempt to provoke an incriminating reaction from Masters based upon consultation with the FBI Behavioral Science Unit. Around-the-clock police surveillance of Masters saw no reaction. Masters maintained his innocence during periodic police interviews during his high school and Navy years.\nIn 1992, during an interview with a former fellow high school student, investigators discovered that Masters told his friends details about the sexual mutilations. The investigators thought this information had never been made public or disclosed to Masters or his defense attorneys; they thought that only the killer would know those details. Investigators interviewed Masters again in Philadelphia, where he was serving in the Navy. He told investigators that a friend in his art class told him about the mutilations. The friend had been part of a group of Explorer Scouts helping the police search the crime scene, and he was told of the nature of the mutilations early in the investigation. His story checked out. The investigation reached a dead end until 1997.\nIn 1997, Broderick contacted Dr. J. Reid Meloy, a forensic psychologist from California. Meloy analyzed Masters' writings and artwork extensively and concluded, without having ever spoken with Masters—he could not since Masters was protected by his Fifth Amendment right--, that some of the drawings represented Masters reliving the crime.\nIn 1999, based on the testimony of Dr. Meloy and others, and Master's own drawings, including one that Meloy interpreted as a knife cutting into a vagina and another drawing of a body being dragged, Masters was convicted and sentenced to life in prison for the murder. Though some jurors had doubts about his guilt, his drawings and writings were cited by jury members as compelling evidence against him.\nSoon after his conviction, Masters appealed to the Colorado Court of Appeals on the grounds that his drawings were inadmissible under rules of the court, as was testimony concerning a confrontation between Masters and a teacher before the murder occurred. Masters' defense team also objected to the testimony by Dr. Meloy. The Colorado Court of Appeals unanimously upheld his conviction on February 15, 2001.\nIn 2002, the Colorado Supreme Court granted certiorari to determine whether evidence eliciting Masters' violent nature, which was fundamental to the prosecution in securing a conviction, was improperly admitted. Finding that some evidence should have, in fact, been suppressed, the Court, nevertheless, determining the error to be harmless, affirmed the lower court's finding. On December 16, 2002 the Colorado Supreme Court denied a petition for rehearing in the case, effectively ending his first appeal.\nIn 2004 Masters mounted another appeal on the grounds of ineffective counsel. The state appointed a new defense team who immediately began investigating the case. The defense team discovered that evidence, including the hairs found on Hettrick and photographs of the fingerprints found in her purse, was missing. During 2007 hearings, the defense alleged police and prosecutorial misconduct in the investigation and trial. The defense argued that Jim Broderick perjured himself during the 1999 trial concerning his involvement in the case, and that prosecutors allegedly withheld evidence about links to Dr. Richard Hammond, a potential suspect in the murder.\nIn early 2008, special prosecutors assigned to the case agreed that critical information was not turned over to the original defense team. On January 18, 2008, defense attorneys released evidence that further suggested Masters' innocence. Defense attorneys had touch DNA testing done in the Netherlands on evidence found at the scene, but tested samples did not include Masters' DNA. Rather, the DNA results pointed to Hettrick's sometime boyfriend. Special prosecutors assigned to the appeal recommended overturning Masters' sentence as a result of the DNA findings. The DNA results were confirmed by the Colorado Bureau of Investigation.\nOn January 22, 2008 a Colorado judge vacated Masters' conviction and ordered him released immediately. On February 5, 2008 District Attorney Larry Abrahamson and the Eight Judicial Circuit held proceedings to decide whether to retry Masters or to drop all charges against him. Prosecutors filed a motion to dismiss murder charges against Masters on January 26, 2008, though at the time the Larimer County District Attorney stated that Masters has not been exonerated for the crime.\nIn an announcement on June 28, 2011, Colorado Attorney General John Suthers said Masters is no longer a suspect in the 1987 murder of Peggy Hettrick of Fort Collins and has been exonerated. Suthers stated, \"\"Pursuant to the mandate from the Governor's Office, our team undertook a comprehensive review of the entire Hettrick homicide\"\", Suthers said in a statement. \"\"Our team conducted more than 170 interviews and conducted further DNA analysis. Throughout the past year, the Statewide Grand Jury heard evidence and testimony from numerous witnesses. Based on the testimony, the forensic analysis and the crime scene analysis, the overwhelming conclusion is that Timothy Masters was not involved in the murder of Peggy Hettrick.\"\"\nHe continued: \"\"Masters cooperated fully with our investigation, including the Grand Jury proceedings. Given the nature and extent of the Grand Jury investigation, the time has come for law enforcement to officially exonerate Timothy Masters. The Hettrick case remains open. We have made significant progress in the investigation. Our team will continue to develop evidence and we will continue to work on this case until the murderer is brought to justice. Too many lives have been affected by the events of that day. Justice requires that we continue to diligently work on the case.\"\"\nIn 1995, seven years after the murder and two years before the retention of experts for the Masters’ trial, Dr. Richard Hammond, an eye surgeon, was arrested for secretly filming women's genitalia, including that of his own female family members, through fake ventilation grates in his downstairs bathroom. The cameras were positioned to allow for detailed, closeup viewing of the women's genitals while sitting on the toilet. Investigators also found that Hammond kept thousands of dollars worth of pornography hidden in a locked office and in a storage shed in town, indicating an obsession with female genitalia. As a surgeon, Hammond had the skill and equipment to perform the precision mutilation found on Hettrick's body. In 1987, Hammond's bedroom window overlooked the location where Hettrick's body was discovered, and he was home the morning after the murder, despite his usually scheduled surgeries on that day of the week. Hammond committed suicide in March 1995, several days after his arrest. The police were called to a La Quinta Motor Inn in north Denver. There, they found Hammond dead, an IV needle containing cyanide residue sticking out of his thigh. \"My death should satisfy the media's thirst for blood,\" he wrote in the suicide note.\nThough investigators noted a possible link between Hammond and the Hettrick murder, no follow up investigation was done. Broderick ordered evidence in the Hammond case destroyed before it could be examined for any link with Hettrick based upon the premise that he had committed suicide and there was no criminal investigation that would begin. The arrest of Dr. Hammond, and his subsequent suicide, was information withheld from Dr. Meloy and the other experts, and the FBI was not informed of this case by Larimer County to reconsider their profiling of Mr. Masters from 1987.\nThe DNA testing that led to the 2008 overturning of Masters' conviction also implicated Hettrick's sometime boyfriend, Matt Zoellner, a young used car salesman, who testified at Masters' trial. Zoellner was initially a suspect in 1987, but was quickly ruled out. Officials plan to renew the investigation.\nColorado law had no requirement that evidence be preserved, and shields liability to authorities who destroy evidence after criminal trials are complete. Partially as a result of this case, Colorado lawmakers passed H.B. 1397, which requires the preservation of all evidence that may contain DNA that is collected in cases resulting in a conviction for a Class 1 felony or a sex offense. The evidence must be preserved for the life of the defendant, after which the evidence may be destroyed. If charges have not been filed, DNA evidence must be preserved for the length of the investigation.\nIn June 2008, after a six-month review of the case, Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck ascertained misfeasance, but not malfeasance. \"Buck was responsible for determining whether Broderick broke any laws, but in a letter to Chief Judge James H. Hiatt, he said it was important to give context of the overall case, which he used to reach his conclusions. 'After consideration of the evidence, I did not discover criminal conduct among employees of the Fort Collins Police Department or the prosecutors in the case,' Buck wrote.\" Buck also noted that the statute of limitations had expired.\nOn October 21, 2008, David Lane, a criminal defense attorney in Denver filed a civil suit in federal district court against the Larimer County prosecutors, Terry Gilmore and Jolene Blair, as well as detective James Broderick, alleging violations of Masters' civil rights. In their legal brief are facts concerning the Masters' case, including withholding evidence from Dr. Meloy and other expert witnesses (including a surgeon consultant and a criminalist), and interference with the sharing of evidence among expert witnesses that would cast doubt on Masters' involvement in Hettrick's homicide and would have pointed toward other suspects. No information on the other suspects, including their existence, was provided to the experts at the time of their retention. The county settled with Masters for US$4.1 million and the City of Fort Collins settled for US$5.9 million, for a total of US$10 million.\nThe original Masters' case was prosecuted by then deputy District Attorneys Terry Gilmore and Jolene Blair, who were elevated to district judgeship soon after. On September 9, 2008, the Colorado Supreme Court censured Gilmore and Blair. In an agreement with the Colorado Supreme Court's Office of Attorney Regulation, Gilmore and Blair acknowledged failing to ensure that Masters' defense attorneys received large amounts of the information which had been obtained by the Fort Collins Police Department, including many key pieces indicating Masters' innocence. In addition, the prosecutors failed to gather other information from police, despite indications that it existed.\nIn the General Election of November 2, 2010, less than 40% of voters in the 8th Judicial District voted to retain Judges Blair and Gilmore, and their tenures ended on January 11, 2011.\nOn June 30, 2010, a Larimer County Grand Jury under the direction of neighboring Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck's office indicted Lt. James Broderick on eight counts of felony first-degree perjury for materially false statements he made pursuant to the arrest and conviction of Masters. Count 1, concerning an affidavit for Masters' arrest, was dismissed by Weld County District Judge James Hartmann in the January 26, 2011 ruling, \"People v. Broderick,\" in a section entitled \"Bronston Principles.\"\nOn May 9, 2011, all remaining charges were dismissed by a ruling from Weld County District Judge James Hartmann that the 3-year statute of limitations for perjury in Colorado had expired. Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck, who is handling the prosecution of the Broderick case, said he was evaluating the judge's order and \"\"will proceed with Broderick's prosecution if legally appropriate\"\". Buck's options include a direct appeal to the Colorado Supreme Court as well as filing a reconsider motion with the original judge which would include a clarification of the timeline in the case.\nOn July 29, 2011, a different Larimer County Grand Jury under the direction of Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck's office re-indicted Lt. James Broderick on nine counts of perjury. Broderick faces up to six years in prison for each count if convicted. Those charges also were dismissed. In 2013, Broderick resigned, thus suspending an internal investigation into his handling of the Hettrick murder. Fort Collins has reportedly spent $400,000 to date to defend Broderick.\nA detailed forensic study that included the investigative methods used in the Hettrick murder case was published in 2009. In June 2012, Berkley Books published \"Drawn to Injustice\", a book co-written by Timothy Masters which tells the story from his perspective.\nA&E's true crime television documentary series, \"Investigative Reports\", produced and narrated by Bill Kurtis featured a 2004 episode, \"Murder Illustrated\", that dealt with the Peggy Hettrick case. The episode labeled Masters a murderer and congratulated the Fort Collins Police Pepartment and District Attorney's office for a job well done. Since Masters' exoneration and the controversy surrounding the blundering of the case by the authorities, the episode has been withdrawn from viewing circulation, although it remains available on DVD. Kurtis refused to comment on the episode.","A Tribute to Courage\nA Tribute to Courage monument is a statue of Sam Houston located in Huntsville, Texas (where Sam Houston lived and died), which is 65 miles north of the city of Houston (named in his honor). Sam Houston is one of the founding fathers of Texas. He led the army of Texas during their War for Independence from Mexico in 1836, including the victory at San Jacinto (about 100 miles from the statue) where Texas won her independence by defeating Mexican President Santa Ana in the field. The statue by sculptor David Adickes is 67 feet tall and was built in 1994. It is clearly visible to motorists heading north on Interstate 45. It is the tenth-tallest statue in the United States.\n","Northern snakehead\nThe northern snakehead (\"Channa argus\") is a species of <a href=\"Channidae\">snakehead fish</a> native to <a href=\"China\">China</a>, <a href=\"Russia\">Russia</a>, <a href=\"North%20Korea\">North Korea</a>, and <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a>, ranging from the <a href=\"Amur%20River\">Amur River</a> to <a href=\"Hainan\">Hainan</a>. It has been <a href=\"Introduced%20species\">introduced</a> to other regions where it is considered <a href=\"Invasive%20species\">invasive</a>. In Europe, the first report of the species was from <a href=\"Czechoslovakia\">Czechoslovakia</a> (now the <a href=\"Czech%20Republic\">Czech Republic</a>) in 1956. In the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, the fish is considered to be a highly invasive species. In a well-known incident, several were found in a <a href=\"pond\">pond</a> in <a href=\"Crofton%2C%20Maryland%23Crofton%20pond%20snakehead%20fish%20incident\">Crofton, Maryland</a>, in June 2002, which led to major media coverage and two movies.\nThe distinguishing features of a northern snakehead include a long <a href=\"dorsal%20fin\">dorsal fin</a> with 49–50 rays, an anal fin with 31–32 rays, a small, anteriorly depressed head, the eyes above the middle part of the upper jaw, a large mouth extending well beyond the eye, and <a href=\"Ichthyology%20terms%23V\">villiform teeth</a> in bands, with large canines on the lower jaw and <a href=\"Ichthyology%20terms%23P\">palatines</a>. It is generally reported to reach a length up to 85 - , but specimens approaching 150 cm are known according to Russian <a href=\"ichthyologist\">ichthyologist</a>s. The largest registered by the <a href=\"International%20Game%20Fish%20Association\">International Game Fish Association</a> weighed 8.05 kg , although this was surpassed by a 18.42 lb northern snakehead caught in 2016.\nIts coloration is a golden tan to pale brown, with dark blotches on the sides and saddle-like blotches across the back. Blotches toward the front tend to separate between top and bottom sections, while rear blotches are more likely to be contiguous. Coloration is nearly the same between juveniles and adults, which is unusual among snakeheads, and is similar to \"<a href=\"Channa%20maculata\">Channa maculata</a>\", but can be distinguished by two bar-like marks on the <a href=\"Fish%20anatomy%23Body\">caudal peduncle</a> (where the tail attaches); in \"C. maculata\", the rear bar is usually complete, with pale bar-like areas before and after, while in \"C. argus\", the rear bar is irregular and blotched, with no pale areas around it.\nThe northern snakehead is a freshwater species and cannot tolerate <a href=\"salinity\">salinity</a> in excess of ten parts per million. It is a facultative air breather; it uses a suprabranchial organ and a bifurcated ventral <a href=\"aorta\">aorta</a> that permits <a href=\"aquatic%20respiration\">aquatic</a> and aerial <a href=\"Respiration%20%28physiology%29\">respiration</a>. This unusual respiratory system allows it to live outside of water for several days; it can wriggle its way to other bodies of water or survive being transported by humans. Only young of this species (not adults) may be able to move overland for short distances using wriggling motions. The preferred habitats of this species are <a href=\"stagnant%20water\">stagnant water</a> with mud substrate and aquatic vegetation, or slow, muddy streams; it is primarily <a href=\"piscivorous\">piscivorous</a>, but is known to eat <a href=\"crustacean\">crustacean</a>s, other <a href=\"invertebrate\">invertebrate</a>s, and <a href=\"amphibians\">amphibians</a>.\nThe northern snakehead can double its population in a minimum of 15 months. It reaches sexual maturity at age two or three, at which time it will be about 30 to(-) long. The eggs are fertilized externally; a female can lay 100,000 eggs a year. <a href=\"Fertilization\">Fertilization</a> occurs in shallow water in the early morning. The eggs are yellow and spherical, about 2 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch after about 1-2 days, but they can take much longer if the temperature is very low. The eggs are guarded by the parents until yolk absorption, when the eggs are about 8 mm long.\nTwo subspecies are distinguished – \"C. a. argus\" originating from China and Korea and \"C. a. warpachowskii\" originating from eastern Russia.\nIn Asia, the snakehead fish is considered to be an important <a href=\"food%20fish\">food fish</a>. Due to its economic value, \"C. argus\" has been introduced (intentionally or not) to several areas in the continental United States. In the US, the snakehead is a top-level <a href=\"predator\">predator</a>; its introduction poses a substantial threat to native fish populations.\nThe fish first appeared in US news when an alert fisherman discovered one in a <a href=\"Crofton%2C%20Maryland\">Crofton, Maryland</a>, pond in the summer of 2002. The snakehead fish was considered to be a threat to the <a href=\"Chesapeake%20Bay\">Chesapeake Bay</a> watershed, and wary officials took action by draining the pond in an attempt to destroy the species. The action was successful, and two adults and over 100 small fish were found and destroyed. A man admitted having released two adults, which he had purchased from a New York market, into the pond.\nIn 2004, 19 northern snakeheads were captured in the <a href=\"Potomac%20River\">Potomac River</a>, and they were later confirmed to have become established (were breeding). They are somewhat limited to that stretch of the river and its local tributaries, upstream by the <a href=\"Great%20Falls%20of%20the%20Potomac%20River\">Great Falls</a>, and downstream by the salinity of Chesapeake Bay. Tests found they are not related to northern snakeheads found in other waters in the region, alleviating some concern of their overland migration. Northern snakeheads continue to be caught in the river as of 2012.\nThe northern snakehead has been found in three counties of <a href=\"Florida\">Florida</a>, and may be established. Apparently unestablished specimens have been found in <a href=\"Flushing%20Meadows\">Flushing Meadows-Corona Park</a>, <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, two ponds in <a href=\"Philadelphia\">Philadelphia</a>, <a href=\"Pennsylvania\">Pennsylvania</a>, a pond in <a href=\"Massachusetts\">Massachusetts</a>, and reservoirs in <a href=\"California\">California</a> and <a href=\"North%20Carolina\">North Carolina</a>. In 2008, the northern snakehead was found in drainage ditches in <a href=\"Arkansas\">Arkansas</a>, as a result of a commercial fish-farming accident. Recent flooding may have allowed the species to spread into the nearby White River, which would allow an eventual population of the fish in the <a href=\"Arkansas%20River\">Arkansas</a> and <a href=\"Mississippi%20River\">Mississippi River</a>s.\nIn the summer of 2008, an infestation of the northern snakehead was confirmed in Ridgebury Lake and Catlin Creek near <a href=\"Ridgebury%2C%20New%20York\">Ridgebury, New York</a>. By August 2008, the <a href=\"New%20York%20State%20Department%20of%20Environmental%20Conservation\">New York State Department of Environmental Conservation</a> had collected a number of the native fish, and then poisoned the waters with a liquid <a href=\"rotenone\">rotenone</a> formulation. After the poisoning, the NYSDEC had to identify, measure, and additionally process the fish to adhere with <a href=\"Bureau%20of%20Fisheries\">Bureau of Fisheries</a> procedures before disposal. The treatment plan was operated under several agents, and <a href=\"New%20York%20State%20Police\">New York State Police</a> were placed on stand-by in case of protests of local residents of the area.<a href=\"http%3A//www.dec.ny.gov/environmentdec/45498.html\"></a>\nA new concern is that this fish's spread is getting close to the <a href=\"Great%20Lakes\">Great Lakes</a>, which it may enter and disrupt that ecosystem.\nWhen the snakehead was found in Crofton, the <a href=\"piscicide\">piscicide</a> rotenone was added to the three adjacent ponds. This method of containment killed all fish present in the water body to prevent the spread of the highly invasive snakehead. The chemical breaks down rapidly, and has a half-life in water of one to three days.\nIn 2012, a snakehead was found in a pond in <a href=\"Burnaby\">Burnaby</a>, <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia</a>, but further study revealed that it had been released three months or less before its (re-)capture and it was a <a href=\"blotched%20snakehead\">blotched snakehead</a> or perhaps a hybrid involving that species. Unlike the northern snakehead which potentially can establish a population in parts of Canada, the blotched snakehead generally only lives in warmer waters. Before its exact identity was revealed, the province introduced legislation banning the possession of snakeheads and several other potentially invasive species.\nIn April 2013, sightings of the species in <a href=\"New%20York%20Central%20Park\">New York Central Park</a>'s <a href=\"Harlem%20Meer\">Harlem Meer</a> have prompted city officials to urge anglers to report and capture any individuals. <a href=\"Ron%20P.%20Swegman\">Ron P. Swegman</a>, author of several angling essays on Central Park's ponds, confirmed the species had put both anglers and the New York State DEP on high alert.\nAs of late 2013, authorities in <a href=\"Virginia\">Virginia</a> and <a href=\"Maryland\">Maryland</a> are counting snakeheads in the Chesapeake Bay to better understand the impact of the introduction of the fish to the local ecosystem. Virginia has criminalized the \"introduc[tion]\" of snakeheads into the state without specific authorization, although the relevant statute does not explain whether mere importation is sufficient to constitute \"introduc[tion] into the Commonwealth\" or whether instead release into the environment is required.\nOn May 20, 2014, Luis Aragon of <a href=\"Triangle%2C%20Virginia\">Triangle, Virginia</a>, caught a 8.05 kg northern snakehead which was officially listed as the biggest ever caught on rod and reel, according to the <a href=\"International%20Game%20Fish%20Association\">International Game Fish Association</a>. On May 20, 2016, Emory \"Dutch\" Baldwin of Indian Head, Maryland boated an 18.42 lb northern snakehead in tidal marshes of the <a href=\"Potomac%20River\">Potomac</a> using <a href=\"Bowfishing\">archery tackle</a>. This fish is listed as the state sport record in Maryland by the <a href=\"Maryland%20Department%20of%20Natural%20Resources\">Department of Natural Resources</a>.\nThey are respected among some Chinese fishermen for their virtue, as parent fishes are known to sacrifice themselves to protect their young. The young fish are said to rush to feed upon their mother after their mother gives birth and is temporarily unable to catch prey.","Moses D. Stivers\nMoses Dunning Stivers (December 30, 1828 – February 2, 1895) was a <a href=\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\">U.S. Representative</a> from <a href=\"New%20York%20%28state%29\">New York</a>.\nBorn in Beemerville, <a href=\"Wantage%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Wantage Township, New Jersey</a>, Stivers attended common and private schools and Mount Retirement Seminary in Wantage.\nHe moved with his father to <a href=\"Ridgebury%2C%20New%20York\">Ridgebury, New York</a>, in 1845 and completed his education.\nHe taught school.\nHe engaged in mercantile pursuits in Ridgebury and later in <a href=\"Middletown%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Middletown</a> from 1855 to 1864.\nHe served as clerk of Orange County 1864-1867 and resided in <a href=\"Goshen%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\">Goshen, New York</a>.\nHe returned to Middletown and became proprietor of the Orange County Press in 1868 and was also one of the proprietors and editors of the Middletown Daily Press.\nHe was appointed by <a href=\"Ulysses%20S.%20Grant\">President Grant</a> as United States collector of internal revenue for the eleventh district of New York in 1869 and served until 1883.\nHe served as delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1880.\nHe engaged in banking.\nHe was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for election in 1884 to the <a href=\"49th%20United%20States%20Congress\">Forty-ninth</a> Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Lewis Beach and for election in 1886 to the <a href=\"50th%20United%20States%20Congress\">Fiftieth</a> Congress.\nStivers was elected as a <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican</a> to the <a href=\"51st%20United%20States%20Congress\">Fifty-first</a> Congress (March 4, 1889 – March 3, 1891).\nHe was not a candidate for renomination in 1890.\nHe engaged in banking.\nHe died in <a href=\"Middletown%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Middletown, New York</a>, February 2, 1895.\nHe was interred in <a href=\"Hillside%20Cemetery%20%28Middletown%2C%20New%20York%29\">Hillside Cemetery</a>.\nState Senator <a href=\"John%20D.%20Stivers\">John D. Stivers</a> (1861–1935) was his son.\n This article incorporates <a href=\"Copyright%20status%20of%20work%20by%20the%20U.S.%20government\">public domain material</a> from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website <a href=\"http%3A//bioguide.congress.gov\">http://bioguide.congress.gov</a>.","Orange County, New York\nOrange County is a <a href=\"County%20%28United%20States%29\">county</a> located in the <a href=\"U.S.%20state\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\"New%20York%20%28state%29\">New York</a>. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>, the population was 372,813. The <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> is <a href=\"Goshen%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\">Goshen</a>. This county was first created in 1683 and reorganized with its present boundaries in 1798.\nOrange County is included in the <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a>-<a href=\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Newark</a>-<a href=\"Jersey%20City%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Jersey City</a>, NY-<a href=\"New%20Jersey\">NJ</a>-<a href=\"Pennsylvania\">PA</a> <a href=\"New%20York%20metropolitan%20area\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a>. It is in the state's <a href=\"Mid-Hudson%20Region\">Mid-Hudson Region</a> of the <a href=\"Hudson%20Valley\">Hudson Valley</a>.\nThe <a href=\"County%20Executive\">County Executive</a> is <a href=\"Steve%20Neuhaus\">Steve Neuhaus</a>.\nAs of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a> the <a href=\"center%20of%20population\">centre of population</a> of New York state was located in Orange County, approximately three miles west of the hamlet of <a href=\"Westbrookville%2C%20New%20York\">Westbrookville</a>.\nOrange County was officially established on November 1, 1683, when the <a href=\"Province%20of%20New%20York\">Province of New York</a> was divided into twelve counties. Each of these was named to honor a member of the <a href=\"British%20royal%20family\">British royal family</a>, and Orange County took its name from the <a href=\"Prince%20of%20Orange\">Prince of Orange</a>, who subsequently became King <a href=\"William%20III%20of%20England\">William III of England</a>. As originally defined, Orange County included only the southern part of its present-day territory, plus all of present-day <a href=\"Rockland%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Rockland County</a> further south. The northern part of the present-day county, beyond <a href=\"Moodna%20Creek\">Moodna Creek</a>, was then a part of neighbouring <a href=\"Ulster%20County\">Ulster County</a>.\nAt that date, the only <a href=\"European%20American\">European</a> inhabitants of the area were a handful of <a href=\"Dutch%20Americans\">Dutch</a> colonists in present-day Rockland County, and the area of modern Orange County was entirely occupied by the native <a href=\"Munsee\">Munsee</a> people. Due to its relatively small population, the original Orange County was not fully independent and was administered by <a href=\"Manhattan\">New York County</a>.\nThe first European settlers in the area of the present-day county arrived in 1685. They were a party of around twenty-five families from <a href=\"Scotland\">Scotland</a>, led by David Toshach, the <a href=\"Laird\">Laird</a> of <a href=\"Monzievaird\">Monzievaird</a>, and his brother-in-law Major Patrick McGregor, a former officer of the <a href=\"French%20Army\">French Army</a>. They settled in the <a href=\"Hudson%20Highlands\">Hudson Highlands</a> at the place where the Moodna Creek enters the <a href=\"Hudson%20River\">Hudson River</a>, now known as <a href=\"New%20Windsor%2C%20New%20York\">New Windsor</a>. In 1709, a group of <a href=\"German%20Palatine\">German Palatine</a> refugees settled at <a href=\"Newburgh%2C%20New%20York\">Newburgh</a>. They were Protestants from a part of Germany along the Rhine that had suffered during the religious wars. Queen Anne's government arranged for passage from England of nearly 3,000 Palatines in ten ships. Many were settled along the Hudson River in work camps on property belonging to <a href=\"Robert%20Livingston%20the%20Elder\">Robert Livingston</a>. A group of Dutch and English settlers arrived at <a href=\"Goshen%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\">Goshen</a> in 1712. Additional immigrants came from Ireland; they were of Scots and English descent who had been settled as planters there.\nIn 1798, after the <a href=\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\">American Revolutionary War</a>, the boundaries of Orange County changed. Its southern corner was used to create the new Rockland County, and in exchange, an area to the north of the Moodna Creek was added, which had previously been in Ulster County. This caused a reorganization of the local administration, as the original county seat had been fixed at <a href=\"Orangetown%2C%20New%20York\">Orangetown</a> in 1703, but this was now in Rockland County. Duties were subsequently shared between Goshen, which had been the center of government for the northern part of Orange County, and Newburgh, which played a similar role in the area transferred from Ulster County. The county court was established in 1801. It was not until 1970 that Goshen was named as the sole county seat.\nDue to a boundary dispute between New York and New Jersey, the boundaries of many of the southern towns of the county were not definitively established until the 19th century.\nAccording to the <a href=\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 839 sqmi , of which 812 sqmi is land and 27 sqmi (3.2%) is water.\nOrange County is in southeastern New York State, directly north of the <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a>-New York border, west of the <a href=\"Hudson%20River\">Hudson River</a>, east of the <a href=\"Delaware%20River\">Delaware River</a> and northwest of <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. It borders the New York counties of <a href=\"Dutchess%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Dutchess</a>, <a href=\"Putnam%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Putnam</a>, <a href=\"Rockland%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Rockland</a>, <a href=\"Sullivan%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Sullivan</a>, <a href=\"Ulster%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Ulster</a>, and <a href=\"Westchester%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Westchester</a>, as well as <a href=\"Passaic%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Passaic</a> and <a href=\"Sussex%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Sussex</a> counties in New Jersey and <a href=\"Pike%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Pike County</a> in <a href=\"Pennsylvania\">Pennsylvania</a>.\nOrange County is the only county in New York State which borders both the <a href=\"Hudson%20River\">Hudson</a> and <a href=\"Delaware%20River\">Delaware River</a>s.\nOrange County is where the <a href=\"Great%20Appalachian%20Valley\">Great Valley</a> of the <a href=\"Appalachians\">Appalachians</a> finally opens up and ends. The western corner is set off by the <a href=\"Shawangunk%20Ridge\">Shawangunk Ridge</a>. The area along the Rockland County border (within <a href=\"Harriman%20State%20Park%20%28New%20York%29\">Harriman</a> and <a href=\"Bear%20Mountain%20State%20Park\">Bear Mountain</a> <a href=\"state%20park\">state park</a>s) and south of Newburgh is part of the <a href=\"Hudson%20Highlands\">Hudson Highlands</a>. The land in between is the valley of the <a href=\"Wallkill%20River\">Wallkill River</a>. In the southern portion of the county the Wallkill valley expands into a wide glacial lake bed known as the <a href=\"Black%20Dirt%20Region\">Black Dirt Region</a> for its fertility.\nThe highest point is <a href=\"Schunemunk%20Mountain\">Schunemunk Mountain</a>, at 1664 ft above sea level. The lowest is sea level along the Hudson.\nAs of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were 372,813 people residing in the county. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 444 people per square mile (171/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 77.2% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">White</a>, 10.2% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Black</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.5% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 2.4% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, and 3.1% from two or more races. 18% of the population were <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race. According to the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 United States Census</a>, 18.3% were of <a href=\"Italian%20people\">Italian</a>, 17.4% <a href=\"irish%20people\">Irish</a>, 10.2% <a href=\"German%20people\">German</a> and 5.0% <a href=\"Polish%20people\">Polish</a> ancestry. According to the 2009–13 <a href=\"American%20Community%20Survey\">American Community Survey</a>, 76.57% of people spoke only English at home, 13.39% spoke <a href=\"Spanish%20language\">Spanish</a>, 4.03% spoke <a href=\"Yiddish\">Yiddish</a> and 0.83% spoke <a href=\"Italian%20language\">Italian</a>.\nAs of the 2000 Census, there were 114,788 households out of which 39.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.90% were <a href=\"marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 11.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.40% were non-families. 21.50% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.35.\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 29.00% under the age of 18, 8.70% from 18 to 24, 30.00% from 25 to 44, 21.90% from 45 to 64, and 10.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 100.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.50 males.\nThe median income for a household in the county was $52,058, and the median income for a family was $60,355. Males had a median income of $42,363 versus $30,821 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the county was $21,597. About 7.60% of families and 10.50% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 14.80% of those under age 18 and 8.00% of those age 65 or over.\nDespite its rural roots, Orange County has been among the fastest-growing regions within the <a href=\"New%20York%20City%20Metropolitan%20Area\">New York City Metropolitan Area</a>.\nOriginally, like most New York counties, Orange County was governed by a Board of Supervisors. Its board consisted of the 20 town supervisors, nine city supervisors elected from the nine wards of the City of Newburgh, and four each elected from the wards of the cities of Middletown and Port Jervis. In 1968, the board adopted a county charter and a reapportionment plan that created the county legislature and executive. The first county executive and legislature were elected in November, 1969 and took office on January 1, 1970. Today, Orange County is still governed by the same charter; residents elect the county executive and a 21-member county legislature elected from 21 <a href=\"single-member%20district\">single-member district</a>s. There are also several state constitutional positions that are elected, including a sheriff, county clerk and district attorney. Prior to 1 January 2008 four <a href=\"coroner\">coroner</a>s were also elected; however, on that date, the county switched to a <a href=\"medical%20examiner\">medical examiner</a> system.\nThe current County Officers are:\nThe County Legislature and its previous board of supervisors were long dominated by the Republican Party. However, since the late 20th century, the Democrats have closed the gap. During 2008 and 2009 the legislature was evenly split between 10 Republicans, 10 Democrats and 1 Independence Party member. In 2009, the legislature had its first Democratic chairman elected when one member of the Republican caucus voted alongside the 10 Democratic members to elect <a href=\"Roxanne%20Donnery\">Roxanne Donnery</a> (D)-Highlands/Woodbury to the post. At the November 2009 election, several Democratic incumbents were defeated. As of the convening of the legislature on January 1, 2012, there are 12 Republicans, 8 Democrats and 1 Independence member.\nIn 1970, the county switched from government by a Board of Supervisors, consisting of the elected heads of town governments, to having a 21-member elected county legislature and executive. The <a href=\"sheriffs%20in%20the%20United%20States\">sheriff</a>, <a href=\"district%20attorney\">district attorney</a> and county clerk have always been elected. All serve four-year terms, with elections in the year following presidential election years, save the sheriff, whose election is the following year.\nThe current county executive is Steven Neuhaus, former town supervisor for Chester. Frank Phillips, <a href=\"Ann%20Rabbitt\">Annie Rabbitt</a> and Carl DuBois are the incumbent district attorney, clerk and sheriff respectively. All are <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republicans</a>, and as of 2012 the legislature has a 13–8 Republican majority.\nOnly one <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrat</a>, Mary McPhillips, has served as county executive. She failed to win re-election after a single term in the early 1990s. For several years in the late 2000s, one Republican legislator's decision to become an <a href=\"Independent%20%28politician%29\">independent</a> and caucus with the Democrats led to a 10-10-1 effective Democratic majority, with <a href=\"Roxanne%20Donnery\">Roxanne Donnery</a> as chair. The Republicans regained their majority in the 2009 elections.\nThe county is served by <a href=\"Stewart%20International%20Airport\">Stewart International Airport</a>, located two miles west of <a href=\"Newburgh%2C%20New%20York\">Newburgh, New York</a>. The airport serves <a href=\"Delta%20Air%20Lines\">Delta Air Lines</a>, <a href=\"JetBlue%20Airways\">JetBlue Airways</a>, <a href=\"American%20Airlines\">American Airlines</a>, and <a href=\"Allegiant%20Air\">Allegiant Air</a>. <a href=\"AirTran%20Airways\">AirTran Airways</a> stopped providing service to the airport in late 2008.\nGround transportation within Orange County is provided primarily by <a href=\"Leprechaun%20Lines\">Leprechaun Lines</a>, <a href=\"Monsey%20Trails\">Monsey Trails</a>, <a href=\"NJ%20Transit\">NJ Transit</a>, <a href=\"Short%20Line%20%28bus%20company%29\">Short Line Bus</a>, and <a href=\"Metro-North%20Railroad\">Metro-North Railroad</a>'s <a href=\"Port%20Jervis%20Line\">Port Jervis Line</a>, as well as amenities such as senior citizen busing and car services, which usually restrict themselves to their respective town or city.\n<a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a> won 54% of the Orange County vote in <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%202004\">2004</a> reflecting a solid <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican</a> edge in county politics. However, <a href=\"Barack%20Obama\">Barack Obama</a> carried the county by a 51% margin <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%202008\">four years later</a>. It was the first time a Democrat had carried Orange County when first elected to the presidency. That year the number of <a href=\"voter%20registration\">registered</a> Democrats in the county exceeded Republicans for the first time.\nThe two presidential election results give the county a <a href=\"Cook%20Partisan%20Voting%20Index\">Cook PVI</a> of R+2, consistent with county voters' willingness to sometimes elect Democrats, such as U.S. Rep. <a href=\"John%20Hall%20%28U.S.%20politician%29\">John Hall</a>. From 2007 on, when Hall represented the <a href=\"New%20York%27s%2019th%20congressional%20district\">19th district</a>, which covered most of the county, Orange's representation in Congress was exclusively Democratic, as <a href=\"Maurice%20Hinchey\">Maurice Hinchey</a> had represented the towns of Crawford, Montgomery and Newburgh and the city of Newburgh, all of which were in what was then the <a href=\"New%20York%27s%2022nd%20congressional%20district\">22nd district</a>, since 1988.\nIn the <a href=\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives%20elections%2C%202010\">2010 midterms</a>, Hall was defeated by <a href=\"Nan%20Hayworth\">Nan Hayworth</a>. In 2012, after Hinchey's former 22nd district was eliminated in redistricting following his retirement and all of Orange County was included in the current <a href=\"New%20York%27s%2018th%20congressional%20district\">18th district</a>, Hayworth was defeated by Democrat <a href=\"Sean%20Patrick%20Maloney\">Sean Patrick Maloney</a>, a former adviser to President <a href=\"Bill%20Clinton\">Bill Clinton</a> and the first openly gay person to be elected to Congress from New York. Maloney won a rematch against Hayworth in 2014; in 2016 he was again re-elected over Phil Oliva.\nAt the state level, Republicans have continued to hold onto Senate seats while Democrats have made inroads in recent years on the Assembly side. Two <a href=\"New%20York%20State%20Senate\">State Senate</a> districts—the 39th, held by <a href=\"Bill%20Larkin\">Bill Larkin</a> and 42nd, held by <a href=\"John%20Bonacic\">John Bonacic</a>—cover the county.\nDemocrats have made significant gains in the county's State Assembly seats. The 98th district, which includes the far western part of the county as well as the Town of Warwick, is represented by <a href=\"Annie%20Rabbitt\">Annie Rabbitt</a>, and the 101st district, which includes the Towns of Crawford and Montgomery, was until 2016 held by <a href=\"Claudia%20Tenney\">Claudia Tenney</a>, both Republicans. After Tenney left her seat to run for Congress that year, <a href=\"Brian%20D.%20Miller\">Brian D. Miller</a>, another Republican, was elected to replace her. The remainder of the county's Assembly districts are represented by Democrats: <a href=\"James%20Skoufis\">James Skoufis</a> in the 99th district, <a href=\"Aileen%20Gunther\">Aileen Gunther</a> in the 100th district, and <a href=\"Frank%20Skartados\">Frank Skartados</a> in the 104th district. Skoufis is the youngest New York State legislator currently serving.\n<a href=\"Delano-Hitch%20Stadium\">Delano-Hitch Stadium</a> in Newburgh has played host to various professional and amateur baseball teams from various leagues since opening in 1926. The stadium is currently home to the <a href=\"North%20Country%20Baseball%20League\">Newburgh Newts</a>.\nHigh schools in Orange County compete in Section 9 of the <a href=\"New%20York%20State%20Public%20High%20School%20Athletic%20Association\">New York State Public High School Athletic Association</a> along with schools from <a href=\"Dutchess%20County%2C%20NY\">Dutchess</a>, <a href=\"Ulster%20County%2C%20NY\">Ulster</a>, and <a href=\"Sullivan%20County%2C%20NY\">Sullivan</a> counties.\nThe <a href=\"Army%20Black%20Knights\">Army Black Knights</a> of the <a href=\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\">United States Military Academy</a> in <a href=\"West%20Point\">West Point</a> field <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I\">NCAA Division I</a> teams in 24 different sports. The <a href=\"Orange%20County%20Community%20College\">Orange County Community College Colts</a> compete in the <a href=\"National%20Junior%20College%20Athletic%20Association\">National Junior College Athletic Association</a>. <a href=\"Mount%20Saint%20Mary%20College\">Mount Saint Mary College</a> in Newburgh fields 15 teams in the <a href=\"Eastern%20College%20Athletic%20Conference\">Eastern College Athletic Conference</a> and the <a href=\"Skyline%20Conference\">Skyline Conference</a> of <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20III\">NCAA Division III</a>.\nThe Orange County Youth Football League (O.C.Y.F.L.) is a <a href=\"non-profit%20organization\">non-profit organization</a> that allows youth age 6 through 14 to play competitive <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a>. The League encompasses 15 towns with over 100 teams in Orange County and surrounding areas including Chester, Cornwall, Goshen, Highland Falls, Marlboro, Middletown, Minisink Valley, Monticello, Newburgh, New Windsor, Pine Bush, Port Jervis, Valley Central, Wallkill, Warwick and Washingtonville. It is composed of 4 Divisions, divided by weight restrictions, and a \"Mighty Mite\" <a href=\"Flag%20Football\">Flag Football</a> division for 6 & 7 year olds. In each division, there is additionally a complete <a href=\"cheerleading\">cheerleading</a> program for each team. There is a comprehensive annual schedule of play within each division for all teams, culminating in a divisional Championship game, often played in <a href=\"Michie%20Stadium\">Michie Stadium</a> or Shea Stadium at the historic <a href=\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\">United States Military Academy</a> at <a href=\"West%20Point%2C%20New%20York\">West Point, New York</a>.\nPoints of interest in Orange County include the <a href=\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\">United States Military Academy</a> at <a href=\"West%20Point%2C%20New%20York\">West Point</a>; <a href=\"Brotherhood%20Winery\">Brotherhood Winery</a>, America's oldest winery, in <a href=\"Washingtonville%2C%20New%20York\">Washingtonville</a>; the birthplace of <a href=\"William%20H.%20Seward\">William H. Seward</a> in <a href=\"Florida%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Florida</a>; the home and birthplace of <a href=\"Velveeta\">Velveeta</a> and Liederkranz Cheese in <a href=\"Monroe%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\">Monroe</a>; the <a href=\"Harness%20Racing%20Museum%20%26amp%3B%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame</a> in Goshen; the \"<a href=\"Times%20Herald-Record\">Times Herald-Record</a>\" newspaper, the first <a href=\"cold%20press%20offset\">cold press offset</a> daily in the country, in <a href=\"Middletown%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Middletown</a>; the <a href=\"Galleria%20at%20Crystal%20Run\">Galleria at Crystal Run</a>, in <a href=\"Wallkill%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Wallkill</a>; the <a href=\"Woodbury%20Common%20Premium%20Outlets\">Woodbury Common Premium Outlets</a> in <a href=\"Monroe%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\">Monroe</a>; and the <a href=\"Orange%20County%20Fair%20%28New%20York%29\">Orange County Fair</a> in <a href=\"Wallkill%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Wallkill</a>. The only state parks include Goosepond Mountain State Park, <a href=\"Harriman%20State%20Park%20%28New%20York%29\">Harriman State Park</a> and <a href=\"Sterling%20Forest%20State%20Park\">Sterling Forest State Park</a>. It is also the location of <a href=\"Orange%20County%20Choppers\">Orange County Choppers</a>, the custom motorcycle shop featured on <a href=\"The%20Discovery%20Channel\">The Discovery Channel</a> television series \"<a href=\"American%20Chopper\">American Chopper</a>\".\n","A50 road\nThe A50 is a major <a href=\"trunk%20road\">trunk road</a> in <a href=\"England\">England</a> between <a href=\"Warrington\">Warrington</a> and <a href=\"Leicester\">Leicester</a>; historically it was also a major route from London to Leicester.\nThe current A50 runs south-east from <a href=\"Warrington\">Warrington</a> via Junction 20 of the <a href=\"M6%20motorway\">M6</a>, <a href=\"Knutsford\">Knutsford</a>, <a href=\"Holmes%20Chapel\">Holmes Chapel</a>, <a href=\"Kidsgrove\">Kidsgrove</a> and <a href=\"Stoke-on-Trent\">Stoke on Trent</a> to Junction 24 of the <a href=\"M1%20motorway\">M1</a> near <a href=\"Kegworth\">Kegworth</a>, via <a href=\"Derby\">Derby</a>'s southern <a href=\"Bypass%20route\">bypass</a>. From there it is concurrent with the M1 until Junction 22, where it runs into the City of <a href=\"Leicester\">Leicester</a>.\nThe section from junctions 24a (in <a href=\"Lockington%20cum%20Hemington\">Lockington cum Hemington</a>) and 24 (in <a href=\"Kegworth\">Kegworth</a>) of the M1 is the former A6, and has not been widened. It has only three lanes westbound from junction 24a.\nThe Stoke and Derby section was originally intended to be part of an <a href=\"M64%20motorway\">M64 motorway</a>.\nIn November 2013 it was reported that funding would be being made available for improvements to the section around <a href=\"Uttoxeter\">Uttoxeter</a>, with work starting no later than 2015/16. A few days earlier the MP was lobbying for the improvements, stating that improvements were needed to the traffic islands for safety reasons and to improve traffic flow. There are plans for 700 new houses to the west of Uttoxeter and to the south of the A50.\nPrior to the opening of the M1, the A50 route was one of two main routes from London to the North West via Leicester, until it was replaced by what has become the <a href=\"A6%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">A6</a> during the 19th century. A third route between London and Leicester was via the <a href=\"A5%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">A5</a> to <a href=\"Old%20Stratford\">Old Stratford</a>, <a href=\"A508%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">A508</a> to <a href=\"Market%20Harborough\">Market Harborough</a> and thence the <a href=\"A6%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">A6</a>. That route and the A50 route both passed through <a href=\"Northampton\">Northampton</a> which was a significant calling point on many coaching routes until the arrival of the <a href=\"railways\">railway</a>.\nUntil the M1 opened, the A50 used to terminate at <a href=\"Hockliffe\">Hockliffe</a> in <a href=\"Bedfordshire\">Bedfordshire</a> at a junction with the <a href=\"A5%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">A5</a>.\nWhen the <a href=\"M1%20motorway\">M1 motorway</a> opened alongside the old route south of Northampton it was down-classified as:\nFrom that point until the 1990s the southern point of the A50 was at a junction with the A508 in <a href=\"Kingsthorpe\">Kingsthorpe</a>, Northampton.\nIn the 1990s, with the opening of the A14 and to discourage traffic from using the road between Leicester and Northampton, the old route was re-designated as <a href=\"A5199%20road\">A5199</a> between Leicester and <a href=\"Northampton\">Northampton</a>.\nAt the same time the A50 became the <a href=\"A511%20road\">A511</a> north of Leicester, between <a href=\"Burton%20upon%20Trent\">Burton upon Trent</a> and <a href=\"Ashby-de-la-Zouch\">Ashby-de-la-Zouch</a> to Leicester when the dual carriageway section bypassing Derby was completed.\nPart of the route mirrored the plans for the original <a href=\"M64%20motorway\">M64 motorway</a>, with three lanes in some sections - notably between <a href=\"Kegworth\">Kegworth</a> and the <a href=\"A6%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">A6</a> near Derby.\nThe new A50 route was opened in stages between 1984 and 1999, with using various temporary designations:\nOn completion, the Southern Derby Bypass was re-designated as the A50, being maintained privately by Connect A50 Ltd. Much of this new section of road is made of <a href=\"concrete\">concrete</a>.\n","Uttoxeter railway station\nUttoxeter railway station serves the town of <a href=\"Uttoxeter\">Uttoxeter</a> in <a href=\"Staffordshire\">Staffordshire</a>, England. It is served by trains on the <a href=\"Crewe-Derby%20Line\">Crewe-Derby Line</a> which is also a <a href=\"Community%20rail\">Community rail line</a> known as the North Staffordshire line. The station is owned by <a href=\"Network%20Rail\">Network Rail</a> and managed by <a href=\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\">East Midlands Trains</a>.\nThe full range of tickets for travel are purchased from the <a href=\"Conductor%20%28transportation%29\">guard</a> on the train at no extra cost, but there are no retail facilities at this station. Despite it being the closest railway station to <a href=\"Alton%20Towers\">Alton Towers</a>, it is not within walking distance of the station but there is a semi-regular bus link to it.\nThe present station was built by the <a href=\"North%20Staffordshire%20Railway\">North Staffordshire Railway</a> (NSR) to serve its main line from <a href=\"Stoke-on-Trent%20railway%20station\">Stoke-on-Trent</a> to <a href=\"Derby%20railway%20station\">Derby</a> . Prior to 1881, three different stations had been in use simultaneously, all being built by the NSR.\nThe section from Stoke-on-Trent to Uttoxeter was opened on 7 August 1848. The first station opened in the town was \"Uttoxeter Bridge Street\" station, which opened the same day as the line opened from Stoke. However the station buildings were not complete and temporarily the crossing keeper's hut nearby was used. The following month on 11 September 1848 the line was completed through to Burton and through running between Stoke and Derby began. When the <a href=\"Churnet%20Valley%20Line\">Churnet Valley Line</a> was opened on 13 July 1849, \"Uttoxeter Junction\" station was opened on the mainline to serve as an interchange with the Churnet Valley line and on the same date, \"Uttoxeter Dove Bank\" station was also opened on the Churnet Valley line.\nUttoxeter then had three stations in total. In 1880, the NSR decided to close all three and construct a north to west line forming a triangular junction. A new Uttoxeter station replaced all three at this new junction and opened on 10 October 1881. There is a model of the 1881 station at the Uttoxeter Heritage Centre.\nThe <a href=\"Stafford%20and%20Uttoxeter%20Railway\">Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway</a> which opened in 1867 also used the station but this line was operated by the <a href=\"Great%20Northern%20Railway%20%28Great%20Britain%29\">Great Northern Railway</a>.\nOn 1 January 1923, under the <a href=\"Railways%20Act%201921\">Railways Act 1921</a>, the North Staffordshire Railway was absorbed by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS). During this period of time the <a href=\"Stafford%20and%20Uttoxeter%20Railway\">Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway</a>, which had become part of the London and North Eastern Railway, closed to passengers on 4 December 1939, but the line remained open for good traffic until 5 March 1951.\nThe LMS was nationalised in 1948 and became part of <a href=\"British%20Rail\">British Rail</a>.\nThe last mainline steam train used the station on 16 September 1957 and thereafter an hourly <a href=\"List%20of%20British%20Rail%20diesel%20multiple%20unit%20classes\">DMU</a> service operated which has been used ever since.\nPassenger services on the Churnet Valley line from Uttoxeter towards <a href=\"Leek%20railway%20station\">Leek</a> and <a href=\"Macclesfield%20railway%20station\">Macclesfield</a> ceased operation 2 January 1965, and the trains towards <a href=\"Ashbourne%20railway%20station\">Ashbourne</a> and <a href=\"Buxton%20railway%20station\">Buxton</a> ceased on 1 November 1954. The last mainline steam train ran on 16 September 1957. The engine sheds closed on 7 December 1964. A siding which was part of the old Churnet valley line remained until the 1980s.\nThe station buildings were destroyed by fire on 9 May 1987 and the station is now unstaffed.\nOn 2 March 1997, the station became part of the <a href=\"Central%20Trains\">Central Trains</a> franchise. Trains would run from the station from <a href=\"Manchester%20Airport%20railway%20station\">Manchester Airport</a> to <a href=\"Skegness%20railway%20station\">Skegness</a>. In 2004, the Manchester Airport train was cut back to <a href=\"Crewe%20railway%20station\">Crewe</a> and, in September 2005, the Skegness train was cut short to <a href=\"Derby%20railway%20station\">Derby</a>.\nThe Central Trains franchise expired on 11 November 2007 and the station and its services were taken over by <a href=\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\">East Midlands Trains</a>.\nThe station is around 5 minutes walk from the town centre. It has two platforms (connected by a foot bridge), and a car park. Since 2002, there have been proposals to build a ticket office, but that is unlikely in the short term. There are bus shelters on both platforms and a real bus stop just outside the station on Station Road. New LED information boards on both platforms were introduced in 2007, replacing a single television screen at the station entrance. The station was unstaffed between 1988 and 2012, when it became staffed for the first time in 24 years for the purpose of helping people across the level crossing to platform 2.\nIn 2013 a footbridge with disabled access opened at the station, so the level crossing is no longer used to cross the line. There is also now direct access to <a href=\"Uttoxeter%20Racecourse\">Uttoxeter Racecourse</a>, which is adjacent to the station, and a car park for the Racecourse on the north side of the line.\nUttoxeter is also the railway station for <a href=\"Alton%20Towers\">Alton Towers</a> <a href=\"theme%20park\">theme park</a>, for which there is a semi-regular <a href=\"bus\">bus</a> link.\nUttoxeter is served by one train per hour in each direction usually operated by a class <a href=\"British%20Rail%20Class%20153\">153</a>, <a href=\"British%20Rail%20Class%20156\">156</a> or a <a href=\"British%20Rail%20Class%20158\">158</a>.\nDuring the Midlands Grand National extra trains are provided by <a href=\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\">East Midlands Trains</a> to cope with the capacity.\nThe station also has a bus stop and is served by routes Swift (from and to Derby) and the 402 to and from Burton."],"string":"[\n \"Ridgebury, New York\\nRidgebury, New York is one of the eight Hamlets in the town of Wawayanda, New York. The hamlet and its township are located in Orange County, New York, approximately 65 miles north of New York City.\\nFor a time, Ridgebury was also home to Moses D. Stivers (December 30, 1828 - February 2, 1895), a former U.S. Representative from New York, who moved in 1845 and completed his education there.\\nIn the spring of 2008, the area's natural bodies of water, including Catlin Creek and Ridgebury Lake, were infested with groups of Northern snakehead, a highly predatory fish that has recently been found unintentionally spreading around the United States. In Ridgebury, the snakeheads have been removed with poisoning by the DEC, and all water has been restocked with native species.\\n\",\n \"Stramshall\\nStramshall is a village within the civil parish of Uttoxeter Rural in the county of Staffordshire, England. The village is 2.1 miles north of the town of Uttoxeter, 16.3 miles north east of Stafford and 143 miles north west of London. The village lies 0.8 miles north of the A50 that links Warrington to Leicester. The nearest railway station is at Uttoxeter for the Crewe to Derby line. The nearest airport is East Midlands Airport.\\nStramshall has an entry in the Domesday Book of 1085. In the great book Stramshall is recorded by the name \\\"Stagrigesholle\\\". The manor was owned by the King. The main tenant was Alric who had owned the manor before the Norman Conquest.\\nStramshall falls within the civil parish known as Uttoxeter Rural. The council meets once a month and they hold their meetings in the village halls of both Stramshall and the nearby village of Bramshall which they use alternately each month. The village hall in Stramshall was built in 1979 and is located in Vicarage Drive.\\nThe parish church was built between 1850 and 1852 and was made a separate ecclesiastic parish in 1853.\\nStramshall Football Club is an amateur club based in the Staffordshire area. It was founded in 2005 to raise funds to refurbish the local playing field. Their kit consists of a yellow shirt with black sleeves, black Shorts and white socks. The team hold a Lads v Dads charity football game annually to help with this cause.\\n\",\n \"Mount Miller\\nMount Miller is an isolated peak of the Saint Elias Mountains in Alaska, United States. It is notable for its position among spectacular icefields, its distance from any inhabited place, and its large rise above local terrain. It is over 65 miles (110 km) from McCarthy, the nearest habitation, and over 105 miles (170 km) away from Yakutat, the nearest significant town. Exemplifying the size of the mountain, the south flank rises 9000 feet (2743 m) above the Duktoth River valley to the south in approximately 9 horizontal miles (14.5 km).\\nMount Miller is the high point of the east-west trending Barkley Ridge, located on the south side of the Bagley Icefield, one of the largest icefields in North America. The Bering Glacier flows from the Bagley Icefield at the western end of the ridge, while the southeast slopes of the ridge head the Yahtse Glacier. The only side of the ridge that is not completely glaciated is the south side, where the Robinson Mountains lie between Barkley Ridge and the Gulf of Alaska.\\nSince Mount Miller is so isolated, and is not of extraordinary absolute elevation by Alaskan standards, it was not climbed until very recently. The first ascent of the peak was made in 1996 by Charlie Sassara, Ruedi Homberger, Reto Ruesh, Paul Claus, and Carlos Buhler, via the West Ridge.\\n\",\n \"Los Barriles, Baja California Sur\\nLos Barriles (\\\"The Barrels\\\") is a town (population 1,174) in La Paz Municipality, Baja California Sur, Mexico. It is situated along Highway 1, 40 miles north of San José del Cabo and 65 miles south of La Paz. Punta Pescadero Airstrip is 9 miles to the north; Rancho Leonero, a vacation resort, is to the south. Adjacent to Buena Vista, the rural towns straddle the head of Bahía las Palmas on the Gulf of California, where winter westerlies average 20 - . Los Barriles is within the transition area of the Baja California peninsula's Sierra de la Laguna where the hills become sandy flats.\\nKnown for its flyfishing, Los Barriles is also Baja's kitesurfing and windsurfing capital. The town's port was closed on 2 September during the 2013 Pacific hurricane season's Tropical Storm Lorena. In 2006, the Shakespeare Theatre Association's annual conference was held in Los Barriles.\\n\",\n \"Timworth\\nTimworth is a village and civil parish 65 miles (104km) north east of London and 26 miles (42 km) east of Cambridge in the St Edmundsbury district of Suffolk, eastern England. Located around two miles north of Bury St Edmunds, its 2005 population was 50. At the 2011 Census the appropriate Postal Code (IP31 1HS) showed the population as being included in Ampton.\\nThe village name is Old English for ‘Enclosure of a man called *Tima’ and was mentioned in the Doomesday Book as \\\"Timeworda\\\".\\nIn the early industrial revolution the village was the setting for \\\"the great Gleaning Case.\\\"\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Tarhuna\\nTarhuna ( ; Arabic: ترهونة ), also Tarhoona or Tarhunah, is a Libyan town 65 km to the southeast of Tripoli, in the Murqub District. The city derives its name from that of its pre-Roman-era inhabitants, a Berber tribe. The city was known as al-Boirat during the 19th through mid 20th century, but assumed it current name after Libyan independence. The Tarhuna district, including the city of Msallata, had an urban population of about 296,000 (est. 2003) Geographical boundaries: from the \\\"Valley of the famm Molgha\\\" west - to \\\"Burkaat Oueny\\\" eastward. Then from the \\\"Suq al Juma (Al-msab`ha)\\\" north, \\\" Al-mzawgha and Marghna\\\" south, while population in Tarhuna proper was calculated to be 13,264 in 2011.\\nIn the city centre of Tarhuna, just opposite the Tarhuna mosque, there is a memorial to Ali Swidan Alhatmy, who was a hero in the 18 June 1915 Battle of El-Shqiga against the Italians. He was captured in 1922 and hanged by the Italians in the town square.\\nPopulation generally belongs to the Tarhuna tribe, which was favoured during the regime of Muammar Gaddafi. In late August 2011 (as part of the Libyan Civil War), opposition forces from the National Liberation Amy entered Tarhuna, amidst mixed feelings from the citizens. It is known that Khamis Gaddafi, son of Muammar Gaddafi, died in clashes near Tarhuna.\\nOn 23 August 2012 Interior ministry spokesman Abdelmonem al-Hur stated that more than a hundred tanks and twenty-six rocket launchers were seized from an alleged pro-Gaddafi militia (named \\\"Katibat Al-Awfiyah\\\", or Brigade of the Faithful), during a raid on their campsite in Tarhuna. The operation ended with one of the suspects killed, eight wounded and thirteen detainees, accused of being linked with the 19 August Tripoli bombings.\\nTarhuna is a leading producer of olive oil, cereals, figs, grapes, sparto grass, and various nuts.\\nThe Faculty of Law of Al Nasser University is located north of town.\\nFounded in Tarhunah many sports clubs: Al-Noor School club ( teachers club ) - Al-Amal Club was founded in 1960 - the hero of the Football League in the central region - currently playing in the third division Al-Shabeba Club Club Soqor Al-Sag`ya\\n\",\n \"Fripp Island, South Carolina\\nFripp Island is a 6.546 sq mi (16.954 km²) barrier island located along the Atlantic coast of the lowcountry part of South Carolina. It is approximately 21 miles from Beaufort, 96 miles south of Charleston, and 65 miles north of Savannah, Georgia. Some of the neighboring islands include Hunting Island, St. Helena Island, and Lady's Island. The island mostly serves as a residential vacation resort, but several hundred residents make it their permanent home. It is also the most seaward of the South Carolina Sea Islands. Fripp is renowned for its resort amenities and natural conservation.\\nAlthough it has had several names over its history, the island is presently named after Captain Johannes Fripp, a British sailor charged with protecting the Carolina colony from Spanish attacks. Local folklore history has long suspected Fripp to be the location where Edward Teach, the pirate known as Blackbeard, had stowed away some of his treasures. There may have been pirates who stopped at the island, but treasure was seldom brief by 18th-century sea rovers.\\nDue to its relatively remote location, the island was utilized primarily as a private hunting range for most of its history. In the mid-20th century, completion of bridges connecting Beaufort with nearby Hunting Island State Park, investors looked to develop a residential resort community on Fripp. Upon securing bonds and establishing a public service district, a bridge was built in 1961 that connected Fripp with Hunting Island, U.S. Highway 21, and nearby Beaufort and began to stimulate residential development. Within 10 years, developers had built the Ocean Point Golf Links, a Racquet Club for tennis, a marina and a variety of homes and condominium units that would serve as the benchmark for development for the next thirty years.\\nIn 1994, the island underwent its final major development phase on its southwestern end. Ocean Creek golf course designed by Davis Love III was built, as well as a new amenities center. Additional housing styles were offered and the marina was expanded. Though the island will not undergo any future expansion, nearly one-third of the lots on the island remain undeveloped.\\nThe need for a fire department was determined in 1962 by legislation establishing the Fripp Island Public Service District. Originally, the fire department and first fire truck was housed in a three-sided building. The fire department started as a volunteer effort and was later recognized by South Carolina as a volunteer organization. In 1982, a new fire station was built to park the two trucks owned by the department. Four years later the Public Service District hired its first professional Fire Chief to operate the department on a daily basis. The fire station that serves as the island's current station was built in 1999. A full-time paramedic was later hired by the county in 2001. The department is composed of 34 volunteers and 19 paid personnel. The department has owned two fire truck pumpers, a squad truck, a Quick Response Vehicle, and a 6-wheeled Beach Rescue ATV since 2006. The fire department's main services include Fire Suppression, Search and Rescue, Medical Emergency Response, Vehicle Extrication, Top Water Rescue, and Fire Prevention and Public Fire Education.\\nIn the early days of the island's population, all drinkable water had to be transported onto the island. St. Helena Island started to pump water into Fripp's central water tank by 1965. By 1980, all water was bought from the Beaufort-Jasper Water and Sewer Authority and pumps an average 172 million gallons a year into the island for use by the public.\\nThe main bridge leading to Fripp Island was completed in 1964. The legislation authorizing the 2,067 foot bridge called for a two dollar toll; it is now toll-free. The bridge is owned and managed by the Fripp Island Public Service District.\\nGeologically speaking, Fripp Island is considered to be a barrier island. The island is the most seaward of the Sea Islands and forms a \\\"de facto\\\" cape. Located halfway between Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia along the coast, it is locally positioned between Hunting Island State Park to the north and Pritchards Island to the southwest. A wide marsh and estuarine system separates these islands from the larger St. Helena's Island to the northwest. The upland acreage of the island is approximately 3000 acre . Fripp has approximately three miles of beachfront along the Atlantic, though some parts of beach are fully submerged at high tide.\\nFripp Island is located approximately 20 miles (30 km) from Beaufort and is connected with the city via U.S. 21. Savannah is approximately a 75-minute drive by car while Charleston is approximately 1 hour and 45 minutes away. Bermuda lies 900 miles (1,450 km) due east of Fripp.\\nAccording to the 2000 census, Fripp Island has a year-round primary population of 887 residents. The realistic figure is likely higher than reported because many homeowners consider Fripp Island property as second homes and may spend weeks or months on the island, but do not consider it their primary residence. In summer months the island's population can rise to about 5,000 due to an increase in visitors.\\nFripp Island is a private, gated community, run by the Fripp Island Property Owners Association (FIPOA) since the mid-1980s. It is not a municipality or a census designated place, though it maintains island operations via a public service district and property owners association. In addition to providing a security force and fire/rescue squad, the island also maintains its own bridges, roads, paths, parks, and beach access routes. Meetings and gatherings are typically held at the Fripp Island Community Centre. An all-faiths chapel is also located on the island.\\nAlthough cars and trucks are allowed on roads and streets, golf carts are the prevailing method of transportation on the island. Bicycles are also popular and are used among residents and visitors alike and several streets offer parallel bike trails to separate bicyclists from motor vehicles.\\nAll amenities are owned and operated by Fripp Resorts. These include all restaurants, golf courses, tennis courts, pools and stores. The initiation fee is $20,000. There are three levels of membership with an annual fee depending on the membership level.\\nMost of the island's trees are loblolly pine, though there are some hardwood live oak and magnolia stands located throughout the island. Spanish moss is a prevalent feature as well.\\nPrior to human development, the island was fertile ground for several wild animals, including wild hogs. Development though has been carefully undertaken to preserve much of the wildlife habitat that existed beforehand. It is common to see deer in any area across the island, and population control of deer has been a major concern for the island. There are several small mammals that inhabit Fripp, including squirrels, raccoons, opossums, bats, and armadillos. Most interior lagoons contain an alligator population.\\nFripp and its surrounding areas are home to dozens of species of birds. Among the most striking include populations of egrets, herons, osprey, and pelicans, though seagulls are the most common. Island residents established an Audubon Club in 1978 and the entire island is an Audubon-designated bird preserve.\\nThe island is a major loggerhead turtle hatchery and an active group of residents works to make the beaches safe for the laying turtles by observing outside lighting precautions during nesting seasons and protecting nests from predation by humans, raccoons and other animals.\\nNumerous fish and crustacean species can be found in the waterways and estuaries that surround the island, and the island remains a popular destination for fishing and crabbing. Fiddler crab is the most common of crab species, while blue crab is the most common species caught.\\n\",\n \"Peggy Hettrick murder case\\nThe Peggy Hettrick murder case concerns the unsolved 1987 death of Peggy Hettrick in Fort Collins, Colorado. Timothy Lee \\\"Tim\\\" Masters enlisted in the Navy following a high school career plagued by police accusation of murder when he was a sophomore at Fort Collins High School. After eight years in the Navy, he was honorably discharged. Masters worked for Learjet as an aviation mechanic until 1997, when he was arrested for the murder of Peggy Hettrick. He was charged and convicted of the Hettrick murder in 1999 and sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. His sentence was vacated in January 2008 when DNA evidence from the original crime scene indicated that he was not the responsible party. Three years after his release from prison, Masters was exonerated by the Colorado Attorney General on June 28, 2011. To date, no one else has been charged with Hettrick's murder.\\nOn the morning of February 11, 1987, a bicyclist investigated what he thought was a mannequin and discovered the dead body of 37-year-old Peggy Hettrick in a field in southern Fort Collins. According to the coroner, she died from a single stab wound in the upper left back, likely very early in the morning. Her body had been \\\"sexually mutilated,\\\" with the precise removal of her left nipple and areola, as well as a female \\\"circumcision\\\", including what one doctor described as a partial vulvectomy; a procedure that requires high skill and quality surgical equipment to perform.\\nBefore the bicyclist found the body, 15-year-old Timothy Masters saw it while walking to school at daybreak. Thinking it was a mannequin left as a prank, Masters did not report the body to the police. After Masters' father Clyde Masters told canvassing police that he'd seen his son deviate from his usual path across the field to the bus that morning, police pulled \\\"Toothpick\\\" Masters, then a five-foot-ten, 120-pound high school sophomore, out of class for questioning.\\nEarly in the investigation, lead investigator Fort Collins detective Jim Broderick centered on Masters as the primary suspect due to his failure to report the body found on his way to school. However, no physical evidence linking Masters to the crime was found.\\nOn February 12, investigators searched his home, including the sinks for blood, and his school locker. They found 2,200 pages of writings and violent artwork by Masters in his bedroom, backpack and school locker, along with a knife collection and pornography. The local newspaper with the account of the body's discovery was found on his dresser next to his knife collection. However, no trace of Hettrick's blood or hair was found in Masters' room or among his belongings, including his clothes and knife collection.\\nDespite hours of police questioning without an adult present, wherein policemen repeatedly told Masters they knew he'd committed the murder, the 15-year-old Masters maintained his innocence. The adolescent was administered a lie detector test after police interrogation; the results were inconclusive.\\nOver 1,000 pages of Masters' violent artwork were admitted into evidence.\\nTwo hairs were found on Hettrick, but they did not match Masters. Investigators also found unknown fingerprints in Hettrick's purse, but these did not match Masters either. With no new leads, on February 12, 1988, investigators planted an article containing false information in the local newspaper, in an attempt to provoke an incriminating reaction from Masters based upon consultation with the FBI Behavioral Science Unit. Around-the-clock police surveillance of Masters saw no reaction. Masters maintained his innocence during periodic police interviews during his high school and Navy years.\\nIn 1992, during an interview with a former fellow high school student, investigators discovered that Masters told his friends details about the sexual mutilations. The investigators thought this information had never been made public or disclosed to Masters or his defense attorneys; they thought that only the killer would know those details. Investigators interviewed Masters again in Philadelphia, where he was serving in the Navy. He told investigators that a friend in his art class told him about the mutilations. The friend had been part of a group of Explorer Scouts helping the police search the crime scene, and he was told of the nature of the mutilations early in the investigation. His story checked out. The investigation reached a dead end until 1997.\\nIn 1997, Broderick contacted Dr. J. Reid Meloy, a forensic psychologist from California. Meloy analyzed Masters' writings and artwork extensively and concluded, without having ever spoken with Masters—he could not since Masters was protected by his Fifth Amendment right--, that some of the drawings represented Masters reliving the crime.\\nIn 1999, based on the testimony of Dr. Meloy and others, and Master's own drawings, including one that Meloy interpreted as a knife cutting into a vagina and another drawing of a body being dragged, Masters was convicted and sentenced to life in prison for the murder. Though some jurors had doubts about his guilt, his drawings and writings were cited by jury members as compelling evidence against him.\\nSoon after his conviction, Masters appealed to the Colorado Court of Appeals on the grounds that his drawings were inadmissible under rules of the court, as was testimony concerning a confrontation between Masters and a teacher before the murder occurred. Masters' defense team also objected to the testimony by Dr. Meloy. The Colorado Court of Appeals unanimously upheld his conviction on February 15, 2001.\\nIn 2002, the Colorado Supreme Court granted certiorari to determine whether evidence eliciting Masters' violent nature, which was fundamental to the prosecution in securing a conviction, was improperly admitted. Finding that some evidence should have, in fact, been suppressed, the Court, nevertheless, determining the error to be harmless, affirmed the lower court's finding. On December 16, 2002 the Colorado Supreme Court denied a petition for rehearing in the case, effectively ending his first appeal.\\nIn 2004 Masters mounted another appeal on the grounds of ineffective counsel. The state appointed a new defense team who immediately began investigating the case. The defense team discovered that evidence, including the hairs found on Hettrick and photographs of the fingerprints found in her purse, was missing. During 2007 hearings, the defense alleged police and prosecutorial misconduct in the investigation and trial. The defense argued that Jim Broderick perjured himself during the 1999 trial concerning his involvement in the case, and that prosecutors allegedly withheld evidence about links to Dr. Richard Hammond, a potential suspect in the murder.\\nIn early 2008, special prosecutors assigned to the case agreed that critical information was not turned over to the original defense team. On January 18, 2008, defense attorneys released evidence that further suggested Masters' innocence. Defense attorneys had touch DNA testing done in the Netherlands on evidence found at the scene, but tested samples did not include Masters' DNA. Rather, the DNA results pointed to Hettrick's sometime boyfriend. Special prosecutors assigned to the appeal recommended overturning Masters' sentence as a result of the DNA findings. The DNA results were confirmed by the Colorado Bureau of Investigation.\\nOn January 22, 2008 a Colorado judge vacated Masters' conviction and ordered him released immediately. On February 5, 2008 District Attorney Larry Abrahamson and the Eight Judicial Circuit held proceedings to decide whether to retry Masters or to drop all charges against him. Prosecutors filed a motion to dismiss murder charges against Masters on January 26, 2008, though at the time the Larimer County District Attorney stated that Masters has not been exonerated for the crime.\\nIn an announcement on June 28, 2011, Colorado Attorney General John Suthers said Masters is no longer a suspect in the 1987 murder of Peggy Hettrick of Fort Collins and has been exonerated. Suthers stated, \\\"\\\"Pursuant to the mandate from the Governor's Office, our team undertook a comprehensive review of the entire Hettrick homicide\\\"\\\", Suthers said in a statement. \\\"\\\"Our team conducted more than 170 interviews and conducted further DNA analysis. Throughout the past year, the Statewide Grand Jury heard evidence and testimony from numerous witnesses. Based on the testimony, the forensic analysis and the crime scene analysis, the overwhelming conclusion is that Timothy Masters was not involved in the murder of Peggy Hettrick.\\\"\\\"\\nHe continued: \\\"\\\"Masters cooperated fully with our investigation, including the Grand Jury proceedings. Given the nature and extent of the Grand Jury investigation, the time has come for law enforcement to officially exonerate Timothy Masters. The Hettrick case remains open. We have made significant progress in the investigation. Our team will continue to develop evidence and we will continue to work on this case until the murderer is brought to justice. Too many lives have been affected by the events of that day. Justice requires that we continue to diligently work on the case.\\\"\\\"\\nIn 1995, seven years after the murder and two years before the retention of experts for the Masters’ trial, Dr. Richard Hammond, an eye surgeon, was arrested for secretly filming women's genitalia, including that of his own female family members, through fake ventilation grates in his downstairs bathroom. The cameras were positioned to allow for detailed, closeup viewing of the women's genitals while sitting on the toilet. Investigators also found that Hammond kept thousands of dollars worth of pornography hidden in a locked office and in a storage shed in town, indicating an obsession with female genitalia. As a surgeon, Hammond had the skill and equipment to perform the precision mutilation found on Hettrick's body. In 1987, Hammond's bedroom window overlooked the location where Hettrick's body was discovered, and he was home the morning after the murder, despite his usually scheduled surgeries on that day of the week. Hammond committed suicide in March 1995, several days after his arrest. The police were called to a La Quinta Motor Inn in north Denver. There, they found Hammond dead, an IV needle containing cyanide residue sticking out of his thigh. \\\"My death should satisfy the media's thirst for blood,\\\" he wrote in the suicide note.\\nThough investigators noted a possible link between Hammond and the Hettrick murder, no follow up investigation was done. Broderick ordered evidence in the Hammond case destroyed before it could be examined for any link with Hettrick based upon the premise that he had committed suicide and there was no criminal investigation that would begin. The arrest of Dr. Hammond, and his subsequent suicide, was information withheld from Dr. Meloy and the other experts, and the FBI was not informed of this case by Larimer County to reconsider their profiling of Mr. Masters from 1987.\\nThe DNA testing that led to the 2008 overturning of Masters' conviction also implicated Hettrick's sometime boyfriend, Matt Zoellner, a young used car salesman, who testified at Masters' trial. Zoellner was initially a suspect in 1987, but was quickly ruled out. Officials plan to renew the investigation.\\nColorado law had no requirement that evidence be preserved, and shields liability to authorities who destroy evidence after criminal trials are complete. Partially as a result of this case, Colorado lawmakers passed H.B. 1397, which requires the preservation of all evidence that may contain DNA that is collected in cases resulting in a conviction for a Class 1 felony or a sex offense. The evidence must be preserved for the life of the defendant, after which the evidence may be destroyed. If charges have not been filed, DNA evidence must be preserved for the length of the investigation.\\nIn June 2008, after a six-month review of the case, Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck ascertained misfeasance, but not malfeasance. \\\"Buck was responsible for determining whether Broderick broke any laws, but in a letter to Chief Judge James H. Hiatt, he said it was important to give context of the overall case, which he used to reach his conclusions. 'After consideration of the evidence, I did not discover criminal conduct among employees of the Fort Collins Police Department or the prosecutors in the case,' Buck wrote.\\\" Buck also noted that the statute of limitations had expired.\\nOn October 21, 2008, David Lane, a criminal defense attorney in Denver filed a civil suit in federal district court against the Larimer County prosecutors, Terry Gilmore and Jolene Blair, as well as detective James Broderick, alleging violations of Masters' civil rights. In their legal brief are facts concerning the Masters' case, including withholding evidence from Dr. Meloy and other expert witnesses (including a surgeon consultant and a criminalist), and interference with the sharing of evidence among expert witnesses that would cast doubt on Masters' involvement in Hettrick's homicide and would have pointed toward other suspects. No information on the other suspects, including their existence, was provided to the experts at the time of their retention. The county settled with Masters for US$4.1 million and the City of Fort Collins settled for US$5.9 million, for a total of US$10 million.\\nThe original Masters' case was prosecuted by then deputy District Attorneys Terry Gilmore and Jolene Blair, who were elevated to district judgeship soon after. On September 9, 2008, the Colorado Supreme Court censured Gilmore and Blair. In an agreement with the Colorado Supreme Court's Office of Attorney Regulation, Gilmore and Blair acknowledged failing to ensure that Masters' defense attorneys received large amounts of the information which had been obtained by the Fort Collins Police Department, including many key pieces indicating Masters' innocence. In addition, the prosecutors failed to gather other information from police, despite indications that it existed.\\nIn the General Election of November 2, 2010, less than 40% of voters in the 8th Judicial District voted to retain Judges Blair and Gilmore, and their tenures ended on January 11, 2011.\\nOn June 30, 2010, a Larimer County Grand Jury under the direction of neighboring Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck's office indicted Lt. James Broderick on eight counts of felony first-degree perjury for materially false statements he made pursuant to the arrest and conviction of Masters. Count 1, concerning an affidavit for Masters' arrest, was dismissed by Weld County District Judge James Hartmann in the January 26, 2011 ruling, \\\"People v. Broderick,\\\" in a section entitled \\\"Bronston Principles.\\\"\\nOn May 9, 2011, all remaining charges were dismissed by a ruling from Weld County District Judge James Hartmann that the 3-year statute of limitations for perjury in Colorado had expired. Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck, who is handling the prosecution of the Broderick case, said he was evaluating the judge's order and \\\"\\\"will proceed with Broderick's prosecution if legally appropriate\\\"\\\". Buck's options include a direct appeal to the Colorado Supreme Court as well as filing a reconsider motion with the original judge which would include a clarification of the timeline in the case.\\nOn July 29, 2011, a different Larimer County Grand Jury under the direction of Weld County District Attorney Ken Buck's office re-indicted Lt. James Broderick on nine counts of perjury. Broderick faces up to six years in prison for each count if convicted. Those charges also were dismissed. In 2013, Broderick resigned, thus suspending an internal investigation into his handling of the Hettrick murder. Fort Collins has reportedly spent $400,000 to date to defend Broderick.\\nA detailed forensic study that included the investigative methods used in the Hettrick murder case was published in 2009. In June 2012, Berkley Books published \\\"Drawn to Injustice\\\", a book co-written by Timothy Masters which tells the story from his perspective.\\nA&E's true crime television documentary series, \\\"Investigative Reports\\\", produced and narrated by Bill Kurtis featured a 2004 episode, \\\"Murder Illustrated\\\", that dealt with the Peggy Hettrick case. The episode labeled Masters a murderer and congratulated the Fort Collins Police Pepartment and District Attorney's office for a job well done. Since Masters' exoneration and the controversy surrounding the blundering of the case by the authorities, the episode has been withdrawn from viewing circulation, although it remains available on DVD. Kurtis refused to comment on the episode.\",\n \"A Tribute to Courage\\nA Tribute to Courage monument is a statue of Sam Houston located in Huntsville, Texas (where Sam Houston lived and died), which is 65 miles north of the city of Houston (named in his honor). Sam Houston is one of the founding fathers of Texas. He led the army of Texas during their War for Independence from Mexico in 1836, including the victory at San Jacinto (about 100 miles from the statue) where Texas won her independence by defeating Mexican President Santa Ana in the field. The statue by sculptor David Adickes is 67 feet tall and was built in 1994. It is clearly visible to motorists heading north on Interstate 45. It is the tenth-tallest statue in the United States.\\n\",\n \"Northern snakehead\\nThe northern snakehead (\\\"Channa argus\\\") is a species of <a href=\\\"Channidae\\\">snakehead fish</a> native to <a href=\\\"China\\\">China</a>, <a href=\\\"Russia\\\">Russia</a>, <a href=\\\"North%20Korea\\\">North Korea</a>, and <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a>, ranging from the <a href=\\\"Amur%20River\\\">Amur River</a> to <a href=\\\"Hainan\\\">Hainan</a>. It has been <a href=\\\"Introduced%20species\\\">introduced</a> to other regions where it is considered <a href=\\\"Invasive%20species\\\">invasive</a>. In Europe, the first report of the species was from <a href=\\\"Czechoslovakia\\\">Czechoslovakia</a> (now the <a href=\\\"Czech%20Republic\\\">Czech Republic</a>) in 1956. In the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, the fish is considered to be a highly invasive species. In a well-known incident, several were found in a <a href=\\\"pond\\\">pond</a> in <a href=\\\"Crofton%2C%20Maryland%23Crofton%20pond%20snakehead%20fish%20incident\\\">Crofton, Maryland</a>, in June 2002, which led to major media coverage and two movies.\\nThe distinguishing features of a northern snakehead include a long <a href=\\\"dorsal%20fin\\\">dorsal fin</a> with 49–50 rays, an anal fin with 31–32 rays, a small, anteriorly depressed head, the eyes above the middle part of the upper jaw, a large mouth extending well beyond the eye, and <a href=\\\"Ichthyology%20terms%23V\\\">villiform teeth</a> in bands, with large canines on the lower jaw and <a href=\\\"Ichthyology%20terms%23P\\\">palatines</a>. It is generally reported to reach a length up to 85 - , but specimens approaching 150 cm are known according to Russian <a href=\\\"ichthyologist\\\">ichthyologist</a>s. The largest registered by the <a href=\\\"International%20Game%20Fish%20Association\\\">International Game Fish Association</a> weighed 8.05 kg , although this was surpassed by a 18.42 lb northern snakehead caught in 2016.\\nIts coloration is a golden tan to pale brown, with dark blotches on the sides and saddle-like blotches across the back. Blotches toward the front tend to separate between top and bottom sections, while rear blotches are more likely to be contiguous. Coloration is nearly the same between juveniles and adults, which is unusual among snakeheads, and is similar to \\\"<a href=\\\"Channa%20maculata\\\">Channa maculata</a>\\\", but can be distinguished by two bar-like marks on the <a href=\\\"Fish%20anatomy%23Body\\\">caudal peduncle</a> (where the tail attaches); in \\\"C. maculata\\\", the rear bar is usually complete, with pale bar-like areas before and after, while in \\\"C. argus\\\", the rear bar is irregular and blotched, with no pale areas around it.\\nThe northern snakehead is a freshwater species and cannot tolerate <a href=\\\"salinity\\\">salinity</a> in excess of ten parts per million. It is a facultative air breather; it uses a suprabranchial organ and a bifurcated ventral <a href=\\\"aorta\\\">aorta</a> that permits <a href=\\\"aquatic%20respiration\\\">aquatic</a> and aerial <a href=\\\"Respiration%20%28physiology%29\\\">respiration</a>. This unusual respiratory system allows it to live outside of water for several days; it can wriggle its way to other bodies of water or survive being transported by humans. Only young of this species (not adults) may be able to move overland for short distances using wriggling motions. The preferred habitats of this species are <a href=\\\"stagnant%20water\\\">stagnant water</a> with mud substrate and aquatic vegetation, or slow, muddy streams; it is primarily <a href=\\\"piscivorous\\\">piscivorous</a>, but is known to eat <a href=\\\"crustacean\\\">crustacean</a>s, other <a href=\\\"invertebrate\\\">invertebrate</a>s, and <a href=\\\"amphibians\\\">amphibians</a>.\\nThe northern snakehead can double its population in a minimum of 15 months. It reaches sexual maturity at age two or three, at which time it will be about 30 to(-) long. The eggs are fertilized externally; a female can lay 100,000 eggs a year. <a href=\\\"Fertilization\\\">Fertilization</a> occurs in shallow water in the early morning. The eggs are yellow and spherical, about 2 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch after about 1-2 days, but they can take much longer if the temperature is very low. The eggs are guarded by the parents until yolk absorption, when the eggs are about 8 mm long.\\nTwo subspecies are distinguished – \\\"C. a. argus\\\" originating from China and Korea and \\\"C. a. warpachowskii\\\" originating from eastern Russia.\\nIn Asia, the snakehead fish is considered to be an important <a href=\\\"food%20fish\\\">food fish</a>. Due to its economic value, \\\"C. argus\\\" has been introduced (intentionally or not) to several areas in the continental United States. In the US, the snakehead is a top-level <a href=\\\"predator\\\">predator</a>; its introduction poses a substantial threat to native fish populations.\\nThe fish first appeared in US news when an alert fisherman discovered one in a <a href=\\\"Crofton%2C%20Maryland\\\">Crofton, Maryland</a>, pond in the summer of 2002. The snakehead fish was considered to be a threat to the <a href=\\\"Chesapeake%20Bay\\\">Chesapeake Bay</a> watershed, and wary officials took action by draining the pond in an attempt to destroy the species. The action was successful, and two adults and over 100 small fish were found and destroyed. A man admitted having released two adults, which he had purchased from a New York market, into the pond.\\nIn 2004, 19 northern snakeheads were captured in the <a href=\\\"Potomac%20River\\\">Potomac River</a>, and they were later confirmed to have become established (were breeding). They are somewhat limited to that stretch of the river and its local tributaries, upstream by the <a href=\\\"Great%20Falls%20of%20the%20Potomac%20River\\\">Great Falls</a>, and downstream by the salinity of Chesapeake Bay. Tests found they are not related to northern snakeheads found in other waters in the region, alleviating some concern of their overland migration. Northern snakeheads continue to be caught in the river as of 2012.\\nThe northern snakehead has been found in three counties of <a href=\\\"Florida\\\">Florida</a>, and may be established. Apparently unestablished specimens have been found in <a href=\\\"Flushing%20Meadows\\\">Flushing Meadows-Corona Park</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, two ponds in <a href=\\\"Philadelphia\\\">Philadelphia</a>, <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">Pennsylvania</a>, a pond in <a href=\\\"Massachusetts\\\">Massachusetts</a>, and reservoirs in <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a> and <a href=\\\"North%20Carolina\\\">North Carolina</a>. In 2008, the northern snakehead was found in drainage ditches in <a href=\\\"Arkansas\\\">Arkansas</a>, as a result of a commercial fish-farming accident. Recent flooding may have allowed the species to spread into the nearby White River, which would allow an eventual population of the fish in the <a href=\\\"Arkansas%20River\\\">Arkansas</a> and <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20River\\\">Mississippi River</a>s.\\nIn the summer of 2008, an infestation of the northern snakehead was confirmed in Ridgebury Lake and Catlin Creek near <a href=\\\"Ridgebury%2C%20New%20York\\\">Ridgebury, New York</a>. By August 2008, the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20State%20Department%20of%20Environmental%20Conservation\\\">New York State Department of Environmental Conservation</a> had collected a number of the native fish, and then poisoned the waters with a liquid <a href=\\\"rotenone\\\">rotenone</a> formulation. After the poisoning, the NYSDEC had to identify, measure, and additionally process the fish to adhere with <a href=\\\"Bureau%20of%20Fisheries\\\">Bureau of Fisheries</a> procedures before disposal. The treatment plan was operated under several agents, and <a href=\\\"New%20York%20State%20Police\\\">New York State Police</a> were placed on stand-by in case of protests of local residents of the area.<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.dec.ny.gov/environmentdec/45498.html\\\"></a>\\nA new concern is that this fish's spread is getting close to the <a href=\\\"Great%20Lakes\\\">Great Lakes</a>, which it may enter and disrupt that ecosystem.\\nWhen the snakehead was found in Crofton, the <a href=\\\"piscicide\\\">piscicide</a> rotenone was added to the three adjacent ponds. This method of containment killed all fish present in the water body to prevent the spread of the highly invasive snakehead. The chemical breaks down rapidly, and has a half-life in water of one to three days.\\nIn 2012, a snakehead was found in a pond in <a href=\\\"Burnaby\\\">Burnaby</a>, <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia</a>, but further study revealed that it had been released three months or less before its (re-)capture and it was a <a href=\\\"blotched%20snakehead\\\">blotched snakehead</a> or perhaps a hybrid involving that species. Unlike the northern snakehead which potentially can establish a population in parts of Canada, the blotched snakehead generally only lives in warmer waters. Before its exact identity was revealed, the province introduced legislation banning the possession of snakeheads and several other potentially invasive species.\\nIn April 2013, sightings of the species in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Central%20Park\\\">New York Central Park</a>'s <a href=\\\"Harlem%20Meer\\\">Harlem Meer</a> have prompted city officials to urge anglers to report and capture any individuals. <a href=\\\"Ron%20P.%20Swegman\\\">Ron P. Swegman</a>, author of several angling essays on Central Park's ponds, confirmed the species had put both anglers and the New York State DEP on high alert.\\nAs of late 2013, authorities in <a href=\\\"Virginia\\\">Virginia</a> and <a href=\\\"Maryland\\\">Maryland</a> are counting snakeheads in the Chesapeake Bay to better understand the impact of the introduction of the fish to the local ecosystem. Virginia has criminalized the \\\"introduc[tion]\\\" of snakeheads into the state without specific authorization, although the relevant statute does not explain whether mere importation is sufficient to constitute \\\"introduc[tion] into the Commonwealth\\\" or whether instead release into the environment is required.\\nOn May 20, 2014, Luis Aragon of <a href=\\\"Triangle%2C%20Virginia\\\">Triangle, Virginia</a>, caught a 8.05 kg northern snakehead which was officially listed as the biggest ever caught on rod and reel, according to the <a href=\\\"International%20Game%20Fish%20Association\\\">International Game Fish Association</a>. On May 20, 2016, Emory \\\"Dutch\\\" Baldwin of Indian Head, Maryland boated an 18.42 lb northern snakehead in tidal marshes of the <a href=\\\"Potomac%20River\\\">Potomac</a> using <a href=\\\"Bowfishing\\\">archery tackle</a>. This fish is listed as the state sport record in Maryland by the <a href=\\\"Maryland%20Department%20of%20Natural%20Resources\\\">Department of Natural Resources</a>.\\nThey are respected among some Chinese fishermen for their virtue, as parent fishes are known to sacrifice themselves to protect their young. The young fish are said to rush to feed upon their mother after their mother gives birth and is temporarily unable to catch prey.\",\n \"Moses D. Stivers\\nMoses Dunning Stivers (December 30, 1828 – February 2, 1895) was a <a href=\\\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">U.S. Representative</a> from <a href=\\\"New%20York%20%28state%29\\\">New York</a>.\\nBorn in Beemerville, <a href=\\\"Wantage%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Wantage Township, New Jersey</a>, Stivers attended common and private schools and Mount Retirement Seminary in Wantage.\\nHe moved with his father to <a href=\\\"Ridgebury%2C%20New%20York\\\">Ridgebury, New York</a>, in 1845 and completed his education.\\nHe taught school.\\nHe engaged in mercantile pursuits in Ridgebury and later in <a href=\\\"Middletown%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Middletown</a> from 1855 to 1864.\\nHe served as clerk of Orange County 1864-1867 and resided in <a href=\\\"Goshen%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\\\">Goshen, New York</a>.\\nHe returned to Middletown and became proprietor of the Orange County Press in 1868 and was also one of the proprietors and editors of the Middletown Daily Press.\\nHe was appointed by <a href=\\\"Ulysses%20S.%20Grant\\\">President Grant</a> as United States collector of internal revenue for the eleventh district of New York in 1869 and served until 1883.\\nHe served as delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1880.\\nHe engaged in banking.\\nHe was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for election in 1884 to the <a href=\\\"49th%20United%20States%20Congress\\\">Forty-ninth</a> Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Lewis Beach and for election in 1886 to the <a href=\\\"50th%20United%20States%20Congress\\\">Fiftieth</a> Congress.\\nStivers was elected as a <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican</a> to the <a href=\\\"51st%20United%20States%20Congress\\\">Fifty-first</a> Congress (March 4, 1889 – March 3, 1891).\\nHe was not a candidate for renomination in 1890.\\nHe engaged in banking.\\nHe died in <a href=\\\"Middletown%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Middletown, New York</a>, February 2, 1895.\\nHe was interred in <a href=\\\"Hillside%20Cemetery%20%28Middletown%2C%20New%20York%29\\\">Hillside Cemetery</a>.\\nState Senator <a href=\\\"John%20D.%20Stivers\\\">John D. Stivers</a> (1861–1935) was his son.\\n This article incorporates <a href=\\\"Copyright%20status%20of%20work%20by%20the%20U.S.%20government\\\">public domain material</a> from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website <a href=\\\"http%3A//bioguide.congress.gov\\\">http://bioguide.congress.gov</a>.\",\n \"Orange County, New York\\nOrange County is a <a href=\\\"County%20%28United%20States%29\\\">county</a> located in the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20state\\\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\\\"New%20York%20%28state%29\\\">New York</a>. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>, the population was 372,813. The <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> is <a href=\\\"Goshen%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\\\">Goshen</a>. This county was first created in 1683 and reorganized with its present boundaries in 1798.\\nOrange County is included in the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a>-<a href=\\\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Newark</a>-<a href=\\\"Jersey%20City%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Jersey City</a>, NY-<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">NJ</a>-<a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">PA</a> <a href=\\\"New%20York%20metropolitan%20area\\\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a>. It is in the state's <a href=\\\"Mid-Hudson%20Region\\\">Mid-Hudson Region</a> of the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20Valley\\\">Hudson Valley</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"County%20Executive\\\">County Executive</a> is <a href=\\\"Steve%20Neuhaus\\\">Steve Neuhaus</a>.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a> the <a href=\\\"center%20of%20population\\\">centre of population</a> of New York state was located in Orange County, approximately three miles west of the hamlet of <a href=\\\"Westbrookville%2C%20New%20York\\\">Westbrookville</a>.\\nOrange County was officially established on November 1, 1683, when the <a href=\\\"Province%20of%20New%20York\\\">Province of New York</a> was divided into twelve counties. Each of these was named to honor a member of the <a href=\\\"British%20royal%20family\\\">British royal family</a>, and Orange County took its name from the <a href=\\\"Prince%20of%20Orange\\\">Prince of Orange</a>, who subsequently became King <a href=\\\"William%20III%20of%20England\\\">William III of England</a>. As originally defined, Orange County included only the southern part of its present-day territory, plus all of present-day <a href=\\\"Rockland%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Rockland County</a> further south. The northern part of the present-day county, beyond <a href=\\\"Moodna%20Creek\\\">Moodna Creek</a>, was then a part of neighbouring <a href=\\\"Ulster%20County\\\">Ulster County</a>.\\nAt that date, the only <a href=\\\"European%20American\\\">European</a> inhabitants of the area were a handful of <a href=\\\"Dutch%20Americans\\\">Dutch</a> colonists in present-day Rockland County, and the area of modern Orange County was entirely occupied by the native <a href=\\\"Munsee\\\">Munsee</a> people. Due to its relatively small population, the original Orange County was not fully independent and was administered by <a href=\\\"Manhattan\\\">New York County</a>.\\nThe first European settlers in the area of the present-day county arrived in 1685. They were a party of around twenty-five families from <a href=\\\"Scotland\\\">Scotland</a>, led by David Toshach, the <a href=\\\"Laird\\\">Laird</a> of <a href=\\\"Monzievaird\\\">Monzievaird</a>, and his brother-in-law Major Patrick McGregor, a former officer of the <a href=\\\"French%20Army\\\">French Army</a>. They settled in the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20Highlands\\\">Hudson Highlands</a> at the place where the Moodna Creek enters the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20River\\\">Hudson River</a>, now known as <a href=\\\"New%20Windsor%2C%20New%20York\\\">New Windsor</a>. In 1709, a group of <a href=\\\"German%20Palatine\\\">German Palatine</a> refugees settled at <a href=\\\"Newburgh%2C%20New%20York\\\">Newburgh</a>. They were Protestants from a part of Germany along the Rhine that had suffered during the religious wars. Queen Anne's government arranged for passage from England of nearly 3,000 Palatines in ten ships. Many were settled along the Hudson River in work camps on property belonging to <a href=\\\"Robert%20Livingston%20the%20Elder\\\">Robert Livingston</a>. A group of Dutch and English settlers arrived at <a href=\\\"Goshen%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\\\">Goshen</a> in 1712. Additional immigrants came from Ireland; they were of Scots and English descent who had been settled as planters there.\\nIn 1798, after the <a href=\\\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\\\">American Revolutionary War</a>, the boundaries of Orange County changed. Its southern corner was used to create the new Rockland County, and in exchange, an area to the north of the Moodna Creek was added, which had previously been in Ulster County. This caused a reorganization of the local administration, as the original county seat had been fixed at <a href=\\\"Orangetown%2C%20New%20York\\\">Orangetown</a> in 1703, but this was now in Rockland County. Duties were subsequently shared between Goshen, which had been the center of government for the northern part of Orange County, and Newburgh, which played a similar role in the area transferred from Ulster County. The county court was established in 1801. It was not until 1970 that Goshen was named as the sole county seat.\\nDue to a boundary dispute between New York and New Jersey, the boundaries of many of the southern towns of the county were not definitively established until the 19th century.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\\\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 839 sqmi , of which 812 sqmi is land and 27 sqmi (3.2%) is water.\\nOrange County is in southeastern New York State, directly north of the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a>-New York border, west of the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20River\\\">Hudson River</a>, east of the <a href=\\\"Delaware%20River\\\">Delaware River</a> and northwest of <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. It borders the New York counties of <a href=\\\"Dutchess%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Dutchess</a>, <a href=\\\"Putnam%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Putnam</a>, <a href=\\\"Rockland%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Rockland</a>, <a href=\\\"Sullivan%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Sullivan</a>, <a href=\\\"Ulster%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Ulster</a>, and <a href=\\\"Westchester%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Westchester</a>, as well as <a href=\\\"Passaic%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Passaic</a> and <a href=\\\"Sussex%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Sussex</a> counties in New Jersey and <a href=\\\"Pike%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Pike County</a> in <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">Pennsylvania</a>.\\nOrange County is the only county in New York State which borders both the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20River\\\">Hudson</a> and <a href=\\\"Delaware%20River\\\">Delaware River</a>s.\\nOrange County is where the <a href=\\\"Great%20Appalachian%20Valley\\\">Great Valley</a> of the <a href=\\\"Appalachians\\\">Appalachians</a> finally opens up and ends. The western corner is set off by the <a href=\\\"Shawangunk%20Ridge\\\">Shawangunk Ridge</a>. The area along the Rockland County border (within <a href=\\\"Harriman%20State%20Park%20%28New%20York%29\\\">Harriman</a> and <a href=\\\"Bear%20Mountain%20State%20Park\\\">Bear Mountain</a> <a href=\\\"state%20park\\\">state park</a>s) and south of Newburgh is part of the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20Highlands\\\">Hudson Highlands</a>. The land in between is the valley of the <a href=\\\"Wallkill%20River\\\">Wallkill River</a>. In the southern portion of the county the Wallkill valley expands into a wide glacial lake bed known as the <a href=\\\"Black%20Dirt%20Region\\\">Black Dirt Region</a> for its fertility.\\nThe highest point is <a href=\\\"Schunemunk%20Mountain\\\">Schunemunk Mountain</a>, at 1664 ft above sea level. The lowest is sea level along the Hudson.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were 372,813 people residing in the county. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 444 people per square mile (171/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 77.2% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 10.2% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Black</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.5% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 2.4% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, and 3.1% from two or more races. 18% of the population were <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race. According to the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 United States Census</a>, 18.3% were of <a href=\\\"Italian%20people\\\">Italian</a>, 17.4% <a href=\\\"irish%20people\\\">Irish</a>, 10.2% <a href=\\\"German%20people\\\">German</a> and 5.0% <a href=\\\"Polish%20people\\\">Polish</a> ancestry. According to the 2009–13 <a href=\\\"American%20Community%20Survey\\\">American Community Survey</a>, 76.57% of people spoke only English at home, 13.39% spoke <a href=\\\"Spanish%20language\\\">Spanish</a>, 4.03% spoke <a href=\\\"Yiddish\\\">Yiddish</a> and 0.83% spoke <a href=\\\"Italian%20language\\\">Italian</a>.\\nAs of the 2000 Census, there were 114,788 households out of which 39.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.90% were <a href=\\\"marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 11.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.40% were non-families. 21.50% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.35.\\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 29.00% under the age of 18, 8.70% from 18 to 24, 30.00% from 25 to 44, 21.90% from 45 to 64, and 10.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 100.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.50 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the county was $52,058, and the median income for a family was $60,355. Males had a median income of $42,363 versus $30,821 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the county was $21,597. About 7.60% of families and 10.50% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 14.80% of those under age 18 and 8.00% of those age 65 or over.\\nDespite its rural roots, Orange County has been among the fastest-growing regions within the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City%20Metropolitan%20Area\\\">New York City Metropolitan Area</a>.\\nOriginally, like most New York counties, Orange County was governed by a Board of Supervisors. Its board consisted of the 20 town supervisors, nine city supervisors elected from the nine wards of the City of Newburgh, and four each elected from the wards of the cities of Middletown and Port Jervis. In 1968, the board adopted a county charter and a reapportionment plan that created the county legislature and executive. The first county executive and legislature were elected in November, 1969 and took office on January 1, 1970. Today, Orange County is still governed by the same charter; residents elect the county executive and a 21-member county legislature elected from 21 <a href=\\\"single-member%20district\\\">single-member district</a>s. There are also several state constitutional positions that are elected, including a sheriff, county clerk and district attorney. Prior to 1 January 2008 four <a href=\\\"coroner\\\">coroner</a>s were also elected; however, on that date, the county switched to a <a href=\\\"medical%20examiner\\\">medical examiner</a> system.\\nThe current County Officers are:\\nThe County Legislature and its previous board of supervisors were long dominated by the Republican Party. However, since the late 20th century, the Democrats have closed the gap. During 2008 and 2009 the legislature was evenly split between 10 Republicans, 10 Democrats and 1 Independence Party member. In 2009, the legislature had its first Democratic chairman elected when one member of the Republican caucus voted alongside the 10 Democratic members to elect <a href=\\\"Roxanne%20Donnery\\\">Roxanne Donnery</a> (D)-Highlands/Woodbury to the post. At the November 2009 election, several Democratic incumbents were defeated. As of the convening of the legislature on January 1, 2012, there are 12 Republicans, 8 Democrats and 1 Independence member.\\nIn 1970, the county switched from government by a Board of Supervisors, consisting of the elected heads of town governments, to having a 21-member elected county legislature and executive. The <a href=\\\"sheriffs%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">sheriff</a>, <a href=\\\"district%20attorney\\\">district attorney</a> and county clerk have always been elected. All serve four-year terms, with elections in the year following presidential election years, save the sheriff, whose election is the following year.\\nThe current county executive is Steven Neuhaus, former town supervisor for Chester. Frank Phillips, <a href=\\\"Ann%20Rabbitt\\\">Annie Rabbitt</a> and Carl DuBois are the incumbent district attorney, clerk and sheriff respectively. All are <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republicans</a>, and as of 2012 the legislature has a 13–8 Republican majority.\\nOnly one <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrat</a>, Mary McPhillips, has served as county executive. She failed to win re-election after a single term in the early 1990s. For several years in the late 2000s, one Republican legislator's decision to become an <a href=\\\"Independent%20%28politician%29\\\">independent</a> and caucus with the Democrats led to a 10-10-1 effective Democratic majority, with <a href=\\\"Roxanne%20Donnery\\\">Roxanne Donnery</a> as chair. The Republicans regained their majority in the 2009 elections.\\nThe county is served by <a href=\\\"Stewart%20International%20Airport\\\">Stewart International Airport</a>, located two miles west of <a href=\\\"Newburgh%2C%20New%20York\\\">Newburgh, New York</a>. The airport serves <a href=\\\"Delta%20Air%20Lines\\\">Delta Air Lines</a>, <a href=\\\"JetBlue%20Airways\\\">JetBlue Airways</a>, <a href=\\\"American%20Airlines\\\">American Airlines</a>, and <a href=\\\"Allegiant%20Air\\\">Allegiant Air</a>. <a href=\\\"AirTran%20Airways\\\">AirTran Airways</a> stopped providing service to the airport in late 2008.\\nGround transportation within Orange County is provided primarily by <a href=\\\"Leprechaun%20Lines\\\">Leprechaun Lines</a>, <a href=\\\"Monsey%20Trails\\\">Monsey Trails</a>, <a href=\\\"NJ%20Transit\\\">NJ Transit</a>, <a href=\\\"Short%20Line%20%28bus%20company%29\\\">Short Line Bus</a>, and <a href=\\\"Metro-North%20Railroad\\\">Metro-North Railroad</a>'s <a href=\\\"Port%20Jervis%20Line\\\">Port Jervis Line</a>, as well as amenities such as senior citizen busing and car services, which usually restrict themselves to their respective town or city.\\n<a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a> won 54% of the Orange County vote in <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%202004\\\">2004</a> reflecting a solid <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican</a> edge in county politics. However, <a href=\\\"Barack%20Obama\\\">Barack Obama</a> carried the county by a 51% margin <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%202008\\\">four years later</a>. It was the first time a Democrat had carried Orange County when first elected to the presidency. That year the number of <a href=\\\"voter%20registration\\\">registered</a> Democrats in the county exceeded Republicans for the first time.\\nThe two presidential election results give the county a <a href=\\\"Cook%20Partisan%20Voting%20Index\\\">Cook PVI</a> of R+2, consistent with county voters' willingness to sometimes elect Democrats, such as U.S. Rep. <a href=\\\"John%20Hall%20%28U.S.%20politician%29\\\">John Hall</a>. From 2007 on, when Hall represented the <a href=\\\"New%20York%27s%2019th%20congressional%20district\\\">19th district</a>, which covered most of the county, Orange's representation in Congress was exclusively Democratic, as <a href=\\\"Maurice%20Hinchey\\\">Maurice Hinchey</a> had represented the towns of Crawford, Montgomery and Newburgh and the city of Newburgh, all of which were in what was then the <a href=\\\"New%20York%27s%2022nd%20congressional%20district\\\">22nd district</a>, since 1988.\\nIn the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives%20elections%2C%202010\\\">2010 midterms</a>, Hall was defeated by <a href=\\\"Nan%20Hayworth\\\">Nan Hayworth</a>. In 2012, after Hinchey's former 22nd district was eliminated in redistricting following his retirement and all of Orange County was included in the current <a href=\\\"New%20York%27s%2018th%20congressional%20district\\\">18th district</a>, Hayworth was defeated by Democrat <a href=\\\"Sean%20Patrick%20Maloney\\\">Sean Patrick Maloney</a>, a former adviser to President <a href=\\\"Bill%20Clinton\\\">Bill Clinton</a> and the first openly gay person to be elected to Congress from New York. Maloney won a rematch against Hayworth in 2014; in 2016 he was again re-elected over Phil Oliva.\\nAt the state level, Republicans have continued to hold onto Senate seats while Democrats have made inroads in recent years on the Assembly side. Two <a href=\\\"New%20York%20State%20Senate\\\">State Senate</a> districts—the 39th, held by <a href=\\\"Bill%20Larkin\\\">Bill Larkin</a> and 42nd, held by <a href=\\\"John%20Bonacic\\\">John Bonacic</a>—cover the county.\\nDemocrats have made significant gains in the county's State Assembly seats. The 98th district, which includes the far western part of the county as well as the Town of Warwick, is represented by <a href=\\\"Annie%20Rabbitt\\\">Annie Rabbitt</a>, and the 101st district, which includes the Towns of Crawford and Montgomery, was until 2016 held by <a href=\\\"Claudia%20Tenney\\\">Claudia Tenney</a>, both Republicans. After Tenney left her seat to run for Congress that year, <a href=\\\"Brian%20D.%20Miller\\\">Brian D. Miller</a>, another Republican, was elected to replace her. The remainder of the county's Assembly districts are represented by Democrats: <a href=\\\"James%20Skoufis\\\">James Skoufis</a> in the 99th district, <a href=\\\"Aileen%20Gunther\\\">Aileen Gunther</a> in the 100th district, and <a href=\\\"Frank%20Skartados\\\">Frank Skartados</a> in the 104th district. Skoufis is the youngest New York State legislator currently serving.\\n<a href=\\\"Delano-Hitch%20Stadium\\\">Delano-Hitch Stadium</a> in Newburgh has played host to various professional and amateur baseball teams from various leagues since opening in 1926. The stadium is currently home to the <a href=\\\"North%20Country%20Baseball%20League\\\">Newburgh Newts</a>.\\nHigh schools in Orange County compete in Section 9 of the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20State%20Public%20High%20School%20Athletic%20Association\\\">New York State Public High School Athletic Association</a> along with schools from <a href=\\\"Dutchess%20County%2C%20NY\\\">Dutchess</a>, <a href=\\\"Ulster%20County%2C%20NY\\\">Ulster</a>, and <a href=\\\"Sullivan%20County%2C%20NY\\\">Sullivan</a> counties.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Army%20Black%20Knights\\\">Army Black Knights</a> of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\\\">United States Military Academy</a> in <a href=\\\"West%20Point\\\">West Point</a> field <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I\\\">NCAA Division I</a> teams in 24 different sports. The <a href=\\\"Orange%20County%20Community%20College\\\">Orange County Community College Colts</a> compete in the <a href=\\\"National%20Junior%20College%20Athletic%20Association\\\">National Junior College Athletic Association</a>. <a href=\\\"Mount%20Saint%20Mary%20College\\\">Mount Saint Mary College</a> in Newburgh fields 15 teams in the <a href=\\\"Eastern%20College%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">Eastern College Athletic Conference</a> and the <a href=\\\"Skyline%20Conference\\\">Skyline Conference</a> of <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20III\\\">NCAA Division III</a>.\\nThe Orange County Youth Football League (O.C.Y.F.L.) is a <a href=\\\"non-profit%20organization\\\">non-profit organization</a> that allows youth age 6 through 14 to play competitive <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a>. The League encompasses 15 towns with over 100 teams in Orange County and surrounding areas including Chester, Cornwall, Goshen, Highland Falls, Marlboro, Middletown, Minisink Valley, Monticello, Newburgh, New Windsor, Pine Bush, Port Jervis, Valley Central, Wallkill, Warwick and Washingtonville. It is composed of 4 Divisions, divided by weight restrictions, and a \\\"Mighty Mite\\\" <a href=\\\"Flag%20Football\\\">Flag Football</a> division for 6 & 7 year olds. In each division, there is additionally a complete <a href=\\\"cheerleading\\\">cheerleading</a> program for each team. There is a comprehensive annual schedule of play within each division for all teams, culminating in a divisional Championship game, often played in <a href=\\\"Michie%20Stadium\\\">Michie Stadium</a> or Shea Stadium at the historic <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\\\">United States Military Academy</a> at <a href=\\\"West%20Point%2C%20New%20York\\\">West Point, New York</a>.\\nPoints of interest in Orange County include the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\\\">United States Military Academy</a> at <a href=\\\"West%20Point%2C%20New%20York\\\">West Point</a>; <a href=\\\"Brotherhood%20Winery\\\">Brotherhood Winery</a>, America's oldest winery, in <a href=\\\"Washingtonville%2C%20New%20York\\\">Washingtonville</a>; the birthplace of <a href=\\\"William%20H.%20Seward\\\">William H. Seward</a> in <a href=\\\"Florida%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Florida</a>; the home and birthplace of <a href=\\\"Velveeta\\\">Velveeta</a> and Liederkranz Cheese in <a href=\\\"Monroe%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\\\">Monroe</a>; the <a href=\\\"Harness%20Racing%20Museum%20%26amp%3B%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame</a> in Goshen; the \\\"<a href=\\\"Times%20Herald-Record\\\">Times Herald-Record</a>\\\" newspaper, the first <a href=\\\"cold%20press%20offset\\\">cold press offset</a> daily in the country, in <a href=\\\"Middletown%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Middletown</a>; the <a href=\\\"Galleria%20at%20Crystal%20Run\\\">Galleria at Crystal Run</a>, in <a href=\\\"Wallkill%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Wallkill</a>; the <a href=\\\"Woodbury%20Common%20Premium%20Outlets\\\">Woodbury Common Premium Outlets</a> in <a href=\\\"Monroe%20%28village%29%2C%20New%20York\\\">Monroe</a>; and the <a href=\\\"Orange%20County%20Fair%20%28New%20York%29\\\">Orange County Fair</a> in <a href=\\\"Wallkill%2C%20Orange%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Wallkill</a>. The only state parks include Goosepond Mountain State Park, <a href=\\\"Harriman%20State%20Park%20%28New%20York%29\\\">Harriman State Park</a> and <a href=\\\"Sterling%20Forest%20State%20Park\\\">Sterling Forest State Park</a>. It is also the location of <a href=\\\"Orange%20County%20Choppers\\\">Orange County Choppers</a>, the custom motorcycle shop featured on <a href=\\\"The%20Discovery%20Channel\\\">The Discovery Channel</a> television series \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Chopper\\\">American Chopper</a>\\\".\\n\",\n \"A50 road\\nThe A50 is a major <a href=\\\"trunk%20road\\\">trunk road</a> in <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a> between <a href=\\\"Warrington\\\">Warrington</a> and <a href=\\\"Leicester\\\">Leicester</a>; historically it was also a major route from London to Leicester.\\nThe current A50 runs south-east from <a href=\\\"Warrington\\\">Warrington</a> via Junction 20 of the <a href=\\\"M6%20motorway\\\">M6</a>, <a href=\\\"Knutsford\\\">Knutsford</a>, <a href=\\\"Holmes%20Chapel\\\">Holmes Chapel</a>, <a href=\\\"Kidsgrove\\\">Kidsgrove</a> and <a href=\\\"Stoke-on-Trent\\\">Stoke on Trent</a> to Junction 24 of the <a href=\\\"M1%20motorway\\\">M1</a> near <a href=\\\"Kegworth\\\">Kegworth</a>, via <a href=\\\"Derby\\\">Derby</a>'s southern <a href=\\\"Bypass%20route\\\">bypass</a>. From there it is concurrent with the M1 until Junction 22, where it runs into the City of <a href=\\\"Leicester\\\">Leicester</a>.\\nThe section from junctions 24a (in <a href=\\\"Lockington%20cum%20Hemington\\\">Lockington cum Hemington</a>) and 24 (in <a href=\\\"Kegworth\\\">Kegworth</a>) of the M1 is the former A6, and has not been widened. It has only three lanes westbound from junction 24a.\\nThe Stoke and Derby section was originally intended to be part of an <a href=\\\"M64%20motorway\\\">M64 motorway</a>.\\nIn November 2013 it was reported that funding would be being made available for improvements to the section around <a href=\\\"Uttoxeter\\\">Uttoxeter</a>, with work starting no later than 2015/16. A few days earlier the MP was lobbying for the improvements, stating that improvements were needed to the traffic islands for safety reasons and to improve traffic flow. There are plans for 700 new houses to the west of Uttoxeter and to the south of the A50.\\nPrior to the opening of the M1, the A50 route was one of two main routes from London to the North West via Leicester, until it was replaced by what has become the <a href=\\\"A6%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">A6</a> during the 19th century. A third route between London and Leicester was via the <a href=\\\"A5%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">A5</a> to <a href=\\\"Old%20Stratford\\\">Old Stratford</a>, <a href=\\\"A508%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">A508</a> to <a href=\\\"Market%20Harborough\\\">Market Harborough</a> and thence the <a href=\\\"A6%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">A6</a>. That route and the A50 route both passed through <a href=\\\"Northampton\\\">Northampton</a> which was a significant calling point on many coaching routes until the arrival of the <a href=\\\"railways\\\">railway</a>.\\nUntil the M1 opened, the A50 used to terminate at <a href=\\\"Hockliffe\\\">Hockliffe</a> in <a href=\\\"Bedfordshire\\\">Bedfordshire</a> at a junction with the <a href=\\\"A5%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">A5</a>.\\nWhen the <a href=\\\"M1%20motorway\\\">M1 motorway</a> opened alongside the old route south of Northampton it was down-classified as:\\nFrom that point until the 1990s the southern point of the A50 was at a junction with the A508 in <a href=\\\"Kingsthorpe\\\">Kingsthorpe</a>, Northampton.\\nIn the 1990s, with the opening of the A14 and to discourage traffic from using the road between Leicester and Northampton, the old route was re-designated as <a href=\\\"A5199%20road\\\">A5199</a> between Leicester and <a href=\\\"Northampton\\\">Northampton</a>.\\nAt the same time the A50 became the <a href=\\\"A511%20road\\\">A511</a> north of Leicester, between <a href=\\\"Burton%20upon%20Trent\\\">Burton upon Trent</a> and <a href=\\\"Ashby-de-la-Zouch\\\">Ashby-de-la-Zouch</a> to Leicester when the dual carriageway section bypassing Derby was completed.\\nPart of the route mirrored the plans for the original <a href=\\\"M64%20motorway\\\">M64 motorway</a>, with three lanes in some sections - notably between <a href=\\\"Kegworth\\\">Kegworth</a> and the <a href=\\\"A6%20road%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">A6</a> near Derby.\\nThe new A50 route was opened in stages between 1984 and 1999, with using various temporary designations:\\nOn completion, the Southern Derby Bypass was re-designated as the A50, being maintained privately by Connect A50 Ltd. Much of this new section of road is made of <a href=\\\"concrete\\\">concrete</a>.\\n\",\n \"Uttoxeter railway station\\nUttoxeter railway station serves the town of <a href=\\\"Uttoxeter\\\">Uttoxeter</a> in <a href=\\\"Staffordshire\\\">Staffordshire</a>, England. It is served by trains on the <a href=\\\"Crewe-Derby%20Line\\\">Crewe-Derby Line</a> which is also a <a href=\\\"Community%20rail\\\">Community rail line</a> known as the North Staffordshire line. The station is owned by <a href=\\\"Network%20Rail\\\">Network Rail</a> and managed by <a href=\\\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\\\">East Midlands Trains</a>.\\nThe full range of tickets for travel are purchased from the <a href=\\\"Conductor%20%28transportation%29\\\">guard</a> on the train at no extra cost, but there are no retail facilities at this station. Despite it being the closest railway station to <a href=\\\"Alton%20Towers\\\">Alton Towers</a>, it is not within walking distance of the station but there is a semi-regular bus link to it.\\nThe present station was built by the <a href=\\\"North%20Staffordshire%20Railway\\\">North Staffordshire Railway</a> (NSR) to serve its main line from <a href=\\\"Stoke-on-Trent%20railway%20station\\\">Stoke-on-Trent</a> to <a href=\\\"Derby%20railway%20station\\\">Derby</a> . Prior to 1881, three different stations had been in use simultaneously, all being built by the NSR.\\nThe section from Stoke-on-Trent to Uttoxeter was opened on 7 August 1848. The first station opened in the town was \\\"Uttoxeter Bridge Street\\\" station, which opened the same day as the line opened from Stoke. However the station buildings were not complete and temporarily the crossing keeper's hut nearby was used. The following month on 11 September 1848 the line was completed through to Burton and through running between Stoke and Derby began. When the <a href=\\\"Churnet%20Valley%20Line\\\">Churnet Valley Line</a> was opened on 13 July 1849, \\\"Uttoxeter Junction\\\" station was opened on the mainline to serve as an interchange with the Churnet Valley line and on the same date, \\\"Uttoxeter Dove Bank\\\" station was also opened on the Churnet Valley line.\\nUttoxeter then had three stations in total. In 1880, the NSR decided to close all three and construct a north to west line forming a triangular junction. A new Uttoxeter station replaced all three at this new junction and opened on 10 October 1881. There is a model of the 1881 station at the Uttoxeter Heritage Centre.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Stafford%20and%20Uttoxeter%20Railway\\\">Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway</a> which opened in 1867 also used the station but this line was operated by the <a href=\\\"Great%20Northern%20Railway%20%28Great%20Britain%29\\\">Great Northern Railway</a>.\\nOn 1 January 1923, under the <a href=\\\"Railways%20Act%201921\\\">Railways Act 1921</a>, the North Staffordshire Railway was absorbed by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS). During this period of time the <a href=\\\"Stafford%20and%20Uttoxeter%20Railway\\\">Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway</a>, which had become part of the London and North Eastern Railway, closed to passengers on 4 December 1939, but the line remained open for good traffic until 5 March 1951.\\nThe LMS was nationalised in 1948 and became part of <a href=\\\"British%20Rail\\\">British Rail</a>.\\nThe last mainline steam train used the station on 16 September 1957 and thereafter an hourly <a href=\\\"List%20of%20British%20Rail%20diesel%20multiple%20unit%20classes\\\">DMU</a> service operated which has been used ever since.\\nPassenger services on the Churnet Valley line from Uttoxeter towards <a href=\\\"Leek%20railway%20station\\\">Leek</a> and <a href=\\\"Macclesfield%20railway%20station\\\">Macclesfield</a> ceased operation 2 January 1965, and the trains towards <a href=\\\"Ashbourne%20railway%20station\\\">Ashbourne</a> and <a href=\\\"Buxton%20railway%20station\\\">Buxton</a> ceased on 1 November 1954. The last mainline steam train ran on 16 September 1957. The engine sheds closed on 7 December 1964. A siding which was part of the old Churnet valley line remained until the 1980s.\\nThe station buildings were destroyed by fire on 9 May 1987 and the station is now unstaffed.\\nOn 2 March 1997, the station became part of the <a href=\\\"Central%20Trains\\\">Central Trains</a> franchise. Trains would run from the station from <a href=\\\"Manchester%20Airport%20railway%20station\\\">Manchester Airport</a> to <a href=\\\"Skegness%20railway%20station\\\">Skegness</a>. In 2004, the Manchester Airport train was cut back to <a href=\\\"Crewe%20railway%20station\\\">Crewe</a> and, in September 2005, the Skegness train was cut short to <a href=\\\"Derby%20railway%20station\\\">Derby</a>.\\nThe Central Trains franchise expired on 11 November 2007 and the station and its services were taken over by <a href=\\\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\\\">East Midlands Trains</a>.\\nThe station is around 5 minutes walk from the town centre. It has two platforms (connected by a foot bridge), and a car park. Since 2002, there have been proposals to build a ticket office, but that is unlikely in the short term. There are bus shelters on both platforms and a real bus stop just outside the station on Station Road. New LED information boards on both platforms were introduced in 2007, replacing a single television screen at the station entrance. The station was unstaffed between 1988 and 2012, when it became staffed for the first time in 24 years for the purpose of helping people across the level crossing to platform 2.\\nIn 2013 a footbridge with disabled access opened at the station, so the level crossing is no longer used to cross the line. There is also now direct access to <a href=\\\"Uttoxeter%20Racecourse\\\">Uttoxeter Racecourse</a>, which is adjacent to the station, and a car park for the Racecourse on the north side of the line.\\nUttoxeter is also the railway station for <a href=\\\"Alton%20Towers\\\">Alton Towers</a> <a href=\\\"theme%20park\\\">theme park</a>, for which there is a semi-regular <a href=\\\"bus\\\">bus</a> link.\\nUttoxeter is served by one train per hour in each direction usually operated by a class <a href=\\\"British%20Rail%20Class%20153\\\">153</a>, <a href=\\\"British%20Rail%20Class%20156\\\">156</a> or a <a href=\\\"British%20Rail%20Class%20158\\\">158</a>.\\nDuring the Midlands Grand National extra trains are provided by <a href=\\\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\\\">East Midlands Trains</a> to cope with the capacity.\\nThe station also has a bus stop and is served by routes Swift (from and to Derby) and the 402 to and from Burton.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Fort Collins is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Larimer County, Colorado, United States. Situated on the Cache La Poudre River along the Colorado Front Range, Fort Collins is located 65 miles (105 km) north of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver. With a 2016 estimated population of 161,000, it is the fourth most populous city in Colorado after Denver, Colorado Springs, and Aurora. Fort Collins is a midsize college city, home to Colorado State University.","The Peggy Hettrick murder case concerns the unsolved 1987 death of Peggy Hettrick in Fort Collins, Colorado. Timothy Lee \"Tim\" Masters enlisted in the Navy following a high school career plagued by police accusation of murder when he was a sophomore at Fort Collins High School. After eight years in the Navy, he was honorably discharged. Masters worked for Learjet as an aviation mechanic until 1997, when he was arrested for the murder of Peggy Hettrick. He was charged and convicted of the Hettrick murder in 1999 and sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. His sentence was vacated in January 2008 when DNA evidence from the original crime scene indicated that he was not the responsible party. Three years after his release from prison, Masters was exonerated by the Colorado Attorney General on June 28, 2011. To date, no one else has been charged with Hettrick's murder."],"string":"[\n \"Fort Collins is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Larimer County, Colorado, United States. Situated on the Cache La Poudre River along the Colorado Front Range, Fort Collins is located 65 miles (105 km) north of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver. With a 2016 estimated population of 161,000, it is the fourth most populous city in Colorado after Denver, Colorado Springs, and Aurora. Fort Collins is a midsize college city, home to Colorado State University.\",\n \"The Peggy Hettrick murder case concerns the unsolved 1987 death of Peggy Hettrick in Fort Collins, Colorado. Timothy Lee \\\"Tim\\\" Masters enlisted in the Navy following a high school career plagued by police accusation of murder when he was a sophomore at Fort Collins High School. After eight years in the Navy, he was honorably discharged. Masters worked for Learjet as an aviation mechanic until 1997, when he was arrested for the murder of Peggy Hettrick. He was charged and convicted of the Hettrick murder in 1999 and sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. His sentence was vacated in January 2008 when DNA evidence from the original crime scene indicated that he was not the responsible party. Three years after his release from prison, Masters was exonerated by the Colorado Attorney General on June 28, 2011. To date, no one else has been charged with Hettrick's murder.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":56,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Patrick Reynolds is an American music executive, record producer and songwriter noted for working with prominent artists such as an American rapper and actor from where?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Queens, New York"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Bob Grever\nBob Grever (1936—August 23, 2016) was an American music executive who once owned San Antonio independent record label Cara Records. He became the \"most powerful record company owner\" in the state of Texas in the 1980s. Grever sold the record company and its roster of recordings as well as its Tejano music musicians to EMI Latin, spearheading the 1990s Tejano music golden age. His most notable artists include Emilio Navaira and Selena. Other musicians Grever signed were Joe Posada, David Lee Garza, Bobby Naranjo, Mazz, and La Mafia. Songwriter Luis Silva, became head of promotions while working for Cara Records. Grever came from a musician family, his grandmother Maria Grever, became one of the most successful female composers. Music critic, Ramiro Burr of the \"San Antonio Express-News\", called Grever \"one of the two most important people in the Tejano music explosion of the 80's and 90's.\" After Grever sold Cara Records, he worked with the Backstreet Boys and NSYNC. He also became president of Zomba Group's Latin music division. Grever died on August 23, 2016 due to complications brought on by cancer on August 23, 2016, he was 79 years old. He was posthumously awarded at the 2016 Tejano Music Awards for Special Lifetime Achievement.","Dinavon Bythwood\nDinavon Bythwood (born May 23, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and also known by his music industry moniker “X1”, is an American Music Executive, Pop Music record producer and songwriter. Bythwood is also a former American professional football player who was an NFL free agent acquisition by the Cleveland Browns. A 6”4, 255 lb Defensive End, Bythwood played at the University of Miami where he received his Bachelors in Business Administration and was also a NCAA Collegiate Football National Champion in 1991 as was determined by the AP Poll. From 1991 -1994 Bythwood played alongside notable teammates Actor Dwayne Johnson, 2013 NFL Hall of Fame Inductee Warren Sapp and future NFL Hall of Famer, Super Bowl Champion Ray Lewis. Bythwood currently resides in Miami, Florida and has a son Brandin Mikel, born April 8, 1995.\nAs a record producer, Bythwood and former partner Alex Francis made up the American music production team known as The Ghostwriters. In 2008 they produced Keyshia Cole's hit single \"Heaven Sent\", from her multi-platinum-selling album \"Just like You\". According to \"Billboard\", \"Heaven Sent\" peaked at #1 on U.S. Hot R&B/Rap Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks and also reached #28 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot 100, making \"Heaven Sent\" Cole's most successful single release to date. The duo subsequently received two Grammy nominations in the categories Best R&B Song and Best Female R&B Performance.\nIn 2011 Bythwood /“The Ghostwriters” collaborated with former American Idol Judge / Grammy Nominated Songwriter Kara DioGuardi and Pop Music Recording Artist Jason Derulo to produce the critically acclaimed song “Lessons for Life” which featured on Warner Bros. Records International Pop star Charice Pempengco’s album \"Infinity\". Charice Pempengco is a Philippine International Superstar recording artist and Actor for the hit television series “Glee”. She first rose to prominence as a YouTube singing sensation and was initially discovered by popular songwriter Haras Fyre (pka Patrick Grant). Charice was dubbed by media icon Oprah Winfrey as “the most talented girl in the world”, which subsequently prompted Winfrey to introduce her to legendary songwriter and 16x Grammy Award winning music producer David Foster; renowned for his work with Celine Dion, Christina Aguilera, Whitney Houston, Janet Jackson, Michael Jackson, Chaka Khan, Beyoncé Knowles, Nsync, Prince among many other notable music icons.\nThrough a co-publishing venture with EMI/Sony ATV, “Musik~Hause Produktionen Internationale,” music production company, enlists a vast network of a number award winning, multi-platinum diverse and creatively gifted songwriters and producers. This very close knit network of talent enables Musik~Hause to produce commercially viable music and develop young, new, emerging artist(s) within the music industry for distribution.\nCorporately based in Miami and Los Angeles, Musik~Hause has strategic partnerships and joint ventures with some of the music industry's top recording studios. These studios and their environment have yielded over 100 Grammy Awards for a number of Multi-Platinum recording artist(s). Bythwood explains: “As Chief Creative Consultant and A&R, I'm extremely excited about the opportunity to forge great relationships with some of the industry's finest facilities.\" It is paramount that our Producer(s), Artist(s), Writer(s), and Engineer(s) have an environment conducive to creativity”… and why these joint venture(s) and collabratives keep Musik~Hause on the fore front and cutting edge of music technology and cultivates an environment that fosters great music.\nCurrently Musik Hause, through a joint collaborative with Sony Music, Fox, and NBC, has begun cultivating the projects of and are in production with several \"Stand Out Top Tier\" performers from NBC's \"The Voice\", FOX's \"American Idol\" and \"X Factor\" respectfully. Through this venture Musik Hause/Sony ATV concentrations will be the artist development and production of those standout performers that were eliminated from competition. Roster collaborations have included NBC’s “The Voice (U.S. season 3)\" Contestant Joselyn Rivera. In addition to Joselyn Rivera, Bythwood has worked with American Idol (season 11) Finalist/Runner-up Jessica Sanchez, NBC “The Voice (U.S. season 4) standout performer Monique Abaddie, and American Idol (season 11) Contestant Deneco Pittman (Neco Starr) and last season's contestant Tion Phipps among others.\nAn ardent believer in “Reality TV” talent based shows; Bythwood’s work with Simone Cowell’s “SYCO/Sony Music Entertainment” recording artists and UK “X Factor” Winners, Leona Lewis and Alexandra Burke helped to further solidify Musik Hause’s artist developmental philosophy. Bythwood explains: “Talented artist become Superstar icons because of phenomenal songs and a great team around them.” All talented singers are not ALWAYS great songwriters which is why our approach at Musik Hause is to operate outside of status quo and the traditional norm of songwriting.\nIn times past, artist would write most if not all of their material and then enlist the aid of a producer to build the music around it…. However given the change over the years in the global dynamic of how labels and distributors operate, it is highly important that Producers deliver commercially viable product in line with label(s) needs while simultaneously and seamlessly maintaining artist integrity and creativity. All of this is done in pursuit of the primary goal of ultimately producing records that fans and music lovers will love and long appreciate while allowing labels to see a return on investment.","Jahmirris C. Smith\nJahmirris C. Smith (born December 28, 1993) (23) is an AME (American Music Executive), songwriter, record producer, and actor. He is currently the CEO (Chief Executive Officer) and founder of his own record label, PGE (Pyramid Gang Entertainment LLC) (Records), & Pyramid Publishing, which is a book and music publishing company.\nBorn in the WestCourt neighborhood of Decatur, Alabama, growing up listening to his mother playing music from the 90's and early 2000's inspired him to become a young artist and record executive. After releasing a successful mixtape and managing acts after high school between 2013 and 2015, Jahmirris signed a few featured artist to his newly found imprint. Fellow american rapper Leezy Da King (Denzel Thomas) also helped Jahmirris launch PGE. Jahmirris subsequently began working only with rappers in the beginning, due to positive reviews from one of the lables artist EP, fans began craving more of his southern style artist and promotional status of hip hop music.The mixtapes spawned throughout the entire state, after noticing the buzz and the hype of his name and label, Jahmirris decided to work with other genres such as Rock, Pop, Country, and R&B artist. In 2016 PGE signed its first rock band 53 Judges. After a quick run due to misunderstandings and disagreements, the band hired an attorney to have them release from their contract.\nPGE now has a new Soul and R&B artist by the name of King Montiez (Carl Lyle) which has released multiple singles, music videos and radio interviews to promote his new album \"The Experience\" which will also be released by Pyramid Gang Records in April 2017.","Mike Caren\nMike Caren is an American record producer, songwriter, and music executive. He is the current CEO (and founder) of Artist Partners Group and Creative Officer at Warner Music Group. He is also the founder of the Artist Publishing Group and the former President of Worldwide A&R at Warner Music Group. Prior to that, Caren was the Executive Vice President of A&R at Atlantic Records and the co-president of Elektra Records. In addition to his work as a music executive, Caren has also written or produced numerous songs for artists including Beyoncé, Bruno Mars, Kanye West, and others.\nCaren grew up in Beverly Hills, California. When he was 12 years old, he began DJing at local parties in his neighborhood. He attended Beverly Hills High School and worked at a cable radio and music video show on a local public access channel. While still in high school, at age 15, Caren was offered an internship at Interscope Records by Fade Duvernay. He also founded a Los Angeles-based high school and college marketing company called Skool Rules Promotions.\nWhile interning at Interscope Records, Caren worked on the marketing campaigns for artists like Tupac Shakur. He then went on to work for Loud Records/RCA as a National High School/College Rep. Coordinator and then Ruthless Records as the National Marketing Manager. At age 17, he was offered a marketing job at Big Beat Records, owned by Atlantic Records. Caren took the job and moved from Los Angeles to New York City. During his time at Big Beat, he was also producing records for The Pharcyde, Heltah Skeltah, Saukrates, and several other hip hop artists. After two years in the marketing department, Caren switched over to A&R. Among the first artists he brought to Big Beat was Twista.\nCaren would eventually be promoted to Executive Vice President of A&R at Atlantic Records in 2007. Some of the acts he signed included Trina, Sunshine Anderson, and Platinum-selling artist, Trick Daddy. He also discovered and signed Nappy Roots while the group was still attending school at Western Kentucky University. Over the course of his tenure at Atlantic, Caren has been responsible for signing numerous other artists including, T.I., Plies, Trey Songz, Flo Rida, Wiz Khalifa and others. He also founded the Artist Publishing Group, a boutique music publishing company in association with Warner/Chappell Music.\nIn 2009, Caren was named Co-President of the revived Warner-owned Elektra Records alongside John Janick. In his capacity as co-head of the label, he helped sign and work with artists like CeeLo Green, Bruno Mars, and Ed Sheeran. In 2012, Caren was named the Warner Music Group's President of Worldwide A&R. In this post, he was responsible for artist development across numerous record labels including Atlantic Records, Elektra Records, Warner Bros. Records, and many international affiliates. WMG's constituent record labels continued seeing success with artists like Bruno Mars, Flo Rida, Ed Sheeran, and B.o.B. In 2013, Caren launched Artist Partners Group, a sister-company to the Artist Publishing Group, which provides a variety of services to artists and producers including marketing, business development, mentoring, access to recording studios, and legal support.\nIn 2016, Caren was named the Creative Officer of the Warner Music Group. Under this title, Caren acts as an advisor to WMG's global A&R department and also continues to work directly with WMG artists like David Guetta and Jason Derulo (among others). WMG also made a multi-millionaire dollar investment in Artist Partners Group which houses acts like Kevin Gates and Charlie Puth. Over the course of his career, Caren has signed or co-signed 19 Platinum- or Gold-selling artists. His Artist Publishing Group, which maintains a roster of around 30 songwriters (including Caren himself), was responsible for 30 \"Billboard\" Hot 100 entries in 2015.","Florence Greenberg\nFlorence Greenberg (September 16, 1913 – November 2, 1995) was an American record label owner, music executive and a record producer. Greenberg was the founder and owner of Tiara Records, Scepter Records, Hob Records, and Wand Records. She is most known for her work as a record producer and music executive for several popular singers in the 60s including Dionne Warwick, the Shirelles, Tammi Terrell, Chuck Jackson, B.J. Thomas and many others.\nGreenberg--a former Republican campaign worker--lived as a housewife in Passaic, New Jersey. In the mid-1950s she was in her mid-forties with two children, Mary Jane and Stanley, who were both in school, so she had nothing to do at home during the day.\nBy 1956, a 43 year-old Greenberg was desperately searching for an escape from suburban lifestyle that accompanied her being a housewife. She did not know what she wanted to do but could often be seen hanging out at the Turf restaurant in New York City as she was enamored with the atmosphere surrounding the Brill Building. A friend of her husband's, Freddy Bienstock, helped her to get in the record business by one day inviting her over to the Hill & Range Music offices when he was working with his cousins Jean and Julian Aberbach. Greenberg was a natural and immediately began exploring her options of career paths in the music industry.\nIn 1958, she started her own record label, called Tiara Records. After a performance by a group of girls at Passaic High School in 1957, Greenberg's daughter Mary Jane convinced her that she had to hear the group sing. She signed the group--popularly known as the Shirelles--to Tiara after they auditioned for Greenberg in her living room.\nThe first song recorded and released on the Tiara Records label was \"I Met Him On a Sunday\" the Shirelles' talent show song that grabbed the attention of Greenberg in the first place. Just as the record started to break locally, Greenberg sold the company with the Shirelles' contract to Decca Records for $4,000. However, she started a new label in 1959, called Scepter Records which became one of the leading independent record labels in the 1960s. Under Scepter Records Greenberg resigned the Shirelles, becoming their manager once again. In 1961, Greenberg launched another record label, called Wand Records, as a subsidiary of Scepter Records.\nIt is said that since Greenberg was a \"a white woman who was in a black business,” Scepter did not truly begin to see success until Greenberg began her partnership with Luther Dixon. Once confirming their financial partnership, Greenberg became exclusively in charge of the business development of the label while Dixon would manage Scepter's publishing and artistic production. Around this same time, she moved her labels' offices into the offices of 1650 Broadway: the home of Aldon Music. Due to its close proximity, 1650 Broaday shared many songwriters and artists (such as Carole King and Gerry Goffin) with the infamous Brill Building.\nIn 1965, Greenberg received an offer of $6 million for Scepter from Gulf+Western, an offer that she rejected and later regretted not accepting. Greenberg retired from business in 1976, and sold all of her labels to Springboard International.\nGreenberg's labels produced some of the most applauded and awarded songs of the Brill Building era including:\nGreenberg was married to an accountant with whom she had children. Mary Jane (Greenberg) Goff and Stanley Greenberg. At the time of her death, she was a grandmother to six and had five great-grandchildren. Her son-in-law, Sam Goff, is a managing partner in Essex Entertainment.\nGreenberg died on November 2, 1995, of heart failure at Hackensack University Medical Center. She was 82, and lived in Teaneck, New Jersey.\nShe is remembered fondly by those with whom she worked. For example, Maxine Brown, a Scepter artist, defined Greenberg in saying \"She was a brave woman ... to be the only woman to own a record label in this business, competing with men and standing in there toe to toe with male producers and record owners.\"\nIn 2011, a Broadway show based on Greenberg's life called \"Baby It's You!\" debuted starring Beth Leavel as Greenberg.","Tommy Brown (record producer)\nThomas Lee \"Tommy\" Brown (born May 1, 1986), also known as Tommy Brown or TB Hits, is an American recording artist, musician, Multiplatinum record producer and songwriter. Tommy currently lives in LA and was born and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He has received awards from ASCAP, and was Grammy nominated. He has scored multiple chart topping albums while working with Ariana Grande on her debut #1 album Yours Truly, and her second #1 album My Everything, lastly, Grande's 3rd studio album, Dangerous Woman charting #2 on Billboard 200. Brown has also collected production credits for three songs on Grammy-award winning artist Meghan Trainor's second album, Thank You. Brown's upcoming releases are DJ Khaled's next single \"Forgive Me Father\" feat Trainor & Wale, and Macy Gray's single \"Sugar Daddy\" feat Andre 3000. Tommy Brown is also a music producer. He has produced for many prominent artists including Ariana Grande, Travis Scott, Chris Brown, Black Eyed Peas (which gained him a Grammy nomination in 2010), T.I, Jennifer Lopez, Fifth Harmony, Pia Mia, Macy Gray, Jhene Aiko, Big Sean, Meghan Trainor, Victoria Monet, Meek Mill, Ludacris, Ray J and Gorilla Zoe. He learned from production greats Roy \"Royalty\" Hamilton and Rodney Jerkins of Darkchild, while working alongside them and eventually creating a team of his own and producing with them.\nBefore working in music, Brown worked at Sears in Atlanta, Georgia. Every night, he would hand out around 50 CDs with his songs on them and snippets of The Notorious B.I.G's \"Ten Crack Commandments\" over the tracks. He was finally contacted by Gorilla Zoe who invited Brown to work in the studio with him.\nOriginally, starting in 2008, Brown worked with production group Darkchild in his early career. During this time, he worked with artists such as Jennifer Lopez, Wyclef Jean. He has also worked with The Black Eyed Peas, most notably their song\"Just Can't Get Enough\".\nIn 2012, Brown became independent with publishing through Sony/ATV Music Publishing. He lives in Los Angeles, producing tracks for established stars and new acts like Meek Mill, Travis Scott, Cee Lo Green, Nas, T.I., Ariana Grande, John Legend, Teyana Taylor, Cyhi the Prynce, Victoria Monet, Mario, Chrisette Michele, Kelly Rowland, and 2 Chainz.\nHe has been working with Naya Rivera for her upcoming debut album as well as with Mario for his upcoming album, \"Restoration\".","Luis Silva\nLuis Saúl Silva López (born December 10, 1988) is a Mexican-American professional <a href=\"association%20football\">soccer</a> player who plays for <a href=\"Real%20Salt%20Lake\">Real Salt Lake</a> of <a href=\"Major%20League%20Soccer\">Major League Soccer</a>.\nSilva was born in <a href=\"Oaxaca\">Oaxaca</a>, <a href=\"Mexico\">Mexico</a>, and moved to <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a> at a young age. Silva spent two years playing with local youth club Pateadores, helping them win the Premier Division in 2006, as well as spending two years with <a href=\"C.D.%20Chivas%20USA\">C.D. Chivas USA</a>'s U-19 team. Silva attended <a href=\"Bishop%20Mora%20Salesian%20High%20School\">Bishop Mora Salesian High School</a> in Los Angeles where he was a two-time <a href=\"California%20Interscholastic%20Federation\">All-CIF</a> selection as a midfielder and forward. He was named Offensive Player of the Year in the 2007 season when he helped the Mustangs win the CIF Southern Section Championship and scored a goal in the Mustangs' 6–1 romp over Pasadena Marshall as the team set a finals scoring record. He went on to play collegiately with the <a href=\"UC%20Santa%20Barbara%20Gauchos%20men%27s%20soccer\">UC Santa Barbara Gauchos</a>. He was named to the All-<a href=\"Big%20West%20Conference\">Big West</a> First Team three times. In his senior year, Silva scored 17 goals and added 10 assists, garnering recognition as a <a href=\"Missouri%20Athletic%20Club\">MAC</a> <a href=\"Hermann%20Trophy\">Hermann Trophy</a> Semifinalist.\nDuring his college years, Silva also played in the <a href=\"USL%20Premier%20Development%20League\">USL Premier Development League</a> for <a href=\"Orange%20County%20Blue%20Star\">Orange County Blue Star</a> in 2011. He joined UCSB teammates <a href=\"Charley%20Pettys\">Charley Pettys</a> and <a href=\"Christian%20Ramirez%20%28soccer%2C%20born%201991%29\">Christian Ramirez</a> on the squad and finished with 5 goals and 2 assists in 10 matches played.\nLuis Silva was selected 4th overall by <a href=\"Toronto%20FC\">Toronto FC</a> in the first round of the <a href=\"2012%20MLS%20SuperDraft\">2012 MLS SuperDraft</a>. Silva made his debut for Toronto FC on March 7, 2012, scoring a goal against the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Galaxy\">Los Angeles Galaxy</a> in the <a href=\"2011%E2%80%9312%20CONCACAF%20Champions%20League%20Championship%20Round\">2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League quarterfinals</a>. Silva scored his first league goal against <a href=\"Vancouver%20Whitecaps%20FC\">Vancouver Whitecaps</a> on July 11, the game ended in a 3–2 home victory. Three days after his first league goal, he scored the lone goal in an away victory over <a href=\"New%20England%20Revolution\">New England Revolution</a>.\nOn July 9, 2013, it was announced that Silva had been traded to fellow MLS side <a href=\"D.C.%20United\">D.C. United</a> in exchange for allocation money. On his regular season debut on July 20, Silva scored from 30 yards as his team lost 4–1 to the <a href=\"Chicago%20Fire%20Soccer%20Club\">Chicago Fire</a>. Silva scored a first half <a href=\"hat-trick\">hat-trick</a> against the <a href=\"Montreal%20Impact\">Montreal Impact</a> at <a href=\"Saputo%20Stadium\">Saputo Stadium</a> on June 11, 2014, leading D.C. United to a 4–2 win.\nOn July 16, 2015, it was announced that Silva had been traded to MLS team Real Salt Lake for <a href=\"%C3%81lvaro%20Sabor%C3%ADo\">Álvaro Saborío</a>. Silva ended his D.C. United career with totals of 15 goals and six assists in 54 appearances, including a career-best 11 goals in 2014. In 2016, he moved to <a href=\"Liga%20MX\">Liga MX</a> side <a href=\"Tigres%20UANL\">Tigres UANL</a>.\n","David Lee Garza\nDavid Lee Garza (<a href=\"Jourdanton\">Jourdanton</a>, 1957) is an American Tejano musician and bandleader.","La Mafia\nLa Mafia is a four-time <a href=\"Grammy%20Award\">Grammy Award</a>-winning musical group. It has its roots in the Northside neighborhood of <a href=\"Houston%2C%20Texas\">Houston, Texas</a>, and has charted a course as a <a href=\"Tejano%20music\">Latin music</a> band.\nLa Mafia was founded in 1980 in Houston, TX. Vocalist <a href=\"Oscar%20De%20La%20Rosa\">Oscar De La Rosa</a> & producer/keyboardist/accordionist <a href=\"Armando%20Lichtenberger%20Jr.\">Armando Lichtenberger Jr.</a> created an original style that survived various changes in the music industry. The band consists of Tim Ruiz on bass, David Delagarza on keyboards and background vocals, Eduardo Torres on drums, Viktor Pacheko on Guitar and Robbie Longoria on six bass and percussion. in 2007 The band has won 2 Grammys & 2 Latin Grammys was nominated in 2009 for a Latin Grammy for the album \"<a href=\"Eternamente%20Romanticos\">Eternamente Romanticos</a>\".\nLa Mafia, seeking to expand their musical horizons, began touring extensively in <a href=\"Mexico\">Mexico</a> and <a href=\"Latin%20America\">Latin America</a> beginning in the late 1980s. The practice of Mexican-American artists performing in Mexico on a large scale was unheard of before La Mafia.\nSince 1993, La Mafia has recorded each of its hits at its own Urbana Recording Studios, including the million-selling <a href=\"Estas%20Tocando%20Fuego\">Estas Tocando Fuego</a> and <a href=\"Ahora%20y%20Siempre%20%28La%20Mafia%20album%29\">Ahora y Siempre</a>. The band has recorded 35 albums and CDs, not including dozens of compilation and greatest hits releases.\nLa Mafia received Grammy Awards for its CDs \"<a href=\"Un%20Mill%C3%B3n%20de%20Rosas\">Un Millón de Rosas</a>\" and \"<a href=\"En%20Tus%20Manos%20%28La%20Mafia%20album%29\">En Tus Manos</a>\" and Latin Grammy Awards for its CDs \"<a href=\"Para%20El%20Pueblo\">Para El Pueblo</a>\" and \"Nuevamente\". It also has received eight <a href=\"Premio%20Lo%20Nuestro\">Premio Lo Nuestro Award</a>s and 12 <a href=\"Tejano%20Music%20Awards\">Tejano Music Awards</a>, including a Lifetime Achievement Award from the latter, numerous Billboard awards and was listed in the top 10 Billboard Latin Artists for the entire decade of the 1990s, ranking La Mafia as the most successful Latin artist Houston has ever produced.","2016 Tejano Music Awards\nThe 2016 <a href=\"Tejano%20Music%20Awards\">Tejano Music Awards</a> is expected to be held on November 12, 2016 at the <a href=\"Tobin%20Center%20for%20the%20Performing%20Arts\">Tobin Center for the Performing Arts</a> in <a href=\"San%20Antonio%2C%20Texas\">San Antonio</a>, <a href=\"Texas\">Texas</a>. The deadline for nominations for the various Tejano Music Awards categories by the artists' representative are due by June 19, 2016. Nominations will then be announced at a later date for <a href=\"Direct%20election\">public voting</a>. The annual 2016 Tejano Fan Fair (which precedes every Tejano Music Awards) was held at the <a href=\"Market%20Square%20%28San%20Antonio%29\">Historic Market Square</a> in San Antonio from March 17-20, 2016.","Music executive\nA music executive or record executive is a person within a <a href=\"record%20label\">record label</a> who works in senior management, making executive decisions over the label's artists. Their role varies greatly but in essence, they can oversee one, or many, aspects of a record label, including <a href=\"A%26amp%3BR\">A&R</a>, <a href=\"Recording%20contract\">contract</a>s, <a href=\"music%20management\">management</a>, <a href=\"Music%20publisher%20%28popular%20music%29\">publishing</a>, <a href=\"record%20producer\">production</a>, <a href=\"manufacturing\">manufacture</a>, <a href=\"marketing\">marketing</a>/<a href=\"Promotion%20%28marketing%29\">promotion</a>, <a href=\"Record%20distributor\">distribution</a>, <a href=\"copyright\">copyright</a>, and <a href=\"concert%20tour\">touring</a>. Although music executives work in senior management, a number of music executives have gone on to establish their own record labels as owners themselves, sometimes being involved in the music industry initially as artists, A&Rs, or producers for a number of years and building a strong reputation.\nMusic executives work in a variety of settings for \"major\" record labels such as <a href=\"Universal%20Music%20Group\">Universal Music Group</a> (part of EMI's recorded music division absorbed into UMG), <a href=\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\">Sony Music Entertainment</a> (EMI Music Publishing absorbed into Sony/ATV Music Publishing), or <a href=\"Warner%20Music%20Group\">Warner Music Group</a>. However, many choose to work with, or start their own <a href=\"independent%20record%20labels\">independent record labels</a> such as <a href=\"Sub%20Pop\">Sub Pop</a>, <a href=\"Ironworks%20%28record%20label%29\">Ironworks</a> and <a href=\"Jagjaguwar\">Jagjaguwar</a>.","Zomba Group of Companies\nThe Zomba Group of Companies (sometimes referred to as Zomba Music Group or just Zomba Group) was a music group and division which was owned by and operated under <a href=\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\">Sony Music Entertainment</a>. The division was renamed to Jive Label Group in 2009 and was placed under the <a href=\"RCA/Jive%20Label%20Group\">RCA/Jive Label Group</a> umbrella. In 2011, the RCA/Jive Label Group was split in half. Multiple Jive Label Group artists were moved to <a href=\"Epic%20Records\">Epic Records</a> while others stayed with Jive as it moved under the <a href=\"RCA%20Music%20Group\">RCA Music Group</a>. In October 2011 Jive Records was shut down and their artists were moved to <a href=\"RCA%20Records\">RCA Records</a>.\nFounded independently in the mid-seventies by <a href=\"Clive%20Calder\">Clive Calder</a> and <a href=\"Ralph%20Simon\">Ralph Simon</a>, the group has had interests in music release, distribution, production, publishing, equipment rental, recording studios, and artist management. Though the financial structure and annual revenue of Zomba during the company's independent period was only known to <a href=\"CEO\">CEO</a> <a href=\"Clive%20Calder\">Clive Calder</a> (the company was registered privately offshore in the <a href=\"Dutch%20Antilles\">Dutch Antilles</a>), Zomba was widely regarded as the most successful of the <a href=\"independent%20record%20label\">independent music companies</a>.\nThe group is perhaps best known for its role in developing some of the most popular forms of music, such as <a href=\"hip-hop\">hip-hop</a> in the 1980s, and the <a href=\"teen%20pop\">teen pop</a>/<a href=\"boy%20band\">boy band</a> phenomenon in the late 1990s through their first record label <a href=\"Jive%20Records\">Jive</a>, though they have also had substantial activities in both the Christian and gospel music field. Calder and Simon both served as CEOs until 1990 when Calder bought out Simon's share and ran the company himself until 2002. In 2002, BMG purchased the company and subsequently restructured the labels under the umbrella company Zomba Label Group, which was the most public face of the company. The label group served as a parent for many different labels including Jive, <a href=\"Silvertone%20Records%20%281980%29\">Silvertone</a>, <a href=\"Volcano%20Entertainment\">Volcano</a> and <a href=\"LaFace%20Records\">LaFace</a>.\nIn late 1971, Clive Calder and Ralph Simon began their two-decade partnership in forming businesses in record production and promotion, music publishing, artist management and concert promotion in South Africa. Because of the market in South Africa, there was a need to branch out into various aspects of the business, instead of just focusing on one aspect of the industry. \"You couldn't do just one thing. It was too small,\" explained David Gresham, CEO of David Gresham Record Company. \"This is not a country where you have a million-seller. A No. 1 record is a 10,000 unit seller. That only pays the rent for a month or two.\" While almost mandatory in South Africa, this early style of music company would be adapted to other markets throughout the companies history, and would become a staple of Calder's managing legacy.\nEarly companies formed by Calder and Simon were Sagittarius Management and Clive Calder Productions (CCP). CCP was distributed by EMI Records South Africa who purchased the company in 1972. Although Calder has no stake in it now, it still exists as a wholly owned subsidiary of EMI, specializing in the recording, development and marketing of domestic artists. Calder's relationship with EMI began when he had been an A&R Manager at EMI South Africa for eighteen months. There he had signed some big groups for the time such as Freedom's Children and the Otis Waygood Blues Band. During this time, Calder was also a bassist in a few bands. He formed the Four Dukes and the In Crowd with EMI artist Peter Vee, whom he also produced. Calder eventually paired Lee with a young producer named <a href=\"Mutt%20Lange\">Mutt Lange</a>, who began producing songs for Calder at CCP, including the local hit \"Sunday Monday Tuesday\" by Jessica Jones.\nThe trio of Calder, Simon and Lange decided in 1974 that they had to get out of South Africa. \"We were politically very much opposed to the old apartheid regime\" says Simon. They pooled together what little money they had and moved to London. Having landed right in the middle of the British <a href=\"punk%20rock\">punk rock</a> movement, they felt their experience would not be best utilized in marketing and promotion in such a different context. Instead, they opted to create a publishing company and Zomba Corporation was officially registered in <a href=\"Switzerland\">Switzerland</a> in 1975, operating out of Calder's bedroom space in London.<ref name=\"woweu0506/3\"> </ref> The name \"<a href=\"Zomba%2C%20Malawi\">Zomba</a>\" referred to the capital of African country <a href=\"Malawi\">Malawi</a> (<a href=\"Lilongwe\">Lilongwe</a> superseded Zomba as Malawi's capital in 1974).\nNext, Calder and Simon began looking for songwriters. The first was <a href=\"Henri%20Belolo\">Henri Belolo</a>, the French producer who helped create the <a href=\"Village%20People\">Village People</a>. Zomba became the <a href=\"disco\">disco</a> group's British publisher. Though the band had been turned down by a few UK labels, Calder and Simon thought they could retain the most control of Zomba if they stayed in the publishing and management business, allowing other labels to release their artists' music. Meanwhile, Lange was building a name for himself as a producer, with albums by the <a href=\"Boomtown%20Rats\">Boomtown Rats</a>, <a href=\"Graham%20Parker\">Graham Parker</a> and eventually <a href=\"AC/DC\">AC/DC's</a> 1979 \"<a href=\"Highway%20to%20Hell\">Highway to Hell</a>\", his breakthrough album. This led to Lange becoming one of the world's leading hard-rock producers, later adding <a href=\"Def%20Leppard\">Def Leppard</a>, <a href=\"Foreigner%20%28band%29\">Foreigner</a> and <a href=\"Bryan%20Adams\">Bryan Adams</a> to his resume. For Zomba, this meant increased exposure and credibility leading to many new producer and songwriter management deals. Additionally, artists would sign publishing deals, giving their publishing company a constantly burgeoning collection.\nIn early 1978, Zomba opened offices in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> and began looking for more artists and songwriters. <a href=\"Clive%20Davis\">Clive Davis</a> was one of the first to contact the group, who used his recently formed <a href=\"Arista%20Records\">Arista Records</a> to distribute Zomba artists. The first major signing was <a href=\"Billy%20Ocean\">Billy Ocean</a>. Over the next few years, Zomba's songwriters hit it big and the publishing profits kicked in, marking the beginning of the company's first major expansion into record labels. Though Davis wanted Calder to head his West Coast A&R operations, Calder had a different plans altogether, and instead presented <a href=\"Jive%20Records\">Jive Records</a> to Davis.\nArista had been having trouble pushing rock acts in the US, and Clive Davis had hoped that with Zomba's Mutt Lange connection, Jive would fill that role. However, Calder had other ideas. In 1981, Jive began operations by releasing British dance and pop music such as <a href=\"Q-Feel\">Q-Feel</a>, <a href=\"A%20Flock%20of%20Seagulls\">A Flock of Seagulls</a> and <a href=\"Tight%20Fit\">Tight Fit</a>. By 1982, Calder was introduced to a young fresh college graduate named <a href=\"Barry%20Weiss\">Barry Weiss</a> who, for his job interview with Zomba, took Calder out to <a href=\"hip-hop\">hip-hop</a> and black clubs all over New York City. Calder was immediately impressed with the man and had him scanning sales data all over the country searching for unknown acts on small labels selling large numbers. Calder got one of his songwriters <a href=\"Thomas%20Dolby\">Thomas Dolby</a> to create a catchy hook for a local DJ <a href=\"Mr.%20Magic\">Mr. Magic</a> to rap over. Mr. Magic had to cancel at the last minute, but fortunately he knew another rapper, Jalil Hutchins. Weiss's stress level shot up when Hutchins came to the session with another unknown rapper named Ecstasy and no rhymes. After two days, the group created and recorded \"Magic's Wand\" which turned into a hit single. Weiss named the group Houdini, but Calder changed it to <a href=\"Whodini\">Whodini</a>. Calder flew the group to London to record an album, then to Germany to record with producer <a href=\"Conny%20Plank\">Konrad \"Conny\" Plank</a> of <a href=\"Devo\">Devo</a> and <a href=\"Ultravox\">Ultravox</a> fame. While the group would eventually leave Jive after a few albums, the early success resulted in Jive becoming a label with a focus on hip-hop artists throughout the eighties. At a time when the record establishment wouldn't touch \"ghetto\" music like rap, a white South African successfully marketed some of the edgiest black music.\nAfter Whodini, Jive began signing other rap artists into the later half of the decade. <a href=\"Boogie%20Down%20Productions\">Boogie Down Productions</a> was signed on the strength of their first record \"<a href=\"Criminal%20Minded\">Criminal Minded</a>\", and their Jive debut \"<a href=\"By%20All%20Means%20Necessary\">By All Means Necessary</a>\" was released in 1988. Young <a href=\"West%20Coast%20of%20the%20United%20States\">West Coast</a> rapper <a href=\"Too%20Short\">Too Short</a> was picked up by Jive after his independently released \"<a href=\"Born%20to%20Mack\">Born to Mack</a>\" sold over 50,000 copies. Jive gave the album national distribution which led to gold status, and then quickly issued his follow up \"<a href=\"Life%20Is...Too%20Short\">Life Is...Too Short</a>\" which achieved platinum status. Meanwhile, Jive signed <a href=\"DJ%20Jazzy%20Jeff%20%26amp%3B%20The%20Fresh%20Prince\">DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince</a> in 1986 and released their debut \"<a href=\"Rock%20the%20House%20%28album%29\">Rock the House</a>\". The duo was a great success for Jive, helping make rap more accessible.\nJive continued supporting rap artists into the nineties. Most of the aforementioned groups continued on Jive into the next decade. <a href=\"KRS-One\">KRS-One</a>, the primary force behind Boogie Down Productions, released a string of solo albums with Jive beginning with \"<a href=\"Return%20of%20the%20Boom%20Bap\">Return of the Boom Bap</a>\" in 1993. In 1991, Jive signed R&B artist <a href=\"R.%20Kelly\">R. Kelly</a> who, along with his backing band <a href=\"Public%20Announcement\">Public Announcement</a>, released their debut \"<a href=\"Born%20into%20the%2090%27s\">Born into the 90's</a>\" in early 1992. R. Kelly's began his solo career with \"<a href=\"12%20Play\">12 Play</a>\" in 1993 and continues to release with Jive today. <a href=\"A%20Tribe%20Called%20Quest\">A Tribe Called Quest</a> was signed by Jive in 1989 following a successful independently released single \"Description of a Fool.\" Their debut album \"<a href=\"People%27s%20Instinctive%20Travels%20and%20the%20Paths%20of%20Rhythm\">People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm</a>\" was released by Jive in 1990 and framed the group as one of the most intelligent rap groups. Many other rap and R&B artists were signed throughout the eighties and nineties before the teen-pop explosion in the later half of the decade.\nBy 1990, Zomba was worth $225 million with over fifty companies. Contrary to most other record businesses at the time, Zomba spared no time with frills. \"The Jive offices were crummy, cardboard desks. They just really did everything on the cheap\", says attorney Gary Stiffelman. The company began to attract more major label attention when EMI attempted to buy the company, but was ultimately turned down. This period also saw Ralph Simon leaving Zomba at the start of the decade. Through an unspecified \"ethical disagreement\", Calder and Simon ended their relationship of over two decades. Calder bought out Simon's half of the company and subsequently gained full control of the company. In late 1991, BMG furthered its relationship with Zomba buy purchasing a 25% stake in their music publishing business, allowing them to sub-publish Zomba compositions in foreign markets. BMG continued with a 20% purchase of Zomba's records division in 1996.\nBuilding on the successes of the Jive label, Zomba began expanding its reach by purchasing and creating new labels, and by creating new divisions that helped expose more people to Zomba artists and services. In 1988, <a href=\"Andrew%20Lauder%20%28music%20executive%29\">Andrew Lauder</a> formed the UK-based <a href=\"Silvertone%20Records%20%281980%29\">Silvertone Records</a> under the Zomba Group. While Jive focused on hip hop, Silvertone focused on more rock-oriented music. The label's roster was initially bolstered by <a href=\"The%20Stone%20Roses\">The Stone Roses</a>, but quickly expanded to include blues, acoustic, and roots music. Other artists featured early on Silvertone include <a href=\"John%20Lee%20Hooker\">John Lee Hooker</a>, <a href=\"J.J.%20Cale\">J.J. Cale</a> and <a href=\"The%20Men%20They%20Couldn%27t%20Hang\">The Men They Couldn't Hang</a>. This period also saw one of the few times that Zomba attempted cracking the <a href=\"classical%20music\">classical music</a> market. In 1992, Zomba purchased UK classical music group Conifer Classics with the aide of the group's head Alison Wenham. Though the deal seemed to be solid, Zomba sold the company to BMG in 1995. Classical music activities have remained minimal within the company since then. Building on existing publishing deals, Zomba briefly co-owned the UK label <a href=\"Sanctuary%20Records\">Sanctuary Records</a>. While the co-ownership only lasted between 1989 and 1991, the two companies continued dealing together in other avenues, including a publishing deal with Sanctuary artists <a href=\"Iron%20Maiden\">Iron Maiden</a>. In 1998, Zomba purchased a 50% stake in the troubled label <a href=\"Volcano%20Entertainment\">Volcano Entertainment</a> (called <a href=\"Freeworld%20Entertainment\">Freeworld</a> at the time). The label had been under financial pressure due to various reasons, including a lawsuit from flagship artist <a href=\"Tool%20%28band%29\">Tool</a>. The purchase was shared with management firm Q-Prime, though shortly after they sold their half to Zomba, making Volcano a wholly owned subsidiary. The first action was to settle the lawsuit with Tool, who would go on to become another Zomba success throughout the 2000s, representing the broad stylistic reach of artists under the Zomba Group. In December 2000, Volcano Entertainment purchased <a href=\"Capricorn%20Records\">Capricorn Records</a> from <a href=\"Phil%20Walden\">Phil Walden</a>, an independent record label launched by Walden, his brother <a href=\"Alan%20Walden\">Alan Walden</a> and <a href=\"Frank%20Fenter\">Frank Fenter</a> in 1969. With it, the Zomba subsidiary acquired a large catalog of music as well as active bands <a href=\"311%20%28band%29\">311</a>, <a href=\"Goldfinger%20%28band%29\">Goldfinger</a>, <a href=\"Reel%20Big%20Fish\">Reel Big Fish</a>, <a href=\"2%20Skinnee%20J%27s\">2 Skinnee J's</a> and the jam bands Galactic and <a href=\"Widespread%20Panic\">Widespread Panic</a>.\nIn 1993, Zomba created Zomba! Music Services in order to facilitate publishing rights for those in the film and television industry. The division would act as a channel through which clients could acquire products and services from any company within Zomba. Songs published by Zomba Music Publishers Ltd., or released on any of the Zomba labels, or specialty recordings owned by the division itself, could be sourced for inclusion on film soundtracks, television shows or commercials. This move gave Zomba profits by providing an accessible method of accessing the company's vast publishing catalogue.\nThe year 1994 saw the first of many of Zomba's successful forays into the Christian music scene with the purchase of the Brentwood Music Group. Brentwood was an established company consisting of an extensive Christian distribution network, several labels, and one of the largest music publishing divisions in printed choral music in the U.S. Expanding on the Brentwood purchase, Zomba purchased the Christian label group <a href=\"Reunion%20Records\">Reunion Records</a> from BMG in October 1996. In 1997, Zomba purchased yet another Christian music affiliated company, the <a href=\"Benson%20Records\">Benson Music Group</a>, from Music Entertainment Group. Benson became Zomba's third label to focus on Christian music following Brentwood Music and Reunion Records. An important asset of the Brentwood acquisition was the publishing arm, founded in 1902, that included 46,000 copyrights from artists such as <a href=\"Elvis%20Presley\">Elvis Presley</a>, <a href=\"Dolly%20Parton\">Dolly Parton</a>, <a href=\"Linda%20Ronstadt\">Linda Ronstadt</a>, and <a href=\"Willie%20Nelson\">Willie Nelson</a>.\nIn reaction to the surge in Christian-oriented labels gathered over so few years, Zomba created the <a href=\"Provident%20Label%20Group\">Provident Music Group</a> in June 1997. The Nashville-based group was led by Jim Van Hook and was essentially a continuation of the Brentwood group and an amalgamation of the other Christian-oriented labels. The group consisted of the Benson, Brentwood and Reunion groups, as well as the Brentwood/Benson Publishing Group and newly formed Provident Music Distribution arms. This new group allowed the three main sublabels to have unified resources and distribution while still retaining their unique personalities in the market.\nIn 1996, Zomba acquired the Windsong Holdings which gave them control of many new companies including <a href=\"Windsong%20International\">Windsong International</a>, <a href=\"Pinnacle%20Entertainment%20%28UK%29\">Pinnacle Entertainment</a> and <a href=\"Music%20For%20Nations\">Music For Nations</a>. It also gave them control of the established music company <a href=\"Rough%20Trade%20Records\">Rough Trade</a> (80% of Rough Trade Records <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>/<a href=\"Switzerland\">Switzerland</a>/<a href=\"Austria\">Austria</a> (GSA) and 100% of Rough Trade <a href=\"Benelux\">Benelux</a>). Rough Trade was primarily known as a distributor, but it also ran many <a href=\"electronic%20dance%20music\">electronic</a> labels based in Germany. In July 1999, Rough Trade GSA was renamed Zomba Records GmbH, while the Benelux operation (which only had distribution at the time) was absorbed into Zomba Distribution. The Rough Trade name remained as an imprint of Zomba Records GmbH, but was largely abandoned by Zomba.\nWith the successful integration of Rough Trade into its operations in the GSA region and Benelux and to expand on recent teen pop successes, Zomba created a London-based international label group, Zomba International Records Group. Directed by Stuart Watson, the new organization allowed each new local territory to freely sign and develop acts on its own. If those artists could create a strong regional profile, it would be possible to \"export\" them to Zomba International for broader exposure. Simultaneously, it allowed Zomba artists increased international exposure. The expansion was largely unhampered, save for some legal issues with the Australian branch. Australian record company Festival Mushroom Group lost at least a dozen employees to Zomba in early 1999, and placed an injunction that stopped them from soliciting Mushroom employees, and accused former employee Scott Murphy of trying to bolster Zomba's presence while still working for Mushroom. However, the issue was resolved fairly amicably and ended with a distribution deal with BFM Distribution (a joint venture of Festival Mushroom Group and BMG).\nAs the record industry began evolving due to the widespread use of the Internet, and the increasing ease with which artists can record at home, Zomba made moves that illustrated their desire to change with the times. In 2000, they joined the growing list of record companies that made some music available via digital download with online distribution company Amplified Entertainment. In 2002, Zomba joined majors EMI, Universal and BMG, with approving some of their Jive catalog for release on the new <a href=\"DataPlay\">DataPlay</a> media. Though the media was largely unsuccessful, the move illustrated Zomba's competitiveness with the major labels in the growing digital world. However, a negative outcome of the changing times was the closing of some of Zomba's Battery Studios and Dreamline equipment rental businesses towards the end of 2001.\nAround 1993, Clive Calder began his uneasy relationship with <a href=\"Lou%20Pearlman\">Lou Pearlman</a>. Pearlman had put together a new group, <a href=\"Backstreet%20Boys\">Backstreet Boys</a>, which was languishing on <a href=\"Mercury%20Records\">Mercury</a> without any hits. He presented the group to Calder along with <a href=\"Dave%20McPherson%20%28musician%29\">David McPherson</a>. Though initially uninterested due to the dominance of grunge and alternative rock, Calder thought that the group could help expand his operations overseas. Zomba bought out the boys contract for $35,000 and moved the group over to Zomba imprint <a href=\"Jive%20Records\">Jive</a>. Calder immediately sent the group to Sweden and matched them with a group of producers recently found by Zomba scouts: <a href=\"Denniz%20Pop\">Dag Volle</a> and <a href=\"Max%20Martin\">Martin Sandberg</a>. In mid-1995, the band recorded their three songs including their first single at <a href=\"Cheiron%20Studios\">Cheiron Studios</a> in <a href=\"Stockholm\">Stockholm</a>. Next Calder matched them with an old friend, Stuart Watson, who ran SWAT Enterprises, a company specializing in promotion in Asia. The group went to Asia began touring relentlessly and released their <a href=\"Backstreet%20Boys%20%28International%29\">first album</a> which sold one million copies in three weeks. In 1997, when Calder thought the grunge phenomenon had sufficiently passed, he took the group back over to the United States where their <a href=\"Backstreet%20Boys%20%28US%29\">North American debut</a> ended up selling upwards of 14 million copies, creating the first in a run of many hits that Zomba and the Backstreet Boys would enjoy together.\nWhile Pearlman and Watson were breaking the Backstreet Boys overseas, Jive A&R man Steve Lunt was busy in the US seeking a female star, and was greeted with fifteen-year-old <a href=\"Britney%20Spears\">Britney Spears</a>. Initially horrified by Spears karaoke <a href=\"demo%20%28music%29\">demo</a> of a <a href=\"Toni%20Braxton\">Toni Braxton</a> song sung in the wrong register, Lunt was intrigued by a brief moment at the end where he heard the \"kind of soul she had.\" As was the virtually the standard at Zomba, Lunt took Spears to in-house songwriter and producer Eric Foster White in the company's publishing division, and the two recorded \"<a href=\"You%20Got%20It%20All%20%28The%20Jets%20song%29\">You Got It All</a>.\" Like the Backstreet Boys, Spears was hooked up with Cheiron producer <a href=\"Max%20Martin\">Max Martin</a>. Within thirty days of letting a music director at <a href=\"KFMB-FM\">Star 100.7</a> in <a href=\"San%20Diego\">San Diego</a> hear \"<a href=\"...Baby%20One%20More%20Time%20%28song%29\">...Baby One More Time</a>\", the song was number one on the charts in 1999.\nIn 1999 Zomba was involved in a \"boy band controversy\" when trying to sign another group that Pearlman had put together himself, <a href=\"%2ANSYNC\">*NSYNC</a>. *NSYNC had recently left RCA due to allegations that Pearlman had taken approximately 50% of their profits and not the one-sixth that he had agreed to. Seeing the group as a \"free-agent,\" Jive quickly signed them and prepared to release their next album. On 12 October, Pearlman's company Trans Continental, in conjunction with RCA owner BMG Entertainment and BMG Ariola Munich sued Jive Records, Clive Calder, and the members of *NSYNC for $150 million citing, among other things, breach of contract. Pearlman sought an injunction against the release of the band's new album and that the recordings be given to him, but it was denied in court. As a response to the suit, and in reference to treatment by Trans Continental, *NSYNC released a statement citing the company's poor conduct as \"the most glaring, overt, and callous example of artist exploitation that the music industry has seen in a long time.\" The lawsuit was settled on 23 December with undisclosed terms, but left Jive free to release future *NSYNC albums.\nThe lawsuit, which \"<a href=\"Rolling%20Stone\">Rolling Stone</a>\" called \"the music industry's nastiest legal skirmishes in years,\" was problematic for Zomba for two main reasons. First, having heard that 'N Sync was signed to Jive, the Backstreet Boys did not want to be a part of the label anymore. Second, the lawsuit temporarily strained Zomba's relationship with BMG, whose distribution deal with Zomba was coming to a close. Jive initially announced that they would not renew their deal with BMG, but reconsidered following the lawsuit with BMG and Trans Continental. The distribution deal may have been a determining factor in the outcome of the lawsuit, since distributed Zomba product accounted for 5.5% of BMG's US market share, and company CEO Strauss Zelnick was under pressure not to lose that. They also signed a new deal with the Backstreet Boys that gave the band a 20% royalty rate.\nBMG had owned 25% of Zomba's publishing business since 1991 and 20% of its recording business since 1996. As part of BMG's 1996 agreement with Zomba, the music giant was required to follow through on a <a href=\"put%20option\">put option</a> and buy the remaining shares it did not already own before 31 December 2002. In June 2002, Clive Calder decided to exercise the put option. Effective 26 November 2002, BMG Entertainment concluded its deal with Zomba for the purchase of the company's entire assets. While Calder had originally requested $3.2 billion for his shares in Zomba, valuation of the label's assets varied from $1.6 billion to $2.4 billion. Following the purchase negotiations, a price of $2.74 billion was agreed upon, the biggest purchase of an independent at the time. Zomba's sale had been the latest in a series of independent label sellouts including Island Records and Geffen Records (both sold to Universal for $300 million and $550 million respectively), and Virgin (sold for $950 million to EMI). The $2.74 billion paid for the Zomba Group was more than was paid for the purchase of many others labels including Island, Geffen, Virgin, A&M, Motown, Chrysalis, and Def Jam, combined.\nInitially, BMG took its time in integrating Zomba with the rest of its labels, hoping that the former independent would lift BMGs worldwide rank from fifth to fourth-largest record company. Calder resigned his position as CEO immediately after the purchase, but stayed on in an advisory position for about another year. In mid-2003, BMG began its worldwide integration of Zomba cutting hundreds of jobs through the consolidation of regional operations. While many of the key managers stayed, and the large offices in the US and the UK remained operational, all of the other regional offices were assimilated into BMG. In addition to the regional mergers, the Zomba and BMG publishing companies were integrated. The US and UK offices remained as stand-alone units, but many of the back-office functions were consolidated into BMG. The Provident Music Group, Zomba's foray into the Christian music market, was reassigned as a RCA sub-label. By 2004, the record labels were reorganized under the Zomba Label Group.\nIn 2004, <a href=\"Bertelsmann%20Music%20Group\">BMG</a> and <a href=\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\">Sony Music Entertainment</a> merged to form <a href=\"Sony%20BMG%20Music%20Entertainment\">Sony BMG Music Entertainment</a> taking Zomba with it. Though the merger was plagued with controversy and eventually ended with Sony buying out BMG's stake in late 2008, Zomba executives continued to expand the company's operations in various aspects. In 2007, as part of Sony BMG integration and consolidation, RCA Music Group and Zomba Label Group merged their international, sales and field staffs to form the BMG Label Group under Sony BMG. RCA and Zomba kept separate groups under BMG, but this configuration was short-lived due to the dissolution of the Sony BMG merger. Zomba is currently owned wholly by, and operates under Sony.\nOn 2 November 2004 the <a href=\"American%20Federation%20of%20Musicians\">American Federation of Musicians</a> announced that it had entered into an agreement with Zomba. Effective 1 January 2005, the labor union covered all artists on any Zomba subsidiary labels (and any future labels) under the Federation's Sound Recording Labor Agreement. The deal ensured that all artists under the Zomba aegis would receive, for the first time, a full range of benefits and protections, among which are scale payments, industry standard working conditions and pension contributions.\nIn 2005, Zomba formed Zomba Gospel under the Zomba Label Group in an effort to collate its recently expanding gospel labels. Zomba's interest in gospel began in the form of a distribution deal with <a href=\"GospoCentric%20Records\">GospoCentric Records</a> (and sublabel B'Rite Music) in October 2001, which Zomba later purchased in 2004. Verity Records president Max Siegel was charged with heading the new entity which included Zomba labels Verity and GospoCentric, as well as four artist owned imprints: Quiet Water Entertainment (<a href=\"Donald%20Lawrence\">Donald Lawrence</a>), Fo Yo Soul Entertainment (<a href=\"Kirk%20Franklin\">Kirk Franklin</a>), New Life Records (<a href=\"John%20P.%20Kee\">John P. Kee</a>) and F. Hammond Music (<a href=\"Fred%20Hammond\">Fred Hammond</a>). Distribution was handled by Provident-Integrity for the Christian Bookselling Association, and through Sony Distribution (formerly Sony BMG) for the mainstream market.\nZomba's publishing division also continued its expansion. In 2006, Zomba Music Publishing purchased the catalogue of the UK-based Strongsongs Music Publishing from the Telstar Music Group. This large acquisition gave expanded Zomba's rights to many international hitmakers to include <a href=\"Metallica\">Metallica</a>, <a href=\"Craig%20David\">Craig David</a> and <a href=\"Dannii%20Minogue\">Dannii Minogue</a> among others. Beginning with the appointment of David Mantel in 2005 as the head of Zomba Music Publishing US operations, the company began to take a different signing approach that focused on unknown or unsigned artists. Mantel's first signing was <a href=\"T-Pain\">T-Pain</a>, whose two singles \"I'm Sprung\" and \"I'm N Luv (Wit a Stripper)\" hit number 8 and 5 respectively on the Billboard Hot 100. This type of signing was also used in the records division were artists or producers were given their own imprint. In October 2008, Zomba made an all-inclusive multiyear joint-venture deal with Hitz Committee Entertainment, and imprint in the making for almost 5 years by Jive A&R VP Micky \"MeMpHiTz\" Wright. Beginning in 2008, Hitz Committee consists of a record label under Sony, music production, music publishing, artist and producer management, and TV and film projects.\nThe structure of the Zomba Group during the independent era (1975 to 2002) is difficult to pinpoint exactly due to the private nature of Clive Calder's managing style. During that period, Calder's private investment group Summer Shore <a href=\"Naamloze%20vennootschap\">NV</a> controlled the Zomba group. The company began as Zomba Management and Publishers as early as 1975. They expanded to the US, first with a publishing sector in 1978, then a records division in 1981 while the management and publishing divisions became separate companies. Also sometime during that period, they started a production division initially called Zomba Productions Ltd., which would become Zomba Recording Corporation. From a legal standpoint, Zomba's <a href=\"holding%20company\">holdings</a> are divided into their music publishing business (Zomba Music Holdings <a href=\"Besloten%20Vennootschap\">BV</a>) and music recording business (Zomba Record Holdings BV). The former holds only music publishing (i.e., written music) rights, while the latter holds all of the recorded music rights, along with some publishing groups acquired over the years. In addition to those two, there is another holding company called Zomba Entertainment Holdings BV.<ref name=\"woweu0304/3\"> </ref> Below is a breakdown of most of the companies and divisions that have been owned by Zomba. Since the BMG integration in mid-2003, and further integration into Sony Music in early 2009, the exact status of some companies is not known. As much detail has been provided to illustrate the current status of these companies.\nZomba's first, and flagship label is Jive, formed in 1981. Since then, Zomba has acquired and created a variety of labels and label groups that either operate independent from, or under Jive. During its independent period, the various record labels under Zomba all reported directly to a records division. There was no formal public face for the labels until BMG formed Zomba Label Group in 2004. Though the term \"Zomba label group\" or \"Zomba Group records division\" had been used previously to refer to the various labels owned by the company, it wasn't until then that an actual company was created to control the labels specifically. The Zomba Recording Corporation continues to coordinate production activities on many Zomba subsidiary releases.\nFrom 1981 until 1987, Zomba labels were distributed by <a href=\"Arista%20Records\">Arista</a>. Following that, Zomba signed a deal with <a href=\"RCA%20Records\">RCA</a> for distribution that lasted until 1991. The end of the deal coincided with BMG purchasing a large share of RCA and a deal with BMG was signed for distribution. BMG remained the North American distributor for Zomba until after the purchase in 2002, however, other regions had various other distributors over time. <a href=\"EMI\">EMI</a> became an important distributor for Zomba in Europe via <a href=\"Virgin%20Records\">Virgin Records</a>, but distribution details are listed below in the Regional Branches section. Zomba only controls one small vinyl pressing plant, therefore, most of their manufacturing has been outsourced to companies such as Sonopress (BMG affiliated), Sony and Technicolor.\nIn 1996, Zomba acquired 75% of UK distributor and label group Pinnacle, 80% of the Rough Trade label and distribution in the Germany/Switzerland/Austria (GSA) region, and 100% of Rough Trade Benelux. Effective 8 July 1999 Rough Trade Records was renamed Zomba Records GmbH and the Rough Trade sales and distribution arm was renamed Zomba Distribution, operating as a division of Zomba Records GmbH. As of the BMG purchase, Zomba conducted its own distribution in the UK (with Pinnacle), Germany, Austria and Benelux (all with Zomba Distribution). In those areas, Zomba also distributed for other, smaller independent labels. In France, Italy, Portugal, Spain and Sweden, Zomba had its own marketing and sales, however, distribution was handled by EMI (through Virgin in most cases). In Finland and Greece, Zomba material was exclusively licensed to EMI who controlled marketing, sales and distribution. North American distribution has almost exclusively been with BMG. Following the BMG purchase in December 2002 and subsequent integration in June 2003 and the end of contracts with EMI (also in June), all distribution has been handled by the local BMG companies. When BMG merged with Sony, <a href=\"Sony%20BMG\">Sony BMG</a> became Zomba's distributor from 2004 until early 2009. Since then, Zomba products have been distributed by Sony Music since Sony purchased BMG's interest in their joint-venture.\nZomba Recording Corporation (previously Zomba Productions Ltd., and sometimes colloquially referred to as Zomba Records) is a music company and division of the Zomba Group. The US affiliate is Zomba Recordings LLC and the UK affiliate is Zomba Records Ltd. The company also runs an investment and financial services company called Zomba Ventures Inc.<ref name=\"wow0405/2\"> </ref><ref name=\"wow0506/2\"> </ref>\nPrimarily a production company, Zomba Recording Corporation coordinates various activities for the recording process including hiring musicians, managing studios, and organizing production, mixing and mastering personnel. Recordings made under the coordination or supervision of this division are usually marked with the phrase \"An Original Sound Recording Made by Zomba Recording Corporation (or Zomba Recordings LLC/Zomba Records Limited/Zomba Productions Limited).\" While not strictly a record label, Zomba Recording Corporation appears on most of the various sublabels that Zomba owns. Additionally, the minimal manufacturing as well as some distribution that Zomba does on its own is run through this company.\nBattery Studios is the name of Zomba Recording Corporation's chain of multi-room facilities often used in the production of Zomba artists. The main facility, located in New York City, is constantly associated with high-profile clients including <a href=\"R.%20Kelly\">R. Kelly</a>, <a href=\"%27N%20Sync\">'N Sync</a> and <a href=\"Britney%20Spears\">Britney Spears</a>. The studio features three recording and mixing studios with <a href=\"Solid%20State%20Logic%239000%20series\">SSL 9000</a>, <a href=\"Solid%20State%20Logic%234000%20series\">SSL 4064 G+</a> and <a href=\"Euphonix%23The%20Crescendo%20Digitally%20Controlled%20Analog%20Audio%20Mixing%20Console\">Euphonix CS3000</a> consoles and <a href=\"Pro%20Tools\">Pro Tools</a> MIXplus systems. Battery Studios was originally opened in London before the New York branch existed, and at one point consisted of six locations in London, four New York locations, two Nashville locations, and one location in Chicago. However, Zomba closed its London branches towards the end of 2001 and the others followed soon after leaving only an unknown number of New York locations. In addition to Battery studios, Zomba Recording Corporation began a relationship with the established Swedish studio <a href=\"Cheiron%20Studios\">Cheiron Studios</a> and its production personnel. The studio had operated since the mid eighties (as SweMix), and from 1996 until its closure in 2000 it shared a joint production and publishing venture with the Zomba Group. Apart from the actual studio, the venture included a production team that helped forge the sounds of Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, and 'N Sync.\nIn addition to recording studios, Zomba Recording Corporation operated <a href=\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\">Dreamhire</a> Professional audio Rentals. <a href=\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\">Dreamhire</a> opened in 1984 with operations in <a href=\"London\">London</a>, <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> (1989) and <a href=\"Nashville\">Nashville</a> (1988). The London branch closed in 2001 followed by Nashville in 2003. <a href=\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\">Dreamhire</a> also included Hilton Sound, a hire operation purchased by Zomba in 1996. Since November 2003 following the BMG purchase, <a href=\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\">Dreamhire</a> is no longer a part of Zomba and runs independently as Dreamhire LLC from one location in New York City, owned by Chris Dunn, ex-bass guitarist from UK band (<a href=\"City%20Boy%20%28band%29\">City Boy (band)</a>) which recorded 5 albums all produced by Mutt Lange.\nDuring its existence, the Zomba Label Group featured all of the Zomba-related labels that BMG purchased in 2002. The current <a href=\"Battery%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%29\">Battery Records</a> is unrelated to the <a href=\"Battery%20Records%20%28dance%29\">previous defunct imprint</a> of the same name. Listed below is the structure of the Zomba Label Group immediately before its rebranding and dissolution in 2009.\nThe Provident Music Group was created by Zomba in 1997 as an amalgamation of their Christian music activities. Zomba had purchased Brentwood Music Group in February 1994 and founder Jim Van Cook was charged with leading the new music group. The group consisted of three sections: Provident Label Group, Provident-Integrity Distribution and the Brentwood/Benson Publishing Group.\nAs part of the music group, Zomba amalgamated their Christian labels under the Provident Label Group. The new group initially consisted of Brentwood Records, Benson Records and Reunion Records, though Brentwood was shut down in 2001. Since then, other labels have been added. Under Zomba, the Provident Label Group had this configuration:\nAfter BMG bought Zomba in 2002 and integrated the company in June 2003, the Provident Music Group was moved under the aegis of <a href=\"RCA%20Records\">RCA</a> with the exception of the Publishing division which was moved under BMG Publishing (Provident would later create its own publishing division, Essential Music Publishing, with no connection to Zomba). BMG Publishing was subsequently sold to Universal, along with Brentwood/Benson. In 2008, when Sony bought Bertelsmann's stake in their joint <a href=\"Sony%20BMG\">Sony BMG</a> venture, the rest of Provident became part of Sony Music Nashville.\nIn 1996, Zomba acquired the holdings of Windsong International. The deal gave the following controlling interests to Zomba:\nRough Trade GSA was renamed Zomba Records GmbH, while the Benelux operation (which only had distribution at the time) was absorbed into Zomba Distribution. The Rough Trade name only remained as an imprint of Zomba Records GmbH. Before being absorbed into BMG's operations, Zomba Records GmbH consisted of the following regional labels, most of which focused on <a href=\"electronic%20dance%20music\">electronic dance music</a>:\nZomba Records GmbH was integrated into BMG's German operation along with the other regional offices. The Rough Trade name was later reacquired by <a href=\"Geoff%20Travis\">Geoff Travis</a> and <a href=\"Jeannette%20Lee%20%28Rough%20Trade%29\">Jeanette Lee</a> who eventually continued it independently. When BMG restructured Zomba in 2003, Windsong/Pinnacle was moved under <a href=\"Bertelsmann\">Bertelsmann's</a> <a href=\"Arvato\">Arvato AG</a>. Through a <a href=\"management%20buyout\">management buyout</a>, Windsong/Pinnacle gained its independence in early 2008, but was forced into <a href=\"Administration%20%28law%29\">administration</a> late in the year due to the <a href=\"Financial%20crisis%20of%202007%E2%80%932010\">economic crisis</a>.\nZomba International Records Group managed the various regional branches opened as early as 1997 and as late as 2003. The group served to solidify the operations in these regions, some of which already had small offices with activities from scouting, promoting (such as Sweden), or as much as distribution for smaller labels or operating a few regional record labels (such as Germany). Following the BMG purchase, all of the remaining regional labels (with the exception of the main US and UK offices) and the Zomba International Records Group activities were merged with their respective local BMG offices in mid-2003.\nAside from those listed above, other labels that have been associated with Zomba over the years are listed below.\nZomba Music Publishing Ltd. (sometimes colloquially referred to as Zomba Music or Zomba Music Publishing Group) is the publishing division of the Zomba Group of Companies. Initially known as Zomba Enterprises Inc., the division officially changed names in 1994 and became the Zomba umbrella company for publishing. Since then, Zomba Enterprises is the name used for Zomba's <a href=\"American%20Society%20of%20Composers%2C%20Authors%20and%20Publishers\">ASCAP</a> affiliate, while Zomba Music Inc. is the name of the <a href=\"Broadcast%20Music%20Incorporated\">BMI</a> affiliate. The holding company that controls most Zomba publishing interests is called Zomba Music Holdings BV. David Mantel has been the president of Zomba Music Publishing since 2005, when he took over for Richard Blackstone. Tim Smith is the GM of the UK affiliate Zomba Music Publishing Ltd. There are various other publishing entities under Zomba, some of which are vast libraries acquired over the years, and some of which are small groups, sometimes representing a single artist. Below is a list of Zomba's publishing subsidiaries:\nZomba has limited activity in the classical music publishing sector, however, they are quite active in the pop music publishing and production music. At the time of the BMG purchase, Zomba had pop music publishing operations located in the UK and Benelux, while every other territory was sub-published with BMG. Production music operations were located in the UK and France with smaller operations in Sweden and the Netherlands. In Germany and Austria, Zomba and BMG owned publishing rights through jointly-owned companies. Finally, in Spain and Italy, Zomba compositions were licensed exclusively to BMG.\nIn mid-2003, BMG integrated Zomba's publishing to form BMG-Zomba Music Publishers. In 2007, <a href=\"Vivendi\">Vivendi</a> purchased the BMG-Zomba publishing company and placed it within <a href=\"Universal%20Music%20Publishing%20Group\">Universal Music Publishing Group</a>, becoming the worlds largest music publishing business.\nZomba's first enterprise was a management company in London called Zomba Management and Publishers, with <a href=\"Mutt%20Lange\">Mutt Lange</a> as one of their first clients. His success allowed the company to expand, and eventually the companies split into two entities, creating Zomba Management. Zomba management represents music producers and artists. Zomba Screen Music was formed in 1997 as management company for film composers. In May 2001, Zomba created Ingenuity Entertainment a full-service management company for artists, producers, composers and music supervisors in the film and television industries. The Los Angeles-based company serviced both new and veteran artists, offering music production and business affairs services. Ingenuity Entertainment combined a recently formed management firm, also called Ingenuity, with Zomba Screen Music.\nMost of Zomba's activities in the film and television industry are music related. Zomba Screen Music is their full-service management company for film and television composers. In addition to management, Zomba! Music Services was formed in 1989 as a division offering prerecorded music and publishing services for soundtracks, television and commercials. This also had the effect of promoting Zomba music through the television and film industry. In 1995, Zomba purchased the well-established Segue Music Inc., a film and television music editing company providing music supervision, temp tracks, prerecords, playbacks and soundtrack production. Zomba also had a joint operation with Portman Entertainment called Portman Music, a soundtrack related company Coombe Music International Ltd. as well as a small film production company Zomba Films. In 2005, Zomba began SEE Music, a joint venture with the recently combined BMG/Zomba Publishing and FirstCom Music specifically for motion picture advertising.\n","The Voice (TV series)\nThe Voice is an international reality television singing competition franchise. It is based on the reality singing competition \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\">The Voice of Holland</a>\", which was originally created by Dutch television producer <a href=\"John%20de%20Mol\">John de Mol</a>. Many other countries have adapted the format and begun airing their own versions since 2011. It has become a rival to the \"<a href=\"Idols%20%28TV%20series%29\">Idols</a>\" franchise, \"<a href=\"Rising%20Star%20%28TV%20series%29\">Rising Star</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor\">The X Factor</a>\".\nJohn de Mol, creator of \"<a href=\"Big%20Brother%20%28franchise%29\">Big Brother</a>\", first created \"The Voice\" concept with Dutch singer <a href=\"Roel%20van%20Velzen\">Roel van Velzen</a>. The concept came after de Mol was asked by Erland Galjaard, a Dutch program director, about whether he could go with a format further than \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor\">The X Factor</a>\". Galjaard asked de Mol after Galjaard was excited about the <a href=\"X%20Factor%20%28Dutch%20TV%20series%29\">Dutch version</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor\">The X Factor</a>\". So, de Mol then came with the idea of \"Blind Audition\". He wanted to focus on singing quality alone, so the coaches must be top artists in music industry. The rotating chairs concept was invented by <a href=\"Roel%20van%20Velzen\">Roel van Velzen</a>. It would also be the first talent show in which social media is actively involved.\nOn September 17, 2010, \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\">The Voice of Holland</a>\" began to air on <a href=\"RTL%204\">RTL 4</a> with <a href=\"Angela%20Groothuizen\">Angela Groothuizen</a>, <a href=\"Roel%20van%20Velzen\">Roel van Velzen</a>, <a href=\"Nick%20%26amp%3B%20Simon\">Nick & Simon</a>, and <a href=\"Jeroen%20van%20der%20Boom\">Jeroen van der Boom</a> as the mentor-judges (dubbed as \"coaches\") of the show. The show proved to be an instant success in the <a href=\"Netherlands\">Netherlands</a>.\nThe format was later sold to different countries, in many cases replacing a previous Endemol music contest format, \"<a href=\"Star%20Academy\">Operation Triumph / Star Academy</a>\".\nThe show's format features five stages of competition: producers' auditions, blind auditions, battle rounds, knockouts (since 2012), and live performance shows.\nContestants are aspiring singers drawn from public auditions, which are not televised. Unlike \"<a href=\"Idols%20%28TV%20series%29\">Idols</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor\">The X Factor</a>\", the producers pick fewer contestants (usually from 100 up to 200 contestants), which are deemed \"the best artists\", to perform in the televised auditions. The first televised stage is the <a href=\"blind%20audition\">blind audition</a>s, in which the four coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, listen to the contestants in chairs facing away from the stage so as to avoid seeing them. If a coach likes what they hear from that contestant, they press a button to rotate their chairs to signify that they are interested in working with that contestant. If more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses the coach he or she wants to work with. The blind auditions end when each coach has a set number of contestants to work with. Coaches will dedicate themselves to developing their singers mentally, musically and in some cases physically, giving them advice, and sharing the secrets of their success.\nThe contestants who successfully pass the blind auditions proceed to the battle rounds, where the coaches put two of their own team members against each other to sing the same song together in front of a studio audience. After the vocal face-off, the coach must choose only one to advance. If no specific winner can be identified the competition turns to a game of fate via a coin toss. In some versions, there are steals where opposing coaches can steal a contestant who was voted off by their own coach by pressing their button. As in the blind auditions, if more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses which coach they want. Each coach has a set number of steals (usually one or two).\nIn some versions, the winners of the battle rounds proceed to the knockout rounds (dubbed Super-battle round in some versions). The Knockout Rounds can happen in one of two method: Sing-off or Hot-seat.\nIn sing-off method, as in the battle rounds, coaches pit numbers (usually 2/3/4) of their own team members to compete against each other. This time, the contestants choose their own song to perform individually while the other watches and waits. After that, the coach chooses one to advance while the other is sent home. At the end of the knockout rounds, the strongest members of each coach's roster proceed to the live stage shows. Some versions also have steals. Like in battle round, the opposing coaches can steal a contestant who was voted off by their own coach by pressing their button. Also same in the blind auditions, if more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses which coach they want.\nIn hot-seat method, each coach will have numbers of hot-seat (usually 3 or 4). The first 3 or 4 contestants of the team choose their own song to perform individually and then sit on one of the available hot-seats. After the next contestant has done performing, if the coach decides to advance him/her, the coach must choose one hot-seat contestant to be swapped. After that, all contestants remaining on the seat will advance to the live shows, while the swapped contestants are eliminated immediately.\nIn the final performance phase of the competition, the top contestants from each team compete against each other during a live broadcast. The television audience vote to save one contestant on each team, leaving the coach to decide on live television who they want to save and who will not move on. In the next round, the public chooses between the two artists left on each team, and the coach also has a vote that weighs equally with the public vote.\nFinally, each coach will have his/her best contestant left standing to compete in the finals, singing an original song. From these four, one will be named \"The Voice\"—and will receive the grand prize of a recording contract. <a href=\"Universal%20Music%20Group\">Universal Music Group</a> is the general record company associated and affiliated with The Voice format in most countries.\nOne of the cornerstones of \"The Voice\" format is the social media participation via Twitter, Facebook and the especially designed platform \"connect.\" Users are able to log in via their Facebook account and retrieve background information about the show. The platform also offers the possibility to stream the show online as well as to vote, interact with friends and to discuss various topics and questions asked by the producers throughout the show.\nIn the original Dutch version, along with solo contestants, groups with more than two members are actually eligible to join (proven by the triumph of <a href=\"O%27G3NE\">O'G3NE</a>, a girl group, in <a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland%20%28season%205%29\">the fifth season</a> of <a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\">the Dutch version</a>). But when the franchise was expanded to the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, only duos are allowed in <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">the American version</a> along with solo contestants, and this requirement was then followed by some other versions , including <a href=\"The%20Voice%20UK\">the UK version</a>. Despite that, a few versions still allow groups with more than two members, recently <a href=\"The%20Voice%20Indonesia%20%28season%202%29\">the second season</a> of <a href=\"The%20Voice%20Indonesia\">Indonesian version</a> and of . A rare occasions in blind auditions, as in <a href=\"The%20Voice%20Teens%20%28Philippine%20TV%20series%29\">the Philippine version of the teens edition</a>, there is no guarantee that contestants auditioning as duo or trio will also advance as duo or trio (only one will advance).\nIn some versions, all contestants perform each week and only the public's vote determines which contestants advance in the competition, a format similar to both \"<a href=\"Idols%20%28TV%20series%29\">Idols</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28TV%20series%29\">The X Factor</a>\". This means that any contestant can be eliminated and no coach is guaranteed a spot in the finals. Along with this elimination method, there is an Instant Save in certain versions, most notably <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">the US version</a>, <a href=\"The%20Voice%20Israel\">Israeli version</a>, and <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28Australian%20TV%20series%29\">Australian Version</a>, where contestants (usually two or three) who are in danger of elimination have to perform again and another vote is conducted to save one of those contestants.\nIn the <a href=\"Vocea%20Rom%C3%A2niei%20%28season%205%29\">fifth season</a> of the <a href=\"Vocea%20Rom%C3%A2niei\">Romanian version</a> and the <a href=\"The%20Voice%20UK%20%28series%206%29\">sixth series</a> of <a href=\"The%20Voice%20UK\">the UK version</a>, if any of the four coaches reject a contestant, he or she may not able to see the contestants after their performances, so if all the coaches rejected one specific contestant, the losing contestant would leave the stage straight away, without any conversations with the coaches.\nThe <a href=\"Vocea%20Rom%C3%A2niei%20%28season%207%29\">seventh season</a> of the Romanian version features \"non stop steals\", which means that steals during the battle rounds follow a hot-seat procedure: a coach may replace his or her stolen contestant as many times as he or she likes until the end of the battles.\nA new feature of the Live Shows in <a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland%20%28season%207%29\">the seventh season</a> of <a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\">the Dutch version</a> is the judging of each performance by all four coaches with a number from one to ten. This number will then be averaged and combined with the public vote, which voted during each contestants performance – voting method similar to <a href=\"Rising%20Star%20%28TV%20series%29\">\"Rising Star\"</a> – ultimately giving a score to each artist.\nA combined 293 \"artists\" have won the television series \"The Voice\", a reality singing competition adapted in sixty-two regions. Each winner is given a <a href=\"recording%20contract\">recording contract</a>, a <a href=\"prize%20money\">monetary prize</a>, and a title as that nation's \"The Voice\", \"La Voz\", \"Golos\", \"Holos\" or \"La Voix\". The first was Ben Saunders of the <a href=\"Netherlands\">Netherlands</a> and the most recent was Angélina Nava from the French Version of The Voice Kids.\"\n! scope=\"col\" width=\"12%\" | Country/Region\n! scope=\"col\" width=\"15%\" | Local title\n! scope=\"col\" width=\"10%\" | Network\n! scope=\"col\" width=\"23%\" | Winners\n! scope=\"col\" width=\"20%\" | Coaches\n! scope=\"col\" width=\"20%\" | Hosts","Syco\nSyco Entertainment, often known simply as Syco, is a British entertainment company established by British entertainment mogul <a href=\"Simon%20Cowell\">Simon Cowell</a>. The company operates a record label, talent agency, film, music, and television production company, as well as a music publishing house. It operates a global joint venture between Cowell and <a href=\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\">Sony Music Entertainment</a> focused on the production and marketing of music, television, film and digital content. It employs a staff of more than 50 in offices in London and Los Angeles, and manages a string of high-profile television and music brands through partnerships with the label Sony Music and the television production company, <a href=\"FremantleMedia\">FremantleMedia</a>.\nSyco was initially owned by Simon Cowell, then sold to Sony. But in 2010, a new company was formed as a 50/50 partnership between Cowell and Sony, keeping the pre-existing name Syco but titled as Syco Entertainment. In 2015, it was announced that the Syco Entertainment joint venture would be extended for a further 6 years. Retail billionaire Sir <a href=\"Philip%20Green\">Philip Green</a>, a close friend of Cowell, serves as an advisor to the company. <a href=\"Karren%20Brady\">Karren Brady</a>, television personality and vice-chairman of <a href=\"West%20Ham%20United%20F.C.\">West Ham United F.C.</a>, also serves as an advisor to the company.\nSyco has three main divisions – <a href=\"Syco%20Music\">Syco Music</a>, <a href=\"Syco%20TV\">Syco TV</a> and Syco Film. Syco Music releases recordings from its roster of artists, mostly from Cowell's television shows, such as <a href=\"One%20Direction\">One Direction</a>, <a href=\"Little%20Mix\">Little Mix</a>, <a href=\"Leona%20Lewis\">Leona Lewis</a>, <a href=\"Susan%20Boyle\">Susan Boyle</a>, <a href=\"Emblem3\">Emblem3</a>, and <a href=\"Fifth%20Harmony\">Fifth Harmony</a>, and others such as <a href=\"Il%20Divo\">Il Divo</a>. Syco TV is responsible for <a href=\"The%20X%20Factor\">The X Factor</a> and the <a href=\"Got%20Talent\">Got Talent</a> television franchise, which have been produced in 41 and 52 countries respectively, as well as other television projects. Syco Film is involved in the production of films such as \"\". Syco is also involved in the production of the musical \"<a href=\"I%20Can%27t%20Sing%21%20The%20X%20Factor%20Musical\">I Can't Sing! The X Factor Musical</a>\".\nSyco TV primarily operates in the UK and the US. Its key franchises are \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28TV%20series%29\">The X Factor</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Got%20Talent\">Got Talent</a>\". It was launched by Simon Cowell in 2003.\nThe X Factor, which launched in September 2004\n, is one of the most popular television shows in the UK. Syco and Fremantle Media launched \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">The X Factor USA</a>\" in September 2011, which averaged 12 million viewers and a 4.0 rating in the adults 18–49 demographic in its first season, leading FOX to nightly wins on Wednesdays and Thursdays and topping all other fall season reality competition.\nInternationally, \"The X Factor\" is produced individually in 41 countries including major markets like <a href=\"X%20Factor%20%28France%29\">France</a>, the <a href=\"X%20Factor%20%28Netherlands%29\">Netherlands</a>, <a href=\"X%20Factor%20Indonesia\">Indonesia</a> and <a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28Australia%29\">Australia</a>. Additionally, \"The X Factor USA\" is screened in 166 countries around the world.\n\"<a href=\"America%27s%20Got%20Talent\">America's Got Talent</a>\" matched a series high 4.6 rating among adults 18–49 in the summer of 2011 for its <a href=\"America%27s%20Got%20Talent%20%28season%206%29\">sixth season</a>. Since launching in 2006, \"America's Got Talent\" has consistently been the most watched show of the summer in the US and topped the ratings in the key adults 18–49 demographic. \"\n\"<a href=\"Britain%27s%20Got%20Talent\">Britain's Got Talent</a>\" consistently tops UK ratings when it is broadcast in April, May and June. In 2009, nearly 20 million people (approximately one third of the UK population) tuned into the <a href=\"Britain%27s%20Got%20Talent%20%28series%203%29\">series 3</a> final to see <a href=\"Diversity%20%28dance%20troupe%29\">Diversity</a> crowned winners.\nSyco produces other shows outside its key brands. In 2011, ITV series \"<a href=\"Red%20or%20Black%3F\">Red or Black?</a>\" was met with mixed reaction. Syco were also behind \"<a href=\"American%20Inventor\">American Inventor</a>\" which ran for two seasons on <a href=\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\">ABC</a> and the unsuccessful \"<a href=\"Celebrity%20Duets\">Celebrity Duets</a>\" on Fox. In addition to its major formats, Syco also produce entertainment specials. This includes \"\", which broke ratings records in the US on TV Guide network and scored 10 million viewers on ITV in the UK. In 2013, Syco and Optomen launched ITV series \"<a href=\"Food%20Glorious%20Food%20%28TV%20series%29\">Food Glorious Food</a>\", which aired on Wednesday evenings in the UK.\nSyco Entertainment were the executive producers of the film \"One Direction: This Is Us\" from director Morgan Spurlock, which follows the life of pop sensations <a href=\"One%20Direction\">One Direction</a>. The band had come third in the 2010 UK \"X Factor\" series, before being signed to Syco.\nIn March 2013, Syco in partnership with YouTube, launched The You Generation channel which is listed as the 'world's first global audition'. In May 2014, Syco and <a href=\"Univision\">Univision</a> announced an upcoming TV called \"La Banda\" which will focus on searching contestants from Hispanic America to find the \"ultimate Latino boy band\" with the winner receiving a recording contract for <a href=\"Sony%20Music%20Latin\">Sony Music Latin</a> and Syco.\n","The Voice (U.S. season 3)\nThe third season of the American <a href=\"Reality%20television\">reality</a> <a href=\"talent%20show\">talent show</a> \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">The Voice</a>\" premiered on September 10, 2012 on <a href=\"NBC\">NBC</a>. NBC officially announced \"The Voice\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s renewal on May 13, 2012, during its 2012–13 upfront presentation, with the show returning as a fall series.\nFor this season, teams increased to 16, up from 12 last season. In addition, during the Battle Round, opposing coaches have the ability to steal the singer that was sent home by the original coach. If more than one coach hits their button to recruit the singer in question, it is up to the contestant to decide which coach he or she wants to work with. Each coach can save two contestants, which means the Battle Round will end with ten singers on each team, rather than eight. A new two-night \"Knockout Round\" began after the Battle Round, where the coaches reduced their teams to five. This was followed by a reduction of the teams to three each, with the two most voted for by viewers selected, along with one choice from the judge. After this, the show moved to a format more similar to \"American Idol\" or \"The X Factor\", starting the top 12 and the top spots given to the 10, who received the most viewer votes (including iTunes downloads as votes). A series of after shows was also filmed and streamed on NBC's website after each live show this season.\nAuditions for were held on July 7 to August 12, 2012 in <a href=\"Memphis%2C%20Tennessee\">Memphis</a>, <a href=\"Minneapolis\">Minneapolis</a>, New York, <a href=\"Dallas\">Dallas</a> and <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>.\nAll original coaches signed on for season three.\n<a href=\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\">Mary J. Blige</a>, <a href=\"Michael%20Bubl%C3%A9\">Michael Bublé</a>, <a href=\"Rob%20Thomas%20%28musician%29\">Rob Thomas</a>, and <a href=\"Billie%20Joe%20Armstrong\">Billie Joe Armstrong</a> joined the show as advisers for <a href=\"Adam%20Levine\">Adam Levine</a>, <a href=\"Blake%20Shelton\">Blake Shelton</a>, <a href=\"Cee%20Lo%20Green\">Cee Lo Green</a>, and <a href=\"Christina%20Aguilera\">Christina Aguilera</a>'s teams respectively during the Battle Rounds segment of the show. Christina, Blake, and Cee Lo brought in <a href=\"Ron%20Fair\">Ron Fair</a>, <a href=\"Scott%20Hendricks\">Scott Hendricks</a>, and <a href=\"Jennifer%20Hudson\">Jennifer Hudson</a> respectively to help coach in the episode, Top 10 Perform Live. Cee Lo brought in <a href=\"Bill%20Withers\">Bill Withers</a> to coach <a href=\"Nicholas%20David\">Nicholas David</a> the following week, and was sick during rehearsals for the subsequent week, so he brought in <a href=\"Pat%20Monahan\">Pat Monahan</a>, lead singer for <a href=\"Train%20%28band%29\">Train</a>, to coach all his artists that week, while still choosing his team members' songs and keeping in touch with them on the phone.\nThe third season two-hour premiere aired on Monday, September 10, 2012. The coaches performed \"<a href=\"Start%20Me%20Up\">Start Me Up</a>\" at the start of the show.\nThis was the first episode in which a coach did not get any acts. Adam did not get any. The second one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, September 11, 2012.\nThe third one-hour episode was broadcast on Wednesday, September 12, 2012.\nThe fourth two-hour episode was broadcast on Monday, September 17, 2012.\nA preview of Christina Aguilera's video for <a href=\"Your%20Body%20%28Christina%20Aguilera%20song%29\">Your Body</a> was televised.\nThe fifth one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, September 18, 2012.\nThe sixth two-hour episode was broadcast on Monday, September 24, 2012.\nThe seventh one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, September 25, 2012.\nThe eighth two-hour episode was broadcast on Monday, October 1, 2012.\nThe ninth one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, October 2, 2012, recapping some of the best moments of the blind auditions.\nThe Battle Rounds were broadcast from Monday, October 8 to Tuesday, October 23. 'Steals' were introduced this season, where each coach could steal two contestants from another team when they lost their battle round. The name of the coach who was chosen by the stolen contestant is ticked. The advisors for these episodes are: <a href=\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\">Mary J. Blige</a> working with Adam Levine; <a href=\"Michael%20Bubl%C3%A9\">Michael Bublé</a> working with Blake Shelton; <a href=\"Rob%20Thomas%20%28musician%29\">Rob Thomas</a> (<a href=\"Matchbox%20Twenty\">Matchbox Twenty</a>) working with Cee Lo Green; and Billie Joe Armstrong (<a href=\"Green%20Day\">Green Day</a>) working with Christina Aguilera.\nThe Knockouts were broadcast from Monday, October 29 to Tuesday, October 30.\nAfter the Battle Round, each coach had 10 contestants for the Knockouts. Each episode featured knockout battles consisting of pairings from within each team. The contestants were not told who they were up against until the day of the Knockout. Each contestant sang a song of their own choice, back to back, and each knockout concluded with the respective coach eliminating one of the two contestants; the five winners for each coach advanced to the live shows.\nThe live playoffs were aired on November 5 and 7, followed by a results show on November 8. Performances were intentionally stripped down compared to previous seasons, so that there is greater focus on the voices of the artists. Special guests included <a href=\"Taylor%20Kinney\">Taylor Kinney</a> from \"<a href=\"Chicago%20Fire%20%28TV%20series%29\">Chicago Fire</a>\" in the audience.\nThe live top 12 performances were aired on November 12, followed by a results show on November 13.\nFrom this point on in the competition, all remaining contestants performed live each week, and only the public's vote determined which contestants advanced in the competition. Unlike previous seasons, rather than each team eliminating equal numbers of contestants each week, third season eliminations applied individually without regard to contestants' team affiliation (meaning that all artists competed head-to-head against all remaining contestants each week), introducing the possibility of a final four without equal team representation.\nAdditionally, producers made changes in the voting system with regards to iTunes singles purchases, announced during the results show. Previous voting via iTunes purchases of contestant performances had previously only counted singly during the official voting window and only accredited to the live show in concern. As of this week in the competition, if a competitor's performance stays within the Top 10 of the iTunes \"Top 200 Single Chart\" (updated hourly) until the close of voting, it will be given an iTunes bonus that multiplies iTunes votes made in the 24-hour voting window by ten. The finale's vote count will have include a 'Cumulative iTunes Vote Total' of all singles (from Top 12 onwards) purchased during and outside of the various voting windows, with iTunes bonus previously earned.\nThe live top 10 performances aired on November 19, followed by a results show on November 20.\nChristina, Blake and Cee Lo brought in <a href=\"Ron%20Fair\">Ron Fair</a>, <a href=\"Scott%20Hendricks\">Scott Hendricks</a> and <a href=\"Jennifer%20Hudson\">Jennifer Hudson</a> respectively to help in this week's coaching. Other special guests included lead actors from the cast of \"<a href=\"Guys%20with%20Kids\">Guys with Kids</a>\" in the audience.\nThe live top 8 performances aired on November 26, followed by a results show on November 27. Cee Lo brought in <a href=\"Bill%20Withers\">Bill Withers</a>, the original singer/songwriter of \"<a href=\"Lean%20on%20Me%20%28song%29\">Lean on Me</a>\" to help coach Nicholas David this week.\nWith the elimination of Dez Duron, Christina Aguilera no longer has any artist remaining on her team. For the first time in the series, not all coaches will be represented in the finale.\nThe live top 6 performances aired on December 3, followed by a results show on December 4. Each contestant sang two songs, one of their choice, and one of the coach's choice. Coach Cee Lo was sick during rehearsals, so he brought in <a href=\"Pat%20Monahan\">Pat Monahan</a>, lead singer for <a href=\"Train%20%28band%29\">Train</a>, to coach his artists this week, while still choosing his team members' songs and keeping in touch with them on the phone.\nWith the eliminations of Melanie Martinez and Amanda Brown, Adam Levine no longer has any artist remaining on his team.\nThe semifinal performances aired on December 10, followed by a results show on December 11. Special guests included <a href=\"Howie%20Mandel\">Howie Mandel</a> from \"<a href=\"Take%20It%20All%20%28game%20show%29\">Take It All</a>\" and <a href=\"Of%20Monsters%20and%20Men\">Of Monsters and Men</a>, whose song \"<a href=\"Little%20Talks\">Little Talks</a>\" was covered in a non-competition performance, in the audience. Tony Lucca was also interviewed for a short while with his coach from last season, Adam Levine, in the Sprint Skybox.\nThe final performances aired on December 17, followed by a results show on December 18. Each finalist would perform three times: a reprise of a past performance, a duet with their coach, and a solo performance. Special guests included the cast of \"<a href=\"1600%20Penn\">1600 Penn</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Biggest%20Loser\">The Biggest Loser</a>\" in the audience.\nSeason three premiered on September 10, 2012 and was watched by 12.28 million viewers with a 4.2 rating in the key 18–49 demographic. It was down 39 percent in the demo from last season's premiere. \"The Voice\" aired three times during its first week, going up against \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20season%202%29\">The X Factor</a>\" on September 12, 2012. This show was highly criticised by <a href=\"Simon%20Cowell\">Simon Cowell</a>, who said that \"The X Factor\" would win in ratings. However, both \"The Voice\" and \"The X Factor\" tied on September 12, 2012, both with a 3.4 rating in the 18-49 demographic, but \"The Voice\" won in total viewers. In its regular time slot on Mondays and Tuesdays, \"The Voice\" airs opposite \"<a href=\"Dancing%20with%20the%20Stars%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">Dancing with the Stars</a>\".\n"],"string":"[\n \"Bob Grever\\nBob Grever (1936—August 23, 2016) was an American music executive who once owned San Antonio independent record label Cara Records. He became the \\\"most powerful record company owner\\\" in the state of Texas in the 1980s. Grever sold the record company and its roster of recordings as well as its Tejano music musicians to EMI Latin, spearheading the 1990s Tejano music golden age. His most notable artists include Emilio Navaira and Selena. Other musicians Grever signed were Joe Posada, David Lee Garza, Bobby Naranjo, Mazz, and La Mafia. Songwriter Luis Silva, became head of promotions while working for Cara Records. Grever came from a musician family, his grandmother Maria Grever, became one of the most successful female composers. Music critic, Ramiro Burr of the \\\"San Antonio Express-News\\\", called Grever \\\"one of the two most important people in the Tejano music explosion of the 80's and 90's.\\\" After Grever sold Cara Records, he worked with the Backstreet Boys and NSYNC. He also became president of Zomba Group's Latin music division. Grever died on August 23, 2016 due to complications brought on by cancer on August 23, 2016, he was 79 years old. He was posthumously awarded at the 2016 Tejano Music Awards for Special Lifetime Achievement.\",\n \"Dinavon Bythwood\\nDinavon Bythwood (born May 23, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and also known by his music industry moniker “X1”, is an American Music Executive, Pop Music record producer and songwriter. Bythwood is also a former American professional football player who was an NFL free agent acquisition by the Cleveland Browns. A 6”4, 255 lb Defensive End, Bythwood played at the University of Miami where he received his Bachelors in Business Administration and was also a NCAA Collegiate Football National Champion in 1991 as was determined by the AP Poll. From 1991 -1994 Bythwood played alongside notable teammates Actor Dwayne Johnson, 2013 NFL Hall of Fame Inductee Warren Sapp and future NFL Hall of Famer, Super Bowl Champion Ray Lewis. Bythwood currently resides in Miami, Florida and has a son Brandin Mikel, born April 8, 1995.\\nAs a record producer, Bythwood and former partner Alex Francis made up the American music production team known as The Ghostwriters. In 2008 they produced Keyshia Cole's hit single \\\"Heaven Sent\\\", from her multi-platinum-selling album \\\"Just like You\\\". According to \\\"Billboard\\\", \\\"Heaven Sent\\\" peaked at #1 on U.S. Hot R&B/Rap Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks and also reached #28 on the U.S. \\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100, making \\\"Heaven Sent\\\" Cole's most successful single release to date. The duo subsequently received two Grammy nominations in the categories Best R&B Song and Best Female R&B Performance.\\nIn 2011 Bythwood /“The Ghostwriters” collaborated with former American Idol Judge / Grammy Nominated Songwriter Kara DioGuardi and Pop Music Recording Artist Jason Derulo to produce the critically acclaimed song “Lessons for Life” which featured on Warner Bros. Records International Pop star Charice Pempengco’s album \\\"Infinity\\\". Charice Pempengco is a Philippine International Superstar recording artist and Actor for the hit television series “Glee”. She first rose to prominence as a YouTube singing sensation and was initially discovered by popular songwriter Haras Fyre (pka Patrick Grant). Charice was dubbed by media icon Oprah Winfrey as “the most talented girl in the world”, which subsequently prompted Winfrey to introduce her to legendary songwriter and 16x Grammy Award winning music producer David Foster; renowned for his work with Celine Dion, Christina Aguilera, Whitney Houston, Janet Jackson, Michael Jackson, Chaka Khan, Beyoncé Knowles, Nsync, Prince among many other notable music icons.\\nThrough a co-publishing venture with EMI/Sony ATV, “Musik~Hause Produktionen Internationale,” music production company, enlists a vast network of a number award winning, multi-platinum diverse and creatively gifted songwriters and producers. This very close knit network of talent enables Musik~Hause to produce commercially viable music and develop young, new, emerging artist(s) within the music industry for distribution.\\nCorporately based in Miami and Los Angeles, Musik~Hause has strategic partnerships and joint ventures with some of the music industry's top recording studios. These studios and their environment have yielded over 100 Grammy Awards for a number of Multi-Platinum recording artist(s). Bythwood explains: “As Chief Creative Consultant and A&R, I'm extremely excited about the opportunity to forge great relationships with some of the industry's finest facilities.\\\" It is paramount that our Producer(s), Artist(s), Writer(s), and Engineer(s) have an environment conducive to creativity”… and why these joint venture(s) and collabratives keep Musik~Hause on the fore front and cutting edge of music technology and cultivates an environment that fosters great music.\\nCurrently Musik Hause, through a joint collaborative with Sony Music, Fox, and NBC, has begun cultivating the projects of and are in production with several \\\"Stand Out Top Tier\\\" performers from NBC's \\\"The Voice\\\", FOX's \\\"American Idol\\\" and \\\"X Factor\\\" respectfully. Through this venture Musik Hause/Sony ATV concentrations will be the artist development and production of those standout performers that were eliminated from competition. Roster collaborations have included NBC’s “The Voice (U.S. season 3)\\\" Contestant Joselyn Rivera. In addition to Joselyn Rivera, Bythwood has worked with American Idol (season 11) Finalist/Runner-up Jessica Sanchez, NBC “The Voice (U.S. season 4) standout performer Monique Abaddie, and American Idol (season 11) Contestant Deneco Pittman (Neco Starr) and last season's contestant Tion Phipps among others.\\nAn ardent believer in “Reality TV” talent based shows; Bythwood’s work with Simone Cowell’s “SYCO/Sony Music Entertainment” recording artists and UK “X Factor” Winners, Leona Lewis and Alexandra Burke helped to further solidify Musik Hause’s artist developmental philosophy. Bythwood explains: “Talented artist become Superstar icons because of phenomenal songs and a great team around them.” All talented singers are not ALWAYS great songwriters which is why our approach at Musik Hause is to operate outside of status quo and the traditional norm of songwriting.\\nIn times past, artist would write most if not all of their material and then enlist the aid of a producer to build the music around it…. However given the change over the years in the global dynamic of how labels and distributors operate, it is highly important that Producers deliver commercially viable product in line with label(s) needs while simultaneously and seamlessly maintaining artist integrity and creativity. All of this is done in pursuit of the primary goal of ultimately producing records that fans and music lovers will love and long appreciate while allowing labels to see a return on investment.\",\n \"Jahmirris C. Smith\\nJahmirris C. Smith (born December 28, 1993) (23) is an AME (American Music Executive), songwriter, record producer, and actor. He is currently the CEO (Chief Executive Officer) and founder of his own record label, PGE (Pyramid Gang Entertainment LLC) (Records), & Pyramid Publishing, which is a book and music publishing company.\\nBorn in the WestCourt neighborhood of Decatur, Alabama, growing up listening to his mother playing music from the 90's and early 2000's inspired him to become a young artist and record executive. After releasing a successful mixtape and managing acts after high school between 2013 and 2015, Jahmirris signed a few featured artist to his newly found imprint. Fellow american rapper Leezy Da King (Denzel Thomas) also helped Jahmirris launch PGE. Jahmirris subsequently began working only with rappers in the beginning, due to positive reviews from one of the lables artist EP, fans began craving more of his southern style artist and promotional status of hip hop music.The mixtapes spawned throughout the entire state, after noticing the buzz and the hype of his name and label, Jahmirris decided to work with other genres such as Rock, Pop, Country, and R&B artist. In 2016 PGE signed its first rock band 53 Judges. After a quick run due to misunderstandings and disagreements, the band hired an attorney to have them release from their contract.\\nPGE now has a new Soul and R&B artist by the name of King Montiez (Carl Lyle) which has released multiple singles, music videos and radio interviews to promote his new album \\\"The Experience\\\" which will also be released by Pyramid Gang Records in April 2017.\",\n \"Mike Caren\\nMike Caren is an American record producer, songwriter, and music executive. He is the current CEO (and founder) of Artist Partners Group and Creative Officer at Warner Music Group. He is also the founder of the Artist Publishing Group and the former President of Worldwide A&R at Warner Music Group. Prior to that, Caren was the Executive Vice President of A&R at Atlantic Records and the co-president of Elektra Records. In addition to his work as a music executive, Caren has also written or produced numerous songs for artists including Beyoncé, Bruno Mars, Kanye West, and others.\\nCaren grew up in Beverly Hills, California. When he was 12 years old, he began DJing at local parties in his neighborhood. He attended Beverly Hills High School and worked at a cable radio and music video show on a local public access channel. While still in high school, at age 15, Caren was offered an internship at Interscope Records by Fade Duvernay. He also founded a Los Angeles-based high school and college marketing company called Skool Rules Promotions.\\nWhile interning at Interscope Records, Caren worked on the marketing campaigns for artists like Tupac Shakur. He then went on to work for Loud Records/RCA as a National High School/College Rep. Coordinator and then Ruthless Records as the National Marketing Manager. At age 17, he was offered a marketing job at Big Beat Records, owned by Atlantic Records. Caren took the job and moved from Los Angeles to New York City. During his time at Big Beat, he was also producing records for The Pharcyde, Heltah Skeltah, Saukrates, and several other hip hop artists. After two years in the marketing department, Caren switched over to A&R. Among the first artists he brought to Big Beat was Twista.\\nCaren would eventually be promoted to Executive Vice President of A&R at Atlantic Records in 2007. Some of the acts he signed included Trina, Sunshine Anderson, and Platinum-selling artist, Trick Daddy. He also discovered and signed Nappy Roots while the group was still attending school at Western Kentucky University. Over the course of his tenure at Atlantic, Caren has been responsible for signing numerous other artists including, T.I., Plies, Trey Songz, Flo Rida, Wiz Khalifa and others. He also founded the Artist Publishing Group, a boutique music publishing company in association with Warner/Chappell Music.\\nIn 2009, Caren was named Co-President of the revived Warner-owned Elektra Records alongside John Janick. In his capacity as co-head of the label, he helped sign and work with artists like CeeLo Green, Bruno Mars, and Ed Sheeran. In 2012, Caren was named the Warner Music Group's President of Worldwide A&R. In this post, he was responsible for artist development across numerous record labels including Atlantic Records, Elektra Records, Warner Bros. Records, and many international affiliates. WMG's constituent record labels continued seeing success with artists like Bruno Mars, Flo Rida, Ed Sheeran, and B.o.B. In 2013, Caren launched Artist Partners Group, a sister-company to the Artist Publishing Group, which provides a variety of services to artists and producers including marketing, business development, mentoring, access to recording studios, and legal support.\\nIn 2016, Caren was named the Creative Officer of the Warner Music Group. Under this title, Caren acts as an advisor to WMG's global A&R department and also continues to work directly with WMG artists like David Guetta and Jason Derulo (among others). WMG also made a multi-millionaire dollar investment in Artist Partners Group which houses acts like Kevin Gates and Charlie Puth. Over the course of his career, Caren has signed or co-signed 19 Platinum- or Gold-selling artists. His Artist Publishing Group, which maintains a roster of around 30 songwriters (including Caren himself), was responsible for 30 \\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100 entries in 2015.\",\n \"Florence Greenberg\\nFlorence Greenberg (September 16, 1913 – November 2, 1995) was an American record label owner, music executive and a record producer. Greenberg was the founder and owner of Tiara Records, Scepter Records, Hob Records, and Wand Records. She is most known for her work as a record producer and music executive for several popular singers in the 60s including Dionne Warwick, the Shirelles, Tammi Terrell, Chuck Jackson, B.J. Thomas and many others.\\nGreenberg--a former Republican campaign worker--lived as a housewife in Passaic, New Jersey. In the mid-1950s she was in her mid-forties with two children, Mary Jane and Stanley, who were both in school, so she had nothing to do at home during the day.\\nBy 1956, a 43 year-old Greenberg was desperately searching for an escape from suburban lifestyle that accompanied her being a housewife. She did not know what she wanted to do but could often be seen hanging out at the Turf restaurant in New York City as she was enamored with the atmosphere surrounding the Brill Building. A friend of her husband's, Freddy Bienstock, helped her to get in the record business by one day inviting her over to the Hill & Range Music offices when he was working with his cousins Jean and Julian Aberbach. Greenberg was a natural and immediately began exploring her options of career paths in the music industry.\\nIn 1958, she started her own record label, called Tiara Records. After a performance by a group of girls at Passaic High School in 1957, Greenberg's daughter Mary Jane convinced her that she had to hear the group sing. She signed the group--popularly known as the Shirelles--to Tiara after they auditioned for Greenberg in her living room.\\nThe first song recorded and released on the Tiara Records label was \\\"I Met Him On a Sunday\\\" the Shirelles' talent show song that grabbed the attention of Greenberg in the first place. Just as the record started to break locally, Greenberg sold the company with the Shirelles' contract to Decca Records for $4,000. However, she started a new label in 1959, called Scepter Records which became one of the leading independent record labels in the 1960s. Under Scepter Records Greenberg resigned the Shirelles, becoming their manager once again. In 1961, Greenberg launched another record label, called Wand Records, as a subsidiary of Scepter Records.\\nIt is said that since Greenberg was a \\\"a white woman who was in a black business,” Scepter did not truly begin to see success until Greenberg began her partnership with Luther Dixon. Once confirming their financial partnership, Greenberg became exclusively in charge of the business development of the label while Dixon would manage Scepter's publishing and artistic production. Around this same time, she moved her labels' offices into the offices of 1650 Broadway: the home of Aldon Music. Due to its close proximity, 1650 Broaday shared many songwriters and artists (such as Carole King and Gerry Goffin) with the infamous Brill Building.\\nIn 1965, Greenberg received an offer of $6 million for Scepter from Gulf+Western, an offer that she rejected and later regretted not accepting. Greenberg retired from business in 1976, and sold all of her labels to Springboard International.\\nGreenberg's labels produced some of the most applauded and awarded songs of the Brill Building era including:\\nGreenberg was married to an accountant with whom she had children. Mary Jane (Greenberg) Goff and Stanley Greenberg. At the time of her death, she was a grandmother to six and had five great-grandchildren. Her son-in-law, Sam Goff, is a managing partner in Essex Entertainment.\\nGreenberg died on November 2, 1995, of heart failure at Hackensack University Medical Center. She was 82, and lived in Teaneck, New Jersey.\\nShe is remembered fondly by those with whom she worked. For example, Maxine Brown, a Scepter artist, defined Greenberg in saying \\\"She was a brave woman ... to be the only woman to own a record label in this business, competing with men and standing in there toe to toe with male producers and record owners.\\\"\\nIn 2011, a Broadway show based on Greenberg's life called \\\"Baby It's You!\\\" debuted starring Beth Leavel as Greenberg.\",\n \"Tommy Brown (record producer)\\nThomas Lee \\\"Tommy\\\" Brown (born May 1, 1986), also known as Tommy Brown or TB Hits, is an American recording artist, musician, Multiplatinum record producer and songwriter. Tommy currently lives in LA and was born and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He has received awards from ASCAP, and was Grammy nominated. He has scored multiple chart topping albums while working with Ariana Grande on her debut #1 album Yours Truly, and her second #1 album My Everything, lastly, Grande's 3rd studio album, Dangerous Woman charting #2 on Billboard 200. Brown has also collected production credits for three songs on Grammy-award winning artist Meghan Trainor's second album, Thank You. Brown's upcoming releases are DJ Khaled's next single \\\"Forgive Me Father\\\" feat Trainor & Wale, and Macy Gray's single \\\"Sugar Daddy\\\" feat Andre 3000. Tommy Brown is also a music producer. He has produced for many prominent artists including Ariana Grande, Travis Scott, Chris Brown, Black Eyed Peas (which gained him a Grammy nomination in 2010), T.I, Jennifer Lopez, Fifth Harmony, Pia Mia, Macy Gray, Jhene Aiko, Big Sean, Meghan Trainor, Victoria Monet, Meek Mill, Ludacris, Ray J and Gorilla Zoe. He learned from production greats Roy \\\"Royalty\\\" Hamilton and Rodney Jerkins of Darkchild, while working alongside them and eventually creating a team of his own and producing with them.\\nBefore working in music, Brown worked at Sears in Atlanta, Georgia. Every night, he would hand out around 50 CDs with his songs on them and snippets of The Notorious B.I.G's \\\"Ten Crack Commandments\\\" over the tracks. He was finally contacted by Gorilla Zoe who invited Brown to work in the studio with him.\\nOriginally, starting in 2008, Brown worked with production group Darkchild in his early career. During this time, he worked with artists such as Jennifer Lopez, Wyclef Jean. He has also worked with The Black Eyed Peas, most notably their song\\\"Just Can't Get Enough\\\".\\nIn 2012, Brown became independent with publishing through Sony/ATV Music Publishing. He lives in Los Angeles, producing tracks for established stars and new acts like Meek Mill, Travis Scott, Cee Lo Green, Nas, T.I., Ariana Grande, John Legend, Teyana Taylor, Cyhi the Prynce, Victoria Monet, Mario, Chrisette Michele, Kelly Rowland, and 2 Chainz.\\nHe has been working with Naya Rivera for her upcoming debut album as well as with Mario for his upcoming album, \\\"Restoration\\\".\",\n \"Luis Silva\\nLuis Saúl Silva López (born December 10, 1988) is a Mexican-American professional <a href=\\\"association%20football\\\">soccer</a> player who plays for <a href=\\\"Real%20Salt%20Lake\\\">Real Salt Lake</a> of <a href=\\\"Major%20League%20Soccer\\\">Major League Soccer</a>.\\nSilva was born in <a href=\\\"Oaxaca\\\">Oaxaca</a>, <a href=\\\"Mexico\\\">Mexico</a>, and moved to <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a> at a young age. Silva spent two years playing with local youth club Pateadores, helping them win the Premier Division in 2006, as well as spending two years with <a href=\\\"C.D.%20Chivas%20USA\\\">C.D. Chivas USA</a>'s U-19 team. Silva attended <a href=\\\"Bishop%20Mora%20Salesian%20High%20School\\\">Bishop Mora Salesian High School</a> in Los Angeles where he was a two-time <a href=\\\"California%20Interscholastic%20Federation\\\">All-CIF</a> selection as a midfielder and forward. He was named Offensive Player of the Year in the 2007 season when he helped the Mustangs win the CIF Southern Section Championship and scored a goal in the Mustangs' 6–1 romp over Pasadena Marshall as the team set a finals scoring record. He went on to play collegiately with the <a href=\\\"UC%20Santa%20Barbara%20Gauchos%20men%27s%20soccer\\\">UC Santa Barbara Gauchos</a>. He was named to the All-<a href=\\\"Big%20West%20Conference\\\">Big West</a> First Team three times. In his senior year, Silva scored 17 goals and added 10 assists, garnering recognition as a <a href=\\\"Missouri%20Athletic%20Club\\\">MAC</a> <a href=\\\"Hermann%20Trophy\\\">Hermann Trophy</a> Semifinalist.\\nDuring his college years, Silva also played in the <a href=\\\"USL%20Premier%20Development%20League\\\">USL Premier Development League</a> for <a href=\\\"Orange%20County%20Blue%20Star\\\">Orange County Blue Star</a> in 2011. He joined UCSB teammates <a href=\\\"Charley%20Pettys\\\">Charley Pettys</a> and <a href=\\\"Christian%20Ramirez%20%28soccer%2C%20born%201991%29\\\">Christian Ramirez</a> on the squad and finished with 5 goals and 2 assists in 10 matches played.\\nLuis Silva was selected 4th overall by <a href=\\\"Toronto%20FC\\\">Toronto FC</a> in the first round of the <a href=\\\"2012%20MLS%20SuperDraft\\\">2012 MLS SuperDraft</a>. Silva made his debut for Toronto FC on March 7, 2012, scoring a goal against the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Galaxy\\\">Los Angeles Galaxy</a> in the <a href=\\\"2011%E2%80%9312%20CONCACAF%20Champions%20League%20Championship%20Round\\\">2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League quarterfinals</a>. Silva scored his first league goal against <a href=\\\"Vancouver%20Whitecaps%20FC\\\">Vancouver Whitecaps</a> on July 11, the game ended in a 3–2 home victory. Three days after his first league goal, he scored the lone goal in an away victory over <a href=\\\"New%20England%20Revolution\\\">New England Revolution</a>.\\nOn July 9, 2013, it was announced that Silva had been traded to fellow MLS side <a href=\\\"D.C.%20United\\\">D.C. United</a> in exchange for allocation money. On his regular season debut on July 20, Silva scored from 30 yards as his team lost 4–1 to the <a href=\\\"Chicago%20Fire%20Soccer%20Club\\\">Chicago Fire</a>. Silva scored a first half <a href=\\\"hat-trick\\\">hat-trick</a> against the <a href=\\\"Montreal%20Impact\\\">Montreal Impact</a> at <a href=\\\"Saputo%20Stadium\\\">Saputo Stadium</a> on June 11, 2014, leading D.C. United to a 4–2 win.\\nOn July 16, 2015, it was announced that Silva had been traded to MLS team Real Salt Lake for <a href=\\\"%C3%81lvaro%20Sabor%C3%ADo\\\">Álvaro Saborío</a>. Silva ended his D.C. United career with totals of 15 goals and six assists in 54 appearances, including a career-best 11 goals in 2014. In 2016, he moved to <a href=\\\"Liga%20MX\\\">Liga MX</a> side <a href=\\\"Tigres%20UANL\\\">Tigres UANL</a>.\\n\",\n \"David Lee Garza\\nDavid Lee Garza (<a href=\\\"Jourdanton\\\">Jourdanton</a>, 1957) is an American Tejano musician and bandleader.\",\n \"La Mafia\\nLa Mafia is a four-time <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award\\\">Grammy Award</a>-winning musical group. It has its roots in the Northside neighborhood of <a href=\\\"Houston%2C%20Texas\\\">Houston, Texas</a>, and has charted a course as a <a href=\\\"Tejano%20music\\\">Latin music</a> band.\\nLa Mafia was founded in 1980 in Houston, TX. Vocalist <a href=\\\"Oscar%20De%20La%20Rosa\\\">Oscar De La Rosa</a> & producer/keyboardist/accordionist <a href=\\\"Armando%20Lichtenberger%20Jr.\\\">Armando Lichtenberger Jr.</a> created an original style that survived various changes in the music industry. The band consists of Tim Ruiz on bass, David Delagarza on keyboards and background vocals, Eduardo Torres on drums, Viktor Pacheko on Guitar and Robbie Longoria on six bass and percussion. in 2007 The band has won 2 Grammys & 2 Latin Grammys was nominated in 2009 for a Latin Grammy for the album \\\"<a href=\\\"Eternamente%20Romanticos\\\">Eternamente Romanticos</a>\\\".\\nLa Mafia, seeking to expand their musical horizons, began touring extensively in <a href=\\\"Mexico\\\">Mexico</a> and <a href=\\\"Latin%20America\\\">Latin America</a> beginning in the late 1980s. The practice of Mexican-American artists performing in Mexico on a large scale was unheard of before La Mafia.\\nSince 1993, La Mafia has recorded each of its hits at its own Urbana Recording Studios, including the million-selling <a href=\\\"Estas%20Tocando%20Fuego\\\">Estas Tocando Fuego</a> and <a href=\\\"Ahora%20y%20Siempre%20%28La%20Mafia%20album%29\\\">Ahora y Siempre</a>. The band has recorded 35 albums and CDs, not including dozens of compilation and greatest hits releases.\\nLa Mafia received Grammy Awards for its CDs \\\"<a href=\\\"Un%20Mill%C3%B3n%20de%20Rosas\\\">Un Millón de Rosas</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"En%20Tus%20Manos%20%28La%20Mafia%20album%29\\\">En Tus Manos</a>\\\" and Latin Grammy Awards for its CDs \\\"<a href=\\\"Para%20El%20Pueblo\\\">Para El Pueblo</a>\\\" and \\\"Nuevamente\\\". It also has received eight <a href=\\\"Premio%20Lo%20Nuestro\\\">Premio Lo Nuestro Award</a>s and 12 <a href=\\\"Tejano%20Music%20Awards\\\">Tejano Music Awards</a>, including a Lifetime Achievement Award from the latter, numerous Billboard awards and was listed in the top 10 Billboard Latin Artists for the entire decade of the 1990s, ranking La Mafia as the most successful Latin artist Houston has ever produced.\",\n \"2016 Tejano Music Awards\\nThe 2016 <a href=\\\"Tejano%20Music%20Awards\\\">Tejano Music Awards</a> is expected to be held on November 12, 2016 at the <a href=\\\"Tobin%20Center%20for%20the%20Performing%20Arts\\\">Tobin Center for the Performing Arts</a> in <a href=\\\"San%20Antonio%2C%20Texas\\\">San Antonio</a>, <a href=\\\"Texas\\\">Texas</a>. The deadline for nominations for the various Tejano Music Awards categories by the artists' representative are due by June 19, 2016. Nominations will then be announced at a later date for <a href=\\\"Direct%20election\\\">public voting</a>. The annual 2016 Tejano Fan Fair (which precedes every Tejano Music Awards) was held at the <a href=\\\"Market%20Square%20%28San%20Antonio%29\\\">Historic Market Square</a> in San Antonio from March 17-20, 2016.\",\n \"Music executive\\nA music executive or record executive is a person within a <a href=\\\"record%20label\\\">record label</a> who works in senior management, making executive decisions over the label's artists. Their role varies greatly but in essence, they can oversee one, or many, aspects of a record label, including <a href=\\\"A%26amp%3BR\\\">A&R</a>, <a href=\\\"Recording%20contract\\\">contract</a>s, <a href=\\\"music%20management\\\">management</a>, <a href=\\\"Music%20publisher%20%28popular%20music%29\\\">publishing</a>, <a href=\\\"record%20producer\\\">production</a>, <a href=\\\"manufacturing\\\">manufacture</a>, <a href=\\\"marketing\\\">marketing</a>/<a href=\\\"Promotion%20%28marketing%29\\\">promotion</a>, <a href=\\\"Record%20distributor\\\">distribution</a>, <a href=\\\"copyright\\\">copyright</a>, and <a href=\\\"concert%20tour\\\">touring</a>. Although music executives work in senior management, a number of music executives have gone on to establish their own record labels as owners themselves, sometimes being involved in the music industry initially as artists, A&Rs, or producers for a number of years and building a strong reputation.\\nMusic executives work in a variety of settings for \\\"major\\\" record labels such as <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music%20Group\\\">Universal Music Group</a> (part of EMI's recorded music division absorbed into UMG), <a href=\\\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\\\">Sony Music Entertainment</a> (EMI Music Publishing absorbed into Sony/ATV Music Publishing), or <a href=\\\"Warner%20Music%20Group\\\">Warner Music Group</a>. However, many choose to work with, or start their own <a href=\\\"independent%20record%20labels\\\">independent record labels</a> such as <a href=\\\"Sub%20Pop\\\">Sub Pop</a>, <a href=\\\"Ironworks%20%28record%20label%29\\\">Ironworks</a> and <a href=\\\"Jagjaguwar\\\">Jagjaguwar</a>.\",\n \"Zomba Group of Companies\\nThe Zomba Group of Companies (sometimes referred to as Zomba Music Group or just Zomba Group) was a music group and division which was owned by and operated under <a href=\\\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\\\">Sony Music Entertainment</a>. The division was renamed to Jive Label Group in 2009 and was placed under the <a href=\\\"RCA/Jive%20Label%20Group\\\">RCA/Jive Label Group</a> umbrella. In 2011, the RCA/Jive Label Group was split in half. Multiple Jive Label Group artists were moved to <a href=\\\"Epic%20Records\\\">Epic Records</a> while others stayed with Jive as it moved under the <a href=\\\"RCA%20Music%20Group\\\">RCA Music Group</a>. In October 2011 Jive Records was shut down and their artists were moved to <a href=\\\"RCA%20Records\\\">RCA Records</a>.\\nFounded independently in the mid-seventies by <a href=\\\"Clive%20Calder\\\">Clive Calder</a> and <a href=\\\"Ralph%20Simon\\\">Ralph Simon</a>, the group has had interests in music release, distribution, production, publishing, equipment rental, recording studios, and artist management. Though the financial structure and annual revenue of Zomba during the company's independent period was only known to <a href=\\\"CEO\\\">CEO</a> <a href=\\\"Clive%20Calder\\\">Clive Calder</a> (the company was registered privately offshore in the <a href=\\\"Dutch%20Antilles\\\">Dutch Antilles</a>), Zomba was widely regarded as the most successful of the <a href=\\\"independent%20record%20label\\\">independent music companies</a>.\\nThe group is perhaps best known for its role in developing some of the most popular forms of music, such as <a href=\\\"hip-hop\\\">hip-hop</a> in the 1980s, and the <a href=\\\"teen%20pop\\\">teen pop</a>/<a href=\\\"boy%20band\\\">boy band</a> phenomenon in the late 1990s through their first record label <a href=\\\"Jive%20Records\\\">Jive</a>, though they have also had substantial activities in both the Christian and gospel music field. Calder and Simon both served as CEOs until 1990 when Calder bought out Simon's share and ran the company himself until 2002. In 2002, BMG purchased the company and subsequently restructured the labels under the umbrella company Zomba Label Group, which was the most public face of the company. The label group served as a parent for many different labels including Jive, <a href=\\\"Silvertone%20Records%20%281980%29\\\">Silvertone</a>, <a href=\\\"Volcano%20Entertainment\\\">Volcano</a> and <a href=\\\"LaFace%20Records\\\">LaFace</a>.\\nIn late 1971, Clive Calder and Ralph Simon began their two-decade partnership in forming businesses in record production and promotion, music publishing, artist management and concert promotion in South Africa. Because of the market in South Africa, there was a need to branch out into various aspects of the business, instead of just focusing on one aspect of the industry. \\\"You couldn't do just one thing. It was too small,\\\" explained David Gresham, CEO of David Gresham Record Company. \\\"This is not a country where you have a million-seller. A No. 1 record is a 10,000 unit seller. That only pays the rent for a month or two.\\\" While almost mandatory in South Africa, this early style of music company would be adapted to other markets throughout the companies history, and would become a staple of Calder's managing legacy.\\nEarly companies formed by Calder and Simon were Sagittarius Management and Clive Calder Productions (CCP). CCP was distributed by EMI Records South Africa who purchased the company in 1972. Although Calder has no stake in it now, it still exists as a wholly owned subsidiary of EMI, specializing in the recording, development and marketing of domestic artists. Calder's relationship with EMI began when he had been an A&R Manager at EMI South Africa for eighteen months. There he had signed some big groups for the time such as Freedom's Children and the Otis Waygood Blues Band. During this time, Calder was also a bassist in a few bands. He formed the Four Dukes and the In Crowd with EMI artist Peter Vee, whom he also produced. Calder eventually paired Lee with a young producer named <a href=\\\"Mutt%20Lange\\\">Mutt Lange</a>, who began producing songs for Calder at CCP, including the local hit \\\"Sunday Monday Tuesday\\\" by Jessica Jones.\\nThe trio of Calder, Simon and Lange decided in 1974 that they had to get out of South Africa. \\\"We were politically very much opposed to the old apartheid regime\\\" says Simon. They pooled together what little money they had and moved to London. Having landed right in the middle of the British <a href=\\\"punk%20rock\\\">punk rock</a> movement, they felt their experience would not be best utilized in marketing and promotion in such a different context. Instead, they opted to create a publishing company and Zomba Corporation was officially registered in <a href=\\\"Switzerland\\\">Switzerland</a> in 1975, operating out of Calder's bedroom space in London.<ref name=\\\"woweu0506/3\\\"> </ref> The name \\\"<a href=\\\"Zomba%2C%20Malawi\\\">Zomba</a>\\\" referred to the capital of African country <a href=\\\"Malawi\\\">Malawi</a> (<a href=\\\"Lilongwe\\\">Lilongwe</a> superseded Zomba as Malawi's capital in 1974).\\nNext, Calder and Simon began looking for songwriters. The first was <a href=\\\"Henri%20Belolo\\\">Henri Belolo</a>, the French producer who helped create the <a href=\\\"Village%20People\\\">Village People</a>. Zomba became the <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco</a> group's British publisher. Though the band had been turned down by a few UK labels, Calder and Simon thought they could retain the most control of Zomba if they stayed in the publishing and management business, allowing other labels to release their artists' music. Meanwhile, Lange was building a name for himself as a producer, with albums by the <a href=\\\"Boomtown%20Rats\\\">Boomtown Rats</a>, <a href=\\\"Graham%20Parker\\\">Graham Parker</a> and eventually <a href=\\\"AC/DC\\\">AC/DC's</a> 1979 \\\"<a href=\\\"Highway%20to%20Hell\\\">Highway to Hell</a>\\\", his breakthrough album. This led to Lange becoming one of the world's leading hard-rock producers, later adding <a href=\\\"Def%20Leppard\\\">Def Leppard</a>, <a href=\\\"Foreigner%20%28band%29\\\">Foreigner</a> and <a href=\\\"Bryan%20Adams\\\">Bryan Adams</a> to his resume. For Zomba, this meant increased exposure and credibility leading to many new producer and songwriter management deals. Additionally, artists would sign publishing deals, giving their publishing company a constantly burgeoning collection.\\nIn early 1978, Zomba opened offices in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> and began looking for more artists and songwriters. <a href=\\\"Clive%20Davis\\\">Clive Davis</a> was one of the first to contact the group, who used his recently formed <a href=\\\"Arista%20Records\\\">Arista Records</a> to distribute Zomba artists. The first major signing was <a href=\\\"Billy%20Ocean\\\">Billy Ocean</a>. Over the next few years, Zomba's songwriters hit it big and the publishing profits kicked in, marking the beginning of the company's first major expansion into record labels. Though Davis wanted Calder to head his West Coast A&R operations, Calder had a different plans altogether, and instead presented <a href=\\\"Jive%20Records\\\">Jive Records</a> to Davis.\\nArista had been having trouble pushing rock acts in the US, and Clive Davis had hoped that with Zomba's Mutt Lange connection, Jive would fill that role. However, Calder had other ideas. In 1981, Jive began operations by releasing British dance and pop music such as <a href=\\\"Q-Feel\\\">Q-Feel</a>, <a href=\\\"A%20Flock%20of%20Seagulls\\\">A Flock of Seagulls</a> and <a href=\\\"Tight%20Fit\\\">Tight Fit</a>. By 1982, Calder was introduced to a young fresh college graduate named <a href=\\\"Barry%20Weiss\\\">Barry Weiss</a> who, for his job interview with Zomba, took Calder out to <a href=\\\"hip-hop\\\">hip-hop</a> and black clubs all over New York City. Calder was immediately impressed with the man and had him scanning sales data all over the country searching for unknown acts on small labels selling large numbers. Calder got one of his songwriters <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Dolby\\\">Thomas Dolby</a> to create a catchy hook for a local DJ <a href=\\\"Mr.%20Magic\\\">Mr. Magic</a> to rap over. Mr. Magic had to cancel at the last minute, but fortunately he knew another rapper, Jalil Hutchins. Weiss's stress level shot up when Hutchins came to the session with another unknown rapper named Ecstasy and no rhymes. After two days, the group created and recorded \\\"Magic's Wand\\\" which turned into a hit single. Weiss named the group Houdini, but Calder changed it to <a href=\\\"Whodini\\\">Whodini</a>. Calder flew the group to London to record an album, then to Germany to record with producer <a href=\\\"Conny%20Plank\\\">Konrad \\\"Conny\\\" Plank</a> of <a href=\\\"Devo\\\">Devo</a> and <a href=\\\"Ultravox\\\">Ultravox</a> fame. While the group would eventually leave Jive after a few albums, the early success resulted in Jive becoming a label with a focus on hip-hop artists throughout the eighties. At a time when the record establishment wouldn't touch \\\"ghetto\\\" music like rap, a white South African successfully marketed some of the edgiest black music.\\nAfter Whodini, Jive began signing other rap artists into the later half of the decade. <a href=\\\"Boogie%20Down%20Productions\\\">Boogie Down Productions</a> was signed on the strength of their first record \\\"<a href=\\\"Criminal%20Minded\\\">Criminal Minded</a>\\\", and their Jive debut \\\"<a href=\\\"By%20All%20Means%20Necessary\\\">By All Means Necessary</a>\\\" was released in 1988. Young <a href=\\\"West%20Coast%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">West Coast</a> rapper <a href=\\\"Too%20Short\\\">Too Short</a> was picked up by Jive after his independently released \\\"<a href=\\\"Born%20to%20Mack\\\">Born to Mack</a>\\\" sold over 50,000 copies. Jive gave the album national distribution which led to gold status, and then quickly issued his follow up \\\"<a href=\\\"Life%20Is...Too%20Short\\\">Life Is...Too Short</a>\\\" which achieved platinum status. Meanwhile, Jive signed <a href=\\\"DJ%20Jazzy%20Jeff%20%26amp%3B%20The%20Fresh%20Prince\\\">DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince</a> in 1986 and released their debut \\\"<a href=\\\"Rock%20the%20House%20%28album%29\\\">Rock the House</a>\\\". The duo was a great success for Jive, helping make rap more accessible.\\nJive continued supporting rap artists into the nineties. Most of the aforementioned groups continued on Jive into the next decade. <a href=\\\"KRS-One\\\">KRS-One</a>, the primary force behind Boogie Down Productions, released a string of solo albums with Jive beginning with \\\"<a href=\\\"Return%20of%20the%20Boom%20Bap\\\">Return of the Boom Bap</a>\\\" in 1993. In 1991, Jive signed R&B artist <a href=\\\"R.%20Kelly\\\">R. Kelly</a> who, along with his backing band <a href=\\\"Public%20Announcement\\\">Public Announcement</a>, released their debut \\\"<a href=\\\"Born%20into%20the%2090%27s\\\">Born into the 90's</a>\\\" in early 1992. R. Kelly's began his solo career with \\\"<a href=\\\"12%20Play\\\">12 Play</a>\\\" in 1993 and continues to release with Jive today. <a href=\\\"A%20Tribe%20Called%20Quest\\\">A Tribe Called Quest</a> was signed by Jive in 1989 following a successful independently released single \\\"Description of a Fool.\\\" Their debut album \\\"<a href=\\\"People%27s%20Instinctive%20Travels%20and%20the%20Paths%20of%20Rhythm\\\">People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm</a>\\\" was released by Jive in 1990 and framed the group as one of the most intelligent rap groups. Many other rap and R&B artists were signed throughout the eighties and nineties before the teen-pop explosion in the later half of the decade.\\nBy 1990, Zomba was worth $225 million with over fifty companies. Contrary to most other record businesses at the time, Zomba spared no time with frills. \\\"The Jive offices were crummy, cardboard desks. They just really did everything on the cheap\\\", says attorney Gary Stiffelman. The company began to attract more major label attention when EMI attempted to buy the company, but was ultimately turned down. This period also saw Ralph Simon leaving Zomba at the start of the decade. Through an unspecified \\\"ethical disagreement\\\", Calder and Simon ended their relationship of over two decades. Calder bought out Simon's half of the company and subsequently gained full control of the company. In late 1991, BMG furthered its relationship with Zomba buy purchasing a 25% stake in their music publishing business, allowing them to sub-publish Zomba compositions in foreign markets. BMG continued with a 20% purchase of Zomba's records division in 1996.\\nBuilding on the successes of the Jive label, Zomba began expanding its reach by purchasing and creating new labels, and by creating new divisions that helped expose more people to Zomba artists and services. In 1988, <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Lauder%20%28music%20executive%29\\\">Andrew Lauder</a> formed the UK-based <a href=\\\"Silvertone%20Records%20%281980%29\\\">Silvertone Records</a> under the Zomba Group. While Jive focused on hip hop, Silvertone focused on more rock-oriented music. The label's roster was initially bolstered by <a href=\\\"The%20Stone%20Roses\\\">The Stone Roses</a>, but quickly expanded to include blues, acoustic, and roots music. Other artists featured early on Silvertone include <a href=\\\"John%20Lee%20Hooker\\\">John Lee Hooker</a>, <a href=\\\"J.J.%20Cale\\\">J.J. Cale</a> and <a href=\\\"The%20Men%20They%20Couldn%27t%20Hang\\\">The Men They Couldn't Hang</a>. This period also saw one of the few times that Zomba attempted cracking the <a href=\\\"classical%20music\\\">classical music</a> market. In 1992, Zomba purchased UK classical music group Conifer Classics with the aide of the group's head Alison Wenham. Though the deal seemed to be solid, Zomba sold the company to BMG in 1995. Classical music activities have remained minimal within the company since then. Building on existing publishing deals, Zomba briefly co-owned the UK label <a href=\\\"Sanctuary%20Records\\\">Sanctuary Records</a>. While the co-ownership only lasted between 1989 and 1991, the two companies continued dealing together in other avenues, including a publishing deal with Sanctuary artists <a href=\\\"Iron%20Maiden\\\">Iron Maiden</a>. In 1998, Zomba purchased a 50% stake in the troubled label <a href=\\\"Volcano%20Entertainment\\\">Volcano Entertainment</a> (called <a href=\\\"Freeworld%20Entertainment\\\">Freeworld</a> at the time). The label had been under financial pressure due to various reasons, including a lawsuit from flagship artist <a href=\\\"Tool%20%28band%29\\\">Tool</a>. The purchase was shared with management firm Q-Prime, though shortly after they sold their half to Zomba, making Volcano a wholly owned subsidiary. The first action was to settle the lawsuit with Tool, who would go on to become another Zomba success throughout the 2000s, representing the broad stylistic reach of artists under the Zomba Group. In December 2000, Volcano Entertainment purchased <a href=\\\"Capricorn%20Records\\\">Capricorn Records</a> from <a href=\\\"Phil%20Walden\\\">Phil Walden</a>, an independent record label launched by Walden, his brother <a href=\\\"Alan%20Walden\\\">Alan Walden</a> and <a href=\\\"Frank%20Fenter\\\">Frank Fenter</a> in 1969. With it, the Zomba subsidiary acquired a large catalog of music as well as active bands <a href=\\\"311%20%28band%29\\\">311</a>, <a href=\\\"Goldfinger%20%28band%29\\\">Goldfinger</a>, <a href=\\\"Reel%20Big%20Fish\\\">Reel Big Fish</a>, <a href=\\\"2%20Skinnee%20J%27s\\\">2 Skinnee J's</a> and the jam bands Galactic and <a href=\\\"Widespread%20Panic\\\">Widespread Panic</a>.\\nIn 1993, Zomba created Zomba! Music Services in order to facilitate publishing rights for those in the film and television industry. The division would act as a channel through which clients could acquire products and services from any company within Zomba. Songs published by Zomba Music Publishers Ltd., or released on any of the Zomba labels, or specialty recordings owned by the division itself, could be sourced for inclusion on film soundtracks, television shows or commercials. This move gave Zomba profits by providing an accessible method of accessing the company's vast publishing catalogue.\\nThe year 1994 saw the first of many of Zomba's successful forays into the Christian music scene with the purchase of the Brentwood Music Group. Brentwood was an established company consisting of an extensive Christian distribution network, several labels, and one of the largest music publishing divisions in printed choral music in the U.S. Expanding on the Brentwood purchase, Zomba purchased the Christian label group <a href=\\\"Reunion%20Records\\\">Reunion Records</a> from BMG in October 1996. In 1997, Zomba purchased yet another Christian music affiliated company, the <a href=\\\"Benson%20Records\\\">Benson Music Group</a>, from Music Entertainment Group. Benson became Zomba's third label to focus on Christian music following Brentwood Music and Reunion Records. An important asset of the Brentwood acquisition was the publishing arm, founded in 1902, that included 46,000 copyrights from artists such as <a href=\\\"Elvis%20Presley\\\">Elvis Presley</a>, <a href=\\\"Dolly%20Parton\\\">Dolly Parton</a>, <a href=\\\"Linda%20Ronstadt\\\">Linda Ronstadt</a>, and <a href=\\\"Willie%20Nelson\\\">Willie Nelson</a>.\\nIn reaction to the surge in Christian-oriented labels gathered over so few years, Zomba created the <a href=\\\"Provident%20Label%20Group\\\">Provident Music Group</a> in June 1997. The Nashville-based group was led by Jim Van Hook and was essentially a continuation of the Brentwood group and an amalgamation of the other Christian-oriented labels. The group consisted of the Benson, Brentwood and Reunion groups, as well as the Brentwood/Benson Publishing Group and newly formed Provident Music Distribution arms. This new group allowed the three main sublabels to have unified resources and distribution while still retaining their unique personalities in the market.\\nIn 1996, Zomba acquired the Windsong Holdings which gave them control of many new companies including <a href=\\\"Windsong%20International\\\">Windsong International</a>, <a href=\\\"Pinnacle%20Entertainment%20%28UK%29\\\">Pinnacle Entertainment</a> and <a href=\\\"Music%20For%20Nations\\\">Music For Nations</a>. It also gave them control of the established music company <a href=\\\"Rough%20Trade%20Records\\\">Rough Trade</a> (80% of Rough Trade Records <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>/<a href=\\\"Switzerland\\\">Switzerland</a>/<a href=\\\"Austria\\\">Austria</a> (GSA) and 100% of Rough Trade <a href=\\\"Benelux\\\">Benelux</a>). Rough Trade was primarily known as a distributor, but it also ran many <a href=\\\"electronic%20dance%20music\\\">electronic</a> labels based in Germany. In July 1999, Rough Trade GSA was renamed Zomba Records GmbH, while the Benelux operation (which only had distribution at the time) was absorbed into Zomba Distribution. The Rough Trade name remained as an imprint of Zomba Records GmbH, but was largely abandoned by Zomba.\\nWith the successful integration of Rough Trade into its operations in the GSA region and Benelux and to expand on recent teen pop successes, Zomba created a London-based international label group, Zomba International Records Group. Directed by Stuart Watson, the new organization allowed each new local territory to freely sign and develop acts on its own. If those artists could create a strong regional profile, it would be possible to \\\"export\\\" them to Zomba International for broader exposure. Simultaneously, it allowed Zomba artists increased international exposure. The expansion was largely unhampered, save for some legal issues with the Australian branch. Australian record company Festival Mushroom Group lost at least a dozen employees to Zomba in early 1999, and placed an injunction that stopped them from soliciting Mushroom employees, and accused former employee Scott Murphy of trying to bolster Zomba's presence while still working for Mushroom. However, the issue was resolved fairly amicably and ended with a distribution deal with BFM Distribution (a joint venture of Festival Mushroom Group and BMG).\\nAs the record industry began evolving due to the widespread use of the Internet, and the increasing ease with which artists can record at home, Zomba made moves that illustrated their desire to change with the times. In 2000, they joined the growing list of record companies that made some music available via digital download with online distribution company Amplified Entertainment. In 2002, Zomba joined majors EMI, Universal and BMG, with approving some of their Jive catalog for release on the new <a href=\\\"DataPlay\\\">DataPlay</a> media. Though the media was largely unsuccessful, the move illustrated Zomba's competitiveness with the major labels in the growing digital world. However, a negative outcome of the changing times was the closing of some of Zomba's Battery Studios and Dreamline equipment rental businesses towards the end of 2001.\\nAround 1993, Clive Calder began his uneasy relationship with <a href=\\\"Lou%20Pearlman\\\">Lou Pearlman</a>. Pearlman had put together a new group, <a href=\\\"Backstreet%20Boys\\\">Backstreet Boys</a>, which was languishing on <a href=\\\"Mercury%20Records\\\">Mercury</a> without any hits. He presented the group to Calder along with <a href=\\\"Dave%20McPherson%20%28musician%29\\\">David McPherson</a>. Though initially uninterested due to the dominance of grunge and alternative rock, Calder thought that the group could help expand his operations overseas. Zomba bought out the boys contract for $35,000 and moved the group over to Zomba imprint <a href=\\\"Jive%20Records\\\">Jive</a>. Calder immediately sent the group to Sweden and matched them with a group of producers recently found by Zomba scouts: <a href=\\\"Denniz%20Pop\\\">Dag Volle</a> and <a href=\\\"Max%20Martin\\\">Martin Sandberg</a>. In mid-1995, the band recorded their three songs including their first single at <a href=\\\"Cheiron%20Studios\\\">Cheiron Studios</a> in <a href=\\\"Stockholm\\\">Stockholm</a>. Next Calder matched them with an old friend, Stuart Watson, who ran SWAT Enterprises, a company specializing in promotion in Asia. The group went to Asia began touring relentlessly and released their <a href=\\\"Backstreet%20Boys%20%28International%29\\\">first album</a> which sold one million copies in three weeks. In 1997, when Calder thought the grunge phenomenon had sufficiently passed, he took the group back over to the United States where their <a href=\\\"Backstreet%20Boys%20%28US%29\\\">North American debut</a> ended up selling upwards of 14 million copies, creating the first in a run of many hits that Zomba and the Backstreet Boys would enjoy together.\\nWhile Pearlman and Watson were breaking the Backstreet Boys overseas, Jive A&R man Steve Lunt was busy in the US seeking a female star, and was greeted with fifteen-year-old <a href=\\\"Britney%20Spears\\\">Britney Spears</a>. Initially horrified by Spears karaoke <a href=\\\"demo%20%28music%29\\\">demo</a> of a <a href=\\\"Toni%20Braxton\\\">Toni Braxton</a> song sung in the wrong register, Lunt was intrigued by a brief moment at the end where he heard the \\\"kind of soul she had.\\\" As was the virtually the standard at Zomba, Lunt took Spears to in-house songwriter and producer Eric Foster White in the company's publishing division, and the two recorded \\\"<a href=\\\"You%20Got%20It%20All%20%28The%20Jets%20song%29\\\">You Got It All</a>.\\\" Like the Backstreet Boys, Spears was hooked up with Cheiron producer <a href=\\\"Max%20Martin\\\">Max Martin</a>. Within thirty days of letting a music director at <a href=\\\"KFMB-FM\\\">Star 100.7</a> in <a href=\\\"San%20Diego\\\">San Diego</a> hear \\\"<a href=\\\"...Baby%20One%20More%20Time%20%28song%29\\\">...Baby One More Time</a>\\\", the song was number one on the charts in 1999.\\nIn 1999 Zomba was involved in a \\\"boy band controversy\\\" when trying to sign another group that Pearlman had put together himself, <a href=\\\"%2ANSYNC\\\">*NSYNC</a>. *NSYNC had recently left RCA due to allegations that Pearlman had taken approximately 50% of their profits and not the one-sixth that he had agreed to. Seeing the group as a \\\"free-agent,\\\" Jive quickly signed them and prepared to release their next album. On 12 October, Pearlman's company Trans Continental, in conjunction with RCA owner BMG Entertainment and BMG Ariola Munich sued Jive Records, Clive Calder, and the members of *NSYNC for $150 million citing, among other things, breach of contract. Pearlman sought an injunction against the release of the band's new album and that the recordings be given to him, but it was denied in court. As a response to the suit, and in reference to treatment by Trans Continental, *NSYNC released a statement citing the company's poor conduct as \\\"the most glaring, overt, and callous example of artist exploitation that the music industry has seen in a long time.\\\" The lawsuit was settled on 23 December with undisclosed terms, but left Jive free to release future *NSYNC albums.\\nThe lawsuit, which \\\"<a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone\\\">Rolling Stone</a>\\\" called \\\"the music industry's nastiest legal skirmishes in years,\\\" was problematic for Zomba for two main reasons. First, having heard that 'N Sync was signed to Jive, the Backstreet Boys did not want to be a part of the label anymore. Second, the lawsuit temporarily strained Zomba's relationship with BMG, whose distribution deal with Zomba was coming to a close. Jive initially announced that they would not renew their deal with BMG, but reconsidered following the lawsuit with BMG and Trans Continental. The distribution deal may have been a determining factor in the outcome of the lawsuit, since distributed Zomba product accounted for 5.5% of BMG's US market share, and company CEO Strauss Zelnick was under pressure not to lose that. They also signed a new deal with the Backstreet Boys that gave the band a 20% royalty rate.\\nBMG had owned 25% of Zomba's publishing business since 1991 and 20% of its recording business since 1996. As part of BMG's 1996 agreement with Zomba, the music giant was required to follow through on a <a href=\\\"put%20option\\\">put option</a> and buy the remaining shares it did not already own before 31 December 2002. In June 2002, Clive Calder decided to exercise the put option. Effective 26 November 2002, BMG Entertainment concluded its deal with Zomba for the purchase of the company's entire assets. While Calder had originally requested $3.2 billion for his shares in Zomba, valuation of the label's assets varied from $1.6 billion to $2.4 billion. Following the purchase negotiations, a price of $2.74 billion was agreed upon, the biggest purchase of an independent at the time. Zomba's sale had been the latest in a series of independent label sellouts including Island Records and Geffen Records (both sold to Universal for $300 million and $550 million respectively), and Virgin (sold for $950 million to EMI). The $2.74 billion paid for the Zomba Group was more than was paid for the purchase of many others labels including Island, Geffen, Virgin, A&M, Motown, Chrysalis, and Def Jam, combined.\\nInitially, BMG took its time in integrating Zomba with the rest of its labels, hoping that the former independent would lift BMGs worldwide rank from fifth to fourth-largest record company. Calder resigned his position as CEO immediately after the purchase, but stayed on in an advisory position for about another year. In mid-2003, BMG began its worldwide integration of Zomba cutting hundreds of jobs through the consolidation of regional operations. While many of the key managers stayed, and the large offices in the US and the UK remained operational, all of the other regional offices were assimilated into BMG. In addition to the regional mergers, the Zomba and BMG publishing companies were integrated. The US and UK offices remained as stand-alone units, but many of the back-office functions were consolidated into BMG. The Provident Music Group, Zomba's foray into the Christian music market, was reassigned as a RCA sub-label. By 2004, the record labels were reorganized under the Zomba Label Group.\\nIn 2004, <a href=\\\"Bertelsmann%20Music%20Group\\\">BMG</a> and <a href=\\\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\\\">Sony Music Entertainment</a> merged to form <a href=\\\"Sony%20BMG%20Music%20Entertainment\\\">Sony BMG Music Entertainment</a> taking Zomba with it. Though the merger was plagued with controversy and eventually ended with Sony buying out BMG's stake in late 2008, Zomba executives continued to expand the company's operations in various aspects. In 2007, as part of Sony BMG integration and consolidation, RCA Music Group and Zomba Label Group merged their international, sales and field staffs to form the BMG Label Group under Sony BMG. RCA and Zomba kept separate groups under BMG, but this configuration was short-lived due to the dissolution of the Sony BMG merger. Zomba is currently owned wholly by, and operates under Sony.\\nOn 2 November 2004 the <a href=\\\"American%20Federation%20of%20Musicians\\\">American Federation of Musicians</a> announced that it had entered into an agreement with Zomba. Effective 1 January 2005, the labor union covered all artists on any Zomba subsidiary labels (and any future labels) under the Federation's Sound Recording Labor Agreement. The deal ensured that all artists under the Zomba aegis would receive, for the first time, a full range of benefits and protections, among which are scale payments, industry standard working conditions and pension contributions.\\nIn 2005, Zomba formed Zomba Gospel under the Zomba Label Group in an effort to collate its recently expanding gospel labels. Zomba's interest in gospel began in the form of a distribution deal with <a href=\\\"GospoCentric%20Records\\\">GospoCentric Records</a> (and sublabel B'Rite Music) in October 2001, which Zomba later purchased in 2004. Verity Records president Max Siegel was charged with heading the new entity which included Zomba labels Verity and GospoCentric, as well as four artist owned imprints: Quiet Water Entertainment (<a href=\\\"Donald%20Lawrence\\\">Donald Lawrence</a>), Fo Yo Soul Entertainment (<a href=\\\"Kirk%20Franklin\\\">Kirk Franklin</a>), New Life Records (<a href=\\\"John%20P.%20Kee\\\">John P. Kee</a>) and F. Hammond Music (<a href=\\\"Fred%20Hammond\\\">Fred Hammond</a>). Distribution was handled by Provident-Integrity for the Christian Bookselling Association, and through Sony Distribution (formerly Sony BMG) for the mainstream market.\\nZomba's publishing division also continued its expansion. In 2006, Zomba Music Publishing purchased the catalogue of the UK-based Strongsongs Music Publishing from the Telstar Music Group. This large acquisition gave expanded Zomba's rights to many international hitmakers to include <a href=\\\"Metallica\\\">Metallica</a>, <a href=\\\"Craig%20David\\\">Craig David</a> and <a href=\\\"Dannii%20Minogue\\\">Dannii Minogue</a> among others. Beginning with the appointment of David Mantel in 2005 as the head of Zomba Music Publishing US operations, the company began to take a different signing approach that focused on unknown or unsigned artists. Mantel's first signing was <a href=\\\"T-Pain\\\">T-Pain</a>, whose two singles \\\"I'm Sprung\\\" and \\\"I'm N Luv (Wit a Stripper)\\\" hit number 8 and 5 respectively on the Billboard Hot 100. This type of signing was also used in the records division were artists or producers were given their own imprint. In October 2008, Zomba made an all-inclusive multiyear joint-venture deal with Hitz Committee Entertainment, and imprint in the making for almost 5 years by Jive A&R VP Micky \\\"MeMpHiTz\\\" Wright. Beginning in 2008, Hitz Committee consists of a record label under Sony, music production, music publishing, artist and producer management, and TV and film projects.\\nThe structure of the Zomba Group during the independent era (1975 to 2002) is difficult to pinpoint exactly due to the private nature of Clive Calder's managing style. During that period, Calder's private investment group Summer Shore <a href=\\\"Naamloze%20vennootschap\\\">NV</a> controlled the Zomba group. The company began as Zomba Management and Publishers as early as 1975. They expanded to the US, first with a publishing sector in 1978, then a records division in 1981 while the management and publishing divisions became separate companies. Also sometime during that period, they started a production division initially called Zomba Productions Ltd., which would become Zomba Recording Corporation. From a legal standpoint, Zomba's <a href=\\\"holding%20company\\\">holdings</a> are divided into their music publishing business (Zomba Music Holdings <a href=\\\"Besloten%20Vennootschap\\\">BV</a>) and music recording business (Zomba Record Holdings BV). The former holds only music publishing (i.e., written music) rights, while the latter holds all of the recorded music rights, along with some publishing groups acquired over the years. In addition to those two, there is another holding company called Zomba Entertainment Holdings BV.<ref name=\\\"woweu0304/3\\\"> </ref> Below is a breakdown of most of the companies and divisions that have been owned by Zomba. Since the BMG integration in mid-2003, and further integration into Sony Music in early 2009, the exact status of some companies is not known. As much detail has been provided to illustrate the current status of these companies.\\nZomba's first, and flagship label is Jive, formed in 1981. Since then, Zomba has acquired and created a variety of labels and label groups that either operate independent from, or under Jive. During its independent period, the various record labels under Zomba all reported directly to a records division. There was no formal public face for the labels until BMG formed Zomba Label Group in 2004. Though the term \\\"Zomba label group\\\" or \\\"Zomba Group records division\\\" had been used previously to refer to the various labels owned by the company, it wasn't until then that an actual company was created to control the labels specifically. The Zomba Recording Corporation continues to coordinate production activities on many Zomba subsidiary releases.\\nFrom 1981 until 1987, Zomba labels were distributed by <a href=\\\"Arista%20Records\\\">Arista</a>. Following that, Zomba signed a deal with <a href=\\\"RCA%20Records\\\">RCA</a> for distribution that lasted until 1991. The end of the deal coincided with BMG purchasing a large share of RCA and a deal with BMG was signed for distribution. BMG remained the North American distributor for Zomba until after the purchase in 2002, however, other regions had various other distributors over time. <a href=\\\"EMI\\\">EMI</a> became an important distributor for Zomba in Europe via <a href=\\\"Virgin%20Records\\\">Virgin Records</a>, but distribution details are listed below in the Regional Branches section. Zomba only controls one small vinyl pressing plant, therefore, most of their manufacturing has been outsourced to companies such as Sonopress (BMG affiliated), Sony and Technicolor.\\nIn 1996, Zomba acquired 75% of UK distributor and label group Pinnacle, 80% of the Rough Trade label and distribution in the Germany/Switzerland/Austria (GSA) region, and 100% of Rough Trade Benelux. Effective 8 July 1999 Rough Trade Records was renamed Zomba Records GmbH and the Rough Trade sales and distribution arm was renamed Zomba Distribution, operating as a division of Zomba Records GmbH. As of the BMG purchase, Zomba conducted its own distribution in the UK (with Pinnacle), Germany, Austria and Benelux (all with Zomba Distribution). In those areas, Zomba also distributed for other, smaller independent labels. In France, Italy, Portugal, Spain and Sweden, Zomba had its own marketing and sales, however, distribution was handled by EMI (through Virgin in most cases). In Finland and Greece, Zomba material was exclusively licensed to EMI who controlled marketing, sales and distribution. North American distribution has almost exclusively been with BMG. Following the BMG purchase in December 2002 and subsequent integration in June 2003 and the end of contracts with EMI (also in June), all distribution has been handled by the local BMG companies. When BMG merged with Sony, <a href=\\\"Sony%20BMG\\\">Sony BMG</a> became Zomba's distributor from 2004 until early 2009. Since then, Zomba products have been distributed by Sony Music since Sony purchased BMG's interest in their joint-venture.\\nZomba Recording Corporation (previously Zomba Productions Ltd., and sometimes colloquially referred to as Zomba Records) is a music company and division of the Zomba Group. The US affiliate is Zomba Recordings LLC and the UK affiliate is Zomba Records Ltd. The company also runs an investment and financial services company called Zomba Ventures Inc.<ref name=\\\"wow0405/2\\\"> </ref><ref name=\\\"wow0506/2\\\"> </ref>\\nPrimarily a production company, Zomba Recording Corporation coordinates various activities for the recording process including hiring musicians, managing studios, and organizing production, mixing and mastering personnel. Recordings made under the coordination or supervision of this division are usually marked with the phrase \\\"An Original Sound Recording Made by Zomba Recording Corporation (or Zomba Recordings LLC/Zomba Records Limited/Zomba Productions Limited).\\\" While not strictly a record label, Zomba Recording Corporation appears on most of the various sublabels that Zomba owns. Additionally, the minimal manufacturing as well as some distribution that Zomba does on its own is run through this company.\\nBattery Studios is the name of Zomba Recording Corporation's chain of multi-room facilities often used in the production of Zomba artists. The main facility, located in New York City, is constantly associated with high-profile clients including <a href=\\\"R.%20Kelly\\\">R. Kelly</a>, <a href=\\\"%27N%20Sync\\\">'N Sync</a> and <a href=\\\"Britney%20Spears\\\">Britney Spears</a>. The studio features three recording and mixing studios with <a href=\\\"Solid%20State%20Logic%239000%20series\\\">SSL 9000</a>, <a href=\\\"Solid%20State%20Logic%234000%20series\\\">SSL 4064 G+</a> and <a href=\\\"Euphonix%23The%20Crescendo%20Digitally%20Controlled%20Analog%20Audio%20Mixing%20Console\\\">Euphonix CS3000</a> consoles and <a href=\\\"Pro%20Tools\\\">Pro Tools</a> MIXplus systems. Battery Studios was originally opened in London before the New York branch existed, and at one point consisted of six locations in London, four New York locations, two Nashville locations, and one location in Chicago. However, Zomba closed its London branches towards the end of 2001 and the others followed soon after leaving only an unknown number of New York locations. In addition to Battery studios, Zomba Recording Corporation began a relationship with the established Swedish studio <a href=\\\"Cheiron%20Studios\\\">Cheiron Studios</a> and its production personnel. The studio had operated since the mid eighties (as SweMix), and from 1996 until its closure in 2000 it shared a joint production and publishing venture with the Zomba Group. Apart from the actual studio, the venture included a production team that helped forge the sounds of Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, and 'N Sync.\\nIn addition to recording studios, Zomba Recording Corporation operated <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\\\">Dreamhire</a> Professional audio Rentals. <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\\\">Dreamhire</a> opened in 1984 with operations in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> (1989) and <a href=\\\"Nashville\\\">Nashville</a> (1988). The London branch closed in 2001 followed by Nashville in 2003. <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\\\">Dreamhire</a> also included Hilton Sound, a hire operation purchased by Zomba in 1996. Since November 2003 following the BMG purchase, <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.dreamhire.com\\\">Dreamhire</a> is no longer a part of Zomba and runs independently as Dreamhire LLC from one location in New York City, owned by Chris Dunn, ex-bass guitarist from UK band (<a href=\\\"City%20Boy%20%28band%29\\\">City Boy (band)</a>) which recorded 5 albums all produced by Mutt Lange.\\nDuring its existence, the Zomba Label Group featured all of the Zomba-related labels that BMG purchased in 2002. The current <a href=\\\"Battery%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%29\\\">Battery Records</a> is unrelated to the <a href=\\\"Battery%20Records%20%28dance%29\\\">previous defunct imprint</a> of the same name. Listed below is the structure of the Zomba Label Group immediately before its rebranding and dissolution in 2009.\\nThe Provident Music Group was created by Zomba in 1997 as an amalgamation of their Christian music activities. Zomba had purchased Brentwood Music Group in February 1994 and founder Jim Van Cook was charged with leading the new music group. The group consisted of three sections: Provident Label Group, Provident-Integrity Distribution and the Brentwood/Benson Publishing Group.\\nAs part of the music group, Zomba amalgamated their Christian labels under the Provident Label Group. The new group initially consisted of Brentwood Records, Benson Records and Reunion Records, though Brentwood was shut down in 2001. Since then, other labels have been added. Under Zomba, the Provident Label Group had this configuration:\\nAfter BMG bought Zomba in 2002 and integrated the company in June 2003, the Provident Music Group was moved under the aegis of <a href=\\\"RCA%20Records\\\">RCA</a> with the exception of the Publishing division which was moved under BMG Publishing (Provident would later create its own publishing division, Essential Music Publishing, with no connection to Zomba). BMG Publishing was subsequently sold to Universal, along with Brentwood/Benson. In 2008, when Sony bought Bertelsmann's stake in their joint <a href=\\\"Sony%20BMG\\\">Sony BMG</a> venture, the rest of Provident became part of Sony Music Nashville.\\nIn 1996, Zomba acquired the holdings of Windsong International. The deal gave the following controlling interests to Zomba:\\nRough Trade GSA was renamed Zomba Records GmbH, while the Benelux operation (which only had distribution at the time) was absorbed into Zomba Distribution. The Rough Trade name only remained as an imprint of Zomba Records GmbH. Before being absorbed into BMG's operations, Zomba Records GmbH consisted of the following regional labels, most of which focused on <a href=\\\"electronic%20dance%20music\\\">electronic dance music</a>:\\nZomba Records GmbH was integrated into BMG's German operation along with the other regional offices. The Rough Trade name was later reacquired by <a href=\\\"Geoff%20Travis\\\">Geoff Travis</a> and <a href=\\\"Jeannette%20Lee%20%28Rough%20Trade%29\\\">Jeanette Lee</a> who eventually continued it independently. When BMG restructured Zomba in 2003, Windsong/Pinnacle was moved under <a href=\\\"Bertelsmann\\\">Bertelsmann's</a> <a href=\\\"Arvato\\\">Arvato AG</a>. Through a <a href=\\\"management%20buyout\\\">management buyout</a>, Windsong/Pinnacle gained its independence in early 2008, but was forced into <a href=\\\"Administration%20%28law%29\\\">administration</a> late in the year due to the <a href=\\\"Financial%20crisis%20of%202007%E2%80%932010\\\">economic crisis</a>.\\nZomba International Records Group managed the various regional branches opened as early as 1997 and as late as 2003. The group served to solidify the operations in these regions, some of which already had small offices with activities from scouting, promoting (such as Sweden), or as much as distribution for smaller labels or operating a few regional record labels (such as Germany). Following the BMG purchase, all of the remaining regional labels (with the exception of the main US and UK offices) and the Zomba International Records Group activities were merged with their respective local BMG offices in mid-2003.\\nAside from those listed above, other labels that have been associated with Zomba over the years are listed below.\\nZomba Music Publishing Ltd. (sometimes colloquially referred to as Zomba Music or Zomba Music Publishing Group) is the publishing division of the Zomba Group of Companies. Initially known as Zomba Enterprises Inc., the division officially changed names in 1994 and became the Zomba umbrella company for publishing. Since then, Zomba Enterprises is the name used for Zomba's <a href=\\\"American%20Society%20of%20Composers%2C%20Authors%20and%20Publishers\\\">ASCAP</a> affiliate, while Zomba Music Inc. is the name of the <a href=\\\"Broadcast%20Music%20Incorporated\\\">BMI</a> affiliate. The holding company that controls most Zomba publishing interests is called Zomba Music Holdings BV. David Mantel has been the president of Zomba Music Publishing since 2005, when he took over for Richard Blackstone. Tim Smith is the GM of the UK affiliate Zomba Music Publishing Ltd. There are various other publishing entities under Zomba, some of which are vast libraries acquired over the years, and some of which are small groups, sometimes representing a single artist. Below is a list of Zomba's publishing subsidiaries:\\nZomba has limited activity in the classical music publishing sector, however, they are quite active in the pop music publishing and production music. At the time of the BMG purchase, Zomba had pop music publishing operations located in the UK and Benelux, while every other territory was sub-published with BMG. Production music operations were located in the UK and France with smaller operations in Sweden and the Netherlands. In Germany and Austria, Zomba and BMG owned publishing rights through jointly-owned companies. Finally, in Spain and Italy, Zomba compositions were licensed exclusively to BMG.\\nIn mid-2003, BMG integrated Zomba's publishing to form BMG-Zomba Music Publishers. In 2007, <a href=\\\"Vivendi\\\">Vivendi</a> purchased the BMG-Zomba publishing company and placed it within <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music%20Publishing%20Group\\\">Universal Music Publishing Group</a>, becoming the worlds largest music publishing business.\\nZomba's first enterprise was a management company in London called Zomba Management and Publishers, with <a href=\\\"Mutt%20Lange\\\">Mutt Lange</a> as one of their first clients. His success allowed the company to expand, and eventually the companies split into two entities, creating Zomba Management. Zomba management represents music producers and artists. Zomba Screen Music was formed in 1997 as management company for film composers. In May 2001, Zomba created Ingenuity Entertainment a full-service management company for artists, producers, composers and music supervisors in the film and television industries. The Los Angeles-based company serviced both new and veteran artists, offering music production and business affairs services. Ingenuity Entertainment combined a recently formed management firm, also called Ingenuity, with Zomba Screen Music.\\nMost of Zomba's activities in the film and television industry are music related. Zomba Screen Music is their full-service management company for film and television composers. In addition to management, Zomba! Music Services was formed in 1989 as a division offering prerecorded music and publishing services for soundtracks, television and commercials. This also had the effect of promoting Zomba music through the television and film industry. In 1995, Zomba purchased the well-established Segue Music Inc., a film and television music editing company providing music supervision, temp tracks, prerecords, playbacks and soundtrack production. Zomba also had a joint operation with Portman Entertainment called Portman Music, a soundtrack related company Coombe Music International Ltd. as well as a small film production company Zomba Films. In 2005, Zomba began SEE Music, a joint venture with the recently combined BMG/Zomba Publishing and FirstCom Music specifically for motion picture advertising.\\n\",\n \"The Voice (TV series)\\nThe Voice is an international reality television singing competition franchise. It is based on the reality singing competition \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\\\">The Voice of Holland</a>\\\", which was originally created by Dutch television producer <a href=\\\"John%20de%20Mol\\\">John de Mol</a>. Many other countries have adapted the format and begun airing their own versions since 2011. It has become a rival to the \\\"<a href=\\\"Idols%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Idols</a>\\\" franchise, \\\"<a href=\\\"Rising%20Star%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Rising Star</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\".\\nJohn de Mol, creator of \\\"<a href=\\\"Big%20Brother%20%28franchise%29\\\">Big Brother</a>\\\", first created \\\"The Voice\\\" concept with Dutch singer <a href=\\\"Roel%20van%20Velzen\\\">Roel van Velzen</a>. The concept came after de Mol was asked by Erland Galjaard, a Dutch program director, about whether he could go with a format further than \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\". Galjaard asked de Mol after Galjaard was excited about the <a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20%28Dutch%20TV%20series%29\\\">Dutch version</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\". So, de Mol then came with the idea of \\\"Blind Audition\\\". He wanted to focus on singing quality alone, so the coaches must be top artists in music industry. The rotating chairs concept was invented by <a href=\\\"Roel%20van%20Velzen\\\">Roel van Velzen</a>. It would also be the first talent show in which social media is actively involved.\\nOn September 17, 2010, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\\\">The Voice of Holland</a>\\\" began to air on <a href=\\\"RTL%204\\\">RTL 4</a> with <a href=\\\"Angela%20Groothuizen\\\">Angela Groothuizen</a>, <a href=\\\"Roel%20van%20Velzen\\\">Roel van Velzen</a>, <a href=\\\"Nick%20%26amp%3B%20Simon\\\">Nick & Simon</a>, and <a href=\\\"Jeroen%20van%20der%20Boom\\\">Jeroen van der Boom</a> as the mentor-judges (dubbed as \\\"coaches\\\") of the show. The show proved to be an instant success in the <a href=\\\"Netherlands\\\">Netherlands</a>.\\nThe format was later sold to different countries, in many cases replacing a previous Endemol music contest format, \\\"<a href=\\\"Star%20Academy\\\">Operation Triumph / Star Academy</a>\\\".\\nThe show's format features five stages of competition: producers' auditions, blind auditions, battle rounds, knockouts (since 2012), and live performance shows.\\nContestants are aspiring singers drawn from public auditions, which are not televised. Unlike \\\"<a href=\\\"Idols%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Idols</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\", the producers pick fewer contestants (usually from 100 up to 200 contestants), which are deemed \\\"the best artists\\\", to perform in the televised auditions. The first televised stage is the <a href=\\\"blind%20audition\\\">blind audition</a>s, in which the four coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, listen to the contestants in chairs facing away from the stage so as to avoid seeing them. If a coach likes what they hear from that contestant, they press a button to rotate their chairs to signify that they are interested in working with that contestant. If more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses the coach he or she wants to work with. The blind auditions end when each coach has a set number of contestants to work with. Coaches will dedicate themselves to developing their singers mentally, musically and in some cases physically, giving them advice, and sharing the secrets of their success.\\nThe contestants who successfully pass the blind auditions proceed to the battle rounds, where the coaches put two of their own team members against each other to sing the same song together in front of a studio audience. After the vocal face-off, the coach must choose only one to advance. If no specific winner can be identified the competition turns to a game of fate via a coin toss. In some versions, there are steals where opposing coaches can steal a contestant who was voted off by their own coach by pressing their button. As in the blind auditions, if more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses which coach they want. Each coach has a set number of steals (usually one or two).\\nIn some versions, the winners of the battle rounds proceed to the knockout rounds (dubbed Super-battle round in some versions). The Knockout Rounds can happen in one of two method: Sing-off or Hot-seat.\\nIn sing-off method, as in the battle rounds, coaches pit numbers (usually 2/3/4) of their own team members to compete against each other. This time, the contestants choose their own song to perform individually while the other watches and waits. After that, the coach chooses one to advance while the other is sent home. At the end of the knockout rounds, the strongest members of each coach's roster proceed to the live stage shows. Some versions also have steals. Like in battle round, the opposing coaches can steal a contestant who was voted off by their own coach by pressing their button. Also same in the blind auditions, if more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses which coach they want.\\nIn hot-seat method, each coach will have numbers of hot-seat (usually 3 or 4). The first 3 or 4 contestants of the team choose their own song to perform individually and then sit on one of the available hot-seats. After the next contestant has done performing, if the coach decides to advance him/her, the coach must choose one hot-seat contestant to be swapped. After that, all contestants remaining on the seat will advance to the live shows, while the swapped contestants are eliminated immediately.\\nIn the final performance phase of the competition, the top contestants from each team compete against each other during a live broadcast. The television audience vote to save one contestant on each team, leaving the coach to decide on live television who they want to save and who will not move on. In the next round, the public chooses between the two artists left on each team, and the coach also has a vote that weighs equally with the public vote.\\nFinally, each coach will have his/her best contestant left standing to compete in the finals, singing an original song. From these four, one will be named \\\"The Voice\\\"—and will receive the grand prize of a recording contract. <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music%20Group\\\">Universal Music Group</a> is the general record company associated and affiliated with The Voice format in most countries.\\nOne of the cornerstones of \\\"The Voice\\\" format is the social media participation via Twitter, Facebook and the especially designed platform \\\"connect.\\\" Users are able to log in via their Facebook account and retrieve background information about the show. The platform also offers the possibility to stream the show online as well as to vote, interact with friends and to discuss various topics and questions asked by the producers throughout the show.\\nIn the original Dutch version, along with solo contestants, groups with more than two members are actually eligible to join (proven by the triumph of <a href=\\\"O%27G3NE\\\">O'G3NE</a>, a girl group, in <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland%20%28season%205%29\\\">the fifth season</a> of <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\\\">the Dutch version</a>). But when the franchise was expanded to the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, only duos are allowed in <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">the American version</a> along with solo contestants, and this requirement was then followed by some other versions , including <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20UK\\\">the UK version</a>. Despite that, a few versions still allow groups with more than two members, recently <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20Indonesia%20%28season%202%29\\\">the second season</a> of <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20Indonesia\\\">Indonesian version</a> and of . A rare occasions in blind auditions, as in <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20Teens%20%28Philippine%20TV%20series%29\\\">the Philippine version of the teens edition</a>, there is no guarantee that contestants auditioning as duo or trio will also advance as duo or trio (only one will advance).\\nIn some versions, all contestants perform each week and only the public's vote determines which contestants advance in the competition, a format similar to both \\\"<a href=\\\"Idols%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Idols</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\". This means that any contestant can be eliminated and no coach is guaranteed a spot in the finals. Along with this elimination method, there is an Instant Save in certain versions, most notably <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">the US version</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20Israel\\\">Israeli version</a>, and <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28Australian%20TV%20series%29\\\">Australian Version</a>, where contestants (usually two or three) who are in danger of elimination have to perform again and another vote is conducted to save one of those contestants.\\nIn the <a href=\\\"Vocea%20Rom%C3%A2niei%20%28season%205%29\\\">fifth season</a> of the <a href=\\\"Vocea%20Rom%C3%A2niei\\\">Romanian version</a> and the <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20UK%20%28series%206%29\\\">sixth series</a> of <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20UK\\\">the UK version</a>, if any of the four coaches reject a contestant, he or she may not able to see the contestants after their performances, so if all the coaches rejected one specific contestant, the losing contestant would leave the stage straight away, without any conversations with the coaches.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Vocea%20Rom%C3%A2niei%20%28season%207%29\\\">seventh season</a> of the Romanian version features \\\"non stop steals\\\", which means that steals during the battle rounds follow a hot-seat procedure: a coach may replace his or her stolen contestant as many times as he or she likes until the end of the battles.\\nA new feature of the Live Shows in <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland%20%28season%207%29\\\">the seventh season</a> of <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\\\">the Dutch version</a> is the judging of each performance by all four coaches with a number from one to ten. This number will then be averaged and combined with the public vote, which voted during each contestants performance – voting method similar to <a href=\\\"Rising%20Star%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">\\\"Rising Star\\\"</a> – ultimately giving a score to each artist.\\nA combined 293 \\\"artists\\\" have won the television series \\\"The Voice\\\", a reality singing competition adapted in sixty-two regions. Each winner is given a <a href=\\\"recording%20contract\\\">recording contract</a>, a <a href=\\\"prize%20money\\\">monetary prize</a>, and a title as that nation's \\\"The Voice\\\", \\\"La Voz\\\", \\\"Golos\\\", \\\"Holos\\\" or \\\"La Voix\\\". The first was Ben Saunders of the <a href=\\\"Netherlands\\\">Netherlands</a> and the most recent was Angélina Nava from the French Version of The Voice Kids.\\\"\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" width=\\\"12%\\\" | Country/Region\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" width=\\\"15%\\\" | Local title\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" width=\\\"10%\\\" | Network\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" width=\\\"23%\\\" | Winners\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" width=\\\"20%\\\" | Coaches\\n! scope=\\\"col\\\" width=\\\"20%\\\" | Hosts\",\n \"Syco\\nSyco Entertainment, often known simply as Syco, is a British entertainment company established by British entertainment mogul <a href=\\\"Simon%20Cowell\\\">Simon Cowell</a>. The company operates a record label, talent agency, film, music, and television production company, as well as a music publishing house. It operates a global joint venture between Cowell and <a href=\\\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\\\">Sony Music Entertainment</a> focused on the production and marketing of music, television, film and digital content. It employs a staff of more than 50 in offices in London and Los Angeles, and manages a string of high-profile television and music brands through partnerships with the label Sony Music and the television production company, <a href=\\\"FremantleMedia\\\">FremantleMedia</a>.\\nSyco was initially owned by Simon Cowell, then sold to Sony. But in 2010, a new company was formed as a 50/50 partnership between Cowell and Sony, keeping the pre-existing name Syco but titled as Syco Entertainment. In 2015, it was announced that the Syco Entertainment joint venture would be extended for a further 6 years. Retail billionaire Sir <a href=\\\"Philip%20Green\\\">Philip Green</a>, a close friend of Cowell, serves as an advisor to the company. <a href=\\\"Karren%20Brady\\\">Karren Brady</a>, television personality and vice-chairman of <a href=\\\"West%20Ham%20United%20F.C.\\\">West Ham United F.C.</a>, also serves as an advisor to the company.\\nSyco has three main divisions – <a href=\\\"Syco%20Music\\\">Syco Music</a>, <a href=\\\"Syco%20TV\\\">Syco TV</a> and Syco Film. Syco Music releases recordings from its roster of artists, mostly from Cowell's television shows, such as <a href=\\\"One%20Direction\\\">One Direction</a>, <a href=\\\"Little%20Mix\\\">Little Mix</a>, <a href=\\\"Leona%20Lewis\\\">Leona Lewis</a>, <a href=\\\"Susan%20Boyle\\\">Susan Boyle</a>, <a href=\\\"Emblem3\\\">Emblem3</a>, and <a href=\\\"Fifth%20Harmony\\\">Fifth Harmony</a>, and others such as <a href=\\\"Il%20Divo\\\">Il Divo</a>. Syco TV is responsible for <a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor\\\">The X Factor</a> and the <a href=\\\"Got%20Talent\\\">Got Talent</a> television franchise, which have been produced in 41 and 52 countries respectively, as well as other television projects. Syco Film is involved in the production of films such as \\\"\\\". Syco is also involved in the production of the musical \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Can%27t%20Sing%21%20The%20X%20Factor%20Musical\\\">I Can't Sing! The X Factor Musical</a>\\\".\\nSyco TV primarily operates in the UK and the US. Its key franchises are \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Got%20Talent\\\">Got Talent</a>\\\". It was launched by Simon Cowell in 2003.\\nThe X Factor, which launched in September 2004\\n, is one of the most popular television shows in the UK. Syco and Fremantle Media launched \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">The X Factor USA</a>\\\" in September 2011, which averaged 12 million viewers and a 4.0 rating in the adults 18–49 demographic in its first season, leading FOX to nightly wins on Wednesdays and Thursdays and topping all other fall season reality competition.\\nInternationally, \\\"The X Factor\\\" is produced individually in 41 countries including major markets like <a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20%28France%29\\\">France</a>, the <a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20%28Netherlands%29\\\">Netherlands</a>, <a href=\\\"X%20Factor%20Indonesia\\\">Indonesia</a> and <a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28Australia%29\\\">Australia</a>. Additionally, \\\"The X Factor USA\\\" is screened in 166 countries around the world.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"America%27s%20Got%20Talent\\\">America's Got Talent</a>\\\" matched a series high 4.6 rating among adults 18–49 in the summer of 2011 for its <a href=\\\"America%27s%20Got%20Talent%20%28season%206%29\\\">sixth season</a>. Since launching in 2006, \\\"America's Got Talent\\\" has consistently been the most watched show of the summer in the US and topped the ratings in the key adults 18–49 demographic. \\\"\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Britain%27s%20Got%20Talent\\\">Britain's Got Talent</a>\\\" consistently tops UK ratings when it is broadcast in April, May and June. In 2009, nearly 20 million people (approximately one third of the UK population) tuned into the <a href=\\\"Britain%27s%20Got%20Talent%20%28series%203%29\\\">series 3</a> final to see <a href=\\\"Diversity%20%28dance%20troupe%29\\\">Diversity</a> crowned winners.\\nSyco produces other shows outside its key brands. In 2011, ITV series \\\"<a href=\\\"Red%20or%20Black%3F\\\">Red or Black?</a>\\\" was met with mixed reaction. Syco were also behind \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Inventor\\\">American Inventor</a>\\\" which ran for two seasons on <a href=\\\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">ABC</a> and the unsuccessful \\\"<a href=\\\"Celebrity%20Duets\\\">Celebrity Duets</a>\\\" on Fox. In addition to its major formats, Syco also produce entertainment specials. This includes \\\"\\\", which broke ratings records in the US on TV Guide network and scored 10 million viewers on ITV in the UK. In 2013, Syco and Optomen launched ITV series \\\"<a href=\\\"Food%20Glorious%20Food%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Food Glorious Food</a>\\\", which aired on Wednesday evenings in the UK.\\nSyco Entertainment were the executive producers of the film \\\"One Direction: This Is Us\\\" from director Morgan Spurlock, which follows the life of pop sensations <a href=\\\"One%20Direction\\\">One Direction</a>. The band had come third in the 2010 UK \\\"X Factor\\\" series, before being signed to Syco.\\nIn March 2013, Syco in partnership with YouTube, launched The You Generation channel which is listed as the 'world's first global audition'. In May 2014, Syco and <a href=\\\"Univision\\\">Univision</a> announced an upcoming TV called \\\"La Banda\\\" which will focus on searching contestants from Hispanic America to find the \\\"ultimate Latino boy band\\\" with the winner receiving a recording contract for <a href=\\\"Sony%20Music%20Latin\\\">Sony Music Latin</a> and Syco.\\n\",\n \"The Voice (U.S. season 3)\\nThe third season of the American <a href=\\\"Reality%20television\\\">reality</a> <a href=\\\"talent%20show\\\">talent show</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Voice</a>\\\" premiered on September 10, 2012 on <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC</a>. NBC officially announced \\\"The Voice\\\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s renewal on May 13, 2012, during its 2012–13 upfront presentation, with the show returning as a fall series.\\nFor this season, teams increased to 16, up from 12 last season. In addition, during the Battle Round, opposing coaches have the ability to steal the singer that was sent home by the original coach. If more than one coach hits their button to recruit the singer in question, it is up to the contestant to decide which coach he or she wants to work with. Each coach can save two contestants, which means the Battle Round will end with ten singers on each team, rather than eight. A new two-night \\\"Knockout Round\\\" began after the Battle Round, where the coaches reduced their teams to five. This was followed by a reduction of the teams to three each, with the two most voted for by viewers selected, along with one choice from the judge. After this, the show moved to a format more similar to \\\"American Idol\\\" or \\\"The X Factor\\\", starting the top 12 and the top spots given to the 10, who received the most viewer votes (including iTunes downloads as votes). A series of after shows was also filmed and streamed on NBC's website after each live show this season.\\nAuditions for were held on July 7 to August 12, 2012 in <a href=\\\"Memphis%2C%20Tennessee\\\">Memphis</a>, <a href=\\\"Minneapolis\\\">Minneapolis</a>, New York, <a href=\\\"Dallas\\\">Dallas</a> and <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>.\\nAll original coaches signed on for season three.\\n<a href=\\\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\\\">Mary J. Blige</a>, <a href=\\\"Michael%20Bubl%C3%A9\\\">Michael Bublé</a>, <a href=\\\"Rob%20Thomas%20%28musician%29\\\">Rob Thomas</a>, and <a href=\\\"Billie%20Joe%20Armstrong\\\">Billie Joe Armstrong</a> joined the show as advisers for <a href=\\\"Adam%20Levine\\\">Adam Levine</a>, <a href=\\\"Blake%20Shelton\\\">Blake Shelton</a>, <a href=\\\"Cee%20Lo%20Green\\\">Cee Lo Green</a>, and <a href=\\\"Christina%20Aguilera\\\">Christina Aguilera</a>'s teams respectively during the Battle Rounds segment of the show. Christina, Blake, and Cee Lo brought in <a href=\\\"Ron%20Fair\\\">Ron Fair</a>, <a href=\\\"Scott%20Hendricks\\\">Scott Hendricks</a>, and <a href=\\\"Jennifer%20Hudson\\\">Jennifer Hudson</a> respectively to help coach in the episode, Top 10 Perform Live. Cee Lo brought in <a href=\\\"Bill%20Withers\\\">Bill Withers</a> to coach <a href=\\\"Nicholas%20David\\\">Nicholas David</a> the following week, and was sick during rehearsals for the subsequent week, so he brought in <a href=\\\"Pat%20Monahan\\\">Pat Monahan</a>, lead singer for <a href=\\\"Train%20%28band%29\\\">Train</a>, to coach all his artists that week, while still choosing his team members' songs and keeping in touch with them on the phone.\\nThe third season two-hour premiere aired on Monday, September 10, 2012. The coaches performed \\\"<a href=\\\"Start%20Me%20Up\\\">Start Me Up</a>\\\" at the start of the show.\\nThis was the first episode in which a coach did not get any acts. Adam did not get any. The second one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, September 11, 2012.\\nThe third one-hour episode was broadcast on Wednesday, September 12, 2012.\\nThe fourth two-hour episode was broadcast on Monday, September 17, 2012.\\nA preview of Christina Aguilera's video for <a href=\\\"Your%20Body%20%28Christina%20Aguilera%20song%29\\\">Your Body</a> was televised.\\nThe fifth one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, September 18, 2012.\\nThe sixth two-hour episode was broadcast on Monday, September 24, 2012.\\nThe seventh one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, September 25, 2012.\\nThe eighth two-hour episode was broadcast on Monday, October 1, 2012.\\nThe ninth one-hour episode was broadcast on Tuesday, October 2, 2012, recapping some of the best moments of the blind auditions.\\nThe Battle Rounds were broadcast from Monday, October 8 to Tuesday, October 23. 'Steals' were introduced this season, where each coach could steal two contestants from another team when they lost their battle round. The name of the coach who was chosen by the stolen contestant is ticked. The advisors for these episodes are: <a href=\\\"Mary%20J.%20Blige\\\">Mary J. Blige</a> working with Adam Levine; <a href=\\\"Michael%20Bubl%C3%A9\\\">Michael Bublé</a> working with Blake Shelton; <a href=\\\"Rob%20Thomas%20%28musician%29\\\">Rob Thomas</a> (<a href=\\\"Matchbox%20Twenty\\\">Matchbox Twenty</a>) working with Cee Lo Green; and Billie Joe Armstrong (<a href=\\\"Green%20Day\\\">Green Day</a>) working with Christina Aguilera.\\nThe Knockouts were broadcast from Monday, October 29 to Tuesday, October 30.\\nAfter the Battle Round, each coach had 10 contestants for the Knockouts. Each episode featured knockout battles consisting of pairings from within each team. The contestants were not told who they were up against until the day of the Knockout. Each contestant sang a song of their own choice, back to back, and each knockout concluded with the respective coach eliminating one of the two contestants; the five winners for each coach advanced to the live shows.\\nThe live playoffs were aired on November 5 and 7, followed by a results show on November 8. Performances were intentionally stripped down compared to previous seasons, so that there is greater focus on the voices of the artists. Special guests included <a href=\\\"Taylor%20Kinney\\\">Taylor Kinney</a> from \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicago%20Fire%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Chicago Fire</a>\\\" in the audience.\\nThe live top 12 performances were aired on November 12, followed by a results show on November 13.\\nFrom this point on in the competition, all remaining contestants performed live each week, and only the public's vote determined which contestants advanced in the competition. Unlike previous seasons, rather than each team eliminating equal numbers of contestants each week, third season eliminations applied individually without regard to contestants' team affiliation (meaning that all artists competed head-to-head against all remaining contestants each week), introducing the possibility of a final four without equal team representation.\\nAdditionally, producers made changes in the voting system with regards to iTunes singles purchases, announced during the results show. Previous voting via iTunes purchases of contestant performances had previously only counted singly during the official voting window and only accredited to the live show in concern. As of this week in the competition, if a competitor's performance stays within the Top 10 of the iTunes \\\"Top 200 Single Chart\\\" (updated hourly) until the close of voting, it will be given an iTunes bonus that multiplies iTunes votes made in the 24-hour voting window by ten. The finale's vote count will have include a 'Cumulative iTunes Vote Total' of all singles (from Top 12 onwards) purchased during and outside of the various voting windows, with iTunes bonus previously earned.\\nThe live top 10 performances aired on November 19, followed by a results show on November 20.\\nChristina, Blake and Cee Lo brought in <a href=\\\"Ron%20Fair\\\">Ron Fair</a>, <a href=\\\"Scott%20Hendricks\\\">Scott Hendricks</a> and <a href=\\\"Jennifer%20Hudson\\\">Jennifer Hudson</a> respectively to help in this week's coaching. Other special guests included lead actors from the cast of \\\"<a href=\\\"Guys%20with%20Kids\\\">Guys with Kids</a>\\\" in the audience.\\nThe live top 8 performances aired on November 26, followed by a results show on November 27. Cee Lo brought in <a href=\\\"Bill%20Withers\\\">Bill Withers</a>, the original singer/songwriter of \\\"<a href=\\\"Lean%20on%20Me%20%28song%29\\\">Lean on Me</a>\\\" to help coach Nicholas David this week.\\nWith the elimination of Dez Duron, Christina Aguilera no longer has any artist remaining on her team. For the first time in the series, not all coaches will be represented in the finale.\\nThe live top 6 performances aired on December 3, followed by a results show on December 4. Each contestant sang two songs, one of their choice, and one of the coach's choice. Coach Cee Lo was sick during rehearsals, so he brought in <a href=\\\"Pat%20Monahan\\\">Pat Monahan</a>, lead singer for <a href=\\\"Train%20%28band%29\\\">Train</a>, to coach his artists this week, while still choosing his team members' songs and keeping in touch with them on the phone.\\nWith the eliminations of Melanie Martinez and Amanda Brown, Adam Levine no longer has any artist remaining on his team.\\nThe semifinal performances aired on December 10, followed by a results show on December 11. Special guests included <a href=\\\"Howie%20Mandel\\\">Howie Mandel</a> from \\\"<a href=\\\"Take%20It%20All%20%28game%20show%29\\\">Take It All</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"Of%20Monsters%20and%20Men\\\">Of Monsters and Men</a>, whose song \\\"<a href=\\\"Little%20Talks\\\">Little Talks</a>\\\" was covered in a non-competition performance, in the audience. Tony Lucca was also interviewed for a short while with his coach from last season, Adam Levine, in the Sprint Skybox.\\nThe final performances aired on December 17, followed by a results show on December 18. Each finalist would perform three times: a reprise of a past performance, a duet with their coach, and a solo performance. Special guests included the cast of \\\"<a href=\\\"1600%20Penn\\\">1600 Penn</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Biggest%20Loser\\\">The Biggest Loser</a>\\\" in the audience.\\nSeason three premiered on September 10, 2012 and was watched by 12.28 million viewers with a 4.2 rating in the key 18–49 demographic. It was down 39 percent in the demo from last season's premiere. \\\"The Voice\\\" aired three times during its first week, going up against \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor%20%28U.S.%20season%202%29\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\" on September 12, 2012. This show was highly criticised by <a href=\\\"Simon%20Cowell\\\">Simon Cowell</a>, who said that \\\"The X Factor\\\" would win in ratings. However, both \\\"The Voice\\\" and \\\"The X Factor\\\" tied on September 12, 2012, both with a 3.4 rating in the 18-49 demographic, but \\\"The Voice\\\" won in total viewers. In its regular time slot on Mondays and Tuesdays, \\\"The Voice\\\" airs opposite \\\"<a href=\\\"Dancing%20with%20the%20Stars%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">Dancing with the Stars</a>\\\".\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jeffrey Edward Atkins (born February 29, 1976), better known by his stage name Ja Rule, is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, record executive, and actor from Queens, New York.","Patrick Reynolds, professionally known as Plain Pat, is an American music executive, record producer and songwriter, perhaps best known for managing the early careers of Kanye West and Kid Cudi. He is also noted for working with prominent artists such as Drake, Alicia Keys, Mary J. Blige, Lupe Fiasco, Ghostface Killah, The Roots, Lloyd, Young Gunz, Ashanti, Ludacris, Freeway, Ja Rule, N.O.R.E. and The Mutton Birds among others."],"string":"[\n \"Jeffrey Edward Atkins (born February 29, 1976), better known by his stage name Ja Rule, is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, record executive, and actor from Queens, New York.\",\n \"Patrick Reynolds, professionally known as Plain Pat, is an American music executive, record producer and songwriter, perhaps best known for managing the early careers of Kanye West and Kid Cudi. He is also noted for working with prominent artists such as Drake, Alicia Keys, Mary J. Blige, Lupe Fiasco, Ghostface Killah, The Roots, Lloyd, Young Gunz, Ashanti, Ludacris, Freeway, Ja Rule, N.O.R.E. and The Mutton Birds among others.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":57,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which train runs non stop between Hebden Bridge and a railway station serving the town of Burnley, Lancashire, England?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Copy Pit line"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cornholme railway station\nCornholme railway station served the village of Cornholme in West Yorkshire, England on the Copy Pit line. The station was opened by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in July 1878 (nearly thirty years after the line itself) and closed by the LMS on 26 September 1938. The line remains in use for passenger trains between York/Leeds and Blackpool, which run non-stop between Hebden Bridge and Burnley.\nWith the re-opening of the Todmorden Curve, there is now a campaign to open a station again at Cornholme. The Campaign group GRAG (Cornholme Rail Action Group) have not stated where the new station would be located.\n\n","Holme (Lancashire) railway station\nHolme railway station served Holme Chapel on the Copy Pit line. The station closed in July 1930 and the line now serves as a non-stop route between Hebden Bridge and Burnley.\n","Hebden Bridge signal box\nHebden Bridge signal box is a Grade II listed former Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway signal box, located close to Hebden Bridge railway station in West Yorkshire, England.\nBuilt in 1891, it is one of only a few remaining L&YR signal boxes to survive in anything like original condition.\nIn July 2013, it was one of 26 \"highly distinctive\" signal boxes listed by Ed Davey, minister for the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, in a joint initiative by English Heritage and Network Rail to preserve and provide a window into how railways were operated in the past.\n","Heptonstall\nHeptonstall is a small village and civil parish within the Calderdale borough of West Yorkshire, England, historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. The population of Heptonstall, including the hamlets of Colden and Slack Top, is 1,448, increasing to 1,470 at the 2011 Census. The town of Hebden Bridge lies directly to the south-east. Although Heptonstall is part of Hebden Bridge as a post town, it is not within the Hebden Royd town boundaries.\nThe village is on the route of the Calderdale Way, a 50 mile circular walk around the hills and valleys of Calderdale.\nHeptonstall is not mentioned in the Domesday Book, unlike the neighbouring townships of Stansfield and Wadsworth. Its earliest appearance in written record dates to 1253, where John de Warrene claimed free warren there. It initially formed part of the manor of Halifax-cum-Heptonstall, itself subinfeudatory to the manor of Wakefield, and so does not explicitly appear in early taxation records, such as those for the 1379 Poll Tax. In 1626 the manor was spun-off and sold and was extinguished in the late 19th century.\nHeptonstall was the site of a battle during the early part of the English Civil War in 1643.\nHistorically a centre for hand-loom weaving, Heptonstall's cottages and terraced houses are characterised by large first-floor windows to maximise the light for weaving.\nThe older churchyard claims \"King\" David Hartley amongst notable graves there. Hartley was founder of the Cragg Coiners and lived as a rogue in the Calderdale area until he was hanged at Tyburn near York in 1770.\nThe foundation stone of its octagonal Methodist chapel, the oldest still in continued use, was laid following the visit of John Wesley in 1764.\nIn the mid-1980s the paving on a road through Heptonstall was removed, revealing the original stone setts. Although there was a plan to remove the setts, local protests convinced the council to restore them. At the same time the existing concrete street lights were replaced with late 19th century cast-iron gas lamps. Both developments acted as a traffic calming measure.\nA local park is used for sport and includes a playground for children. Around Heptonstall are walking and cycle routes.\nA small local-history museum is based in what was once the village grammar school.\nAdjacent to Heptonstall lie the National Trust woodlands of Hardcastle Crags with walking paths and a restored 19th-century mill. Half a mile out of the village is Lumb Bank, the first of the Arvon Foundation's residential centres for writers.\nEach year on Good Friday there are performances of the Heptonstall version of the traditional Pace Egg play. These are held in Weavers' Square next to the old graveyard. Heptonstall Festival, a free, day-long music festival, is usually held in early July also in Weaver's Square. It usually begins with a fell race.\nThe village is a day-trip destination for tourists and walkers, especially in the summer months. The two public houses are the Cross and the White Lion. There is a small post office – the original post office, on Smithwell Lane, is now a residential property. A cafe/delicatessen is situated in Towngate.\nThe village's oldest house is Stag Cottage (c.1580), which is within a small courtyard called Stag Fold. At the back of the cottage, on the level of a public car park, is a doorway to a dungeon, once used as a lock-up. Nearby there is a pinfold, built to hold livestock, but now a picnic area.\nHeptonstall's original church was dedicated to St Thomas a Becket. It was founded c.1260, and was altered and added to over several centuries. The church was damaged by a gale in 1847, and is now only a shell. A new church, St Thomas the Apostle, was built in the same churchyard. This suffered a lightning strike in 1875.\nThe church has good acoustics, and is used for the annual Pennine Spring Music Festival, held every Spring Bank Holiday week. This includes workshops, masterclasses and performances. The old church ruin is occasionally used for open-air services.\nThe tower of the new church contains eight bells, cast in 1912 by John Taylor & Co. These were removed to a bell foundry for refurbishment on 31 August 2012 and were returned, with new bearings, in October 2012.\nThe American poet Sylvia Plath, who was married to Poet Laureate Ted Hughes from nearby Mytholmroyd, is buried in the graveyard extension, to the south-west of St Thomas a' Beckett's churchyard. Plath's headstone has been several times vandalised by removing Hughes's surname from the memorial, because some of her fans believe he was responsible for her death.\nAnother poet buried here is the American expatriate Asa Benveniste, a co-founder in London of the publisher Trigram Press. In the 1980s Benveniste and his partner Agnetha Falk ran a secondhand bookshop in Hebden Bridge. His gravestone reads: \"Foolish Enough to Have Been a Poet\".\nJohn Wesley laid the foundation stone of the octagonal chapel situated off Northgate, which was completed in 1764 – he recommended the shape to avoid conflict with the established church. Local people attended the parish church and Methodist preaching. The chapel also provided teaching in reading and writing for the poor. The chapel was originally built as a symmetrical octagon but by 1802, with the Society including 337 members and 1,002 scholars, one end of the chapel was pulled down and the side walls were extended to provide extra space.\nHeptonstall Methodist Chapel featured in the BBC Four 2010 series \"Churches: How to Read Them\", in which Dr Richard Taylor named it as one of his ten favourite churches, saying: \"If buildings have an aura, this one radiated friendship.\"\nThe ruin of St Thomas a Becket church featured as a location in the 1993 BBC Television drama series \"Mr. Wroe's Virgins\", which was directed by Danny Boyle.\nThe village was the main location used in the BBC Three situation comedy \"The Gemma Factor\", with the local tearoom being used for a major part of the show. It was aired in spring 2010.\nHeptonstall was a major location in \"The Rochdale Pioneers\", a film produced by the Co-operative British Youth Film Academy, telling the story of the birth of the Co-operative movement, and screened in November 2012.\nHeptonstall is also featured in the 2010 short film \"Trailing Dirt\", directed by Richard Cousins and written by Alison Flack.\nThe 2014 BBC drama \"Happy Valley\" was partly filmed in Heptonstall, and featured Sylvia Plath's grave.\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons","Hebden Bridge railway station\nHebden Bridge railway station serves the town of Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire, England. The station is on the Calder Valley Line, currently operated by Northern from York and Leeds towards Manchester Victoria and Blackpool North. The station is 8.5 mi west of Halifax and 26 mi west of Leeds.\nThe Manchester and Leeds Railway, authorised in 1836 for a line from Manchester to Normanton , was opened in stages; the second section, between Normanton and Hebden Bridge, opened on 5 October 1840. Trains arrived at Hebden Bridge from Normanton and passengers would then continue to by road. The section between Hebden Bridge and Summit Tunnel opened on 31 December 1840, allowing trains to reach ; after Summit Tunnel opened on 1 March 1841, trains continued to Littleborough and Manchester. An 1841 timetable shows five Manchester to Leeds trains per day calling at Hebden Bridge (two on Sundays), all but one of which called at all stations; a similar service ran in the opposite direction. Trains began operating to Halifax and Bradford in 1852, and could run through to Leeds via this route from 1854.\nThe current buildings date from 1893, construction having started in 1891. By this point there was a goods yard alongside the station. This closed in 1966 and the site is now the station car park. In 1997 the station was renovated, and signage in the original Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway style was installed.\nThe station has a staffed ticket office, waiting rooms, toilets and a cafe. Platform 2, towards Leeds, is accessible to those with disabilities but platform 1 is not; the lifts serving the subway were closed in the 1980s and funding for their re-instatement has not been made available via the Department for Transport's \"Access for All\" scheme. Information screens were installed in 2012 as part of a programme to provide screens at 18 stations on the Calder Valley Lline and elsewhere in West Yorkshire. Previously, passengers had to rely on automated public-address system announcements.\nThe station is the only station on the Calder Valley Line where every service calls. On Monday to Saturday during daytime there are four trains per hour to Leeds - one via Brighouse and Dewsbury (calling at all stations except Ravensthorpe), the other three via Bradford Interchange (one serving all stations to Bradford and two calling at Halifax only). Of the latter, one continues to York (this is the service from via Preston). In the late evening, the service drops to hourly, with one or two extras, all via Bradford.\nWestbound there are three trains per hour to Manchester Victoria (hourly evenings and Sundays), and an hourly service to Blackpool North via Burnley, Blackburn and Preston (two-hourly evenings, hourly on Sundays). One of the Manchester trains is a limited-stop service, calling at Todmorden and Rochdale only.\nFrom November 2013 to late March 2014 the line to Burnley was closed for major repair work on Holme Tunnel. A replacement bus service ran, and trains from York terminated/started at Hebden Bridge.\nThe station will see a variety of improvements to facilities and train services from March 2017 onwards, as part of an investment package for the Calder Valley line as a whole. New lifts are finally to be installed to make both platforms fully accessible, whilst track and signalling upgrades will help reduce journey times in both directions and allow more trains to run to/from Bradford. This will result in the closure of the listed signal box here by October 2018, with control passing over to the Rail Operating Centre at . New rolling stock and timetable improvements will then follow, with regular through trains to Liverpool Lime Street, and by late 2019.\n","Ernad Express\nThe Ernad Express is an express train run by the Southern Railway zone of the Indian Railways between Mangalore Central railway station in Karnataka and Nagercoil Junction railway station in Tamil Nadu. It longitudinally crosses the whole state of Kerala. It was first introduced in 2009 to run between Mangalore and Kochuveli, satellite station of Trivandrum, the capital of kerala as a tri weekly express and later got extended to Nagercoil. Now this train runs as a daily service.The train runs via and Alappuzha.\nTrain number 16605 runs from south to north and on the return journey, the train number 16606 runs from Nagercoil to Mangalore.\nThe train has stoppage at Manjeshwar, Kumbala, Kasaragod, Kanhangad, Nileshwar, Cheruvathur, Payyannur, Valapattanam, Kannur, Thalassery, Mahe, Vatakara, Payyoli, Koyilandy, Kozhikode, Feroke, Vallikkunnu, Parappanangadi, Tanur, Tirur, Kuttippuram, Pattambi, Shoranur Junction, Thrissur Railway Station, Chalakudy, Aluva, Ernakulam Junction (South), Thuravoor, Cherthala, Alappuzha, Ambalapuzha, Harippad, Kayamkulam, Karunagappally, Kollam Junction, Varkala, Thiruvananthapuram Central, Neyyattinkara and Kulitthurai.\nAs the route is fully electrified. It is hauled by WAP 4 from Electric Loco Shed, Erode or Royapuram shed","Hebden Royd\nHebden Royd is a civil parish with a town council in the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale in West Yorkshire, England. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 9,092, rising to 9,558 at the 2011 census. It includes Hebden Bridge, Mytholmroyd and Cragg Vale. The parish was an urban district before 1974, created in 1937 by the merger of Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd urban districts. The area now shares the HX7 postcode area.\nHebden Bridge Town Hall and adjoining fire station is a Grade II listed building, built in 1897. The building was transferred from Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council to Hebden Bridge Community Association in 2010, along with funds for basic maintenance work. Substantial volunteer time was put into renovation works and fundraising to secure the building’s future. A £4 million project built a small enterprise centre and new community facilities on land adjacent to the Town Hall. More than 450 local people have signed up as \"Friends of the Town Hall\" and can vote for the trustees.\nHebden Royd lies close to the Pennine Way and Hardcastle Crags and is popular for outdoor pursuits such as walking, climbing and cycling. It lies on the Rochdale Canal – a through route across the Pennines.\nThe area's location in the valley causes problems with flooding, particularly between Hebden Water and the cinema on New Road, Brearley Fields in Mytholmroyd, and further up the valley at Callis Bridge by the sewage works and the old Aquaspersions factory. Flooding at Callis Bridge is so frequent that the level of the River Calder has been lowered and special perforated kerbstones fitted so that water can drain back into the river. Brearley, on a flood plain, contains the playing fields for Calder High School and local football, rugby league and cricket teams. Hebden Royd suffered two devastating floods in the summer of 2012, and again at Christmas 2015; Todmorden, Mytholmroyd, Sowerby Bridge and York were also affected, with houses, pubs, shops and community centres suffering damage to property. The extent of the Hebden Royd flooding was shown in drone videos of the flooded areas, the most severe flooding occurring in Hebden Bridge town centre. Hebden Royd suffered the worst flooding ever seen in the area on Boxing Day of 2015, the River Calder reached the highest ever recorded levels, flooding buildings never before flooded such as Burnley Road Academy in Mytholmroyd.\nThe parish is on the route of the Calderdale Way, a circular walk of about 50 mi around the hills and valleys of Calderdale.\nHebden Bridge railway station lies on the Caldervale Line between Manchester Victoria and Leeds City. It is served by frequent Northern services to towns and cities in Lancashire, Greater Manchester, as well as West and North Yorkshire including Leeds, Blackpool North, York, Manchester Victoria and Todmorden. There are also some infrequent services to Dewsbury via Brighouse. The station is still in the original Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway colours, decorated with hanging baskets, original signage and luggage trolleys. Mytholmroyd railway station also serves most of the services into and from Hebden Bridge railway station, with the exception of Blackpool-York services, which only stop at Hebden Bridge. Mytholmroyd also serves disabled passengers from Hebden Royd, with no disabled facilities at Hebden Bridge railway station.\nBus services in the town are primarily operated by First West Yorkshire, and operate to many local towns and villages, most frequently to Halifax (several services at 10-minute intervals), Burnley (592) and Rochdale (590). However, Keighley Bus Company connect Hebden Bridge with Haworth, Oxenhope and Keighley. The \"Hebden Bridger\" is a local bus operated by West Yorkshire Metro that serves as a town centre service, also operating to local villages including Heptonstall. These services run along the A646 through the rest of Hebden Royd with services direct from Mytholmroyd town centre to Huddersfield, Cragg Vale and Ripponden.\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons","Ayrshire Coast Line\nThe Ayrshire Coast Line is one of the lines within the Strathclyde suburban rail network in Scotland. It has 26 stations and connects the Ayrshire coast to Glasgow. There are three branches, to Largs , Ardrossan Harbour and Ayr , all running into the high level at Glasgow Central . All trains call at Kilwinning (with the exception of the 1745 Glasgow-Ayr, which runs non stop between Paisley and Irvine) and most trains call at Paisley Gilmour Street,\nThe route is operated by Abellio ScotRail.\nThe Ayrshire Coast Line consists of lines that were formerly part of the Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway, the Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway, the Ardrossan Railway and its Largs Branch extension.\nThe line to Ayr was electrified and Class 318 electric multiple units introduced by British Rail in September 1986. The full electrified service, including trains to Largs and Ardrossan Harbour, commenced on 19 January 1987. These were supplemented by occasional use of Class 303 and Class 311 EMUs, then in use on the Inverclyde Line.\nThese EMUs replaced the Class 101 and Class 107 DMUs that had served the line for over 30 years. Class 126 DMUs were also used on the line, but they succumbed to old age in the early 1980s.\nFor most of the day, 6 trains per hour run between Glasgow Central and Kilwinning, 4 go to Ayr whilst 2 service Largs and Ardrossan Harbour branches. Glasgow to Ayr trains which leave Glasgow at xx00 and xx30 between 0830 and 1830 and from Ayr leaving at xx23 and XX50 between 0850 and 1623 will run non stop between Kilwinning and Glasgow Central. After 1900, the service reduces to 4 trains per hour. All trains call at Paisley and Kilwinning with 2 trains going to Ayr while the other 2 serve Ardrossan and Largs. On a Sunday, a reduced service operates, 3 trains per hour run with 2 going to Ayr and 1 going to Largs. 5 trains daily run to Ardrossan Harbour to meet the ferry to Brodick. On Sunday evening, it reduces to only 2 trains per hour with 1 to Ayr and Largs. Paisley, Kilwinning, Troon, Prestwick and Ayr are also served by the Glasgow South Western Line with trains running between Glasgow-Stranraer and Kilmarnock-Girvan/Stranraer.\nAs of 2014, most services are run by Class 380s. Class 314s are, however, used on some peak time services when 380s are in short supply.\nThere are now 5 trains per day between Ayr and Edinburgh.\nIn 2016, a Monday to Saturday service that runs between Ayr and North Berwick (via Glasgow Central and Edinburgh) was introduced, running once a day at 1501.\nThe line runs along the same Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway route as the Inverclyde Line as far as Paisley Gilmour Street , using different platforms at Paisley Gilmour Street, where it turns south west towards Kilwinning on the route of the former Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway. Here the line branches in two, with one branch running south along the coast to Troon and Ayr. This branch also serves Prestwick Airport station, which opened in 1994. The other branch runs north along the coast to Ardrossan or Largs, becoming a single track for passenger trains after Saltcoats. This part of the network is heavily used by freight traffic to carry coal from the Hunterston Terminal. Beyond Ayr, 'Sprinter' DMUs continue south towards Girvan and Stranraer.\nThe line connects at Troon with ferries to Larne (summers only), at Ardrossan to Brodick on the Isle of Arran, and at Largs to Great Cumbrae.","Portsmouth (Lancs) railway station\nPortsmouth railway station was on the Copy Pit line and served the village of Portsmouth, which was part of Lancashire, before being incorporated into the West Riding of Yorkshire in the late 1880s. It is now in the successor county of West Yorkshire. It opened along with the line in 1849 but was closed as an economy measure on 7 July 1958. Few traces of the station remain, although the line itself remains in use for passenger trains between Burnley and Hebden Bridge or Todmorden.\n\n","Burnley Manchester Road railway station\nBurnley Manchester Road is a railway station serving the town of Burnley, Lancashire, England. It is situated on the Calder Valley Line 24+1/2 mi east of , near to the route's junction with the East Lancashire Line.\nOn 12 November 1849, the Manchester and Leeds Railway opened a single line branch – doubled in 1860 – from Todmorden to Burnley. The first station in the town, which was at Thorneybank, was replaced by Burnley Manchester Road in 1866. It had two stone platforms, a modest single-storey main building on the eastbound (\"up\") side and a smaller waiting room with toilets on the opposite side.\nThis closed to passenger traffic on 6 November 1961, and to goods in April 1973. The platforms were subsequently demolished, but the main building was retained and used as industrial premises. It was reopened (with new timber platforms) in September 1986, two years after the successful re-introduction of year-round services between Leeds and Preston/Blackpool North. The old station building was eventually demolished in 2013.\nThe town currently has three other railway stations, , and , on the East Lancashire Line which diverges from the Caldervale Line at Gannow Junction west of the town centre.\nOn weekdays, the station is served by Northern semi-fast services from Blackpool North to Leeds and York via the Caldervale Line. Currently (December 2016) there is an hourly service in each direction each weekday. On Sundays there is now also an hourly service (from mid-morning onwards) each since the May 2009 timetable change.\nFrom 17 May 2015 an hourly service between Blackburn and Manchester Victoria serves the station seven days a week. This calls at Accrington & Rose Grove, then Todmorden and most local stations to Manchester (except and , which are only served on Sundays). Most weekday & Saturday trains also continue to and .\nEastbound services (i.e. toward Hebden Bridge) were suspended for 5 months from November 2013 until the end of March 2014 whilst Network Rail carried out major repairs to Holme Tunnel (near to the site of the old Holme station). The 265-yard (250 m) long structure had been subject to a permanent 20 mph speed restriction for many years due to earth movement in the surrounding ground that had damaged the tunnel lining and eastern portal (steel supports were installed for most of the way along the tunnel bore since the mid-1980s to prevent further deterioration). The 20-week-long blockade has seen the tunnel lining strengthened & re-profiled, the damaged lining sections replaced, the eastern portal rebuilt, new track laid and drainage improvements carried out. Since completion, trains can pass through the tunnel at 45 mph (72 kmh). Replacement buses operated to & from Hebden Bridge, connecting with the train services from Blackpool & Preston whilst the work was in progress. The line was reopened to traffic as scheduled on 24 March 2014.\nThe local councils and MP have campaigned to restore a direct rail link between the town and Manchester Victoria using the defunct south to west curve at Todmorden that was removed following the withdrawal of local trains in November 1965. This would allow trains to run between Burnley and Manchester via Rochdale in less than an hour. Network Rail had intimated in its Lancashire & Cumbria RUS that such a link would be possible, but that the business case would only be viable with third party funding. It was thought that the scheme would proceed following the finalising of a Multi Area funding agreement between central government and a consortium of councils in East Lancashire in January 2009, although it was subsequently omitted from the list of projects recommended for funding over the next decade by the North West Regional Development Agency in July 2009.\nOn 31 October 2011, it was announced that the scheme had been granted finance as part of the Regional Growth Fund announced by Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg. Services were initially due to start at the May 2014 timetable change following completion of the curve (and its signalling) and the Holme Tunnel work. All structural work was completed by spring 2014. However, due to a lack of available rolling stock and unfinished signalling changes at the Todmorden end (which were not completed until February 2015) it was announced that services would not start until May 2015 at the earliest (eventually doing so at the May timetable change).\nThe plans have also seen the station facilities upgraded at a cost of £2.3 million with the opening of a new ticket office in a new station building and the provision of additional car parking spaces and new waiting shelters; completion was scheduled for Spring 2014. The station building opened in November 2014, having been almost complete and awaiting improvements to lighting since July.\nThe new ticket office is manned throughout the week, from start of service until 21:45 on weekdays and Saturdays and until 17:00 on Sundays. A self-service ticket machine is also available on the concourse. Train running information is offered via digital display screens, automatic announcements and timetable posters. Step-free access to both platforms is available via ramps from Manchester Road.\n","Cornholme\nCornholme is a village within the <a href=\"Calderdale\">Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale</a>, in <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>, England. It lies at the edge of Calderdale, on the boundary with <a href=\"Lancashire\">Lancashire</a>, and in the narrow <a href=\"River%20Calder%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Calder Valley</a> about 2.5 mi northwest of <a href=\"Todmorden\">Todmorden</a> (where the population is included). The village is close to the <a href=\"A646%20road\">A646</a> Burnley Road.\nCornholme was <a href=\"Historic%20counties%20of%20England\">historically</a> a part of Lancashire, and falls within the <a href=\"OL%20postcode%20area\">OL postcode area</a>. The former principal industries of most of the <a href=\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\">Upper Calder Valley</a> being cotton weaving and the manufacture of textile accessories such as shuttles and bobbins. The village became part of the <a href=\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a> on 1 January 1888 and part of the Borough of <a href=\"Todmorden\">Todmorden</a>, within the West Riding, on 2 June 1896.\nThe Gem was once a cinema. There are no cinemas in Cornholme today.\nCornholme is the location of a number of scenes in the 2004 film \"<a href=\"My%20Summer%20of%20Love\">My Summer of Love</a>\".\n","Hebden Bridge\nHebden Bridge is a <a href=\"market%20town\">market town</a> which forms part of <a href=\"Hebden%20Royd\">Hebden Royd</a> in <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>, England. It is in the <a href=\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\">Upper Calder Valley</a>, 8 mi west of <a href=\"Halifax%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Halifax</a> and 14 miles (21 km) north-east of <a href=\"Rochdale\">Rochdale</a>, at the <a href=\"confluence\">confluence</a> of the <a href=\"River%20Calder%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">River Calder</a> and the Hebden Water.\nIn 2015, the Calder ward, covering Hebden Bridge, <a href=\"Old%20Town%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Old Town</a>, and part of <a href=\"Todmorden\">Todmorden</a>, had a population of 12,167; the town itself has a population of approximately 4,500.\nThe original settlement was the hilltop village of <a href=\"Heptonstall\">Heptonstall</a>. Hebden Bridge (\"Heptenbryge\") started as a settlement where the Halifax to <a href=\"Burnley\">Burnley</a> <a href=\"packhorse\">packhorse</a> route dropped into the valley and crossed the River Hebden where the old bridge (from which it gets its name) stands. The name Hebden comes from the <a href=\"Old%20English\">Anglo-Saxon</a> \"Heopa Denu\", 'Bramble (or possibly Wild Rose) Valley'.\nSteep hills with fast-flowing streams and access to major <a href=\"wool\">wool</a> markets meant that Hebden Bridge was ideal for water-powered <a href=\"weaving%20mill\">weaving mill</a>s and the town developed during the 19th and 20th centuries; at one time Hebden was known as \"Trouser Town\" because of the large amount of clothing manufacturing. Drainage of the marshland, which covered much of the <a href=\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\">Upper Calder Valley</a> before the <a href=\"Industrial%20Revolution\">Industrial Revolution</a>, enabled construction of the road which runs through the valley. Before it was built, travel was only possible via the ancient packhorse route which ran along the hilltop, dropping into the valleys wherever necessary. The wool trade was served by the <a href=\"Rochdale%20Canal\">Rochdale Canal</a> (running from <a href=\"Sowerby%20Bridge\">Sowerby Bridge</a> to <a href=\"Manchester\">Manchester</a>) and the <a href=\"Manchester%20and%20Leeds%20Railway\">Manchester and Leeds Railway</a> (later the <a href=\"Lancashire%20and%20Yorkshire%20Railway\">Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway</a>) (running from <a href=\"Leeds\">Leeds</a> to Manchester and Burnley).\nHebden Bridge also grew to include a Picture House (with 500 places) and offices for Hebden Bridge <a href=\"Urban%20district%20%28Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland%29\">Urban District</a> Council. Hebden Bridge has no swimming pool, although for some years there was a small training pool for children in the adult education centre on Pitt Street. Hebden Bridge had its own <a href=\"cooperative\">cooperative society</a> but during the 1960s, it was <a href=\"fraud\">defrauded</a> and went <a href=\"bankrupt\">bankrupt</a>. The old Co-op building became a hotel and was later converted into flats. The Co-op returned in the 1980s with a <a href=\"supermarket\">supermarket</a> on Market Street, on the site of an old mill.\nDuring the Second World War Hebden Bridge was designated a \"reception area\" and took in evacuees from industrial cities. Two bombs fell on Calderdale during the war, but they were not targeted; they were merely the emptying of a bomb load.\nDuring the 1970s and 1980s the town saw an influx of artists, writers, photographers, musicians, alternative practitioners, teachers, Green and <a href=\"New%20Age\">New Age</a> activists and more recently, wealthier '<a href=\"yuppie\">yuppie</a>' types. This in turn saw a boom in <a href=\"tourism\">tourism</a> to the area. During the 1990s Hebden Bridge became a <a href=\"dormitory%20town\">dormitory town</a>, due to its proximity to major towns and cities both sides of the <a href=\"Pennines\">Pennines</a>.\nOn 6 July 2003, Hebden Bridge was granted <a href=\"Fairtrade%20Zone\">Fairtrade Zone</a> status. On 6 July 2014, Stage 2 of the 2014 <a href=\"Tour%20de%20France\">Tour de France</a>, from York to Sheffield, passed through the town.\nAt a district level, Hebden Bridge Urban District was established in 1891. In 1937, it merged with <a href=\"Mytholmroyd\">Mytholmroyd</a> Urban District to become Hebden Royd Urban District. At a county level, Hebden Bridge was administered as part of the <a href=\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>. These were abolished as part of the reforms introduced in the <a href=\"Local%20Government%20Act%201972\">Local Government Act 1972</a>. They were replaced with <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a> <a href=\"Metropolitan%20county\">Metropolitan county</a>, <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale</a> <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Borough\">Metropolitan Borough</a>, and Hebden Royd Town Civil Parish. From a legal point of view, the town council is a <a href=\"Parish%20councils%20in%20England\">parish council</a>. Recently, it has attracted praise for its commitment to <a href=\"Environmentally%20friendly\">eco-friendly</a> policies, following the example of <a href=\"Modbury\">Modbury</a> in effectively banning all plastic shopping bags, thus becoming the largest community in Europe to do so. The ban is not legally enforceable, but rather a voluntary agreement between local shop owners and the community at large.\nHebden Bridge Town Hall and adjoining fire station is a Grade II <a href=\"listed%20building\">listed building</a>, built in 1897. Following local government reorganisation, it became underused. The building was transferred from <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale</a> <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Borough\">Metropolitan Borough</a> Council to Hebden Bridge Community Association on a 40-year lease (now extended to 125 years) on 1 April 2010, along with funds for basic maintenance work. Substantial volunteer time was put into renovation works and fundraising to secure the building’s future. An ambitious £4 million project has been finished, building a small enterprise centre and new community facilities on land adjacent to the Town Hall. More than 450 local people have signed up as \"Friends of the Town Hall\" and can vote for the trustees.\nSince the floods on Boxing Day 2015 the Town Hall with café and foyer exhibition space has become a popular community hub; the reception is staffed by volunteers, and more than 20 local businesses are operating from the new Town Hall.\nHebden Bridge lies close to the <a href=\"Pennine%20Way\">Pennine Way</a> and <a href=\"Hardcastle%20Crags\">Hardcastle Crags</a> and is popular for outdoor pursuits such as walking, climbing and cycling. It lies on the <a href=\"Rochdale%20Canal\">Rochdale Canal</a> – a through route across the <a href=\"Pennines\">Pennines</a>.\nThe town's location in the valley causes problems with <a href=\"flooding\">flooding</a> particularly between Hebden Water and the <a href=\"movie%20theater\">cinema</a> on New Road, Brearley Fields in <a href=\"Mytholmroyd\">Mytholmroyd</a>, and further up the valley at Callis Bridge by the <a href=\"sewage%20works\">sewage works</a> and the old Aquaspersions <a href=\"factory\">factory</a>. Flooding at Callis Bridge is so frequent that the level of the River Calder has been lowered and special perforated kerbstones fitted so that water can drain back into the river. Brearley on a <a href=\"flood%20plain\">flood plain</a> contains the playing fields for <a href=\"Calder%20High%20School\">Calder High School</a> and local <a href=\"football%20%28soccer%29\">football</a>, <a href=\"rugby%20league\">rugby league</a> and <a href=\"cricket\">cricket</a> teams. Hebden Bridge suffered two devastating floods in the summer of 2012, and again on Boxing Day 2015; <a href=\"Todmorden\">Todmorden</a>, <a href=\"Mytholmroyd\">Mytholmroyd</a>, <a href=\"Sowerby%20Bridge\">Sowerby Bridge</a> and <a href=\"York\">York</a> were also affected, with houses, pubs, shops and community centres suffering damage to property. The extent of the Hebden Bridge flooding was shown in <a href=\"Unmanned%20aerial%20vehicle\">drone</a> videos of the flooded areas, the most severe flooding occurring in Hebden Bridge town centre.\nThe town is on the route of the <a href=\"Calderdale%20Way\">Calderdale Way</a>, a circular walk of about 50 mi around the hills and valleys of Calderdale, and it is connected with the Pennine Way through the \"Hebden Bridge Loop\".\nHebden Bridge is a popular place to live. However, space is limited due to the steep valleys and lack of flat land. In the past, this led to \"upstairs-downstairs\" houses known as over and under dwellings. These were houses built in terraces with 4–5 storeys. The upper storeys face uphill while the lower ones face downhill with their back wall against the hillside. The bottom 2 storeys would be one house while the upper 2–3 storeys would be another. This also led to unusual legal arrangements such as the \"<a href=\"flying%20freehold\">flying freehold</a>\", where the shared floor/ceiling is wholly owned by the underdwelling.\nPopulation changes in the 1990s led to a demand for more houses. This has proved to be extremely controversial for a number of reasons. The limited availability of houses has meant that prices have risen sharply (for example, a house valued at £54,000 in 1998 was valued at nearly £150,000 in 2004).\nDemand for new houses is also a contentious issue as many of the sites for proposed development are areas such as fields or woodland that some local residents feel should be left as they are. Hebden Bridge has attracted artists, and has developed a small <a href=\"New%20Age\">New Age</a> community. It became attractive in the 1980s and 1990s to <a href=\"lesbian\">lesbian</a>s as a place of mutual support to bring up children. As of 2004 Hebden Bridge had the highest number of lesbians per head in the UK.\nIn April 2005, Hebden Bridge was named the fourth quirkiest place in the world by \"High Life\" (the <a href=\"British%20Airways\">British Airways</a> flight magazine) and was described as \"modern and stylish in an unconventional and stylish way\".\nThe town was documented in the 2009 film \"Shed Your Tears And Walk Away\", which made controversial claims about the levels of drug and alcohol abuse in the town, and consequent deaths among young people.\nToday tourism is probably the main economic factor in Hebden Bridge, and nearly all shops are open on Sundays.\nAs of Easter 2017, The weekly Market has moved to Lees Yard adjoining the pedestrian centre of St. George Square, and the market days have been increased from two and a half to four full weekly market days: Thursdays to Sundays.\nWalkley's Clog Mill is one of the country's leading <a href=\"English%20clogs\">clog</a> manufacturers. It moved from its original home at Falling Royd to a site on Midgley Road in Mytholmroyd.\nAcre Mill was an <a href=\"asbestos\">asbestos</a> factory in the hilltop settlement of <a href=\"Old%20Town%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Old Town</a>, owned by <a href=\"Cape%20plc\">Cape Insulation Ltd</a>. It was opened in 1939 to meet the demand for <a href=\"gas%20mask\">gas mask</a> filters made from <a href=\"Asbestos%23Blue\">blue asbestos</a> during the Second World War, and diversified into the production of other asbestos products, including rope, pipe lagging and textile, after the war. In 1970, the company closed the mill and moved to <a href=\"Westmorland\">Westmorland</a>. The mill was the subject of a 1971 \"<a href=\"World%20in%20Action\">World in Action</a>\" investigation entitled \"\"The Dust at Acre Mill\"\" which revealed how the factory broke the law regarding asbestos-dust control between 1940–1970. By 1979, 12% of a total of 2,200 former employees had asbestos-related disease. The mill was demolished in 1979. Cape Insulation also operated a second factory at Hangingroyd Mill.\nHebden Bridge has built a reputation for \"great little shops\" and has an unusually high density of independent shops for a UK town of its size with more than 20 cafes and tea rooms, and about 20 pubs, micro pubs and restaurants. In a national survey by the New Economics Foundation in 2010 Hebden Bridge was ranked sixth on a diversity scale and was praised for its independent shops and unique shopping experience. The Fox and Goose, West Yorkshires first Co-Operative pub, is owned by 262 residents of Hebden Bridge. It was established in March 2014.\nIn February 2016 Hebden Bridge won as the \"Best Small Outdoor Market\" in the Great British Market Awards run by the National Association of British Market Authorities (NABMA). In December 2016 Hebden Bridge won the \"Great British High Street Award\" in the \"Small Market Town\" category, after most shops, cafes and businesses had bounced back better and more flood resilient than before the Boxing Day floods 2015; Hebden Bridge also won a second award as the People’s Choice.\nFestivals: the traditional <a href=\"Pace%20Egg%20plays\">Pace Egg plays</a> are an annual <a href=\"Easter\">Easter</a> event mainly in Hepton Stall, the Piano and the Burlesque Festivals are usually in April, the Folk Roots Festival is in the middle of May, the famous midsummer <a href=\"Hebden%20Bridge%20Handmade%20Parade\">Hebden Bridge Handmade Parade</a> is a vivid, non-commercial variation on the small town parade.\nThe Arts Festival and Fringe Arts Festival take place at the end of June, the Hepton Stall Festival and Hebden Bridge Open Studios are in the beginning of July, the Vintage Car Rally is scheduled for August, the South Pennine Walk & Ride Festival and the Camra Beer & Cider Festival are in September, and the Hebden Bridge Dance Festival is yearly in October.\nHebden Bridge is known as \"the lesbian capital of the UK\".\nThe Stubbing Wharf is an 18th century inn located alongside the <a href=\"Rochdale%20Canal\">Rochdale Canal</a>, in which the poet <a href=\"Ted%20Hughes\">Ted Hughes</a> set his poem \"Stubbing Wharfe\". Hughes was born in neighbouring Mytholmroyd, and his former home Lumb Bank on the outskirts of Hebden Bridge is run as a creative writing centre by the Arvon Trust.\n<a href=\"Sylvia%20Plath\">Sylvia Plath</a> is buried here in Heptonstall in the secondary graveyard of St. Thomas the Apostle Church.\nThe band <a href=\"the%20Dream%20Academy\">the Dream Academy</a> filmed the first video for their hit single \"<a href=\"Life%20in%20a%20Northern%20Town\">Life in a Northern Town</a>\" in Hebden Bridge in 1984.\nThe <a href=\"BBC%20One\">BBC One</a> crime drama series \"<a href=\"Happy%20Valley%20%28TV%20series%29\">Happy Valley</a>\", written by Halifax-born <a href=\"Sally%20Wainwright\">Sally Wainwright</a>, broadcast in 2014, was filmed and set in and around the town. Local landmarks, such as the graveyard at St Thomas the Apostle Church, and the sweeping landscapes provided a prominent backdrop to the narrative. The show received critical acclaim and was expected to lead to a noticeable increase in local tourism. A second series was filmed in 2015 and broadcast during 2016.\nThe Trades Club is a nationally recognised music venue and socialist members club.\nNotable artists who have played at the Trades Club include: <a href=\"Julia%20Fordham\">Julia Fordham</a>, <a href=\"Patti%20Smith\">Patti Smith</a>, <a href=\"Mark%20Lanegan\">Mark Lanegan</a>, <a href=\"Laura%20Marling\">Laura Marling</a>, <a href=\"The%20Fall%20%28band%29\">The Fall</a>, <a href=\"Teenage%20Fanclub\">Teenage Fanclub</a>, <a href=\"Andrew%20Weatherall\">Andrew Weatherall</a>, <a href=\"Ali%20Farka%20Tour%C3%A9\">Ali Farka Touré</a>, <a href=\"Damo%20Suzuki\">Damo Suzuki</a>, <a href=\"Steve%20Tilston\">Steve Tilston</a>, <a href=\"Jah%20Wobble\">Jah Wobble</a>, <a href=\"The%20Unthanks\">The Unthanks</a>, <a href=\"Curved%20Air\">Curved Air</a>, <a href=\"the%20Orb\">the Orb</a>, <a href=\"Nico\">Nico</a>, <a href=\"Thurston%20Moore\">Thurston Moore</a>, <a href=\"Slaves%20%28UK%20band%29\">Slaves</a>, <a href=\"Lee%20Scratch%20Perry\">Lee Scratch Perry</a>, <a href=\"Mark%20Almond\">Mark Almond</a> & <a href=\"Donovan\">Donovan</a>. <a href=\"Heavenly%20Recordings\">Heavenly Recordings</a> have a close association with the club and celebrated their 25th birthday with ‘A Heavenly Weekend In Hebden’, a four-day festival at the Trades Club, featuring performances from many of the artists on their roster and film screenings from Heavenly Films. The event was given its own catalogue number: HVN300.\nMany pubs in town host weekly or monthly Open Mics, where local artists perform free of charge, and on most days with reasonable weather, especially on weekends, buskers are playing in the pedestrian area along Bridge Gate. The function rooms of Hebden Bridge pubs have also seen shows from international experimental acts like <a href=\"MV%20%26amp%3B%20EE\">MV & EE</a>, <a href=\"Natural%20Snow%20Buildings\">Natural Snow Buildings</a>, <a href=\"Kawabata%20Makoto\">Kawabata Makoto</a> and <a href=\"KK%20Null\">KK Null</a>\nUntil 2014, the town hosted the Hebden Bridge Blues Festival during the Spring Bank Holiday at the end of May. Established in 2011, the festival was voted the Best British Blues Festival in both the 2012 and 2013 British Blues Awards, ahead of over 40 other festivals on each occasion, attracting musicians and audiences from around the world, particularly North America.\nIn 2015 the yearly Folk Roots Festival was launched in Hebden Bridge.\nHebden Bridge Junior Band has been providing musical tuition and an opportunity for young people aged 7–19 to play a brass instrument in a non-competitive band since 1972\nThe <a href=\"indie%20rock\">indie</a> band <a href=\"Bogshed\">Bogshed</a> were formed in Hebden Bridge in 1984, originally as the 'Amazing Roy North Penis Band'.\nIn 2017, the Hebden Bridge Community Association received The <a href=\"Queen%27s%20Award%20for%20Voluntary%20Service\">Queen's Award for Voluntary Service</a>, the MBE for voluntary groups.\n<a href=\"Hebden%20Bridge%20railway%20station\">Hebden Bridge railway station</a> lies on the <a href=\"Calder%20Valley%20Line\">Calder Valley Line</a> between <a href=\"Manchester%20Victoria\">Manchester Victoria</a> and <a href=\"Leeds%20railway%20station\">Leeds City</a>. It is served by frequent rail services to towns and cities in Lancashire, Greater Manchester, as well as West and <a href=\"North%20Yorkshire\">North Yorkshire</a> including Leeds, <a href=\"Blackpool%20North%20railway%20station\">Blackpool North</a>, <a href=\"York\">York</a>, Manchester Victoria and <a href=\"Todmorden\">Todmorden</a>. There are also some infrequent services to <a href=\"Dewsbury%20railway%20station\">Dewsbury</a> via <a href=\"Brighouse%20railway%20station\">Brighouse</a>. The station is still in the original <a href=\"Lancashire%20and%20Yorkshire%20Railway\">Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway</a> colours, decorated with hanging baskets, original signage and luggage trolleys.\nBus services in the town are primarily operated by <a href=\"First%20West%20Yorkshire\">First West Yorkshire</a>, and operate to many local towns and villages, most frequently to <a href=\"Halifax%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Halifax</a> (several services at 10-minute intervals), <a href=\"Burnley\">Burnley</a> (592) and <a href=\"Rochdale\">Rochdale</a> (590). However, <a href=\"Keighley%20Bus%20Company\">Keighley Bus Company</a> connect Hebden Bridge with <a href=\"Haworth\">Haworth</a>, <a href=\"Oxenhope\">Oxenhope</a> and <a href=\"Keighley\">Keighley</a>. The \"Hebden Bridger\" is a local bus operated by <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire%20Metro\">West Yorkshire Metro</a> that serves as a town centre service, also operating to local villages including <a href=\"Heptonstall\">Heptonstall</a>.\n\n","Network Rail\nNetwork Rail is the owner (via its subsidiary Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd which was known as Railtrack plc before 2002) and infrastructure manager of most of the rail network in <a href=\"England\">England</a>, <a href=\"Scotland\">Scotland</a> and <a href=\"Wales\">Wales</a>. Network Rail is an <a href=\"non-departmental%20public%20body\">arms length public body</a> of the <a href=\"Department%20for%20Transport\">Department for Transport</a> with no shareholders, which reinvests its income in the railways.\nNetwork Rail's main customers are the private <a href=\"train%20operating%20company\">train operating companies</a> (TOCs), responsible for passenger transport, and <a href=\"freight%20operating%20company\">freight operating companies</a> (FOCs), who provide train services on the infrastructure that the company owns and maintains. Since 1 September 2014, Network Rail has been classified as a \"public sector body\".\nTo cope with <a href=\"history%20of%20rail%20transport%20in%20Great%20Britain%201995%20to%20date\">quickly rising passenger numbers</a>, Network Rail is currently undertaking a £38 billion <a href=\"History%20of%20rail%20transport%20in%20Great%20Britain%201995%20to%20date%23Timeline\">programme of upgrades</a> to the network, including <a href=\"Crossrail\">Crossrail</a>, <a href=\"Railway%20electrification%20in%20Great%20Britain\">electrification of lines</a>, <a href=\"Thameslink%20Programme\">upgrading Thameslink</a> and a new <a href=\"High%20Speed%202\">high-speed line</a>.\n<a href=\"Rail%20transport%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">Britain's railway system</a> was built by private companies, but it was nationalised by the <a href=\"Transport%20Act%201947\">Transport Act 1947</a> and run by <a href=\"British%20Rail\">British Rail</a>ways until <a href=\"Privatisation%20of%20British%20Rail\">re-privatisation</a> in the 1990s. Infrastructure and passenger and freight services were separated at that time. Between 1994 and 2002 the infrastructure was owned and operated by <a href=\"Railtrack\">Railtrack</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Hatfield%20train%20crash\">Hatfield train crash</a> on 17 October 2000 was a defining moment in the collapse of Railtrack. The immediate major repairs undertaken across the whole British rail network were estimated to have cost in the order of <a href=\"Pound%20sterling\">£</a>580 million and Railtrack had no idea how many more 'Hatfields' were waiting to happen because it had lost considerable in-house engineering skill following the sale or closure of many of the engineering and maintenance functions of <a href=\"British%20Rail\">British Rail</a> to external companies; nor did the company have any way of assessing the consequence of the speed restrictions it was ordering, which all but brought the railway network to a standstill. The costs of modernising the <a href=\"West%20Coast%20Main%20Line\">West Coast Main Line</a> were also spiralling. In 2001, Railtrack announced that, despite making a pre-tax profit before exceptional expenses of £199m, the £733m of costs and compensation paid out over the Hatfield crash had plunged Railtrack from profit into a loss of £534m, and it approached the government for funding, which it then used to pay a £137m dividend to its shareholders in May 2001.\nNetwork Rail Ltd took over control by buying <a href=\"Railtrack\">Railtrack</a> plc, which was in \"railway administration\", from Railtrack Group plc for £500 million; Railtrack plc was then renamed and reconstituted as Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd. The purchase was completed on 3 October 2002. The former company had thus never ceased to exist but continued under another name: for this reason Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd was the defendant in later prosecutions in respect of events which had occurred in the days of Railtrack.\nFollowing an initial period in which Network Rail established itself and demonstrated its competence in addressing the principal challenges of improving asset condition, reducing unit costs and tackling delay, the Government's Rail Review in 2004 said that Network Rail should be given responsibility for whole-industry performance reporting, timetable development, specification of small and medium network enhancements, and the delivery of route-specific utilisation strategies (RUS). Some of these are functions which Network Rail already had; others – such as the obligation to devise <a href=\"Route%20Utilisation%20Strategy\">route utilisation strategies</a> – were transferred to Network Rail from the <a href=\"Strategic%20Rail%20Authority\">Strategic Rail Authority</a>, a non-departmental public body, part of the UK government. The SRA was abolished in November 2006.\nThe company moved its headquarters to Kings Place, 90 York Way, from 40 Melton Street, Euston, in August 2008. In October 2008, Sir <a href=\"Ian%20McAllister\">Ian McAllister</a> announced that he would not stand for re-election as chairman of Network Rail. He had held the position for six years. He noted that as Network Rail moved to a \"new phase in its development\" it was appropriate for a new chairman to lead it there.\nMany track safety initiatives have been introduced in the time Network Rail has been responsible for this area. The latest, announced in December 2008, known as \"All Orange\", states that all track personnel must not only wear orange hi-vis waistcoats or jackets, but must also wear orange hi-vis trousers at all times when working on or near the track. This ruling came into force in January 2009 for maintenance and property workers and in April 2009 for infrastructure and investment sites.\nIn 2009, allegations appeared in the media from the <a href=\"Transport%20Salaried%20Staffs%27%20Association\">Transport Salaried Staffs' Association</a> concerning treatment of Network Rail employees. Former chief executive <a href=\"Iain%20Coucher\">Iain Coucher</a> was also accused of financial impropriety involving unspecified payments to his business partner Victoria Pender during his tenure at Network Rail.\nAn internal investigation held by Network Rail in 2010, vetted by its auditors <a href=\"PricewaterhouseCoopers\">PricewaterhouseCoopers</a>, uncovered no evidence of wrongdoing. An independent enquiry headed by Anthony White QC in 2011 further examined the claims, but also exonerated Coucher.\nCritical commentary appeared in the media concerning the <a href=\"Knight%20Bachelor\">knighthood</a> awarded to John Armitt in the <a href=\"2012%20New%20Year%20Honours\">2012 New Year Honours</a> for services to engineering and construction. Armitt was Chief Executive of Network Rail at the time of the 2007 <a href=\"Grayrigg%20derailment\">Grayrigg derailment</a> and the family of a victim of the accident criticised the award, which coincidentally was conferred on the same day that Network Rail were prosecuted for the accident.\nIn 2011 the company began the process of reorganising its operational structure into nine semi-autonomous regional entities, each with their own managing director; the first two units to be created were Scotland and Wessex regions. The reorganisation has been interpreted as a move back towards vertical integration of track and train operations.\nIn 2016 Network Rail failed to check whether the \"<a href=\"LNER%20Class%20A3%204472%20Flying%20Scotsman\">Flying Scotsman</a>\" could fit through tunnels along the Borders Route resulting in the cancellation of a trip just 24 hours before departure. The operator described the cancellation as \"an absolute disgrace\", Network Rail blamed the cancellation on an internal \"administrative error\" Just one day later Network Rail chose to climb down and allow the train journey to take place. Scottish Transport Minister <a href=\"Derek%20Mackay\">Derek Mackay</a> branded the affair a \"debacle\".\nNetwork Rail's attempt to electrify the <a href=\"Great%20Western%20Main%20Line\">Great Western Main Line</a> has been dogged by poor planning and cost overruns; the projected cost has ballooned from by £1.2 billion to £2.8 billion by the end of 2015 and the project is delayed to the point where the government may have to ask Hitachi to retrofit the new Intercity trainsets with diesel as well as electric engines as the electrification isn't complete.\nIn December 2016, the Transport Secretary, <a href=\"Chris%20Grayling\">Chris Grayling</a> announced that Network Rail would lose sole control of track maintenance and repairs, and instead would share this with the Train Operating Companies.\nNetwork Rail owns the infrastructure, including the railway tracks, signals, overhead wires, tunnels, bridges, level crossings and most stations, but not the passenger or commercial freight rolling stock. It however owns a fleet of <a href=\"departmental%20train\">departmental stock</a>.\nAlthough it owns over 2,500 railway stations, it manages only 18 of the biggest and busiest of them, all the other stations being managed by one or other of the various train operating companies (TOCs). Network Rail has a 15-year lease on Square One in Manchester with 800 staff in one of Manchester's largest refurbished office spaces.\nNetwork Rail should not be confused with '<a href=\"National%20Rail\">National Rail</a>'. National Rail is not an organisation, but merely a brand, used to explain and promote a Great Britain-wide network of passenger railway services. The majority of Network Rail lines also carry freight traffic; some lines are freight only. A few lines that carry passenger traffic are not part of the National Rail network (for example <a href=\"High%20Speed%201\">High Speed 1</a>, <a href=\"Heathrow%20Express\">Heathrow Express</a>, <a href=\"Tyne%20and%20Wear%20Metro\">Tyne and Wear Metro</a> (the Tyne and Wear Metro uses Network Rail track between Pelaw and Sunderland and is responsible for that) and the <a href=\"London%20Underground\">London Underground</a>). Conversely, a few National Rail services operate over track which is not part of the Network Rail network. For example, Chiltern Railways services run on track owned by London Underground between Harrow-on-the-Hill and Amersham.\nThe current Chairman is <a href=\"Peter%20Hendy\">Sir Peter Hendy</a>, and <a href=\"Mark%20Carne\">Mark Carne</a> is currently appointed as the Chief Executive.\nNetwork Rail is funded partly through a direct grant from the government (£3.8 billion in 2015/16) and partly by train operating companies paying access charges to use the rail network (£1.6 billion in 2015/16). In 2015/16, it spent £3.1 billion on renewals (renewing existing infrastructure back to how it was when new) and £3.2 billion on enhancements, with the rest spent on maintenance and other costs.\nNetwork Rail covers 20,000 miles of track, and 40,000 bridges and tunnels.\nIn October 2003 Network Rail announced that it would take over all infrastructure maintenance work from private contractors, following concerns about the quality of work carried out by certain private firms, and spiralling costs.\nFebruary 2004 saw the opening of an operations centre at <a href=\"London%20Waterloo%20railway%20station\">Waterloo station</a> in London, operated jointly by Network Rail and <a href=\"South%20West%20Trains\">South West Trains</a>. This was the first full collaboration of its kind since privatisation, and it is regarded as a model for other areas of the network, with a further six integrated Network Rail + TOC Control Centres having opened since then, at <a href=\"Blackfriars%20station\">Blackfriars</a>, <a href=\"Croydon\">Croydon</a> (Leading Control for Thameslink), , , <a href=\"Glasgow%20Central%20station\">Glasgow</a> and, most recently, <a href=\"Liverpool%20Street%20station\">Liverpool Street</a> and South Wales based in Cardiff Canton.\nTrack renewal, the ongoing modernisation of the railway network by replacing track and signalling, continues to be carried out by private engineering firms under contract. The biggest renewals projects include the multibillion-pound upgrade of the London – Glasgow <a href=\"West%20Coast%20Main%20Line\">West Coast Main Line</a>, which was completed in 2008, the <a href=\"Thameslink%20Programme\">Thameslink Programme</a> to upgrade the north-south railway through London and work on the part of <a href=\"Crossrail\">Crossrail</a> which is operated by Network Rail.\nNetwork Rail initially sub-contracted much of the work and the site to private infrastructure maintenance companies such as <a href=\"Carillion\">Carillion</a> and <a href=\"Babcock%20International%20Group\">First Engineering</a>. Other sub-contractors are used on site for specialist work or additional labour. These include Prima Services Group, Sky Blue, Balfour Beatty, Laboursite, BCL, Atkins (Atkins Rail) and McGinleys.\nSince 2003 Network Rail has been building up significant in-house engineering skills, including funding of apprenticeship and foundation degree schemes. Network Rail reports significant savings resulting from the initial transfers of work away from contracting companies. Additional contracts were taken back by Network Rail after the serious <a href=\"Potters%20Bar%20rail%20crash\">accident at Potters Bar</a> and other accidents at Rotherham and King's Cross led Jarvis to pull out of the track repair business. Shortly after this, and due to other failures by maintenance companies, Network Rail took control of many more maintenance duties. Telecomms maintenance came full circle in April 2009 with the bringing in house of the staff of Thales Telecom Services Ltd (formerly <a href=\"British%20Rail%20Telecommunications\">British Rail Telecommunications</a> (BRT)).\nIn 2006, Network Rail made public a high-tech plan to combat the effects of <a href=\"slippery%20rail\">slippery rail</a>. This plan involves the use of satellites for tracking trouble areas, water-jetting trains and crews using railhead scrubbers, sand sticks and a substance called Natrusolve, which dissolves leaf mulch.\nAll workers working on, near or trackside have to undergo a <a href=\"Personal%20Track%20Safety\">Personal Track Safety</a> assessment (re-assessed every two years). Network Rail workers undergo an assessment every year as part of AITL (Assessment in the Line). The AITL requires each worker to go through questions on a computer based program on all the competencies held.\nIn 2007 it was announced that the number of track renewal contractors will be reduced to four from the current six.\nThese are now <a href=\"Amey%20plc\">Amey</a>/<a href=\"Seco%20Rail\">SECO</a>, <a href=\"Balfour%20Beatty\">Balfour Beatty</a>, <a href=\"Babcock%20International%20Group\">Babcock First Engineering</a> and <a href=\"Jarvis%20plc\">Jarvis plc</a>. Jarvis went into administration in March 2010, with the bulk of its work commitments being picked up by Babcock.\nNetwork Rail owns more than 2,500 railway stations, divided into <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20railway%20station%20categories\">six categories</a>. Management and operation of most of them is carried out mostly by the principal <a href=\"List%20of%20companies%20operating%20trains%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">train operating company</a> serving that station; however, in a few cases the train operating company does not serve the station. For example, is served by <a href=\"CrossCountry\">CrossCountry</a>, but it is managed by <a href=\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\">East Midlands Trains</a>. As of June 2017, Network Rail manages 18 stations directly. The stations Network Rail operate are:\nNetwork Rail High Speed also operates High Level, and . Glasgow Central and Liverpool Lime Street stations are divided into high and low-level stations – the high-level stations are all termini used primarily by the main inter-city services to those stations. The low-level stations are through routes on local commuter networks that are largely separate from other routes to the main station; these platforms are not managed by Network Rail, but instead the rail operator that primarily uses them (<a href=\"ScotRail\">ScotRail</a> and <a href=\"Merseyrail\">Merseyrail</a> respectively).\nNetwork Rail operated station until January 2012 when it was transferred to <a href=\"Southern%20%28train%20operating%20company%29\">Southern</a>, and until November 2014 when it was transferred to <a href=\"c2c\">c2c</a>. Network Rail took over management of Bristol Temple Meads and Reading in April 2014.\nA DfT franchise report in 2014 stated Network Rail's intention to subsume more major stations into Network Rail's directly operated portfolio. The report earmarked for Network Rail management, as well as <a href=\"Manchester%20Oxford%20Road%20station\">Manchester Oxford Road</a> and <a href=\"Manchester%20Victoria%20station\">Manchester Victoria</a> which are currently undergoing major rebuilding as part of the <a href=\"Northern%20Hub\">Northern Hub</a>. However as of 2017 the two Manchester stations remain under the operatorship of <a href=\"Northern%20%28train%20operating%20company%29\">Northern</a>.\nNetwork Rail has several training and development sites around Britain. These include sites in <a href=\"Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne\">Newcastle</a>, Peterborough, Derby, Leeds, <a href=\"Walsall\">Walsall</a> and <a href=\"Larbert\">Larbert</a> which provide refresher courses, and train staff in new equipment. Advanced Apprentice Scheme trainees are trained at <a href=\"HMS%20Sultan%20%28establishment%29\">HMS \"Sultan\"</a> in Gosport within the whole first year and over seven 2-week periods or five 3-week periods (throughout their second and third year) of their apprenticeship, using a combination of <a href=\"Royal%20Navy\">Royal Navy</a> facilities and a specially installed training centre. All courses are taught by VT Flagship (part of <a href=\"Babcock%20International\">Babcock International</a>) in the first year but apprentices are trained by Network Rail staff in the second and third years. Network Rail bought a residential centre from <a href=\"Cable%20%26amp%3B%20Wireless%20plc\">Cable and Wireless</a> in the Westwood Business Centre near <a href=\"Coventry\">Coventry</a> for leadership development. The company and other industry partners such as <a href=\"VolkerRail\">VolkerRail</a> and Balfour Beatty also operate a Foundation Degree in conjunction with Sheffield Hallam University.\nIn 2008, Network Rail piloted its first qualification in \"track engineering\". It has been given permission to develop courses equivalent to GCSE and A-levels.\nNetwork Rail operates various essential telecommunication circuits for signalling and electrification control systems, train radio systems, lineside communications, level crossing CCTV, station information and security systems as well as more general IT and business telephony needs. The fixed bearer network infrastructure comprises transmission systems and telephone exchanges linked by a fibre optic and copper cable network that is located mainly within trackside troughing routes on the former <a href=\"British%20Rail%20Telecommunications\">British Rail Telecommunications</a> network. (It is the largest private telecoms network in the UK).\nNetwork Rail operates several analogue radio networks that support mobile communication applications for drivers and lineside workers which consist of base stations, antenna systems and control equipment. The National Radio Network (NRN) was developed specifically for the operational railway; it provides radio coverage for 98% of the rail network through 500 base stations and 21 radio exchanges. The Radio Electronic Token Block <a href=\"RETB\">RETB</a> system is based on similar technology as the NRN and ORN but provides data communication for signalling token exchange as well as voice communication.\nFixed communication at trackside is provided by telephone. These are primarily provided for signallers to communicate with train crew, via telephones mounted on signal posts, and with the public through telephones located at level crossings.\nGAI-Tronics provides many of the telephones sited on trackside and at level crossings. They also provide Public Access Help Points on platforms and stations to provide passengers with easy access to Information and Emergency control centres.\n<a href=\"GSM-R\">GSM-R</a> radio systems are being introduced across <a href=\"Europe\">Europe</a> under <a href=\"European%20Union\">EU</a> legislation for interoperability. In the UK, as of March 2014, Network Rail is well underway in the UK implementation of GSM-R to replace its legacy National Radio Network (NRN) and Cab Secure Radio (CSR) systems currently in use.\nNetwork Rail has an internal infrastructure database known as GEOGIS. The system uses codes for four-digit Track IDs to identify which line at any location is referred to. The first number refers to track direction, with values of 1 (Up), 2 (Down), 3 (Reversible/Bi-directional), or 4 (Merry Go Round Loop). The second number refers to track use, which can be 1 (Main or Fast), 2 (Slow, Local or Relief), 3 (Goods), 4 (Single line), 5 (Loop), 6 (Terminal or Bay), 7 (Crossover), 8 (Other or Engine), or 9 (Single Siding). The third and fourth numbers refer to the track number, which can be any number from 00 to 99 inclusive, and are usually numbered sequentially.\nNetwork Rail operates a large variety of DMUs, locomotives and rolling stock to perform safety checks and maintenance (this fleet is not to be confused with the combined rolling stock assets of <a href=\"Association%20of%20Train%20Operating%20Companies\">ATOC</a> members who work in combination as \"<a href=\"National%20Rail\">National Rail</a>\"). As well as the multiple units and locomotives detailed below, Network Rail own and operate a large stock of rolling stock for particular testing duties and track maintenance. Network Rail also hire freight locomotives from various freight operators including <a href=\"DB%20Cargo%20UK\">DB Cargo UK</a>, <a href=\"Freightliner%20UK\">Freightliner</a>, <a href=\"Colas%20Rail\">Colas Rail</a> and <a href=\"GB%20Railfreight\">GB Railfreight</a> amongst others to operate engineers' trains in support of maintenance and renewal work. Network Rail's Infrastructure Monitoring fleet of test trains is operated by Colas Rail, primarily using locomotives from Colas' and Network Rail's own fleets, but also using locomotives hired from other companies such as <a href=\"Direct%20Rail%20Services\">Direct Rail Services</a>, GB Railfreight and <a href=\"Europhoenix\">Europhoenix</a> as required.\nIn May 2015, it was reported in the national press that the government was considering selling off some of Network Rail's assets, including large stations and <a href=\"wi-fi\">wi-fi</a> services. The government denied the reports.\nFrom 1997 to 2014 (inclusive), passenger numbers have more than doubled, following little growth in the previous decades. To cope with the increasing passenger numbers, Network Rail is currently undertaking a £38 billion <a href=\"History%20of%20rail%20transport%20in%20Great%20Britain%201995%20to%20date%23Timeline\">programme of upgrades</a> to the network, including <a href=\"Crossrail\">Crossrail</a>, <a href=\"Railway%20electrification%20in%20Great%20Britain\">electrification of lines</a>, <a href=\"European%20Rail%20Traffic%20Management%20System%20in%20Great%20Britain\">in-cab signalling</a>, new <a href=\"Intercity%20Express%20Programme\">inter-city trains</a>, <a href=\"Thameslink%20Programme\">upgrading Thameslink</a>, and a new <a href=\"HS2\">high-speed line</a>.\nFor investment projects, as opposed to routine maintenance, Network Rail has developed an eight-stage process designed to minimise and mitigate risks. This is known as the Governance for Railway Investment Projects (GRIP), previously known as “Guide to Rail Investment Projects”. The stages are as follows:\nEach stage delivers an agreed set of outputs to defined quality criteria.\nFor financial and other planning purposes, Network Rail works within 5-year \"Control Periods\", each one beginning on 1 April and ending on 31 March to coincide with the financial reporting year. These periods were inherited from Railtrack, so that the earlier ones are retrospective, and not necessarily of 5 years duration. They are as follows:\nThe <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Transport\">Secretary of State for Transport</a> regularly issues a \"High-Level Output Specification\" (HLOS) indicating what work the Government wishes to be undertaken during a given Control Period.\nNetwork Rail regularly publishes a Strategic Business Plan detailing their policies, processes and plans, as well as financial expenditure and other data. The most recent complete business plan was published in January 2013. Within these plans the rail network is divided into ten “devolved routes” or “operational routes”, with a Route Plan for each being published annually.\nEach route or other plan covers a number of railway lines usually defined by geographical area and the routes are further subdivided into 17 “strategic routes”, each divided into Strategic Route Sections (SRS) and given an SRS number and name. The plans also detail the geography of routes, stations, major junctions, capacity constraints and other issues and provide data on <a href=\"Loading%20gauge%23Great%20Britain\">freight gauge</a>, <a href=\"Railway%20electrification%20system\">electrification</a>, line speed, number of tracks, capacity and other information. The plans also detail the expected future demand and development of each route, their predicted expenditure and their maintenance and investment requirements.\nThe devolved routes were introduced in 2011, and the 17 strategic routes labelled \"A\" to \"Q\" were introduced in 2010. From 2004 to 2009, the network had been divided into 26 strategic routes numbered \"1\" to \"26\". In 2003, the network had been divided into 41 strategic routes numbered \"1\" to \"41\".\nThe 2011 devolved routes and strategic routes are organised as in the table below.\nNetwork Rail opened the world's largest <a href=\"Solar%20power%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">solar-powered bridge</a> at Blackfriars Bridge across the <a href=\"River%20Thames\">River Thames</a> in January 2014. The roof of the bridge has been covered with 4,400 <a href=\"photovoltaic%20panels\">photovoltaic panels</a>, providing up to half of the energy for London <a href=\"Blackfriars%20station\">Blackfriars station</a>.\nThe company is accountable to a body of members through its corporate constitution, to its commercial train operator customers through its contracts with them (the contracts are subject to regulatory oversight), and to the public interest through the statutory powers of the <a href=\"Office%20of%20Rail%20and%20Road\">Office of Rail and Road</a> (ORR).\nSince Network Rail does not have shareholders, its members hold the board of directors to account for their management of the business. From 1 July 2015 all the members were removed leaving the special member, the <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Transport\">Secretary of State for Transport</a>, as the sole member of Network Rail.\nPreviously at any one time there were around 100 members in total, drawn from a wide range of industry partners and members of the public. There were two general categories of membership, industry members comprising any organisation holding a licence to operate on the railway or preferred bidder for a railway franchise, and public members who were drawn from the wider stakeholder community. Members were appointed by an independent panel and served a three-year term. They had a number of statutory rights and duties which included attending annual general meetings, receiving the Annual Report and Accounts, and approving the appointment or re-appointment of Network Rail’s directors. Members had a duty to act in the best interests of the company without personal bias. They received no payments other than travel expenses.\nSetting the strategic direction and the day-to-day management of Network Rail is the responsibility of the company’s board of directors. That direction must be consistent with the regulatory jurisdiction of the ORR, and with the requirements of its contracts. The ORR in turn operates within the overall transport policy set by the UK <a href=\"Department%20for%20Transport\">Department for Transport</a> and the <a href=\"Scottish%20government\">Scottish government</a>, including as to what the government wants the railway industry to achieve and how much money the government is prepared to put into the industry. This means that the degree of government influence and control over the company is higher than it was before these enlargements of the powers and role of the government were introduced by the <a href=\"Railways%20Act%202005\">Railways Act 2005</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Office%20of%20Rail%20and%20Road\">Office of Rail and Road</a> (ORR) monitors Network Rail's performance on a continuous basis against targets established by the regulatory authority in the most recent access charges review (2003), against obligations in the company's network licence and against forecasts in its own business plan. If performance is poor, the company will face criticism and possible enforcement action from its commercial customers (under their contracts) and from the ORR (enforcing the company's network licence). It may also be criticised by its members in general meeting.\nIn the annual report 2014/15, the ORR reported that the <a href=\"Public%20Performance%20Measure\">Public Performance Measure</a> (PPM) was 89.6%, 1.4 percentage points (pp) below target in England and Wales, and PPM in Scotland was 90.5%, 1.5pp below its regulatory performance target of 92%.\nThe Railway Industry Planning Group (RIPG), chaired by Network Rail, has as its purpose railway industry input into the structure and development of the national railway strategic planning processes. Its members are drawn from railway funders, operators and users, and the group meets quarterly to consider:\nWhile generally strong, the safety record of the company was marred in February 2007 when a Virgin express <a href=\"Grayrigg%20derailment\">derailed at Grayrigg</a> in <a href=\"Cumbria\">Cumbria</a>. Network Rail admitted responsibility for the incident. The <a href=\"Rail%20Accident%20Investigation%20Branch\">RAIB</a> investigation concluded in 2009 that a faulty set of points had caused the derailment. In 2012 the <a href=\"Office%20of%20Rail%20Regulation\">Office of Rail Regulation</a> announced that Network Rail was to be prosecuted under the <a href=\"Health%20and%20Safety%20at%20Work%20Act%201974\">Health and Safety Act</a> for \"failure to provide and implement suitable and sufficient standards, procedures, guidance, training, tools and resources for the inspection and maintenance of fixed stretcher bar points\". Network Rail pleaded guilty and were fined £4.1 million including legal costs.\nIn December 2005 two young girls were killed by a train as they were crossing the railway line via a pedestrian <a href=\"level%20crossing\">level crossing</a> at in Essex. Network Rail was prosecuted for breaching <a href=\"health%20and%20safety\">health and safety</a> law and fined £1 million in March 2012. The court heard that risk assessments carried out by Network Rail staff in 2002 had identified potential dangers with the crossing and recommended the installation of gates that would lock automatically as trains approached, but this was not acted upon.\nIn 2001 the then Labour government denied that it had nationalised the rail network in order to prevent Railtrack's shareholders claiming, via the European Court of Human Rights, the four-year average price of Railtrack, about £10 per share. Instead, Railtrack's shareholders were given only £2.60. \"The Times\" reported that Gordon Brown's aide, <a href=\"Shriti%20Vadera%2C%20Baroness%20Vadera\">Shriti Vadera</a> e-mailed <a href=\"Stephen%20Byers\">Stephen Byers</a> in July 2001 asking: \"Can we engineer the solution through insolvency ... and therefore avoid <a href=\"Compensation%20%28nationalization%29\">compensation</a> under the <a href=\"Human%20Rights%20Act%201998\">Human Rights Act</a>?\"\n<a href=\"Railtrack\">Railtrack</a> plc was placed into railway administration under the <a href=\"Railways%20Act%201993\">Railways Act 1993</a> on 7 October 2001, following an application to the <a href=\"High%20Court%20of%20Justice%20of%20England%20and%20Wales\">High Court</a> by the then <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Transport\">Transport Secretary</a>, Stephen Byers. It was reported in November 2001 that a further £3.5 billion might be needed to keep the national railway network running, a sum disputed by <a href=\"Ernst%20%26amp%3B%20Young\">Ernst & Young</a>, the administrators. To get Railtrack out of administration, the government had to go back to the High Court and present evidence that the company was no longer insolvent. The principal reason given by the government to the court for this assertion was the decision of the <a href=\"Rail%20Regulator\">rail regulator</a> in 2002 to carry out an interim review of the company's finances, with the potential to advance significant additional sums to the company. The High Court accepted that the company was not insolvent, and the railway administration order was discharged in October 2002.\nUntil 2013, there was discussion over whether Network Rail is a public-sector or a private-sector entity. Although it was officially a private sector organisation, the fact that its debts were underwritten by the government, and it is partially funded by the government, has led to its being described as being \"nationalisation in all but name\". It was also claimed that the government is keen for Network Rail not to be classified as a public-sector organisation, as this would mean that the company's debt would be counted as public expenditure liabilities. The <a href=\"Office%20for%20National%20Statistics\">Office for National Statistics</a> (ONS) repeatedly clashed with the <a href=\"National%20Audit%20Office%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\">National Audit Office</a> and the <a href=\"Statistics%20Commission\">Statistics Commission</a> over whether the successor to Railtrack should be considered a private company – as the ONS believed – or included on the Government's books, as the National Audit Office argued. The NAO said that as the Government is bearing the risk that would normally be borne by equity capital, and as it can appoint, through the SRA, a director who cannot be removed by members, Network Rail is effectively a subsidiary of the Government-controlled SRA.\nIn December 2013, the ONS announced that from September 2014, Network Rail will be classified as a \"government body\". This resulted in the company's debt of £34 billion being added to the <a href=\"Government%20debt\">national debt</a>.\nThe new national centre now known as 'The Quadrant:MK' is in <a href=\"Milton%20Keynes\">Milton Keynes</a>: it completed construction in June 2012. The complex is five minutes' walk from . The four buildings, which are connected to a central street, accommodate about 3,000 people. s of June 2012 , the engineering, logistics, operations including timetable planning, IT, procurement, planning and finance departments all planned to move to the Quadrant.","Ed Davey\nSir Edward Jonathan Davey, {'1': \", '2': \", '3': \", '4': \"} (born 25 December 1965) is a British <a href=\"Liberal%20Democrats%20%28UK%29\">Liberal Democrat</a> politician. He is the <a href=\"Member%20of%20Parliament%20%28UK%29\">Member of Parliament</a> (MP) for <a href=\"Kingston%20and%20Surbiton%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29\">Kingston and Surbiton</a> since the 2017 general election, having previously been MP for the constituency from 1997 to 2015.\nHe served in the <a href=\"Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg%20coalition\">Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition</a> as <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Energy%20and%20Climate%20Change\">Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change</a> from 2012 to 2015, having previously served as <a href=\"Parliamentary%20Under-Secretary%20of%20State\">Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State</a> at the <a href=\"Department%20for%20Business%2C%20Innovation%20and%20Skills\">Department for Business, Innovation and Skills</a>, with responsibility for Employment Relations, Consumer and Postal Affairs, since 2010.\nDavey was born in <a href=\"Annesley%20Woodhouse\">Annesley Woodhouse</a>, <a href=\"Nottinghamshire\">Nottinghamshire</a>. His father John died when Davey was four years old, and his mother Nina (née Stanbrook) eleven years later, following which he was brought up by his mother's parents. After attending senior school at the private independent <a href=\"Nottingham%20High%20School\">Nottingham High School</a> in the year above Ed Balls, where he was <a href=\"head%20boy\">head boy</a> in 1984, he attended <a href=\"Jesus%20College%2C%20Oxford\">Jesus College, Oxford</a>, where he was awarded a first class <a href=\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\">BA</a> degree in <a href=\"Philosophy%2C%20Politics%20and%20Economics\">PPE</a> in 1988. Whilst at Oxford, he was also elected to the <a href=\"Junior%20Common%20Room\">JCR presidency</a> of Jesus College.\nAs a teenager he worked at Pork Farms <a href=\"pork%20pie\">pork pie</a> factory and at <a href=\"Boots%20Group\">Boots</a>. In 1989, he became an economics researcher for the Liberal Democrats, principally to <a href=\"Alan%20Beith\">Alan Beith</a>, the party's then Treasury spokesman, while studying at <a href=\"Birkbeck%2C%20University%20of%20London\">Birkbeck College, London</a>, for a <a href=\"master%27s%20degree\">master's degree</a> (MSc) in Economics. In 1993, he took up the position of <a href=\"management%20consultant\">management consultant</a> with Omega Partners until being elected.\nEdward Davey was elected to the <a href=\"House%20of%20Commons%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">House of Commons</a> at his first attempt at the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%201997\">1997 General Election</a> where he defeated <a href=\"Richard%20Tracey\">Richard Tracey</a>, the sitting <a href=\"Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29\">Conservative</a> MP for the former constituency of <a href=\"Surbiton\">Surbiton</a>, with a majority of just 56 votes and remained the seat's MP for 18 years. He made his <a href=\"maiden%20speech\">maiden speech</a> on 6 June 1997, in which he gave his support for the setting up of the <a href=\"London%20Assembly\">London Assembly</a>, but against the idea of a directly elected <a href=\"Mayor%20of%20London\">Mayor of London</a>, he also talked about the effects governmental cuts were having on the education delivery in the <a href=\"Royal%20Borough%20of%20Kingston%20upon%20Thames\">Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames</a>.\nIn 1997 Davey was responsible for introducing the Liberal Democrat policy of a penny on income tax to pay for education. The following year he was the primary sponsor of an Early Day Motion supporting the repeal of the <a href=\"Greenwich%20Judgement\">Greenwich Judgement</a>, which prevents Local Authorities from giving their own residents priority access to school places. He was one of the contributors to the (2004).\nIn 2003 Davey introduced the clause which repealed the prohibition of \"promotion of homosexuality\" under <a href=\"Section%2028\">Section 28</a> of the <a href=\"Local%20Government%20Act%201988\">Local Government Act 1988</a>.\nIn parliament Davey was given a job immediately by <a href=\"Paddy%20Ashdown\">Paddy (now Lord) Ashdown</a> and became the party's spokesman on <a href=\"HM%20Treasury\">Treasury Affairs</a>, adding the post of <a href=\"whip%20%28politics%29\">Whip</a> in 1998, and a third job to hold as the spokesman on <a href=\"London\">London</a> from 2000.\nDavey was re-elected in the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202001\">2001 general election</a> with an increased majority over former Conservative MP <a href=\"David%20Shaw%20%28UK%20politician%29\">David Shaw</a>. He joined the Liberal Democrat frontbench under leader <a href=\"Charles%20Kennedy\">Charles Kennedy</a> in the same year by becoming Liberal Democrat spokesperson for <a href=\"Chief%20Secretary%20to%20the%20Treasury\">Treasury matters</a>. In 2002, he became the Liberal Democrat spokesperson for the <a href=\"Office%20of%20the%20Deputy%20Prime%20Minister\">Office of the Deputy Prime Minister</a>. He was appointed Liberal Democrat spokesperson for <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Education%20and%20Skills\">Education and Skills</a> in 2005 before becoming Liberal Democrats spokesperson for Trade and Industry in March 2006. In December 2006, he succeeded <a href=\"Norman%20Lamb\">Norman Lamb</a> as Chief of Staff to <a href=\"Sir%20Menzies%20Campbell\">Sir Menzies Campbell</a>, the party leader. Davey is Chair of the party's Campaigns and Communications Committee. Following <a href=\"Nick%20Clegg\">Nick Clegg</a>'s election as Leader of the Liberal Democrat Party, Davey was awarded the foreign affairs brief, and continued to retain his chairmanship of the party's Campaigns and Communications Committee.\nOn 26 February 2008, Davey was <a href=\"suspension%20from%20the%20UK%20parliament\">suspended from parliament</a> for the day for ignoring a warning from the deputy speaker. He was protesting about the exclusion by the speaker of a Liberal Democrat motion to debate and vote on whether the <a href=\"UK%20withdrawal%20from%20the%20European%20Union\">UK should have a referendum on staying in the EU</a>.\nAt the 2009 Liberal Democrat conference, Davey caused controversy calling for dialogue with the Taliban, through declaring that it was 'time for tea with the <a href=\"Taliban\">Taliban</a>', a comment echoed by <a href=\"Malala%20Yousafzai\">Malala Yousafzai</a> four years later to the BBC.\nFollowing the <a href=\"Conservative%20%E2%80%93%20Liberal%20Democrat%20Coalition%20Agreement\">Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement</a>, after the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202010\">2010 general election</a>, Davey was appointed <a href=\"Parliamentary%20Under%20Secretary%20of%20State\">Parliamentary Under Secretary of State</a> in the <a href=\"Department%20for%20Business%2C%20Innovation%20and%20Skills\">Department for Business, Innovation and Skills</a> with responsibility for Employment Relations, Consumer and Postal Affairs.\nOn 3 February 2012, following the resignation of <a href=\"Chris%20Huhne\">Chris Huhne</a> due to his <a href=\"R%20v%20Huhne\">prosecution for perverting the course of justice</a>, Davey was appointed <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Energy%20and%20Climate%20Change\">Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change</a>, and appointed to the <a href=\"Privy%20Council%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">Privy Council</a> on 8 February. As <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Energy%20and%20Climate%20Change\">Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change</a>, Davey also became a member of the <a href=\"National%20Security%20Council%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\">National Security Council (United Kingdom)</a>.\nAt the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202015\">2015 general election</a>, Davey was defeated by <a href=\"Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29\">Conservative</a> candidate <a href=\"James%20Berry%20%28politician%29\">James Berry</a> by 2,834 votes after the Liberal Democrat vote fell by over 15% in Kingston & Surbiton. Davey regained the seat for the Liberal Democrats at the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202017\">2017 general election</a>, with a majority of 4,124 votes over Berry.\nDavey has taken up several business appointments since leaving his role as Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change in May 2015.\nDavey married Emily Gasson (Lib Dem candidate in <a href=\"North%20Dorset%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29\">North Dorset</a>) in summer 2005 and their first child, John Alban Davey, was born in December 2007. Their son has speech difficulties, leading to Davey's interest in speech therapy. They live in <a href=\"Surbiton\">Surbiton</a>, <a href=\"London\">London</a>; Davey lived there before his election as an MP in 1997. Emily had the number two position on the Lib Dem London-wide candidate list for the <a href=\"London%20Assembly%20election%2C%202016\">2016 London Assembly elections</a>, but was not elected.\nIn 1995, Davey won a <a href=\"Royal%20Humane%20Society\">Royal Humane Society</a> bravery award and commendation from the <a href=\"Chief%20Constable\">Chief Constable</a> of the <a href=\"British%20Transport%20Police\">British Transport Police</a> for rescuing a woman who had fallen onto the railway line in the face of on oncoming train at <a href=\"Clapham%20Junction\">Clapham Junction</a> station.\nIn 2001 he was elected a <a href=\"Fellow\">Fellow</a> of the <a href=\"Royal%20Society%20of%20Arts\">Royal Society of Arts</a> (FRSA).\nDavey was <a href=\"Knight%20Bachelor\">knighted</a> in the <a href=\"2016%20New%20Year%20Honours\">2016 New Year Honours</a>.\n","Stansfield\nStansfield is a village and <a href=\"civil%20parish\">civil parish</a> in the <a href=\"St%20Edmundsbury%20%28borough%29\">St Edmundsbury</a> district of <a href=\"Suffolk\">Suffolk</a> in eastern <a href=\"England\">England</a>. Located seven miles south-west of <a href=\"Bury%20St%20Edmunds\">Bury St Edmunds</a>, in 2011 its population was 221. The village has an Anglican church dedicated to All Saints. In 1870, John Marius Wilson's Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales described Stansfield as\nIn Old English, Stansfield would have been interpreted as ‘Stan’s open land’, referring to someone’s unencumbered and arable land in which they owned at the time. Earliest History of Stansfield dates back to 1066 in the <a href=\"Domesday%20Book\">Domesday Book</a>, where the value to the Lord was £3.50. The Lords of Stansfield in 1066 were Crawa, Edric Spud and Wulffled.\nIn 1881, the introduction of women’s occupations on the census was initiated. While 87 males remained working in the agricultural sector, 15 females were engaged in domestic offices and services, 12 of which were domestic indoor servants. 72 females were classified as ‘unknown occupation’, compared to just one male.\nBetween 1837 and 1889 Stansfield was part of the Risbridge Registration District and the Suffolk County. On 1 April 1889 however, Stansfield became part of the West Suffolk County, where it remained so until 1938. In 1938 Risbridge Registration District lost several parishes, of which Stansfield was one. On 1 July 1938 Stansfield became part of the Newmarket Registration District.\nStansfield population was 221 in 2011, of which 117 were economically active and 57 economically inactive. Of the inactive population 27 were retired. The population of Stansfield has been declining since the 1850s. In 1841 the population peaked at 510 but, by 1961 it had declined to 186, as seen in the 'Current Total Population graph'. This suggests that between 1841 and 1961 people began to move from rural communities and parishes to bigger cities such as London where there was work emerging in the factories and the industrial sector. This follows the average trend of the country for that period.\nIn 2011, the industry employing the most people in Stansfield was construction with 13 people. Additionally the second most popular was professional, scientific and technical activities with 12 people. The least common industry in the parish was Public Administration and Defence with 3 people, showing a clear shift in industry since the 19th century.\nAccording to the 2011 census, 56% of the people living in Stansfield were Christian, slightly below the national average which was 59.4%, as well as the 2001 percentage of Christians in Stansfield which was 69%. 32% stated no religion in the 2011 census.\nIn terms of housing, there was a peak of houses in 1851 when there was 116. From the first census data in 1831, it is clear that there was a rapid increase in housing between 1831 an 1841 where there was an increase from 62 houses to 105. This continued to increase until 1851. Over the next 30 years houses began to decrease as people would have moved to cities such as London in search of factory work. Between 1901 and 1961 houses remained in the numbers of 70-80. By 2011 the number of houses in the parish had increased to 92, an increase of nine from the 2001 census.\nWith 56% of the local population classified as Christian, the local church; All Saints Church has always played a pivotal role within the community. The church itself is flint-fronted and is situated at the north end of the village on Plough Hill. History of the church dates back to the time of the Norman conquest. Very little of the original church still exists, In 1896 the 70 foot, fourteenth century, Norman erected foot tower was restored and new tower bells were introduced. In regards to the size of the church, it can be considered large in comparison to the size of the parish and local population. It was restored again recently, through efforts of the Stansfield Church Restoration Committee and the whole village. Within the church a war memorial can be found to commemorate the Stansfield men that lost their lives in the First and Second World Wars. On the memorial it states;\nIn total, ten men lost their lives, eight in the First World War and two in the Second World War.\nBetween the years of 1642 and 1661 no marriages were registered in Stansfield. It appears that under the act of 1653, marriage became a civil ceremony, thus the functions of the Clergy were transferred to the Justices of Peace; and the registers of such marriages may have been kept elsewhere. From 1653 to 1660, it is noticeable that the entries of births, baptisms and burials are well kept and written in English. The last entry under the commonwealth in English was on 3 May 1960. The next being on 14 August of the same year but in Latin. Latin was in continued use until 1732.\nStansfield parish features a book club, village fete, bridge club, cricket club and a monthly newsletter. With a low population, each activity allows the community spirit to remain high. The Parish features its own council, which discusses community concerns and events taking place. Typically made up of six residents of the community.\nIn terms of schools in the local area, the closest primary school is 2.9 miles away from Stansfield and is Wickhambrook Community Primary School, while the closest secondary school is 4.3 miles away and is Stour Valley Community School.\nThe Parish of Stansfield is still rather inaccessible via public transport. The closest railway station is 12.1 miles away and is in Sudbury. There is one bus which runs through Stansfield. It is the 343 bus run by Stephensons Coaches between <a href=\"Poslingford\">Poslingford</a> and <a href=\"Haverhill%2C%20Suffolk\">Haverhill</a>. Stansfield is part of Suffolk ACRE's Community Buying Enterprise which helps residents to save money on heating oil within households.","Calderdale Way\nThe Calderdale Way is a 50 mi <a href=\"long-distance%20footpath\">long-distance footpath</a> in <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>, England. It was devised in the 1970s to draw attention to attractions in the <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale</a> district which was being established at that time.\nThe route is circular and walks can be started at any point. The official start is at Clay House in <a href=\"West%20Vale\">West Vale</a> and the route includes much exposed <a href=\"moorland\">moorland</a>, woodland paths, a short section of canal towpath and some road sections. It passes through several settlements, including <a href=\"Ripponden\">Ripponden</a>, <a href=\"Mankinholes\">Mankinholes</a>, <a href=\"Todmorden\">Todmorden</a>, <a href=\"Heptonstall\">Heptonstall</a>, Holdsworth, <a href=\"Shelf%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Shelf</a> and <a href=\"Brighouse\">Brighouse</a>. One published guidebook divides the walk into four day-long sections.\nThe route is the basis for the annual Calderdale Way Relay organised by Halifax Harriers.\nThe Calderdale Way Ultra now takes in the whole 50 miles organised by Cannonball Events.\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons","John Taylor & Co\nJohn Taylor & Co, commonly known as Taylor's Bell Foundry, Taylor's of Loughborough, or simply Taylor's, is the world's largest working <a href=\"bell%20%28instrument%29\">bell</a> <a href=\"foundry\">foundry</a>. It is in <a href=\"Loughborough\">Loughborough</a>, in the <a href=\"Charnwood%20%28borough%29\">Charnwood</a> borough of <a href=\"Leicestershire\">Leicestershire</a>, England. The business originated in the 14th century and became Taylor's after the Taylor family took over in 1784.\nIn 2009 Taylors went bankrupt but was bought out of <a href=\"Administration%20%28law%29\">administration</a> by a consortium called UK Bellfoundries Ltd which successfully re-financed and re-established the business. Since then the company has re-established its presence both in the UK and in the North American Carillon and other export markets.\nThe company manufactures bells for use in <a href=\"Clock%20tower\">clock towers</a>, <a href=\"ring%20of%20bells\">rings of bells</a> for <a href=\"change%20ringing\">change ringing</a>, <a href=\"chime%20%28bell%20instrument%29\">chime</a>s, and <a href=\"carillon\">carillon</a>s. In 2005 John Taylor's had merged with Eayre & Smith Ltd (bellhangers) and from 2005 until 2009 became Taylors Eayre & Smith Ltd.\nThe Foundry has a <a href=\"museum\">museum</a> of bells and bellfounding which is the only one of its kind in the UK. The restoration of the foundry buildings began with the re-opening in 2012 of the foundry's own Campanile which contains the most-pealed bells in the World. It is one of the few <a href=\"Victorian%20era\">Victorian</a> purpose-built manufacturing sites still being used for its original purpose and therefore of considerable heritage merit.\nThe present company is part of a line of bellfounders dating back to Johannes de Stafford in the 14th century who was also a <a href=\"Lord%20Mayor%20of%20Leicester\">mayor of Leicester</a>. The Taylor family became involved in 1784 and a foundry was established on the current site in 1839. The Taylors also had foundries in <a href=\"Oxford\">Oxford</a> and <a href=\"St%20Neots\">St Neots</a> between 1786 and 1854. Taylors were the first bellfounder to adopt \"true-harmonic\" tuning in the late 19th century. The foundry is based in buildings on Freehold Street which are <a href=\"Listed%20building\">Grade II* listed</a>.\nIn 1963, Paul Taylor, last of the Taylor family in the business, appeared on the American TV panel show \"<a href=\"What%27s%20My%20Line%3F\">What's My Line?</a>\", challenging the panel with his occupation as a bell maker.\nOn 18 September 2009 the company went into <a href=\"Administration%20%28law%29\">administration</a>. Mazars, who had previously been acting as advisors to the company during attempts to secure extra funding were appointed Administrators. On 2 October 2009 it was reported that the administrators were \"optimistic about its future.\" On 15 October 2009, in a statement released by UK Bellfounders Ltd., a consortium of ringers, members of the bell industry and other investors, it was stated that the foundry would reopen on 19 October, reverting to the previous name of John Taylor & Co. Paul Taylor's widow, Mrs Merle Taylor, is Hon President of the new company.\nBefore September 2009 the foundry was employing 26 people, and since then the new company employs 21 including 4 apprentices.\nThe <a href=\"National%20Twelve-Bell%20Striking%20Contest\">National Twelve Bell Contest</a> is competed for annually by the leading teams in England for \"The Taylor Trophy\".\nIn 1881 Taylor's cast at Loughborough, \"Great Paul\", which is the largest British cast bell in Britain, for <a href=\"St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral\">St Paul's Cathedral</a> London, weighing 17002 kg or more than 17 metric tons. Rock band <a href=\"AC/DC\">AC/DC</a> used a 2000-pound cast bronze bell for the song, \"<a href=\"Hells%20Bells%20%28song%29\">Hells Bells</a>\", which was originally used on the \"<a href=\"Back%20in%20Black\">Back in Black</a>\" <a href=\"Back%20in%20Black%20Tour\">tour</a> in 1980.\nMany churches across the world have used bells cast at Taylor's Bell Foundry, including:\n","Wadsworth, West Yorkshire\nWadsworth is a <a href=\"Civil%20parishes%20in%20England\">civil parish</a> in the <a href=\"Calderdale\">Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale</a> in <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>, <a href=\"England\">England</a>. It has a population of 1,456, increasing to 1,603 at the 2011 Census, and was, until 1974, part of <a href=\"Hepton%20Rural%20District\">Hepton Rural District</a>.\n<a href=\"Historic%20counties%20of%20England\">Historically</a> part of the <a href=\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>, the main settlements in the parish are <a href=\"Old%20Town%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Old Town</a>, <a href=\"Chiserley\">Chiserley</a> and Pecket Well. It was named a <a href=\"berewick\">berewick</a> of <a href=\"Wakefield\">Wakefield</a> in <a href=\"Domesday%20Book\">Domesday Book</a>, and thus subsequently recorded as a subinfeudatory manor, before its subsequent <a href=\"extinguishment\">extinguishment</a> in the nineteenth century. From the seventeenth century it was also one of five <a href=\"township\">township</a>s forming the chapelry of <a href=\"Heptonstall\">Heptonstall</a>.\n","Mytholmroyd\nMytholmroyd is a large village in <a href=\"Hebden%20Bridge\">Hebden Bridge</a>, <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>, England, 10 mi east of <a href=\"Burnley\">Burnley</a> and 7 mi west of <a href=\"Halifax%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Halifax</a>. The village is in the Luddendenfoot Ward of <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale Council</a> and forms part of the <a href=\"Hebden%20Royd\">Hebden Royd</a> <a href=\"parish\">parish</a>.\nMytholmroyd was recorded in the 13th century as \"Mithomrode\" and in the 17th century as \"Mitholmroide\". The name means 'a clearing for settlement, where two rivers meet', likely derived from the <a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a> \"(ge)mȳthum\" (inflected form of \"(ge)mȳthe\", \"river mouth\"), plus \"rodu\" (\"field\" or \"clearing\"). The \"l\" was probably inserted out of confusion with the common place-name element \"holm\", <a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a> for a small island or <a href=\"eyot\">eyot</a>.\nA Bronze Age urnfield exists on the moor top, north of Mytholmroyd. It is a burial ground with cremation urns, dating between the 16th and 11th centuries BC of national importance. Evidence of pre-historic farming is apparent because they cleared the upland forests for cattle grazing and created the peat moorlands. Most of the Celtic Iron Age settlements were concentrated on the hillside terraces which avoided the wooded and poorly drained valley floors. Most of the older listed buildings are located on the hillsides away from the valley. A Roman coin hoard has been found to the south of Mytholmroyd.\nDuring the late 18th century, the valley to the south, known as <a href=\"Cragg%20Vale\">Cragg Vale</a>, was home to a gang of <a href=\"counterfeit\">counterfeit</a>ers known as the Cragg Coiners. The gang's leader, David Hartley, or King David as he was known, was found guilty of the 1769 murder of excise official William Dighton and was hanged at the <a href=\"York\">York</a> <a href=\"Knavesmire\">Tyburn</a> on 28 April 1770. Two other gang members were also executed for their part in the murder.\nBuilt in 1851 as Canal Wharf Mill, it was home to local company Walkley Clogs, and converted into a well known tourist attraction with cafes, shops and an open clog factory on the ground floor. It was destroyed by fire in the 1990s; consequently the top floor was demolished and re-opened under ownership of a property development company. It subsequently closed in 2002 and has since been boarded up. Numerous planning applications to continue its former use or convert it into luxury apartments have been passed but never undertaken.\nThe parish church was built in 1847 in Early English style. It was badly damaged in the 2015 floods but has since re-opened. The Sunday school in front of the church was reduced to one storey and is now used as a community hall and meeting spaces available for hire. In 2009 a new town square complete with monument was constructed in the church car park and is now used for markets and events.\nThere has been a river crossing point since 1329 in the centre of the village, at the site of the current 'County Bridge'. A bridge is recorded in this location under the name \"Elphaborough Bridge\", after the name of Elphaborough Hall on the further side of Cragg Brook. Records of a grant issued to the local township for the purchase of timber stated it was for \"repairs to Mitholmroide Bridge\", in 1638. Similar records show that the current stone bridge was erected in 1684 by Timothy Wadsworth, at a cost of £50. The current bridge was constructed in two parts (and now consists of four extensions). The original packhorse style bridge in 1638, and on the upstream side, the bridge was widened and two extra arches on the south end were added to ease the gradient, although the two new arches were considerably smaller, the bridge now consists of four arches in total. In the 19th century, with shops being constructed on the north end riverbank, and a new premises being built for the Mytholmroyd Co-Operative Society right up to the water's edge on the south bank, two of the bridge's arches are mostly hidden. However, the premises were built with a large opening underneath the buildings, allowing floodwater to still pass through the two hidden arches underground. Mytholmroyd Bridge was eventually taken over by West Riding County Council, which gives the historic bridge its present name of \"County Bridge\".\nA prominent viaduct lies above the southern end of Mytholmroyd town centre. It was erected in 1840 by George Stephenson and is still in use as part of the modern day <a href=\"Calder%20Valley%20Line\">Calder Valley Line</a>. In the 1850s, <a href=\"Mytholmroyd%20railway%20station\">Mytholmroyd railway station</a> was built, consisting of two platforms built on the Mytholmroyd Viaduct, and a three-storey ticket office, waiting hall and entrance stairwell, leading unto the viaduct. This later closed and the platforms were built a matter of yards up the track on land, and is now accessed by open staircases and long access ramps up the steep banking, where flowers and displays are maintained by the Mytholmroyd Station Partnership.\nThis late 18th century pub replaced an earlier inn on the opposite side of the road, where Bridge End cottages now stand. The earlier building was home to the Cragg Coiners in 1769. The current <a href=\"Listed%20building\">Grade II-listed</a> inn comprises a hotel, bar and restaurant. The premises were severely damaged in the 2012 and 2015 flooding, causing the business to close for repairs. The bar re-opened in April 2016 and was awarded the \"pub of the season award\" for summer 2016 by the local <a href=\"Campaign%20for%20real%20ale\">CAMRA</a> branch. s of February 2017 the hotel and restaurant are yet to re-open.\nRedacre House, off Burnley Road, dates from the late 16th century, and is probably the earliest house in Calderdale exhibiting an F-plan formed by the projecting two-storey porch and crosswing.\nMytholmroyd now is a designated conservation area, with more than 21 listed buildings in the centre alone. The village is located approximately 1 mi from the centre of <a href=\"Hebden%20Bridge\">Hebden Bridge</a>, and is often known to locals as 'Royd'. The population is roughly 4,000. The village holds markets, performances at the St. Michael's Enterprise Centre, antique shows and fairs, together with events at the sports and leisure centre and at the Ted Hughes Theatre. Mytholmroyd has many business parks and a high street in the centre with mainly independent shops including a gift shop, garden shop, post office, sweet shop, hardware shop, travel centre, launderette, hair salons and takeaways. There are also many eating venues including Aux Delacies Bistro & Wine Bar,the Blue Teapot bistro,Riverside Cafe, the Shoulder of Mutton and more. There is a medical complex including a dental practice, pharmacy, health centre, opticians and more.\nThe village is currently under development with the <a href=\"Environment%20Agency\">Environment Agency</a>'s Mytholmroyd Flood Alleviation Scheme. This includes raising the height of flood walls on the banks of the River Calder and Cragg Brook, as well as demolishing homes and businesses on the Calder's banks to widen the river. The village's post office is to be relocated to flood-proof premises, with other buildings being stabilised and strengthened. Caldene Bridge, upstream from County Bridge, is to be demolished and relocated as well as the bridge at Greenhill Industrial Estate.\nMytholmroyd was severely affected by the <a href=\"2015%E2%80%9316%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland%20floods\">Boxing Day floods in 2015</a>, when the <a href=\"River%20Calder%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">River Calder</a> and the canal both rose to cover the valley floor, and consequently the town centre of Mytholmroyd. It was the highest ever recorded river level. Hundreds of homes and businesses were devastated, with some buildings still empty today. The row of shops north of County Bridge partially collapsed into the river, and £10 million was earmarked for future protection of the village. The whole row of shops which partially collapsed are to be fully demolished, along with homes along the riverbank at Calder Grove. Russell Dean Furnishers are to re-build their furniture showroom above ground level and the <a href=\"Co-op%20Food\">Co-op Food</a> is to rebuild its premises.\nA flash flood occurred in July 2012, when a downpour lasting just 90 minutes devastated the village. This was a repeat of another flash flood of June, in the same year, where more than 50 mm of rain fell causing the River Calder to burst its banks. More than 5,000 properties were severely damaged in the <a href=\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\">Upper Calder Valley</a>; many businesses lost insurance and consequently many never recovered.\nOn Saturday, 21 August 1954, almost 8 years since the devastating 1946 flood, a flash flood devastated the village once again; the river rose by more than 6 ft in less than two hours, with flood water entering properties at over 2 ft every 15 minutes. The Dusty Miller Inn had almost 4 ft of water in its bar area. Flood alleviation works in the 1960s uncovered that County Bridge was standing on foundations untouched since the wooden bridge 17th century, so as part of the works the bridge's foundations were quickly filled with concrete.\nIn the worst flooding to ever affect the village, many properties suffered flood water up to the second storey, and the village remained underwater for almost 12 hours. Two shops on Burnley Road collapsed into the river, shops just doors down from the buildings that collapsed in the 2015 flood. By 8 am, flood waters reached up to 7 feet.\nA disastrous flood occurred in 1837; few details are known about it, although it is known that the river reached the height of the canal, built on the hillside, and ultimately overflowed it.\nMytholmroyd is the home of <a href=\"Calder%20High%20School\">Calder High School</a>, the largest Comprehensive School in the <a href=\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\">Upper Calder Valley</a>. It is also home to Scout Road Academy and Burnley Road Academy. In 2016, plans were announced by <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale</a> Council to re-locate Cragg Vale School into <a href=\"Calder%20High%20School\">Calder High School</a>'s sixth form, with a new sixth form centre to be built on fields to the rear of the school, on a larger scale, to incorporate the recently closed Todmorden Sixth Form.\nMytholmroyd Community Centre hosts the annual <a href=\"Dock%20Pudding\">Dock Pudding</a> Championships, in April. In 2007 <a href=\"Robbie%20Coltrane\">Robbie Coltrane</a> entered the competition and was awarded second place.\nThe 130 ft <a href=\"Scout%20Rock\">Scout Rock</a> on the south side of the valley in Mytholmroyd features heavily in <a href=\"Ted%20Hughes\">Ted Hughes</a>' autobiography, \"The Rock\". Hughes was born in the village, before moving to <a href=\"Mexborough\">Mexborough</a>, but latterly owned a property in Mytholmroyd in his adulthood. Hughes claimed that Scout Rock cast its mood over the village.\nThe village is served by <a href=\"Mytholmroyd%20railway%20station\">Mytholmroyd railway station</a>, located on New Road, <a href=\"Northern%20%28train%20operating%20company%29\">Northern</a> operate a two per-hour service between <a href=\"Leeds\">Leeds</a> and <a href=\"Manchester\">Manchester</a>. However, more frequent services from <a href=\"Hebden%20Bridge\">Hebden Bridge</a> are often used by Mytholmroyd residents, with direct services to <a href=\"Blackpool\">Blackpool</a>, <a href=\"Manchester\">Manchester</a>, <a href=\"York\">York</a>, <a href=\"Leeds\">Leeds</a>, <a href=\"Burnley\">Burnley</a>, <a href=\"Rochdale\">Rochdale</a> and more. The <a href=\"Calder%20Valley%20Line\">Calder Valley Line</a> railway was completed in 1841 but there was no station at Mytholmroyd which shows how few people lived here in 1840.\nThe village has two main bus stops in the village centre—recently equipped with departure screens, new shelters, toilets and seating. Local bus services are shared between TLC Travel (operating the 597, 900 and 901) and <a href=\"First%20West%20Yorkshire\">First West Yorkshire</a> (operating the 590 and 592), which serve the village. There is a large taxi rank based in the village and also cycling is very popular in the area since recent investment including the resurfacing of the <a href=\"Rochdale%20Canal\">Rochdale Canal</a> and <a href=\"Route%2066%20Cycleway\">Route 66 Cycleway</a> and <a href=\"Le%20Tour%20de%20France\">Le Tour de France</a> passing through the village. The <a href=\"Tour%20de%20Yorkshire\">Tour de Yorkshire</a> now also passes through the village, including <a href=\"Cragg%20Vale\">Cragg Vale</a>, also in Mytholmroyd, the longest continuous climb in the country- and also the longest line of bunting hung from the bottom to the top of the road, this was verified in 2014 by the <a href=\"Guinness%20Book%20of%20World%20Records\">Guinness Book of World Records</a>.\n<a href=\"Leeds%20Bradford%20Airport\">Leeds Airport</a> is accessible by rail and bus from Mytholmroyd.\nThe village is part of the <a href=\"Luddendenfoot\">Luddendenfoot</a> <a href=\"Wards%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">ward</a> of the <a href=\"Metropolitan%20borough\">Metropolitan borough</a> of <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale</a>, part of the <a href=\"Metropolitan%20county\">Metropolitan county</a> of <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>.\nAt a district level Mytholmroyd Urban District Council was set up in 1894. In 1937 it merged with Hebden Bridge Urban District Council to become <a href=\"Hebden%20Royd\">Hebden Royd</a> Urban District Council. At a county level Mytholmroyd was administered by the <a href=\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\">West Riding</a> County Council. Both of these were abolished as part of the reforms introduced in the <a href=\"Local%20Government%20Act%201972\">Local Government Act 1972</a>. They were replaced with West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council and <a href=\"Calderdale\">Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council</a>. The Hebden Royd Town Council area forms a <a href=\"civil%20parishes%20in%20England\">civil parish</a>. West Yorkshire County Council was abolished in 1986, leaving Mytholmroyd with represented at borough and town council level."],"string":"[\n \"Cornholme railway station\\nCornholme railway station served the village of Cornholme in West Yorkshire, England on the Copy Pit line. The station was opened by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in July 1878 (nearly thirty years after the line itself) and closed by the LMS on 26 September 1938. The line remains in use for passenger trains between York/Leeds and Blackpool, which run non-stop between Hebden Bridge and Burnley.\\nWith the re-opening of the Todmorden Curve, there is now a campaign to open a station again at Cornholme. The Campaign group GRAG (Cornholme Rail Action Group) have not stated where the new station would be located.\\n\\n\",\n \"Holme (Lancashire) railway station\\nHolme railway station served Holme Chapel on the Copy Pit line. The station closed in July 1930 and the line now serves as a non-stop route between Hebden Bridge and Burnley.\\n\",\n \"Hebden Bridge signal box\\nHebden Bridge signal box is a Grade II listed former Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway signal box, located close to Hebden Bridge railway station in West Yorkshire, England.\\nBuilt in 1891, it is one of only a few remaining L&YR signal boxes to survive in anything like original condition.\\nIn July 2013, it was one of 26 \\\"highly distinctive\\\" signal boxes listed by Ed Davey, minister for the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, in a joint initiative by English Heritage and Network Rail to preserve and provide a window into how railways were operated in the past.\\n\",\n \"Heptonstall\\nHeptonstall is a small village and civil parish within the Calderdale borough of West Yorkshire, England, historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. The population of Heptonstall, including the hamlets of Colden and Slack Top, is 1,448, increasing to 1,470 at the 2011 Census. The town of Hebden Bridge lies directly to the south-east. Although Heptonstall is part of Hebden Bridge as a post town, it is not within the Hebden Royd town boundaries.\\nThe village is on the route of the Calderdale Way, a 50 mile circular walk around the hills and valleys of Calderdale.\\nHeptonstall is not mentioned in the Domesday Book, unlike the neighbouring townships of Stansfield and Wadsworth. Its earliest appearance in written record dates to 1253, where John de Warrene claimed free warren there. It initially formed part of the manor of Halifax-cum-Heptonstall, itself subinfeudatory to the manor of Wakefield, and so does not explicitly appear in early taxation records, such as those for the 1379 Poll Tax. In 1626 the manor was spun-off and sold and was extinguished in the late 19th century.\\nHeptonstall was the site of a battle during the early part of the English Civil War in 1643.\\nHistorically a centre for hand-loom weaving, Heptonstall's cottages and terraced houses are characterised by large first-floor windows to maximise the light for weaving.\\nThe older churchyard claims \\\"King\\\" David Hartley amongst notable graves there. Hartley was founder of the Cragg Coiners and lived as a rogue in the Calderdale area until he was hanged at Tyburn near York in 1770.\\nThe foundation stone of its octagonal Methodist chapel, the oldest still in continued use, was laid following the visit of John Wesley in 1764.\\nIn the mid-1980s the paving on a road through Heptonstall was removed, revealing the original stone setts. Although there was a plan to remove the setts, local protests convinced the council to restore them. At the same time the existing concrete street lights were replaced with late 19th century cast-iron gas lamps. Both developments acted as a traffic calming measure.\\nA local park is used for sport and includes a playground for children. Around Heptonstall are walking and cycle routes.\\nA small local-history museum is based in what was once the village grammar school.\\nAdjacent to Heptonstall lie the National Trust woodlands of Hardcastle Crags with walking paths and a restored 19th-century mill. Half a mile out of the village is Lumb Bank, the first of the Arvon Foundation's residential centres for writers.\\nEach year on Good Friday there are performances of the Heptonstall version of the traditional Pace Egg play. These are held in Weavers' Square next to the old graveyard. Heptonstall Festival, a free, day-long music festival, is usually held in early July also in Weaver's Square. It usually begins with a fell race.\\nThe village is a day-trip destination for tourists and walkers, especially in the summer months. The two public houses are the Cross and the White Lion. There is a small post office – the original post office, on Smithwell Lane, is now a residential property. A cafe/delicatessen is situated in Towngate.\\nThe village's oldest house is Stag Cottage (c.1580), which is within a small courtyard called Stag Fold. At the back of the cottage, on the level of a public car park, is a doorway to a dungeon, once used as a lock-up. Nearby there is a pinfold, built to hold livestock, but now a picnic area.\\nHeptonstall's original church was dedicated to St Thomas a Becket. It was founded c.1260, and was altered and added to over several centuries. The church was damaged by a gale in 1847, and is now only a shell. A new church, St Thomas the Apostle, was built in the same churchyard. This suffered a lightning strike in 1875.\\nThe church has good acoustics, and is used for the annual Pennine Spring Music Festival, held every Spring Bank Holiday week. This includes workshops, masterclasses and performances. The old church ruin is occasionally used for open-air services.\\nThe tower of the new church contains eight bells, cast in 1912 by John Taylor & Co. These were removed to a bell foundry for refurbishment on 31 August 2012 and were returned, with new bearings, in October 2012.\\nThe American poet Sylvia Plath, who was married to Poet Laureate Ted Hughes from nearby Mytholmroyd, is buried in the graveyard extension, to the south-west of St Thomas a' Beckett's churchyard. Plath's headstone has been several times vandalised by removing Hughes's surname from the memorial, because some of her fans believe he was responsible for her death.\\nAnother poet buried here is the American expatriate Asa Benveniste, a co-founder in London of the publisher Trigram Press. In the 1980s Benveniste and his partner Agnetha Falk ran a secondhand bookshop in Hebden Bridge. His gravestone reads: \\\"Foolish Enough to Have Been a Poet\\\".\\nJohn Wesley laid the foundation stone of the octagonal chapel situated off Northgate, which was completed in 1764 – he recommended the shape to avoid conflict with the established church. Local people attended the parish church and Methodist preaching. The chapel also provided teaching in reading and writing for the poor. The chapel was originally built as a symmetrical octagon but by 1802, with the Society including 337 members and 1,002 scholars, one end of the chapel was pulled down and the side walls were extended to provide extra space.\\nHeptonstall Methodist Chapel featured in the BBC Four 2010 series \\\"Churches: How to Read Them\\\", in which Dr Richard Taylor named it as one of his ten favourite churches, saying: \\\"If buildings have an aura, this one radiated friendship.\\\"\\nThe ruin of St Thomas a Becket church featured as a location in the 1993 BBC Television drama series \\\"Mr. Wroe's Virgins\\\", which was directed by Danny Boyle.\\nThe village was the main location used in the BBC Three situation comedy \\\"The Gemma Factor\\\", with the local tearoom being used for a major part of the show. It was aired in spring 2010.\\nHeptonstall was a major location in \\\"The Rochdale Pioneers\\\", a film produced by the Co-operative British Youth Film Academy, telling the story of the birth of the Co-operative movement, and screened in November 2012.\\nHeptonstall is also featured in the 2010 short film \\\"Trailing Dirt\\\", directed by Richard Cousins and written by Alison Flack.\\nThe 2014 BBC drama \\\"Happy Valley\\\" was partly filmed in Heptonstall, and featured Sylvia Plath's grave.\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Hebden Bridge railway station\\nHebden Bridge railway station serves the town of Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire, England. The station is on the Calder Valley Line, currently operated by Northern from York and Leeds towards Manchester Victoria and Blackpool North. The station is 8.5 mi west of Halifax and 26 mi west of Leeds.\\nThe Manchester and Leeds Railway, authorised in 1836 for a line from Manchester to Normanton , was opened in stages; the second section, between Normanton and Hebden Bridge, opened on 5 October 1840. Trains arrived at Hebden Bridge from Normanton and passengers would then continue to by road. The section between Hebden Bridge and Summit Tunnel opened on 31 December 1840, allowing trains to reach ; after Summit Tunnel opened on 1 March 1841, trains continued to Littleborough and Manchester. An 1841 timetable shows five Manchester to Leeds trains per day calling at Hebden Bridge (two on Sundays), all but one of which called at all stations; a similar service ran in the opposite direction. Trains began operating to Halifax and Bradford in 1852, and could run through to Leeds via this route from 1854.\\nThe current buildings date from 1893, construction having started in 1891. By this point there was a goods yard alongside the station. This closed in 1966 and the site is now the station car park. In 1997 the station was renovated, and signage in the original Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway style was installed.\\nThe station has a staffed ticket office, waiting rooms, toilets and a cafe. Platform 2, towards Leeds, is accessible to those with disabilities but platform 1 is not; the lifts serving the subway were closed in the 1980s and funding for their re-instatement has not been made available via the Department for Transport's \\\"Access for All\\\" scheme. Information screens were installed in 2012 as part of a programme to provide screens at 18 stations on the Calder Valley Lline and elsewhere in West Yorkshire. Previously, passengers had to rely on automated public-address system announcements.\\nThe station is the only station on the Calder Valley Line where every service calls. On Monday to Saturday during daytime there are four trains per hour to Leeds - one via Brighouse and Dewsbury (calling at all stations except Ravensthorpe), the other three via Bradford Interchange (one serving all stations to Bradford and two calling at Halifax only). Of the latter, one continues to York (this is the service from via Preston). In the late evening, the service drops to hourly, with one or two extras, all via Bradford.\\nWestbound there are three trains per hour to Manchester Victoria (hourly evenings and Sundays), and an hourly service to Blackpool North via Burnley, Blackburn and Preston (two-hourly evenings, hourly on Sundays). One of the Manchester trains is a limited-stop service, calling at Todmorden and Rochdale only.\\nFrom November 2013 to late March 2014 the line to Burnley was closed for major repair work on Holme Tunnel. A replacement bus service ran, and trains from York terminated/started at Hebden Bridge.\\nThe station will see a variety of improvements to facilities and train services from March 2017 onwards, as part of an investment package for the Calder Valley line as a whole. New lifts are finally to be installed to make both platforms fully accessible, whilst track and signalling upgrades will help reduce journey times in both directions and allow more trains to run to/from Bradford. This will result in the closure of the listed signal box here by October 2018, with control passing over to the Rail Operating Centre at . New rolling stock and timetable improvements will then follow, with regular through trains to Liverpool Lime Street, and by late 2019.\\n\",\n \"Ernad Express\\nThe Ernad Express is an express train run by the Southern Railway zone of the Indian Railways between Mangalore Central railway station in Karnataka and Nagercoil Junction railway station in Tamil Nadu. It longitudinally crosses the whole state of Kerala. It was first introduced in 2009 to run between Mangalore and Kochuveli, satellite station of Trivandrum, the capital of kerala as a tri weekly express and later got extended to Nagercoil. Now this train runs as a daily service.The train runs via and Alappuzha.\\nTrain number 16605 runs from south to north and on the return journey, the train number 16606 runs from Nagercoil to Mangalore.\\nThe train has stoppage at Manjeshwar, Kumbala, Kasaragod, Kanhangad, Nileshwar, Cheruvathur, Payyannur, Valapattanam, Kannur, Thalassery, Mahe, Vatakara, Payyoli, Koyilandy, Kozhikode, Feroke, Vallikkunnu, Parappanangadi, Tanur, Tirur, Kuttippuram, Pattambi, Shoranur Junction, Thrissur Railway Station, Chalakudy, Aluva, Ernakulam Junction (South), Thuravoor, Cherthala, Alappuzha, Ambalapuzha, Harippad, Kayamkulam, Karunagappally, Kollam Junction, Varkala, Thiruvananthapuram Central, Neyyattinkara and Kulitthurai.\\nAs the route is fully electrified. It is hauled by WAP 4 from Electric Loco Shed, Erode or Royapuram shed\",\n \"Hebden Royd\\nHebden Royd is a civil parish with a town council in the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale in West Yorkshire, England. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 9,092, rising to 9,558 at the 2011 census. It includes Hebden Bridge, Mytholmroyd and Cragg Vale. The parish was an urban district before 1974, created in 1937 by the merger of Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd urban districts. The area now shares the HX7 postcode area.\\nHebden Bridge Town Hall and adjoining fire station is a Grade II listed building, built in 1897. The building was transferred from Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council to Hebden Bridge Community Association in 2010, along with funds for basic maintenance work. Substantial volunteer time was put into renovation works and fundraising to secure the building’s future. A £4 million project built a small enterprise centre and new community facilities on land adjacent to the Town Hall. More than 450 local people have signed up as \\\"Friends of the Town Hall\\\" and can vote for the trustees.\\nHebden Royd lies close to the Pennine Way and Hardcastle Crags and is popular for outdoor pursuits such as walking, climbing and cycling. It lies on the Rochdale Canal – a through route across the Pennines.\\nThe area's location in the valley causes problems with flooding, particularly between Hebden Water and the cinema on New Road, Brearley Fields in Mytholmroyd, and further up the valley at Callis Bridge by the sewage works and the old Aquaspersions factory. Flooding at Callis Bridge is so frequent that the level of the River Calder has been lowered and special perforated kerbstones fitted so that water can drain back into the river. Brearley, on a flood plain, contains the playing fields for Calder High School and local football, rugby league and cricket teams. Hebden Royd suffered two devastating floods in the summer of 2012, and again at Christmas 2015; Todmorden, Mytholmroyd, Sowerby Bridge and York were also affected, with houses, pubs, shops and community centres suffering damage to property. The extent of the Hebden Royd flooding was shown in drone videos of the flooded areas, the most severe flooding occurring in Hebden Bridge town centre. Hebden Royd suffered the worst flooding ever seen in the area on Boxing Day of 2015, the River Calder reached the highest ever recorded levels, flooding buildings never before flooded such as Burnley Road Academy in Mytholmroyd.\\nThe parish is on the route of the Calderdale Way, a circular walk of about 50 mi around the hills and valleys of Calderdale.\\nHebden Bridge railway station lies on the Caldervale Line between Manchester Victoria and Leeds City. It is served by frequent Northern services to towns and cities in Lancashire, Greater Manchester, as well as West and North Yorkshire including Leeds, Blackpool North, York, Manchester Victoria and Todmorden. There are also some infrequent services to Dewsbury via Brighouse. The station is still in the original Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway colours, decorated with hanging baskets, original signage and luggage trolleys. Mytholmroyd railway station also serves most of the services into and from Hebden Bridge railway station, with the exception of Blackpool-York services, which only stop at Hebden Bridge. Mytholmroyd also serves disabled passengers from Hebden Royd, with no disabled facilities at Hebden Bridge railway station.\\nBus services in the town are primarily operated by First West Yorkshire, and operate to many local towns and villages, most frequently to Halifax (several services at 10-minute intervals), Burnley (592) and Rochdale (590). However, Keighley Bus Company connect Hebden Bridge with Haworth, Oxenhope and Keighley. The \\\"Hebden Bridger\\\" is a local bus operated by West Yorkshire Metro that serves as a town centre service, also operating to local villages including Heptonstall. These services run along the A646 through the rest of Hebden Royd with services direct from Mytholmroyd town centre to Huddersfield, Cragg Vale and Ripponden.\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Ayrshire Coast Line\\nThe Ayrshire Coast Line is one of the lines within the Strathclyde suburban rail network in Scotland. It has 26 stations and connects the Ayrshire coast to Glasgow. There are three branches, to Largs , Ardrossan Harbour and Ayr , all running into the high level at Glasgow Central . All trains call at Kilwinning (with the exception of the 1745 Glasgow-Ayr, which runs non stop between Paisley and Irvine) and most trains call at Paisley Gilmour Street,\\nThe route is operated by Abellio ScotRail.\\nThe Ayrshire Coast Line consists of lines that were formerly part of the Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway, the Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway, the Ardrossan Railway and its Largs Branch extension.\\nThe line to Ayr was electrified and Class 318 electric multiple units introduced by British Rail in September 1986. The full electrified service, including trains to Largs and Ardrossan Harbour, commenced on 19 January 1987. These were supplemented by occasional use of Class 303 and Class 311 EMUs, then in use on the Inverclyde Line.\\nThese EMUs replaced the Class 101 and Class 107 DMUs that had served the line for over 30 years. Class 126 DMUs were also used on the line, but they succumbed to old age in the early 1980s.\\nFor most of the day, 6 trains per hour run between Glasgow Central and Kilwinning, 4 go to Ayr whilst 2 service Largs and Ardrossan Harbour branches. Glasgow to Ayr trains which leave Glasgow at xx00 and xx30 between 0830 and 1830 and from Ayr leaving at xx23 and XX50 between 0850 and 1623 will run non stop between Kilwinning and Glasgow Central. After 1900, the service reduces to 4 trains per hour. All trains call at Paisley and Kilwinning with 2 trains going to Ayr while the other 2 serve Ardrossan and Largs. On a Sunday, a reduced service operates, 3 trains per hour run with 2 going to Ayr and 1 going to Largs. 5 trains daily run to Ardrossan Harbour to meet the ferry to Brodick. On Sunday evening, it reduces to only 2 trains per hour with 1 to Ayr and Largs. Paisley, Kilwinning, Troon, Prestwick and Ayr are also served by the Glasgow South Western Line with trains running between Glasgow-Stranraer and Kilmarnock-Girvan/Stranraer.\\nAs of 2014, most services are run by Class 380s. Class 314s are, however, used on some peak time services when 380s are in short supply.\\nThere are now 5 trains per day between Ayr and Edinburgh.\\nIn 2016, a Monday to Saturday service that runs between Ayr and North Berwick (via Glasgow Central and Edinburgh) was introduced, running once a day at 1501.\\nThe line runs along the same Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway route as the Inverclyde Line as far as Paisley Gilmour Street , using different platforms at Paisley Gilmour Street, where it turns south west towards Kilwinning on the route of the former Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway. Here the line branches in two, with one branch running south along the coast to Troon and Ayr. This branch also serves Prestwick Airport station, which opened in 1994. The other branch runs north along the coast to Ardrossan or Largs, becoming a single track for passenger trains after Saltcoats. This part of the network is heavily used by freight traffic to carry coal from the Hunterston Terminal. Beyond Ayr, 'Sprinter' DMUs continue south towards Girvan and Stranraer.\\nThe line connects at Troon with ferries to Larne (summers only), at Ardrossan to Brodick on the Isle of Arran, and at Largs to Great Cumbrae.\",\n \"Portsmouth (Lancs) railway station\\nPortsmouth railway station was on the Copy Pit line and served the village of Portsmouth, which was part of Lancashire, before being incorporated into the West Riding of Yorkshire in the late 1880s. It is now in the successor county of West Yorkshire. It opened along with the line in 1849 but was closed as an economy measure on 7 July 1958. Few traces of the station remain, although the line itself remains in use for passenger trains between Burnley and Hebden Bridge or Todmorden.\\n\\n\",\n \"Burnley Manchester Road railway station\\nBurnley Manchester Road is a railway station serving the town of Burnley, Lancashire, England. It is situated on the Calder Valley Line 24+1/2 mi east of , near to the route's junction with the East Lancashire Line.\\nOn 12 November 1849, the Manchester and Leeds Railway opened a single line branch – doubled in 1860 – from Todmorden to Burnley. The first station in the town, which was at Thorneybank, was replaced by Burnley Manchester Road in 1866. It had two stone platforms, a modest single-storey main building on the eastbound (\\\"up\\\") side and a smaller waiting room with toilets on the opposite side.\\nThis closed to passenger traffic on 6 November 1961, and to goods in April 1973. The platforms were subsequently demolished, but the main building was retained and used as industrial premises. It was reopened (with new timber platforms) in September 1986, two years after the successful re-introduction of year-round services between Leeds and Preston/Blackpool North. The old station building was eventually demolished in 2013.\\nThe town currently has three other railway stations, , and , on the East Lancashire Line which diverges from the Caldervale Line at Gannow Junction west of the town centre.\\nOn weekdays, the station is served by Northern semi-fast services from Blackpool North to Leeds and York via the Caldervale Line. Currently (December 2016) there is an hourly service in each direction each weekday. On Sundays there is now also an hourly service (from mid-morning onwards) each since the May 2009 timetable change.\\nFrom 17 May 2015 an hourly service between Blackburn and Manchester Victoria serves the station seven days a week. This calls at Accrington & Rose Grove, then Todmorden and most local stations to Manchester (except and , which are only served on Sundays). Most weekday & Saturday trains also continue to and .\\nEastbound services (i.e. toward Hebden Bridge) were suspended for 5 months from November 2013 until the end of March 2014 whilst Network Rail carried out major repairs to Holme Tunnel (near to the site of the old Holme station). The 265-yard (250 m) long structure had been subject to a permanent 20 mph speed restriction for many years due to earth movement in the surrounding ground that had damaged the tunnel lining and eastern portal (steel supports were installed for most of the way along the tunnel bore since the mid-1980s to prevent further deterioration). The 20-week-long blockade has seen the tunnel lining strengthened & re-profiled, the damaged lining sections replaced, the eastern portal rebuilt, new track laid and drainage improvements carried out. Since completion, trains can pass through the tunnel at 45 mph (72 kmh). Replacement buses operated to & from Hebden Bridge, connecting with the train services from Blackpool & Preston whilst the work was in progress. The line was reopened to traffic as scheduled on 24 March 2014.\\nThe local councils and MP have campaigned to restore a direct rail link between the town and Manchester Victoria using the defunct south to west curve at Todmorden that was removed following the withdrawal of local trains in November 1965. This would allow trains to run between Burnley and Manchester via Rochdale in less than an hour. Network Rail had intimated in its Lancashire & Cumbria RUS that such a link would be possible, but that the business case would only be viable with third party funding. It was thought that the scheme would proceed following the finalising of a Multi Area funding agreement between central government and a consortium of councils in East Lancashire in January 2009, although it was subsequently omitted from the list of projects recommended for funding over the next decade by the North West Regional Development Agency in July 2009.\\nOn 31 October 2011, it was announced that the scheme had been granted finance as part of the Regional Growth Fund announced by Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg. Services were initially due to start at the May 2014 timetable change following completion of the curve (and its signalling) and the Holme Tunnel work. All structural work was completed by spring 2014. However, due to a lack of available rolling stock and unfinished signalling changes at the Todmorden end (which were not completed until February 2015) it was announced that services would not start until May 2015 at the earliest (eventually doing so at the May timetable change).\\nThe plans have also seen the station facilities upgraded at a cost of £2.3 million with the opening of a new ticket office in a new station building and the provision of additional car parking spaces and new waiting shelters; completion was scheduled for Spring 2014. The station building opened in November 2014, having been almost complete and awaiting improvements to lighting since July.\\nThe new ticket office is manned throughout the week, from start of service until 21:45 on weekdays and Saturdays and until 17:00 on Sundays. A self-service ticket machine is also available on the concourse. Train running information is offered via digital display screens, automatic announcements and timetable posters. Step-free access to both platforms is available via ramps from Manchester Road.\\n\",\n \"Cornholme\\nCornholme is a village within the <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale</a>, in <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>, England. It lies at the edge of Calderdale, on the boundary with <a href=\\\"Lancashire\\\">Lancashire</a>, and in the narrow <a href=\\\"River%20Calder%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Calder Valley</a> about 2.5 mi northwest of <a href=\\\"Todmorden\\\">Todmorden</a> (where the population is included). The village is close to the <a href=\\\"A646%20road\\\">A646</a> Burnley Road.\\nCornholme was <a href=\\\"Historic%20counties%20of%20England\\\">historically</a> a part of Lancashire, and falls within the <a href=\\\"OL%20postcode%20area\\\">OL postcode area</a>. The former principal industries of most of the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\\\">Upper Calder Valley</a> being cotton weaving and the manufacture of textile accessories such as shuttles and bobbins. The village became part of the <a href=\\\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\\\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a> on 1 January 1888 and part of the Borough of <a href=\\\"Todmorden\\\">Todmorden</a>, within the West Riding, on 2 June 1896.\\nThe Gem was once a cinema. There are no cinemas in Cornholme today.\\nCornholme is the location of a number of scenes in the 2004 film \\\"<a href=\\\"My%20Summer%20of%20Love\\\">My Summer of Love</a>\\\".\\n\",\n \"Hebden Bridge\\nHebden Bridge is a <a href=\\\"market%20town\\\">market town</a> which forms part of <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Royd\\\">Hebden Royd</a> in <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>, England. It is in the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\\\">Upper Calder Valley</a>, 8 mi west of <a href=\\\"Halifax%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Halifax</a> and 14 miles (21 km) north-east of <a href=\\\"Rochdale\\\">Rochdale</a>, at the <a href=\\\"confluence\\\">confluence</a> of the <a href=\\\"River%20Calder%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">River Calder</a> and the Hebden Water.\\nIn 2015, the Calder ward, covering Hebden Bridge, <a href=\\\"Old%20Town%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Old Town</a>, and part of <a href=\\\"Todmorden\\\">Todmorden</a>, had a population of 12,167; the town itself has a population of approximately 4,500.\\nThe original settlement was the hilltop village of <a href=\\\"Heptonstall\\\">Heptonstall</a>. Hebden Bridge (\\\"Heptenbryge\\\") started as a settlement where the Halifax to <a href=\\\"Burnley\\\">Burnley</a> <a href=\\\"packhorse\\\">packhorse</a> route dropped into the valley and crossed the River Hebden where the old bridge (from which it gets its name) stands. The name Hebden comes from the <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Anglo-Saxon</a> \\\"Heopa Denu\\\", 'Bramble (or possibly Wild Rose) Valley'.\\nSteep hills with fast-flowing streams and access to major <a href=\\\"wool\\\">wool</a> markets meant that Hebden Bridge was ideal for water-powered <a href=\\\"weaving%20mill\\\">weaving mill</a>s and the town developed during the 19th and 20th centuries; at one time Hebden was known as \\\"Trouser Town\\\" because of the large amount of clothing manufacturing. Drainage of the marshland, which covered much of the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\\\">Upper Calder Valley</a> before the <a href=\\\"Industrial%20Revolution\\\">Industrial Revolution</a>, enabled construction of the road which runs through the valley. Before it was built, travel was only possible via the ancient packhorse route which ran along the hilltop, dropping into the valleys wherever necessary. The wool trade was served by the <a href=\\\"Rochdale%20Canal\\\">Rochdale Canal</a> (running from <a href=\\\"Sowerby%20Bridge\\\">Sowerby Bridge</a> to <a href=\\\"Manchester\\\">Manchester</a>) and the <a href=\\\"Manchester%20and%20Leeds%20Railway\\\">Manchester and Leeds Railway</a> (later the <a href=\\\"Lancashire%20and%20Yorkshire%20Railway\\\">Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway</a>) (running from <a href=\\\"Leeds\\\">Leeds</a> to Manchester and Burnley).\\nHebden Bridge also grew to include a Picture House (with 500 places) and offices for Hebden Bridge <a href=\\\"Urban%20district%20%28Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland%29\\\">Urban District</a> Council. Hebden Bridge has no swimming pool, although for some years there was a small training pool for children in the adult education centre on Pitt Street. Hebden Bridge had its own <a href=\\\"cooperative\\\">cooperative society</a> but during the 1960s, it was <a href=\\\"fraud\\\">defrauded</a> and went <a href=\\\"bankrupt\\\">bankrupt</a>. The old Co-op building became a hotel and was later converted into flats. The Co-op returned in the 1980s with a <a href=\\\"supermarket\\\">supermarket</a> on Market Street, on the site of an old mill.\\nDuring the Second World War Hebden Bridge was designated a \\\"reception area\\\" and took in evacuees from industrial cities. Two bombs fell on Calderdale during the war, but they were not targeted; they were merely the emptying of a bomb load.\\nDuring the 1970s and 1980s the town saw an influx of artists, writers, photographers, musicians, alternative practitioners, teachers, Green and <a href=\\\"New%20Age\\\">New Age</a> activists and more recently, wealthier '<a href=\\\"yuppie\\\">yuppie</a>' types. This in turn saw a boom in <a href=\\\"tourism\\\">tourism</a> to the area. During the 1990s Hebden Bridge became a <a href=\\\"dormitory%20town\\\">dormitory town</a>, due to its proximity to major towns and cities both sides of the <a href=\\\"Pennines\\\">Pennines</a>.\\nOn 6 July 2003, Hebden Bridge was granted <a href=\\\"Fairtrade%20Zone\\\">Fairtrade Zone</a> status. On 6 July 2014, Stage 2 of the 2014 <a href=\\\"Tour%20de%20France\\\">Tour de France</a>, from York to Sheffield, passed through the town.\\nAt a district level, Hebden Bridge Urban District was established in 1891. In 1937, it merged with <a href=\\\"Mytholmroyd\\\">Mytholmroyd</a> Urban District to become Hebden Royd Urban District. At a county level, Hebden Bridge was administered as part of the <a href=\\\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\\\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>. These were abolished as part of the reforms introduced in the <a href=\\\"Local%20Government%20Act%201972\\\">Local Government Act 1972</a>. They were replaced with <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a> <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20county\\\">Metropolitan county</a>, <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale</a> <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Borough\\\">Metropolitan Borough</a>, and Hebden Royd Town Civil Parish. From a legal point of view, the town council is a <a href=\\\"Parish%20councils%20in%20England\\\">parish council</a>. Recently, it has attracted praise for its commitment to <a href=\\\"Environmentally%20friendly\\\">eco-friendly</a> policies, following the example of <a href=\\\"Modbury\\\">Modbury</a> in effectively banning all plastic shopping bags, thus becoming the largest community in Europe to do so. The ban is not legally enforceable, but rather a voluntary agreement between local shop owners and the community at large.\\nHebden Bridge Town Hall and adjoining fire station is a Grade II <a href=\\\"listed%20building\\\">listed building</a>, built in 1897. Following local government reorganisation, it became underused. The building was transferred from <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale</a> <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Borough\\\">Metropolitan Borough</a> Council to Hebden Bridge Community Association on a 40-year lease (now extended to 125 years) on 1 April 2010, along with funds for basic maintenance work. Substantial volunteer time was put into renovation works and fundraising to secure the building’s future. An ambitious £4 million project has been finished, building a small enterprise centre and new community facilities on land adjacent to the Town Hall. More than 450 local people have signed up as \\\"Friends of the Town Hall\\\" and can vote for the trustees.\\nSince the floods on Boxing Day 2015 the Town Hall with café and foyer exhibition space has become a popular community hub; the reception is staffed by volunteers, and more than 20 local businesses are operating from the new Town Hall.\\nHebden Bridge lies close to the <a href=\\\"Pennine%20Way\\\">Pennine Way</a> and <a href=\\\"Hardcastle%20Crags\\\">Hardcastle Crags</a> and is popular for outdoor pursuits such as walking, climbing and cycling. It lies on the <a href=\\\"Rochdale%20Canal\\\">Rochdale Canal</a> – a through route across the <a href=\\\"Pennines\\\">Pennines</a>.\\nThe town's location in the valley causes problems with <a href=\\\"flooding\\\">flooding</a> particularly between Hebden Water and the <a href=\\\"movie%20theater\\\">cinema</a> on New Road, Brearley Fields in <a href=\\\"Mytholmroyd\\\">Mytholmroyd</a>, and further up the valley at Callis Bridge by the <a href=\\\"sewage%20works\\\">sewage works</a> and the old Aquaspersions <a href=\\\"factory\\\">factory</a>. Flooding at Callis Bridge is so frequent that the level of the River Calder has been lowered and special perforated kerbstones fitted so that water can drain back into the river. Brearley on a <a href=\\\"flood%20plain\\\">flood plain</a> contains the playing fields for <a href=\\\"Calder%20High%20School\\\">Calder High School</a> and local <a href=\\\"football%20%28soccer%29\\\">football</a>, <a href=\\\"rugby%20league\\\">rugby league</a> and <a href=\\\"cricket\\\">cricket</a> teams. Hebden Bridge suffered two devastating floods in the summer of 2012, and again on Boxing Day 2015; <a href=\\\"Todmorden\\\">Todmorden</a>, <a href=\\\"Mytholmroyd\\\">Mytholmroyd</a>, <a href=\\\"Sowerby%20Bridge\\\">Sowerby Bridge</a> and <a href=\\\"York\\\">York</a> were also affected, with houses, pubs, shops and community centres suffering damage to property. The extent of the Hebden Bridge flooding was shown in <a href=\\\"Unmanned%20aerial%20vehicle\\\">drone</a> videos of the flooded areas, the most severe flooding occurring in Hebden Bridge town centre.\\nThe town is on the route of the <a href=\\\"Calderdale%20Way\\\">Calderdale Way</a>, a circular walk of about 50 mi around the hills and valleys of Calderdale, and it is connected with the Pennine Way through the \\\"Hebden Bridge Loop\\\".\\nHebden Bridge is a popular place to live. However, space is limited due to the steep valleys and lack of flat land. In the past, this led to \\\"upstairs-downstairs\\\" houses known as over and under dwellings. These were houses built in terraces with 4–5 storeys. The upper storeys face uphill while the lower ones face downhill with their back wall against the hillside. The bottom 2 storeys would be one house while the upper 2–3 storeys would be another. This also led to unusual legal arrangements such as the \\\"<a href=\\\"flying%20freehold\\\">flying freehold</a>\\\", where the shared floor/ceiling is wholly owned by the underdwelling.\\nPopulation changes in the 1990s led to a demand for more houses. This has proved to be extremely controversial for a number of reasons. The limited availability of houses has meant that prices have risen sharply (for example, a house valued at £54,000 in 1998 was valued at nearly £150,000 in 2004).\\nDemand for new houses is also a contentious issue as many of the sites for proposed development are areas such as fields or woodland that some local residents feel should be left as they are. Hebden Bridge has attracted artists, and has developed a small <a href=\\\"New%20Age\\\">New Age</a> community. It became attractive in the 1980s and 1990s to <a href=\\\"lesbian\\\">lesbian</a>s as a place of mutual support to bring up children. As of 2004 Hebden Bridge had the highest number of lesbians per head in the UK.\\nIn April 2005, Hebden Bridge was named the fourth quirkiest place in the world by \\\"High Life\\\" (the <a href=\\\"British%20Airways\\\">British Airways</a> flight magazine) and was described as \\\"modern and stylish in an unconventional and stylish way\\\".\\nThe town was documented in the 2009 film \\\"Shed Your Tears And Walk Away\\\", which made controversial claims about the levels of drug and alcohol abuse in the town, and consequent deaths among young people.\\nToday tourism is probably the main economic factor in Hebden Bridge, and nearly all shops are open on Sundays.\\nAs of Easter 2017, The weekly Market has moved to Lees Yard adjoining the pedestrian centre of St. George Square, and the market days have been increased from two and a half to four full weekly market days: Thursdays to Sundays.\\nWalkley's Clog Mill is one of the country's leading <a href=\\\"English%20clogs\\\">clog</a> manufacturers. It moved from its original home at Falling Royd to a site on Midgley Road in Mytholmroyd.\\nAcre Mill was an <a href=\\\"asbestos\\\">asbestos</a> factory in the hilltop settlement of <a href=\\\"Old%20Town%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Old Town</a>, owned by <a href=\\\"Cape%20plc\\\">Cape Insulation Ltd</a>. It was opened in 1939 to meet the demand for <a href=\\\"gas%20mask\\\">gas mask</a> filters made from <a href=\\\"Asbestos%23Blue\\\">blue asbestos</a> during the Second World War, and diversified into the production of other asbestos products, including rope, pipe lagging and textile, after the war. In 1970, the company closed the mill and moved to <a href=\\\"Westmorland\\\">Westmorland</a>. The mill was the subject of a 1971 \\\"<a href=\\\"World%20in%20Action\\\">World in Action</a>\\\" investigation entitled \\\"\\\"The Dust at Acre Mill\\\"\\\" which revealed how the factory broke the law regarding asbestos-dust control between 1940–1970. By 1979, 12% of a total of 2,200 former employees had asbestos-related disease. The mill was demolished in 1979. Cape Insulation also operated a second factory at Hangingroyd Mill.\\nHebden Bridge has built a reputation for \\\"great little shops\\\" and has an unusually high density of independent shops for a UK town of its size with more than 20 cafes and tea rooms, and about 20 pubs, micro pubs and restaurants. In a national survey by the New Economics Foundation in 2010 Hebden Bridge was ranked sixth on a diversity scale and was praised for its independent shops and unique shopping experience. The Fox and Goose, West Yorkshires first Co-Operative pub, is owned by 262 residents of Hebden Bridge. It was established in March 2014.\\nIn February 2016 Hebden Bridge won as the \\\"Best Small Outdoor Market\\\" in the Great British Market Awards run by the National Association of British Market Authorities (NABMA). In December 2016 Hebden Bridge won the \\\"Great British High Street Award\\\" in the \\\"Small Market Town\\\" category, after most shops, cafes and businesses had bounced back better and more flood resilient than before the Boxing Day floods 2015; Hebden Bridge also won a second award as the People’s Choice.\\nFestivals: the traditional <a href=\\\"Pace%20Egg%20plays\\\">Pace Egg plays</a> are an annual <a href=\\\"Easter\\\">Easter</a> event mainly in Hepton Stall, the Piano and the Burlesque Festivals are usually in April, the Folk Roots Festival is in the middle of May, the famous midsummer <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Bridge%20Handmade%20Parade\\\">Hebden Bridge Handmade Parade</a> is a vivid, non-commercial variation on the small town parade.\\nThe Arts Festival and Fringe Arts Festival take place at the end of June, the Hepton Stall Festival and Hebden Bridge Open Studios are in the beginning of July, the Vintage Car Rally is scheduled for August, the South Pennine Walk & Ride Festival and the Camra Beer & Cider Festival are in September, and the Hebden Bridge Dance Festival is yearly in October.\\nHebden Bridge is known as \\\"the lesbian capital of the UK\\\".\\nThe Stubbing Wharf is an 18th century inn located alongside the <a href=\\\"Rochdale%20Canal\\\">Rochdale Canal</a>, in which the poet <a href=\\\"Ted%20Hughes\\\">Ted Hughes</a> set his poem \\\"Stubbing Wharfe\\\". Hughes was born in neighbouring Mytholmroyd, and his former home Lumb Bank on the outskirts of Hebden Bridge is run as a creative writing centre by the Arvon Trust.\\n<a href=\\\"Sylvia%20Plath\\\">Sylvia Plath</a> is buried here in Heptonstall in the secondary graveyard of St. Thomas the Apostle Church.\\nThe band <a href=\\\"the%20Dream%20Academy\\\">the Dream Academy</a> filmed the first video for their hit single \\\"<a href=\\\"Life%20in%20a%20Northern%20Town\\\">Life in a Northern Town</a>\\\" in Hebden Bridge in 1984.\\nThe <a href=\\\"BBC%20One\\\">BBC One</a> crime drama series \\\"<a href=\\\"Happy%20Valley%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Happy Valley</a>\\\", written by Halifax-born <a href=\\\"Sally%20Wainwright\\\">Sally Wainwright</a>, broadcast in 2014, was filmed and set in and around the town. Local landmarks, such as the graveyard at St Thomas the Apostle Church, and the sweeping landscapes provided a prominent backdrop to the narrative. The show received critical acclaim and was expected to lead to a noticeable increase in local tourism. A second series was filmed in 2015 and broadcast during 2016.\\nThe Trades Club is a nationally recognised music venue and socialist members club.\\nNotable artists who have played at the Trades Club include: <a href=\\\"Julia%20Fordham\\\">Julia Fordham</a>, <a href=\\\"Patti%20Smith\\\">Patti Smith</a>, <a href=\\\"Mark%20Lanegan\\\">Mark Lanegan</a>, <a href=\\\"Laura%20Marling\\\">Laura Marling</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Fall%20%28band%29\\\">The Fall</a>, <a href=\\\"Teenage%20Fanclub\\\">Teenage Fanclub</a>, <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Weatherall\\\">Andrew Weatherall</a>, <a href=\\\"Ali%20Farka%20Tour%C3%A9\\\">Ali Farka Touré</a>, <a href=\\\"Damo%20Suzuki\\\">Damo Suzuki</a>, <a href=\\\"Steve%20Tilston\\\">Steve Tilston</a>, <a href=\\\"Jah%20Wobble\\\">Jah Wobble</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Unthanks\\\">The Unthanks</a>, <a href=\\\"Curved%20Air\\\">Curved Air</a>, <a href=\\\"the%20Orb\\\">the Orb</a>, <a href=\\\"Nico\\\">Nico</a>, <a href=\\\"Thurston%20Moore\\\">Thurston Moore</a>, <a href=\\\"Slaves%20%28UK%20band%29\\\">Slaves</a>, <a href=\\\"Lee%20Scratch%20Perry\\\">Lee Scratch Perry</a>, <a href=\\\"Mark%20Almond\\\">Mark Almond</a> & <a href=\\\"Donovan\\\">Donovan</a>. <a href=\\\"Heavenly%20Recordings\\\">Heavenly Recordings</a> have a close association with the club and celebrated their 25th birthday with ‘A Heavenly Weekend In Hebden’, a four-day festival at the Trades Club, featuring performances from many of the artists on their roster and film screenings from Heavenly Films. The event was given its own catalogue number: HVN300.\\nMany pubs in town host weekly or monthly Open Mics, where local artists perform free of charge, and on most days with reasonable weather, especially on weekends, buskers are playing in the pedestrian area along Bridge Gate. The function rooms of Hebden Bridge pubs have also seen shows from international experimental acts like <a href=\\\"MV%20%26amp%3B%20EE\\\">MV & EE</a>, <a href=\\\"Natural%20Snow%20Buildings\\\">Natural Snow Buildings</a>, <a href=\\\"Kawabata%20Makoto\\\">Kawabata Makoto</a> and <a href=\\\"KK%20Null\\\">KK Null</a>\\nUntil 2014, the town hosted the Hebden Bridge Blues Festival during the Spring Bank Holiday at the end of May. Established in 2011, the festival was voted the Best British Blues Festival in both the 2012 and 2013 British Blues Awards, ahead of over 40 other festivals on each occasion, attracting musicians and audiences from around the world, particularly North America.\\nIn 2015 the yearly Folk Roots Festival was launched in Hebden Bridge.\\nHebden Bridge Junior Band has been providing musical tuition and an opportunity for young people aged 7–19 to play a brass instrument in a non-competitive band since 1972\\nThe <a href=\\\"indie%20rock\\\">indie</a> band <a href=\\\"Bogshed\\\">Bogshed</a> were formed in Hebden Bridge in 1984, originally as the 'Amazing Roy North Penis Band'.\\nIn 2017, the Hebden Bridge Community Association received The <a href=\\\"Queen%27s%20Award%20for%20Voluntary%20Service\\\">Queen's Award for Voluntary Service</a>, the MBE for voluntary groups.\\n<a href=\\\"Hebden%20Bridge%20railway%20station\\\">Hebden Bridge railway station</a> lies on the <a href=\\\"Calder%20Valley%20Line\\\">Calder Valley Line</a> between <a href=\\\"Manchester%20Victoria\\\">Manchester Victoria</a> and <a href=\\\"Leeds%20railway%20station\\\">Leeds City</a>. It is served by frequent rail services to towns and cities in Lancashire, Greater Manchester, as well as West and <a href=\\\"North%20Yorkshire\\\">North Yorkshire</a> including Leeds, <a href=\\\"Blackpool%20North%20railway%20station\\\">Blackpool North</a>, <a href=\\\"York\\\">York</a>, Manchester Victoria and <a href=\\\"Todmorden\\\">Todmorden</a>. There are also some infrequent services to <a href=\\\"Dewsbury%20railway%20station\\\">Dewsbury</a> via <a href=\\\"Brighouse%20railway%20station\\\">Brighouse</a>. The station is still in the original <a href=\\\"Lancashire%20and%20Yorkshire%20Railway\\\">Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway</a> colours, decorated with hanging baskets, original signage and luggage trolleys.\\nBus services in the town are primarily operated by <a href=\\\"First%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">First West Yorkshire</a>, and operate to many local towns and villages, most frequently to <a href=\\\"Halifax%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Halifax</a> (several services at 10-minute intervals), <a href=\\\"Burnley\\\">Burnley</a> (592) and <a href=\\\"Rochdale\\\">Rochdale</a> (590). However, <a href=\\\"Keighley%20Bus%20Company\\\">Keighley Bus Company</a> connect Hebden Bridge with <a href=\\\"Haworth\\\">Haworth</a>, <a href=\\\"Oxenhope\\\">Oxenhope</a> and <a href=\\\"Keighley\\\">Keighley</a>. The \\\"Hebden Bridger\\\" is a local bus operated by <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire%20Metro\\\">West Yorkshire Metro</a> that serves as a town centre service, also operating to local villages including <a href=\\\"Heptonstall\\\">Heptonstall</a>.\\n\\n\",\n \"Network Rail\\nNetwork Rail is the owner (via its subsidiary Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd which was known as Railtrack plc before 2002) and infrastructure manager of most of the rail network in <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a>, <a href=\\\"Scotland\\\">Scotland</a> and <a href=\\\"Wales\\\">Wales</a>. Network Rail is an <a href=\\\"non-departmental%20public%20body\\\">arms length public body</a> of the <a href=\\\"Department%20for%20Transport\\\">Department for Transport</a> with no shareholders, which reinvests its income in the railways.\\nNetwork Rail's main customers are the private <a href=\\\"train%20operating%20company\\\">train operating companies</a> (TOCs), responsible for passenger transport, and <a href=\\\"freight%20operating%20company\\\">freight operating companies</a> (FOCs), who provide train services on the infrastructure that the company owns and maintains. Since 1 September 2014, Network Rail has been classified as a \\\"public sector body\\\".\\nTo cope with <a href=\\\"history%20of%20rail%20transport%20in%20Great%20Britain%201995%20to%20date\\\">quickly rising passenger numbers</a>, Network Rail is currently undertaking a £38 billion <a href=\\\"History%20of%20rail%20transport%20in%20Great%20Britain%201995%20to%20date%23Timeline\\\">programme of upgrades</a> to the network, including <a href=\\\"Crossrail\\\">Crossrail</a>, <a href=\\\"Railway%20electrification%20in%20Great%20Britain\\\">electrification of lines</a>, <a href=\\\"Thameslink%20Programme\\\">upgrading Thameslink</a> and a new <a href=\\\"High%20Speed%202\\\">high-speed line</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Rail%20transport%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">Britain's railway system</a> was built by private companies, but it was nationalised by the <a href=\\\"Transport%20Act%201947\\\">Transport Act 1947</a> and run by <a href=\\\"British%20Rail\\\">British Rail</a>ways until <a href=\\\"Privatisation%20of%20British%20Rail\\\">re-privatisation</a> in the 1990s. Infrastructure and passenger and freight services were separated at that time. Between 1994 and 2002 the infrastructure was owned and operated by <a href=\\\"Railtrack\\\">Railtrack</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Hatfield%20train%20crash\\\">Hatfield train crash</a> on 17 October 2000 was a defining moment in the collapse of Railtrack. The immediate major repairs undertaken across the whole British rail network were estimated to have cost in the order of <a href=\\\"Pound%20sterling\\\">£</a>580 million and Railtrack had no idea how many more 'Hatfields' were waiting to happen because it had lost considerable in-house engineering skill following the sale or closure of many of the engineering and maintenance functions of <a href=\\\"British%20Rail\\\">British Rail</a> to external companies; nor did the company have any way of assessing the consequence of the speed restrictions it was ordering, which all but brought the railway network to a standstill. The costs of modernising the <a href=\\\"West%20Coast%20Main%20Line\\\">West Coast Main Line</a> were also spiralling. In 2001, Railtrack announced that, despite making a pre-tax profit before exceptional expenses of £199m, the £733m of costs and compensation paid out over the Hatfield crash had plunged Railtrack from profit into a loss of £534m, and it approached the government for funding, which it then used to pay a £137m dividend to its shareholders in May 2001.\\nNetwork Rail Ltd took over control by buying <a href=\\\"Railtrack\\\">Railtrack</a> plc, which was in \\\"railway administration\\\", from Railtrack Group plc for £500 million; Railtrack plc was then renamed and reconstituted as Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd. The purchase was completed on 3 October 2002. The former company had thus never ceased to exist but continued under another name: for this reason Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd was the defendant in later prosecutions in respect of events which had occurred in the days of Railtrack.\\nFollowing an initial period in which Network Rail established itself and demonstrated its competence in addressing the principal challenges of improving asset condition, reducing unit costs and tackling delay, the Government's Rail Review in 2004 said that Network Rail should be given responsibility for whole-industry performance reporting, timetable development, specification of small and medium network enhancements, and the delivery of route-specific utilisation strategies (RUS). Some of these are functions which Network Rail already had; others – such as the obligation to devise <a href=\\\"Route%20Utilisation%20Strategy\\\">route utilisation strategies</a> – were transferred to Network Rail from the <a href=\\\"Strategic%20Rail%20Authority\\\">Strategic Rail Authority</a>, a non-departmental public body, part of the UK government. The SRA was abolished in November 2006.\\nThe company moved its headquarters to Kings Place, 90 York Way, from 40 Melton Street, Euston, in August 2008. In October 2008, Sir <a href=\\\"Ian%20McAllister\\\">Ian McAllister</a> announced that he would not stand for re-election as chairman of Network Rail. He had held the position for six years. He noted that as Network Rail moved to a \\\"new phase in its development\\\" it was appropriate for a new chairman to lead it there.\\nMany track safety initiatives have been introduced in the time Network Rail has been responsible for this area. The latest, announced in December 2008, known as \\\"All Orange\\\", states that all track personnel must not only wear orange hi-vis waistcoats or jackets, but must also wear orange hi-vis trousers at all times when working on or near the track. This ruling came into force in January 2009 for maintenance and property workers and in April 2009 for infrastructure and investment sites.\\nIn 2009, allegations appeared in the media from the <a href=\\\"Transport%20Salaried%20Staffs%27%20Association\\\">Transport Salaried Staffs' Association</a> concerning treatment of Network Rail employees. Former chief executive <a href=\\\"Iain%20Coucher\\\">Iain Coucher</a> was also accused of financial impropriety involving unspecified payments to his business partner Victoria Pender during his tenure at Network Rail.\\nAn internal investigation held by Network Rail in 2010, vetted by its auditors <a href=\\\"PricewaterhouseCoopers\\\">PricewaterhouseCoopers</a>, uncovered no evidence of wrongdoing. An independent enquiry headed by Anthony White QC in 2011 further examined the claims, but also exonerated Coucher.\\nCritical commentary appeared in the media concerning the <a href=\\\"Knight%20Bachelor\\\">knighthood</a> awarded to John Armitt in the <a href=\\\"2012%20New%20Year%20Honours\\\">2012 New Year Honours</a> for services to engineering and construction. Armitt was Chief Executive of Network Rail at the time of the 2007 <a href=\\\"Grayrigg%20derailment\\\">Grayrigg derailment</a> and the family of a victim of the accident criticised the award, which coincidentally was conferred on the same day that Network Rail were prosecuted for the accident.\\nIn 2011 the company began the process of reorganising its operational structure into nine semi-autonomous regional entities, each with their own managing director; the first two units to be created were Scotland and Wessex regions. The reorganisation has been interpreted as a move back towards vertical integration of track and train operations.\\nIn 2016 Network Rail failed to check whether the \\\"<a href=\\\"LNER%20Class%20A3%204472%20Flying%20Scotsman\\\">Flying Scotsman</a>\\\" could fit through tunnels along the Borders Route resulting in the cancellation of a trip just 24 hours before departure. The operator described the cancellation as \\\"an absolute disgrace\\\", Network Rail blamed the cancellation on an internal \\\"administrative error\\\" Just one day later Network Rail chose to climb down and allow the train journey to take place. Scottish Transport Minister <a href=\\\"Derek%20Mackay\\\">Derek Mackay</a> branded the affair a \\\"debacle\\\".\\nNetwork Rail's attempt to electrify the <a href=\\\"Great%20Western%20Main%20Line\\\">Great Western Main Line</a> has been dogged by poor planning and cost overruns; the projected cost has ballooned from by £1.2 billion to £2.8 billion by the end of 2015 and the project is delayed to the point where the government may have to ask Hitachi to retrofit the new Intercity trainsets with diesel as well as electric engines as the electrification isn't complete.\\nIn December 2016, the Transport Secretary, <a href=\\\"Chris%20Grayling\\\">Chris Grayling</a> announced that Network Rail would lose sole control of track maintenance and repairs, and instead would share this with the Train Operating Companies.\\nNetwork Rail owns the infrastructure, including the railway tracks, signals, overhead wires, tunnels, bridges, level crossings and most stations, but not the passenger or commercial freight rolling stock. It however owns a fleet of <a href=\\\"departmental%20train\\\">departmental stock</a>.\\nAlthough it owns over 2,500 railway stations, it manages only 18 of the biggest and busiest of them, all the other stations being managed by one or other of the various train operating companies (TOCs). Network Rail has a 15-year lease on Square One in Manchester with 800 staff in one of Manchester's largest refurbished office spaces.\\nNetwork Rail should not be confused with '<a href=\\\"National%20Rail\\\">National Rail</a>'. National Rail is not an organisation, but merely a brand, used to explain and promote a Great Britain-wide network of passenger railway services. The majority of Network Rail lines also carry freight traffic; some lines are freight only. A few lines that carry passenger traffic are not part of the National Rail network (for example <a href=\\\"High%20Speed%201\\\">High Speed 1</a>, <a href=\\\"Heathrow%20Express\\\">Heathrow Express</a>, <a href=\\\"Tyne%20and%20Wear%20Metro\\\">Tyne and Wear Metro</a> (the Tyne and Wear Metro uses Network Rail track between Pelaw and Sunderland and is responsible for that) and the <a href=\\\"London%20Underground\\\">London Underground</a>). Conversely, a few National Rail services operate over track which is not part of the Network Rail network. For example, Chiltern Railways services run on track owned by London Underground between Harrow-on-the-Hill and Amersham.\\nThe current Chairman is <a href=\\\"Peter%20Hendy\\\">Sir Peter Hendy</a>, and <a href=\\\"Mark%20Carne\\\">Mark Carne</a> is currently appointed as the Chief Executive.\\nNetwork Rail is funded partly through a direct grant from the government (£3.8 billion in 2015/16) and partly by train operating companies paying access charges to use the rail network (£1.6 billion in 2015/16). In 2015/16, it spent £3.1 billion on renewals (renewing existing infrastructure back to how it was when new) and £3.2 billion on enhancements, with the rest spent on maintenance and other costs.\\nNetwork Rail covers 20,000 miles of track, and 40,000 bridges and tunnels.\\nIn October 2003 Network Rail announced that it would take over all infrastructure maintenance work from private contractors, following concerns about the quality of work carried out by certain private firms, and spiralling costs.\\nFebruary 2004 saw the opening of an operations centre at <a href=\\\"London%20Waterloo%20railway%20station\\\">Waterloo station</a> in London, operated jointly by Network Rail and <a href=\\\"South%20West%20Trains\\\">South West Trains</a>. This was the first full collaboration of its kind since privatisation, and it is regarded as a model for other areas of the network, with a further six integrated Network Rail + TOC Control Centres having opened since then, at <a href=\\\"Blackfriars%20station\\\">Blackfriars</a>, <a href=\\\"Croydon\\\">Croydon</a> (Leading Control for Thameslink), , , <a href=\\\"Glasgow%20Central%20station\\\">Glasgow</a> and, most recently, <a href=\\\"Liverpool%20Street%20station\\\">Liverpool Street</a> and South Wales based in Cardiff Canton.\\nTrack renewal, the ongoing modernisation of the railway network by replacing track and signalling, continues to be carried out by private engineering firms under contract. The biggest renewals projects include the multibillion-pound upgrade of the London – Glasgow <a href=\\\"West%20Coast%20Main%20Line\\\">West Coast Main Line</a>, which was completed in 2008, the <a href=\\\"Thameslink%20Programme\\\">Thameslink Programme</a> to upgrade the north-south railway through London and work on the part of <a href=\\\"Crossrail\\\">Crossrail</a> which is operated by Network Rail.\\nNetwork Rail initially sub-contracted much of the work and the site to private infrastructure maintenance companies such as <a href=\\\"Carillion\\\">Carillion</a> and <a href=\\\"Babcock%20International%20Group\\\">First Engineering</a>. Other sub-contractors are used on site for specialist work or additional labour. These include Prima Services Group, Sky Blue, Balfour Beatty, Laboursite, BCL, Atkins (Atkins Rail) and McGinleys.\\nSince 2003 Network Rail has been building up significant in-house engineering skills, including funding of apprenticeship and foundation degree schemes. Network Rail reports significant savings resulting from the initial transfers of work away from contracting companies. Additional contracts were taken back by Network Rail after the serious <a href=\\\"Potters%20Bar%20rail%20crash\\\">accident at Potters Bar</a> and other accidents at Rotherham and King's Cross led Jarvis to pull out of the track repair business. Shortly after this, and due to other failures by maintenance companies, Network Rail took control of many more maintenance duties. Telecomms maintenance came full circle in April 2009 with the bringing in house of the staff of Thales Telecom Services Ltd (formerly <a href=\\\"British%20Rail%20Telecommunications\\\">British Rail Telecommunications</a> (BRT)).\\nIn 2006, Network Rail made public a high-tech plan to combat the effects of <a href=\\\"slippery%20rail\\\">slippery rail</a>. This plan involves the use of satellites for tracking trouble areas, water-jetting trains and crews using railhead scrubbers, sand sticks and a substance called Natrusolve, which dissolves leaf mulch.\\nAll workers working on, near or trackside have to undergo a <a href=\\\"Personal%20Track%20Safety\\\">Personal Track Safety</a> assessment (re-assessed every two years). Network Rail workers undergo an assessment every year as part of AITL (Assessment in the Line). The AITL requires each worker to go through questions on a computer based program on all the competencies held.\\nIn 2007 it was announced that the number of track renewal contractors will be reduced to four from the current six.\\nThese are now <a href=\\\"Amey%20plc\\\">Amey</a>/<a href=\\\"Seco%20Rail\\\">SECO</a>, <a href=\\\"Balfour%20Beatty\\\">Balfour Beatty</a>, <a href=\\\"Babcock%20International%20Group\\\">Babcock First Engineering</a> and <a href=\\\"Jarvis%20plc\\\">Jarvis plc</a>. Jarvis went into administration in March 2010, with the bulk of its work commitments being picked up by Babcock.\\nNetwork Rail owns more than 2,500 railway stations, divided into <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20railway%20station%20categories\\\">six categories</a>. Management and operation of most of them is carried out mostly by the principal <a href=\\\"List%20of%20companies%20operating%20trains%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">train operating company</a> serving that station; however, in a few cases the train operating company does not serve the station. For example, is served by <a href=\\\"CrossCountry\\\">CrossCountry</a>, but it is managed by <a href=\\\"East%20Midlands%20Trains\\\">East Midlands Trains</a>. As of June 2017, Network Rail manages 18 stations directly. The stations Network Rail operate are:\\nNetwork Rail High Speed also operates High Level, and . Glasgow Central and Liverpool Lime Street stations are divided into high and low-level stations – the high-level stations are all termini used primarily by the main inter-city services to those stations. The low-level stations are through routes on local commuter networks that are largely separate from other routes to the main station; these platforms are not managed by Network Rail, but instead the rail operator that primarily uses them (<a href=\\\"ScotRail\\\">ScotRail</a> and <a href=\\\"Merseyrail\\\">Merseyrail</a> respectively).\\nNetwork Rail operated station until January 2012 when it was transferred to <a href=\\\"Southern%20%28train%20operating%20company%29\\\">Southern</a>, and until November 2014 when it was transferred to <a href=\\\"c2c\\\">c2c</a>. Network Rail took over management of Bristol Temple Meads and Reading in April 2014.\\nA DfT franchise report in 2014 stated Network Rail's intention to subsume more major stations into Network Rail's directly operated portfolio. The report earmarked for Network Rail management, as well as <a href=\\\"Manchester%20Oxford%20Road%20station\\\">Manchester Oxford Road</a> and <a href=\\\"Manchester%20Victoria%20station\\\">Manchester Victoria</a> which are currently undergoing major rebuilding as part of the <a href=\\\"Northern%20Hub\\\">Northern Hub</a>. However as of 2017 the two Manchester stations remain under the operatorship of <a href=\\\"Northern%20%28train%20operating%20company%29\\\">Northern</a>.\\nNetwork Rail has several training and development sites around Britain. These include sites in <a href=\\\"Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne\\\">Newcastle</a>, Peterborough, Derby, Leeds, <a href=\\\"Walsall\\\">Walsall</a> and <a href=\\\"Larbert\\\">Larbert</a> which provide refresher courses, and train staff in new equipment. Advanced Apprentice Scheme trainees are trained at <a href=\\\"HMS%20Sultan%20%28establishment%29\\\">HMS \\\"Sultan\\\"</a> in Gosport within the whole first year and over seven 2-week periods or five 3-week periods (throughout their second and third year) of their apprenticeship, using a combination of <a href=\\\"Royal%20Navy\\\">Royal Navy</a> facilities and a specially installed training centre. All courses are taught by VT Flagship (part of <a href=\\\"Babcock%20International\\\">Babcock International</a>) in the first year but apprentices are trained by Network Rail staff in the second and third years. Network Rail bought a residential centre from <a href=\\\"Cable%20%26amp%3B%20Wireless%20plc\\\">Cable and Wireless</a> in the Westwood Business Centre near <a href=\\\"Coventry\\\">Coventry</a> for leadership development. The company and other industry partners such as <a href=\\\"VolkerRail\\\">VolkerRail</a> and Balfour Beatty also operate a Foundation Degree in conjunction with Sheffield Hallam University.\\nIn 2008, Network Rail piloted its first qualification in \\\"track engineering\\\". It has been given permission to develop courses equivalent to GCSE and A-levels.\\nNetwork Rail operates various essential telecommunication circuits for signalling and electrification control systems, train radio systems, lineside communications, level crossing CCTV, station information and security systems as well as more general IT and business telephony needs. The fixed bearer network infrastructure comprises transmission systems and telephone exchanges linked by a fibre optic and copper cable network that is located mainly within trackside troughing routes on the former <a href=\\\"British%20Rail%20Telecommunications\\\">British Rail Telecommunications</a> network. (It is the largest private telecoms network in the UK).\\nNetwork Rail operates several analogue radio networks that support mobile communication applications for drivers and lineside workers which consist of base stations, antenna systems and control equipment. The National Radio Network (NRN) was developed specifically for the operational railway; it provides radio coverage for 98% of the rail network through 500 base stations and 21 radio exchanges. The Radio Electronic Token Block <a href=\\\"RETB\\\">RETB</a> system is based on similar technology as the NRN and ORN but provides data communication for signalling token exchange as well as voice communication.\\nFixed communication at trackside is provided by telephone. These are primarily provided for signallers to communicate with train crew, via telephones mounted on signal posts, and with the public through telephones located at level crossings.\\nGAI-Tronics provides many of the telephones sited on trackside and at level crossings. They also provide Public Access Help Points on platforms and stations to provide passengers with easy access to Information and Emergency control centres.\\n<a href=\\\"GSM-R\\\">GSM-R</a> radio systems are being introduced across <a href=\\\"Europe\\\">Europe</a> under <a href=\\\"European%20Union\\\">EU</a> legislation for interoperability. In the UK, as of March 2014, Network Rail is well underway in the UK implementation of GSM-R to replace its legacy National Radio Network (NRN) and Cab Secure Radio (CSR) systems currently in use.\\nNetwork Rail has an internal infrastructure database known as GEOGIS. The system uses codes for four-digit Track IDs to identify which line at any location is referred to. The first number refers to track direction, with values of 1 (Up), 2 (Down), 3 (Reversible/Bi-directional), or 4 (Merry Go Round Loop). The second number refers to track use, which can be 1 (Main or Fast), 2 (Slow, Local or Relief), 3 (Goods), 4 (Single line), 5 (Loop), 6 (Terminal or Bay), 7 (Crossover), 8 (Other or Engine), or 9 (Single Siding). The third and fourth numbers refer to the track number, which can be any number from 00 to 99 inclusive, and are usually numbered sequentially.\\nNetwork Rail operates a large variety of DMUs, locomotives and rolling stock to perform safety checks and maintenance (this fleet is not to be confused with the combined rolling stock assets of <a href=\\\"Association%20of%20Train%20Operating%20Companies\\\">ATOC</a> members who work in combination as \\\"<a href=\\\"National%20Rail\\\">National Rail</a>\\\"). As well as the multiple units and locomotives detailed below, Network Rail own and operate a large stock of rolling stock for particular testing duties and track maintenance. Network Rail also hire freight locomotives from various freight operators including <a href=\\\"DB%20Cargo%20UK\\\">DB Cargo UK</a>, <a href=\\\"Freightliner%20UK\\\">Freightliner</a>, <a href=\\\"Colas%20Rail\\\">Colas Rail</a> and <a href=\\\"GB%20Railfreight\\\">GB Railfreight</a> amongst others to operate engineers' trains in support of maintenance and renewal work. Network Rail's Infrastructure Monitoring fleet of test trains is operated by Colas Rail, primarily using locomotives from Colas' and Network Rail's own fleets, but also using locomotives hired from other companies such as <a href=\\\"Direct%20Rail%20Services\\\">Direct Rail Services</a>, GB Railfreight and <a href=\\\"Europhoenix\\\">Europhoenix</a> as required.\\nIn May 2015, it was reported in the national press that the government was considering selling off some of Network Rail's assets, including large stations and <a href=\\\"wi-fi\\\">wi-fi</a> services. The government denied the reports.\\nFrom 1997 to 2014 (inclusive), passenger numbers have more than doubled, following little growth in the previous decades. To cope with the increasing passenger numbers, Network Rail is currently undertaking a £38 billion <a href=\\\"History%20of%20rail%20transport%20in%20Great%20Britain%201995%20to%20date%23Timeline\\\">programme of upgrades</a> to the network, including <a href=\\\"Crossrail\\\">Crossrail</a>, <a href=\\\"Railway%20electrification%20in%20Great%20Britain\\\">electrification of lines</a>, <a href=\\\"European%20Rail%20Traffic%20Management%20System%20in%20Great%20Britain\\\">in-cab signalling</a>, new <a href=\\\"Intercity%20Express%20Programme\\\">inter-city trains</a>, <a href=\\\"Thameslink%20Programme\\\">upgrading Thameslink</a>, and a new <a href=\\\"HS2\\\">high-speed line</a>.\\nFor investment projects, as opposed to routine maintenance, Network Rail has developed an eight-stage process designed to minimise and mitigate risks. This is known as the Governance for Railway Investment Projects (GRIP), previously known as “Guide to Rail Investment Projects”. The stages are as follows:\\nEach stage delivers an agreed set of outputs to defined quality criteria.\\nFor financial and other planning purposes, Network Rail works within 5-year \\\"Control Periods\\\", each one beginning on 1 April and ending on 31 March to coincide with the financial reporting year. These periods were inherited from Railtrack, so that the earlier ones are retrospective, and not necessarily of 5 years duration. They are as follows:\\nThe <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Transport\\\">Secretary of State for Transport</a> regularly issues a \\\"High-Level Output Specification\\\" (HLOS) indicating what work the Government wishes to be undertaken during a given Control Period.\\nNetwork Rail regularly publishes a Strategic Business Plan detailing their policies, processes and plans, as well as financial expenditure and other data. The most recent complete business plan was published in January 2013. Within these plans the rail network is divided into ten “devolved routes” or “operational routes”, with a Route Plan for each being published annually.\\nEach route or other plan covers a number of railway lines usually defined by geographical area and the routes are further subdivided into 17 “strategic routes”, each divided into Strategic Route Sections (SRS) and given an SRS number and name. The plans also detail the geography of routes, stations, major junctions, capacity constraints and other issues and provide data on <a href=\\\"Loading%20gauge%23Great%20Britain\\\">freight gauge</a>, <a href=\\\"Railway%20electrification%20system\\\">electrification</a>, line speed, number of tracks, capacity and other information. The plans also detail the expected future demand and development of each route, their predicted expenditure and their maintenance and investment requirements.\\nThe devolved routes were introduced in 2011, and the 17 strategic routes labelled \\\"A\\\" to \\\"Q\\\" were introduced in 2010. From 2004 to 2009, the network had been divided into 26 strategic routes numbered \\\"1\\\" to \\\"26\\\". In 2003, the network had been divided into 41 strategic routes numbered \\\"1\\\" to \\\"41\\\".\\nThe 2011 devolved routes and strategic routes are organised as in the table below.\\nNetwork Rail opened the world's largest <a href=\\\"Solar%20power%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">solar-powered bridge</a> at Blackfriars Bridge across the <a href=\\\"River%20Thames\\\">River Thames</a> in January 2014. The roof of the bridge has been covered with 4,400 <a href=\\\"photovoltaic%20panels\\\">photovoltaic panels</a>, providing up to half of the energy for London <a href=\\\"Blackfriars%20station\\\">Blackfriars station</a>.\\nThe company is accountable to a body of members through its corporate constitution, to its commercial train operator customers through its contracts with them (the contracts are subject to regulatory oversight), and to the public interest through the statutory powers of the <a href=\\\"Office%20of%20Rail%20and%20Road\\\">Office of Rail and Road</a> (ORR).\\nSince Network Rail does not have shareholders, its members hold the board of directors to account for their management of the business. From 1 July 2015 all the members were removed leaving the special member, the <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Transport\\\">Secretary of State for Transport</a>, as the sole member of Network Rail.\\nPreviously at any one time there were around 100 members in total, drawn from a wide range of industry partners and members of the public. There were two general categories of membership, industry members comprising any organisation holding a licence to operate on the railway or preferred bidder for a railway franchise, and public members who were drawn from the wider stakeholder community. Members were appointed by an independent panel and served a three-year term. They had a number of statutory rights and duties which included attending annual general meetings, receiving the Annual Report and Accounts, and approving the appointment or re-appointment of Network Rail’s directors. Members had a duty to act in the best interests of the company without personal bias. They received no payments other than travel expenses.\\nSetting the strategic direction and the day-to-day management of Network Rail is the responsibility of the company’s board of directors. That direction must be consistent with the regulatory jurisdiction of the ORR, and with the requirements of its contracts. The ORR in turn operates within the overall transport policy set by the UK <a href=\\\"Department%20for%20Transport\\\">Department for Transport</a> and the <a href=\\\"Scottish%20government\\\">Scottish government</a>, including as to what the government wants the railway industry to achieve and how much money the government is prepared to put into the industry. This means that the degree of government influence and control over the company is higher than it was before these enlargements of the powers and role of the government were introduced by the <a href=\\\"Railways%20Act%202005\\\">Railways Act 2005</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Office%20of%20Rail%20and%20Road\\\">Office of Rail and Road</a> (ORR) monitors Network Rail's performance on a continuous basis against targets established by the regulatory authority in the most recent access charges review (2003), against obligations in the company's network licence and against forecasts in its own business plan. If performance is poor, the company will face criticism and possible enforcement action from its commercial customers (under their contracts) and from the ORR (enforcing the company's network licence). It may also be criticised by its members in general meeting.\\nIn the annual report 2014/15, the ORR reported that the <a href=\\\"Public%20Performance%20Measure\\\">Public Performance Measure</a> (PPM) was 89.6%, 1.4 percentage points (pp) below target in England and Wales, and PPM in Scotland was 90.5%, 1.5pp below its regulatory performance target of 92%.\\nThe Railway Industry Planning Group (RIPG), chaired by Network Rail, has as its purpose railway industry input into the structure and development of the national railway strategic planning processes. Its members are drawn from railway funders, operators and users, and the group meets quarterly to consider:\\nWhile generally strong, the safety record of the company was marred in February 2007 when a Virgin express <a href=\\\"Grayrigg%20derailment\\\">derailed at Grayrigg</a> in <a href=\\\"Cumbria\\\">Cumbria</a>. Network Rail admitted responsibility for the incident. The <a href=\\\"Rail%20Accident%20Investigation%20Branch\\\">RAIB</a> investigation concluded in 2009 that a faulty set of points had caused the derailment. In 2012 the <a href=\\\"Office%20of%20Rail%20Regulation\\\">Office of Rail Regulation</a> announced that Network Rail was to be prosecuted under the <a href=\\\"Health%20and%20Safety%20at%20Work%20Act%201974\\\">Health and Safety Act</a> for \\\"failure to provide and implement suitable and sufficient standards, procedures, guidance, training, tools and resources for the inspection and maintenance of fixed stretcher bar points\\\". Network Rail pleaded guilty and were fined £4.1 million including legal costs.\\nIn December 2005 two young girls were killed by a train as they were crossing the railway line via a pedestrian <a href=\\\"level%20crossing\\\">level crossing</a> at in Essex. Network Rail was prosecuted for breaching <a href=\\\"health%20and%20safety\\\">health and safety</a> law and fined £1 million in March 2012. The court heard that risk assessments carried out by Network Rail staff in 2002 had identified potential dangers with the crossing and recommended the installation of gates that would lock automatically as trains approached, but this was not acted upon.\\nIn 2001 the then Labour government denied that it had nationalised the rail network in order to prevent Railtrack's shareholders claiming, via the European Court of Human Rights, the four-year average price of Railtrack, about £10 per share. Instead, Railtrack's shareholders were given only £2.60. \\\"The Times\\\" reported that Gordon Brown's aide, <a href=\\\"Shriti%20Vadera%2C%20Baroness%20Vadera\\\">Shriti Vadera</a> e-mailed <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Byers\\\">Stephen Byers</a> in July 2001 asking: \\\"Can we engineer the solution through insolvency ... and therefore avoid <a href=\\\"Compensation%20%28nationalization%29\\\">compensation</a> under the <a href=\\\"Human%20Rights%20Act%201998\\\">Human Rights Act</a>?\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Railtrack\\\">Railtrack</a> plc was placed into railway administration under the <a href=\\\"Railways%20Act%201993\\\">Railways Act 1993</a> on 7 October 2001, following an application to the <a href=\\\"High%20Court%20of%20Justice%20of%20England%20and%20Wales\\\">High Court</a> by the then <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Transport\\\">Transport Secretary</a>, Stephen Byers. It was reported in November 2001 that a further £3.5 billion might be needed to keep the national railway network running, a sum disputed by <a href=\\\"Ernst%20%26amp%3B%20Young\\\">Ernst & Young</a>, the administrators. To get Railtrack out of administration, the government had to go back to the High Court and present evidence that the company was no longer insolvent. The principal reason given by the government to the court for this assertion was the decision of the <a href=\\\"Rail%20Regulator\\\">rail regulator</a> in 2002 to carry out an interim review of the company's finances, with the potential to advance significant additional sums to the company. The High Court accepted that the company was not insolvent, and the railway administration order was discharged in October 2002.\\nUntil 2013, there was discussion over whether Network Rail is a public-sector or a private-sector entity. Although it was officially a private sector organisation, the fact that its debts were underwritten by the government, and it is partially funded by the government, has led to its being described as being \\\"nationalisation in all but name\\\". It was also claimed that the government is keen for Network Rail not to be classified as a public-sector organisation, as this would mean that the company's debt would be counted as public expenditure liabilities. The <a href=\\\"Office%20for%20National%20Statistics\\\">Office for National Statistics</a> (ONS) repeatedly clashed with the <a href=\\\"National%20Audit%20Office%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\\\">National Audit Office</a> and the <a href=\\\"Statistics%20Commission\\\">Statistics Commission</a> over whether the successor to Railtrack should be considered a private company – as the ONS believed – or included on the Government's books, as the National Audit Office argued. The NAO said that as the Government is bearing the risk that would normally be borne by equity capital, and as it can appoint, through the SRA, a director who cannot be removed by members, Network Rail is effectively a subsidiary of the Government-controlled SRA.\\nIn December 2013, the ONS announced that from September 2014, Network Rail will be classified as a \\\"government body\\\". This resulted in the company's debt of £34 billion being added to the <a href=\\\"Government%20debt\\\">national debt</a>.\\nThe new national centre now known as 'The Quadrant:MK' is in <a href=\\\"Milton%20Keynes\\\">Milton Keynes</a>: it completed construction in June 2012. The complex is five minutes' walk from . The four buildings, which are connected to a central street, accommodate about 3,000 people. s of June 2012 , the engineering, logistics, operations including timetable planning, IT, procurement, planning and finance departments all planned to move to the Quadrant.\",\n \"Ed Davey\\nSir Edward Jonathan Davey, {'1': \\\", '2': \\\", '3': \\\", '4': \\\"} (born 25 December 1965) is a British <a href=\\\"Liberal%20Democrats%20%28UK%29\\\">Liberal Democrat</a> politician. He is the <a href=\\\"Member%20of%20Parliament%20%28UK%29\\\">Member of Parliament</a> (MP) for <a href=\\\"Kingston%20and%20Surbiton%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29\\\">Kingston and Surbiton</a> since the 2017 general election, having previously been MP for the constituency from 1997 to 2015.\\nHe served in the <a href=\\\"Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg%20coalition\\\">Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition</a> as <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Energy%20and%20Climate%20Change\\\">Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change</a> from 2012 to 2015, having previously served as <a href=\\\"Parliamentary%20Under-Secretary%20of%20State\\\">Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State</a> at the <a href=\\\"Department%20for%20Business%2C%20Innovation%20and%20Skills\\\">Department for Business, Innovation and Skills</a>, with responsibility for Employment Relations, Consumer and Postal Affairs, since 2010.\\nDavey was born in <a href=\\\"Annesley%20Woodhouse\\\">Annesley Woodhouse</a>, <a href=\\\"Nottinghamshire\\\">Nottinghamshire</a>. His father John died when Davey was four years old, and his mother Nina (née Stanbrook) eleven years later, following which he was brought up by his mother's parents. After attending senior school at the private independent <a href=\\\"Nottingham%20High%20School\\\">Nottingham High School</a> in the year above Ed Balls, where he was <a href=\\\"head%20boy\\\">head boy</a> in 1984, he attended <a href=\\\"Jesus%20College%2C%20Oxford\\\">Jesus College, Oxford</a>, where he was awarded a first class <a href=\\\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\\\">BA</a> degree in <a href=\\\"Philosophy%2C%20Politics%20and%20Economics\\\">PPE</a> in 1988. Whilst at Oxford, he was also elected to the <a href=\\\"Junior%20Common%20Room\\\">JCR presidency</a> of Jesus College.\\nAs a teenager he worked at Pork Farms <a href=\\\"pork%20pie\\\">pork pie</a> factory and at <a href=\\\"Boots%20Group\\\">Boots</a>. In 1989, he became an economics researcher for the Liberal Democrats, principally to <a href=\\\"Alan%20Beith\\\">Alan Beith</a>, the party's then Treasury spokesman, while studying at <a href=\\\"Birkbeck%2C%20University%20of%20London\\\">Birkbeck College, London</a>, for a <a href=\\\"master%27s%20degree\\\">master's degree</a> (MSc) in Economics. In 1993, he took up the position of <a href=\\\"management%20consultant\\\">management consultant</a> with Omega Partners until being elected.\\nEdward Davey was elected to the <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Commons%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">House of Commons</a> at his first attempt at the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%201997\\\">1997 General Election</a> where he defeated <a href=\\\"Richard%20Tracey\\\">Richard Tracey</a>, the sitting <a href=\\\"Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29\\\">Conservative</a> MP for the former constituency of <a href=\\\"Surbiton\\\">Surbiton</a>, with a majority of just 56 votes and remained the seat's MP for 18 years. He made his <a href=\\\"maiden%20speech\\\">maiden speech</a> on 6 June 1997, in which he gave his support for the setting up of the <a href=\\\"London%20Assembly\\\">London Assembly</a>, but against the idea of a directly elected <a href=\\\"Mayor%20of%20London\\\">Mayor of London</a>, he also talked about the effects governmental cuts were having on the education delivery in the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Borough%20of%20Kingston%20upon%20Thames\\\">Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames</a>.\\nIn 1997 Davey was responsible for introducing the Liberal Democrat policy of a penny on income tax to pay for education. The following year he was the primary sponsor of an Early Day Motion supporting the repeal of the <a href=\\\"Greenwich%20Judgement\\\">Greenwich Judgement</a>, which prevents Local Authorities from giving their own residents priority access to school places. He was one of the contributors to the (2004).\\nIn 2003 Davey introduced the clause which repealed the prohibition of \\\"promotion of homosexuality\\\" under <a href=\\\"Section%2028\\\">Section 28</a> of the <a href=\\\"Local%20Government%20Act%201988\\\">Local Government Act 1988</a>.\\nIn parliament Davey was given a job immediately by <a href=\\\"Paddy%20Ashdown\\\">Paddy (now Lord) Ashdown</a> and became the party's spokesman on <a href=\\\"HM%20Treasury\\\">Treasury Affairs</a>, adding the post of <a href=\\\"whip%20%28politics%29\\\">Whip</a> in 1998, and a third job to hold as the spokesman on <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a> from 2000.\\nDavey was re-elected in the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202001\\\">2001 general election</a> with an increased majority over former Conservative MP <a href=\\\"David%20Shaw%20%28UK%20politician%29\\\">David Shaw</a>. He joined the Liberal Democrat frontbench under leader <a href=\\\"Charles%20Kennedy\\\">Charles Kennedy</a> in the same year by becoming Liberal Democrat spokesperson for <a href=\\\"Chief%20Secretary%20to%20the%20Treasury\\\">Treasury matters</a>. In 2002, he became the Liberal Democrat spokesperson for the <a href=\\\"Office%20of%20the%20Deputy%20Prime%20Minister\\\">Office of the Deputy Prime Minister</a>. He was appointed Liberal Democrat spokesperson for <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Education%20and%20Skills\\\">Education and Skills</a> in 2005 before becoming Liberal Democrats spokesperson for Trade and Industry in March 2006. In December 2006, he succeeded <a href=\\\"Norman%20Lamb\\\">Norman Lamb</a> as Chief of Staff to <a href=\\\"Sir%20Menzies%20Campbell\\\">Sir Menzies Campbell</a>, the party leader. Davey is Chair of the party's Campaigns and Communications Committee. Following <a href=\\\"Nick%20Clegg\\\">Nick Clegg</a>'s election as Leader of the Liberal Democrat Party, Davey was awarded the foreign affairs brief, and continued to retain his chairmanship of the party's Campaigns and Communications Committee.\\nOn 26 February 2008, Davey was <a href=\\\"suspension%20from%20the%20UK%20parliament\\\">suspended from parliament</a> for the day for ignoring a warning from the deputy speaker. He was protesting about the exclusion by the speaker of a Liberal Democrat motion to debate and vote on whether the <a href=\\\"UK%20withdrawal%20from%20the%20European%20Union\\\">UK should have a referendum on staying in the EU</a>.\\nAt the 2009 Liberal Democrat conference, Davey caused controversy calling for dialogue with the Taliban, through declaring that it was 'time for tea with the <a href=\\\"Taliban\\\">Taliban</a>', a comment echoed by <a href=\\\"Malala%20Yousafzai\\\">Malala Yousafzai</a> four years later to the BBC.\\nFollowing the <a href=\\\"Conservative%20%E2%80%93%20Liberal%20Democrat%20Coalition%20Agreement\\\">Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement</a>, after the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202010\\\">2010 general election</a>, Davey was appointed <a href=\\\"Parliamentary%20Under%20Secretary%20of%20State\\\">Parliamentary Under Secretary of State</a> in the <a href=\\\"Department%20for%20Business%2C%20Innovation%20and%20Skills\\\">Department for Business, Innovation and Skills</a> with responsibility for Employment Relations, Consumer and Postal Affairs.\\nOn 3 February 2012, following the resignation of <a href=\\\"Chris%20Huhne\\\">Chris Huhne</a> due to his <a href=\\\"R%20v%20Huhne\\\">prosecution for perverting the course of justice</a>, Davey was appointed <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Energy%20and%20Climate%20Change\\\">Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change</a>, and appointed to the <a href=\\\"Privy%20Council%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">Privy Council</a> on 8 February. As <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Energy%20and%20Climate%20Change\\\">Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change</a>, Davey also became a member of the <a href=\\\"National%20Security%20Council%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\\\">National Security Council (United Kingdom)</a>.\\nAt the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202015\\\">2015 general election</a>, Davey was defeated by <a href=\\\"Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29\\\">Conservative</a> candidate <a href=\\\"James%20Berry%20%28politician%29\\\">James Berry</a> by 2,834 votes after the Liberal Democrat vote fell by over 15% in Kingston & Surbiton. Davey regained the seat for the Liberal Democrats at the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%202017\\\">2017 general election</a>, with a majority of 4,124 votes over Berry.\\nDavey has taken up several business appointments since leaving his role as Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change in May 2015.\\nDavey married Emily Gasson (Lib Dem candidate in <a href=\\\"North%20Dorset%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29\\\">North Dorset</a>) in summer 2005 and their first child, John Alban Davey, was born in December 2007. Their son has speech difficulties, leading to Davey's interest in speech therapy. They live in <a href=\\\"Surbiton\\\">Surbiton</a>, <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>; Davey lived there before his election as an MP in 1997. Emily had the number two position on the Lib Dem London-wide candidate list for the <a href=\\\"London%20Assembly%20election%2C%202016\\\">2016 London Assembly elections</a>, but was not elected.\\nIn 1995, Davey won a <a href=\\\"Royal%20Humane%20Society\\\">Royal Humane Society</a> bravery award and commendation from the <a href=\\\"Chief%20Constable\\\">Chief Constable</a> of the <a href=\\\"British%20Transport%20Police\\\">British Transport Police</a> for rescuing a woman who had fallen onto the railway line in the face of on oncoming train at <a href=\\\"Clapham%20Junction\\\">Clapham Junction</a> station.\\nIn 2001 he was elected a <a href=\\\"Fellow\\\">Fellow</a> of the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Society%20of%20Arts\\\">Royal Society of Arts</a> (FRSA).\\nDavey was <a href=\\\"Knight%20Bachelor\\\">knighted</a> in the <a href=\\\"2016%20New%20Year%20Honours\\\">2016 New Year Honours</a>.\\n\",\n \"Stansfield\\nStansfield is a village and <a href=\\\"civil%20parish\\\">civil parish</a> in the <a href=\\\"St%20Edmundsbury%20%28borough%29\\\">St Edmundsbury</a> district of <a href=\\\"Suffolk\\\">Suffolk</a> in eastern <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a>. Located seven miles south-west of <a href=\\\"Bury%20St%20Edmunds\\\">Bury St Edmunds</a>, in 2011 its population was 221. The village has an Anglican church dedicated to All Saints. In 1870, John Marius Wilson's Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales described Stansfield as\\nIn Old English, Stansfield would have been interpreted as ‘Stan’s open land’, referring to someone’s unencumbered and arable land in which they owned at the time. Earliest History of Stansfield dates back to 1066 in the <a href=\\\"Domesday%20Book\\\">Domesday Book</a>, where the value to the Lord was £3.50. The Lords of Stansfield in 1066 were Crawa, Edric Spud and Wulffled.\\nIn 1881, the introduction of women’s occupations on the census was initiated. While 87 males remained working in the agricultural sector, 15 females were engaged in domestic offices and services, 12 of which were domestic indoor servants. 72 females were classified as ‘unknown occupation’, compared to just one male.\\nBetween 1837 and 1889 Stansfield was part of the Risbridge Registration District and the Suffolk County. On 1 April 1889 however, Stansfield became part of the West Suffolk County, where it remained so until 1938. In 1938 Risbridge Registration District lost several parishes, of which Stansfield was one. On 1 July 1938 Stansfield became part of the Newmarket Registration District.\\nStansfield population was 221 in 2011, of which 117 were economically active and 57 economically inactive. Of the inactive population 27 were retired. The population of Stansfield has been declining since the 1850s. In 1841 the population peaked at 510 but, by 1961 it had declined to 186, as seen in the 'Current Total Population graph'. This suggests that between 1841 and 1961 people began to move from rural communities and parishes to bigger cities such as London where there was work emerging in the factories and the industrial sector. This follows the average trend of the country for that period.\\nIn 2011, the industry employing the most people in Stansfield was construction with 13 people. Additionally the second most popular was professional, scientific and technical activities with 12 people. The least common industry in the parish was Public Administration and Defence with 3 people, showing a clear shift in industry since the 19th century.\\nAccording to the 2011 census, 56% of the people living in Stansfield were Christian, slightly below the national average which was 59.4%, as well as the 2001 percentage of Christians in Stansfield which was 69%. 32% stated no religion in the 2011 census.\\nIn terms of housing, there was a peak of houses in 1851 when there was 116. From the first census data in 1831, it is clear that there was a rapid increase in housing between 1831 an 1841 where there was an increase from 62 houses to 105. This continued to increase until 1851. Over the next 30 years houses began to decrease as people would have moved to cities such as London in search of factory work. Between 1901 and 1961 houses remained in the numbers of 70-80. By 2011 the number of houses in the parish had increased to 92, an increase of nine from the 2001 census.\\nWith 56% of the local population classified as Christian, the local church; All Saints Church has always played a pivotal role within the community. The church itself is flint-fronted and is situated at the north end of the village on Plough Hill. History of the church dates back to the time of the Norman conquest. Very little of the original church still exists, In 1896 the 70 foot, fourteenth century, Norman erected foot tower was restored and new tower bells were introduced. In regards to the size of the church, it can be considered large in comparison to the size of the parish and local population. It was restored again recently, through efforts of the Stansfield Church Restoration Committee and the whole village. Within the church a war memorial can be found to commemorate the Stansfield men that lost their lives in the First and Second World Wars. On the memorial it states;\\nIn total, ten men lost their lives, eight in the First World War and two in the Second World War.\\nBetween the years of 1642 and 1661 no marriages were registered in Stansfield. It appears that under the act of 1653, marriage became a civil ceremony, thus the functions of the Clergy were transferred to the Justices of Peace; and the registers of such marriages may have been kept elsewhere. From 1653 to 1660, it is noticeable that the entries of births, baptisms and burials are well kept and written in English. The last entry under the commonwealth in English was on 3 May 1960. The next being on 14 August of the same year but in Latin. Latin was in continued use until 1732.\\nStansfield parish features a book club, village fete, bridge club, cricket club and a monthly newsletter. With a low population, each activity allows the community spirit to remain high. The Parish features its own council, which discusses community concerns and events taking place. Typically made up of six residents of the community.\\nIn terms of schools in the local area, the closest primary school is 2.9 miles away from Stansfield and is Wickhambrook Community Primary School, while the closest secondary school is 4.3 miles away and is Stour Valley Community School.\\nThe Parish of Stansfield is still rather inaccessible via public transport. The closest railway station is 12.1 miles away and is in Sudbury. There is one bus which runs through Stansfield. It is the 343 bus run by Stephensons Coaches between <a href=\\\"Poslingford\\\">Poslingford</a> and <a href=\\\"Haverhill%2C%20Suffolk\\\">Haverhill</a>. Stansfield is part of Suffolk ACRE's Community Buying Enterprise which helps residents to save money on heating oil within households.\",\n \"Calderdale Way\\nThe Calderdale Way is a 50 mi <a href=\\\"long-distance%20footpath\\\">long-distance footpath</a> in <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>, England. It was devised in the 1970s to draw attention to attractions in the <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale</a> district which was being established at that time.\\nThe route is circular and walks can be started at any point. The official start is at Clay House in <a href=\\\"West%20Vale\\\">West Vale</a> and the route includes much exposed <a href=\\\"moorland\\\">moorland</a>, woodland paths, a short section of canal towpath and some road sections. It passes through several settlements, including <a href=\\\"Ripponden\\\">Ripponden</a>, <a href=\\\"Mankinholes\\\">Mankinholes</a>, <a href=\\\"Todmorden\\\">Todmorden</a>, <a href=\\\"Heptonstall\\\">Heptonstall</a>, Holdsworth, <a href=\\\"Shelf%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Shelf</a> and <a href=\\\"Brighouse\\\">Brighouse</a>. One published guidebook divides the walk into four day-long sections.\\nThe route is the basis for the annual Calderdale Way Relay organised by Halifax Harriers.\\nThe Calderdale Way Ultra now takes in the whole 50 miles organised by Cannonball Events.\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"John Taylor & Co\\nJohn Taylor & Co, commonly known as Taylor's Bell Foundry, Taylor's of Loughborough, or simply Taylor's, is the world's largest working <a href=\\\"bell%20%28instrument%29\\\">bell</a> <a href=\\\"foundry\\\">foundry</a>. It is in <a href=\\\"Loughborough\\\">Loughborough</a>, in the <a href=\\\"Charnwood%20%28borough%29\\\">Charnwood</a> borough of <a href=\\\"Leicestershire\\\">Leicestershire</a>, England. The business originated in the 14th century and became Taylor's after the Taylor family took over in 1784.\\nIn 2009 Taylors went bankrupt but was bought out of <a href=\\\"Administration%20%28law%29\\\">administration</a> by a consortium called UK Bellfoundries Ltd which successfully re-financed and re-established the business. Since then the company has re-established its presence both in the UK and in the North American Carillon and other export markets.\\nThe company manufactures bells for use in <a href=\\\"Clock%20tower\\\">clock towers</a>, <a href=\\\"ring%20of%20bells\\\">rings of bells</a> for <a href=\\\"change%20ringing\\\">change ringing</a>, <a href=\\\"chime%20%28bell%20instrument%29\\\">chime</a>s, and <a href=\\\"carillon\\\">carillon</a>s. In 2005 John Taylor's had merged with Eayre & Smith Ltd (bellhangers) and from 2005 until 2009 became Taylors Eayre & Smith Ltd.\\nThe Foundry has a <a href=\\\"museum\\\">museum</a> of bells and bellfounding which is the only one of its kind in the UK. The restoration of the foundry buildings began with the re-opening in 2012 of the foundry's own Campanile which contains the most-pealed bells in the World. It is one of the few <a href=\\\"Victorian%20era\\\">Victorian</a> purpose-built manufacturing sites still being used for its original purpose and therefore of considerable heritage merit.\\nThe present company is part of a line of bellfounders dating back to Johannes de Stafford in the 14th century who was also a <a href=\\\"Lord%20Mayor%20of%20Leicester\\\">mayor of Leicester</a>. The Taylor family became involved in 1784 and a foundry was established on the current site in 1839. The Taylors also had foundries in <a href=\\\"Oxford\\\">Oxford</a> and <a href=\\\"St%20Neots\\\">St Neots</a> between 1786 and 1854. Taylors were the first bellfounder to adopt \\\"true-harmonic\\\" tuning in the late 19th century. The foundry is based in buildings on Freehold Street which are <a href=\\\"Listed%20building\\\">Grade II* listed</a>.\\nIn 1963, Paul Taylor, last of the Taylor family in the business, appeared on the American TV panel show \\\"<a href=\\\"What%27s%20My%20Line%3F\\\">What's My Line?</a>\\\", challenging the panel with his occupation as a bell maker.\\nOn 18 September 2009 the company went into <a href=\\\"Administration%20%28law%29\\\">administration</a>. Mazars, who had previously been acting as advisors to the company during attempts to secure extra funding were appointed Administrators. On 2 October 2009 it was reported that the administrators were \\\"optimistic about its future.\\\" On 15 October 2009, in a statement released by UK Bellfounders Ltd., a consortium of ringers, members of the bell industry and other investors, it was stated that the foundry would reopen on 19 October, reverting to the previous name of John Taylor & Co. Paul Taylor's widow, Mrs Merle Taylor, is Hon President of the new company.\\nBefore September 2009 the foundry was employing 26 people, and since then the new company employs 21 including 4 apprentices.\\nThe <a href=\\\"National%20Twelve-Bell%20Striking%20Contest\\\">National Twelve Bell Contest</a> is competed for annually by the leading teams in England for \\\"The Taylor Trophy\\\".\\nIn 1881 Taylor's cast at Loughborough, \\\"Great Paul\\\", which is the largest British cast bell in Britain, for <a href=\\\"St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral\\\">St Paul's Cathedral</a> London, weighing 17002 kg or more than 17 metric tons. Rock band <a href=\\\"AC/DC\\\">AC/DC</a> used a 2000-pound cast bronze bell for the song, \\\"<a href=\\\"Hells%20Bells%20%28song%29\\\">Hells Bells</a>\\\", which was originally used on the \\\"<a href=\\\"Back%20in%20Black\\\">Back in Black</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Back%20in%20Black%20Tour\\\">tour</a> in 1980.\\nMany churches across the world have used bells cast at Taylor's Bell Foundry, including:\\n\",\n \"Wadsworth, West Yorkshire\\nWadsworth is a <a href=\\\"Civil%20parishes%20in%20England\\\">civil parish</a> in the <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale</a> in <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>, <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a>. It has a population of 1,456, increasing to 1,603 at the 2011 Census, and was, until 1974, part of <a href=\\\"Hepton%20Rural%20District\\\">Hepton Rural District</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Historic%20counties%20of%20England\\\">Historically</a> part of the <a href=\\\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\\\">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>, the main settlements in the parish are <a href=\\\"Old%20Town%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Old Town</a>, <a href=\\\"Chiserley\\\">Chiserley</a> and Pecket Well. It was named a <a href=\\\"berewick\\\">berewick</a> of <a href=\\\"Wakefield\\\">Wakefield</a> in <a href=\\\"Domesday%20Book\\\">Domesday Book</a>, and thus subsequently recorded as a subinfeudatory manor, before its subsequent <a href=\\\"extinguishment\\\">extinguishment</a> in the nineteenth century. From the seventeenth century it was also one of five <a href=\\\"township\\\">township</a>s forming the chapelry of <a href=\\\"Heptonstall\\\">Heptonstall</a>.\\n\",\n \"Mytholmroyd\\nMytholmroyd is a large village in <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Bridge\\\">Hebden Bridge</a>, <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>, England, 10 mi east of <a href=\\\"Burnley\\\">Burnley</a> and 7 mi west of <a href=\\\"Halifax%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Halifax</a>. The village is in the Luddendenfoot Ward of <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale Council</a> and forms part of the <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Royd\\\">Hebden Royd</a> <a href=\\\"parish\\\">parish</a>.\\nMytholmroyd was recorded in the 13th century as \\\"Mithomrode\\\" and in the 17th century as \\\"Mitholmroide\\\". The name means 'a clearing for settlement, where two rivers meet', likely derived from the <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a> \\\"(ge)mȳthum\\\" (inflected form of \\\"(ge)mȳthe\\\", \\\"river mouth\\\"), plus \\\"rodu\\\" (\\\"field\\\" or \\\"clearing\\\"). The \\\"l\\\" was probably inserted out of confusion with the common place-name element \\\"holm\\\", <a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a> for a small island or <a href=\\\"eyot\\\">eyot</a>.\\nA Bronze Age urnfield exists on the moor top, north of Mytholmroyd. It is a burial ground with cremation urns, dating between the 16th and 11th centuries BC of national importance. Evidence of pre-historic farming is apparent because they cleared the upland forests for cattle grazing and created the peat moorlands. Most of the Celtic Iron Age settlements were concentrated on the hillside terraces which avoided the wooded and poorly drained valley floors. Most of the older listed buildings are located on the hillsides away from the valley. A Roman coin hoard has been found to the south of Mytholmroyd.\\nDuring the late 18th century, the valley to the south, known as <a href=\\\"Cragg%20Vale\\\">Cragg Vale</a>, was home to a gang of <a href=\\\"counterfeit\\\">counterfeit</a>ers known as the Cragg Coiners. The gang's leader, David Hartley, or King David as he was known, was found guilty of the 1769 murder of excise official William Dighton and was hanged at the <a href=\\\"York\\\">York</a> <a href=\\\"Knavesmire\\\">Tyburn</a> on 28 April 1770. Two other gang members were also executed for their part in the murder.\\nBuilt in 1851 as Canal Wharf Mill, it was home to local company Walkley Clogs, and converted into a well known tourist attraction with cafes, shops and an open clog factory on the ground floor. It was destroyed by fire in the 1990s; consequently the top floor was demolished and re-opened under ownership of a property development company. It subsequently closed in 2002 and has since been boarded up. Numerous planning applications to continue its former use or convert it into luxury apartments have been passed but never undertaken.\\nThe parish church was built in 1847 in Early English style. It was badly damaged in the 2015 floods but has since re-opened. The Sunday school in front of the church was reduced to one storey and is now used as a community hall and meeting spaces available for hire. In 2009 a new town square complete with monument was constructed in the church car park and is now used for markets and events.\\nThere has been a river crossing point since 1329 in the centre of the village, at the site of the current 'County Bridge'. A bridge is recorded in this location under the name \\\"Elphaborough Bridge\\\", after the name of Elphaborough Hall on the further side of Cragg Brook. Records of a grant issued to the local township for the purchase of timber stated it was for \\\"repairs to Mitholmroide Bridge\\\", in 1638. Similar records show that the current stone bridge was erected in 1684 by Timothy Wadsworth, at a cost of £50. The current bridge was constructed in two parts (and now consists of four extensions). The original packhorse style bridge in 1638, and on the upstream side, the bridge was widened and two extra arches on the south end were added to ease the gradient, although the two new arches were considerably smaller, the bridge now consists of four arches in total. In the 19th century, with shops being constructed on the north end riverbank, and a new premises being built for the Mytholmroyd Co-Operative Society right up to the water's edge on the south bank, two of the bridge's arches are mostly hidden. However, the premises were built with a large opening underneath the buildings, allowing floodwater to still pass through the two hidden arches underground. Mytholmroyd Bridge was eventually taken over by West Riding County Council, which gives the historic bridge its present name of \\\"County Bridge\\\".\\nA prominent viaduct lies above the southern end of Mytholmroyd town centre. It was erected in 1840 by George Stephenson and is still in use as part of the modern day <a href=\\\"Calder%20Valley%20Line\\\">Calder Valley Line</a>. In the 1850s, <a href=\\\"Mytholmroyd%20railway%20station\\\">Mytholmroyd railway station</a> was built, consisting of two platforms built on the Mytholmroyd Viaduct, and a three-storey ticket office, waiting hall and entrance stairwell, leading unto the viaduct. This later closed and the platforms were built a matter of yards up the track on land, and is now accessed by open staircases and long access ramps up the steep banking, where flowers and displays are maintained by the Mytholmroyd Station Partnership.\\nThis late 18th century pub replaced an earlier inn on the opposite side of the road, where Bridge End cottages now stand. The earlier building was home to the Cragg Coiners in 1769. The current <a href=\\\"Listed%20building\\\">Grade II-listed</a> inn comprises a hotel, bar and restaurant. The premises were severely damaged in the 2012 and 2015 flooding, causing the business to close for repairs. The bar re-opened in April 2016 and was awarded the \\\"pub of the season award\\\" for summer 2016 by the local <a href=\\\"Campaign%20for%20real%20ale\\\">CAMRA</a> branch. s of February 2017 the hotel and restaurant are yet to re-open.\\nRedacre House, off Burnley Road, dates from the late 16th century, and is probably the earliest house in Calderdale exhibiting an F-plan formed by the projecting two-storey porch and crosswing.\\nMytholmroyd now is a designated conservation area, with more than 21 listed buildings in the centre alone. The village is located approximately 1 mi from the centre of <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Bridge\\\">Hebden Bridge</a>, and is often known to locals as 'Royd'. The population is roughly 4,000. The village holds markets, performances at the St. Michael's Enterprise Centre, antique shows and fairs, together with events at the sports and leisure centre and at the Ted Hughes Theatre. Mytholmroyd has many business parks and a high street in the centre with mainly independent shops including a gift shop, garden shop, post office, sweet shop, hardware shop, travel centre, launderette, hair salons and takeaways. There are also many eating venues including Aux Delacies Bistro & Wine Bar,the Blue Teapot bistro,Riverside Cafe, the Shoulder of Mutton and more. There is a medical complex including a dental practice, pharmacy, health centre, opticians and more.\\nThe village is currently under development with the <a href=\\\"Environment%20Agency\\\">Environment Agency</a>'s Mytholmroyd Flood Alleviation Scheme. This includes raising the height of flood walls on the banks of the River Calder and Cragg Brook, as well as demolishing homes and businesses on the Calder's banks to widen the river. The village's post office is to be relocated to flood-proof premises, with other buildings being stabilised and strengthened. Caldene Bridge, upstream from County Bridge, is to be demolished and relocated as well as the bridge at Greenhill Industrial Estate.\\nMytholmroyd was severely affected by the <a href=\\\"2015%E2%80%9316%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland%20floods\\\">Boxing Day floods in 2015</a>, when the <a href=\\\"River%20Calder%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">River Calder</a> and the canal both rose to cover the valley floor, and consequently the town centre of Mytholmroyd. It was the highest ever recorded river level. Hundreds of homes and businesses were devastated, with some buildings still empty today. The row of shops north of County Bridge partially collapsed into the river, and £10 million was earmarked for future protection of the village. The whole row of shops which partially collapsed are to be fully demolished, along with homes along the riverbank at Calder Grove. Russell Dean Furnishers are to re-build their furniture showroom above ground level and the <a href=\\\"Co-op%20Food\\\">Co-op Food</a> is to rebuild its premises.\\nA flash flood occurred in July 2012, when a downpour lasting just 90 minutes devastated the village. This was a repeat of another flash flood of June, in the same year, where more than 50 mm of rain fell causing the River Calder to burst its banks. More than 5,000 properties were severely damaged in the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\\\">Upper Calder Valley</a>; many businesses lost insurance and consequently many never recovered.\\nOn Saturday, 21 August 1954, almost 8 years since the devastating 1946 flood, a flash flood devastated the village once again; the river rose by more than 6 ft in less than two hours, with flood water entering properties at over 2 ft every 15 minutes. The Dusty Miller Inn had almost 4 ft of water in its bar area. Flood alleviation works in the 1960s uncovered that County Bridge was standing on foundations untouched since the wooden bridge 17th century, so as part of the works the bridge's foundations were quickly filled with concrete.\\nIn the worst flooding to ever affect the village, many properties suffered flood water up to the second storey, and the village remained underwater for almost 12 hours. Two shops on Burnley Road collapsed into the river, shops just doors down from the buildings that collapsed in the 2015 flood. By 8 am, flood waters reached up to 7 feet.\\nA disastrous flood occurred in 1837; few details are known about it, although it is known that the river reached the height of the canal, built on the hillside, and ultimately overflowed it.\\nMytholmroyd is the home of <a href=\\\"Calder%20High%20School\\\">Calder High School</a>, the largest Comprehensive School in the <a href=\\\"Upper%20Calder%20Valley\\\">Upper Calder Valley</a>. It is also home to Scout Road Academy and Burnley Road Academy. In 2016, plans were announced by <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale</a> Council to re-locate Cragg Vale School into <a href=\\\"Calder%20High%20School\\\">Calder High School</a>'s sixth form, with a new sixth form centre to be built on fields to the rear of the school, on a larger scale, to incorporate the recently closed Todmorden Sixth Form.\\nMytholmroyd Community Centre hosts the annual <a href=\\\"Dock%20Pudding\\\">Dock Pudding</a> Championships, in April. In 2007 <a href=\\\"Robbie%20Coltrane\\\">Robbie Coltrane</a> entered the competition and was awarded second place.\\nThe 130 ft <a href=\\\"Scout%20Rock\\\">Scout Rock</a> on the south side of the valley in Mytholmroyd features heavily in <a href=\\\"Ted%20Hughes\\\">Ted Hughes</a>' autobiography, \\\"The Rock\\\". Hughes was born in the village, before moving to <a href=\\\"Mexborough\\\">Mexborough</a>, but latterly owned a property in Mytholmroyd in his adulthood. Hughes claimed that Scout Rock cast its mood over the village.\\nThe village is served by <a href=\\\"Mytholmroyd%20railway%20station\\\">Mytholmroyd railway station</a>, located on New Road, <a href=\\\"Northern%20%28train%20operating%20company%29\\\">Northern</a> operate a two per-hour service between <a href=\\\"Leeds\\\">Leeds</a> and <a href=\\\"Manchester\\\">Manchester</a>. However, more frequent services from <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Bridge\\\">Hebden Bridge</a> are often used by Mytholmroyd residents, with direct services to <a href=\\\"Blackpool\\\">Blackpool</a>, <a href=\\\"Manchester\\\">Manchester</a>, <a href=\\\"York\\\">York</a>, <a href=\\\"Leeds\\\">Leeds</a>, <a href=\\\"Burnley\\\">Burnley</a>, <a href=\\\"Rochdale\\\">Rochdale</a> and more. The <a href=\\\"Calder%20Valley%20Line\\\">Calder Valley Line</a> railway was completed in 1841 but there was no station at Mytholmroyd which shows how few people lived here in 1840.\\nThe village has two main bus stops in the village centre—recently equipped with departure screens, new shelters, toilets and seating. Local bus services are shared between TLC Travel (operating the 597, 900 and 901) and <a href=\\\"First%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">First West Yorkshire</a> (operating the 590 and 592), which serve the village. There is a large taxi rank based in the village and also cycling is very popular in the area since recent investment including the resurfacing of the <a href=\\\"Rochdale%20Canal\\\">Rochdale Canal</a> and <a href=\\\"Route%2066%20Cycleway\\\">Route 66 Cycleway</a> and <a href=\\\"Le%20Tour%20de%20France\\\">Le Tour de France</a> passing through the village. The <a href=\\\"Tour%20de%20Yorkshire\\\">Tour de Yorkshire</a> now also passes through the village, including <a href=\\\"Cragg%20Vale\\\">Cragg Vale</a>, also in Mytholmroyd, the longest continuous climb in the country- and also the longest line of bunting hung from the bottom to the top of the road, this was verified in 2014 by the <a href=\\\"Guinness%20Book%20of%20World%20Records\\\">Guinness Book of World Records</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Leeds%20Bradford%20Airport\\\">Leeds Airport</a> is accessible by rail and bus from Mytholmroyd.\\nThe village is part of the <a href=\\\"Luddendenfoot\\\">Luddendenfoot</a> <a href=\\\"Wards%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">ward</a> of the <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20borough\\\">Metropolitan borough</a> of <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale</a>, part of the <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20county\\\">Metropolitan county</a> of <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>.\\nAt a district level Mytholmroyd Urban District Council was set up in 1894. In 1937 it merged with Hebden Bridge Urban District Council to become <a href=\\\"Hebden%20Royd\\\">Hebden Royd</a> Urban District Council. At a county level Mytholmroyd was administered by the <a href=\\\"West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire\\\">West Riding</a> County Council. Both of these were abolished as part of the reforms introduced in the <a href=\\\"Local%20Government%20Act%201972\\\">Local Government Act 1972</a>. They were replaced with West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council and <a href=\\\"Calderdale\\\">Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council</a>. The Hebden Royd Town Council area forms a <a href=\\\"civil%20parishes%20in%20England\\\">civil parish</a>. West Yorkshire County Council was abolished in 1986, leaving Mytholmroyd with represented at borough and town council level.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cornholme railway station served the village of Cornholme in West Yorkshire, England on the Copy Pit line. The station was opened by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in July 1878 (nearly thirty years after the line itself) and closed by the LMS on 26 September 1938. The line remains in use for passenger trains between York/Leeds and Blackpool, which run non-stop between Hebden Bridge and Burnley.","Burnley Manchester Road is a railway station serving the town of Burnley, Lancashire, England. It is situated on the Calder Valley Line 24+1/2 mi east of , near to the route's junction with the East Lancashire Line."],"string":"[\n \"Cornholme railway station served the village of Cornholme in West Yorkshire, England on the Copy Pit line. The station was opened by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in July 1878 (nearly thirty years after the line itself) and closed by the LMS on 26 September 1938. The line remains in use for passenger trains between York/Leeds and Blackpool, which run non-stop between Hebden Bridge and Burnley.\",\n \"Burnley Manchester Road is a railway station serving the town of Burnley, Lancashire, England. It is situated on the Calder Valley Line 24+1/2 mi east of , near to the route's junction with the East Lancashire Line.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":58,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which 2014 American romantic teen drama, based on the novel of the same name by John Green, did Ansel Elgort play the character Augustus Waters?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Ansel Elgort"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ashima Shiraishi\nAshima Shiraishi (born April 3, 2001 in New York, NY) is an American rock climber. She started climbing at age six at Rat Rock in Central Park with her father. In a few years, she become a top female boulderer and sport climber. Currently, she is widely considered to be \"the\" best teenage climber of either gender. Her outstanding accolades include first place finishes in international competitions, multiple \"first female\" and \"youngest\" ascents, and several corporate sponsorships. She is featured in several short documentary-style films and is the subject of the documentary short \"Return to the Red\" (2012). She jokes that her only \"claim to fame\" is that actor and teen heartthrob Ansel Elgort climbs at her home gym.\nThe \"New York Times\" has called her a \"bouldering phenom\". \"Outside Magazine\" has described her as a \"young crusher\". At age 13 she became the second female, and youngest person, to climb a sport route with a difficulty grade of 5.14d/5.15a (9a/9a+). In 2016, she achieved the first female ascent of the V15 \"Horizon\" in Mount Hiei, Japan and became the first female climber to climb the grade.\nAshima was born in New York, NY on April 3 of 2001. She is the only child of Tsuya and Hisatoshi Shiraishi who immigrated from Japan in 1978 to New York, NY. Her father, Hisatoshi \"Poppo\" Shiraishi was trained as a dancer in Butoh. When she was 6, her parents took her to Central Park and she discovered Rat Rock where she first started to rock climb and later started climbing at Brooklyn Boulders in Gowanus, Brooklyn.\nShe started climbing competitively at age 7, in 2008, and paired with coach Obe Carrion, an accomplished climber. Their partnership ended in 2012, largely due to tensions and disagreements between Carrion and Ashima's father (who has been her coach since then).\nAshima first made a name for herself by bouldering at a very high level at a very young age. At age 8, she climbed the classic boulder problem \"Power of Silence\" (V10), in Hueco Tanks, Texas. At age 9, she also climbed \"Chablanke\" (V11/12) and \"Roger in the Shower\" (V11) in Hueco Tanks, and several other difficult boulders. At age 10, she climbed Ethan Pringle's notorious \"Crown of Aragorn\" (V13) also in Hueco Tanks. She is the youngest person ever to climb this grade, and one of very few female climbers to climb a confirmed V13.\nShe has also excelled in lead climbing. At age 11, on October 2012, she climbed \"Southern Smoke\" at the Red River Gorge, a grade 5.14c (8c+) sport climb, becoming the youngest person to climb a route of this difficulty.\nIn 2013, Ashima continued to excel at both bouldering and lead climbing, adding to her ticklist a 5.14a (\"Slow Food\" at Céüse) two more V13s (\"One Summer in Paradise\" and \"Automator\") and finally two 5.14c's (\"24 Karats\" and \"50 Words for Pump\"). On July 2014, she climbed what might be her first V14, \"Golden Shadow\"; however, there is a suggestion that \"Golden Shadow\" is V13 or V13/V14. She was the second officially recorded female climber (after Tomoko Ogawa) to successfully climb a V14 problem. On the first day of 2015, she climbed her second V14 (V13/V14), \"The Swarm\", claiming the first female top-out of the problem.\nAt age 13, Ashima climbed her first 5.14d/9a, \"Open Your Mind Direct R1\" in Santa Linya. The route was thought to be harder while Ashima was attempting it, for she had broken a hold near the top.<ref name=\"5.14d/5.15a\"> </ref> Although, on Christmas Day of 2015, Edu Márin Garcia climbed the route past Ashima's end point to the second top and confirmed Ashima's route as a 5.14d/9a.\nIn the same climbing trip Ashima climbed 'Ciudad de Dios', making her the youngest athlete to climb a 5.14d/5.15a (9a/9a+) and the second female climber to climb at this level. The route has been climbed by 6 other athletes, but there is still no definite consensus on whether the grade is 5.14d or 5.15a.\nIn 2015, 2016, and 2017 Ashima won the IFSC World Youth Championships for both Lead and Bouldering in the Female Youth B category. In 2016, she also became the first female climber to climb an 8C/V15 boulder problem, which she did at Mount Hiei in Japan.\nIn 2017, she was the winner in the female sport category at the USA Climbing Sport & Speed Open National Championships (SCS nationals) held in Denver, Colorado, and placed second at the USA Climbing Bouldering Nationals (ABS nationals) to 10-time champion Alex Puccio. In the same year, she started competing in the Climbing World Cup as an adult.\nShe is sponsored by Evolv, The North Face, Clif Bar, Petzl, Coca-Cola Japan, All Nippon Airways and Nikon.\nAlongside fellow American climber Kai Lightner, she is featured in the short film \"Young Guns\" in Reel Rock 11 (by Sender Films). The film covers her successful attempt of the 8C (V15) climb in Japan in 2016.\nYouth\n8C (V15) :\n8B+ (V14) :\n8B (V13) :\nOther Bouldering Achievements:\n9a or 9a+ (5.14d or 5.15a) - (grade that has not reached consensus):\n9a (5.14d) :\n8c+ (5.14c) :\n8c (5.14b) :","The Fault in Our Stars\nThe Fault in Our Stars is the sixth novel by author John Green, published in January 2012. The title is inspired by Act 1, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's play \"Julius Caesar\", in which the nobleman Cassius says to Brutus: \"The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, / But in ourselves, that we are underlings.\" The story is narrated by Hazel Grace Lancaster, a 16-year-old girl with cancer. Hazel is forced by her parents to attend a support group where she subsequently meets and falls in love with 17-year-old Augustus Waters, an ex-basketball player and amputee. A feature film adaptation of the novel directed by Josh Boone and starring Shailene Woodley, Ansel Elgort and Nat Wolff was released on June 6, 2014. Both the book and its film adaptation were met with strong critical and commercial success.\nHazel Grace Lancaster—a 16-year-old with cancer that has spread to her lungs—attends a cancer patient support group at her mother's behest. At first she hesitates because she feels like it has done her nothing. She thinks attending the support group could be the worst part of her life, until a particular support meeting, Hazel meets a 17-year-old boy named Augustus Waters, whose osteosarcoma caused him to lose his right leg, which was replaced with a prosthetic. Augustus is at the meeting to support his friend, Isaac, whose only remaining eye is soon to be removed due to cancer. Hazel and Augustus strike a bond immediately and agree to read each other's favorite novels. Augustus gives Hazel \"The Price of Dawn\", and Hazel recommends \"An Imperial Affliction\", a novel written by Peter Van Houten, who lives in Amsterdam, about a cancer-stricken girl named Anna that parallels Hazel's own experience. After Augustus finishes reading her book, he is frustrated upon learning that the novel ends abruptly without a conclusion. Hazel explains the novel's author had retreated following the novel's publication and has not been heard from since.\nA week later, Augustus reveals to Hazel that he has tracked down Van Houten's assistant, Lidewij, and, through her, has managed to start an e-mail correspondence with Van Houten. The two write to Van Houten with questions regarding the novel's ending and the fate of the mother of Anna. Van Houten eventually replies, explaining that he can only answer Hazel's questions in person. At a picnic, Augustus surprises Hazel with tickets to Amsterdam to meet Van Houten.\nWhile in Amsterdam, Augustus confesses his love for Hazel. Hazel and Augustus finally meet Van Houten but are shocked to find that he is a mean-spirited drunk. Horrified by Van Houten's behavior, Lidewij confesses to having arranged the meeting on his behalf, angering Van Houten, who proceeds to insult Hazel's cancer, starting an argument and causing Hazel and Augustus to flee from the drunken author's home.\nAugustus confesses that his cancer has returned. The two affirm their love and support for each other. Upon their return to Indianapolis, Augustus's health worsens and he ends up in the ICU for a few days. Fearing his death, Augustus invites Isaac and Hazel to his pre-funeral, where they give eulogies. An extremely sick Augustus dies soon after. This leaves Hazel heartbroken and she doesn't know what to do with herself. After this traumatic event, Van Houten shows up at Augustus's funeral to apologize to Hazel.\nHazel learns that Augustus was writing a sequel to \"An Imperial Affliction\". Hazel reads Augustus's words. He says getting hurt in this world is inevitable, but we do get to choose who we allow to hurt us, and that he is happy with his choice, and hopes she likes her choice too. The book closes with Hazel stating that she is happy with her choice.\nOn December 21, 2011, Barnes & Noble accidentally shipped 1500 copies of \"The Fault in Our Stars\" before the release date to people who had pre-ordered the book. Green released a statement saying, \"Mistakes happen. The people who made this error were not bad or incompetent people, and they were not acting maliciously. We all make mistakes, and it is not my wish to see Barnes and Noble or any of their employees vilified.\" Many people who received the book pledged not to read it until its release date, January 10, 2012, or discuss it until the next day, January 11, as per a request of Green's not to spoil it for other readers. Most kept to this promise leaving the experience untarnished for those who got the book on the intended release date.\nThe book rose to #84 on the Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble bestseller lists in June 2011 shortly after its title was announced. Green promised that every pre-order would be hand-signed by him, requiring him to sign every copy of the first printing. He proposed that the general public vote on the color Sharpie he would use to sign the books, resulting in him signing the 150,000 books with a variety of Sharpie colors, each in proportion to the amount of votes received for that color. However, some people who ordered from international booksellers received unsigned copies because those bookstores, including Amazon UK, underestimated how many books they needed and ordered more after the signing was complete, but Green agreed to fix this problem, telling people with unsigned pre-orders to email him so they could be sent a signed bookplate. Many fans submitted their book cover designs to various outlets including Tumblr and Twitter, tagging Green in these posts so he could see them. The sizeable number of posts received has prompted Green's publisher Penguin to seek a fan-designed cover for a reprint of one of Green's other books, \"An Abundance of Katherines\". \"The Fault in Our Stars\" debuted at #1 on \"The New York Times\" Best Seller list for Children's Chapter Books and remained in that spot for seven consecutive weeks. A Hebrew edition of \"The Fault in Our Stars\" was published in Israel in August 2012 and more editions of the novel are forthcoming in Dutch, German, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Chinese, and Portuguese. \"The Fault in Our Stars\" has also gained places on several bestseller lists. It was #1 on \"The Wall Street Journal\" bestseller list, #1 on the \"Indiebound\" bestseller list, and #9 on \"The Bookseller\" bestseller list. The novel was also \"The New York Times\" Book Review Editor's Choice. As of January 2013, there are nearly 1 million copies of the novel in print. In December 2012, it was announced that a special edition with a silver cover and an expanded Q&A, dubbed the 'Exclusive Collector's Edition', would be available from Barnes and Noble. All or at least most of the copies first available for purchase of this edition of the book contained a printing error wherein several pages of the first chapter were replaced with pages from the Q&A section at the back of the book.\n\"The Fault in Our Stars\" received critical acclaim. Critics mostly praised the book for its humor, strong characters, language, themes and new perspective on cancer and romance. \"The New York Times\"' review of the book called it \"a blend of melancholy, sweet, philosophical and funny\" and said that it \"stays the course of tragic realism\", while noting that the book's unpleasant plot details \"do nothing to diminish the romance; in Green's hands, they only make it more moving.\" NPR's Rachel Syme noted that \"[Green's] voice is so compulsively readable that it defies categorization,\" saying that the \"elegantly plotted\" book \"may be his best.\" \"Time\" called \"The Fault in Our Stars\" \"damn near genius.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" wrote, \"[Augustus and Hazel's] love story is as real as it is doomed, and the gut-busting laughs that come early in the novel make the luminous final pages all the more heartbreaking\", and gave the novel an overall A− grade. Amazon.com calls it \"insightful, bold, irreverent, and raw\" and Green's \"most ambitious and heartbreaking work yet.\" The \"Manila Bulletin\" says that the book is \"a collection of maudlin scenes and trite observations about the fragility of life and the wisdom of dying. And while it does talk about those things and more, the treatment of it is far from being maudlin or trite.\" The \"Manila Bulletin\" also added that \"Just two paragraphs into the work, and he immediately wallops the readers with such an insightful observation delivered in such an unsentimental way that its hard not to shake your head in admiration.\" The \"Manila Bulletin\" stated that \"The Fault in Our Stars\" was a triumph for John Green. \"USA Today\" called it a \"elegiac comedy.\" They gave the book a rating of four out of four stars.\"The School Library Journal\" stated that it was \"a strong choice for Adult Collections.\" \"The Fault in Our Stars\" received a starred review from \"Kirkus Reviews\", who described it as \"a smartly crafted intellectual explosion of a romance.\"\nSeveral well-known authors have contributed their own positive reviews for the book. Jodi Picoult, author of \"My Sister's Keeper\", calls \"The Fault in Our Stars\" \"an electric portrait of young people who learn to live life with one foot in the grave.\" She goes on to say that the novel is \"filled with staccato bursts of humor and tragedy.\" Bestselling author of \"The Book Thief\", Markus Zusak, describes it as \"a novel of life and death and the people caught in between\" and \"John Green at his best\". Pertaining to Green's writing throughout the book, E. Lockhart, author of \"The Boyfriend List\", says \"He makes me laugh and gasp at the beauty of a sentence or the twist of a tale. He is one of the best writers alive and I am seething with envy of his talent.\" \"Time\" named \"The Fault in Our Stars\" as the #1 fiction book of 2012. \"Kirkus Reviews\" listed it among the top 100 children's books of 2012. It also made \"USA Today\"'s list of the top 10 books of 2012. In 2013, the \"Edmonton Journal\" named the book one of their \"favourite books of the year.\"\nOne notable unfavorable opinion appeared in the \"Daily Mail\". In the piece, the plot of \"The Fault in Our Stars\" was described as \"mawkish at best, exploitative at worst\" and the book was characterized as belonging to the \"sick-lit\" young adult genre, together with other young-adult novels such as \"Never Eighteen\" and \"Before I Die\". This entire genre, as well as the genre of young-adult novels dealing with suicide and self-harm (the piece mentions \"Thirteen Reasons Why\", \"By the Time You Read This, I'll Be Dead\", \"The Lovely Bones\", and \"Red Tears\") was criticized as being \"distasteful\" and inappropriate for their target audience of teens. \"The Guardian\" criticized the piece, pointing out in particular that \"The Fault in Our Stars\" was chosen by \"The Guardian\" as that month's \"teen book club choice\" because \"it's a gripping read, featuring two compelling characters, that deals sensitively and even humorously with a difficult situation without descending into mawkishness.\" In general, \"The Guardian\" faulted the \"Daily Mail\" for suggesting that the issues of illness, depression, and sexuality are inappropriate precisely \"in the one place where difficult subjects have traditionally been most sensitively explored for teens: fiction written specifically for them.\" For his part, in an interview for \"The Guardian\", John Green said: \"The thing that bothered me about \"The Daily Mail\" piece was that it was a bit condescending to teenagers. I'm tired of adults telling teenagers that they aren't smart, that they can't read critically, that they aren't thoughtful, and I feel like that article made those arguments.\"\nIn January 2012, Fox 2000, a division of 20th Century Fox, optioned the rights to adapt the novel into a feature film. Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber wrote the adapted screenplay. Josh Boone signed on to direct a year later, in February 2013. Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen produced the film. Shailene Woodley stars as Hazel, while Ansel Elgort plays Augustus. Nat Wolff was cast as Isaac, the friend that introduces them, and Laura Dern stars as Hazel's mother. Sam Trammell was cast as Mr. Lancaster, Hazel's father. On August 29, 2013, John Green announced that Mike Birbiglia would be playing Patrick, and on September 6, 2013, Green announced that Willem Dafoe would portray Peter Van Houten.\nPrincipal photography began on August 26, 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which doubled for the novel's setting of Indianapolis, Indiana, with a few days in Amsterdam, before concluding October 16, 2013. The film was released on June 6, 2014, in the United States. It was positively received by critics, with praise going to Woodley's performance as well as the entire film. The film also proved to be commercially successful, retaining the No. 1 spot at the box-office during its opening weekend, and grossed over $307 million worldwide against its budget of $12 million. It was released on Blu-Ray and DVD on September 16, 2014.","Men, Women & Children (film)\nMen, Women & Children is a 2014 American drama film dealing with online addiction. It is directed by Jason Reitman, co-written with Erin Cressida Wilson, based on a novel of the same name written by Chad Kultgen, and starring Rosemarie DeWitt, Jennifer Garner, Judy Greer, Dean Norris, Adam Sandler, Ansel Elgort, and Kaitlyn Dever.\nThe film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2014. The film was released on October 1, 2014, by Paramount Pictures.\nThe film opens with a narration about the Voyager satellite before proceeding to tell the story of several families and the various ways the internet affects their lives. Donald and Helen Truby are married couple who have become sexually unsatisfied. Their teenage son Chris has been viewing pornography since the age of 10 with his preferences becoming more and more extreme to the point he is unable to become aroused by material deemed \"normal\" by society. Tim Mooney is a high school student and football star, of which his father Kent is very proud, who has become depressed in the wake of his parents' divorce and abandonment by his mother. He quits the football team and begins to spend all his time playing an MMORPG. He has also come to believe, referencing Carl Sagan's reflections about the \"Pale Blue Dot\", that human life is insignificant in context of the universe. Hanna is a high school girl who wishes to be famous one day. Her mother Joan helps her maintain an online modeling site where she posts inappropriate pictures of herself in lingerie for subscribers who request private photo sessions. Brandy Beltmeyer is a classmate of Tim's who is introverted and has her online content constantly monitored by her overprotective mother Patricia. Unbeknownst to her mother, Brandy has a separate SIM card she switches while away from home and a secret Tumblr account she uses to express herself. Allison Doss is a friend of Hannah's who feels sexually inexperienced compared to Hannah and wishes to have sex with a boy named Brandon Lender. To make herself seem more attractive, she turns to dietary articles online to drastically lose weight.\nAfter seeing a television ad for the website Ashley Madison one night, Helen creates an account and begins having multiple affairs, while Donald starts to regularly visit escorts after failing to initiate sex with Helen for almost two months. Chris enters a relationship with Hannah over the course of doing a school project together, and tries to condition himself to become aroused by \"traditional means\" of simply seeing her many sexts with him. Hannah meanwhile has auditioned for an acting competition that will land her a television role. Kent, feeling distant from his son, attends an online content awareness meeting held by Patricia in order to better understand Tim's interest in video games, while Joan also attends the meeting to learn more about what she is legally allowed to put on her daughter's website. Both are amused by Patricia's obvious paranoia and begin a relationship. Meanwhile, Tim and Brandy also begin a relationship, but Patricia initially intercepts their messages while Brandy is at home. Brandy tells Tim about her Tumblr account, and they soon become a couple, with Tim confessing that she makes him feel that everything is not pointless. While playing online with his friends, Tim sees a Facebook post by his mother showing pictures of her being happily remarried. When he shares this with his friends, they begin to post lewd comments, which he ignores. Allison is successful in having sex with Brandon while visiting a friend's house, but he treats the whole affair as casual and is clearly not interested in a relationship.\nAllison collapses during school and is brought to the hospital, where she learns she had a miscarriage due to malnourishment, both facts which shock her parents. When she informs Brandon, his only concern is people discovering they had sex. Hannah and Chris start to initiate sex, but Chris fails to become aroused. Hannah later tells her friends that they had sex, causing Chris to confront her. She admits she only saw him as her \"best shot\" to lose her virginity, and claims he has \"sexual issues\", causing them to break up. Joan learns that the competition has disqualified Hannah because of the website, even though her audition was the best. Donald accidentally discovers Helen's Ashley Madison account, and goes to the same bar she is having an affair at. Seeing she has been caught, she tries to discuss it with Donald the next morning, only for him to admit he has also been having affairs, and says it is better if they just ignore what they have done. Joan confesses to Kent about the website, and is distraught that her daughter's real chance to be famous has been ruined because of her poor parenting. Kent, shocked by the news, says it is best of they do not see each other. Patricia discovers Brandy's Tumblr page, and after scrolling through her conversations with Tim and seeing his own page covered in video game content, is overwhelmed with fear and confiscates all of her online privileges. Kent reads all the lewd comments on Tim's game, and confronts him about it. Tim brings up the pictures his mother posted on Facebook, causing Kent to say she abandoned the both of them. He deletes the game and demands Tim play football next year, causing Tim to have a break down.\nJoan tells Hannah about being disqualified from the competition, and says she has taken down the site, admitting she was wrong to support it. Hannah is furious, but Joan says she is still the parent. Allison is made to walk two miles to Brandon's house in the middle of the night in order to talk to him, but when she arrives she realizes how selfish he is and throws a rock through his window before leaving. When Tim attempts to reach out to Brandy for support, Patricia poses as Brandy, claiming she is bored of him and says she will block him if he texts her again. Despondent, Tim overdoses on his antidepressants. Brandy rushes to Tim's house, where she and Kent find him on the floor. They rush him to the emergency room, where he is successfully revived. While searching for Brandy, Patricia finds her at the hospital and figures out what happened. Bursting into tears after realizing her actions nearly caused Tim's death, she returns home and deactivates the surveillance device she uses to monitor Brandy. After reconciling with Tim and realizing how hard being a single parent is, Kent reconnects with Joan. The narrator closes the film by quoting The Pale Blue Dot while showing the Voyager satellite drifting through space.\n</div>\nBy September 4, 2013, Jason Reitman had cast Adam Sandler, Rosemarie DeWitt and Jennifer Garner in the lead roles. By December 16, Emma Thompson, Judy Greer and Dean Norris were cast. The young cast includes Ansel Elgort, Kaitlyn Dever, Elena Kampouris, Travis Tope, Katherine Hughes, Olivia Crocicchia, and Timothée Chalamet. Other stars are David Denman, Jason Douglas, Dennis Haysbert, Shane Lynch, and J. K. Simmons. Will Peltz also joined the cast, on December 17. Principal photography began on December 16, 2013, in and around Austin, Texas.\nThe film was a critical and commercial flop.\n\"Men, Women & Children\" premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2014. The film opened in limited release on October 1, 2014 in 17 theaters and grossed $48,024 with an average of $2,825 per theater and ranking #48 at the box office. In its wide release on October 17 in 608 theaters the film grossed $306,367 with an average of $504 per theater and ranking #23, making it the fifth lowest opening in a release of 600 theaters or more. The film ultimately earned $705,908 in the United States and $1,534,627 internationally for a total of $2,240,535 worldwide, well below its $16 million production budget.\nThe film received a \"rotten\" score of 31% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 126 reviews with an average rating of 4.8 out of 10. The critical consensus states: \"\"Men, Women & Children\" is timely, but director Jason Reitman's overbearing approach to its themes blunts the movie's impact.\" The film also has a score of 38 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 36 critics, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews\". Film critic Robbie Collin felt \"Men, Women & Children\" \"played like a spoof\" with others agreeing the film was \"mawkish and clichéd\".","Carrie (2013 film)\nCarrie is a 2013 American supernatural horror film, directed by Kimberly Peirce, and is the third film adaptation of Stephen King's 1974 novel of the same name. The film was produced by Kevin Misher, with a screenplay by Lawrence D. Cohen & Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa. The film was released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Screen Gems on October 18, 2013. The film stars Chloë Grace Moretz as the titular Carrie White, Julianne Moore as Carrie's mother Margaret White, Judy Greer as Ms. Desjardin, Portia Doubleday as Chris Hargensen, Gabriella Wilde as Sue Snell, Ansel Elgort as Tommy Ross, and Alex Russell as Billy Nolan.\nThe film is a re-imagining of the horror novel about Carrie White (Moretz), a shy girl outcast by her peers and sheltered by her deeply religious mother (Moore), who uses her telekinetic powers with devastating effect after being a victim of a cruel prank at her senior prom. The film grossed $85 million worldwide at the box office.\nAlone in her home, Margaret White (Julianne Moore), a disturbed religious fanatic, gives birth to a baby girl, intending to kill the infant but changes her mind. Years later, her daughter Carrie (Chloë Grace Moretz), a shy, unassertive girl, nears her graduation from Ewen High School in Maine.\nWhile showering after gym class at school, Carrie experiences her first menstrual period. She naively thinks she is bleeding to death. The other girls ridicule her, and longtime bully Chris Hargensen (Portia Doubleday) records the event on her smartphone and uploads it to YouTube. Gym teacher Miss Desjardin (Judy Greer) comforts Carrie and sends her home with Margaret, who believes menstruation is a sin. Margaret demands that Carrie abstain from showering with the others. When Carrie refuses, Margaret hits her with a Bible and locks her in her \"prayer closet\". As Carrie screams to be let out, a crack appears on the door, and the crucifix in the closet begins to bleed.\nMiss Desjardin informs the girls who teased Carrie that they will endure boot camp-style detention for their behavior. When Chris refuses, she is suspended from school and banned from the prom. She storms out, vowing revenge.\nCarrie learns that she has telekinesis, the ability to move things with her mind. She researches her abilities, learning to harness them. Sue Snell (Gabriella Wilde) regrets teasing Carrie in the shower room and attempts to make amends by asking her boyfriend, Tommy Ross (Ansel Elgort), to take Carrie to the prom. Carrie accepts Tommy's invitation, and after school, goes into the town and buys red velvet fabric, and makes a dress at home. When she tells her mother, Margaret forbids Carrie to attend. Asking her mother to relent, Carrie manifests her telekinesis. Margaret believes this power comes from the Devil and is proof that Carrie has been corrupted by sin.\nChris, her boyfriend Billy Nolan (Alex Russell), and his friends plan revenge on Carrie. They kill a pig and drain its blood into a bucket. Margaret tries to prevent Carrie from going to the prom, but Carrie telekinetically locks her mother in the closet. At the prom, Carrie is nervous and shy, but Tommy kindly puts her at ease. As part of Chris and Billy's plan, Chris' friend, Tina Blake (Zoë Belkin), slips fake ballots into the voting box, which name Carrie and Tommy prom queen and king.\nAt home, Sue receives a text from Chris taunting her about her revenge on Carrie. Sue drives to the prom, arriving just as Carrie and Tommy are about to be crowned. Sue sees the bucket of pig's blood dangling above Carrie, but before she can warn anyone Miss Desjardin hustles her out, suspecting that Sue is planning to humiliate Carrie.\nChris dumps the bucket of pig's blood onto Carrie and Tommy. Chris's shower video appears on large screens above the stage, inciting laughter from some in the audience, until the bucket falls onto Tommy's head, killing him. Enraged, Carrie takes her revenge telekinetically, killing several of the students and staff including Tina, Heather (Samantha Weinstein), Nicki and Lizzy (Karissa and Katie Strain), but spares Desjardin. A fire breaks out and, as the school burns to the ground, Carrie walks away, leaving a trail of fire and destruction in her wake. Chris and Billy attempt to flee in Billy's car. Chris urges Billy to run Carrie over, but Carrie flips the car into a gas station, setting it on fire, and killing them.\nCarrie arrives home and she and Margaret embrace. Margaret tells Carrie about the night of Carrie's conception. After having shared a bed platonically with her husband, they yielded to temptation one night and, after praying for strength, Carrie's father \"took\" Margaret, who enjoyed the experience. Margaret attacks Carrie, who attempts to flee and ends up killing her with several sharp tools. She becomes hysterical and makes stones rain from the sky to crush the house. When Sue arrives, a furious Carrie grabs her with her powers, but senses something inside Sue, and tells her that her baby is a girl. Carrie pushes a stunned Sue out of the house to safety as the house collapses and apparently kills Carrie.\nAs a voice-over gives her testimony in court regarding the prom incident, Sue visits Carrie's vandalized grave and places a single white rose by the headstone. As she leaves, the gravestone begins to break and Carrie's angry scream is heard.\nIn May 2011, representatives from MGM and Screen Gems announced that the two companies were producing a film remake of \"Carrie\". The two studios hired \"\" playwright Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa to write a screenplay that delivers \"a more faithful adaption\" of King's novel—Aguirre-Sacasa previously adapted King’s work \"The Stand\" into a comic book in 2008. Reshoots were ordered, as the screenplay was re-written by Lawrence D. Cohen, who also wrote the original film.\nUpon hearing of the new adaptation, King remarked, \"The real question is why, when the original was so good?\" He also suggested Lindsay Lohan for the main role and stated that \"it [the film] would certainly be fun to cast\". Actress Sissy Spacek, who played Carrie in de Palma's adaptation, expressed an opinion on the choice of Lohan for the character of Carrie White, stating that she \"was like, 'Oh my God, she's really a beautiful girl' and so I was very flattered that they were casting someone to look like me instead of the real Carrie described in the book. It's gonna be real interesting.\" In March 2012, the role of Carrie White was offered to Chloë Grace Moretz, who accepted the role.\nKimberly Peirce directed the film, while Moore starred as Margaret White and Gabriella Wilde played Sue Snell. Alex Russell and Ansel Elgort are also members of the main cast, and Judy Greer played the gym teacher Miss Desjardin.\nThe original release date was March 15, 2013, but in early January 2013 the release date was moved to October 18, 2013.\nSony held a \"First Look\" event at the New York Comic Con on October 13, 2013 that allowed attendees to view the film prior to the release date. The event was followed by a panel session with several members of the cast and crew.\nTrailers for the film included a phone number that offered promotions to the caller, as well as a recording of a simulated encounter with characters from the film.\nThe film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on January 14, 2014. The Blu-ray features an alternate opening and ending and nine deleted scenes.\nIn the alternate opening, a young Carrie has a discussion with her teenage neighbor, who is sun-bathing, over the fact that Margaret believes that women with breasts are sinful. Margaret catches them in the conversation and believes that the neighbor is offending Carrie, not before the neighbor's mother disagrees with her. Suddenly, stones begin to rain only on the White household. Margaret, believing it is a sign from God, takes shelter inside her home with a distressed Carrie.\nIn the alternate ending, the cracking gravestone and the court speech are not present. Sue is in the hospital and is preparing to give birth to her baby. As she struggles to give birth, Carrie's bloody hand suddenly emerges and grabs Sue's arm. Sue screams loudly as she wakes up in her own bedroom, with her mother comforting her and telling her that her nightmare is over. A subliminal frame image of Carrie soaked in pig's blood is seen carrying Sue's baby as Sue continues to scream in her room.\nThe review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 48% approval rating with an average rating of 5.4/10 based on 161 reviews. The website's consensus reads, \"It boasts a talented cast, but Kimberly Peirce's \"reimagining\" of Brian De Palma's horror classic finds little new in the Stephen King novel—and feels woefully unnecessary.\" On Metacritic, it scored a 53 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews.\"\nKevin C. Johnson of the \"St. Louis Post-Dispatch\" gave the film a favorable review, saying, \"Long before the blood starts spilling, it's clear the new team has mostly nailed it. The reboot is as good a \"Carrie\" remake as possible, though it's not truly a scary movie; the film takes its time living up to its R rating.\" Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" also gave the film a favorable review, remarking: \"In a way, the new Carrie is almost too easy to enjoy. Everything discordant and all the nagging weirdness and strange feelings surrounding the original have been smoothed down, and what we're left with is a well-made, highly satisfying and not particularly deep high school revenge movie.\" Michael Phillips of the \"Chicago Tribune\" gave the film a positive review, stating: \"The acting's strong; in addition to Moretz and Moore, Judy Greer is a welcome presence in the Betty Buckley role of the sympathetic gym instructor. But something's missing from this well-made venture. What's there is more than respectable, while staying this side of surprising.\" Joe Neumaier of the New York \"Daily News\" gave it three out of five stars, saying, \"With the exception of some appearances by social media, 'Carrie' doesn't try to hip up King's basic, often slow story. And while De Palma's version is fondly recalled as a high-blood-mark of the 1970s, this new take seems to linger a bit more on the bugaboos of overparenting and bullying while underplaying Mama's fanaticism. Peirce only glancingly lets her heroine have a mild discovery-of-powers moment that feels 'X-Men'-ish.\" In a positive review on Roger Ebert's website, Matt Zoller Seitz awarded the film three out of four stars, praising the portrayal of Carrie and Margaret's relationship and the feelings of sympathy Carrie manages to evoke, although he criticizes the representation of Chris as \"exaggeratedly evil\". Seitz ultimately concludes by stating: \"The first \"Carrie\" was horror. This is tragedy.\" A. A. Dowd of \"The A.V. Club\" gave the film a C- rating, criticizing Moretz's Carrie as \"too adjusted, coming across less like the 'very peculiar girl' King described in his novel and more like the stealth babe of some nottie-to-hottie teen romance.\" Dowd lamented on the film as a whole, \"It's a strange thing to say about a movie so obsessed with the red stuff, but this Carrie is bloodless.\"\nSony estimated the revenue for the opening weekend of \"Carrie\" as between $16 million and $18 million, while others estimated a bigger margin of $24 million to $28 million due to the Halloween season. However, the final takings totaled $16,101,552 and the film was ranked at number 3 behind \"Gravity\" and \"Captain Philips\", both of which were in their second and third weeks, respectively. By the end of the week, the film managed to gross $20,121,355. In week two, the film slipped 62.8% to sixth place with $5,900,000 and 43.2% to ninth place in its third week with $3,400,000.\nAt the end of its run, the film has grossed $35,266,619 in North America and $49,524,059 in other countries for a worldwide gross of $84,790,678. It is the 67th highest-grossing film of 2013 in the United States.\n","November Criminals (film)\nNovember Criminals is an upcoming American crime drama film directed by Sacha Gervasi and written by Gervasi and Steven Knight, based on Sam Munson's 2010 novel \"The November Criminals\". The film stars Ansel Elgort, Chloë Grace Moretz, Catherine Keener and David Strathairn.\nThe film is scheduled to be released through video on demand on November 7, 2017, before opening in a limited release on December 8, 2017, by Stage 6 Films.\nIn November 2014, it was reported Chloe Grace Moretz and Catherine Keener had been cast in the film. In January 2015, Ansel Elgort joined the film's cast. David Strathairn joined the film's cast on March 23, 2015.\nFilming began on March 23, 2015 in Rhode Island and Washington D.C. and wrapped on April 28, 2015 after 32 days of filming.\nIn January 2015, Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions acquired North American and international distribution rights to the film. The film is scheduled to be released through video on demand on November 7, 2017, before opening in a limited release on December 8, 2017.","Cruel Intentions\nCruel Intentions is a 1999 American romantic teen drama film starring Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ryan Phillippe, Reese Witherspoon, and Selma Blair. The film is an adaptation of \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\", written by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos in 1782, but set among wealthy teenagers attending high school in modern New York City instead of 18th century France.\nThe film started as an independent film with a small budget, and was later picked up by Columbia Pictures. It was released on March 5, 1999 to mixed critical reviews, but was a box office success, earning $75 million worldwide and spawned two direct-to-video films.\nIn an upscale New York City mansion, wealthy and popular teenager Kathryn Merteuil (Sarah Michelle Gellar) is discussing her prep school with Mrs. Caldwell (Christine Baranski) and Mrs. Caldwell's daughter, Cecile (Selma Blair). Kathryn promises Mrs. Caldwell that she will look out for the sheltered and naïve Cecile. Kathryn's step-brother, Sebastian (Ryan Phillippe), enters the room, whereupon Mrs. Caldwell reacts to him coldly and leaves with Cecile. Kathryn reveals to him that her real intention is to use Cecile to take revenge on her ex-lover Court Reynolds (Charlie O'Connell), who has dumped her for Cecile. Kathryn asks Sebastian to seduce Cecile; he refuses as he is planning to seduce Annette Hargrove (Reese Witherspoon), the virgin daughter of their prep school's new headmaster. Annette is a 'paradigm of chastity and virtue' who recently wrote a published essay about saving herself for marriage and has been temporarily staying with Sebastian's aunt. The two make a wager: if Sebastian fails to bed Annette, Kathryn gets Sebastian's vintage Jaguar XK140; if he succeeds, Kathryn will have sex with him. It is mentioned that Sebastian keeps a journal detailing his conquests.\nSebastian's first attempt to seduce Annette fails, as she had already been told of his reputation as a womanizer. He vents to his friend, Blaine Tuttle (Joshua Jackson), who suggests that the informant might be Annette's ex-boyfriend and closeted jock, Greg McConnell (Eric Mabius), revealing to Sebastian that Greg tried to make a pass at him. He uses that to seduce Greg while being secretly filmed by Sebastian. Sebastian confronts Greg with the photographs, but he denies warning Annette. Greg is pressured into investigating who did, and Sebastian also orders him to present him in a good light to Annette. Later, while gushing about Sebastian to Annette, Greg discovers that the culprit is Cecile's mother, Mrs. Caldwell. Wanting revenge on the Caldwells, Sebastian agrees to seduce Cecile.\nMeanwhile, Cecile's music teacher, Ronald Clifford (Sean Patrick Thomas), is in love with her. Cecile confesses this to Kathryn. Kathryn tells Mrs. Caldwell about Ronald and Cecile's romance and Mrs. Caldwell orders Cecile to end it. Sebastian, in turn, calls Cecile to his house, ostensibly to give her a letter from Ronald. There he blackmails Cecile in order to perform oral sex on her. The next day, Cecile confides in Kathryn, who advises her to learn from Sebastian so that she can make Ronald happy in bed.\nSebastian begins to fall in love with Annette, who returns his feelings but still resists him. Sebastian calls her a hypocrite because she claims to be waiting for her one true love, but when her one true love chooses to love her back, she resists. She relents, but Sebastian refuses her, confused about his feelings colliding with his stolid sexuality. Annette flees to the estate of her friend's parents. Sebastian tracks her down, professes his love, and makes love to her. As he has won the bet, Kathryn offers herself to Sebastian the next day, but he refuses; he now only wants Annette. Kathryn tries kissing him, but he rejects her again saying that it's only a stupid bet. She starts taunting him and he tells her he was planning on confessing the truth to Annette anyways. Kathryn warns him not to do it, that people don't change overnight and that it would not only be destroying his reputation, but also hers.\nAfterwards, Sebastian full of remorse tells Annette he just wanted to see what she was like in bed. Heartbroken, Annette tells him to leave. He then goes to see Kathryn to fulfill the initial arrangement they had and tells her that he has broken up with Annette and arranged for Cecile and Ronald to be together. Kathryn reveals that she has known all along that he was truly in love with Annette and that it amused her to make him feel ashamed of it. She tells him he gave up on the first person he ever loved, all because she threatened his reputation. Sebastian desperately tries to get a hold of Annette to confess the truth and beg for her forgiveness. Kathryn calls Ronald, telling him that Sebastian slept with Cecile and lying to him that Sebastian hit her. Annette refuses to see or speak to Sebastian, so he leaves his journal for her to read. In which, he has detailed all of Kathryn's manipulative schemes as well as their bet, and written his true feelings for Annette. As he heads home, Ronald intercepts him on the street, starting a fight. Annette runs out and tries to stop it, but is accidentally thrown into the way of traffic. Sebastian pushes her to safety, and is hit by a cab. Before dying, Sebastian confesses he loves her and Annette tells him she loves him too.\nAt Sebastian's funeral, Cecile distributes copies of his journal, made into a book by Annette, titled \"Cruel Intentions\". Kathryn is humiliated and rejected by her classmates and teachers. Her reputation is ruined when cocaine is discovered in her rosary. In the final scene, Annette drives away in Sebastian's car with his journal at her side as she remembers the moments they shared.\nOne of the filming locations was Old Westbury Gardens in New York State, as well as the Harry F. Sinclair House in New York City.\nThe film received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 49%, based on reviews from 78 critics, with an average score of 5.3/10; the site's consensus stating: \"Even in a slick package and an attractive cast, the movie succumbs to bad acting and a bad script.\" Metacritic gave the film an average score of 56% based on reviews from 24 critics. However, the film has gained somewhat of a cult following and is considered to be one of the first films to confront teenage sexuality and sexual manipulation . Charles Taylor of \"Salon.com\" described the film as \"The dirtiest-minded American movie in recent memory - and an honestly corrupt entertaining picture is never anything to sneeze at.\" Stephen Holden \"The New York Times\" stated, \"You have the queasy sense that the whole thing is just an elaborate stunt, and in this case an exploitative one.\" Despite this, Roger Ebert—a noted film critic for \"The Chicago Sun Times\"—praised \"Cruel Intentions\" and gave the film three out of four stars in his review. He stated that it was \"smart and merciless in the tradition of the original story\".\n\"Cruel Intentions\" was a commercial success. The film grossed $13,020,565 in its opening weekend, ranking #2 behind \"Analyze This\"; released in 2,312 theaters, the movie raked in $75,902,208 worldwide.\nThe film received the following awards and nominations:\nThe \"Cruel Intentions\" soundtrack is a compilation soundtrack released on March 9, 1999 by Arista/Virgin Records. It reached number 60 on the Billboard chart.\nThe lead track for the film was \"Bitter Sweet Symphony\" by rock band The Verve.\nThe film received two direct-to-video follow-ups: a prequel titled \"Cruel Intentions 2\" in 2001, and a sequel titled \"Cruel Intentions 3\" in 2004. Written and directed by Roger Kumble, the former was assembled from \"Manchester Prep\", a scrapped prequel series by Fox, of which three episodes had been filmed. It features younger versions of the characters of Sebastian Valmont and Kathryn Merteuil played by Robin Dunne and Amy Adams, alongside Sarah Thompson and Keri Lynn Pratt. The later film, \"Cruel Intentions 3\" was directed by Scott Ziehl and features Kerr Smith, Kristina Anapau, Nathan Wetherington, Melissa Yvonne Lewis, Natalie Ramsey and Tom Parker.\nNBC announced in October 2015 that they had picked up a pilot for a continuation of the film's storyline. The pilot was to be written by Kumble and the creators of \"\", Jordan Ross and Lindsey Rosin, with Sebastian Valmont and Annette Hargrove's son being the main character.\nIn February 2016, Deadline.com reported that producers are in talks with Sarah Michelle Gellar to reprise the role as Kathryn in the television sequel. On February 23, 2016, Taylor John Smith and Samantha Logan were both cast, with Smith playing the male lead role of Bash Casey, Sebastian Valmont and Annette Hargrove's son. On February 24, 2016, Gellar reached a deal with producers to be the female lead, reprising her role as Kathryn Merteuil. On March 1, 2016, the role of Annette Hargrove (the role portrayed by Reese Witherspoon in the movie) was recast with Kate Levering. On October 31, 2016, NBC announced that they decided not to go through with the series and is currently being shopped to other TV networks.\n\n","Ansel Elgort\nAnsel Elgort (born March 14, 1994) is an American actor, singer and a DJ (under the name Ansølo). As a film actor, he played Tommy Ross in the horror film \"Carrie\" (2013), Caleb Prior in \"The Divergent Series \" franchise, Augustus Waters in the romantic teen drama \"The Fault in Our Stars\" (2014), and the title character in Edgar Wright's action thriller \"Baby Driver\" (2017).\nElgort was born in Manhattan. His parents are Arthur Elgort, a fashion photographer who has worked extensively for \"Vogue\" for over thirty years, and Grethe Barrett Holby, an opera director. His father is of Russian Jewish descent, and his mother is of Norwegian, English, and German ancestry. His maternal grandmother, Aase-Grethe, was in the Norwegian resistance during World War II, and saved Norwegian Jewish children by moving them into neutral Sweden; because of these activities, she was imprisoned in a concentration camp. Elgort is named after photographer Ansel Adams.\nElgort has two older siblings, Warren, a film editor, and Sophie, a photographer. At the age of nine, his mother took him to try out for School of American Ballet. He attended The Professional Performing Arts School, Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School and Stagedoor Manor summer camp. Elgort started taking acting classes at the age of twelve and at LaGuardia, Elgort performed in a rendition of \"Hairspray\" with Kyle Jean-Baptiste and starred in his school's productions of \"Guys and Dolls\".\nElgort's acting career began through professional stage acting, in \"Regrets\", by Matt Charman. His film debut was a secondary role in the 2013 remake of \"Carrie\". His first highly publicized role was in \"Divergent\" as Caleb Prior, the brother of Beatrice Prior (played by Shailene Woodley). The film, based on a popular young adult novel by Veronica Roth, was released on March 21, 2014.\nImmediately after the filming of \"Divergent\" was completed, it was announced that Elgort would play Augustus Waters in the film adaptation of John Green's novel \"The Fault in Our Stars\", opposite Woodley who would play Hazel Grace Lancaster. The film followed the story of Hazel, a teenage cancer patient, who is forced by her parents to attend a support group, where she subsequently meets and falls in love with Waters, an ex-basketball player. The film, directed by Josh Boone, was released on June 6, 2014. Elgort next co-starred in the comedy film \"Men, Women & Children\", directed by Jason Reitman and released in October 2014.\nIn 2014, Elgort was named one of the best actors under twenty years of age. Elgort reunited with Chloe Grace Moretz to present the award for Best Visual Effects at the 2015 Oscars. He also reprised his role, Caleb Prior, in \"\", the second film of the book series \"Divergent\", which was released March 20, 2015, and in the third film, \"\", which was released on March 18, 2016.\nElgort was on a shortlist of actors being considered to play the role of Han Solo in a still-untitled 2018 Han Solo film; Alden Ehrenreich was eventually cast in May 2016. Elgort expressed some relief at not being cast, saying that, if he had been cast, he would have had to change his DJ name, Ansølo.\nIn 2017, Elgort played the title role in the action film \"Baby Driver\", directed by Edgar Wright, and also starring Lily James and Kevin Spacey. The film received positive reviews and performed well at the box office. Throughout much of the film, Elgort wears a jacket that some thought was deliberately meant to look like the jacket worn by Han Solo in the original \"Star Wars\" films, as a node to Elgort's then-potential casting, though Wright insisted that the resemblance was unintentional.\nElgort will play Addison Schacht in the adaptation of \"The November Criminals\", with Chloë Grace Moretz, and will star in the film \"Billionaire Boys Club\", opposite Kevin Spacey, Carey Elwes, Emma Roberts and Taron Egerton, and directed by James Cox. Both films are in post-production.\nOn June 23, 2014, Deadline.com announced that he had been cast in the titular role in \"Van Cliburn\". Based on the biography by Howard Reich, the film will depict Van Cliburn's rise to fame in 1958 when, in the midst of the Cold War, Cliburn won the first International Tchaikovsky Competition in piano - an extraordinary event, since Cliburn was from the US. The adaptation will be produced by Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen, who also produced \"The Fault in our Stars\". On June 27, 2017, it was announced that Elgort would portray future President John F. Kennedy during his time in the United States Navy in the film \"Mayday 109\".\nHe is represented by CAA and Brookside Artist Management's Emily Gerson Saines.\nUnder the name Ansølo, Elgort created a SoundCloud account to publish electronic dance music, and he has remixed songs such as \"Born to Die\" by Lana del Rey. In a livestream in February 2014 he stated he had signed a record deal with Tom Staar's new label Staar Traxx and Steve Angello Size Records.\nHis first record \"Unite\" was released on April 21, 2014, on Beatport, and May 5, 2014, on iTunes. His second record, \"Totem\", was released July 21, 2014, on Beatport and iTunes. His single \"To Life\", a Bar Mitzvah-themed song inflected with klezmer music, was released in September 2015.\nHe played at the Electric Zoo Festival main stage in 2014, the Ultra Music Festival main stage in March 2015, played in a red-light dance music event in Amsterdam in 2014, opened some The Chainsmokers shows, a NERVO show, and some others shows with his friends Nicky Romero and Martin Garrix. He played his first headline show on his 21st birthday on Pacha NYC.\nIn 2015, he signed a record deal with Island/Universal Records, and released his first single titled \"Home Alone\" in July 2016.\nOn February 3, 2017, he released a single called \"Thief\" under the name Ansel Elgort. The music video featured his girlfriend Violetta Komyshan, a ballet dancer.\nHe was featured on rapper Logic's third studio album, \"Everybody\", released on May 5, 2017, on a song titled \"Killing Spree\".\nElgort began dating his high school sweetheart, Violetta Komyshan, in 2012. The couple broke up in August 2014 primarily due to the actor's burgeoning career and hectic schedule but reconciled after five months of separation in January 2015.\nHe is a skateboarder and an avid sportsman, often seen playing pickup basketball. As a hobby, he also took to miniature painting displaying some of his work. He has eight million followers on Instagram.","Bouldering\nBouldering is a form of <a href=\"rock%20climbing\">rock climbing</a> that is performed on large <a href=\"boulder\">boulder</a>s, small rock formations or artificial <a href=\"climbing%20wall\">rock walls</a>, without the use of ropes or <a href=\"Climbing%20harness\">harnesses</a>. While it can be done without any equipment whatsoever, most climbers use <a href=\"climbing%20shoe\">climbing shoe</a>s to help secure footholds, <a href=\"Magnesium%20carbonate\">chalk</a> to keep their hands dry and provide a firmer grip, and <a href=\"bouldering%20mat\">bouldering mat</a>s to prevent injuries from falls. Unlike <a href=\"free%20solo%20climbing\">free solo climbing</a>, which is also performed without ropes, bouldering problems (the path that a climber takes in order to complete the climb) are usually less than 6 meters (20 ft.) tall. <a href=\"Indoor%20climbing\">Artificial climbing walls</a> allow boulderers to train indoors in areas without natural boulders. <a href=\"Competition%20climbing\">Bouldering competitions</a>, which employ a variety of formats, take place in both indoor and outdoor settings.\nThe sport originated as a method of training for roped climbs and <a href=\"mountaineering\">mountaineering</a>. Bouldering enabled climbers to practice specific moves at a safe distance from the ground. Additionally, the sport served to build stamina and increase finger strength. Throughout the 1900s, bouldering evolved into a separate discipline. Individual problems are assigned ratings based on their difficulty. There have been many different <a href=\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\">rating systems</a> used throughout the history of the sport, but modern problems usually use either the V-scale or the <a href=\"Fontainebleau%20rock%20climbing\">Fontainebleau</a> scale.\nThe growing popularity of the sport has caused several environmental concerns, including soil <a href=\"erosion\">erosion</a> and trampled vegetation as climbers hike off-trail to reach bouldering sites. This has caused some landowners to restrict access or prohibit bouldering altogether.\nBouldering is a form of <a href=\"rock%20climbing\">rock climbing</a> which takes place on large <a href=\"boulder\">boulder</a>s and other small rock formations, usually measuring less than 20 ft from ground to top, but in some cases can measure up to 30+ ft. Unlike <a href=\"top%20rope%20climbing\">top rope climbing</a> and <a href=\"lead%20climbing\">lead climbing</a>, no ropes are used to protect or aid the climber. Bouldering routes or \"problems\" require the climber to reach the top of a boulder, usually from a specified start position. Some boulder problems, known as \"traverses,\" require the climber to climb horizontally from one position to another.\nThe characteristics of boulder problems depend largely on the type of rock being climbed. <a href=\"Granite\">Granite</a>, for example, often features long <a href=\"Crack%20climbing\">cracks</a> and <a href=\"slab%20climbing\">slab</a>s. <a href=\"Sandstone\">Sandstone</a> rocks are known for their steep overhangs and frequent horizontal breaks. Other common bouldering rocks include <a href=\"limestone\">limestone</a> and <a href=\"volcanic%20rock\">volcanic rock</a>.\nThere are many prominent bouldering areas throughout the United States, including <a href=\"Hueco%20Tanks\">Hueco Tanks</a> in Texas, <a href=\"Mount%20Evans\">Mount Evans</a> in Colorado, and <a href=\"The%20Buttermilks\">The Buttermilks</a> in <a href=\"Bishop%2C%20California\">Bishop, California</a>. <a href=\"Squamish%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Squamish, British Columbia</a> is one of the most popular bouldering areas in Canada. Europe also hosts a number of bouldering sites, such as <a href=\"Fontainebleau\">Fontainebleau</a> in France, <a href=\"Albarrac%C3%ADn\">Albarracín</a> in Spain, and various mountains throughout <a href=\"Switzerland\">Switzerland</a>.\nArtificial climbing walls are used to simulate boulder problems in an indoor environment, usually at <a href=\"climbing%20gym\">climbing gym</a>s. These walls are constructed with wooden panels, <a href=\"polymer\">polymer</a> cement panels, <a href=\"concrete\">concrete</a> shells, or precast molds of actual rock walls. Holds, usually made of <a href=\"plastic\">plastic</a>, are then bolted onto the wall to create problems. The walls often feature steep overhanging surfaces, forcing the climber to employ highly technical movements while supporting much of their weight with their upper body strength.\nClimbing gyms often feature multiple problems within the same section of wall. In the US the most common method Routesetters use to designate the intended route for a particular problem is by placing colored tape next to each hold—for example, holds with red tape would indicate one bouldering problem, while green tape would be used to set off a different problem in the same area. Across much of the rest of the world problems and grades are usually designated by using a set color of plastic hold to indicate a particular problem. For example, green may be v0-v1, blue may be v2-v3 and so on. Setting via color has certain advantages, the most notable of which are that it makes it more obvious where the holds for a problem are, and that there is no chance of tape being accidentally kicked off of footholds. Smaller, resource-poor climbing gyms may prefer taped problems because large, expensive holds can be used in multiple routes simply by marking them with more than one color of tape.\nBouldering competitions occur in both indoor and outdoor settings. The <a href=\"International%20Federation%20of%20Sport%20Climbing\">International Federation of Sport Climbing</a> (IFSC) employs an indoor format that breaks the competition into three rounds: qualifications, semi-finals, and finals. The rounds feature different sets of four or five boulder problems, and each competitor has a fixed amount of time to attempt each problem. At the end of each round, competitors are ranked by the number of completed problems, with ties settled by the total number of attempts taken to solve the problems.\nThere are several other formats used for bouldering competitions. Some competitions only permit climbers a fixed number of attempts at each problem with a timed rest period in between each attempt, unlike the IFSC format, in which competitors can use their allotted time however they choose. In an open-format competition, all climbers compete simultaneously, and are given a fixed amount of time to complete as many problems as possible. More points are awarded for more difficult problems, while points are deducted for multiple attempts on the same problem.\nIn 2012, the IFSC submitted a proposal to the <a href=\"International%20Olympic%20Committee\">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC) to include <a href=\"lead%20climbing\">lead climbing</a> in the <a href=\"2020%20Summer%20Olympics\">2020 Summer Olympics</a>. The proposal was later revised to an \"overall\" competition, which would feature bouldering, lead climbing, and <a href=\"speed%20climbing\">speed climbing</a>. In May 2013, the IOC announced that climbing would not be added to the 2020 Olympic program.\nIn 2016, the <a href=\"International%20Olympic%20Committee\">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC) officially approved climbing as an Olympic sport \"in order to appeal to younger audiences.\" The Olympics will feature the earlier proposed overall competition. Medalists will be competing in all three categories for a best overall score.\nRock climbing first known as a sport in the mid-1800s. Early records describe climbers engaging in what is now referred to as bouldering, not as a separate discipline, but as a form of training for larger ascents. In the early 20th century, the <a href=\"Fontainebleau\">Fontainebleau</a> area of <a href=\"France\">France</a> established itself as a prominent climbing area, where some of the first dedicated \"bleausards\" (or \"boulderers\") emerged. The specialized rock climbing shoe was invented by one such athlete, <a href=\"Pierre%20Allain\">Pierre Allain</a>.\nIn the 1960s, the sport was pushed forward by American mathematician <a href=\"John%20Gill%20%28climber%29\">John Gill</a>, who contributed several important innovations. Gill's previous athletic pursuit was <a href=\"gymnastics\">gymnastics</a>, a sport which had an established scale of difficulty for particular movements and body positions. He applied this idea to bouldering, which shifted the focus from reaching a summit to navigating a specific sequence of holds. Gill developed a closed-ended rating system: B1 problems were as difficult as the most challenging roped routes of the time, B2 problems were more difficult, and B3 problems were those that had only been completed once.\nGill introduced <a href=\"magnesium%20carbonate\">chalk</a> as a method of keeping the climber's hands dry. He also promoted a dynamic climbing style and emphasized the importance of <a href=\"strength%20training\">strength training</a> to complement technical skill. These practices had not been popular among climbers, but as Gill's ability level and influence grew, his ideas became the norm.\nTwo important training tools emerged in the 1980s: <a href=\"Bouldering%20mat\">Bouldering mat</a>s and artificial climbing walls. The former, also referred to as \"crash pads\", prevented injuries from falling, and enabled boulderers to climb in areas that would have been too dangerous to attempt otherwise. Indoor climbing walls helped spread the sport to areas without outdoor climbing, and allowed serious climbers to train year-round regardless of weather conditions.\nAs the sport grew in popularity, new bouldering areas were developed throughout Europe and the United States, and more athletes began participating in bouldering competitions. The visibility of the sport greatly increased in the early 2000s, as <a href=\"YouTube\">YouTube</a> videos and climbing <a href=\"blog\">blog</a>s helped boulderers around the world to quickly learn techniques, find hard problems, and announce newly completed projects.\n<a href=\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\">9A</a> (V17) :\n<a href=\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\">8C+</a> (V16) :\n<a href=\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\">8C</a> (V15) :\nUnlike other climbing sports, bouldering can be performed safely and effectively with very little equipment, an aspect which makes the discipline highly appealing to many climbers. Bouldering pioneer <a href=\"John%20Sherman%20%28climber%29\">John Sherman</a> asserted that \"The only gear really needed to go bouldering is boulders\". Others suggest the use of climbing shoes and a chalkbag as the bare minimum, while more experienced boulderers typically bring multiple pairs of shoes, chalk, brushes, crash pads, and a skincare kit.\nOf the aforementioned equipment, climbing shoes have the most direct impact on performance. Besides protecting the climber's feet from rough surfaces, climbing shoes are designed to help the climber secure and maintain footholds. Climbing shoes typically fit much tighter than other athletic footwear, and often curl the toes downwards to enable precise footwork. They are manufactured in a variety of different styles in order to perform well in different situations: High-top shoes, for example, provide better protection for the ankle, while low-top shoes provide greater flexibility and freedom of movement. Stiffer shoes excel at securing small edges, whereas softer shoes provide greater sensitivity. The front of the shoe, called the \"toe box\", can be asymmetric, which performs well on overhanging rocks, or symmetric, which is better suited for vertical problems and <a href=\"slab%20climbing\">slabs</a>.\nMost boulderers use <a href=\"magnesium%20carbonate\">gymnastics chalk</a> on their hands to absorb <a href=\"sweat\">sweat</a>. It is stored in a small chalkbag which can be tied around the waist, allowing the climber to reapply chalk during the climb. <a href=\"Brush\">Brush</a>es are used to remove excess chalk and other debris from boulders in between climbs; they are often attached to the end of a stick, pipe, or other straight object in order to reach higher holds. Crash pads, also referred to as <a href=\"bouldering%20mat\">bouldering mat</a>s, are foam cushions placed on the ground to protect climbers from falls.\nBoulder problems are generally shorter than 20 ft from ground to top. This makes the sport significantly safer than <a href=\"free%20solo%20climbing\">free solo climbing</a>, which is also performed without ropes, but with no upper limit on the height of the climb. However, minor injuries are common in bouldering, particularly <a href=\"sprained%20ankle\">sprained ankle</a>s and <a href=\"sprained%20wrist\">wrists</a>. Two factors contribute to the frequency of injuries in bouldering: first, boulder problems typically feature more difficult moves than other climbing disciplines, making falls more common. Second, without ropes to arrest the climber's descent, every fall will cause the climber to hit the ground.\nTo prevent injuries, boulderers position <a href=\"bouldering%20mat\">crash pads</a> near the boulder to provide a softer landing, as well as one or more <a href=\"Spotting%20%28climbing%29\">spotters</a> to help redirect the climber towards the pads. Upon landing, boulderers employ falling techniques similar to those used in <a href=\"gymnastics\">gymnastics</a>: spreading the impact across the entire body to avoid <a href=\"bone%20fracture\">bone fracture</a>s, and positioning limbs to allow joints to move freely throughout the impact.\nAs with other forms of climbing, bouldering technique is largely centered on proper footwork. <a href=\"Leg%20muscles\">Leg muscles</a> are significantly stronger than <a href=\"arm\">arm muscles</a>; thus, proficient boulderers use their arms primarily to maintain balance and body positioning, relying on their legs to push them up the boulder. Boulderers also keep their arms straight whenever possible, allowing their bones to support their body weight rather than their muscles.\nBouldering movements are described as either \"static\" or \"dynamic\". Static movements are those that are performed slowly, with the climber's position controlled by maintaining contact on the boulder with the other three limbs. Dynamic movements use the climber's <a href=\"momentum\">momentum</a> to reach holds that would be difficult or impossible to secure statically, with an increased risk of falling if the movement is not performed accurately.\nBouldering problems are assigned numerical difficulty ratings by routesetters and climbers. The two most widely used rating systems are the V-scale and the Fontainebleau system.\nThe V-scale, which originated in the United States, is an open-ended rating system with higher numbers indicating a higher <a href=\"degree%20of%20difficulty\">degree of difficulty</a>. The V1 rating indicates that a problem can be completed by a novice climber in good physical condition after several attempts. The scale begins at V0, and as of 2013, the highest V rating that has been assigned to a bouldering problem is V17. Some climbing gyms also use a VB grade to indicate beginner problems.\nThe Fontainebleau scale follows a similar system, with each numerical grade divided into three ratings with the letters \"a\", \"b\", and \"c\". For example, Fontainebleau 7A roughly corresponds with V6, while Fontainebleau 7C+ is equivalent to V10. In both systems, grades are further differentiated by appending \"+\" to indicate a small increase in difficulty. Despite this level of specificity, ratings of individual problems are often controversial, as ability level is not the only factor that affects how difficult a problem will be for a particular climber. Height, arm length, <a href=\"flexibility\">flexibility</a>, and other body characteristics can also be relevant.\nBouldering can damage vegetation that grows on rocks, such as <a href=\"moss\">moss</a>es and <a href=\"lichen\">lichen</a>s. This can occur as a result of the climber intentionally cleaning the boulder, or unintentionally from repeated use of handholds and footholds. Vegetation on the ground surrounding the boulder can also be damaged from overuse, particularly by climbers laying down crash pads. <a href=\"Soil%20erosion\">Soil erosion</a> can occur when boulderers trample vegetation while hiking off of established trails, or when they unearth small rocks near the boulder in an effort to make the landing zone safer. Other environmental concerns include <a href=\"littering\">littering</a>, improperly disposed <a href=\"feces\">feces</a>, and <a href=\"graffiti\">graffiti</a>. These issues have caused some land managers to prohibit bouldering, as was the case in Tea Garden, a popular bouldering area in <a href=\"Rocklands%2C%20South%20Africa\">Rocklands, South Africa</a>.\n","Céüse\nCéüse (<a href=\"French%20language\">French</a>: \"Montagne de Céüse\" ) is a mountain in the <a href=\"Hautes-Alpes\">Hautes-Alpes</a> \"<a href=\"d%C3%A9partement%20in%20France\">département</a>\" of <a href=\"France\">France</a>, elevation 2016 m , making it eligible to be on the list of Europe's <a href=\"two-thousander\">two-thousander</a> mountains. It is situated in the territories of the <a href=\"communes%20of%20France\">communes</a> of <a href=\"Manteyer\">Manteyer</a>, <a href=\"Pelleautier\">Pelleautier</a> and <a href=\"Ch%C3%A2teauneuf-d%27Oze\">Châteauneuf-d'Oze</a>. It is home to one of France's most important venues for <a href=\"sport%20climbing\">sport climbing</a>. \"<a href=\"Realization%20%28climb%29\">Biographie</a>\", one of the hardest rock climbs in the world, is located at Céüse.","Alex Puccio\nAlex Puccio (born Alexandrea Elizabeth Cocca on June 15, 1989 in <a href=\"McKinney%2C%20Texas\">McKinney, Texas</a>) is a professional climber specializing in <a href=\"bouldering\">bouldering</a>. She competes in <a href=\"climbing%20competitions\">climbing competitions</a> and splits her time between climbing outdoor and indoor. She is known for being one of the strongest female climbers of all time. She regularly participates in United States national championships and the <a href=\"International%20Federation%20of%20Sport%20Climbing\">IFSC</a> world cups. She finished 3rd overall in the World Cup bouldering competition in 2011 and has won the <a href=\"American%20Bouldering%20Series\">American Bouldering Series</a> ten times.\nAlex started climbing in 2002 at age thirteen with her mother. In 2006, she participated for the first time in the U.S. Bouldering Championships, and won the title. She later won in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013. In 2008, 2009 and 2010 she competed in the World Cup bouldering climbing but only at the stage of Vail finishing sixth respectively, before and fourth. In 2011, she took part in all the steps going up to the podium five times, with three second places and two third places. Since then she has been a fixture on the <a href=\"International%20Federation%20of%20Sport%20Climbing\">IFSC</a> Bouldering World Cup circuit where she is constantly a finalist.\nShe has ascended over two dozen boulders graded <a href=\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\">V12</a> (8A+) between the United States and Europe. On July 2, 2014, Puccio ascended \"Top Notch\" in <a href=\"Rocky%20Mountain%20National%20Park\">Rocky Mountain National Park</a>. This was her first V13(8B) graded boulder. A month later, she ascended \"Jade\" becoming the fourth woman to climb V14.\nAlex placed second in the Boulder World Championship in Munich, Germany on 23 August 2014.\nOn June 5, 2015 Alex sustained a season ending knee injury while warming up her dynos during the IFSC World Cup competition in Vail, CO. She required surgery to repair the torn ACL, MCL, and meniscus ligaments in her left knee which could have resulted in months of inactivity during the recovery. Despite a six-month inactivity prediction she was back climbing V13 (8B) by October 2015 with an ascent of \"Free Range\" in Boulder Canyon, CO.\nIn February 2016, Alex won the Hueco Tanks 'Rock Rodeo' amid world class competitors proving that she was still in top form. Puccio also had the most productive week-long bouldering trip by any female in history by completing three V13 (8B) boulders among many other double-digit (V-scale) boulders.\nOn June 19, 2016, Alex underwent a spinal fusion surgery after doctors discovered a herniated disk between the C5 and C6 vertebrae. She first noticed the serious nature of the injury during the finals of the 2016 bouldering World Cup in Vail, CO when she felt shooting pain and weakness in her arms. Despite the pain she still climbed in the finals.\nOn December 19, 2016 Alex climbed the iconic razor blade climb \"Terre De Sienne\" V13 (8B) at <a href=\"Hueco%20Tanks\">Hueco Tanks</a>. This achievement marked her 15th climb of that difficulty. The ascent is a testament to how resilient and determined Alex is by climbing at a world class level so soon after a serious injury.\nAlex Puccio is the most accomplished American female bouldering competitor. She has won the ABS National Championship ten times and is the top American female bouldering competitor at the IFSC world competitions. She has earned numerous medals in the bouldering World Cup events including a gold medal at the 2009 World Cup held in Vail, CO. In 2014, she earned a gold medal at the Arco Rockmaster event and a silver medal in the World Championships for bouldering.","Rat Rock\nRat Rock is an <a href=\"outcrop\">outcrop</a> of <a href=\"Manhattan%20schist\">Manhattan schist</a> which protrudes from the <a href=\"Central%20Park\">Central Park</a> <a href=\"bedrock\">bedrock</a> in <a href=\"Manhattan\">Manhattan</a>. It is named after the <a href=\"rat\">rat</a>s that used to swarm there at night but it is also known as Umpire Rock. It is near the southwest corner of the park, south of the <a href=\"Heckscher%20Ballfields\">Heckscher Ballfields</a> on the lines of 62nd Street and of <a href=\"Seventh%20Avenue%20%28Manhattan%29\">7th Avenue</a>. The outcrop is roughly circular, about 55 ft wide and 15 ft tall with east, west and north faces that each present different climbing problems. The rock has <a href=\"Glacial%20striation\">striation</a>s caused by <a href=\"glaciation\">glaciation</a>.\nBoulderers congregate there - as many as fifty per day. <a href=\"Bouldering\">Bouldering</a> is the sport of <a href=\"climbing\">climbing</a> such large rocks. Some are regulars such as Yukihiko Ikumori, a gardener from the <a href=\"West%20Village\">West Village</a> who is known as the \"spiritual godfather\" of the rock. Others are just passing through, such as <a href=\"Tourism%20in%20New%20York%20City\">tourists</a> and visitors who learn about the climbing spot from the Internet and <a href=\"word%20of%20mouth\">word of mouth</a>. Experienced climbers such as Mr Ikumori often show neophytes good routes and techniques. More experienced outsiders may be disappointed as the quality of the stone is poor, the setting is gloomy and the climbs present so little challenge that it has been called \"one of America's most pathetic boulders\".\nThe park police formerly ticketed climbers who climbed more than a few feet up the rock. The City Climbers Club approached the park authorities and, by working to provide safety features such as wood chips around the base, they were able to legalize climbing there.","First ascent\nIn <a href=\"mountaineering\">mountaineering</a>, a first ascent (abbreviated to FA in guidebooks) is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular <a href=\"climbing%20route\">climbing route</a>. First mountain ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with greater risks, challenges, and recognition than climbing a route pioneered by others. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist.\nIn <a href=\"free%20climbing\">free climbing</a>, a first ascent (or <a href=\"Notable%20first%20free%20ascents\">first free ascent</a>, abbreviated FFA) of a climbing route is the first successful, documented climb of a route without using equipment such as anchors or ropes for aiding progression or resting.\nThe details of the first ascents of even many prominent mountains are scanty or unknown; sometimes the only evidence of prior summiting is a <a href=\"cairn\">cairn</a>, artifacts, or inscriptions at the top. Today, first ascents are generally carefully recorded and usually mentioned in guidebooks.\nOverwhelmingly, the idea of a \"first ascent\" is a modern one, especially in places such as <a href=\"Africa\">Africa</a> and <a href=\"Americas\">the Americas</a> with a history of colonialism. There may be little or no physical evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. For example, the volcano <a href=\"Llullaillaco\">Llullaillaco</a> on the border of <a href=\"Argentina\">Argentina</a> and <a href=\"Chile\">Chile</a> is known to have been climbed in the prehistoric period due to the presence of <a href=\"Incas\">Incan</a> artifacts at the summit, yet credit for the first recorded ascent is given to Chilean climbers Bión González and Juan Harseim, who summited in 1952.\nThe term is also used when referring to ascents made using a specific technique or taking a specific route, such as via the North Face, without ropes or without oxygen.\nIn rock climbing, some of the earlier first ascents, particularly for difficult routes, involved a mix of <a href=\"free%20climbing\">free</a> and <a href=\"aid%20climbing\">aid climbing</a>. As a result, purist free climbers have developed the designation <a href=\"Notable%20first%20free%20ascents\">first free ascent</a> (FFA) to acknowledge ascents intentionally made more challenging by using equipment for protection only.\nSecond ascents are also noteworthy in climbing circles, frequently involving improving on a pioneering route through lessons learned from it, experience which may span from technical improvements to having a better understanding of how much gear and provisions to take.\nSome other \"first ascents\" could be recorded for particular mountains or routes. One is the First Winter Ascent, which is, as the name easily suggests, the first ascent made during winter season. This is most important where the climate of <a href=\"winter\">winter</a> is a factor in increasing the difficulty grade of the route (higher elevation, polar latitudes). In the <a href=\"Northern%20Hemisphere\">Northern Hemisphere</a> conventional winter ascents are made between December 21 and March 21 and are not related to the conditions. Also in the Himalayan area, although Nepal and China's winter season permits start on December 1, the conventional winter ascents begin on December 21.\nAnother is the First Solo Ascent, which is the first ascent made by a single climber. This is most important on high-level rock climbing, when the climber has to provide his own security (self-belaying) or even when climbing without any protection at all (often recorded as First Free Solo Ascent). Another type of ascent, also known as FFA (not to be confused with First Free Ascent as listed above) is the first female ascent. While not generally considered as important, this designation remains significant on some difficult, limit-pushing climbs, where the first female ascent may not happen until well after the FA, due to possible difficulties encountered by female physicality.\nThe term last ascent has been used to refer to an ascent of a mountain or face that has subsequently changed to such an extent – often because of rockfall – that the route no longer exists (e.g., the south-west face of the <a href=\"Aiguille%20du%20Dru\">Aiguille du Dru</a> in the <a href=\"Alps\">Alps</a>). It can also be used facetiously to refer to a climb that is so unpleasant or unaesthetic (due to loose rock, excessive brush, poor route selection, etc.) that no one would ever willingly repeat the first ascent party's ordeal.","Sender Films\nSender Films is an American <a href=\"Filmmaking\">film production</a> company based in <a href=\"Boulder%2C%20Colorado\">Boulder, Colorado</a>. Productions include outdoor adventure films, television shows, and commercials.\nSender Films integrates action with story-telling to create climbing/mountaineering and adventure sports documentary films. Sender Films goes inside the sport of hard-core climbing, focusing on climbers driven to obscure accomplishments. According to Outside Magazine, Sender Films has \"focused on character-driven narratives..\". Over the past three years, Sender Films has produced the six-part series \"First Ascent\" with National Geographic International. They have also been producing adventure film segments for US TV networks such as <a href=\"NBC\">NBC</a>, <a href=\"The%20Weather%20Channel\">The Weather Channel</a>, and Outside TV. Their shows have been financial successes, proving that audiences are interested in the emerging genre of climbing and adventure-sports.\nREEL ROCK cranks it up to 11 with a collection of electrifying climbing films showcasing the sport's biggest stories and athletes. The five films deliver edge-of-your-seat action, globe-trotting exploration, big laughs and true inspiration. The films Young Guns, Boys in the Bugs, Brette, Rad Dad, and Dodo's Delight feature athletes Ashima Shiraishi, Kai Lightner, Will Stanhope, Matt Segal, Brette Harrington, Mike Libecki, Sean Villanueva O'Driscoll, Ben Ditto, and brothers Nico and Olivier Favresse.\nThe 2015 REEL ROCK Film Tour consisted of five films: A Line Across the Sky, Dean Potter Tribute, High and Mighty, 24 Hours of Horseshoe Hell and a Dawn Wall Exclusive. Athletes in these films include Alex Honnold, Tommy Caldwell, Jimmy Webb, Daniel Woods, Nik Berry, Mason Earle, Kevin Jorgeson, and Dean Potter.\n<a href=\"Peter%20Mortimer%20%28filmmaker%29\">Peter Mortimer</a>: President/Partner\n<a href=\"Nick%20Rosen%20%28filmmaker%29\">Nick Rosen</a>: Partner\nBrette (2016)\nBoys in the Bugs (2016)\nDodo's Delight (2016)\nYoung Guns (2016)\nA Line Across the Sky (2015)\nHigh and Mighty (2015)\nShowdown at Horseshoe Hell (2015)\nValley Uprising (2014)\nHigh Tension (2013)\nThe Sensei (2013)\nSpice Girl (2013)\nWide Boyz (2012)\nLa Dura Dura (2012)\nHonnold 3.0 (2012)\nOrigins: Obe and Ashima (2011)\nCold (2011)\nSketchy Andy (2011)\nRace for the Nose (2011)\nIce Revolution (2011)\nThe Swiss Machine (2010)\nFirst Ascent: The Series (2010)\nThe Sharp End (2008)\nKing Lines (2007)\nFirst Ascent (2006)\nReturn2Sender (2005)\nFront Range Freaks (2003)\nScary Faces (2001)\nBetween Light and Shadow (2000)\nFirst Ascent (2011)","Tomoko Ogawa\nTomoko Ogawa (尾川 智子 , Ogawa Tomoko , born April 14, 1978) is a Japanese <a href=\"Bouldering\">boulderer</a>. In 2012, she <a href=\"Glossary_of_climbing_terms%23send\">sent</a> Catharsis, a route in Shiobara established by <a href=\"Dai%20Koyamada\">Dai Koyamada</a> and confirmed by <a href=\"Daniel%20Woods\">Daniel Woods</a>, to become the first woman ever to climb a <a href=\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\">V14</a> (8B+) . Since then, only three other women -- <a href=\"Ashima%20Shiraishi\">Ashima Shiraishi</a>, <a href=\"Shauna%20Coxsey\">Shauna Coxsey</a>, and <a href=\"Alex%20Puccio\">Alex Puccio</a>—have sent problems of that level. Ogawa began climbing in 2000, at age 22. Her other notable ascents include Caramba 8a+, Mutante 8a+, Akugeki 8a/8a+, Atomic Playboy 8a, Hatchling 8a, and No Late Tenders 8a.","The North Face\nThe North Face, Inc. is an American outdoor product company specializing in <a href=\"outerwear\">outerwear</a>, <a href=\"Polar%20fleece\">fleece</a>, coats, shirts, <a href=\"footwear\">footwear</a>, and equipment such as <a href=\"backpack\">backpack</a>s, <a href=\"tent\">tent</a>s, and <a href=\"sleeping%20bag\">sleeping bag</a>s.\nIts clothing and equipment lines are catered towards <a href=\"college%20students\">college students</a>, <a href=\"climbing\">climbers</a>, <a href=\"mountaineering\">mountaineers</a>, <a href=\"skiing\">skiers</a>, <a href=\"snowboarding\">snowboarders</a>, <a href=\"hiking\">hikers</a>, and endurance athletes.\nThe company sponsors professional athletes from the worlds of <a href=\"running\">running</a>, <a href=\"climbing\">climbing</a>, <a href=\"skiing\">skiing</a> and <a href=\"snowboarding\">snowboarding</a>.\nThe North Face began as a <a href=\"San%20Francisco\">San Francisco</a>-based climbing equipment retail store, founded in 1966 by <a href=\"Douglas%20Tompkins\">Douglas Tompkins</a> and his then-wife, <a href=\"Susie%20Tompkins%20Buell\">Susie Tompkins</a>. It was acquired two years later by Kenneth \"Hap\" Klopp. The north face of a mountain in the <a href=\"northern%20hemisphere\">northern hemisphere</a> is generally the coldest, iciest and most formidable route to climb.\nFor a time, the store offered only highly selective merchandise, targeted to climbers and <a href=\"Backpacking%20%28wilderness%29\">backpackers</a>. By the 1980s, <a href=\"skiwear\">skiwear</a> was added, followed by <a href=\"camping\">camping</a> equipment.\nThe North Face is now a wholly owned subsidiary of the <a href=\"VF%20Corporation\">VF Corporation</a>. It is headquartered in <a href=\"Alameda%2C%20California\">Alameda, California</a>, co-located with its corporate sibling, <a href=\"JanSport\">JanSport</a>.\nIn 2007, JanSport was the world's largest backpack manufacturer; combined, the two manufactured nearly half of all small backpacks sold in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>.\nThe North Face's quarter-circle <a href=\"logo\">logo</a>, produced by <a href=\"California\">California</a> designer David Alcorn in 1971, evokes <a href=\"Half%20Dome\">Half Dome</a>, a massive granitic monolith in <a href=\"Yosemite%20National%20Park\">Yosemite National Park</a>.\nThe North Face maintains strong links with the outdoor community through sponsoring athletes, including <a href=\"Lizzy%20Hawker\">Lizzy Hawker</a>, winner of the <a href=\"Ultra%20Trail%20Tour%20du%20Mont%20Blanc\">Ultra Trail Tour du Mont Blanc</a> in 2005, 2008 and 2010.\nNorth Face attire has grown in popularity. The rise in the popularity of the North Face attire has resulted in wearers of the line becoming the targets of robbery. In early 2005, a group of teenagers from <a href=\"Washington%20D.C.\">Washington D.C.</a> were arrested on charges including the armed robbery of, specifically, The North Face jackets from students on the street.\nIn December 2008, The North Face filed a lawsuit in the <a href=\"United%20States%20District%20Court%20for%20the%20Eastern%20District%20of%20Missouri\">United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri</a> against <a href=\"The%20South%20Butt\">The South Butt</a>, its creator James A. Winkelmann, Jr., and a company which handled the firm's marketing and manufacturing. In the legal action, The North Face alleged <a href=\"trademark%20infringement\">trademark infringement</a> and sought <a href=\"injunctive%20relief\">injunctive relief</a>.\nAfter the court ordered mediation in the case, the parties reached a closed settlement agreement on April 1, 2010; however, in October 2012, Winkelmann admitted in court that he and his father violated the settlement agreement with The North Face and agreed to pay $65,000, an amount that will be reduced by $1,000 for every month of compliance.\nIn addition to selling through department stores and outdoor retailers, The North Face operates over 55 retail and 20 outlet locations in the United States, 4 retail and 2 outlet locations in <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a>, 19 locations in the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a> and many others worldwide.","Brooklyn Boulders\nBrooklyn Boulders is a company that designs, builds and operates community spaces and hybrid rock climbing facilities anchored by the premise that physical movement stimulates innovation and creativity with facilities located in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, <a href=\"Boston\">Boston</a>, and <a href=\"Chicago\">Chicago</a>.\nThe first Brooklyn Boulders location is an 18,000 sqft rock climbing facility, the first ever in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. Located in the old \"Daily News\" garage on Third Avenue in Boerum Hill, Brooklyn Boulders Brooklyn opened on September 9, 2009.\nBrooklyn Boulders was founded in 2009 by Lance Pinn, Jeremy Balboni, and Stephen Spaeth, who wanted to create a dedicated rock climbing facility when there previously was none. Prior to opening, a <a href=\"Facebook\">Facebook</a> group called “NYC Needs a Climbing Gym” was formed and over three hundred members joined overnight. By July 2009, the group reached over 1,000 members. Construction began in March 2009, and Brooklyn Boulders hosted “t-nut parties” on weekends, where anyone was permitted to visit, lend a hand setting t-nuts into the walls in exchange for free day passes. Brooklyn Boulders is also home to the Adaptive Climbing Group, founded by amputee climber Kareemah Batts.\nBrooklyn Boulders is known for the graffiti adorning their walls, some of it by notable artist <a href=\"Cope2\">Cope2</a> and its \"biggest architectural flourish: a replica of the <a href=\"Brooklyn%20Bridge\">Brooklyn Bridge</a> suitable for climbing.\" Called the \"best workout in Brooklyn\" by <a href=\"Vogue%20%28magazine%29\">Vogue</a>, Brooklyn Boulders is also home to some of the world's best climbers, including <a href=\"Ashima%20Shiraishi\">Ashima Shiraishi</a> and <a href=\"Sasha%20DiGiulian\">Sasha DiGiulian</a>.\nDuring <a href=\"Hurricane%20Sandy\">Hurricane Sandy</a>, Brooklyn Boulders was transformed into \"an operating base for Team Rubicon, a disaster response organization,\" and remained open for 24 hours.\nOn July 31, 2013, Brooklyn Boulders' second location, Brooklyn Boulders Somerville, opened \"a 40,000-square-foot climbing facility; a combination climbing gym and collaborative workspace in <a href=\"Somerville%2C%20Massachusetts\">Somerville, Massachusetts</a>.\" Brooklyn Boulders Somerville hosted TEDxSomerville on March 30, 2015.\nBrooklyn Boulders opened its first location in the Midwest, Brooklyn Boulders Chicago, on December 13, 2014. Located in Chicago's West Loop, Brooklyn Boulders Chicago features \"a 1,000-square-foot Active Collaborative Workspace\", replete with standing desks, exercise-ball sitting desks and above-desk pull-up bars.\nBrooklyn Boulders opened its fourth facility in Long Island City, BKB Queensbridge, with a Grand Opening Event December 10, 2015. Bloomberg Business featured Brooklyn Boulders in September 2015, declaring that \"Brooklyn Boulders is tapping climbing's popularity in the tech world to become a co-working haven for (very ripped) entrepreneurs.\"","Lead climbing\nLead climbing is a <a href=\"climbing\">climbing</a> technique used to ascend a route. This technique is predominantly used in <a href=\"rock%20climbing\">rock climbing</a> and involves a \"lead climber\" attaching themselves to a length of \"dynamic\" (elastic) climbing <a href=\"rope\">rope</a> and ascending a route while periodically attaching <a href=\"Climbing%20protection\">protection</a> (quickdraws or traditional protection) to the face of the route and clipping into it. The \"lead climber\" must have another person acting as a <a href=\"Belaying\">belayer</a>. The belayer has multiple roles: holding the rope in the event of a fall, and paying out or taking up rope as the climber moves.\nAs lead climbing does not require a pre-placed anchor at the top of the route, it is often seen as less restricted than <a href=\"top%20roping\">top roping</a>. Also, because a lead climber does not have an anchor point above them while climbing, only the limbs and body of the climber are used to effect upward progress. Carabiners are only placed to catch the climber in the event of a fall.\nWhen lead climbing, the \"lead climber\" or \"leader\" wears a <a href=\"climbing%20harness\">harness</a> tied to one end of a rope. The leader's partner provides the belay, paying out rope as needed, but ready to hold the rope tightly, usually with the aid of a <a href=\"belay%20device\">belay device</a>, to catch the leader in the event of a fall. The lead climber ascends the route, periodically placing protection for safety in the event of a fall. The protection can consist of pre-placed <a href=\"bolt%20%28climbing%29\">bolts</a> and <a href=\"piton\">piton</a>s, to which the climber clips <a href=\"quickdraw\">quickdraw</a>s, or removable protection such as <a href=\"nut%20%28climbing%29\">nuts</a> and <a href=\"spring-loaded%20camming%20device\">spring-loaded camming device</a>s, which are carefully secured by the climber into cracks or other features. Distances between pieces of protection can range from three to forty feet or more, although most often the distance is between six and twelve feet.\nAt any point, the length of a fall will be at least twice that of the distance to the most recently placed protection. For example, if a leader is ten feet above the last piece of protection, a fall will be a minimum of twenty feet. Realistically, the fall would likely include several more feet due to rope elasticity and slack and give in the overall mechanical system. If a lead climber, starting from the ground, approaches twice the height of the last piece of protection, there is danger of a \"ground fall\" (more commonly referred to as \"decking\") in which the falling climber hits the ground before the rope goes tight.\nThe severity of a fall arrested by the climbing rope is measured by the \"<a href=\"fall%20factor\">fall factor</a>\": the ratio of the height a climber falls before his rope begins to stretch and the rope length available to absorb the energy of the fall. (A leader may reduce their fall factor by using \"protection\", equipment that attaches in some way to the rock, allowing the rope to pass through it.) A fall of 20 feet is much more severe (exerts more force on the climber and climbing equipment) if it occurs with 10 feet of rope out (i.e. the climber has placed no protection and falls from 10 feet above the belayer to 10 feet below—a factor 2 fall) than if it occurs 100 feet above the belayer (a fall factor of 0.2), in which case the stretch of the rope more effectively cushions the fall.\nOnce the leader reaches a suitable spot for <a href=\"anchor%20%28climbing%29\">anchoring</a>, or runs out of protection (hopefully the former), two things can occur:\nThe term \"<a href=\"sport%20climbing\">sport climbing</a>\" covers routes where most or all of the required protection is provided by permanently installed equipment; <a href=\"traditional%20climbing\">traditional climbing</a> (or \"trad\") usually requires the leader to place removable protection. It is unusual but not impossible to see some pieces of permanent protection installed in the rock on some trad climbing routes. Sometimes, these pieces will be installed in spots where protection is vital but placing temporary protection would be difficult or impossible; other times, the pieces are remnants of the days before removable equipment was the standard protection method.\nLead climbing is done for several reasons. Often, placing a <a href=\"top%20roping\">top-rope</a> is not an option because the anchors are not accessible by any means other than climbing. Sport climbing and traditional climbing both utilize lead climbing techniques for practical reasons, as well as stylistic reasons.\nLead climbing also gives more of a thrill for the climber, because they know that they may fall much greater distances than if they were using a top-rope.\n\"Turtling\" can occur if one of the climber's limbs is behind the rope and the climber falls off the wall. The climber is flipped upside down, like a turtle on its back. Sometimes this can even eject the climber from the harness and is typically quite painful when hitting the wall.","Climbing route\nA climbing route is a path by which a <a href=\"climbing\">climber</a> reaches the top of a <a href=\"mountain\">mountain</a>, rock, or ice wall. Routes can vary dramatically in difficulty and <a href=\"Grade%20%28climbing%29\">grade</a>; once committed to that ascent, it can sometimes be difficult to stop or return. Choice of route can be critically important. <a href=\"Guidebook\">Guidebook</a>s, if available, are helpful in providing detailed diagrams and photographs of routes.\nIn the earliest days of <a href=\"hillwalking\">hillwalking</a> and <a href=\"mountaineering\">mountaineering</a>, climbers got to the top by whatever means got them there. Little information about how they did it is available. During the 19th century, as explorers of the <a href=\"Alps\">Alps</a> tried ever harder summits, it became clear that choosing an eastern face over a southwestern <a href=\"ridge\">ridge</a> could spell the difference between success or failure. One example was the first ascent of the <a href=\"Matterhorn\">Matterhorn</a>, which had been repeatedly and unsuccessfully attempted via the southern side. The <a href=\"Stratum\">strata</a> there tended to slope down and away while the rocks of the northeastern ridge (the one closest to <a href=\"Zermatt\">Zermatt</a>) tilted up - a steeper, but safer route.\nAs technique developed, and mountains of the world were ascended via easy routes, climbers began to challenge themselves by looking for and trying harder routes. Once all the obvious lines had been tried, climbers looked for more technically challenging routes (e.g. an all-rock route threading between <a href=\"icefield\">icefield</a>s or a single thin, <a href=\"Fissure%20%28geology%29\">fissure</a> running in a continuous straight line from base to summit). An aesthetic element came in, as well. An easy, but confusing route, weaving back and forth across a face was less desirable than a direct route along a scenic ridge. Safe routes that yielded to good technique were more desirable than routes with loose rock and awkward climbing.\nClimbing routes that were overlooked or required greater technical skill became associated with the climber(s) who first climbed them. It became common practice for the <a href=\"first%20ascent\">first climber</a> to choose a name for the route. Inevitably, there were climbers so energetic that they established multiple routes on a single mountain or cliff, and named routes based on a \"theme\". This opened up a new outlet for creative overkill. Some <a href=\"climbing%20area\">climbing area</a>s have a bewildering variety of curious and amusing names for their many routes, as seen in the list below.\nAn example of interesting route-naming can be seen on the Southeast face of <a href=\"El%20Capitan\">El Capitan</a> in <a href=\"Yosemite\">Yosemite</a> Valley. <a href=\"The%20Nose%20%28El%20Capitan%29\">The Nose</a> was the first route on the main part of the cliff, so called because it is shaped like a 3000 ft nose. A list of routes to the right of The Nose includes:\nNames often incorporate puns. For example, in <a href=\"Joshua%20Tree%20National%20Park\">Joshua Tree National Park</a>, route names include Coarse and Buggy, Cranking Skills or Hospital Bills (\"cranking\" being the use of upper body strength), Rockwork Orange (after \"<a href=\"A%20Clockwork%20Orange%20%28novel%29\">A Clockwork Orange</a>\"), Fist Full of Crystals (from \"<a href=\"A%20Fistful%20of%20Dollars\">A Fistful of Dollars</a>\"), and Dangling Woo Li Master (from \"<a href=\"The%20Dancing%20Wu%20Li%20Masters\">The Dancing Wu Li Masters</a>\").\nAnother reason for the large number of named routes is the desire to indicate precisely where routes go. For high mountain routes, rockfall and snowfall would significantly change the mountain landscape over the years such that it is only possible to give a general idea of a route (i.e. \"Climb the southeast ridge to the black tower, pass below it on the right side, and go up a snow-filled gully to the summit ridge\").\nEstablished rock climbing routes are more predictable and good descriptions help keep climbers \"on route\" and out of trouble. For example, an incorrect choice of a crack could leave the climber stranded in a very precarious position. Guidebooks, if available, can be helpful in showing routes drawn over photographs or a <a href=\"Topo%20%28climbing%29\">topographic diagram</a> (\"topo\" for short) showing a view of the climbing route with specialized symbols indicating important characteristics of the route, and marking helpful <a href=\"climbing%20gear\">climbing gear</a> such as pitons and bolts. For routes longer than the climbing rope (usually about 60 meters), a good topo will also indicate the recommended <a href=\"Rock%20climbing\">belay stations</a>.","Clif Bar\nClif Bar & Company is an American company that produces <a href=\"organic%20foods\">organic foods</a> and drinks. The company's flagship product, CLIF Bar, was created by Gary Erickson and Lisa Thomas. The company is based in <a href=\"Emeryville%2C%20California\">Emeryville, California</a>, and is privately held. In April 2013, Kevin Cleary was named CEO of the company; CFO Boragno; co-owners Erickson and Kit Crawford became <a href=\"Chief%20visionary%20officer\">co-chief visionary officers</a>.\nA baker and former mountain guide, Erickson got the idea for his product in 1990 on a day-long, 175 mile bike ride, for which he packed a variety of <a href=\"energy%20bars\">energy bars</a>. Two years later after experimenting in his mother's kitchen, he settled on a recipe for what would become the CLIF Bar. Erickson tried several ventures—including Forza, Torque, and Gary's Bar—before settling on CLIF Bar, named after his father Clifford. The packaging image of a rock climber was first drawn by Doug Gilmour on a napkin over dinner in <a href=\"San%20Francisco\">San Francisco</a>. At a September 1991 bike show, Erickson debuted three flavors: double chocolate, apricot, and date oatmeal.\nIn its first year, sales of CLIF Bar exceeded $700,000, fueled primarily by strong sales in bike shops and the growth of the healthy and <a href=\"natural%20foods\">natural foods</a> movement. Sales doubled each year, and by 1997, revenue surpassed $20 million. In 1997, the company name was changed from Kali's SportNaturals to Clif Bar, Inc. . In 2010 the company moved into a new headquarters in the EmeryTech Building in Emeryville, California. Designed by <a href=\"ZGF%20Architects%20LLP\">ZGF Architects LLP</a>, the former manufacturing plant earned <a href=\"Leadership%20in%20Energy%20and%20Environmental%20Design\">Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design</a> (LEED) Platinum status. The building was repurposed and sustainably-designed with photovoltaic panels, solar thermal panels, reclaimed wood, plants and other biophilic features.\nIn March 1999, Clif Bar introduced <a href=\"LUNA%20Bar\">LUNA Bar</a>, which was specifically marketed towards women. In April 2000, Erickson and Thomas turned down a $120 million offer from <a href=\"Quaker%20Oats\">Quaker Oats</a> to buy the company.\nClif Bar & Company was ranked the No. 1 brand in the <a href=\"Forbes\">Forbes</a> \"Breakaway Brands\" survey, conducted by <a href=\"Landor%20Associates\">Landor Associates</a> using <a href=\"Young%20%26amp%3B%20Rubicam\">Young & Rubicam</a>'s BrandAsset Valuator database measuring brand momentum from 2006 to 2009.\nErickson and Crawford founded the Clif Bar Family Foundation in 2006, which through 2012 had committed $1 million to promote organic seed research and conserve crop genetic diversity.\nErickson and Crawford also own the Clif Family Winery & Farm in the <a href=\"Napa%20Valley\">Napa Valley</a>, which had its first national release in 2008.\nIn addition to its signature original Clif Bar, the company produces a variety of energy bars tailored to women, children, and other markets, a sports drink, and fruit-based items such as fruit ropes. In 2014, the company unveiled four gel-like squeezable 'energy foods' that were expanded in early 2016 to encompass six flavors. All products use <a href=\"Organic%20food\">organic</a> ingredients. Seventy percent of the company's purchased ingredients are certified organic.\nThe Clif Bar company has instituted policies intended to make it more <a href=\"sustainable%20energy\">green-friendly</a>. It switched to organic ingredients and eliminated <a href=\"shrink-wrap\">shrink-wrap</a>, saving 90,000 pounds of plastic and $400,000 annually, and invested in <a href=\"wind%20energy\">wind energy</a> to offset <a href=\"fossil%20fuel\">fossil fuel</a> usage.\nTo help reduce fuel consumption, Clif Bar began giving employees $6,500 in 2007 to switch to <a href=\"bio-diesel\">bio-diesel</a> or high-mileage <a href=\"hybrid%20cars\">hybrid cars</a>. As a bio-diesel incentive program, \"Cool Commute\" was the first of its type nationwide and drew praise from <a href=\"Al%20Gore\">Al Gore</a> for helping to aid the fight against <a href=\"global%20warming\">global warming</a>. In 2008, the company began giving employees up to $500 to purchase a commuter bike, with annual rewards up to $960 for getting to work on foot, bicycle, or public transportation. The company also began offering employees up to $1,000 annually to make eco-improvement to their homes, such as insulation, solar panel installation, and new windows. In April 2009, Clif Bar joined <a href=\"Business%20for%20Innovative%20Climate%20and%20Energy%20Policy\">Business for Innovative Climate and Energy Policy</a> also known as BICEP, a coalition of companies including <a href=\"Nike%2C%20Inc.\">Nike</a>, <a href=\"eBay\">eBay</a> and <a href=\"The%20North%20Face\">The North Face</a>, with the goal of passing progressive climate and energy legislation. In October 2015, Clif Bar along with other members BICEP released a joint letter pledging to accelerate business action on climate change and urging governments to do the same.\nIn 2012, amid concerns over <a href=\"child%20labor\">child labor</a> and possible <a href=\"slavery\">slavery</a> on West African cocoa farms, Clif Bar was challenged to disclose the source of their cocoa. On March 5, 2012, the company announced that thenceforth \"100 percent of cocoa ingredients for CLIF Bar will be sourced from <a href=\"Rainforest%20Alliance\">Rainforest Alliance Certified</a> farms.\"\nIn June 2010, Clif Bar initiated an <a href=\"employee%20stock%20ownership%20program\">employee stock ownership program</a> (ESOP), which gave 20 percent ownership of the company to its employees, with Crawford and Erickson retaining the other 80 percent.\nCompany facilities include an on-site gym, rock climbing wall, two yoga room/dance studios, and massage rooms. There are on-site showers so employees can shower after their workout. Employees also have access to free counseling and life coaching. Employees can bring their dogs to work and get two and a half hours of paid exercise each week with free personal training. Clif Bar & Company was named among \"<a href=\"Outside%20%28magazine%29\">Outside</a>\" magazine's Best Places to Work in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012.\nIn November 2014 Clif Bar made a decision to limit risky behavior by its sponsored athletes stating \"going forward we will not be sponsoring climbers who are primarily recognized for free-soloing, B.A.S.E. jumping, and high-lining. This change in sponsorship approach did not come without great debate.\" The company reasoned that \"[they] no longer feel good about benefitting from the amount of risk certain athletes are taking in areas of the sport where there is no margin for error; where there is no safety net\".\nClif Bar began community outreach in 2001, with the initial aim of donating 2,080 employee volunteer hours to community service. In 2010, Clif employees donated 5,290 hours. In 2008, the \"In Good Company\" initiative was announced, which organizes employees across several companies to assist in larger development projects, such as in <a href=\"New%20Orleans\">New Orleans</a>, <a href=\"East%20Oakland\">East Oakland</a>, and the <a href=\"Hopi%20Reservation\">Hopi Reservation</a> in <a href=\"Arizona\">Arizona</a>."],"string":"[\n \"Ashima Shiraishi\\nAshima Shiraishi (born April 3, 2001 in New York, NY) is an American rock climber. She started climbing at age six at Rat Rock in Central Park with her father. In a few years, she become a top female boulderer and sport climber. Currently, she is widely considered to be \\\"the\\\" best teenage climber of either gender. Her outstanding accolades include first place finishes in international competitions, multiple \\\"first female\\\" and \\\"youngest\\\" ascents, and several corporate sponsorships. She is featured in several short documentary-style films and is the subject of the documentary short \\\"Return to the Red\\\" (2012). She jokes that her only \\\"claim to fame\\\" is that actor and teen heartthrob Ansel Elgort climbs at her home gym.\\nThe \\\"New York Times\\\" has called her a \\\"bouldering phenom\\\". \\\"Outside Magazine\\\" has described her as a \\\"young crusher\\\". At age 13 she became the second female, and youngest person, to climb a sport route with a difficulty grade of 5.14d/5.15a (9a/9a+). In 2016, she achieved the first female ascent of the V15 \\\"Horizon\\\" in Mount Hiei, Japan and became the first female climber to climb the grade.\\nAshima was born in New York, NY on April 3 of 2001. She is the only child of Tsuya and Hisatoshi Shiraishi who immigrated from Japan in 1978 to New York, NY. Her father, Hisatoshi \\\"Poppo\\\" Shiraishi was trained as a dancer in Butoh. When she was 6, her parents took her to Central Park and she discovered Rat Rock where she first started to rock climb and later started climbing at Brooklyn Boulders in Gowanus, Brooklyn.\\nShe started climbing competitively at age 7, in 2008, and paired with coach Obe Carrion, an accomplished climber. Their partnership ended in 2012, largely due to tensions and disagreements between Carrion and Ashima's father (who has been her coach since then).\\nAshima first made a name for herself by bouldering at a very high level at a very young age. At age 8, she climbed the classic boulder problem \\\"Power of Silence\\\" (V10), in Hueco Tanks, Texas. At age 9, she also climbed \\\"Chablanke\\\" (V11/12) and \\\"Roger in the Shower\\\" (V11) in Hueco Tanks, and several other difficult boulders. At age 10, she climbed Ethan Pringle's notorious \\\"Crown of Aragorn\\\" (V13) also in Hueco Tanks. She is the youngest person ever to climb this grade, and one of very few female climbers to climb a confirmed V13.\\nShe has also excelled in lead climbing. At age 11, on October 2012, she climbed \\\"Southern Smoke\\\" at the Red River Gorge, a grade 5.14c (8c+) sport climb, becoming the youngest person to climb a route of this difficulty.\\nIn 2013, Ashima continued to excel at both bouldering and lead climbing, adding to her ticklist a 5.14a (\\\"Slow Food\\\" at Céüse) two more V13s (\\\"One Summer in Paradise\\\" and \\\"Automator\\\") and finally two 5.14c's (\\\"24 Karats\\\" and \\\"50 Words for Pump\\\"). On July 2014, she climbed what might be her first V14, \\\"Golden Shadow\\\"; however, there is a suggestion that \\\"Golden Shadow\\\" is V13 or V13/V14. She was the second officially recorded female climber (after Tomoko Ogawa) to successfully climb a V14 problem. On the first day of 2015, she climbed her second V14 (V13/V14), \\\"The Swarm\\\", claiming the first female top-out of the problem.\\nAt age 13, Ashima climbed her first 5.14d/9a, \\\"Open Your Mind Direct R1\\\" in Santa Linya. The route was thought to be harder while Ashima was attempting it, for she had broken a hold near the top.<ref name=\\\"5.14d/5.15a\\\"> </ref> Although, on Christmas Day of 2015, Edu Márin Garcia climbed the route past Ashima's end point to the second top and confirmed Ashima's route as a 5.14d/9a.\\nIn the same climbing trip Ashima climbed 'Ciudad de Dios', making her the youngest athlete to climb a 5.14d/5.15a (9a/9a+) and the second female climber to climb at this level. The route has been climbed by 6 other athletes, but there is still no definite consensus on whether the grade is 5.14d or 5.15a.\\nIn 2015, 2016, and 2017 Ashima won the IFSC World Youth Championships for both Lead and Bouldering in the Female Youth B category. In 2016, she also became the first female climber to climb an 8C/V15 boulder problem, which she did at Mount Hiei in Japan.\\nIn 2017, she was the winner in the female sport category at the USA Climbing Sport & Speed Open National Championships (SCS nationals) held in Denver, Colorado, and placed second at the USA Climbing Bouldering Nationals (ABS nationals) to 10-time champion Alex Puccio. In the same year, she started competing in the Climbing World Cup as an adult.\\nShe is sponsored by Evolv, The North Face, Clif Bar, Petzl, Coca-Cola Japan, All Nippon Airways and Nikon.\\nAlongside fellow American climber Kai Lightner, she is featured in the short film \\\"Young Guns\\\" in Reel Rock 11 (by Sender Films). The film covers her successful attempt of the 8C (V15) climb in Japan in 2016.\\nYouth\\n8C (V15) :\\n8B+ (V14) :\\n8B (V13) :\\nOther Bouldering Achievements:\\n9a or 9a+ (5.14d or 5.15a) - (grade that has not reached consensus):\\n9a (5.14d) :\\n8c+ (5.14c) :\\n8c (5.14b) :\",\n \"The Fault in Our Stars\\nThe Fault in Our Stars is the sixth novel by author John Green, published in January 2012. The title is inspired by Act 1, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's play \\\"Julius Caesar\\\", in which the nobleman Cassius says to Brutus: \\\"The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, / But in ourselves, that we are underlings.\\\" The story is narrated by Hazel Grace Lancaster, a 16-year-old girl with cancer. Hazel is forced by her parents to attend a support group where she subsequently meets and falls in love with 17-year-old Augustus Waters, an ex-basketball player and amputee. A feature film adaptation of the novel directed by Josh Boone and starring Shailene Woodley, Ansel Elgort and Nat Wolff was released on June 6, 2014. Both the book and its film adaptation were met with strong critical and commercial success.\\nHazel Grace Lancaster—a 16-year-old with cancer that has spread to her lungs—attends a cancer patient support group at her mother's behest. At first she hesitates because she feels like it has done her nothing. She thinks attending the support group could be the worst part of her life, until a particular support meeting, Hazel meets a 17-year-old boy named Augustus Waters, whose osteosarcoma caused him to lose his right leg, which was replaced with a prosthetic. Augustus is at the meeting to support his friend, Isaac, whose only remaining eye is soon to be removed due to cancer. Hazel and Augustus strike a bond immediately and agree to read each other's favorite novels. Augustus gives Hazel \\\"The Price of Dawn\\\", and Hazel recommends \\\"An Imperial Affliction\\\", a novel written by Peter Van Houten, who lives in Amsterdam, about a cancer-stricken girl named Anna that parallels Hazel's own experience. After Augustus finishes reading her book, he is frustrated upon learning that the novel ends abruptly without a conclusion. Hazel explains the novel's author had retreated following the novel's publication and has not been heard from since.\\nA week later, Augustus reveals to Hazel that he has tracked down Van Houten's assistant, Lidewij, and, through her, has managed to start an e-mail correspondence with Van Houten. The two write to Van Houten with questions regarding the novel's ending and the fate of the mother of Anna. Van Houten eventually replies, explaining that he can only answer Hazel's questions in person. At a picnic, Augustus surprises Hazel with tickets to Amsterdam to meet Van Houten.\\nWhile in Amsterdam, Augustus confesses his love for Hazel. Hazel and Augustus finally meet Van Houten but are shocked to find that he is a mean-spirited drunk. Horrified by Van Houten's behavior, Lidewij confesses to having arranged the meeting on his behalf, angering Van Houten, who proceeds to insult Hazel's cancer, starting an argument and causing Hazel and Augustus to flee from the drunken author's home.\\nAugustus confesses that his cancer has returned. The two affirm their love and support for each other. Upon their return to Indianapolis, Augustus's health worsens and he ends up in the ICU for a few days. Fearing his death, Augustus invites Isaac and Hazel to his pre-funeral, where they give eulogies. An extremely sick Augustus dies soon after. This leaves Hazel heartbroken and she doesn't know what to do with herself. After this traumatic event, Van Houten shows up at Augustus's funeral to apologize to Hazel.\\nHazel learns that Augustus was writing a sequel to \\\"An Imperial Affliction\\\". Hazel reads Augustus's words. He says getting hurt in this world is inevitable, but we do get to choose who we allow to hurt us, and that he is happy with his choice, and hopes she likes her choice too. The book closes with Hazel stating that she is happy with her choice.\\nOn December 21, 2011, Barnes & Noble accidentally shipped 1500 copies of \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" before the release date to people who had pre-ordered the book. Green released a statement saying, \\\"Mistakes happen. The people who made this error were not bad or incompetent people, and they were not acting maliciously. We all make mistakes, and it is not my wish to see Barnes and Noble or any of their employees vilified.\\\" Many people who received the book pledged not to read it until its release date, January 10, 2012, or discuss it until the next day, January 11, as per a request of Green's not to spoil it for other readers. Most kept to this promise leaving the experience untarnished for those who got the book on the intended release date.\\nThe book rose to #84 on the Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble bestseller lists in June 2011 shortly after its title was announced. Green promised that every pre-order would be hand-signed by him, requiring him to sign every copy of the first printing. He proposed that the general public vote on the color Sharpie he would use to sign the books, resulting in him signing the 150,000 books with a variety of Sharpie colors, each in proportion to the amount of votes received for that color. However, some people who ordered from international booksellers received unsigned copies because those bookstores, including Amazon UK, underestimated how many books they needed and ordered more after the signing was complete, but Green agreed to fix this problem, telling people with unsigned pre-orders to email him so they could be sent a signed bookplate. Many fans submitted their book cover designs to various outlets including Tumblr and Twitter, tagging Green in these posts so he could see them. The sizeable number of posts received has prompted Green's publisher Penguin to seek a fan-designed cover for a reprint of one of Green's other books, \\\"An Abundance of Katherines\\\". \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" debuted at #1 on \\\"The New York Times\\\" Best Seller list for Children's Chapter Books and remained in that spot for seven consecutive weeks. A Hebrew edition of \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" was published in Israel in August 2012 and more editions of the novel are forthcoming in Dutch, German, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Chinese, and Portuguese. \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" has also gained places on several bestseller lists. It was #1 on \\\"The Wall Street Journal\\\" bestseller list, #1 on the \\\"Indiebound\\\" bestseller list, and #9 on \\\"The Bookseller\\\" bestseller list. The novel was also \\\"The New York Times\\\" Book Review Editor's Choice. As of January 2013, there are nearly 1 million copies of the novel in print. In December 2012, it was announced that a special edition with a silver cover and an expanded Q&A, dubbed the 'Exclusive Collector's Edition', would be available from Barnes and Noble. All or at least most of the copies first available for purchase of this edition of the book contained a printing error wherein several pages of the first chapter were replaced with pages from the Q&A section at the back of the book.\\n\\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" received critical acclaim. Critics mostly praised the book for its humor, strong characters, language, themes and new perspective on cancer and romance. \\\"The New York Times\\\"' review of the book called it \\\"a blend of melancholy, sweet, philosophical and funny\\\" and said that it \\\"stays the course of tragic realism\\\", while noting that the book's unpleasant plot details \\\"do nothing to diminish the romance; in Green's hands, they only make it more moving.\\\" NPR's Rachel Syme noted that \\\"[Green's] voice is so compulsively readable that it defies categorization,\\\" saying that the \\\"elegantly plotted\\\" book \\\"may be his best.\\\" \\\"Time\\\" called \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" \\\"damn near genius.\\\" \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" wrote, \\\"[Augustus and Hazel's] love story is as real as it is doomed, and the gut-busting laughs that come early in the novel make the luminous final pages all the more heartbreaking\\\", and gave the novel an overall A− grade. Amazon.com calls it \\\"insightful, bold, irreverent, and raw\\\" and Green's \\\"most ambitious and heartbreaking work yet.\\\" The \\\"Manila Bulletin\\\" says that the book is \\\"a collection of maudlin scenes and trite observations about the fragility of life and the wisdom of dying. And while it does talk about those things and more, the treatment of it is far from being maudlin or trite.\\\" The \\\"Manila Bulletin\\\" also added that \\\"Just two paragraphs into the work, and he immediately wallops the readers with such an insightful observation delivered in such an unsentimental way that its hard not to shake your head in admiration.\\\" The \\\"Manila Bulletin\\\" stated that \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" was a triumph for John Green. \\\"USA Today\\\" called it a \\\"elegiac comedy.\\\" They gave the book a rating of four out of four stars.\\\"The School Library Journal\\\" stated that it was \\\"a strong choice for Adult Collections.\\\" \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" received a starred review from \\\"Kirkus Reviews\\\", who described it as \\\"a smartly crafted intellectual explosion of a romance.\\\"\\nSeveral well-known authors have contributed their own positive reviews for the book. Jodi Picoult, author of \\\"My Sister's Keeper\\\", calls \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" \\\"an electric portrait of young people who learn to live life with one foot in the grave.\\\" She goes on to say that the novel is \\\"filled with staccato bursts of humor and tragedy.\\\" Bestselling author of \\\"The Book Thief\\\", Markus Zusak, describes it as \\\"a novel of life and death and the people caught in between\\\" and \\\"John Green at his best\\\". Pertaining to Green's writing throughout the book, E. Lockhart, author of \\\"The Boyfriend List\\\", says \\\"He makes me laugh and gasp at the beauty of a sentence or the twist of a tale. He is one of the best writers alive and I am seething with envy of his talent.\\\" \\\"Time\\\" named \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" as the #1 fiction book of 2012. \\\"Kirkus Reviews\\\" listed it among the top 100 children's books of 2012. It also made \\\"USA Today\\\"'s list of the top 10 books of 2012. In 2013, the \\\"Edmonton Journal\\\" named the book one of their \\\"favourite books of the year.\\\"\\nOne notable unfavorable opinion appeared in the \\\"Daily Mail\\\". In the piece, the plot of \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" was described as \\\"mawkish at best, exploitative at worst\\\" and the book was characterized as belonging to the \\\"sick-lit\\\" young adult genre, together with other young-adult novels such as \\\"Never Eighteen\\\" and \\\"Before I Die\\\". This entire genre, as well as the genre of young-adult novels dealing with suicide and self-harm (the piece mentions \\\"Thirteen Reasons Why\\\", \\\"By the Time You Read This, I'll Be Dead\\\", \\\"The Lovely Bones\\\", and \\\"Red Tears\\\") was criticized as being \\\"distasteful\\\" and inappropriate for their target audience of teens. \\\"The Guardian\\\" criticized the piece, pointing out in particular that \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" was chosen by \\\"The Guardian\\\" as that month's \\\"teen book club choice\\\" because \\\"it's a gripping read, featuring two compelling characters, that deals sensitively and even humorously with a difficult situation without descending into mawkishness.\\\" In general, \\\"The Guardian\\\" faulted the \\\"Daily Mail\\\" for suggesting that the issues of illness, depression, and sexuality are inappropriate precisely \\\"in the one place where difficult subjects have traditionally been most sensitively explored for teens: fiction written specifically for them.\\\" For his part, in an interview for \\\"The Guardian\\\", John Green said: \\\"The thing that bothered me about \\\"The Daily Mail\\\" piece was that it was a bit condescending to teenagers. I'm tired of adults telling teenagers that they aren't smart, that they can't read critically, that they aren't thoughtful, and I feel like that article made those arguments.\\\"\\nIn January 2012, Fox 2000, a division of 20th Century Fox, optioned the rights to adapt the novel into a feature film. Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber wrote the adapted screenplay. Josh Boone signed on to direct a year later, in February 2013. Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen produced the film. Shailene Woodley stars as Hazel, while Ansel Elgort plays Augustus. Nat Wolff was cast as Isaac, the friend that introduces them, and Laura Dern stars as Hazel's mother. Sam Trammell was cast as Mr. Lancaster, Hazel's father. On August 29, 2013, John Green announced that Mike Birbiglia would be playing Patrick, and on September 6, 2013, Green announced that Willem Dafoe would portray Peter Van Houten.\\nPrincipal photography began on August 26, 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which doubled for the novel's setting of Indianapolis, Indiana, with a few days in Amsterdam, before concluding October 16, 2013. The film was released on June 6, 2014, in the United States. It was positively received by critics, with praise going to Woodley's performance as well as the entire film. The film also proved to be commercially successful, retaining the No. 1 spot at the box-office during its opening weekend, and grossed over $307 million worldwide against its budget of $12 million. It was released on Blu-Ray and DVD on September 16, 2014.\",\n \"Men, Women & Children (film)\\nMen, Women & Children is a 2014 American drama film dealing with online addiction. It is directed by Jason Reitman, co-written with Erin Cressida Wilson, based on a novel of the same name written by Chad Kultgen, and starring Rosemarie DeWitt, Jennifer Garner, Judy Greer, Dean Norris, Adam Sandler, Ansel Elgort, and Kaitlyn Dever.\\nThe film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2014. The film was released on October 1, 2014, by Paramount Pictures.\\nThe film opens with a narration about the Voyager satellite before proceeding to tell the story of several families and the various ways the internet affects their lives. Donald and Helen Truby are married couple who have become sexually unsatisfied. Their teenage son Chris has been viewing pornography since the age of 10 with his preferences becoming more and more extreme to the point he is unable to become aroused by material deemed \\\"normal\\\" by society. Tim Mooney is a high school student and football star, of which his father Kent is very proud, who has become depressed in the wake of his parents' divorce and abandonment by his mother. He quits the football team and begins to spend all his time playing an MMORPG. He has also come to believe, referencing Carl Sagan's reflections about the \\\"Pale Blue Dot\\\", that human life is insignificant in context of the universe. Hanna is a high school girl who wishes to be famous one day. Her mother Joan helps her maintain an online modeling site where she posts inappropriate pictures of herself in lingerie for subscribers who request private photo sessions. Brandy Beltmeyer is a classmate of Tim's who is introverted and has her online content constantly monitored by her overprotective mother Patricia. Unbeknownst to her mother, Brandy has a separate SIM card she switches while away from home and a secret Tumblr account she uses to express herself. Allison Doss is a friend of Hannah's who feels sexually inexperienced compared to Hannah and wishes to have sex with a boy named Brandon Lender. To make herself seem more attractive, she turns to dietary articles online to drastically lose weight.\\nAfter seeing a television ad for the website Ashley Madison one night, Helen creates an account and begins having multiple affairs, while Donald starts to regularly visit escorts after failing to initiate sex with Helen for almost two months. Chris enters a relationship with Hannah over the course of doing a school project together, and tries to condition himself to become aroused by \\\"traditional means\\\" of simply seeing her many sexts with him. Hannah meanwhile has auditioned for an acting competition that will land her a television role. Kent, feeling distant from his son, attends an online content awareness meeting held by Patricia in order to better understand Tim's interest in video games, while Joan also attends the meeting to learn more about what she is legally allowed to put on her daughter's website. Both are amused by Patricia's obvious paranoia and begin a relationship. Meanwhile, Tim and Brandy also begin a relationship, but Patricia initially intercepts their messages while Brandy is at home. Brandy tells Tim about her Tumblr account, and they soon become a couple, with Tim confessing that she makes him feel that everything is not pointless. While playing online with his friends, Tim sees a Facebook post by his mother showing pictures of her being happily remarried. When he shares this with his friends, they begin to post lewd comments, which he ignores. Allison is successful in having sex with Brandon while visiting a friend's house, but he treats the whole affair as casual and is clearly not interested in a relationship.\\nAllison collapses during school and is brought to the hospital, where she learns she had a miscarriage due to malnourishment, both facts which shock her parents. When she informs Brandon, his only concern is people discovering they had sex. Hannah and Chris start to initiate sex, but Chris fails to become aroused. Hannah later tells her friends that they had sex, causing Chris to confront her. She admits she only saw him as her \\\"best shot\\\" to lose her virginity, and claims he has \\\"sexual issues\\\", causing them to break up. Joan learns that the competition has disqualified Hannah because of the website, even though her audition was the best. Donald accidentally discovers Helen's Ashley Madison account, and goes to the same bar she is having an affair at. Seeing she has been caught, she tries to discuss it with Donald the next morning, only for him to admit he has also been having affairs, and says it is better if they just ignore what they have done. Joan confesses to Kent about the website, and is distraught that her daughter's real chance to be famous has been ruined because of her poor parenting. Kent, shocked by the news, says it is best of they do not see each other. Patricia discovers Brandy's Tumblr page, and after scrolling through her conversations with Tim and seeing his own page covered in video game content, is overwhelmed with fear and confiscates all of her online privileges. Kent reads all the lewd comments on Tim's game, and confronts him about it. Tim brings up the pictures his mother posted on Facebook, causing Kent to say she abandoned the both of them. He deletes the game and demands Tim play football next year, causing Tim to have a break down.\\nJoan tells Hannah about being disqualified from the competition, and says she has taken down the site, admitting she was wrong to support it. Hannah is furious, but Joan says she is still the parent. Allison is made to walk two miles to Brandon's house in the middle of the night in order to talk to him, but when she arrives she realizes how selfish he is and throws a rock through his window before leaving. When Tim attempts to reach out to Brandy for support, Patricia poses as Brandy, claiming she is bored of him and says she will block him if he texts her again. Despondent, Tim overdoses on his antidepressants. Brandy rushes to Tim's house, where she and Kent find him on the floor. They rush him to the emergency room, where he is successfully revived. While searching for Brandy, Patricia finds her at the hospital and figures out what happened. Bursting into tears after realizing her actions nearly caused Tim's death, she returns home and deactivates the surveillance device she uses to monitor Brandy. After reconciling with Tim and realizing how hard being a single parent is, Kent reconnects with Joan. The narrator closes the film by quoting The Pale Blue Dot while showing the Voyager satellite drifting through space.\\n</div>\\nBy September 4, 2013, Jason Reitman had cast Adam Sandler, Rosemarie DeWitt and Jennifer Garner in the lead roles. By December 16, Emma Thompson, Judy Greer and Dean Norris were cast. The young cast includes Ansel Elgort, Kaitlyn Dever, Elena Kampouris, Travis Tope, Katherine Hughes, Olivia Crocicchia, and Timothée Chalamet. Other stars are David Denman, Jason Douglas, Dennis Haysbert, Shane Lynch, and J. K. Simmons. Will Peltz also joined the cast, on December 17. Principal photography began on December 16, 2013, in and around Austin, Texas.\\nThe film was a critical and commercial flop.\\n\\\"Men, Women & Children\\\" premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2014. The film opened in limited release on October 1, 2014 in 17 theaters and grossed $48,024 with an average of $2,825 per theater and ranking #48 at the box office. In its wide release on October 17 in 608 theaters the film grossed $306,367 with an average of $504 per theater and ranking #23, making it the fifth lowest opening in a release of 600 theaters or more. The film ultimately earned $705,908 in the United States and $1,534,627 internationally for a total of $2,240,535 worldwide, well below its $16 million production budget.\\nThe film received a \\\"rotten\\\" score of 31% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 126 reviews with an average rating of 4.8 out of 10. The critical consensus states: \\\"\\\"Men, Women & Children\\\" is timely, but director Jason Reitman's overbearing approach to its themes blunts the movie's impact.\\\" The film also has a score of 38 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 36 critics, indicating \\\"generally unfavorable reviews\\\". Film critic Robbie Collin felt \\\"Men, Women & Children\\\" \\\"played like a spoof\\\" with others agreeing the film was \\\"mawkish and clichéd\\\".\",\n \"Carrie (2013 film)\\nCarrie is a 2013 American supernatural horror film, directed by Kimberly Peirce, and is the third film adaptation of Stephen King's 1974 novel of the same name. The film was produced by Kevin Misher, with a screenplay by Lawrence D. Cohen & Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa. The film was released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Screen Gems on October 18, 2013. The film stars Chloë Grace Moretz as the titular Carrie White, Julianne Moore as Carrie's mother Margaret White, Judy Greer as Ms. Desjardin, Portia Doubleday as Chris Hargensen, Gabriella Wilde as Sue Snell, Ansel Elgort as Tommy Ross, and Alex Russell as Billy Nolan.\\nThe film is a re-imagining of the horror novel about Carrie White (Moretz), a shy girl outcast by her peers and sheltered by her deeply religious mother (Moore), who uses her telekinetic powers with devastating effect after being a victim of a cruel prank at her senior prom. The film grossed $85 million worldwide at the box office.\\nAlone in her home, Margaret White (Julianne Moore), a disturbed religious fanatic, gives birth to a baby girl, intending to kill the infant but changes her mind. Years later, her daughter Carrie (Chloë Grace Moretz), a shy, unassertive girl, nears her graduation from Ewen High School in Maine.\\nWhile showering after gym class at school, Carrie experiences her first menstrual period. She naively thinks she is bleeding to death. The other girls ridicule her, and longtime bully Chris Hargensen (Portia Doubleday) records the event on her smartphone and uploads it to YouTube. Gym teacher Miss Desjardin (Judy Greer) comforts Carrie and sends her home with Margaret, who believes menstruation is a sin. Margaret demands that Carrie abstain from showering with the others. When Carrie refuses, Margaret hits her with a Bible and locks her in her \\\"prayer closet\\\". As Carrie screams to be let out, a crack appears on the door, and the crucifix in the closet begins to bleed.\\nMiss Desjardin informs the girls who teased Carrie that they will endure boot camp-style detention for their behavior. When Chris refuses, she is suspended from school and banned from the prom. She storms out, vowing revenge.\\nCarrie learns that she has telekinesis, the ability to move things with her mind. She researches her abilities, learning to harness them. Sue Snell (Gabriella Wilde) regrets teasing Carrie in the shower room and attempts to make amends by asking her boyfriend, Tommy Ross (Ansel Elgort), to take Carrie to the prom. Carrie accepts Tommy's invitation, and after school, goes into the town and buys red velvet fabric, and makes a dress at home. When she tells her mother, Margaret forbids Carrie to attend. Asking her mother to relent, Carrie manifests her telekinesis. Margaret believes this power comes from the Devil and is proof that Carrie has been corrupted by sin.\\nChris, her boyfriend Billy Nolan (Alex Russell), and his friends plan revenge on Carrie. They kill a pig and drain its blood into a bucket. Margaret tries to prevent Carrie from going to the prom, but Carrie telekinetically locks her mother in the closet. At the prom, Carrie is nervous and shy, but Tommy kindly puts her at ease. As part of Chris and Billy's plan, Chris' friend, Tina Blake (Zoë Belkin), slips fake ballots into the voting box, which name Carrie and Tommy prom queen and king.\\nAt home, Sue receives a text from Chris taunting her about her revenge on Carrie. Sue drives to the prom, arriving just as Carrie and Tommy are about to be crowned. Sue sees the bucket of pig's blood dangling above Carrie, but before she can warn anyone Miss Desjardin hustles her out, suspecting that Sue is planning to humiliate Carrie.\\nChris dumps the bucket of pig's blood onto Carrie and Tommy. Chris's shower video appears on large screens above the stage, inciting laughter from some in the audience, until the bucket falls onto Tommy's head, killing him. Enraged, Carrie takes her revenge telekinetically, killing several of the students and staff including Tina, Heather (Samantha Weinstein), Nicki and Lizzy (Karissa and Katie Strain), but spares Desjardin. A fire breaks out and, as the school burns to the ground, Carrie walks away, leaving a trail of fire and destruction in her wake. Chris and Billy attempt to flee in Billy's car. Chris urges Billy to run Carrie over, but Carrie flips the car into a gas station, setting it on fire, and killing them.\\nCarrie arrives home and she and Margaret embrace. Margaret tells Carrie about the night of Carrie's conception. After having shared a bed platonically with her husband, they yielded to temptation one night and, after praying for strength, Carrie's father \\\"took\\\" Margaret, who enjoyed the experience. Margaret attacks Carrie, who attempts to flee and ends up killing her with several sharp tools. She becomes hysterical and makes stones rain from the sky to crush the house. When Sue arrives, a furious Carrie grabs her with her powers, but senses something inside Sue, and tells her that her baby is a girl. Carrie pushes a stunned Sue out of the house to safety as the house collapses and apparently kills Carrie.\\nAs a voice-over gives her testimony in court regarding the prom incident, Sue visits Carrie's vandalized grave and places a single white rose by the headstone. As she leaves, the gravestone begins to break and Carrie's angry scream is heard.\\nIn May 2011, representatives from MGM and Screen Gems announced that the two companies were producing a film remake of \\\"Carrie\\\". The two studios hired \\\"\\\" playwright Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa to write a screenplay that delivers \\\"a more faithful adaption\\\" of King's novel—Aguirre-Sacasa previously adapted King’s work \\\"The Stand\\\" into a comic book in 2008. Reshoots were ordered, as the screenplay was re-written by Lawrence D. Cohen, who also wrote the original film.\\nUpon hearing of the new adaptation, King remarked, \\\"The real question is why, when the original was so good?\\\" He also suggested Lindsay Lohan for the main role and stated that \\\"it [the film] would certainly be fun to cast\\\". Actress Sissy Spacek, who played Carrie in de Palma's adaptation, expressed an opinion on the choice of Lohan for the character of Carrie White, stating that she \\\"was like, 'Oh my God, she's really a beautiful girl' and so I was very flattered that they were casting someone to look like me instead of the real Carrie described in the book. It's gonna be real interesting.\\\" In March 2012, the role of Carrie White was offered to Chloë Grace Moretz, who accepted the role.\\nKimberly Peirce directed the film, while Moore starred as Margaret White and Gabriella Wilde played Sue Snell. Alex Russell and Ansel Elgort are also members of the main cast, and Judy Greer played the gym teacher Miss Desjardin.\\nThe original release date was March 15, 2013, but in early January 2013 the release date was moved to October 18, 2013.\\nSony held a \\\"First Look\\\" event at the New York Comic Con on October 13, 2013 that allowed attendees to view the film prior to the release date. The event was followed by a panel session with several members of the cast and crew.\\nTrailers for the film included a phone number that offered promotions to the caller, as well as a recording of a simulated encounter with characters from the film.\\nThe film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on January 14, 2014. The Blu-ray features an alternate opening and ending and nine deleted scenes.\\nIn the alternate opening, a young Carrie has a discussion with her teenage neighbor, who is sun-bathing, over the fact that Margaret believes that women with breasts are sinful. Margaret catches them in the conversation and believes that the neighbor is offending Carrie, not before the neighbor's mother disagrees with her. Suddenly, stones begin to rain only on the White household. Margaret, believing it is a sign from God, takes shelter inside her home with a distressed Carrie.\\nIn the alternate ending, the cracking gravestone and the court speech are not present. Sue is in the hospital and is preparing to give birth to her baby. As she struggles to give birth, Carrie's bloody hand suddenly emerges and grabs Sue's arm. Sue screams loudly as she wakes up in her own bedroom, with her mother comforting her and telling her that her nightmare is over. A subliminal frame image of Carrie soaked in pig's blood is seen carrying Sue's baby as Sue continues to scream in her room.\\nThe review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 48% approval rating with an average rating of 5.4/10 based on 161 reviews. The website's consensus reads, \\\"It boasts a talented cast, but Kimberly Peirce's \\\"reimagining\\\" of Brian De Palma's horror classic finds little new in the Stephen King novel—and feels woefully unnecessary.\\\" On Metacritic, it scored a 53 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating \\\"mixed or average reviews.\\\"\\nKevin C. Johnson of the \\\"St. Louis Post-Dispatch\\\" gave the film a favorable review, saying, \\\"Long before the blood starts spilling, it's clear the new team has mostly nailed it. The reboot is as good a \\\"Carrie\\\" remake as possible, though it's not truly a scary movie; the film takes its time living up to its R rating.\\\" Mick LaSalle of the \\\"San Francisco Chronicle\\\" also gave the film a favorable review, remarking: \\\"In a way, the new Carrie is almost too easy to enjoy. Everything discordant and all the nagging weirdness and strange feelings surrounding the original have been smoothed down, and what we're left with is a well-made, highly satisfying and not particularly deep high school revenge movie.\\\" Michael Phillips of the \\\"Chicago Tribune\\\" gave the film a positive review, stating: \\\"The acting's strong; in addition to Moretz and Moore, Judy Greer is a welcome presence in the Betty Buckley role of the sympathetic gym instructor. But something's missing from this well-made venture. What's there is more than respectable, while staying this side of surprising.\\\" Joe Neumaier of the New York \\\"Daily News\\\" gave it three out of five stars, saying, \\\"With the exception of some appearances by social media, 'Carrie' doesn't try to hip up King's basic, often slow story. And while De Palma's version is fondly recalled as a high-blood-mark of the 1970s, this new take seems to linger a bit more on the bugaboos of overparenting and bullying while underplaying Mama's fanaticism. Peirce only glancingly lets her heroine have a mild discovery-of-powers moment that feels 'X-Men'-ish.\\\" In a positive review on Roger Ebert's website, Matt Zoller Seitz awarded the film three out of four stars, praising the portrayal of Carrie and Margaret's relationship and the feelings of sympathy Carrie manages to evoke, although he criticizes the representation of Chris as \\\"exaggeratedly evil\\\". Seitz ultimately concludes by stating: \\\"The first \\\"Carrie\\\" was horror. This is tragedy.\\\" A. A. Dowd of \\\"The A.V. Club\\\" gave the film a C- rating, criticizing Moretz's Carrie as \\\"too adjusted, coming across less like the 'very peculiar girl' King described in his novel and more like the stealth babe of some nottie-to-hottie teen romance.\\\" Dowd lamented on the film as a whole, \\\"It's a strange thing to say about a movie so obsessed with the red stuff, but this Carrie is bloodless.\\\"\\nSony estimated the revenue for the opening weekend of \\\"Carrie\\\" as between $16 million and $18 million, while others estimated a bigger margin of $24 million to $28 million due to the Halloween season. However, the final takings totaled $16,101,552 and the film was ranked at number 3 behind \\\"Gravity\\\" and \\\"Captain Philips\\\", both of which were in their second and third weeks, respectively. By the end of the week, the film managed to gross $20,121,355. In week two, the film slipped 62.8% to sixth place with $5,900,000 and 43.2% to ninth place in its third week with $3,400,000.\\nAt the end of its run, the film has grossed $35,266,619 in North America and $49,524,059 in other countries for a worldwide gross of $84,790,678. It is the 67th highest-grossing film of 2013 in the United States.\\n\",\n \"November Criminals (film)\\nNovember Criminals is an upcoming American crime drama film directed by Sacha Gervasi and written by Gervasi and Steven Knight, based on Sam Munson's 2010 novel \\\"The November Criminals\\\". The film stars Ansel Elgort, Chloë Grace Moretz, Catherine Keener and David Strathairn.\\nThe film is scheduled to be released through video on demand on November 7, 2017, before opening in a limited release on December 8, 2017, by Stage 6 Films.\\nIn November 2014, it was reported Chloe Grace Moretz and Catherine Keener had been cast in the film. In January 2015, Ansel Elgort joined the film's cast. David Strathairn joined the film's cast on March 23, 2015.\\nFilming began on March 23, 2015 in Rhode Island and Washington D.C. and wrapped on April 28, 2015 after 32 days of filming.\\nIn January 2015, Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions acquired North American and international distribution rights to the film. The film is scheduled to be released through video on demand on November 7, 2017, before opening in a limited release on December 8, 2017.\",\n \"Cruel Intentions\\nCruel Intentions is a 1999 American romantic teen drama film starring Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ryan Phillippe, Reese Witherspoon, and Selma Blair. The film is an adaptation of \\\"Les Liaisons dangereuses\\\", written by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos in 1782, but set among wealthy teenagers attending high school in modern New York City instead of 18th century France.\\nThe film started as an independent film with a small budget, and was later picked up by Columbia Pictures. It was released on March 5, 1999 to mixed critical reviews, but was a box office success, earning $75 million worldwide and spawned two direct-to-video films.\\nIn an upscale New York City mansion, wealthy and popular teenager Kathryn Merteuil (Sarah Michelle Gellar) is discussing her prep school with Mrs. Caldwell (Christine Baranski) and Mrs. Caldwell's daughter, Cecile (Selma Blair). Kathryn promises Mrs. Caldwell that she will look out for the sheltered and naïve Cecile. Kathryn's step-brother, Sebastian (Ryan Phillippe), enters the room, whereupon Mrs. Caldwell reacts to him coldly and leaves with Cecile. Kathryn reveals to him that her real intention is to use Cecile to take revenge on her ex-lover Court Reynolds (Charlie O'Connell), who has dumped her for Cecile. Kathryn asks Sebastian to seduce Cecile; he refuses as he is planning to seduce Annette Hargrove (Reese Witherspoon), the virgin daughter of their prep school's new headmaster. Annette is a 'paradigm of chastity and virtue' who recently wrote a published essay about saving herself for marriage and has been temporarily staying with Sebastian's aunt. The two make a wager: if Sebastian fails to bed Annette, Kathryn gets Sebastian's vintage Jaguar XK140; if he succeeds, Kathryn will have sex with him. It is mentioned that Sebastian keeps a journal detailing his conquests.\\nSebastian's first attempt to seduce Annette fails, as she had already been told of his reputation as a womanizer. He vents to his friend, Blaine Tuttle (Joshua Jackson), who suggests that the informant might be Annette's ex-boyfriend and closeted jock, Greg McConnell (Eric Mabius), revealing to Sebastian that Greg tried to make a pass at him. He uses that to seduce Greg while being secretly filmed by Sebastian. Sebastian confronts Greg with the photographs, but he denies warning Annette. Greg is pressured into investigating who did, and Sebastian also orders him to present him in a good light to Annette. Later, while gushing about Sebastian to Annette, Greg discovers that the culprit is Cecile's mother, Mrs. Caldwell. Wanting revenge on the Caldwells, Sebastian agrees to seduce Cecile.\\nMeanwhile, Cecile's music teacher, Ronald Clifford (Sean Patrick Thomas), is in love with her. Cecile confesses this to Kathryn. Kathryn tells Mrs. Caldwell about Ronald and Cecile's romance and Mrs. Caldwell orders Cecile to end it. Sebastian, in turn, calls Cecile to his house, ostensibly to give her a letter from Ronald. There he blackmails Cecile in order to perform oral sex on her. The next day, Cecile confides in Kathryn, who advises her to learn from Sebastian so that she can make Ronald happy in bed.\\nSebastian begins to fall in love with Annette, who returns his feelings but still resists him. Sebastian calls her a hypocrite because she claims to be waiting for her one true love, but when her one true love chooses to love her back, she resists. She relents, but Sebastian refuses her, confused about his feelings colliding with his stolid sexuality. Annette flees to the estate of her friend's parents. Sebastian tracks her down, professes his love, and makes love to her. As he has won the bet, Kathryn offers herself to Sebastian the next day, but he refuses; he now only wants Annette. Kathryn tries kissing him, but he rejects her again saying that it's only a stupid bet. She starts taunting him and he tells her he was planning on confessing the truth to Annette anyways. Kathryn warns him not to do it, that people don't change overnight and that it would not only be destroying his reputation, but also hers.\\nAfterwards, Sebastian full of remorse tells Annette he just wanted to see what she was like in bed. Heartbroken, Annette tells him to leave. He then goes to see Kathryn to fulfill the initial arrangement they had and tells her that he has broken up with Annette and arranged for Cecile and Ronald to be together. Kathryn reveals that she has known all along that he was truly in love with Annette and that it amused her to make him feel ashamed of it. She tells him he gave up on the first person he ever loved, all because she threatened his reputation. Sebastian desperately tries to get a hold of Annette to confess the truth and beg for her forgiveness. Kathryn calls Ronald, telling him that Sebastian slept with Cecile and lying to him that Sebastian hit her. Annette refuses to see or speak to Sebastian, so he leaves his journal for her to read. In which, he has detailed all of Kathryn's manipulative schemes as well as their bet, and written his true feelings for Annette. As he heads home, Ronald intercepts him on the street, starting a fight. Annette runs out and tries to stop it, but is accidentally thrown into the way of traffic. Sebastian pushes her to safety, and is hit by a cab. Before dying, Sebastian confesses he loves her and Annette tells him she loves him too.\\nAt Sebastian's funeral, Cecile distributes copies of his journal, made into a book by Annette, titled \\\"Cruel Intentions\\\". Kathryn is humiliated and rejected by her classmates and teachers. Her reputation is ruined when cocaine is discovered in her rosary. In the final scene, Annette drives away in Sebastian's car with his journal at her side as she remembers the moments they shared.\\nOne of the filming locations was Old Westbury Gardens in New York State, as well as the Harry F. Sinclair House in New York City.\\nThe film received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 49%, based on reviews from 78 critics, with an average score of 5.3/10; the site's consensus stating: \\\"Even in a slick package and an attractive cast, the movie succumbs to bad acting and a bad script.\\\" Metacritic gave the film an average score of 56% based on reviews from 24 critics. However, the film has gained somewhat of a cult following and is considered to be one of the first films to confront teenage sexuality and sexual manipulation . Charles Taylor of \\\"Salon.com\\\" described the film as \\\"The dirtiest-minded American movie in recent memory - and an honestly corrupt entertaining picture is never anything to sneeze at.\\\" Stephen Holden \\\"The New York Times\\\" stated, \\\"You have the queasy sense that the whole thing is just an elaborate stunt, and in this case an exploitative one.\\\" Despite this, Roger Ebert—a noted film critic for \\\"The Chicago Sun Times\\\"—praised \\\"Cruel Intentions\\\" and gave the film three out of four stars in his review. He stated that it was \\\"smart and merciless in the tradition of the original story\\\".\\n\\\"Cruel Intentions\\\" was a commercial success. The film grossed $13,020,565 in its opening weekend, ranking #2 behind \\\"Analyze This\\\"; released in 2,312 theaters, the movie raked in $75,902,208 worldwide.\\nThe film received the following awards and nominations:\\nThe \\\"Cruel Intentions\\\" soundtrack is a compilation soundtrack released on March 9, 1999 by Arista/Virgin Records. It reached number 60 on the Billboard chart.\\nThe lead track for the film was \\\"Bitter Sweet Symphony\\\" by rock band The Verve.\\nThe film received two direct-to-video follow-ups: a prequel titled \\\"Cruel Intentions 2\\\" in 2001, and a sequel titled \\\"Cruel Intentions 3\\\" in 2004. Written and directed by Roger Kumble, the former was assembled from \\\"Manchester Prep\\\", a scrapped prequel series by Fox, of which three episodes had been filmed. It features younger versions of the characters of Sebastian Valmont and Kathryn Merteuil played by Robin Dunne and Amy Adams, alongside Sarah Thompson and Keri Lynn Pratt. The later film, \\\"Cruel Intentions 3\\\" was directed by Scott Ziehl and features Kerr Smith, Kristina Anapau, Nathan Wetherington, Melissa Yvonne Lewis, Natalie Ramsey and Tom Parker.\\nNBC announced in October 2015 that they had picked up a pilot for a continuation of the film's storyline. The pilot was to be written by Kumble and the creators of \\\"\\\", Jordan Ross and Lindsey Rosin, with Sebastian Valmont and Annette Hargrove's son being the main character.\\nIn February 2016, Deadline.com reported that producers are in talks with Sarah Michelle Gellar to reprise the role as Kathryn in the television sequel. On February 23, 2016, Taylor John Smith and Samantha Logan were both cast, with Smith playing the male lead role of Bash Casey, Sebastian Valmont and Annette Hargrove's son. On February 24, 2016, Gellar reached a deal with producers to be the female lead, reprising her role as Kathryn Merteuil. On March 1, 2016, the role of Annette Hargrove (the role portrayed by Reese Witherspoon in the movie) was recast with Kate Levering. On October 31, 2016, NBC announced that they decided not to go through with the series and is currently being shopped to other TV networks.\\n\\n\",\n \"Ansel Elgort\\nAnsel Elgort (born March 14, 1994) is an American actor, singer and a DJ (under the name Ansølo). As a film actor, he played Tommy Ross in the horror film \\\"Carrie\\\" (2013), Caleb Prior in \\\"The Divergent Series \\\" franchise, Augustus Waters in the romantic teen drama \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" (2014), and the title character in Edgar Wright's action thriller \\\"Baby Driver\\\" (2017).\\nElgort was born in Manhattan. His parents are Arthur Elgort, a fashion photographer who has worked extensively for \\\"Vogue\\\" for over thirty years, and Grethe Barrett Holby, an opera director. His father is of Russian Jewish descent, and his mother is of Norwegian, English, and German ancestry. His maternal grandmother, Aase-Grethe, was in the Norwegian resistance during World War II, and saved Norwegian Jewish children by moving them into neutral Sweden; because of these activities, she was imprisoned in a concentration camp. Elgort is named after photographer Ansel Adams.\\nElgort has two older siblings, Warren, a film editor, and Sophie, a photographer. At the age of nine, his mother took him to try out for School of American Ballet. He attended The Professional Performing Arts School, Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School and Stagedoor Manor summer camp. Elgort started taking acting classes at the age of twelve and at LaGuardia, Elgort performed in a rendition of \\\"Hairspray\\\" with Kyle Jean-Baptiste and starred in his school's productions of \\\"Guys and Dolls\\\".\\nElgort's acting career began through professional stage acting, in \\\"Regrets\\\", by Matt Charman. His film debut was a secondary role in the 2013 remake of \\\"Carrie\\\". His first highly publicized role was in \\\"Divergent\\\" as Caleb Prior, the brother of Beatrice Prior (played by Shailene Woodley). The film, based on a popular young adult novel by Veronica Roth, was released on March 21, 2014.\\nImmediately after the filming of \\\"Divergent\\\" was completed, it was announced that Elgort would play Augustus Waters in the film adaptation of John Green's novel \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\", opposite Woodley who would play Hazel Grace Lancaster. The film followed the story of Hazel, a teenage cancer patient, who is forced by her parents to attend a support group, where she subsequently meets and falls in love with Waters, an ex-basketball player. The film, directed by Josh Boone, was released on June 6, 2014. Elgort next co-starred in the comedy film \\\"Men, Women & Children\\\", directed by Jason Reitman and released in October 2014.\\nIn 2014, Elgort was named one of the best actors under twenty years of age. Elgort reunited with Chloe Grace Moretz to present the award for Best Visual Effects at the 2015 Oscars. He also reprised his role, Caleb Prior, in \\\"\\\", the second film of the book series \\\"Divergent\\\", which was released March 20, 2015, and in the third film, \\\"\\\", which was released on March 18, 2016.\\nElgort was on a shortlist of actors being considered to play the role of Han Solo in a still-untitled 2018 Han Solo film; Alden Ehrenreich was eventually cast in May 2016. Elgort expressed some relief at not being cast, saying that, if he had been cast, he would have had to change his DJ name, Ansølo.\\nIn 2017, Elgort played the title role in the action film \\\"Baby Driver\\\", directed by Edgar Wright, and also starring Lily James and Kevin Spacey. The film received positive reviews and performed well at the box office. Throughout much of the film, Elgort wears a jacket that some thought was deliberately meant to look like the jacket worn by Han Solo in the original \\\"Star Wars\\\" films, as a node to Elgort's then-potential casting, though Wright insisted that the resemblance was unintentional.\\nElgort will play Addison Schacht in the adaptation of \\\"The November Criminals\\\", with Chloë Grace Moretz, and will star in the film \\\"Billionaire Boys Club\\\", opposite Kevin Spacey, Carey Elwes, Emma Roberts and Taron Egerton, and directed by James Cox. Both films are in post-production.\\nOn June 23, 2014, Deadline.com announced that he had been cast in the titular role in \\\"Van Cliburn\\\". Based on the biography by Howard Reich, the film will depict Van Cliburn's rise to fame in 1958 when, in the midst of the Cold War, Cliburn won the first International Tchaikovsky Competition in piano - an extraordinary event, since Cliburn was from the US. The adaptation will be produced by Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen, who also produced \\\"The Fault in our Stars\\\". On June 27, 2017, it was announced that Elgort would portray future President John F. Kennedy during his time in the United States Navy in the film \\\"Mayday 109\\\".\\nHe is represented by CAA and Brookside Artist Management's Emily Gerson Saines.\\nUnder the name Ansølo, Elgort created a SoundCloud account to publish electronic dance music, and he has remixed songs such as \\\"Born to Die\\\" by Lana del Rey. In a livestream in February 2014 he stated he had signed a record deal with Tom Staar's new label Staar Traxx and Steve Angello Size Records.\\nHis first record \\\"Unite\\\" was released on April 21, 2014, on Beatport, and May 5, 2014, on iTunes. His second record, \\\"Totem\\\", was released July 21, 2014, on Beatport and iTunes. His single \\\"To Life\\\", a Bar Mitzvah-themed song inflected with klezmer music, was released in September 2015.\\nHe played at the Electric Zoo Festival main stage in 2014, the Ultra Music Festival main stage in March 2015, played in a red-light dance music event in Amsterdam in 2014, opened some The Chainsmokers shows, a NERVO show, and some others shows with his friends Nicky Romero and Martin Garrix. He played his first headline show on his 21st birthday on Pacha NYC.\\nIn 2015, he signed a record deal with Island/Universal Records, and released his first single titled \\\"Home Alone\\\" in July 2016.\\nOn February 3, 2017, he released a single called \\\"Thief\\\" under the name Ansel Elgort. The music video featured his girlfriend Violetta Komyshan, a ballet dancer.\\nHe was featured on rapper Logic's third studio album, \\\"Everybody\\\", released on May 5, 2017, on a song titled \\\"Killing Spree\\\".\\nElgort began dating his high school sweetheart, Violetta Komyshan, in 2012. The couple broke up in August 2014 primarily due to the actor's burgeoning career and hectic schedule but reconciled after five months of separation in January 2015.\\nHe is a skateboarder and an avid sportsman, often seen playing pickup basketball. As a hobby, he also took to miniature painting displaying some of his work. He has eight million followers on Instagram.\",\n \"Bouldering\\nBouldering is a form of <a href=\\\"rock%20climbing\\\">rock climbing</a> that is performed on large <a href=\\\"boulder\\\">boulder</a>s, small rock formations or artificial <a href=\\\"climbing%20wall\\\">rock walls</a>, without the use of ropes or <a href=\\\"Climbing%20harness\\\">harnesses</a>. While it can be done without any equipment whatsoever, most climbers use <a href=\\\"climbing%20shoe\\\">climbing shoe</a>s to help secure footholds, <a href=\\\"Magnesium%20carbonate\\\">chalk</a> to keep their hands dry and provide a firmer grip, and <a href=\\\"bouldering%20mat\\\">bouldering mat</a>s to prevent injuries from falls. Unlike <a href=\\\"free%20solo%20climbing\\\">free solo climbing</a>, which is also performed without ropes, bouldering problems (the path that a climber takes in order to complete the climb) are usually less than 6 meters (20 ft.) tall. <a href=\\\"Indoor%20climbing\\\">Artificial climbing walls</a> allow boulderers to train indoors in areas without natural boulders. <a href=\\\"Competition%20climbing\\\">Bouldering competitions</a>, which employ a variety of formats, take place in both indoor and outdoor settings.\\nThe sport originated as a method of training for roped climbs and <a href=\\\"mountaineering\\\">mountaineering</a>. Bouldering enabled climbers to practice specific moves at a safe distance from the ground. Additionally, the sport served to build stamina and increase finger strength. Throughout the 1900s, bouldering evolved into a separate discipline. Individual problems are assigned ratings based on their difficulty. There have been many different <a href=\\\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\\\">rating systems</a> used throughout the history of the sport, but modern problems usually use either the V-scale or the <a href=\\\"Fontainebleau%20rock%20climbing\\\">Fontainebleau</a> scale.\\nThe growing popularity of the sport has caused several environmental concerns, including soil <a href=\\\"erosion\\\">erosion</a> and trampled vegetation as climbers hike off-trail to reach bouldering sites. This has caused some landowners to restrict access or prohibit bouldering altogether.\\nBouldering is a form of <a href=\\\"rock%20climbing\\\">rock climbing</a> which takes place on large <a href=\\\"boulder\\\">boulder</a>s and other small rock formations, usually measuring less than 20 ft from ground to top, but in some cases can measure up to 30+ ft. Unlike <a href=\\\"top%20rope%20climbing\\\">top rope climbing</a> and <a href=\\\"lead%20climbing\\\">lead climbing</a>, no ropes are used to protect or aid the climber. Bouldering routes or \\\"problems\\\" require the climber to reach the top of a boulder, usually from a specified start position. Some boulder problems, known as \\\"traverses,\\\" require the climber to climb horizontally from one position to another.\\nThe characteristics of boulder problems depend largely on the type of rock being climbed. <a href=\\\"Granite\\\">Granite</a>, for example, often features long <a href=\\\"Crack%20climbing\\\">cracks</a> and <a href=\\\"slab%20climbing\\\">slab</a>s. <a href=\\\"Sandstone\\\">Sandstone</a> rocks are known for their steep overhangs and frequent horizontal breaks. Other common bouldering rocks include <a href=\\\"limestone\\\">limestone</a> and <a href=\\\"volcanic%20rock\\\">volcanic rock</a>.\\nThere are many prominent bouldering areas throughout the United States, including <a href=\\\"Hueco%20Tanks\\\">Hueco Tanks</a> in Texas, <a href=\\\"Mount%20Evans\\\">Mount Evans</a> in Colorado, and <a href=\\\"The%20Buttermilks\\\">The Buttermilks</a> in <a href=\\\"Bishop%2C%20California\\\">Bishop, California</a>. <a href=\\\"Squamish%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Squamish, British Columbia</a> is one of the most popular bouldering areas in Canada. Europe also hosts a number of bouldering sites, such as <a href=\\\"Fontainebleau\\\">Fontainebleau</a> in France, <a href=\\\"Albarrac%C3%ADn\\\">Albarracín</a> in Spain, and various mountains throughout <a href=\\\"Switzerland\\\">Switzerland</a>.\\nArtificial climbing walls are used to simulate boulder problems in an indoor environment, usually at <a href=\\\"climbing%20gym\\\">climbing gym</a>s. These walls are constructed with wooden panels, <a href=\\\"polymer\\\">polymer</a> cement panels, <a href=\\\"concrete\\\">concrete</a> shells, or precast molds of actual rock walls. Holds, usually made of <a href=\\\"plastic\\\">plastic</a>, are then bolted onto the wall to create problems. The walls often feature steep overhanging surfaces, forcing the climber to employ highly technical movements while supporting much of their weight with their upper body strength.\\nClimbing gyms often feature multiple problems within the same section of wall. In the US the most common method Routesetters use to designate the intended route for a particular problem is by placing colored tape next to each hold—for example, holds with red tape would indicate one bouldering problem, while green tape would be used to set off a different problem in the same area. Across much of the rest of the world problems and grades are usually designated by using a set color of plastic hold to indicate a particular problem. For example, green may be v0-v1, blue may be v2-v3 and so on. Setting via color has certain advantages, the most notable of which are that it makes it more obvious where the holds for a problem are, and that there is no chance of tape being accidentally kicked off of footholds. Smaller, resource-poor climbing gyms may prefer taped problems because large, expensive holds can be used in multiple routes simply by marking them with more than one color of tape.\\nBouldering competitions occur in both indoor and outdoor settings. The <a href=\\\"International%20Federation%20of%20Sport%20Climbing\\\">International Federation of Sport Climbing</a> (IFSC) employs an indoor format that breaks the competition into three rounds: qualifications, semi-finals, and finals. The rounds feature different sets of four or five boulder problems, and each competitor has a fixed amount of time to attempt each problem. At the end of each round, competitors are ranked by the number of completed problems, with ties settled by the total number of attempts taken to solve the problems.\\nThere are several other formats used for bouldering competitions. Some competitions only permit climbers a fixed number of attempts at each problem with a timed rest period in between each attempt, unlike the IFSC format, in which competitors can use their allotted time however they choose. In an open-format competition, all climbers compete simultaneously, and are given a fixed amount of time to complete as many problems as possible. More points are awarded for more difficult problems, while points are deducted for multiple attempts on the same problem.\\nIn 2012, the IFSC submitted a proposal to the <a href=\\\"International%20Olympic%20Committee\\\">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC) to include <a href=\\\"lead%20climbing\\\">lead climbing</a> in the <a href=\\\"2020%20Summer%20Olympics\\\">2020 Summer Olympics</a>. The proposal was later revised to an \\\"overall\\\" competition, which would feature bouldering, lead climbing, and <a href=\\\"speed%20climbing\\\">speed climbing</a>. In May 2013, the IOC announced that climbing would not be added to the 2020 Olympic program.\\nIn 2016, the <a href=\\\"International%20Olympic%20Committee\\\">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC) officially approved climbing as an Olympic sport \\\"in order to appeal to younger audiences.\\\" The Olympics will feature the earlier proposed overall competition. Medalists will be competing in all three categories for a best overall score.\\nRock climbing first known as a sport in the mid-1800s. Early records describe climbers engaging in what is now referred to as bouldering, not as a separate discipline, but as a form of training for larger ascents. In the early 20th century, the <a href=\\\"Fontainebleau\\\">Fontainebleau</a> area of <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a> established itself as a prominent climbing area, where some of the first dedicated \\\"bleausards\\\" (or \\\"boulderers\\\") emerged. The specialized rock climbing shoe was invented by one such athlete, <a href=\\\"Pierre%20Allain\\\">Pierre Allain</a>.\\nIn the 1960s, the sport was pushed forward by American mathematician <a href=\\\"John%20Gill%20%28climber%29\\\">John Gill</a>, who contributed several important innovations. Gill's previous athletic pursuit was <a href=\\\"gymnastics\\\">gymnastics</a>, a sport which had an established scale of difficulty for particular movements and body positions. He applied this idea to bouldering, which shifted the focus from reaching a summit to navigating a specific sequence of holds. Gill developed a closed-ended rating system: B1 problems were as difficult as the most challenging roped routes of the time, B2 problems were more difficult, and B3 problems were those that had only been completed once.\\nGill introduced <a href=\\\"magnesium%20carbonate\\\">chalk</a> as a method of keeping the climber's hands dry. He also promoted a dynamic climbing style and emphasized the importance of <a href=\\\"strength%20training\\\">strength training</a> to complement technical skill. These practices had not been popular among climbers, but as Gill's ability level and influence grew, his ideas became the norm.\\nTwo important training tools emerged in the 1980s: <a href=\\\"Bouldering%20mat\\\">Bouldering mat</a>s and artificial climbing walls. The former, also referred to as \\\"crash pads\\\", prevented injuries from falling, and enabled boulderers to climb in areas that would have been too dangerous to attempt otherwise. Indoor climbing walls helped spread the sport to areas without outdoor climbing, and allowed serious climbers to train year-round regardless of weather conditions.\\nAs the sport grew in popularity, new bouldering areas were developed throughout Europe and the United States, and more athletes began participating in bouldering competitions. The visibility of the sport greatly increased in the early 2000s, as <a href=\\\"YouTube\\\">YouTube</a> videos and climbing <a href=\\\"blog\\\">blog</a>s helped boulderers around the world to quickly learn techniques, find hard problems, and announce newly completed projects.\\n<a href=\\\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\\\">9A</a> (V17) :\\n<a href=\\\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\\\">8C+</a> (V16) :\\n<a href=\\\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\\\">8C</a> (V15) :\\nUnlike other climbing sports, bouldering can be performed safely and effectively with very little equipment, an aspect which makes the discipline highly appealing to many climbers. Bouldering pioneer <a href=\\\"John%20Sherman%20%28climber%29\\\">John Sherman</a> asserted that \\\"The only gear really needed to go bouldering is boulders\\\". Others suggest the use of climbing shoes and a chalkbag as the bare minimum, while more experienced boulderers typically bring multiple pairs of shoes, chalk, brushes, crash pads, and a skincare kit.\\nOf the aforementioned equipment, climbing shoes have the most direct impact on performance. Besides protecting the climber's feet from rough surfaces, climbing shoes are designed to help the climber secure and maintain footholds. Climbing shoes typically fit much tighter than other athletic footwear, and often curl the toes downwards to enable precise footwork. They are manufactured in a variety of different styles in order to perform well in different situations: High-top shoes, for example, provide better protection for the ankle, while low-top shoes provide greater flexibility and freedom of movement. Stiffer shoes excel at securing small edges, whereas softer shoes provide greater sensitivity. The front of the shoe, called the \\\"toe box\\\", can be asymmetric, which performs well on overhanging rocks, or symmetric, which is better suited for vertical problems and <a href=\\\"slab%20climbing\\\">slabs</a>.\\nMost boulderers use <a href=\\\"magnesium%20carbonate\\\">gymnastics chalk</a> on their hands to absorb <a href=\\\"sweat\\\">sweat</a>. It is stored in a small chalkbag which can be tied around the waist, allowing the climber to reapply chalk during the climb. <a href=\\\"Brush\\\">Brush</a>es are used to remove excess chalk and other debris from boulders in between climbs; they are often attached to the end of a stick, pipe, or other straight object in order to reach higher holds. Crash pads, also referred to as <a href=\\\"bouldering%20mat\\\">bouldering mat</a>s, are foam cushions placed on the ground to protect climbers from falls.\\nBoulder problems are generally shorter than 20 ft from ground to top. This makes the sport significantly safer than <a href=\\\"free%20solo%20climbing\\\">free solo climbing</a>, which is also performed without ropes, but with no upper limit on the height of the climb. However, minor injuries are common in bouldering, particularly <a href=\\\"sprained%20ankle\\\">sprained ankle</a>s and <a href=\\\"sprained%20wrist\\\">wrists</a>. Two factors contribute to the frequency of injuries in bouldering: first, boulder problems typically feature more difficult moves than other climbing disciplines, making falls more common. Second, without ropes to arrest the climber's descent, every fall will cause the climber to hit the ground.\\nTo prevent injuries, boulderers position <a href=\\\"bouldering%20mat\\\">crash pads</a> near the boulder to provide a softer landing, as well as one or more <a href=\\\"Spotting%20%28climbing%29\\\">spotters</a> to help redirect the climber towards the pads. Upon landing, boulderers employ falling techniques similar to those used in <a href=\\\"gymnastics\\\">gymnastics</a>: spreading the impact across the entire body to avoid <a href=\\\"bone%20fracture\\\">bone fracture</a>s, and positioning limbs to allow joints to move freely throughout the impact.\\nAs with other forms of climbing, bouldering technique is largely centered on proper footwork. <a href=\\\"Leg%20muscles\\\">Leg muscles</a> are significantly stronger than <a href=\\\"arm\\\">arm muscles</a>; thus, proficient boulderers use their arms primarily to maintain balance and body positioning, relying on their legs to push them up the boulder. Boulderers also keep their arms straight whenever possible, allowing their bones to support their body weight rather than their muscles.\\nBouldering movements are described as either \\\"static\\\" or \\\"dynamic\\\". Static movements are those that are performed slowly, with the climber's position controlled by maintaining contact on the boulder with the other three limbs. Dynamic movements use the climber's <a href=\\\"momentum\\\">momentum</a> to reach holds that would be difficult or impossible to secure statically, with an increased risk of falling if the movement is not performed accurately.\\nBouldering problems are assigned numerical difficulty ratings by routesetters and climbers. The two most widely used rating systems are the V-scale and the Fontainebleau system.\\nThe V-scale, which originated in the United States, is an open-ended rating system with higher numbers indicating a higher <a href=\\\"degree%20of%20difficulty\\\">degree of difficulty</a>. The V1 rating indicates that a problem can be completed by a novice climber in good physical condition after several attempts. The scale begins at V0, and as of 2013, the highest V rating that has been assigned to a bouldering problem is V17. Some climbing gyms also use a VB grade to indicate beginner problems.\\nThe Fontainebleau scale follows a similar system, with each numerical grade divided into three ratings with the letters \\\"a\\\", \\\"b\\\", and \\\"c\\\". For example, Fontainebleau 7A roughly corresponds with V6, while Fontainebleau 7C+ is equivalent to V10. In both systems, grades are further differentiated by appending \\\"+\\\" to indicate a small increase in difficulty. Despite this level of specificity, ratings of individual problems are often controversial, as ability level is not the only factor that affects how difficult a problem will be for a particular climber. Height, arm length, <a href=\\\"flexibility\\\">flexibility</a>, and other body characteristics can also be relevant.\\nBouldering can damage vegetation that grows on rocks, such as <a href=\\\"moss\\\">moss</a>es and <a href=\\\"lichen\\\">lichen</a>s. This can occur as a result of the climber intentionally cleaning the boulder, or unintentionally from repeated use of handholds and footholds. Vegetation on the ground surrounding the boulder can also be damaged from overuse, particularly by climbers laying down crash pads. <a href=\\\"Soil%20erosion\\\">Soil erosion</a> can occur when boulderers trample vegetation while hiking off of established trails, or when they unearth small rocks near the boulder in an effort to make the landing zone safer. Other environmental concerns include <a href=\\\"littering\\\">littering</a>, improperly disposed <a href=\\\"feces\\\">feces</a>, and <a href=\\\"graffiti\\\">graffiti</a>. These issues have caused some land managers to prohibit bouldering, as was the case in Tea Garden, a popular bouldering area in <a href=\\\"Rocklands%2C%20South%20Africa\\\">Rocklands, South Africa</a>.\\n\",\n \"Céüse\\nCéüse (<a href=\\\"French%20language\\\">French</a>: \\\"Montagne de Céüse\\\" ) is a mountain in the <a href=\\\"Hautes-Alpes\\\">Hautes-Alpes</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"d%C3%A9partement%20in%20France\\\">département</a>\\\" of <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>, elevation 2016 m , making it eligible to be on the list of Europe's <a href=\\\"two-thousander\\\">two-thousander</a> mountains. It is situated in the territories of the <a href=\\\"communes%20of%20France\\\">communes</a> of <a href=\\\"Manteyer\\\">Manteyer</a>, <a href=\\\"Pelleautier\\\">Pelleautier</a> and <a href=\\\"Ch%C3%A2teauneuf-d%27Oze\\\">Châteauneuf-d'Oze</a>. It is home to one of France's most important venues for <a href=\\\"sport%20climbing\\\">sport climbing</a>. \\\"<a href=\\\"Realization%20%28climb%29\\\">Biographie</a>\\\", one of the hardest rock climbs in the world, is located at Céüse.\",\n \"Alex Puccio\\nAlex Puccio (born Alexandrea Elizabeth Cocca on June 15, 1989 in <a href=\\\"McKinney%2C%20Texas\\\">McKinney, Texas</a>) is a professional climber specializing in <a href=\\\"bouldering\\\">bouldering</a>. She competes in <a href=\\\"climbing%20competitions\\\">climbing competitions</a> and splits her time between climbing outdoor and indoor. She is known for being one of the strongest female climbers of all time. She regularly participates in United States national championships and the <a href=\\\"International%20Federation%20of%20Sport%20Climbing\\\">IFSC</a> world cups. She finished 3rd overall in the World Cup bouldering competition in 2011 and has won the <a href=\\\"American%20Bouldering%20Series\\\">American Bouldering Series</a> ten times.\\nAlex started climbing in 2002 at age thirteen with her mother. In 2006, she participated for the first time in the U.S. Bouldering Championships, and won the title. She later won in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013. In 2008, 2009 and 2010 she competed in the World Cup bouldering climbing but only at the stage of Vail finishing sixth respectively, before and fourth. In 2011, she took part in all the steps going up to the podium five times, with three second places and two third places. Since then she has been a fixture on the <a href=\\\"International%20Federation%20of%20Sport%20Climbing\\\">IFSC</a> Bouldering World Cup circuit where she is constantly a finalist.\\nShe has ascended over two dozen boulders graded <a href=\\\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\\\">V12</a> (8A+) between the United States and Europe. On July 2, 2014, Puccio ascended \\\"Top Notch\\\" in <a href=\\\"Rocky%20Mountain%20National%20Park\\\">Rocky Mountain National Park</a>. This was her first V13(8B) graded boulder. A month later, she ascended \\\"Jade\\\" becoming the fourth woman to climb V14.\\nAlex placed second in the Boulder World Championship in Munich, Germany on 23 August 2014.\\nOn June 5, 2015 Alex sustained a season ending knee injury while warming up her dynos during the IFSC World Cup competition in Vail, CO. She required surgery to repair the torn ACL, MCL, and meniscus ligaments in her left knee which could have resulted in months of inactivity during the recovery. Despite a six-month inactivity prediction she was back climbing V13 (8B) by October 2015 with an ascent of \\\"Free Range\\\" in Boulder Canyon, CO.\\nIn February 2016, Alex won the Hueco Tanks 'Rock Rodeo' amid world class competitors proving that she was still in top form. Puccio also had the most productive week-long bouldering trip by any female in history by completing three V13 (8B) boulders among many other double-digit (V-scale) boulders.\\nOn June 19, 2016, Alex underwent a spinal fusion surgery after doctors discovered a herniated disk between the C5 and C6 vertebrae. She first noticed the serious nature of the injury during the finals of the 2016 bouldering World Cup in Vail, CO when she felt shooting pain and weakness in her arms. Despite the pain she still climbed in the finals.\\nOn December 19, 2016 Alex climbed the iconic razor blade climb \\\"Terre De Sienne\\\" V13 (8B) at <a href=\\\"Hueco%20Tanks\\\">Hueco Tanks</a>. This achievement marked her 15th climb of that difficulty. The ascent is a testament to how resilient and determined Alex is by climbing at a world class level so soon after a serious injury.\\nAlex Puccio is the most accomplished American female bouldering competitor. She has won the ABS National Championship ten times and is the top American female bouldering competitor at the IFSC world competitions. She has earned numerous medals in the bouldering World Cup events including a gold medal at the 2009 World Cup held in Vail, CO. In 2014, she earned a gold medal at the Arco Rockmaster event and a silver medal in the World Championships for bouldering.\",\n \"Rat Rock\\nRat Rock is an <a href=\\\"outcrop\\\">outcrop</a> of <a href=\\\"Manhattan%20schist\\\">Manhattan schist</a> which protrudes from the <a href=\\\"Central%20Park\\\">Central Park</a> <a href=\\\"bedrock\\\">bedrock</a> in <a href=\\\"Manhattan\\\">Manhattan</a>. It is named after the <a href=\\\"rat\\\">rat</a>s that used to swarm there at night but it is also known as Umpire Rock. It is near the southwest corner of the park, south of the <a href=\\\"Heckscher%20Ballfields\\\">Heckscher Ballfields</a> on the lines of 62nd Street and of <a href=\\\"Seventh%20Avenue%20%28Manhattan%29\\\">7th Avenue</a>. The outcrop is roughly circular, about 55 ft wide and 15 ft tall with east, west and north faces that each present different climbing problems. The rock has <a href=\\\"Glacial%20striation\\\">striation</a>s caused by <a href=\\\"glaciation\\\">glaciation</a>.\\nBoulderers congregate there - as many as fifty per day. <a href=\\\"Bouldering\\\">Bouldering</a> is the sport of <a href=\\\"climbing\\\">climbing</a> such large rocks. Some are regulars such as Yukihiko Ikumori, a gardener from the <a href=\\\"West%20Village\\\">West Village</a> who is known as the \\\"spiritual godfather\\\" of the rock. Others are just passing through, such as <a href=\\\"Tourism%20in%20New%20York%20City\\\">tourists</a> and visitors who learn about the climbing spot from the Internet and <a href=\\\"word%20of%20mouth\\\">word of mouth</a>. Experienced climbers such as Mr Ikumori often show neophytes good routes and techniques. More experienced outsiders may be disappointed as the quality of the stone is poor, the setting is gloomy and the climbs present so little challenge that it has been called \\\"one of America's most pathetic boulders\\\".\\nThe park police formerly ticketed climbers who climbed more than a few feet up the rock. The City Climbers Club approached the park authorities and, by working to provide safety features such as wood chips around the base, they were able to legalize climbing there.\",\n \"First ascent\\nIn <a href=\\\"mountaineering\\\">mountaineering</a>, a first ascent (abbreviated to FA in guidebooks) is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular <a href=\\\"climbing%20route\\\">climbing route</a>. First mountain ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with greater risks, challenges, and recognition than climbing a route pioneered by others. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist.\\nIn <a href=\\\"free%20climbing\\\">free climbing</a>, a first ascent (or <a href=\\\"Notable%20first%20free%20ascents\\\">first free ascent</a>, abbreviated FFA) of a climbing route is the first successful, documented climb of a route without using equipment such as anchors or ropes for aiding progression or resting.\\nThe details of the first ascents of even many prominent mountains are scanty or unknown; sometimes the only evidence of prior summiting is a <a href=\\\"cairn\\\">cairn</a>, artifacts, or inscriptions at the top. Today, first ascents are generally carefully recorded and usually mentioned in guidebooks.\\nOverwhelmingly, the idea of a \\\"first ascent\\\" is a modern one, especially in places such as <a href=\\\"Africa\\\">Africa</a> and <a href=\\\"Americas\\\">the Americas</a> with a history of colonialism. There may be little or no physical evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. For example, the volcano <a href=\\\"Llullaillaco\\\">Llullaillaco</a> on the border of <a href=\\\"Argentina\\\">Argentina</a> and <a href=\\\"Chile\\\">Chile</a> is known to have been climbed in the prehistoric period due to the presence of <a href=\\\"Incas\\\">Incan</a> artifacts at the summit, yet credit for the first recorded ascent is given to Chilean climbers Bión González and Juan Harseim, who summited in 1952.\\nThe term is also used when referring to ascents made using a specific technique or taking a specific route, such as via the North Face, without ropes or without oxygen.\\nIn rock climbing, some of the earlier first ascents, particularly for difficult routes, involved a mix of <a href=\\\"free%20climbing\\\">free</a> and <a href=\\\"aid%20climbing\\\">aid climbing</a>. As a result, purist free climbers have developed the designation <a href=\\\"Notable%20first%20free%20ascents\\\">first free ascent</a> (FFA) to acknowledge ascents intentionally made more challenging by using equipment for protection only.\\nSecond ascents are also noteworthy in climbing circles, frequently involving improving on a pioneering route through lessons learned from it, experience which may span from technical improvements to having a better understanding of how much gear and provisions to take.\\nSome other \\\"first ascents\\\" could be recorded for particular mountains or routes. One is the First Winter Ascent, which is, as the name easily suggests, the first ascent made during winter season. This is most important where the climate of <a href=\\\"winter\\\">winter</a> is a factor in increasing the difficulty grade of the route (higher elevation, polar latitudes). In the <a href=\\\"Northern%20Hemisphere\\\">Northern Hemisphere</a> conventional winter ascents are made between December 21 and March 21 and are not related to the conditions. Also in the Himalayan area, although Nepal and China's winter season permits start on December 1, the conventional winter ascents begin on December 21.\\nAnother is the First Solo Ascent, which is the first ascent made by a single climber. This is most important on high-level rock climbing, when the climber has to provide his own security (self-belaying) or even when climbing without any protection at all (often recorded as First Free Solo Ascent). Another type of ascent, also known as FFA (not to be confused with First Free Ascent as listed above) is the first female ascent. While not generally considered as important, this designation remains significant on some difficult, limit-pushing climbs, where the first female ascent may not happen until well after the FA, due to possible difficulties encountered by female physicality.\\nThe term last ascent has been used to refer to an ascent of a mountain or face that has subsequently changed to such an extent – often because of rockfall – that the route no longer exists (e.g., the south-west face of the <a href=\\\"Aiguille%20du%20Dru\\\">Aiguille du Dru</a> in the <a href=\\\"Alps\\\">Alps</a>). It can also be used facetiously to refer to a climb that is so unpleasant or unaesthetic (due to loose rock, excessive brush, poor route selection, etc.) that no one would ever willingly repeat the first ascent party's ordeal.\",\n \"Sender Films\\nSender Films is an American <a href=\\\"Filmmaking\\\">film production</a> company based in <a href=\\\"Boulder%2C%20Colorado\\\">Boulder, Colorado</a>. Productions include outdoor adventure films, television shows, and commercials.\\nSender Films integrates action with story-telling to create climbing/mountaineering and adventure sports documentary films. Sender Films goes inside the sport of hard-core climbing, focusing on climbers driven to obscure accomplishments. According to Outside Magazine, Sender Films has \\\"focused on character-driven narratives..\\\". Over the past three years, Sender Films has produced the six-part series \\\"First Ascent\\\" with National Geographic International. They have also been producing adventure film segments for US TV networks such as <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Weather%20Channel\\\">The Weather Channel</a>, and Outside TV. Their shows have been financial successes, proving that audiences are interested in the emerging genre of climbing and adventure-sports.\\nREEL ROCK cranks it up to 11 with a collection of electrifying climbing films showcasing the sport's biggest stories and athletes. The five films deliver edge-of-your-seat action, globe-trotting exploration, big laughs and true inspiration. The films Young Guns, Boys in the Bugs, Brette, Rad Dad, and Dodo's Delight feature athletes Ashima Shiraishi, Kai Lightner, Will Stanhope, Matt Segal, Brette Harrington, Mike Libecki, Sean Villanueva O'Driscoll, Ben Ditto, and brothers Nico and Olivier Favresse.\\nThe 2015 REEL ROCK Film Tour consisted of five films: A Line Across the Sky, Dean Potter Tribute, High and Mighty, 24 Hours of Horseshoe Hell and a Dawn Wall Exclusive. Athletes in these films include Alex Honnold, Tommy Caldwell, Jimmy Webb, Daniel Woods, Nik Berry, Mason Earle, Kevin Jorgeson, and Dean Potter.\\n<a href=\\\"Peter%20Mortimer%20%28filmmaker%29\\\">Peter Mortimer</a>: President/Partner\\n<a href=\\\"Nick%20Rosen%20%28filmmaker%29\\\">Nick Rosen</a>: Partner\\nBrette (2016)\\nBoys in the Bugs (2016)\\nDodo's Delight (2016)\\nYoung Guns (2016)\\nA Line Across the Sky (2015)\\nHigh and Mighty (2015)\\nShowdown at Horseshoe Hell (2015)\\nValley Uprising (2014)\\nHigh Tension (2013)\\nThe Sensei (2013)\\nSpice Girl (2013)\\nWide Boyz (2012)\\nLa Dura Dura (2012)\\nHonnold 3.0 (2012)\\nOrigins: Obe and Ashima (2011)\\nCold (2011)\\nSketchy Andy (2011)\\nRace for the Nose (2011)\\nIce Revolution (2011)\\nThe Swiss Machine (2010)\\nFirst Ascent: The Series (2010)\\nThe Sharp End (2008)\\nKing Lines (2007)\\nFirst Ascent (2006)\\nReturn2Sender (2005)\\nFront Range Freaks (2003)\\nScary Faces (2001)\\nBetween Light and Shadow (2000)\\nFirst Ascent (2011)\",\n \"Tomoko Ogawa\\nTomoko Ogawa (尾川 智子 , Ogawa Tomoko , born April 14, 1978) is a Japanese <a href=\\\"Bouldering\\\">boulderer</a>. In 2012, she <a href=\\\"Glossary_of_climbing_terms%23send\\\">sent</a> Catharsis, a route in Shiobara established by <a href=\\\"Dai%20Koyamada\\\">Dai Koyamada</a> and confirmed by <a href=\\\"Daniel%20Woods\\\">Daniel Woods</a>, to become the first woman ever to climb a <a href=\\\"Grade%20%28bouldering%29\\\">V14</a> (8B+) . Since then, only three other women -- <a href=\\\"Ashima%20Shiraishi\\\">Ashima Shiraishi</a>, <a href=\\\"Shauna%20Coxsey\\\">Shauna Coxsey</a>, and <a href=\\\"Alex%20Puccio\\\">Alex Puccio</a>—have sent problems of that level. Ogawa began climbing in 2000, at age 22. Her other notable ascents include Caramba 8a+, Mutante 8a+, Akugeki 8a/8a+, Atomic Playboy 8a, Hatchling 8a, and No Late Tenders 8a.\",\n \"The North Face\\nThe North Face, Inc. is an American outdoor product company specializing in <a href=\\\"outerwear\\\">outerwear</a>, <a href=\\\"Polar%20fleece\\\">fleece</a>, coats, shirts, <a href=\\\"footwear\\\">footwear</a>, and equipment such as <a href=\\\"backpack\\\">backpack</a>s, <a href=\\\"tent\\\">tent</a>s, and <a href=\\\"sleeping%20bag\\\">sleeping bag</a>s.\\nIts clothing and equipment lines are catered towards <a href=\\\"college%20students\\\">college students</a>, <a href=\\\"climbing\\\">climbers</a>, <a href=\\\"mountaineering\\\">mountaineers</a>, <a href=\\\"skiing\\\">skiers</a>, <a href=\\\"snowboarding\\\">snowboarders</a>, <a href=\\\"hiking\\\">hikers</a>, and endurance athletes.\\nThe company sponsors professional athletes from the worlds of <a href=\\\"running\\\">running</a>, <a href=\\\"climbing\\\">climbing</a>, <a href=\\\"skiing\\\">skiing</a> and <a href=\\\"snowboarding\\\">snowboarding</a>.\\nThe North Face began as a <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco\\\">San Francisco</a>-based climbing equipment retail store, founded in 1966 by <a href=\\\"Douglas%20Tompkins\\\">Douglas Tompkins</a> and his then-wife, <a href=\\\"Susie%20Tompkins%20Buell\\\">Susie Tompkins</a>. It was acquired two years later by Kenneth \\\"Hap\\\" Klopp. The north face of a mountain in the <a href=\\\"northern%20hemisphere\\\">northern hemisphere</a> is generally the coldest, iciest and most formidable route to climb.\\nFor a time, the store offered only highly selective merchandise, targeted to climbers and <a href=\\\"Backpacking%20%28wilderness%29\\\">backpackers</a>. By the 1980s, <a href=\\\"skiwear\\\">skiwear</a> was added, followed by <a href=\\\"camping\\\">camping</a> equipment.\\nThe North Face is now a wholly owned subsidiary of the <a href=\\\"VF%20Corporation\\\">VF Corporation</a>. It is headquartered in <a href=\\\"Alameda%2C%20California\\\">Alameda, California</a>, co-located with its corporate sibling, <a href=\\\"JanSport\\\">JanSport</a>.\\nIn 2007, JanSport was the world's largest backpack manufacturer; combined, the two manufactured nearly half of all small backpacks sold in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>.\\nThe North Face's quarter-circle <a href=\\\"logo\\\">logo</a>, produced by <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a> designer David Alcorn in 1971, evokes <a href=\\\"Half%20Dome\\\">Half Dome</a>, a massive granitic monolith in <a href=\\\"Yosemite%20National%20Park\\\">Yosemite National Park</a>.\\nThe North Face maintains strong links with the outdoor community through sponsoring athletes, including <a href=\\\"Lizzy%20Hawker\\\">Lizzy Hawker</a>, winner of the <a href=\\\"Ultra%20Trail%20Tour%20du%20Mont%20Blanc\\\">Ultra Trail Tour du Mont Blanc</a> in 2005, 2008 and 2010.\\nNorth Face attire has grown in popularity. The rise in the popularity of the North Face attire has resulted in wearers of the line becoming the targets of robbery. In early 2005, a group of teenagers from <a href=\\\"Washington%20D.C.\\\">Washington D.C.</a> were arrested on charges including the armed robbery of, specifically, The North Face jackets from students on the street.\\nIn December 2008, The North Face filed a lawsuit in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20District%20Court%20for%20the%20Eastern%20District%20of%20Missouri\\\">United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri</a> against <a href=\\\"The%20South%20Butt\\\">The South Butt</a>, its creator James A. Winkelmann, Jr., and a company which handled the firm's marketing and manufacturing. In the legal action, The North Face alleged <a href=\\\"trademark%20infringement\\\">trademark infringement</a> and sought <a href=\\\"injunctive%20relief\\\">injunctive relief</a>.\\nAfter the court ordered mediation in the case, the parties reached a closed settlement agreement on April 1, 2010; however, in October 2012, Winkelmann admitted in court that he and his father violated the settlement agreement with The North Face and agreed to pay $65,000, an amount that will be reduced by $1,000 for every month of compliance.\\nIn addition to selling through department stores and outdoor retailers, The North Face operates over 55 retail and 20 outlet locations in the United States, 4 retail and 2 outlet locations in <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a>, 19 locations in the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a> and many others worldwide.\",\n \"Brooklyn Boulders\\nBrooklyn Boulders is a company that designs, builds and operates community spaces and hybrid rock climbing facilities anchored by the premise that physical movement stimulates innovation and creativity with facilities located in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, <a href=\\\"Boston\\\">Boston</a>, and <a href=\\\"Chicago\\\">Chicago</a>.\\nThe first Brooklyn Boulders location is an 18,000 sqft rock climbing facility, the first ever in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. Located in the old \\\"Daily News\\\" garage on Third Avenue in Boerum Hill, Brooklyn Boulders Brooklyn opened on September 9, 2009.\\nBrooklyn Boulders was founded in 2009 by Lance Pinn, Jeremy Balboni, and Stephen Spaeth, who wanted to create a dedicated rock climbing facility when there previously was none. Prior to opening, a <a href=\\\"Facebook\\\">Facebook</a> group called “NYC Needs a Climbing Gym” was formed and over three hundred members joined overnight. By July 2009, the group reached over 1,000 members. Construction began in March 2009, and Brooklyn Boulders hosted “t-nut parties” on weekends, where anyone was permitted to visit, lend a hand setting t-nuts into the walls in exchange for free day passes. Brooklyn Boulders is also home to the Adaptive Climbing Group, founded by amputee climber Kareemah Batts.\\nBrooklyn Boulders is known for the graffiti adorning their walls, some of it by notable artist <a href=\\\"Cope2\\\">Cope2</a> and its \\\"biggest architectural flourish: a replica of the <a href=\\\"Brooklyn%20Bridge\\\">Brooklyn Bridge</a> suitable for climbing.\\\" Called the \\\"best workout in Brooklyn\\\" by <a href=\\\"Vogue%20%28magazine%29\\\">Vogue</a>, Brooklyn Boulders is also home to some of the world's best climbers, including <a href=\\\"Ashima%20Shiraishi\\\">Ashima Shiraishi</a> and <a href=\\\"Sasha%20DiGiulian\\\">Sasha DiGiulian</a>.\\nDuring <a href=\\\"Hurricane%20Sandy\\\">Hurricane Sandy</a>, Brooklyn Boulders was transformed into \\\"an operating base for Team Rubicon, a disaster response organization,\\\" and remained open for 24 hours.\\nOn July 31, 2013, Brooklyn Boulders' second location, Brooklyn Boulders Somerville, opened \\\"a 40,000-square-foot climbing facility; a combination climbing gym and collaborative workspace in <a href=\\\"Somerville%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Somerville, Massachusetts</a>.\\\" Brooklyn Boulders Somerville hosted TEDxSomerville on March 30, 2015.\\nBrooklyn Boulders opened its first location in the Midwest, Brooklyn Boulders Chicago, on December 13, 2014. Located in Chicago's West Loop, Brooklyn Boulders Chicago features \\\"a 1,000-square-foot Active Collaborative Workspace\\\", replete with standing desks, exercise-ball sitting desks and above-desk pull-up bars.\\nBrooklyn Boulders opened its fourth facility in Long Island City, BKB Queensbridge, with a Grand Opening Event December 10, 2015. Bloomberg Business featured Brooklyn Boulders in September 2015, declaring that \\\"Brooklyn Boulders is tapping climbing's popularity in the tech world to become a co-working haven for (very ripped) entrepreneurs.\\\"\",\n \"Lead climbing\\nLead climbing is a <a href=\\\"climbing\\\">climbing</a> technique used to ascend a route. This technique is predominantly used in <a href=\\\"rock%20climbing\\\">rock climbing</a> and involves a \\\"lead climber\\\" attaching themselves to a length of \\\"dynamic\\\" (elastic) climbing <a href=\\\"rope\\\">rope</a> and ascending a route while periodically attaching <a href=\\\"Climbing%20protection\\\">protection</a> (quickdraws or traditional protection) to the face of the route and clipping into it. The \\\"lead climber\\\" must have another person acting as a <a href=\\\"Belaying\\\">belayer</a>. The belayer has multiple roles: holding the rope in the event of a fall, and paying out or taking up rope as the climber moves.\\nAs lead climbing does not require a pre-placed anchor at the top of the route, it is often seen as less restricted than <a href=\\\"top%20roping\\\">top roping</a>. Also, because a lead climber does not have an anchor point above them while climbing, only the limbs and body of the climber are used to effect upward progress. Carabiners are only placed to catch the climber in the event of a fall.\\nWhen lead climbing, the \\\"lead climber\\\" or \\\"leader\\\" wears a <a href=\\\"climbing%20harness\\\">harness</a> tied to one end of a rope. The leader's partner provides the belay, paying out rope as needed, but ready to hold the rope tightly, usually with the aid of a <a href=\\\"belay%20device\\\">belay device</a>, to catch the leader in the event of a fall. The lead climber ascends the route, periodically placing protection for safety in the event of a fall. The protection can consist of pre-placed <a href=\\\"bolt%20%28climbing%29\\\">bolts</a> and <a href=\\\"piton\\\">piton</a>s, to which the climber clips <a href=\\\"quickdraw\\\">quickdraw</a>s, or removable protection such as <a href=\\\"nut%20%28climbing%29\\\">nuts</a> and <a href=\\\"spring-loaded%20camming%20device\\\">spring-loaded camming device</a>s, which are carefully secured by the climber into cracks or other features. Distances between pieces of protection can range from three to forty feet or more, although most often the distance is between six and twelve feet.\\nAt any point, the length of a fall will be at least twice that of the distance to the most recently placed protection. For example, if a leader is ten feet above the last piece of protection, a fall will be a minimum of twenty feet. Realistically, the fall would likely include several more feet due to rope elasticity and slack and give in the overall mechanical system. If a lead climber, starting from the ground, approaches twice the height of the last piece of protection, there is danger of a \\\"ground fall\\\" (more commonly referred to as \\\"decking\\\") in which the falling climber hits the ground before the rope goes tight.\\nThe severity of a fall arrested by the climbing rope is measured by the \\\"<a href=\\\"fall%20factor\\\">fall factor</a>\\\": the ratio of the height a climber falls before his rope begins to stretch and the rope length available to absorb the energy of the fall. (A leader may reduce their fall factor by using \\\"protection\\\", equipment that attaches in some way to the rock, allowing the rope to pass through it.) A fall of 20 feet is much more severe (exerts more force on the climber and climbing equipment) if it occurs with 10 feet of rope out (i.e. the climber has placed no protection and falls from 10 feet above the belayer to 10 feet below—a factor 2 fall) than if it occurs 100 feet above the belayer (a fall factor of 0.2), in which case the stretch of the rope more effectively cushions the fall.\\nOnce the leader reaches a suitable spot for <a href=\\\"anchor%20%28climbing%29\\\">anchoring</a>, or runs out of protection (hopefully the former), two things can occur:\\nThe term \\\"<a href=\\\"sport%20climbing\\\">sport climbing</a>\\\" covers routes where most or all of the required protection is provided by permanently installed equipment; <a href=\\\"traditional%20climbing\\\">traditional climbing</a> (or \\\"trad\\\") usually requires the leader to place removable protection. It is unusual but not impossible to see some pieces of permanent protection installed in the rock on some trad climbing routes. Sometimes, these pieces will be installed in spots where protection is vital but placing temporary protection would be difficult or impossible; other times, the pieces are remnants of the days before removable equipment was the standard protection method.\\nLead climbing is done for several reasons. Often, placing a <a href=\\\"top%20roping\\\">top-rope</a> is not an option because the anchors are not accessible by any means other than climbing. Sport climbing and traditional climbing both utilize lead climbing techniques for practical reasons, as well as stylistic reasons.\\nLead climbing also gives more of a thrill for the climber, because they know that they may fall much greater distances than if they were using a top-rope.\\n\\\"Turtling\\\" can occur if one of the climber's limbs is behind the rope and the climber falls off the wall. The climber is flipped upside down, like a turtle on its back. Sometimes this can even eject the climber from the harness and is typically quite painful when hitting the wall.\",\n \"Climbing route\\nA climbing route is a path by which a <a href=\\\"climbing\\\">climber</a> reaches the top of a <a href=\\\"mountain\\\">mountain</a>, rock, or ice wall. Routes can vary dramatically in difficulty and <a href=\\\"Grade%20%28climbing%29\\\">grade</a>; once committed to that ascent, it can sometimes be difficult to stop or return. Choice of route can be critically important. <a href=\\\"Guidebook\\\">Guidebook</a>s, if available, are helpful in providing detailed diagrams and photographs of routes.\\nIn the earliest days of <a href=\\\"hillwalking\\\">hillwalking</a> and <a href=\\\"mountaineering\\\">mountaineering</a>, climbers got to the top by whatever means got them there. Little information about how they did it is available. During the 19th century, as explorers of the <a href=\\\"Alps\\\">Alps</a> tried ever harder summits, it became clear that choosing an eastern face over a southwestern <a href=\\\"ridge\\\">ridge</a> could spell the difference between success or failure. One example was the first ascent of the <a href=\\\"Matterhorn\\\">Matterhorn</a>, which had been repeatedly and unsuccessfully attempted via the southern side. The <a href=\\\"Stratum\\\">strata</a> there tended to slope down and away while the rocks of the northeastern ridge (the one closest to <a href=\\\"Zermatt\\\">Zermatt</a>) tilted up - a steeper, but safer route.\\nAs technique developed, and mountains of the world were ascended via easy routes, climbers began to challenge themselves by looking for and trying harder routes. Once all the obvious lines had been tried, climbers looked for more technically challenging routes (e.g. an all-rock route threading between <a href=\\\"icefield\\\">icefield</a>s or a single thin, <a href=\\\"Fissure%20%28geology%29\\\">fissure</a> running in a continuous straight line from base to summit). An aesthetic element came in, as well. An easy, but confusing route, weaving back and forth across a face was less desirable than a direct route along a scenic ridge. Safe routes that yielded to good technique were more desirable than routes with loose rock and awkward climbing.\\nClimbing routes that were overlooked or required greater technical skill became associated with the climber(s) who first climbed them. It became common practice for the <a href=\\\"first%20ascent\\\">first climber</a> to choose a name for the route. Inevitably, there were climbers so energetic that they established multiple routes on a single mountain or cliff, and named routes based on a \\\"theme\\\". This opened up a new outlet for creative overkill. Some <a href=\\\"climbing%20area\\\">climbing area</a>s have a bewildering variety of curious and amusing names for their many routes, as seen in the list below.\\nAn example of interesting route-naming can be seen on the Southeast face of <a href=\\\"El%20Capitan\\\">El Capitan</a> in <a href=\\\"Yosemite\\\">Yosemite</a> Valley. <a href=\\\"The%20Nose%20%28El%20Capitan%29\\\">The Nose</a> was the first route on the main part of the cliff, so called because it is shaped like a 3000 ft nose. A list of routes to the right of The Nose includes:\\nNames often incorporate puns. For example, in <a href=\\\"Joshua%20Tree%20National%20Park\\\">Joshua Tree National Park</a>, route names include Coarse and Buggy, Cranking Skills or Hospital Bills (\\\"cranking\\\" being the use of upper body strength), Rockwork Orange (after \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Clockwork%20Orange%20%28novel%29\\\">A Clockwork Orange</a>\\\"), Fist Full of Crystals (from \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Fistful%20of%20Dollars\\\">A Fistful of Dollars</a>\\\"), and Dangling Woo Li Master (from \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Dancing%20Wu%20Li%20Masters\\\">The Dancing Wu Li Masters</a>\\\").\\nAnother reason for the large number of named routes is the desire to indicate precisely where routes go. For high mountain routes, rockfall and snowfall would significantly change the mountain landscape over the years such that it is only possible to give a general idea of a route (i.e. \\\"Climb the southeast ridge to the black tower, pass below it on the right side, and go up a snow-filled gully to the summit ridge\\\").\\nEstablished rock climbing routes are more predictable and good descriptions help keep climbers \\\"on route\\\" and out of trouble. For example, an incorrect choice of a crack could leave the climber stranded in a very precarious position. Guidebooks, if available, can be helpful in showing routes drawn over photographs or a <a href=\\\"Topo%20%28climbing%29\\\">topographic diagram</a> (\\\"topo\\\" for short) showing a view of the climbing route with specialized symbols indicating important characteristics of the route, and marking helpful <a href=\\\"climbing%20gear\\\">climbing gear</a> such as pitons and bolts. For routes longer than the climbing rope (usually about 60 meters), a good topo will also indicate the recommended <a href=\\\"Rock%20climbing\\\">belay stations</a>.\",\n \"Clif Bar\\nClif Bar & Company is an American company that produces <a href=\\\"organic%20foods\\\">organic foods</a> and drinks. The company's flagship product, CLIF Bar, was created by Gary Erickson and Lisa Thomas. The company is based in <a href=\\\"Emeryville%2C%20California\\\">Emeryville, California</a>, and is privately held. In April 2013, Kevin Cleary was named CEO of the company; CFO Boragno; co-owners Erickson and Kit Crawford became <a href=\\\"Chief%20visionary%20officer\\\">co-chief visionary officers</a>.\\nA baker and former mountain guide, Erickson got the idea for his product in 1990 on a day-long, 175 mile bike ride, for which he packed a variety of <a href=\\\"energy%20bars\\\">energy bars</a>. Two years later after experimenting in his mother's kitchen, he settled on a recipe for what would become the CLIF Bar. Erickson tried several ventures—including Forza, Torque, and Gary's Bar—before settling on CLIF Bar, named after his father Clifford. The packaging image of a rock climber was first drawn by Doug Gilmour on a napkin over dinner in <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco\\\">San Francisco</a>. At a September 1991 bike show, Erickson debuted three flavors: double chocolate, apricot, and date oatmeal.\\nIn its first year, sales of CLIF Bar exceeded $700,000, fueled primarily by strong sales in bike shops and the growth of the healthy and <a href=\\\"natural%20foods\\\">natural foods</a> movement. Sales doubled each year, and by 1997, revenue surpassed $20 million. In 1997, the company name was changed from Kali's SportNaturals to Clif Bar, Inc. . In 2010 the company moved into a new headquarters in the EmeryTech Building in Emeryville, California. Designed by <a href=\\\"ZGF%20Architects%20LLP\\\">ZGF Architects LLP</a>, the former manufacturing plant earned <a href=\\\"Leadership%20in%20Energy%20and%20Environmental%20Design\\\">Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design</a> (LEED) Platinum status. The building was repurposed and sustainably-designed with photovoltaic panels, solar thermal panels, reclaimed wood, plants and other biophilic features.\\nIn March 1999, Clif Bar introduced <a href=\\\"LUNA%20Bar\\\">LUNA Bar</a>, which was specifically marketed towards women. In April 2000, Erickson and Thomas turned down a $120 million offer from <a href=\\\"Quaker%20Oats\\\">Quaker Oats</a> to buy the company.\\nClif Bar & Company was ranked the No. 1 brand in the <a href=\\\"Forbes\\\">Forbes</a> \\\"Breakaway Brands\\\" survey, conducted by <a href=\\\"Landor%20Associates\\\">Landor Associates</a> using <a href=\\\"Young%20%26amp%3B%20Rubicam\\\">Young & Rubicam</a>'s BrandAsset Valuator database measuring brand momentum from 2006 to 2009.\\nErickson and Crawford founded the Clif Bar Family Foundation in 2006, which through 2012 had committed $1 million to promote organic seed research and conserve crop genetic diversity.\\nErickson and Crawford also own the Clif Family Winery & Farm in the <a href=\\\"Napa%20Valley\\\">Napa Valley</a>, which had its first national release in 2008.\\nIn addition to its signature original Clif Bar, the company produces a variety of energy bars tailored to women, children, and other markets, a sports drink, and fruit-based items such as fruit ropes. In 2014, the company unveiled four gel-like squeezable 'energy foods' that were expanded in early 2016 to encompass six flavors. All products use <a href=\\\"Organic%20food\\\">organic</a> ingredients. Seventy percent of the company's purchased ingredients are certified organic.\\nThe Clif Bar company has instituted policies intended to make it more <a href=\\\"sustainable%20energy\\\">green-friendly</a>. It switched to organic ingredients and eliminated <a href=\\\"shrink-wrap\\\">shrink-wrap</a>, saving 90,000 pounds of plastic and $400,000 annually, and invested in <a href=\\\"wind%20energy\\\">wind energy</a> to offset <a href=\\\"fossil%20fuel\\\">fossil fuel</a> usage.\\nTo help reduce fuel consumption, Clif Bar began giving employees $6,500 in 2007 to switch to <a href=\\\"bio-diesel\\\">bio-diesel</a> or high-mileage <a href=\\\"hybrid%20cars\\\">hybrid cars</a>. As a bio-diesel incentive program, \\\"Cool Commute\\\" was the first of its type nationwide and drew praise from <a href=\\\"Al%20Gore\\\">Al Gore</a> for helping to aid the fight against <a href=\\\"global%20warming\\\">global warming</a>. In 2008, the company began giving employees up to $500 to purchase a commuter bike, with annual rewards up to $960 for getting to work on foot, bicycle, or public transportation. The company also began offering employees up to $1,000 annually to make eco-improvement to their homes, such as insulation, solar panel installation, and new windows. In April 2009, Clif Bar joined <a href=\\\"Business%20for%20Innovative%20Climate%20and%20Energy%20Policy\\\">Business for Innovative Climate and Energy Policy</a> also known as BICEP, a coalition of companies including <a href=\\\"Nike%2C%20Inc.\\\">Nike</a>, <a href=\\\"eBay\\\">eBay</a> and <a href=\\\"The%20North%20Face\\\">The North Face</a>, with the goal of passing progressive climate and energy legislation. In October 2015, Clif Bar along with other members BICEP released a joint letter pledging to accelerate business action on climate change and urging governments to do the same.\\nIn 2012, amid concerns over <a href=\\\"child%20labor\\\">child labor</a> and possible <a href=\\\"slavery\\\">slavery</a> on West African cocoa farms, Clif Bar was challenged to disclose the source of their cocoa. On March 5, 2012, the company announced that thenceforth \\\"100 percent of cocoa ingredients for CLIF Bar will be sourced from <a href=\\\"Rainforest%20Alliance\\\">Rainforest Alliance Certified</a> farms.\\\"\\nIn June 2010, Clif Bar initiated an <a href=\\\"employee%20stock%20ownership%20program\\\">employee stock ownership program</a> (ESOP), which gave 20 percent ownership of the company to its employees, with Crawford and Erickson retaining the other 80 percent.\\nCompany facilities include an on-site gym, rock climbing wall, two yoga room/dance studios, and massage rooms. There are on-site showers so employees can shower after their workout. Employees also have access to free counseling and life coaching. Employees can bring their dogs to work and get two and a half hours of paid exercise each week with free personal training. Clif Bar & Company was named among \\\"<a href=\\\"Outside%20%28magazine%29\\\">Outside</a>\\\" magazine's Best Places to Work in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012.\\nIn November 2014 Clif Bar made a decision to limit risky behavior by its sponsored athletes stating \\\"going forward we will not be sponsoring climbers who are primarily recognized for free-soloing, B.A.S.E. jumping, and high-lining. This change in sponsorship approach did not come without great debate.\\\" The company reasoned that \\\"[they] no longer feel good about benefitting from the amount of risk certain athletes are taking in areas of the sport where there is no margin for error; where there is no safety net\\\".\\nClif Bar began community outreach in 2001, with the initial aim of donating 2,080 employee volunteer hours to community service. In 2010, Clif employees donated 5,290 hours. In 2008, the \\\"In Good Company\\\" initiative was announced, which organizes employees across several companies to assist in larger development projects, such as in <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans\\\">New Orleans</a>, <a href=\\\"East%20Oakland\\\">East Oakland</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Hopi%20Reservation\\\">Hopi Reservation</a> in <a href=\\\"Arizona\\\">Arizona</a>.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ansel Elgort (born March 14, 1994) is an American actor, singer and a DJ (under the name Ansølo). As a film actor, he played Tommy Ross in the horror film \"Carrie\" (2013), Caleb Prior in \"The Divergent Series \" franchise, Augustus Waters in the romantic teen drama \"The Fault in Our Stars\" (2014), and the title character in Edgar Wright's action thriller \"Baby Driver\" (2017).","The Fault in Our Stars is a 2014 American romantic drama film directed by Josh Boone, based on the novel of the same name by John Green. The film stars Shailene Woodley, Ansel Elgort, and Nat Wolff, with Laura Dern, Sam Trammell, and Willem Dafoe playing supporting roles. Woodley plays Hazel Grace Lancaster, a sixteen-year-old cancer patient who is forced by her parents to attend a support group, where she meets and subsequently falls in love with Augustus Waters, another cancer patient, played by Elgort."],"string":"[\n \"Ansel Elgort (born March 14, 1994) is an American actor, singer and a DJ (under the name Ansølo). As a film actor, he played Tommy Ross in the horror film \\\"Carrie\\\" (2013), Caleb Prior in \\\"The Divergent Series \\\" franchise, Augustus Waters in the romantic teen drama \\\"The Fault in Our Stars\\\" (2014), and the title character in Edgar Wright's action thriller \\\"Baby Driver\\\" (2017).\",\n \"The Fault in Our Stars is a 2014 American romantic drama film directed by Josh Boone, based on the novel of the same name by John Green. The film stars Shailene Woodley, Ansel Elgort, and Nat Wolff, with Laura Dern, Sam Trammell, and Willem Dafoe playing supporting roles. Woodley plays Hazel Grace Lancaster, a sixteen-year-old cancer patient who is forced by her parents to attend a support group, where she meets and subsequently falls in love with Augustus Waters, another cancer patient, played by Elgort.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":59,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"When was the American murderer and body snatcher died based on who's anme Bradley Mark got a stage name?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"July 26, 1984"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Body Snatcher\nThe Body Snatcher is a short story by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894). First published in the \"Pall Mall Christmas \"Extra\"\" in December 1884, its characters were based on criminals in the employ of real-life surgeon Robert Knox (1791–1862) around the time of the notorious Burke and Hare murders (1828).\nA group of friends share a few drinks, when an eminent doctor, Wolfe Macfarlane, enters. One of the friends, Fettes, recognizes the name and angrily confronts the new arrival. Although his friends all find this behaviour suspicious, none of them can understand what might lie behind it.\nIt transpires that Macfarlane and Fettes had attended medical school together, under the famous professor of anatomy, Robert Knox. Their duties included taking receipt of bodies for dissection, and paying the pair of shifty and suspicious men who supplied them.\nOn one occasion, Fettes identifies a body as that of a woman he knew, and is convinced she has been murdered. But Macfarlane talks him out of reporting the incident, lest they are both implicated in the crime.\nLater, Fettes meets Macfarlane at a tavern, along with a man named Gray, who treats Macfarlane in a rude manner. The following night, Macfarlane brings Gray's body along as a dissection sample. Although Fettes is now certain that his friend has committed murder, Macfarlane again convinces him to keep his silence, persuading him that if he is not courageous enough to perform such manly deeds as these, he will end up as just another victim. The two men make sure the body is comprehensively dissected, destroying any forensic evidence.\nFettes and Macfarlane continue their work, without being implicated in any crime. However, when a shortage of bodies leaves their mentor in need, they are sent to a country churchyard to exhume a recently buried woman. As they are driving back with the body seated between them, they begin to feel nervous and stop to take a better look. They are shocked to discover that the body between them is that of Gray, which they thought they had destroyed.\nThe 1945 film \"The Body Snatcher\", produced by Val Lewton and directed by Robert Wise, starred Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi.\nA television version was made in 1966, directed by Toby Robertson.\n\"The Body-Snatcher\" published in the Warren magazine \"Creepy\" #7 [February 1966] was adapted by \"Archie Goodwin\" and illustrated by \"Reed Crandall\". The story is slightly altered: Fettes is Dr \"Toddy\" MacFarlane's laboratory assistant rather than a fellow student of Dr Knox.\nThe story was also adapted by Ian Martin for a 1974 episode of \"The CBS Radio Mystery Theater\" starring Howard Da Silva, Ralph Bell, Court Benson, Patricia Elliott, and Ken Harvey.","Ed Gein\nEdward Theodore Gein ( ; August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984), also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, was an American murderer and body snatcher. His crimes, committed around his hometown of Plainfield, Wisconsin, gathered widespread notoriety after authorities discovered that Gein had exhumed corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies and keepsakes from their bones and skin. Gein confessed to killing two women – tavern owner Mary Hogan in 1954, and a Plainfield hardware store owner, Bernice Worden in 1957. Gein was initially found unfit to stand trial and confined to a mental health facility. In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden, and was remanded to psychiatric institutions. He died at Mendota Mental Health Institute of cancer-induced liver and respiratory failure at age 77 on July 26, 1984. He is buried next to his family in the Plainfield Cemetery, in a now-unmarked grave.\nEd Gein was born in La Crosse County, Wisconsin, USA, on August 27, 1906, the second of two boys of George Philip Gein (1873–1940) and Augusta Wilhelmine (née Lehrke) Gein (1878–1945). Gein had an older brother, Henry George Gein (1901–1944). Augusta despised her husband, an alcoholic who was unable to keep a job; he had worked at various times as a carpenter, tanner, and insurance salesman. George owned a local grocery shop for a few years, but sold the business, and the family left the city to live in isolation on a 155-acre farm in the Town of Plainfield in Waushara County, Wisconsin, which became the Gein family's permanent residence.\nAugusta took advantage of the farm's isolation by turning away outsiders who could have influenced her sons. Edward left the farm only to attend school. Outside of school, he spent most of his time doing chores on the farm. Augusta was a fervent Lutheran. She preached to her boys about the innate immorality of the world, the evil of drinking, and the belief that all women were naturally prostitutes and instruments of the devil. She reserved time every afternoon to read to them from the Bible, usually selecting graphic verses from the Old Testament concerning death, murder, and divine retribution.\nEdward was shy, and classmates and teachers remembered him as having strange mannerisms, such as seemingly random laughter, as if he were laughing at his own personal jokes. To make matters worse, his mother punished him whenever he tried to make friends. Despite his poor social development, he did fairly well in school, particularly in reading.\nOn April 1, 1940, Ed's father George died of heart failure caused by his alcoholism; he was 66 years old. Henry and Ed began doing odd jobs around town to help cover living expenses. The brothers were generally considered reliable and honest by residents of the community. While both worked as handymen, Ed also frequently babysat for neighbors. He enjoyed babysitting, seeming to relate more easily to children than adults. Henry began dating a divorced, single mother of two and planned on moving in with her; Henry worried about his brother's attachment to their mother and often spoke ill of her around Ed, who responded with shock and hurt.\nOn May 16, 1944, Henry and Ed were burning away marsh vegetation on the property; the fire got out of control, drawing the attention of the local fire department. By the end of the day – the fire having been extinguished and the firefighters gone – Ed reported his brother missing. With lanterns and flashlights, a search party searched for Henry, whose dead body was found lying face down. Apparently, he had been dead for some time, and it appeared that the cause of death was heart failure, since he had not been burned or injured otherwise. It was later reported, in Harold Schechter's biography of Gein, \"Deviant\", that Henry had bruises on his head. The police dismissed the possibility of foul play and the county coroner later officially listed asphyxiation as the cause of death. The authorities accepted the accident theory, but no official investigation was conducted and an autopsy was not performed. Some suspected that Ed Gein killed his brother. Questioning Gein about the death of Bernice Worden in 1957, state investigator Joe Wilimovsky brought up questions about Henry's death. Dr. George W. Arndt, who studied the case, wrote that, in retrospect, it was \"possible and likely\" that Henry's death was \"the \"Cain and Abel\" aspect of this case\".\nGein and his mother were now alone. Augusta had a paralyzing stroke shortly after Henry's death, and Gein devoted himself to taking care of her. Sometime in 1945, Gein later recounted, he and his mother visited a man named Smith, who lived nearby, to purchase straw. According to Gein, Augusta witnessed Smith beating a dog. A woman inside the Smith home came outside and yelled to stop. Smith beat the dog to death. Augusta was extremely upset by this scene. What bothered her did not appear to be the brutality toward the dog, but the presence of the woman. Augusta told Ed that the woman was not married to Smith, so had no business being there. \"Smith's harlot\", Augusta angrily called her. She had a second stroke soon after, and her health deteriorated rapidly. She died on December 29, 1945, at the age of 67. Ed was devastated by her death; in the words of author Harold Schechter, he had \"lost his only friend and one true love. And he was absolutely alone in the world.\"\nGein held on to the farm and earned money from odd jobs. He boarded up rooms used by his mother, including the upstairs, downstairs parlor, and living room, leaving them untouched; while the rest of the house became increasingly squalid, these rooms remained pristine. Gein lived thereafter in a small room next to the kitchen. Around this time, he became interested in reading death-cult magazines and adventure stories, particularly those involving cannibals or Nazi atrocities.\nGein was a handyman and received a farm subsidy from the federal government starting in 1951. He occasionally worked for the local municipal road crew and crop-threshing crews in the area. Sometime between 1946 and 1956, he also sold an 80-acre parcel of land that his brother Henry had owned.\nOn the morning of November 16, 1957, Plainfield hardware store owner Bernice Worden disappeared. A Plainfield resident reported that the hardware store's truck had been driven out from the rear of the building around 9:30 am. The hardware store was closed the entire day; some area residents believed this was because of deer hunting season. Bernice Worden's son, Deputy Sheriff Frank Worden, entered the store around 5:00 pm to find the store's cash register open and blood stains on the floor. Frank Worden told investigators that Ed Gein had been in the store the evening before his mother's disappearance, and that he would return the next morning for a gallon of antifreeze. A sales slip for a gallon of antifreeze was the last receipt written by Worden on the morning she disappeared. On the evening of the same day, Gein was arrested at a West Plainfield grocery store, and the Waushara County Sheriff's Department searched the Gein farm. A Waushara County Sheriff's deputy discovered Worden's decapitated body in a shed on Gein's property, hung upside down by ropes at her wrists, with a crossbar at her ankles. The torso was \"dressed out like a deer\". She had been shot with a .22-caliber rifle, and the mutilations were made after her death.\nSearching the house, authorities found:\nThese artifacts were photographed at the state crime laboratory and then destroyed.\nWhen questioned, Gein told investigators that between 1947 and 1952, he made as many as 40 nocturnal visits to three local graveyards to exhume recently buried bodies while he was in a \"daze-like\" state. On about 30 of those visits, he said he came out of the daze while in the cemetery, left the grave in good order, and returned home empty-handed. On the other occasions, he dug up the graves of recently buried middle-aged women he thought resembled his mother and took the bodies home, where he tanned their skins to make his paraphernalia.\nGein admitted to stealing from nine graves and led investigators to their locations. Because authorities were uncertain as to whether the slight Gein was capable of single-handedly digging up a grave during a single evening, they exhumed two of the graves and found them empty (one had a crowbar in place of the body), thus apparently corroborating Gein's confession. Allan Wilimovsky of the state crime laboratory participated in opening three test graves identified by Gein. The caskets were inside wooden boxes; the top boards ran crossways (not lengthwise). The tops of the boxes were about two feet (60 cm) below the surface in sandy soil. Gein had robbed the graves soon after the funerals while the graves were not completed. They were found as Gein described: One casket was empty, one Gein had failed to open when he lost his pry bar, and most of the body was gone from the third, but Gein had returned rings and some body parts.\nSoon after his mother's death, Gein began to create a \"woman suit\" so that \"...he could become his mother—to literally crawl into her skin\". Gein denied having sex with the bodies he exhumed, explaining: \"They smelled too bad.\" During state crime laboratory interrogation, Gein also admitted to the shooting death of Mary Hogan, a tavern owner missing since 1954 whose head was found in his house, but he later denied memory of details of her death.\nA 16-year-old youth, whose parents were friends of Gein and who attended ball games and movies with him, reported that Gein kept shrunken heads in his house, which Gein had described as relics from the Philippines, sent by a cousin who had served on the islands during World War II. Upon investigation by the police, these were determined to be human facial skins, carefully peeled from corpses and used by Gein as masks.\nGein was also considered a suspect in several other unsolved cases in Wisconsin, including the 1953 disappearance of Evelyn Hartley, a La Crosse babysitter.\nDuring questioning, Waushara County sheriff Art Schley reportedly assaulted Gein by banging his head and face into a brick wall. As a result, Gein's initial confession was ruled inadmissible. Schley died of heart failure at age 43 in 1968, before Gein's trial. Many who knew Schley said he was traumatized by the horror of Gein's crimes, and this, along with the fear of having to testify (especially about assaulting Gein), caused his death. One of his friends said: \"He was a victim of Ed Gein as surely as if he had butchered him.\"\nOn November 21, 1957, Gein was arraigned on one count of first degree murder in Waushara County Court, where he pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. Gein was diagnosed with schizophrenia and found mentally incompetent, thus unfit for trial. He was sent to the Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane (now the Dodge Correctional Institution), a maximum-security facility in Waupun, Wisconsin, and later transferred to the Mendota State Hospital in Madison, Wisconsin.\nIn 1968, doctors determined Gein was \"mentally able to confer with counsel and participate in his defense.\" The trial began on November 7, 1968 and lasted one week. A psychiatrist testified that Gein had told him that he did not know whether the killing of Bernice Worden was intentional or accidental. Gein had told him that while he examined a gun in Worden's store, the gun went off, killing Worden. Gein testified that after trying to load a bullet into the rifle, it discharged. He said he had not aimed the rifle at Worden, and did not remember anything else that happened that morning.\nAt the request of the defense, Gein's trial was held without a jury, with Judge Robert H. Gollmar presiding. Gein was found guilty by Gollmar on November 14. A second trial dealt with Gein's sanity; after testimony by doctors for the prosecution and defense, Gollmar ruled Gein \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" and ordered him committed to Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane. Gein spent the rest of his life in a mental hospital. Judge Gollmar wrote, \"Due to prohibitive costs, Gein was tried for only one murder—that of Mrs. Worden. He also admitted to killing Mary Hogan.\"\nGein's house and property were scheduled to be auctioned March 30, 1958, amid rumors the house was to become a tourist attraction. On March 27, the house was destroyed by fire. Arson was suspected, but the cause was never officially determined. When Gein learned of the incident while in detention, he shrugged and said, \"Just as well.\" Gein's car, which he used to haul the bodies of his victims, was sold at public auction for $760 to carnival sideshow operator Bunny Gibbons. Gibbons later charged carnival goers 25¢ admission to see it.\nGein died at the Mendota Mental Health Institute due to respiratory failure secondary to lung cancer on July 26, 1984, at the age of 77. Over the years, souvenir seekers chipped pieces from his gravestone at the Plainfield Cemetery, until the stone itself was stolen in 2000. It was recovered in June 2001, near Seattle, and was placed in storage at the Waushara County Sheriff's Department. The gravesite itself is now unmarked, but not unknown; Gein is interred between his parents and brother in the cemetery.\nThe story of Ed Gein was featured on season one, episode one of the R-rated documentary series \"Behind The Screams\" first shown on 26 September 2015, called \"A Real Psycho\".\nThe story of Ed Gein has had a lasting effect on American popular culture as evidenced by its numerous appearances in film, music, and literature. The tale first came to widespread public attention in the fictionalized version presented by Robert Bloch in his 1959 suspense novel \"Psycho\". In addition to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film of Bloch's novel, \"Psycho\", Gein's story was loosely adapted into a number of films, including \"Deranged\" (1974), \"In the Light of the Moon\" (2000) (released in the U.S. and Australia as \"Ed Gein\" (2001)), \"\" (2007), \"Hitchcock\" (2012), and the Rob Zombie films \"House of 1000 Corpses\" and its sequel, \"The Devil's Rejects\". Gein served as a model for several book and film characters, most notably such fictional serial killers as Norman Bates (\"Psycho\"), Leatherface (\"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\"), Buffalo Bill (\"The Silence of the Lambs\") and the character Dr. Oliver Thredson from \"\".\nAmerican filmmaker Errol Morris and German filmmaker Werner Herzog attempted unsuccessfully to collaborate on a film project about Gein in 1975–76. Morris interviewed Gein several times and ended up spending almost a year in Plainfield interviewing dozens of locals. The pair planned secretly to exhume Gein's mother from her grave to test a theory, but never followed through on the scheme and eventually ended their collaboration. The aborted project was described in a 1989 \"New Yorker\" profile of Morris.\nAt the time, the news reports of Gein's crimes spawned a subgenre of \"black humor\". Since the 1950s, Gein has frequently been exploited by transgressive art or \"shock rock\", often without association with his life or crimes beyond the shock value of his name. Examples of this include the song titled \"Dead Skin Mask\" (1990) from the Slayer album \"Seasons in the Abyss\", \"Nothing To Gein\" (2001) from Mudvayne's album \"L.D. 50\", and \"Ed Gein\" (1992) from The Ziggens' album \"Rusty Never Sleeps\". Ed Gein's atrocities were also satirized in Blind Melon's \"Skinned\" off the 1995 album \"Soup\" which juxtaposed cheery instrumentation with semi-factual representations of Gein's crimes, arguably towards a comedic end.","Mark Walker (North Carolina politician)\nBradley Mark Walker (born May 20, 1969) is an American politician and pastor from the state of North Carolina. A Republican, Walker has represented North Carolina's 6th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives since 2014. In 2017, Walker was elected to head the Republican Study Committee. He is a pastor and Trump supporter.\nWalker was born on May 20, 1969, in Dothan, Alabama. His father was an Independent Baptist minister, and was the chaplain of a prison in Alabama.\nWalker eventually attended Trinity Baptist College for a time before moving with his family to Houston, Texas. From there, Walker moved to the Piedmont Triad. He worked in business and finance for several years. Walker eventually returned to college to pursue the ministry and attend Piedmont Baptist College, now Piedmont International University, graduating with a B.A. in Biblical Studies. Walker was ordained in the Southern Baptist denomination. His career in ministry began at Calvary Baptist Church in Winston-Salem. From there he has worked for and led churches in North Carolina and Florida. He has served as a worship pastor, executive pastor and lead pastor.\nIn 2008, Walker started with Lawndale Baptist Church in Greensboro as its Pastor of Arts and Worship. The church has a membership of several thousand congregants.\nWalker's 2014 campaign slogan was \"People Before Politics.\" Following the primary election, Walker and Phil Berger, Jr. advanced to a runoff election. Despite finishing second in the May primary, Walker unexpectedly won the runoff election by a significant margin.\nWalker holds \"deeply conservative\" beliefs. He is an avowed opponent of the Affordable Care Act, and has led the conservative Republican Study Committee's efforts to repeal the health care reform legislation. He has called for \"full repeal\" of the legislation, and criticized 2015 Republican-sponsored legislation that would repeal only part of the act.\nDuring the 2016 presidential election, Walker called some of Republican nominee Donald Trump's remarks \"morally reprehensible\" and condemned Trump's lewd remarks about women as \"vile.\" Nevertheless, Walker still backed Trump over his Democratic opponent, Hillary Clinton. Walker opposed Trump's proposal to create a national registry to track American Muslims, but did express support for \"vetting of refugees and immigrants.\"\nIn December 2016, Walker was one of only 33 Republican U.S. Representatives to vote \"no\" on a short-term stopgap funding measure that would appropriate millions of dollars in federal disaster relief spending in the wake of Hurricane Matthew. Walker said that he opposed such stopgap funding bills.\nWalker has led efforts to improve the Republican Party's outreach to African Americans, and organized a February 2017 conference between the presidents and chancellors of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and Republican congressional leaders. He also worked with fellow Representative Alma Adams, a Democrat from North Carolina, to start an internship program for students from HBCUs. He is supportive of criminal justice reform initiatives, and has called for a shift in Republican approach to this issue.\nIn 2017, Walker became co-chair of the Congressional Prayer Caucus.\nWalker has played for the Republicans in the annual Congressional Baseball Game, serving as pitcher in the 2016 game.\nIn 2016, Walker launched a campaign to become chairman of the Republican Study Committee (RSC), a faction of highly conservative Republicans. Walker defeated Andy Harris of Maryland in the November 2016 election, becoming the youngest RSC chairman in history.\nWalker is a proponent of North Carolina's Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act (\"HB2\"), a controversial piece of legislation which was read, amended, passed and signed in a matter of hours on March 23, 2016. On March 28, 2016, as businesses and local governments began registering opposition to HB2, Walker tweeted, \"I'm growing weary of the big business and corporate bullying over HB2.\" At a prayer breakfast on April 2016, Walker asserted that the Democrats had emphasized opposition to HB2 as \"part of a calculated strategy to retake control of the Senate, turn the state blue, and establish a base of support for the [2016] presidential election.\"\nDuring his 2014 campaign, at a Tea Party forum in Rockingham County, North Carolina, Walker was asked if military force was appropriate along the U.S.-Mexican border. He stated that the National Guard might be necessary to secure the border. He added, \"...if you have foreigners who are sneaking in with drug cartels, to me that is a national threat, and if we got to go laser or blitz somebody.. I don’t have a problem with that either.\" The moderator then asked if he had any qualms about starting a war with Mexico. Walker responded jokingly, \"Well, we did it before, if we need to do it again, I don't have a qualm about it.\" Later, Walker met with the editors of the \"Greensboro News & Record\" to tell them, \"Being someone who is not a career politician, I’ve learned there are different environments that are a little more heated in context. And when you walk into those by proxy, you have to be very concerned as well as being very upfront about what your positions are because you can be guided very easily.\"\nOn May 15, 2017, Walker's Twitter account posted a tweet in which he criticized the construction of specially made ramps allowing ducks to get into and out of the US Capitol Reflecting Pool. In it, he called the move \"government waste.\" Walker subsequently faced backlash over this remark on social media.\nWalker is married to Kelly Sears, a nurse practitioner. They have three children and live in Greensboro.","Hannah Mary Tabbs\nHannah Mary Tabbs, born Hannah Ann Smith, was an American murderer in the late 1800s. Born into slavery in the 1850s, she escapes northwards and settled in Philadelphia, where she was accused of murder after a body was found lacking both limbs and a head.\nPrior to discovery of the body, Tabbs was known for her violent acts against her black community but she had no criminal record until she was thought to have murdered a white man. Due to her consistent use of aliases and false information, still little is known about her life.\nTabbs was born in Maryland in the 1850s. Ten years after the Civil War she moved north to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In Maryland, she lived with her niece, though it is speculated she was actually Tabbs' daughter, and her husband.\nWhile most famous for the disembodiment of mixed-race Silas Wakefield Gaines in 1887, Tabbs had a reputation of violence and fraud in the black community. She consistently assaulted people and throughout her life used many aliases and false identities. She often threatened her family members, including her husband. When a man's nearly unrecognizable body turned up, it was found that Tabbs, in conjunction with 18-year-old mixed-race George Wilson, had murdered him. Tabbs had also had an affair with Gaines prior to his death.\nFor her part in the murder, Tabbs served two years in prison while Wilson served nine.","Gidget Gein\nBradley Mark \"Brad\" Stewart (September 11, 1969 – October 8, 2008), known by his stage name Gidget Gein, was an American musician and artist. He was the second bassist and co-founder of the alternative metal band Marilyn Manson. His stage name references and dichotomies serial killer Ed Gein and the fictional 1960s surfer girl Gidget.\nGein was born in Hollywood, Florida, to a Roman Catholic school teacher mother and police officer father.\nStewart joined the band, Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids, in 1990. The band eventually gained the attention of Trent Reznor who signed them to his label Nothing Records. As the band became more famous after dropping the \"Spooky Kids\" title in 1992, Gein's personality was becoming more chaotic through extensive drug use and other various acts of debauchery. In October 1993, Reznor agreed to rework the production on Marilyn Manson's album, taking them and their tapes to The Record Plant in Los Angeles. On Christmas Eve of 1993, Gein was hospitalized after overdosing on heroin. While still hospitalized, he received a message from Marilyn Manson's lawyer via FedEx that he was fired due to his drug use. Gein was replaced by Jeordie White, known as Twiggy Ramirez.\nAfter being fired from Marilyn Manson, Gein moved to New York in 1999. He formed a group called Gidget Gein and the Dali Gaggers with vocalist Anthony Taboada, a.k.a. Alistarr Liddell, and guitarist Al B. Romano which featured various displays of degenerate art, ideas, and post-punk styled songwriting. Before the release of the Dali Gaggers' only album, \"Confessions of a Spooky Kid\", Gein relapsed and began shooting heroin. He headed back to Florida in order to kick his drug addiction for good.\nOnce back in Florida, Gein began work for the south Florida medical examiner as a \"bag boy\", spending years retrieving and cleaning up after the deceased. His experiences at the medical examiner's office have been documented in various international magazines and spurred early production of a motion picture based on this period of his life. Over time his arsenal of art and ideas began to outweigh his position as a bag boy, and Gidget found a friendship with the freshly announced UNPOP art movement and, surprisingly, a collaboration with Marilyn Manson and Asia Argento in a music video for the song \"(s)AINT\", which was later banned by Manson's record label Interscope Records.\nGein returned to Los Angeles in 2004 where he continued to execute art and fashion shows under the organized name GOLLYWOOD.\nOn October 8, 2008, Stewart died of a suspected drug overdose at his home in Burbank, California. His body was discovered on October 9. Shortly before his death, Gein had completed another stint in rehab and was reportedly recording an album with record producer Dave Jerden. He had been contracted to publish his art in a show scheduled for February 2009.\nOn December 8, 2008, a memorial benefit for Gein was held at the Dragonfly in Los Angeles. It featured Gein's art and an array of friends and fans performing in his honor. The guest list included Ego Plum, Kim Fowley, ex Courtney Love (a band, not to be confused with former wife of Kurt Cobain) guitarist Lisa Leveridge, Jessicka, Allen Wrench, Lenora Claire, Courtney Cruz, Ramzi Abed, Brian Clark (co-founder of the UnPop art movement to which Gein belonged), Bill Shafer of Hyaena Gallery (his art representative), Damian Crowley, Giddle Partridge, Hollie Stevens, and drag queens Squeaky Blonde and Fade-Dra. Funds raised from the gathering were used to purchase a memorial plaque in Gein's honor that was placed at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. Gein's mother retains possession of his cremains in Florida.\nA commemorative tribute was filmed on October 9, 2010 at the horror convention 'Spooky Empire', based in Orlando, Florida. Participants included Al B. Romano, Billy Baker, Parris Mayhew, Mike Merryfield, CC Manded and Petey Mongelli. The 9-part compendium was filmed by the Film Director/Artist/Musician Cynosure and is respectively owned by Cynosure Enterprises. The film closes with Gein's memorial plaque, embellished with the slogan, 'Luv is GG'.\nIn January 2016 it was revealed via Facebook that Gein's band Dali Gaggers was reforming in North Carolina by some fans with the intent to carry on Gein's legacy by playing his songs as well as writing new songs in similar fashion. The followup to Gein's album \"Just Ad Nauseam\"/\"Confessions of a Spooky Kid\", entitled \"Abraxas\", is set to be released sometime in late 2016.","Marvin Lee Wilson\nMarvin Lee Wilson (January 5, 1958 – August 7, 2012) was an American murderer who was executed by the State of Texas on August 7, 2012. He entered death row on May 9, 1994, for the murder of a police drug informant who had caught him dealing cocaine. On November 10, 1992, Wilson abducted and shot 21-year-old Jerry Robert Williams following a physical confrontation between the two in the 1500 block of Verone in Beaumont. Wilson then left the body of Williams at a bus stop where it was later found by a bus driver. At the time of the murder, Wilson had two previous convictions for robbery, one of them aggravated.\nWilson's IQ has been claimed to be measured at 61, which meant that he was legally retarded and thus ineligible for execution according to Atkins v. Virginia - a United States Supreme Court ruling against execution of retarded individuals. However, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit originally ruled in December 2005 that due to his lawyer missing a filing deadline, Wilson is unable to file further appeals in federal court.\nOn March 10, 2006, the Fifth Circuit court granted Wilson permission to file an appeal. In its opinion, the court wrote, \"We are satisfied that these are the sort of rare and extraordinary circumstances that justify\" waiving the filing deadline.\nThe National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty states that \"Wilson’s case illustrates one of the many ways the AEDPA Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act has severely limited the ability of death row inmates to have their convictions and sentences reviewed to determine if they are being held contrary to the laws of the Constitution.\"\nHe was imprisoned as Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) inmate #00999098. Wilson was initially located in the Ellis Unit, but was transferred to the Allan B. Polunsky Unit (formerly the Terrell Unit) near Livingston, Texas in 1999. He was executed at Huntsville Unit, Huntsville, Texas.","Brad Emaus\nBradley Mark Emaus (born March 28, 1986) is a former American professional second baseman. Emaus played for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball in 2011.\nDrafted by the Atlanta Braves in the 18th round of 2004 Major League Baseball draft out of East Coweta High School in Sharpsburg, Georgia, Emaus instead elected to enroll at Tulane University. Playing for the Tulane Green Wave baseball team, he started every game his first two seasons, playing mostly third base and some first base. In 2005, his freshman season, he was named to the All-Conference USA Tournament Team. In his junior season, he continued to play well — albeit displaying less extra base power — at second base, and re-entered the draft, this time being selected by the Toronto Blue Jays in the eleventh round.\nIn 2009, the Blue Jays had also assigned him to play in the Arizona Fall League. By 2010, Emaus has batted .276 in his minor league career, with a .364 on-base percentage, and a .426 slugging percentage, reaching as high 89 games with the Las Vegas 51s of the AAA Pacific Coast League. As a minor leaguer, he has mostly played second base, with a small amount of time also logged at third.\nA good performance in Arizona, along with his AAA statistics and a solid showing (.978 OPS) for the Blue Jays in spring training 2010, suggested he was a good candidate to become a major league player, but the Blue Jays did not include him on their 40-man roster, thus exposing him to the Rule 5 Draft. The Mets, thin at second base with the disappointing performance and questionable health of Luis Castillo at second base for them in 2011, chose Emaus in the first round of the draft.\nComing to the Mets in this manner, Emaus had to remain on their major league 25-man roster for the duration of 2011, or else be offered back to the Blue Jays. Emaus won the Mets second base competition during 2011 Spring Training. He was the Opening Day starter, making his major league debut on April 1. On April 19, the Mets designated Emaus for assignment.\nOn April 21, 2011, after clearing waivers, Emaus was returned to the Toronto Blue Jays. However, the next day he was traded to the Colorado Rockies for RHP Chris Malone and a player to be named later.\nOn January 11, 2012, Emaus was traded to the Boston Red Sox for a player to be named later or cash considerations. Less than three months later, on April 4, he was released.\nHe subsequently signed with the Laredo Lemurs of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball on April 18, 2012.\nOn April 25, 2012 Emaus signed a minor league contract with the New York Mets to play for the Buffalo Bisons, their AAA affiliate.\nFollowing his playing career, Emaus opened up 643 Hitting Academy in his residence of Monroe, Louisiana.","The Body Snatcher (film)\nThe Body Snatcher is a 1945 horror film directed by Robert Wise based on the short story \"The Body Snatcher\" by Robert Louis Stevenson. The film's producer Val Lewton helped adapt the story for the screen, writing under the pen name of \"Carlos Keith\". The film was marketed with the tagline \"The screen's last word in shock sensation!\" The frequent mentions of Burke, Hare, and Dr. Knox, all refer to the West Port murders in 1828.\nIt was the last film to feature both Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi.\nMrs. Marsh (Rita Corday) visits the house of Dr. Wolfe \"Toddy\" MacFarlane (Henry Daniell), seeking a cure for her paraplegic daughter Georgina (Sharyn Moffett). MacFarlane suggests surgery for the girl, but insists that he cannot perform the operation himself because his teaching position keeps him too busy. Later that night, MacFarlane's prize student Donald Fettes (Russell Wade) tells the doctor he cannot afford to continue his studies. MacFarlane offers Fettes a job as a lab assistant to help with an experiment he is planning.\nFettes is awakened in the middle of the night by John Gray (Boris Karloff), a cab driver and graverobber, who has arrived to deliver a corpse to MacFarland to dissect in his one of his classes. Later, MacFarlane and Fettes go to an inn and run into Gray, who threatens to reveals MacFarlane's \"dark secret\" if he doesn't operate on Georgina. MacFarlane initially agrees, but later tries to renege on his promise. Fettes asks Gray to get another human specimen so that Georgina might have hope of walking again. After visiting Gray, Fettes gives a coin to a blind street singer (Donna Lee). He is shocked when Gray arrives later at the lab with a corpse that resembles the singer.\nFettes shows MacFarlane the body and accuses Gray of murder. The conversation is overheard by Joseph (Bela Lugosi), MacFarland's other assistant. MacFarlane tells Fettes that he could be arrested as an accomplice and advises him not to notify the police. Georgina recovers from the surgery, but she is still unable to walk. MacFarlane is tortured by his failure, and goes to the inn to drown his sorrows. Gray shows up and torments him about their \"secret\".\nJoseph visits Gray and attempts to blackmail him to keep quiet about his body snatching operation. Gray tells Joseph the story of the infamous murderers Burke and Hare, and reveals that they procured bodies for Dr. Knox, MacFarlane's mentor. Gray promises to pay Joseph, but chokes him to death when the other man allows him to get too close. Later, he delivers the body to MacFarlane's lab as a \"gift\". Meg Camden (Edith Atwater), MacFarlane's housekeeper and secret wife, tells Fettes that Gray admitted to robbing graves during the Burke and Hare trial in order to shield the real perpetrator - MacFarlane. Later, MacFarlane offers Gray money to stop tormenting him. Gray refuses to take the bribe, and vows that the doctor will never be rid of him. Enraged, MacFarlane beats Gray to death.\nFettes meets with Mrs. Marsh and Georgina. The girl hears horses nearby and stands up to see them; the operation was a success after all. Fettes rushes to tell MacFarlane the good news, but Meg tells him that the doctor has gone to another town to sell Gray's horse and carriage.\nFettes finds MacFarlane at a tavern. He tells Fettes that he plans to rob a freshly dug grave. Fettes sees no alternative than to assist the doctor, and they load the unearthed corpse onto Gray's carriage. As they drive through a storm, MacFarlane hears Gray taunting him from the back of the carriage. He stops the carriage and orders Fettes to check the body. When he uncovers the body and shines a light on it, MacFarlane sees Gray's corpse. The horses, spooked by the storm, bolt. The carriage breaks loose and falls over a cliff with MacFarlane and the corpse. Fettes looks down at the wreck and sees MacFarlane's corpse, next to that of a woman.\n\"The Body Snatcher\" was one of three films that Boris Karloff did with RKO Radio Pictures from 1945 to 1946, which were produced by Val Lewton. The other two films were \"Isle of the Dead\" and \"Bedlam\". Karloff, who had achieved stardom with \"Frankenstein\", left Universal Pictures, feeling that the Frankenstein franchise had run its course. In a 1946 interview with Louis Berg of the \"Los Angeles Times\", Karloff called \"House of Frankenstein\" (the last installment of the Frankenstein franchise) a \"'monster clambake,' with everything thrown in: Frankenstein, Dracula, a hunchback, and a 'man-beast' that howled in the night. It was too much. Karloff thought it was ridiculous and said so.\nIn the same interview, Karloff stated that Lewton was \"the man who rescued him from the living dead and restored, so to speak, his soul.\"\nThe production of the film took place around the same time as \"Isle of the Dead\", with Lewton having a role as a screenwriter in both films. Lewton, along with British screenwriter Philip MacDonald, adapted the short story \"The Body Snatcher\" by Robert Louis Stevenson. Lewton wrote under the pen name \"Carlos Keith\". Bela Lugosi, who became famous with another Universal classic, \"Dracula\", also signed a deal with RKO. Lewton and MacDonald eventually wrote a small role for Lugosi; it became the last film Lugosi and Karloff made together.\nRobert Wise (later best-known for his work in \"The Day the Earth Stood Still\", \"West Side Story\", \"The Sound of Music\", and \"The Sand Pebbles\") was assigned to direct the film.\nPrincipal photography of \"The Body Snatcher\" ran October 25-November 17, 1944. During filming, there was tension between Lewton and executive producer Jack L. Gross. Gross sent Lewton into production of the film with a low budget.\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 81% based on 16 reviews , with a weighted average rating of 6.8/10.\nThe film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:\nThe film was released for the first time on Region 1 DVD in 2005, along with \"I Walked with a Zombie\", as part of the \"Val Lewton Horror Collection\".\n","Elmer Brunner\nElmer David Brunner (died April 3, 1959) was a convicted American murderer and was the last defendant executed by West Virginia.\nOn May 27, 1957, Ruby Miller was killed with the claw-end of a hammer in Huntington, West Virginia during a burglary of her home. Brunner was arrested and charged with first degree murder. Brunner was convicted in July 1957 and was sentenced to death by electric chair.\nBrunner's case was appealed twice to the Supreme Court of West Virginia and once to the United States Supreme Court, but all of his appeals were rejected. He was executed on April 3, 1959, by electrocution in \"Old Sparky\", the electric chair in the West Virginia State Penitentiary in Moundsville, West Virginia.\nWest Virginia abolished the death penalty in 1965. No one has been executed by West Virginia since Brunner's death.\n","Toby Robertson\nToby Robertson <a href=\"OBE\">OBE</a> (29 November 1928, London - 4 July 2012, London) was the artistic director of the <a href=\"Prospect%20Theatre%20Company\">Prospect Theatre Company</a> from 1964 to 1978. He was recognised as having \"re-established the good name and reputation of touring theatre in the UK after it had become a byword for second-rate tattiness in the 1950s\".\nThe son of David Lambert Robertson, a naval officer, and his wife, Felicity Douglas, a playwright, Robertson was educated at <a href=\"Stowe%20School\">Stowe School</a>, Buckinghamshire, and <a href=\"Trinity%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>. Christened Sholto, he became known as \"Toby\" (he claimed, as a result of reciting \"To be, or not to be\" from an early age). He did his national service with the East African Rifles.\nHe appeared in a Marlowe Society production of \"Romeo and Juliet\" at the <a href=\"Phoenix%20Theatre%20%28London%29\">Phoenix Theatre</a> in London, in 1952, and with the Elizabethan Players in a \"Richard II\" in Kidderminster in 1954. He appeared at Stratford-upon-Avon in 1957 in <a href=\"Peter%20Brook\">Peter Brook</a>'s production of \"The Tempest\" with <a href=\"John%20Gielgud\">John Gielgud</a> (whom he also understudied). The following year he made his professional London debut in <a href=\"Eugene%20O%27Neill\">Eugene O'Neill</a>'s \"The Iceman Cometh\", directed by <a href=\"Peter%20Wood%20%28director%29\">Peter Wood</a>, at the Arts theatre.\nRobertson worked in television between 1959 and 1963, directing more than 25 new plays, several for ITV's \"<a href=\"Armchair%20Theatre\">Armchair Theatre</a>\" and the BBC's \"<a href=\"The%20Wednesday%20Play\">The Wednesday Play</a>\". He also assisted Brook on his 1963 film \"<a href=\"Lord%20of%20the%20Flies%20%281963%20film%29\">Lord of the Flies</a>\". In 1962, Robertson directed <a href=\"Maxim%20Gorky\">Maxim Gorky</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Lower%20Depths\">The Lower Depths</a>\" for the <a href=\"Royal%20Shakespeare%20Company\">Royal Shakespeare Company</a>.\nRobertson became involved as a director with the <a href=\"Prospect%20Theatre%20Company\">Prospect Theatre Company</a>, which was launched at the <a href=\"Oxford%20Playhouse\">Oxford Playhouse</a> in 1961. When in 1964 the company found a permanent base at the Arts Theatre, Cambridge, Robertson became its artistic director, and annually staged three to four classical plays.\nProspect pioneered a type of theatre production in which emphasis was placed on quality acting and strikingly designed costumes, while its minimal stage designs enabled the company to easily tour regional theatres. It was with Prospect that <a href=\"Ian%20McKellen\">Ian McKellen</a> made his breakthrough performances with the company of Richard II (directed by Cottrell) and Marlowe's Edward II (directed by Robertson) at the Edinburgh festival in 1969, the latter causing a storm of protest over the enactment of the homosexual Edward's lurid death. Both those productions subsequently toured Britain and Europe before being staged at the <a href=\"Mermaid%20Theatre\">Mermaid Theatre</a> in London and breaking box-office records at the <a href=\"Piccadilly%20Theatre\">Piccadilly Theatre</a>.\n<a href=\"Derek%20Jacobi\">Derek Jacobi</a> first played Hamlet for Prospect in 1977, a production which when revived in 1979 toured Denmark, Australia and the first-ever Western theatrical tour of China. Other actors whose careers were effectively launched or enhanced by Prospect included <a href=\"Prunella%20Scales\">Prunella Scales</a>, <a href=\"Dorothy%20Tutin\">Dorothy Tutin</a> and <a href=\"Timothy%20West\">Timothy West</a>, and the company mounted critically acclaimed productions of plays by Shakespeare, Chekhov, Dryden, Gogol and John Vanbrugh, as well as Cottrell's adaptation of <a href=\"E.M.%20Forster\">E.M. Forster</a>'s \"A Room with a View\".\nHowever, when Prospect attempted to make the <a href=\"Old%20Vic\">Old Vic</a> its home from 1977, there were questions whether this contravened the terms of their touring subsidy. Matters of repertoire also became controversial, when a proposed season for late 1979 - which included the double bill of \"The Padlock\" and \"<a href=\"Miss%20in%20Her%20Teens\">Miss in Her Teens</a>\", to mark the bicentenary of <a href=\"David%20Garrick\">David Garrick</a>'s death, and a revival of \"<a href=\"What%20the%20Butler%20Saw%20%28play%29\">What the Butler Saw</a>\" - were vetoed by the Arts Council as unsuitable for touring repertory. An internal report by Prospect then questioned \"whether Prospect can any longer satisfy the triple task of filling the Vic, of satisfying the [Arts Council] Director of Touring's requirements for product of a certain familiar sort, and of realising the vision of Toby Robertson\". As a result, Robertson was in effect fired from the post of artistic director in 1980 while he was abroad with the company in China. His friendship with Timothy West, his successor as artistic director at the Old Vic, was irreparably soured.\nRobertson subsequently ran <a href=\"Clwyd%20Theatr%20Cymru\">Theatr Clwyd</a> in north Wales between 1985 and 1992. Robertson persuaded several leading actors, including <a href=\"Vanessa%20Redgrave\">Vanessa Redgrave</a>, <a href=\"Sir%20Michael%20Hordern\">Sir Michael Hordern</a> and <a href=\"Timothy%20Dalton\">Timothy Dalton</a>, to perform at the theatre.\nRobertson directed several opera productions. For <a href=\"Scottish%20Opera\">Scottish Opera</a> he directed \"A Midsummer Night’s Dream\" (1972), the 1975 world premiere of <a href=\"Robin%20Orr\">Robin Orr</a>’s \"Hermiston\", and \"Marriage of Figaro\" (1977).","Robert Knox\nRobert Knox, {'1': \", '2': \", '3': '<a href=\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society%20of%20Edinburgh\">FRSE</a> <a href=\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20College%20of%20Surgeons%20of%20Edinburgh\">FRCSE</a> <a href=\"Member%20of%20the%20Wernerian%20Society\">MWS</a>', '4': \"} (4 September 1793 – 20 December 1862) was a Scottish <a href=\"Anatomy\">anatomist</a>, <a href=\"Zoology\">zoologist</a>, <a href=\"Ethology\">ethnologist</a> and <a href=\"Physician\">doctor</a>. He was the most popular lecturer on anatomy in Britain, where he introduced the theory of <a href=\"transcendental%20anatomy\">transcendental anatomy</a>, but is now mainly remembered for his involvement in the <a href=\"Burke%20and%20Hare%20murders\">Burke and Hare murders</a>. Difficulty in obtaining cadavers for dissection after the passage of the <a href=\"Anatomy%20Act%201832\">Anatomy Act</a> and disagreements with professional colleagues ruined his career, and a move to London did not improve matters. His later pessimistic view of humanity contrasted sharply with his youthful attachment to the ideas of <a href=\"%C3%89tienne%20Geoffroy%20Saint-Hilaire\">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a>.\nKnox devoted the latter part of his life to theorising on evolution and <a href=\"ethnology\">ethnology</a>. His work on the latter was controversial, and was used to justify the view, shared widely by his contemporaries, that Anglo-Saxons are an innately superior people. This harmed his legacy, and overshadowed his contributions to <a href=\"evolutionary%20theory\">evolutionary theory</a>.\nRobert Knox was born in 1793 in Edinburgh's North Richmond Street, the eighth child of Mary (née Scherer) and Robert Knox (d. 1812), a teacher of mathematics and <a href=\"natural%20philosophy\">natural philosophy</a> at <a href=\"Heriot%27s%20Hospital\">Heriot's Hospital</a> in Edinburgh. As an infant, he contracted smallpox, which destroyed his left eye and disfigured his face. He was educated at the <a href=\"Royal%20High%20School%20%28Edinburgh%29\">High School</a>, where he was remembered as a 'bully' who thrashed his contemporaries 'mentally and corporeally'. He won the <a href=\"Lord%20Provost\">Lord Provost</a>'s gold medal in his final year.\nIn 1810, he joined medical classes in Edinburgh. He soon became interested in transcendentalism and the work of <a href=\"Xavier%20Bichat\">Xavier Bichat</a>. He was twice president of the Royal Physical Society, an undergraduate club to which he presented papers on hydrophobia and nosology. The final recorded event of his university years was his just failing the anatomy examination. Knox joined the \"extramural\" Anatomy class of the famous <a href=\"John%20Barclay%20%28anatomist%29\">John Barclay</a>. Barclay was an anatomist of the highest distinction, and perhaps the greatest anatomical teacher in Britain at that time. Redoubling his efforts, Knox passed very competently the second time around.\nKnox graduated Adiya from <a href=\"Edinburgh%20University\">Edinburgh University</a> in 1814, with a Latin thesis on the effects of narcotics which was published the following year. Knox joined the army and was commissioned Hospital Assistant on 24 June 1815, after having studied for a year under John Abernethy at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. He was sent immediately to Belgium to attend the wounded from Waterloo and returned two weeks later with the first batch of wounded aboard a hospital ship; during the voyage he successfully employed Abernethy's technique of leaving wounds open to the air. His army work at the Brussels military hospital (near Waterloo) impressed upon him the need for a comprehensive training in anatomy if surgery were to be successful. Knox was highly intelligent, critical and irritable. He did not suffer fools gladly and—in an aside with terrible consequences for his future career—he was extremely critical of the surgical work of <a href=\"Charles%20Bell\">Charles Bell</a> with casualties at the Battle of Waterloo. After a further trip to Belgium he was placed in charge of Hilsea hospital near Portsmouth, where he experimented with non-mercurial cures for syphilis.\nIn April 1817, he joined the 72nd Highlanders and sailed with them immediately to South Africa. There were few army surgeons in the Cape Colony but Knox found the people healthy and his duties were light. He enjoyed riding, shooting and the beauty of the landscape with which he felt in spiritual harmony—an early expression of his transcendental world view. Knox developed a keen interest in observing racial types, and disapproved of what he saw as the Boers' contempt for the indigenous peoples. However, after an abortive Xhosa rebellion against the colonial forces, he was involved in a retaliatory raid commanded by Andries Stockenström, a magistrate and future Lieutenant Governor. Relations with Stockenström were marred when Knox accused O.G. Stockenström, Andries' brother, of theft, a charge apparently prompted by ill feeling between British and Boer officers. A court martial acquitted O.G. of the charge and Andries called Knox's conduct shameful. One of Stockenström's supporters, a former naval officer named Burdett, challenged Knox to a duel. Knox initially refused to fight, and Burdett 'soundly horse whipped him on the parade before every Officer of the Garrison.' Knox then grabbed a sabre and inflicted a slight wound to Burdett's arm. Knox's promotion to Assistant Surgeon was cancelled and he returned to Britain in disgrace, arriving on Christmas Day 1820. He remained only until the following October, after which he went to Paris to study anatomy for just over a year (1821–22). It was then that he met both <a href=\"Georges%20Cuvier\">Georges Cuvier</a> and <a href=\"%C3%89tienne%20Geoffroy%20Saint-Hilaire\">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a>, who were to remain heroes for his entire life, to populate his later medical journalism, and to become the subject of his hagiography, \"Great artists and great anatomists\". While in Paris he befriended <a href=\"Thomas%20Hodgkin\">Thomas Hodgkin</a>, with whom he shared a dissecting room at \"l'Hopital de la Pitié\".\nKnox returned to Edinburgh by Christmas 1822. On 1 December 1823 he was elected a Fellow of the <a href=\"Royal%20Society%20of%20Edinburgh\">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>. During these years he communicated a number of well-received papers to the Royal and Wernerian societies of Edinburgh on zoological subjects. Soon after his election he submitted a plan to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh for a Museum of Comparative Anatomy, which was accepted, and on 13 January 1825 he was appointed curator of the museum with a salary of £100.\nIn 1825, <a href=\"John%20Barclay%20%28anatomist%29\">John Barclay</a> offered him a partnership at his anatomy school in Surgeon's Square, Edinburgh. In order for his lectures to be recognised by the Edinburgh College of Surgeons, Knox had to be admitted to its fellowship; a formality, but, at £250, an expensive one. At this time most professorships were in the gift of the town council, resulting in such uninspiring teachers as the Professor of Anatomy, <a href=\"Alexander%20Monro%20%28tertius%29\">Alexander Monro \"tertius\"</a> who put off many of his students (including the young <a href=\"Charles%20Darwin\">Charles Darwin</a> who took the course 1825–1827). This created a demand for private tuition, and the flamboyant Knox—in sole charge after Barclay's death in 1826—had more students than all the other private tutors put together.\nHe turned his sharp wit on the elders and the clergy of the city, satirising religion and delighting his students. Knox routinely referred to the <a href=\"Bridgewater%20Treatises\">Bridgewater Treatises</a> as the \"bilgewater treatises\" and his 'continental' lectures were not for the squeamish. <a href=\"John%20James%20Audubon\">John James Audubon</a>, was in Edinburgh at the time to find subscribers for his \"<a href=\"Birds%20of%20America%20%28book%29\">Birds of America</a>\". Shown round the dissecting theatre by Knox, \"dressed in an overgown and with bloody fingers\", Audubon reported that \"The sights were extremely disagreeable, many of them shocking beyond all I ever thought could be. I was glad to leave this charnel house and breathe again the salubrious atmosphere of the streets\". Knox's school flourished and he took on three assistants, Alexander Miller, <a href=\"Thomas%20Wharton%20Jones\">Thomas Wharton Jones</a>, and <a href=\"William%20Fergusson%20%28physician%29\">William Fergusson</a>.\nLittle is known of Knox's wife, Susan Knox, whom he married in 1824. According to Knox's friend Henry Lonsdale the marriage was kept secret as she was 'of inferior rank.' During his time in Edinburgh, Knox lived at 4 Newington Place with his sisters Mary and Jessie, while Susan and his 4 children lived at Lilliput Cottage in Trinity, west of <a href=\"Leith\">Leith</a>. They had seven children, but only two of them survived into adulthood.\nBefore the <a href=\"Anatomy%20Act\">Anatomy Act</a> of 1832 widened the supply, the main legal supply of corpses for anatomical purposes in the UK were those condemned to death and <a href=\"dissection\">dissection</a> by the courts. This led to a chronic shortage of legitimate subjects for dissection, and this shortage became more serious as the need to train medical students grew, and the number of executions fell. In his school Knox ran up against the problem from the start, since—after 1815—the Royal Colleges had increased the anatomical work in the medical curriculum. If he taught according to what was known as 'French method' the ratio would have had to approach one corpse per pupil.\nAs a consequence, <a href=\"body-snatching\">body-snatching</a> became so prevalent that it was not unusual for relatives and friends of someone who had just died to watch over the body until burial, and then to keep watch over the grave after burial, to stop it being violated. In November 1827 William Hare began a new career when an indebted lodger died on him by chance. He was paid £7.10s (seven pounds & ten shillings) for delivering the body to Knox's dissecting rooms at Surgeons' Square. Now Burke and his accomplice Hare set about murdering tramps and drunks on a regular basis. After 16 more transactions, in what became known as the West Port Murders, on 2 November 1828 <a href=\"Burke%20and%20Hare\">Burke and Hare</a> were caught, and the whole city convulsed with titillated horror, fed by ballads, broadsides and newspapers, at the terrible deeds of Burke & Hare. Hare turned <a href=\"King%27s%20evidence\">King's evidence</a>, and Burke was hanged, dissected and displayed.\nKnox was not prosecuted, which outraged many in Edinburgh. His house was attacked by a mob of 'the lowest rabble of the Old Town,' and windows were broken. A committee of the <a href=\"Royal%20Society%20of%20Edinburgh\">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> exonerated him on the grounds that he had not dealt personally with Burke and Hare, but there was no forgetting his part in the case, and many remained wary of him.\nAlmost immediately after the Burke and Hare case, the <a href=\"Royal%20College%20of%20Surgeons%20of%20Edinburgh\">Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh</a> began to harry him, and by June 1831 they had procured his resignation as the Curator of the museum he had proposed and founded. In the same year he was obliged to resign his army commission to avoid further service in the Cape. This removed his last source of guaranteed income, but fortunately his classes were more popular than ever, with a record 504 students. His school moved to the grander premises of Old Surgeons' Hall in 1833 but his class declined after <a href=\"Edinburgh%20University\">Edinburgh University</a> made its own practical anatomy class compulsory in the mid-1830s. Knox continued to purchase cadavers for his dissection class from such shadowy figures as the 'Black Bull Man,' but the 1832 Anatomy Act made bodies more available to all anatomists, he quarrelled with HM Inspector of Anatomy over the supply of bodies, and his competitive edge was lost. In 1837 Knox applied for the chair in pathology at Edinburgh University but his candidature was blocked by eleven existing professors, who preferred to abolish the post rather than appoint him. In 1842 he was unable to make payments to the Edinburgh funeratory system, from which bodies were supplied to private schools, and he relocated to Glasgow where, still short of subjects for dissection, he closed his school in 1844. In 1847 the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh found him guilty of falsifying a student's certificate of attendance (a not uncommon practice in private schools) and refused to accept any further certificates from him, effectively banning him from teaching in Scotland. In the same year he was expelled from the Royal Society of Edinburgh and had his election retrospectively cancelled.\nKnox left for London after the death of his wife (the remaining children were left with a nephew). He found it impossible to find a university post, and from then until 1856 he worked on medical journalism, gave public lectures, and wrote several books, including his most ambitious work, \"The Races of Men\" in which he argued that each race was suited to its environment and \"perfect in its own way.\" His book about fishing sold best. In 1854 his son Robert died of heart disease; Knox tried for a posting to the Crimea but at 63 was judged too old.\nIn 1856 he became the pathological anatomist to the <a href=\"The%20Royal%20Marsden%20NHS%20Foundation%20Trust\">Free Cancer Hospital</a>, London. He joined the medical register at its inception in 1858 and practiced obstetrics in Hackney. On 27 November 1860 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Ethnological Society of London, where he spoke in public for the last time on 1 July 1862. He continued working at the Cancer Hospital until shortly before his death on 20 December 1862, at 9 Lambe Terrace in <a href=\"Hackney%2C%20London\">Hackney</a>. He was buried at <a href=\"Brookwood%20Cemetery\">Brookwood Cemetery</a> near <a href=\"Woking%2C%20Surrey\">Woking, Surrey</a>.\nKnox's interest in race began as an undergraduate. His relevant political views were radical: he was an abolitionist and anti-colonialist who criticized the Boer as \"the cruel oppressor of the dark races.\" Knox is generally considered to be a <a href=\"Polygenism\">polygenist</a>; however, some have argued that he was in fact a <a href=\"Monogenism\">monogenist</a>, including biographer Alan Bates, who considers such claims to be \"exaggerated\". In his best-selling work, \"The Races of Men\" (1850), a \"Zoological history\" of mankind, Knox exaggerated supposed racial differences in support of his project, asserting that, anatomically and behaviourally, \"race, or hereditary descent, is everything\". He offered crude characterizations of each racial group: for example the Saxon (in which race he included himself) \"invents nothing\", \"has no musical ear\", lacks \"genius\", and is so \"low and boorish\" that \"he does not know what you mean by fine art\". No race was without its redeeming features, however; Knox described Saxons as \"[t]houghtful, plodding, industrious beyond all other races, [and] a lover of labour for labour's sake\". Such supposed racial characteristics meant that each race was naturally fitted for a particular environment and could not endure outside of it. Ultimately however, all races were \"[d]estined ... to run, like all other animals, a certain limited course of existence\", it mattering \"little how their extinction is brought about\". In 1862 Knox took the opportunity of a second edition of \"The Races of Men\" to defend the \"much maligned races\" of the Cape against accusations of cannibalism, and to rebuke the Dutch for treating them like \"wild beasts\".\nIn his writings Knox synthesized a perspective on nature from three of the most influential natural historians of his time. From Cuvier, he took a consciousness of the great epochs of time, of the fact of extinction, and of the inadequacy of the biblical account. From Étienne Geoffroy St-Hilaire and <a href=\"Henri%20Marie%20Ducrotay%20de%20Blainville\">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a>, he gained a spatial and thematic perspective on living things. If one had the skill, all living beings could be arranged in their correct placing in a notional table, and one would see both internally and externally the elegant variation of their organs and anatomy according to the principles of connection, unity of composition, and compensation.\n<a href=\"Goethe\">Goethe</a> is another crucial addition to the Knoxian way of looking at nature. Goethe thought that there were transcendental archetypes in the living world which could be perceived by genius. If the natural historian were perspicacious enough to examine the creatures in this correct order he could perceive—aesthetically—the archetype that was immanent in the totality of a series, although present in none of them.\nKnox wrote that he was concerned to prove the existence of a generic animal, \"or in other terms, proving hereditary descent to have a relation primarily to genus or natural family\". This way, he could lay claim to a stability in the natural order at the level of the genus, but let species be extinguished. Man was a genus; not a species.\nAccording to Richards, \"The Races of Men\" advocated \"a common material origin of life and its evolution by a process of saltatory descent\"; that is to say, new species arose not by gradual change but by sudden leaps due to shifts in embryonic development. Knox tentatively concluded that \"simple animals ... may have produced by continuous generation the more complex animals of after ages . . . the fish of the early world may have produced reptiles, then again birds and quadrupeds; lastly, man himself?\" Newly formed species survived or perished according to external conditions, which acted as \"potent checks to an infinite variety of forms\". For one contemporary reviewer, his claim that \"Species is the product of external circumstances, acting through millions of years\" was \"bold, disgusting, and gratuitous atheism.\" In modern terms, he proposed a theory of saltatory evolution, in which \"deformations\" in embryonic development produced \"hopeful monsters\" that, if fortuitously suited to the prevailing environmental conditions, gave rise to new species in a single, <a href=\"macroevolution\">macroevolution</a>ary leap. In 1857 he wrote: \"The conversion of one of these species into another cannot be so difficult a matter with Nature, especially when all or most of the specific characters are already present in the young. Thus a given species may perish, but another of the same consanguinité takes its place in space: it is a question of time... Thus parenté extends from species to genus and from genus to class and order, in characters not to be misunderstood.\"","Ralph Bell\nRalph Albert \"Lefty\" Bell (November 6, 1890 – October 18, 1959) was a <a href=\"professional%20baseball\">professional baseball</a> <a href=\"pitcher\">pitcher</a> from 1909 to 1916. He appeared in three <a href=\"Major%20League%20Baseball\">Major League Baseball</a> games for the <a href=\"Chicago%20White%20Sox\">Chicago White Sox</a> in 1912. Bell was 5 feet, 11 inches tall and weighed 170 pounds.\nBell was born in <a href=\"Kahoka%2C%20Missouri\">Kahoka, Missouri</a>, in 1890. He started his professional baseball career in 1909. That season, he pitched for two minor league teams and won nine games for each. He was then purchased by the <a href=\"National%20League\">National League</a>'s <a href=\"New%20York%20Giants%20%28NL%29\">New York Giants</a> and went to spring training with them in early 1910, but he was unable to make the team for the regular season. Instead, Bell spent the 1910 season with the <a href=\"Western%20Association\">Western Association</a>'s <a href=\"Joplin%20Miners\">Joplin Miners</a>. In 33 games for Joplin, he went 21-7 and led the league in wins. The Miners finished the season in first place with a record of 90-34 and is considered one of the greatest minor league teams of all-time.\nThe following season, Bell pitched for the <a href=\"Central%20Association\">Central Association</a>'s Burlington Pathfinders and won 21 games again. After starting 1912 with a record of 12-8, he was purchased by the Chicago White Sox of the <a href=\"American%20League\">American League</a>. He made three relief appearances for the White Sox in July and allowed six earned runs in six innings. He then returned to the minors. In 1913, while playing for the <a href=\"Northern%20League%20%28baseball%2C%201902%E2%80%9371%29\">Northern League</a>'s Winona Pirates, Bell set a career-high in wins, with 28. No other pitcher in the league had more than 20. He played for Winona again in 1914 and won 15. He then joined the Northern League's Fargo-Moorhead Graingrowers, and in 1915 he went 22-13 to lead his league in wins for the third and final time.\nBell's professional baseball career ended after the 1916 season. Overall, he went 156-90 in the minor leagues for a career .634 <a href=\"winning%20percentage\">winning percentage</a>. Bell died in <a href=\"Burlington%2C%20Iowa\">Burlington, Iowa</a>, in 1959.","CBS Radio Mystery Theater\nCBS Radio Mystery Theater (a.k.a. Radio Mystery Theater and Mystery Theater, sometimes abbreviated as CBSRMT) was a <a href=\"radio%20drama\">radio drama</a> series created by <a href=\"Himan%20Brown\">Himan Brown</a> that was broadcast on <a href=\"CBS%20Radio%20Network\">CBS Radio Network</a> affiliates from 1974 to 1982, and later in the early 2000s was carried by the <a href=\"NPR\">NPR</a> satellite feed.\nThe format was similar to that of classic <a href=\"old%20time%20radio\">old time radio</a> shows like \"<a href=\"The%20Mysterious%20Traveler\">The Mysterious Traveler</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Whistler\">The Whistler</a>\", in that the episodes were introduced by a host (<a href=\"E.%20G.%20Marshall\">E. G. Marshall</a>) who provided pithy wisdom and commentary throughout. Unlike the hosts of those earlier programs, Marshall is fully mortal, merely someone whose heightened insight and erudition plunge the listener into the world of the macabre (in a manner similar to that of \"The Man in Black\" on yet another old time radio program, \"<a href=\"Suspense%20%28radio%20drama%29\">Suspense</a>\").\nAs with Himan Brown's prior \"<a href=\"Inner%20Sanctum%20Mysteries\">Inner Sanctum Mysteries</a>\", each episode of \"CBS Radio Mystery Theater\" opened and closed with the ominous sound of a creaking crypt door, accompanied by Marshall's disturbing utterance, \"Come in!… Welcome. I'm E. G. Marshall.\" This was followed by one of Marshall's other <a href=\"catchphrase\">catchphrase</a>s, usually either \"The sound of suspense\" or \"The fear you can hear.\" At the conclusion, the door would swing shut, preceded by Marshall's classic sign off, \"Until next time, pleasant… dreams?\" Marshall hosted the program from January 1974 until February 1982, when actress <a href=\"Tammy%20Grimes\">Tammy Grimes</a> took over for the series' last season, maintaining the format.\n\"CBSRMT\" was broadcast each weeknight, at first with a new program each night. Later in the run\nthree or four episodes were new originals each week, and the remainder repeats. There were 1,399 original episodes. The total number of broadcasts, including reruns, was 2,969. Each episode was allotted a full hour of airtime, but after commercials and news, episodes typically ran for about 45 minutes.\nIn repeats of the show broadcast in the early 2000s, Himan Brown replaced E.G. Marshall's original host segments.\nThe program was pitched, at least initially, to an audience old enough to remember classic radio; Brown was a legend amongst radio drama enthusiasts for his work on \"<a href=\"Inner%20Sanctum%20Mysteries\">Inner Sanctum Mysteries</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Adventures%20of%20Nero%20Wolfe\">The Adventures of Nero Wolfe</a>\" and other shows dating back to the 1930s. Even young characters in early episodes of CBSRMT tended to have names popular a generation earlier, such as Jack, George, Phyllis and Mary. Many scripts, especially those by Ian Martin, showed a tin ear for 1970s youth slang (\"Don't let her give you no run-around, dad!\"; \"I think bein' around here's gonna be kicks!\"; \"I dig a man who's far out!\"). As late as 1981, Sam Dann's scripts included nervous or skeptical references to \"<a href=\"feminist%20movement\">women's lib</a>\", a term that was by then a decade out of date. In short, Brown made no attempt to broaden the program's appeal beyond the generation that had been raised on radio.\nThe debut of \"CBSRMT\", only a few months after the \"<a href=\"American%20Graffiti\">American Graffiti</a>\" phenomenon, coincided with the 1950s nostalgia fad that swept young America between 1972 and 1978. The program quickly developed a fan base among young listeners in addition to its target audience.\nEach show began with Host E. G. Marshall intoning, \"The \"CBS Radio Mystery Theater\" presents…\", followed by the sound of a creaking door slowly opening, seeming to invite listeners in for the evening's adventure. Three descending notes from the double basses introduced Marshall's sinister intonation, \"Come in… Welcome.\" A stopped <a href=\"French%20horn\">horn</a> sting and timpani roll, then: \"I'm E.G. Marshall.\" A low, eerie theme played by the <a href=\"bass%20clarinet\">bass clarinet</a> followed as Marshall introduced the program. At the end of each show, Marshall delivered his classic signoff, \"… inviting you to return to our \"Mystery Theater\" for another adventure in the macabre. Until next time, pleasant…dreams?\" The door then creaked and slammed shut, followed by a repeat of the show's ominous theme music.\nThe opening and closing themes for \"CBSRMT\" are derived from an abbreviated form of the music from the classic \"<a href=\"The%20Twilight%20Zone%20%281959%20TV%20series%29\">Twilight Zone</a>\" episode \"Two\", composed by <a href=\"Nathan%20Van%20Cleave\">Nathan Van Cleave</a>. Series listeners will immediately recognize the \"RMT Theme\" beginning about 1:35 on the \"Two\" soundtrack selection from the \"Twilight Zone\" CD boxed set. Other background tracks from the \"Twilight Zone\" music library, to which CBS owned full rights, were featured repeatedly in episodes of \"CBSRMT\". The theme song and the other music was also previously used in the 1950s and 1960s in other CBS-owned radio and television dramas (\"<a href=\"Perry%20Mason%20%28TV%20series%29\">Perry Mason</a>\"; \"<a href=\"Rawhide%20%28TV%20series%29\">Rawhide</a>\"; \"<a href=\"The%20Fugitive%20%28TV%20series%29\">The Fugitive</a>\"; \"<a href=\"Gunsmoke\">Gunsmoke</a>\"; \"<a href=\"Have%20Gun%20Will%20Travel\">Have Gun Will Travel</a>\"; \"<a href=\"Suspense%20%28radio%20drama%29\">Suspense</a>\"; \"<a href=\"Yours%20Truly%2C%20Johnny%20Dollar\">Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar</a>\"; etc.), in addition to \"Twilight Zone\", as it was all owned by CBS.\nDespite the show's title, Brown expanded its scope beyond <a href=\"Mystery%20fiction\">mysteries</a> to include <a href=\"horror%20fiction\">horror</a>, <a href=\"science%20fiction\">science fiction</a>, <a href=\"historical%20fiction\">historical drama</a>, <a href=\"Western%20%28genre%29\">westerns</a> and <a href=\"comedy\">comedy</a>, along with seasonal dramas at Christmas: \"<a href=\"A%20Christmas%20Carol\">A Christmas Carol</a>\", starring host Marshall as Scrooge, aired every Christmas Eve except 1974 and 1982.\nIn addition to original stories, there were adaptations of classic tales by such writers as <a href=\"O.%20Henry\">O. Henry</a>, <a href=\"Ambrose%20Bierce\">Ambrose Bierce</a>, <a href=\"Algernon%20Blackwood\">Algernon Blackwood</a>, <a href=\"Wilkie%20Collins\">Wilkie Collins</a>, <a href=\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>, <a href=\"Charles%20Dickens\">Charles Dickens</a>, <a href=\"H.%20Rider%20Haggard\">H. Rider Haggard</a>, <a href=\"Oscar%20Wilde\">Oscar Wilde</a> and others. Brown typically devoted the first full week of each January to a five- or seven-part series on a common theme. These included a full week of stories by an American writer, (<a href=\"Edgar%20Allan%20Poe\">Edgar Allan Poe</a> in 1975, <a href=\"Mark%20Twain\">Mark Twain</a> in 1976); week-long adaptations of classic novels (\"<a href=\"The%20Last%20Days%20of%20Pompeii\">The Last Days of Pompeii</a>\" in 1980, \"<a href=\"Les%20Miserables\">Les Miserables</a>\" in 1982); and original dramas about historical figures (<a href=\"Nefertiti\">Nefertiti</a> in 1979, <a href=\"Alexander%20the%20Great\">Alexander the Great</a> in 1981).\nRadio historian <a href=\"John%20Dunning%20%28writer%29\">John Dunning</a> argued the \"CBSRMT\" scripts varied widely in quality and concept. Many of the hour-long scripts were padded with filler, Dunning suggested, and could have been worked better as 30-minute programs, while other episodes suffered due to having been written by scribes unfamiliar with the unique needs of radio drama.\nProminent actors from radio and screen performed on the series. Notable regulars included <a href=\"Mason%20Adams\">Mason Adams</a>, <a href=\"Kevin%20McCarthy%20%28radio%29\">Kevin McCarthy</a>, <a href=\"Arnold%20Moss\">Arnold Moss</a>, <a href=\"John%20Beal%20%28actor%29\">John Beal</a>, <a href=\"Howard%20Da%20Silva\">Howard Da Silva</a>, <a href=\"Keir%20Dullea\">Keir Dullea</a>, <a href=\"Morgan%20Fairchild\">Morgan Fairchild</a>, <a href=\"Veleka%20Gray\">Veleka Gray</a>, <a href=\"Jack%20Grimes%20%28actor%29\">Jack Grimes</a>, <a href=\"Fred%20Gwynne\">Fred Gwynne</a>, <a href=\"Larry%20Haines\">Larry Haines</a>, <a href=\"Paul%20Hecht\">Paul Hecht</a>, <a href=\"Celeste%20Holm\">Celeste Holm</a>, <a href=\"Kim%20Hunter\">Kim Hunter</a>, <a href=\"Mercedes%20McCambridge\">Mercedes McCambridge</a>, <a href=\"Tony%20Roberts%20%28actor%29\">Tony Roberts</a>, <a href=\"Norman%20Rose\">Norman Rose</a>, <a href=\"Alexander%20Scourby\">Alexander Scourby</a>, <a href=\"Marian%20Seldes\">Marian Seldes</a> and <a href=\"Kristoffer%20Tabori\">Kristoffer Tabori</a>, and a then-unknown <a href=\"John%20Lithgow\">John Lithgow</a>.\nThe series also introduced a new generation of listeners to many of the great old time radio voices, including such distinctive performers as <a href=\"Joan%20Banks\">Joan Banks</a>, <a href=\"Jackson%20Beck\">Jackson Beck</a>, Ralph Bell, Roger DeKoven, Robert Dryden (who was heard in more than 240 episodes), <a href=\"Sam%20Edwards\">Sam Edwards</a>, <a href=\"Virginia%20Gregg\">Virginia Gregg</a>, Leon Janney, <a href=\"Victor%20Jory\">Victor Jory</a>, Evelyn \"Evie\" Juster, Mandel Kramer, <a href=\"Roberta%20Maxwell\">Roberta Maxwell</a>, <a href=\"Marvin%20Miller%20%28actor%29\">Marvin Miller</a>, <a href=\"Santos%20Ortega\">Santos Ortega</a>, Bryna Raeburn, <a href=\"William%20Redfield%20%28actor%29\">William Redfield</a>, <a href=\"Alan%20Reed\">Alan Reed</a>, <a href=\"Rosemary%20Rice\">Rosemary Rice</a>, Anne Seymour, Ann Sheppard, <a href=\"Les%20Tremayne\">Les Tremayne</a>, <a href=\"Lurene%20Tuttle\">Lurene Tuttle</a> and <a href=\"Janet%20Waldo\">Janet Waldo</a>.\nA number of well-known veteran and future stars made guest appearances, including\nActors were paid union scale at around $73.92 per show. Writers earned a flat rate of $350 per show. Production took place with assembly-line precision. Brown met with actors at 9:00 a.m. for the first script reading. After he assigned roles, recording began. By noon, the recording of the actors was complete, and Brown handed everyone checks. Post-production was done in the afternoon. The program was taped at the CBS Studio Building, 49 East 52nd Street in Studio G. Formerly Studio 27, renamed in honor of Arthur Godfrey whose programs originated in the building for decades.\nBelow are lists of episodes for each of the nine seasons of CBS Radio Mystery Theater.\nIn 1974, \"CBSRMT\" won a <a href=\"Peabody%20Award\">Peabody Award</a>, and in 1990 it was inducted into the <a href=\"National%20Radio%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">National Radio Hall of Fame</a>. On May 6, 1979, Himan Brown was presented a Broadcast Preceptor Award by <a href=\"San%20Francisco%20State%20University\">San Francisco State University</a> for his contributions with the \"CBSRMT\".\nFrom June 3 to November 27, 1998, \"CBSRMT\" was rebroadcast over CBS affiliates and, in 2000, on some <a href=\"NPR\">NPR</a> stations, in both cases with Himan Brown replacing the narration portions of E. G. Marshall.\n\"CBSRMT\" remains perennially popular with collectors to this day, with numerous websites, discussion forums and a <a href=\"Usenet\">Usenet</a> newsgroup devoted to trading <a href=\"MP3\">MP3</a> files of episodes. Some programs were taped with news and commercials embedded, providing an insight into the period when the show first aired. While some may judge \"CBSRMT\" as inferior to similar shows from the past such as \"Inner Sanctum Mysteries\", \"The Mysterious Traveler\", and \"Suspense\", which were produced in a 30-minute format, such comparisons must take into account the sheer prodigiousness of production by Brown and his players. At the rate of one show per day, it would take nearly four years to listen to each of the 1,399 hour-long episodes of \"CBSRMT\".\nThe episode \"Children of Death\", broadcast February 5, 1976, written by Sam Dann, served as the basis for Dann's 1979 novel \"The Third Body\", published by Popular Library. Another of his stories for \"Mystery Theater\", \"Goodbye Carl Erich\" from the 1975 season, was also turned into a novel by the same name, first published in 1985.\nIn 1976, a paperback anthology with three short stories adapted from the series' radio scripts was published by Pocket Library, \"Strange Tales from the CBS Radio Mystery Theater\", edited and with a <a href=\"foreword\">foreword</a> by Himan Brown.\nIn January 1999, McFarland & Company, Inc. published \"The CBS Radio Mystery Theater\", a book documenting the history of the program, including an episode guide. Fully indexed, the 475-page book was authored by Gordon Payton and <a href=\"Martin%20Grams%2C%20Jr.\">Martin Grams, Jr.</a> It was published in both hardcover and trade paperback.\nIn October 2006, Stahl Consolidated Manufacturing Corporation published a third book about \"Mystery Theater\", examining the series' value today in education and instruction, \"The CBS Radio Mystery Theater As An Educational Degree\", authored by Michael Anthony Stahl of Huntsville, AL. 180 pages, the hardcover was also selected for inclusion into the libraries of The <a href=\"University%20of%20Georgia\">University of Georgia</a>,(one of the few venues with a complete collection of the series from the CBS vaults) as well as included into their Walter J. Brown Media Archives and Peabody Awards Collection of the Film and Television Library in Summer, 2009.\nAll three books were reviewed in an article by Roger Sobin in \"Old-Time Detection Magazine\" in the Spring 2008 issue.\n\"<a href=\"Sears%20Radio%20Theater\">Sears Radio Theater</a>\", an hour-long weekday anthology series on CBS Radio which followed \"CBSRMT\" during much of its run before it moved to the <a href=\"Mutual%20Broadcasting%20System\">Mutual Broadcasting System</a>.","Val Lewton\nVal Lewton (May 7, 1904 – March 14, 1951) was a Russian-American novelist, film producer and screenwriter best known for a string of low-budget horror films he produced for <a href=\"RKO%20Pictures\">RKO Pictures</a> in the 1940s. His son, also named <a href=\"Val%20Lewton%20%28visual%20artist%29\">Val Lewton</a>, was a painter and exhibition designer.\nLewton was born Vladimir Ivanovich Leventon (<a href=\"Russian%20language\">Russian</a>: Владимир Иванович Левентон , <a href=\"Ukrainian%20language\">Ukrainian</a>: Володимир Іванович Левентон ) in <a href=\"Yalta\">Yalta</a>, <a href=\"Imperial%20Russia\">Imperial Russia</a> (now in <a href=\"Ukraine\">Ukraine</a>), in 1904. He was of <a href=\"Jewish\">Jewish</a> descent, the son of moneylender Max Hofschneider and Nina Leventon, a pharmacist's daughter. The family converted to Christianity.\nHe was nephew of actress <a href=\"Alla%20Nazimova\">Alla Nazimova</a>.\nHis mother left his father and moved to Berlin, taking her children with her. In 1909, they emigrated to the United States, where his name was changed to Val Lewton. He was raised in suburban <a href=\"Port%20Chester%2C%20New%20York\">Port Chester, New York</a>.\nIn 1920, when Lewton was 16, he lost his job as a society reporter for the \"<a href=\"Darien%2C%20Connecticut\">Darien</a>-<a href=\"Stamford%2C%20Connecticut\">Stamford</a> Review\" after it was discovered that a story he wrote about a truckload of kosher chickens dying in a New York heat wave was a total fabrication. He went on to study journalism at <a href=\"Columbia%20University\">Columbia University</a> and authored eighteen works of nonfiction, fiction, and poetry.\nIn 1932, he wrote the best-selling pulp novel \"No Bed of Her Own\", which was later used for the film \"<a href=\"No%20Man%20of%20Her%20Own%20%281932%20film%29\">No Man of Her Own</a>\", with <a href=\"Clark%20Gable\">Clark Gable</a> and <a href=\"Carole%20Lombard\">Carole Lombard</a>.\nLewton worked as a writer for the New York City <a href=\"MGM\">MGM</a> in Alice Roberts publicity office, providing novelizations of popular movies for serialization in magazines, which were sometimes later collected into book form. He also wrote promotional copy. He quit this position after the success of his 1932 novel \"No Bed of Her Own\", but when three later novels that same year failed to succeed as well, he journeyed to Hollywood for a job writing a screen treatment of <a href=\"Gogol\">Gogol</a>'s \"<a href=\"Taras%20Bulba\">Taras Bulba</a>\" for <a href=\"David%20O.%20Selznick\">David O. Selznick</a>. The connection for this job came through Lewton's mother, Nina.\nThough a film of \"Taras Bulba\" did not follow, Lewton was hired by MGM to work as a publicist and assistant to Selznick. His first screen credit was \"revolutionary sequences arranged by\" in <a href=\"David%20O.%20Selznick\">David O. Selznick</a>'s 1935 version of \"<a href=\"A%20Tale%20of%20Two%20Cities%20%281935%20film%29\">A Tale of Two Cities</a>\". Lewton also worked as an uncredited writer for Selznick's \"<a href=\"Gone%20with%20the%20Wind%20%28film%29\">Gone with the Wind</a>\", including writing the scene where the camera pulls back to reveal hundreds of wounded soldiers at the Atlanta depot. Lewton also worked for Selznick as a story editor, a scout for discovering literary properties for Selznick's studio, and a go-between with the Hollywood censorship system.\nOn the documentary \"The Making of Gone With the Wind\", Lewton is described by another Selznick employee as warning that \"Gone With the Wind\" was unfilmable and that Selznick would be making \"the mistake of his life\" trying to make a successful movie of it.\nIn 1942, Lewton was named head of the horror unit at <a href=\"RKO\">RKO</a> studios at a salary of US$250 per week. He would have to follow three rules: each film had to come in under a US$150,000 budget, each was to run under 75 minutes, and Lewton's supervisors would supply the film titles.\nLewton's first production was \"<a href=\"Cat%20People%20%281942%20film%29\">Cat People</a>\", released in 1942. The film was directed by <a href=\"Jacques%20Tourneur\">Jacques Tourneur</a>, who subsequently also directed \"<a href=\"I%20Walked%20With%20a%20Zombie\">I Walked With a Zombie</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Leopard%20Man\">The Leopard Man</a>\" for Lewton. Made for US$134,000, the film went on to earn nearly US$4 million and was the top moneymaker for RKO that year. This success enabled Lewton to make his next films with relatively little studio interference, allowing him to fulfill his vision despite the sensationalistic film titles he was given, focusing on ominous suggestion and themes of <a href=\"existential\">existential</a> ambivalence.\nLewton always wrote the final draft of the screenplays for his films, but avoided on-screen co-writing credits except in two cases, \"<a href=\"The%20Body%20Snatcher%20%28film%29\">The Body Snatcher</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Bedlam%20%28film%29\">Bedlam</a>\", for which he used the pseudonym \"Carlos Keith,\" which he had previously used for the novels, \"4 Wives,\" \"A Laughing Woman,\"This Fool, Passion,\" and \"Where the Cobra Sings\". After RKO promoted Tourneur to A-films, Lewton gave first directing opportunities to <a href=\"Robert%20Wise\">Robert Wise</a> and <a href=\"Mark%20Robson\">Mark Robson</a>.\nBetween 1945 and 1946, <a href=\"Boris%20Karloff\">Boris Karloff</a> appeared in three films for RKO produced by Lewton: \"<a href=\"Isle%20of%20the%20Dead%20%28film%29\">Isle of the Dead</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Body%20Snatcher%20%28film%29\">The Body Snatcher</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Bedlam%20%28film%29\">Bedlam</a>\". In a 1946 interview with Louis Berg of the \"<a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\">Los Angeles Times</a>\", Karloff credited Lewton with saving him from what Karloff saw as the overextended Frankenstein franchise at <a href=\"Universal%20Pictures\">Universal Pictures</a>. Berg wrote, \"Mr. Karloff has great love and respect for Mr. Lewton as the man who rescued him from the living dead and restored, so to speak, his soul.\"\nWhen RKO head and Lewton supporter Charles Koerner died in 1946, the studio went through personnel and management upheavals, ultimately leaving Lewton unemployed and in ill health after suffering a minor heart attack. Through connections, he rewrote an unused screenplay based upon the life of <a href=\"Lucrezia%20Borgia\">Lucrezia Borgia</a>. Actress <a href=\"Paulette%20Goddard\">Paulette Goddard</a> at <a href=\"Paramount%20Studios\">Paramount Studios</a> particularly liked Lewton's treatment, and in exchange for the script Lewton was given employment through July 1948. (The Goddard film \"<a href=\"Bride%20of%20Vengeance\">Bride of Vengeance</a>\", heavily rewritten, was released in 1949.) While at Paramount, Lewton also produced the film \"My Own True Love\", released in 1949.\nFollowing his association with Paramount, Lewton worked again for MGM, where he produced the <a href=\"Deborah%20Kerr\">Deborah Kerr</a> film \"Please Believe Me\", released in 1950. During this time, Lewton attempted to start an independent production company with former protégés Wise and Robson, but when a disagreement over which property to produce first arose, Lewton was kicked out. Lewton spent time at home working on a screenplay about the famous <a href=\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\">American Revolutionary War</a> battles at <a href=\"Fort%20Ticonderoga\">Fort Ticonderoga</a>. <a href=\"Universal%20Studios\">Universal Studios</a> made an offer on the work, and though the screenplay was not used, Lewton was given producer duties on the film \"<a href=\"Apache%20Drums\">Apache Drums</a>\", released in 1951. This film is usually considered the film most like Lewton's earlier RKO horror films.\nHollywood producer <a href=\"Stanley%20Kramer\">Stanley Kramer</a> tendered an offer to Lewton to work as an assistant producing a series of films at <a href=\"Columbia%20Studios\">Columbia Studios</a>. Lewton resigned at Universal and began preparation to work on the film \"<a href=\"My%20Six%20Convicts\">My Six Convicts</a>\", but after suffering gallstone problems, he had the first of two heart attacks which weakened him such that he died at <a href=\"Cedars-Sinai%20Medical%20Center\">Cedars-Sinai Medical Center</a> in 1951 at the age of forty-six. The following year, <a href=\"Kirk%20Douglas\">Kirk Douglas</a> appeared in \"<a href=\"The%20Bad%20and%20the%20Beautiful\">The Bad and the Beautiful</a>\"; his character was partly based on Lewton.\nA number of books and two documentaries on Lewton have been produced. A documentary film, \"\", was released in 2007.\nIn May of 2017, \"<a href=\"http%3A//www.secrethistoryofhollywood.com\">The Secret History Of Hollywood</a>\", a podcast biopic series, began an eleven part season on his life and work featuring <a href=\"Mark%20Gatiss\">Mark Gatiss</a>.\nEdmund G. Bansak. \"Fearing the Dark: The Val Lewton Career\". Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1995.\n"],"string":"[\n \"The Body Snatcher\\nThe Body Snatcher is a short story by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894). First published in the \\\"Pall Mall Christmas \\\"Extra\\\"\\\" in December 1884, its characters were based on criminals in the employ of real-life surgeon Robert Knox (1791–1862) around the time of the notorious Burke and Hare murders (1828).\\nA group of friends share a few drinks, when an eminent doctor, Wolfe Macfarlane, enters. One of the friends, Fettes, recognizes the name and angrily confronts the new arrival. Although his friends all find this behaviour suspicious, none of them can understand what might lie behind it.\\nIt transpires that Macfarlane and Fettes had attended medical school together, under the famous professor of anatomy, Robert Knox. Their duties included taking receipt of bodies for dissection, and paying the pair of shifty and suspicious men who supplied them.\\nOn one occasion, Fettes identifies a body as that of a woman he knew, and is convinced she has been murdered. But Macfarlane talks him out of reporting the incident, lest they are both implicated in the crime.\\nLater, Fettes meets Macfarlane at a tavern, along with a man named Gray, who treats Macfarlane in a rude manner. The following night, Macfarlane brings Gray's body along as a dissection sample. Although Fettes is now certain that his friend has committed murder, Macfarlane again convinces him to keep his silence, persuading him that if he is not courageous enough to perform such manly deeds as these, he will end up as just another victim. The two men make sure the body is comprehensively dissected, destroying any forensic evidence.\\nFettes and Macfarlane continue their work, without being implicated in any crime. However, when a shortage of bodies leaves their mentor in need, they are sent to a country churchyard to exhume a recently buried woman. As they are driving back with the body seated between them, they begin to feel nervous and stop to take a better look. They are shocked to discover that the body between them is that of Gray, which they thought they had destroyed.\\nThe 1945 film \\\"The Body Snatcher\\\", produced by Val Lewton and directed by Robert Wise, starred Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi.\\nA television version was made in 1966, directed by Toby Robertson.\\n\\\"The Body-Snatcher\\\" published in the Warren magazine \\\"Creepy\\\" #7 [February 1966] was adapted by \\\"Archie Goodwin\\\" and illustrated by \\\"Reed Crandall\\\". The story is slightly altered: Fettes is Dr \\\"Toddy\\\" MacFarlane's laboratory assistant rather than a fellow student of Dr Knox.\\nThe story was also adapted by Ian Martin for a 1974 episode of \\\"The CBS Radio Mystery Theater\\\" starring Howard Da Silva, Ralph Bell, Court Benson, Patricia Elliott, and Ken Harvey.\",\n \"Ed Gein\\nEdward Theodore Gein ( ; August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984), also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, was an American murderer and body snatcher. His crimes, committed around his hometown of Plainfield, Wisconsin, gathered widespread notoriety after authorities discovered that Gein had exhumed corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies and keepsakes from their bones and skin. Gein confessed to killing two women – tavern owner Mary Hogan in 1954, and a Plainfield hardware store owner, Bernice Worden in 1957. Gein was initially found unfit to stand trial and confined to a mental health facility. In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden, and was remanded to psychiatric institutions. He died at Mendota Mental Health Institute of cancer-induced liver and respiratory failure at age 77 on July 26, 1984. He is buried next to his family in the Plainfield Cemetery, in a now-unmarked grave.\\nEd Gein was born in La Crosse County, Wisconsin, USA, on August 27, 1906, the second of two boys of George Philip Gein (1873–1940) and Augusta Wilhelmine (née Lehrke) Gein (1878–1945). Gein had an older brother, Henry George Gein (1901–1944). Augusta despised her husband, an alcoholic who was unable to keep a job; he had worked at various times as a carpenter, tanner, and insurance salesman. George owned a local grocery shop for a few years, but sold the business, and the family left the city to live in isolation on a 155-acre farm in the Town of Plainfield in Waushara County, Wisconsin, which became the Gein family's permanent residence.\\nAugusta took advantage of the farm's isolation by turning away outsiders who could have influenced her sons. Edward left the farm only to attend school. Outside of school, he spent most of his time doing chores on the farm. Augusta was a fervent Lutheran. She preached to her boys about the innate immorality of the world, the evil of drinking, and the belief that all women were naturally prostitutes and instruments of the devil. She reserved time every afternoon to read to them from the Bible, usually selecting graphic verses from the Old Testament concerning death, murder, and divine retribution.\\nEdward was shy, and classmates and teachers remembered him as having strange mannerisms, such as seemingly random laughter, as if he were laughing at his own personal jokes. To make matters worse, his mother punished him whenever he tried to make friends. Despite his poor social development, he did fairly well in school, particularly in reading.\\nOn April 1, 1940, Ed's father George died of heart failure caused by his alcoholism; he was 66 years old. Henry and Ed began doing odd jobs around town to help cover living expenses. The brothers were generally considered reliable and honest by residents of the community. While both worked as handymen, Ed also frequently babysat for neighbors. He enjoyed babysitting, seeming to relate more easily to children than adults. Henry began dating a divorced, single mother of two and planned on moving in with her; Henry worried about his brother's attachment to their mother and often spoke ill of her around Ed, who responded with shock and hurt.\\nOn May 16, 1944, Henry and Ed were burning away marsh vegetation on the property; the fire got out of control, drawing the attention of the local fire department. By the end of the day – the fire having been extinguished and the firefighters gone – Ed reported his brother missing. With lanterns and flashlights, a search party searched for Henry, whose dead body was found lying face down. Apparently, he had been dead for some time, and it appeared that the cause of death was heart failure, since he had not been burned or injured otherwise. It was later reported, in Harold Schechter's biography of Gein, \\\"Deviant\\\", that Henry had bruises on his head. The police dismissed the possibility of foul play and the county coroner later officially listed asphyxiation as the cause of death. The authorities accepted the accident theory, but no official investigation was conducted and an autopsy was not performed. Some suspected that Ed Gein killed his brother. Questioning Gein about the death of Bernice Worden in 1957, state investigator Joe Wilimovsky brought up questions about Henry's death. Dr. George W. Arndt, who studied the case, wrote that, in retrospect, it was \\\"possible and likely\\\" that Henry's death was \\\"the \\\"Cain and Abel\\\" aspect of this case\\\".\\nGein and his mother were now alone. Augusta had a paralyzing stroke shortly after Henry's death, and Gein devoted himself to taking care of her. Sometime in 1945, Gein later recounted, he and his mother visited a man named Smith, who lived nearby, to purchase straw. According to Gein, Augusta witnessed Smith beating a dog. A woman inside the Smith home came outside and yelled to stop. Smith beat the dog to death. Augusta was extremely upset by this scene. What bothered her did not appear to be the brutality toward the dog, but the presence of the woman. Augusta told Ed that the woman was not married to Smith, so had no business being there. \\\"Smith's harlot\\\", Augusta angrily called her. She had a second stroke soon after, and her health deteriorated rapidly. She died on December 29, 1945, at the age of 67. Ed was devastated by her death; in the words of author Harold Schechter, he had \\\"lost his only friend and one true love. And he was absolutely alone in the world.\\\"\\nGein held on to the farm and earned money from odd jobs. He boarded up rooms used by his mother, including the upstairs, downstairs parlor, and living room, leaving them untouched; while the rest of the house became increasingly squalid, these rooms remained pristine. Gein lived thereafter in a small room next to the kitchen. Around this time, he became interested in reading death-cult magazines and adventure stories, particularly those involving cannibals or Nazi atrocities.\\nGein was a handyman and received a farm subsidy from the federal government starting in 1951. He occasionally worked for the local municipal road crew and crop-threshing crews in the area. Sometime between 1946 and 1956, he also sold an 80-acre parcel of land that his brother Henry had owned.\\nOn the morning of November 16, 1957, Plainfield hardware store owner Bernice Worden disappeared. A Plainfield resident reported that the hardware store's truck had been driven out from the rear of the building around 9:30 am. The hardware store was closed the entire day; some area residents believed this was because of deer hunting season. Bernice Worden's son, Deputy Sheriff Frank Worden, entered the store around 5:00 pm to find the store's cash register open and blood stains on the floor. Frank Worden told investigators that Ed Gein had been in the store the evening before his mother's disappearance, and that he would return the next morning for a gallon of antifreeze. A sales slip for a gallon of antifreeze was the last receipt written by Worden on the morning she disappeared. On the evening of the same day, Gein was arrested at a West Plainfield grocery store, and the Waushara County Sheriff's Department searched the Gein farm. A Waushara County Sheriff's deputy discovered Worden's decapitated body in a shed on Gein's property, hung upside down by ropes at her wrists, with a crossbar at her ankles. The torso was \\\"dressed out like a deer\\\". She had been shot with a .22-caliber rifle, and the mutilations were made after her death.\\nSearching the house, authorities found:\\nThese artifacts were photographed at the state crime laboratory and then destroyed.\\nWhen questioned, Gein told investigators that between 1947 and 1952, he made as many as 40 nocturnal visits to three local graveyards to exhume recently buried bodies while he was in a \\\"daze-like\\\" state. On about 30 of those visits, he said he came out of the daze while in the cemetery, left the grave in good order, and returned home empty-handed. On the other occasions, he dug up the graves of recently buried middle-aged women he thought resembled his mother and took the bodies home, where he tanned their skins to make his paraphernalia.\\nGein admitted to stealing from nine graves and led investigators to their locations. Because authorities were uncertain as to whether the slight Gein was capable of single-handedly digging up a grave during a single evening, they exhumed two of the graves and found them empty (one had a crowbar in place of the body), thus apparently corroborating Gein's confession. Allan Wilimovsky of the state crime laboratory participated in opening three test graves identified by Gein. The caskets were inside wooden boxes; the top boards ran crossways (not lengthwise). The tops of the boxes were about two feet (60 cm) below the surface in sandy soil. Gein had robbed the graves soon after the funerals while the graves were not completed. They were found as Gein described: One casket was empty, one Gein had failed to open when he lost his pry bar, and most of the body was gone from the third, but Gein had returned rings and some body parts.\\nSoon after his mother's death, Gein began to create a \\\"woman suit\\\" so that \\\"...he could become his mother—to literally crawl into her skin\\\". Gein denied having sex with the bodies he exhumed, explaining: \\\"They smelled too bad.\\\" During state crime laboratory interrogation, Gein also admitted to the shooting death of Mary Hogan, a tavern owner missing since 1954 whose head was found in his house, but he later denied memory of details of her death.\\nA 16-year-old youth, whose parents were friends of Gein and who attended ball games and movies with him, reported that Gein kept shrunken heads in his house, which Gein had described as relics from the Philippines, sent by a cousin who had served on the islands during World War II. Upon investigation by the police, these were determined to be human facial skins, carefully peeled from corpses and used by Gein as masks.\\nGein was also considered a suspect in several other unsolved cases in Wisconsin, including the 1953 disappearance of Evelyn Hartley, a La Crosse babysitter.\\nDuring questioning, Waushara County sheriff Art Schley reportedly assaulted Gein by banging his head and face into a brick wall. As a result, Gein's initial confession was ruled inadmissible. Schley died of heart failure at age 43 in 1968, before Gein's trial. Many who knew Schley said he was traumatized by the horror of Gein's crimes, and this, along with the fear of having to testify (especially about assaulting Gein), caused his death. One of his friends said: \\\"He was a victim of Ed Gein as surely as if he had butchered him.\\\"\\nOn November 21, 1957, Gein was arraigned on one count of first degree murder in Waushara County Court, where he pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. Gein was diagnosed with schizophrenia and found mentally incompetent, thus unfit for trial. He was sent to the Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane (now the Dodge Correctional Institution), a maximum-security facility in Waupun, Wisconsin, and later transferred to the Mendota State Hospital in Madison, Wisconsin.\\nIn 1968, doctors determined Gein was \\\"mentally able to confer with counsel and participate in his defense.\\\" The trial began on November 7, 1968 and lasted one week. A psychiatrist testified that Gein had told him that he did not know whether the killing of Bernice Worden was intentional or accidental. Gein had told him that while he examined a gun in Worden's store, the gun went off, killing Worden. Gein testified that after trying to load a bullet into the rifle, it discharged. He said he had not aimed the rifle at Worden, and did not remember anything else that happened that morning.\\nAt the request of the defense, Gein's trial was held without a jury, with Judge Robert H. Gollmar presiding. Gein was found guilty by Gollmar on November 14. A second trial dealt with Gein's sanity; after testimony by doctors for the prosecution and defense, Gollmar ruled Gein \\\"not guilty by reason of insanity\\\" and ordered him committed to Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane. Gein spent the rest of his life in a mental hospital. Judge Gollmar wrote, \\\"Due to prohibitive costs, Gein was tried for only one murder—that of Mrs. Worden. He also admitted to killing Mary Hogan.\\\"\\nGein's house and property were scheduled to be auctioned March 30, 1958, amid rumors the house was to become a tourist attraction. On March 27, the house was destroyed by fire. Arson was suspected, but the cause was never officially determined. When Gein learned of the incident while in detention, he shrugged and said, \\\"Just as well.\\\" Gein's car, which he used to haul the bodies of his victims, was sold at public auction for $760 to carnival sideshow operator Bunny Gibbons. Gibbons later charged carnival goers 25¢ admission to see it.\\nGein died at the Mendota Mental Health Institute due to respiratory failure secondary to lung cancer on July 26, 1984, at the age of 77. Over the years, souvenir seekers chipped pieces from his gravestone at the Plainfield Cemetery, until the stone itself was stolen in 2000. It was recovered in June 2001, near Seattle, and was placed in storage at the Waushara County Sheriff's Department. The gravesite itself is now unmarked, but not unknown; Gein is interred between his parents and brother in the cemetery.\\nThe story of Ed Gein was featured on season one, episode one of the R-rated documentary series \\\"Behind The Screams\\\" first shown on 26 September 2015, called \\\"A Real Psycho\\\".\\nThe story of Ed Gein has had a lasting effect on American popular culture as evidenced by its numerous appearances in film, music, and literature. The tale first came to widespread public attention in the fictionalized version presented by Robert Bloch in his 1959 suspense novel \\\"Psycho\\\". In addition to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film of Bloch's novel, \\\"Psycho\\\", Gein's story was loosely adapted into a number of films, including \\\"Deranged\\\" (1974), \\\"In the Light of the Moon\\\" (2000) (released in the U.S. and Australia as \\\"Ed Gein\\\" (2001)), \\\"\\\" (2007), \\\"Hitchcock\\\" (2012), and the Rob Zombie films \\\"House of 1000 Corpses\\\" and its sequel, \\\"The Devil's Rejects\\\". Gein served as a model for several book and film characters, most notably such fictional serial killers as Norman Bates (\\\"Psycho\\\"), Leatherface (\\\"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\\\"), Buffalo Bill (\\\"The Silence of the Lambs\\\") and the character Dr. Oliver Thredson from \\\"\\\".\\nAmerican filmmaker Errol Morris and German filmmaker Werner Herzog attempted unsuccessfully to collaborate on a film project about Gein in 1975–76. Morris interviewed Gein several times and ended up spending almost a year in Plainfield interviewing dozens of locals. The pair planned secretly to exhume Gein's mother from her grave to test a theory, but never followed through on the scheme and eventually ended their collaboration. The aborted project was described in a 1989 \\\"New Yorker\\\" profile of Morris.\\nAt the time, the news reports of Gein's crimes spawned a subgenre of \\\"black humor\\\". Since the 1950s, Gein has frequently been exploited by transgressive art or \\\"shock rock\\\", often without association with his life or crimes beyond the shock value of his name. Examples of this include the song titled \\\"Dead Skin Mask\\\" (1990) from the Slayer album \\\"Seasons in the Abyss\\\", \\\"Nothing To Gein\\\" (2001) from Mudvayne's album \\\"L.D. 50\\\", and \\\"Ed Gein\\\" (1992) from The Ziggens' album \\\"Rusty Never Sleeps\\\". Ed Gein's atrocities were also satirized in Blind Melon's \\\"Skinned\\\" off the 1995 album \\\"Soup\\\" which juxtaposed cheery instrumentation with semi-factual representations of Gein's crimes, arguably towards a comedic end.\",\n \"Mark Walker (North Carolina politician)\\nBradley Mark Walker (born May 20, 1969) is an American politician and pastor from the state of North Carolina. A Republican, Walker has represented North Carolina's 6th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives since 2014. In 2017, Walker was elected to head the Republican Study Committee. He is a pastor and Trump supporter.\\nWalker was born on May 20, 1969, in Dothan, Alabama. His father was an Independent Baptist minister, and was the chaplain of a prison in Alabama.\\nWalker eventually attended Trinity Baptist College for a time before moving with his family to Houston, Texas. From there, Walker moved to the Piedmont Triad. He worked in business and finance for several years. Walker eventually returned to college to pursue the ministry and attend Piedmont Baptist College, now Piedmont International University, graduating with a B.A. in Biblical Studies. Walker was ordained in the Southern Baptist denomination. His career in ministry began at Calvary Baptist Church in Winston-Salem. From there he has worked for and led churches in North Carolina and Florida. He has served as a worship pastor, executive pastor and lead pastor.\\nIn 2008, Walker started with Lawndale Baptist Church in Greensboro as its Pastor of Arts and Worship. The church has a membership of several thousand congregants.\\nWalker's 2014 campaign slogan was \\\"People Before Politics.\\\" Following the primary election, Walker and Phil Berger, Jr. advanced to a runoff election. Despite finishing second in the May primary, Walker unexpectedly won the runoff election by a significant margin.\\nWalker holds \\\"deeply conservative\\\" beliefs. He is an avowed opponent of the Affordable Care Act, and has led the conservative Republican Study Committee's efforts to repeal the health care reform legislation. He has called for \\\"full repeal\\\" of the legislation, and criticized 2015 Republican-sponsored legislation that would repeal only part of the act.\\nDuring the 2016 presidential election, Walker called some of Republican nominee Donald Trump's remarks \\\"morally reprehensible\\\" and condemned Trump's lewd remarks about women as \\\"vile.\\\" Nevertheless, Walker still backed Trump over his Democratic opponent, Hillary Clinton. Walker opposed Trump's proposal to create a national registry to track American Muslims, but did express support for \\\"vetting of refugees and immigrants.\\\"\\nIn December 2016, Walker was one of only 33 Republican U.S. Representatives to vote \\\"no\\\" on a short-term stopgap funding measure that would appropriate millions of dollars in federal disaster relief spending in the wake of Hurricane Matthew. Walker said that he opposed such stopgap funding bills.\\nWalker has led efforts to improve the Republican Party's outreach to African Americans, and organized a February 2017 conference between the presidents and chancellors of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and Republican congressional leaders. He also worked with fellow Representative Alma Adams, a Democrat from North Carolina, to start an internship program for students from HBCUs. He is supportive of criminal justice reform initiatives, and has called for a shift in Republican approach to this issue.\\nIn 2017, Walker became co-chair of the Congressional Prayer Caucus.\\nWalker has played for the Republicans in the annual Congressional Baseball Game, serving as pitcher in the 2016 game.\\nIn 2016, Walker launched a campaign to become chairman of the Republican Study Committee (RSC), a faction of highly conservative Republicans. Walker defeated Andy Harris of Maryland in the November 2016 election, becoming the youngest RSC chairman in history.\\nWalker is a proponent of North Carolina's Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act (\\\"HB2\\\"), a controversial piece of legislation which was read, amended, passed and signed in a matter of hours on March 23, 2016. On March 28, 2016, as businesses and local governments began registering opposition to HB2, Walker tweeted, \\\"I'm growing weary of the big business and corporate bullying over HB2.\\\" At a prayer breakfast on April 2016, Walker asserted that the Democrats had emphasized opposition to HB2 as \\\"part of a calculated strategy to retake control of the Senate, turn the state blue, and establish a base of support for the [2016] presidential election.\\\"\\nDuring his 2014 campaign, at a Tea Party forum in Rockingham County, North Carolina, Walker was asked if military force was appropriate along the U.S.-Mexican border. He stated that the National Guard might be necessary to secure the border. He added, \\\"...if you have foreigners who are sneaking in with drug cartels, to me that is a national threat, and if we got to go laser or blitz somebody.. I don’t have a problem with that either.\\\" The moderator then asked if he had any qualms about starting a war with Mexico. Walker responded jokingly, \\\"Well, we did it before, if we need to do it again, I don't have a qualm about it.\\\" Later, Walker met with the editors of the \\\"Greensboro News & Record\\\" to tell them, \\\"Being someone who is not a career politician, I’ve learned there are different environments that are a little more heated in context. And when you walk into those by proxy, you have to be very concerned as well as being very upfront about what your positions are because you can be guided very easily.\\\"\\nOn May 15, 2017, Walker's Twitter account posted a tweet in which he criticized the construction of specially made ramps allowing ducks to get into and out of the US Capitol Reflecting Pool. In it, he called the move \\\"government waste.\\\" Walker subsequently faced backlash over this remark on social media.\\nWalker is married to Kelly Sears, a nurse practitioner. They have three children and live in Greensboro.\",\n \"Hannah Mary Tabbs\\nHannah Mary Tabbs, born Hannah Ann Smith, was an American murderer in the late 1800s. Born into slavery in the 1850s, she escapes northwards and settled in Philadelphia, where she was accused of murder after a body was found lacking both limbs and a head.\\nPrior to discovery of the body, Tabbs was known for her violent acts against her black community but she had no criminal record until she was thought to have murdered a white man. Due to her consistent use of aliases and false information, still little is known about her life.\\nTabbs was born in Maryland in the 1850s. Ten years after the Civil War she moved north to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In Maryland, she lived with her niece, though it is speculated she was actually Tabbs' daughter, and her husband.\\nWhile most famous for the disembodiment of mixed-race Silas Wakefield Gaines in 1887, Tabbs had a reputation of violence and fraud in the black community. She consistently assaulted people and throughout her life used many aliases and false identities. She often threatened her family members, including her husband. When a man's nearly unrecognizable body turned up, it was found that Tabbs, in conjunction with 18-year-old mixed-race George Wilson, had murdered him. Tabbs had also had an affair with Gaines prior to his death.\\nFor her part in the murder, Tabbs served two years in prison while Wilson served nine.\",\n \"Gidget Gein\\nBradley Mark \\\"Brad\\\" Stewart (September 11, 1969 – October 8, 2008), known by his stage name Gidget Gein, was an American musician and artist. He was the second bassist and co-founder of the alternative metal band Marilyn Manson. His stage name references and dichotomies serial killer Ed Gein and the fictional 1960s surfer girl Gidget.\\nGein was born in Hollywood, Florida, to a Roman Catholic school teacher mother and police officer father.\\nStewart joined the band, Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids, in 1990. The band eventually gained the attention of Trent Reznor who signed them to his label Nothing Records. As the band became more famous after dropping the \\\"Spooky Kids\\\" title in 1992, Gein's personality was becoming more chaotic through extensive drug use and other various acts of debauchery. In October 1993, Reznor agreed to rework the production on Marilyn Manson's album, taking them and their tapes to The Record Plant in Los Angeles. On Christmas Eve of 1993, Gein was hospitalized after overdosing on heroin. While still hospitalized, he received a message from Marilyn Manson's lawyer via FedEx that he was fired due to his drug use. Gein was replaced by Jeordie White, known as Twiggy Ramirez.\\nAfter being fired from Marilyn Manson, Gein moved to New York in 1999. He formed a group called Gidget Gein and the Dali Gaggers with vocalist Anthony Taboada, a.k.a. Alistarr Liddell, and guitarist Al B. Romano which featured various displays of degenerate art, ideas, and post-punk styled songwriting. Before the release of the Dali Gaggers' only album, \\\"Confessions of a Spooky Kid\\\", Gein relapsed and began shooting heroin. He headed back to Florida in order to kick his drug addiction for good.\\nOnce back in Florida, Gein began work for the south Florida medical examiner as a \\\"bag boy\\\", spending years retrieving and cleaning up after the deceased. His experiences at the medical examiner's office have been documented in various international magazines and spurred early production of a motion picture based on this period of his life. Over time his arsenal of art and ideas began to outweigh his position as a bag boy, and Gidget found a friendship with the freshly announced UNPOP art movement and, surprisingly, a collaboration with Marilyn Manson and Asia Argento in a music video for the song \\\"(s)AINT\\\", which was later banned by Manson's record label Interscope Records.\\nGein returned to Los Angeles in 2004 where he continued to execute art and fashion shows under the organized name GOLLYWOOD.\\nOn October 8, 2008, Stewart died of a suspected drug overdose at his home in Burbank, California. His body was discovered on October 9. Shortly before his death, Gein had completed another stint in rehab and was reportedly recording an album with record producer Dave Jerden. He had been contracted to publish his art in a show scheduled for February 2009.\\nOn December 8, 2008, a memorial benefit for Gein was held at the Dragonfly in Los Angeles. It featured Gein's art and an array of friends and fans performing in his honor. The guest list included Ego Plum, Kim Fowley, ex Courtney Love (a band, not to be confused with former wife of Kurt Cobain) guitarist Lisa Leveridge, Jessicka, Allen Wrench, Lenora Claire, Courtney Cruz, Ramzi Abed, Brian Clark (co-founder of the UnPop art movement to which Gein belonged), Bill Shafer of Hyaena Gallery (his art representative), Damian Crowley, Giddle Partridge, Hollie Stevens, and drag queens Squeaky Blonde and Fade-Dra. Funds raised from the gathering were used to purchase a memorial plaque in Gein's honor that was placed at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. Gein's mother retains possession of his cremains in Florida.\\nA commemorative tribute was filmed on October 9, 2010 at the horror convention 'Spooky Empire', based in Orlando, Florida. Participants included Al B. Romano, Billy Baker, Parris Mayhew, Mike Merryfield, CC Manded and Petey Mongelli. The 9-part compendium was filmed by the Film Director/Artist/Musician Cynosure and is respectively owned by Cynosure Enterprises. The film closes with Gein's memorial plaque, embellished with the slogan, 'Luv is GG'.\\nIn January 2016 it was revealed via Facebook that Gein's band Dali Gaggers was reforming in North Carolina by some fans with the intent to carry on Gein's legacy by playing his songs as well as writing new songs in similar fashion. The followup to Gein's album \\\"Just Ad Nauseam\\\"/\\\"Confessions of a Spooky Kid\\\", entitled \\\"Abraxas\\\", is set to be released sometime in late 2016.\",\n \"Marvin Lee Wilson\\nMarvin Lee Wilson (January 5, 1958 – August 7, 2012) was an American murderer who was executed by the State of Texas on August 7, 2012. He entered death row on May 9, 1994, for the murder of a police drug informant who had caught him dealing cocaine. On November 10, 1992, Wilson abducted and shot 21-year-old Jerry Robert Williams following a physical confrontation between the two in the 1500 block of Verone in Beaumont. Wilson then left the body of Williams at a bus stop where it was later found by a bus driver. At the time of the murder, Wilson had two previous convictions for robbery, one of them aggravated.\\nWilson's IQ has been claimed to be measured at 61, which meant that he was legally retarded and thus ineligible for execution according to Atkins v. Virginia - a United States Supreme Court ruling against execution of retarded individuals. However, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit originally ruled in December 2005 that due to his lawyer missing a filing deadline, Wilson is unable to file further appeals in federal court.\\nOn March 10, 2006, the Fifth Circuit court granted Wilson permission to file an appeal. In its opinion, the court wrote, \\\"We are satisfied that these are the sort of rare and extraordinary circumstances that justify\\\" waiving the filing deadline.\\nThe National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty states that \\\"Wilson’s case illustrates one of the many ways the AEDPA Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act has severely limited the ability of death row inmates to have their convictions and sentences reviewed to determine if they are being held contrary to the laws of the Constitution.\\\"\\nHe was imprisoned as Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) inmate #00999098. Wilson was initially located in the Ellis Unit, but was transferred to the Allan B. Polunsky Unit (formerly the Terrell Unit) near Livingston, Texas in 1999. He was executed at Huntsville Unit, Huntsville, Texas.\",\n \"Brad Emaus\\nBradley Mark Emaus (born March 28, 1986) is a former American professional second baseman. Emaus played for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball in 2011.\\nDrafted by the Atlanta Braves in the 18th round of 2004 Major League Baseball draft out of East Coweta High School in Sharpsburg, Georgia, Emaus instead elected to enroll at Tulane University. Playing for the Tulane Green Wave baseball team, he started every game his first two seasons, playing mostly third base and some first base. In 2005, his freshman season, he was named to the All-Conference USA Tournament Team. In his junior season, he continued to play well — albeit displaying less extra base power — at second base, and re-entered the draft, this time being selected by the Toronto Blue Jays in the eleventh round.\\nIn 2009, the Blue Jays had also assigned him to play in the Arizona Fall League. By 2010, Emaus has batted .276 in his minor league career, with a .364 on-base percentage, and a .426 slugging percentage, reaching as high 89 games with the Las Vegas 51s of the AAA Pacific Coast League. As a minor leaguer, he has mostly played second base, with a small amount of time also logged at third.\\nA good performance in Arizona, along with his AAA statistics and a solid showing (.978 OPS) for the Blue Jays in spring training 2010, suggested he was a good candidate to become a major league player, but the Blue Jays did not include him on their 40-man roster, thus exposing him to the Rule 5 Draft. The Mets, thin at second base with the disappointing performance and questionable health of Luis Castillo at second base for them in 2011, chose Emaus in the first round of the draft.\\nComing to the Mets in this manner, Emaus had to remain on their major league 25-man roster for the duration of 2011, or else be offered back to the Blue Jays. Emaus won the Mets second base competition during 2011 Spring Training. He was the Opening Day starter, making his major league debut on April 1. On April 19, the Mets designated Emaus for assignment.\\nOn April 21, 2011, after clearing waivers, Emaus was returned to the Toronto Blue Jays. However, the next day he was traded to the Colorado Rockies for RHP Chris Malone and a player to be named later.\\nOn January 11, 2012, Emaus was traded to the Boston Red Sox for a player to be named later or cash considerations. Less than three months later, on April 4, he was released.\\nHe subsequently signed with the Laredo Lemurs of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball on April 18, 2012.\\nOn April 25, 2012 Emaus signed a minor league contract with the New York Mets to play for the Buffalo Bisons, their AAA affiliate.\\nFollowing his playing career, Emaus opened up 643 Hitting Academy in his residence of Monroe, Louisiana.\",\n \"The Body Snatcher (film)\\nThe Body Snatcher is a 1945 horror film directed by Robert Wise based on the short story \\\"The Body Snatcher\\\" by Robert Louis Stevenson. The film's producer Val Lewton helped adapt the story for the screen, writing under the pen name of \\\"Carlos Keith\\\". The film was marketed with the tagline \\\"The screen's last word in shock sensation!\\\" The frequent mentions of Burke, Hare, and Dr. Knox, all refer to the West Port murders in 1828.\\nIt was the last film to feature both Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi.\\nMrs. Marsh (Rita Corday) visits the house of Dr. Wolfe \\\"Toddy\\\" MacFarlane (Henry Daniell), seeking a cure for her paraplegic daughter Georgina (Sharyn Moffett). MacFarlane suggests surgery for the girl, but insists that he cannot perform the operation himself because his teaching position keeps him too busy. Later that night, MacFarlane's prize student Donald Fettes (Russell Wade) tells the doctor he cannot afford to continue his studies. MacFarlane offers Fettes a job as a lab assistant to help with an experiment he is planning.\\nFettes is awakened in the middle of the night by John Gray (Boris Karloff), a cab driver and graverobber, who has arrived to deliver a corpse to MacFarland to dissect in his one of his classes. Later, MacFarlane and Fettes go to an inn and run into Gray, who threatens to reveals MacFarlane's \\\"dark secret\\\" if he doesn't operate on Georgina. MacFarlane initially agrees, but later tries to renege on his promise. Fettes asks Gray to get another human specimen so that Georgina might have hope of walking again. After visiting Gray, Fettes gives a coin to a blind street singer (Donna Lee). He is shocked when Gray arrives later at the lab with a corpse that resembles the singer.\\nFettes shows MacFarlane the body and accuses Gray of murder. The conversation is overheard by Joseph (Bela Lugosi), MacFarland's other assistant. MacFarlane tells Fettes that he could be arrested as an accomplice and advises him not to notify the police. Georgina recovers from the surgery, but she is still unable to walk. MacFarlane is tortured by his failure, and goes to the inn to drown his sorrows. Gray shows up and torments him about their \\\"secret\\\".\\nJoseph visits Gray and attempts to blackmail him to keep quiet about his body snatching operation. Gray tells Joseph the story of the infamous murderers Burke and Hare, and reveals that they procured bodies for Dr. Knox, MacFarlane's mentor. Gray promises to pay Joseph, but chokes him to death when the other man allows him to get too close. Later, he delivers the body to MacFarlane's lab as a \\\"gift\\\". Meg Camden (Edith Atwater), MacFarlane's housekeeper and secret wife, tells Fettes that Gray admitted to robbing graves during the Burke and Hare trial in order to shield the real perpetrator - MacFarlane. Later, MacFarlane offers Gray money to stop tormenting him. Gray refuses to take the bribe, and vows that the doctor will never be rid of him. Enraged, MacFarlane beats Gray to death.\\nFettes meets with Mrs. Marsh and Georgina. The girl hears horses nearby and stands up to see them; the operation was a success after all. Fettes rushes to tell MacFarlane the good news, but Meg tells him that the doctor has gone to another town to sell Gray's horse and carriage.\\nFettes finds MacFarlane at a tavern. He tells Fettes that he plans to rob a freshly dug grave. Fettes sees no alternative than to assist the doctor, and they load the unearthed corpse onto Gray's carriage. As they drive through a storm, MacFarlane hears Gray taunting him from the back of the carriage. He stops the carriage and orders Fettes to check the body. When he uncovers the body and shines a light on it, MacFarlane sees Gray's corpse. The horses, spooked by the storm, bolt. The carriage breaks loose and falls over a cliff with MacFarlane and the corpse. Fettes looks down at the wreck and sees MacFarlane's corpse, next to that of a woman.\\n\\\"The Body Snatcher\\\" was one of three films that Boris Karloff did with RKO Radio Pictures from 1945 to 1946, which were produced by Val Lewton. The other two films were \\\"Isle of the Dead\\\" and \\\"Bedlam\\\". Karloff, who had achieved stardom with \\\"Frankenstein\\\", left Universal Pictures, feeling that the Frankenstein franchise had run its course. In a 1946 interview with Louis Berg of the \\\"Los Angeles Times\\\", Karloff called \\\"House of Frankenstein\\\" (the last installment of the Frankenstein franchise) a \\\"'monster clambake,' with everything thrown in: Frankenstein, Dracula, a hunchback, and a 'man-beast' that howled in the night. It was too much. Karloff thought it was ridiculous and said so.\\nIn the same interview, Karloff stated that Lewton was \\\"the man who rescued him from the living dead and restored, so to speak, his soul.\\\"\\nThe production of the film took place around the same time as \\\"Isle of the Dead\\\", with Lewton having a role as a screenwriter in both films. Lewton, along with British screenwriter Philip MacDonald, adapted the short story \\\"The Body Snatcher\\\" by Robert Louis Stevenson. Lewton wrote under the pen name \\\"Carlos Keith\\\". Bela Lugosi, who became famous with another Universal classic, \\\"Dracula\\\", also signed a deal with RKO. Lewton and MacDonald eventually wrote a small role for Lugosi; it became the last film Lugosi and Karloff made together.\\nRobert Wise (later best-known for his work in \\\"The Day the Earth Stood Still\\\", \\\"West Side Story\\\", \\\"The Sound of Music\\\", and \\\"The Sand Pebbles\\\") was assigned to direct the film.\\nPrincipal photography of \\\"The Body Snatcher\\\" ran October 25-November 17, 1944. During filming, there was tension between Lewton and executive producer Jack L. Gross. Gross sent Lewton into production of the film with a low budget.\\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 81% based on 16 reviews , with a weighted average rating of 6.8/10.\\nThe film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:\\nThe film was released for the first time on Region 1 DVD in 2005, along with \\\"I Walked with a Zombie\\\", as part of the \\\"Val Lewton Horror Collection\\\".\\n\",\n \"Elmer Brunner\\nElmer David Brunner (died April 3, 1959) was a convicted American murderer and was the last defendant executed by West Virginia.\\nOn May 27, 1957, Ruby Miller was killed with the claw-end of a hammer in Huntington, West Virginia during a burglary of her home. Brunner was arrested and charged with first degree murder. Brunner was convicted in July 1957 and was sentenced to death by electric chair.\\nBrunner's case was appealed twice to the Supreme Court of West Virginia and once to the United States Supreme Court, but all of his appeals were rejected. He was executed on April 3, 1959, by electrocution in \\\"Old Sparky\\\", the electric chair in the West Virginia State Penitentiary in Moundsville, West Virginia.\\nWest Virginia abolished the death penalty in 1965. No one has been executed by West Virginia since Brunner's death.\\n\",\n \"Toby Robertson\\nToby Robertson <a href=\\\"OBE\\\">OBE</a> (29 November 1928, London - 4 July 2012, London) was the artistic director of the <a href=\\\"Prospect%20Theatre%20Company\\\">Prospect Theatre Company</a> from 1964 to 1978. He was recognised as having \\\"re-established the good name and reputation of touring theatre in the UK after it had become a byword for second-rate tattiness in the 1950s\\\".\\nThe son of David Lambert Robertson, a naval officer, and his wife, Felicity Douglas, a playwright, Robertson was educated at <a href=\\\"Stowe%20School\\\">Stowe School</a>, Buckinghamshire, and <a href=\\\"Trinity%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>. Christened Sholto, he became known as \\\"Toby\\\" (he claimed, as a result of reciting \\\"To be, or not to be\\\" from an early age). He did his national service with the East African Rifles.\\nHe appeared in a Marlowe Society production of \\\"Romeo and Juliet\\\" at the <a href=\\\"Phoenix%20Theatre%20%28London%29\\\">Phoenix Theatre</a> in London, in 1952, and with the Elizabethan Players in a \\\"Richard II\\\" in Kidderminster in 1954. He appeared at Stratford-upon-Avon in 1957 in <a href=\\\"Peter%20Brook\\\">Peter Brook</a>'s production of \\\"The Tempest\\\" with <a href=\\\"John%20Gielgud\\\">John Gielgud</a> (whom he also understudied). The following year he made his professional London debut in <a href=\\\"Eugene%20O%27Neill\\\">Eugene O'Neill</a>'s \\\"The Iceman Cometh\\\", directed by <a href=\\\"Peter%20Wood%20%28director%29\\\">Peter Wood</a>, at the Arts theatre.\\nRobertson worked in television between 1959 and 1963, directing more than 25 new plays, several for ITV's \\\"<a href=\\\"Armchair%20Theatre\\\">Armchair Theatre</a>\\\" and the BBC's \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Wednesday%20Play\\\">The Wednesday Play</a>\\\". He also assisted Brook on his 1963 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Lord%20of%20the%20Flies%20%281963%20film%29\\\">Lord of the Flies</a>\\\". In 1962, Robertson directed <a href=\\\"Maxim%20Gorky\\\">Maxim Gorky</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lower%20Depths\\\">The Lower Depths</a>\\\" for the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Shakespeare%20Company\\\">Royal Shakespeare Company</a>.\\nRobertson became involved as a director with the <a href=\\\"Prospect%20Theatre%20Company\\\">Prospect Theatre Company</a>, which was launched at the <a href=\\\"Oxford%20Playhouse\\\">Oxford Playhouse</a> in 1961. When in 1964 the company found a permanent base at the Arts Theatre, Cambridge, Robertson became its artistic director, and annually staged three to four classical plays.\\nProspect pioneered a type of theatre production in which emphasis was placed on quality acting and strikingly designed costumes, while its minimal stage designs enabled the company to easily tour regional theatres. It was with Prospect that <a href=\\\"Ian%20McKellen\\\">Ian McKellen</a> made his breakthrough performances with the company of Richard II (directed by Cottrell) and Marlowe's Edward II (directed by Robertson) at the Edinburgh festival in 1969, the latter causing a storm of protest over the enactment of the homosexual Edward's lurid death. Both those productions subsequently toured Britain and Europe before being staged at the <a href=\\\"Mermaid%20Theatre\\\">Mermaid Theatre</a> in London and breaking box-office records at the <a href=\\\"Piccadilly%20Theatre\\\">Piccadilly Theatre</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Derek%20Jacobi\\\">Derek Jacobi</a> first played Hamlet for Prospect in 1977, a production which when revived in 1979 toured Denmark, Australia and the first-ever Western theatrical tour of China. Other actors whose careers were effectively launched or enhanced by Prospect included <a href=\\\"Prunella%20Scales\\\">Prunella Scales</a>, <a href=\\\"Dorothy%20Tutin\\\">Dorothy Tutin</a> and <a href=\\\"Timothy%20West\\\">Timothy West</a>, and the company mounted critically acclaimed productions of plays by Shakespeare, Chekhov, Dryden, Gogol and John Vanbrugh, as well as Cottrell's adaptation of <a href=\\\"E.M.%20Forster\\\">E.M. Forster</a>'s \\\"A Room with a View\\\".\\nHowever, when Prospect attempted to make the <a href=\\\"Old%20Vic\\\">Old Vic</a> its home from 1977, there were questions whether this contravened the terms of their touring subsidy. Matters of repertoire also became controversial, when a proposed season for late 1979 - which included the double bill of \\\"The Padlock\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Miss%20in%20Her%20Teens\\\">Miss in Her Teens</a>\\\", to mark the bicentenary of <a href=\\\"David%20Garrick\\\">David Garrick</a>'s death, and a revival of \\\"<a href=\\\"What%20the%20Butler%20Saw%20%28play%29\\\">What the Butler Saw</a>\\\" - were vetoed by the Arts Council as unsuitable for touring repertory. An internal report by Prospect then questioned \\\"whether Prospect can any longer satisfy the triple task of filling the Vic, of satisfying the [Arts Council] Director of Touring's requirements for product of a certain familiar sort, and of realising the vision of Toby Robertson\\\". As a result, Robertson was in effect fired from the post of artistic director in 1980 while he was abroad with the company in China. His friendship with Timothy West, his successor as artistic director at the Old Vic, was irreparably soured.\\nRobertson subsequently ran <a href=\\\"Clwyd%20Theatr%20Cymru\\\">Theatr Clwyd</a> in north Wales between 1985 and 1992. Robertson persuaded several leading actors, including <a href=\\\"Vanessa%20Redgrave\\\">Vanessa Redgrave</a>, <a href=\\\"Sir%20Michael%20Hordern\\\">Sir Michael Hordern</a> and <a href=\\\"Timothy%20Dalton\\\">Timothy Dalton</a>, to perform at the theatre.\\nRobertson directed several opera productions. For <a href=\\\"Scottish%20Opera\\\">Scottish Opera</a> he directed \\\"A Midsummer Night’s Dream\\\" (1972), the 1975 world premiere of <a href=\\\"Robin%20Orr\\\">Robin Orr</a>’s \\\"Hermiston\\\", and \\\"Marriage of Figaro\\\" (1977).\",\n \"Robert Knox\\nRobert Knox, {'1': \\\", '2': \\\", '3': '<a href=\\\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">FRSE</a> <a href=\\\"Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20College%20of%20Surgeons%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">FRCSE</a> <a href=\\\"Member%20of%20the%20Wernerian%20Society\\\">MWS</a>', '4': \\\"} (4 September 1793 – 20 December 1862) was a Scottish <a href=\\\"Anatomy\\\">anatomist</a>, <a href=\\\"Zoology\\\">zoologist</a>, <a href=\\\"Ethology\\\">ethnologist</a> and <a href=\\\"Physician\\\">doctor</a>. He was the most popular lecturer on anatomy in Britain, where he introduced the theory of <a href=\\\"transcendental%20anatomy\\\">transcendental anatomy</a>, but is now mainly remembered for his involvement in the <a href=\\\"Burke%20and%20Hare%20murders\\\">Burke and Hare murders</a>. Difficulty in obtaining cadavers for dissection after the passage of the <a href=\\\"Anatomy%20Act%201832\\\">Anatomy Act</a> and disagreements with professional colleagues ruined his career, and a move to London did not improve matters. His later pessimistic view of humanity contrasted sharply with his youthful attachment to the ideas of <a href=\\\"%C3%89tienne%20Geoffroy%20Saint-Hilaire\\\">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a>.\\nKnox devoted the latter part of his life to theorising on evolution and <a href=\\\"ethnology\\\">ethnology</a>. His work on the latter was controversial, and was used to justify the view, shared widely by his contemporaries, that Anglo-Saxons are an innately superior people. This harmed his legacy, and overshadowed his contributions to <a href=\\\"evolutionary%20theory\\\">evolutionary theory</a>.\\nRobert Knox was born in 1793 in Edinburgh's North Richmond Street, the eighth child of Mary (née Scherer) and Robert Knox (d. 1812), a teacher of mathematics and <a href=\\\"natural%20philosophy\\\">natural philosophy</a> at <a href=\\\"Heriot%27s%20Hospital\\\">Heriot's Hospital</a> in Edinburgh. As an infant, he contracted smallpox, which destroyed his left eye and disfigured his face. He was educated at the <a href=\\\"Royal%20High%20School%20%28Edinburgh%29\\\">High School</a>, where he was remembered as a 'bully' who thrashed his contemporaries 'mentally and corporeally'. He won the <a href=\\\"Lord%20Provost\\\">Lord Provost</a>'s gold medal in his final year.\\nIn 1810, he joined medical classes in Edinburgh. He soon became interested in transcendentalism and the work of <a href=\\\"Xavier%20Bichat\\\">Xavier Bichat</a>. He was twice president of the Royal Physical Society, an undergraduate club to which he presented papers on hydrophobia and nosology. The final recorded event of his university years was his just failing the anatomy examination. Knox joined the \\\"extramural\\\" Anatomy class of the famous <a href=\\\"John%20Barclay%20%28anatomist%29\\\">John Barclay</a>. Barclay was an anatomist of the highest distinction, and perhaps the greatest anatomical teacher in Britain at that time. Redoubling his efforts, Knox passed very competently the second time around.\\nKnox graduated Adiya from <a href=\\\"Edinburgh%20University\\\">Edinburgh University</a> in 1814, with a Latin thesis on the effects of narcotics which was published the following year. Knox joined the army and was commissioned Hospital Assistant on 24 June 1815, after having studied for a year under John Abernethy at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. He was sent immediately to Belgium to attend the wounded from Waterloo and returned two weeks later with the first batch of wounded aboard a hospital ship; during the voyage he successfully employed Abernethy's technique of leaving wounds open to the air. His army work at the Brussels military hospital (near Waterloo) impressed upon him the need for a comprehensive training in anatomy if surgery were to be successful. Knox was highly intelligent, critical and irritable. He did not suffer fools gladly and—in an aside with terrible consequences for his future career—he was extremely critical of the surgical work of <a href=\\\"Charles%20Bell\\\">Charles Bell</a> with casualties at the Battle of Waterloo. After a further trip to Belgium he was placed in charge of Hilsea hospital near Portsmouth, where he experimented with non-mercurial cures for syphilis.\\nIn April 1817, he joined the 72nd Highlanders and sailed with them immediately to South Africa. There were few army surgeons in the Cape Colony but Knox found the people healthy and his duties were light. He enjoyed riding, shooting and the beauty of the landscape with which he felt in spiritual harmony—an early expression of his transcendental world view. Knox developed a keen interest in observing racial types, and disapproved of what he saw as the Boers' contempt for the indigenous peoples. However, after an abortive Xhosa rebellion against the colonial forces, he was involved in a retaliatory raid commanded by Andries Stockenström, a magistrate and future Lieutenant Governor. Relations with Stockenström were marred when Knox accused O.G. Stockenström, Andries' brother, of theft, a charge apparently prompted by ill feeling between British and Boer officers. A court martial acquitted O.G. of the charge and Andries called Knox's conduct shameful. One of Stockenström's supporters, a former naval officer named Burdett, challenged Knox to a duel. Knox initially refused to fight, and Burdett 'soundly horse whipped him on the parade before every Officer of the Garrison.' Knox then grabbed a sabre and inflicted a slight wound to Burdett's arm. Knox's promotion to Assistant Surgeon was cancelled and he returned to Britain in disgrace, arriving on Christmas Day 1820. He remained only until the following October, after which he went to Paris to study anatomy for just over a year (1821–22). It was then that he met both <a href=\\\"Georges%20Cuvier\\\">Georges Cuvier</a> and <a href=\\\"%C3%89tienne%20Geoffroy%20Saint-Hilaire\\\">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a>, who were to remain heroes for his entire life, to populate his later medical journalism, and to become the subject of his hagiography, \\\"Great artists and great anatomists\\\". While in Paris he befriended <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hodgkin\\\">Thomas Hodgkin</a>, with whom he shared a dissecting room at \\\"l'Hopital de la Pitié\\\".\\nKnox returned to Edinburgh by Christmas 1822. On 1 December 1823 he was elected a Fellow of the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Society%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>. During these years he communicated a number of well-received papers to the Royal and Wernerian societies of Edinburgh on zoological subjects. Soon after his election he submitted a plan to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh for a Museum of Comparative Anatomy, which was accepted, and on 13 January 1825 he was appointed curator of the museum with a salary of £100.\\nIn 1825, <a href=\\\"John%20Barclay%20%28anatomist%29\\\">John Barclay</a> offered him a partnership at his anatomy school in Surgeon's Square, Edinburgh. In order for his lectures to be recognised by the Edinburgh College of Surgeons, Knox had to be admitted to its fellowship; a formality, but, at £250, an expensive one. At this time most professorships were in the gift of the town council, resulting in such uninspiring teachers as the Professor of Anatomy, <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Monro%20%28tertius%29\\\">Alexander Monro \\\"tertius\\\"</a> who put off many of his students (including the young <a href=\\\"Charles%20Darwin\\\">Charles Darwin</a> who took the course 1825–1827). This created a demand for private tuition, and the flamboyant Knox—in sole charge after Barclay's death in 1826—had more students than all the other private tutors put together.\\nHe turned his sharp wit on the elders and the clergy of the city, satirising religion and delighting his students. Knox routinely referred to the <a href=\\\"Bridgewater%20Treatises\\\">Bridgewater Treatises</a> as the \\\"bilgewater treatises\\\" and his 'continental' lectures were not for the squeamish. <a href=\\\"John%20James%20Audubon\\\">John James Audubon</a>, was in Edinburgh at the time to find subscribers for his \\\"<a href=\\\"Birds%20of%20America%20%28book%29\\\">Birds of America</a>\\\". Shown round the dissecting theatre by Knox, \\\"dressed in an overgown and with bloody fingers\\\", Audubon reported that \\\"The sights were extremely disagreeable, many of them shocking beyond all I ever thought could be. I was glad to leave this charnel house and breathe again the salubrious atmosphere of the streets\\\". Knox's school flourished and he took on three assistants, Alexander Miller, <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Wharton%20Jones\\\">Thomas Wharton Jones</a>, and <a href=\\\"William%20Fergusson%20%28physician%29\\\">William Fergusson</a>.\\nLittle is known of Knox's wife, Susan Knox, whom he married in 1824. According to Knox's friend Henry Lonsdale the marriage was kept secret as she was 'of inferior rank.' During his time in Edinburgh, Knox lived at 4 Newington Place with his sisters Mary and Jessie, while Susan and his 4 children lived at Lilliput Cottage in Trinity, west of <a href=\\\"Leith\\\">Leith</a>. They had seven children, but only two of them survived into adulthood.\\nBefore the <a href=\\\"Anatomy%20Act\\\">Anatomy Act</a> of 1832 widened the supply, the main legal supply of corpses for anatomical purposes in the UK were those condemned to death and <a href=\\\"dissection\\\">dissection</a> by the courts. This led to a chronic shortage of legitimate subjects for dissection, and this shortage became more serious as the need to train medical students grew, and the number of executions fell. In his school Knox ran up against the problem from the start, since—after 1815—the Royal Colleges had increased the anatomical work in the medical curriculum. If he taught according to what was known as 'French method' the ratio would have had to approach one corpse per pupil.\\nAs a consequence, <a href=\\\"body-snatching\\\">body-snatching</a> became so prevalent that it was not unusual for relatives and friends of someone who had just died to watch over the body until burial, and then to keep watch over the grave after burial, to stop it being violated. In November 1827 William Hare began a new career when an indebted lodger died on him by chance. He was paid £7.10s (seven pounds & ten shillings) for delivering the body to Knox's dissecting rooms at Surgeons' Square. Now Burke and his accomplice Hare set about murdering tramps and drunks on a regular basis. After 16 more transactions, in what became known as the West Port Murders, on 2 November 1828 <a href=\\\"Burke%20and%20Hare\\\">Burke and Hare</a> were caught, and the whole city convulsed with titillated horror, fed by ballads, broadsides and newspapers, at the terrible deeds of Burke & Hare. Hare turned <a href=\\\"King%27s%20evidence\\\">King's evidence</a>, and Burke was hanged, dissected and displayed.\\nKnox was not prosecuted, which outraged many in Edinburgh. His house was attacked by a mob of 'the lowest rabble of the Old Town,' and windows were broken. A committee of the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Society%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> exonerated him on the grounds that he had not dealt personally with Burke and Hare, but there was no forgetting his part in the case, and many remained wary of him.\\nAlmost immediately after the Burke and Hare case, the <a href=\\\"Royal%20College%20of%20Surgeons%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh</a> began to harry him, and by June 1831 they had procured his resignation as the Curator of the museum he had proposed and founded. In the same year he was obliged to resign his army commission to avoid further service in the Cape. This removed his last source of guaranteed income, but fortunately his classes were more popular than ever, with a record 504 students. His school moved to the grander premises of Old Surgeons' Hall in 1833 but his class declined after <a href=\\\"Edinburgh%20University\\\">Edinburgh University</a> made its own practical anatomy class compulsory in the mid-1830s. Knox continued to purchase cadavers for his dissection class from such shadowy figures as the 'Black Bull Man,' but the 1832 Anatomy Act made bodies more available to all anatomists, he quarrelled with HM Inspector of Anatomy over the supply of bodies, and his competitive edge was lost. In 1837 Knox applied for the chair in pathology at Edinburgh University but his candidature was blocked by eleven existing professors, who preferred to abolish the post rather than appoint him. In 1842 he was unable to make payments to the Edinburgh funeratory system, from which bodies were supplied to private schools, and he relocated to Glasgow where, still short of subjects for dissection, he closed his school in 1844. In 1847 the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh found him guilty of falsifying a student's certificate of attendance (a not uncommon practice in private schools) and refused to accept any further certificates from him, effectively banning him from teaching in Scotland. In the same year he was expelled from the Royal Society of Edinburgh and had his election retrospectively cancelled.\\nKnox left for London after the death of his wife (the remaining children were left with a nephew). He found it impossible to find a university post, and from then until 1856 he worked on medical journalism, gave public lectures, and wrote several books, including his most ambitious work, \\\"The Races of Men\\\" in which he argued that each race was suited to its environment and \\\"perfect in its own way.\\\" His book about fishing sold best. In 1854 his son Robert died of heart disease; Knox tried for a posting to the Crimea but at 63 was judged too old.\\nIn 1856 he became the pathological anatomist to the <a href=\\\"The%20Royal%20Marsden%20NHS%20Foundation%20Trust\\\">Free Cancer Hospital</a>, London. He joined the medical register at its inception in 1858 and practiced obstetrics in Hackney. On 27 November 1860 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Ethnological Society of London, where he spoke in public for the last time on 1 July 1862. He continued working at the Cancer Hospital until shortly before his death on 20 December 1862, at 9 Lambe Terrace in <a href=\\\"Hackney%2C%20London\\\">Hackney</a>. He was buried at <a href=\\\"Brookwood%20Cemetery\\\">Brookwood Cemetery</a> near <a href=\\\"Woking%2C%20Surrey\\\">Woking, Surrey</a>.\\nKnox's interest in race began as an undergraduate. His relevant political views were radical: he was an abolitionist and anti-colonialist who criticized the Boer as \\\"the cruel oppressor of the dark races.\\\" Knox is generally considered to be a <a href=\\\"Polygenism\\\">polygenist</a>; however, some have argued that he was in fact a <a href=\\\"Monogenism\\\">monogenist</a>, including biographer Alan Bates, who considers such claims to be \\\"exaggerated\\\". In his best-selling work, \\\"The Races of Men\\\" (1850), a \\\"Zoological history\\\" of mankind, Knox exaggerated supposed racial differences in support of his project, asserting that, anatomically and behaviourally, \\\"race, or hereditary descent, is everything\\\". He offered crude characterizations of each racial group: for example the Saxon (in which race he included himself) \\\"invents nothing\\\", \\\"has no musical ear\\\", lacks \\\"genius\\\", and is so \\\"low and boorish\\\" that \\\"he does not know what you mean by fine art\\\". No race was without its redeeming features, however; Knox described Saxons as \\\"[t]houghtful, plodding, industrious beyond all other races, [and] a lover of labour for labour's sake\\\". Such supposed racial characteristics meant that each race was naturally fitted for a particular environment and could not endure outside of it. Ultimately however, all races were \\\"[d]estined ... to run, like all other animals, a certain limited course of existence\\\", it mattering \\\"little how their extinction is brought about\\\". In 1862 Knox took the opportunity of a second edition of \\\"The Races of Men\\\" to defend the \\\"much maligned races\\\" of the Cape against accusations of cannibalism, and to rebuke the Dutch for treating them like \\\"wild beasts\\\".\\nIn his writings Knox synthesized a perspective on nature from three of the most influential natural historians of his time. From Cuvier, he took a consciousness of the great epochs of time, of the fact of extinction, and of the inadequacy of the biblical account. From Étienne Geoffroy St-Hilaire and <a href=\\\"Henri%20Marie%20Ducrotay%20de%20Blainville\\\">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a>, he gained a spatial and thematic perspective on living things. If one had the skill, all living beings could be arranged in their correct placing in a notional table, and one would see both internally and externally the elegant variation of their organs and anatomy according to the principles of connection, unity of composition, and compensation.\\n<a href=\\\"Goethe\\\">Goethe</a> is another crucial addition to the Knoxian way of looking at nature. Goethe thought that there were transcendental archetypes in the living world which could be perceived by genius. If the natural historian were perspicacious enough to examine the creatures in this correct order he could perceive—aesthetically—the archetype that was immanent in the totality of a series, although present in none of them.\\nKnox wrote that he was concerned to prove the existence of a generic animal, \\\"or in other terms, proving hereditary descent to have a relation primarily to genus or natural family\\\". This way, he could lay claim to a stability in the natural order at the level of the genus, but let species be extinguished. Man was a genus; not a species.\\nAccording to Richards, \\\"The Races of Men\\\" advocated \\\"a common material origin of life and its evolution by a process of saltatory descent\\\"; that is to say, new species arose not by gradual change but by sudden leaps due to shifts in embryonic development. Knox tentatively concluded that \\\"simple animals ... may have produced by continuous generation the more complex animals of after ages . . . the fish of the early world may have produced reptiles, then again birds and quadrupeds; lastly, man himself?\\\" Newly formed species survived or perished according to external conditions, which acted as \\\"potent checks to an infinite variety of forms\\\". For one contemporary reviewer, his claim that \\\"Species is the product of external circumstances, acting through millions of years\\\" was \\\"bold, disgusting, and gratuitous atheism.\\\" In modern terms, he proposed a theory of saltatory evolution, in which \\\"deformations\\\" in embryonic development produced \\\"hopeful monsters\\\" that, if fortuitously suited to the prevailing environmental conditions, gave rise to new species in a single, <a href=\\\"macroevolution\\\">macroevolution</a>ary leap. In 1857 he wrote: \\\"The conversion of one of these species into another cannot be so difficult a matter with Nature, especially when all or most of the specific characters are already present in the young. Thus a given species may perish, but another of the same consanguinité takes its place in space: it is a question of time... Thus parenté extends from species to genus and from genus to class and order, in characters not to be misunderstood.\\\"\",\n \"Ralph Bell\\nRalph Albert \\\"Lefty\\\" Bell (November 6, 1890 – October 18, 1959) was a <a href=\\\"professional%20baseball\\\">professional baseball</a> <a href=\\\"pitcher\\\">pitcher</a> from 1909 to 1916. He appeared in three <a href=\\\"Major%20League%20Baseball\\\">Major League Baseball</a> games for the <a href=\\\"Chicago%20White%20Sox\\\">Chicago White Sox</a> in 1912. Bell was 5 feet, 11 inches tall and weighed 170 pounds.\\nBell was born in <a href=\\\"Kahoka%2C%20Missouri\\\">Kahoka, Missouri</a>, in 1890. He started his professional baseball career in 1909. That season, he pitched for two minor league teams and won nine games for each. He was then purchased by the <a href=\\\"National%20League\\\">National League</a>'s <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Giants%20%28NL%29\\\">New York Giants</a> and went to spring training with them in early 1910, but he was unable to make the team for the regular season. Instead, Bell spent the 1910 season with the <a href=\\\"Western%20Association\\\">Western Association</a>'s <a href=\\\"Joplin%20Miners\\\">Joplin Miners</a>. In 33 games for Joplin, he went 21-7 and led the league in wins. The Miners finished the season in first place with a record of 90-34 and is considered one of the greatest minor league teams of all-time.\\nThe following season, Bell pitched for the <a href=\\\"Central%20Association\\\">Central Association</a>'s Burlington Pathfinders and won 21 games again. After starting 1912 with a record of 12-8, he was purchased by the Chicago White Sox of the <a href=\\\"American%20League\\\">American League</a>. He made three relief appearances for the White Sox in July and allowed six earned runs in six innings. He then returned to the minors. In 1913, while playing for the <a href=\\\"Northern%20League%20%28baseball%2C%201902%E2%80%9371%29\\\">Northern League</a>'s Winona Pirates, Bell set a career-high in wins, with 28. No other pitcher in the league had more than 20. He played for Winona again in 1914 and won 15. He then joined the Northern League's Fargo-Moorhead Graingrowers, and in 1915 he went 22-13 to lead his league in wins for the third and final time.\\nBell's professional baseball career ended after the 1916 season. Overall, he went 156-90 in the minor leagues for a career .634 <a href=\\\"winning%20percentage\\\">winning percentage</a>. Bell died in <a href=\\\"Burlington%2C%20Iowa\\\">Burlington, Iowa</a>, in 1959.\",\n \"CBS Radio Mystery Theater\\nCBS Radio Mystery Theater (a.k.a. Radio Mystery Theater and Mystery Theater, sometimes abbreviated as CBSRMT) was a <a href=\\\"radio%20drama\\\">radio drama</a> series created by <a href=\\\"Himan%20Brown\\\">Himan Brown</a> that was broadcast on <a href=\\\"CBS%20Radio%20Network\\\">CBS Radio Network</a> affiliates from 1974 to 1982, and later in the early 2000s was carried by the <a href=\\\"NPR\\\">NPR</a> satellite feed.\\nThe format was similar to that of classic <a href=\\\"old%20time%20radio\\\">old time radio</a> shows like \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Mysterious%20Traveler\\\">The Mysterious Traveler</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Whistler\\\">The Whistler</a>\\\", in that the episodes were introduced by a host (<a href=\\\"E.%20G.%20Marshall\\\">E. G. Marshall</a>) who provided pithy wisdom and commentary throughout. Unlike the hosts of those earlier programs, Marshall is fully mortal, merely someone whose heightened insight and erudition plunge the listener into the world of the macabre (in a manner similar to that of \\\"The Man in Black\\\" on yet another old time radio program, \\\"<a href=\\\"Suspense%20%28radio%20drama%29\\\">Suspense</a>\\\").\\nAs with Himan Brown's prior \\\"<a href=\\\"Inner%20Sanctum%20Mysteries\\\">Inner Sanctum Mysteries</a>\\\", each episode of \\\"CBS Radio Mystery Theater\\\" opened and closed with the ominous sound of a creaking crypt door, accompanied by Marshall's disturbing utterance, \\\"Come in!… Welcome. I'm E. G. Marshall.\\\" This was followed by one of Marshall's other <a href=\\\"catchphrase\\\">catchphrase</a>s, usually either \\\"The sound of suspense\\\" or \\\"The fear you can hear.\\\" At the conclusion, the door would swing shut, preceded by Marshall's classic sign off, \\\"Until next time, pleasant… dreams?\\\" Marshall hosted the program from January 1974 until February 1982, when actress <a href=\\\"Tammy%20Grimes\\\">Tammy Grimes</a> took over for the series' last season, maintaining the format.\\n\\\"CBSRMT\\\" was broadcast each weeknight, at first with a new program each night. Later in the run\\nthree or four episodes were new originals each week, and the remainder repeats. There were 1,399 original episodes. The total number of broadcasts, including reruns, was 2,969. Each episode was allotted a full hour of airtime, but after commercials and news, episodes typically ran for about 45 minutes.\\nIn repeats of the show broadcast in the early 2000s, Himan Brown replaced E.G. Marshall's original host segments.\\nThe program was pitched, at least initially, to an audience old enough to remember classic radio; Brown was a legend amongst radio drama enthusiasts for his work on \\\"<a href=\\\"Inner%20Sanctum%20Mysteries\\\">Inner Sanctum Mysteries</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Adventures%20of%20Nero%20Wolfe\\\">The Adventures of Nero Wolfe</a>\\\" and other shows dating back to the 1930s. Even young characters in early episodes of CBSRMT tended to have names popular a generation earlier, such as Jack, George, Phyllis and Mary. Many scripts, especially those by Ian Martin, showed a tin ear for 1970s youth slang (\\\"Don't let her give you no run-around, dad!\\\"; \\\"I think bein' around here's gonna be kicks!\\\"; \\\"I dig a man who's far out!\\\"). As late as 1981, Sam Dann's scripts included nervous or skeptical references to \\\"<a href=\\\"feminist%20movement\\\">women's lib</a>\\\", a term that was by then a decade out of date. In short, Brown made no attempt to broaden the program's appeal beyond the generation that had been raised on radio.\\nThe debut of \\\"CBSRMT\\\", only a few months after the \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Graffiti\\\">American Graffiti</a>\\\" phenomenon, coincided with the 1950s nostalgia fad that swept young America between 1972 and 1978. The program quickly developed a fan base among young listeners in addition to its target audience.\\nEach show began with Host E. G. Marshall intoning, \\\"The \\\"CBS Radio Mystery Theater\\\" presents…\\\", followed by the sound of a creaking door slowly opening, seeming to invite listeners in for the evening's adventure. Three descending notes from the double basses introduced Marshall's sinister intonation, \\\"Come in… Welcome.\\\" A stopped <a href=\\\"French%20horn\\\">horn</a> sting and timpani roll, then: \\\"I'm E.G. Marshall.\\\" A low, eerie theme played by the <a href=\\\"bass%20clarinet\\\">bass clarinet</a> followed as Marshall introduced the program. At the end of each show, Marshall delivered his classic signoff, \\\"… inviting you to return to our \\\"Mystery Theater\\\" for another adventure in the macabre. Until next time, pleasant…dreams?\\\" The door then creaked and slammed shut, followed by a repeat of the show's ominous theme music.\\nThe opening and closing themes for \\\"CBSRMT\\\" are derived from an abbreviated form of the music from the classic \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Twilight%20Zone%20%281959%20TV%20series%29\\\">Twilight Zone</a>\\\" episode \\\"Two\\\", composed by <a href=\\\"Nathan%20Van%20Cleave\\\">Nathan Van Cleave</a>. Series listeners will immediately recognize the \\\"RMT Theme\\\" beginning about 1:35 on the \\\"Two\\\" soundtrack selection from the \\\"Twilight Zone\\\" CD boxed set. Other background tracks from the \\\"Twilight Zone\\\" music library, to which CBS owned full rights, were featured repeatedly in episodes of \\\"CBSRMT\\\". The theme song and the other music was also previously used in the 1950s and 1960s in other CBS-owned radio and television dramas (\\\"<a href=\\\"Perry%20Mason%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Perry Mason</a>\\\"; \\\"<a href=\\\"Rawhide%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Rawhide</a>\\\"; \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Fugitive%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">The Fugitive</a>\\\"; \\\"<a href=\\\"Gunsmoke\\\">Gunsmoke</a>\\\"; \\\"<a href=\\\"Have%20Gun%20Will%20Travel\\\">Have Gun Will Travel</a>\\\"; \\\"<a href=\\\"Suspense%20%28radio%20drama%29\\\">Suspense</a>\\\"; \\\"<a href=\\\"Yours%20Truly%2C%20Johnny%20Dollar\\\">Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar</a>\\\"; etc.), in addition to \\\"Twilight Zone\\\", as it was all owned by CBS.\\nDespite the show's title, Brown expanded its scope beyond <a href=\\\"Mystery%20fiction\\\">mysteries</a> to include <a href=\\\"horror%20fiction\\\">horror</a>, <a href=\\\"science%20fiction\\\">science fiction</a>, <a href=\\\"historical%20fiction\\\">historical drama</a>, <a href=\\\"Western%20%28genre%29\\\">westerns</a> and <a href=\\\"comedy\\\">comedy</a>, along with seasonal dramas at Christmas: \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Christmas%20Carol\\\">A Christmas Carol</a>\\\", starring host Marshall as Scrooge, aired every Christmas Eve except 1974 and 1982.\\nIn addition to original stories, there were adaptations of classic tales by such writers as <a href=\\\"O.%20Henry\\\">O. Henry</a>, <a href=\\\"Ambrose%20Bierce\\\">Ambrose Bierce</a>, <a href=\\\"Algernon%20Blackwood\\\">Algernon Blackwood</a>, <a href=\\\"Wilkie%20Collins\\\">Wilkie Collins</a>, <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\\\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>, <a href=\\\"Charles%20Dickens\\\">Charles Dickens</a>, <a href=\\\"H.%20Rider%20Haggard\\\">H. Rider Haggard</a>, <a href=\\\"Oscar%20Wilde\\\">Oscar Wilde</a> and others. Brown typically devoted the first full week of each January to a five- or seven-part series on a common theme. These included a full week of stories by an American writer, (<a href=\\\"Edgar%20Allan%20Poe\\\">Edgar Allan Poe</a> in 1975, <a href=\\\"Mark%20Twain\\\">Mark Twain</a> in 1976); week-long adaptations of classic novels (\\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Last%20Days%20of%20Pompeii\\\">The Last Days of Pompeii</a>\\\" in 1980, \\\"<a href=\\\"Les%20Miserables\\\">Les Miserables</a>\\\" in 1982); and original dramas about historical figures (<a href=\\\"Nefertiti\\\">Nefertiti</a> in 1979, <a href=\\\"Alexander%20the%20Great\\\">Alexander the Great</a> in 1981).\\nRadio historian <a href=\\\"John%20Dunning%20%28writer%29\\\">John Dunning</a> argued the \\\"CBSRMT\\\" scripts varied widely in quality and concept. Many of the hour-long scripts were padded with filler, Dunning suggested, and could have been worked better as 30-minute programs, while other episodes suffered due to having been written by scribes unfamiliar with the unique needs of radio drama.\\nProminent actors from radio and screen performed on the series. Notable regulars included <a href=\\\"Mason%20Adams\\\">Mason Adams</a>, <a href=\\\"Kevin%20McCarthy%20%28radio%29\\\">Kevin McCarthy</a>, <a href=\\\"Arnold%20Moss\\\">Arnold Moss</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Beal%20%28actor%29\\\">John Beal</a>, <a href=\\\"Howard%20Da%20Silva\\\">Howard Da Silva</a>, <a href=\\\"Keir%20Dullea\\\">Keir Dullea</a>, <a href=\\\"Morgan%20Fairchild\\\">Morgan Fairchild</a>, <a href=\\\"Veleka%20Gray\\\">Veleka Gray</a>, <a href=\\\"Jack%20Grimes%20%28actor%29\\\">Jack Grimes</a>, <a href=\\\"Fred%20Gwynne\\\">Fred Gwynne</a>, <a href=\\\"Larry%20Haines\\\">Larry Haines</a>, <a href=\\\"Paul%20Hecht\\\">Paul Hecht</a>, <a href=\\\"Celeste%20Holm\\\">Celeste Holm</a>, <a href=\\\"Kim%20Hunter\\\">Kim Hunter</a>, <a href=\\\"Mercedes%20McCambridge\\\">Mercedes McCambridge</a>, <a href=\\\"Tony%20Roberts%20%28actor%29\\\">Tony Roberts</a>, <a href=\\\"Norman%20Rose\\\">Norman Rose</a>, <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Scourby\\\">Alexander Scourby</a>, <a href=\\\"Marian%20Seldes\\\">Marian Seldes</a> and <a href=\\\"Kristoffer%20Tabori\\\">Kristoffer Tabori</a>, and a then-unknown <a href=\\\"John%20Lithgow\\\">John Lithgow</a>.\\nThe series also introduced a new generation of listeners to many of the great old time radio voices, including such distinctive performers as <a href=\\\"Joan%20Banks\\\">Joan Banks</a>, <a href=\\\"Jackson%20Beck\\\">Jackson Beck</a>, Ralph Bell, Roger DeKoven, Robert Dryden (who was heard in more than 240 episodes), <a href=\\\"Sam%20Edwards\\\">Sam Edwards</a>, <a href=\\\"Virginia%20Gregg\\\">Virginia Gregg</a>, Leon Janney, <a href=\\\"Victor%20Jory\\\">Victor Jory</a>, Evelyn \\\"Evie\\\" Juster, Mandel Kramer, <a href=\\\"Roberta%20Maxwell\\\">Roberta Maxwell</a>, <a href=\\\"Marvin%20Miller%20%28actor%29\\\">Marvin Miller</a>, <a href=\\\"Santos%20Ortega\\\">Santos Ortega</a>, Bryna Raeburn, <a href=\\\"William%20Redfield%20%28actor%29\\\">William Redfield</a>, <a href=\\\"Alan%20Reed\\\">Alan Reed</a>, <a href=\\\"Rosemary%20Rice\\\">Rosemary Rice</a>, Anne Seymour, Ann Sheppard, <a href=\\\"Les%20Tremayne\\\">Les Tremayne</a>, <a href=\\\"Lurene%20Tuttle\\\">Lurene Tuttle</a> and <a href=\\\"Janet%20Waldo\\\">Janet Waldo</a>.\\nA number of well-known veteran and future stars made guest appearances, including\\nActors were paid union scale at around $73.92 per show. Writers earned a flat rate of $350 per show. Production took place with assembly-line precision. Brown met with actors at 9:00 a.m. for the first script reading. After he assigned roles, recording began. By noon, the recording of the actors was complete, and Brown handed everyone checks. Post-production was done in the afternoon. The program was taped at the CBS Studio Building, 49 East 52nd Street in Studio G. Formerly Studio 27, renamed in honor of Arthur Godfrey whose programs originated in the building for decades.\\nBelow are lists of episodes for each of the nine seasons of CBS Radio Mystery Theater.\\nIn 1974, \\\"CBSRMT\\\" won a <a href=\\\"Peabody%20Award\\\">Peabody Award</a>, and in 1990 it was inducted into the <a href=\\\"National%20Radio%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">National Radio Hall of Fame</a>. On May 6, 1979, Himan Brown was presented a Broadcast Preceptor Award by <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco%20State%20University\\\">San Francisco State University</a> for his contributions with the \\\"CBSRMT\\\".\\nFrom June 3 to November 27, 1998, \\\"CBSRMT\\\" was rebroadcast over CBS affiliates and, in 2000, on some <a href=\\\"NPR\\\">NPR</a> stations, in both cases with Himan Brown replacing the narration portions of E. G. Marshall.\\n\\\"CBSRMT\\\" remains perennially popular with collectors to this day, with numerous websites, discussion forums and a <a href=\\\"Usenet\\\">Usenet</a> newsgroup devoted to trading <a href=\\\"MP3\\\">MP3</a> files of episodes. Some programs were taped with news and commercials embedded, providing an insight into the period when the show first aired. While some may judge \\\"CBSRMT\\\" as inferior to similar shows from the past such as \\\"Inner Sanctum Mysteries\\\", \\\"The Mysterious Traveler\\\", and \\\"Suspense\\\", which were produced in a 30-minute format, such comparisons must take into account the sheer prodigiousness of production by Brown and his players. At the rate of one show per day, it would take nearly four years to listen to each of the 1,399 hour-long episodes of \\\"CBSRMT\\\".\\nThe episode \\\"Children of Death\\\", broadcast February 5, 1976, written by Sam Dann, served as the basis for Dann's 1979 novel \\\"The Third Body\\\", published by Popular Library. Another of his stories for \\\"Mystery Theater\\\", \\\"Goodbye Carl Erich\\\" from the 1975 season, was also turned into a novel by the same name, first published in 1985.\\nIn 1976, a paperback anthology with three short stories adapted from the series' radio scripts was published by Pocket Library, \\\"Strange Tales from the CBS Radio Mystery Theater\\\", edited and with a <a href=\\\"foreword\\\">foreword</a> by Himan Brown.\\nIn January 1999, McFarland & Company, Inc. published \\\"The CBS Radio Mystery Theater\\\", a book documenting the history of the program, including an episode guide. Fully indexed, the 475-page book was authored by Gordon Payton and <a href=\\\"Martin%20Grams%2C%20Jr.\\\">Martin Grams, Jr.</a> It was published in both hardcover and trade paperback.\\nIn October 2006, Stahl Consolidated Manufacturing Corporation published a third book about \\\"Mystery Theater\\\", examining the series' value today in education and instruction, \\\"The CBS Radio Mystery Theater As An Educational Degree\\\", authored by Michael Anthony Stahl of Huntsville, AL. 180 pages, the hardcover was also selected for inclusion into the libraries of The <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Georgia\\\">University of Georgia</a>,(one of the few venues with a complete collection of the series from the CBS vaults) as well as included into their Walter J. Brown Media Archives and Peabody Awards Collection of the Film and Television Library in Summer, 2009.\\nAll three books were reviewed in an article by Roger Sobin in \\\"Old-Time Detection Magazine\\\" in the Spring 2008 issue.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Sears%20Radio%20Theater\\\">Sears Radio Theater</a>\\\", an hour-long weekday anthology series on CBS Radio which followed \\\"CBSRMT\\\" during much of its run before it moved to the <a href=\\\"Mutual%20Broadcasting%20System\\\">Mutual Broadcasting System</a>.\",\n \"Val Lewton\\nVal Lewton (May 7, 1904 – March 14, 1951) was a Russian-American novelist, film producer and screenwriter best known for a string of low-budget horror films he produced for <a href=\\\"RKO%20Pictures\\\">RKO Pictures</a> in the 1940s. His son, also named <a href=\\\"Val%20Lewton%20%28visual%20artist%29\\\">Val Lewton</a>, was a painter and exhibition designer.\\nLewton was born Vladimir Ivanovich Leventon (<a href=\\\"Russian%20language\\\">Russian</a>: Владимир Иванович Левентон , <a href=\\\"Ukrainian%20language\\\">Ukrainian</a>: Володимир Іванович Левентон ) in <a href=\\\"Yalta\\\">Yalta</a>, <a href=\\\"Imperial%20Russia\\\">Imperial Russia</a> (now in <a href=\\\"Ukraine\\\">Ukraine</a>), in 1904. He was of <a href=\\\"Jewish\\\">Jewish</a> descent, the son of moneylender Max Hofschneider and Nina Leventon, a pharmacist's daughter. The family converted to Christianity.\\nHe was nephew of actress <a href=\\\"Alla%20Nazimova\\\">Alla Nazimova</a>.\\nHis mother left his father and moved to Berlin, taking her children with her. In 1909, they emigrated to the United States, where his name was changed to Val Lewton. He was raised in suburban <a href=\\\"Port%20Chester%2C%20New%20York\\\">Port Chester, New York</a>.\\nIn 1920, when Lewton was 16, he lost his job as a society reporter for the \\\"<a href=\\\"Darien%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Darien</a>-<a href=\\\"Stamford%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Stamford</a> Review\\\" after it was discovered that a story he wrote about a truckload of kosher chickens dying in a New York heat wave was a total fabrication. He went on to study journalism at <a href=\\\"Columbia%20University\\\">Columbia University</a> and authored eighteen works of nonfiction, fiction, and poetry.\\nIn 1932, he wrote the best-selling pulp novel \\\"No Bed of Her Own\\\", which was later used for the film \\\"<a href=\\\"No%20Man%20of%20Her%20Own%20%281932%20film%29\\\">No Man of Her Own</a>\\\", with <a href=\\\"Clark%20Gable\\\">Clark Gable</a> and <a href=\\\"Carole%20Lombard\\\">Carole Lombard</a>.\\nLewton worked as a writer for the New York City <a href=\\\"MGM\\\">MGM</a> in Alice Roberts publicity office, providing novelizations of popular movies for serialization in magazines, which were sometimes later collected into book form. He also wrote promotional copy. He quit this position after the success of his 1932 novel \\\"No Bed of Her Own\\\", but when three later novels that same year failed to succeed as well, he journeyed to Hollywood for a job writing a screen treatment of <a href=\\\"Gogol\\\">Gogol</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Taras%20Bulba\\\">Taras Bulba</a>\\\" for <a href=\\\"David%20O.%20Selznick\\\">David O. Selznick</a>. The connection for this job came through Lewton's mother, Nina.\\nThough a film of \\\"Taras Bulba\\\" did not follow, Lewton was hired by MGM to work as a publicist and assistant to Selznick. His first screen credit was \\\"revolutionary sequences arranged by\\\" in <a href=\\\"David%20O.%20Selznick\\\">David O. Selznick</a>'s 1935 version of \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Tale%20of%20Two%20Cities%20%281935%20film%29\\\">A Tale of Two Cities</a>\\\". Lewton also worked as an uncredited writer for Selznick's \\\"<a href=\\\"Gone%20with%20the%20Wind%20%28film%29\\\">Gone with the Wind</a>\\\", including writing the scene where the camera pulls back to reveal hundreds of wounded soldiers at the Atlanta depot. Lewton also worked for Selznick as a story editor, a scout for discovering literary properties for Selznick's studio, and a go-between with the Hollywood censorship system.\\nOn the documentary \\\"The Making of Gone With the Wind\\\", Lewton is described by another Selznick employee as warning that \\\"Gone With the Wind\\\" was unfilmable and that Selznick would be making \\\"the mistake of his life\\\" trying to make a successful movie of it.\\nIn 1942, Lewton was named head of the horror unit at <a href=\\\"RKO\\\">RKO</a> studios at a salary of US$250 per week. He would have to follow three rules: each film had to come in under a US$150,000 budget, each was to run under 75 minutes, and Lewton's supervisors would supply the film titles.\\nLewton's first production was \\\"<a href=\\\"Cat%20People%20%281942%20film%29\\\">Cat People</a>\\\", released in 1942. The film was directed by <a href=\\\"Jacques%20Tourneur\\\">Jacques Tourneur</a>, who subsequently also directed \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Walked%20With%20a%20Zombie\\\">I Walked With a Zombie</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Leopard%20Man\\\">The Leopard Man</a>\\\" for Lewton. Made for US$134,000, the film went on to earn nearly US$4 million and was the top moneymaker for RKO that year. This success enabled Lewton to make his next films with relatively little studio interference, allowing him to fulfill his vision despite the sensationalistic film titles he was given, focusing on ominous suggestion and themes of <a href=\\\"existential\\\">existential</a> ambivalence.\\nLewton always wrote the final draft of the screenplays for his films, but avoided on-screen co-writing credits except in two cases, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Body%20Snatcher%20%28film%29\\\">The Body Snatcher</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Bedlam%20%28film%29\\\">Bedlam</a>\\\", for which he used the pseudonym \\\"Carlos Keith,\\\" which he had previously used for the novels, \\\"4 Wives,\\\" \\\"A Laughing Woman,\\\"This Fool, Passion,\\\" and \\\"Where the Cobra Sings\\\". After RKO promoted Tourneur to A-films, Lewton gave first directing opportunities to <a href=\\\"Robert%20Wise\\\">Robert Wise</a> and <a href=\\\"Mark%20Robson\\\">Mark Robson</a>.\\nBetween 1945 and 1946, <a href=\\\"Boris%20Karloff\\\">Boris Karloff</a> appeared in three films for RKO produced by Lewton: \\\"<a href=\\\"Isle%20of%20the%20Dead%20%28film%29\\\">Isle of the Dead</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Body%20Snatcher%20%28film%29\\\">The Body Snatcher</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Bedlam%20%28film%29\\\">Bedlam</a>\\\". In a 1946 interview with Louis Berg of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\\\">Los Angeles Times</a>\\\", Karloff credited Lewton with saving him from what Karloff saw as the overextended Frankenstein franchise at <a href=\\\"Universal%20Pictures\\\">Universal Pictures</a>. Berg wrote, \\\"Mr. Karloff has great love and respect for Mr. Lewton as the man who rescued him from the living dead and restored, so to speak, his soul.\\\"\\nWhen RKO head and Lewton supporter Charles Koerner died in 1946, the studio went through personnel and management upheavals, ultimately leaving Lewton unemployed and in ill health after suffering a minor heart attack. Through connections, he rewrote an unused screenplay based upon the life of <a href=\\\"Lucrezia%20Borgia\\\">Lucrezia Borgia</a>. Actress <a href=\\\"Paulette%20Goddard\\\">Paulette Goddard</a> at <a href=\\\"Paramount%20Studios\\\">Paramount Studios</a> particularly liked Lewton's treatment, and in exchange for the script Lewton was given employment through July 1948. (The Goddard film \\\"<a href=\\\"Bride%20of%20Vengeance\\\">Bride of Vengeance</a>\\\", heavily rewritten, was released in 1949.) While at Paramount, Lewton also produced the film \\\"My Own True Love\\\", released in 1949.\\nFollowing his association with Paramount, Lewton worked again for MGM, where he produced the <a href=\\\"Deborah%20Kerr\\\">Deborah Kerr</a> film \\\"Please Believe Me\\\", released in 1950. During this time, Lewton attempted to start an independent production company with former protégés Wise and Robson, but when a disagreement over which property to produce first arose, Lewton was kicked out. Lewton spent time at home working on a screenplay about the famous <a href=\\\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\\\">American Revolutionary War</a> battles at <a href=\\\"Fort%20Ticonderoga\\\">Fort Ticonderoga</a>. <a href=\\\"Universal%20Studios\\\">Universal Studios</a> made an offer on the work, and though the screenplay was not used, Lewton was given producer duties on the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Apache%20Drums\\\">Apache Drums</a>\\\", released in 1951. This film is usually considered the film most like Lewton's earlier RKO horror films.\\nHollywood producer <a href=\\\"Stanley%20Kramer\\\">Stanley Kramer</a> tendered an offer to Lewton to work as an assistant producing a series of films at <a href=\\\"Columbia%20Studios\\\">Columbia Studios</a>. Lewton resigned at Universal and began preparation to work on the film \\\"<a href=\\\"My%20Six%20Convicts\\\">My Six Convicts</a>\\\", but after suffering gallstone problems, he had the first of two heart attacks which weakened him such that he died at <a href=\\\"Cedars-Sinai%20Medical%20Center\\\">Cedars-Sinai Medical Center</a> in 1951 at the age of forty-six. The following year, <a href=\\\"Kirk%20Douglas\\\">Kirk Douglas</a> appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Bad%20and%20the%20Beautiful\\\">The Bad and the Beautiful</a>\\\"; his character was partly based on Lewton.\\nA number of books and two documentaries on Lewton have been produced. A documentary film, \\\"\\\", was released in 2007.\\nIn May of 2017, \\\"<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.secrethistoryofhollywood.com\\\">The Secret History Of Hollywood</a>\\\", a podcast biopic series, began an eleven part season on his life and work featuring <a href=\\\"Mark%20Gatiss\\\">Mark Gatiss</a>.\\nEdmund G. Bansak. \\\"Fearing the Dark: The Val Lewton Career\\\". Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1995.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Edward Theodore Gein ( ; August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984), also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, was an American murderer and body snatcher. His crimes, committed around his hometown of Plainfield, Wisconsin, gathered widespread notoriety after authorities discovered that Gein had exhumed corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies and keepsakes from their bones and skin. Gein confessed to killing two women – tavern owner Mary Hogan in 1954, and a Plainfield hardware store owner, Bernice Worden in 1957. Gein was initially found unfit to stand trial and confined to a mental health facility. In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden, and was remanded to psychiatric institutions. He died at Mendota Mental Health Institute of cancer-induced liver and respiratory failure at age 77 on July 26, 1984. He is buried next to his family in the Plainfield Cemetery, in a now-unmarked grave.","Bradley Mark \"Brad\" Stewart (September 11, 1969 – October 8, 2008), known by his stage name Gidget Gein, was an American musician and artist. He was the second bassist and co-founder of the alternative metal band Marilyn Manson. His stage name references and dichotomies serial killer Ed Gein and the fictional 1960s surfer girl Gidget."],"string":"[\n \"Edward Theodore Gein ( ; August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984), also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, was an American murderer and body snatcher. His crimes, committed around his hometown of Plainfield, Wisconsin, gathered widespread notoriety after authorities discovered that Gein had exhumed corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies and keepsakes from their bones and skin. Gein confessed to killing two women – tavern owner Mary Hogan in 1954, and a Plainfield hardware store owner, Bernice Worden in 1957. Gein was initially found unfit to stand trial and confined to a mental health facility. In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden, and was remanded to psychiatric institutions. He died at Mendota Mental Health Institute of cancer-induced liver and respiratory failure at age 77 on July 26, 1984. He is buried next to his family in the Plainfield Cemetery, in a now-unmarked grave.\",\n \"Bradley Mark \\\"Brad\\\" Stewart (September 11, 1969 – October 8, 2008), known by his stage name Gidget Gein, was an American musician and artist. He was the second bassist and co-founder of the alternative metal band Marilyn Manson. His stage name references and dichotomies serial killer Ed Gein and the fictional 1960s surfer girl Gidget.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":60,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The star of In Secret who also appeared in Inside Llewyn Davis was born in what year?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1979"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Llewyn Davis (character)\nLlewyn Davis is a fictional character, the main protagonist and anti-hero from the film \"Inside Llewyn Davis\". He is a young, struggling folk singer trying to become more famous and financially successful after the flop of his debut album, \"Inside Llewyn Davis\".\nWhen creating the character of Llewyn Davis, Joel Coen summed up the idea as \"suppose Dave Van Ronk gets beat up outside of Gerde's Folk City. That's the beginning of a movie.\" The Coen Brothers used \"Van Ronk’s posthumous memoir, The Mayor of MacDougal Street\" as an influence for the screenplay and Llewyn Davis' journey. The album cover and title of \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" is also directly inspired by Dave Van Ronk's album \"Inside Dave Van Ronk\". In describing how Isaac was cast, Robert Christgau writes that \"The Coens... emphasize that Van Ronk's story was only the seed of a fiction, and were pleased to cast Isaac in the title role partly because he's so unlike Van Ronk physically.\"\nIn his high school days, Isaac was previously involved in two punk bands and lived a straight-edge lifestyle. Grammy winning producer T-Bone Burnett, who worked with the Coen brothers on \"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\" said of Isaac, \"I haven't worked with an actor who could play and sing this style of music this well,\" admits Burnett. \"You can't do it with bluster; you have to do it with the rawest honesty you can.\" Isaac also developed a style of finger-picking that Burnett explains is \"a little bit like patting your head and rubbing someone else's stomach — in another country.\" Isaac described his audition process thus: \"I first auditioned for the casting director, did a few scenes. Then I went home and recorded myself playing \"Hang Me.\" That got sent to the Coens. Then I came in and auditioned for them, learned a few extra songs just in case. They sent that over to T Bone. And T Bone said, [invoking a famous line from \"The Producers\"] 'I think we've found our Hitler!'\" Oscar Isaac \"was the opposite of what [the Coen brothers] had initially been looking for: a classically trained actor. But he could also sing and play guitar.\" In an interview with Rolling Stone, Isaac further noted, \"Well, I knew that it was loosely based on Dave Van Ronk [and his memoir The Mayor of MacDougal Street], and he was like a six-foot-five, 250 pound Swede. So I came in, and out of the corner of my eye I saw a photograph of a very well-known musician – and I was encouraged because it was a guy who was a little smaller and a dark haired and had a beard. I was like, \"So you guys have that picture as kind of a reference?\" And they're like, \"Oh yeah. He came in. He killed it.\" The blood just drained out of my face. But then I did the audition and it went well and they called me back.\" He also describes being influenced by Erik Franzen, an old friend of Dave Van Ronk's, who Davis says \"started teaching me this Travis-style picking, which I was not aware of – didn't know how to do it. It's this crazy syncopation. We'd play and I paid him for lessons and then we started playing in the Village. I opened for him a couple times at these open mics. He was like a trainer – the last day before the audition I played for him and then he looked at me and goes \"I see the big guy behind you giving the thumb's up.\"\nOscar Isaac described his character as \"such an internal guy...an island, shut off from everyone else.\" Isaac, described antithetically against his character as \"a naturally warm personality\", said that he prepared for the role by simply approaching random strangers at parties and talking to them, without trying to impress them or putting on a friendly facade.\" Isaac notes that the character is someone who desires authenticity so much so that the opinions of others do not matter to him. However, Isaac believes that this is not a quality of confidence from Davis, but of spite and apathy, which further \"alienates him\" and \"causes him to lack some empathy\". The character has been described as \"brooding, depressed, and irritable\", and his \"blend of artistic idealism and brooding cynicism are irreconcilable, and seem certain to keep him locked in place – alone, broke, staring out into an uncertain future.\"\nCritic Amy Klein writes that Davis' \"story serves as a dramatic counterpoint to certain beliefs about America that young Americans do not trust anymore: it is, and has always been, a myth that hard work and talent get a person ahead, but Llewyn Davis has to learn firsthand that he’s been fed a bunch of lies. In this way, he’s an excellent role model for millennials: a guy with talent and an independent spirit, broke but not yet broken, cynical as all hell but still doing what he loves anyway. Fate seems to love nothing more than to kick him when he’s down, and yet, he somehow gets up and keeps on going. Believe it or not, the art of failure is actually harder to master than it looks because you really have to keep on trying in order to fail consistently.\" Christopher Orr of The Atlantic writes that, \"As an artist, he’s remote and self-absorbed, despite his clear talent. When he visits Chicago to play for the powerful manager Bud Grossman (F. Murray Abraham), the latter tells him \"I don’t see a lot of money here\" and implicitly compares him to a genial G.I.-turned-musician: \"He connects with people.\" As a person, Llewyn is easily wounded and spectacularly selfish, an \"asshole\" who, among other trespasses, gets his best friend’s girl (Carey Mulligan) pregnant and then surreptitiously asks said best friend (Justin Timberlake) for money to pay for her abortion. Inside Llewyn Davis is thus simultaneously the name of the film, of Llewyn’s solo album, and of his psychological condition: He is himself trapped inside Llewyn Davis.\"\nRobert Christgau observed of Llewyn that \"[T]here's an anger in Llewyn that appears to predate his partner Mike's suicide\" and thought that the character was probably unstable and moody for a long time. However, Sam Adams of Indie Wire disagreed with this assertion, believing that Davis' sour and cold personality was the direct result of Mike Timlin (singing voice of Marcus Mumford)'s suicide. He speculates, \"in the small circle of Llewyn, Jim, Jean and the Gorfeins, and probably in the coffee-house community at large, Mike was the glue that held them together\", and believes that Davis fell apart after Mike's death. He connects this observation to a scene in which \"after Bud Grossman tells Llewyn he doesn't have the charisma to front his own act, Llewyn says he used to have a partner and Bud responds, \"Yeah, that makes sense.\"\" Adams further analyzes that Llewyn Davis' story is not one of a man who continues to fail and is destined to fail, but about a man struggling with depression and unable to move forward as an artist or in life. He believes that his depression has cast him into \"a Sisyphean loop, a depressive Groundhog Day\" and that the character finally begins to accept that his life and career won't progress.\nOne of the key elements to Llewyn Davis' musicality is his desire to maintain authenticity as an artist. Despite being partially based on Dave Van Ronk, some reviewers noted several distinctions between the two in their artistry: \"It’s been bandied about that the character of Llewyn is based on Dave Van Ronk, \"The Mayor of Macdougal Street,\" a mainstay and centerpiece of the Greenwich Village folk scene. This is nonsense. Llewyn shares one or two biographical details with Van Ronk, but has none of his personality. More importantly, he has none of Van Ronk’s expansiveness, his desire to reach out, to promote, to connect. Llewyn is a very inward singer, up in his own head. He demands that the audience comes to him. That demand, in fact, is, I think what the protagonist wants. Llewyn Davis wants success, craves it, but insists that it be on his own terms.\" Robert Christgau also noted that the character desired authenticity as among the most important and valued aspects of being a musician: \"[W]e know that when Jean warns him to plan for his future, Llewyn equates that inescapability with flying cars and Tang and brands Jean \"careerist,\" \"square,\" and \"suburban\" for thinking about it. We also know Llewyn's definition of a folk song because it's damn near the first words out of his mouth that don't have a tune attached: \"If it's never been new and it never gets old, it's a folk song.\" However, Christgau notes that his desire for authenticity is hypocritical, calling Davis an \"angry character\", while pondering the cause of the character's anger. Christgau continued, \"We don't know [the reason for the character's anger]—lots of men are angry. But maybe, the film suggests, that's what drives his passion for his incoherent notion of authenticity. After all, the worst tirade of his bad week by far is the sexist bile he spews at the most certifiably \"authentic\" musician we get to see: autoharp-strumming Elizabeth Hobby from Arkansas, played by Missouri-born modern folk performer Nancy Blake. \"I hate fuckin' folk music,\" he shouts.\nThe Coen Brothers distinguished the character from his source of inspiration, Dave Van Ronk, by casting an actor who had an entirely different singing voice and style of guitar playing. The Coen Brothers described that Oscar Isaac as Davis has \"this beautiful tenor voice\" in contrast to the rough, growling voice of Dave Van Ronk, whom they described as \"the ultimate blues shouter.\" Ethan Coen noted that music was the most important aspect of Llewyn Davis' character, in that it completely defined him. He discussed that to Llewyn Davis, folk music is \"his life\" and that it \"reveals something about him that [the audience doesn't] see somewhere else\". The Coen Brothers felt that Llewyn Davis' sarcastic, acerbic, and unpleasant attitude was contradicted by his sweet, alluring singing voice, causing many people to question whether they should like the character or hate him. In the same way, the character of Roland Turner (John Goodman), a jazz musician and heroin addict who antagonizes Llewyn when he hitchhikes a ride with him to Chicago, has been interpreted as a possible older version of the Llewyn Davis character. In an interview with Moviefone, Goodman says that his character is \"a possible alternate future for Llewyn. He could turn out this way too.\" Philip Pantuso of \"Esquire\" considers Davis to be a cyclical, Sisyphean type character, who has an ironic journey in which he is doomed to failure and doesn't know it; whereas the audience is in on the joke. He describes the character as \"stuck in a nightmare version of Nietzsche's eternal return.\" He notes that Davis' musicality is of utmost importance to him, and that he has a mission to maintain the authenticity that he ascribes to the village, which will ironically \"desert Llewyn and all he stands for...following the trailblazing path of the famous Bob Dylan.\"\nOscar Isaac was praised for his portrayal of Llewyn Davis, and the character received universal acclaim from film critics. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Davis is \"beautifully played by Oscar Isaac\". Reviewer Phillip Kemp writes, \"Isaac, who proves to have a strong singing voice, performs the folksongs in perfect period style and succeeds in making Llewyn, for all his prickliness, an unexpectedly likeable, melancholic figure.\" Steve Persall writes that, \"Inside Llewyn Davis opens intimately with Llewyn, a role inhabited in body and voice by Oscar Isaac, performing on the Gaslight Cafe stage. Music is more vital than ever in the Coens' storytelling, with frequent collaborator T-Bone Burnett coordinating an expressive folk music sampler, and actors performing songs as character shading. Isaac's opener, the plaintive traditional Hang Me … Oh Hang Me, reveals as much of his restless spirit as his talent.\" Marc Mohan writes that, \"Davis is played by Oscar Isaac, who has toiled in supporting roles for the last few years but anchors this film with a star-making, soulful performance that includes haunting renditions of traditional tunes such as \"Hang Me, Oh Hang Me\" (which opens the movie) and \"The Death of Queen Jane.\" Calvin Wilson of the St. Louis Post Dispatch notes that \"Isaac, who also shared the screen with Mulligan in \"Drive,\" may remind some moviegoers of the young Al Pacino. And like Pacino, he has a gift for being appealing even when he’s unpleasant.\" Critic Glenn Kenny writes, \"We cannot imagine Llewyn Davis happy. The self-defeating Sisyphus of the new film written, directed, and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen is the first person the viewer lays eyes on in the movie. Bearded, his unkempt hair falling in his eyes, he picks out some steely, blue notes on a guitar as he sings \"Hang Me, Oh Hang Me,\" not to be confused with \"Dang Me.\" \"Wouldn't mind the hangin', except for layin' in the grave so long,\" he sings, with a good amount of sincerity. The time is 1961, the place is New York City, and the venue where Llewyn—portrayed with haunting conviction by Oscar Isaac, who, like everyone else in the cast, does his own singing and playing—is picking and not grinning is the Gaslight, a soon-to-be-legendary landmark in the \"folk revival.\" A.O. Scott of the New York Times writes, \"Llewyn’s repertoire and some aspects of his background are borrowed from Dave Van Ronk, who loomed large on the New York folk scene in its pre-Bob Dylan hootenanny-and-autoharp phase. Oscar Isaac, who plays both Llewyn and the guitar with offhand virtuosity, is slighter of build and scowlier of mien than Van Ronk, with a fine, clear tenor singing voice...Mr. Isaac, a versatile character actor here ascending to the highest levels of his craft, refuses the easy road of charm. Like his character, he trusts his own professionalism and the integrity of the material.\"\nDespite receiving universal acclaim from critics, Llewyn Davis was panned by those who experienced the Greenwich Village in the 1960s or knew Dave Van Ronk personally. Folk artist Christie Lavin, a friend of Dave Van Ronk, wrote, \"I HATE THIS FILM...\"Am outraged that the Coens took such a colorful character and interpreted him as a doofus,\" in reference to what she viewed as a disrespectful interpretation of the late folk singer. Suzanne Vega, a folk singer who experienced the Greenwich Village of the 1970s and also befriended Dave Van Ronk around the time said, \"\"I feel they took a vibrant, crackling, competitive, romantic, communal, crazy, drunken, brawling scene and crumpled it into a slow brown sad movie\". Dave Van Ronk's ex-wife, Terri Thal, writes \"What bothers me is that the movie doesn't show those days, those people, that world. In the movie, Llewyn Davis is a not-very smart, somewhat selfish, confused young man for whom music is a way to make a living. It's not a calling, as it was for David and for some others. No one in the film seems to love music. The character who represents Tom Paxton has a pasted-on smile and is a smug person who doesn't at all resemble the smart, funny, witty Tom Paxton who was our best man when we married.\" In response to some folk singers from the Greenwich Village scene who detested the film's presentation of the Greenwhich Village and the Llewyn Davis character, Aimee Levitt notes that the film is purposely bleak because it is seen through the eyes of a depressed character. She writes, \"Nobody gives a shit about his music. His singing partner has just committed suicide. He's alienated all his family and friends and has to hit up strangers to find a place to stay. The whole movie's told from his point of view, and there's nothing, even Pete Seeger leading a big old hootenanny in Washington Square Park, that's going to keep it from looking brown and sad, because that's what the world looks like when you're down in the depression hole.\"","Inside Llewyn Davis\nInside Llewyn Davis is a 2013 American black comedy drama film written, directed, produced, and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen. Set in 1961, the film follows one week in the life of Llewyn Davis, played by Oscar Isaac in his breakthrough role, a folk singer struggling to achieve musical success while keeping his life in order. It co-stars Carey Mulligan, John Goodman, Garrett Hedlund, F. Murray Abraham, and Justin Timberlake.\nAlthough Davis is a fictional character, the story was partly inspired by the autobiography of folk singer Dave Van Ronk. Most of the folk songs performed in the film are sung in full and recorded live. T Bone Burnett was the executive music producer.\nThe film won the Grand Prix at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival, where it screened on May 19, 2013. The film received a limited release in the United States on December 6, 2013, and was given a wide release on January 10, 2014. The film received critical acclaim and was nominated for two Academy Awards (Best Cinematography and Best Sound Mixing) and for three Golden Globe Awards: Best Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical, Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Oscar Isaac), and Best Original Song.\n\"Inside Llewyn Davis\" has been highly acclaimed, and was voted the 11th best film released since 2000 by film critics in a 2016 BBC Culture poll. It was also chosen the eleventh \"Best Film of the 21st Century So Far\" in 2017 by The New York Times.\nIn February 1961, Llewyn Davis is a struggling folk singer in New York City's Greenwich Village. His musical partner, Mike Timlin, has died by suicide; his recent solo album \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" is not selling; he has no money and is sleeping on the couches of friends and acquaintances. He plays The Gaslight Cafe one night, then gets punched out in the alley.\nLlewyn wakes up in the apartment of two of his older and wealthier friends, the Gorfeins. When he leaves, the Gorfeins' cat escapes and Llewyn is locked out. Llewyn takes the cat to the apartment of Jim and Jean Berkey. Jean reluctantly agrees to let Llewyn stay that night. Jean tells Llewyn she is pregnant, with a possibility it is Llewyn's child.\nThe next morning, the Gorfeins' cat escapes again. Later, Jean asks Llewyn to pay for an abortion, though she is upset she just might be losing Jim's child.\nLlewyn visits his sister in the hope of borrowing money but realizes it won't be possible. Their conversation makes it clear that they are living in different worlds. She gives him a box of his belongings, but he tells her to trash it. She mentions that he could make money by going back to the Merchant Marine.\nOn Jim's invitation, Llewyn records a space travel themed novelty song with Jim and Al Cody. Needing money for the abortion, Llewyn agrees to an immediate $200 rather than royalties. Llewyn is setting up Jean's appointment when the gynecologist informs him there is no charge, as a previous girlfriend did not go through with the abortion Llewyn had paid for, keeping the baby and moving to Ohio.\nWhile talking to Jean at a café, Llewyn spots what he believes to be the Gorfeins' cat and returns it that evening. Asked to play after dinner, he reluctantly performs \"Fare Thee Well\", a song he had recorded with Mike. When Mrs. Gorfein starts to sing Mike's harmony, Llewyn becomes angry and yells at her. Mrs. Gorfein leaves the table crying, then returns with the cat, having realized that it is not theirs. Llewyn leaves with the cat.\nLlewyn rides with two musicians driving to Chicago: the laconic beat poet Johnny Five and the odious jazz musician Roland Turner. At a roadside restaurant, Roland collapses from a heroin overdose. The three stop on the side of the highway to rest. When a police officer tells them to move on, he suspects that Johnny is drunk and tells him to get out of the car. Johnny resists and is arrested. Without the keys, Llewyn abandons the car, leaving the cat and the unconscious Roland behind. In Chicago, Llewyn auditions for Bud Grossman. Grossman says Llewyn is not suited to be a solo performer but suggests he might incorporate him in a new trio he is forming. Llewyn rejects the offer and hitchhikes back to New York. Driving, he hits what he fears may be the same cat.\nBack in New York, feeling tired and out of options to make something of himself, Llewyn uses his last $148 for back dues to rejoin the merchant marine union, and visits his ailing father. Llewyn searches for his seaman's license so he can ship out with the merchant marine, but it was in the box his sister finally trashed. Llewyn goes back to the Union Hall to replace it, but he cannot afford the $85 fee. Llewyn visits Jean and she tells him she got him a gig at the Gaslight.\nAt the Gaslight, Llewyn learns that Pappi, the manager, also had sex with Jean. Llewyn, angered by this, heckles a woman (played by actual 60s folk musician Nancy Blake) as she performs, and is thrown out. He then goes to the Gorfeins' apartment, where they graciously welcome him. There, he learns that the novelty song is likely to be a major hit, with massive royalties. He is amazed to see that their actual cat, Ulysses, has found his way home.\nReturning to an expanded version of the film's opening scene, Llewyn performs at the Gaslight. Pappi teases Llewyn about his heckling the previous evening and tells him that a friend of his is waiting in the alley. As he leaves, Llewyn watches as a young Bob Dylan starts to perform onstage. Behind the Gaslight, Llewyn is beaten by a shadowy suited man for heckling his wife, the previous night's performer. Llewyn watches as the man leaves in a taxi and he bids him \"Au revoir\".\nSet in 1961, \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" was inspired by the cultural disconnection within a New York–based music scene where the songs seemed to come from all parts of the United States except New York, but whose performers included Brooklyn-born Dave Van Ronk and Ramblin' Jack Elliott. Well before writing the script, the Coens began with a single premise: suppose Van Ronk got beat up outside of Gerde's Folk City in the Village. The filmmakers employed that idea in the opening scenes, then periodically returned to the project over the next couple of years to expand the story using a fictional character. One source for the film was Van Ronk's posthumously published (2005) memoir, \"The Mayor of MacDougal Street.\" According to the book's co-author, Elijah Wald, the Coens mined the work \"for local color and a few scenes.\" The character is a composite of Van Ronk, Elliot, and other performers from the New York boroughs who performed in the Village at that time. Joel Coen remarked that \"the film doesn't really have a plot. That concerned us at one point; that's why we threw the cat in.\"\nShooting was complicated by an early New York spring, which interfered with the bleak winter atmosphere that prevails throughout the film, and by the difficulty of filming several cats, who, unlike dogs, ignore the desires of filmmakers. On the advice of an animal trainer, the Coens put out a casting call for an orange tabby cat, which is sufficiently common that several cats would be available to play one part. Individual cats were then selected for each scene based on what they were predisposed to do on their own.\nProducer Scott Rudin, who worked with the Coens on \"No Country for Old Men\" and \"True Grit\", collaborated on the project. StudioCanal helped finance it without an American distributor in place. \"After shooting in New York City and elsewhere last year...the brothers finished the movie at their own pace\", wrote Michael Cieply in a January 2013 \"The New York Times\" interview with Joel Coen ahead of a private, pre-Grammys screening in Los Angeles. \"They could have rushed it into the Oscar season but didn't.\" On February 19, CBS Films announced it had picked up the U.S. domestic distribution rights for about $4 million. StudioCanal has rights to international distribution and foreign sales.\nDave Van Ronk's music served as a starting point for the Coens as they wrote the script, and many of the songs first designated for the film were those he had recorded. Van Ronk co-author Elijah Wald said that the character of Llewyn Davis \"is not at all Dave, but the music is.\" (The cover of Davis's solo album, \"Inside Llewyn Davis\", resembles that of \"Inside Dave Van Ronk\". Both feature the artist in a doorway, wearing a tweed jacket and smoking a cigarette. One difference between the two covers is that there is - interestingly, given the story of the movie - a cat in the doorway on the cover of \"Inside Dave Van Ronk.\") Other songs emerged in conversations between the Coens and T-Bone Burnett, who produced the music in association with Marcus Mumford. Burnett previously worked with the Coens on the music and soundtrack for \"The Big Lebowski\" and \"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\", the latter of which sold about 8 million copies in the United States. The Coens viewed the music in \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" as a direct descendant of the music in \"O Brother.\"\nThe humorous novelty song \"Please Mr. Kennedy\", a plea from a reluctant astronaut, appears to be a fourth generation derivative of the 1960 song \"Mr. Custer\", also known as \"Please Mr. Custer\", about the Battle of the Little Bighorn, sung by Larry Verne and written by Al DeLory, Fred Darian, and Joseph Van Winkle. A Tamla-Motown single followed in 1961: \"Please Mr. Kennedy (I Don't Want to Go)\", a plea from a reluctant Vietnam War draftee, sung by Mickey Woods and credited to Berry Gordy, Loucye Wakefield and Ronald Wakefield. In 1962 using a similar theme, The Goldcoast Singers recorded \"Please Mr. Kennedy\" on its \"Here They Are \"album, with writing credits to Ed Rush and George Cromarty. The Llewyn Davis version credits Rush, Cromarty, Burnett, Timberlake, and the Coens.\nIsaac, Timberlake, Mulligan, Driver and others performed the music live. The exception was \"The Auld Triangle\", which was lip-synced, with Timberlake singing bass. (Timberlake's vocal range was on display in the film. Critic Janet Maslin, listening to a soundtrack recording, confused Timberlake's voice with Mulligan's, which she thought resembled that of Mary Travers.)\n\"Inside Llewyn Davis\" had its worldwide premiere on May 19, 2013 at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. The film then screened at film festivals, including the New York Film Festival in September, the November 14 close of the 2013 AFI Film Festival and Torino Film Festival 2013, also in November.\nThe film had a limited release in the United States on December 6, 2013, where it played in Los Angeles and New York. It opened in 133 additional theaters on December 20 and opened wide on January 10, 2014.\nIt was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the US on March 11, 2014. On January 19, 2016, The Criterion Collection released a DVD and Blu-ray of the film featuring new audio commentary tracks, interviews and other special features, including a forty-three-minute documentary titled \"Inside “Inside Llewyn Davis”\".\nRotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 94%, based on 249 reviews, with an average score of 8.6/10. The site's consensus states: \"Smart, funny, and profoundly melancholy, \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" finds the Coen brothers in fine form.\" Metacritic gives the film a score of 92 out of 100, based on reviews from 47 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim.\" It was voted the 11th greatest film of the 21st century in a 2016 BBC Culture poll, after \"No Country for Old Men\", another film by the Coen brothers.\nWriting for \"The Village Voice\", Alan Scherstuhl praised the Coen brothers' film: \"While often funny and alive with winning performances, \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" finds the brothers in a dark mood, exploring the near-inevitable disappointment that faces artists too sincere to compromise—disappointments that the Coens, to their credit, have made a career out of dodging. The result is their most affecting film since the masterful \"A Serious Man\".\" Todd McCarthy of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" called the film \"an outstanding fictional take on the early 1960s folk music scene,\" praising the \"fresh, resonant folk soundtrack\" and Oscar Isaac's performance that \"deftly manages the task of making Llewyn compulsively watchable.\" IGN reviewer Leigh Singer gave the film a 10 out of 10 'Masterpiece' score, saying \"Don’t be fooled by the seemingly minor key...this is one of the finest works by – let’s just call it – the most consistently innovative, versatile and thrilling American filmmakers of the last quarter-century.'\"\nFolk singers, however, have criticized the film for misrepresenting the friendliness of the Village folk scene of the time. Terri Thal, Dave Van Ronk's ex-wife, said, \"I didn't expect it to be almost unrecognizable as the folk-music world of the early 1960s.\" Suzanne Vega said \"I feel they took a vibrant, crackling, competitive, romantic, communal, crazy, drunken, brawling scene and crumpled it into a slow brown sad movie.\" The film was also criticized for the fact that, although it was to some extent based on the memoir of Dave Van Ronk, the film portrayed a character very much at odds with the real Van Ronk, usually described as a \"nice guy\". However, at a press interview before the film was premiered at Cannes, the Coens had stated that the character itself was very much an original creation, and that the music was the major influence they had drawn from Van Ronk.\n\n","George Cromarty\nGeorge Cromarty (September 15, 1941 – February 12, 1992) was an American folk guitarist and singer. He is best known as the co-writer, with Ed Rush, of the song \"Plastic Jesus\", though he went on to record three albums of solo guitar music in the 1970s and 1980s. The Folk Music Sourcebook likened his playing style to John Fahey's, and George Winston cites Cromarty as a musical influence. His music has been heard on the soundtracks of many films, including the Coen brothers' \"Inside Llewyn Davis.\" The \"Columbia record exec\" in \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" was named \"Mr. Cromarty\" in honor of Cromarty.\nCromarty met Ed Rush while they were students in Fresno. They first performed together at Kalisa's restaurant in Monterey, California as The Goldcoast Singers. They moved to San Francisco and, after performing in clubs there, they were invited to perform before an audience of 1,000 at the San Francisco State Folk Festival. The audience responded enthusiastically, and the duo played five encores, closing with \"Plastic Jesus\". The recording of this performance was released in 1962 as \"Here They Are! The Goldcoast Singers\".\nIn 1963, Cromarty was drafted into the army. He later settled in Morro Bay, California. His first solo album of acoustic guitar music, \"Grassroots Guitar\", was released in 1973 on his own label, Thistle Records. His next release, \"The Only One\", was ostensibly an album of songs for children. Cromarty's third and last album, \"Wind in the Heather\", was recorded for George Winston's Dancing Cat Records in 1984.\nCromarty died on February 12, 1992. He was 50 years old.\nIn 2014, Cromarty was co-nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for \"Please Mr. Kennedy,\" from \"Inside Llewyn Davis\". His co-nominees were Ed Rush, T Bone Burnett, Justin Timberlake, and Joel and Ethan Coen.","Oscar Isaac\nOscar Isaac (born Óscar Isaac Hernández Estrada; March 9, 1979) is a Guatemalan-American actor and musician. He played lead film roles in the comedy-drama \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" (2013), for which he received a Golden Globe Award nomination, the crime drama \"A Most Violent Year\" (2014), the science fiction thriller \"Ex Machina\" (2015), in which he played Nathan Hamlet Bateman, and Poe Dameron in \"\". In 2006, he portrayed Saint Joseph, husband of Mary, in \"The Nativity Story\". He also portrayed José Ramos-Horta, former president of East Timor, in the Australian film \"Balibo\" for which he won the AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He has portrayed characters of many different nationalities and ethnicities, such as mixed European, American, Egyptian, Polish, English, French, Mexican, East Timorese, Italian, Welsh, Indonesian, Greek, Cuban, Israeli, and Armenian.\nHe appeared in \"\" (2015), as X-wing pilot Poe Dameron, and in \"\" (2016), as the titular mutant supervillain Apocalypse. He also headlined the HBO miniseries \"Show Me a Hero\", as politician Nick Wasicsko in 2015, which earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film. In 2016, \"Time\" named Isaac one of the 100 most influential people in the world on the annual \"Time 100\" list. In 2017 Issac was described as \"best dang actor of his generation\" by \"Vanity Fair\".\nÓscar Isaac Hernández Estrada was born in Guatemala to a Guatemalan mother, María Eugenia Estrada Nicolle, and a Cuban pulmonologist father, Óscar Gonzalo Hernández-Cano. His maternal grandfather was French. Isaac's family settled in the U.S. when he was five months old, and he was raised in Miami, Florida. He has described his evangelical Protestant upbringing as \"very Christian\".\nIsaac liked to cause trouble at the private grade school, Westminster Christian, when growing up. “I set off a fire extinguisher in the gym, defaced a mural, just stupid stuff,” he said in an interview. He liked to make kids laugh. At one point, his teacher had to screen off his desk from the rest of the class with a piece of cardboard. Eventually, he was expelled.\nIsaac's entry into professional acting began at the Area Stage Company, Miami Beach, when Artistic Director John Rodaz cast him in a play. He also acted in Miami-based City Theatre's Summer Shorts short play festival in 2000–2001. While in Miami, he played lead guitar and sang vocals for a ska-punk band The Blinking Underdogs. Other band members included Nick Speck (bass), Bill Sommer (drums), Alan Mills (trombone), Keith Cooper (saxophone), and Matt LaPlant (guitar).\nThe band enjoyed some success, opening for Green Day and the Mighty Mighty Bosstones\nIsaac spent his musical years living a \"straight edge\" lifestyle. Isaac put his music to the side after being accepted to the famed Juilliard School's acting program. While a student there, he worked on one of his first films, \"All About the Benjamins\" (2002).\nIsaac graduated from the Juilliard School in New York City, where he was part of the Drama Division's Group 34 (2001–2005).\nIsaac made his acting debut in the 1998 crime drama \"Illtown\", credited as \"Pool Boy\". Next, he appeared briefly in 2002's \"All About the Benjamins\" and made an appearance on the television series \"\" four years later. Isaac garnered recognition in his first major film role in 2006 as Joseph in the biblical epic \"The Nativity Story\", opposite Keisha Castle-Hughes. He appeared as Romeo in the Public Theater's Shakespeare in the Park performances of \"Romeo and Juliet\" and as Proteus in \"Two Gentlemen of Verona\".\nIsaac was awarded the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Supporting Actor of 2009, for his role as José Ramos-Horta in \"Balibo\" (2009). He had a small role in \"Guerrilla\", Part Two of the Che Guevara biopic \"Che\" (2008). Isaac played King John in the 2010 historical film \"Robin Hood\". He portrayed a security guard in the Madonna-directed film \"W.E.\" and starred in the crime drama \"Drive\", both of which were released in September 2011. He had a role in \"10 Years\", in which he played a musician. He performed his own song \"Never Had\" in the film. \"Never Had\" and \"You Ain't Goin Nowhere\" were included in the movie's soundtrack.\nIn 2013, Isaac starred in the dramatic comedy film \"Inside Llewyn Davis\", written and directed by the Coen brothers, where he played a talented yet unsuccessful folk singer in Greenwich Village in 1961. The film won the Grand Prix at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. For the role of Llewyn, Isaac was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy at the 2014 Golden Globes.\nHe co-starred with Jessica Chastain in J. C. Chandor's film \"A Most Violent Year\" (2014), replacing actor Javier Bardem. In 2015, Isaac portrayed Nathan Hamlet Bateman in the science fiction film \"Ex Machina\" and starred in the 6-episode HBO miniseries \"Show Me a Hero\", receiving universal critical acclaim and winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film for his performance as politician Nick Wasicsko.\nIsaac co-starred in the epic space opera film \"\", released on December 18, 2015. playing Poe Dameron, an X-wing pilot. He will reprise the role in \"\", scheduled for release on December 15, 2017.\nIsaac played X-Men villain Apocalypse in the film \"\", which was released on May 27, 2016. In 2015, Isaac was announced to play the lead role in \"The Promise\" with co-star Christian Bale.\nOn March 30, 2016, It was announced that Isaac would be joining Natalie Portman in the movie adaptation of the novel \"Annihilation\" where he will be playing her husband. It would be directed by Alex Garland which would mark this as Oscar's second collaboration with the director after \"Ex Machina\". Isaac will also appear in George Clooney's upcoming Coen Brothers-penned black comedy \"Suburbicon\". It will be Isaac's second collaboration with the Coen Brothers after \"Inside Llewyn Davis\".\nIn 2016, he was the narrator for the Nike ad \"Unlimited You\" created by Wieden+Kennedy.\nIn November 2016, the first episode of the podcast series \"Homecoming\" was released. It is a psychological thriller from Gimlet Media, starring Catherine Keener, Oscar Isaac, and David Schwimmer. \"Homecoming\" is a six-episode thriller that centers around a mystery involving a caseworker (voiced by Oscar nominee Catherine Keener), her supervisor (voiced by David Schwimmer), and a soldier trying to rejoin civilian life (voiced by Oscar Isaac). It has a script from Eli Horowitz (\"The Silent History\") and Micah Bloomberg (\"Creative Control\") and sound design from \"Serial\"'s Mark Phillips.\nIn July 2017, Isaac starred as Prince Hamlet in The Public Theater production of \"Hamlet\" alongside Keegan-Michael Key, Ritchie Coster, Gayle Rankin, Roberta Colindrez, and Anatol Yusef. The production is directed by Sam Gold and is set to run until September 2017. His performance received acclaim from critics and audiences alike.\nIsaac currently resides in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, in an apartment he renovated himself. He has been dubbed a sex symbol, and \"the internet's boyfriend\" by multiple media outlets, most notably \"Rolling Stone\" magazine; of the label, Isaac stated that, \"[The Internet] never struck me as being into monogamous relationships. It's very promiscuous, the Internet.\" Isaac is in a relationship with Elvira Lind. In March 2017, it was revealed they were expecting their first child. Their son, Eugene, was born in late April 2017.\nIssac is an accomplished guitar player and singer, and has been playing since he was 12. Speaking to \"Interview\" magazine, he stated, \"I don't know if they were all functioning, but I did play in a bunch of bands. I was sort of a musical whore, so I played in industrial bands, hardcore bands, punk—ska bands—all sorts of bands.\" Isaac also said that he \"played guitar and bass. I didn't do much vocals, although I did have one band where I was the lead singer. But that was when I was in college.\"","In Secret\nIn Secret, previously titled Thérèse, is a 2013 American erotic thriller film written and directed by Charlie Stratton. Based on Émile Zola's 1867 classic novel \"Thérèse Raquin\", the film stars Elizabeth Olsen, Tom Felton, Oscar Isaac and Jessica Lange. It was screened in the Special Presentation section at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. The film received a regional release on February 21, 2014.\nIn the lower echelons of 1860s Paris, Thérèse Raquin (Elizabeth Olsen) is a sexually repressed beautiful young woman trapped in a loveless marriage to her sickly cousin, Camille (Tom Felton) having been forced into it by her domineering aunt, Madame Raquin (Jessica Lange). Thérèse spends her days confined behind the counter of a small shop and her evenings watching Madame play dominoes with an eclectic group. After she meets her husband's alluring friend Laurent LeClaire (Oscar Isaac), she embarks on an illicit affair that leads to tragic consequences. Camille soon dies during an outing on the lake with Laurent and Therese, which is revealed to be their doing as Laurent physically beat Camille while he was in the water, causing him to drown. Madame Raquin finds it difficult to come to terms with her son's death and is incapacitated by a stroke. To escape being sentenced for murder, Laurent and Therese choose to take their own lives and they drink poison mixed with champagne, dying in front of Madame Raquin.\nKate Winslet was attached for a long time to star in the lead role of Thérèse Raquin. Jessica Biel then replaced her, with Gerard Butler as Laurent. In fall 2011, Elizabeth Olsen was announced as a replacement in the lead role. Glenn Close was originally cast as Madame Raquin, but dropped out and was replaced by Jessica Lange.\nOn May 9, 2012, principal photography began in Belgrade, Serbia and Budapest, Hungary.\n\"In Secret\" received mixed reviews. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 47% rating, with an average score of 5.5/10, based on reviews from 64 critics. The consensus states: \"Although it benefits from a strong cast, \"In Secret\"' s stars can't totally compensate for the movie's sodden pacing and overly familiar story.\"\nDespite mixed reviews, Lange's performance has received critical acclaim. Avi Offer from NYC Movie Guru proclaimed Lange as \"...one of the greatest actresses of our time, [who] delivers a mesmerizing, magnificent performance and sinks her teeth into her role quite smoothly.\" David Lee Dallas from \"Slant Magazine\" called Lange's character's \"latent severity dangerous and surprising.\" Michael O'Sullivan from \"The Washington Post\" noted that \"Subtlety may not be this film's strong suit, but it certainly is Lange's.\" Dustin Putman of the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association felt Lange is \"more achingly vulnerable than the figures she usually plays.\" Jessica Herdon of Associated Press added that Lange \"...going from agonized to helpless, so poignantly that your heart breaks for her.\" Joshua Rothkopf from \"Time Out New York\" wrote: \"...Jessica Lange, as rare as a unicorn these days, seizes on the role of a grieving mother with two taloned hands. If there are any tremors of shame to be felt here, they emanate from her.\" Odie Henderson praises Lange on her ability to \"...[find] the perfect line of lunacy to toe, which \"In Secret\" requires for her character's arc...\" Also, Emma Myers from \"Film Comment\" described her ability to \"[maintain] a looming presence that shifts from despicable to sympathetic and back again.\" \"USA Today\" described her work as her \"...most fully dimensional performance.\" \"Variety\" mentioned that Lange \"...relishes what becomes the most dramatically potent role.\"","List of accolades received by Inside Llewyn Davis\n\"Inside Llewyn Davis\" is a 2013 American comedy-drama film written, directed and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen. The film stars Oscar Isaac, Carey Mulligan, and John Goodman, and was produced by Scott Rudin, Ethan and Joel Coen. T Bone Burnett was the executive music producer. The story is about one week in the life of a singer-songwriter who is active in New York's folk music scene in 1961. Although Llewyn Davis is a fictional character, the story was partly inspired by the autobiography of folk singer Dave Van Ronk. The folk songs performed in the film are all sung in full, and, with one exception, were recorded live.\nThe film premiered at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival on May 19, 2013, where it won the Grand Prix. The film then received a limited release at four theatres on December 6, 2013, before later going on wide release at over 700 theatres on January 10, 2014 in the United States and Canada by CBS Films. The film has grossed a worldwide total of over $32 million on a budget of $17 million. Upon release, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 233 reviews and judged 95 percent to be positive.\nAt the 86th Academy Awards, \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" was nominated for Best Cinematography and Best Sound Mixing, but lost both to \"Gravity\". At the 67th British Academy Film Awards, it was nominated in three categories: Best Original Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Sound, but it failed to win any. At the 70th Golden Globe Awards, it was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and Best Original Song and again won nothing.\nAt the 18th Satellite Awards, it had six nominations, winning for Best Cinematography. \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" was also nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards: Best Feature, Best Male Lead and Best Cinematography. Both the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute included the film in their list of top ten films of 2013.\nEach date is linked to the article about the awards held that year wherever possible.","Garrett Hedlund\nGarrett Hedlund (born September 3, 1984) is an American actor, model, and singer. His films include \"Friday Night Lights\" (2004), \"Troy\" (2004), \"Four Brothers\" (2005), \"Eragon\" (2006), \"Country Strong\" (2010), \"\" (2010), \"On the Road\" (2012), \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" (2013), \"Unbroken\" (2014), and \"Pan\" (2015).\nHedlund was born in Roseau, Minnesota, to Kristine Anne (Yanish) and Robert Martin Hedlund. He is the youngest of three children, with a brother, Nathaniel, and a sister, Amanda. His father is of Swedish descent and his mother is of Norwegian and German ancestry. Hedlund was raised on a remote beef cattle farm near the small town of Wannaska, Minnesota. In the tenth grade, he moved to live with his mother in Arizona, where he saved his waiter’s tips to pay for lessons with acting coach Jean Fowler, with whom he worked on speeches and script material. He subsequently modeled for L.L. Bean and \"Teen\" magazine. In 2003, at the age of eighteen, Hedlund moved to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career.\nHedlund made his feature film debut as Patroclus in the mythological epic adventure war drama \"Troy\" with Brad Pitt. The film was released on May 14, 2004. He also co-starred as Don Billingsley in the 2004 sports drama \"Friday Night Lights\" with Billy Bob Thornton, Connie Britton and Tim McGraw, where McGraw played his abusive father.\nHe co-starred with Mark Wahlberg in the crime drama \"Four Brothers\" as Jack Mercer. He co-starred in the fantasy-adventure film \"Eragon\" as Murtagh. In 2007, he co-starred in the comedy-drama \"Georgia Rule\" with Lindsay Lohan, Jane Fonda and Felicity Huffman, directed by Garry Marshall. The film was released May 11, 2007, was panned by critics and failed to surpass box office expectations, only making a lifetime gross of $41 million. That same year, he co-starred in the crime thriller \"Death Sentence\" with Kevin Bacon. In 2010, he co-starred with Jeff Bridges in the science fiction/action film \"\", a sequel to the 1982 film \"Tron\". The film was released on December 17, 2010.\nHedlund also co-starred with Gwyneth Paltrow, Leighton Meester and his \"Friday Night Lights\" co-star, country musician Tim McGraw in the musical drama \"Country Strong\", which was released on December 22, 2010. He recorded several songs for the film including \"Chances Are\" which appeared on \"Country Strong: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack\". His performance was well received by critics; noting voice similarities between him and Charlie Robison, \"Roughstock\" said \"the best song on this album belongs to him\" and \"Country Weekly\" wrote that of all the songs performed by actors in this film, his was \"the most convincing\". Six other songs including a duet with Meester were featured on a second soundtrack titled \"Country Strong: More Music from the Motion Picture\".\nHedlund was cast as Kaneda Shotaro in the live-action version of \"Akira\", but production of the film was cancelled. He also co-starred as Dean Moriarty in the 2012 adventure drama \"On the Road\" with Kristen Stewart, Amy Adams, Steve Buscemi, Terrence Howard, Kirsten Dunst and Viggo Mortensen. The film was directed by Walter Salles and based on Jack Kerouac's novel of same name. Disney stated in December 2012 that Hedlund would reprise his role of Sam Flynn in the sequel to \"Tron: Legacy\".\nHedlund reportedly turned down the roles of Finnick in the sequel to the dystopian science fiction/adventure film \"The Hunger Games\" titled \"\" and Christian Grey in the film adaptation of E. L. James' best-selling novel \"Fifty Shades of Grey\". In 2014, Hedlund co-starred in the historical drama \"Unbroken\" directed by Angelina Jolie.\nHedlund's duet with Meester—\"Give In to Me\"— was the only song to chart as a single, reaching #79 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and #96 on the Canadian Hot 100.","Carey Mulligan\nCarey Hannah Mulligan (born 28 May 1985) is an English actress and singer. She made her acting debut on stage in London in the <a href=\"Kevin%20Elyot\">Kevin Elyot</a> play \"Forty Winks\" in 2004. Her feature film debut was as Kitty Bennet in the 2005 film adaptation of \"<a href=\"Pride%20%26amp%3B%20Prejudice%20%282005%20film%29\">Pride & Prejudice</a>\". She had early roles on British television in such programmes as \"<a href=\"Bleak%20House%20%282005%20TV%20serial%29\">Bleak House</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Doctor%20Who\">Doctor Who</a>\". In 2008, she made her <a href=\"Broadway%20%28theatre%29\">Broadway</a> debut in a revival of Chekhov's \"<a href=\"The%20Seagull\">The Seagull</a>\" to critical acclaim.\nMulligan received widespread recognition for her performance in the film \"<a href=\"An%20Education\">An Education</a>\" (2009). For her role as Jenny Mellor (based on the memoir of journalist <a href=\"Lynn%20Barber\">Lynn Barber</a>), she was nominated for an <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\">Academy Award for Best Actress</a>, a <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress%20in%20a%20Motion%20Picture%2C%20Drama\">Golden Globe</a>, a <a href=\"Screen%20Actors%20Guild%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Performance%20by%20a%20Female%20Actor%20in%20a%20Leading%20Role\">Screen Actors Guild Award</a>, and won the <a href=\"BAFTA%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress%20in%20a%20Leading%20Role\">BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role</a>. In 2015, she was nominated for a <a href=\"Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Performance%20by%20a%20Leading%20Actress%20in%20a%20Play\">Tony Award for Best Lead Actress in a Play</a> for her performance in the Broadway revival of <a href=\"David%20Hare%20%28playwright%29\">David Hare</a>'s \"<a href=\"Skylight%20%28play%29\">Skylight</a>\". She is also known for her roles in \"<a href=\"Never%20Let%20Me%20Go%20%282010%20film%29\">Never Let Me Go</a>\" (2010), \"<a href=\"Drive%20%282011%20film%29\">Drive</a>\" (2011), \"<a href=\"Shame%20%282011%20film%29\">Shame</a>\" (2011), \"<a href=\"The%20Great%20Gatsby%20%282013%20film%29\">The Great Gatsby</a>\" (2013), \"<a href=\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\" (2013), \"<a href=\"Far%20from%20the%20Madding%20Crowd%20%282015%20film%29\">Far from the Madding Crowd</a>\" (2015), and \"<a href=\"Suffragette%20%28film%29\">Suffragette</a>\" (2015).\nShe is an ambassador for the <a href=\"Alzheimer%27s%20Society\">Alzheimer's Society</a> and <a href=\"War%20Child%20%28charity%29\">War Child</a>. She is married to British musician <a href=\"Marcus%20Mumford\">Marcus Mumford</a>, with whom she has two children.\nMulligan was born in <a href=\"Westminster\">Westminster</a>, <a href=\"London\">London</a>, to a middle-class family, the daughter of Nano (<a href=\"married%20and%20maiden%20names\">née</a> Booth) and Stephen Mulligan. Her father is of Irish descent and was originally from <a href=\"Liverpool\">Liverpool</a>. Her mother is from <a href=\"Llandeilo\">Llandeilo</a>, Wales. She has an older brother, Owain, who was formerly a captain in the <a href=\"British%20Army\">British Army</a> who served in Iraq and Afghanistan. Her mother is a university lecturer and her father is a hotel manager. Her parents met while they were both working in a hotel in their twenties. When she was three years old, her family moved to Germany when her father was hired to manage a hotel there. While living in Germany, Mulligan and her brother attended the <a href=\"International%20School%20of%20D%C3%BCsseldorf\">International School of Düsseldorf</a>. When she was eight, she and her family moved back to England. As a teenager, she was educated at <a href=\"Woldingham%20School\">Woldingham School</a> in <a href=\"Surrey\">Surrey</a>.\nHer interest in acting sparked from watching her brother perform in a school production of \"<a href=\"The%20King%20and%20I\">The King and I</a>\" when she was six. During rehearsals, she pleaded with his teachers to let her be in the play. They let her join the chorus. While enrolled in Woldingham School as a teen, she was heavily involved in theatre. She was the student head of the drama department there, performing in plays and musicals, conducting workshops with younger students, and helping put on productions. When she was 16, she attended a production of \"<a href=\"Henry%20V%20%28play%29\">Henry V</a>\" starring <a href=\"Kenneth%20Branagh\">Kenneth Branagh</a>. His performance emboldened her and reinforced her belief that she wanted to pursue a career in acting. She wrote a letter to Branagh asking him for advice. \"I explained that my parents didn't want me to act, but that I felt it was my vocation in life,\" she said. Branagh's sister replied: \"Kenneth says that if you feel such a strong need to be an actress, you must be an actress.\"\nMulligan's parents disapproved of her acting ambitions and wished for her to attend a university like her brother. At age 17, she applied to three London drama schools, instead of the universities that she was expected to submit an application to, but did not receive a subsequent offer. During her final year at Woldingham School, actor/screenwriter <a href=\"Julian%20Fellowes\">Julian Fellowes</a> delivered a lecture at the school on the production of the film \"<a href=\"Gosford%20Park\">Gosford Park</a>\". Mulligan briefly talked to him after the lecture and asked him for advice on an acting career. However, Fellowes dissuaded her from the profession and suggested that she \"marry a lawyer\" instead. Undeterred, she later sent Fellowes a letter in which she stated that she was serious about acting and that the vocation was her purpose in life. Several weeks later, Fellowes's wife Emma invited her to a dinner for young, aspiring actors that she and her husband were hosting to offer advice. The event facilitated an introduction between Mulligan and a casting assistant that led to an audition for a role in \"Pride and Prejudice\". She auditioned on three occasions and was eventually given the role of Kitty Bennet. During her late teens and early twenties, she worked as a <a href=\"pub\">pub</a> barmaid and an errand-runner for Ealing Studios in between acting jobs.\nIn 2004, at the age of 19, Mulligan began her acting career on stage in the play \"Forty Winks\" at the <a href=\"Royal%20Court%20Theatre\">Royal Court Theatre</a> in London. She made her film debut the following year in \"<a href=\"Pride%20%26amp%3B%20Prejudice%20%282005%20film%29\">Pride & Prejudice</a>\", the 2005 film adaptation of <a href=\"Pride%20%26amp%3B%20Prejudice\">the Jane Austen novel</a>, portraying Kitty Bennet. Later that year, she auditioned for and won the role of orphan Ada Clare in the <a href=\"British%20Academy%20Television%20Awards\">BAFTA award</a>-winning BBC adaption of <a href=\"Charles%20Dickens\">Charles Dickens</a>' \"<a href=\"Bleak%20House%20%282005%20TV%20serial%29\">Bleak House</a>\", her television debut. Among her 2007 projects were \"<a href=\"My%20Boy%20Jack%20%28film%29\">My Boy Jack</a>\", starring <a href=\"Daniel%20Radcliffe\">Daniel Radcliffe</a>, that features her in a supporting role, and \"<a href=\"Northanger%20Abbey%20%282007%20film%29\">Northanger Abbey</a>\". She identified with her role <a href=\"Elsie%20Kipling\">Elsie</a>, the daughter of writer <a href=\"Rudyard%20Kipling\">Rudyard Kipling</a>, who vociferously opposes her brother going to war. She earned a <a href=\"Constellation%20Award\">Constellation Award</a> for playing the main character Sally Sparrow in the \"<a href=\"Doctor%20Who\">Doctor Who</a>\" episode \"<a href=\"Blink%20%28Doctor%20Who%29\">Blink</a>\". She rounded out 2007 by appearing in an acclaimed revival of \"<a href=\"The%20Seagull%23Translating%20The%20Seagull\">The Seagull</a>\", in which she played Nina to <a href=\"Kristin%20Scott%20Thomas\">Kristin Scott Thomas</a>'s Arkadina and <a href=\"Chiwetel%20Ejiofor\">Chiwetel Ejiofor</a>'s Trigorin. \"<a href=\"The%20Daily%20Telegraph\">The Daily Telegraph</a>\" said her performance was \"quite extraordinarily radiating'\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Observer\">The Observer</a>\" called her \"almost unbearably affecting.\" While in the middle of the production, she had to have an <a href=\"appendectomy\">appendectomy</a>, preventing her from being able to perform for a week. For her debut Broadway performance in the 2008 American transfer of \"The Seagull\", she was nominated for a <a href=\"Drama%20Desk%20Award\">Drama Desk Award</a>, but lost to <a href=\"Angela%20Lansbury\">Angela Lansbury</a>.\nHer big breakthrough came when, at 22, she was cast in her first leading role as Jenny in the 2009 independent film \"An Education\", directed by Danish filmmaker <a href=\"Lone%20Scherfig\">Lone Scherfig</a> and written by <a href=\"Nick%20Hornby\">Nick Hornby</a>. Over a hundred actresses auditioned for the part, but Mulligan's audition impressed Scherfig the most. The film and her performance received rave reviews, and she was nominated for an <a href=\"Academy%20Award\">Academy Award</a>, <a href=\"Screen%20Actors%20Guild\">Screen Actors Guild</a>, <a href=\"Golden%20Globe\">Golden Globe</a>, and won a <a href=\"British%20Academy%20Film%20Award\">BAFTA Award</a>. Lisa Schwarzbaum of \"<a href=\"Entertainment%20Weekly\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\" and Todd McCarthy of \"Variety\" both compared her performance to that of <a href=\"Audrey%20Hepburn\">Audrey Hepburn</a>. <a href=\"Rolling%20Stone%20%28magazine%29\">\"Rolling Stone\"</a>'s <a href=\"Peter%20Travers\">Peter Travers</a> described her as having given a \"sensational, starmaking performance,\" while Claudia Puig of \"<a href=\"USA%20Today\">USA Today</a>\" felt that Mulligan had one of the year's best performances, and <a href=\"Toby%20Young\">Toby Young</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20Times\">The Times</a>\" felt she anchored the film. Writing in \"<a href=\"The%20Guardian\">The Guardian</a>\", <a href=\"Peter%20Bradshaw\">Peter Bradshaw</a> concluded that she gave a \"wonderful performance.\" Mulligan was a recipient of the <a href=\"Shooting%20Stars%20Award\">Shooting Stars Award</a> from the 2009 <a href=\"Berlin%20International%20Film%20Festival\">Berlin International Film Festival</a> and received a BAFTA Rising Star Award nomination, which is voted on by the British public.\nMulligan next starred in independent film \"<a href=\"The%20Greatest%20%282009%20film%29\">The Greatest</a>\" (2009) as the pregnant girlfriend of a boy who dies. Her involvement with the project helped it \"tremendously\", according to the director. After being selected to join <a href=\"The%20Academy%20of%20Motion%20Picture%20Arts%20and%20Sciences\">The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences</a>, she won a British Independent Award for \"<a href=\"Never%20Let%20Me%20Go%20%282010%20film%29\">Never Let Me Go</a>\", an adaption of the 2005 <a href=\"Kazuo%20Ishiguro\">Kazuo Ishiguro</a>'s novel, in which she starred and narrated. It was released in September 2010, competing against her other project, the <a href=\"Oliver%20Stone\">Oliver Stone</a>-directed film \"\". Screened out of competition at the <a href=\"2010%20Cannes%20Film%20Festival\">2010 Cannes Film Festival</a>, it was her first major studio project. Later that year she also provided vocals for the song \"<a href=\"Write%20About%20Love%20%28song%29\">Write About Love</a>\" by <a href=\"Belle%20%26amp%3B%20Sebastian\">Belle & Sebastian</a>.\nShe returned to the stage in the <a href=\"Atlantic%20Theater%20Company\">Atlantic Theater Company</a>'s off-Broadway play adaptation of <a href=\"Ingmar%20Bergman\">Ingmar Bergman</a>'s \"<a href=\"Through%20a%20Glass%20Darkly%20%28film%29\">Through a Glass, Darkly</a>\", from 13 May – 3 July 2011. Mulligan played the central character, a mentally unstable woman, and received glowing praise from reviewers. <a href=\"Ben%20Brantley\">Ben Brantley</a>, theater critic for \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\", wrote that Mulligan's performance was \"acting of the highest order\"; he also described her as \"extraordinary\" and \"one of the finest actresses of her generation.\",\nMulligan co-starred in the critically acclaimed 2011 <a href=\"neo-noir\">neo-noir</a> thriller \"<a href=\"Drive%20%282011%20film%29\">Drive</a>\", directed by Danish filmmaker <a href=\"Nicolas%20Winding%20Refn\">Nicolas Winding Refn</a>. She was nominated for her second <a href=\"BAFTA\">BAFTA</a> award—Best Supporting Actress—for the film. \"Drive\" garnered a total of 4 <a href=\"BAFTA\">BAFTA</a> award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director. She began filming <a href=\"Steve%20McQueen%20%28director%29\">Steve McQueen</a>'s sex-addiction drama \"<a href=\"Shame%20%282011%20film%29\">Shame</a>\" alongside <a href=\"Michael%20Fassbender\">Michael Fassbender</a> in New York in January 2011. \"Drive\" debuted at 2011 <a href=\"Cannes%20Film%20Festival\">Cannes Film Festival</a> and \"Shame\" debuted at 2011 <a href=\"Venice%20Film%20Festival\">Venice Film Festival</a>, both to good reviews. Of her performance in \"Shame\", \"<a href=\"Rolling%20Stone\">Rolling Stone</a>\" film critic <a href=\"Peter%20Travers\">Peter Travers</a> wrote, \"Mulligan is in every way sensational.\"\nShe starred as <a href=\"Daisy%20Buchanan\">Daisy Buchanan</a>, opposite <a href=\"Leonardo%20DiCaprio\">Leonardo DiCaprio</a>, in \"<a href=\"The%20Great%20Gatsby%20%282013%20film%29\">The Great Gatsby</a>\", which was released in May 2013. Mulligan auditioned for the role of Daisy in late 2010. While attending a \"Vogue\" fashion dinner in New York City in November, <a href=\"Baz%20Luhrmann\">Baz Luhrmann</a>’s wife, Catherine Martin, told her she had the part. In May 2012, she was a co-chair, alongside <a href=\"Anna%20Wintour\">Anna Wintour</a>, for the Gatsby-themed 2012 <a href=\"Met%20Ball\">Met Ball</a> Gala.\nShe starred in the <a href=\"Far%20from%20the%20Madding%20Crowd%20%282015%20film%29\">film adaptation</a> of <a href=\"Thomas%20Hardy\">Thomas Hardy</a>'s novel \"<a href=\"Far%20from%20the%20Madding%20Crowd\">Far from the Madding Crowd</a>\" with <a href=\"Tom%20Sturridge\">Tom Sturridge</a>, <a href=\"Matthias%20Schoenaerts\">Matthias Schoenaerts</a>, and <a href=\"Michael%20Sheen\">Michael Sheen</a> for director <a href=\"Thomas%20Vinterberg\">Thomas Vinterberg</a> and <a href=\"Fox%20Searchlight\">Fox Searchlight</a>.\nShe starred in the June 2014 revival of the play \"<a href=\"Skylight%20%28play%29\">Skylight</a>\" with <a href=\"Bill%20Nighy\">Bill Nighy</a> and <a href=\"Matthew%20Beard%20%28British%20actor%29\">Matthew Beard</a>, directed by <a href=\"Stephen%20Daldry\">Stephen Daldry</a>, at <a href=\"Wyndham%27s%20Theatre\">Wyndham's Theatre</a> in London's West End. It won the <a href=\"Evening%20Standard%20Award\">2014 Evening Standard Theatre Award</a> for Revival of the Year and was nominated for the <a href=\"Laurence%20Olivier%20Award\">2014 Olivier Award for Best Revival</a> She returned to Broadway when Skylight transferred in April 2015. Her performance as Kyra Hollis was received with critical acclaim and she has received a nomination for the <a href=\"Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Performance%20by%20a%20Leading%20Actress%20in%20a%20Play\">Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play</a>.\nShe starred in \"<a href=\"Suffragette%20%28film%29\">Suffragette</a>\" for director <a href=\"Sarah%20Gavron\">Sarah Gavron</a> and screenwriter <a href=\"Abi%20Morgan\">Abi Morgan</a>, released in October 2015.\nIn September 2016, it was announced that she would star opposite <a href=\"Jake%20Gyllenhaal\">Jake Gyllenhaal</a> in the independent film \"<a href=\"Wildlife%20%28film%29\">Wildlife</a>\", the adaptation of a <a href=\"Richard%20Ford\">Richard Ford</a> novel of the same name. The film would be directed by <a href=\"Paul%20Dano\">Paul Dano</a> with a screenplay written by Dano and <a href=\"Zoe%20Kazan\">Zoe Kazan</a>.\nAside from acting, Mulligan was among the actresses who took part in the Safe Project—each was photographed in the place she feels safest—for a 2010 series to raise awareness of <a href=\"sex%20trafficking\">sex trafficking</a>. She donated the <a href=\"Vionnet\">Vionnet</a> gown she wore at the <a href=\"2010%20BAFTAs\">2010 BAFTAs</a> to the Curiosity Shop, which sells its donations to raise money for <a href=\"Oxfam\">Oxfam</a>.\nMulligan became the ambassador of the <a href=\"Alzheimer%27s%20Society\">Alzheimer's Society</a> in 2012, with the goal of raising awareness and research funding for Alzheimers and dementia. Her grandmother suffers from Alzheimers and no longer recognizes her. She helped host and participated in the 2012 Alzheimer's Society \"Memory Walk\" and was one of the sponsored Alzheimer's Society runners in the 2013 Nike \"Run to the Beat\" half-marathon in London.\nIn 2014, Mulligan became an ambassador for the charity <a href=\"War%20Child%20%28charity%29\">War Child</a>; in 2014 she visited the <a href=\"Democratic%20Republic%20of%20Congo\">Democratic Republic of Congo</a> in this role.\nMulligan is married to <a href=\"Marcus%20Mumford\">Marcus Mumford</a>, the lead singer of <a href=\"Mumford%20%26amp%3B%20Sons\">Mumford & Sons</a>. They were childhood pen pals who lost touch and reconnected as adults. They married on 21 April 2012, a few weeks after wrapping production on the film \"<a href=\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\", in which they were both involved. They have a daughter, Evelyn Grace Mumford, born in September 2015.\nTheir second child was born in August 2017.\n","Authenticity in art\nAuthenticity in art is the different ways in which a <a href=\"work%20of%20art\">work of art</a> or an artistic performance may be considered authentic.\n<a href=\"Denis%20Dutton\">Denis Dutton</a> distinguishes between \"nominal authenticity\" and \"expressive authenticity\".\nThe first refers to the correct identification of the author of a work of art, to how closely a performance of a play or piece of music conforms to the author's intention, or to how closely a work of art conforms to an artistic tradition.\nThe second sense refers to how much the work possesses original or inherent authority, how much sincerity, genuineness of expression, and moral passion the artist or performer puts into the work.\nA quite different concern is the authenticity of the experience, which may be impossible to achieve. A modern visitor to a museum may not only see an object in a very different context from that which the artist intended, but may be unable to understand important aspects of the work. The authentic experience may be impossible to recapture.\nAuthenticity is a requirement for inscription upon the <a href=\"UNESCO\">UNESCO</a> <a href=\"World%20Heritage%20List\">World Heritage List</a>. According to the \"Nara Document on Authenticity\", it can be expressed through 'form and design; materials and substance; use and function; traditions and techniques; location and setting; spirit and feeling; and other internal and external factors.'\nAuthenticity of provenance means that the origin or authorship of a work of art has been correctly identified.\nAs <a href=\"Lionel%20Trilling\">Lionel Trilling</a> points out in his 1972 book \"Sincerity and Authenticity\", the question of authenticity of provenance has acquired a profoundly moral dimension. Regardless of the appearance of the object or the quality of workmanship, there is great importance in knowing whether a vase is a genuine <a href=\"Ming%20vase\">Ming vase</a> or just a clever <a href=\"Art%20forgery\">forgery</a>.\nThis intense interest in authenticity is relatively recent and is largely confined to the western world. In the medieval period, and in countries such as modern Thailand, there was or is little interest in the identity of the artist.\nThe case of <a href=\"Han%20van%20Meegeren\">Han van Meegeren</a> is well known. After failing to succeed as an artist in his own right, he turned to creating fake <a href=\"Vermeer\">Vermeer</a> paintings. These were accepted as genuine by experts and acclaimed as masterpieces. After being arrested for selling national treasures to the Germans, he caused a sensation when he publicly demonstrated that he was the artist.\nTo guard against forgeries like this, a <a href=\"certificate%20of%20authenticity\">certificate of authenticity</a> may be used to prove that a work of art is authentic. But there is a sizable market in fake certificates.\nThe financial importance of authenticity may bias collectors to acquiring recent works of art where provenance can more easily be proven, perhaps even by a statement from the artist.\nFor older works, an increasingly sophisticated array of forensic techniques may be deployed to establish authenticity of provenance.\nThe philosopher <a href=\"Nelson%20Goodman\">Nelson Goodman</a> discusses at length the question raised by <a href=\"Aline%20B.%20Saarinen\">Aline B. Saarinen</a>: \"If a fake is so expert that even after the most thorough and trustworthy examination its authenticity is still open to doubt, is it or is it not as satisfactory a work of art as if it were unequivocally genuine?\" Goodman concludes that the question is academic, since there must be some way to distinguish a forgery from the original, and once the forgery is known for what it is, that knowledge alters the perception of value.\nHowever, <a href=\"Arthur%20Koestler\">Arthur Koestler</a> in \"<a href=\"The%20Act%20of%20Creation\">The Act of Creation</a>\" answers that if a forgery fits into an artist's body of work and produces the same kind of aesthetic pleasure as other works by that artist, there is no reason to exclude it from a museum.\nThe question of the value of a forgery may be irrelevant to a curator, since they are concerned only with the provenance of the work and not with its artistic merit.\nEven for the curator, in many cases provenance is a matter of probabilities rather than a certainty - absolute proof is not possible.\nBut once a forgery has been exposed, no matter how highly the work was praised when it was thought to be \"authentic\" there is rarely any interest in evaluating the work on its own merit.\nReproduction is inherent to some forms of art. In Medieval Europe, an artist might create a drawing which was used by another craftsman to create a <a href=\"woodcut\">woodcut</a> block. The drawing was usually destroyed in the block-cutting process, and the block was thrown away when it became worn out. The copies printed from the block are all that remain of the work.\nIn a 1936 essay, <a href=\"Walter%20Benjamin\">Walter Benjamin</a> discussed the new media of photography and film, in which the work of art can be reproduced many times with no one version being the authentic \"original\". He linked this shift from authentic objects to broadly accessible mass media with a transformation in the function of art from ritual to politics.\nModern art may raise new issues of authenticity of provenance. For example, the artist <a href=\"Duane%20Hanson\">Duane Hanson</a> instructed the conservators of his 1971 sculpture \"Sunbather\" to feel free to replace elements such as the bathing cap or swimsuit if they became faded.\nAs <a href=\"Julian%20H.%20Scaff\">Julian H. Scaff</a> points out, the computer and the internet further confuse the issue of authenticity of provenance, since a digital work of art may exist in thousands or millions of identical versions, and in variants where there is no way to determine the original version or even the author.\nAuthenticity of provenance is concerned with identifying the person who made the work, or at least pinning down the place and time in which the work was made as closely as possible. Cultural authenticity, or authenticity of style or tradition, is concerned with whether a work is a genuine expression of an artistic tradition, even when the author may be anonymous. Interest in this form of authenticity may be associated with a romantic sense of the value of the pure, unadulterated tradition, often linked to nationalistic and possibly racist beliefs.\nA work of art may be considered an authentic example of a traditional culture or genre when it conforms to the style, materials, process of creation and other essential attributes of that genre.\nMany traditions are thought to be \"owned\" by an ethnic group, and work in that genre is only considered authentic if it is created by a member of that group. Thus <a href=\"Inuit%20art\">Inuit art</a> can only be considered authentic if created by an <a href=\"Inuit%20people\">Inuit</a>. This may help to protect the originators of an art tradition from <a href=\"cultural%20appropriation\">cultural appropriation</a>, but there is a racist aspect to the view as described by Joel Rudinow in his essay \"Race, Ethnicity, Expressive Authenticity: Can White People Sing the Blues?\"\nThe market for \"<a href=\"primitive%20art\">primitive art</a>\" developed in the western world towards the end of the 19th century as explorers or colonialists came into contact with formerly unknown cultural groups in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. These people quickly learned how to incorporate new materials supplied by traders into their art, such as cloth and glass beads, but found that they could not sell these \"inauthentic\" objects. However, they learned how to manufacture works from local materials that would be considered authentic for sale to the westerners.\nThis process of creating art that will be considered authentic by western buyers continues to this day. The objects may be designed or modified to give the impression of having popular attributes and provenance, including religious or ritual uses, antiquity and association with royalty.\nSimilarly, in the 1940s <a href=\"Haiti\">Haiti</a>an professional artists began to create imitations of images provided by foreign entrepreneurs. The images represented the foreigners' view of the essence of <a href=\"Haitian%20Vodou%20art\">Haitian Vodou art</a>. The Haitian works were later claimed to be authentic.\nTo distinguish from crude objects made for the tourist trade, many collectors consider that a work is only an authentic example of a traditional genre if it meets certain standards of quality and was made for the original purpose. Dutton gives the example of the <a href=\"Igorot\">Igorot</a> of northern <a href=\"Luzon\">Luzon</a> who have long created figurines (\"<a href=\"bulul\">bulul</a>\") for use in traditional ceremonies, but today produce them primarily for the tourist trade. An Igorot family may purchase a roughly carved \"bulul\" from a tourist booth and use it for traditional ceremonies, thus giving authenticity to the work that would not, perhaps, be present otherwise.\nAlthough collectors place greater value on \"tribal\" masks or sculptures that have been used in an active ritual, it may be impossible to prove whether this is the case. Even if a video shows the mask being worn in a ritual dance, the dance may have been staged for tourists. Yet if the provenance of the mask is proven, if the mask was made by a member of the society using traditional designs and techniques, it is presumably an authentic example of the style or tradition.\nIt is not always clear what constitutes a style. For example, production of <a href=\"Zimbabwe\">Zimbabwe</a>an stone sculptures is relatively recent, dating to the 1950s. It does not draw on any earlier tradition. However, the sculpture plays an important role in establishing the existence of a uniquely Zimbabwean culture, and the authenticity of this style is strongly emphasized by the government of Zimbabwe despite the difficulty of defining its characteristics.\n<a href=\"Navajo%20people\">Navajo</a> <a href=\"Sandpainting\">sand paintings</a> raise a different issue. The traditional paintings must be destroyed on completion of the ritual in which they are used. However, Navajo artists create sand paintings for sale with slightly modified designs. Can these paintings be considered authentic examples of Navajo art?\nTraditions change. In an exploration of the evolution of the art of the <a href=\"Maroon%20people\">Maroon people</a> of <a href=\"French%20Guiana\">French Guiana</a>, <a href=\"Sally%20Price\">Sally Price</a> shows that contemporary styles have developed through a complex interaction between artists and buyers. The Maroons have a long tradition of artwork, primarily in the form of decoration of everyday objects such as paddles or shutters. This art was purely aesthetic in purpose, with no symbolic meaning. However, European collectors needed to assign symbolism to \"native art\". Over time, the Maroon artists have come to accept the European <a href=\"semiotic\">semiotic</a> vocabulary and to assign symbolism to their work, which younger artists may believe to be based on ancestral traditions. The artists have also moved into new media and new designs. Their art may still be considered authentic examples of Maroon art, but the art form and the meaning associated with it is new.\nWith performance arts such as music and theater, both the composer or playwright and the performers are involved in creating an instance of the work. There are some who consider that a performance is only truly authentic if it approximates as closely as possible what the original author would have expected to see and hear. In a <a href=\"historically%20informed%20performance\">historically informed performance</a>, the actors or musicians will make every effort to achieve this effect by using replicas of historical instruments, studying historical guides to acting and so on. They would consider, for example, that a performance of one of <a href=\"Mozart\">Mozart</a>'s piano concertos would be \"inauthentic\" if played on a modern concert <a href=\"grand%20piano\">grand piano</a>, an instrument that would have been unknown to the composer.\nOthers would not take such a rigorous view. For example, they would accept a performance of a play by <a href=\"Shakespeare\">Shakespeare</a> as authentic even if the female parts were played by women rather than boys, and if the words were spoken with modern pronunciation rather than with the pronunciation of the <a href=\"Elizabethan%20era\">Elizabethan era</a>, which would be difficult for a modern audience to understand.\nDutton's concept of expressive authenticity is based on the \"<a href=\"Oxford%20English%20Dictionary\">Oxford English Dictionary</a>\" alternative definition of \"possessing original or inherent authority\". In this sense, authenticity is a measure of the degree to which the artist's work is a committed, personal expression rather than derived from other work. It includes concepts of originality, honesty and integrity.\nIn the case of a musical performance, authenticity of expression may conflict with authenticity of performance. The player is true to their personal musical sense and does not imitate someone else's method of playing. Their performance may thus differ significantly from that of a player attempting to follow the style common at the time the musical work was composed.\nExpressive authenticity is related to the technical term \"<a href=\"Authenticity%20%28philosophy%29\">authenticity</a>\" as used in <a href=\"existential%20philosophy\">existential philosophy</a>. It has always been thought right to know oneself and to act accordingly, and in existential psychology this form of authenticity is seen as central to mental health.\nProminent artists such as the <a href=\"Abstract%20expressionism\">Abstract Expressionists</a> <a href=\"Jackson%20Pollock\">Jackson Pollock</a>, <a href=\"Arshile%20Gorky\">Arshile Gorky</a>, and <a href=\"Willem%20de%20Kooning\">Willem de Kooning</a> have been understood in existentialist terms, as have <a href=\"filmmaker\">filmmaker</a>s such as <a href=\"Jean-Luc%20Godard\">Jean-Luc Godard</a> and <a href=\"Ingmar%20Bergman\">Ingmar Bergman</a>.\nThe greater popularity of performer-based music as opposed to composition-based music is relatively recent. It seems to reflect a growing interest in expressive authenticity, and thus in musicians who have a unique and charismatic style.\nThe question of whether an artistic work is an authentic expression depends on the artist's background, beliefs and ideals. <a href=\"Andrew%20Potter\">Andrew Potter</a> cites the example of <a href=\"Avril%20Lavigne\">Avril Lavigne</a>, a teenage singer from <a href=\"Napanee\">Napanee</a>, <a href=\"Ontario\">Ontario</a> who burst onto the pop music scene in 2002. She claimed to be a small-town skateboarder, with her background providing the subjects of her songs, and said these songs were her own compositions. These claims of authenticity of expression and of provenance were both challenged. However, her work could have been authentic in expression even if Lavigne had not written it, or authentic in provenance if she had written it but not authentic in expression if the carefully cultivated skater-girl image were false.\nAuthenticity of expression may thus be linked with authenticity of style or tradition.\nMany feel it is not permissible for someone to speak in the voice of another culture or racial background, and that such an expression cannot be authentic.\nFor example, <a href=\"hip%20hop\">hip hop</a> was originally an art form through which underprivileged minorities in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> protested against their condition. As it has become less of an underground culture, there is debate over whether the spirit of hip hop can survive in a marketable integrated version.\nIn \"Authenticity Within Hip Hop and Other Cultures Threatened with Assimilation,\" <a href=\"Kembrew%20McLeod\">Kembrew McLeod</a> argues that hip hop culture is threatened with assimilation by a larger, mainstream culture, and that authenticity of expression in this genre is being lost.\nA quite different concern is the authenticity of the experience, which may be impossible to achieve. A modern visitor to a museum may not only see an object in a very different context from that which the artist intended, but also may be unable to understand important aspects of the work. The authentic experience may be impossible to recapture. A curator may accept this, perhaps attempting to present the works of art in their authentic condition, but accepting that the artificial setting and lighting are legitimate in providing a contemporary experience of the artwork, even if this experience cannot be \"authentic\".\nDutton discusses the importance of the audience, giving a hypothetical example based on \"<a href=\"La%20Scala\">La Scala</a>\", the famous <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a> opera house. He imagines that the natural audience, informed aficionados of the opera, lose interest and cease to attend, but the performances continue to be given to tourists who have no understanding of the work they are experiencing. In another example, he quotes a Pacific Island dancer saying \"Culture? That's what we do for the tourists.\" In both cases, although the performances may be authentic in the sense of being true to the original, the authenticity of the experience is open to debate.","The Mayor of MacDougal Street\n\"This article is about the album. \"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\" is also the title of Dave Van Ronk's memoir\nThe Mayor of MacDougal Street (subtitled \"Rarities 1957-1969\") is a compilation album by <a href=\"United%20States\">American</a> folksinger <a href=\"Dave%20Van%20Ronk\">Dave Van Ronk</a>, released in 2005.\n\"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\" contains previously unreleased songs and is presented in chronological order. It contains both solo material and songs recorded with session musicians and bands that either backed Van Ronk or he was a member of. It was included with the memoir of the same title before being released as a separate CD. The title refers to <a href=\"MacDougal%20Street\">MacDougal Street</a> in <a href=\"Greenwich%20Village\">Greenwich Village</a>.\nWriting for <a href=\"Allmusic\">Allmusic</a>, critic Steve Leggett wrote of the album \"Van Ronk was never a part of the tradition-at-all-costs wing of the folk movement, and he readily embraced the young songwriters of the day, frequently covering their songs, as evidenced by the hushed, nuanced version of <a href=\"Leonard%20Cohen\">Leonard Cohen</a>'s \"Bird on the Wire\" that is included here. A skilled raconteur, Van Ronk had the timing of a jazz hornman, and that timing and his wide-ranging musical interests are everywhere apparent on this lovingly assembled look behind the curtains.\"","Dave Van Ronk\nDavid Kenneth Ritz \"Dave\" Van Ronk (June 30, 1936 – February 10, 2002) was an American <a href=\"folk%20singer\">folk singer</a>. An important figure in the <a href=\"American%20folk%20music%20revival\">American folk music revival</a> and New York City's <a href=\"Greenwich%20Village\">Greenwich Village</a> scene in the 1960s, he was nicknamed the \"Mayor of <a href=\"MacDougal%20Street\">MacDougal Street</a>\".\nVan Ronk's work ranged from old English ballads to <a href=\"blues\">blues</a>, <a href=\"gospel%20music\">gospel</a>, <a href=\"Rock%20music\">rock</a>, <a href=\"Dixieland\">New Orleans jazz</a>, and <a href=\"swing%20%28genre%29\">swing</a>. He was also known for performing instrumental <a href=\"ragtime\">ragtime</a> guitar music, especially his transcription of \"St. Louis Tickle\" and <a href=\"Scott%20Joplin\">Scott Joplin</a>'s \"<a href=\"Maple%20Leaf%20Rag\">Maple Leaf Rag</a>\". Van Ronk was a widely admired avuncular figure in \"the Village\", presiding over the coffeehouse folk culture and acting as a friend to many up-and-coming artists by inspiring, assisting, and promoting them. Folk performers whom he befriended include <a href=\"Bob%20Dylan\">Bob Dylan</a>, <a href=\"Tom%20Paxton\">Tom Paxton</a>, <a href=\"Patrick%20Sky\">Patrick Sky</a>, <a href=\"Phil%20Ochs\">Phil Ochs</a>, <a href=\"Ramblin%27%20Jack%20Elliott\">Ramblin' Jack Elliott</a>, and <a href=\"Joni%20Mitchell\">Joni Mitchell</a>. Bob Dylan recorded Van Ronk's arrangement of the traditional song \"<a href=\"House%20of%20the%20Rising%20Sun\">House of the Rising Sun</a>\" on his first album, which <a href=\"The%20Animals\">The Animals</a> turned into a chart-topping rock single in 1964, helping inaugurate the folk-rock movement.\nVan Ronk received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (<a href=\"American%20Society%20of%20Composers%2C%20Authors%20and%20Publishers\">ASCAP</a>) in December 1997. He died in a New York hospital of cardiopulmonary failure while undergoing postoperative treatment for <a href=\"colon%20cancer\">colon cancer</a>.\nVan Ronk was born in <a href=\"Brooklyn\">Brooklyn</a> to a family that was \"mostly Irish, despite the Dutch name.\" He moved from Brooklyn to <a href=\"Queens\">Queens</a> in 1951 and began attending Holy Child Jesus Catholic School, whose students were mainly of Irish descent. He had been performing in a <a href=\"Barbershop%20music\">barbershop quartet</a> since 1949, but left before finishing high school, and spent the next few years bumming around lower Manhattan and twice shipping out with the <a href=\"United%20States%20Merchant%20Marine\">Merchant Marine</a>.\nHis first professional gigs playing tenor banjola were with various traditional jazz bands around New York, of which he later observed: \"We wanted to play traditional jazz in the worst way...and we did!\" But the <a href=\"trad%20jazz\">trad jazz</a> revival had already passed its prime, and Van Ronk turned to performing blues he had stumbled across while shopping for jazz 78s, by artists like <a href=\"Furry%20Lewis\">Furry Lewis</a> and <a href=\"Mississippi%20John%20Hurt\">Mississippi John Hurt</a>. Van Ronk was not the first white musician to perform African-American blues, but became noted for his interpretation of it in its original context.\nBy about 1958, he was firmly committed to the folk-blues style, accompanying himself with his own acoustic guitar. He performed <a href=\"blues\">blues</a>, <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a> and <a href=\"folk%20music\">folk music</a>, occasionally writing his own songs but generally arranging the work of earlier artists and his folk revival peers. At one point, he was considered for a folk-pop trio with <a href=\"Peter%20Yarrow\">Peter Yarrow</a>. Van Ronk's voice and style were considered too idiosyncratic and the role eventually went to <a href=\"Noel%20Paul%20Stookey\">Noel Paul Stookey</a> (who became the \"Paul\" in <a href=\"Peter%2C%20Paul%20and%20Mary\">Peter, Paul and Mary</a>).\nHe became noted both for his large physical stature and his expansive charisma, which bespoke an intellectual, cultured gentleman of many talents. Among his many interests were cooking, <a href=\"science%20fiction\">science fiction</a> (he was active for some time in <a href=\"science%20fiction%20fandom\">science fiction fandom</a>, referring to it as \"mind rot\", and contributed to <a href=\"science%20fiction%20fanzines\">fanzines</a>), world history, and politics. During the 1960s he supported radical left-wing political causes and was a member of the <a href=\"Libertarian%20League\">Libertarian League</a> and the Trotskyist American Committee for the <a href=\"Fourth%20International\">Fourth International</a> (ACFI, later renamed the Workers League ). In 1974, he appeared at \"An Evening For <a href=\"Salvador%20Allende\">Salvador Allende</a>\", a concert organized by <a href=\"Phil%20Ochs\">Phil Ochs</a>, alongside such other performers as his old friend <a href=\"Bob%20Dylan\">Bob Dylan</a>, to protest the overthrow of the democratic socialist government of Chile and to aid refugees from the U.S.-backed military junta led by <a href=\"Augusto%20Pinochet\">Augusto Pinochet</a>. After Ochs's suicide in 1976, Van Ronk joined the many performers who played at his memorial concert in the <a href=\"Felt%20Forum\">Felt Forum</a> at <a href=\"Madison%20Square%20Garden\">Madison Square Garden</a>, playing his bluesy version of the traditional folk ballad \"<a href=\"He%20Was%20A%20Friend%20Of%20Mine\">He Was A Friend Of Mine</a>\". Although Van Ronk was less politically active in later years, he remained committed to anarchist and socialist ideals and was a dues-paying member of the <a href=\"Industrial%20Workers%20of%20the%20World\">Industrial Workers of the World</a> (IWW) almost until his death.\nIn 2000, he performed at Blind Willie's in <a href=\"Atlanta\">Atlanta</a>, clothed in garish <a href=\"Hawaii\">Hawaii</a>an garb, speaking fondly of his impending return to Greenwich Village. He reminisced over tunes like \"You've Been a Good Old Wagon,\" a song teasing a worn-out lover, which he ruefully remarked had seemed humorous to him back in 1962. He was married to Terri Thal in the 1960s, lived for many years with Joanne Grace, then married Andrea Vuocolo, with whom he spent the rest of his life. He continued to perform for four decades and gave his last concert just a few months before his death. He found it amusing to be called \"a legend in his own time\".\nVan Ronk died before completing work on his memoirs, which were finished by his collaborator, <a href=\"Elijah%20Wald\">Elijah Wald</a>, and published in 2005 as \"The Mayor Of MacDougal Street\".\nIn 2004, a section of Sheridan Square, where Barrow Street meets Washington Place, was renamed Dave Van Ronk Street in his memory.\n\nVan Ronk can be described as an irreverent and incomparable guitar artist and interpreter of black blues and folk, with an uncannily precise ability at impersonation. <a href=\"Joni%20Mitchell\">Joni Mitchell</a> often said that his rendition of her song \"<a href=\"Both%20Sides%20Now%20%28song%29\">Both Sides Now</a>\" (which he called \"Clouds\") was the finest ever.\nHe is perhaps underestimated as a musician and blues guitarist. His guitar work, for which he credits Tom Paley as fingerpicking teacher, is noteworthy for both syncopation and precision. It shows similarities to <a href=\"Mississippi%20John%20Hurt\">Mississippi John Hurt</a>'s, but Van Ronk's main influence was the <a href=\"Reverend%20Gary%20Davis\">Reverend Gary Davis</a>, who conceived the guitar as \"a piano around his neck\". Van Ronk took this pianistic approach and added a harmonic sophistication adapted from the band voicings of <a href=\"Jelly%20Roll%20Morton\">Jelly Roll Morton</a> and <a href=\"Duke%20Ellington\">Duke Ellington</a>. He ranks high in bringing blues style to Greenwich Village during the 1960s, as well as introducing the folk world to the complex harmonies of <a href=\"Kurt%20Weill\">Kurt Weill</a> in his many Brecht-Weill interpretations, and being one of the very few hardcore traditional revivalists to move with the times, bringing old blues and ballads together with the new sounds of Dylan, Mitchell and <a href=\"Leonard%20Cohen\">Leonard Cohen</a>. During this crucial period, he performed with the likes of <a href=\"Bob%20Dylan\">Bob Dylan</a> and spent many years teaching guitar in Greenwich Village, including to <a href=\"Christine%20Lavin\">Christine Lavin</a>, <a href=\"David%20Massengill\">David Massengill</a>, <a href=\"Terre%20Roche\">Terre Roche</a> and <a href=\"Suzzy%20Roche\">Suzzy Roche</a>. He influenced his protégé <a href=\"Danny%20Kalb\">Danny Kalb</a> and <a href=\"The%20Blues%20Project\">The Blues Project</a>. The Japanese singer Masato Tomobe, American pop-folk singer Geoff Thais and the musician and writer Elijah Wald learned from him as well. Known for making interesting and memorable observations he once said, \"Painting is all about space, and music is all about time.\" In his autobiography Bob Dylan states, \"I'd heard Van Ronk back in the Midwest on records and thought he was pretty great, copied some of his recordings phrase for phrase. [...] Van Ronk could howl and whisper, turn blues into ballads and ballads into blues. I loved his style. He was what the city was all about. In Greenwich Village, Van Ronk was king of the street, he reigned supreme.\"\nThanks to what he had learned from Davis, Van Ronk was among the first to adapt traditional jazz and ragtime to the solo acoustic guitar. His guitar arrangements of such ragtime hits as \"St. Louis Tickle\", \"<a href=\"The%20Entertainer%20%28rag%29\">The Entertainer</a>\", \"The Pearls\" and \"<a href=\"Maple%20Leaf%20Rag\">Maple Leaf Rag</a>\" continue to frustrate and challenge aspiring guitar players. He also did fine compositions of his own in the classic styles, such as \"Antelope Rag\". His song \"<a href=\"Last%20Call%20%28Dave%20Van%20Ronk%20song%29\">Last Call</a>\" is the source of the title of <a href=\"Lawrence%20Block\">Lawrence Block</a>'s book \"When the Sacred Ginmill Closes\".\nVan Ronk was among 13 people arrested at the <a href=\"Stonewall%20Inn\">Stonewall Inn</a> June 28, 1969—the night that the <a href=\"Stonewall%20Riots\">Stonewall Riots</a>, which many cite as the start of the gay rights movement, began. The New York Times reported the next day that he was arrested and later parolled on his own recognizance for having thrown a heavy object at a patrolman.\nCity records reveal he was charged with felony assault in the second degree and pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of harassment, classified in 1969 as a violation under pL 240.25. Articles published at the time in the \"<a href=\"New%20York%20Post\">New York Post</a>\" and the \"<a href=\"Village%20Voice\">Village Voice</a>\" reveal that Van Ronk was pulled by police from the crowd outside and dragged inside the Stonewall.\nThe <a href=\"Coen%20brothers\">Coen brothers</a> film \"<a href=\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\" follows a folk singer similar to Van Ronk, and incorporates anecdotes based on Van Ronk's life.\nVan Ronk refused for many years to fly and never learned to drive (he would use trains or buses or, when possible, recruit a girlfriend or young musician as his driver), and he declined to ever move from Greenwich Village for any extended period of time (having stayed in California for a short time in the 1960s). Van Ronk's trademark <a href=\"stoneware\">stoneware</a> jug of <a href=\"Tullamore%20Dew\">Tullamore Dew</a> was frequently seen on stage next to him in his early days.\nCritic <a href=\"Robert%20Shelton%20%28critic%29\">Robert Shelton</a> described Van Ronk as \"the musical mayor of MacDougal Street\": [A] tall, garrulous hairy man of three quarters, or, more accurately, three fifths Irish descent. Topped by light brownish hair and a leonine beard, which he smoothed down several times a minute, he resembled an unmade bed strewn with books, record jackets, pipes, empty whiskey bottles, lines from obscure poets, finger picks, and broken guitar strings. He was Bob [Dylan]'s first New York guru. Van Ronk was a walking museum of the blues. Through an early interest in jazz, he had gravitated toward black music - its jazz pole, its jug-band and ragtime center, its blues bedrock... his manner was rough and testy, disguising a warm, sensitive core. Van Ronk retold the blues intimately... for a time, his most dedicated follower was [Bob] Dylan.\nVan Ronk was author of a posthumous memoir, \"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\" (2005) written with <a href=\"Elijah%20Wald\">Elijah Wald</a>. Anecdotes from the book were used as a source for the film \"<a href=\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\".\nVan Ronk and Richard Ellington collected and edited \"The Bosses’ Songbook: [32] Songs to Stifle the Flames of Discontent, Second Edition – A Collection of Modern Political Songs and Satire\" (Richard Ellington, publisher: New York, 1959). This originally 50¢ staple-bound paperback of lyrics in 1959 carried an asking price of $265 on AbeBooks.com (accessed February 6, 2015); the booklet is downloadable as two files (<a href=\"http%3A//www.sds-1960s.org/TheBossesSongbookPart1.pdf\"></a>, <a href=\"http%3A//www.sds-1960s.org/TheBossesSongbookPart2.pdf\"></a>).\n","Gerde's Folk City\nGerdes Folk City (sometimes spelled Gerde's Folk City) was a music venue in the <a href=\"West%20Village\">West Village</a>, part of <a href=\"Greenwich%20Village\">Greenwich Village</a>, <a href=\"Manhattan\">Manhattan</a>, in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. Initially opened as a restaurant called Gerdes, by owner <a href=\"Mike%20Porco\">Mike Porco</a>, it eventually began to present occasional incidental music. First located at 11 West <a href=\"4th%20Street\">4th Street</a> (in a building which no longer exists), it moved in 1970 to 130 West 3rd Street. It closed in 1987. On January 26, 1960, Gerdes turned into a music venue called The Fifth Peg, in cooperation with <a href=\"Izzy%20Young\">Izzy Young</a>, the director of the Folklore Center. The Fifth Peg's debut bill was gospel folk singer Brother John Sellars and <a href=\"Ed%20McCurdy\">Ed McCurdy</a>, writer of the anti-war classic \"<a href=\"Last%20Night%20I%20Had%20the%20Strangest%20Dream\">Last Night I Had the Strangest Dream</a>\". Porco and Young had a falling-out, and on June 1, 1960, Gerdes Folk City was officially born with a bill featuring folksingers <a href=\"Carolyn%20Hester\">Carolyn Hester</a> and <a href=\"Logan%20English\">Logan English</a>. At this time Gerdes Folk City was booked by a folk enthusiast Charlie Rothschild (who later became <a href=\"Judy%20Collins\">Judy Collins</a>' longtime manager) and English. Gerdes Folk City was suddenly one of the central music venues of the era. It became one of the most influential American music clubs, before finally losing its lease in 1987. \"\"Rolling Stone\" Book of Lists\" called Folk City one of the three top music venues in the world, along with <a href=\"The%20Cavern\">The Cavern</a> and <a href=\"CBGB\">CBGB</a>. Folk City helped to launch the careers of several world-renowned musical stars from <a href=\"Bob%20Dylan\">Bob Dylan</a> to <a href=\"Sonic%20Youth\">Sonic Youth</a>, and showcased numerous music styles from folk to alternative rock.\nOpening officially on January 26, 1960, \"Folk City\" was born in <a href=\"Greenwich%20Village\">Greenwich Village</a>, and generated several waves of musical genres ranging from <a href=\"folk%20music\">folk music</a> to <a href=\"rock%20%E2%80%98n%E2%80%99%20roll\">rock ‘n’ roll</a>; <a href=\"folk%20rock\">folk rock</a> to <a href=\"Punk%20rock\">punk</a>; <a href=\"blues\">blues</a> to <a href=\"alternative%20rock\">alternative rock</a>, bringing the world a wide range of music from <a href=\"Pete%20Seeger\">Pete Seeger</a> to <a href=\"10%2C000%20Maniacs\">10,000 Maniacs</a>. Singer and poet <a href=\"Logan%20English\">Logan English</a> performed at the opening night, together with <a href=\"Carolyn%20Hester\">Carolyn Hester</a>. From <a href=\"The%20Weavers\">The Weavers</a> to <a href=\"Sonny%20Terry\">Sonny Terry</a> and <a href=\"Brownie%20McGhee\">Brownie McGhee</a>, <a href=\"Judy%20Collins\">Judy Collins</a> and <a href=\"Rev.%20Gary%20Davis\">Rev. Gary Davis</a>, many musicians who formed contemporary music’s foundation performed there. <a href=\"Doc%20Watson\">Doc Watson</a> made his first solo performance at Gerdes. It was recorded and released as \"<a href=\"Doc%20Watson%20at%20Gerdes%20Folk%20City\">Doc Watson at Gerdes Folk City</a>\". <a href=\"Simon%20%26amp%3B%20Garfunkel\">Simon & Garfunkel</a> and <a href=\"Peter%2C%20Paul%20%26amp%3B%20Mary\">Peter, Paul & Mary</a> performed early in their professional careers at Gerdes, and Peter, Paul & Mary's first official performance as a trio was at Folk City.\n<a href=\"Bob%20Dylan\">Bob Dylan</a> played his first professional gig there on April 11, 1961, supporting <a href=\"John%20Lee%20Hooker\">John Lee Hooker</a>. Logan English was instrumental in securing Dylan his first appearance. His widow Barbara Shutner said:\"My husband Logan English and I met Bob Dylan at Bob and Sid Gleason's house... One night we were all sitting around and <a href=\"Woody%20Guthrie\">Woody</a> [Guthrie] said something like, \"Play something\" to this kid sitting on the couch. The kid was Bob Dylan, and he sang and it was just beautiful. So Logan said, \"I'm working at Gerde's. I'm the MC. We'll get you to play there.\" So that Monday night, Bob came in and did his first set.\" Dylan's September 29, 1961 appearance was reviewed in the \"<a href=\"New%20York%20Times\">New York Times</a>\" by <a href=\"Robert%20Shelton%20%28critic%29\">Robert Shelton</a>, after which Dylan's reputation was made. Gerdes was where Bob Dylan debuted \"<a href=\"Blowin%27%20in%20the%20Wind\">Blowin' in the Wind</a>\" and was also the place where <a href=\"Joan%20Baez\">Joan Baez</a> and Dylan met for the first time. On October 23, 1975 at a celebration for Mike Porco's 61st birthday, Dylan's <a href=\"Rolling%20Thunder%20Revue\">Rolling Thunder Revue</a> staged a dress rehearsal and played its first real concert. The Review began its national tour a week after playing at Gerdes on October 30, 1975.\nIn May 1976, folk legend <a href=\"Bob%20Gibson\">Bob Gibson</a> and his manager Doug Yeager produced a week-long celebration to Mike Porco and Folk City, where more than thirty of the club's early star performers came out to honor the club. Folk City is the place where many of the '60s <a href=\"folk-rock\">folk-rock</a> and '70s singer-songwriters first found their voices, and shows included future stars such as <a href=\"Janis%20Joplin\">Janis Joplin</a>, <a href=\"Jimi%20Hendrix\">Jimi Hendrix</a>, <a href=\"The%20Mamas%20and%20The%20Papas\">The Mamas and The Papas</a>, <a href=\"the%20Byrds\">the Byrds</a>, <a href=\"The%20Lovin%27%20Spoonful\">The Lovin' Spoonful</a>, <a href=\"the%20Youngbloods\">the Youngbloods</a>, <a href=\"Emmylou%20Harris\">Emmylou Harris</a> (who also waitressed at the club), <a href=\"Joni%20Mitchell\">Joni Mitchell</a>, <a href=\"Phoebe%20Snow\">Phoebe Snow</a>, <a href=\"Loudon%20Wainwright%20III\">Loudon Wainwright III</a> and many other well-known names.\nStarting in 1978, the soon-to-be new owners, Robbie Woliver, Marilyn Lash and Joseph Hillesum took over the booking duties from Mike Porco, continuing to 1980 when they officially bought the club from Porco. \"Folk City\", under new ownership, underwent a revival, bringing back folk legends like Odetta, Arlo Guthrie, <a href=\"Ewan%20MacColl\">Ewan MacColl</a> (\"<a href=\"The%20First%20Time%20Ever%20I%20Saw%20Your%20Face\">The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face</a>\"), <a href=\"Maria%20Muldaur\">Maria Muldaur</a>, Eric Andersen, <a href=\"The%20Band\">The Band</a> and others, and also introducing a new breed of singer-songwriter and expanding its boundaries to a wider range of rock music, especially <a href=\"alternative%20music\">alternative music</a> like <a href=\"Richard%20Thompson%20%28musician%29\">Richard Thompson</a>, <a href=\"Pentangle%20%28band%29\">Pentangle</a>, <a href=\"Elvis%20Costello\">Elvis Costello</a>, <a href=\"Sonic%20Youth\">Sonic Youth</a>, <a href=\"The%20Bongos\">The Bongos</a> (who made their debut there backing up Helen Hooke of <a href=\"The%20Deadly%20Nightshade\">The Deadly Nightshade</a>), <a href=\"Yo%20La%20Tengo\">Yo La Tengo</a>, <a href=\"The%20Replacements%20%28band%29\">the Replacements</a>, <a href=\"10%2C000%20Maniacs\">10,000 Maniacs</a> and many others. A new wave of singer-songwriters found a home at \"Folk City\" during this time as well, such as <a href=\"Suzanne%20Vega\">Suzanne Vega</a>, <a href=\"Shawn%20Colvin\">Shawn Colvin</a>, <a href=\"Lucinda%20Williams\">Lucinda Williams</a> and comedians <a href=\"Adam%20Sandler\">Adam Sandler</a>, <a href=\"Chris%20Rock\">Chris Rock</a> and others.\nFolk City was not just about music; comedians also performed at the club throughout its history. From <a href=\"Martin%20Mull\">Martin Mull</a> to <a href=\"Andy%20Kaufman\">Andy Kaufman</a>, many comic actors and comedians got their early start at the club: Adam Sandler, Chris Rock, <a href=\"Kathy%20Kinney\">Kathy Kinney</a>, <a href=\"Carol%20Leifer\">Carol Leifer</a>, <a href=\"Richard%20Lewis%20%28comedian%29\">Richard Lewis</a>, <a href=\"Mary%20Kay%20Place\">Mary Kay Place</a>, <a href=\"Larry%20David\">Larry David</a>, <a href=\"Jim%20Belushi\">Jim Belushi</a>, <a href=\"Andy%20Breckman\">Andy Breckman</a> (creator of \"<a href=\"Monk%20%28TV%20series%29\">Monk</a>\"), Martin Mull, <a href=\"Steve%20Buscemi\">Steve Buscemi</a> and more. Under the direction of actress/comedian/singer <a href=\"Jane%20Brucker\">Jane Brucker</a> (\"One Life To Live, \"Dirty Dancing\"), improv and comedy became all the rage, with Jane introducing such new acts as Adam Sandler and Kathy Kinney (\"Mimi\" on \"<a href=\"the%20Drew%20Carey%20Show\">the Drew Carey Show</a>\".) On \"Theater Night,\" singer/performer Fran Maya introduced Steve Buscemi and his partner <a href=\"Mark%20Boone%2C%20Jr.\">Mark Boone, Jr.</a> (\"<a href=\"Sons%20of%20Anarchy\">Sons of Anarchy</a>\") who became regulars on Theater and Comedy nights.\nIn the 80s, the club underwent another revival, introducing a new breed of singer-songwriter and in expanding its boundaries to a wider range of rock music, with its alternative Wednesday night music series \"Music For Dozens\" which featured <a href=\"David%20Johansen\">David Johansen</a>, Sonic Youth, Yo La Tengo, <a href=\"Alex%20Chilton\">Alex Chilton</a>, the <a href=\"Minutemen%20%28band%29\">Minutemen</a>, <a href=\"The%20Smithereens\">The Smithereens</a>, Violent Femmes, <a href=\"The%20Replacements%20%28band%29\">The Replacements</a>, 10,000 Maniacs, <a href=\"Richard%20Lloyd%20%28guitarist%29\">Richard Lloyd</a>, Chris Stamey, <a href=\"Dream%20Syndicate\">Dream Syndicate</a>, <a href=\"H%C3%BCsker%20D%C3%BC\">Hüsker Dü</a>, <a href=\"X%20%28American%20band%29\">X</a>, <a href=\"Golden%20Palominos\">Golden Palominos</a>, <a href=\"the%20Blasters\">the Blasters</a> and many others. A new wave of singer-songwriters found a home at Folk City during this time as well, such as Suzanne Vega, Shawn Colvin and Lucinda Williams. In 1982, Kevin F King, and the Seven Letters performed in one of the final, Best of the Songwriters Series.\nIn 1985, the club held a benefit 25th Anniversary Concert, which was part of the NYC Pier Summer Concerts, and was an immediate sell-out. The club lost its lease and closed in 1987, at the height of its revival.\nThe owners, however, have continued over the years to produce and present Folk City concerts and performances around the country featuring Folk City alumni and new up-and-coming artists.\nA theatrical production - \"Folk City\" - a musical based on the club's history and the book \"Bringing It All Back Home,\" by Robbie Woliver, is scheduled for Fall 2016.\nGerde's. has hosted performances by:\nLive albums recorded at Gerde's Folk City include:\n\"Bringing It All Back Home\" (Pantheon/Random House, 1986) by Robbie Woliver documents Folk City's history and went into a second printing as \"Hoot\" (St. Martins Press, 1994).\n","Marcus Mumford\nMarcus Oliver Johnstone Mumford (born 31 January 1987) is a British-American singer, songwriter, musician and producer best known as the lead singer of the band <a href=\"Mumford%20%26amp%3B%20Sons\">Mumford & Sons</a>. He also plays a number of instruments with the group, including guitar, drums and mandolin.\nMarcus was born on 31 January 1987 in <a href=\"Orange%20County%2C%20California\">Orange County, California</a>, to <a href=\"English%20people\">English</a> parents. As a result, he has held both British and <a href=\"United%20States%20nationality%20law\">US</a> citizenship from birth.\nMumford has an older brother, James. His aunt is an academic in law at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Bristol\">University of Bristol</a>.\nMumford's family moved back to their native <a href=\"England\">England</a> when Marcus was six months old. He grew up in Wimbledon Chase, southwest London, and attended <a href=\"King%27s%20College%20School\">King's College School</a> in <a href=\"Wimbledon%2C%20London\">Wimbledon</a>. There he met future fellow band member <a href=\"Ben%20Lovett%20%28British%20musician%29\">Ben Lovett</a>. He returned to London to focus on his music career after his first year of study at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Edinburgh\">University of Edinburgh</a>, where he collaborated on Mumford & Sons' debut album, \"<a href=\"Sigh%20No%20More%20%28Mumford%20%26amp%3B%20Sons%20album%29\">Sigh No More</a>\".\nHe began his musical career playing drums for <a href=\"Laura%20Marling\">Laura Marling</a> on tour, along with the other current members of Mumford & Sons. It was through touring with Marling and gaining experience playing gigs, as well as experimenting with his early writing that they decided to form the band in 2007.\nMumford was included in the <a href=\"Forbes\">Forbes</a> 30 Under 30 list of music stars in December 2012 for his achievements with Mumford & Sons. Forbes commented of the list which also included acts such as <a href=\"Adele\">Adele</a> and <a href=\"Rihanna\">Rihanna</a>: \"In sum they represent the entrepreneurial, creative and intellectual best of their generation. Individually, they are engaging, surprising and incredibly hardworking.\"\nMumford sang a <a href=\"Cover%20version\">cover</a> of \"<a href=\"Dink%27s%20Song\">Dink's Song</a>\" with <a href=\"Oscar%20Isaac\">Oscar Isaac</a> for the 2013 <a href=\"Coen%20brothers\">Coen brothers</a> film \"<a href=\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\". Although Mumford is not seen in the film, he voices the protagonist's musical partner, Mike, who has committed suicide before the starting point of the film.\nMumford is featured on the 2014 collaborative album \"\", with other artists including <a href=\"Elvis%20Costello\">Elvis Costello</a>, <a href=\"Rhiannon%20Giddens\">Rhiannon Giddens</a>, <a href=\"Taylor%20Goldsmith\">Taylor Goldsmith</a>, <a href=\"Jim%20James\">Jim James</a>, Jay Bellerose, and <a href=\"T%20Bone%20Burnett\">T Bone Burnett</a>. Mumford takes co-writing credits on tracks, \"Kansas City\", \"When I Get My Hands on You\", \"The Whistle Is Blowing\", \"Stranger\", and \"Lost on the River #20\".\nOn 23 September 2014, the video for \"When I Get My Hands on You\" was released and features Mumford on lead vocals.\nMumford and Sons third album, \"<a href=\"Wilder%20Mind\">Wilder Mind</a>\", was released on 4 May 2015.\nIn 2014, Mumford produced \"Hold Fast\" by Christian Letts (<a href=\"Edward%20Sharpe%20and%20the%20Magnetic%20Zeros\">Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros</a>), released February 2015. Mumford co-wrote 4 tracks from the record - \"Copper Bells\", \"La Mer\", \"Emeralds\" and \"Matches\".\nMumford produced the album \"Gamble for a Rose\" by <a href=\"King%20Charles%20%28musician%29\">King Charles</a>, released January 2016.\nMumford's parents, John and Eleanor (née Weir-Breen), are former national leaders of the <a href=\"Vineyard%20Churches%20UK%20and%20Ireland\">Vineyard Church</a> (UK and Ireland).\nMumford formerly dated <a href=\"Laura%20Marling\">Laura Marling</a> from whom he separated in late 2010. In April 2012 Mumford married actress <a href=\"Carey%20Mulligan\">Carey Mulligan</a> in <a href=\"Somerset\">Somerset</a>. They were childhood <a href=\"pen%20pal\">pen pal</a>s who lost touch and reconnected as adults. They married a few weeks after wrapping production on the Coen brothers film \"Inside Llewyn Davis\", in which they were both involved. They have a daughter."],"string":"[\n \"Llewyn Davis (character)\\nLlewyn Davis is a fictional character, the main protagonist and anti-hero from the film \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\". He is a young, struggling folk singer trying to become more famous and financially successful after the flop of his debut album, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\".\\nWhen creating the character of Llewyn Davis, Joel Coen summed up the idea as \\\"suppose Dave Van Ronk gets beat up outside of Gerde's Folk City. That's the beginning of a movie.\\\" The Coen Brothers used \\\"Van Ronk’s posthumous memoir, The Mayor of MacDougal Street\\\" as an influence for the screenplay and Llewyn Davis' journey. The album cover and title of \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" is also directly inspired by Dave Van Ronk's album \\\"Inside Dave Van Ronk\\\". In describing how Isaac was cast, Robert Christgau writes that \\\"The Coens... emphasize that Van Ronk's story was only the seed of a fiction, and were pleased to cast Isaac in the title role partly because he's so unlike Van Ronk physically.\\\"\\nIn his high school days, Isaac was previously involved in two punk bands and lived a straight-edge lifestyle. Grammy winning producer T-Bone Burnett, who worked with the Coen brothers on \\\"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\\\" said of Isaac, \\\"I haven't worked with an actor who could play and sing this style of music this well,\\\" admits Burnett. \\\"You can't do it with bluster; you have to do it with the rawest honesty you can.\\\" Isaac also developed a style of finger-picking that Burnett explains is \\\"a little bit like patting your head and rubbing someone else's stomach — in another country.\\\" Isaac described his audition process thus: \\\"I first auditioned for the casting director, did a few scenes. Then I went home and recorded myself playing \\\"Hang Me.\\\" That got sent to the Coens. Then I came in and auditioned for them, learned a few extra songs just in case. They sent that over to T Bone. And T Bone said, [invoking a famous line from \\\"The Producers\\\"] 'I think we've found our Hitler!'\\\" Oscar Isaac \\\"was the opposite of what [the Coen brothers] had initially been looking for: a classically trained actor. But he could also sing and play guitar.\\\" In an interview with Rolling Stone, Isaac further noted, \\\"Well, I knew that it was loosely based on Dave Van Ronk [and his memoir The Mayor of MacDougal Street], and he was like a six-foot-five, 250 pound Swede. So I came in, and out of the corner of my eye I saw a photograph of a very well-known musician – and I was encouraged because it was a guy who was a little smaller and a dark haired and had a beard. I was like, \\\"So you guys have that picture as kind of a reference?\\\" And they're like, \\\"Oh yeah. He came in. He killed it.\\\" The blood just drained out of my face. But then I did the audition and it went well and they called me back.\\\" He also describes being influenced by Erik Franzen, an old friend of Dave Van Ronk's, who Davis says \\\"started teaching me this Travis-style picking, which I was not aware of – didn't know how to do it. It's this crazy syncopation. We'd play and I paid him for lessons and then we started playing in the Village. I opened for him a couple times at these open mics. He was like a trainer – the last day before the audition I played for him and then he looked at me and goes \\\"I see the big guy behind you giving the thumb's up.\\\"\\nOscar Isaac described his character as \\\"such an internal guy...an island, shut off from everyone else.\\\" Isaac, described antithetically against his character as \\\"a naturally warm personality\\\", said that he prepared for the role by simply approaching random strangers at parties and talking to them, without trying to impress them or putting on a friendly facade.\\\" Isaac notes that the character is someone who desires authenticity so much so that the opinions of others do not matter to him. However, Isaac believes that this is not a quality of confidence from Davis, but of spite and apathy, which further \\\"alienates him\\\" and \\\"causes him to lack some empathy\\\". The character has been described as \\\"brooding, depressed, and irritable\\\", and his \\\"blend of artistic idealism and brooding cynicism are irreconcilable, and seem certain to keep him locked in place – alone, broke, staring out into an uncertain future.\\\"\\nCritic Amy Klein writes that Davis' \\\"story serves as a dramatic counterpoint to certain beliefs about America that young Americans do not trust anymore: it is, and has always been, a myth that hard work and talent get a person ahead, but Llewyn Davis has to learn firsthand that he’s been fed a bunch of lies. In this way, he’s an excellent role model for millennials: a guy with talent and an independent spirit, broke but not yet broken, cynical as all hell but still doing what he loves anyway. Fate seems to love nothing more than to kick him when he’s down, and yet, he somehow gets up and keeps on going. Believe it or not, the art of failure is actually harder to master than it looks because you really have to keep on trying in order to fail consistently.\\\" Christopher Orr of The Atlantic writes that, \\\"As an artist, he’s remote and self-absorbed, despite his clear talent. When he visits Chicago to play for the powerful manager Bud Grossman (F. Murray Abraham), the latter tells him \\\"I don’t see a lot of money here\\\" and implicitly compares him to a genial G.I.-turned-musician: \\\"He connects with people.\\\" As a person, Llewyn is easily wounded and spectacularly selfish, an \\\"asshole\\\" who, among other trespasses, gets his best friend’s girl (Carey Mulligan) pregnant and then surreptitiously asks said best friend (Justin Timberlake) for money to pay for her abortion. Inside Llewyn Davis is thus simultaneously the name of the film, of Llewyn’s solo album, and of his psychological condition: He is himself trapped inside Llewyn Davis.\\\"\\nRobert Christgau observed of Llewyn that \\\"[T]here's an anger in Llewyn that appears to predate his partner Mike's suicide\\\" and thought that the character was probably unstable and moody for a long time. However, Sam Adams of Indie Wire disagreed with this assertion, believing that Davis' sour and cold personality was the direct result of Mike Timlin (singing voice of Marcus Mumford)'s suicide. He speculates, \\\"in the small circle of Llewyn, Jim, Jean and the Gorfeins, and probably in the coffee-house community at large, Mike was the glue that held them together\\\", and believes that Davis fell apart after Mike's death. He connects this observation to a scene in which \\\"after Bud Grossman tells Llewyn he doesn't have the charisma to front his own act, Llewyn says he used to have a partner and Bud responds, \\\"Yeah, that makes sense.\\\"\\\" Adams further analyzes that Llewyn Davis' story is not one of a man who continues to fail and is destined to fail, but about a man struggling with depression and unable to move forward as an artist or in life. He believes that his depression has cast him into \\\"a Sisyphean loop, a depressive Groundhog Day\\\" and that the character finally begins to accept that his life and career won't progress.\\nOne of the key elements to Llewyn Davis' musicality is his desire to maintain authenticity as an artist. Despite being partially based on Dave Van Ronk, some reviewers noted several distinctions between the two in their artistry: \\\"It’s been bandied about that the character of Llewyn is based on Dave Van Ronk, \\\"The Mayor of Macdougal Street,\\\" a mainstay and centerpiece of the Greenwich Village folk scene. This is nonsense. Llewyn shares one or two biographical details with Van Ronk, but has none of his personality. More importantly, he has none of Van Ronk’s expansiveness, his desire to reach out, to promote, to connect. Llewyn is a very inward singer, up in his own head. He demands that the audience comes to him. That demand, in fact, is, I think what the protagonist wants. Llewyn Davis wants success, craves it, but insists that it be on his own terms.\\\" Robert Christgau also noted that the character desired authenticity as among the most important and valued aspects of being a musician: \\\"[W]e know that when Jean warns him to plan for his future, Llewyn equates that inescapability with flying cars and Tang and brands Jean \\\"careerist,\\\" \\\"square,\\\" and \\\"suburban\\\" for thinking about it. We also know Llewyn's definition of a folk song because it's damn near the first words out of his mouth that don't have a tune attached: \\\"If it's never been new and it never gets old, it's a folk song.\\\" However, Christgau notes that his desire for authenticity is hypocritical, calling Davis an \\\"angry character\\\", while pondering the cause of the character's anger. Christgau continued, \\\"We don't know [the reason for the character's anger]—lots of men are angry. But maybe, the film suggests, that's what drives his passion for his incoherent notion of authenticity. After all, the worst tirade of his bad week by far is the sexist bile he spews at the most certifiably \\\"authentic\\\" musician we get to see: autoharp-strumming Elizabeth Hobby from Arkansas, played by Missouri-born modern folk performer Nancy Blake. \\\"I hate fuckin' folk music,\\\" he shouts.\\nThe Coen Brothers distinguished the character from his source of inspiration, Dave Van Ronk, by casting an actor who had an entirely different singing voice and style of guitar playing. The Coen Brothers described that Oscar Isaac as Davis has \\\"this beautiful tenor voice\\\" in contrast to the rough, growling voice of Dave Van Ronk, whom they described as \\\"the ultimate blues shouter.\\\" Ethan Coen noted that music was the most important aspect of Llewyn Davis' character, in that it completely defined him. He discussed that to Llewyn Davis, folk music is \\\"his life\\\" and that it \\\"reveals something about him that [the audience doesn't] see somewhere else\\\". The Coen Brothers felt that Llewyn Davis' sarcastic, acerbic, and unpleasant attitude was contradicted by his sweet, alluring singing voice, causing many people to question whether they should like the character or hate him. In the same way, the character of Roland Turner (John Goodman), a jazz musician and heroin addict who antagonizes Llewyn when he hitchhikes a ride with him to Chicago, has been interpreted as a possible older version of the Llewyn Davis character. In an interview with Moviefone, Goodman says that his character is \\\"a possible alternate future for Llewyn. He could turn out this way too.\\\" Philip Pantuso of \\\"Esquire\\\" considers Davis to be a cyclical, Sisyphean type character, who has an ironic journey in which he is doomed to failure and doesn't know it; whereas the audience is in on the joke. He describes the character as \\\"stuck in a nightmare version of Nietzsche's eternal return.\\\" He notes that Davis' musicality is of utmost importance to him, and that he has a mission to maintain the authenticity that he ascribes to the village, which will ironically \\\"desert Llewyn and all he stands for...following the trailblazing path of the famous Bob Dylan.\\\"\\nOscar Isaac was praised for his portrayal of Llewyn Davis, and the character received universal acclaim from film critics. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Davis is \\\"beautifully played by Oscar Isaac\\\". Reviewer Phillip Kemp writes, \\\"Isaac, who proves to have a strong singing voice, performs the folksongs in perfect period style and succeeds in making Llewyn, for all his prickliness, an unexpectedly likeable, melancholic figure.\\\" Steve Persall writes that, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis opens intimately with Llewyn, a role inhabited in body and voice by Oscar Isaac, performing on the Gaslight Cafe stage. Music is more vital than ever in the Coens' storytelling, with frequent collaborator T-Bone Burnett coordinating an expressive folk music sampler, and actors performing songs as character shading. Isaac's opener, the plaintive traditional Hang Me … Oh Hang Me, reveals as much of his restless spirit as his talent.\\\" Marc Mohan writes that, \\\"Davis is played by Oscar Isaac, who has toiled in supporting roles for the last few years but anchors this film with a star-making, soulful performance that includes haunting renditions of traditional tunes such as \\\"Hang Me, Oh Hang Me\\\" (which opens the movie) and \\\"The Death of Queen Jane.\\\" Calvin Wilson of the St. Louis Post Dispatch notes that \\\"Isaac, who also shared the screen with Mulligan in \\\"Drive,\\\" may remind some moviegoers of the young Al Pacino. And like Pacino, he has a gift for being appealing even when he’s unpleasant.\\\" Critic Glenn Kenny writes, \\\"We cannot imagine Llewyn Davis happy. The self-defeating Sisyphus of the new film written, directed, and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen is the first person the viewer lays eyes on in the movie. Bearded, his unkempt hair falling in his eyes, he picks out some steely, blue notes on a guitar as he sings \\\"Hang Me, Oh Hang Me,\\\" not to be confused with \\\"Dang Me.\\\" \\\"Wouldn't mind the hangin', except for layin' in the grave so long,\\\" he sings, with a good amount of sincerity. The time is 1961, the place is New York City, and the venue where Llewyn—portrayed with haunting conviction by Oscar Isaac, who, like everyone else in the cast, does his own singing and playing—is picking and not grinning is the Gaslight, a soon-to-be-legendary landmark in the \\\"folk revival.\\\" A.O. Scott of the New York Times writes, \\\"Llewyn’s repertoire and some aspects of his background are borrowed from Dave Van Ronk, who loomed large on the New York folk scene in its pre-Bob Dylan hootenanny-and-autoharp phase. Oscar Isaac, who plays both Llewyn and the guitar with offhand virtuosity, is slighter of build and scowlier of mien than Van Ronk, with a fine, clear tenor singing voice...Mr. Isaac, a versatile character actor here ascending to the highest levels of his craft, refuses the easy road of charm. Like his character, he trusts his own professionalism and the integrity of the material.\\\"\\nDespite receiving universal acclaim from critics, Llewyn Davis was panned by those who experienced the Greenwich Village in the 1960s or knew Dave Van Ronk personally. Folk artist Christie Lavin, a friend of Dave Van Ronk, wrote, \\\"I HATE THIS FILM...\\\"Am outraged that the Coens took such a colorful character and interpreted him as a doofus,\\\" in reference to what she viewed as a disrespectful interpretation of the late folk singer. Suzanne Vega, a folk singer who experienced the Greenwich Village of the 1970s and also befriended Dave Van Ronk around the time said, \\\"\\\"I feel they took a vibrant, crackling, competitive, romantic, communal, crazy, drunken, brawling scene and crumpled it into a slow brown sad movie\\\". Dave Van Ronk's ex-wife, Terri Thal, writes \\\"What bothers me is that the movie doesn't show those days, those people, that world. In the movie, Llewyn Davis is a not-very smart, somewhat selfish, confused young man for whom music is a way to make a living. It's not a calling, as it was for David and for some others. No one in the film seems to love music. The character who represents Tom Paxton has a pasted-on smile and is a smug person who doesn't at all resemble the smart, funny, witty Tom Paxton who was our best man when we married.\\\" In response to some folk singers from the Greenwich Village scene who detested the film's presentation of the Greenwhich Village and the Llewyn Davis character, Aimee Levitt notes that the film is purposely bleak because it is seen through the eyes of a depressed character. She writes, \\\"Nobody gives a shit about his music. His singing partner has just committed suicide. He's alienated all his family and friends and has to hit up strangers to find a place to stay. The whole movie's told from his point of view, and there's nothing, even Pete Seeger leading a big old hootenanny in Washington Square Park, that's going to keep it from looking brown and sad, because that's what the world looks like when you're down in the depression hole.\\\"\",\n \"Inside Llewyn Davis\\nInside Llewyn Davis is a 2013 American black comedy drama film written, directed, produced, and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen. Set in 1961, the film follows one week in the life of Llewyn Davis, played by Oscar Isaac in his breakthrough role, a folk singer struggling to achieve musical success while keeping his life in order. It co-stars Carey Mulligan, John Goodman, Garrett Hedlund, F. Murray Abraham, and Justin Timberlake.\\nAlthough Davis is a fictional character, the story was partly inspired by the autobiography of folk singer Dave Van Ronk. Most of the folk songs performed in the film are sung in full and recorded live. T Bone Burnett was the executive music producer.\\nThe film won the Grand Prix at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival, where it screened on May 19, 2013. The film received a limited release in the United States on December 6, 2013, and was given a wide release on January 10, 2014. The film received critical acclaim and was nominated for two Academy Awards (Best Cinematography and Best Sound Mixing) and for three Golden Globe Awards: Best Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical, Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Oscar Isaac), and Best Original Song.\\n\\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" has been highly acclaimed, and was voted the 11th best film released since 2000 by film critics in a 2016 BBC Culture poll. It was also chosen the eleventh \\\"Best Film of the 21st Century So Far\\\" in 2017 by The New York Times.\\nIn February 1961, Llewyn Davis is a struggling folk singer in New York City's Greenwich Village. His musical partner, Mike Timlin, has died by suicide; his recent solo album \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" is not selling; he has no money and is sleeping on the couches of friends and acquaintances. He plays The Gaslight Cafe one night, then gets punched out in the alley.\\nLlewyn wakes up in the apartment of two of his older and wealthier friends, the Gorfeins. When he leaves, the Gorfeins' cat escapes and Llewyn is locked out. Llewyn takes the cat to the apartment of Jim and Jean Berkey. Jean reluctantly agrees to let Llewyn stay that night. Jean tells Llewyn she is pregnant, with a possibility it is Llewyn's child.\\nThe next morning, the Gorfeins' cat escapes again. Later, Jean asks Llewyn to pay for an abortion, though she is upset she just might be losing Jim's child.\\nLlewyn visits his sister in the hope of borrowing money but realizes it won't be possible. Their conversation makes it clear that they are living in different worlds. She gives him a box of his belongings, but he tells her to trash it. She mentions that he could make money by going back to the Merchant Marine.\\nOn Jim's invitation, Llewyn records a space travel themed novelty song with Jim and Al Cody. Needing money for the abortion, Llewyn agrees to an immediate $200 rather than royalties. Llewyn is setting up Jean's appointment when the gynecologist informs him there is no charge, as a previous girlfriend did not go through with the abortion Llewyn had paid for, keeping the baby and moving to Ohio.\\nWhile talking to Jean at a café, Llewyn spots what he believes to be the Gorfeins' cat and returns it that evening. Asked to play after dinner, he reluctantly performs \\\"Fare Thee Well\\\", a song he had recorded with Mike. When Mrs. Gorfein starts to sing Mike's harmony, Llewyn becomes angry and yells at her. Mrs. Gorfein leaves the table crying, then returns with the cat, having realized that it is not theirs. Llewyn leaves with the cat.\\nLlewyn rides with two musicians driving to Chicago: the laconic beat poet Johnny Five and the odious jazz musician Roland Turner. At a roadside restaurant, Roland collapses from a heroin overdose. The three stop on the side of the highway to rest. When a police officer tells them to move on, he suspects that Johnny is drunk and tells him to get out of the car. Johnny resists and is arrested. Without the keys, Llewyn abandons the car, leaving the cat and the unconscious Roland behind. In Chicago, Llewyn auditions for Bud Grossman. Grossman says Llewyn is not suited to be a solo performer but suggests he might incorporate him in a new trio he is forming. Llewyn rejects the offer and hitchhikes back to New York. Driving, he hits what he fears may be the same cat.\\nBack in New York, feeling tired and out of options to make something of himself, Llewyn uses his last $148 for back dues to rejoin the merchant marine union, and visits his ailing father. Llewyn searches for his seaman's license so he can ship out with the merchant marine, but it was in the box his sister finally trashed. Llewyn goes back to the Union Hall to replace it, but he cannot afford the $85 fee. Llewyn visits Jean and she tells him she got him a gig at the Gaslight.\\nAt the Gaslight, Llewyn learns that Pappi, the manager, also had sex with Jean. Llewyn, angered by this, heckles a woman (played by actual 60s folk musician Nancy Blake) as she performs, and is thrown out. He then goes to the Gorfeins' apartment, where they graciously welcome him. There, he learns that the novelty song is likely to be a major hit, with massive royalties. He is amazed to see that their actual cat, Ulysses, has found his way home.\\nReturning to an expanded version of the film's opening scene, Llewyn performs at the Gaslight. Pappi teases Llewyn about his heckling the previous evening and tells him that a friend of his is waiting in the alley. As he leaves, Llewyn watches as a young Bob Dylan starts to perform onstage. Behind the Gaslight, Llewyn is beaten by a shadowy suited man for heckling his wife, the previous night's performer. Llewyn watches as the man leaves in a taxi and he bids him \\\"Au revoir\\\".\\nSet in 1961, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" was inspired by the cultural disconnection within a New York–based music scene where the songs seemed to come from all parts of the United States except New York, but whose performers included Brooklyn-born Dave Van Ronk and Ramblin' Jack Elliott. Well before writing the script, the Coens began with a single premise: suppose Van Ronk got beat up outside of Gerde's Folk City in the Village. The filmmakers employed that idea in the opening scenes, then periodically returned to the project over the next couple of years to expand the story using a fictional character. One source for the film was Van Ronk's posthumously published (2005) memoir, \\\"The Mayor of MacDougal Street.\\\" According to the book's co-author, Elijah Wald, the Coens mined the work \\\"for local color and a few scenes.\\\" The character is a composite of Van Ronk, Elliot, and other performers from the New York boroughs who performed in the Village at that time. Joel Coen remarked that \\\"the film doesn't really have a plot. That concerned us at one point; that's why we threw the cat in.\\\"\\nShooting was complicated by an early New York spring, which interfered with the bleak winter atmosphere that prevails throughout the film, and by the difficulty of filming several cats, who, unlike dogs, ignore the desires of filmmakers. On the advice of an animal trainer, the Coens put out a casting call for an orange tabby cat, which is sufficiently common that several cats would be available to play one part. Individual cats were then selected for each scene based on what they were predisposed to do on their own.\\nProducer Scott Rudin, who worked with the Coens on \\\"No Country for Old Men\\\" and \\\"True Grit\\\", collaborated on the project. StudioCanal helped finance it without an American distributor in place. \\\"After shooting in New York City and elsewhere last year...the brothers finished the movie at their own pace\\\", wrote Michael Cieply in a January 2013 \\\"The New York Times\\\" interview with Joel Coen ahead of a private, pre-Grammys screening in Los Angeles. \\\"They could have rushed it into the Oscar season but didn't.\\\" On February 19, CBS Films announced it had picked up the U.S. domestic distribution rights for about $4 million. StudioCanal has rights to international distribution and foreign sales.\\nDave Van Ronk's music served as a starting point for the Coens as they wrote the script, and many of the songs first designated for the film were those he had recorded. Van Ronk co-author Elijah Wald said that the character of Llewyn Davis \\\"is not at all Dave, but the music is.\\\" (The cover of Davis's solo album, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\", resembles that of \\\"Inside Dave Van Ronk\\\". Both feature the artist in a doorway, wearing a tweed jacket and smoking a cigarette. One difference between the two covers is that there is - interestingly, given the story of the movie - a cat in the doorway on the cover of \\\"Inside Dave Van Ronk.\\\") Other songs emerged in conversations between the Coens and T-Bone Burnett, who produced the music in association with Marcus Mumford. Burnett previously worked with the Coens on the music and soundtrack for \\\"The Big Lebowski\\\" and \\\"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\\\", the latter of which sold about 8 million copies in the United States. The Coens viewed the music in \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" as a direct descendant of the music in \\\"O Brother.\\\"\\nThe humorous novelty song \\\"Please Mr. Kennedy\\\", a plea from a reluctant astronaut, appears to be a fourth generation derivative of the 1960 song \\\"Mr. Custer\\\", also known as \\\"Please Mr. Custer\\\", about the Battle of the Little Bighorn, sung by Larry Verne and written by Al DeLory, Fred Darian, and Joseph Van Winkle. A Tamla-Motown single followed in 1961: \\\"Please Mr. Kennedy (I Don't Want to Go)\\\", a plea from a reluctant Vietnam War draftee, sung by Mickey Woods and credited to Berry Gordy, Loucye Wakefield and Ronald Wakefield. In 1962 using a similar theme, The Goldcoast Singers recorded \\\"Please Mr. Kennedy\\\" on its \\\"Here They Are \\\"album, with writing credits to Ed Rush and George Cromarty. The Llewyn Davis version credits Rush, Cromarty, Burnett, Timberlake, and the Coens.\\nIsaac, Timberlake, Mulligan, Driver and others performed the music live. The exception was \\\"The Auld Triangle\\\", which was lip-synced, with Timberlake singing bass. (Timberlake's vocal range was on display in the film. Critic Janet Maslin, listening to a soundtrack recording, confused Timberlake's voice with Mulligan's, which she thought resembled that of Mary Travers.)\\n\\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" had its worldwide premiere on May 19, 2013 at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. The film then screened at film festivals, including the New York Film Festival in September, the November 14 close of the 2013 AFI Film Festival and Torino Film Festival 2013, also in November.\\nThe film had a limited release in the United States on December 6, 2013, where it played in Los Angeles and New York. It opened in 133 additional theaters on December 20 and opened wide on January 10, 2014.\\nIt was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the US on March 11, 2014. On January 19, 2016, The Criterion Collection released a DVD and Blu-ray of the film featuring new audio commentary tracks, interviews and other special features, including a forty-three-minute documentary titled \\\"Inside “Inside Llewyn Davis”\\\".\\nRotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 94%, based on 249 reviews, with an average score of 8.6/10. The site's consensus states: \\\"Smart, funny, and profoundly melancholy, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" finds the Coen brothers in fine form.\\\" Metacritic gives the film a score of 92 out of 100, based on reviews from 47 critics, indicating \\\"universal acclaim.\\\" It was voted the 11th greatest film of the 21st century in a 2016 BBC Culture poll, after \\\"No Country for Old Men\\\", another film by the Coen brothers.\\nWriting for \\\"The Village Voice\\\", Alan Scherstuhl praised the Coen brothers' film: \\\"While often funny and alive with winning performances, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" finds the brothers in a dark mood, exploring the near-inevitable disappointment that faces artists too sincere to compromise—disappointments that the Coens, to their credit, have made a career out of dodging. The result is their most affecting film since the masterful \\\"A Serious Man\\\".\\\" Todd McCarthy of \\\"The Hollywood Reporter\\\" called the film \\\"an outstanding fictional take on the early 1960s folk music scene,\\\" praising the \\\"fresh, resonant folk soundtrack\\\" and Oscar Isaac's performance that \\\"deftly manages the task of making Llewyn compulsively watchable.\\\" IGN reviewer Leigh Singer gave the film a 10 out of 10 'Masterpiece' score, saying \\\"Don’t be fooled by the seemingly minor key...this is one of the finest works by – let’s just call it – the most consistently innovative, versatile and thrilling American filmmakers of the last quarter-century.'\\\"\\nFolk singers, however, have criticized the film for misrepresenting the friendliness of the Village folk scene of the time. Terri Thal, Dave Van Ronk's ex-wife, said, \\\"I didn't expect it to be almost unrecognizable as the folk-music world of the early 1960s.\\\" Suzanne Vega said \\\"I feel they took a vibrant, crackling, competitive, romantic, communal, crazy, drunken, brawling scene and crumpled it into a slow brown sad movie.\\\" The film was also criticized for the fact that, although it was to some extent based on the memoir of Dave Van Ronk, the film portrayed a character very much at odds with the real Van Ronk, usually described as a \\\"nice guy\\\". However, at a press interview before the film was premiered at Cannes, the Coens had stated that the character itself was very much an original creation, and that the music was the major influence they had drawn from Van Ronk.\\n\\n\",\n \"George Cromarty\\nGeorge Cromarty (September 15, 1941 – February 12, 1992) was an American folk guitarist and singer. He is best known as the co-writer, with Ed Rush, of the song \\\"Plastic Jesus\\\", though he went on to record three albums of solo guitar music in the 1970s and 1980s. The Folk Music Sourcebook likened his playing style to John Fahey's, and George Winston cites Cromarty as a musical influence. His music has been heard on the soundtracks of many films, including the Coen brothers' \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis.\\\" The \\\"Columbia record exec\\\" in \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" was named \\\"Mr. Cromarty\\\" in honor of Cromarty.\\nCromarty met Ed Rush while they were students in Fresno. They first performed together at Kalisa's restaurant in Monterey, California as The Goldcoast Singers. They moved to San Francisco and, after performing in clubs there, they were invited to perform before an audience of 1,000 at the San Francisco State Folk Festival. The audience responded enthusiastically, and the duo played five encores, closing with \\\"Plastic Jesus\\\". The recording of this performance was released in 1962 as \\\"Here They Are! The Goldcoast Singers\\\".\\nIn 1963, Cromarty was drafted into the army. He later settled in Morro Bay, California. His first solo album of acoustic guitar music, \\\"Grassroots Guitar\\\", was released in 1973 on his own label, Thistle Records. His next release, \\\"The Only One\\\", was ostensibly an album of songs for children. Cromarty's third and last album, \\\"Wind in the Heather\\\", was recorded for George Winston's Dancing Cat Records in 1984.\\nCromarty died on February 12, 1992. He was 50 years old.\\nIn 2014, Cromarty was co-nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for \\\"Please Mr. Kennedy,\\\" from \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\". His co-nominees were Ed Rush, T Bone Burnett, Justin Timberlake, and Joel and Ethan Coen.\",\n \"Oscar Isaac\\nOscar Isaac (born Óscar Isaac Hernández Estrada; March 9, 1979) is a Guatemalan-American actor and musician. He played lead film roles in the comedy-drama \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" (2013), for which he received a Golden Globe Award nomination, the crime drama \\\"A Most Violent Year\\\" (2014), the science fiction thriller \\\"Ex Machina\\\" (2015), in which he played Nathan Hamlet Bateman, and Poe Dameron in \\\"\\\". In 2006, he portrayed Saint Joseph, husband of Mary, in \\\"The Nativity Story\\\". He also portrayed José Ramos-Horta, former president of East Timor, in the Australian film \\\"Balibo\\\" for which he won the AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He has portrayed characters of many different nationalities and ethnicities, such as mixed European, American, Egyptian, Polish, English, French, Mexican, East Timorese, Italian, Welsh, Indonesian, Greek, Cuban, Israeli, and Armenian.\\nHe appeared in \\\"\\\" (2015), as X-wing pilot Poe Dameron, and in \\\"\\\" (2016), as the titular mutant supervillain Apocalypse. He also headlined the HBO miniseries \\\"Show Me a Hero\\\", as politician Nick Wasicsko in 2015, which earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film. In 2016, \\\"Time\\\" named Isaac one of the 100 most influential people in the world on the annual \\\"Time 100\\\" list. In 2017 Issac was described as \\\"best dang actor of his generation\\\" by \\\"Vanity Fair\\\".\\nÓscar Isaac Hernández Estrada was born in Guatemala to a Guatemalan mother, María Eugenia Estrada Nicolle, and a Cuban pulmonologist father, Óscar Gonzalo Hernández-Cano. His maternal grandfather was French. Isaac's family settled in the U.S. when he was five months old, and he was raised in Miami, Florida. He has described his evangelical Protestant upbringing as \\\"very Christian\\\".\\nIsaac liked to cause trouble at the private grade school, Westminster Christian, when growing up. “I set off a fire extinguisher in the gym, defaced a mural, just stupid stuff,” he said in an interview. He liked to make kids laugh. At one point, his teacher had to screen off his desk from the rest of the class with a piece of cardboard. Eventually, he was expelled.\\nIsaac's entry into professional acting began at the Area Stage Company, Miami Beach, when Artistic Director John Rodaz cast him in a play. He also acted in Miami-based City Theatre's Summer Shorts short play festival in 2000–2001. While in Miami, he played lead guitar and sang vocals for a ska-punk band The Blinking Underdogs. Other band members included Nick Speck (bass), Bill Sommer (drums), Alan Mills (trombone), Keith Cooper (saxophone), and Matt LaPlant (guitar).\\nThe band enjoyed some success, opening for Green Day and the Mighty Mighty Bosstones\\nIsaac spent his musical years living a \\\"straight edge\\\" lifestyle. Isaac put his music to the side after being accepted to the famed Juilliard School's acting program. While a student there, he worked on one of his first films, \\\"All About the Benjamins\\\" (2002).\\nIsaac graduated from the Juilliard School in New York City, where he was part of the Drama Division's Group 34 (2001–2005).\\nIsaac made his acting debut in the 1998 crime drama \\\"Illtown\\\", credited as \\\"Pool Boy\\\". Next, he appeared briefly in 2002's \\\"All About the Benjamins\\\" and made an appearance on the television series \\\"\\\" four years later. Isaac garnered recognition in his first major film role in 2006 as Joseph in the biblical epic \\\"The Nativity Story\\\", opposite Keisha Castle-Hughes. He appeared as Romeo in the Public Theater's Shakespeare in the Park performances of \\\"Romeo and Juliet\\\" and as Proteus in \\\"Two Gentlemen of Verona\\\".\\nIsaac was awarded the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Supporting Actor of 2009, for his role as José Ramos-Horta in \\\"Balibo\\\" (2009). He had a small role in \\\"Guerrilla\\\", Part Two of the Che Guevara biopic \\\"Che\\\" (2008). Isaac played King John in the 2010 historical film \\\"Robin Hood\\\". He portrayed a security guard in the Madonna-directed film \\\"W.E.\\\" and starred in the crime drama \\\"Drive\\\", both of which were released in September 2011. He had a role in \\\"10 Years\\\", in which he played a musician. He performed his own song \\\"Never Had\\\" in the film. \\\"Never Had\\\" and \\\"You Ain't Goin Nowhere\\\" were included in the movie's soundtrack.\\nIn 2013, Isaac starred in the dramatic comedy film \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\", written and directed by the Coen brothers, where he played a talented yet unsuccessful folk singer in Greenwich Village in 1961. The film won the Grand Prix at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. For the role of Llewyn, Isaac was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy at the 2014 Golden Globes.\\nHe co-starred with Jessica Chastain in J. C. Chandor's film \\\"A Most Violent Year\\\" (2014), replacing actor Javier Bardem. In 2015, Isaac portrayed Nathan Hamlet Bateman in the science fiction film \\\"Ex Machina\\\" and starred in the 6-episode HBO miniseries \\\"Show Me a Hero\\\", receiving universal critical acclaim and winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film for his performance as politician Nick Wasicsko.\\nIsaac co-starred in the epic space opera film \\\"\\\", released on December 18, 2015. playing Poe Dameron, an X-wing pilot. He will reprise the role in \\\"\\\", scheduled for release on December 15, 2017.\\nIsaac played X-Men villain Apocalypse in the film \\\"\\\", which was released on May 27, 2016. In 2015, Isaac was announced to play the lead role in \\\"The Promise\\\" with co-star Christian Bale.\\nOn March 30, 2016, It was announced that Isaac would be joining Natalie Portman in the movie adaptation of the novel \\\"Annihilation\\\" where he will be playing her husband. It would be directed by Alex Garland which would mark this as Oscar's second collaboration with the director after \\\"Ex Machina\\\". Isaac will also appear in George Clooney's upcoming Coen Brothers-penned black comedy \\\"Suburbicon\\\". It will be Isaac's second collaboration with the Coen Brothers after \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\".\\nIn 2016, he was the narrator for the Nike ad \\\"Unlimited You\\\" created by Wieden+Kennedy.\\nIn November 2016, the first episode of the podcast series \\\"Homecoming\\\" was released. It is a psychological thriller from Gimlet Media, starring Catherine Keener, Oscar Isaac, and David Schwimmer. \\\"Homecoming\\\" is a six-episode thriller that centers around a mystery involving a caseworker (voiced by Oscar nominee Catherine Keener), her supervisor (voiced by David Schwimmer), and a soldier trying to rejoin civilian life (voiced by Oscar Isaac). It has a script from Eli Horowitz (\\\"The Silent History\\\") and Micah Bloomberg (\\\"Creative Control\\\") and sound design from \\\"Serial\\\"'s Mark Phillips.\\nIn July 2017, Isaac starred as Prince Hamlet in The Public Theater production of \\\"Hamlet\\\" alongside Keegan-Michael Key, Ritchie Coster, Gayle Rankin, Roberta Colindrez, and Anatol Yusef. The production is directed by Sam Gold and is set to run until September 2017. His performance received acclaim from critics and audiences alike.\\nIsaac currently resides in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, in an apartment he renovated himself. He has been dubbed a sex symbol, and \\\"the internet's boyfriend\\\" by multiple media outlets, most notably \\\"Rolling Stone\\\" magazine; of the label, Isaac stated that, \\\"[The Internet] never struck me as being into monogamous relationships. It's very promiscuous, the Internet.\\\" Isaac is in a relationship with Elvira Lind. In March 2017, it was revealed they were expecting their first child. Their son, Eugene, was born in late April 2017.\\nIssac is an accomplished guitar player and singer, and has been playing since he was 12. Speaking to \\\"Interview\\\" magazine, he stated, \\\"I don't know if they were all functioning, but I did play in a bunch of bands. I was sort of a musical whore, so I played in industrial bands, hardcore bands, punk—ska bands—all sorts of bands.\\\" Isaac also said that he \\\"played guitar and bass. I didn't do much vocals, although I did have one band where I was the lead singer. But that was when I was in college.\\\"\",\n \"In Secret\\nIn Secret, previously titled Thérèse, is a 2013 American erotic thriller film written and directed by Charlie Stratton. Based on Émile Zola's 1867 classic novel \\\"Thérèse Raquin\\\", the film stars Elizabeth Olsen, Tom Felton, Oscar Isaac and Jessica Lange. It was screened in the Special Presentation section at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. The film received a regional release on February 21, 2014.\\nIn the lower echelons of 1860s Paris, Thérèse Raquin (Elizabeth Olsen) is a sexually repressed beautiful young woman trapped in a loveless marriage to her sickly cousin, Camille (Tom Felton) having been forced into it by her domineering aunt, Madame Raquin (Jessica Lange). Thérèse spends her days confined behind the counter of a small shop and her evenings watching Madame play dominoes with an eclectic group. After she meets her husband's alluring friend Laurent LeClaire (Oscar Isaac), she embarks on an illicit affair that leads to tragic consequences. Camille soon dies during an outing on the lake with Laurent and Therese, which is revealed to be their doing as Laurent physically beat Camille while he was in the water, causing him to drown. Madame Raquin finds it difficult to come to terms with her son's death and is incapacitated by a stroke. To escape being sentenced for murder, Laurent and Therese choose to take their own lives and they drink poison mixed with champagne, dying in front of Madame Raquin.\\nKate Winslet was attached for a long time to star in the lead role of Thérèse Raquin. Jessica Biel then replaced her, with Gerard Butler as Laurent. In fall 2011, Elizabeth Olsen was announced as a replacement in the lead role. Glenn Close was originally cast as Madame Raquin, but dropped out and was replaced by Jessica Lange.\\nOn May 9, 2012, principal photography began in Belgrade, Serbia and Budapest, Hungary.\\n\\\"In Secret\\\" received mixed reviews. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 47% rating, with an average score of 5.5/10, based on reviews from 64 critics. The consensus states: \\\"Although it benefits from a strong cast, \\\"In Secret\\\"' s stars can't totally compensate for the movie's sodden pacing and overly familiar story.\\\"\\nDespite mixed reviews, Lange's performance has received critical acclaim. Avi Offer from NYC Movie Guru proclaimed Lange as \\\"...one of the greatest actresses of our time, [who] delivers a mesmerizing, magnificent performance and sinks her teeth into her role quite smoothly.\\\" David Lee Dallas from \\\"Slant Magazine\\\" called Lange's character's \\\"latent severity dangerous and surprising.\\\" Michael O'Sullivan from \\\"The Washington Post\\\" noted that \\\"Subtlety may not be this film's strong suit, but it certainly is Lange's.\\\" Dustin Putman of the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association felt Lange is \\\"more achingly vulnerable than the figures she usually plays.\\\" Jessica Herdon of Associated Press added that Lange \\\"...going from agonized to helpless, so poignantly that your heart breaks for her.\\\" Joshua Rothkopf from \\\"Time Out New York\\\" wrote: \\\"...Jessica Lange, as rare as a unicorn these days, seizes on the role of a grieving mother with two taloned hands. If there are any tremors of shame to be felt here, they emanate from her.\\\" Odie Henderson praises Lange on her ability to \\\"...[find] the perfect line of lunacy to toe, which \\\"In Secret\\\" requires for her character's arc...\\\" Also, Emma Myers from \\\"Film Comment\\\" described her ability to \\\"[maintain] a looming presence that shifts from despicable to sympathetic and back again.\\\" \\\"USA Today\\\" described her work as her \\\"...most fully dimensional performance.\\\" \\\"Variety\\\" mentioned that Lange \\\"...relishes what becomes the most dramatically potent role.\\\"\",\n \"List of accolades received by Inside Llewyn Davis\\n\\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" is a 2013 American comedy-drama film written, directed and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen. The film stars Oscar Isaac, Carey Mulligan, and John Goodman, and was produced by Scott Rudin, Ethan and Joel Coen. T Bone Burnett was the executive music producer. The story is about one week in the life of a singer-songwriter who is active in New York's folk music scene in 1961. Although Llewyn Davis is a fictional character, the story was partly inspired by the autobiography of folk singer Dave Van Ronk. The folk songs performed in the film are all sung in full, and, with one exception, were recorded live.\\nThe film premiered at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival on May 19, 2013, where it won the Grand Prix. The film then received a limited release at four theatres on December 6, 2013, before later going on wide release at over 700 theatres on January 10, 2014 in the United States and Canada by CBS Films. The film has grossed a worldwide total of over $32 million on a budget of $17 million. Upon release, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 233 reviews and judged 95 percent to be positive.\\nAt the 86th Academy Awards, \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" was nominated for Best Cinematography and Best Sound Mixing, but lost both to \\\"Gravity\\\". At the 67th British Academy Film Awards, it was nominated in three categories: Best Original Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Sound, but it failed to win any. At the 70th Golden Globe Awards, it was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and Best Original Song and again won nothing.\\nAt the 18th Satellite Awards, it had six nominations, winning for Best Cinematography. \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" was also nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards: Best Feature, Best Male Lead and Best Cinematography. Both the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute included the film in their list of top ten films of 2013.\\nEach date is linked to the article about the awards held that year wherever possible.\",\n \"Garrett Hedlund\\nGarrett Hedlund (born September 3, 1984) is an American actor, model, and singer. His films include \\\"Friday Night Lights\\\" (2004), \\\"Troy\\\" (2004), \\\"Four Brothers\\\" (2005), \\\"Eragon\\\" (2006), \\\"Country Strong\\\" (2010), \\\"\\\" (2010), \\\"On the Road\\\" (2012), \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" (2013), \\\"Unbroken\\\" (2014), and \\\"Pan\\\" (2015).\\nHedlund was born in Roseau, Minnesota, to Kristine Anne (Yanish) and Robert Martin Hedlund. He is the youngest of three children, with a brother, Nathaniel, and a sister, Amanda. His father is of Swedish descent and his mother is of Norwegian and German ancestry. Hedlund was raised on a remote beef cattle farm near the small town of Wannaska, Minnesota. In the tenth grade, he moved to live with his mother in Arizona, where he saved his waiter’s tips to pay for lessons with acting coach Jean Fowler, with whom he worked on speeches and script material. He subsequently modeled for L.L. Bean and \\\"Teen\\\" magazine. In 2003, at the age of eighteen, Hedlund moved to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career.\\nHedlund made his feature film debut as Patroclus in the mythological epic adventure war drama \\\"Troy\\\" with Brad Pitt. The film was released on May 14, 2004. He also co-starred as Don Billingsley in the 2004 sports drama \\\"Friday Night Lights\\\" with Billy Bob Thornton, Connie Britton and Tim McGraw, where McGraw played his abusive father.\\nHe co-starred with Mark Wahlberg in the crime drama \\\"Four Brothers\\\" as Jack Mercer. He co-starred in the fantasy-adventure film \\\"Eragon\\\" as Murtagh. In 2007, he co-starred in the comedy-drama \\\"Georgia Rule\\\" with Lindsay Lohan, Jane Fonda and Felicity Huffman, directed by Garry Marshall. The film was released May 11, 2007, was panned by critics and failed to surpass box office expectations, only making a lifetime gross of $41 million. That same year, he co-starred in the crime thriller \\\"Death Sentence\\\" with Kevin Bacon. In 2010, he co-starred with Jeff Bridges in the science fiction/action film \\\"\\\", a sequel to the 1982 film \\\"Tron\\\". The film was released on December 17, 2010.\\nHedlund also co-starred with Gwyneth Paltrow, Leighton Meester and his \\\"Friday Night Lights\\\" co-star, country musician Tim McGraw in the musical drama \\\"Country Strong\\\", which was released on December 22, 2010. He recorded several songs for the film including \\\"Chances Are\\\" which appeared on \\\"Country Strong: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack\\\". His performance was well received by critics; noting voice similarities between him and Charlie Robison, \\\"Roughstock\\\" said \\\"the best song on this album belongs to him\\\" and \\\"Country Weekly\\\" wrote that of all the songs performed by actors in this film, his was \\\"the most convincing\\\". Six other songs including a duet with Meester were featured on a second soundtrack titled \\\"Country Strong: More Music from the Motion Picture\\\".\\nHedlund was cast as Kaneda Shotaro in the live-action version of \\\"Akira\\\", but production of the film was cancelled. He also co-starred as Dean Moriarty in the 2012 adventure drama \\\"On the Road\\\" with Kristen Stewart, Amy Adams, Steve Buscemi, Terrence Howard, Kirsten Dunst and Viggo Mortensen. The film was directed by Walter Salles and based on Jack Kerouac's novel of same name. Disney stated in December 2012 that Hedlund would reprise his role of Sam Flynn in the sequel to \\\"Tron: Legacy\\\".\\nHedlund reportedly turned down the roles of Finnick in the sequel to the dystopian science fiction/adventure film \\\"The Hunger Games\\\" titled \\\"\\\" and Christian Grey in the film adaptation of E. L. James' best-selling novel \\\"Fifty Shades of Grey\\\". In 2014, Hedlund co-starred in the historical drama \\\"Unbroken\\\" directed by Angelina Jolie.\\nHedlund's duet with Meester—\\\"Give In to Me\\\"— was the only song to chart as a single, reaching #79 on the \\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100 and #96 on the Canadian Hot 100.\",\n \"Carey Mulligan\\nCarey Hannah Mulligan (born 28 May 1985) is an English actress and singer. She made her acting debut on stage in London in the <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Elyot\\\">Kevin Elyot</a> play \\\"Forty Winks\\\" in 2004. Her feature film debut was as Kitty Bennet in the 2005 film adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"Pride%20%26amp%3B%20Prejudice%20%282005%20film%29\\\">Pride & Prejudice</a>\\\". She had early roles on British television in such programmes as \\\"<a href=\\\"Bleak%20House%20%282005%20TV%20serial%29\\\">Bleak House</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Doctor%20Who\\\">Doctor Who</a>\\\". In 2008, she made her <a href=\\\"Broadway%20%28theatre%29\\\">Broadway</a> debut in a revival of Chekhov's \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Seagull\\\">The Seagull</a>\\\" to critical acclaim.\\nMulligan received widespread recognition for her performance in the film \\\"<a href=\\\"An%20Education\\\">An Education</a>\\\" (2009). For her role as Jenny Mellor (based on the memoir of journalist <a href=\\\"Lynn%20Barber\\\">Lynn Barber</a>), she was nominated for an <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\\\">Academy Award for Best Actress</a>, a <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress%20in%20a%20Motion%20Picture%2C%20Drama\\\">Golden Globe</a>, a <a href=\\\"Screen%20Actors%20Guild%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Performance%20by%20a%20Female%20Actor%20in%20a%20Leading%20Role\\\">Screen Actors Guild Award</a>, and won the <a href=\\\"BAFTA%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress%20in%20a%20Leading%20Role\\\">BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role</a>. In 2015, she was nominated for a <a href=\\\"Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Performance%20by%20a%20Leading%20Actress%20in%20a%20Play\\\">Tony Award for Best Lead Actress in a Play</a> for her performance in the Broadway revival of <a href=\\\"David%20Hare%20%28playwright%29\\\">David Hare</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Skylight%20%28play%29\\\">Skylight</a>\\\". She is also known for her roles in \\\"<a href=\\\"Never%20Let%20Me%20Go%20%282010%20film%29\\\">Never Let Me Go</a>\\\" (2010), \\\"<a href=\\\"Drive%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Drive</a>\\\" (2011), \\\"<a href=\\\"Shame%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Shame</a>\\\" (2011), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Great%20Gatsby%20%282013%20film%29\\\">The Great Gatsby</a>\\\" (2013), \\\"<a href=\\\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\\\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\\\" (2013), \\\"<a href=\\\"Far%20from%20the%20Madding%20Crowd%20%282015%20film%29\\\">Far from the Madding Crowd</a>\\\" (2015), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Suffragette%20%28film%29\\\">Suffragette</a>\\\" (2015).\\nShe is an ambassador for the <a href=\\\"Alzheimer%27s%20Society\\\">Alzheimer's Society</a> and <a href=\\\"War%20Child%20%28charity%29\\\">War Child</a>. She is married to British musician <a href=\\\"Marcus%20Mumford\\\">Marcus Mumford</a>, with whom she has two children.\\nMulligan was born in <a href=\\\"Westminster\\\">Westminster</a>, <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>, to a middle-class family, the daughter of Nano (<a href=\\\"married%20and%20maiden%20names\\\">née</a> Booth) and Stephen Mulligan. Her father is of Irish descent and was originally from <a href=\\\"Liverpool\\\">Liverpool</a>. Her mother is from <a href=\\\"Llandeilo\\\">Llandeilo</a>, Wales. She has an older brother, Owain, who was formerly a captain in the <a href=\\\"British%20Army\\\">British Army</a> who served in Iraq and Afghanistan. Her mother is a university lecturer and her father is a hotel manager. Her parents met while they were both working in a hotel in their twenties. When she was three years old, her family moved to Germany when her father was hired to manage a hotel there. While living in Germany, Mulligan and her brother attended the <a href=\\\"International%20School%20of%20D%C3%BCsseldorf\\\">International School of Düsseldorf</a>. When she was eight, she and her family moved back to England. As a teenager, she was educated at <a href=\\\"Woldingham%20School\\\">Woldingham School</a> in <a href=\\\"Surrey\\\">Surrey</a>.\\nHer interest in acting sparked from watching her brother perform in a school production of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20King%20and%20I\\\">The King and I</a>\\\" when she was six. During rehearsals, she pleaded with his teachers to let her be in the play. They let her join the chorus. While enrolled in Woldingham School as a teen, she was heavily involved in theatre. She was the student head of the drama department there, performing in plays and musicals, conducting workshops with younger students, and helping put on productions. When she was 16, she attended a production of \\\"<a href=\\\"Henry%20V%20%28play%29\\\">Henry V</a>\\\" starring <a href=\\\"Kenneth%20Branagh\\\">Kenneth Branagh</a>. His performance emboldened her and reinforced her belief that she wanted to pursue a career in acting. She wrote a letter to Branagh asking him for advice. \\\"I explained that my parents didn't want me to act, but that I felt it was my vocation in life,\\\" she said. Branagh's sister replied: \\\"Kenneth says that if you feel such a strong need to be an actress, you must be an actress.\\\"\\nMulligan's parents disapproved of her acting ambitions and wished for her to attend a university like her brother. At age 17, she applied to three London drama schools, instead of the universities that she was expected to submit an application to, but did not receive a subsequent offer. During her final year at Woldingham School, actor/screenwriter <a href=\\\"Julian%20Fellowes\\\">Julian Fellowes</a> delivered a lecture at the school on the production of the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Gosford%20Park\\\">Gosford Park</a>\\\". Mulligan briefly talked to him after the lecture and asked him for advice on an acting career. However, Fellowes dissuaded her from the profession and suggested that she \\\"marry a lawyer\\\" instead. Undeterred, she later sent Fellowes a letter in which she stated that she was serious about acting and that the vocation was her purpose in life. Several weeks later, Fellowes's wife Emma invited her to a dinner for young, aspiring actors that she and her husband were hosting to offer advice. The event facilitated an introduction between Mulligan and a casting assistant that led to an audition for a role in \\\"Pride and Prejudice\\\". She auditioned on three occasions and was eventually given the role of Kitty Bennet. During her late teens and early twenties, she worked as a <a href=\\\"pub\\\">pub</a> barmaid and an errand-runner for Ealing Studios in between acting jobs.\\nIn 2004, at the age of 19, Mulligan began her acting career on stage in the play \\\"Forty Winks\\\" at the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Court%20Theatre\\\">Royal Court Theatre</a> in London. She made her film debut the following year in \\\"<a href=\\\"Pride%20%26amp%3B%20Prejudice%20%282005%20film%29\\\">Pride & Prejudice</a>\\\", the 2005 film adaptation of <a href=\\\"Pride%20%26amp%3B%20Prejudice\\\">the Jane Austen novel</a>, portraying Kitty Bennet. Later that year, she auditioned for and won the role of orphan Ada Clare in the <a href=\\\"British%20Academy%20Television%20Awards\\\">BAFTA award</a>-winning BBC adaption of <a href=\\\"Charles%20Dickens\\\">Charles Dickens</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"Bleak%20House%20%282005%20TV%20serial%29\\\">Bleak House</a>\\\", her television debut. Among her 2007 projects were \\\"<a href=\\\"My%20Boy%20Jack%20%28film%29\\\">My Boy Jack</a>\\\", starring <a href=\\\"Daniel%20Radcliffe\\\">Daniel Radcliffe</a>, that features her in a supporting role, and \\\"<a href=\\\"Northanger%20Abbey%20%282007%20film%29\\\">Northanger Abbey</a>\\\". She identified with her role <a href=\\\"Elsie%20Kipling\\\">Elsie</a>, the daughter of writer <a href=\\\"Rudyard%20Kipling\\\">Rudyard Kipling</a>, who vociferously opposes her brother going to war. She earned a <a href=\\\"Constellation%20Award\\\">Constellation Award</a> for playing the main character Sally Sparrow in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Doctor%20Who\\\">Doctor Who</a>\\\" episode \\\"<a href=\\\"Blink%20%28Doctor%20Who%29\\\">Blink</a>\\\". She rounded out 2007 by appearing in an acclaimed revival of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Seagull%23Translating%20The%20Seagull\\\">The Seagull</a>\\\", in which she played Nina to <a href=\\\"Kristin%20Scott%20Thomas\\\">Kristin Scott Thomas</a>'s Arkadina and <a href=\\\"Chiwetel%20Ejiofor\\\">Chiwetel Ejiofor</a>'s Trigorin. \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Daily%20Telegraph\\\">The Daily Telegraph</a>\\\" said her performance was \\\"quite extraordinarily radiating'\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Observer\\\">The Observer</a>\\\" called her \\\"almost unbearably affecting.\\\" While in the middle of the production, she had to have an <a href=\\\"appendectomy\\\">appendectomy</a>, preventing her from being able to perform for a week. For her debut Broadway performance in the 2008 American transfer of \\\"The Seagull\\\", she was nominated for a <a href=\\\"Drama%20Desk%20Award\\\">Drama Desk Award</a>, but lost to <a href=\\\"Angela%20Lansbury\\\">Angela Lansbury</a>.\\nHer big breakthrough came when, at 22, she was cast in her first leading role as Jenny in the 2009 independent film \\\"An Education\\\", directed by Danish filmmaker <a href=\\\"Lone%20Scherfig\\\">Lone Scherfig</a> and written by <a href=\\\"Nick%20Hornby\\\">Nick Hornby</a>. Over a hundred actresses auditioned for the part, but Mulligan's audition impressed Scherfig the most. The film and her performance received rave reviews, and she was nominated for an <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award\\\">Academy Award</a>, <a href=\\\"Screen%20Actors%20Guild\\\">Screen Actors Guild</a>, <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe\\\">Golden Globe</a>, and won a <a href=\\\"British%20Academy%20Film%20Award\\\">BAFTA Award</a>. Lisa Schwarzbaum of \\\"<a href=\\\"Entertainment%20Weekly\\\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\\\" and Todd McCarthy of \\\"Variety\\\" both compared her performance to that of <a href=\\\"Audrey%20Hepburn\\\">Audrey Hepburn</a>. <a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone%20%28magazine%29\\\">\\\"Rolling Stone\\\"</a>'s <a href=\\\"Peter%20Travers\\\">Peter Travers</a> described her as having given a \\\"sensational, starmaking performance,\\\" while Claudia Puig of \\\"<a href=\\\"USA%20Today\\\">USA Today</a>\\\" felt that Mulligan had one of the year's best performances, and <a href=\\\"Toby%20Young\\\">Toby Young</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Times\\\">The Times</a>\\\" felt she anchored the film. Writing in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Guardian\\\">The Guardian</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Peter%20Bradshaw\\\">Peter Bradshaw</a> concluded that she gave a \\\"wonderful performance.\\\" Mulligan was a recipient of the <a href=\\\"Shooting%20Stars%20Award\\\">Shooting Stars Award</a> from the 2009 <a href=\\\"Berlin%20International%20Film%20Festival\\\">Berlin International Film Festival</a> and received a BAFTA Rising Star Award nomination, which is voted on by the British public.\\nMulligan next starred in independent film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Greatest%20%282009%20film%29\\\">The Greatest</a>\\\" (2009) as the pregnant girlfriend of a boy who dies. Her involvement with the project helped it \\\"tremendously\\\", according to the director. After being selected to join <a href=\\\"The%20Academy%20of%20Motion%20Picture%20Arts%20and%20Sciences\\\">The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences</a>, she won a British Independent Award for \\\"<a href=\\\"Never%20Let%20Me%20Go%20%282010%20film%29\\\">Never Let Me Go</a>\\\", an adaption of the 2005 <a href=\\\"Kazuo%20Ishiguro\\\">Kazuo Ishiguro</a>'s novel, in which she starred and narrated. It was released in September 2010, competing against her other project, the <a href=\\\"Oliver%20Stone\\\">Oliver Stone</a>-directed film \\\"\\\". Screened out of competition at the <a href=\\\"2010%20Cannes%20Film%20Festival\\\">2010 Cannes Film Festival</a>, it was her first major studio project. Later that year she also provided vocals for the song \\\"<a href=\\\"Write%20About%20Love%20%28song%29\\\">Write About Love</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Belle%20%26amp%3B%20Sebastian\\\">Belle & Sebastian</a>.\\nShe returned to the stage in the <a href=\\\"Atlantic%20Theater%20Company\\\">Atlantic Theater Company</a>'s off-Broadway play adaptation of <a href=\\\"Ingmar%20Bergman\\\">Ingmar Bergman</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Through%20a%20Glass%20Darkly%20%28film%29\\\">Through a Glass, Darkly</a>\\\", from 13 May – 3 July 2011. Mulligan played the central character, a mentally unstable woman, and received glowing praise from reviewers. <a href=\\\"Ben%20Brantley\\\">Ben Brantley</a>, theater critic for \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\", wrote that Mulligan's performance was \\\"acting of the highest order\\\"; he also described her as \\\"extraordinary\\\" and \\\"one of the finest actresses of her generation.\\\",\\nMulligan co-starred in the critically acclaimed 2011 <a href=\\\"neo-noir\\\">neo-noir</a> thriller \\\"<a href=\\\"Drive%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Drive</a>\\\", directed by Danish filmmaker <a href=\\\"Nicolas%20Winding%20Refn\\\">Nicolas Winding Refn</a>. She was nominated for her second <a href=\\\"BAFTA\\\">BAFTA</a> award—Best Supporting Actress—for the film. \\\"Drive\\\" garnered a total of 4 <a href=\\\"BAFTA\\\">BAFTA</a> award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director. She began filming <a href=\\\"Steve%20McQueen%20%28director%29\\\">Steve McQueen</a>'s sex-addiction drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Shame%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Shame</a>\\\" alongside <a href=\\\"Michael%20Fassbender\\\">Michael Fassbender</a> in New York in January 2011. \\\"Drive\\\" debuted at 2011 <a href=\\\"Cannes%20Film%20Festival\\\">Cannes Film Festival</a> and \\\"Shame\\\" debuted at 2011 <a href=\\\"Venice%20Film%20Festival\\\">Venice Film Festival</a>, both to good reviews. Of her performance in \\\"Shame\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone\\\">Rolling Stone</a>\\\" film critic <a href=\\\"Peter%20Travers\\\">Peter Travers</a> wrote, \\\"Mulligan is in every way sensational.\\\"\\nShe starred as <a href=\\\"Daisy%20Buchanan\\\">Daisy Buchanan</a>, opposite <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20DiCaprio\\\">Leonardo DiCaprio</a>, in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Great%20Gatsby%20%282013%20film%29\\\">The Great Gatsby</a>\\\", which was released in May 2013. Mulligan auditioned for the role of Daisy in late 2010. While attending a \\\"Vogue\\\" fashion dinner in New York City in November, <a href=\\\"Baz%20Luhrmann\\\">Baz Luhrmann</a>’s wife, Catherine Martin, told her she had the part. In May 2012, she was a co-chair, alongside <a href=\\\"Anna%20Wintour\\\">Anna Wintour</a>, for the Gatsby-themed 2012 <a href=\\\"Met%20Ball\\\">Met Ball</a> Gala.\\nShe starred in the <a href=\\\"Far%20from%20the%20Madding%20Crowd%20%282015%20film%29\\\">film adaptation</a> of <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hardy\\\">Thomas Hardy</a>'s novel \\\"<a href=\\\"Far%20from%20the%20Madding%20Crowd\\\">Far from the Madding Crowd</a>\\\" with <a href=\\\"Tom%20Sturridge\\\">Tom Sturridge</a>, <a href=\\\"Matthias%20Schoenaerts\\\">Matthias Schoenaerts</a>, and <a href=\\\"Michael%20Sheen\\\">Michael Sheen</a> for director <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Vinterberg\\\">Thomas Vinterberg</a> and <a href=\\\"Fox%20Searchlight\\\">Fox Searchlight</a>.\\nShe starred in the June 2014 revival of the play \\\"<a href=\\\"Skylight%20%28play%29\\\">Skylight</a>\\\" with <a href=\\\"Bill%20Nighy\\\">Bill Nighy</a> and <a href=\\\"Matthew%20Beard%20%28British%20actor%29\\\">Matthew Beard</a>, directed by <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Daldry\\\">Stephen Daldry</a>, at <a href=\\\"Wyndham%27s%20Theatre\\\">Wyndham's Theatre</a> in London's West End. It won the <a href=\\\"Evening%20Standard%20Award\\\">2014 Evening Standard Theatre Award</a> for Revival of the Year and was nominated for the <a href=\\\"Laurence%20Olivier%20Award\\\">2014 Olivier Award for Best Revival</a> She returned to Broadway when Skylight transferred in April 2015. Her performance as Kyra Hollis was received with critical acclaim and she has received a nomination for the <a href=\\\"Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Performance%20by%20a%20Leading%20Actress%20in%20a%20Play\\\">Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play</a>.\\nShe starred in \\\"<a href=\\\"Suffragette%20%28film%29\\\">Suffragette</a>\\\" for director <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Gavron\\\">Sarah Gavron</a> and screenwriter <a href=\\\"Abi%20Morgan\\\">Abi Morgan</a>, released in October 2015.\\nIn September 2016, it was announced that she would star opposite <a href=\\\"Jake%20Gyllenhaal\\\">Jake Gyllenhaal</a> in the independent film \\\"<a href=\\\"Wildlife%20%28film%29\\\">Wildlife</a>\\\", the adaptation of a <a href=\\\"Richard%20Ford\\\">Richard Ford</a> novel of the same name. The film would be directed by <a href=\\\"Paul%20Dano\\\">Paul Dano</a> with a screenplay written by Dano and <a href=\\\"Zoe%20Kazan\\\">Zoe Kazan</a>.\\nAside from acting, Mulligan was among the actresses who took part in the Safe Project—each was photographed in the place she feels safest—for a 2010 series to raise awareness of <a href=\\\"sex%20trafficking\\\">sex trafficking</a>. She donated the <a href=\\\"Vionnet\\\">Vionnet</a> gown she wore at the <a href=\\\"2010%20BAFTAs\\\">2010 BAFTAs</a> to the Curiosity Shop, which sells its donations to raise money for <a href=\\\"Oxfam\\\">Oxfam</a>.\\nMulligan became the ambassador of the <a href=\\\"Alzheimer%27s%20Society\\\">Alzheimer's Society</a> in 2012, with the goal of raising awareness and research funding for Alzheimers and dementia. Her grandmother suffers from Alzheimers and no longer recognizes her. She helped host and participated in the 2012 Alzheimer's Society \\\"Memory Walk\\\" and was one of the sponsored Alzheimer's Society runners in the 2013 Nike \\\"Run to the Beat\\\" half-marathon in London.\\nIn 2014, Mulligan became an ambassador for the charity <a href=\\\"War%20Child%20%28charity%29\\\">War Child</a>; in 2014 she visited the <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Republic%20of%20Congo\\\">Democratic Republic of Congo</a> in this role.\\nMulligan is married to <a href=\\\"Marcus%20Mumford\\\">Marcus Mumford</a>, the lead singer of <a href=\\\"Mumford%20%26amp%3B%20Sons\\\">Mumford & Sons</a>. They were childhood pen pals who lost touch and reconnected as adults. They married on 21 April 2012, a few weeks after wrapping production on the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\\\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\\\", in which they were both involved. They have a daughter, Evelyn Grace Mumford, born in September 2015.\\nTheir second child was born in August 2017.\\n\",\n \"Authenticity in art\\nAuthenticity in art is the different ways in which a <a href=\\\"work%20of%20art\\\">work of art</a> or an artistic performance may be considered authentic.\\n<a href=\\\"Denis%20Dutton\\\">Denis Dutton</a> distinguishes between \\\"nominal authenticity\\\" and \\\"expressive authenticity\\\".\\nThe first refers to the correct identification of the author of a work of art, to how closely a performance of a play or piece of music conforms to the author's intention, or to how closely a work of art conforms to an artistic tradition.\\nThe second sense refers to how much the work possesses original or inherent authority, how much sincerity, genuineness of expression, and moral passion the artist or performer puts into the work.\\nA quite different concern is the authenticity of the experience, which may be impossible to achieve. A modern visitor to a museum may not only see an object in a very different context from that which the artist intended, but may be unable to understand important aspects of the work. The authentic experience may be impossible to recapture.\\nAuthenticity is a requirement for inscription upon the <a href=\\\"UNESCO\\\">UNESCO</a> <a href=\\\"World%20Heritage%20List\\\">World Heritage List</a>. According to the \\\"Nara Document on Authenticity\\\", it can be expressed through 'form and design; materials and substance; use and function; traditions and techniques; location and setting; spirit and feeling; and other internal and external factors.'\\nAuthenticity of provenance means that the origin or authorship of a work of art has been correctly identified.\\nAs <a href=\\\"Lionel%20Trilling\\\">Lionel Trilling</a> points out in his 1972 book \\\"Sincerity and Authenticity\\\", the question of authenticity of provenance has acquired a profoundly moral dimension. Regardless of the appearance of the object or the quality of workmanship, there is great importance in knowing whether a vase is a genuine <a href=\\\"Ming%20vase\\\">Ming vase</a> or just a clever <a href=\\\"Art%20forgery\\\">forgery</a>.\\nThis intense interest in authenticity is relatively recent and is largely confined to the western world. In the medieval period, and in countries such as modern Thailand, there was or is little interest in the identity of the artist.\\nThe case of <a href=\\\"Han%20van%20Meegeren\\\">Han van Meegeren</a> is well known. After failing to succeed as an artist in his own right, he turned to creating fake <a href=\\\"Vermeer\\\">Vermeer</a> paintings. These were accepted as genuine by experts and acclaimed as masterpieces. After being arrested for selling national treasures to the Germans, he caused a sensation when he publicly demonstrated that he was the artist.\\nTo guard against forgeries like this, a <a href=\\\"certificate%20of%20authenticity\\\">certificate of authenticity</a> may be used to prove that a work of art is authentic. But there is a sizable market in fake certificates.\\nThe financial importance of authenticity may bias collectors to acquiring recent works of art where provenance can more easily be proven, perhaps even by a statement from the artist.\\nFor older works, an increasingly sophisticated array of forensic techniques may be deployed to establish authenticity of provenance.\\nThe philosopher <a href=\\\"Nelson%20Goodman\\\">Nelson Goodman</a> discusses at length the question raised by <a href=\\\"Aline%20B.%20Saarinen\\\">Aline B. Saarinen</a>: \\\"If a fake is so expert that even after the most thorough and trustworthy examination its authenticity is still open to doubt, is it or is it not as satisfactory a work of art as if it were unequivocally genuine?\\\" Goodman concludes that the question is academic, since there must be some way to distinguish a forgery from the original, and once the forgery is known for what it is, that knowledge alters the perception of value.\\nHowever, <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Koestler\\\">Arthur Koestler</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Act%20of%20Creation\\\">The Act of Creation</a>\\\" answers that if a forgery fits into an artist's body of work and produces the same kind of aesthetic pleasure as other works by that artist, there is no reason to exclude it from a museum.\\nThe question of the value of a forgery may be irrelevant to a curator, since they are concerned only with the provenance of the work and not with its artistic merit.\\nEven for the curator, in many cases provenance is a matter of probabilities rather than a certainty - absolute proof is not possible.\\nBut once a forgery has been exposed, no matter how highly the work was praised when it was thought to be \\\"authentic\\\" there is rarely any interest in evaluating the work on its own merit.\\nReproduction is inherent to some forms of art. In Medieval Europe, an artist might create a drawing which was used by another craftsman to create a <a href=\\\"woodcut\\\">woodcut</a> block. The drawing was usually destroyed in the block-cutting process, and the block was thrown away when it became worn out. The copies printed from the block are all that remain of the work.\\nIn a 1936 essay, <a href=\\\"Walter%20Benjamin\\\">Walter Benjamin</a> discussed the new media of photography and film, in which the work of art can be reproduced many times with no one version being the authentic \\\"original\\\". He linked this shift from authentic objects to broadly accessible mass media with a transformation in the function of art from ritual to politics.\\nModern art may raise new issues of authenticity of provenance. For example, the artist <a href=\\\"Duane%20Hanson\\\">Duane Hanson</a> instructed the conservators of his 1971 sculpture \\\"Sunbather\\\" to feel free to replace elements such as the bathing cap or swimsuit if they became faded.\\nAs <a href=\\\"Julian%20H.%20Scaff\\\">Julian H. Scaff</a> points out, the computer and the internet further confuse the issue of authenticity of provenance, since a digital work of art may exist in thousands or millions of identical versions, and in variants where there is no way to determine the original version or even the author.\\nAuthenticity of provenance is concerned with identifying the person who made the work, or at least pinning down the place and time in which the work was made as closely as possible. Cultural authenticity, or authenticity of style or tradition, is concerned with whether a work is a genuine expression of an artistic tradition, even when the author may be anonymous. Interest in this form of authenticity may be associated with a romantic sense of the value of the pure, unadulterated tradition, often linked to nationalistic and possibly racist beliefs.\\nA work of art may be considered an authentic example of a traditional culture or genre when it conforms to the style, materials, process of creation and other essential attributes of that genre.\\nMany traditions are thought to be \\\"owned\\\" by an ethnic group, and work in that genre is only considered authentic if it is created by a member of that group. Thus <a href=\\\"Inuit%20art\\\">Inuit art</a> can only be considered authentic if created by an <a href=\\\"Inuit%20people\\\">Inuit</a>. This may help to protect the originators of an art tradition from <a href=\\\"cultural%20appropriation\\\">cultural appropriation</a>, but there is a racist aspect to the view as described by Joel Rudinow in his essay \\\"Race, Ethnicity, Expressive Authenticity: Can White People Sing the Blues?\\\"\\nThe market for \\\"<a href=\\\"primitive%20art\\\">primitive art</a>\\\" developed in the western world towards the end of the 19th century as explorers or colonialists came into contact with formerly unknown cultural groups in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. These people quickly learned how to incorporate new materials supplied by traders into their art, such as cloth and glass beads, but found that they could not sell these \\\"inauthentic\\\" objects. However, they learned how to manufacture works from local materials that would be considered authentic for sale to the westerners.\\nThis process of creating art that will be considered authentic by western buyers continues to this day. The objects may be designed or modified to give the impression of having popular attributes and provenance, including religious or ritual uses, antiquity and association with royalty.\\nSimilarly, in the 1940s <a href=\\\"Haiti\\\">Haiti</a>an professional artists began to create imitations of images provided by foreign entrepreneurs. The images represented the foreigners' view of the essence of <a href=\\\"Haitian%20Vodou%20art\\\">Haitian Vodou art</a>. The Haitian works were later claimed to be authentic.\\nTo distinguish from crude objects made for the tourist trade, many collectors consider that a work is only an authentic example of a traditional genre if it meets certain standards of quality and was made for the original purpose. Dutton gives the example of the <a href=\\\"Igorot\\\">Igorot</a> of northern <a href=\\\"Luzon\\\">Luzon</a> who have long created figurines (\\\"<a href=\\\"bulul\\\">bulul</a>\\\") for use in traditional ceremonies, but today produce them primarily for the tourist trade. An Igorot family may purchase a roughly carved \\\"bulul\\\" from a tourist booth and use it for traditional ceremonies, thus giving authenticity to the work that would not, perhaps, be present otherwise.\\nAlthough collectors place greater value on \\\"tribal\\\" masks or sculptures that have been used in an active ritual, it may be impossible to prove whether this is the case. Even if a video shows the mask being worn in a ritual dance, the dance may have been staged for tourists. Yet if the provenance of the mask is proven, if the mask was made by a member of the society using traditional designs and techniques, it is presumably an authentic example of the style or tradition.\\nIt is not always clear what constitutes a style. For example, production of <a href=\\\"Zimbabwe\\\">Zimbabwe</a>an stone sculptures is relatively recent, dating to the 1950s. It does not draw on any earlier tradition. However, the sculpture plays an important role in establishing the existence of a uniquely Zimbabwean culture, and the authenticity of this style is strongly emphasized by the government of Zimbabwe despite the difficulty of defining its characteristics.\\n<a href=\\\"Navajo%20people\\\">Navajo</a> <a href=\\\"Sandpainting\\\">sand paintings</a> raise a different issue. The traditional paintings must be destroyed on completion of the ritual in which they are used. However, Navajo artists create sand paintings for sale with slightly modified designs. Can these paintings be considered authentic examples of Navajo art?\\nTraditions change. In an exploration of the evolution of the art of the <a href=\\\"Maroon%20people\\\">Maroon people</a> of <a href=\\\"French%20Guiana\\\">French Guiana</a>, <a href=\\\"Sally%20Price\\\">Sally Price</a> shows that contemporary styles have developed through a complex interaction between artists and buyers. The Maroons have a long tradition of artwork, primarily in the form of decoration of everyday objects such as paddles or shutters. This art was purely aesthetic in purpose, with no symbolic meaning. However, European collectors needed to assign symbolism to \\\"native art\\\". Over time, the Maroon artists have come to accept the European <a href=\\\"semiotic\\\">semiotic</a> vocabulary and to assign symbolism to their work, which younger artists may believe to be based on ancestral traditions. The artists have also moved into new media and new designs. Their art may still be considered authentic examples of Maroon art, but the art form and the meaning associated with it is new.\\nWith performance arts such as music and theater, both the composer or playwright and the performers are involved in creating an instance of the work. There are some who consider that a performance is only truly authentic if it approximates as closely as possible what the original author would have expected to see and hear. In a <a href=\\\"historically%20informed%20performance\\\">historically informed performance</a>, the actors or musicians will make every effort to achieve this effect by using replicas of historical instruments, studying historical guides to acting and so on. They would consider, for example, that a performance of one of <a href=\\\"Mozart\\\">Mozart</a>'s piano concertos would be \\\"inauthentic\\\" if played on a modern concert <a href=\\\"grand%20piano\\\">grand piano</a>, an instrument that would have been unknown to the composer.\\nOthers would not take such a rigorous view. For example, they would accept a performance of a play by <a href=\\\"Shakespeare\\\">Shakespeare</a> as authentic even if the female parts were played by women rather than boys, and if the words were spoken with modern pronunciation rather than with the pronunciation of the <a href=\\\"Elizabethan%20era\\\">Elizabethan era</a>, which would be difficult for a modern audience to understand.\\nDutton's concept of expressive authenticity is based on the \\\"<a href=\\\"Oxford%20English%20Dictionary\\\">Oxford English Dictionary</a>\\\" alternative definition of \\\"possessing original or inherent authority\\\". In this sense, authenticity is a measure of the degree to which the artist's work is a committed, personal expression rather than derived from other work. It includes concepts of originality, honesty and integrity.\\nIn the case of a musical performance, authenticity of expression may conflict with authenticity of performance. The player is true to their personal musical sense and does not imitate someone else's method of playing. Their performance may thus differ significantly from that of a player attempting to follow the style common at the time the musical work was composed.\\nExpressive authenticity is related to the technical term \\\"<a href=\\\"Authenticity%20%28philosophy%29\\\">authenticity</a>\\\" as used in <a href=\\\"existential%20philosophy\\\">existential philosophy</a>. It has always been thought right to know oneself and to act accordingly, and in existential psychology this form of authenticity is seen as central to mental health.\\nProminent artists such as the <a href=\\\"Abstract%20expressionism\\\">Abstract Expressionists</a> <a href=\\\"Jackson%20Pollock\\\">Jackson Pollock</a>, <a href=\\\"Arshile%20Gorky\\\">Arshile Gorky</a>, and <a href=\\\"Willem%20de%20Kooning\\\">Willem de Kooning</a> have been understood in existentialist terms, as have <a href=\\\"filmmaker\\\">filmmaker</a>s such as <a href=\\\"Jean-Luc%20Godard\\\">Jean-Luc Godard</a> and <a href=\\\"Ingmar%20Bergman\\\">Ingmar Bergman</a>.\\nThe greater popularity of performer-based music as opposed to composition-based music is relatively recent. It seems to reflect a growing interest in expressive authenticity, and thus in musicians who have a unique and charismatic style.\\nThe question of whether an artistic work is an authentic expression depends on the artist's background, beliefs and ideals. <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Potter\\\">Andrew Potter</a> cites the example of <a href=\\\"Avril%20Lavigne\\\">Avril Lavigne</a>, a teenage singer from <a href=\\\"Napanee\\\">Napanee</a>, <a href=\\\"Ontario\\\">Ontario</a> who burst onto the pop music scene in 2002. She claimed to be a small-town skateboarder, with her background providing the subjects of her songs, and said these songs were her own compositions. These claims of authenticity of expression and of provenance were both challenged. However, her work could have been authentic in expression even if Lavigne had not written it, or authentic in provenance if she had written it but not authentic in expression if the carefully cultivated skater-girl image were false.\\nAuthenticity of expression may thus be linked with authenticity of style or tradition.\\nMany feel it is not permissible for someone to speak in the voice of another culture or racial background, and that such an expression cannot be authentic.\\nFor example, <a href=\\\"hip%20hop\\\">hip hop</a> was originally an art form through which underprivileged minorities in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> protested against their condition. As it has become less of an underground culture, there is debate over whether the spirit of hip hop can survive in a marketable integrated version.\\nIn \\\"Authenticity Within Hip Hop and Other Cultures Threatened with Assimilation,\\\" <a href=\\\"Kembrew%20McLeod\\\">Kembrew McLeod</a> argues that hip hop culture is threatened with assimilation by a larger, mainstream culture, and that authenticity of expression in this genre is being lost.\\nA quite different concern is the authenticity of the experience, which may be impossible to achieve. A modern visitor to a museum may not only see an object in a very different context from that which the artist intended, but also may be unable to understand important aspects of the work. The authentic experience may be impossible to recapture. A curator may accept this, perhaps attempting to present the works of art in their authentic condition, but accepting that the artificial setting and lighting are legitimate in providing a contemporary experience of the artwork, even if this experience cannot be \\\"authentic\\\".\\nDutton discusses the importance of the audience, giving a hypothetical example based on \\\"<a href=\\\"La%20Scala\\\">La Scala</a>\\\", the famous <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a> opera house. He imagines that the natural audience, informed aficionados of the opera, lose interest and cease to attend, but the performances continue to be given to tourists who have no understanding of the work they are experiencing. In another example, he quotes a Pacific Island dancer saying \\\"Culture? That's what we do for the tourists.\\\" In both cases, although the performances may be authentic in the sense of being true to the original, the authenticity of the experience is open to debate.\",\n \"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\\n\\\"This article is about the album. \\\"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\\\" is also the title of Dave Van Ronk's memoir\\nThe Mayor of MacDougal Street (subtitled \\\"Rarities 1957-1969\\\") is a compilation album by <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">American</a> folksinger <a href=\\\"Dave%20Van%20Ronk\\\">Dave Van Ronk</a>, released in 2005.\\n\\\"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\\\" contains previously unreleased songs and is presented in chronological order. It contains both solo material and songs recorded with session musicians and bands that either backed Van Ronk or he was a member of. It was included with the memoir of the same title before being released as a separate CD. The title refers to <a href=\\\"MacDougal%20Street\\\">MacDougal Street</a> in <a href=\\\"Greenwich%20Village\\\">Greenwich Village</a>.\\nWriting for <a href=\\\"Allmusic\\\">Allmusic</a>, critic Steve Leggett wrote of the album \\\"Van Ronk was never a part of the tradition-at-all-costs wing of the folk movement, and he readily embraced the young songwriters of the day, frequently covering their songs, as evidenced by the hushed, nuanced version of <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Cohen\\\">Leonard Cohen</a>'s \\\"Bird on the Wire\\\" that is included here. A skilled raconteur, Van Ronk had the timing of a jazz hornman, and that timing and his wide-ranging musical interests are everywhere apparent on this lovingly assembled look behind the curtains.\\\"\",\n \"Dave Van Ronk\\nDavid Kenneth Ritz \\\"Dave\\\" Van Ronk (June 30, 1936 – February 10, 2002) was an American <a href=\\\"folk%20singer\\\">folk singer</a>. An important figure in the <a href=\\\"American%20folk%20music%20revival\\\">American folk music revival</a> and New York City's <a href=\\\"Greenwich%20Village\\\">Greenwich Village</a> scene in the 1960s, he was nicknamed the \\\"Mayor of <a href=\\\"MacDougal%20Street\\\">MacDougal Street</a>\\\".\\nVan Ronk's work ranged from old English ballads to <a href=\\\"blues\\\">blues</a>, <a href=\\\"gospel%20music\\\">gospel</a>, <a href=\\\"Rock%20music\\\">rock</a>, <a href=\\\"Dixieland\\\">New Orleans jazz</a>, and <a href=\\\"swing%20%28genre%29\\\">swing</a>. He was also known for performing instrumental <a href=\\\"ragtime\\\">ragtime</a> guitar music, especially his transcription of \\\"St. Louis Tickle\\\" and <a href=\\\"Scott%20Joplin\\\">Scott Joplin</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Maple%20Leaf%20Rag\\\">Maple Leaf Rag</a>\\\". Van Ronk was a widely admired avuncular figure in \\\"the Village\\\", presiding over the coffeehouse folk culture and acting as a friend to many up-and-coming artists by inspiring, assisting, and promoting them. Folk performers whom he befriended include <a href=\\\"Bob%20Dylan\\\">Bob Dylan</a>, <a href=\\\"Tom%20Paxton\\\">Tom Paxton</a>, <a href=\\\"Patrick%20Sky\\\">Patrick Sky</a>, <a href=\\\"Phil%20Ochs\\\">Phil Ochs</a>, <a href=\\\"Ramblin%27%20Jack%20Elliott\\\">Ramblin' Jack Elliott</a>, and <a href=\\\"Joni%20Mitchell\\\">Joni Mitchell</a>. Bob Dylan recorded Van Ronk's arrangement of the traditional song \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%20the%20Rising%20Sun\\\">House of the Rising Sun</a>\\\" on his first album, which <a href=\\\"The%20Animals\\\">The Animals</a> turned into a chart-topping rock single in 1964, helping inaugurate the folk-rock movement.\\nVan Ronk received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (<a href=\\\"American%20Society%20of%20Composers%2C%20Authors%20and%20Publishers\\\">ASCAP</a>) in December 1997. He died in a New York hospital of cardiopulmonary failure while undergoing postoperative treatment for <a href=\\\"colon%20cancer\\\">colon cancer</a>.\\nVan Ronk was born in <a href=\\\"Brooklyn\\\">Brooklyn</a> to a family that was \\\"mostly Irish, despite the Dutch name.\\\" He moved from Brooklyn to <a href=\\\"Queens\\\">Queens</a> in 1951 and began attending Holy Child Jesus Catholic School, whose students were mainly of Irish descent. He had been performing in a <a href=\\\"Barbershop%20music\\\">barbershop quartet</a> since 1949, but left before finishing high school, and spent the next few years bumming around lower Manhattan and twice shipping out with the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Merchant%20Marine\\\">Merchant Marine</a>.\\nHis first professional gigs playing tenor banjola were with various traditional jazz bands around New York, of which he later observed: \\\"We wanted to play traditional jazz in the worst way...and we did!\\\" But the <a href=\\\"trad%20jazz\\\">trad jazz</a> revival had already passed its prime, and Van Ronk turned to performing blues he had stumbled across while shopping for jazz 78s, by artists like <a href=\\\"Furry%20Lewis\\\">Furry Lewis</a> and <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20John%20Hurt\\\">Mississippi John Hurt</a>. Van Ronk was not the first white musician to perform African-American blues, but became noted for his interpretation of it in its original context.\\nBy about 1958, he was firmly committed to the folk-blues style, accompanying himself with his own acoustic guitar. He performed <a href=\\\"blues\\\">blues</a>, <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a> and <a href=\\\"folk%20music\\\">folk music</a>, occasionally writing his own songs but generally arranging the work of earlier artists and his folk revival peers. At one point, he was considered for a folk-pop trio with <a href=\\\"Peter%20Yarrow\\\">Peter Yarrow</a>. Van Ronk's voice and style were considered too idiosyncratic and the role eventually went to <a href=\\\"Noel%20Paul%20Stookey\\\">Noel Paul Stookey</a> (who became the \\\"Paul\\\" in <a href=\\\"Peter%2C%20Paul%20and%20Mary\\\">Peter, Paul and Mary</a>).\\nHe became noted both for his large physical stature and his expansive charisma, which bespoke an intellectual, cultured gentleman of many talents. Among his many interests were cooking, <a href=\\\"science%20fiction\\\">science fiction</a> (he was active for some time in <a href=\\\"science%20fiction%20fandom\\\">science fiction fandom</a>, referring to it as \\\"mind rot\\\", and contributed to <a href=\\\"science%20fiction%20fanzines\\\">fanzines</a>), world history, and politics. During the 1960s he supported radical left-wing political causes and was a member of the <a href=\\\"Libertarian%20League\\\">Libertarian League</a> and the Trotskyist American Committee for the <a href=\\\"Fourth%20International\\\">Fourth International</a> (ACFI, later renamed the Workers League ). In 1974, he appeared at \\\"An Evening For <a href=\\\"Salvador%20Allende\\\">Salvador Allende</a>\\\", a concert organized by <a href=\\\"Phil%20Ochs\\\">Phil Ochs</a>, alongside such other performers as his old friend <a href=\\\"Bob%20Dylan\\\">Bob Dylan</a>, to protest the overthrow of the democratic socialist government of Chile and to aid refugees from the U.S.-backed military junta led by <a href=\\\"Augusto%20Pinochet\\\">Augusto Pinochet</a>. After Ochs's suicide in 1976, Van Ronk joined the many performers who played at his memorial concert in the <a href=\\\"Felt%20Forum\\\">Felt Forum</a> at <a href=\\\"Madison%20Square%20Garden\\\">Madison Square Garden</a>, playing his bluesy version of the traditional folk ballad \\\"<a href=\\\"He%20Was%20A%20Friend%20Of%20Mine\\\">He Was A Friend Of Mine</a>\\\". Although Van Ronk was less politically active in later years, he remained committed to anarchist and socialist ideals and was a dues-paying member of the <a href=\\\"Industrial%20Workers%20of%20the%20World\\\">Industrial Workers of the World</a> (IWW) almost until his death.\\nIn 2000, he performed at Blind Willie's in <a href=\\\"Atlanta\\\">Atlanta</a>, clothed in garish <a href=\\\"Hawaii\\\">Hawaii</a>an garb, speaking fondly of his impending return to Greenwich Village. He reminisced over tunes like \\\"You've Been a Good Old Wagon,\\\" a song teasing a worn-out lover, which he ruefully remarked had seemed humorous to him back in 1962. He was married to Terri Thal in the 1960s, lived for many years with Joanne Grace, then married Andrea Vuocolo, with whom he spent the rest of his life. He continued to perform for four decades and gave his last concert just a few months before his death. He found it amusing to be called \\\"a legend in his own time\\\".\\nVan Ronk died before completing work on his memoirs, which were finished by his collaborator, <a href=\\\"Elijah%20Wald\\\">Elijah Wald</a>, and published in 2005 as \\\"The Mayor Of MacDougal Street\\\".\\nIn 2004, a section of Sheridan Square, where Barrow Street meets Washington Place, was renamed Dave Van Ronk Street in his memory.\\n\\nVan Ronk can be described as an irreverent and incomparable guitar artist and interpreter of black blues and folk, with an uncannily precise ability at impersonation. <a href=\\\"Joni%20Mitchell\\\">Joni Mitchell</a> often said that his rendition of her song \\\"<a href=\\\"Both%20Sides%20Now%20%28song%29\\\">Both Sides Now</a>\\\" (which he called \\\"Clouds\\\") was the finest ever.\\nHe is perhaps underestimated as a musician and blues guitarist. His guitar work, for which he credits Tom Paley as fingerpicking teacher, is noteworthy for both syncopation and precision. It shows similarities to <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20John%20Hurt\\\">Mississippi John Hurt</a>'s, but Van Ronk's main influence was the <a href=\\\"Reverend%20Gary%20Davis\\\">Reverend Gary Davis</a>, who conceived the guitar as \\\"a piano around his neck\\\". Van Ronk took this pianistic approach and added a harmonic sophistication adapted from the band voicings of <a href=\\\"Jelly%20Roll%20Morton\\\">Jelly Roll Morton</a> and <a href=\\\"Duke%20Ellington\\\">Duke Ellington</a>. He ranks high in bringing blues style to Greenwich Village during the 1960s, as well as introducing the folk world to the complex harmonies of <a href=\\\"Kurt%20Weill\\\">Kurt Weill</a> in his many Brecht-Weill interpretations, and being one of the very few hardcore traditional revivalists to move with the times, bringing old blues and ballads together with the new sounds of Dylan, Mitchell and <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Cohen\\\">Leonard Cohen</a>. During this crucial period, he performed with the likes of <a href=\\\"Bob%20Dylan\\\">Bob Dylan</a> and spent many years teaching guitar in Greenwich Village, including to <a href=\\\"Christine%20Lavin\\\">Christine Lavin</a>, <a href=\\\"David%20Massengill\\\">David Massengill</a>, <a href=\\\"Terre%20Roche\\\">Terre Roche</a> and <a href=\\\"Suzzy%20Roche\\\">Suzzy Roche</a>. He influenced his protégé <a href=\\\"Danny%20Kalb\\\">Danny Kalb</a> and <a href=\\\"The%20Blues%20Project\\\">The Blues Project</a>. The Japanese singer Masato Tomobe, American pop-folk singer Geoff Thais and the musician and writer Elijah Wald learned from him as well. Known for making interesting and memorable observations he once said, \\\"Painting is all about space, and music is all about time.\\\" In his autobiography Bob Dylan states, \\\"I'd heard Van Ronk back in the Midwest on records and thought he was pretty great, copied some of his recordings phrase for phrase. [...] Van Ronk could howl and whisper, turn blues into ballads and ballads into blues. I loved his style. He was what the city was all about. In Greenwich Village, Van Ronk was king of the street, he reigned supreme.\\\"\\nThanks to what he had learned from Davis, Van Ronk was among the first to adapt traditional jazz and ragtime to the solo acoustic guitar. His guitar arrangements of such ragtime hits as \\\"St. Louis Tickle\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Entertainer%20%28rag%29\\\">The Entertainer</a>\\\", \\\"The Pearls\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Maple%20Leaf%20Rag\\\">Maple Leaf Rag</a>\\\" continue to frustrate and challenge aspiring guitar players. He also did fine compositions of his own in the classic styles, such as \\\"Antelope Rag\\\". His song \\\"<a href=\\\"Last%20Call%20%28Dave%20Van%20Ronk%20song%29\\\">Last Call</a>\\\" is the source of the title of <a href=\\\"Lawrence%20Block\\\">Lawrence Block</a>'s book \\\"When the Sacred Ginmill Closes\\\".\\nVan Ronk was among 13 people arrested at the <a href=\\\"Stonewall%20Inn\\\">Stonewall Inn</a> June 28, 1969—the night that the <a href=\\\"Stonewall%20Riots\\\">Stonewall Riots</a>, which many cite as the start of the gay rights movement, began. The New York Times reported the next day that he was arrested and later parolled on his own recognizance for having thrown a heavy object at a patrolman.\\nCity records reveal he was charged with felony assault in the second degree and pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of harassment, classified in 1969 as a violation under pL 240.25. Articles published at the time in the \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20York%20Post\\\">New York Post</a>\\\" and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Village%20Voice\\\">Village Voice</a>\\\" reveal that Van Ronk was pulled by police from the crowd outside and dragged inside the Stonewall.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Coen%20brothers\\\">Coen brothers</a> film \\\"<a href=\\\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\\\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\\\" follows a folk singer similar to Van Ronk, and incorporates anecdotes based on Van Ronk's life.\\nVan Ronk refused for many years to fly and never learned to drive (he would use trains or buses or, when possible, recruit a girlfriend or young musician as his driver), and he declined to ever move from Greenwich Village for any extended period of time (having stayed in California for a short time in the 1960s). Van Ronk's trademark <a href=\\\"stoneware\\\">stoneware</a> jug of <a href=\\\"Tullamore%20Dew\\\">Tullamore Dew</a> was frequently seen on stage next to him in his early days.\\nCritic <a href=\\\"Robert%20Shelton%20%28critic%29\\\">Robert Shelton</a> described Van Ronk as \\\"the musical mayor of MacDougal Street\\\": [A] tall, garrulous hairy man of three quarters, or, more accurately, three fifths Irish descent. Topped by light brownish hair and a leonine beard, which he smoothed down several times a minute, he resembled an unmade bed strewn with books, record jackets, pipes, empty whiskey bottles, lines from obscure poets, finger picks, and broken guitar strings. He was Bob [Dylan]'s first New York guru. Van Ronk was a walking museum of the blues. Through an early interest in jazz, he had gravitated toward black music - its jazz pole, its jug-band and ragtime center, its blues bedrock... his manner was rough and testy, disguising a warm, sensitive core. Van Ronk retold the blues intimately... for a time, his most dedicated follower was [Bob] Dylan.\\nVan Ronk was author of a posthumous memoir, \\\"The Mayor of MacDougal Street\\\" (2005) written with <a href=\\\"Elijah%20Wald\\\">Elijah Wald</a>. Anecdotes from the book were used as a source for the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\\\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\\\".\\nVan Ronk and Richard Ellington collected and edited \\\"The Bosses’ Songbook: [32] Songs to Stifle the Flames of Discontent, Second Edition – A Collection of Modern Political Songs and Satire\\\" (Richard Ellington, publisher: New York, 1959). This originally 50¢ staple-bound paperback of lyrics in 1959 carried an asking price of $265 on AbeBooks.com (accessed February 6, 2015); the booklet is downloadable as two files (<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.sds-1960s.org/TheBossesSongbookPart1.pdf\\\"></a>, <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.sds-1960s.org/TheBossesSongbookPart2.pdf\\\"></a>).\\n\",\n \"Gerde's Folk City\\nGerdes Folk City (sometimes spelled Gerde's Folk City) was a music venue in the <a href=\\\"West%20Village\\\">West Village</a>, part of <a href=\\\"Greenwich%20Village\\\">Greenwich Village</a>, <a href=\\\"Manhattan\\\">Manhattan</a>, in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. Initially opened as a restaurant called Gerdes, by owner <a href=\\\"Mike%20Porco\\\">Mike Porco</a>, it eventually began to present occasional incidental music. First located at 11 West <a href=\\\"4th%20Street\\\">4th Street</a> (in a building which no longer exists), it moved in 1970 to 130 West 3rd Street. It closed in 1987. On January 26, 1960, Gerdes turned into a music venue called The Fifth Peg, in cooperation with <a href=\\\"Izzy%20Young\\\">Izzy Young</a>, the director of the Folklore Center. The Fifth Peg's debut bill was gospel folk singer Brother John Sellars and <a href=\\\"Ed%20McCurdy\\\">Ed McCurdy</a>, writer of the anti-war classic \\\"<a href=\\\"Last%20Night%20I%20Had%20the%20Strangest%20Dream\\\">Last Night I Had the Strangest Dream</a>\\\". Porco and Young had a falling-out, and on June 1, 1960, Gerdes Folk City was officially born with a bill featuring folksingers <a href=\\\"Carolyn%20Hester\\\">Carolyn Hester</a> and <a href=\\\"Logan%20English\\\">Logan English</a>. At this time Gerdes Folk City was booked by a folk enthusiast Charlie Rothschild (who later became <a href=\\\"Judy%20Collins\\\">Judy Collins</a>' longtime manager) and English. Gerdes Folk City was suddenly one of the central music venues of the era. It became one of the most influential American music clubs, before finally losing its lease in 1987. \\\"\\\"Rolling Stone\\\" Book of Lists\\\" called Folk City one of the three top music venues in the world, along with <a href=\\\"The%20Cavern\\\">The Cavern</a> and <a href=\\\"CBGB\\\">CBGB</a>. Folk City helped to launch the careers of several world-renowned musical stars from <a href=\\\"Bob%20Dylan\\\">Bob Dylan</a> to <a href=\\\"Sonic%20Youth\\\">Sonic Youth</a>, and showcased numerous music styles from folk to alternative rock.\\nOpening officially on January 26, 1960, \\\"Folk City\\\" was born in <a href=\\\"Greenwich%20Village\\\">Greenwich Village</a>, and generated several waves of musical genres ranging from <a href=\\\"folk%20music\\\">folk music</a> to <a href=\\\"rock%20%E2%80%98n%E2%80%99%20roll\\\">rock ‘n’ roll</a>; <a href=\\\"folk%20rock\\\">folk rock</a> to <a href=\\\"Punk%20rock\\\">punk</a>; <a href=\\\"blues\\\">blues</a> to <a href=\\\"alternative%20rock\\\">alternative rock</a>, bringing the world a wide range of music from <a href=\\\"Pete%20Seeger\\\">Pete Seeger</a> to <a href=\\\"10%2C000%20Maniacs\\\">10,000 Maniacs</a>. Singer and poet <a href=\\\"Logan%20English\\\">Logan English</a> performed at the opening night, together with <a href=\\\"Carolyn%20Hester\\\">Carolyn Hester</a>. From <a href=\\\"The%20Weavers\\\">The Weavers</a> to <a href=\\\"Sonny%20Terry\\\">Sonny Terry</a> and <a href=\\\"Brownie%20McGhee\\\">Brownie McGhee</a>, <a href=\\\"Judy%20Collins\\\">Judy Collins</a> and <a href=\\\"Rev.%20Gary%20Davis\\\">Rev. Gary Davis</a>, many musicians who formed contemporary music’s foundation performed there. <a href=\\\"Doc%20Watson\\\">Doc Watson</a> made his first solo performance at Gerdes. It was recorded and released as \\\"<a href=\\\"Doc%20Watson%20at%20Gerdes%20Folk%20City\\\">Doc Watson at Gerdes Folk City</a>\\\". <a href=\\\"Simon%20%26amp%3B%20Garfunkel\\\">Simon & Garfunkel</a> and <a href=\\\"Peter%2C%20Paul%20%26amp%3B%20Mary\\\">Peter, Paul & Mary</a> performed early in their professional careers at Gerdes, and Peter, Paul & Mary's first official performance as a trio was at Folk City.\\n<a href=\\\"Bob%20Dylan\\\">Bob Dylan</a> played his first professional gig there on April 11, 1961, supporting <a href=\\\"John%20Lee%20Hooker\\\">John Lee Hooker</a>. Logan English was instrumental in securing Dylan his first appearance. His widow Barbara Shutner said:\\\"My husband Logan English and I met Bob Dylan at Bob and Sid Gleason's house... One night we were all sitting around and <a href=\\\"Woody%20Guthrie\\\">Woody</a> [Guthrie] said something like, \\\"Play something\\\" to this kid sitting on the couch. The kid was Bob Dylan, and he sang and it was just beautiful. So Logan said, \\\"I'm working at Gerde's. I'm the MC. We'll get you to play there.\\\" So that Monday night, Bob came in and did his first set.\\\" Dylan's September 29, 1961 appearance was reviewed in the \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20York%20Times\\\">New York Times</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Robert%20Shelton%20%28critic%29\\\">Robert Shelton</a>, after which Dylan's reputation was made. Gerdes was where Bob Dylan debuted \\\"<a href=\\\"Blowin%27%20in%20the%20Wind\\\">Blowin' in the Wind</a>\\\" and was also the place where <a href=\\\"Joan%20Baez\\\">Joan Baez</a> and Dylan met for the first time. On October 23, 1975 at a celebration for Mike Porco's 61st birthday, Dylan's <a href=\\\"Rolling%20Thunder%20Revue\\\">Rolling Thunder Revue</a> staged a dress rehearsal and played its first real concert. The Review began its national tour a week after playing at Gerdes on October 30, 1975.\\nIn May 1976, folk legend <a href=\\\"Bob%20Gibson\\\">Bob Gibson</a> and his manager Doug Yeager produced a week-long celebration to Mike Porco and Folk City, where more than thirty of the club's early star performers came out to honor the club. Folk City is the place where many of the '60s <a href=\\\"folk-rock\\\">folk-rock</a> and '70s singer-songwriters first found their voices, and shows included future stars such as <a href=\\\"Janis%20Joplin\\\">Janis Joplin</a>, <a href=\\\"Jimi%20Hendrix\\\">Jimi Hendrix</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Mamas%20and%20The%20Papas\\\">The Mamas and The Papas</a>, <a href=\\\"the%20Byrds\\\">the Byrds</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Lovin%27%20Spoonful\\\">The Lovin' Spoonful</a>, <a href=\\\"the%20Youngbloods\\\">the Youngbloods</a>, <a href=\\\"Emmylou%20Harris\\\">Emmylou Harris</a> (who also waitressed at the club), <a href=\\\"Joni%20Mitchell\\\">Joni Mitchell</a>, <a href=\\\"Phoebe%20Snow\\\">Phoebe Snow</a>, <a href=\\\"Loudon%20Wainwright%20III\\\">Loudon Wainwright III</a> and many other well-known names.\\nStarting in 1978, the soon-to-be new owners, Robbie Woliver, Marilyn Lash and Joseph Hillesum took over the booking duties from Mike Porco, continuing to 1980 when they officially bought the club from Porco. \\\"Folk City\\\", under new ownership, underwent a revival, bringing back folk legends like Odetta, Arlo Guthrie, <a href=\\\"Ewan%20MacColl\\\">Ewan MacColl</a> (\\\"<a href=\\\"The%20First%20Time%20Ever%20I%20Saw%20Your%20Face\\\">The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face</a>\\\"), <a href=\\\"Maria%20Muldaur\\\">Maria Muldaur</a>, Eric Andersen, <a href=\\\"The%20Band\\\">The Band</a> and others, and also introducing a new breed of singer-songwriter and expanding its boundaries to a wider range of rock music, especially <a href=\\\"alternative%20music\\\">alternative music</a> like <a href=\\\"Richard%20Thompson%20%28musician%29\\\">Richard Thompson</a>, <a href=\\\"Pentangle%20%28band%29\\\">Pentangle</a>, <a href=\\\"Elvis%20Costello\\\">Elvis Costello</a>, <a href=\\\"Sonic%20Youth\\\">Sonic Youth</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Bongos\\\">The Bongos</a> (who made their debut there backing up Helen Hooke of <a href=\\\"The%20Deadly%20Nightshade\\\">The Deadly Nightshade</a>), <a href=\\\"Yo%20La%20Tengo\\\">Yo La Tengo</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Replacements%20%28band%29\\\">the Replacements</a>, <a href=\\\"10%2C000%20Maniacs\\\">10,000 Maniacs</a> and many others. A new wave of singer-songwriters found a home at \\\"Folk City\\\" during this time as well, such as <a href=\\\"Suzanne%20Vega\\\">Suzanne Vega</a>, <a href=\\\"Shawn%20Colvin\\\">Shawn Colvin</a>, <a href=\\\"Lucinda%20Williams\\\">Lucinda Williams</a> and comedians <a href=\\\"Adam%20Sandler\\\">Adam Sandler</a>, <a href=\\\"Chris%20Rock\\\">Chris Rock</a> and others.\\nFolk City was not just about music; comedians also performed at the club throughout its history. From <a href=\\\"Martin%20Mull\\\">Martin Mull</a> to <a href=\\\"Andy%20Kaufman\\\">Andy Kaufman</a>, many comic actors and comedians got their early start at the club: Adam Sandler, Chris Rock, <a href=\\\"Kathy%20Kinney\\\">Kathy Kinney</a>, <a href=\\\"Carol%20Leifer\\\">Carol Leifer</a>, <a href=\\\"Richard%20Lewis%20%28comedian%29\\\">Richard Lewis</a>, <a href=\\\"Mary%20Kay%20Place\\\">Mary Kay Place</a>, <a href=\\\"Larry%20David\\\">Larry David</a>, <a href=\\\"Jim%20Belushi\\\">Jim Belushi</a>, <a href=\\\"Andy%20Breckman\\\">Andy Breckman</a> (creator of \\\"<a href=\\\"Monk%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Monk</a>\\\"), Martin Mull, <a href=\\\"Steve%20Buscemi\\\">Steve Buscemi</a> and more. Under the direction of actress/comedian/singer <a href=\\\"Jane%20Brucker\\\">Jane Brucker</a> (\\\"One Life To Live, \\\"Dirty Dancing\\\"), improv and comedy became all the rage, with Jane introducing such new acts as Adam Sandler and Kathy Kinney (\\\"Mimi\\\" on \\\"<a href=\\\"the%20Drew%20Carey%20Show\\\">the Drew Carey Show</a>\\\".) On \\\"Theater Night,\\\" singer/performer Fran Maya introduced Steve Buscemi and his partner <a href=\\\"Mark%20Boone%2C%20Jr.\\\">Mark Boone, Jr.</a> (\\\"<a href=\\\"Sons%20of%20Anarchy\\\">Sons of Anarchy</a>\\\") who became regulars on Theater and Comedy nights.\\nIn the 80s, the club underwent another revival, introducing a new breed of singer-songwriter and in expanding its boundaries to a wider range of rock music, with its alternative Wednesday night music series \\\"Music For Dozens\\\" which featured <a href=\\\"David%20Johansen\\\">David Johansen</a>, Sonic Youth, Yo La Tengo, <a href=\\\"Alex%20Chilton\\\">Alex Chilton</a>, the <a href=\\\"Minutemen%20%28band%29\\\">Minutemen</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Smithereens\\\">The Smithereens</a>, Violent Femmes, <a href=\\\"The%20Replacements%20%28band%29\\\">The Replacements</a>, 10,000 Maniacs, <a href=\\\"Richard%20Lloyd%20%28guitarist%29\\\">Richard Lloyd</a>, Chris Stamey, <a href=\\\"Dream%20Syndicate\\\">Dream Syndicate</a>, <a href=\\\"H%C3%BCsker%20D%C3%BC\\\">Hüsker Dü</a>, <a href=\\\"X%20%28American%20band%29\\\">X</a>, <a href=\\\"Golden%20Palominos\\\">Golden Palominos</a>, <a href=\\\"the%20Blasters\\\">the Blasters</a> and many others. A new wave of singer-songwriters found a home at Folk City during this time as well, such as Suzanne Vega, Shawn Colvin and Lucinda Williams. In 1982, Kevin F King, and the Seven Letters performed in one of the final, Best of the Songwriters Series.\\nIn 1985, the club held a benefit 25th Anniversary Concert, which was part of the NYC Pier Summer Concerts, and was an immediate sell-out. The club lost its lease and closed in 1987, at the height of its revival.\\nThe owners, however, have continued over the years to produce and present Folk City concerts and performances around the country featuring Folk City alumni and new up-and-coming artists.\\nA theatrical production - \\\"Folk City\\\" - a musical based on the club's history and the book \\\"Bringing It All Back Home,\\\" by Robbie Woliver, is scheduled for Fall 2016.\\nGerde's. has hosted performances by:\\nLive albums recorded at Gerde's Folk City include:\\n\\\"Bringing It All Back Home\\\" (Pantheon/Random House, 1986) by Robbie Woliver documents Folk City's history and went into a second printing as \\\"Hoot\\\" (St. Martins Press, 1994).\\n\",\n \"Marcus Mumford\\nMarcus Oliver Johnstone Mumford (born 31 January 1987) is a British-American singer, songwriter, musician and producer best known as the lead singer of the band <a href=\\\"Mumford%20%26amp%3B%20Sons\\\">Mumford & Sons</a>. He also plays a number of instruments with the group, including guitar, drums and mandolin.\\nMarcus was born on 31 January 1987 in <a href=\\\"Orange%20County%2C%20California\\\">Orange County, California</a>, to <a href=\\\"English%20people\\\">English</a> parents. As a result, he has held both British and <a href=\\\"United%20States%20nationality%20law\\\">US</a> citizenship from birth.\\nMumford has an older brother, James. His aunt is an academic in law at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Bristol\\\">University of Bristol</a>.\\nMumford's family moved back to their native <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a> when Marcus was six months old. He grew up in Wimbledon Chase, southwest London, and attended <a href=\\\"King%27s%20College%20School\\\">King's College School</a> in <a href=\\\"Wimbledon%2C%20London\\\">Wimbledon</a>. There he met future fellow band member <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lovett%20%28British%20musician%29\\\">Ben Lovett</a>. He returned to London to focus on his music career after his first year of study at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">University of Edinburgh</a>, where he collaborated on Mumford & Sons' debut album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Sigh%20No%20More%20%28Mumford%20%26amp%3B%20Sons%20album%29\\\">Sigh No More</a>\\\".\\nHe began his musical career playing drums for <a href=\\\"Laura%20Marling\\\">Laura Marling</a> on tour, along with the other current members of Mumford & Sons. It was through touring with Marling and gaining experience playing gigs, as well as experimenting with his early writing that they decided to form the band in 2007.\\nMumford was included in the <a href=\\\"Forbes\\\">Forbes</a> 30 Under 30 list of music stars in December 2012 for his achievements with Mumford & Sons. Forbes commented of the list which also included acts such as <a href=\\\"Adele\\\">Adele</a> and <a href=\\\"Rihanna\\\">Rihanna</a>: \\\"In sum they represent the entrepreneurial, creative and intellectual best of their generation. Individually, they are engaging, surprising and incredibly hardworking.\\\"\\nMumford sang a <a href=\\\"Cover%20version\\\">cover</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"Dink%27s%20Song\\\">Dink's Song</a>\\\" with <a href=\\\"Oscar%20Isaac\\\">Oscar Isaac</a> for the 2013 <a href=\\\"Coen%20brothers\\\">Coen brothers</a> film \\\"<a href=\\\"Inside%20Llewyn%20Davis\\\">Inside Llewyn Davis</a>\\\". Although Mumford is not seen in the film, he voices the protagonist's musical partner, Mike, who has committed suicide before the starting point of the film.\\nMumford is featured on the 2014 collaborative album \\\"\\\", with other artists including <a href=\\\"Elvis%20Costello\\\">Elvis Costello</a>, <a href=\\\"Rhiannon%20Giddens\\\">Rhiannon Giddens</a>, <a href=\\\"Taylor%20Goldsmith\\\">Taylor Goldsmith</a>, <a href=\\\"Jim%20James\\\">Jim James</a>, Jay Bellerose, and <a href=\\\"T%20Bone%20Burnett\\\">T Bone Burnett</a>. Mumford takes co-writing credits on tracks, \\\"Kansas City\\\", \\\"When I Get My Hands on You\\\", \\\"The Whistle Is Blowing\\\", \\\"Stranger\\\", and \\\"Lost on the River #20\\\".\\nOn 23 September 2014, the video for \\\"When I Get My Hands on You\\\" was released and features Mumford on lead vocals.\\nMumford and Sons third album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Wilder%20Mind\\\">Wilder Mind</a>\\\", was released on 4 May 2015.\\nIn 2014, Mumford produced \\\"Hold Fast\\\" by Christian Letts (<a href=\\\"Edward%20Sharpe%20and%20the%20Magnetic%20Zeros\\\">Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros</a>), released February 2015. Mumford co-wrote 4 tracks from the record - \\\"Copper Bells\\\", \\\"La Mer\\\", \\\"Emeralds\\\" and \\\"Matches\\\".\\nMumford produced the album \\\"Gamble for a Rose\\\" by <a href=\\\"King%20Charles%20%28musician%29\\\">King Charles</a>, released January 2016.\\nMumford's parents, John and Eleanor (née Weir-Breen), are former national leaders of the <a href=\\\"Vineyard%20Churches%20UK%20and%20Ireland\\\">Vineyard Church</a> (UK and Ireland).\\nMumford formerly dated <a href=\\\"Laura%20Marling\\\">Laura Marling</a> from whom he separated in late 2010. In April 2012 Mumford married actress <a href=\\\"Carey%20Mulligan\\\">Carey Mulligan</a> in <a href=\\\"Somerset\\\">Somerset</a>. They were childhood <a href=\\\"pen%20pal\\\">pen pal</a>s who lost touch and reconnected as adults. They married a few weeks after wrapping production on the Coen brothers film \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\", in which they were both involved. They have a daughter.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Oscar Isaac (born Óscar Isaac Hernández Estrada; March 9, 1979) is a Guatemalan-American actor and musician. He played lead film roles in the comedy-drama \"Inside Llewyn Davis\" (2013), for which he received a Golden Globe Award nomination, the crime drama \"A Most Violent Year\" (2014), the science fiction thriller \"Ex Machina\" (2015), in which he played Nathan Hamlet Bateman, and Poe Dameron in \"\". In 2006, he portrayed Saint Joseph, husband of Mary, in \"The Nativity Story\". He also portrayed José Ramos-Horta, former president of East Timor, in the Australian film \"Balibo\" for which he won the AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He has portrayed characters of many different nationalities and ethnicities, such as mixed European, American, Egyptian, Polish, English, French, Mexican, East Timorese, Italian, Welsh, Indonesian, Greek, Cuban, Israeli, and Armenian.","In Secret, previously titled Thérèse, is a 2013 American erotic thriller film written and directed by Charlie Stratton. Based on Émile Zola's 1867 classic novel \"Thérèse Raquin\", the film stars Elizabeth Olsen, Tom Felton, Oscar Isaac and Jessica Lange. It was screened in the Special Presentation section at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. The film received a regional release on February 21, 2014."],"string":"[\n \"Oscar Isaac (born Óscar Isaac Hernández Estrada; March 9, 1979) is a Guatemalan-American actor and musician. He played lead film roles in the comedy-drama \\\"Inside Llewyn Davis\\\" (2013), for which he received a Golden Globe Award nomination, the crime drama \\\"A Most Violent Year\\\" (2014), the science fiction thriller \\\"Ex Machina\\\" (2015), in which he played Nathan Hamlet Bateman, and Poe Dameron in \\\"\\\". In 2006, he portrayed Saint Joseph, husband of Mary, in \\\"The Nativity Story\\\". He also portrayed José Ramos-Horta, former president of East Timor, in the Australian film \\\"Balibo\\\" for which he won the AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He has portrayed characters of many different nationalities and ethnicities, such as mixed European, American, Egyptian, Polish, English, French, Mexican, East Timorese, Italian, Welsh, Indonesian, Greek, Cuban, Israeli, and Armenian.\",\n \"In Secret, previously titled Thérèse, is a 2013 American erotic thriller film written and directed by Charlie Stratton. Based on Émile Zola's 1867 classic novel \\\"Thérèse Raquin\\\", the film stars Elizabeth Olsen, Tom Felton, Oscar Isaac and Jessica Lange. It was screened in the Special Presentation section at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. The film received a regional release on February 21, 2014.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":61,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many MLB players were named in the Mitchell report who are alleged to have used performance enhancing drugs, which is considered unethical and therefore prohibited by most international shorts organizations? "},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"89 MLB players"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cytoskeletal drugs\nCytoskeletal drugs are small molecules that interact with actin or tubulin. These drugs can act on the cytoskeletal components within a cell in three main ways. Some cytoskeletal drugs stabilize a component of the cytoskeleton, such as taxol which stabilizes microtubules or Phalloidin which stabilizes actin filaments. Others such as Cytochalasin D bind to actin monomers and prevent them from polymerizing into filaments. Drugs such as demecolcine act by enhancing the depolymerisation of already formed filaments. Some of these drugs have multiple effects on the cytoskeleton, for example Latrunculin both prevents actin polymerization as well as enhancing its rate of depolymerization. Typically the microtubule targeting drugs can be found in the clinic where they are used therapeutically in the treatment of some forms of cancer. As a result of the lack of specificity for specific type of actin (i.e. cannot distinguish between cardiac, smooth muscle, muscle and cytoskeletal forms of actin) the use of these drugs in animals results in unacceptable off target effects. Despite this the actin targeting compounds are still useful tools that can be used on a cellular level to help further our understanding of how this complex part of the cells internal machinery operates. For example, Phalloidin which has been conjugated with a fluorescent probe can be used for visualizing the filamentous actin in fixed samples.","Victor Conte\nVictor Conte Jr. (born 1950 in Fresno, California) is a former bassist with Tower of Power and the founder and president of Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), a sports nutrition center in California. He served time in prison in 2005 after pleading guilty to conspiracy to distribute steroids and money laundering. Conte played a role in tarnishing professional sports with his distribution of illegal performance enhancing drugs. He currently operates, Scientific Nutrition for Advanced Conditioning (SNAC Nutrition).\nVictor Conte Jr. was born in 1950 in Fresno, California to a Shirley and Victor Conte Sr., he was the oldest of three children in a working-class Italian family. He graduated from McLane High School. After high school he attended Fresno City College but dropped out of college in 1969, after he was convinced by his cousin, musician Bruce Conte to join the band \"Common Ground\" and play bass. In 1970 he quit playing in \"Common Ground\" and joined Pure Food and Drug Act (band). At the time he had the nickname \"Walking Fish\" from his unusual body movement across the stage during his days playing. He left the band \"Pure Food and Drug Act\" before 1977.\nVictor Conte was a member of Tower of Power from 1977 until 1979 playing bass guitar, and he also collaborated during that period with pianist Herbie Hancock and violinist Sugarcane Harris.\nHe founded in 1984 the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), a sports nutrition center first located in Millbrae, California and later relocated to Burlingame, California. The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) says developed the banned steroid tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) with the help of bodybuilding chemist Patrick Arnold. Pursuant to a plea bargain struck with prosecutors, he entered guilty pleas in July 2005 to one count of conspiracy to distribute steroids and a second count of laundering a portion of a check, he was sentenced in October to spend four months in the federal Taft Correctional Institution in Taft, California, and another four on house arrest.\nIn December 2004, he participated in an interview with Martin Bashir on ABC's \"20/20\" program, where he admitted to running doping programs, which have broken Olympic records, as well as revealing that: \"The whole history of the games is just full of corruption, cover-up, performance-enhancing drug use.\"\nIn the interview he implicated, among others, five-time Olympic gold medalist Marion Jones and her partner Tim Montgomery, Kelli White (who later admitted using performance-enhancing drugs), British athlete Dwain Chambers, and NFL player Bill Romanowski.\nOn 21 December 2006, Yahoo Sports reported that one of Conte's initial defense lawyers, Troy Ellerman, had been targeted by the FBI as a possible source of leaks to the media during the Barry Bonds probe. On February 14, 2007, Ellerman pleaded guilty to leaking grand jury testimony. It was also reported that FBI agents were an additional source of leaks.\nIn May 2007, Conte claimed to again be providing supplements for Dwayne Chambers, who left athletics to play in the NFL Europa league for the Hamburg Sea Devils. According to Conte, these nutritional supplements, provided via his company Scientific Nutrition for Advanced Conditioning, are perfectly legal.\nOn December 13, 2007 Conte appeared on CNN before the Mitchell report was officially released.\n\"Game of Shadows: Barry Bonds, BALCO, and the Steroids Scandal that Rocked Professional Sports\" was published in 2006 by two San Francisco Chronicle investigative reporters, relating to the case. There was controversies about the informant and/or source of the information for these books and related court cases.\nIn 2008, in the aftermath of the investigation, Conte produced a book \"BALCO: The Straight Dope on Barry Bonds, Marion and What We Can Do to Save Sports\" which was co-written with author Nathan Jendrick. There had been a legal battle of defamation litigation regarding the book's publication by boxer Shane Mosley and it delayed the publication date. Mosley dropped the lawsuit, but not before Skyhorse publishing had been scared away from publishing, the book is officially unpublished as 2017 but the unpublished manuscript has been made available.\nIn 2011, Conte started a new company, Scientific Nutrition for Advanced Conditioning (SNAC Nutrition) based in San Carlos, California, which in addition to nutritional supplements also offers boxing and sports training. SNAC Nutrition is working with boxer Zab Judah, and Conte has previously worked with Andre Berto, Nonito Donaire, and Andre Ward.\n","Doping in sport\nIn competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors, where the term \"doping\" is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of banned drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbates the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating.\nHistorically speaking, the origins of doping in sports go back to the very creation of sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in chariot racing to more recent controversies in baseball and cycling, popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to strictly regulate the use of drugs in sport. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and the exemplary effect of drug-free sport for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the \"spirit of sport\".\nThe use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about all the way back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial. For instance, Scandinavian mythology says Berserkers could drink a mixture called \"butotens\", to greatly increase their physical power at the risk of insanity. One theory is that the mixture was prepared from the \"Amanita muscaria\" mushroom, though this has been disputed. The German missionary and doctor Albert Schweitzer wrote of Gabon in the early 19th century: \"The people of the country can, having eaten certain leaves or roots, toil vigorously all day without feeling hungry, thirsty or tired and all the time showing a happiness and gaiety.\"\nThe ancient Olympics in Greece have been alleged to have been contaminated with forms of doping. In ancient Rome, where chariot racing had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races.\nMore recently, a participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used laudanum (which contains opiates) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to 500 miles and the following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in Islington, London, to 520 miles. The \"Illustrated London News\" chided:\nThe event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists.\nThe fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and the same appeal brought in the crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs (the French word for \"carers\"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing. Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders suffered hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: \"I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand.\"\nPublic reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said:\nThe father of anabolic steroids in the United States was John Ziegler (1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone, which appeared on the market in 1960. During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of amphetamines and a drug called nicotinyl tartrate in his system.\nThe American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: \"Trainers of the old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures.\" John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were \"de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion.\"\nOver 30 % of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to a study commissioned by WADA, actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught.\nThe whole Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, because the Russian State had sponsored their doping program.\nOver the last 20 years the appearance of steroids in sports has been seen as an epidemic. Research and limited tests have been conducted only to find short-term, reversible effects on athletes that are both physical and mental. These side effects would be alleviated if athletes would be allowed the use of controlled substances under proper medical supervision. These side-effects include Intramuscular abscesses and other microbial bacteria that can cause infections, from counterfeited products the user decides to purchase on the black market, high blood pressure and cholesterol, as well as infertility, and dermatological conditions like severe acne. Mental effects include increased aggression, depression, and in rare cases suicide has been seen as well. Most studies on the effects of steroids have shown to be improper and lacking credible tests as well as performing studies in a skewed fashion to predetermine the world’s view on the use of steroids in sports. Long-term effects have not been able to be pinpointed just yet due to the recency of testing these substances but would start show up as early steroid users reach the age of 50 and older.\nThese \"de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion\" were not unknown outside cycling.\nThomas Hicks, an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic marathon in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American Fred Lorz, who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out a syringe and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle.\nThe use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said:\nHicks was, in the phrase of the time, \"between life and death\" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics.\nGoldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take a drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia.\nStimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement and decreasing the sensation of fatigue. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids. Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, amphetamine, modafinil, and ephedrine. Caffeine, although a stimulant has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004.\nBenzedrine is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by Gordon Alles. Its perceived effects gave it the street name \"speed\". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that \"Methedrine won the Battle of Britain\" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as a thymoleptic before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s.\nEverton, one of the top clubs in the English football league, were champions of the 1962–63 season. And it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted the goalkeeper, Albert Dunlop, as saying:\nThe club agreed that drugs had been used but that they \"could not possibly have had any harmful effect.\" Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict.\nIn November 1942, the Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi took \"seven packets of amphetamine\" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at the Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol, which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that \"dope – whole cartloads – [were] used in such royal quantities.\"\nThe 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: \"You need never go off-course chasing the peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers.\"\nThe Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care:\nCurrently modafinil is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have tested positive for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as the drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their offence, however, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics.\nOne approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included mephendrone, ephendrome, and fluoroamphetamines; which have chemical structures and effects similar to ephedrine and amphetamine.\nAnabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased Low density lipoprotein and decreased High density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, liver damage. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs.\nAAS use in sports began in October 1954 when John Ziegler, a doctor who treated American athletes, went to Vienna with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over \"a few drinks\", repeatedly asked \"What are you giving your boys?\" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought a drug without after-effects and hit on an anabolic steroid, methandrostenolone, (Dianabol, DBOL), made in the US in 1958 by Ciba.\nThe results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports. Paul Lowe, a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: \"We had to take them [steroids] at lunchtime. He [an official] would put them on a little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine.\"\nOlympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 per cent. The gold medalist pentathlete Mary Peters said: \"A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons.\" In 1984, Jay Silvester, a former four-time Olympian and 1972 silver medalist in the discus, who was then with the physical education department of Brigham Young University in the U.S., questioned competitors at that year's Olympics. The range of steroid use he found ranged from 10 mg a day to 100 mg.\nA number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At the collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes.\nA famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol, testosterone, Furazabol, and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance. Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. In 2003, however, Wade Exum, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) director of drug control administration from 1991 to 2000, gave copies of documents to \"Sports Illustrated\" which revealed that some 100 American athletes who failed drug tests and should have been prevented from competing in the Olympics were nevertheless cleared to compete; among those athletes was Carl Lewis.\nLewis broke his silence on allegations that he was the beneficiary of a drugs cover-up, admitting he had tested positive for banned substances but claiming he was just one of \"hundreds\" of American athletes who were allowed to escape bans, concealed by the USOC. Lewis has now acknowledged that he failed three tests during the 1988 US Olympic trials, which under international rules at the time should have prevented him from competing in the Seoul games. Former athletes and officials came out against the USOC cover-up. \"For so many years I lived it. I knew this was going on, but there's absolutely nothing you can do as an athlete. You have to believe governing bodies are doing what they are supposed to do. And it is obvious they did not,\" said former American sprinter and 1984 Olympic champion, Evelyn Ashford.\nIn 1977, one of East Germany's best sprinters, Renate Neufeld, fled to the West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany in the 1980 Olympic Games.\nShe brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for a year for the sake of her family. But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story.\nEast Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977, the shot-putter Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, tested positive for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in Helsinki and thereafter athletes were tested before they left the country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near Dresden passed into government control, which was reputed to make around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised.\nThe International Amateur Athletics Federation suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in Prague. In the reverse of what the IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won.\nAfter that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the \"Edmonton Sun\", who said:\nOther reports came from the occasional athlete who fled to the West. There were 15 between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper Hans-Georg Aschenbach, said: \"Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training.\" He said: \"For every Olympic champion, there at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by the intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank [\"lessivés\" – washed out], which is even more painful than a deformed spine.\"\nAfter German reunification, on 26 August 1993 the records were opened and the evidence was there that the Stasi, the state secret police, supervised systematic doping of East German athletes from 1971 until reunification in 1990. Doping existed in other countries, says the expert Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, both communist and capitalist, but the difference with East Germany was that it was a state policy. The \"Sportvereinigung Dynamo\" (English:\"Dynamo Sports Club\") was especially singled out as a center for doping in the former East Germany. Many former club officials and some athletes found themselves charged after the dissolution of the country. A special page on the internet was created by doping victims trying to gain justice and compensation, listing people involved in doping in the GDR.\nState-endorsed doping began with the Cold War when every eastern bloc gold was an ideological victory. From 1974, Manfred Ewald, the head of the GDR's sports federation, imposed blanket doping. At the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, the country of 17 million collected nine gold medals. Four years later the total was 20 and in 1976 it doubled again to 40. Ewald was quoted as having told coaches, \"They're still so young and don't have to know everything.\" He was given a 22-month suspended sentence, to the outrage of his victims. Often, doping was carried out without the knowledge of the athletes, some of them as young as ten years of age. It is estimated that around 10,000 former athletes bear the physical and mental scars of years of drug abuse, one of them is Rica Reinisch, a triple Olympic champion and world record-setter at the Moscow Games in 1980, has since suffered numerous miscarriages and recurring ovarian cysts.\nTwo former Dynamo Berlin club doctors, Dieter Binus, chief of the national women's team from 1976 to 80, and Bernd Pansold, in charge of the sports medicine center in East-Berlin, were committed for trial for allegedly supplying 19 teenagers with illegal substances. Binus was sentenced in August, Pansold in December 1998 after both being found guilty of administering hormones to underage female athletes from 1975 to 1984.\nVirtually no East German athlete ever failed an official drugs test, though Stasi files show that many did produce positive tests at Kreischa, the Saxon laboratory (German:\"Zentrales Dopingkontroll-Labor des Sportmedizinischen Dienstes\") that was at the time approved by the International Olympic Committee, now called the \"Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry\" (IDAS). In 2005, 15 years after the end of the \"GDR\", the manufacturer of the drugs in former East Germany, Jenapharm, still finds itself involved in numerous lawsuits from doping victims, being sued by almost 200 former athletes.\nFormer Sport Club Dynamo athletes who publicly admitted to doping, accusing their coaches:\nFormer Sport Club Dynamo athletes disqualified for doping:\nBased on the admission by Pollack, the United States Olympic Committee asked for the redistribution of gold medals won in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Despite court rulings in Germany that substantiate claims of systematic doping by some East German swimmers, the IOC executive board announced that it has no intention of revising the Olympic record books. In rejecting the American petition on behalf of its women's medley relay team in Montreal and a similar petition from the British Olympic Association on behalf of Sharron Davies, the IOC made it clear that it wanted to discourage any such appeals in the future.\nThere have been few incidents of doping in football, mainly due to FIFA's belief that education and prevention with constant in and out-of-competition controls play a key role in making high-profile competitions free of performance-enhancing drugs. The FIFA administration work alongside team physicians to fight for dope free competitions, having them sign a joint declaration that states they agree with having routine blood testing to check for blood doping before any FIFA world cup.\nIn 2014, the biological passport is introduced in the 2014 FIFA World Cup; blood and urine samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses.\nThe use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport has become an increasing problem across a wide range of sports. It is defined as any substance or drug that, when taken, gives an athlete an unfair advantage relative to a \"clean\" athlete. The banning of these drugs promotes a level playing field and equality among athletes. The use of 'the suit' in swimming, which gives athletes an advantage in the way of hydrodynamics, has been banned from international competition due to the unfair advantage it delivered. The drugs taken by athletes differ widely based on the performance needs of the sport.\nErythropoietin (EPO) is largely taken by endurance athletes who seek a higher level of red blood cells, which leads to more oxygenated blood, and a higher VO2 max. An athlete's VO2 max is highly correlated with success within endurance sports such as swimming, long-distance running, cycling, rowing, and cross-country skiing. EPO has recently become prevalent amongst endurance athletes due to its potentcy and low degree of detectability when compared to other methods of doping such as blood transfusion. While EPO is believed to have been widely used by athletes in the 1990s, there was not a way to directly test for the drug until 2002. Athletes at the Olympic Games are tested for EPO through blood and urine tests. Stringent guidelines and regulations can lessen the danger of doping that has existed within some endurance sports. As of 2012, 18 pro cyclists in the last 15 years have died from using EPO.\nIn 1924 the journalist Albert Londres followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper \"Le Petit Parisien\". At Coutances he heard that the previous year's winner, Henri Pélissier, his brother Francis and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had resigned from the competition after an argument with the organiser Henri Desgrange. Pélissier explained the problem—whether or not he had the right to take off a jersey—and went on to talk of drugs, reported in Londres' race diary, in which he invented the phrase \"Les Forçats de la Route\" (\"The Convicts of the Road\"):\nHenri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by diarrhea, before continuing:\nFrancis Pélissier said much later: \"Londres was a famous reporter but he didn't know about cycling. We kidded him a bit with our cocaine and our pills. Even so, the Tour de France in 1924 was no picnic.\" The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930, when the race changed to national teams that were to be paid for by the organisers, that the rule book distributed to riders by the organiser, Henri Desgrange, reminded them that drugs were not among items with which they would be provided. The use of Pot Belge by road cyclists in continental Europe exemplifies a cross-over between recreational and performance-enhancing abuse of drugs by sportsman.\nIn 1998, the entire Festina team were excluded from the Tour de France following the discovery of a team car containing large amounts of various performance-enhancing drugs. The team director later admitted that some of the cyclists were routinely given banned substances. Six other teams pulled out in protest including Dutch team TVM who left the tour still being questioned by the police. The Festina scandal overshadowed cyclist Marco Pantani's tour win, but he himself later failed a test. The infamous \"pot belge\" or \"Belgian mix\" has a decades-long history in pro cycling, among both riders and support staff. David Millar, the 2003 World-Time Trial Champion, admitted using EPO, and was stripped of his title and suspended for two years. Roberto Heras was stripped of his victory in the 2005 Vuelta a España and suspended for two years after testing positive for EPO.\nFloyd Landis was the initial winner of the 2006 Tour de France. However, a urine sample taken from Landis immediately after his Stage 17 win has twice tested positive for banned synthetic testosterone as well as a ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone nearly three times the limit allowed by World Anti-Doping Agency rules. The International Cycling Union stripped him of his 2006 Tour de France title. Second place finisher Óscar Pereiro was officially declared the winner.\nLance Armstrong was world number one in 1996. In the same year he recovered from severe testicular cancer and continued to break records and win his seventh Tour de France in 2005. After beating cancer and breaking records he was accused of doping. Teammates of Lance had been caught taking EPO (Erythropoietin) which made the accusations against Armstrong stronger.\nOn 22 October 2012 Lance Armstrong was stripped of his Tour de France titles since 1998. As a response to the decisions of the USADA and UCI, Armstrong resigned from the Lance Armstrong Foundation On 14 January 2013, Armstrong confessed to doping in an interview with Oprah Winfrey which was aired on 17 January on the Oprah Winfrey Network.\nIn triathlon, 2004 Hawaii Ironman winner Nina Kraft, was disqualified for a positive test to EPO. She remains the only Hawaii Ironman winner to be disqualified for doping offences. Sports lawyer Michelle Gallen has said that the pursuit of doping athletes has turned into a modern-day witch-hunt.\nIn sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used anabolic steroids, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drug mimics the effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative effects, anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drug has been used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including:\nSide effects in women include:\nIn countries where the use of these drugs is controlled, there is often a black market trade of smuggled or counterfeit drugs. The quality of these drugs may be poor and can cause health risks. In countries where anabolic steroids are strictly regulated, some have called for a regulatory relief. Steroids are available over-the-counter in some countries such as Thailand and Mexico.\nMany sports organizations have banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have very strict rules and penalties for people who are caught using them. The International Amateur Athletic Federation, now the International Association of Athletics Federations, were the first international governing body of sport to take the situation seriously. In 1928 they banned participants from doping, but with little in the way of testing available they had to rely on the word of the athlete that they were clean.\nIt was not until 1966 that FIFA and Union Cycliste Internationale (cycling) joined the IAAF in the fight against drugs, followed by the International Olympic Committee the following year. Progression in pharmacology has always outstripped the ability of sports federations to implement rigorous testing procedures but since the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999, it has become more effective to catch athletes who use drugs. The first tests for athletes were at the 1966 European Championships and two years later the IOC implemented their first drug tests at both the Summer and Winter Olympics. Anabolic steroids became prevalent during the 1970s and after a method of detection was found they were added to the IOC's prohibited substances list in 1975.\nOver the years, different sporting bodies have evolved differently in the struggle against doping. Some, such as athletics and cycling, are becoming increasingly vigilant against doping. However, there has been criticism that sports such as football (soccer) and baseball are doing nothing about the issue, and letting athletes implicated in doping away unpunished.\nSome commentators maintain that, as outright prevention of doping is an impossibility, all doping should be legalised. However, most disagree with this, pointing out the claimed harmful long-term effects of many doping agents. Opponents claim that with doping legal, all competitive athletes would be compelled to use drugs, and the net effect would be a level playing field but with widespread health consequences. Considering that anti-doping is largely ineffective due to both testing limitations and lack of enforcement, this is not markedly different from the situation already in existence.\nAnother point of view is that doping could be legalized to some extent using a drug whitelist and medical counseling, such that medical safety is ensured, with all usage published. Under such a system, it is likely that athletes would attempt to cheat by exceeding official limits to try to gain an advantage; this could be considered conjecture as drug amounts do not always correlate linearly with performance gains.\nUnder established doping control protocols, the participant will be asked to provide a urine sample, which will be divided into two, each portion to be preserved within sealed containers bearing the same unique identifying number and designation respectively as A- and B-samples. WADA's Executive Committee and Foundation Board clarified at a meeting on 19–20 November, that an athlete whose A-sample has revealed the presence of a prohibited substance or method to request the analysis of his or her B-sample:\"The B-sample helps confirm that an anti-doping rule violation has occurred and protects the rights of the athletes,\" said WADA Director General David Howman. \"It should be stressed that anti-doping is one of the few types of controls in society in which a confirmation procedure is used in order to protect individuals, and the very rare cases in which the analysis of the B-sample did not match the results of the A-sample have shown the usefulness of such procedure.\"\nAccording to Article 6.5 in the World Anti-Doping Code samples may be re-tested later. Samples from high-profile events, such as the Olympic Games, are now re-tested up to eight years later to take advantage of new techniques for detecting banned substances.\nAthletes seeking to avoid testing positive use various methods. The most common methods include:\nDonald Berry, writing in the journal \"Nature\", has called attention to potential problems with the validity of ways in which many of the standardised tests are performed; in his article, as described in an accompanying editorial, Berry\nG. Pascal Zachary argues in a \"Wired\" essay that legalizing performance-enhancing substances, as well as genetic enhancements once they became available, would satisfy society's need for übermenschen and reverse the decline in public interest in sports.\nSports scholar Verner Moller argues that society is hypocritical when it holds athletes to moral standards, but do not conform to those morals themselves. Fox Sports writer Jen Floyd Engel stated in an article, \"We live in a pharmacological society. We live in a society of short cuts, of fake this and enhanced that, and somehow we keep trying to sell the line that sports has become this evil empire of cheating. The reality is athletes are merely doing what so many of us do and celebrate and watch every single day of our lives.\"\nSociologist Ellis Cashmore argues that what is considered doping is too arbitrary: transfusing blood cells is not allowed, but other methods of boosting blood cell count, such as hypobaric chambers, are allowed. Other scholars have advanced similar arguments.\nAnti-doping policies instituted by individual sporting governing bodies may conflict with local laws. A notable case includes the National Football League (NFL) inability to suspend players found with banned substances, after it was ruled by a federal court, that local labor laws superseded the NFL's anti-doping regime. The challenge was supported by the National Football League Players Association.\nAthletes caught doping may be subject to penalties from their locality as well from the individual sporting governing body. The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country. Using performance-enhancing drugs in mixed martial arts competitions like the UFC could find the guilty fighter charged or sued once Bill S-209 passes.\nUnder certain circumstances, when athletes need to take a prohibited substance to treat a medical condition, a therapeutic use exemption may be granted.\n","Performance-enhancing substance\nPerformance-enhancing substances, also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PED), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. A well-known example involves doping in sport, where banned physical performance–enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders. Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics, are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.\nThe use of performance-enhancing drugs spans the categories of legitimate use and substance abuse.\nThe classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of categorization, certain prototype performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like anabolic steroids), whereas other substances (like vitamins and protein supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases; caffeine, for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others.\nThe phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs:\nIn sports, the phrase \"performance-enhancing drugs\" is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term \"steroids\"); anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly. There are agencies such as WADA and USADA that try to prevent athletes from using these drugs by performing drug tests. WADA was founded on November 10, 1999 by Dick Pound. The World Anti-doping Agency focuses on establishing and enforcing rules and codes of all sports around the world. Their goal is to make all sports played fairly between all athletes in a doping free organization with the power to prevent athletes from using any form of performance-enhancing drugs. USADA started October 1, 2000 as non-profit and was composed of nine members. Five of which were former Olympic athletes with the other four elected from independent companies. This is the United States Anti-doping Agency and have the ability to test athletes across the nation. Steroids and performance-enhancing drugs are used across all sports organizations around the world.","Entrepreneurial orientation\nEntrepreneurial orientation (EO) is a firm-level strategic orientation which captures an organization's strategy-making practices, managerial philosophies, and firm behaviors that are entrepreneurial in nature. Entrepreneurial orientation has become one of the most established and researched constructs in the entrepreneurship literature. A general commonality among past conceptualizations of EO is the inclusion of innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking as core defining aspects or dimensions of the orientation. EO has been shown to be a strong predictor of firm performance with a meta-analysis of past research indicating a correlation in magnitude roughly equivalent to the prescription of taking sleeping pills and getting better sleep. Still, some research has argued that EO does not enhance the performance for all firms. Instead, EO can be argued not to be a simple performance enhancing attribute but rather enhancing if it is applied under the right circumstances of the firm. In some cases, EO can even be disadvantageous for firms, if the situation of the firm does not fit with applying EO. Different situations (also known as context) can be the environment that the firm is situated within or internal situations such as structure and strategy.\nEntrepreneurial orientation has most frequently been assessed using a nine-item psychometric instrument developed by Jeff Covin and Dennis Slevin. This instrument captures the perspective of Danny Miller that EO is a ‘collective catchall’ construct which represents what it means for a firm to be considered entrepreneurial across a wide range of contexts. A seminal quote from Miller (1983, p. 780):\n\"“In general, theorists would not call a firm entrepreneurial if it changed its technology or product line simply by directly imitating competitors while refusing to take any risks. Some proactiveness would be essential as well. By the same token, risk-taking firms that are highly leveraged financially are not necessarily entrepreneurial. They must also engage in product market or technological innovation.”\"\nReviews of the Entrepreneurial orientation literature indicate that the majority of prior studies have adopted Miller's perspective of EO as the combination of innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking.\nLumpkin and Dess offer an alternative view of EO as the combination of five dimensions, those put forth by Miller/Covin and Slevin as well as competitive aggressiveness and autonomy. Moreover, they suggest that additional insights stand to be gained from investigating the dimensions independently. Proceeding research has suggested that there is value in examining EO according to either conceptualization depending upon the demands of the research question being addressed. Research on the individual dimensions of risk-taking, proactiveness and innovativeness has found that the dimensions can combine in different ways to form configurations.\nTaken together, as a strategic orientation EO enhances firm performance as well as overall variance in a firm’s performance. Increased variance occurs as result of the observation that many entrepreneurial actions ultimately fail to generate an economic return thereby contributing to an increased distribution of firm performance outcomes. As a core firm strategic orientation, the breadth and depth of research on EO continues to expand as the concept is adopted to understand the effects of being entrepreneurial across an increasing number of research contexts.","Mitchell Report\nThe Report to the Commissioner of Baseball of an Independent Investigation into the Illegal Use of Steroids and Other Performance Enhancing Substances by Players in Major League Baseball, informally known as the \"Mitchell Report,\" is the result of former Democratic United States Senator from Maine George J. Mitchell's 20-month investigation into the use of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH) in Major League Baseball (MLB). The 409-page report, released on December 13, 2007, covers the history of the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances by players and the effectiveness of the MLB Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. The report also advances certain recommendations regarding the handling of past illegal drug use and future prevention practices. In addition, the report names 89 MLB players who are alleged to have used steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs.\nA former Senate Majority Leader, federal prosecutor, and ex-chairman of The Walt Disney Company, George Mitchell was appointed by Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig on March 30, 2006 to investigate the use of performance-enhancing drugs in MLB. Mitchell was appointed during a time of controversy over the 2006 book \"Game of Shadows\" by \"San Francisco Chronicle\" investigative reporters Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, which chronicles alleged extensive use of performance enhancers, including several different types of steroids and growth hormone by baseball superstars Barry Bonds, Gary Sheffield and Jason Giambi. The appointment was made after several influential members of the U.S. Congress made negative comments about the effectiveness and honesty of MLB's drug policies.\nMitchell's investigation focused on high-profile players, without investigating the role teams played. Mitchell reported that the Major League Baseball Players Association was \"largely uncooperative\". According to Mitchell, the Players Association effectively discouraged players from cooperating with the investigation. In a memorandum to players, the Association advised:\nConfidentiality was not an idle concern. The Players Association had agreed to anonymous testing in 2003, only to find out the list of players testing positive was turned over to the government (as part of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative investigation).\nMitchell agreed to give Commissioner Selig an advanced copy of the report while refusing to do the same for the Players Association.\nOnly two active players were interviewed for the report. Of five players who were approached by the investigators for interviews because of their public statements on the issue, Toronto Blue Jays designated hitter Frank Thomas was the only one willing to be interviewed.\nKirk Radomski, a former batboy and clubhouse employee for the New York Mets and a critical witness, provided most of the names that the general public did not know about. Mitchell was able to secure Radomski's cooperation through San Francisco, California, U.S. Attorney Scott Schools. Radomski had been charged with distribution of a controlled substance and money laundering and faced up to thirty years in prison. He reached a plea bargain that was conditioned upon his cooperation with the Mitchell investigation.\nBrian McNamee is a personal trainer who was most notably employed by Andy Pettitte, Roger Clemens, and Chuck Knoblauch. He is a former strength coach for the New York Yankees and Toronto Blue Jays. The Mitchell Report alleges that McNamee helped acquire performance-enhancing drugs including steroids, amphetamines, and human growth hormone for some or all of the players he personally trained. McNamee told the Mitchell Commission that he began injecting Clemens with steroids in and that he continued to provide these steroids through .\nLarry Starr was a trainer for 30 years with the Cincinnati Reds (1972-1992) and the Florida Marlins (1993-2002). Starr was interviewed by Mitchell's investigators at least four times but his information was entirely omitted from the final Report.\nStarr has spoken freely about the subject with the press. He told a reporter, \"I have notes from the Winter Meetings where the owners group and the players' association sat in meetings with the team physicians and team trainers. I was there. And team physicians stood up and said, 'Look, we need to do something about this. We've got a problem here if we don't do something about it.' That was in 1988.\"\nIn another interview, Starr said, \"I don't totally blame the players. They didn't abuse the system. They used the system. The system was such that there was no testing so... the bad thing was it really put the medical people in a bad situation. If we couldn't test, there was no way we could accuse somebody point blank that they were using some type of performance-enhancing substance... Here's the position I took. If I can't test, if I can't do anything objective with them, what I told my players was come on in [the training room]. If you've got any questions, we'll close the door, close the blinds, there will be no papers, no pencils and what do you want to know. And I'd tell them everything I knew... When Mark McGwire was discovered taking androstenedione, when that hit ESPN, four players walked into my office within an hour and asked, 'Where can I get androstenedione?'\"\nStarr says that the first player he knew to be using steroids was doing so in 1984, and that multiple members of the championship 1997 Marlins team used steroids. In 2000, Starr found a bag of syringes belonging to Marlins pitcher Ricky Bones and reported it to his superiors, who sent the information up the chain to the commissioner's office. No action was taken; this incident was not included in the Mitchell Report.\nStarr told a reporter, “Someone ought to ask Mr. Selig whether he had any suspicion at all. Was there any one time from 1990 to 2003 that you had any suspicion that people were doing something wrong or cheating? If he says no to that question, he must not have watched many games.” Referring back to the 1980s, he told another reporter, \"You'd have to live in Siberia to not know it was going on.\"\nOn the eve of the Mitchell report's release, Starr told the New York Daily News \"From the conversations I had with them, I got the feeling they were very open to what I had to say. They were not just after names. I really felt like they wanted to hear the background on all this. I didn't feel like I was wasting my time.\" Neither Starr's information indicting MLB's decades of knowledge nor Starr's name appear anywhere in the Mitchell Report.\nThe report describes motivations for its preparation, including health effects of steroids, legal issues, fair play, and reports that baseball players acted as role models for child athletes. For example, after news coverage in August 1998 that Mark McGwire had used the then-legal androstenedione, a steroid precursor, sales of the supplement increased over 1000%, and the National Institute on Drug Abuse reported that 8% of male high school senior athletes had used androstenedione in 2001.\nMitchell reported that during the random testing in 2003, 5 to 7 percent of players tested positive for steroid use. Players on the forty-man roster of major league teams were exempt from testing until 2004. One player is quoted: \"\"Forty-man [roster] guys already have all of the [major league] club advantages, and then they could use steroids . . . it was not a level playing field.\"\"\nAccording to the report, after mandatory random testing began in 2004, HGH became the substance of choice among players, as it was not then detectable in tests. Also, it was noted that at least one player from each of the thirty Major League Baseball teams was involved in the alleged violations.\nIn all, 89 former and current MLB players are named in the report. Among those implicated were several well-known players such as Roger Clemens, Andy Pettitte, Miguel Tejada, and Éric Gagné. Many of them are connected through a relatively small social network centering on Kirk Radomski.\nMitchell expressed his hope that readers of the report will look past the players' names that are included in the report and focus on the conclusions he reached during his investigation. Mitchell presents his conclusions in five sections.\nAfter the report was released, Selig held a news conference in which he called the Mitchell Report \"a call to action. And I will act.\" Selig indicated that it is possible that some of the players named in the report may face disciplinary actions. \"Discipline of players and others identified in this report will be determined on a case-by-case basis. If warranted, those decisions will be made swiftly,\" said Selig.\nDonald Fehr, executive director of the MLB Players Association, also held a news conference in which he expressed his disappointment that the union was not given a chance to read the report beforehand. He accepted some responsibility for the steroid problems but expressed concern for how the league would treat the players named in the report.\nRoger Clemens has been deemed the most standout name of the list. The seven-time Cy Young Award winner issued a response through agent Randy Hendricks, saying \"I want to state clearly and without qualification: I did not take steroids, human growth hormone or any other banned substances at any time in my baseball career or, in fact, my entire life.\"\nThe day after the report was released, then-President of the United States George W. Bush, a former co-owner of the Texas Rangers, stated that \"we can jump to this conclusion: that steroids have sullied the game.\" He said he had no prior knowledge or awareness of player steroid use. He added, \"My hope is that this report is a part of putting the steroid era of baseball behind us.\"\nMajor League Baseball's drug testing policy became more strict after the Mitchell Report came out, allegedly in hopes of stopping steroid use in professional baseball.\nBefore the Mitchell Report came out, MLB had one unannounced mandatory test each year for every player and random tests for selective players during the season and the off-season. Each drug test examined each player for steroids, steroid precursors, and designer steroids. If caught, suspensions without pay occurred. The first positive tests resulted in a suspension for ten days, the second for thirty days, the third for sixty days and the fourth positive test resulted in a one-year suspension.\nAfter George Mitchell’s report came out, MLB markedly increased testing and punishments. Now baseball tests unannounced twice a year for all players and random testing still occurs for selective players. MLB also tests for more substances. As of 2015, the MLB's Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program tests for eight different abusive drugs, 74 performance-enhancing drugs, and 56 stimulants. One of the 74 performance-enhancing drugs is Human Growth Hormone (HGH), a substance that was never tested for before the Mitchell Report because no reliable test existed. Along with the increase of substances tested for came an increase in suspensions without pay. The first positive test now results in an eighty-game suspension, the second is 162 games (a full season), and the third positive results in a lifetime suspension from the MLB.\nSome questioned whether Mitchell, being a director of the Boston Red Sox, created a conflict of interest, especially because no prime Red Sox players were named in the report, despite the fact that Red Sox stars David Ortiz and Manny Ramirez were later alleged to have used performance-enhancing substances during the 2003 season, as reported by \"The New York Times\" on July 30, 2009. Likewise, the report was commissioned by Selig, and no members of the Milwaukee Brewers, whom Selig once owned, appeared in the report.\nThe report was leaked to the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" shortly prior to the deciding game seven of the 2007 American League Championship Series between the Cleveland Indians and the Boston Red Sox, although it was not officially released until December, months after the series was over. This was cause for some players and media members to note the curious timing of the leak. In particular, Indians pitcher Paul Byrd, along with some of his teammates, felt that the timing of publicizing Byrd's alleged steroid use was suspicious.\nFormer U.S. prosecutor John M. Dowd also brought up allegations of Mitchell's conflict of interest. Dowd, who had defended Senator John McCain of Arizona during the Keating Five investigation in the late 1980s, cited how he took exception to Mitchell's scolding of McCain and others for having a conflict of interest with their actions in the case and how the baseball investigation would be a \"burden\" for him when Mitchell was named to lead it. However, after the investigation, Dowd later told the \"Baltimore Sun\" that he was convinced the former Senator had done a good job.\nThe \"Los Angeles Times\" reported that Mitchell acknowledged that his \"tight relationship with Major League Baseball left him open to criticism\". Mitchell responded to the concerns by stating that readers who examined the report closely \"will not find any evidence of bias, of special treatment of the Red Sox\".","Bodybuilding at the 2011 Pacific Games\nBodybuilding at the 2011 Pacific Games in Nouméa, New Caledonia was held on August 29, 2011. The competition was marred by doping scandals, with Tahitain bodybuilder Steve Wong Foe convicted of importation and possession of performance enhancing drugs prior to the games, and the post-competition disqualification of four gold medallists, two each from Tahiti and Tonga, due to positive drug tests.\nJack Viyufa\nNotes\nVirginie Foucault","Development director\nA development director or director of development is the senior fundraising manager of a non-profit organization, company, or corporation. The position works closely with a chief financial officer (CFO) or treasurer. A Director of Development is chiefly responsible for bringing in revenue streams to a non-profit (grants, donations, special events), and a CFO is responsible for the fiscal management of the organization. A CFO is rarely assigned to write grant narratives, but may oversee the budget section of a grant application or a fiscal report for a grant. Some larger organizations (especially those that have large government grants) have a grants manager as well as a grant writer/Director of Development. A Grants Manager assists the CFO with grant reports and/or grant related accounting. A development director is usually remunerated for his or her work, and in best practices for nonprofit organizations, development directors earn salaries. Commissions are still considered unethical by professional organizations such as the Grant Professionals Association (GPA) and the Association of Fundraising Professionals (AFP), but the practice of commission based remuneration is growing, particularly in the current economy.\nThe role of a development director is to develop and implement a strategic plan to raise vital funds for their organization in a cost-effective and time-efficient manner.The development director's primary responsibility, however, is to oversee fundraising, rather than to actually raise money. This person may write grants, research foundations and corporations, and oversee or implement other fundraising strategies, but she or he works mostly behind the scenes, establishing a structure for effective fundraising. The development director may also be responsible for additional financial responsibilities, including developing business plans or strategic plans in collaboration with the board for the future of the organization. The development director is usually accountable to the Executive Director, Chief Operating Officer, or CFO. The board often offers suggestions and ideas about how to increase the fundraising, including contacts, and the development director chooses how to implement these ideas to maximize inflow while keeping outflow at a minimum and keeping donors happy. A strong board often has a development/fundraising committee, makes personal donations to the non-profit, and assists with annual campaigns.\nThe development director has an outreach role in the organization and often fulfills a public affairs role in addition to office-based work. Development directors motivate and satisfy donors, board members, staff and even the press. Many Directors of Development assist with communications such a non-profits annual report, development and communications section of website, newsletters, and donor databases.\nThe structure of a Development Department varies greatly. A Director of Development may or may not have staff reporting to him/her, depending on the size of the organization. Some large non-profits have a development team including a Grant Writer, donor database specialist, Grants Manager, Special Events Coordinator, Communications staff, and Planning Giving staff. In some cases, an Executive Director serves as the lead grant writer of an organization. Some non-profits hire development staff on a part-time or consultant basis, instead of full-time.\nAverage Directors of Non-Profit Development in the United States make around $58,000 per year. In the world of Directors of Non-Profit Development, overall cash allowance can occasionally include more than $6,000 from bonuses and, in some exceptional cases, $10,000 from profit sharing, causing incomes to vary widely between $36,000 and $92,000. Earnings for this group are mostly affected by the particular firm, followed by the particular city and tenure. Although about one in five lack health benefits of any kind, a fair number do enjoy medical insurance, and a majority get dental coverage, too.\nAs the title suggests, the development director is concerned with the growth of the organization. This includes staff, membership, budget, company assets, and all other company resources, to help make the best use of them and maximize the organization's profitability and profile.\nhttp://www.raise-funds.com/1999/a-development-director-needs-more-than-a-smile-and-a-shoeshine-but-its-a-good-start/","Steve Jeltz\nLarry Steven Jeltz (born May 28, 1959) is a former professional baseball player. He played in parts of eight seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Philadelphia Phillies and Kansas City Royals. Jeltz primarily played shortstop and batted .210 in his career. Jeltz is one of only a handful of MLB players to have been born in France, and he leads that nation's MLB players in several career statistical categories.\nJeltz was born in Paris to a military family. When he was young, Jeltz moved with his family to Lawrence, Kansas, and he later attended the University of Kansas. Jeltz spent three years in college before he was drafted by the Phillies in the ninth round of the 1980 MLB draft. He made his MLB debut in 1983.\nOn June 8, 1989, Jeltz hit two of his five career home runs in a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, despite not even starting the game. A switch-hitter, Jeltz hit one of these homers from the right side of the plate and one from the left side. This was the first time in the history of the Phillies that this feat had been accomplished. It was in this same game that, after the Pirates scored 10 runs in the top of the first, Pirate broadcaster Jim Rooker said on the air, \"If we lose this game, I'll walk home.\" The Phillies came back to win 15-11, and after the season Rooker conducted a 300-mile charity walk from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh.\nIn 1990, Jeltz spent his last MLB season with the Kansas City Royals. He did not play much, and Jeltz said that he was distracted by issues facing his brother, who committed suicide in 1991. After retiring as a player, Jeltz became a bail bondsman and bounty hunter, and then he entered the construction business. In 2003, he had surgery to remove a benign brain tumor.\nJeltz holds the records for most games played, at bats, runs, hits, doubles, triples, runs batted in, walks and strikeouts among players born in France. In total, nine major league players have been born in France as of 2012.\n","Drug test\nA drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, and/or oral fluid/saliva — to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites. Major applications of drug testing include detection of the presence of performance enhancing steroids in sport, employers screening for drugs prohibited by law (such as cannabis, cocaine and heroin) and police officers testing for the presence and concentration of alcohol (ethanol) in the blood commonly referred to as BAC (blood alcohol content). BAC tests are typically administered via a breathalyzer while urinalysis is used for the vast majority of drug testing in sports and the workplace.\nA drug test may also refer to a test that provides quantitative chemical analysis of an illegal drug, typically intended to help with responsible drug use.\nThe following chart gives approximate detection periods for each substance by test type.\nThe detection windows depend upon multiple factors: drug class, amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For ease of use, the detection times of metabolites have been incorporated into each parent drug. For example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected for a few hours after use, but their metabolites can be detected for several days in urine. The chart depicts the longer detection times of the metabolites.\nOral fluid or saliva testing results for the most part mimic that of blood. The only exceptions are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and benzodiazepines. Oral fluid will likely detect THC from ingestion up to a maximum period of 6–12 hours. This continues to cause difficulty in oral fluid detection of THC and benzodiazepines.\nBreath air for the most part mimics blood tests as well. Due to the very low levels of substances in the breath air, liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry has to be used to analyze the sample according to a recent publication wherein 12 analytes were investigated.\nRapid oral fluid products are not approved for use in workplace drug testing programs and are not FDA cleared. Using rapid oral fluid drug tests in the workplace is prohibited in only:\nUrine analysis is primarily used because of its low cost. Urine drug testing is one of the most common testing methods used. The enzyme-multiplied immune test is the most frequently used urinalysis. Complaints have been made about the relatively high rates of false positives using this test.\nUrine drug tests screen the urine for the presence of a parent drug or its metabolites. The level of drug or its metabolites is not predictive of when the drug was taken or how much the patient used. Rather, it is simply a confirmatory report indicating the presence of the parent drug or its metabolites.\nUrine drug testing is an immunoassay based on the principle of competitive binding. Drugs which may be present in the urine specimen compete against their respective drug conjugate for binding sites on their specific antibody. During testing, a urine specimen migrates upward by capillary action. A drug, if present in the urine specimen below its cut-off concentration, will not saturate the binding sites of its specific antibody. The antibody will then react with the drug-protein conjugate and a visible colored line will show up in the test line region of the specific drug strip\nWhen an employer requests a drug test from an employee, or a physician requests a drug test from a patient, the employee or patient is typically instructed to go to a collection site or their home. The urine sample goes through a specified 'chain of custody' to ensure that it is not tampered with or invalidated through lab or employee error. The patient or employee’s urine is collected at a remote location in a specially designed secure cup, sealed with tamper-resistant tape, and sent to a testing laboratory to be screened for drugs (typically the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 5 panel). The first step at the testing site is to split the urine into two aliquots. One aliquot is first screened for drugs using an analyzer that performs immunoassay as the initial screen. To ensure the specimen integrity and detecting possible adulterant, some other parameters such as, urine creatinine, pH, and specific gravity are tested along in this initial test. If the urine screen is positive then another aliquot of the sample is used to confirm the findings by gas chromatography—mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry methodology. If requested by the physician or employer, certain drugs are screened for individually; these are generally drugs part of a chemical class that are, for one of many reasons, considered more abuse-prone or of concern. For instance, oxycodone and diamorphine may be tested, both sedative analgesics. If such a test is not requested specifically, the more general test (in the preceding case, the test for opiates) will detect the drugs, but the employer or physician will not have the benefit of the identity of the drug.\nEmployment-related test results are relayed to a medical review office (MRO) where a medical physician reviews the results. If the result of the screen is negative, the MRO informs the employer that the employee has no detectable drug in the urine, typically within 24 hours. However, if the test result of the immunoassay and GC-MS are non-negative and show a concentration level of parent drug or metabolite above the established limit, the MRO contacts the employee to determine if there is any legitimate reason—such as a medical treatment or prescription.\nOn-site instant drug testing is a more cost-efficient method of effectively detecting drug abuse amongst employees, as well as in rehabilitation programs to monitor patient progress. These instant tests can be used for both urine and saliva testing. Although the accuracy of such tests varies with the manufacturer, some kits boast extremely high rates of accuracy, correlating closely with laboratory test results.\nBreath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath. There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments. More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only has to press the start button.\nTo get accurate readings on a breath-testing device the individual must blow for approximately 6 seconds and need to contain roughly 1.1 to 1.5 liters of breath. For a breath-test to result accurately and truly an operator must take steps such as avoiding measuring “mouth alcohol” which is a result from regurgitation, belching, or recent intake of an alcoholic beverage. To avoid measuring “mouth alcohol” the operator must not allow the individual that’s taking the test to consume any materials for at least fifteen minutes before the breath test. When pulled over for a driving violation if an individual in the United States refuses to take a breath test that individual's driver's license can be suspend for a 6 to 12 months time period.\nHair analysis to detect drugs of abuse has been used by court systems in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries worldwide. In the United States, hair testing has been accepted in court cases as forensic evidence following the Frye Rule, the Federal Rules of Evidence, and the Daubert Rule. As such, hair testing results are legally and scientifically recognized as admissible evidence.\nAlthough some lower courts may have accepted hair test evidence, there is no controlling judicial ruling in either the federal or any state system declaring any type of hair test as reliable.\nHair testing is now recognized in both the UK and US judicial systems. There are guidelines for hair testing that have been published by the Society of Hair Testing (a private company in France) that specify the markers to be tested for and the cutoff concentrations that need to be tested. Drugs of abuse that can be detected include Cannabis, Cocaine, Amphetamines and drugs new to the UK such as Mephedrone.\nIn contrast to other drugs consumed, alcohol is deposited directly in the hair. For this reason the investigation procedure looks for direct products of ethanol metabolism. The main part of alcohol is oxidized in the human body. This means it is released as water and carbon dioxide. One part of the alcohol reacts with fatty acids to produce esters. The sum of the concentrations of four of these fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs: ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) are used as indicators of the alcohol consumption. The amounts found in hair are measured in nanograms (one nanogram equals only one billionth of a gram), however with the benefit of modern technology, it is possible to detect such small amounts. In the detection of ethyl glucuronide, or EtG, testing can detect amounts in picograms (one picogram equals 0.001 nanograms).\nHowever, there is one major difference between most drugs and alcohol metabolites in the way in which they enter into the hair: on the one hand like other drugs FAEEs enter into the hair via the keratinocytes, the cells responsible for hair growth. These cells form the hair in the root and then grow through the skin surface taking any substances with them. On the other hand, the sebaceous glands produce FAEEs in the scalp and these migrate together with the sebum along the hair shaft (Auwärter et al., 2001, Pragst et al., 2004). So these glands lubricate not only the part of the hair that is just growing at 0.3 mm per day on the skin surface, but also the more mature hair growth, providing it with a protective layer of fat.\nFAEEs (nanogram = one billionth of a gram) appear in hair in almost one order of magnitude lower than (the relevant order of magnitude of) EtG (picogram = one trillionth of a gram). It has been technically possible to measure FAEEs since 1993, and the first study reporting the detection of EtG in hair was done by Sachs in 1993.\nIn practice, most hair which is sent for analysis has been cosmetically treated in some way (bleached, permed etc.). It has been proven that FAEEs are not significantly affected by such treatments (Hartwig et al., 2003a). FAEE concentrations in hair from other body sites can be interpreted in a similar fashion as scalp hair (Hartwig et al., 2003b).\nPresumptive substance tests identify a suspicious substance, material or surface where traces of drugs are thought to be, instead of testing individuals through biological methods such as urine or hair testing. The test involves mixing the suspicious material with a chemical in order to trigger a color change to indicate if a drug is present. Most are now available over-the-counter, and do not require a lab to read results.\nBenefits to this method include that the person who is suspected of drug use does not need to be confronted or aware of testing. Only a very small amount of material is needed to obtain results, and can be used to test powder, pills, capsules, crystals, or organic material. There is also the ability to detect illicit material when mixed with other non-illicit materials. The tests are used for general screening purposes, offering a generic result for the presence of a wide range of drugs, including Heroin, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, Methadone, Ketamine, PCP, PMA, DMT, MDPV, and may detect rapidly evolving synthetic designer drugs. Separate tests for Marijuana/Hashish are also available.\nThere are five primary color-tests reagents used for general screening purposes. The Marquis reagent turns into a variety of colors when in the presence of different substances. Dille-Koppanyi reagent uses two chemical solutions which turns a violet-blue color in the presence of barbiturates. Duquenois-Levine reagent is a series of chemical solutions that turn to the color of purple when the vegetation of marijuana is added. Van Urk reagent turns blue-purple when in the presence of LSD. Scott Test's chemical solution shows up as a faint blue for cocaine base.\nSaliva / oral fluid-based drug tests can generally detect use during the previous few days. Is better at detecting very recent use of a substance. THC may only be detectable for 2–24 hours in most cases. On site drug tests are allowed per the Department of Labor.\nDetection in saliva tests begins almost immediately upon use of the following substances, and lasts for approximately the following times:\nA disadvantage of saliva based drug testing is that it is not approved by FDA or SAMHSA for use with DOT / Federal Mandated Drug Testing. Oral fluid is not considered a bio-hazard unless there is visible blood; however, it should be treated with care.\nSweat patches are attached to the skin to collect sweat over a long period of time (up to 14 days). These are used by child protective services, parole departments, and other government institutions concerned with drug use over long periods, when urine testing is not practical. There are also surface drug tests that test for the metabolite of parent drug groups in the residue of drugs left in sweat.\nDrug-testing a blood sample measures whether or not a drug or a metabolite is in the body at a particular time. These types of tests are considered to be the most accurate way of telling if a person is intoxicated. Blood drug tests are not used very often because they need specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.\nDepending on how much marijuana was consumed, it can usually be detected in blood tests within six hours of consumption. After six hours has passed, the concentration of marijuana in the blood decreases significantly. It generally disappears completely within 30 days.\nAnabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sports and as they are prohibited in most high-level competitions drug testing is used extensively in order to enforce this prohibition. This is particularly so in individual (rather than team) sports such as athletics and cycling.\nCan occur at any time, usually when the investigator has reason to believe that a substance is possibly being abused by the subject by behavior or immediately after an employee-related incident occurs during work hours. Testing protocol typically conforms to the national medical standard, candidates are given up to 120 minutes to reasonably produce a urine sample from the time of commencement (in some instances this time frame may be extended at the examiners discretion).\nIn the case of life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or bizarre behavior in an emergency situation, screening for common drugs and toxins may help find the cause, called a \"toxicology test\" or \"tox screen\" to denote the broader area of possible substances beyond just self-administered drugs. These tests can also be done post-mortem during an autopsy in cases where a death was not expected. The test is usually done within 96 hours (4 days) after the desire for the test is realized. Both a urine sample and a blood sample may be tested. A blood sample is routinely used to detect ethanol/methanol and ASA/paracetamol intoxication. Various panels are used for screening urine samples for common substances, e.g. \"triage 8\" that detects amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methadone, opiates, cannabis, barbiturates and tricyclic antidepressants. Results are given in 10–15 min.\nSimilar screenings may be used to evaluate the possible use of date rape drugs. This is usually done on a urine sample.\nBefore testing samples, the tamper-evident seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been tampered with or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it.\nNext, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used \"as is\" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine. Strands of hair, patches, and blood must be prepared before testing. Hair is washed in order to eliminate second-hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair, then the keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing. Sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present.\nLaboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as the confirmation test, is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test. Screening tests are usually done by immunoassay (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). A \"\" drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the University of Illinois.\nAfter a suspected positive sample is detected during screening, the sample is tested using a confirmation test. Samples that are negative on the screening test are discarded and reported as negative. The confirmation test in most laboratories (and all SAMHSA certified labs) is performed using mass spectrometry, and is precise but expensive. False positive samples from the screening test will almost always be negative on the confirmation test. Samples testing positive during both screening and confirmation tests are reported as positive to the entity that ordered the test. Most laboratories save positive samples for some period of months or years in the event of a disputed result or lawsuit. For workplace drug testing, a positive result is generally not confirmed without a review by a Medical Review Officer who will normally interview the subject of the drug test.\nUrine drug test kits are available as on-site tests, or laboratory analysis. Urinalysis is the most common test type and used by federally mandated drug testing programs and is considered the Gold Standard of drug testing. Urine based tests have been upheld in most courts for more than 30 years. However, urinalysis conducted by the Department of Defense has been challenged for reliability of testing the metabolite of cocaine. There are two associated metabolites of cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqeous solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) results from the actual human metabolic process. The presence of EME confirms actual ingestion of cocaine by a human being, while the presence of BZ is indicative only. BZ without EME is evidence of sample contamination, however, the US Department of Defense has chosen not to test for EME in its urinalysis program.\nA number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for) are available on Urine Drug Screens.\nSpray (sweat) drug test kits are non-invasive. It is a simple process to collect the required specimen, no bathroom is needed, no laboratory is required for analysis, and the tests themselves are difficult to manipulate and relatively tamper-resistant. The detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within several hours.\nThere are also some disadvantages to spray or sweat testing. There is not much variety in these drug tests, only a limited number of drugs can be detected, prices tend to be higher, and inconclusive results can be produced by variations in sweat production rates in donors. They also have a relatively long specimen collection period and are more vulnerable to contamination than other common forms of testing.\nHair drug testing is a method that can detect drug use over a much longer period of time, and is often used for highly safety-critical positions where there is zero tolerance of illegal drug use. Standard hair follicle screen covers a period of 30 to 90 days. The growth of hair is usually at the rate of 0.5 inches per month. The hair sample is cut close to the scalp and 80 to 120 strands of hair are needed for the test. In the absence of hair on the head, body hair can be used as an acceptable substitute. This includes facial hair, the underarms, arms, and legs or even pubic hair. Because body hair grows at a different rate than head hair, the timeframe changes, with scientists estimating that drug use can be detected in body hair for up to 12 months. Currently, most entities that use hair testing have prescribed consequences for individuals removing hair to avoid a hair drug test.\nThe claim that a hair test cannot be tampered with has been shown to be debatable. One study has shown that THC does not readily deposit inside epithelial cells so it is possible for cosmetic and other forms of adulteration to reduce the amount of testable cannabinoids within a hair sample.\nThe results of federally mandating drug testing were similar to the effects of simply extending to the trucking industry the right to perform drug tests, and it has been argued that the latter approach would have been as effective at lower cost.\nPsychologist Tony Buon has criticized the use of workplace drug testing on a number of grounds, including:\nTony Buon has also reported by the CIPD as stating that \"drug testing captures the stupid—experienced drug users know how to beat the tests\".\nA study in 2004 by the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights. However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity.\nIn consultation with Dr. Carlton Turner, President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12564. In doing so, he instituted mandatory drug-testing for all safety-sensitive executive-level and civil-service Federal employees. This was challenged in the courts by the National Treasury Employees Union. In 1988, this challenge was considered by the US Supreme Court. A similar challenge resulted in the Court extending the drug-free workplace concept to the private sector. These decisions were then incorporated into the White House Drug Control Strategy directive issued by President George H.W. Bush in 1989. All defendants serving on federal probation or federal supervised release are required to submit to at least three drug tests. Failing a drug test can be construed as possession of a controlled substance, resulting in mandatory revocation and imprisonment.\nThere have been inconsistent evaluation results as to whether continued pretrial drug testing has beneficial effects.\nTesting positive can lead to bail not being granted, or if bail has already been granted, to bail revocation or other sanctions. Arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision, and the District of Columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, the right to due process (including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct), and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the Fourth Amendment.\nAccording to Henriksson, the anti-drug appeals of the Reagan administration \"created an environment in which many employers felt compelled to implement drug testing programs because failure to do so might be perceived as condoning drug use. This fear was easily exploited by aggressive marketing and sales forces, who often overstated the value of testing and painted a bleak picture of the consequences of failing to use the drug testing product or service being offered.\" On March 10, 1986, the Commission on Organized Crime asked all U.S. companies to test employees for drug use. By 1987, nearly 25% of the Fortune 500 companies used drug tests.\nAccording to an uncontrolled self-report study done by DATIA and Society for Human Resource Management in 2012 (sample of 6,000 randomly selected human resource professionals), human resource professionals reported the following results after implementing a drug testing program: 19% of companies reported a subjective increase in employee productivity, 16% reported a decrease in employee turnover (8% reported an increase), and unspecified percentages reported decreases in absenteeism and improvement of workers' compensation incidence rates.\nAccording to US Chamber of Commerce 70% of all illicit drug users are employed. Some industries have high rates of employee drug use such as construction (12.8%), repair (11.1%), and hospitality (7.9-16.3%).\nA person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU—the new term that includes employers) has duties under the work health and safety (WHS) legislation to ensure a worker affected by alcohol or other drugs does not place themselves or other persons at risk of injury while at work. Workplace policies and prevention programs can help change the norms and culture around substance abuse.\nAll organisations—large and small—can benefit from an agreed policy on alcohol and drug misuse that applies to all workers. Such a policy should form part of an organisations overall health and safety management system. PCBUs are encouraged to establish a policy and procedure, in consultation with workers, to constructively manage alcohol and other drug related hazards in their workplace. A comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policy should apply to everyone in the workplace and include prevention, education, counselling and rehabilitation arrangements. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of managers and supervisors should be clearly outlined.\nAll Australian workplace drug testing must comply with Australian standard AS/NZS4308:2008.\nIn Victoria, roadside saliva tests detect drugs that contain:\nIn February 2016 a New South Wales magistrate \"acquitted a man who tested positive for cannabis\". He had been arrested and charged after testing positive during a roadside drug test, despite not having smoked for nine days. He was relying on advice previously given to him by police.\nIn the United States federal criminal system, refusing to take a drug test triggers an automatic revocation of probation or supervised release.\nIn Victoria, Australia the driver of the car has the option to refuse the drug test. Refusing to undergo a drug test or refusing to undergo a secondary drug test after the first one, triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 2 years and a fine of AUD$1000. The second refusal triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 4 years and an even larger fine.\n","Cytochalasin D\nCytochalasin D is a member of the class of <a href=\"mycotoxin\">mycotoxin</a>s known as <a href=\"cytochalasin\">cytochalasin</a>s. Cytochalasin D is an <a href=\"alkaloid\">alkaloid</a> produced by <a href=\"Helminthosporium\">Helminthosporium</a> and other molds.\nCytochalasin D is a cell-permeable and potent inhibitor of <a href=\"actin\">actin</a> <a href=\"polymerization\">polymerization</a>. It disrupts actin microfilaments and activates the p53-dependent pathways causing arrest of the cell cycle at the G1-S transition. It is believed to bind to <a href=\"F-actin\">F-actin</a> polymer and prevent polymerization of actin monomers.","Phalloidin\nPhalloidin belongs to a class of toxins called <a href=\"phallotoxins\">phallotoxins</a>, which are found in the death cap mushroom \"(<a href=\"Amanita%20phalloides\">Amanita phalloides</a>)\". It is a rigid <a href=\"bicyclic%20molecule\">bicyclic</a> <a href=\"peptide\">heptapeptide</a> that is lethal after a few days when injected into the bloodstream. The major symptom of phalloidin poisoning is acute hunger due to the destruction of liver cells. It functions by binding and stabilizing filamentous <a href=\"actin\">actin</a> (F-actin) and effectively prevents the depolymerization of actin fibers. Due to its tight and selective binding to F-actin, derivatives of phalloidin containing <a href=\"fluorescence\">fluorescent tags</a> are used widely in microscopy to visualize F-actin in biomedical research.\nPhalloidin was one of the first cyclic peptides to be discovered. It was isolated from the death cap mushroom and crystallized by <a href=\"Feodor%20Felix%20Konrad%20Lynen\">Feodor Lynen</a> and <a href=\"Ulrich%20Wieland\">Ulrich Wieland</a> in 1937. Its structure is unusual in that it contains a cysteine-tryptophan linkage to form a bicyclic heptapeptide. This linkage had not been characterized before and makes the structure elucidation of phalloidin significantly more difficult. They determined the presence of the sulfur atom using <a href=\"UV%20spectroscopy\">UV spectroscopy</a> and found that this ring structure had a slightly shifted wavelength. Raney nickel experiments confirmed the presence of sulfur in the tryptophan ring. The researchers found the desulfurized tryptophan was still circular, which demonstrated that the structure of phalloidin is normally bicyclic. Once linearized, the amino acid sequence of de-sulfurized phalloidin was elucidated through <a href=\"Edman%20degradation\">Edman degradation</a> by Wieland and Schön in 1955.\nDue to its high affinity for actin, scientists discovered its potential use as a staining reagent for effective visualization of actin in microscopy. Derivatives conjugated with fluorophores are sold widely. Because of its ability to selectively bind filamentous actin (F-actin) and not actin monomers (G-actin), fluorescently labeled phalloidin is more effective than antibodies against actin.\nPhalloidin is a bicyclic heptapeptide containing an unusual cysteine-tryptophan linkage. The gene coding for synthesis of phalloidin is part of the MSDIN family in the Death Cap mushroom and codes for a 34 amino acid propeptide. A <a href=\"proline\">proline</a> residue flanks the seven-residue region that will later become phalloidin. After translation, the peptide must be proteolyticly excised, cyclized, hydroxylated, Trp-Cys cross-linked to form tryptathionine, and epimerized to form a D-Thr. The order and exact biochemical mechanism for these steps is not yet fully understood. The current belief is that the necessary biosynthetic genes are clustered near the MSDIN genes.\nThe first post-translational modification of the 34-mer is proteolytic cleavage via a prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) to remove the 10-amino acid \"leader\" peptide. The POP then cyclizes the heptapeptide Ala-Trp-Leu-Ala-Thr-Cys-Pro by transpeptidation between amino acid 1 (Ala) and amino acid 7 (Pro). It is believed that the formation of tryptathionine through Trp-Cys cross-linking occurs next.\nSince phalloidin is exploited for its ability to bind and stabilize actin polymers but cells cannot readily uptake it, scientists have found phalloidin derivatives to be more useful in research. Essentially, it follows typical small peptide synthesis, using hydroxyl-proline. The major difficulty in synthesis is the formation of the tryptathionine bond (cysteine - tryptophan cross-linkage).\nBelow is the general synthetic mechanism carried out by Anderson et al. in 2005 for the solid phase synthesis of ala-phalloidin, which differs at residue 7 from phalloidin as indicated below. THPP stands for tetrahydropyranyl polystyrene linker, which is used to connect the molecule with the solid support during synthesis. Note that the synthesis below is simply a general scheme to show the order of bond formation to connect the starting materials. Ala-phalloidin as well as many other similar variants of phalloidin are useful to increase cell uptake relative to phalloidin and to attach a fluorophore to aid in the visualization of F-actin in microscopy.\nSoon after its discovery, scientists injected phalloidin into mice and discovered its <a href=\"Median%20lethal%20dose\">LD</a> is 2 mg/kg via <a href=\"Intraperitoneal%20injection\">IP injection</a>. When exposed to the minimum lethal dose, it took several days for these mice to die. The only apparent side effect of phalloidin poisoning is extreme hunger. This is because phalloidin is only taken up by the liver via bile salt membrane transport proteins. Once inside the liver, phalloidin binds F-actin, preventing its depolymerization. It takes time for this process to destroy the liver cells. The kidneys can also take up phalloidin, but not as effectively as the liver. Here, phalloidin causes nephrosis.\nPhalloidin binds F-<a href=\"actin\">actin</a>, preventing its <a href=\"polymer\">depolymerization</a> and poisoning the cell. Phalloidin binds specifically at the interface between F-actin subunits, locking adjacent subunits together. Phalloidin, a bicyclic heptapeptide, binds to actin filaments much more tightly than to actin monomers, leading to a decrease in the rate constant for the dissociation of actin subunits from filament ends, which essentially stabilizes actin filaments through the prevention of filament depolymerization. Moreover, phalloidin is found to inhibit the ATP hydrolysis activity of F-actin. Thus, phalloidin traps actin monomers in a conformation distinct from G-actin and it stabilizes the structure of F-actin by greatly reducing the rate constant for monomer dissociation, an event associated with the trapping of ADP. Overall, phalloidin is found to react stoichiometrically with actin, strongly promote actin polymerization, and stabilize actin polymers.\nPhalloidin functions differently at various concentrations in cells. When introduced into the cytoplasm at low concentrations, phalloidin recruits the less polymerized forms of cytoplasmic actin as well as filamin into stable \"islands\" of aggregated actin polymers, yet it does not interfere with stress fibers, i.e. thick bundles of microfilaments. Wehland \"et al.\" also notes that at higher concentrations, phalloidin induces cellular contraction.\nThe properties of phalloidin make it a useful tool for investigating the distribution of F-actin in cells by labeling phalloidin with <a href=\"Fluorescence\">fluorescent</a> analogs and using them to stain actin filaments for light microscopy. Fluorescent derivatives of phalloidin have turned out to be enormously useful in localizing actin filaments in living or fixed cells as well as for visualizing individual actin filaments \"in vitro\". A high-resolution technique was developed to detect F-actin at the light and electron microscopic levels by using phalloidin conjugated to the fluorophore <a href=\"eosin\">eosin</a> which acts as the fluorescent tag. In this method known as fluorescence photo-oxidation, fluorescent molecules can be utilized to drive the oxidation of diaminobenzidine (DAB) to create a reaction product that can be rendered electron dense and detectable by electron microscopy. The amount of fluorescence visualized can be used as a quantitative measure of the amount of filamentous actin there is in cells if saturating quantities of fluorescent phalloidin are used. Consequently, immunofluorescence microscopy along with microinjection of phalloidin can be used to evaluate the direct and indirect functions of cytoplasmic actin in its different stages of polymer formation. Therefore, fluorescent phalloidin can be used as an important tool in the study of actin networks at high resolution.\nPhalloidin is much smaller than an antibody that would typically be used to label cellular proteins for fluorescent microscopy which allows for much denser labeling of filamentous actin and much more detailed images can be acquired particularly at higher resolutions.\nUnmodified phalloidins do not permeate cell membranes, making them less effective in experiments with living cells. Derivatives of phalloidin with greatly increased cell permeability have been synthesized.\nCells treated with phalloidins exhibit a number of toxic effects and frequently die. Furthermore, it is important to note that phalloidin-treated cells will have greater levels of actin associated with their plasma membranes, and the microinjection of phalloidin into living cells will change actin distribution as well as cell motility.","Tubulin\nTubulin in <a href=\"molecular%20biology\">molecular biology</a> can refer either to the tubulin <a href=\"protein%20superfamily\">protein superfamily</a> of <a href=\"globular%20protein\">globular protein</a>s, or one of the member proteins of that superfamily. α- and β-tubulins polymerize into <a href=\"microtubule\">microtubule</a>s, a major component of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. <a href=\"Microtubule\">Microtubule</a>s function in many essential cellular processes, including <a href=\"mitosis\">mitosis</a>. <a href=\"Discovery%20and%20development%20of%20tubulin%20inhibitors\">Tubulin-binding drugs</a> kill <a href=\"cancerous\">cancerous</a> cells by inhibiting microtubule dynamics, which are required for DNA segregation and therefore <a href=\"cell%20division\">cell division</a>.\nIn <a href=\"eukaryotes\">eukaryotes</a> there are six members of the tubulin superfamily, although not all are present in all species (see <a href=\"Tubulin%23Eukaryotic\">below</a>). Both α and β tubulins have a mass of around 50 <a href=\"kDa\">kDa</a> and are thus in a similar range compared to <a href=\"actin\">actin</a> with ~42 kDa. In contrast, tubulin <a href=\"polymers\">polymers</a> (microtubules) tend to be much bigger than actin filaments due to their cylindrical nature.\nTubulin was long thought to be specific to <a href=\"eukaryote\">eukaryote</a>s. More recently, however, several <a href=\"Prokaryote\">prokaryotic</a> proteins have been shown to be related to tubulin.\nTubulin is characterized by the evolutionarily conserved Tubulin/FtsZ family, <a href=\"GTPase\">GTPase</a> <a href=\"protein%20domain\">protein domain</a>.\nThis GTPase protein domain is found in all eukaryotic tubulin chains, as well as the <a href=\"bacteria\">bacteria</a>l protein TubZ, the <a href=\"archaea\">archaea</a>l protein CetZ, and the <a href=\"FtsZ\">FtsZ</a> protein family widespread in <a href=\"Bacteria\">Bacteria</a> and <a href=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a>.\nα- and β-tubulin polymerize into dynamic <a href=\"microtubule\">microtubule</a>s. In <a href=\"eukaryote\">eukaryote</a>s, microtubules are one of the major components of the <a href=\"cytoskeleton\">cytoskeleton</a>, and function in many processes, including structural support, <a href=\"intracellular%20transport\">intracellular transport</a>, and DNA segregation.\nMicrotubules are assembled from <a href=\"protein%20dimer\">dimer</a>s of α- and β-tubulin. These subunits are slightly acidic with an <a href=\"isoelectric%20point\">isoelectric point</a> between 5.2 and 5.8. Each has a <a href=\"molecular%20weight\">molecular weight</a> of approximately 50 kDa.\nTo form microtubules, the dimers of α- and β-tubulin bind to <a href=\"Guanosine%20triphosphate\">GTP</a> and assemble onto the (+) ends of microtubules while in the GTP-bound state. The β-tubulin subunit is exposed on the plus end of the microtubule while the α-tubulin subunit is exposed on the minus end. After the dimer is incorporated into the microtubule, the molecule of GTP bound to the β-tubulin subunit eventually <a href=\"hydrolysis\">hydrolyzes</a> into GDP through inter-dimer contacts along the <a href=\"Microtubule%23Structure\">microtubule protofilament</a>. Whether the β-tubulin member of the tubulin dimer is bound to GTP or GDP influences the stability of the dimer in the microtubule. Dimers bound to GTP tend to assemble into microtubules, while dimers bound to GDP tend to fall apart; thus, this GTP cycle is essential for the <a href=\"Microtubule%23Dynamic%20instability\">dynamic instability</a> of the microtubule.\nHomologs of α- and β-tubulin have been identified in the \"Prosthecobacter\" <a href=\"genus\">genus</a> of bacteria. They are designated BtubA and BtubB to identify them as bacterial tubulins. Both exhibit <a href=\"Homology%20%28biology%29\">homology</a> to both α- and β-tubulin. While structurally highly similar to eukaryotic tubulins, they have several unique features, including <a href=\"Chaperone%20%28protein%29\">chaperone</a>-free folding and weak dimerization. <a href=\"Electron%20cryomicroscopy\">Electron cryomicroscopy</a> showed that BtubA/B form microtubules \"<a href=\"in%20vivo\">in vivo</a>\", and that these microtubules comprise only five protofilaments, in contrast to eukaryotic microtubules, which usually contain 13.\n<a href=\"FtsZ\">FtsZ</a> is found in nearly all <a href=\"Bacteria\">Bacteria</a> and <a href=\"Archaea\">Archaea</a>, where it functions in <a href=\"cell%20division\">cell division</a>, localizing to a ring in the middle of the dividing cell and recruiting other components of the divisome, the group of proteins that together constrict the cell envelope to pinch off the cell, yielding two daughter cells. FtsZ can polymerize into tubes, sheets, and rings \"<a href=\"in%20vitro\">in vitro</a>\", and forms dynamic filaments \"<a href=\"in%20vivo\">in vivo</a>\".\nTubZ functions in segregating low copy-number <a href=\"plasmid\">plasmid</a>s during bacterial <a href=\"cell%20division\">cell division</a>. The protein forms a structure unusual for a tubulin homolog; two helical filaments wrap around one another. This may reflect an optimal structure for this role since the unrelated plasmid-partitioning protein <a href=\"ParM\">ParM</a> exhibits a similar structure.\nCetZ functions in cell shape changes in <a href=\"Pleomorphism%20%28microbiology%29\">pleomorphic</a> <a href=\"Haloarchaea\">Haloarchaea</a>. In \"<a href=\"Haloferax%20volcanii\">Haloferax volcanii</a>\", CetZ forms dynamic cytoskeletal structures required for differentiation from a plate-shaped cell form into a rod-shaped form that exhibits swimming motility.\nThe tubulin superfamily contains six families of tubulins (alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta-, epsilon and zeta-tubulins).\nHuman α-tubulin subtypes include:\nAll drugs that are known to bind to human tubulin bind to β-tubulin. These include <a href=\"paclitaxel\">paclitaxel</a>, <a href=\"colchicine\">colchicine</a>, and the <a href=\"vinca%20alkaloid\">\"vinca\" alkaloids</a>, each of which have a distinct binding site on β-tubulin.\n<a href=\"Class%20III%20%CE%B2-tubulin\">Class III β-tubulin</a> is a microtubule element expressed exclusively in <a href=\"neuron\">neuron</a>s, and is a popular identifier specific for neurons in nervous tissue. It binds colchicine much more slowly than other <a href=\"Isotype%20%28immunology%29\">isotypes</a> of β-tubulin.\n<a href=\"TUBB1\">β1-tubulin</a>, sometimes called class VI β-tubulin, is the most divergent at the amino acid sequence level. It is expressed exclusively in megakaryocytes and platelets in humans and appears to play an important role in the formation of platelets. When class VI β-tubulin were expressed in mammalian cells, they cause disruption of microtubule network, microtubule fragment formation, and can ultimately cause marginal-band like structures present in megakaryocytes and platelets.\n<a href=\"Katanin\">Katanin</a> is a protein complex that severs microtubules at β-tubulin subunits, and is necessary for rapid microtubule transport in neurons and in higher plants.\nHuman β-tubulins subtypes include:\nγ-Tubulin, another member of the tubulin family, is important in the <a href=\"Microtubule%20nucleation\">nucleation</a> and polar orientation of microtubules. It is found primarily in <a href=\"centrosomes\">centrosomes</a> and <a href=\"spindle%20pole%20body\">spindle pole bodies</a>, since these are the areas of most abundant microtubule nucleation. In these organelles, several γ-tubulin and other protein molecules are found in complexes known as <a href=\"Microtubule%20nucleation\">γ-tubulin ring complexes</a> (γ-TuRCs), which chemically mimic the (+) end of a microtubule and thus allow microtubules to bind. γ-tubulin also has been isolated as a <a href=\"protein%20dimer\">dimer</a> and as a part of a γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC), intermediate in size between the dimer and the γTuRC. γ-tubulin is the best understood mechanism of microtubule nucleation, but certain studies have indicated that certain cells may be able to adapt to its absence, as indicated by <a href=\"mutation\">mutation</a> and <a href=\"RNAi\">RNAi</a> studies that have inhibited its correct expression.\nHuman γ-tubulin subtypes include:\nMembers of the γ-tubulin ring complex:\nDelta (δ) and epsilon (ε) tubulin have been found to localize at <a href=\"centriole\">centriole</a>s and may play a role in <a href=\"centriole\">centriole</a> structure and function, though neither is as well-studied as the α- and β- forms.\nHuman δ- and ε-tubulin genes include:\nZeta-tubulin is present in many eukaryotes, but missing from others, including placental mammals. It has been shown to be associated the basal foot structure of centrioles in multiciliated epithelial cells.\nBtubA/B are found in some bacterial species in the <a href=\"Verrucomicrobia\">Verrucomicrobia</a>l genus \"Prosthecobacter\". Their evolutionary relationship to eukaryotic tubulins is unclear, although they may have descended from a eukaryotic lineage by <a href=\"lateral%20gene%20transfer\">lateral gene transfer</a>.\nNearly all bacterial and archaeal cells use <a href=\"FtsZ\">FtsZ</a> to divide. It was the first prokaryotic <a href=\"Cytoskeleton\">cytoskeletal</a> protein identified.\nTubZ was identified in \"<a href=\"Bacillus%20thuringiensis\">Bacillus</a>\" <a href=\"Bacillus%20thuringiensis\">\"thuringiensis\"</a> as essential for <a href=\"plasmid\">plasmid</a> maintenance.\nCetZ is found in the <a href=\"Euryarchaeota\">euryarchaeal</a> clades of \"<a href=\"Methanomicrobia\">Methanomicrobia</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Halobacteriales\">Halobacteria</a>\", where it functions in cell shape differentiation.\nTubulins are targets for anticancer <a href=\"medication\">drugs</a> like the \"vinca\" alkaloid drugs <a href=\"vinblastine\">vinblastine</a> and <a href=\"vincristine\">vincristine</a>, and <a href=\"Taxol\">Taxol</a>. The anti-<a href=\"gout\">gout</a> agent <a href=\"colchicine\">colchicine</a> binds to tubulin and inhibits microtubule formation, arresting <a href=\"neutrophil%20granulocyte\">neutrophil</a> motility and decreasing <a href=\"inflammation\">inflammation</a>. The anti-fungal drug <a href=\"griseofulvin\">griseofulvin</a> targets microtubule formation and has applications in cancer treatment.\nWhen incorporated into microtubules, tubulin accumulates a number of <a href=\"post-translational%20modifications\">post-translational modifications</a>, many of which are unique to these proteins. These modifications include <a href=\"detyrosination\">detyrosination</a>, <a href=\"acetylation\">acetylation</a>, <a href=\"polyglutamylation\">polyglutamylation</a>, <a href=\"polyglycylation\">polyglycylation</a>, <a href=\"phosphorylation\">phosphorylation</a>, <a href=\"ubiquitination\">ubiquitination</a>, <a href=\"sumoylation\">sumoylation</a>, and <a href=\"palmitoylation\">palmitoylation</a>. Tubulin is also prone to oxidative modification and aggregation during, for example, acute cellular injury.\nNowadays there are many scientific investigations of the acetylation done in some microtubules, specially the one one by <a href=\"Alpha-tubulin%20N-acetyltransferase\">α-tubulin N-acetyltransferase (ATAT1)</a> which is being demonstrated to play an important role in many biological and molecular functions and, therefore, it is also associated with many human diseases, specially <a href=\"Neurological%20disorder\">neurological diseases</a>.\n","Burlingame, California\nBurlingame is a city in <a href=\"San%20Mateo%20County%2C%20California\">San Mateo County</a>, <a href=\"California\">California</a>. It is located on the <a href=\"San%20Francisco%20Peninsula\">San Francisco Peninsula</a> and has a significant shoreline on <a href=\"San%20Francisco%20Bay\">San Francisco Bay</a>. The city is named after diplomat <a href=\"Anson%20Burlingame\">Anson Burlingame</a> and is often referred to as the City of Trees due to the number of trees within the city and its numerous eucalyptus groves. Burlingame is known for its high residential quality of life with a walkable downtown area and excellent public school system. The current median home value in Burlingame is $1.8M+ and as of the 2010 U.S. Census, Burlingame had a population of 28,807.\nBurlingame is situated on land previously owned by San Francisco-based merchant <a href=\"William%20Davis%20Merry%20Howard\">William Davis Merry Howard</a>. Howard planted many eucalyptus trees on his property and retired to live on the land. Howard died in 1856 and the land was sold to <a href=\"William%20Chapman%20Ralston\">William C. Ralston</a>, a prominent banker. In 1868, Ralston named the land after his friend, <a href=\"Anson%20Burlingame\">Anson Burlingame</a>, the United States Ambassador to China. After the <a href=\"1906%20San%20Francisco%20earthquake\">1906 San Francisco earthquake</a>, hundreds of lots in Burlingame were sold to people looking to establish new homes, and the town of Burlingame was <a href=\"municipal%20corporation\">incorporated</a> in 1908. In 1910, the neighboring town of Easton was annexed and this area is now known as the Easton Addition neighborhood of Burlingame.\nBurlingame is known as the City of Trees due to the number of trees within the city (18,000 public trees). In 1908, the Burlingame board of trustees passed an ordinance \"prohibiting cutting, injuring, or destroying trees\". The city also has many parks and Eucalyptus groves that add to the overall tree numbers.\nThere are four highways passing through Burlingame. <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%20101%20in%20California\">Highway 101</a> runs near the bay running from <a href=\"San%20Jose%2C%20California\">San Jose</a> to <a href=\"San%20Francisco\">San Francisco</a>. <a href=\"California%20State%20Route%2082\">Highway 82</a>, also known as <a href=\"El%20Camino%20Real%20%28California%29\">El Camino Real</a>, follows a parallel course. <a href=\"California%20State%20Route%2035\">Highway 35</a> connects with <a href=\"Interstate%20280%20%28California%29\">Interstate 280</a>.\n<a href=\"Caltrain\">Caltrain</a> has been serving Burlingame since 1985 when it bought out <a href=\"Southern%20Pacific\">Southern Pacific</a>. It used the same depot that was used in the early 20th century.\n<a href=\"Bay%20Area%20Rapid%20Transit\">Bay Area Rapid Transit</a> has its final stop in Millbrae, just north of Burlingame. BART's tracks are within Burlingame city limits.\nBurlingame is served by <a href=\"SamTrans\">SamTrans</a> buses and <a href=\"Peninsula%20Traffic%20Congestion%20Relief%20Alliance\">Commute.org</a> and Caltrain shuttles. The City of Burlingame and local business sponsor the Burlingame Trolley, a two-route shuttle.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 6.1 sqmi . 4.4 sqmi of it is land and 1.7 sqmi of it (27.25%) is water.\nThis region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the <a href=\"K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification\">Köppen Climate Classification</a> system, Burlingame has a <a href=\"Mediterranean%20climate%23Warm-summer%20Mediterranean%20climate\">warm-summer Mediterranean climate</a>.\nThe <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a> reported that Burlingame had a population of 28,806. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 6,537.9 people per square mile (2,524.4/km²). Details regarding the demographic profile are shown below.\nThe population was spread out with 6,256 people (21.7%) under the age of 18, 1,496 people (5.2%) aged 18 to 24, 8,872 people (30.8%) aged 25 to 44, 8,136 people (28.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,046 people (14.0%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.5 years. For every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males.\nThere were 13,027 housing units at an average density of 2,956.7 per square mile (1,141.6/km²). There were 12,361 households with average household size of 2.29. There were 7,183 <a href=\"family%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">families</a> (58.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.02.\nAccording to the U. S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey (ACS), 2015 median household income was $94,500 and per capita income was $62,019.\nIn the <a href=\"California%20State%20Legislature\">California State Legislature</a>, Burlingame is in <a href=\"California%27s%2013th%20%20%20%20State%20Senate%20district\">the 13th Senate District</a>, represented by <a href=\"California%20Democratic%20Party\">Democrat</a> <a href=\"Jerry%20Hill%20%28politician%29\">Jerry Hill</a> , and in <a href=\"California%27s%2022%20%20%20%20State%20Assembly%20district\">the 22 Assembly District</a>, represented by <a href=\"California%20Democratic%20Party\">Democrat</a> <a href=\"Kevin%20Mullin\">Kevin Mullin</a> .\nIn the <a href=\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\">United States House of Representatives</a>, Burlingame is in <a href=\"California%27s%2014%20%20%20%20congressional%20district\">California's 14 congressional district</a>, represented by <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrat</a> <a href=\"Jackie%20Speier\">Jackie Speier</a> .\nIn the 1920s Burlingame became a popular location for automobile retailers which became known as \"Auto Row\". In the 1960s, various airline support service businesses opened in Burlingame due to its proximity to <a href=\"San%20Francisco%20International%20Airport\">San Francisco International Airport</a>. Today, <a href=\"LSG/Sky%20Chefs%2C%20Inc.\">LSG/Sky Chefs, Inc.</a>, <a href=\"Virgin%20America\">Virgin America</a>, and <a href=\"China%20Airlines\">China Airlines</a> are all located in Burlingame. Historically, Burlingame has also been home to many candy and chocolate companies. There is the Burlingame Museum of <a href=\"Pez\">Pez</a> Memorabilia, Guittard Chocolate, the <a href=\"See%27s%20Candies\">See's Candies</a> lollipop factory, and family owned candy stores Powell's, Preston's, Aida Opera Candies, and Nuts for Candy.\nOver the past decade, Burlingame's economy has diversified substantially and it has become an attractive location for biotechnology companies owing to its proximity to South San Francisco, the birthplace of the biotechnology industry. Biotechnology companies with offices in Burlingame include: Annai Systems, Breathometer, Cala Health, Cleave Biosciences, Collaborative Drug Discovery, Confidence Clinical Research, Corvus Pharmaceuticals, Igenica Biotherapeutics, Kindred Biosciences, Omnitura, Phoenix Pharmaceuticals, Pulse Biosciences, and Vector Labs.\nAdditionally, multiple high technology firms have established offices in Burlingame due to its location between the booming technology centers of Silicon Valley to the south and San Francisco to the north. Tech companies with Burlingame offices include: Zecco.com, Natsume, <a href=\"Color%20Genomics\">Color Genomics</a>, CarWoo, Jobvite, DataStax, Sprint’s M2M Collaboration Center, YouWeb, OpenFeint, CrowdStar, BitGravity, Veebeam, and TellApart.\nThere are nineteen preschools in Burlingame. They are A Child's Way, Palcare, Stepping Stone, <a href=\"Peninsula%20Temple%20Sholom\">Peninsula Temple Sholom</a>, Bridge Point Academy, Burlingame Montessori, St. Paul's Co-Op Nursery School, Learning Links, Morning Glory Montessori, Sunshine Family Child Care, United Methodist Co-Op Nursery School: Toddler Room, Kiddie Lab, First Presbyterian School, and Tout About Toys.\n<a href=\"San%20Mateo%20Union%20High%20School%20District\">San Mateo Union High School District</a> operates local high schools while the <a href=\"Burlingame%20School%20District\">Burlingame School District</a> operates elementary and middle schools.\n<a href=\"Burlingame%20High%20School%20%28California%29\">Burlingame High School</a> is the city's sole public high school. Burlingame Intermediate School is Burlingame's sole public middle school. There are six public elementary schools serving Burlingame. They are Franklin Elementary, Lincoln Elementary, McKinley Elementary, Roosevelt Elementary, Washington Elementary, and the newly reopened Hoover Elementary. According to the 2009 Base Academic Performance Index (API) Scores from the California Department of Education, the Burlingame School District ranks among the best in the state, with 4 out of their 6 public elementary schools (Roosevelt Elementary, Washington Elementary, Franklin Elementary, and Lincoln Elementary) scoring well between 880 and 925, and with ratings of 9 or 10. Burlingame school district enrollment has continually been increasing as young families move to the city. The city has passed two bond measures to add new facilities and modernize existing facilities to provide state-of-the-art classrooms. The city recently extensively renovated and modernized the Hoover School, which was built in 1931 and reopened in 2016.\n<a href=\"Mercy%20High%20School%20%28Burlingame%2C%20California%29\">Mercy High School</a> is the only private Catholic all-girls high school in Burlingame. It was founded in 1931 by the Sisters of Mercy. The school itself is located in the prestigious Kohl Mansion which is a Historic Landmark. Also Our Lady of Angels School and St. Catherine of Siena School are located in Burlingame. In 1921, the silent version of the film Little Lord Fauntleroy, with Mary Pickford, was filmed in the Kohl Mansion.\nBurlingame Library is located in Burlingame. It was established by city ordinance October 11, 1909. Following the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989 the City approved a bond issue to reconstruct the library. The architecture has won awards and was featured in Library Journal as well as earning a cover story in American Libraries. There is a secondary location on Easton Drive, which is substantially smaller than the main branch. Both are operated by the <a href=\"Peninsula%20Library%20System\">Peninsula Library System</a>, the library authority for the county.\nat 238 Myrtle Road\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"Cytoskeletal drugs\\nCytoskeletal drugs are small molecules that interact with actin or tubulin. These drugs can act on the cytoskeletal components within a cell in three main ways. Some cytoskeletal drugs stabilize a component of the cytoskeleton, such as taxol which stabilizes microtubules or Phalloidin which stabilizes actin filaments. Others such as Cytochalasin D bind to actin monomers and prevent them from polymerizing into filaments. Drugs such as demecolcine act by enhancing the depolymerisation of already formed filaments. Some of these drugs have multiple effects on the cytoskeleton, for example Latrunculin both prevents actin polymerization as well as enhancing its rate of depolymerization. Typically the microtubule targeting drugs can be found in the clinic where they are used therapeutically in the treatment of some forms of cancer. As a result of the lack of specificity for specific type of actin (i.e. cannot distinguish between cardiac, smooth muscle, muscle and cytoskeletal forms of actin) the use of these drugs in animals results in unacceptable off target effects. Despite this the actin targeting compounds are still useful tools that can be used on a cellular level to help further our understanding of how this complex part of the cells internal machinery operates. For example, Phalloidin which has been conjugated with a fluorescent probe can be used for visualizing the filamentous actin in fixed samples.\",\n \"Victor Conte\\nVictor Conte Jr. (born 1950 in Fresno, California) is a former bassist with Tower of Power and the founder and president of Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), a sports nutrition center in California. He served time in prison in 2005 after pleading guilty to conspiracy to distribute steroids and money laundering. Conte played a role in tarnishing professional sports with his distribution of illegal performance enhancing drugs. He currently operates, Scientific Nutrition for Advanced Conditioning (SNAC Nutrition).\\nVictor Conte Jr. was born in 1950 in Fresno, California to a Shirley and Victor Conte Sr., he was the oldest of three children in a working-class Italian family. He graduated from McLane High School. After high school he attended Fresno City College but dropped out of college in 1969, after he was convinced by his cousin, musician Bruce Conte to join the band \\\"Common Ground\\\" and play bass. In 1970 he quit playing in \\\"Common Ground\\\" and joined Pure Food and Drug Act (band). At the time he had the nickname \\\"Walking Fish\\\" from his unusual body movement across the stage during his days playing. He left the band \\\"Pure Food and Drug Act\\\" before 1977.\\nVictor Conte was a member of Tower of Power from 1977 until 1979 playing bass guitar, and he also collaborated during that period with pianist Herbie Hancock and violinist Sugarcane Harris.\\nHe founded in 1984 the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), a sports nutrition center first located in Millbrae, California and later relocated to Burlingame, California. The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) says developed the banned steroid tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) with the help of bodybuilding chemist Patrick Arnold. Pursuant to a plea bargain struck with prosecutors, he entered guilty pleas in July 2005 to one count of conspiracy to distribute steroids and a second count of laundering a portion of a check, he was sentenced in October to spend four months in the federal Taft Correctional Institution in Taft, California, and another four on house arrest.\\nIn December 2004, he participated in an interview with Martin Bashir on ABC's \\\"20/20\\\" program, where he admitted to running doping programs, which have broken Olympic records, as well as revealing that: \\\"The whole history of the games is just full of corruption, cover-up, performance-enhancing drug use.\\\"\\nIn the interview he implicated, among others, five-time Olympic gold medalist Marion Jones and her partner Tim Montgomery, Kelli White (who later admitted using performance-enhancing drugs), British athlete Dwain Chambers, and NFL player Bill Romanowski.\\nOn 21 December 2006, Yahoo Sports reported that one of Conte's initial defense lawyers, Troy Ellerman, had been targeted by the FBI as a possible source of leaks to the media during the Barry Bonds probe. On February 14, 2007, Ellerman pleaded guilty to leaking grand jury testimony. It was also reported that FBI agents were an additional source of leaks.\\nIn May 2007, Conte claimed to again be providing supplements for Dwayne Chambers, who left athletics to play in the NFL Europa league for the Hamburg Sea Devils. According to Conte, these nutritional supplements, provided via his company Scientific Nutrition for Advanced Conditioning, are perfectly legal.\\nOn December 13, 2007 Conte appeared on CNN before the Mitchell report was officially released.\\n\\\"Game of Shadows: Barry Bonds, BALCO, and the Steroids Scandal that Rocked Professional Sports\\\" was published in 2006 by two San Francisco Chronicle investigative reporters, relating to the case. There was controversies about the informant and/or source of the information for these books and related court cases.\\nIn 2008, in the aftermath of the investigation, Conte produced a book \\\"BALCO: The Straight Dope on Barry Bonds, Marion and What We Can Do to Save Sports\\\" which was co-written with author Nathan Jendrick. There had been a legal battle of defamation litigation regarding the book's publication by boxer Shane Mosley and it delayed the publication date. Mosley dropped the lawsuit, but not before Skyhorse publishing had been scared away from publishing, the book is officially unpublished as 2017 but the unpublished manuscript has been made available.\\nIn 2011, Conte started a new company, Scientific Nutrition for Advanced Conditioning (SNAC Nutrition) based in San Carlos, California, which in addition to nutritional supplements also offers boxing and sports training. SNAC Nutrition is working with boxer Zab Judah, and Conte has previously worked with Andre Berto, Nonito Donaire, and Andre Ward.\\n\",\n \"Doping in sport\\nIn competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors, where the term \\\"doping\\\" is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of banned drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbates the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating.\\nHistorically speaking, the origins of doping in sports go back to the very creation of sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in chariot racing to more recent controversies in baseball and cycling, popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to strictly regulate the use of drugs in sport. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and the exemplary effect of drug-free sport for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the \\\"spirit of sport\\\".\\nThe use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about all the way back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial. For instance, Scandinavian mythology says Berserkers could drink a mixture called \\\"butotens\\\", to greatly increase their physical power at the risk of insanity. One theory is that the mixture was prepared from the \\\"Amanita muscaria\\\" mushroom, though this has been disputed. The German missionary and doctor Albert Schweitzer wrote of Gabon in the early 19th century: \\\"The people of the country can, having eaten certain leaves or roots, toil vigorously all day without feeling hungry, thirsty or tired and all the time showing a happiness and gaiety.\\\"\\nThe ancient Olympics in Greece have been alleged to have been contaminated with forms of doping. In ancient Rome, where chariot racing had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races.\\nMore recently, a participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used laudanum (which contains opiates) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to 500 miles and the following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in Islington, London, to 520 miles. The \\\"Illustrated London News\\\" chided:\\nThe event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists.\\nThe fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and the same appeal brought in the crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs (the French word for \\\"carers\\\"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing. Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders suffered hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: \\\"I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand.\\\"\\nPublic reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said:\\nThe father of anabolic steroids in the United States was John Ziegler (1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone, which appeared on the market in 1960. During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of amphetamines and a drug called nicotinyl tartrate in his system.\\nThe American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: \\\"Trainers of the old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures.\\\" John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were \\\"de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion.\\\"\\nOver 30 % of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to a study commissioned by WADA, actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught.\\nThe whole Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, because the Russian State had sponsored their doping program.\\nOver the last 20 years the appearance of steroids in sports has been seen as an epidemic. Research and limited tests have been conducted only to find short-term, reversible effects on athletes that are both physical and mental. These side effects would be alleviated if athletes would be allowed the use of controlled substances under proper medical supervision. These side-effects include Intramuscular abscesses and other microbial bacteria that can cause infections, from counterfeited products the user decides to purchase on the black market, high blood pressure and cholesterol, as well as infertility, and dermatological conditions like severe acne. Mental effects include increased aggression, depression, and in rare cases suicide has been seen as well. Most studies on the effects of steroids have shown to be improper and lacking credible tests as well as performing studies in a skewed fashion to predetermine the world’s view on the use of steroids in sports. Long-term effects have not been able to be pinpointed just yet due to the recency of testing these substances but would start show up as early steroid users reach the age of 50 and older.\\nThese \\\"de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion\\\" were not unknown outside cycling.\\nThomas Hicks, an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic marathon in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American Fred Lorz, who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out a syringe and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle.\\nThe use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said:\\nHicks was, in the phrase of the time, \\\"between life and death\\\" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics.\\nGoldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take a drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia.\\nStimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement and decreasing the sensation of fatigue. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids. Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, amphetamine, modafinil, and ephedrine. Caffeine, although a stimulant has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004.\\nBenzedrine is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by Gordon Alles. Its perceived effects gave it the street name \\\"speed\\\". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that \\\"Methedrine won the Battle of Britain\\\" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as a thymoleptic before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s.\\nEverton, one of the top clubs in the English football league, were champions of the 1962–63 season. And it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted the goalkeeper, Albert Dunlop, as saying:\\nThe club agreed that drugs had been used but that they \\\"could not possibly have had any harmful effect.\\\" Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict.\\nIn November 1942, the Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi took \\\"seven packets of amphetamine\\\" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at the Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol, which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that \\\"dope – whole cartloads – [were] used in such royal quantities.\\\"\\nThe 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: \\\"You need never go off-course chasing the peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers.\\\"\\nThe Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care:\\nCurrently modafinil is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have tested positive for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as the drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their offence, however, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics.\\nOne approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included mephendrone, ephendrome, and fluoroamphetamines; which have chemical structures and effects similar to ephedrine and amphetamine.\\nAnabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased Low density lipoprotein and decreased High density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, liver damage. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs.\\nAAS use in sports began in October 1954 when John Ziegler, a doctor who treated American athletes, went to Vienna with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over \\\"a few drinks\\\", repeatedly asked \\\"What are you giving your boys?\\\" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought a drug without after-effects and hit on an anabolic steroid, methandrostenolone, (Dianabol, DBOL), made in the US in 1958 by Ciba.\\nThe results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports. Paul Lowe, a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: \\\"We had to take them [steroids] at lunchtime. He [an official] would put them on a little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine.\\\"\\nOlympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 per cent. The gold medalist pentathlete Mary Peters said: \\\"A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons.\\\" In 1984, Jay Silvester, a former four-time Olympian and 1972 silver medalist in the discus, who was then with the physical education department of Brigham Young University in the U.S., questioned competitors at that year's Olympics. The range of steroid use he found ranged from 10 mg a day to 100 mg.\\nA number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At the collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes.\\nA famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol, testosterone, Furazabol, and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance. Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. In 2003, however, Wade Exum, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) director of drug control administration from 1991 to 2000, gave copies of documents to \\\"Sports Illustrated\\\" which revealed that some 100 American athletes who failed drug tests and should have been prevented from competing in the Olympics were nevertheless cleared to compete; among those athletes was Carl Lewis.\\nLewis broke his silence on allegations that he was the beneficiary of a drugs cover-up, admitting he had tested positive for banned substances but claiming he was just one of \\\"hundreds\\\" of American athletes who were allowed to escape bans, concealed by the USOC. Lewis has now acknowledged that he failed three tests during the 1988 US Olympic trials, which under international rules at the time should have prevented him from competing in the Seoul games. Former athletes and officials came out against the USOC cover-up. \\\"For so many years I lived it. I knew this was going on, but there's absolutely nothing you can do as an athlete. You have to believe governing bodies are doing what they are supposed to do. And it is obvious they did not,\\\" said former American sprinter and 1984 Olympic champion, Evelyn Ashford.\\nIn 1977, one of East Germany's best sprinters, Renate Neufeld, fled to the West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany in the 1980 Olympic Games.\\nShe brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for a year for the sake of her family. But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story.\\nEast Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977, the shot-putter Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, tested positive for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in Helsinki and thereafter athletes were tested before they left the country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near Dresden passed into government control, which was reputed to make around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised.\\nThe International Amateur Athletics Federation suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in Prague. In the reverse of what the IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won.\\nAfter that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the \\\"Edmonton Sun\\\", who said:\\nOther reports came from the occasional athlete who fled to the West. There were 15 between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper Hans-Georg Aschenbach, said: \\\"Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training.\\\" He said: \\\"For every Olympic champion, there at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by the intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank [\\\"lessivés\\\" – washed out], which is even more painful than a deformed spine.\\\"\\nAfter German reunification, on 26 August 1993 the records were opened and the evidence was there that the Stasi, the state secret police, supervised systematic doping of East German athletes from 1971 until reunification in 1990. Doping existed in other countries, says the expert Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, both communist and capitalist, but the difference with East Germany was that it was a state policy. The \\\"Sportvereinigung Dynamo\\\" (English:\\\"Dynamo Sports Club\\\") was especially singled out as a center for doping in the former East Germany. Many former club officials and some athletes found themselves charged after the dissolution of the country. A special page on the internet was created by doping victims trying to gain justice and compensation, listing people involved in doping in the GDR.\\nState-endorsed doping began with the Cold War when every eastern bloc gold was an ideological victory. From 1974, Manfred Ewald, the head of the GDR's sports federation, imposed blanket doping. At the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, the country of 17 million collected nine gold medals. Four years later the total was 20 and in 1976 it doubled again to 40. Ewald was quoted as having told coaches, \\\"They're still so young and don't have to know everything.\\\" He was given a 22-month suspended sentence, to the outrage of his victims. Often, doping was carried out without the knowledge of the athletes, some of them as young as ten years of age. It is estimated that around 10,000 former athletes bear the physical and mental scars of years of drug abuse, one of them is Rica Reinisch, a triple Olympic champion and world record-setter at the Moscow Games in 1980, has since suffered numerous miscarriages and recurring ovarian cysts.\\nTwo former Dynamo Berlin club doctors, Dieter Binus, chief of the national women's team from 1976 to 80, and Bernd Pansold, in charge of the sports medicine center in East-Berlin, were committed for trial for allegedly supplying 19 teenagers with illegal substances. Binus was sentenced in August, Pansold in December 1998 after both being found guilty of administering hormones to underage female athletes from 1975 to 1984.\\nVirtually no East German athlete ever failed an official drugs test, though Stasi files show that many did produce positive tests at Kreischa, the Saxon laboratory (German:\\\"Zentrales Dopingkontroll-Labor des Sportmedizinischen Dienstes\\\") that was at the time approved by the International Olympic Committee, now called the \\\"Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry\\\" (IDAS). In 2005, 15 years after the end of the \\\"GDR\\\", the manufacturer of the drugs in former East Germany, Jenapharm, still finds itself involved in numerous lawsuits from doping victims, being sued by almost 200 former athletes.\\nFormer Sport Club Dynamo athletes who publicly admitted to doping, accusing their coaches:\\nFormer Sport Club Dynamo athletes disqualified for doping:\\nBased on the admission by Pollack, the United States Olympic Committee asked for the redistribution of gold medals won in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Despite court rulings in Germany that substantiate claims of systematic doping by some East German swimmers, the IOC executive board announced that it has no intention of revising the Olympic record books. In rejecting the American petition on behalf of its women's medley relay team in Montreal and a similar petition from the British Olympic Association on behalf of Sharron Davies, the IOC made it clear that it wanted to discourage any such appeals in the future.\\nThere have been few incidents of doping in football, mainly due to FIFA's belief that education and prevention with constant in and out-of-competition controls play a key role in making high-profile competitions free of performance-enhancing drugs. The FIFA administration work alongside team physicians to fight for dope free competitions, having them sign a joint declaration that states they agree with having routine blood testing to check for blood doping before any FIFA world cup.\\nIn 2014, the biological passport is introduced in the 2014 FIFA World Cup; blood and urine samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses.\\nThe use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport has become an increasing problem across a wide range of sports. It is defined as any substance or drug that, when taken, gives an athlete an unfair advantage relative to a \\\"clean\\\" athlete. The banning of these drugs promotes a level playing field and equality among athletes. The use of 'the suit' in swimming, which gives athletes an advantage in the way of hydrodynamics, has been banned from international competition due to the unfair advantage it delivered. The drugs taken by athletes differ widely based on the performance needs of the sport.\\nErythropoietin (EPO) is largely taken by endurance athletes who seek a higher level of red blood cells, which leads to more oxygenated blood, and a higher VO2 max. An athlete's VO2 max is highly correlated with success within endurance sports such as swimming, long-distance running, cycling, rowing, and cross-country skiing. EPO has recently become prevalent amongst endurance athletes due to its potentcy and low degree of detectability when compared to other methods of doping such as blood transfusion. While EPO is believed to have been widely used by athletes in the 1990s, there was not a way to directly test for the drug until 2002. Athletes at the Olympic Games are tested for EPO through blood and urine tests. Stringent guidelines and regulations can lessen the danger of doping that has existed within some endurance sports. As of 2012, 18 pro cyclists in the last 15 years have died from using EPO.\\nIn 1924 the journalist Albert Londres followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper \\\"Le Petit Parisien\\\". At Coutances he heard that the previous year's winner, Henri Pélissier, his brother Francis and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had resigned from the competition after an argument with the organiser Henri Desgrange. Pélissier explained the problem—whether or not he had the right to take off a jersey—and went on to talk of drugs, reported in Londres' race diary, in which he invented the phrase \\\"Les Forçats de la Route\\\" (\\\"The Convicts of the Road\\\"):\\nHenri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by diarrhea, before continuing:\\nFrancis Pélissier said much later: \\\"Londres was a famous reporter but he didn't know about cycling. We kidded him a bit with our cocaine and our pills. Even so, the Tour de France in 1924 was no picnic.\\\" The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930, when the race changed to national teams that were to be paid for by the organisers, that the rule book distributed to riders by the organiser, Henri Desgrange, reminded them that drugs were not among items with which they would be provided. The use of Pot Belge by road cyclists in continental Europe exemplifies a cross-over between recreational and performance-enhancing abuse of drugs by sportsman.\\nIn 1998, the entire Festina team were excluded from the Tour de France following the discovery of a team car containing large amounts of various performance-enhancing drugs. The team director later admitted that some of the cyclists were routinely given banned substances. Six other teams pulled out in protest including Dutch team TVM who left the tour still being questioned by the police. The Festina scandal overshadowed cyclist Marco Pantani's tour win, but he himself later failed a test. The infamous \\\"pot belge\\\" or \\\"Belgian mix\\\" has a decades-long history in pro cycling, among both riders and support staff. David Millar, the 2003 World-Time Trial Champion, admitted using EPO, and was stripped of his title and suspended for two years. Roberto Heras was stripped of his victory in the 2005 Vuelta a España and suspended for two years after testing positive for EPO.\\nFloyd Landis was the initial winner of the 2006 Tour de France. However, a urine sample taken from Landis immediately after his Stage 17 win has twice tested positive for banned synthetic testosterone as well as a ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone nearly three times the limit allowed by World Anti-Doping Agency rules. The International Cycling Union stripped him of his 2006 Tour de France title. Second place finisher Óscar Pereiro was officially declared the winner.\\nLance Armstrong was world number one in 1996. In the same year he recovered from severe testicular cancer and continued to break records and win his seventh Tour de France in 2005. After beating cancer and breaking records he was accused of doping. Teammates of Lance had been caught taking EPO (Erythropoietin) which made the accusations against Armstrong stronger.\\nOn 22 October 2012 Lance Armstrong was stripped of his Tour de France titles since 1998. As a response to the decisions of the USADA and UCI, Armstrong resigned from the Lance Armstrong Foundation On 14 January 2013, Armstrong confessed to doping in an interview with Oprah Winfrey which was aired on 17 January on the Oprah Winfrey Network.\\nIn triathlon, 2004 Hawaii Ironman winner Nina Kraft, was disqualified for a positive test to EPO. She remains the only Hawaii Ironman winner to be disqualified for doping offences. Sports lawyer Michelle Gallen has said that the pursuit of doping athletes has turned into a modern-day witch-hunt.\\nIn sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used anabolic steroids, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drug mimics the effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative effects, anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drug has been used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including:\\nSide effects in women include:\\nIn countries where the use of these drugs is controlled, there is often a black market trade of smuggled or counterfeit drugs. The quality of these drugs may be poor and can cause health risks. In countries where anabolic steroids are strictly regulated, some have called for a regulatory relief. Steroids are available over-the-counter in some countries such as Thailand and Mexico.\\nMany sports organizations have banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have very strict rules and penalties for people who are caught using them. The International Amateur Athletic Federation, now the International Association of Athletics Federations, were the first international governing body of sport to take the situation seriously. In 1928 they banned participants from doping, but with little in the way of testing available they had to rely on the word of the athlete that they were clean.\\nIt was not until 1966 that FIFA and Union Cycliste Internationale (cycling) joined the IAAF in the fight against drugs, followed by the International Olympic Committee the following year. Progression in pharmacology has always outstripped the ability of sports federations to implement rigorous testing procedures but since the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999, it has become more effective to catch athletes who use drugs. The first tests for athletes were at the 1966 European Championships and two years later the IOC implemented their first drug tests at both the Summer and Winter Olympics. Anabolic steroids became prevalent during the 1970s and after a method of detection was found they were added to the IOC's prohibited substances list in 1975.\\nOver the years, different sporting bodies have evolved differently in the struggle against doping. Some, such as athletics and cycling, are becoming increasingly vigilant against doping. However, there has been criticism that sports such as football (soccer) and baseball are doing nothing about the issue, and letting athletes implicated in doping away unpunished.\\nSome commentators maintain that, as outright prevention of doping is an impossibility, all doping should be legalised. However, most disagree with this, pointing out the claimed harmful long-term effects of many doping agents. Opponents claim that with doping legal, all competitive athletes would be compelled to use drugs, and the net effect would be a level playing field but with widespread health consequences. Considering that anti-doping is largely ineffective due to both testing limitations and lack of enforcement, this is not markedly different from the situation already in existence.\\nAnother point of view is that doping could be legalized to some extent using a drug whitelist and medical counseling, such that medical safety is ensured, with all usage published. Under such a system, it is likely that athletes would attempt to cheat by exceeding official limits to try to gain an advantage; this could be considered conjecture as drug amounts do not always correlate linearly with performance gains.\\nUnder established doping control protocols, the participant will be asked to provide a urine sample, which will be divided into two, each portion to be preserved within sealed containers bearing the same unique identifying number and designation respectively as A- and B-samples. WADA's Executive Committee and Foundation Board clarified at a meeting on 19–20 November, that an athlete whose A-sample has revealed the presence of a prohibited substance or method to request the analysis of his or her B-sample:\\\"The B-sample helps confirm that an anti-doping rule violation has occurred and protects the rights of the athletes,\\\" said WADA Director General David Howman. \\\"It should be stressed that anti-doping is one of the few types of controls in society in which a confirmation procedure is used in order to protect individuals, and the very rare cases in which the analysis of the B-sample did not match the results of the A-sample have shown the usefulness of such procedure.\\\"\\nAccording to Article 6.5 in the World Anti-Doping Code samples may be re-tested later. Samples from high-profile events, such as the Olympic Games, are now re-tested up to eight years later to take advantage of new techniques for detecting banned substances.\\nAthletes seeking to avoid testing positive use various methods. The most common methods include:\\nDonald Berry, writing in the journal \\\"Nature\\\", has called attention to potential problems with the validity of ways in which many of the standardised tests are performed; in his article, as described in an accompanying editorial, Berry\\nG. Pascal Zachary argues in a \\\"Wired\\\" essay that legalizing performance-enhancing substances, as well as genetic enhancements once they became available, would satisfy society's need for übermenschen and reverse the decline in public interest in sports.\\nSports scholar Verner Moller argues that society is hypocritical when it holds athletes to moral standards, but do not conform to those morals themselves. Fox Sports writer Jen Floyd Engel stated in an article, \\\"We live in a pharmacological society. We live in a society of short cuts, of fake this and enhanced that, and somehow we keep trying to sell the line that sports has become this evil empire of cheating. The reality is athletes are merely doing what so many of us do and celebrate and watch every single day of our lives.\\\"\\nSociologist Ellis Cashmore argues that what is considered doping is too arbitrary: transfusing blood cells is not allowed, but other methods of boosting blood cell count, such as hypobaric chambers, are allowed. Other scholars have advanced similar arguments.\\nAnti-doping policies instituted by individual sporting governing bodies may conflict with local laws. A notable case includes the National Football League (NFL) inability to suspend players found with banned substances, after it was ruled by a federal court, that local labor laws superseded the NFL's anti-doping regime. The challenge was supported by the National Football League Players Association.\\nAthletes caught doping may be subject to penalties from their locality as well from the individual sporting governing body. The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country. Using performance-enhancing drugs in mixed martial arts competitions like the UFC could find the guilty fighter charged or sued once Bill S-209 passes.\\nUnder certain circumstances, when athletes need to take a prohibited substance to treat a medical condition, a therapeutic use exemption may be granted.\\n\",\n \"Performance-enhancing substance\\nPerformance-enhancing substances, also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PED), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. A well-known example involves doping in sport, where banned physical performance–enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders. Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics, are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.\\nThe use of performance-enhancing drugs spans the categories of legitimate use and substance abuse.\\nThe classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of categorization, certain prototype performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like anabolic steroids), whereas other substances (like vitamins and protein supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases; caffeine, for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others.\\nThe phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs:\\nIn sports, the phrase \\\"performance-enhancing drugs\\\" is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term \\\"steroids\\\"); anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly. There are agencies such as WADA and USADA that try to prevent athletes from using these drugs by performing drug tests. WADA was founded on November 10, 1999 by Dick Pound. The World Anti-doping Agency focuses on establishing and enforcing rules and codes of all sports around the world. Their goal is to make all sports played fairly between all athletes in a doping free organization with the power to prevent athletes from using any form of performance-enhancing drugs. USADA started October 1, 2000 as non-profit and was composed of nine members. Five of which were former Olympic athletes with the other four elected from independent companies. This is the United States Anti-doping Agency and have the ability to test athletes across the nation. Steroids and performance-enhancing drugs are used across all sports organizations around the world.\",\n \"Entrepreneurial orientation\\nEntrepreneurial orientation (EO) is a firm-level strategic orientation which captures an organization's strategy-making practices, managerial philosophies, and firm behaviors that are entrepreneurial in nature. Entrepreneurial orientation has become one of the most established and researched constructs in the entrepreneurship literature. A general commonality among past conceptualizations of EO is the inclusion of innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking as core defining aspects or dimensions of the orientation. EO has been shown to be a strong predictor of firm performance with a meta-analysis of past research indicating a correlation in magnitude roughly equivalent to the prescription of taking sleeping pills and getting better sleep. Still, some research has argued that EO does not enhance the performance for all firms. Instead, EO can be argued not to be a simple performance enhancing attribute but rather enhancing if it is applied under the right circumstances of the firm. In some cases, EO can even be disadvantageous for firms, if the situation of the firm does not fit with applying EO. Different situations (also known as context) can be the environment that the firm is situated within or internal situations such as structure and strategy.\\nEntrepreneurial orientation has most frequently been assessed using a nine-item psychometric instrument developed by Jeff Covin and Dennis Slevin. This instrument captures the perspective of Danny Miller that EO is a ‘collective catchall’ construct which represents what it means for a firm to be considered entrepreneurial across a wide range of contexts. A seminal quote from Miller (1983, p. 780):\\n\\\"“In general, theorists would not call a firm entrepreneurial if it changed its technology or product line simply by directly imitating competitors while refusing to take any risks. Some proactiveness would be essential as well. By the same token, risk-taking firms that are highly leveraged financially are not necessarily entrepreneurial. They must also engage in product market or technological innovation.”\\\"\\nReviews of the Entrepreneurial orientation literature indicate that the majority of prior studies have adopted Miller's perspective of EO as the combination of innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking.\\nLumpkin and Dess offer an alternative view of EO as the combination of five dimensions, those put forth by Miller/Covin and Slevin as well as competitive aggressiveness and autonomy. Moreover, they suggest that additional insights stand to be gained from investigating the dimensions independently. Proceeding research has suggested that there is value in examining EO according to either conceptualization depending upon the demands of the research question being addressed. Research on the individual dimensions of risk-taking, proactiveness and innovativeness has found that the dimensions can combine in different ways to form configurations.\\nTaken together, as a strategic orientation EO enhances firm performance as well as overall variance in a firm’s performance. Increased variance occurs as result of the observation that many entrepreneurial actions ultimately fail to generate an economic return thereby contributing to an increased distribution of firm performance outcomes. As a core firm strategic orientation, the breadth and depth of research on EO continues to expand as the concept is adopted to understand the effects of being entrepreneurial across an increasing number of research contexts.\",\n \"Mitchell Report\\nThe Report to the Commissioner of Baseball of an Independent Investigation into the Illegal Use of Steroids and Other Performance Enhancing Substances by Players in Major League Baseball, informally known as the \\\"Mitchell Report,\\\" is the result of former Democratic United States Senator from Maine George J. Mitchell's 20-month investigation into the use of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH) in Major League Baseball (MLB). The 409-page report, released on December 13, 2007, covers the history of the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances by players and the effectiveness of the MLB Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. The report also advances certain recommendations regarding the handling of past illegal drug use and future prevention practices. In addition, the report names 89 MLB players who are alleged to have used steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs.\\nA former Senate Majority Leader, federal prosecutor, and ex-chairman of The Walt Disney Company, George Mitchell was appointed by Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig on March 30, 2006 to investigate the use of performance-enhancing drugs in MLB. Mitchell was appointed during a time of controversy over the 2006 book \\\"Game of Shadows\\\" by \\\"San Francisco Chronicle\\\" investigative reporters Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, which chronicles alleged extensive use of performance enhancers, including several different types of steroids and growth hormone by baseball superstars Barry Bonds, Gary Sheffield and Jason Giambi. The appointment was made after several influential members of the U.S. Congress made negative comments about the effectiveness and honesty of MLB's drug policies.\\nMitchell's investigation focused on high-profile players, without investigating the role teams played. Mitchell reported that the Major League Baseball Players Association was \\\"largely uncooperative\\\". According to Mitchell, the Players Association effectively discouraged players from cooperating with the investigation. In a memorandum to players, the Association advised:\\nConfidentiality was not an idle concern. The Players Association had agreed to anonymous testing in 2003, only to find out the list of players testing positive was turned over to the government (as part of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative investigation).\\nMitchell agreed to give Commissioner Selig an advanced copy of the report while refusing to do the same for the Players Association.\\nOnly two active players were interviewed for the report. Of five players who were approached by the investigators for interviews because of their public statements on the issue, Toronto Blue Jays designated hitter Frank Thomas was the only one willing to be interviewed.\\nKirk Radomski, a former batboy and clubhouse employee for the New York Mets and a critical witness, provided most of the names that the general public did not know about. Mitchell was able to secure Radomski's cooperation through San Francisco, California, U.S. Attorney Scott Schools. Radomski had been charged with distribution of a controlled substance and money laundering and faced up to thirty years in prison. He reached a plea bargain that was conditioned upon his cooperation with the Mitchell investigation.\\nBrian McNamee is a personal trainer who was most notably employed by Andy Pettitte, Roger Clemens, and Chuck Knoblauch. He is a former strength coach for the New York Yankees and Toronto Blue Jays. The Mitchell Report alleges that McNamee helped acquire performance-enhancing drugs including steroids, amphetamines, and human growth hormone for some or all of the players he personally trained. McNamee told the Mitchell Commission that he began injecting Clemens with steroids in and that he continued to provide these steroids through .\\nLarry Starr was a trainer for 30 years with the Cincinnati Reds (1972-1992) and the Florida Marlins (1993-2002). Starr was interviewed by Mitchell's investigators at least four times but his information was entirely omitted from the final Report.\\nStarr has spoken freely about the subject with the press. He told a reporter, \\\"I have notes from the Winter Meetings where the owners group and the players' association sat in meetings with the team physicians and team trainers. I was there. And team physicians stood up and said, 'Look, we need to do something about this. We've got a problem here if we don't do something about it.' That was in 1988.\\\"\\nIn another interview, Starr said, \\\"I don't totally blame the players. They didn't abuse the system. They used the system. The system was such that there was no testing so... the bad thing was it really put the medical people in a bad situation. If we couldn't test, there was no way we could accuse somebody point blank that they were using some type of performance-enhancing substance... Here's the position I took. If I can't test, if I can't do anything objective with them, what I told my players was come on in [the training room]. If you've got any questions, we'll close the door, close the blinds, there will be no papers, no pencils and what do you want to know. And I'd tell them everything I knew... When Mark McGwire was discovered taking androstenedione, when that hit ESPN, four players walked into my office within an hour and asked, 'Where can I get androstenedione?'\\\"\\nStarr says that the first player he knew to be using steroids was doing so in 1984, and that multiple members of the championship 1997 Marlins team used steroids. In 2000, Starr found a bag of syringes belonging to Marlins pitcher Ricky Bones and reported it to his superiors, who sent the information up the chain to the commissioner's office. No action was taken; this incident was not included in the Mitchell Report.\\nStarr told a reporter, “Someone ought to ask Mr. Selig whether he had any suspicion at all. Was there any one time from 1990 to 2003 that you had any suspicion that people were doing something wrong or cheating? If he says no to that question, he must not have watched many games.” Referring back to the 1980s, he told another reporter, \\\"You'd have to live in Siberia to not know it was going on.\\\"\\nOn the eve of the Mitchell report's release, Starr told the New York Daily News \\\"From the conversations I had with them, I got the feeling they were very open to what I had to say. They were not just after names. I really felt like they wanted to hear the background on all this. I didn't feel like I was wasting my time.\\\" Neither Starr's information indicting MLB's decades of knowledge nor Starr's name appear anywhere in the Mitchell Report.\\nThe report describes motivations for its preparation, including health effects of steroids, legal issues, fair play, and reports that baseball players acted as role models for child athletes. For example, after news coverage in August 1998 that Mark McGwire had used the then-legal androstenedione, a steroid precursor, sales of the supplement increased over 1000%, and the National Institute on Drug Abuse reported that 8% of male high school senior athletes had used androstenedione in 2001.\\nMitchell reported that during the random testing in 2003, 5 to 7 percent of players tested positive for steroid use. Players on the forty-man roster of major league teams were exempt from testing until 2004. One player is quoted: \\\"\\\"Forty-man [roster] guys already have all of the [major league] club advantages, and then they could use steroids . . . it was not a level playing field.\\\"\\\"\\nAccording to the report, after mandatory random testing began in 2004, HGH became the substance of choice among players, as it was not then detectable in tests. Also, it was noted that at least one player from each of the thirty Major League Baseball teams was involved in the alleged violations.\\nIn all, 89 former and current MLB players are named in the report. Among those implicated were several well-known players such as Roger Clemens, Andy Pettitte, Miguel Tejada, and Éric Gagné. Many of them are connected through a relatively small social network centering on Kirk Radomski.\\nMitchell expressed his hope that readers of the report will look past the players' names that are included in the report and focus on the conclusions he reached during his investigation. Mitchell presents his conclusions in five sections.\\nAfter the report was released, Selig held a news conference in which he called the Mitchell Report \\\"a call to action. And I will act.\\\" Selig indicated that it is possible that some of the players named in the report may face disciplinary actions. \\\"Discipline of players and others identified in this report will be determined on a case-by-case basis. If warranted, those decisions will be made swiftly,\\\" said Selig.\\nDonald Fehr, executive director of the MLB Players Association, also held a news conference in which he expressed his disappointment that the union was not given a chance to read the report beforehand. He accepted some responsibility for the steroid problems but expressed concern for how the league would treat the players named in the report.\\nRoger Clemens has been deemed the most standout name of the list. The seven-time Cy Young Award winner issued a response through agent Randy Hendricks, saying \\\"I want to state clearly and without qualification: I did not take steroids, human growth hormone or any other banned substances at any time in my baseball career or, in fact, my entire life.\\\"\\nThe day after the report was released, then-President of the United States George W. Bush, a former co-owner of the Texas Rangers, stated that \\\"we can jump to this conclusion: that steroids have sullied the game.\\\" He said he had no prior knowledge or awareness of player steroid use. He added, \\\"My hope is that this report is a part of putting the steroid era of baseball behind us.\\\"\\nMajor League Baseball's drug testing policy became more strict after the Mitchell Report came out, allegedly in hopes of stopping steroid use in professional baseball.\\nBefore the Mitchell Report came out, MLB had one unannounced mandatory test each year for every player and random tests for selective players during the season and the off-season. Each drug test examined each player for steroids, steroid precursors, and designer steroids. If caught, suspensions without pay occurred. The first positive tests resulted in a suspension for ten days, the second for thirty days, the third for sixty days and the fourth positive test resulted in a one-year suspension.\\nAfter George Mitchell’s report came out, MLB markedly increased testing and punishments. Now baseball tests unannounced twice a year for all players and random testing still occurs for selective players. MLB also tests for more substances. As of 2015, the MLB's Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program tests for eight different abusive drugs, 74 performance-enhancing drugs, and 56 stimulants. One of the 74 performance-enhancing drugs is Human Growth Hormone (HGH), a substance that was never tested for before the Mitchell Report because no reliable test existed. Along with the increase of substances tested for came an increase in suspensions without pay. The first positive test now results in an eighty-game suspension, the second is 162 games (a full season), and the third positive results in a lifetime suspension from the MLB.\\nSome questioned whether Mitchell, being a director of the Boston Red Sox, created a conflict of interest, especially because no prime Red Sox players were named in the report, despite the fact that Red Sox stars David Ortiz and Manny Ramirez were later alleged to have used performance-enhancing substances during the 2003 season, as reported by \\\"The New York Times\\\" on July 30, 2009. Likewise, the report was commissioned by Selig, and no members of the Milwaukee Brewers, whom Selig once owned, appeared in the report.\\nThe report was leaked to the \\\"San Francisco Chronicle\\\" shortly prior to the deciding game seven of the 2007 American League Championship Series between the Cleveland Indians and the Boston Red Sox, although it was not officially released until December, months after the series was over. This was cause for some players and media members to note the curious timing of the leak. In particular, Indians pitcher Paul Byrd, along with some of his teammates, felt that the timing of publicizing Byrd's alleged steroid use was suspicious.\\nFormer U.S. prosecutor John M. Dowd also brought up allegations of Mitchell's conflict of interest. Dowd, who had defended Senator John McCain of Arizona during the Keating Five investigation in the late 1980s, cited how he took exception to Mitchell's scolding of McCain and others for having a conflict of interest with their actions in the case and how the baseball investigation would be a \\\"burden\\\" for him when Mitchell was named to lead it. However, after the investigation, Dowd later told the \\\"Baltimore Sun\\\" that he was convinced the former Senator had done a good job.\\nThe \\\"Los Angeles Times\\\" reported that Mitchell acknowledged that his \\\"tight relationship with Major League Baseball left him open to criticism\\\". Mitchell responded to the concerns by stating that readers who examined the report closely \\\"will not find any evidence of bias, of special treatment of the Red Sox\\\".\",\n \"Bodybuilding at the 2011 Pacific Games\\nBodybuilding at the 2011 Pacific Games in Nouméa, New Caledonia was held on August 29, 2011. The competition was marred by doping scandals, with Tahitain bodybuilder Steve Wong Foe convicted of importation and possession of performance enhancing drugs prior to the games, and the post-competition disqualification of four gold medallists, two each from Tahiti and Tonga, due to positive drug tests.\\nJack Viyufa\\nNotes\\nVirginie Foucault\",\n \"Development director\\nA development director or director of development is the senior fundraising manager of a non-profit organization, company, or corporation. The position works closely with a chief financial officer (CFO) or treasurer. A Director of Development is chiefly responsible for bringing in revenue streams to a non-profit (grants, donations, special events), and a CFO is responsible for the fiscal management of the organization. A CFO is rarely assigned to write grant narratives, but may oversee the budget section of a grant application or a fiscal report for a grant. Some larger organizations (especially those that have large government grants) have a grants manager as well as a grant writer/Director of Development. A Grants Manager assists the CFO with grant reports and/or grant related accounting. A development director is usually remunerated for his or her work, and in best practices for nonprofit organizations, development directors earn salaries. Commissions are still considered unethical by professional organizations such as the Grant Professionals Association (GPA) and the Association of Fundraising Professionals (AFP), but the practice of commission based remuneration is growing, particularly in the current economy.\\nThe role of a development director is to develop and implement a strategic plan to raise vital funds for their organization in a cost-effective and time-efficient manner.The development director's primary responsibility, however, is to oversee fundraising, rather than to actually raise money. This person may write grants, research foundations and corporations, and oversee or implement other fundraising strategies, but she or he works mostly behind the scenes, establishing a structure for effective fundraising. The development director may also be responsible for additional financial responsibilities, including developing business plans or strategic plans in collaboration with the board for the future of the organization. The development director is usually accountable to the Executive Director, Chief Operating Officer, or CFO. The board often offers suggestions and ideas about how to increase the fundraising, including contacts, and the development director chooses how to implement these ideas to maximize inflow while keeping outflow at a minimum and keeping donors happy. A strong board often has a development/fundraising committee, makes personal donations to the non-profit, and assists with annual campaigns.\\nThe development director has an outreach role in the organization and often fulfills a public affairs role in addition to office-based work. Development directors motivate and satisfy donors, board members, staff and even the press. Many Directors of Development assist with communications such a non-profits annual report, development and communications section of website, newsletters, and donor databases.\\nThe structure of a Development Department varies greatly. A Director of Development may or may not have staff reporting to him/her, depending on the size of the organization. Some large non-profits have a development team including a Grant Writer, donor database specialist, Grants Manager, Special Events Coordinator, Communications staff, and Planning Giving staff. In some cases, an Executive Director serves as the lead grant writer of an organization. Some non-profits hire development staff on a part-time or consultant basis, instead of full-time.\\nAverage Directors of Non-Profit Development in the United States make around $58,000 per year. In the world of Directors of Non-Profit Development, overall cash allowance can occasionally include more than $6,000 from bonuses and, in some exceptional cases, $10,000 from profit sharing, causing incomes to vary widely between $36,000 and $92,000. Earnings for this group are mostly affected by the particular firm, followed by the particular city and tenure. Although about one in five lack health benefits of any kind, a fair number do enjoy medical insurance, and a majority get dental coverage, too.\\nAs the title suggests, the development director is concerned with the growth of the organization. This includes staff, membership, budget, company assets, and all other company resources, to help make the best use of them and maximize the organization's profitability and profile.\\nhttp://www.raise-funds.com/1999/a-development-director-needs-more-than-a-smile-and-a-shoeshine-but-its-a-good-start/\",\n \"Steve Jeltz\\nLarry Steven Jeltz (born May 28, 1959) is a former professional baseball player. He played in parts of eight seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Philadelphia Phillies and Kansas City Royals. Jeltz primarily played shortstop and batted .210 in his career. Jeltz is one of only a handful of MLB players to have been born in France, and he leads that nation's MLB players in several career statistical categories.\\nJeltz was born in Paris to a military family. When he was young, Jeltz moved with his family to Lawrence, Kansas, and he later attended the University of Kansas. Jeltz spent three years in college before he was drafted by the Phillies in the ninth round of the 1980 MLB draft. He made his MLB debut in 1983.\\nOn June 8, 1989, Jeltz hit two of his five career home runs in a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, despite not even starting the game. A switch-hitter, Jeltz hit one of these homers from the right side of the plate and one from the left side. This was the first time in the history of the Phillies that this feat had been accomplished. It was in this same game that, after the Pirates scored 10 runs in the top of the first, Pirate broadcaster Jim Rooker said on the air, \\\"If we lose this game, I'll walk home.\\\" The Phillies came back to win 15-11, and after the season Rooker conducted a 300-mile charity walk from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh.\\nIn 1990, Jeltz spent his last MLB season with the Kansas City Royals. He did not play much, and Jeltz said that he was distracted by issues facing his brother, who committed suicide in 1991. After retiring as a player, Jeltz became a bail bondsman and bounty hunter, and then he entered the construction business. In 2003, he had surgery to remove a benign brain tumor.\\nJeltz holds the records for most games played, at bats, runs, hits, doubles, triples, runs batted in, walks and strikeouts among players born in France. In total, nine major league players have been born in France as of 2012.\\n\",\n \"Drug test\\nA drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, and/or oral fluid/saliva — to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites. Major applications of drug testing include detection of the presence of performance enhancing steroids in sport, employers screening for drugs prohibited by law (such as cannabis, cocaine and heroin) and police officers testing for the presence and concentration of alcohol (ethanol) in the blood commonly referred to as BAC (blood alcohol content). BAC tests are typically administered via a breathalyzer while urinalysis is used for the vast majority of drug testing in sports and the workplace.\\nA drug test may also refer to a test that provides quantitative chemical analysis of an illegal drug, typically intended to help with responsible drug use.\\nThe following chart gives approximate detection periods for each substance by test type.\\nThe detection windows depend upon multiple factors: drug class, amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For ease of use, the detection times of metabolites have been incorporated into each parent drug. For example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected for a few hours after use, but their metabolites can be detected for several days in urine. The chart depicts the longer detection times of the metabolites.\\nOral fluid or saliva testing results for the most part mimic that of blood. The only exceptions are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and benzodiazepines. Oral fluid will likely detect THC from ingestion up to a maximum period of 6–12 hours. This continues to cause difficulty in oral fluid detection of THC and benzodiazepines.\\nBreath air for the most part mimics blood tests as well. Due to the very low levels of substances in the breath air, liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry has to be used to analyze the sample according to a recent publication wherein 12 analytes were investigated.\\nRapid oral fluid products are not approved for use in workplace drug testing programs and are not FDA cleared. Using rapid oral fluid drug tests in the workplace is prohibited in only:\\nUrine analysis is primarily used because of its low cost. Urine drug testing is one of the most common testing methods used. The enzyme-multiplied immune test is the most frequently used urinalysis. Complaints have been made about the relatively high rates of false positives using this test.\\nUrine drug tests screen the urine for the presence of a parent drug or its metabolites. The level of drug or its metabolites is not predictive of when the drug was taken or how much the patient used. Rather, it is simply a confirmatory report indicating the presence of the parent drug or its metabolites.\\nUrine drug testing is an immunoassay based on the principle of competitive binding. Drugs which may be present in the urine specimen compete against their respective drug conjugate for binding sites on their specific antibody. During testing, a urine specimen migrates upward by capillary action. A drug, if present in the urine specimen below its cut-off concentration, will not saturate the binding sites of its specific antibody. The antibody will then react with the drug-protein conjugate and a visible colored line will show up in the test line region of the specific drug strip\\nWhen an employer requests a drug test from an employee, or a physician requests a drug test from a patient, the employee or patient is typically instructed to go to a collection site or their home. The urine sample goes through a specified 'chain of custody' to ensure that it is not tampered with or invalidated through lab or employee error. The patient or employee’s urine is collected at a remote location in a specially designed secure cup, sealed with tamper-resistant tape, and sent to a testing laboratory to be screened for drugs (typically the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 5 panel). The first step at the testing site is to split the urine into two aliquots. One aliquot is first screened for drugs using an analyzer that performs immunoassay as the initial screen. To ensure the specimen integrity and detecting possible adulterant, some other parameters such as, urine creatinine, pH, and specific gravity are tested along in this initial test. If the urine screen is positive then another aliquot of the sample is used to confirm the findings by gas chromatography—mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry methodology. If requested by the physician or employer, certain drugs are screened for individually; these are generally drugs part of a chemical class that are, for one of many reasons, considered more abuse-prone or of concern. For instance, oxycodone and diamorphine may be tested, both sedative analgesics. If such a test is not requested specifically, the more general test (in the preceding case, the test for opiates) will detect the drugs, but the employer or physician will not have the benefit of the identity of the drug.\\nEmployment-related test results are relayed to a medical review office (MRO) where a medical physician reviews the results. If the result of the screen is negative, the MRO informs the employer that the employee has no detectable drug in the urine, typically within 24 hours. However, if the test result of the immunoassay and GC-MS are non-negative and show a concentration level of parent drug or metabolite above the established limit, the MRO contacts the employee to determine if there is any legitimate reason—such as a medical treatment or prescription.\\nOn-site instant drug testing is a more cost-efficient method of effectively detecting drug abuse amongst employees, as well as in rehabilitation programs to monitor patient progress. These instant tests can be used for both urine and saliva testing. Although the accuracy of such tests varies with the manufacturer, some kits boast extremely high rates of accuracy, correlating closely with laboratory test results.\\nBreath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath. There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments. More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only has to press the start button.\\nTo get accurate readings on a breath-testing device the individual must blow for approximately 6 seconds and need to contain roughly 1.1 to 1.5 liters of breath. For a breath-test to result accurately and truly an operator must take steps such as avoiding measuring “mouth alcohol” which is a result from regurgitation, belching, or recent intake of an alcoholic beverage. To avoid measuring “mouth alcohol” the operator must not allow the individual that’s taking the test to consume any materials for at least fifteen minutes before the breath test. When pulled over for a driving violation if an individual in the United States refuses to take a breath test that individual's driver's license can be suspend for a 6 to 12 months time period.\\nHair analysis to detect drugs of abuse has been used by court systems in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries worldwide. In the United States, hair testing has been accepted in court cases as forensic evidence following the Frye Rule, the Federal Rules of Evidence, and the Daubert Rule. As such, hair testing results are legally and scientifically recognized as admissible evidence.\\nAlthough some lower courts may have accepted hair test evidence, there is no controlling judicial ruling in either the federal or any state system declaring any type of hair test as reliable.\\nHair testing is now recognized in both the UK and US judicial systems. There are guidelines for hair testing that have been published by the Society of Hair Testing (a private company in France) that specify the markers to be tested for and the cutoff concentrations that need to be tested. Drugs of abuse that can be detected include Cannabis, Cocaine, Amphetamines and drugs new to the UK such as Mephedrone.\\nIn contrast to other drugs consumed, alcohol is deposited directly in the hair. For this reason the investigation procedure looks for direct products of ethanol metabolism. The main part of alcohol is oxidized in the human body. This means it is released as water and carbon dioxide. One part of the alcohol reacts with fatty acids to produce esters. The sum of the concentrations of four of these fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs: ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) are used as indicators of the alcohol consumption. The amounts found in hair are measured in nanograms (one nanogram equals only one billionth of a gram), however with the benefit of modern technology, it is possible to detect such small amounts. In the detection of ethyl glucuronide, or EtG, testing can detect amounts in picograms (one picogram equals 0.001 nanograms).\\nHowever, there is one major difference between most drugs and alcohol metabolites in the way in which they enter into the hair: on the one hand like other drugs FAEEs enter into the hair via the keratinocytes, the cells responsible for hair growth. These cells form the hair in the root and then grow through the skin surface taking any substances with them. On the other hand, the sebaceous glands produce FAEEs in the scalp and these migrate together with the sebum along the hair shaft (Auwärter et al., 2001, Pragst et al., 2004). So these glands lubricate not only the part of the hair that is just growing at 0.3 mm per day on the skin surface, but also the more mature hair growth, providing it with a protective layer of fat.\\nFAEEs (nanogram = one billionth of a gram) appear in hair in almost one order of magnitude lower than (the relevant order of magnitude of) EtG (picogram = one trillionth of a gram). It has been technically possible to measure FAEEs since 1993, and the first study reporting the detection of EtG in hair was done by Sachs in 1993.\\nIn practice, most hair which is sent for analysis has been cosmetically treated in some way (bleached, permed etc.). It has been proven that FAEEs are not significantly affected by such treatments (Hartwig et al., 2003a). FAEE concentrations in hair from other body sites can be interpreted in a similar fashion as scalp hair (Hartwig et al., 2003b).\\nPresumptive substance tests identify a suspicious substance, material or surface where traces of drugs are thought to be, instead of testing individuals through biological methods such as urine or hair testing. The test involves mixing the suspicious material with a chemical in order to trigger a color change to indicate if a drug is present. Most are now available over-the-counter, and do not require a lab to read results.\\nBenefits to this method include that the person who is suspected of drug use does not need to be confronted or aware of testing. Only a very small amount of material is needed to obtain results, and can be used to test powder, pills, capsules, crystals, or organic material. There is also the ability to detect illicit material when mixed with other non-illicit materials. The tests are used for general screening purposes, offering a generic result for the presence of a wide range of drugs, including Heroin, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, Methadone, Ketamine, PCP, PMA, DMT, MDPV, and may detect rapidly evolving synthetic designer drugs. Separate tests for Marijuana/Hashish are also available.\\nThere are five primary color-tests reagents used for general screening purposes. The Marquis reagent turns into a variety of colors when in the presence of different substances. Dille-Koppanyi reagent uses two chemical solutions which turns a violet-blue color in the presence of barbiturates. Duquenois-Levine reagent is a series of chemical solutions that turn to the color of purple when the vegetation of marijuana is added. Van Urk reagent turns blue-purple when in the presence of LSD. Scott Test's chemical solution shows up as a faint blue for cocaine base.\\nSaliva / oral fluid-based drug tests can generally detect use during the previous few days. Is better at detecting very recent use of a substance. THC may only be detectable for 2–24 hours in most cases. On site drug tests are allowed per the Department of Labor.\\nDetection in saliva tests begins almost immediately upon use of the following substances, and lasts for approximately the following times:\\nA disadvantage of saliva based drug testing is that it is not approved by FDA or SAMHSA for use with DOT / Federal Mandated Drug Testing. Oral fluid is not considered a bio-hazard unless there is visible blood; however, it should be treated with care.\\nSweat patches are attached to the skin to collect sweat over a long period of time (up to 14 days). These are used by child protective services, parole departments, and other government institutions concerned with drug use over long periods, when urine testing is not practical. There are also surface drug tests that test for the metabolite of parent drug groups in the residue of drugs left in sweat.\\nDrug-testing a blood sample measures whether or not a drug or a metabolite is in the body at a particular time. These types of tests are considered to be the most accurate way of telling if a person is intoxicated. Blood drug tests are not used very often because they need specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.\\nDepending on how much marijuana was consumed, it can usually be detected in blood tests within six hours of consumption. After six hours has passed, the concentration of marijuana in the blood decreases significantly. It generally disappears completely within 30 days.\\nAnabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sports and as they are prohibited in most high-level competitions drug testing is used extensively in order to enforce this prohibition. This is particularly so in individual (rather than team) sports such as athletics and cycling.\\nCan occur at any time, usually when the investigator has reason to believe that a substance is possibly being abused by the subject by behavior or immediately after an employee-related incident occurs during work hours. Testing protocol typically conforms to the national medical standard, candidates are given up to 120 minutes to reasonably produce a urine sample from the time of commencement (in some instances this time frame may be extended at the examiners discretion).\\nIn the case of life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or bizarre behavior in an emergency situation, screening for common drugs and toxins may help find the cause, called a \\\"toxicology test\\\" or \\\"tox screen\\\" to denote the broader area of possible substances beyond just self-administered drugs. These tests can also be done post-mortem during an autopsy in cases where a death was not expected. The test is usually done within 96 hours (4 days) after the desire for the test is realized. Both a urine sample and a blood sample may be tested. A blood sample is routinely used to detect ethanol/methanol and ASA/paracetamol intoxication. Various panels are used for screening urine samples for common substances, e.g. \\\"triage 8\\\" that detects amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methadone, opiates, cannabis, barbiturates and tricyclic antidepressants. Results are given in 10–15 min.\\nSimilar screenings may be used to evaluate the possible use of date rape drugs. This is usually done on a urine sample.\\nBefore testing samples, the tamper-evident seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been tampered with or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it.\\nNext, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used \\\"as is\\\" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine. Strands of hair, patches, and blood must be prepared before testing. Hair is washed in order to eliminate second-hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair, then the keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing. Sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present.\\nLaboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as the confirmation test, is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test. Screening tests are usually done by immunoassay (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). A \\\"\\\" drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the University of Illinois.\\nAfter a suspected positive sample is detected during screening, the sample is tested using a confirmation test. Samples that are negative on the screening test are discarded and reported as negative. The confirmation test in most laboratories (and all SAMHSA certified labs) is performed using mass spectrometry, and is precise but expensive. False positive samples from the screening test will almost always be negative on the confirmation test. Samples testing positive during both screening and confirmation tests are reported as positive to the entity that ordered the test. Most laboratories save positive samples for some period of months or years in the event of a disputed result or lawsuit. For workplace drug testing, a positive result is generally not confirmed without a review by a Medical Review Officer who will normally interview the subject of the drug test.\\nUrine drug test kits are available as on-site tests, or laboratory analysis. Urinalysis is the most common test type and used by federally mandated drug testing programs and is considered the Gold Standard of drug testing. Urine based tests have been upheld in most courts for more than 30 years. However, urinalysis conducted by the Department of Defense has been challenged for reliability of testing the metabolite of cocaine. There are two associated metabolites of cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqeous solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) results from the actual human metabolic process. The presence of EME confirms actual ingestion of cocaine by a human being, while the presence of BZ is indicative only. BZ without EME is evidence of sample contamination, however, the US Department of Defense has chosen not to test for EME in its urinalysis program.\\nA number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for) are available on Urine Drug Screens.\\nSpray (sweat) drug test kits are non-invasive. It is a simple process to collect the required specimen, no bathroom is needed, no laboratory is required for analysis, and the tests themselves are difficult to manipulate and relatively tamper-resistant. The detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within several hours.\\nThere are also some disadvantages to spray or sweat testing. There is not much variety in these drug tests, only a limited number of drugs can be detected, prices tend to be higher, and inconclusive results can be produced by variations in sweat production rates in donors. They also have a relatively long specimen collection period and are more vulnerable to contamination than other common forms of testing.\\nHair drug testing is a method that can detect drug use over a much longer period of time, and is often used for highly safety-critical positions where there is zero tolerance of illegal drug use. Standard hair follicle screen covers a period of 30 to 90 days. The growth of hair is usually at the rate of 0.5 inches per month. The hair sample is cut close to the scalp and 80 to 120 strands of hair are needed for the test. In the absence of hair on the head, body hair can be used as an acceptable substitute. This includes facial hair, the underarms, arms, and legs or even pubic hair. Because body hair grows at a different rate than head hair, the timeframe changes, with scientists estimating that drug use can be detected in body hair for up to 12 months. Currently, most entities that use hair testing have prescribed consequences for individuals removing hair to avoid a hair drug test.\\nThe claim that a hair test cannot be tampered with has been shown to be debatable. One study has shown that THC does not readily deposit inside epithelial cells so it is possible for cosmetic and other forms of adulteration to reduce the amount of testable cannabinoids within a hair sample.\\nThe results of federally mandating drug testing were similar to the effects of simply extending to the trucking industry the right to perform drug tests, and it has been argued that the latter approach would have been as effective at lower cost.\\nPsychologist Tony Buon has criticized the use of workplace drug testing on a number of grounds, including:\\nTony Buon has also reported by the CIPD as stating that \\\"drug testing captures the stupid—experienced drug users know how to beat the tests\\\".\\nA study in 2004 by the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights. However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity.\\nIn consultation with Dr. Carlton Turner, President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12564. In doing so, he instituted mandatory drug-testing for all safety-sensitive executive-level and civil-service Federal employees. This was challenged in the courts by the National Treasury Employees Union. In 1988, this challenge was considered by the US Supreme Court. A similar challenge resulted in the Court extending the drug-free workplace concept to the private sector. These decisions were then incorporated into the White House Drug Control Strategy directive issued by President George H.W. Bush in 1989. All defendants serving on federal probation or federal supervised release are required to submit to at least three drug tests. Failing a drug test can be construed as possession of a controlled substance, resulting in mandatory revocation and imprisonment.\\nThere have been inconsistent evaluation results as to whether continued pretrial drug testing has beneficial effects.\\nTesting positive can lead to bail not being granted, or if bail has already been granted, to bail revocation or other sanctions. Arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision, and the District of Columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, the right to due process (including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct), and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the Fourth Amendment.\\nAccording to Henriksson, the anti-drug appeals of the Reagan administration \\\"created an environment in which many employers felt compelled to implement drug testing programs because failure to do so might be perceived as condoning drug use. This fear was easily exploited by aggressive marketing and sales forces, who often overstated the value of testing and painted a bleak picture of the consequences of failing to use the drug testing product or service being offered.\\\" On March 10, 1986, the Commission on Organized Crime asked all U.S. companies to test employees for drug use. By 1987, nearly 25% of the Fortune 500 companies used drug tests.\\nAccording to an uncontrolled self-report study done by DATIA and Society for Human Resource Management in 2012 (sample of 6,000 randomly selected human resource professionals), human resource professionals reported the following results after implementing a drug testing program: 19% of companies reported a subjective increase in employee productivity, 16% reported a decrease in employee turnover (8% reported an increase), and unspecified percentages reported decreases in absenteeism and improvement of workers' compensation incidence rates.\\nAccording to US Chamber of Commerce 70% of all illicit drug users are employed. Some industries have high rates of employee drug use such as construction (12.8%), repair (11.1%), and hospitality (7.9-16.3%).\\nA person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU—the new term that includes employers) has duties under the work health and safety (WHS) legislation to ensure a worker affected by alcohol or other drugs does not place themselves or other persons at risk of injury while at work. Workplace policies and prevention programs can help change the norms and culture around substance abuse.\\nAll organisations—large and small—can benefit from an agreed policy on alcohol and drug misuse that applies to all workers. Such a policy should form part of an organisations overall health and safety management system. PCBUs are encouraged to establish a policy and procedure, in consultation with workers, to constructively manage alcohol and other drug related hazards in their workplace. A comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policy should apply to everyone in the workplace and include prevention, education, counselling and rehabilitation arrangements. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of managers and supervisors should be clearly outlined.\\nAll Australian workplace drug testing must comply with Australian standard AS/NZS4308:2008.\\nIn Victoria, roadside saliva tests detect drugs that contain:\\nIn February 2016 a New South Wales magistrate \\\"acquitted a man who tested positive for cannabis\\\". He had been arrested and charged after testing positive during a roadside drug test, despite not having smoked for nine days. He was relying on advice previously given to him by police.\\nIn the United States federal criminal system, refusing to take a drug test triggers an automatic revocation of probation or supervised release.\\nIn Victoria, Australia the driver of the car has the option to refuse the drug test. Refusing to undergo a drug test or refusing to undergo a secondary drug test after the first one, triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 2 years and a fine of AUD$1000. The second refusal triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 4 years and an even larger fine.\\n\",\n \"Cytochalasin D\\nCytochalasin D is a member of the class of <a href=\\\"mycotoxin\\\">mycotoxin</a>s known as <a href=\\\"cytochalasin\\\">cytochalasin</a>s. Cytochalasin D is an <a href=\\\"alkaloid\\\">alkaloid</a> produced by <a href=\\\"Helminthosporium\\\">Helminthosporium</a> and other molds.\\nCytochalasin D is a cell-permeable and potent inhibitor of <a href=\\\"actin\\\">actin</a> <a href=\\\"polymerization\\\">polymerization</a>. It disrupts actin microfilaments and activates the p53-dependent pathways causing arrest of the cell cycle at the G1-S transition. It is believed to bind to <a href=\\\"F-actin\\\">F-actin</a> polymer and prevent polymerization of actin monomers.\",\n \"Phalloidin\\nPhalloidin belongs to a class of toxins called <a href=\\\"phallotoxins\\\">phallotoxins</a>, which are found in the death cap mushroom \\\"(<a href=\\\"Amanita%20phalloides\\\">Amanita phalloides</a>)\\\". It is a rigid <a href=\\\"bicyclic%20molecule\\\">bicyclic</a> <a href=\\\"peptide\\\">heptapeptide</a> that is lethal after a few days when injected into the bloodstream. The major symptom of phalloidin poisoning is acute hunger due to the destruction of liver cells. It functions by binding and stabilizing filamentous <a href=\\\"actin\\\">actin</a> (F-actin) and effectively prevents the depolymerization of actin fibers. Due to its tight and selective binding to F-actin, derivatives of phalloidin containing <a href=\\\"fluorescence\\\">fluorescent tags</a> are used widely in microscopy to visualize F-actin in biomedical research.\\nPhalloidin was one of the first cyclic peptides to be discovered. It was isolated from the death cap mushroom and crystallized by <a href=\\\"Feodor%20Felix%20Konrad%20Lynen\\\">Feodor Lynen</a> and <a href=\\\"Ulrich%20Wieland\\\">Ulrich Wieland</a> in 1937. Its structure is unusual in that it contains a cysteine-tryptophan linkage to form a bicyclic heptapeptide. This linkage had not been characterized before and makes the structure elucidation of phalloidin significantly more difficult. They determined the presence of the sulfur atom using <a href=\\\"UV%20spectroscopy\\\">UV spectroscopy</a> and found that this ring structure had a slightly shifted wavelength. Raney nickel experiments confirmed the presence of sulfur in the tryptophan ring. The researchers found the desulfurized tryptophan was still circular, which demonstrated that the structure of phalloidin is normally bicyclic. Once linearized, the amino acid sequence of de-sulfurized phalloidin was elucidated through <a href=\\\"Edman%20degradation\\\">Edman degradation</a> by Wieland and Schön in 1955.\\nDue to its high affinity for actin, scientists discovered its potential use as a staining reagent for effective visualization of actin in microscopy. Derivatives conjugated with fluorophores are sold widely. Because of its ability to selectively bind filamentous actin (F-actin) and not actin monomers (G-actin), fluorescently labeled phalloidin is more effective than antibodies against actin.\\nPhalloidin is a bicyclic heptapeptide containing an unusual cysteine-tryptophan linkage. The gene coding for synthesis of phalloidin is part of the MSDIN family in the Death Cap mushroom and codes for a 34 amino acid propeptide. A <a href=\\\"proline\\\">proline</a> residue flanks the seven-residue region that will later become phalloidin. After translation, the peptide must be proteolyticly excised, cyclized, hydroxylated, Trp-Cys cross-linked to form tryptathionine, and epimerized to form a D-Thr. The order and exact biochemical mechanism for these steps is not yet fully understood. The current belief is that the necessary biosynthetic genes are clustered near the MSDIN genes.\\nThe first post-translational modification of the 34-mer is proteolytic cleavage via a prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) to remove the 10-amino acid \\\"leader\\\" peptide. The POP then cyclizes the heptapeptide Ala-Trp-Leu-Ala-Thr-Cys-Pro by transpeptidation between amino acid 1 (Ala) and amino acid 7 (Pro). It is believed that the formation of tryptathionine through Trp-Cys cross-linking occurs next.\\nSince phalloidin is exploited for its ability to bind and stabilize actin polymers but cells cannot readily uptake it, scientists have found phalloidin derivatives to be more useful in research. Essentially, it follows typical small peptide synthesis, using hydroxyl-proline. The major difficulty in synthesis is the formation of the tryptathionine bond (cysteine - tryptophan cross-linkage).\\nBelow is the general synthetic mechanism carried out by Anderson et al. in 2005 for the solid phase synthesis of ala-phalloidin, which differs at residue 7 from phalloidin as indicated below. THPP stands for tetrahydropyranyl polystyrene linker, which is used to connect the molecule with the solid support during synthesis. Note that the synthesis below is simply a general scheme to show the order of bond formation to connect the starting materials. Ala-phalloidin as well as many other similar variants of phalloidin are useful to increase cell uptake relative to phalloidin and to attach a fluorophore to aid in the visualization of F-actin in microscopy.\\nSoon after its discovery, scientists injected phalloidin into mice and discovered its <a href=\\\"Median%20lethal%20dose\\\">LD</a> is 2 mg/kg via <a href=\\\"Intraperitoneal%20injection\\\">IP injection</a>. When exposed to the minimum lethal dose, it took several days for these mice to die. The only apparent side effect of phalloidin poisoning is extreme hunger. This is because phalloidin is only taken up by the liver via bile salt membrane transport proteins. Once inside the liver, phalloidin binds F-actin, preventing its depolymerization. It takes time for this process to destroy the liver cells. The kidneys can also take up phalloidin, but not as effectively as the liver. Here, phalloidin causes nephrosis.\\nPhalloidin binds F-<a href=\\\"actin\\\">actin</a>, preventing its <a href=\\\"polymer\\\">depolymerization</a> and poisoning the cell. Phalloidin binds specifically at the interface between F-actin subunits, locking adjacent subunits together. Phalloidin, a bicyclic heptapeptide, binds to actin filaments much more tightly than to actin monomers, leading to a decrease in the rate constant for the dissociation of actin subunits from filament ends, which essentially stabilizes actin filaments through the prevention of filament depolymerization. Moreover, phalloidin is found to inhibit the ATP hydrolysis activity of F-actin. Thus, phalloidin traps actin monomers in a conformation distinct from G-actin and it stabilizes the structure of F-actin by greatly reducing the rate constant for monomer dissociation, an event associated with the trapping of ADP. Overall, phalloidin is found to react stoichiometrically with actin, strongly promote actin polymerization, and stabilize actin polymers.\\nPhalloidin functions differently at various concentrations in cells. When introduced into the cytoplasm at low concentrations, phalloidin recruits the less polymerized forms of cytoplasmic actin as well as filamin into stable \\\"islands\\\" of aggregated actin polymers, yet it does not interfere with stress fibers, i.e. thick bundles of microfilaments. Wehland \\\"et al.\\\" also notes that at higher concentrations, phalloidin induces cellular contraction.\\nThe properties of phalloidin make it a useful tool for investigating the distribution of F-actin in cells by labeling phalloidin with <a href=\\\"Fluorescence\\\">fluorescent</a> analogs and using them to stain actin filaments for light microscopy. Fluorescent derivatives of phalloidin have turned out to be enormously useful in localizing actin filaments in living or fixed cells as well as for visualizing individual actin filaments \\\"in vitro\\\". A high-resolution technique was developed to detect F-actin at the light and electron microscopic levels by using phalloidin conjugated to the fluorophore <a href=\\\"eosin\\\">eosin</a> which acts as the fluorescent tag. In this method known as fluorescence photo-oxidation, fluorescent molecules can be utilized to drive the oxidation of diaminobenzidine (DAB) to create a reaction product that can be rendered electron dense and detectable by electron microscopy. The amount of fluorescence visualized can be used as a quantitative measure of the amount of filamentous actin there is in cells if saturating quantities of fluorescent phalloidin are used. Consequently, immunofluorescence microscopy along with microinjection of phalloidin can be used to evaluate the direct and indirect functions of cytoplasmic actin in its different stages of polymer formation. Therefore, fluorescent phalloidin can be used as an important tool in the study of actin networks at high resolution.\\nPhalloidin is much smaller than an antibody that would typically be used to label cellular proteins for fluorescent microscopy which allows for much denser labeling of filamentous actin and much more detailed images can be acquired particularly at higher resolutions.\\nUnmodified phalloidins do not permeate cell membranes, making them less effective in experiments with living cells. Derivatives of phalloidin with greatly increased cell permeability have been synthesized.\\nCells treated with phalloidins exhibit a number of toxic effects and frequently die. Furthermore, it is important to note that phalloidin-treated cells will have greater levels of actin associated with their plasma membranes, and the microinjection of phalloidin into living cells will change actin distribution as well as cell motility.\",\n \"Tubulin\\nTubulin in <a href=\\\"molecular%20biology\\\">molecular biology</a> can refer either to the tubulin <a href=\\\"protein%20superfamily\\\">protein superfamily</a> of <a href=\\\"globular%20protein\\\">globular protein</a>s, or one of the member proteins of that superfamily. α- and β-tubulins polymerize into <a href=\\\"microtubule\\\">microtubule</a>s, a major component of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. <a href=\\\"Microtubule\\\">Microtubule</a>s function in many essential cellular processes, including <a href=\\\"mitosis\\\">mitosis</a>. <a href=\\\"Discovery%20and%20development%20of%20tubulin%20inhibitors\\\">Tubulin-binding drugs</a> kill <a href=\\\"cancerous\\\">cancerous</a> cells by inhibiting microtubule dynamics, which are required for DNA segregation and therefore <a href=\\\"cell%20division\\\">cell division</a>.\\nIn <a href=\\\"eukaryotes\\\">eukaryotes</a> there are six members of the tubulin superfamily, although not all are present in all species (see <a href=\\\"Tubulin%23Eukaryotic\\\">below</a>). Both α and β tubulins have a mass of around 50 <a href=\\\"kDa\\\">kDa</a> and are thus in a similar range compared to <a href=\\\"actin\\\">actin</a> with ~42 kDa. In contrast, tubulin <a href=\\\"polymers\\\">polymers</a> (microtubules) tend to be much bigger than actin filaments due to their cylindrical nature.\\nTubulin was long thought to be specific to <a href=\\\"eukaryote\\\">eukaryote</a>s. More recently, however, several <a href=\\\"Prokaryote\\\">prokaryotic</a> proteins have been shown to be related to tubulin.\\nTubulin is characterized by the evolutionarily conserved Tubulin/FtsZ family, <a href=\\\"GTPase\\\">GTPase</a> <a href=\\\"protein%20domain\\\">protein domain</a>.\\nThis GTPase protein domain is found in all eukaryotic tubulin chains, as well as the <a href=\\\"bacteria\\\">bacteria</a>l protein TubZ, the <a href=\\\"archaea\\\">archaea</a>l protein CetZ, and the <a href=\\\"FtsZ\\\">FtsZ</a> protein family widespread in <a href=\\\"Bacteria\\\">Bacteria</a> and <a href=\\\"Archaea\\\">Archaea</a>.\\nα- and β-tubulin polymerize into dynamic <a href=\\\"microtubule\\\">microtubule</a>s. In <a href=\\\"eukaryote\\\">eukaryote</a>s, microtubules are one of the major components of the <a href=\\\"cytoskeleton\\\">cytoskeleton</a>, and function in many processes, including structural support, <a href=\\\"intracellular%20transport\\\">intracellular transport</a>, and DNA segregation.\\nMicrotubules are assembled from <a href=\\\"protein%20dimer\\\">dimer</a>s of α- and β-tubulin. These subunits are slightly acidic with an <a href=\\\"isoelectric%20point\\\">isoelectric point</a> between 5.2 and 5.8. Each has a <a href=\\\"molecular%20weight\\\">molecular weight</a> of approximately 50 kDa.\\nTo form microtubules, the dimers of α- and β-tubulin bind to <a href=\\\"Guanosine%20triphosphate\\\">GTP</a> and assemble onto the (+) ends of microtubules while in the GTP-bound state. The β-tubulin subunit is exposed on the plus end of the microtubule while the α-tubulin subunit is exposed on the minus end. After the dimer is incorporated into the microtubule, the molecule of GTP bound to the β-tubulin subunit eventually <a href=\\\"hydrolysis\\\">hydrolyzes</a> into GDP through inter-dimer contacts along the <a href=\\\"Microtubule%23Structure\\\">microtubule protofilament</a>. Whether the β-tubulin member of the tubulin dimer is bound to GTP or GDP influences the stability of the dimer in the microtubule. Dimers bound to GTP tend to assemble into microtubules, while dimers bound to GDP tend to fall apart; thus, this GTP cycle is essential for the <a href=\\\"Microtubule%23Dynamic%20instability\\\">dynamic instability</a> of the microtubule.\\nHomologs of α- and β-tubulin have been identified in the \\\"Prosthecobacter\\\" <a href=\\\"genus\\\">genus</a> of bacteria. They are designated BtubA and BtubB to identify them as bacterial tubulins. Both exhibit <a href=\\\"Homology%20%28biology%29\\\">homology</a> to both α- and β-tubulin. While structurally highly similar to eukaryotic tubulins, they have several unique features, including <a href=\\\"Chaperone%20%28protein%29\\\">chaperone</a>-free folding and weak dimerization. <a href=\\\"Electron%20cryomicroscopy\\\">Electron cryomicroscopy</a> showed that BtubA/B form microtubules \\\"<a href=\\\"in%20vivo\\\">in vivo</a>\\\", and that these microtubules comprise only five protofilaments, in contrast to eukaryotic microtubules, which usually contain 13.\\n<a href=\\\"FtsZ\\\">FtsZ</a> is found in nearly all <a href=\\\"Bacteria\\\">Bacteria</a> and <a href=\\\"Archaea\\\">Archaea</a>, where it functions in <a href=\\\"cell%20division\\\">cell division</a>, localizing to a ring in the middle of the dividing cell and recruiting other components of the divisome, the group of proteins that together constrict the cell envelope to pinch off the cell, yielding two daughter cells. FtsZ can polymerize into tubes, sheets, and rings \\\"<a href=\\\"in%20vitro\\\">in vitro</a>\\\", and forms dynamic filaments \\\"<a href=\\\"in%20vivo\\\">in vivo</a>\\\".\\nTubZ functions in segregating low copy-number <a href=\\\"plasmid\\\">plasmid</a>s during bacterial <a href=\\\"cell%20division\\\">cell division</a>. The protein forms a structure unusual for a tubulin homolog; two helical filaments wrap around one another. This may reflect an optimal structure for this role since the unrelated plasmid-partitioning protein <a href=\\\"ParM\\\">ParM</a> exhibits a similar structure.\\nCetZ functions in cell shape changes in <a href=\\\"Pleomorphism%20%28microbiology%29\\\">pleomorphic</a> <a href=\\\"Haloarchaea\\\">Haloarchaea</a>. In \\\"<a href=\\\"Haloferax%20volcanii\\\">Haloferax volcanii</a>\\\", CetZ forms dynamic cytoskeletal structures required for differentiation from a plate-shaped cell form into a rod-shaped form that exhibits swimming motility.\\nThe tubulin superfamily contains six families of tubulins (alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta-, epsilon and zeta-tubulins).\\nHuman α-tubulin subtypes include:\\nAll drugs that are known to bind to human tubulin bind to β-tubulin. These include <a href=\\\"paclitaxel\\\">paclitaxel</a>, <a href=\\\"colchicine\\\">colchicine</a>, and the <a href=\\\"vinca%20alkaloid\\\">\\\"vinca\\\" alkaloids</a>, each of which have a distinct binding site on β-tubulin.\\n<a href=\\\"Class%20III%20%CE%B2-tubulin\\\">Class III β-tubulin</a> is a microtubule element expressed exclusively in <a href=\\\"neuron\\\">neuron</a>s, and is a popular identifier specific for neurons in nervous tissue. It binds colchicine much more slowly than other <a href=\\\"Isotype%20%28immunology%29\\\">isotypes</a> of β-tubulin.\\n<a href=\\\"TUBB1\\\">β1-tubulin</a>, sometimes called class VI β-tubulin, is the most divergent at the amino acid sequence level. It is expressed exclusively in megakaryocytes and platelets in humans and appears to play an important role in the formation of platelets. When class VI β-tubulin were expressed in mammalian cells, they cause disruption of microtubule network, microtubule fragment formation, and can ultimately cause marginal-band like structures present in megakaryocytes and platelets.\\n<a href=\\\"Katanin\\\">Katanin</a> is a protein complex that severs microtubules at β-tubulin subunits, and is necessary for rapid microtubule transport in neurons and in higher plants.\\nHuman β-tubulins subtypes include:\\nγ-Tubulin, another member of the tubulin family, is important in the <a href=\\\"Microtubule%20nucleation\\\">nucleation</a> and polar orientation of microtubules. It is found primarily in <a href=\\\"centrosomes\\\">centrosomes</a> and <a href=\\\"spindle%20pole%20body\\\">spindle pole bodies</a>, since these are the areas of most abundant microtubule nucleation. In these organelles, several γ-tubulin and other protein molecules are found in complexes known as <a href=\\\"Microtubule%20nucleation\\\">γ-tubulin ring complexes</a> (γ-TuRCs), which chemically mimic the (+) end of a microtubule and thus allow microtubules to bind. γ-tubulin also has been isolated as a <a href=\\\"protein%20dimer\\\">dimer</a> and as a part of a γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC), intermediate in size between the dimer and the γTuRC. γ-tubulin is the best understood mechanism of microtubule nucleation, but certain studies have indicated that certain cells may be able to adapt to its absence, as indicated by <a href=\\\"mutation\\\">mutation</a> and <a href=\\\"RNAi\\\">RNAi</a> studies that have inhibited its correct expression.\\nHuman γ-tubulin subtypes include:\\nMembers of the γ-tubulin ring complex:\\nDelta (δ) and epsilon (ε) tubulin have been found to localize at <a href=\\\"centriole\\\">centriole</a>s and may play a role in <a href=\\\"centriole\\\">centriole</a> structure and function, though neither is as well-studied as the α- and β- forms.\\nHuman δ- and ε-tubulin genes include:\\nZeta-tubulin is present in many eukaryotes, but missing from others, including placental mammals. It has been shown to be associated the basal foot structure of centrioles in multiciliated epithelial cells.\\nBtubA/B are found in some bacterial species in the <a href=\\\"Verrucomicrobia\\\">Verrucomicrobia</a>l genus \\\"Prosthecobacter\\\". Their evolutionary relationship to eukaryotic tubulins is unclear, although they may have descended from a eukaryotic lineage by <a href=\\\"lateral%20gene%20transfer\\\">lateral gene transfer</a>.\\nNearly all bacterial and archaeal cells use <a href=\\\"FtsZ\\\">FtsZ</a> to divide. It was the first prokaryotic <a href=\\\"Cytoskeleton\\\">cytoskeletal</a> protein identified.\\nTubZ was identified in \\\"<a href=\\\"Bacillus%20thuringiensis\\\">Bacillus</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Bacillus%20thuringiensis\\\">\\\"thuringiensis\\\"</a> as essential for <a href=\\\"plasmid\\\">plasmid</a> maintenance.\\nCetZ is found in the <a href=\\\"Euryarchaeota\\\">euryarchaeal</a> clades of \\\"<a href=\\\"Methanomicrobia\\\">Methanomicrobia</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Halobacteriales\\\">Halobacteria</a>\\\", where it functions in cell shape differentiation.\\nTubulins are targets for anticancer <a href=\\\"medication\\\">drugs</a> like the \\\"vinca\\\" alkaloid drugs <a href=\\\"vinblastine\\\">vinblastine</a> and <a href=\\\"vincristine\\\">vincristine</a>, and <a href=\\\"Taxol\\\">Taxol</a>. The anti-<a href=\\\"gout\\\">gout</a> agent <a href=\\\"colchicine\\\">colchicine</a> binds to tubulin and inhibits microtubule formation, arresting <a href=\\\"neutrophil%20granulocyte\\\">neutrophil</a> motility and decreasing <a href=\\\"inflammation\\\">inflammation</a>. The anti-fungal drug <a href=\\\"griseofulvin\\\">griseofulvin</a> targets microtubule formation and has applications in cancer treatment.\\nWhen incorporated into microtubules, tubulin accumulates a number of <a href=\\\"post-translational%20modifications\\\">post-translational modifications</a>, many of which are unique to these proteins. These modifications include <a href=\\\"detyrosination\\\">detyrosination</a>, <a href=\\\"acetylation\\\">acetylation</a>, <a href=\\\"polyglutamylation\\\">polyglutamylation</a>, <a href=\\\"polyglycylation\\\">polyglycylation</a>, <a href=\\\"phosphorylation\\\">phosphorylation</a>, <a href=\\\"ubiquitination\\\">ubiquitination</a>, <a href=\\\"sumoylation\\\">sumoylation</a>, and <a href=\\\"palmitoylation\\\">palmitoylation</a>. Tubulin is also prone to oxidative modification and aggregation during, for example, acute cellular injury.\\nNowadays there are many scientific investigations of the acetylation done in some microtubules, specially the one one by <a href=\\\"Alpha-tubulin%20N-acetyltransferase\\\">α-tubulin N-acetyltransferase (ATAT1)</a> which is being demonstrated to play an important role in many biological and molecular functions and, therefore, it is also associated with many human diseases, specially <a href=\\\"Neurological%20disorder\\\">neurological diseases</a>.\\n\",\n \"Burlingame, California\\nBurlingame is a city in <a href=\\\"San%20Mateo%20County%2C%20California\\\">San Mateo County</a>, <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>. It is located on the <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco%20Peninsula\\\">San Francisco Peninsula</a> and has a significant shoreline on <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco%20Bay\\\">San Francisco Bay</a>. The city is named after diplomat <a href=\\\"Anson%20Burlingame\\\">Anson Burlingame</a> and is often referred to as the City of Trees due to the number of trees within the city and its numerous eucalyptus groves. Burlingame is known for its high residential quality of life with a walkable downtown area and excellent public school system. The current median home value in Burlingame is $1.8M+ and as of the 2010 U.S. Census, Burlingame had a population of 28,807.\\nBurlingame is situated on land previously owned by San Francisco-based merchant <a href=\\\"William%20Davis%20Merry%20Howard\\\">William Davis Merry Howard</a>. Howard planted many eucalyptus trees on his property and retired to live on the land. Howard died in 1856 and the land was sold to <a href=\\\"William%20Chapman%20Ralston\\\">William C. Ralston</a>, a prominent banker. In 1868, Ralston named the land after his friend, <a href=\\\"Anson%20Burlingame\\\">Anson Burlingame</a>, the United States Ambassador to China. After the <a href=\\\"1906%20San%20Francisco%20earthquake\\\">1906 San Francisco earthquake</a>, hundreds of lots in Burlingame were sold to people looking to establish new homes, and the town of Burlingame was <a href=\\\"municipal%20corporation\\\">incorporated</a> in 1908. In 1910, the neighboring town of Easton was annexed and this area is now known as the Easton Addition neighborhood of Burlingame.\\nBurlingame is known as the City of Trees due to the number of trees within the city (18,000 public trees). In 1908, the Burlingame board of trustees passed an ordinance \\\"prohibiting cutting, injuring, or destroying trees\\\". The city also has many parks and Eucalyptus groves that add to the overall tree numbers.\\nThere are four highways passing through Burlingame. <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%20101%20in%20California\\\">Highway 101</a> runs near the bay running from <a href=\\\"San%20Jose%2C%20California\\\">San Jose</a> to <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco\\\">San Francisco</a>. <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Route%2082\\\">Highway 82</a>, also known as <a href=\\\"El%20Camino%20Real%20%28California%29\\\">El Camino Real</a>, follows a parallel course. <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Route%2035\\\">Highway 35</a> connects with <a href=\\\"Interstate%20280%20%28California%29\\\">Interstate 280</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Caltrain\\\">Caltrain</a> has been serving Burlingame since 1985 when it bought out <a href=\\\"Southern%20Pacific\\\">Southern Pacific</a>. It used the same depot that was used in the early 20th century.\\n<a href=\\\"Bay%20Area%20Rapid%20Transit\\\">Bay Area Rapid Transit</a> has its final stop in Millbrae, just north of Burlingame. BART's tracks are within Burlingame city limits.\\nBurlingame is served by <a href=\\\"SamTrans\\\">SamTrans</a> buses and <a href=\\\"Peninsula%20Traffic%20Congestion%20Relief%20Alliance\\\">Commute.org</a> and Caltrain shuttles. The City of Burlingame and local business sponsor the Burlingame Trolley, a two-route shuttle.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 6.1 sqmi . 4.4 sqmi of it is land and 1.7 sqmi of it (27.25%) is water.\\nThis region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the <a href=\\\"K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification\\\">Köppen Climate Classification</a> system, Burlingame has a <a href=\\\"Mediterranean%20climate%23Warm-summer%20Mediterranean%20climate\\\">warm-summer Mediterranean climate</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a> reported that Burlingame had a population of 28,806. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 6,537.9 people per square mile (2,524.4/km²). Details regarding the demographic profile are shown below.\\nThe population was spread out with 6,256 people (21.7%) under the age of 18, 1,496 people (5.2%) aged 18 to 24, 8,872 people (30.8%) aged 25 to 44, 8,136 people (28.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,046 people (14.0%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.5 years. For every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males.\\nThere were 13,027 housing units at an average density of 2,956.7 per square mile (1,141.6/km²). There were 12,361 households with average household size of 2.29. There were 7,183 <a href=\\\"family%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">families</a> (58.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.02.\\nAccording to the U. S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey (ACS), 2015 median household income was $94,500 and per capita income was $62,019.\\nIn the <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Legislature\\\">California State Legislature</a>, Burlingame is in <a href=\\\"California%27s%2013th%20%20%20%20State%20Senate%20district\\\">the 13th Senate District</a>, represented by <a href=\\\"California%20Democratic%20Party\\\">Democrat</a> <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Hill%20%28politician%29\\\">Jerry Hill</a> , and in <a href=\\\"California%27s%2022%20%20%20%20State%20Assembly%20district\\\">the 22 Assembly District</a>, represented by <a href=\\\"California%20Democratic%20Party\\\">Democrat</a> <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Mullin\\\">Kevin Mullin</a> .\\nIn the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">United States House of Representatives</a>, Burlingame is in <a href=\\\"California%27s%2014%20%20%20%20congressional%20district\\\">California's 14 congressional district</a>, represented by <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrat</a> <a href=\\\"Jackie%20Speier\\\">Jackie Speier</a> .\\nIn the 1920s Burlingame became a popular location for automobile retailers which became known as \\\"Auto Row\\\". In the 1960s, various airline support service businesses opened in Burlingame due to its proximity to <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco%20International%20Airport\\\">San Francisco International Airport</a>. Today, <a href=\\\"LSG/Sky%20Chefs%2C%20Inc.\\\">LSG/Sky Chefs, Inc.</a>, <a href=\\\"Virgin%20America\\\">Virgin America</a>, and <a href=\\\"China%20Airlines\\\">China Airlines</a> are all located in Burlingame. Historically, Burlingame has also been home to many candy and chocolate companies. There is the Burlingame Museum of <a href=\\\"Pez\\\">Pez</a> Memorabilia, Guittard Chocolate, the <a href=\\\"See%27s%20Candies\\\">See's Candies</a> lollipop factory, and family owned candy stores Powell's, Preston's, Aida Opera Candies, and Nuts for Candy.\\nOver the past decade, Burlingame's economy has diversified substantially and it has become an attractive location for biotechnology companies owing to its proximity to South San Francisco, the birthplace of the biotechnology industry. Biotechnology companies with offices in Burlingame include: Annai Systems, Breathometer, Cala Health, Cleave Biosciences, Collaborative Drug Discovery, Confidence Clinical Research, Corvus Pharmaceuticals, Igenica Biotherapeutics, Kindred Biosciences, Omnitura, Phoenix Pharmaceuticals, Pulse Biosciences, and Vector Labs.\\nAdditionally, multiple high technology firms have established offices in Burlingame due to its location between the booming technology centers of Silicon Valley to the south and San Francisco to the north. Tech companies with Burlingame offices include: Zecco.com, Natsume, <a href=\\\"Color%20Genomics\\\">Color Genomics</a>, CarWoo, Jobvite, DataStax, Sprint’s M2M Collaboration Center, YouWeb, OpenFeint, CrowdStar, BitGravity, Veebeam, and TellApart.\\nThere are nineteen preschools in Burlingame. They are A Child's Way, Palcare, Stepping Stone, <a href=\\\"Peninsula%20Temple%20Sholom\\\">Peninsula Temple Sholom</a>, Bridge Point Academy, Burlingame Montessori, St. Paul's Co-Op Nursery School, Learning Links, Morning Glory Montessori, Sunshine Family Child Care, United Methodist Co-Op Nursery School: Toddler Room, Kiddie Lab, First Presbyterian School, and Tout About Toys.\\n<a href=\\\"San%20Mateo%20Union%20High%20School%20District\\\">San Mateo Union High School District</a> operates local high schools while the <a href=\\\"Burlingame%20School%20District\\\">Burlingame School District</a> operates elementary and middle schools.\\n<a href=\\\"Burlingame%20High%20School%20%28California%29\\\">Burlingame High School</a> is the city's sole public high school. Burlingame Intermediate School is Burlingame's sole public middle school. There are six public elementary schools serving Burlingame. They are Franklin Elementary, Lincoln Elementary, McKinley Elementary, Roosevelt Elementary, Washington Elementary, and the newly reopened Hoover Elementary. According to the 2009 Base Academic Performance Index (API) Scores from the California Department of Education, the Burlingame School District ranks among the best in the state, with 4 out of their 6 public elementary schools (Roosevelt Elementary, Washington Elementary, Franklin Elementary, and Lincoln Elementary) scoring well between 880 and 925, and with ratings of 9 or 10. Burlingame school district enrollment has continually been increasing as young families move to the city. The city has passed two bond measures to add new facilities and modernize existing facilities to provide state-of-the-art classrooms. The city recently extensively renovated and modernized the Hoover School, which was built in 1931 and reopened in 2016.\\n<a href=\\\"Mercy%20High%20School%20%28Burlingame%2C%20California%29\\\">Mercy High School</a> is the only private Catholic all-girls high school in Burlingame. It was founded in 1931 by the Sisters of Mercy. The school itself is located in the prestigious Kohl Mansion which is a Historic Landmark. Also Our Lady of Angels School and St. Catherine of Siena School are located in Burlingame. In 1921, the silent version of the film Little Lord Fauntleroy, with Mary Pickford, was filmed in the Kohl Mansion.\\nBurlingame Library is located in Burlingame. It was established by city ordinance October 11, 1909. Following the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989 the City approved a bond issue to reconstruct the library. The architecture has won awards and was featured in Library Journal as well as earning a cover story in American Libraries. There is a secondary location on Easton Drive, which is substantially smaller than the main branch. Both are operated by the <a href=\\\"Peninsula%20Library%20System\\\">Peninsula Library System</a>, the library authority for the county.\\nat 238 Myrtle Road\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["In competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors, where the term \"doping\" is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of banned drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbates the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating.","The Report to the Commissioner of Baseball of an Independent Investigation into the Illegal Use of Steroids and Other Performance Enhancing Substances by Players in Major League Baseball, informally known as the \"Mitchell Report,\" is the result of former Democratic United States Senator from Maine George J. Mitchell's 20-month investigation into the use of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH) in Major League Baseball (MLB). The 409-page report, released on December 13, 2007, covers the history of the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances by players and the effectiveness of the MLB Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. The report also advances certain recommendations regarding the handling of past illegal drug use and future prevention practices. In addition, the report names 89 MLB players who are alleged to have used steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs."],"string":"[\n \"In competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors, where the term \\\"doping\\\" is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of banned drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbates the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating.\",\n \"The Report to the Commissioner of Baseball of an Independent Investigation into the Illegal Use of Steroids and Other Performance Enhancing Substances by Players in Major League Baseball, informally known as the \\\"Mitchell Report,\\\" is the result of former Democratic United States Senator from Maine George J. Mitchell's 20-month investigation into the use of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH) in Major League Baseball (MLB). The 409-page report, released on December 13, 2007, covers the history of the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances by players and the effectiveness of the MLB Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. The report also advances certain recommendations regarding the handling of past illegal drug use and future prevention practices. In addition, the report names 89 MLB players who are alleged to have used steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":62,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Bridge Day commemorates the 1977 completion of which single-span arch bridge?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"New River Gorge Bridge"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Moore Road Stone Arch Bridge\nMoore Road Stone Arch Bridge is a historic stone arch bridge located at Cornwallville in Greene County, New York. It was constructed in 1887, and is a single-span, dry laid limestone structure with a round arch. Jeremiah Cunningham was the builder.\nIt was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008.\n","Bridge Day\nBridge Day is an annual one-day festival in Fayetteville, Fayette County, West Virginia, United States The event is coordinated by the New River Gorge Bridge Day Commission, and is sponsored by numerous companies of both local and international significance. The event, held on the third Saturday every October, commemorates the 1977 completion of the New River Gorge Bridge. On this day, all four lanes of the bridge are closed to automobiles and opened to pedestrians. Estimates have 100,000 people attending the overall event.\nThe first Bridge Day was held in 1980 and drew a crowd of roughly 40,000. It has been held every year since except for 2001. It was canceled that year due to the recent events of 9/11 and the possibility of terrorist attacks.\nBridge Day is the only day of the year people are allowed to BASE jump off the bridge into the New River Gorge 876 feet (267 meters) below, one of the few exceptions to a general ban on BASE jumping within the U.S. National Park System. People are also allowed to rappel from the span on Bridge Day. About four hundred BASE jumpers participate in each year's festival. In 2015 the BASE jumping community boycotted the event.\nThere have been three deaths during Bridge Day due to accidents involving BASE jumpers:\nRappelling off the bottom of the bridge has been part of the Bridge Day festivities since 1981.\nThe first bungee jumper leapt from the bridge during the 1992 Bridge Day. More bungee jumpers leapt during the 1993 Bridge Day; however, injuries sustained during a mass bungee jump that year prompted the banning of bungee jumping at Bridge Day.\nSullivan, Ken, ed. West Virginia Encyclopedia. West Virginia Humanities Council: Charleston, West Virginia, 2006.","Hayden Arch Bridge\nThe Hayden Arch Bridge is a concrete arch bridge on old US 14/US 16 near Cody, Wyoming. It is the only example of its kind in Wyoming. Built in 1924-25, the single-span bridge spans 115 ft with two smaller approach arches between rock canyon walls. The bridge carries the Cody-Yellowstone Highway across the Shoshone River with a shallow open-spandrel central arch and nominally-arched approach spans. The bridge is named after C.E. Hayden, an engineer with the Wyoming State Highway Department, who designed the bridge and supervised its construction. It was built by H.S. Crocker of Denver, Colorado.\n","Evansville-Dutch Mills Road Bridge\nThe Evansville-Dutch Mills Road Bridge is a historic bridge in rural western Washington County, Arkansas. It is a single-span concrete filled-spandrel arch bridge, which carries Dutch Mills Road (County Road 464) over Whitaker Branch South south of the village of Dutch Mills. The bridge was built in 1936 by the Luten Bridge Company, and was one of its last commissions in the county. The arch spans 28 ft and the bridge has a total structure length of 30 ft . The bridge was built with a unique Luten Company design that used rings to strengthen the connection between the piers and spandrel walls, enabling a reduced amount of material while maintaining the strength of the bridge.\nThe bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008.\n","Lupu Bridge\nThe Lupu Bridge () is a through arch bridge over the Huangpu River in Shanghai, China, connecting the city's Huangpu and Pudong districts. It is the world's second longest steel arch bridge, after the Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing. The bridge has a total length including approach spans of 3900 m and opened on June 28, 2003. The main bridge structure is 750m long including the two side spans of 100m each, and the main span of 550 m over the Huangpu River is 32 m longer than the previous record holder for the longest arch bridge, the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. It cost 2.5 billion yuan (US$302 million), including US$78.04 for the main steel structure alone. It is located adjacent to the former Expo 2010 site and served as the centrepiece of the world exposition in Shanghai.\nThe name of the bridge, Lupu, is an abbreviation of the two districts of Shanghai which it links, one of which is now defunct. The north bank of the river administered by Luwan District until 2011, when it was merged into Huangpu District. However, the bridge still retains the name of the old district. The south bank of the river is administered by Pudong New Area. This follows the naming convention of the three earlier bridges across the Huangpu River, namely the Nanpu (Nanshi-Pudong), Yangpu (Yangpu-Pudong), and Xupu (Xuhui-Pudong) Bridges.\nThe bridge was envisioned to ease congestion between the quickly developing areas in southern Puxi, as well as to help cope with the traffic expected for Expo 2010. The Expo 2010 site was just to the east of the Lupu Bridge on the Puxi side, and on both sides of the bridge on the Pudong side.\nConstruction began in October 2000 using a cantilever method and temporary cable-stays. Over 35,000 tonnes of steel were used in construction. The bridge's arch was joined on October 7, 2002.\nWhen the bridge was completed, it became the world's longest arch bridge, surpassing the earlier title holder, the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. An inauguration ceremony was held on June 27, 2003, featuring a group of runners, including Yao Ming, who were the first to cross the bridge. The bridge opened to vehicular traffic the next day.\nIn 2009, Lupu Bridge lost its title of the world's longest arch bridge to the Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing. The longest span of the Chaotianmen Bridge was only 2 m longer, at 552 m .\nThe Lupu Bridge was one of the architectural centerpieces of Expo 2010 in Shanghai, as it formed part of the western boundary of the Expo site.\nThe bridge carries 6 lanes of the North–South Elevated Road, a major elevated roadway in the city, with 3 lanes in each direction. From Pudong, motorists can access the Lupu Bridge from on-ramps to the North–South Elevated Road westbound on Yaohua Road or northbound on Jiyang Road. The North–South Elevated Road actually ends immediately after the Lupu Bridge and becomes Jiyang Road, with an off-ramp to eastbound Yaohua Road.\nOn the Puxi side immediately north of the bridge, the North–South Elevated Road intersects with the Inner Ring Road, another major elevated highway in Shanghai, forming the Luban Road Interchange, a roundabout interchange.\nThe construction of an arch bridge was viewed as wasteful in respect to the extra costs associated with building this type of bridge. Other designs which were less expensive in nature were rejected in favour of the more expensive tied arch design. Lupu Bridge became the first arch bridge across the Huangpu River in Shanghai and many feel its design is just a show piece for the city.\nBut the bridge's proponents argued that all the other bridges crossing the Huangpu were all cable-stayed bridges and having Lupu built as an arch bridge would make for variation of bridge types in the Shanghai landscape.\nThe Lupu Bridge used to be a popular tourist attraction along the Huangpu River. The bridge itself was actually also an attraction, as tourists could have ascended to the observation deck at the top of the bridge. The attraction was known as \"Shanghai Climb\", and involved riding a high-speed elevator from the base of the bridge, and then climbing 367 steps at high altitude along the arch of the bridge to the top. The attraction entrance was located on Luban Road, at the base of the Puxi side of the bridge. The observation area provides great views of Shanghai and the Expo 2010 site during the Expo. Currently (as of 03.05.2016) the bridge is closed for sightseeing.\nThe closest subway station currently in operation to the base of the bridge for the tourist attraction is the Luban Road Station on Line 4 of the Shanghai Metro. Lupu Bridge Station on Line 13, Shanghai Metro is actually named after the bridge itself, however it was a temporary station used during Expo 2010 and is currently not in operation.\nThe Lupu Arch Bridge, Shanghai, China, received the 2008 IABSE Outstanding Structure Award for being \"A soaring box-arch bridge with a record span, clean impressive lines and innovative use of the side spans of the arch and the deck to resist the thrust of the main arch.\"\n","Old Stone Arch Bridge (Lewistown, Pennsylvania)\nThe Old Stone Arch Bridge is a single-span stone arch bridge which crosses Jack's Creek in Derry Township, Mifflin County, Pennsylvania. Philip Diehl built the bridge in 1813 as part of the Harrisburg to Pittsburgh Turnpike; it is the oldest bridge of its type in central Pennsylvania. The turnpike had been authorized in 1807, and the section from Harrisburg to Lewistown, on which the bridge lies, was completed in 1818. Lithographers Currier and Ives made prints of the bridge in 1850.\nThe bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 18, 1979.\n","Stone Arch Bridge (Danville, Illinois)\nThe Stone Arch Bridge is a bridge in Danville, Illinois, which carries U.S. Route 136 (US 136; East Main Street) across Stony Creek. The segmental arch bridge is 92 ft long and built with sandstone. The bridge was built in the 1890s to facilitate Danville's expansion during an industrial boom. As various geographic and political limitations prevented the city from expanding in any directions but east and southeast, the city grew over Stony Creek, necessitating a new bridge. Mayor John Beard commissioned the bridge; during the 1890s, Beard and political rival John Cannon clashed over many issues, and Beard most likely built the bridge to demonstrate his political effectiveness. The bridge is the only segmented arch bridge remaining in east-central Illinois and is one of five stone arch bridges in the region.\nThe bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.\n","Bridge in Fishing Creek Township\nBridge in Fishing Creek Township was a historic concrete arch bridge located in Fishing Creek Township in Columbia County, Pennsylvania. It was a 40 ft open spandrel, single-span arch bridge constructed in 1915. The bridge featured a pierced molded concrete parapet with light, star-shaped designs. It crossed Little Pine Creek, but has been demolished.\nThe bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.\n","New River Gorge Bridge\nThe New River Gorge Bridge is a steel arch bridge 3030 ft long over the New River Gorge near Fayetteville, West Virginia, in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. With an arch 1700 ft long, the New River Gorge Bridge was for many years the world's longest single-span arch bridge; it is now the fourth longest. Part of U.S. Route 19, its construction marked the completion of Corridor L of the Appalachian Development Highway System. The bridge is crossed by an average of 16,200 motor vehicles per day.\nThe roadway of the New River Gorge Bridge is 876 ft above the New River. The New River Gorge Bridge is one of the highest vehicular bridges in the world, and is currently the third highest in the United States. In 2005, the structure gained nationwide attention when the US Mint issued the West Virginia state quarter with the bridge depicted on one side. In 2013, the bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\nConstruction began on the bridge in June 1974, and completed on October 22, 1977. It was designed by the Michael Baker Company, under the direction of Chief Engineer Clarence V. Knudsen, and executed by U.S. Steel's American Bridge Division. Final cost of construction was $37 million (approximately $4 million over bid). It is made from COR-TEN steel. The use of COR-TEN in construction presented several challenges; notable among them was ensuring that the weld-points weathered at the same rate as the rest of the steel.\nAt the time, the bridge was the West Virginia Department of Highways’ largest project in its history, important both in terms of its overall cost, and that the federal government provided 70 percent of the funding. Construction gave a boost to the state and local economy, completion improved transportation. The bridge cut the vehicle travel time from one side of the gorge to the other from about 45 minutes to 45 seconds.\nOn August 14, 2013, the bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Even though the bridge was not yet 50 years old, it was listed for its exceptional impact on local transportation and its engineering significance.\nThe New River Gorge Bridge is within the National Park Service's New River Gorge National River area, which protects this portion of the New River Gorge. At the northern end of the bridge, the Park Service operates a visitor center; it has scenic overlooks and a staircase that descends part of the way into the gorge.\nA steel catwalk two feet (60 cm) wide runs the full length of the bridge underneath the roadway. Originally built to facilitate inspections, the catwalk is open for guided, handicapped-accessible quarter-mile \"Bridge Walk\" tours; visitors use safety rigging.\nSince its opening, the bridge has been the centerpiece of Fayette County's \"Bridge Day\", held the third Saturday of every October. This festival includes demonstrations of rappelling, ascending, and BASE jumping. Bungee jumping, however, has been banned during Bridge Day since 1993.\nThe bridge is closed to vehicular traffic during the festival. Prior to the September 11th terrorist attacks, two of the bridge's four lanes were open to traffic during the festivals. Since 2001, security concerns have caused the entire span to be closed to vehicles during these events.\nThe first person to jump off the New River Gorge Bridge was Burton Ervin, who lives in Cowen, West Virginia, and was a coal-mine foreman. Burton jumped on August 1, 1979, using a conventional North American Aerodynamics Mini Rig System with a 32-foot Lopo canopy. Four BASE jumpers have died at the bridge, three of these during Bridge Day festivals.\nProbably because of its height (and lack of barriers), the bridge has regularly attracted suicide jumpers, despite its relatively remote location.\n","BASE jumping\nBASE jumping, also sometimes written as B.A.S.E. jumping, is <a href=\"parachuting\">parachuting</a> or <a href=\"wingsuit%20flying\">wingsuit flying</a> from a fixed structure or cliff. \"BASE\" is an <a href=\"acronym\">acronym</a> that stands for four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: <a href=\"building\">building</a>, <a href=\"Antenna%20%28radio%29\">antenna</a>, <a href=\"Span%20%28architecture%29\">span</a>, and Earth (<a href=\"cliff\">cliff</a>). Due to the lower altitudes of the jumps, BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than <a href=\"skydiving\">skydiving</a> from a plane. In the U.S., BASE jumping is currently regarded by many as a fringe <a href=\"extreme%20sport\">extreme sport</a> or <a href=\"stunt\">stunt</a>. In some jurisdictions or locations, BASE jumping is prohibited or illegal; in some places, however, it is permitted, like <a href=\"Perrine%20Bridge\">Perrine Bridge</a>, in Twin Falls, Idaho, United States. BASE jumping became known to the wider public by depictions of BASE jumping in a number of action movies and was featured in the 2014 documentary \"Sunshine Superman\".\nThe acronym \"B.A.S.E.\" (now more commonly \"BASE\") was coined by filmmaker <a href=\"Carl%20Boenish\">Carl Boenish</a>, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith, and Phil Mayfield. Carl Boenish was the catalyst behind modern BASE jumping, and in 1978, he filmed the first BASE jumps to be made using ram-air parachutes and the <a href=\"Tracking%20%28freeflying%29\">freefall tracking technique</a> (from <a href=\"El%20Capitan\">El Capitan</a>, in <a href=\"Yosemite%20National%20Park\">Yosemite National Park</a>). While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping.\nBASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories (buildings, antennas, spans and earth). When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from an antenna, <a href=\"span%20%28architecture%29\">spans</a>, and earthen objects. Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after. A separate \"award\" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later.\n<a href=\"Faust%20Vrancic\">Faust Vrancic</a> is widely believed to have performed a parachute jumping experiment for real and, therefore, to be the first man to build and test a parachute: according to the story passed on, Veranzio, in 1617, then over sixty-five years old, implemented his design and tested the parachute by jumping from <a href=\"St%20Mark%27s%20Campanile\">St Mark's Campanile</a> in Venice. This event was documented some 30 years later in a book \"<a href=\"Mathematical%20Magick\">Mathematical Magick or, the Wonders that may be Performed by Mechanical Geometry</a>\" (London, 1648) written by <a href=\"John%20Wilkins\">John Wilkins</a>, the secretary of the <a href=\"Royal%20Society\">Royal Society</a> in London.\nHowever, these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. After 1978, the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this that popularized BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his death in 1984 after a BASE-jump off of the <a href=\"Troll%20Wall\">Troll Wall</a>. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.\nDuring the early eighties, nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components. Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping.\nUpon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a \"BASE number\", awarded sequentially. The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 and BASE #1000 was awarded to Matt \"Harley\" Moilanen of Grand Rapids, Michigan. s of 2017 , over 2,000 BASE numbers have been issued.\n\"<a href=\"Guinness%20World%20Records\">Guinness World Records</a>\" first listed a BASE jumping record with <a href=\"Carl%20Boenish\">Carl Boenish</a>'s 1984 leap from Trollveggen (<a href=\"Troll%20Wall\">Troll Wall</a>) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump. (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the \"Guinness\" book and is currently held by Valery Rozov. On 5 October 2016, Russia’s Valery Rozov leapt from a height of around 7,700 m (25,262 ft) from Cho Oyu – the sixth-highest mountain in the Himalayas, located on the China/Nepal border. He fell for around 90 seconds before opening his parachute, landing on a glacier approximately two minutes later at an altitude of around 6,000 m (19,685 ft). On July 8, 2006 Captain Daniel G. Schilling set the Guinness World Record for the most BASE jumps in a twenty-four-hour period. Schilling jumped off the <a href=\"Perrine%20Bridge\">Perrine Bridge</a> in Twin Falls, Idaho a record 201 times.\nBASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the 452 m high <a href=\"Petronas%20Towers\">Petronas Towers</a> in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy.\nIn 2010 celebrated a world record with 53 Base jumpers jumping from a cliff.\nBASE jumping is often featured in action movies. The 2002 <a href=\"Vin%20Diesel\">Vin Diesel</a> film \"<a href=\"XXX%20%282002%20film%29\">XXX</a>\" includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the <a href=\"Foresthill%20Bridge\">Foresthill Bridge</a> in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. The movie \"\" includes a scene in which the main characters jump with <a href=\"wing%20suit\">wing suit</a>s from the IFC Tower in <a href=\"Hong%20Kong\">Hong Kong</a> and fly over the Bank of China, finally opening their parachutes to land on a moving freighter. The stunt was done live, with no special effects, by base jumpers Martin Rosén and Per Eriksson, members of the Swedish \"Team Bautasten\". The scene was filmed by air-to-air camera man Mikael Nordqvist, from the same team. Since the 1976 <a href=\"Mount%20Asgard\">Mount Asgard</a> jump featured in the pre-credits sequence to \"<a href=\"The%20Spy%20Who%20Loved%20Me%20%28film%29\">The Spy Who Loved Me</a>\", James Bond movies have featured several BASE jumps, including one from the <a href=\"Eiffel%20Tower\">Eiffel Tower</a> in 1985's \"<a href=\"A%20View%20to%20a%20Kill\">A View to a Kill</a>\", the <a href=\"Rock%20of%20Gibraltar\">Rock of Gibraltar</a> in 1987's \"<a href=\"The%20Living%20Daylights\">The Living Daylights</a>\", and in \"<a href=\"Die%20Another%20Day\">Die Another Day</a>\", 2002, <a href=\"Pierce%20Brosnan\">Pierce Brosnan</a> as <a href=\"James%20Bond\">James Bond</a> jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed live; the rest were special effects. And in 2005's \"<a href=\"Batman%20Begins\">Batman Begins</a>\", Bruce Wayne uses BASE jumping as inspiration for his memory cloth cape. A series of BASE jumps are featured in the video for a remix of <a href=\"M83%20%28band%29\">M83</a>'s \"Lower Your Eyelids to Die With the Sun\".\nIn 1938, a Sierra Club film \"Three On A Rope\" (1938) ends with a climber jumping off Baldy Mountain rather than dealing with the hassle of rappelling to the horror of a climbing partner, only to deploy a parachute hidden in his pack.\nThe video game \"Just Cause 3\" also involves the main character, Rico Rodriguez, performing many dangerous stunts involving his wing suit and grappling hook. One example is when, in the first mission, he jumps off a cliff onto a bridge. This mechanic has led to many crazy stunts performed by players.\nBASE jumping grew out of skydiving. BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives, and a BASE jump takes place close to the object serving as the jump platform. Because BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper does not always reach <a href=\"terminal%20velocity\">terminal velocity</a>. Because higher airspeeds enable jumpers more aerodynamic control of their bodies, as well as more positive and quick parachute openings, the longer the delay, the better. BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as <a href=\"skydiving\">skydiving</a> from aircraft.\nSkydivers use the air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. The <a href=\"aircraft%20attitude\">attitude</a> of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor \"launch\" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. The jumper may also not be facing the right direction. Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping.\nAt an altitude of 600 m , having been in free-fall for at least 300 m , a skydiver is falling at approximately 55 m/s , and is approximately 10.9 seconds from the ground. Most BASE jumps are made from less than 600 m . For example, a BASE jump from a 150 m object is about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall. On a BASE jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of a similar skydive, and more quickly (in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers often use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and many jump with only one parachute, since there would be little time to utilize a reserve parachute. In the early days of BASE jumping, people used modified skydiving gear, such as by removing the deployment bag and <a href=\"slider%20%28parachuting%29\">slider</a>, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute. However, modified skydiving gear is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as \"line-overs\" and broken lines). Modern purpose-built BASE jumping equipment is considered to be much safer and more reliable.\nAnother risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three-minute or more parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from 150 m will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds.\nOne way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a <a href=\"static%20line\">static line</a> or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps — below 60 m — to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall. This method is similar to the <a href=\"paratrooper\">paratrooper</a>'s deployment system, also called a PCA (Pilot Chute Assist).\nSurreptitious BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. Many such BASE jumps must be covert because the owners of these objects are generally reluctant to allow their object to be used as a platform. While BASE jumping itself is generally not illegal, making events such as the \"Go Fast Games\" at the <a href=\"Royal%20Gorge%20Bridge\">Royal Gorge Bridge</a> possible, the covert nature of accessing objects usually necessitates trespassing on an object. Jumpers who are caught can expect to be charged with trespassing, as well as having charges like breaking and entering, reckless endangerment, vandalism, or other such charges pressed against them. Other people accompanying the jumper, such as ground crew, may also face charges. In some jurisdictions it may be permissible to use land until specifically told not to. <a href=\"Perrine%20Bridge\">Perrine Bridge</a> in <a href=\"Twin%20Falls%2C%20Idaho\">Twin Falls, Idaho</a>, is an example of a man-made structure in the United States where BASE jumping is allowed year-round without a permit.\nOnce a year, on the third Saturday in October (\"<a href=\"Bridge%20Day\">Bridge Day</a>\"), permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted at the <a href=\"New%20River%20Gorge%20Bridge\">New River Gorge Bridge</a> in <a href=\"Fayetteville%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Fayetteville, West Virginia</a>. The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river. This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers and nearly 200,000 spectators. 1,100 jumps may occur during the six hours that it is legal provided good conditions. For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this bridge will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump. On 21 October 2006, veteran BASE jumper <a href=\"Brian%20Lee%20Schubert\">Brian Lee Schubert</a> of <a href=\"Alta%20Loma%2C%20Rancho%20Cucamonga%2C%20California\">Alta Loma, California</a> died while jumping from the New River Gorge Bridge during Bridge Day activities because his parachute opened late; he plummeted to his death in the waters below. Jumps continued after the recovery of his body. He and his friend <a href=\"Michael%20Pelkey\">Michael Pelkey</a> were the first to make a BASE jump from <a href=\"El%20Capitan\">El Capitan</a> in <a href=\"Yosemite%20National%20Park\">Yosemite National Park</a> in 1966.\nThe <a href=\"National%20Park%20Service\">National Park Service</a> (NPS) has the authority to ban specific activities in <a href=\"US%20National%20Parks\">US National Parks</a> and has done so for BASE jumping. The authority comes from 36 CFR 2.17(3), which prohibits, \"Delivering or retrieving a person or object by parachute, helicopter, or other airborne means, except in emergencies involving public safety or serious property loss, or pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\" Under that Regulation, BASE is not banned, but is allowable if a permit is issued by the Superintendent, which means that a mechanism to allow BASE in National Parks was always in place. The 2001 National Park Service Management Policies state that BASE \"is not an appropriate public use activity within national park areas ...\" (2001 Management Policy 8.2.2.7.) However, Policy 8.2.2.7 in the 2006 volume of National Park Service Management Policies, which superseded the 2001 edition, states \"Parachuting (or BASE jumping), whether from an aircraft, structure, or natural feature, is generally prohibited by 36 CFR 2.17(a)(3). However, if determined through a park planning process to be an appropriate activity, it may be allowed pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\"\nDuring the early days of BASE jumping, the NPS issued permits that authorized jumps from <a href=\"El%20Capitan\">El Capitan</a>. This program ran for three months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorized jumpers. The NPS has since vigorously enforced the ban, charging jumpers with \"aerial delivery into a National Park\". One jumper drowned in the <a href=\"Merced%20River\">Merced River</a> while evading arresting Park Rangers, having declared 'No way are they gonna get me. Let them chase me—I'll just laugh in their faces and jump in the river.' Despite incidents like this one, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. El Capitan, <a href=\"Half%20Dome\">Half Dome</a> and <a href=\"Glacier%20Point\">Glacier Point</a> have been used as jump sites.\nOther US public land, including land controlled by the <a href=\"Bureau%20of%20Land%20Management\">Bureau of Land Management</a>, does not ban air delivery, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land.\nThe legal position is different at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's <a href=\"Lysefjord\">Lysefjord</a> (from the mountain <a href=\"Kjerag\">Kjerag</a>), BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near <a href=\"Chamonix\">Chamonix</a> and on the <a href=\"Eiger\">Eiger</a>, are also open to jumpers. Some other Norwegian places, like the <a href=\"Troll%20Wall\">Troll Wall</a>, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past. In Austria, jumping from mountain cliffs is generally allowed, whereas the use of bridges (such as the <a href=\"Europabruecke\">Europabruecke</a> near <a href=\"Innsbruck\">Innsbruck</a>, <a href=\"Tirol%20%28state%29\">Tirol</a>) or dams is generally prohibited. Australia has some of the toughest stances on BASE jumping: it specifically bans BASE jumping from certain objects, such as the <a href=\"Sydney%20Harbour%20Bridge\">Sydney Harbour Bridge</a>.\nBASE jumping as of 2006 has an overall fatality rate estimated at about one fatality per sixty participants. A study of 20,850 BASE jumps from the same site (the Kjerag Massif in Norway) reported 9 fatalities over the 11-year period from 1995 to 2005, or 1 in every 2,317 jumps. However, at that site, 1 in every 254 jumps over that period resulted in a nonfatal accident. BASE jumping is one of the most dangerous recreational activities in the world, with a fatality and injury rate 43 times as high as parachuting from a plane.\ns of 20 2016 , the 'BASE Fatality List' maintained by Blincmagazine.com records 285 deaths for BASE jumping since April 1981.\nAmerican BASE jumper Ian Flanders died in <a href=\"Kemaliye\">Kemaliye</a>, <a href=\"Turkey\">Turkey</a> on 21 July 2015, after his parachute became tangled in his feet, causing him to fall into the <a href=\"Karasu\">Karasu</a> river at high speed. The jump was being aired live on a local television station.","Fayette County, West Virginia\nFayette County is a <a href=\"County%20%28United%20States%29\">county</a> in the <a href=\"U.S.%20state\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\"West%20Virginia\">West Virginia</a>. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>, the population was 46,039. Its <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> is <a href=\"Fayetteville%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Fayetteville</a>.\nFayette County is part of the <a href=\"Beckley%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Beckley</a>, WV <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Statistical%20Area\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a>.\nFayette County was created by Act of the <a href=\"Virginia%20General%20Assembly\">Virginia General Assembly</a>, passed February 28, 1831, from parts of <a href=\"Greenbrier%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Greenbrier</a>, <a href=\"Kanawha%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Kanawha</a>, <a href=\"Nicholas%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Nicholas</a>, and <a href=\"Logan%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Logan</a> counties. It was named in honor of the <a href=\"Marquis%20de%20la%20Fayette\">Marquis de la Fayette</a>, who had played a key role assisting the Continental Army during the <a href=\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\">American Revolutionary War</a>. Virginia previously had a Fayette County, which was lost to form the new state of Kentucky. Accordingly, in the State records of Virginia, there will be listings for Fayette County from 1780–1792 and Fayette County from 1831-1863. Neither location is still located in Virginia and despite naming a county after him twice, Virginia no longer has a county named for the Marquis de la Fayette.\nA substantial portion was subdivided from Fayette County to form <a href=\"Raleigh%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Raleigh County</a> in 1850. Fayette was one of 50 counties that broke off from the rest of Virginia and formed the new state of West Virginia during the <a href=\"American%20Civil%20War\">American Civil War</a>. In 1871, an Act of the West Virginia Legislature severed a small portion to form part of <a href=\"Summers%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Summers County</a>.\nFayette County was home to a disastrous mine explosion at <a href=\"Red%20Ash%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Red Ash</a> in March 1900, in which 46 miners were killed.\nAccording to the <a href=\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 668 sqmi , of which 662 sqmi is land and 6.8 sqmi (1.0%) is water. Plum Orchard Lake, a reservoir southwest of Oak Hill, is the second largest lake in West Virginia.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 47,579 people, 18,945 households, and 13,128 families residing in the county. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 72 people per square mile (28/km²). There were 21,616 housing units at an average density of 33 per square mile (13/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 92.74% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">White</a>, 5.57% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Black</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.27% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 0.30% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.04% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.15% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 0.93% from two or more races. 0.68% of the population were <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race.\nThere were 18,945 households out of which 29.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.10% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 13.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.70% were non-families. 26.90% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.89.\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 21.70% under the age of 18, 9.60% from 18 to 24, 27.10% from 25 to 44, 25.10% from 45 to 64, and 16.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 98.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.70 males.\nThe median income for a household in the county was $24,788, and the median income for a family was $30,243. Males had a median income of $28,554 versus $18,317 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the county was $13,809. About 18.20% of families and 21.70% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 31.90% of those under age 18 and 13.70% of those age 65 or over.\nAs of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were 46,039 people, 18,813 households, and 12,459 families residing in the county. The population density was 69.6 PD/sqmi . There were 21,618 housing units at an average density of 32.7 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the county was 93.5% white, 4.6% black or African American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.2% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0.9% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 16.9% were <a href=\"Germans\">German</a>, 15.5% were <a href=\"Irish%20people\">Irish</a>, 10.8% were <a href=\"English%20people\">English</a>, and 9.5% were <a href=\"Americans\">American</a>.\nOf the 18,813 households, 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.7% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 33.8% were non-families, and 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.87. The median age was 43.0 years.\nThe median income for a household in the county was $31,912 and the median income for a family was $42,077. Males had a median income of $39,301 versus $24,874 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,082. About 16.4% of families and 21.3% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 30.9% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.\nFayette County’s political history is typical of West Virginia as a whole. The county leaned Democratic during the <a href=\"Third%20Party%20System\">Third Party System</a> before the power of industrial and mining political systems turned it strongly towards the Republican Party between 1880 and 1930. Between the 1884 and 1928 elections, the county did not vote Democratic except when the Republican Party was divided in 1912. Unionization of its predominant coal mining workforce during the New Deal made the county powerfully Democratic between 1935 and 2005: no Republican in this period except Richard Nixon against the strongly leftist George McGovern won forty percent of the county’s vote, and <a href=\"Lyndon%20Johnson\">Lyndon Johnson</a> in 1964 exceeded eighty percent against the free-market <a href=\"Barry%20Goldwater\">Barry Goldwater</a>. However, the decline of mining unions and the out-migration of historical black mining families, has produced a rapid swing to the Republican Party – so that over the past three presidential elections swings to the Republican Party have averaged thirty percentage points and Democratic vote percentages plummeted to levels historically more typical of Unionist, traditionally Republican counties like <a href=\"Morgan%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Morgan</a> or <a href=\"Upshur%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Upshur</a>.\nThe county has a tradition of coal mining, which still serves as a primary source of employment in the area. A Georgia Pacific lumber mill has its home to the west of Mt. Hope, adjacent to U.S. Route 19. There exists a large metal alloy plant in <a href=\"Alloy%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Alloy</a>. The <a href=\"Mount%20Olive%20Correctional%20Complex\">Mount Olive Correctional Complex</a>, West Virginia's only maximum security state prison, is also located in Fayette County.\n","Cody, Wyoming\nCody is a city in Northwest Wyoming and the <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> of <a href=\"Park%20County%2C%20Wyoming\">Park County</a>, <a href=\"Wyoming\">Wyoming</a>, <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>. It is named after Colonel William Frederick \"<a href=\"Buffalo%20Bill\">Buffalo Bill</a>\" Cody for his part in the creation of the original town. The population was 9,520 at the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%2C%202010\">2010 census</a>.\nCody is served by <a href=\"Yellowstone%20Regional%20Airport\">Yellowstone Regional Airport</a>.\nCody is located at (44.523244, −109.057109).\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 10.43 sqmi , of which, 10.20 sqmi is land and 0.23 sqmi is water.\nCody's elevation is about 5016 ft (1,500 m) above sea level. The main part of the city is split across three levels, separated by about 60 feet (18 m).\nThe <a href=\"Shoshone%20River\">Shoshone River</a> flows through Cody in a fairly deep canyon. There are four bridges over this river in the Cody vicinity, one at the north edge of town that allows travel to the north, and one about 5 mi east of Cody that allows passage to <a href=\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\">Powell</a> and the areas to the north and east. The other two are west of town; one allows access to the East Gate of <a href=\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\">Yellowstone National Park</a>, and the other is used by fishermen in Shoshone Canyon and as access to the <a href=\"https%3A//www.nps.gov/articles/wyoming-buffalo-bill-dam.htm\">Buffalo Bill Dam</a>.\nCody is located at the western edge of the <a href=\"Bighorn%20Basin\">Bighorn Basin</a>, a depression surrounded by the <a href=\"Big%20Horn%20Mountains\">Big Horn</a>, <a href=\"Owl%20Creek%20Mountains\">Owl Creek</a>, <a href=\"Bridger%20Mountains%20%28Wyoming%29\">Bridger</a>, and <a href=\"Absaroka%20Range\">Absaroka</a> ranges. At the western edge of Cody, a deep canyon formed by the Shoshone River provides the only passage to Yellowstone's Eastern Entrance. At its mouth and rising above Cody are Rattlesnake Mountain on the north side and Cedar Mountain on the south side. Most of Cody has a spectacular view of <a href=\"Heart%20Mountain%20%28Wyoming%29\">Heart Mountain</a>, whose 8,123 ft peak is 9 mi directly north of Cody, and the Carter Mountains, which form a line with peaks at about 12000 ft , some 15 mi to the south.\nCody experiences a <a href=\"semi-arid%20climate\">semi-arid climate</a> (<a href=\"K%C3%B6ppen%20climate%20classification\">Köppen</a> \"BSk\"), with highly variable conditions. Relative humidity is usually a fairly dry 30% or less. Precipitation averages 10.5 in annually, including 42.5 in of snow per season. Due to the aridity, snow cover is highly unreliable, with 27 days per season with 1 in or more on the ground. Cody enjoys about 300 days of sunshine per year.\nWind is almost a constant presence in the Cody area and the Big Horn Basin in general. Air flow in the Basin is turbulent, but during the winter most storms move in from the north-northwest. During the summer, it is not unusual to see storms move in from the southwest. Throughout a normal day, winds can be experienced as coming from almost any direction, mostly from the north and west, but sometimes from the south and east. The Canyon at the west end of Cody funnels rain and wind across the city from the west. The winds can be quite strong at 30 to and last for several days.\nBecause of the dry climate, the entire area is laced with irrigation canals, holding ponds, laterals, and drops. The <a href=\"Buffalo%20Bill%20Dam\">Buffalo Bill Dam</a> between Rattlesnake and Cedar mountains forms a large <a href=\"reservoir%20%28water%29\">reservoir</a> about 10 mi to the west of Cody. This reservoir (among others) feeds the <a href=\"Shoshone%20project\">Shoshone Project</a>, a large irrigation water distribution system.\nThe monthly daily average temperature ranges from 25.9 °F in December to 69.9 °F in July. An average of 13.8 days have highs of 90 °F or higher and an average of 13.2 days have lows of 0 °F or lower; the average window for freezing temperatures is September 27 thru May 14 and for measurable (≥0.1 in snow, October 24 thru April 17. The record high temperature was 105 F on July 14, 1925, and the record low temperature was -46 F on February 8, 1936.\nThe wettest calendar year has been 1991 with 16.04 in and the driest 1956 with 3.58 in . The most rainfall in one month was 5.76 in in June 1992. The most rainfall in 24 hours was 2.51 in on July 22, 1973. There are an average of 70 days with measurable precipitation. The most snow in one year was 73.4 in between July 1916 and June 1917. The most snow in one month was 26.3 in in January 1972.\nThemes surrounding Cody's pioneer and Cowboy and Western history are common in the cultural events and activities in the area.\nThe <a href=\"http%3A//centerofthewest.org/\">Buffalo Bill Center of the West</a>, previously the <a href=\"Buffalo%20Bill%20Historical%20Center\">Buffalo Bill Historical Center</a>, is a large and modern facility located near the center of the city. It contains five museums in one, including the Draper Natural History Museum, the Plains Indian Museum, the Cody Firearms Museum, the Whitney Western Art Museum and the Buffalo Bill Museum which chronicles the life of <a href=\"Buffalo%20Bill\">William F. Cody</a>, for whom the historical center is named. The historical center maintains large collections. It is a favorite stopping point for tourists passing through the town, on their way to or from Yellowstone.\n<a href=\"Old%20Trail%20Town\">Old Trail Town</a>, a restoration of more than twenty-five historic Western buildings and artifacts is located in Cody just off the <a href=\"Yellowstone%20Highway\">Yellowstone Highway</a>.\nRodeo is important in the culture in Cody, which calls itself the \"Rodeo Capital of the World\". The Cody Nite Rodeo is an amateur <a href=\"rodeo\">rodeo</a> every night from June 1 through August 31.\nCody is also host to the <a href=\"Cody%20Stampede%20Rodeo\">Cody Stampede Rodeo</a>. The Stampede is a <a href=\"Professional%20Rodeo%20Cowboys%20Association\">Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association</a> rodeo and is one of the largest rodeos in the nation that is held over the Independence Day Holiday. Many of the top cowboys in the country attend. The stampede has been held from July 1–4 every year since 1919.\nThe Cody Firearms Museum has a large collection of American firearms.\nCody is the birthplace of the famous abstract artist <a href=\"Jackson%20Pollock\">Jackson Pollock</a>.\nPublic education in the city of Cody is provided by <a href=\"Park%20County%20School%20District%20Number%206\">Park County School District #6</a>. Three elementary schools – Eastside, Glenn Livingston, and Sunset - serve students in grades kindergarten through five. The district's two secondary campuses are <a href=\"Cody%20Middle%20School\">Cody Middle School</a> (grades 6-8) and <a href=\"Cody%20High%20School%20%28Wyoming%29\">Cody High School</a> (grades 9-12).\nThe primary industry in Cody is <a href=\"tourism\">tourism</a>. Hotels, restaurants and shops cater to travelers coming to visit the West and Yellowstone Park. Cody has several art galleries, with some notable local painters and artists living in the area.\nCody is fast becoming a hub for Outdoor Recreation. The Shoshone River runs through town offering Class I-V kayaking and whitewater rafting. Shoshone Canyon offers over 300 rock climbing routes, while Cedar Mountain boasts nearly 600 boulder problems. Cody hosts nearly 50 miles of single track, with a large amount of it accessible by bike from town. A bike park was recently completed with Jump and Drop lines as well as a Pump track.\nAnother industry is western style <a href=\"furniture\">furniture</a>, with several small furniture makers producing custom pieces.\nThe oil industry seems to wax and wane over the years in the Cody area.\nJust to the south of Cody are large deposits of <a href=\"gypsum\">gypsum</a>.\n<a href=\"Park%20County%20School%20District%20Number%206\">Park County School District #6</a> is another large employer in the area.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2010, there were 9,520 people, 4,278 households, and 2,502 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 933.3 PD/sqmi . There were 4,650 housing units at an average density of 455.9 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 95.9% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 0.2% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.7% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 0.4% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.1% <a href=\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.0% from <a href=\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.8% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 3.1% of the population.\nThere were 4,278 households of which 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.0% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.5% were non-families. 34.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.82.\nThe median age in the city was 42.4 years. 21.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.1% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 18.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.2% male and 51.8% female.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 8,835 people, 3,791 households, and 2,403 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 952.3 people per square mile (367.6/km²). There were 4,113 housing units at an average density of 443.3 per square mile (171.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.90% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 0.10% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.42% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 0.58% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.05% <a href=\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.85% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.11% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 2.22% of the population.\nThere were 3,791 households out of which 29.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.86.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 90.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.1 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $34,450, and the median income for a family was $40,554. Males had a median income of $31,395 versus $19,947 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $17,813. About 9.4% of families and 13.9% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 19.3% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.\nCody is governed via a city council and mayor. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. The city council consists of six members who are elected from one of three wards. Each ward elects two members.\nTwice-weekly <a href=\"Cody%20Enterprise\">Cody Enterprise</a>. Founded by \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody and Col. John Peake in August 1899. The paper has a paid circulation of 7,050, and is owned by <a href=\"Sage%20Publishing\">Sage Publishing</a> of Cody.\nThe <a href=\"Yellowstone%20Regional%20Airport\">Yellowstone Regional Airport</a> offers full passenger service. Flights are available through <a href=\"SkyWest%20Airlines\">SkyWest</a> (<a href=\"Delta%20Air%20Lines\">Delta Air Lines</a>), connecting through <a href=\"Salt%20Lake%20City%2C%20Utah\">Salt Lake City, Utah</a>, and <a href=\"SkyWest%20Airlines\">SkyWest</a> (<a href=\"United%20Airlines\">United Airlines</a>), connecting through <a href=\"Denver%2C%20Colorado\">Denver, Colorado</a>. Air cargo services are provided by <a href=\"FedEx\">FedEx</a> and <a href=\"United%20Parcel%20Service\">UPS</a>.\nCody has three bus transit companies: <a href=\"Cody%20Over%20Land%20Transit\">Cody Over Land Transit</a>, <a href=\"Phidippides%20Shuttle%20Service\">Phidippides Shuttle Service</a>, and LP Transportation. Cody Over Land operates routes within the city of Cody, from June through September. Phidippides is a full service transportation company with service to Cody, <a href=\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\">Yellowstone National Park</a>, and airports in Cody, <a href=\"Jackson%2C%20Wyoming\">Jackson</a>, and <a href=\"Billings%2C%20Montana\">Billings</a>. They also have courier and package service available. LP Transportation operates from the Palmer Outpost providing shuttle service to <a href=\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\">Lovell</a>, and connecting to Black Hills/Arrow Stage (Billings to Denver).\n\n","Shoshone River\nThe Shoshone River is a 100 mi long river in northern <a href=\"Wyoming\">Wyoming</a> in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>. Its headwaters are in the <a href=\"Absaroka%20Range\">Absaroka Range</a> in <a href=\"Shoshone%20National%20Forest\">Shoshone National Forest</a>. It ends when it runs into the <a href=\"Big%20Horn%20River\">Big Horn River</a> near <a href=\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\">Lovell, Wyoming</a>. Cities it runs near or through are <a href=\"Cody%2C%20Wyoming\">Cody</a>, <a href=\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\">Powell</a>, <a href=\"Byron%2C%20Wyoming\">Byron</a>, and <a href=\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\">Lovell</a>. Near Cody, it runs through a volcanically active region of <a href=\"fumaroles\">fumaroles</a> known as <a href=\"Colter%27s%20Hell\">Colter's Hell</a>. This contributed to the river being named on old maps of Wyoming as the \"Stinking Water River\".\nThe current name was established in 1901 due to popular demand.\nWest of Cody the river is impounded in Shoshone Canyon by the <a href=\"Buffalo%20Bill%20Dam\">Buffalo Bill Dam</a>, created as part of the <a href=\"Shoshone%20project\">Shoshone project</a>; one of the nation's first water conservation projects. A number of hot springs along the Shoshone were drowned by the reservoir. Upstream of Buffalo Bill Reservoir the Shoshone splits into the North Fork, which follows a long canyon down from the <a href=\"Absaroka%20Mountains\">Absaroka Mountains</a> to the vicinity of the east entrance of <a href=\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\">Yellowstone National Park</a>, and the South Fork, which originates at the southern end of the Absarokas.","U.S. Route 14 in Wyoming\nIn the U.S. state of <a href=\"Wyoming\">Wyoming</a>, U.S. Highway 14 (US 14) runs east to west across the northern part of the state. The road connects South Dakota on the east with <a href=\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\">Yellowstone National Park</a> on the west. It is mostly a two lane surface road except for several sections that it shares with <a href=\"Interstate%2090\">Interstate 90</a>.\nWhile the official western terminus of the road is at the Eastern gate of <a href=\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\">Yellowstone National Park</a> there is an unsigned section within the park itself starting at a junction with <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2089\">U.S. Route 89</a> and <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%20287\">U.S. Route 287</a> at West Thumb and following the northern shore of <a href=\"Yellowstone%20Lake\">Yellowstone Lake</a>. From the park US 14 is co-signed with <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2016\">U.S. Route 16</a> and <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2020\">U.S. Route 20</a>. The roads lead east out of the <a href=\"Absaroka%20Range\">Absaroka Range</a> and down the <a href=\"Shoshone%20River\">Shoshone River</a> valley to <a href=\"Cody%2C%20Wyoming\">Cody</a>. Here, <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2014%20Alternate%20%28Wyoming%29\">U.S. Route 14 Alternate (US 14A)</a> splits north toward <a href=\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\">Powell</a>, while US 14/16/20 continues east across the <a href=\"Bighorn%20Basin\">Bighorn Basin</a> to <a href=\"Greybull%2C%20Wyoming\">Greybull</a>. At Greybull, US 16 and US 20 go south, while US 14 travels east to <a href=\"Shell%2C%20Wyoming\">Shell</a>, and the western slope of the <a href=\"Big%20Horn%20Mountains\">Big Horn Mountains</a>. The road ascends a windy path through steep <a href=\"Shell%20Canyon\">Shell Canyon</a> and rejoins US 14A at the top of the range at <a href=\"Burgess%20Junction%2C%20Wyoming\">Burgess Junction</a>. The road is designated as Bighorn Scenic Byway between Shell and <a href=\"Dayton%2C%20Wyoming\">Dayton</a> on the eastern side of the mountain range. On the east side of the Bighorns, the road merges with <a href=\"Interstate%2090\">Interstate 90</a> and travels southeast to <a href=\"Sheridan%2C%20Wyoming\">Sheridan, Wyoming</a>. From Sheridan, the road continues east, rejoining with <a href=\"US%20Route%2016\">US Route 16</a> near <a href=\"Clearmont%2C%20Wyoming\">Clearmont</a>. The roads travel across the <a href=\"Powder%20River%20Country\">Powder River Country</a> to <a href=\"Gillette%2C%20Wyoming\">Gillette, Wyoming</a> where it joins again with Interstate 90 to <a href=\"Moorcroft%2C%20Wyoming\">Moorcroft</a>. From here, it diverges north from Interstate 90 briefly to junction with <a href=\"Wyoming%20Highway%2024\">Wyoming Highway 24</a> with access to <a href=\"Devils%20Tower%20National%20Monument\">Devils Tower National Monument</a>. US 14 turns south and rejoins Interstate 90 which it follows to the eastern border of Wyoming and <a href=\"South%20Dakota\">South Dakota</a>.\nUS 14 was originally planned to stop in <a href=\"Wall%2C%20South%20Dakota\">Wall, South Dakota</a>. In 1936, the road was extended to the Wyoming border and US 16 was rerouted through <a href=\"Newcastle%2C%20Wyoming\">Newcastle</a> and the old US 16 was re designated as US 14. Prior to 1940, US 14 followed the route currently serviced by US 14A through <a href=\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\">Lovell</a> and <a href=\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\">Powell</a>. In 1940, the highway took over Wyoming Highway 520 between Burgess Junction and Greybull, and the old road was renamed Wyoming Highway 14. Due to confusion, it was recommissioned as US 14A in 1965. In the 1960s portions of the highway in the eastern part of the state became Interstate 90.\n\nU.S. Highway 14 Alternate is an <a href=\"alternate%20route\">alternate route</a> for U.S. Highway 14 between <a href=\"Cody%20%28WY%29\">Cody</a> and <a href=\"Burgess%20Junction%2C%20Wyoming\">Burgess Junction</a>. At its west end in Cody, US 14 is <a href=\"concurrent%20%28road%29\">concurrent</a> with <a href=\"U.S.%20Highway%2016%20%28Wyoming%29\">U.S. Highway 16</a> and <a href=\"U.S.%20Highway%2020%20%28Wyoming%29\">U.S. Highway 20</a>. West of Burgess Junction, US 14A passes through the <a href=\"Big%20Horn%20Mountains\">Big Horn Mountains</a>, reaching a maximum elevation of 9430 ft . This portion of the road is closed during the winter months. The total length of US 14A is approximately 106 mi . Intermediate towns on the highway include <a href=\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\">Powell</a> and <a href=\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\">Lovell</a>. At Lovell, US 14A is concurrent with <a href=\"U.S.%20Highway%20310%20%28Wyoming%29\">U.S. Highway 310</a> for approximately 3 mi .\nIn the initial 1925 plan, roughly the west half of present US 14 Alternate, from Cody to <a href=\"U.S.%20Highway%20310%20%28Wyoming%29\">U.S. Highway 310</a> in <a href=\"Deaver%20%28WY%29\">Deaver</a>, was assigned the number U.S. Highway 220. However, two spurs of US 20 were added in <a href=\"Pennsylvania\">Pennsylvania</a>, and so US 220 became U.S. Highway 420 in the final 1926 plan.\nAround 1933, <a href=\"U.S.%20Highway%20116%20%28Wyoming%29\">U.S. Highway 116</a> was extended west from <a href=\"Sheridan%20%28WY%29\">Sheridan</a> to Deaver, then absorbing US 420 to end at Cody. Soon after, it became part of an extended US 14. US 14 was shifted south to its present alignment in 1940, and the old alignment became Wyoming 14 for a while, and was recommissioned as US 14 Alternate around 1965.\n!colspan=3| <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2014\">U.S. Route 14</a>","Washington County, Arkansas\nWashington County is a <a href=\"County%20%28United%20States%29\">county</a> located in the northwest part of the <a href=\"U.S.%20state\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\"Arkansas\">Arkansas</a>. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>, the population was 203,065, making it the third-most populous county in Arkansas. The <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> is <a href=\"Fayetteville%2C%20Arkansas\">Fayetteville</a>. It is Arkansas's 17th county, formed on October 17, 1828, and named for <a href=\"George%20Washington\">George Washington</a>, the first <a href=\"President%20of%20the%20United%20States\">President of the United States</a>. Washington County is part of the Fayetteville-<a href=\"Springdale%2C%20Arkansas\">Springdale</a>-<a href=\"Rogers%2C%20Arkansas\">Rogers</a>, AR-<a href=\"Missouri\">MO</a> <a href=\"Fayetteville-Springdale-Rogers%20metropolitan%20area\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a>.\nWashington County began as part of the Cherokee Territory, following an 1817 treaty. The area was next known as <a href=\"Lovely%20County%2C%20Arkansas\">Lovely County</a>, and one year later Washington County was created after another Cherokee treaty. The <a href=\"Washington%20County%20Courthouse%20%28Arkansas%29\">court house</a> was centrally located in the city of Washington, modern-day <a href=\"Fayetteville%2C%20Arkansas\">Fayetteville</a> (renamed to avoid confusion with <a href=\"Washington%2C%20Arkansas\">Washington, Arkansas</a> in <a href=\"South%20Arkansas\">South Arkansas</a>). The Lee Creek Valley in southern Washington County contained many of the county's early settlements, including <a href=\"Canehill%2C%20Arkansas\">Cane Hill</a> and <a href=\"Evansville%2C%20Arkansas\">Evansville</a>.\n<a href=\"Arkansas%20College%20%28Fayetteville%29\">Arkansas College</a> and <a href=\"Cane%20Hill%20College\">Cane Hill College</a> were both founded in Washington County within a day of each other in 1834, with the <a href=\"University%20of%20Arkansas\">University of Arkansas</a> being founded in Fayetteville in 1871. The county witnessed major battles during the <a href=\"American%20Civil%20War\">American Civil War</a>, including the <a href=\"Action%20at%20Fayetteville\">Battle of Fayetteville</a>, the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Prairie%20Grove\">Battle of Prairie Grove</a>, and the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Cane%20Hill\">Battle of Cane Hill</a>. The county then was sparsely settled and many residents were pro-Union, since slaves were few, plantations almost nonexistent, and news came via <a href=\"White%20River%20%28Arkansas%29\">White River</a> travelers, not from the southern part of the state. A <a href=\"Butterfield%20Overland%20Mail\">Butterfield Overland Mail</a> route was established through the county in 1858, causing more families to settle there.\nThe economy of Washington County was based on apples in the late 19th century. A mixture of wet weather, altitude, and loamy soils provided a good environment for apple orchards. First planted in areas around <a href=\"Lincoln%2C%20Arkansas\">Lincoln</a>, <a href=\"Evansville%2C%20Arkansas\">Evansville</a>, and <a href=\"Canehill%2C%20Arkansas\">Cane Hill</a> in the 1830s, apple orchards began all across the county. The <a href=\"United%20States%20Census\">United States Census</a> reported a crop of 614,924 bushels of apples produced by the county in 1900, the highest in the state. Several varieties of apple were discovered in the area including Shannon Pippin, Wilson June, and most notably the <a href=\"Arkansas%20Black\">Arkansas Black</a>. The <a href=\"Ben%20Davis%20%28apple%29\">Ben Davis</a> became the apple of choice in the area for sale and shipment across the region. Corn became the dominant crop, outselling apples by almost $500,000 in 1900.\n<a href=\"University%20of%20Arkansas\">Arkansas Industrial University</a> was founded in the growing community of Fayetteville in 1871 after William McIlroy a donated farmland for the site. The university changed its name in 1899 to the University of Arkansas. Railroads came to Washington County after the <a href=\"St.%20Louis%20%E2%80%93%20San%20Francisco%20Railway\">St. Louis – San Francisco Railway</a> (Frisco) decided to build a line to <a href=\"Texas\">Texas</a> through <a href=\"Fort%20Smith%2C%20Arkansas\">Fort Smith</a>. Two possible routes were proposed, one passing through <a href=\"Prairie%20Grove%2C%20Arkansas\">Prairie Grove</a>, the other through Fayetteville. Many Fayetteville residents and farmers sold or donated land for the right of way to influence the choice. They were successful and in 1881 the first passenger train arrived at Fayetteville. The county continued to grow with more churches and schools after the railroad's completion. Rural parts of the county began losing population in the 1920s during the <a href=\"Great%20Depression\">Great Depression</a>, when high taxes forcing residents to move to Fayetteville or west to <a href=\"Oklahoma\">Oklahoma</a>. The rural areas later became the <a href=\"Ozark%20National%20Forest\">Ozark National Forest</a> and <a href=\"Devil%27s%20Den%20State%20Park\">Devil's Den State Park</a>.\n\nAccording to the <a href=\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 952 sqmi , of which 942 sqmi is land and 10 sqmi (1.1%) is water. It is the fourth-largest county by area in Arkansas. The county is in the <a href=\"Boston%20Mountains\">Boston Mountains</a>, a subdivision of the <a href=\"Ozark%20Mountains\">Ozark Mountains</a>. <a href=\"Devil%27s%20Den%20State%20Park\">Devil's Den State Park</a> in southern Washington County is known for its picturesque views and mountain vistas. Washington County also contains <a href=\"Lake%20Wedington\">Lake Wedington</a>, located in scenic country west of <a href=\"Fayetteville%2C%20Arkansas\">Fayetteville</a> on <a href=\"Arkansas%20Highway%2016\">Wedington Drive</a>.\nWashington County sits on a <a href=\"basement\">basement</a> of <a href=\"Precambrian\">Precambrian</a> <a href=\"granite\">granite</a> and <a href=\"rhyolite\">rhyolite</a>, as most of the continental interior of the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> does. Much of the county's geologic history must be inferred from nearby <a href=\"Oklahoma\">Oklahoma</a> and <a href=\"Missouri\">Missouri</a> research, due to the steepness of the more recently formed mountains that did not form in the neighboring states. This <a href=\"igneous\">igneous</a> material was eroded until the <a href=\"Paleozoic\">Paleozoic</a>, when oceans covered the now-low-lying area. These oceans came and retreated for 300 million years, depositing various different sedements during that time. This created <a href=\"fossiliferous\">fossiliferous</a> <a href=\"limestone\">limestone</a> and <a href=\"Ripple%20marks\">ripple marked</a>-<a href=\"sandstone\">sandstone</a>, both present throughout the north part of the county as evidence of ancient oceans.\nSediments were deposited from the <a href=\"Devonian\">Devonian</a>, <a href=\"Mississippian%20age\">Mississippian</a>, and <a href=\"Pennsylvanian%20%28geology%29\">Pennsylvanian</a> periods. During this deposition period, the county had a climate similar to that of the present-day <a href=\"The%20Bahamas\">Bahamas</a>, as the <a href=\"equator\">equator</a> was north of Washington County. The Devonian brought mostly <a href=\"shale\">shale</a>s, the Mississippian brought the <a href=\"limestone\">limestone</a>s and <a href=\"chert\">chert</a> visible in the bluffs. This chert is present throughout most of the county. The county is also home to the Boone Formation (red soils), white limestones, the <a href=\"Wedington%2C%20Arkansas\">Wedington</a> Sandstone, the <a href=\"Batesville%2C%20Arkansas\">Bastesville</a> Sandstone, the <a href=\"Pitkin%20Corner%2C%20Arkansas\">Pitkin</a> formation (ocean-fossil limestone), and the <a href=\"Fayetteville%20Shale\">Fayetteville Shale</a>.\nSettlers were attracted to the area by its numerous streams, used to power <a href=\"gristmill\">gristmill</a>s, <a href=\"sandstone\">sandstone</a>s and <a href=\"clay\">clay</a>s for use in construction, <a href=\"Agricultural%20lime\">lime</a>-sweetened soil, and chert for road construction.\nToday, Washington County consists of two main formations, the <a href=\"Boston%20Mountains\">Boston Mountains</a> and the Springfield Plateau. During the late <a href=\"Pennsylvanian%20%28geology%29\">Pennsylvanian</a>, <a href=\"sediment\">sediment</a>s were deposited on top of the Springfield Plateau. The area was uplifted during the <a href=\"Ouachita%20orogeny\">Ouachita orogeny</a> and subsequent erosion formed the rugged Boston Mountains. Erosion of these sediments causes the Boston Mountains to be carved steeply in the south, while in the north of the county, the Boston Mountain sediments are almost entirely eroded, exposing the older rocks of the Springfield Plateau.\nAs of the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 United States Census</a>, there were 157,715 people, 60,151 households, and 39,459 families residing in the county. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 166 people per square mile (64/km²). There were 64,330 housing units at an average density of 68 per square mile (26/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 88.00% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">White</a>, 2.24% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Black</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 1.25% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 1.54% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.53% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 4.26% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 2.17% from two or more races. 8.20% of the population were <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race.\nThere were 60,151 households out of which 32.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.30% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 9.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.40% were non-families. 25.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.07.\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 25.00% under the age of 18, 15.30% from 18 to 24, 30.20% from 25 to 44, 19.50% from 45 to 64, and 9.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 100.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.70 males.\nThe median income for a household in the county was $34,691, and the median income for a family was $42,795. Males had a median income of $29,428 versus $21,769 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the county was $17,347. About 9.40% of families and 14.60% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 16.50% of those under age 18 and 10.20% of those age 65 or over.\nAs of the 2010 Census Washington County had a population of 203,065. The racial makeup of the county was 74.14% Non-Hispanic white, 2.96% black, 1.18% Native American, 2.17% Asian, 2.03% Pacific Islander, 0.11% non-Hispanics of some other race, 2.16% Non-Hispanics of two or more races and 15.49% Hispanic.\nThere are 9 school districts in the county.\nThe University of Arkansas at Fayetteville was founded in 1871 on the site of a hilltop farm that overlooked the <a href=\"Ozark%20Mountains\">Ozark Mountains</a>, giving it the nickname \"The Hill\".\nThe <a href=\"University%20of%20Arkansas\">University of Arkansas</a> is in Fayetteville, in Washington County. Historically, <a href=\"Cane%20Hill%20College\">Cane Hill College</a> in <a href=\"Canehill%2C%20Arkansas\">Canehill</a> was the first college in Arkansas, prior to the University of Arkansas's founding in 1871. Canehill probably influenced the placing the University of Arkansas Washington County, since the history of education in the county was a major factor in the decision.\n\n<a href=\"List%20of%20Arkansas%20townships\">Townships in Arkansas</a> are the divisions of a county. Each township includes unincorporated areas and some may have incorporated towns or cities within part of their space. Townships have limited purposes in modern times. However, they are of value for historical purposes in terms of genealogical research. Each town or city is within one or more townships in an Arkansas county based on census maps. The townships of Washington County are listed below. In Washington County, each incorporated town/city is at least partially located within its namesake township.\nWashington County has contained the <a href=\"Ozark%20Trail%20%28auto%20trail%29\">Ozark Trail</a>, <a href=\"Trail%20of%20Tears\">Trail of Tears</a>, and the <a href=\"Butterfield%20Overland%20Mail\">Butterfield Overland Mail</a> route. Today, <a href=\"Interstate%2049%20in%20Arkansas\">Interstate 49</a> serves as the county's main thoroughfare, and connects the University of Arkansas with <a href=\"Fort%20Smith%2C%20Arkansas\">Fort Smith</a> and <a href=\"Interstate%2040%20%28Arkansas%29\">Interstate 40</a> to the south and other NWA cities to the north. Future plans call for <a href=\"Interstate%2049%20%28Arkansas%29\">Interstate 49</a> to be extended to ultimately connect <a href=\"New%20Orleans%2C%20Louisiana\">New Orleans, Louisiana</a> with <a href=\"Kansas%20City%2C%20Missouri\">Kansas City, Missouri</a> through Washington County.\nThe <a href=\"Arkansas%20Department%20of%20Health\">Arkansas Department of Health</a> is responsible for the regulation and oversight of public water systems throughout the state. Washington County contains twelve community water systems, including two of the largest distribution systems in the state: the City of Fayetteville (retail population served of 94,000) and Springdale Water Utilities (SWU, 87,618) Both water systems purchase all potable water from <a href=\"Beaver%20Water%20District\">Beaver Water District</a>. Many of the smaller cities in Washington County purchase water from Fayetteville, SWU, Benton-Washington Regional Public Water Authority (PWA, colloquially \"Two-Ton\") or Washington Water Authority (WWA), including Elkins, Lincoln, Tontitown, West Fork, and Winslow.\n","Chaotianmen Bridge\nThe Chaotianmen Bridge (), is a road-rail bridge over the <a href=\"Yangtze%20River\">Yangtze River</a> in the city of <a href=\"Chongqing\">Chongqing</a>, China. The bridge which opened on 29 April 2009 is the world's longest <a href=\"through%20arch%20bridge\">through arch bridge</a>.\nThe continuous steel <a href=\"truss\">truss</a> arch bridge with tie <a href=\"girder\">girder</a>s has a height of 142 m from middle supports to arch top, main span of 552 m and a total length of 1741 m . It carries 6 lanes in two ways and a pedestrian lane on each side on the upper deck. The lower deck has 2 traffic lanes on each side with a reservation in the middle for Line 0 <a href=\"Chongqing%20Rail%20Transit\">Metro</a> line.\n","Nanpu Bridge\nThe Nanpu Bridge (), in <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"China\">China</a>, sister bridge to the <a href=\"Yangpu%20Bridge\">Yangpu Bridge</a>, is one of the main bridges in Shanghai.\nThe <a href=\"cable-stayed%20bridge\">cable-stayed bridge</a> was designed by the Shanghai Municipal Engineering Design Institute, Shanghai Urban Construction College, and Shanghai Urban Construction Design Institute, with assistance from Holger S. Svensson. It has a main span of 428 meters (1,388 ft), shorter than its sister bridge. It is the 57th longest cable-stayed bridge in the world, opened to the public in 1991.","Xupu Bridge\nThe Xupu Bridge (), is a <a href=\"cable-stayed%20bridge\">cable-stayed bridge</a> over the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a> in <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\">China</a>, so named because it connects the city's <a href=\"Xuhui%20District\">Xuhui</a> and <a href=\"Pudong%20New%20Area\">Pudong</a> districts. It opened in 1997 and carries 8 lanes of the <a href=\"S20%20Outer%20Ring%20Expressway\">S20 Outer Ring Expressway</a>.\n","List of longest arch bridge spans\nThis list of the longest arch bridge spans ranks the world's <a href=\"arch%20bridge\">arch bridge</a>s by the length of their main <a href=\"Span%20%28architecture%29\">span</a>. The length of the main span is the most common way to rank bridges as it usually correlates with the engineering complexity involved in designing and constructing the bridge. If one bridge has a longer span than another it does not necessarily mean that the bridge is longer from shore to shore or from <a href=\"abutment\">abutment</a> to abutment.","Puxi\nPuxi (<a href=\"Chinese%20language\">Chinese</a>: <a href=\"wikt%3A%E6%B5%A6\">浦</a><a href=\"wikt%3A%E8%A5%BF\">西</a> , \"Pǔxī\", \"Phu-shi\", \"Huangpu West <a href=\"bank%20%28geography%29\">Bank</a>\") is the historic center of <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"China\">China</a>, and remains the home of approximately 48% of Shanghai's residents in an area of 288 km². \"Puxi\" is distinguished from \"<a href=\"Pudong\">Pudong</a>\" to its east, which is separated from it by the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a>. Despite the growing importance of Pudong's <a href=\"Lujiazui\">Lujiazui</a> area, Puxi remains Shanghai's cultural, residential and commercial centre.\nAdministratively, Puxi consists of a number of districts including <a href=\"Yangpu%20District\">Yangpu</a>, <a href=\"Hongkou%20District\">Hongkou</a>, <a href=\"Putuo%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Putuo</a>, <a href=\"Changning%20District\">Changning</a>, <a href=\"Xuhui%20District\">Xuhui</a>, <a href=\"Jing%27an%20District\">Jing'an</a> and <a href=\"Huangpu%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Huangpu</a>.\nDespite efforts to promote Pudong, Puxi remains the cultural and entertainment center of Shanghai. The main shopping centers (including East Nanjing Pedestrian Road, Central Huaihai Road, Qipu Road Apparel City, and <a href=\"Xujiahui\">Xujiahui</a>), the major bar streets (Hengshan, Maoming, and Julu Roads), and cultural centers such as <a href=\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\">The Bund</a>, the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Grand%20Theatre\">Shanghai Grand Theatre</a>, and the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Museum\">Shanghai Museum</a> are all located in Puxi.\nShanghai's older airport, <a href=\"Shanghai%20Hongqiao%20International%20Airport\">Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport</a>, is located in Puxi. All international flights, including regional flights to <a href=\"Hong%20Kong\">Hong Kong</a> and <a href=\"Macao\">Macao</a>, were moved to <a href=\"Shanghai%20Pudong%20International%20Airport\">Shanghai Pudong International Airport</a> when the latter opened in 1999. From October 2007, a limited number of international flights will commence from Hongqiao.\nAlmost all lines on the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro</a> (with the exceptions of Lines <a href=\"Line%205%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">5</a> and <a href=\"Line%206%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">6</a>) pass by Puxi.\nPudong and Puxi are connected by several tunnels, four <a href=\"Huangpu%20River%23Bridges\">major bridges</a>, and Lines <a href=\"Line%202%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">2</a>, <a href=\"Line%204%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">4</a>, <a href=\"Line%207%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">7</a>, <a href=\"Line%208%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">8</a> and <a href=\"Line%209%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">9</a> on the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Shanghai%20Railway%20Station\">Shanghai Railway Station</a> and <a href=\"Shanghai%20South%20Railway%20Station\">Shanghai South Railway Station</a> are also located in Puxi.\n","Luwan District\nLuwan District (; <a href=\"Shanghainese\">Shanghainese</a>: luuae chiu, <a href=\"pinyin\">pinyin</a>: Lúwān Qū), <a href=\"Postal%20romanization\">formerly romanized</a> as Lokawei, was a district located in central <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"China\">China</a> until its merger with <a href=\"Huangpu%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Huangpu District, Shanghai</a> in June 2011. It had an area of 8.05 km² and population of 350,000 as of 2001.\nLuwan district was located directly south of <a href=\"People%27s%20Square%20%28Shanghai%29\">People's Square</a>. The northern part of Luwan included one of the best sections of <a href=\"Huaihai%20Road\">Huaihai Road</a>, famous for its international fashion shops and high-class <a href=\"restaurant\">restaurant</a>s.\nLuwan was a part of the old <a href=\"French%20Concession\">French Concession</a> area, one of the most prestigious sections of the city. It was famous for its boulevards. The <a href=\"London%20Plane\">plane tree</a>s lining the main streets were imported from <a href=\"France\">France</a> over 100 years ago. The district included the historical residences of <a href=\"Sun%20Yat-sen\">Sun Yat-sen</a>, <a href=\"Mao%20Zedong\">Mao Zedong</a>, <a href=\"Zhou%20Enlai\">Zhou Enlai</a>, <a href=\"Agnes%20Smedley\">Agnes Smedley</a> and <a href=\"Mei%20Lanfang\">Mei Lanfang</a>, among others.\nIt was announced on June 8, 2011 that the proposed plan of merging Luwan and <a href=\"Huangpu%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Huangpu</a> districts had been approved by the <a href=\"State%20Council%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\">State Council</a>. Since the new district would still maintain the name Huangpu, Luwan as a district ceased to exist.\nThe district was named after \"Lujia Wan\", literally \"Lu's Bay\", formerly a bend in a local river which had since been covered up. The name survived in bus stops located near the former location of the bay. Known as Lukawei during the French concession period, this was the location of the main police depot and prison of the French Concession.\n","International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering\nThe International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) is a non-profit organisation with mission to promote the exchange of knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide in the service of the profession and society, taking into consideration technical, economic, environmental, aesthetic and social aspects. IABSE deals all kinds of structures composed of any kind of material, all phases of the construction process, as well as education and research.\nThe Association’s name in French is \"Association Internationale des Ponts et Charpentes (AIPC)\" and in German \"Internationale Vereinigung für Brückenbau und Hochbau (IVBH)“. It was founded in 1929 and has its seat in <a href=\"Zurich\">Zurich</a>.\nIABSE publishes the quarterly Journal Structural Engineering International SEI, available online via <a href=\"Ingenta\">Ingenta</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Outstanding%20Structure%20Award\">Outstanding Structure Award</a> has been presented annually since 2000. It \"recognises the most remarkable, innovative, creative, or otherwise stimulating structures completed within the last few years\". As a project award, it recognizes the team effort of the engineer, the architect, the contractor, and the owner involved in completion of the project.\nThe <a href=\"Anton%20Tedesko%20Medal\">Anton Tedesko Medal</a> is awarded by the <a href=\"http%3A//www.iabsefoundation.org/about-us/iabse-foundation/iabse2_foundation.html\">IABSE Foundation</a> to honour a Laureate and support a Fellow of the Association for study leave for a promising young engineer to gain practical experience in a prestigious engineering firm, outside his/her home country.","Yangpu District\nYangpu District is one of the 19 <a href=\"districts%20of%20Shanghai\">districts</a> of the <a href=\"Municipality%20of%20Shanghai\">Municipality of Shanghai</a> in the China. It is located in northeastern part of downtown Shanghai, bordering the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a> on the east and south, <a href=\"Hongkou%20District\">Hongkou District</a> on the west, and <a href=\"Baoshan%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Baoshan District</a> in the north. The southern part of Yangpu District is 4 km away from the <a href=\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\">Bund</a>, a major tourist attraction. It is predominantly composed of residential communities, with a total area of 60.61 km2 and a population of 1.313 million as of 2010. The whole district is divided administratively into 11 resident subdistricts and 1 <a href=\"town%20%28PRC%29\">town</a>.\nThe name Yangshupu, <a href=\"Postal%20romanization\">formerly romanized</a> as Yangtzepoo or Yangtszepoo, is Chinese for \"<a href=\"poplar%20tree\">poplar</a> <a href=\"bank%20%28river%29\">bank</a>\" and refers to the <a href=\"Creek%20%28stream%29\">creek</a> \"Yángshùpǔ Hé\") running through the area beside present-day Lanzhou Rd (formerly <a href=\"Horatio%20Nelson%20Lay\">Lay</a> Road) from the <a href=\"Qiu%20River\">Qiu</a> in the north to the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu</a> in the south. The <a href=\"Shanghai%20Municipal%20Government\">Shanghai Municipal Government</a> contracted the name to Yangpu in 1949.\nAs with most of modern Shanghai, the territory of Yangpu has been formed by sediments deposited by the <a href=\"Yangtze%20River\">Yangtze River</a> over many centuries. It was probably in the shallows of the <a href=\"East%20China%20Sea\">East China Sea</a> as late as the <a href=\"Tang%20Dynasty\">Tang Dynasty</a>. During the <a href=\"Northern%20Song\">Northern Song</a>, the Wuyu River (吴淤江 ) entered the sea somewhere around modern Wujiaochang (五角场 ). <a href=\"Daoist\">Daoist</a> and <a href=\"Buddhist\">Buddhist</a> temples are known to have been established in the vicinity around this time. In 1404, the Huangpu River shifted to its present course, entering the Yangtze River around <a href=\"Wusong\">Wusong</a>. Toward the end of the <a href=\"Ming%20Dynasty\">Ming Dynasty</a>, villages along the river flourished, engaging in agriculture, banking, textiles and water-borne trade.\nIn 1842, the <a href=\"Treaty%20of%20Nanking\">Treaty of Nanking</a> opened Shanghai as a treaty port. In 1899, 10.89 km2 of what is now the south of modern Yangpu District was partitioned to become part of the International Settlement. Factories were constructed soon after in the area, especially along Yangshupu Road. Textile, paper-making, and shipbuilding industries were established by the early 20th century in what was then organized as part of Hongkew (now <a href=\"Hongkou%20District\">Hongkou</a>). In 1929, the Wujiaochang farmers' market (\"Pentagon Plaza\") was constructed in the north. Later, during the Japanese occupation from 1937 to 1945, barracks and houses were built in the area. The inland part of the former International Settlement in the area made up part of the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Ghetto\">Shanghai Ghetto</a>. In December 1944, Yangshupu District was established with an area of 7.7 km2 .\nFollowing the <a href=\"Chinese%20Communist%20Party\">Communist</a> <a href=\"Shanghai%20Campaign\">conquest of Shanghai</a> in 1949, the area was developed and, over the next few decades, a number of neighboring districts were abolished and annexed to Yangpu. The area was especially used for heavy industries. The district's present territory west of the river was formed after the incorporation of Wujiaochang District from <a href=\"Baoshan%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Baoshan County</a> in 1984. In 1993, Yangpu's territories east of the Huangpu River were designated part of the <a href=\"Pudong%20New%20District\">Pudong New District</a>.\nSince the beginning of the 21st century, Yangpu District has increasingly developed away from labor-intensive industry towards commerce and high technology: the area around Wujiaochang now boast ten large commercial centers and the research facility on Dalian Road is one of the top 500 in the world. One of the region's largest districts, 15.5 kilometers of the Changbai Gold-Bin River runs through the economically strong center. Yangpu is also home to one of Shanghai's four largest city police departments, a new generation of international community programs in New Jiangwan City, and the most graduates of elite <a href=\"Tongji%20University\">Tongji University</a> in the city.\nYangpu District is connected to the neighbouring <a href=\"Pudong%20New%20Area\">Pudong New Area</a> across the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a> by one bridge, three tunnels, and six ferry lines. These include the <a href=\"Yangpu%20Bridge\">Yangpu Bridge</a>, the <a href=\"Xiangyin%20Road%20Tunnel\">Xiangyin Road Tunnel</a>, the <a href=\"Dalian%20Road%20Tunnel\">Dalian Road Tunnel</a>, and the <a href=\"Jungong%20Road%20Tunnel\">Jungong Road Tunnel</a>. A fourth tunnel, the <a href=\"Yinhang%20Road%20Tunnel\">Yinhang Road Tunnel</a> is currently under construction.\nThe Inner Ring Road and Middle Ring Road traverse through Yangpu District.\nLines 3, 4, 8, 10 and 12 of the Shanghai Metro serve Yangpu district.\nThe industrial wharves along the Huangpu which service the industrial centres of Yangpu are being phased out by residential developments on the waterfront.\nSituated in northern Yangpu District are three of China's most distinguished universities, <a href=\"Fudan%20University\">Fudan University</a>, <a href=\"Tongji%20University\">Tongji University</a>, <a href=\"University%20of%20Shanghai%20for%20Science%20and%20Technology\">University of Shanghai for Science and Technology</a> as well as the <a href=\"Shanghai%20University%20of%20Finance%20and%20Economics\">Shanghai University of Finance and Economics</a>.\nThere is also the <a href=\"Shanghai%20University%20of%20Sport\">Shanghai University of Sport</a>.\nYangpu is currently served by four metro lines operated by <a href=\"Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro</a>:","Huangpu District, Shanghai\n District, makes up the eastern part of <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>'s traditional urban core and is today the most central of Shanghai's 16 districts. Huangpu district is the seat of municipal government, includes key attractions such as <a href=\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\">The Bund</a> and the Old <a href=\"City%20God%20Temple\">City God Temple</a>, as well as popular shopping districts such as <a href=\"Nanjing%20Road%20%28Shanghai%29\">Nanjing Road</a> and <a href=\"Huaihai%20Road\">Huaihai Road</a>. The Huangpu District is one of the most densely populated urban districts in the world.\nThe Huangpu District is located in central <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\">People's Republic of China</a> on the left bank (i.e., west or north bank) of <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a>, after which the district is named. It is opposite to <a href=\"Pudong\">Pudong</a> and is bounded by <a href=\"Suzhou%20Creek\">Suzhou Creek</a> to the north.\nToday's Huangpu District is sometimes referred to as \"new Huangpu\" to distinguish it from the pre-merger Huangpu District which existed before 2000. In 2000, the pre-merger Huangpu and <a href=\"Nanshi%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Nanshi</a> districts were combined to form a new district, also called Huangpu. In June 2011, the existing Huangpu District was combined with <a href=\"Luwan%20District\">Luwan District</a> to form a further new district, again called Huangpu. As a result of this merger, it currently has an area of 20.43 km2 and 678,670 inhabitants (as of 2010 census).\nOf the three previous districts that make up today's Huangpu, the pre-merger Huangpu District is located to the north, bounded by Suzhou Creek in the north and the Huangpu River to the east. South of the per-merger Huangpu District was Nanshi District, bounded by the Huangpu River to the east. West of Nanshi District was Luwan District, bounded by the Huangpu River to the south.\nHuangpu District has ten subdistricts.\nNote: <a href=\"Nanshi%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Nanshi District</a> and <a href=\"Luwan%20District\">Luwan District</a> were merged with the former Huangpu District in June 2000 and June 2011 respectively to form the current Huangpu District\nToday's Huangpu District is the result of the merger of three long-standing districts of Shanghai: Nanshi, Huangpu and Luwan. Each of these have a distinct history and character.\nThe former Nanshi District, literally \"southern city\", was the historical core of Shanghai. It included the <a href=\"Old%20City%20of%20Shanghai\">old, walled city</a> as well as the nearby docklands on both sides of the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a>. Shanghai County was established at the beginning of the <a href=\"Ming%20Dynasty\">Ming Dynasty</a>. A city wall was built to repel the <a href=\"Wokou\">Wokou</a>, and this Ming Dynasty wall defined the extent of urban Shanghai for the next few centuries.\nIn 1842, the area north of the old city was established as the British concession in Shanghai, which later became the <a href=\"Shanghai%20International%20Settlement\">Shanghai International Settlement</a>. At the time, the concession was referred to by locals as the \"northern city\" while the walled Chinese city was the \"southern city\". From this reference was later derived the name \"Nanshi\" (). Upon the defeat of Japan at the end of <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, a unified municipal administration was established over urban Shanghai for the first time since the mid 19th century.\nIn 1945, after the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20China\">Republic of China</a> government took control, the old city was divided into the Third District (Yimiao District) and the Fourth District (Penglai District). In 1959 these were merged to form Nanshi District (with a small part of former Yimiao District merging into Luwan District).\nThe pre-merger \"Huangpu District\" was largely located in the former <a href=\"Shanghai%20International%20Settlement\">Shanghai International Settlement</a>. In the later part of the 19th century and the early 20th century, this area quickly became the commercial centre of Shanghai. The International Settlement was handed back to the Chinese government in 1943.\nIn 1945, after the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20China\">Republic of China</a> government took control, the south eastern part of the former International Settlement was divided into the First District (Huangpu District) and the Second District (Laozha District). Of these, the First District lay on the bank of the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a>, and so was named after the river. In 1956, the two districts were merged to form a new and expanded Huangpu District.\nSince 1943, the Shanghai Municipal Government has always been located in Huangpu District – first at the old Shanghai Municipal Council building, then in the <a href=\"HSBC%20Building%2C%20Shanghai\">old HSBC Building</a>, and presently in a purpose-built building on <a href=\"People%27s%20Square%20%28Shanghai%29\">People's Square</a>.\nThe former Luwan District occupied most of the eastern part of the former <a href=\"Shanghai%20French%20Concession\">Shanghai French Concession</a> and some nearby areas. This area was long regarded as the premier residential and high end commercial area of Shanghai. It is known for its leafy streets lined with <a href=\"London%20plane\">London plane</a>s, cafes and restaurants, high end retail and historical houses.\nIn 1945, after the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20China\">Republic of China</a> government took control, the eastern-central part of the former French Concession was divided into the Fifth District (Taishan) and the Sixth District (Lujiawan), separated by South Chongqing Road and Luban Road. Of these, the Sixth District was named after <a href=\"Shanghai%20French%20Concession%23Localities\">Lokawei</a> (), \"Lu's Bay\", an area named after a bend on the \"Zhaojiabang\" creek. The main police depot and prison of the French concession was located here. In 1947, Taishan District was renamed \"Songshan District\".\nIn 1950, Lujiawan District was renamed \"Luwan District\". In 1956, Songshan District was merged into Luwan District. In 1959, part of former Yimiao District was also merged into Luwan District.\nThe district boundaries remained largely unchanged between 1959 and 1993. In 1993, the part of Nanshi east of the Huangpu River was merged into the <a href=\"Pudong\">Pudong</a> New District.\nIn 2000, the Shanghai Municipal Government abolished Nanshi District entirely, merging it into Huangpu District. In 2011, the merger of Luwan District with Huangpu District was announced. On June 8, 2011, it was announced that the proposed plan of merging Luwan and Huangpu Districts had been approved by the <a href=\"State%20Council%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\">State Council</a>.\nDespite the mergers, the three previous districts which make up today's Huangpu District retain their distinct characters.\nThe pre-merger Huangpu District was long the commercial centre of Shanghai. Along the Huangpu riverfront were located the major docks of Shanghai. Behind the docks, on <a href=\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\">the Bund</a>, were offices of major financial institutions and trading houses. Extending from the Bund westward are several major commercial streets. These include the <a href=\"Nanjing%20Road%20%28Shanghai%29\">East Nanjing Road</a>, popular with visitors from around the country. Fuzhou Road is the centre of bookselling in Shanghai, featuring large scale general and specialist book shops and publishers.\nThe <a href=\"People%27s%20Square%20%28Shanghai%29\">People's Square</a>, previously the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Race%20Club\">Shanghai race course</a>, is now the site of the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Grand%20Theatre\">Shanghai Grand Theatre</a>, <a href=\"Shanghai%20Museum\">Shanghai Museum</a>, <a href=\"Shanghai%20Art%20Museum\">Shanghai Art Museum</a>, and the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Urban%20Planning%20Exhibition%20Hall\">Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Hall</a>. The <a href=\"Shanghai%20Natural%20History%20Museum\">Shanghai Natural History Museum</a> is also located in Huangpu District.\nThe old Nanshi district is the old, walled city of Shanghai, and retains a number of important sights, including <a href=\"City%20God%20Temple%20of%20Shanghai\">City God Temple</a> and the nearby <a href=\"Yuyuan%20Garden\">Yuyuan Garden</a>. The old city is undergoing extensive redevelopment, with the existing houses being replaced by high rise apartment buildings as well as modern constructions with traditional Chinese style facades. The boundaries of the walled city can still be traced in the form of a wide ring road built over the course of the old city wall and moat. The city wall has almost entirely been demolished, except for one tower and a short section of wall attached to it, which survived because the tower was converted into a temple in the medieval period.\nThe old Luwan district was a part of the old <a href=\"French%20Concession\">French Concession</a> area, traditionally one of the most prestigious sections of the city. It was famous for its boulevards lined with <a href=\"London%20Plane\">plane trees</a>, which had been imported over 100 years ago. Despite rampant redevelopment, the district retains a distinct character and is a tourist attraction in itself. The district included the historical residences of <a href=\"Sun%20Yat-sen\">Sun Yat-sen</a>, <a href=\"Mao%20Zedong\">Mao Zedong</a>, <a href=\"Zhou%20Enlai\">Zhou Enlai</a>, <a href=\"Agnes%20Smedley\">Agnes Smedley</a> and <a href=\"Mei%20Lanfang\">Mei Lanfang</a>, among many others. <a href=\"Huaihai%20Road\">Huaihai Road</a> is the major commercial thoroughfare in this part of the city.\nThe Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office in Shanghai is in The Headquarters Building in Huangpu District.\nHuangpu is currently served by six metro lines operated by <a href=\"Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro</a>:","North–South Elevated Road (Shanghai)\nNorth–South Elevated Road () is an elevated expressway in the city of <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\">China</a>. It begins to the south at Jiyang Road in <a href=\"Pudong%20New%20Area\">Pudong New Area</a>, crosses the <a href=\"Huangpu%20River\">Huangpu River</a> into <a href=\"Puxi\">Puxi</a> using the <a href=\"Lupu%20Bridge\">Lupu Bridge</a>, and then traverses through Puxi to the <a href=\"Outer%20Ring%20Expressway%20%28Shanghai%29\">Outer Ring Expressway</a> in <a href=\"Baoshan%20District%2C%20Shanghai\">Baoshan District</a>.\nConstruction on the first phase of the expressway, from the <a href=\"Lupu%20Bridge\">Lupu Bridge</a> to Liuying Road started on 25 October 1993 and was completed on 10 December 1995.\nConstruction of the second phase, from Liuying Road to <a href=\"Outer%20Ring%20Expressway%20%28Shanghai%29\">Outer Ring Expressway</a> coincided with the northern extension of <a href=\"Line%201%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro Line 1</a>. The metro line is the first level above street level, while the expressway is the second level above street level. This phase was completed on 4 December 2002.","Outstanding Structure Award\nThe Outstanding Structure Award is an award presented by the <a href=\"International%20Association%20for%20Bridge%20and%20Structural%20Engineering\">International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering</a> to the Engineer, Architect, Contractor, and the Owner in recognition of \"the most remarkable, innovative, creative or otherwise stimulating structure completed within the last few years\".\nThe Award consists of a Plaque that can be fixed to the winning structure. One or more structures are awarded annually since 2000.","Roundabout interchange\nA roundabout interchange is a type of <a href=\"interchange%20%28road%29\">interchange</a> between a controlled access highway, such as a <a href=\"motorway\">motorway</a> or <a href=\"freeway\">freeway</a>, and a minor road. The slip roads to and from the motorway carriageways converge at a single <a href=\"roundabout\">roundabout</a>, which is <a href=\"grade%20separation\">grade-separated</a> from the motorway lanes with bridges.\nA roundabout interchange is similar to a <a href=\"rotary%20%28interchange%29\">rotary interchange</a>, which uses a rotary rather than a roundabout. Roundabouts may also be used in conjunction with other interchange types such as a standard or folded <a href=\"diamond%20interchange\">diamond interchange</a>, but such use should not be confused with a roundabout interchange.\nRoundabout interchanges are extremely common in the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a> and <a href=\"Ireland\">Ireland</a> with hundreds on the <a href=\"Motorway%20%28United%20Kingdom%29and%20%28Ireland%29\">motorway</a> network alone. However, recent cost-cutting has meant that <a href=\"dumbbell%20interchange\">dumbbell interchange</a>s are increasingly used instead. These are essentially <a href=\"diamond%20interchange\">diamond interchange</a>s with roundabouts instead of signals or stop signs where the slip roads meet the minor road. They are cheaper than roundabout interchanges as only one bridge is required instead of two.\nRoundabout interchanges are much less common in <a href=\"North%20America\">North America</a> but have been built more frequently since 1995, to improve safety, and to reduce traffic delays and bridge widening costs. However, many of the older and more dangerous <a href=\"rotary%20%28interchange%29\">rotary</a>-style overpass interchanges have been signalized to improve throughput and safety, such as the former Drum Hill Rotary (now Drum Hill Square) in <a href=\"Chelmsford%2C%20Massachusetts\">Chelmsford, Massachusetts</a> in <a href=\"New%20England\">New England</a>, where such interchanges are unusually common.\nA <a href=\"Divided%20Diamond%20Interchange\">divided diamond</a>, in which the minor road is separated into four intersections, rather than two, also acts like a roundabout interchange, but it is more square in shape and, typically, has traffic light control.\nA roundabout is used as an interchange between <a href=\"Quebec%20Autoroute%2020\">Quebec Autoroute 20</a> and <a href=\"Quebec%20Autoroute%20520\">Quebec Autoroute 520</a> in <a href=\"Montreal\">Montreal</a>, <a href=\"Quebec\">Quebec</a>. The roundaboat is known as\nthe Dorval Circle. Ramps to side streets are added as well. The interchange is\ncurrently being replaced.\nThe three-level stacked roundabout is a variation on the roundabout interchange in which both roads are grade-separated. It is similar to the <a href=\"three-level%20diamond%20interchange\">three-level diamond interchange</a> except that the small square of that latter interchange is enlarged to a true roundabout.\nThree-level stacked roundabouts are quite common in Britain because they use less land than other four-way junctions where both roads are grade separated. However, they have lower capacity for turning movements – some have had direct-linking slip roads added later in an attempt to solve this problem. Examples of such junctions are found at <a href=\"Lofthouse%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\">Lofthouse, West Yorkshire</a> (<a href=\"M1%20motorway\">M1</a>/<a href=\"M62%20motorway\">M62</a>) and <a href=\"Swanley\">Swanley</a>, <a href=\"Kent\">Kent</a> (<a href=\"M20%20motorway\">M20</a>/<a href=\"M25%20motorway\">M25</a>) .","Xuhui District\nXuhui District is a district of <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a>. It has a land area of 54.76 km² and a population of 982,200 as of 2008.\nThe Xuhui District is centred on <a href=\"Xujiahui\">Xujiahui</a>, after which it is named. Xujiahui was historically land owned by <a href=\"Ming%20dynasty\">Ming dynasty</a> bureaucrat and scientist <a href=\"Xu%20Guangqi\">Xu Guangqi</a>, and later donated to the <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Church\">Roman Catholic Church</a>. Being the core of Catholic Shanghai, the Xuhui District formed, together with neighbouring <a href=\"Luwan%20District\">Luwan District</a>, the former <a href=\"French%20Concession%20of%20Shanghai\">French Concession of Shanghai</a>. Vestiges of the French influence can still be seen in the <a href=\"St.%20Ignatius%20Cathedral%20of%20Shanghai\">St. Ignatius Cathedral of Shanghai</a>, <a href=\"Xuhui%20College\">Xuhui College</a>, the Xujiahui Observatory, and some remaining boulevards and French-style districts.\nParts of today's Xuhui District were once the premier residential districts of Shanghai. After the revolution, however, the large estates near Xujiahui were turned into factories. In the 1990s, the Shanghai municipal government developed the district as a commercial zone. A once-prominent commercial area in the district was the Xiangyang Crafts and Gifts Market, a haven for souvenirs and <a href=\"intellectual%20property\">intellectual property</a>-infringing products; it was closed on June 30, 2006 by municipal authorities.\nXujiahui itself has been redeveloped as a commercial centre, with a proliferation of large-scale shopping centres and department stores. Now it is a major shopping destination in the city, with shopping malls such as <a href=\"Grand%20Gateway%20Shanghai\">Grand Gateway Shanghai</a> and <a href=\"Pacific%20Sogo\">Pacific Sogo</a>.\nThe educational tradition begun by Jesuits in Xuhui continues with <a href=\"Shanghai%20Jiao%20Tong%20University\">Shanghai Jiao Tong University</a>, the premier university in China. The district also has some of the best secondary schools in the municipality, such as <a href=\"South%20West%20Weiyu%20Middle%20School\">South West Weiyu Middle School</a>, <a href=\"Shanghai%20High%20School\">Shanghai High School</a> and <a href=\"Nanyang%20Model%20High%20School\">Nanyang Model High School</a>.\nA number of former residences of prominent personalities remain, including <a href=\"Soong%20Ching-ling\">Soong Ching-ling</a> and <a href=\"Sun%20Yat-sen\">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s former residence. <a href=\"Yao%20Ming\">Yao Ming</a> of Houston Rockets was a resident of the district. <a href=\"Luo%20%26quot%3BFerrari%20430%26quot%3B%20Feichi\">Luo \"Ferrari 430\" Feichi</a> currently lives in Xuhui.\nXuhui District has 10 sub-districts and two townships.\n<a href=\"Home%20Inn\">Home Inn</a> has its headquarters in Xuhui. <a href=\"Toei%20Animation\">Toei Animation Shanghai</a> has its head office in Unit 807 of Feidiao International Plaza in the district.\nXuhui District has twelve subdistricts, one town and one special township-level division.\nXuhui is currently served by seven metro lines operated by <a href=\"Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro</a> and one suburban line operated by <a href=\"China%20Railways\">China Railways</a>:\nSchools in Xuhui District include:\nUniversity:\nHigh School:\n1. Nan Yang Model High School\n2. Shanghai Xuhui High School\n3. Shanghai Weiyu High School\n4. Shanghai High School\n5. Shanghai Fifty-forth High School\n","Line 4, Shanghai Metro\nLine 4 is a <a href=\"orbital%20%28metro%29\">loop line</a> of the <a href=\"Shanghai%20Metro\">Shanghai Metro</a> network. Its rolling stock carry a bright violet colour belt to differentiate them from <a href=\"Line%203%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\">Line 3</a> trains which share a portion of its track. To determine the direction of travel, the line that travels counter-clockwise is called the \"Outer Loop\" (外环), while the other line is known as the \"Inner Loop\" (内环). Although it is a loop line, trains returning to the depot use <a href=\"Yishan%20Road%20Station\">Yishan Road</a> as a terminal to let all passengers disembark. The first segment of the line between <a href=\"Damuqiao%20Road%20Station\">Damuqiao Road</a> and <a href=\"Lancun%20Road%20Station\">Lancun Road</a> (running in a \"C\"-shape) opened on December 31, 2005. The remainder of the line opened on December 29, 2007. The line is colored purple on system maps."],"string":"[\n \"Moore Road Stone Arch Bridge\\nMoore Road Stone Arch Bridge is a historic stone arch bridge located at Cornwallville in Greene County, New York. It was constructed in 1887, and is a single-span, dry laid limestone structure with a round arch. Jeremiah Cunningham was the builder.\\nIt was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008.\\n\",\n \"Bridge Day\\nBridge Day is an annual one-day festival in Fayetteville, Fayette County, West Virginia, United States The event is coordinated by the New River Gorge Bridge Day Commission, and is sponsored by numerous companies of both local and international significance. The event, held on the third Saturday every October, commemorates the 1977 completion of the New River Gorge Bridge. On this day, all four lanes of the bridge are closed to automobiles and opened to pedestrians. Estimates have 100,000 people attending the overall event.\\nThe first Bridge Day was held in 1980 and drew a crowd of roughly 40,000. It has been held every year since except for 2001. It was canceled that year due to the recent events of 9/11 and the possibility of terrorist attacks.\\nBridge Day is the only day of the year people are allowed to BASE jump off the bridge into the New River Gorge 876 feet (267 meters) below, one of the few exceptions to a general ban on BASE jumping within the U.S. National Park System. People are also allowed to rappel from the span on Bridge Day. About four hundred BASE jumpers participate in each year's festival. In 2015 the BASE jumping community boycotted the event.\\nThere have been three deaths during Bridge Day due to accidents involving BASE jumpers:\\nRappelling off the bottom of the bridge has been part of the Bridge Day festivities since 1981.\\nThe first bungee jumper leapt from the bridge during the 1992 Bridge Day. More bungee jumpers leapt during the 1993 Bridge Day; however, injuries sustained during a mass bungee jump that year prompted the banning of bungee jumping at Bridge Day.\\nSullivan, Ken, ed. West Virginia Encyclopedia. West Virginia Humanities Council: Charleston, West Virginia, 2006.\",\n \"Hayden Arch Bridge\\nThe Hayden Arch Bridge is a concrete arch bridge on old US 14/US 16 near Cody, Wyoming. It is the only example of its kind in Wyoming. Built in 1924-25, the single-span bridge spans 115 ft with two smaller approach arches between rock canyon walls. The bridge carries the Cody-Yellowstone Highway across the Shoshone River with a shallow open-spandrel central arch and nominally-arched approach spans. The bridge is named after C.E. Hayden, an engineer with the Wyoming State Highway Department, who designed the bridge and supervised its construction. It was built by H.S. Crocker of Denver, Colorado.\\n\",\n \"Evansville-Dutch Mills Road Bridge\\nThe Evansville-Dutch Mills Road Bridge is a historic bridge in rural western Washington County, Arkansas. It is a single-span concrete filled-spandrel arch bridge, which carries Dutch Mills Road (County Road 464) over Whitaker Branch South south of the village of Dutch Mills. The bridge was built in 1936 by the Luten Bridge Company, and was one of its last commissions in the county. The arch spans 28 ft and the bridge has a total structure length of 30 ft . The bridge was built with a unique Luten Company design that used rings to strengthen the connection between the piers and spandrel walls, enabling a reduced amount of material while maintaining the strength of the bridge.\\nThe bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008.\\n\",\n \"Lupu Bridge\\nThe Lupu Bridge () is a through arch bridge over the Huangpu River in Shanghai, China, connecting the city's Huangpu and Pudong districts. It is the world's second longest steel arch bridge, after the Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing. The bridge has a total length including approach spans of 3900 m and opened on June 28, 2003. The main bridge structure is 750m long including the two side spans of 100m each, and the main span of 550 m over the Huangpu River is 32 m longer than the previous record holder for the longest arch bridge, the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. It cost 2.5 billion yuan (US$302 million), including US$78.04 for the main steel structure alone. It is located adjacent to the former Expo 2010 site and served as the centrepiece of the world exposition in Shanghai.\\nThe name of the bridge, Lupu, is an abbreviation of the two districts of Shanghai which it links, one of which is now defunct. The north bank of the river administered by Luwan District until 2011, when it was merged into Huangpu District. However, the bridge still retains the name of the old district. The south bank of the river is administered by Pudong New Area. This follows the naming convention of the three earlier bridges across the Huangpu River, namely the Nanpu (Nanshi-Pudong), Yangpu (Yangpu-Pudong), and Xupu (Xuhui-Pudong) Bridges.\\nThe bridge was envisioned to ease congestion between the quickly developing areas in southern Puxi, as well as to help cope with the traffic expected for Expo 2010. The Expo 2010 site was just to the east of the Lupu Bridge on the Puxi side, and on both sides of the bridge on the Pudong side.\\nConstruction began in October 2000 using a cantilever method and temporary cable-stays. Over 35,000 tonnes of steel were used in construction. The bridge's arch was joined on October 7, 2002.\\nWhen the bridge was completed, it became the world's longest arch bridge, surpassing the earlier title holder, the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. An inauguration ceremony was held on June 27, 2003, featuring a group of runners, including Yao Ming, who were the first to cross the bridge. The bridge opened to vehicular traffic the next day.\\nIn 2009, Lupu Bridge lost its title of the world's longest arch bridge to the Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing. The longest span of the Chaotianmen Bridge was only 2 m longer, at 552 m .\\nThe Lupu Bridge was one of the architectural centerpieces of Expo 2010 in Shanghai, as it formed part of the western boundary of the Expo site.\\nThe bridge carries 6 lanes of the North–South Elevated Road, a major elevated roadway in the city, with 3 lanes in each direction. From Pudong, motorists can access the Lupu Bridge from on-ramps to the North–South Elevated Road westbound on Yaohua Road or northbound on Jiyang Road. The North–South Elevated Road actually ends immediately after the Lupu Bridge and becomes Jiyang Road, with an off-ramp to eastbound Yaohua Road.\\nOn the Puxi side immediately north of the bridge, the North–South Elevated Road intersects with the Inner Ring Road, another major elevated highway in Shanghai, forming the Luban Road Interchange, a roundabout interchange.\\nThe construction of an arch bridge was viewed as wasteful in respect to the extra costs associated with building this type of bridge. Other designs which were less expensive in nature were rejected in favour of the more expensive tied arch design. Lupu Bridge became the first arch bridge across the Huangpu River in Shanghai and many feel its design is just a show piece for the city.\\nBut the bridge's proponents argued that all the other bridges crossing the Huangpu were all cable-stayed bridges and having Lupu built as an arch bridge would make for variation of bridge types in the Shanghai landscape.\\nThe Lupu Bridge used to be a popular tourist attraction along the Huangpu River. The bridge itself was actually also an attraction, as tourists could have ascended to the observation deck at the top of the bridge. The attraction was known as \\\"Shanghai Climb\\\", and involved riding a high-speed elevator from the base of the bridge, and then climbing 367 steps at high altitude along the arch of the bridge to the top. The attraction entrance was located on Luban Road, at the base of the Puxi side of the bridge. The observation area provides great views of Shanghai and the Expo 2010 site during the Expo. Currently (as of 03.05.2016) the bridge is closed for sightseeing.\\nThe closest subway station currently in operation to the base of the bridge for the tourist attraction is the Luban Road Station on Line 4 of the Shanghai Metro. Lupu Bridge Station on Line 13, Shanghai Metro is actually named after the bridge itself, however it was a temporary station used during Expo 2010 and is currently not in operation.\\nThe Lupu Arch Bridge, Shanghai, China, received the 2008 IABSE Outstanding Structure Award for being \\\"A soaring box-arch bridge with a record span, clean impressive lines and innovative use of the side spans of the arch and the deck to resist the thrust of the main arch.\\\"\\n\",\n \"Old Stone Arch Bridge (Lewistown, Pennsylvania)\\nThe Old Stone Arch Bridge is a single-span stone arch bridge which crosses Jack's Creek in Derry Township, Mifflin County, Pennsylvania. Philip Diehl built the bridge in 1813 as part of the Harrisburg to Pittsburgh Turnpike; it is the oldest bridge of its type in central Pennsylvania. The turnpike had been authorized in 1807, and the section from Harrisburg to Lewistown, on which the bridge lies, was completed in 1818. Lithographers Currier and Ives made prints of the bridge in 1850.\\nThe bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 18, 1979.\\n\",\n \"Stone Arch Bridge (Danville, Illinois)\\nThe Stone Arch Bridge is a bridge in Danville, Illinois, which carries U.S. Route 136 (US 136; East Main Street) across Stony Creek. The segmental arch bridge is 92 ft long and built with sandstone. The bridge was built in the 1890s to facilitate Danville's expansion during an industrial boom. As various geographic and political limitations prevented the city from expanding in any directions but east and southeast, the city grew over Stony Creek, necessitating a new bridge. Mayor John Beard commissioned the bridge; during the 1890s, Beard and political rival John Cannon clashed over many issues, and Beard most likely built the bridge to demonstrate his political effectiveness. The bridge is the only segmented arch bridge remaining in east-central Illinois and is one of five stone arch bridges in the region.\\nThe bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.\\n\",\n \"Bridge in Fishing Creek Township\\nBridge in Fishing Creek Township was a historic concrete arch bridge located in Fishing Creek Township in Columbia County, Pennsylvania. It was a 40 ft open spandrel, single-span arch bridge constructed in 1915. The bridge featured a pierced molded concrete parapet with light, star-shaped designs. It crossed Little Pine Creek, but has been demolished.\\nThe bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.\\n\",\n \"New River Gorge Bridge\\nThe New River Gorge Bridge is a steel arch bridge 3030 ft long over the New River Gorge near Fayetteville, West Virginia, in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. With an arch 1700 ft long, the New River Gorge Bridge was for many years the world's longest single-span arch bridge; it is now the fourth longest. Part of U.S. Route 19, its construction marked the completion of Corridor L of the Appalachian Development Highway System. The bridge is crossed by an average of 16,200 motor vehicles per day.\\nThe roadway of the New River Gorge Bridge is 876 ft above the New River. The New River Gorge Bridge is one of the highest vehicular bridges in the world, and is currently the third highest in the United States. In 2005, the structure gained nationwide attention when the US Mint issued the West Virginia state quarter with the bridge depicted on one side. In 2013, the bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\\nConstruction began on the bridge in June 1974, and completed on October 22, 1977. It was designed by the Michael Baker Company, under the direction of Chief Engineer Clarence V. Knudsen, and executed by U.S. Steel's American Bridge Division. Final cost of construction was $37 million (approximately $4 million over bid). It is made from COR-TEN steel. The use of COR-TEN in construction presented several challenges; notable among them was ensuring that the weld-points weathered at the same rate as the rest of the steel.\\nAt the time, the bridge was the West Virginia Department of Highways’ largest project in its history, important both in terms of its overall cost, and that the federal government provided 70 percent of the funding. Construction gave a boost to the state and local economy, completion improved transportation. The bridge cut the vehicle travel time from one side of the gorge to the other from about 45 minutes to 45 seconds.\\nOn August 14, 2013, the bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Even though the bridge was not yet 50 years old, it was listed for its exceptional impact on local transportation and its engineering significance.\\nThe New River Gorge Bridge is within the National Park Service's New River Gorge National River area, which protects this portion of the New River Gorge. At the northern end of the bridge, the Park Service operates a visitor center; it has scenic overlooks and a staircase that descends part of the way into the gorge.\\nA steel catwalk two feet (60 cm) wide runs the full length of the bridge underneath the roadway. Originally built to facilitate inspections, the catwalk is open for guided, handicapped-accessible quarter-mile \\\"Bridge Walk\\\" tours; visitors use safety rigging.\\nSince its opening, the bridge has been the centerpiece of Fayette County's \\\"Bridge Day\\\", held the third Saturday of every October. This festival includes demonstrations of rappelling, ascending, and BASE jumping. Bungee jumping, however, has been banned during Bridge Day since 1993.\\nThe bridge is closed to vehicular traffic during the festival. Prior to the September 11th terrorist attacks, two of the bridge's four lanes were open to traffic during the festivals. Since 2001, security concerns have caused the entire span to be closed to vehicles during these events.\\nThe first person to jump off the New River Gorge Bridge was Burton Ervin, who lives in Cowen, West Virginia, and was a coal-mine foreman. Burton jumped on August 1, 1979, using a conventional North American Aerodynamics Mini Rig System with a 32-foot Lopo canopy. Four BASE jumpers have died at the bridge, three of these during Bridge Day festivals.\\nProbably because of its height (and lack of barriers), the bridge has regularly attracted suicide jumpers, despite its relatively remote location.\\n\",\n \"BASE jumping\\nBASE jumping, also sometimes written as B.A.S.E. jumping, is <a href=\\\"parachuting\\\">parachuting</a> or <a href=\\\"wingsuit%20flying\\\">wingsuit flying</a> from a fixed structure or cliff. \\\"BASE\\\" is an <a href=\\\"acronym\\\">acronym</a> that stands for four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: <a href=\\\"building\\\">building</a>, <a href=\\\"Antenna%20%28radio%29\\\">antenna</a>, <a href=\\\"Span%20%28architecture%29\\\">span</a>, and Earth (<a href=\\\"cliff\\\">cliff</a>). Due to the lower altitudes of the jumps, BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than <a href=\\\"skydiving\\\">skydiving</a> from a plane. In the U.S., BASE jumping is currently regarded by many as a fringe <a href=\\\"extreme%20sport\\\">extreme sport</a> or <a href=\\\"stunt\\\">stunt</a>. In some jurisdictions or locations, BASE jumping is prohibited or illegal; in some places, however, it is permitted, like <a href=\\\"Perrine%20Bridge\\\">Perrine Bridge</a>, in Twin Falls, Idaho, United States. BASE jumping became known to the wider public by depictions of BASE jumping in a number of action movies and was featured in the 2014 documentary \\\"Sunshine Superman\\\".\\nThe acronym \\\"B.A.S.E.\\\" (now more commonly \\\"BASE\\\") was coined by filmmaker <a href=\\\"Carl%20Boenish\\\">Carl Boenish</a>, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith, and Phil Mayfield. Carl Boenish was the catalyst behind modern BASE jumping, and in 1978, he filmed the first BASE jumps to be made using ram-air parachutes and the <a href=\\\"Tracking%20%28freeflying%29\\\">freefall tracking technique</a> (from <a href=\\\"El%20Capitan\\\">El Capitan</a>, in <a href=\\\"Yosemite%20National%20Park\\\">Yosemite National Park</a>). While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping.\\nBASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories (buildings, antennas, spans and earth). When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from an antenna, <a href=\\\"span%20%28architecture%29\\\">spans</a>, and earthen objects. Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after. A separate \\\"award\\\" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later.\\n<a href=\\\"Faust%20Vrancic\\\">Faust Vrancic</a> is widely believed to have performed a parachute jumping experiment for real and, therefore, to be the first man to build and test a parachute: according to the story passed on, Veranzio, in 1617, then over sixty-five years old, implemented his design and tested the parachute by jumping from <a href=\\\"St%20Mark%27s%20Campanile\\\">St Mark's Campanile</a> in Venice. This event was documented some 30 years later in a book \\\"<a href=\\\"Mathematical%20Magick\\\">Mathematical Magick or, the Wonders that may be Performed by Mechanical Geometry</a>\\\" (London, 1648) written by <a href=\\\"John%20Wilkins\\\">John Wilkins</a>, the secretary of the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Society\\\">Royal Society</a> in London.\\nHowever, these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. After 1978, the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this that popularized BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his death in 1984 after a BASE-jump off of the <a href=\\\"Troll%20Wall\\\">Troll Wall</a>. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.\\nDuring the early eighties, nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components. Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping.\\nUpon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a \\\"BASE number\\\", awarded sequentially. The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 and BASE #1000 was awarded to Matt \\\"Harley\\\" Moilanen of Grand Rapids, Michigan. s of 2017 , over 2,000 BASE numbers have been issued.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Guinness%20World%20Records\\\">Guinness World Records</a>\\\" first listed a BASE jumping record with <a href=\\\"Carl%20Boenish\\\">Carl Boenish</a>'s 1984 leap from Trollveggen (<a href=\\\"Troll%20Wall\\\">Troll Wall</a>) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump. (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the \\\"Guinness\\\" book and is currently held by Valery Rozov. On 5 October 2016, Russia’s Valery Rozov leapt from a height of around 7,700 m (25,262 ft) from Cho Oyu – the sixth-highest mountain in the Himalayas, located on the China/Nepal border. He fell for around 90 seconds before opening his parachute, landing on a glacier approximately two minutes later at an altitude of around 6,000 m (19,685 ft). On July 8, 2006 Captain Daniel G. Schilling set the Guinness World Record for the most BASE jumps in a twenty-four-hour period. Schilling jumped off the <a href=\\\"Perrine%20Bridge\\\">Perrine Bridge</a> in Twin Falls, Idaho a record 201 times.\\nBASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the 452 m high <a href=\\\"Petronas%20Towers\\\">Petronas Towers</a> in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy.\\nIn 2010 celebrated a world record with 53 Base jumpers jumping from a cliff.\\nBASE jumping is often featured in action movies. The 2002 <a href=\\\"Vin%20Diesel\\\">Vin Diesel</a> film \\\"<a href=\\\"XXX%20%282002%20film%29\\\">XXX</a>\\\" includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the <a href=\\\"Foresthill%20Bridge\\\">Foresthill Bridge</a> in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. The movie \\\"\\\" includes a scene in which the main characters jump with <a href=\\\"wing%20suit\\\">wing suit</a>s from the IFC Tower in <a href=\\\"Hong%20Kong\\\">Hong Kong</a> and fly over the Bank of China, finally opening their parachutes to land on a moving freighter. The stunt was done live, with no special effects, by base jumpers Martin Rosén and Per Eriksson, members of the Swedish \\\"Team Bautasten\\\". The scene was filmed by air-to-air camera man Mikael Nordqvist, from the same team. Since the 1976 <a href=\\\"Mount%20Asgard\\\">Mount Asgard</a> jump featured in the pre-credits sequence to \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Spy%20Who%20Loved%20Me%20%28film%29\\\">The Spy Who Loved Me</a>\\\", James Bond movies have featured several BASE jumps, including one from the <a href=\\\"Eiffel%20Tower\\\">Eiffel Tower</a> in 1985's \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20View%20to%20a%20Kill\\\">A View to a Kill</a>\\\", the <a href=\\\"Rock%20of%20Gibraltar\\\">Rock of Gibraltar</a> in 1987's \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Living%20Daylights\\\">The Living Daylights</a>\\\", and in \\\"<a href=\\\"Die%20Another%20Day\\\">Die Another Day</a>\\\", 2002, <a href=\\\"Pierce%20Brosnan\\\">Pierce Brosnan</a> as <a href=\\\"James%20Bond\\\">James Bond</a> jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed live; the rest were special effects. And in 2005's \\\"<a href=\\\"Batman%20Begins\\\">Batman Begins</a>\\\", Bruce Wayne uses BASE jumping as inspiration for his memory cloth cape. A series of BASE jumps are featured in the video for a remix of <a href=\\\"M83%20%28band%29\\\">M83</a>'s \\\"Lower Your Eyelids to Die With the Sun\\\".\\nIn 1938, a Sierra Club film \\\"Three On A Rope\\\" (1938) ends with a climber jumping off Baldy Mountain rather than dealing with the hassle of rappelling to the horror of a climbing partner, only to deploy a parachute hidden in his pack.\\nThe video game \\\"Just Cause 3\\\" also involves the main character, Rico Rodriguez, performing many dangerous stunts involving his wing suit and grappling hook. One example is when, in the first mission, he jumps off a cliff onto a bridge. This mechanic has led to many crazy stunts performed by players.\\nBASE jumping grew out of skydiving. BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives, and a BASE jump takes place close to the object serving as the jump platform. Because BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper does not always reach <a href=\\\"terminal%20velocity\\\">terminal velocity</a>. Because higher airspeeds enable jumpers more aerodynamic control of their bodies, as well as more positive and quick parachute openings, the longer the delay, the better. BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as <a href=\\\"skydiving\\\">skydiving</a> from aircraft.\\nSkydivers use the air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. The <a href=\\\"aircraft%20attitude\\\">attitude</a> of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor \\\"launch\\\" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. The jumper may also not be facing the right direction. Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping.\\nAt an altitude of 600 m , having been in free-fall for at least 300 m , a skydiver is falling at approximately 55 m/s , and is approximately 10.9 seconds from the ground. Most BASE jumps are made from less than 600 m . For example, a BASE jump from a 150 m object is about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall. On a BASE jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of a similar skydive, and more quickly (in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers often use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and many jump with only one parachute, since there would be little time to utilize a reserve parachute. In the early days of BASE jumping, people used modified skydiving gear, such as by removing the deployment bag and <a href=\\\"slider%20%28parachuting%29\\\">slider</a>, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute. However, modified skydiving gear is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as \\\"line-overs\\\" and broken lines). Modern purpose-built BASE jumping equipment is considered to be much safer and more reliable.\\nAnother risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three-minute or more parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from 150 m will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds.\\nOne way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a <a href=\\\"static%20line\\\">static line</a> or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps — below 60 m — to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall. This method is similar to the <a href=\\\"paratrooper\\\">paratrooper</a>'s deployment system, also called a PCA (Pilot Chute Assist).\\nSurreptitious BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. Many such BASE jumps must be covert because the owners of these objects are generally reluctant to allow their object to be used as a platform. While BASE jumping itself is generally not illegal, making events such as the \\\"Go Fast Games\\\" at the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Gorge%20Bridge\\\">Royal Gorge Bridge</a> possible, the covert nature of accessing objects usually necessitates trespassing on an object. Jumpers who are caught can expect to be charged with trespassing, as well as having charges like breaking and entering, reckless endangerment, vandalism, or other such charges pressed against them. Other people accompanying the jumper, such as ground crew, may also face charges. In some jurisdictions it may be permissible to use land until specifically told not to. <a href=\\\"Perrine%20Bridge\\\">Perrine Bridge</a> in <a href=\\\"Twin%20Falls%2C%20Idaho\\\">Twin Falls, Idaho</a>, is an example of a man-made structure in the United States where BASE jumping is allowed year-round without a permit.\\nOnce a year, on the third Saturday in October (\\\"<a href=\\\"Bridge%20Day\\\">Bridge Day</a>\\\"), permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted at the <a href=\\\"New%20River%20Gorge%20Bridge\\\">New River Gorge Bridge</a> in <a href=\\\"Fayetteville%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Fayetteville, West Virginia</a>. The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river. This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers and nearly 200,000 spectators. 1,100 jumps may occur during the six hours that it is legal provided good conditions. For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this bridge will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump. On 21 October 2006, veteran BASE jumper <a href=\\\"Brian%20Lee%20Schubert\\\">Brian Lee Schubert</a> of <a href=\\\"Alta%20Loma%2C%20Rancho%20Cucamonga%2C%20California\\\">Alta Loma, California</a> died while jumping from the New River Gorge Bridge during Bridge Day activities because his parachute opened late; he plummeted to his death in the waters below. Jumps continued after the recovery of his body. He and his friend <a href=\\\"Michael%20Pelkey\\\">Michael Pelkey</a> were the first to make a BASE jump from <a href=\\\"El%20Capitan\\\">El Capitan</a> in <a href=\\\"Yosemite%20National%20Park\\\">Yosemite National Park</a> in 1966.\\nThe <a href=\\\"National%20Park%20Service\\\">National Park Service</a> (NPS) has the authority to ban specific activities in <a href=\\\"US%20National%20Parks\\\">US National Parks</a> and has done so for BASE jumping. The authority comes from 36 CFR 2.17(3), which prohibits, \\\"Delivering or retrieving a person or object by parachute, helicopter, or other airborne means, except in emergencies involving public safety or serious property loss, or pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\\\" Under that Regulation, BASE is not banned, but is allowable if a permit is issued by the Superintendent, which means that a mechanism to allow BASE in National Parks was always in place. The 2001 National Park Service Management Policies state that BASE \\\"is not an appropriate public use activity within national park areas ...\\\" (2001 Management Policy 8.2.2.7.) However, Policy 8.2.2.7 in the 2006 volume of National Park Service Management Policies, which superseded the 2001 edition, states \\\"Parachuting (or BASE jumping), whether from an aircraft, structure, or natural feature, is generally prohibited by 36 CFR 2.17(a)(3). However, if determined through a park planning process to be an appropriate activity, it may be allowed pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\\\"\\nDuring the early days of BASE jumping, the NPS issued permits that authorized jumps from <a href=\\\"El%20Capitan\\\">El Capitan</a>. This program ran for three months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorized jumpers. The NPS has since vigorously enforced the ban, charging jumpers with \\\"aerial delivery into a National Park\\\". One jumper drowned in the <a href=\\\"Merced%20River\\\">Merced River</a> while evading arresting Park Rangers, having declared 'No way are they gonna get me. Let them chase me—I'll just laugh in their faces and jump in the river.' Despite incidents like this one, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. El Capitan, <a href=\\\"Half%20Dome\\\">Half Dome</a> and <a href=\\\"Glacier%20Point\\\">Glacier Point</a> have been used as jump sites.\\nOther US public land, including land controlled by the <a href=\\\"Bureau%20of%20Land%20Management\\\">Bureau of Land Management</a>, does not ban air delivery, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land.\\nThe legal position is different at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's <a href=\\\"Lysefjord\\\">Lysefjord</a> (from the mountain <a href=\\\"Kjerag\\\">Kjerag</a>), BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near <a href=\\\"Chamonix\\\">Chamonix</a> and on the <a href=\\\"Eiger\\\">Eiger</a>, are also open to jumpers. Some other Norwegian places, like the <a href=\\\"Troll%20Wall\\\">Troll Wall</a>, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past. In Austria, jumping from mountain cliffs is generally allowed, whereas the use of bridges (such as the <a href=\\\"Europabruecke\\\">Europabruecke</a> near <a href=\\\"Innsbruck\\\">Innsbruck</a>, <a href=\\\"Tirol%20%28state%29\\\">Tirol</a>) or dams is generally prohibited. Australia has some of the toughest stances on BASE jumping: it specifically bans BASE jumping from certain objects, such as the <a href=\\\"Sydney%20Harbour%20Bridge\\\">Sydney Harbour Bridge</a>.\\nBASE jumping as of 2006 has an overall fatality rate estimated at about one fatality per sixty participants. A study of 20,850 BASE jumps from the same site (the Kjerag Massif in Norway) reported 9 fatalities over the 11-year period from 1995 to 2005, or 1 in every 2,317 jumps. However, at that site, 1 in every 254 jumps over that period resulted in a nonfatal accident. BASE jumping is one of the most dangerous recreational activities in the world, with a fatality and injury rate 43 times as high as parachuting from a plane.\\ns of 20 2016 , the 'BASE Fatality List' maintained by Blincmagazine.com records 285 deaths for BASE jumping since April 1981.\\nAmerican BASE jumper Ian Flanders died in <a href=\\\"Kemaliye\\\">Kemaliye</a>, <a href=\\\"Turkey\\\">Turkey</a> on 21 July 2015, after his parachute became tangled in his feet, causing him to fall into the <a href=\\\"Karasu\\\">Karasu</a> river at high speed. The jump was being aired live on a local television station.\",\n \"Fayette County, West Virginia\\nFayette County is a <a href=\\\"County%20%28United%20States%29\\\">county</a> in the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20state\\\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\\\"West%20Virginia\\\">West Virginia</a>. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>, the population was 46,039. Its <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> is <a href=\\\"Fayetteville%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Fayetteville</a>.\\nFayette County is part of the <a href=\\\"Beckley%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Beckley</a>, WV <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Statistical%20Area\\\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a>.\\nFayette County was created by Act of the <a href=\\\"Virginia%20General%20Assembly\\\">Virginia General Assembly</a>, passed February 28, 1831, from parts of <a href=\\\"Greenbrier%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Greenbrier</a>, <a href=\\\"Kanawha%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Kanawha</a>, <a href=\\\"Nicholas%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Nicholas</a>, and <a href=\\\"Logan%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Logan</a> counties. It was named in honor of the <a href=\\\"Marquis%20de%20la%20Fayette\\\">Marquis de la Fayette</a>, who had played a key role assisting the Continental Army during the <a href=\\\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\\\">American Revolutionary War</a>. Virginia previously had a Fayette County, which was lost to form the new state of Kentucky. Accordingly, in the State records of Virginia, there will be listings for Fayette County from 1780–1792 and Fayette County from 1831-1863. Neither location is still located in Virginia and despite naming a county after him twice, Virginia no longer has a county named for the Marquis de la Fayette.\\nA substantial portion was subdivided from Fayette County to form <a href=\\\"Raleigh%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Raleigh County</a> in 1850. Fayette was one of 50 counties that broke off from the rest of Virginia and formed the new state of West Virginia during the <a href=\\\"American%20Civil%20War\\\">American Civil War</a>. In 1871, an Act of the West Virginia Legislature severed a small portion to form part of <a href=\\\"Summers%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Summers County</a>.\\nFayette County was home to a disastrous mine explosion at <a href=\\\"Red%20Ash%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Red Ash</a> in March 1900, in which 46 miners were killed.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\\\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 668 sqmi , of which 662 sqmi is land and 6.8 sqmi (1.0%) is water. Plum Orchard Lake, a reservoir southwest of Oak Hill, is the second largest lake in West Virginia.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 47,579 people, 18,945 households, and 13,128 families residing in the county. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 72 people per square mile (28/km²). There were 21,616 housing units at an average density of 33 per square mile (13/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 92.74% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 5.57% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Black</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.27% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 0.30% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.04% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.15% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 0.93% from two or more races. 0.68% of the population were <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race.\\nThere were 18,945 households out of which 29.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.10% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 13.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.70% were non-families. 26.90% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.89.\\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 21.70% under the age of 18, 9.60% from 18 to 24, 27.10% from 25 to 44, 25.10% from 45 to 64, and 16.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 98.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.70 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the county was $24,788, and the median income for a family was $30,243. Males had a median income of $28,554 versus $18,317 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the county was $13,809. About 18.20% of families and 21.70% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 31.90% of those under age 18 and 13.70% of those age 65 or over.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were 46,039 people, 18,813 households, and 12,459 families residing in the county. The population density was 69.6 PD/sqmi . There were 21,618 housing units at an average density of 32.7 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the county was 93.5% white, 4.6% black or African American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.2% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0.9% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 16.9% were <a href=\\\"Germans\\\">German</a>, 15.5% were <a href=\\\"Irish%20people\\\">Irish</a>, 10.8% were <a href=\\\"English%20people\\\">English</a>, and 9.5% were <a href=\\\"Americans\\\">American</a>.\\nOf the 18,813 households, 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.7% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 33.8% were non-families, and 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.87. The median age was 43.0 years.\\nThe median income for a household in the county was $31,912 and the median income for a family was $42,077. Males had a median income of $39,301 versus $24,874 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,082. About 16.4% of families and 21.3% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 30.9% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.\\nFayette County’s political history is typical of West Virginia as a whole. The county leaned Democratic during the <a href=\\\"Third%20Party%20System\\\">Third Party System</a> before the power of industrial and mining political systems turned it strongly towards the Republican Party between 1880 and 1930. Between the 1884 and 1928 elections, the county did not vote Democratic except when the Republican Party was divided in 1912. Unionization of its predominant coal mining workforce during the New Deal made the county powerfully Democratic between 1935 and 2005: no Republican in this period except Richard Nixon against the strongly leftist George McGovern won forty percent of the county’s vote, and <a href=\\\"Lyndon%20Johnson\\\">Lyndon Johnson</a> in 1964 exceeded eighty percent against the free-market <a href=\\\"Barry%20Goldwater\\\">Barry Goldwater</a>. However, the decline of mining unions and the out-migration of historical black mining families, has produced a rapid swing to the Republican Party – so that over the past three presidential elections swings to the Republican Party have averaged thirty percentage points and Democratic vote percentages plummeted to levels historically more typical of Unionist, traditionally Republican counties like <a href=\\\"Morgan%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Morgan</a> or <a href=\\\"Upshur%20County%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Upshur</a>.\\nThe county has a tradition of coal mining, which still serves as a primary source of employment in the area. A Georgia Pacific lumber mill has its home to the west of Mt. Hope, adjacent to U.S. Route 19. There exists a large metal alloy plant in <a href=\\\"Alloy%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Alloy</a>. The <a href=\\\"Mount%20Olive%20Correctional%20Complex\\\">Mount Olive Correctional Complex</a>, West Virginia's only maximum security state prison, is also located in Fayette County.\\n\",\n \"Cody, Wyoming\\nCody is a city in Northwest Wyoming and the <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> of <a href=\\\"Park%20County%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Park County</a>, <a href=\\\"Wyoming\\\">Wyoming</a>, <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>. It is named after Colonel William Frederick \\\"<a href=\\\"Buffalo%20Bill\\\">Buffalo Bill</a>\\\" Cody for his part in the creation of the original town. The population was 9,520 at the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%2C%202010\\\">2010 census</a>.\\nCody is served by <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20Regional%20Airport\\\">Yellowstone Regional Airport</a>.\\nCody is located at (44.523244, −109.057109).\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 10.43 sqmi , of which, 10.20 sqmi is land and 0.23 sqmi is water.\\nCody's elevation is about 5016 ft (1,500 m) above sea level. The main part of the city is split across three levels, separated by about 60 feet (18 m).\\nThe <a href=\\\"Shoshone%20River\\\">Shoshone River</a> flows through Cody in a fairly deep canyon. There are four bridges over this river in the Cody vicinity, one at the north edge of town that allows travel to the north, and one about 5 mi east of Cody that allows passage to <a href=\\\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Powell</a> and the areas to the north and east. The other two are west of town; one allows access to the East Gate of <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\\\">Yellowstone National Park</a>, and the other is used by fishermen in Shoshone Canyon and as access to the <a href=\\\"https%3A//www.nps.gov/articles/wyoming-buffalo-bill-dam.htm\\\">Buffalo Bill Dam</a>.\\nCody is located at the western edge of the <a href=\\\"Bighorn%20Basin\\\">Bighorn Basin</a>, a depression surrounded by the <a href=\\\"Big%20Horn%20Mountains\\\">Big Horn</a>, <a href=\\\"Owl%20Creek%20Mountains\\\">Owl Creek</a>, <a href=\\\"Bridger%20Mountains%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">Bridger</a>, and <a href=\\\"Absaroka%20Range\\\">Absaroka</a> ranges. At the western edge of Cody, a deep canyon formed by the Shoshone River provides the only passage to Yellowstone's Eastern Entrance. At its mouth and rising above Cody are Rattlesnake Mountain on the north side and Cedar Mountain on the south side. Most of Cody has a spectacular view of <a href=\\\"Heart%20Mountain%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">Heart Mountain</a>, whose 8,123 ft peak is 9 mi directly north of Cody, and the Carter Mountains, which form a line with peaks at about 12000 ft , some 15 mi to the south.\\nCody experiences a <a href=\\\"semi-arid%20climate\\\">semi-arid climate</a> (<a href=\\\"K%C3%B6ppen%20climate%20classification\\\">Köppen</a> \\\"BSk\\\"), with highly variable conditions. Relative humidity is usually a fairly dry 30% or less. Precipitation averages 10.5 in annually, including 42.5 in of snow per season. Due to the aridity, snow cover is highly unreliable, with 27 days per season with 1 in or more on the ground. Cody enjoys about 300 days of sunshine per year.\\nWind is almost a constant presence in the Cody area and the Big Horn Basin in general. Air flow in the Basin is turbulent, but during the winter most storms move in from the north-northwest. During the summer, it is not unusual to see storms move in from the southwest. Throughout a normal day, winds can be experienced as coming from almost any direction, mostly from the north and west, but sometimes from the south and east. The Canyon at the west end of Cody funnels rain and wind across the city from the west. The winds can be quite strong at 30 to and last for several days.\\nBecause of the dry climate, the entire area is laced with irrigation canals, holding ponds, laterals, and drops. The <a href=\\\"Buffalo%20Bill%20Dam\\\">Buffalo Bill Dam</a> between Rattlesnake and Cedar mountains forms a large <a href=\\\"reservoir%20%28water%29\\\">reservoir</a> about 10 mi to the west of Cody. This reservoir (among others) feeds the <a href=\\\"Shoshone%20project\\\">Shoshone Project</a>, a large irrigation water distribution system.\\nThe monthly daily average temperature ranges from 25.9 °F in December to 69.9 °F in July. An average of 13.8 days have highs of 90 °F or higher and an average of 13.2 days have lows of 0 °F or lower; the average window for freezing temperatures is September 27 thru May 14 and for measurable (≥0.1 in snow, October 24 thru April 17. The record high temperature was 105 F on July 14, 1925, and the record low temperature was -46 F on February 8, 1936.\\nThe wettest calendar year has been 1991 with 16.04 in and the driest 1956 with 3.58 in . The most rainfall in one month was 5.76 in in June 1992. The most rainfall in 24 hours was 2.51 in on July 22, 1973. There are an average of 70 days with measurable precipitation. The most snow in one year was 73.4 in between July 1916 and June 1917. The most snow in one month was 26.3 in in January 1972.\\nThemes surrounding Cody's pioneer and Cowboy and Western history are common in the cultural events and activities in the area.\\nThe <a href=\\\"http%3A//centerofthewest.org/\\\">Buffalo Bill Center of the West</a>, previously the <a href=\\\"Buffalo%20Bill%20Historical%20Center\\\">Buffalo Bill Historical Center</a>, is a large and modern facility located near the center of the city. It contains five museums in one, including the Draper Natural History Museum, the Plains Indian Museum, the Cody Firearms Museum, the Whitney Western Art Museum and the Buffalo Bill Museum which chronicles the life of <a href=\\\"Buffalo%20Bill\\\">William F. Cody</a>, for whom the historical center is named. The historical center maintains large collections. It is a favorite stopping point for tourists passing through the town, on their way to or from Yellowstone.\\n<a href=\\\"Old%20Trail%20Town\\\">Old Trail Town</a>, a restoration of more than twenty-five historic Western buildings and artifacts is located in Cody just off the <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20Highway\\\">Yellowstone Highway</a>.\\nRodeo is important in the culture in Cody, which calls itself the \\\"Rodeo Capital of the World\\\". The Cody Nite Rodeo is an amateur <a href=\\\"rodeo\\\">rodeo</a> every night from June 1 through August 31.\\nCody is also host to the <a href=\\\"Cody%20Stampede%20Rodeo\\\">Cody Stampede Rodeo</a>. The Stampede is a <a href=\\\"Professional%20Rodeo%20Cowboys%20Association\\\">Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association</a> rodeo and is one of the largest rodeos in the nation that is held over the Independence Day Holiday. Many of the top cowboys in the country attend. The stampede has been held from July 1–4 every year since 1919.\\nThe Cody Firearms Museum has a large collection of American firearms.\\nCody is the birthplace of the famous abstract artist <a href=\\\"Jackson%20Pollock\\\">Jackson Pollock</a>.\\nPublic education in the city of Cody is provided by <a href=\\\"Park%20County%20School%20District%20Number%206\\\">Park County School District #6</a>. Three elementary schools – Eastside, Glenn Livingston, and Sunset - serve students in grades kindergarten through five. The district's two secondary campuses are <a href=\\\"Cody%20Middle%20School\\\">Cody Middle School</a> (grades 6-8) and <a href=\\\"Cody%20High%20School%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">Cody High School</a> (grades 9-12).\\nThe primary industry in Cody is <a href=\\\"tourism\\\">tourism</a>. Hotels, restaurants and shops cater to travelers coming to visit the West and Yellowstone Park. Cody has several art galleries, with some notable local painters and artists living in the area.\\nCody is fast becoming a hub for Outdoor Recreation. The Shoshone River runs through town offering Class I-V kayaking and whitewater rafting. Shoshone Canyon offers over 300 rock climbing routes, while Cedar Mountain boasts nearly 600 boulder problems. Cody hosts nearly 50 miles of single track, with a large amount of it accessible by bike from town. A bike park was recently completed with Jump and Drop lines as well as a Pump track.\\nAnother industry is western style <a href=\\\"furniture\\\">furniture</a>, with several small furniture makers producing custom pieces.\\nThe oil industry seems to wax and wane over the years in the Cody area.\\nJust to the south of Cody are large deposits of <a href=\\\"gypsum\\\">gypsum</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Park%20County%20School%20District%20Number%206\\\">Park County School District #6</a> is another large employer in the area.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2010, there were 9,520 people, 4,278 households, and 2,502 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 933.3 PD/sqmi . There were 4,650 housing units at an average density of 455.9 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 95.9% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 0.2% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.7% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 0.4% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.1% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.0% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.8% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 3.1% of the population.\\nThere were 4,278 households of which 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.0% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.5% were non-families. 34.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.82.\\nThe median age in the city was 42.4 years. 21.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.1% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 18.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.2% male and 51.8% female.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 8,835 people, 3,791 households, and 2,403 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 952.3 people per square mile (367.6/km²). There were 4,113 housing units at an average density of 443.3 per square mile (171.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.90% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 0.10% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.42% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 0.58% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.05% <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.85% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.11% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 2.22% of the population.\\nThere were 3,791 households out of which 29.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.86.\\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 90.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.1 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $34,450, and the median income for a family was $40,554. Males had a median income of $31,395 versus $19,947 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $17,813. About 9.4% of families and 13.9% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 19.3% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.\\nCody is governed via a city council and mayor. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. The city council consists of six members who are elected from one of three wards. Each ward elects two members.\\nTwice-weekly <a href=\\\"Cody%20Enterprise\\\">Cody Enterprise</a>. Founded by \\\"Buffalo Bill\\\" Cody and Col. John Peake in August 1899. The paper has a paid circulation of 7,050, and is owned by <a href=\\\"Sage%20Publishing\\\">Sage Publishing</a> of Cody.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20Regional%20Airport\\\">Yellowstone Regional Airport</a> offers full passenger service. Flights are available through <a href=\\\"SkyWest%20Airlines\\\">SkyWest</a> (<a href=\\\"Delta%20Air%20Lines\\\">Delta Air Lines</a>), connecting through <a href=\\\"Salt%20Lake%20City%2C%20Utah\\\">Salt Lake City, Utah</a>, and <a href=\\\"SkyWest%20Airlines\\\">SkyWest</a> (<a href=\\\"United%20Airlines\\\">United Airlines</a>), connecting through <a href=\\\"Denver%2C%20Colorado\\\">Denver, Colorado</a>. Air cargo services are provided by <a href=\\\"FedEx\\\">FedEx</a> and <a href=\\\"United%20Parcel%20Service\\\">UPS</a>.\\nCody has three bus transit companies: <a href=\\\"Cody%20Over%20Land%20Transit\\\">Cody Over Land Transit</a>, <a href=\\\"Phidippides%20Shuttle%20Service\\\">Phidippides Shuttle Service</a>, and LP Transportation. Cody Over Land operates routes within the city of Cody, from June through September. Phidippides is a full service transportation company with service to Cody, <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\\\">Yellowstone National Park</a>, and airports in Cody, <a href=\\\"Jackson%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Jackson</a>, and <a href=\\\"Billings%2C%20Montana\\\">Billings</a>. They also have courier and package service available. LP Transportation operates from the Palmer Outpost providing shuttle service to <a href=\\\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Lovell</a>, and connecting to Black Hills/Arrow Stage (Billings to Denver).\\n\\n\",\n \"Shoshone River\\nThe Shoshone River is a 100 mi long river in northern <a href=\\\"Wyoming\\\">Wyoming</a> in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>. Its headwaters are in the <a href=\\\"Absaroka%20Range\\\">Absaroka Range</a> in <a href=\\\"Shoshone%20National%20Forest\\\">Shoshone National Forest</a>. It ends when it runs into the <a href=\\\"Big%20Horn%20River\\\">Big Horn River</a> near <a href=\\\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Lovell, Wyoming</a>. Cities it runs near or through are <a href=\\\"Cody%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Cody</a>, <a href=\\\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Powell</a>, <a href=\\\"Byron%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Byron</a>, and <a href=\\\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Lovell</a>. Near Cody, it runs through a volcanically active region of <a href=\\\"fumaroles\\\">fumaroles</a> known as <a href=\\\"Colter%27s%20Hell\\\">Colter's Hell</a>. This contributed to the river being named on old maps of Wyoming as the \\\"Stinking Water River\\\".\\nThe current name was established in 1901 due to popular demand.\\nWest of Cody the river is impounded in Shoshone Canyon by the <a href=\\\"Buffalo%20Bill%20Dam\\\">Buffalo Bill Dam</a>, created as part of the <a href=\\\"Shoshone%20project\\\">Shoshone project</a>; one of the nation's first water conservation projects. A number of hot springs along the Shoshone were drowned by the reservoir. Upstream of Buffalo Bill Reservoir the Shoshone splits into the North Fork, which follows a long canyon down from the <a href=\\\"Absaroka%20Mountains\\\">Absaroka Mountains</a> to the vicinity of the east entrance of <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\\\">Yellowstone National Park</a>, and the South Fork, which originates at the southern end of the Absarokas.\",\n \"U.S. Route 14 in Wyoming\\nIn the U.S. state of <a href=\\\"Wyoming\\\">Wyoming</a>, U.S. Highway 14 (US 14) runs east to west across the northern part of the state. The road connects South Dakota on the east with <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\\\">Yellowstone National Park</a> on the west. It is mostly a two lane surface road except for several sections that it shares with <a href=\\\"Interstate%2090\\\">Interstate 90</a>.\\nWhile the official western terminus of the road is at the Eastern gate of <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20National%20Park\\\">Yellowstone National Park</a> there is an unsigned section within the park itself starting at a junction with <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2089\\\">U.S. Route 89</a> and <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%20287\\\">U.S. Route 287</a> at West Thumb and following the northern shore of <a href=\\\"Yellowstone%20Lake\\\">Yellowstone Lake</a>. From the park US 14 is co-signed with <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2016\\\">U.S. Route 16</a> and <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2020\\\">U.S. Route 20</a>. The roads lead east out of the <a href=\\\"Absaroka%20Range\\\">Absaroka Range</a> and down the <a href=\\\"Shoshone%20River\\\">Shoshone River</a> valley to <a href=\\\"Cody%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Cody</a>. Here, <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2014%20Alternate%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">U.S. Route 14 Alternate (US 14A)</a> splits north toward <a href=\\\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Powell</a>, while US 14/16/20 continues east across the <a href=\\\"Bighorn%20Basin\\\">Bighorn Basin</a> to <a href=\\\"Greybull%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Greybull</a>. At Greybull, US 16 and US 20 go south, while US 14 travels east to <a href=\\\"Shell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Shell</a>, and the western slope of the <a href=\\\"Big%20Horn%20Mountains\\\">Big Horn Mountains</a>. The road ascends a windy path through steep <a href=\\\"Shell%20Canyon\\\">Shell Canyon</a> and rejoins US 14A at the top of the range at <a href=\\\"Burgess%20Junction%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Burgess Junction</a>. The road is designated as Bighorn Scenic Byway between Shell and <a href=\\\"Dayton%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Dayton</a> on the eastern side of the mountain range. On the east side of the Bighorns, the road merges with <a href=\\\"Interstate%2090\\\">Interstate 90</a> and travels southeast to <a href=\\\"Sheridan%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Sheridan, Wyoming</a>. From Sheridan, the road continues east, rejoining with <a href=\\\"US%20Route%2016\\\">US Route 16</a> near <a href=\\\"Clearmont%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Clearmont</a>. The roads travel across the <a href=\\\"Powder%20River%20Country\\\">Powder River Country</a> to <a href=\\\"Gillette%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Gillette, Wyoming</a> where it joins again with Interstate 90 to <a href=\\\"Moorcroft%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Moorcroft</a>. From here, it diverges north from Interstate 90 briefly to junction with <a href=\\\"Wyoming%20Highway%2024\\\">Wyoming Highway 24</a> with access to <a href=\\\"Devils%20Tower%20National%20Monument\\\">Devils Tower National Monument</a>. US 14 turns south and rejoins Interstate 90 which it follows to the eastern border of Wyoming and <a href=\\\"South%20Dakota\\\">South Dakota</a>.\\nUS 14 was originally planned to stop in <a href=\\\"Wall%2C%20South%20Dakota\\\">Wall, South Dakota</a>. In 1936, the road was extended to the Wyoming border and US 16 was rerouted through <a href=\\\"Newcastle%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Newcastle</a> and the old US 16 was re designated as US 14. Prior to 1940, US 14 followed the route currently serviced by US 14A through <a href=\\\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Lovell</a> and <a href=\\\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Powell</a>. In 1940, the highway took over Wyoming Highway 520 between Burgess Junction and Greybull, and the old road was renamed Wyoming Highway 14. Due to confusion, it was recommissioned as US 14A in 1965. In the 1960s portions of the highway in the eastern part of the state became Interstate 90.\\n\\nU.S. Highway 14 Alternate is an <a href=\\\"alternate%20route\\\">alternate route</a> for U.S. Highway 14 between <a href=\\\"Cody%20%28WY%29\\\">Cody</a> and <a href=\\\"Burgess%20Junction%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Burgess Junction</a>. At its west end in Cody, US 14 is <a href=\\\"concurrent%20%28road%29\\\">concurrent</a> with <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Highway%2016%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">U.S. Highway 16</a> and <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Highway%2020%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">U.S. Highway 20</a>. West of Burgess Junction, US 14A passes through the <a href=\\\"Big%20Horn%20Mountains\\\">Big Horn Mountains</a>, reaching a maximum elevation of 9430 ft . This portion of the road is closed during the winter months. The total length of US 14A is approximately 106 mi . Intermediate towns on the highway include <a href=\\\"Powell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Powell</a> and <a href=\\\"Lovell%2C%20Wyoming\\\">Lovell</a>. At Lovell, US 14A is concurrent with <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Highway%20310%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">U.S. Highway 310</a> for approximately 3 mi .\\nIn the initial 1925 plan, roughly the west half of present US 14 Alternate, from Cody to <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Highway%20310%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">U.S. Highway 310</a> in <a href=\\\"Deaver%20%28WY%29\\\">Deaver</a>, was assigned the number U.S. Highway 220. However, two spurs of US 20 were added in <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">Pennsylvania</a>, and so US 220 became U.S. Highway 420 in the final 1926 plan.\\nAround 1933, <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Highway%20116%20%28Wyoming%29\\\">U.S. Highway 116</a> was extended west from <a href=\\\"Sheridan%20%28WY%29\\\">Sheridan</a> to Deaver, then absorbing US 420 to end at Cody. Soon after, it became part of an extended US 14. US 14 was shifted south to its present alignment in 1940, and the old alignment became Wyoming 14 for a while, and was recommissioned as US 14 Alternate around 1965.\\n!colspan=3| <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2014\\\">U.S. Route 14</a>\",\n \"Washington County, Arkansas\\nWashington County is a <a href=\\\"County%20%28United%20States%29\\\">county</a> located in the northwest part of the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20state\\\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\\\"Arkansas\\\">Arkansas</a>. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>, the population was 203,065, making it the third-most populous county in Arkansas. The <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> is <a href=\\\"Fayetteville%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Fayetteville</a>. It is Arkansas's 17th county, formed on October 17, 1828, and named for <a href=\\\"George%20Washington\\\">George Washington</a>, the first <a href=\\\"President%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">President of the United States</a>. Washington County is part of the Fayetteville-<a href=\\\"Springdale%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Springdale</a>-<a href=\\\"Rogers%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Rogers</a>, AR-<a href=\\\"Missouri\\\">MO</a> <a href=\\\"Fayetteville-Springdale-Rogers%20metropolitan%20area\\\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a>.\\nWashington County began as part of the Cherokee Territory, following an 1817 treaty. The area was next known as <a href=\\\"Lovely%20County%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Lovely County</a>, and one year later Washington County was created after another Cherokee treaty. The <a href=\\\"Washington%20County%20Courthouse%20%28Arkansas%29\\\">court house</a> was centrally located in the city of Washington, modern-day <a href=\\\"Fayetteville%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Fayetteville</a> (renamed to avoid confusion with <a href=\\\"Washington%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Washington, Arkansas</a> in <a href=\\\"South%20Arkansas\\\">South Arkansas</a>). The Lee Creek Valley in southern Washington County contained many of the county's early settlements, including <a href=\\\"Canehill%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Cane Hill</a> and <a href=\\\"Evansville%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Evansville</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Arkansas%20College%20%28Fayetteville%29\\\">Arkansas College</a> and <a href=\\\"Cane%20Hill%20College\\\">Cane Hill College</a> were both founded in Washington County within a day of each other in 1834, with the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arkansas\\\">University of Arkansas</a> being founded in Fayetteville in 1871. The county witnessed major battles during the <a href=\\\"American%20Civil%20War\\\">American Civil War</a>, including the <a href=\\\"Action%20at%20Fayetteville\\\">Battle of Fayetteville</a>, the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Prairie%20Grove\\\">Battle of Prairie Grove</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Cane%20Hill\\\">Battle of Cane Hill</a>. The county then was sparsely settled and many residents were pro-Union, since slaves were few, plantations almost nonexistent, and news came via <a href=\\\"White%20River%20%28Arkansas%29\\\">White River</a> travelers, not from the southern part of the state. A <a href=\\\"Butterfield%20Overland%20Mail\\\">Butterfield Overland Mail</a> route was established through the county in 1858, causing more families to settle there.\\nThe economy of Washington County was based on apples in the late 19th century. A mixture of wet weather, altitude, and loamy soils provided a good environment for apple orchards. First planted in areas around <a href=\\\"Lincoln%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Lincoln</a>, <a href=\\\"Evansville%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Evansville</a>, and <a href=\\\"Canehill%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Cane Hill</a> in the 1830s, apple orchards began all across the county. The <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census\\\">United States Census</a> reported a crop of 614,924 bushels of apples produced by the county in 1900, the highest in the state. Several varieties of apple were discovered in the area including Shannon Pippin, Wilson June, and most notably the <a href=\\\"Arkansas%20Black\\\">Arkansas Black</a>. The <a href=\\\"Ben%20Davis%20%28apple%29\\\">Ben Davis</a> became the apple of choice in the area for sale and shipment across the region. Corn became the dominant crop, outselling apples by almost $500,000 in 1900.\\n<a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arkansas\\\">Arkansas Industrial University</a> was founded in the growing community of Fayetteville in 1871 after William McIlroy a donated farmland for the site. The university changed its name in 1899 to the University of Arkansas. Railroads came to Washington County after the <a href=\\\"St.%20Louis%20%E2%80%93%20San%20Francisco%20Railway\\\">St. Louis – San Francisco Railway</a> (Frisco) decided to build a line to <a href=\\\"Texas\\\">Texas</a> through <a href=\\\"Fort%20Smith%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Fort Smith</a>. Two possible routes were proposed, one passing through <a href=\\\"Prairie%20Grove%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Prairie Grove</a>, the other through Fayetteville. Many Fayetteville residents and farmers sold or donated land for the right of way to influence the choice. They were successful and in 1881 the first passenger train arrived at Fayetteville. The county continued to grow with more churches and schools after the railroad's completion. Rural parts of the county began losing population in the 1920s during the <a href=\\\"Great%20Depression\\\">Great Depression</a>, when high taxes forcing residents to move to Fayetteville or west to <a href=\\\"Oklahoma\\\">Oklahoma</a>. The rural areas later became the <a href=\\\"Ozark%20National%20Forest\\\">Ozark National Forest</a> and <a href=\\\"Devil%27s%20Den%20State%20Park\\\">Devil's Den State Park</a>.\\n\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\\\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the county has a total area of 952 sqmi , of which 942 sqmi is land and 10 sqmi (1.1%) is water. It is the fourth-largest county by area in Arkansas. The county is in the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Mountains\\\">Boston Mountains</a>, a subdivision of the <a href=\\\"Ozark%20Mountains\\\">Ozark Mountains</a>. <a href=\\\"Devil%27s%20Den%20State%20Park\\\">Devil's Den State Park</a> in southern Washington County is known for its picturesque views and mountain vistas. Washington County also contains <a href=\\\"Lake%20Wedington\\\">Lake Wedington</a>, located in scenic country west of <a href=\\\"Fayetteville%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Fayetteville</a> on <a href=\\\"Arkansas%20Highway%2016\\\">Wedington Drive</a>.\\nWashington County sits on a <a href=\\\"basement\\\">basement</a> of <a href=\\\"Precambrian\\\">Precambrian</a> <a href=\\\"granite\\\">granite</a> and <a href=\\\"rhyolite\\\">rhyolite</a>, as most of the continental interior of the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> does. Much of the county's geologic history must be inferred from nearby <a href=\\\"Oklahoma\\\">Oklahoma</a> and <a href=\\\"Missouri\\\">Missouri</a> research, due to the steepness of the more recently formed mountains that did not form in the neighboring states. This <a href=\\\"igneous\\\">igneous</a> material was eroded until the <a href=\\\"Paleozoic\\\">Paleozoic</a>, when oceans covered the now-low-lying area. These oceans came and retreated for 300 million years, depositing various different sedements during that time. This created <a href=\\\"fossiliferous\\\">fossiliferous</a> <a href=\\\"limestone\\\">limestone</a> and <a href=\\\"Ripple%20marks\\\">ripple marked</a>-<a href=\\\"sandstone\\\">sandstone</a>, both present throughout the north part of the county as evidence of ancient oceans.\\nSediments were deposited from the <a href=\\\"Devonian\\\">Devonian</a>, <a href=\\\"Mississippian%20age\\\">Mississippian</a>, and <a href=\\\"Pennsylvanian%20%28geology%29\\\">Pennsylvanian</a> periods. During this deposition period, the county had a climate similar to that of the present-day <a href=\\\"The%20Bahamas\\\">Bahamas</a>, as the <a href=\\\"equator\\\">equator</a> was north of Washington County. The Devonian brought mostly <a href=\\\"shale\\\">shale</a>s, the Mississippian brought the <a href=\\\"limestone\\\">limestone</a>s and <a href=\\\"chert\\\">chert</a> visible in the bluffs. This chert is present throughout most of the county. The county is also home to the Boone Formation (red soils), white limestones, the <a href=\\\"Wedington%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Wedington</a> Sandstone, the <a href=\\\"Batesville%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Bastesville</a> Sandstone, the <a href=\\\"Pitkin%20Corner%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Pitkin</a> formation (ocean-fossil limestone), and the <a href=\\\"Fayetteville%20Shale\\\">Fayetteville Shale</a>.\\nSettlers were attracted to the area by its numerous streams, used to power <a href=\\\"gristmill\\\">gristmill</a>s, <a href=\\\"sandstone\\\">sandstone</a>s and <a href=\\\"clay\\\">clay</a>s for use in construction, <a href=\\\"Agricultural%20lime\\\">lime</a>-sweetened soil, and chert for road construction.\\nToday, Washington County consists of two main formations, the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Mountains\\\">Boston Mountains</a> and the Springfield Plateau. During the late <a href=\\\"Pennsylvanian%20%28geology%29\\\">Pennsylvanian</a>, <a href=\\\"sediment\\\">sediment</a>s were deposited on top of the Springfield Plateau. The area was uplifted during the <a href=\\\"Ouachita%20orogeny\\\">Ouachita orogeny</a> and subsequent erosion formed the rugged Boston Mountains. Erosion of these sediments causes the Boston Mountains to be carved steeply in the south, while in the north of the county, the Boston Mountain sediments are almost entirely eroded, exposing the older rocks of the Springfield Plateau.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 United States Census</a>, there were 157,715 people, 60,151 households, and 39,459 families residing in the county. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 166 people per square mile (64/km²). There were 64,330 housing units at an average density of 68 per square mile (26/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 88.00% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 2.24% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Black</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 1.25% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 1.54% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.53% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 4.26% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 2.17% from two or more races. 8.20% of the population were <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race.\\nThere were 60,151 households out of which 32.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.30% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 9.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.40% were non-families. 25.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.07.\\nIn the county, the population was spread out with 25.00% under the age of 18, 15.30% from 18 to 24, 30.20% from 25 to 44, 19.50% from 45 to 64, and 9.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 100.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.70 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the county was $34,691, and the median income for a family was $42,795. Males had a median income of $29,428 versus $21,769 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the county was $17,347. About 9.40% of families and 14.60% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 16.50% of those under age 18 and 10.20% of those age 65 or over.\\nAs of the 2010 Census Washington County had a population of 203,065. The racial makeup of the county was 74.14% Non-Hispanic white, 2.96% black, 1.18% Native American, 2.17% Asian, 2.03% Pacific Islander, 0.11% non-Hispanics of some other race, 2.16% Non-Hispanics of two or more races and 15.49% Hispanic.\\nThere are 9 school districts in the county.\\nThe University of Arkansas at Fayetteville was founded in 1871 on the site of a hilltop farm that overlooked the <a href=\\\"Ozark%20Mountains\\\">Ozark Mountains</a>, giving it the nickname \\\"The Hill\\\".\\nThe <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arkansas\\\">University of Arkansas</a> is in Fayetteville, in Washington County. Historically, <a href=\\\"Cane%20Hill%20College\\\">Cane Hill College</a> in <a href=\\\"Canehill%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Canehill</a> was the first college in Arkansas, prior to the University of Arkansas's founding in 1871. Canehill probably influenced the placing the University of Arkansas Washington County, since the history of education in the county was a major factor in the decision.\\n\\n<a href=\\\"List%20of%20Arkansas%20townships\\\">Townships in Arkansas</a> are the divisions of a county. Each township includes unincorporated areas and some may have incorporated towns or cities within part of their space. Townships have limited purposes in modern times. However, they are of value for historical purposes in terms of genealogical research. Each town or city is within one or more townships in an Arkansas county based on census maps. The townships of Washington County are listed below. In Washington County, each incorporated town/city is at least partially located within its namesake township.\\nWashington County has contained the <a href=\\\"Ozark%20Trail%20%28auto%20trail%29\\\">Ozark Trail</a>, <a href=\\\"Trail%20of%20Tears\\\">Trail of Tears</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Butterfield%20Overland%20Mail\\\">Butterfield Overland Mail</a> route. Today, <a href=\\\"Interstate%2049%20in%20Arkansas\\\">Interstate 49</a> serves as the county's main thoroughfare, and connects the University of Arkansas with <a href=\\\"Fort%20Smith%2C%20Arkansas\\\">Fort Smith</a> and <a href=\\\"Interstate%2040%20%28Arkansas%29\\\">Interstate 40</a> to the south and other NWA cities to the north. Future plans call for <a href=\\\"Interstate%2049%20%28Arkansas%29\\\">Interstate 49</a> to be extended to ultimately connect <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans%2C%20Louisiana\\\">New Orleans, Louisiana</a> with <a href=\\\"Kansas%20City%2C%20Missouri\\\">Kansas City, Missouri</a> through Washington County.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Arkansas%20Department%20of%20Health\\\">Arkansas Department of Health</a> is responsible for the regulation and oversight of public water systems throughout the state. Washington County contains twelve community water systems, including two of the largest distribution systems in the state: the City of Fayetteville (retail population served of 94,000) and Springdale Water Utilities (SWU, 87,618) Both water systems purchase all potable water from <a href=\\\"Beaver%20Water%20District\\\">Beaver Water District</a>. Many of the smaller cities in Washington County purchase water from Fayetteville, SWU, Benton-Washington Regional Public Water Authority (PWA, colloquially \\\"Two-Ton\\\") or Washington Water Authority (WWA), including Elkins, Lincoln, Tontitown, West Fork, and Winslow.\\n\",\n \"Chaotianmen Bridge\\nThe Chaotianmen Bridge (), is a road-rail bridge over the <a href=\\\"Yangtze%20River\\\">Yangtze River</a> in the city of <a href=\\\"Chongqing\\\">Chongqing</a>, China. The bridge which opened on 29 April 2009 is the world's longest <a href=\\\"through%20arch%20bridge\\\">through arch bridge</a>.\\nThe continuous steel <a href=\\\"truss\\\">truss</a> arch bridge with tie <a href=\\\"girder\\\">girder</a>s has a height of 142 m from middle supports to arch top, main span of 552 m and a total length of 1741 m . It carries 6 lanes in two ways and a pedestrian lane on each side on the upper deck. The lower deck has 2 traffic lanes on each side with a reservation in the middle for Line 0 <a href=\\\"Chongqing%20Rail%20Transit\\\">Metro</a> line.\\n\",\n \"Nanpu Bridge\\nThe Nanpu Bridge (), in <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"China\\\">China</a>, sister bridge to the <a href=\\\"Yangpu%20Bridge\\\">Yangpu Bridge</a>, is one of the main bridges in Shanghai.\\nThe <a href=\\\"cable-stayed%20bridge\\\">cable-stayed bridge</a> was designed by the Shanghai Municipal Engineering Design Institute, Shanghai Urban Construction College, and Shanghai Urban Construction Design Institute, with assistance from Holger S. Svensson. It has a main span of 428 meters (1,388 ft), shorter than its sister bridge. It is the 57th longest cable-stayed bridge in the world, opened to the public in 1991.\",\n \"Xupu Bridge\\nThe Xupu Bridge (), is a <a href=\\\"cable-stayed%20bridge\\\">cable-stayed bridge</a> over the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a> in <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\\\">China</a>, so named because it connects the city's <a href=\\\"Xuhui%20District\\\">Xuhui</a> and <a href=\\\"Pudong%20New%20Area\\\">Pudong</a> districts. It opened in 1997 and carries 8 lanes of the <a href=\\\"S20%20Outer%20Ring%20Expressway\\\">S20 Outer Ring Expressway</a>.\\n\",\n \"List of longest arch bridge spans\\nThis list of the longest arch bridge spans ranks the world's <a href=\\\"arch%20bridge\\\">arch bridge</a>s by the length of their main <a href=\\\"Span%20%28architecture%29\\\">span</a>. The length of the main span is the most common way to rank bridges as it usually correlates with the engineering complexity involved in designing and constructing the bridge. If one bridge has a longer span than another it does not necessarily mean that the bridge is longer from shore to shore or from <a href=\\\"abutment\\\">abutment</a> to abutment.\",\n \"Puxi\\nPuxi (<a href=\\\"Chinese%20language\\\">Chinese</a>: <a href=\\\"wikt%3A%E6%B5%A6\\\">浦</a><a href=\\\"wikt%3A%E8%A5%BF\\\">西</a> , \\\"Pǔxī\\\", \\\"Phu-shi\\\", \\\"Huangpu West <a href=\\\"bank%20%28geography%29\\\">Bank</a>\\\") is the historic center of <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"China\\\">China</a>, and remains the home of approximately 48% of Shanghai's residents in an area of 288 km². \\\"Puxi\\\" is distinguished from \\\"<a href=\\\"Pudong\\\">Pudong</a>\\\" to its east, which is separated from it by the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a>. Despite the growing importance of Pudong's <a href=\\\"Lujiazui\\\">Lujiazui</a> area, Puxi remains Shanghai's cultural, residential and commercial centre.\\nAdministratively, Puxi consists of a number of districts including <a href=\\\"Yangpu%20District\\\">Yangpu</a>, <a href=\\\"Hongkou%20District\\\">Hongkou</a>, <a href=\\\"Putuo%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Putuo</a>, <a href=\\\"Changning%20District\\\">Changning</a>, <a href=\\\"Xuhui%20District\\\">Xuhui</a>, <a href=\\\"Jing%27an%20District\\\">Jing'an</a> and <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Huangpu</a>.\\nDespite efforts to promote Pudong, Puxi remains the cultural and entertainment center of Shanghai. The main shopping centers (including East Nanjing Pedestrian Road, Central Huaihai Road, Qipu Road Apparel City, and <a href=\\\"Xujiahui\\\">Xujiahui</a>), the major bar streets (Hengshan, Maoming, and Julu Roads), and cultural centers such as <a href=\\\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">The Bund</a>, the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Grand%20Theatre\\\">Shanghai Grand Theatre</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Museum\\\">Shanghai Museum</a> are all located in Puxi.\\nShanghai's older airport, <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Hongqiao%20International%20Airport\\\">Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport</a>, is located in Puxi. All international flights, including regional flights to <a href=\\\"Hong%20Kong\\\">Hong Kong</a> and <a href=\\\"Macao\\\">Macao</a>, were moved to <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Pudong%20International%20Airport\\\">Shanghai Pudong International Airport</a> when the latter opened in 1999. From October 2007, a limited number of international flights will commence from Hongqiao.\\nAlmost all lines on the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro</a> (with the exceptions of Lines <a href=\\\"Line%205%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">5</a> and <a href=\\\"Line%206%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">6</a>) pass by Puxi.\\nPudong and Puxi are connected by several tunnels, four <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River%23Bridges\\\">major bridges</a>, and Lines <a href=\\\"Line%202%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">2</a>, <a href=\\\"Line%204%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">4</a>, <a href=\\\"Line%207%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">7</a>, <a href=\\\"Line%208%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">8</a> and <a href=\\\"Line%209%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">9</a> on the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Railway%20Station\\\">Shanghai Railway Station</a> and <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20South%20Railway%20Station\\\">Shanghai South Railway Station</a> are also located in Puxi.\\n\",\n \"Luwan District\\nLuwan District (; <a href=\\\"Shanghainese\\\">Shanghainese</a>: luuae chiu, <a href=\\\"pinyin\\\">pinyin</a>: Lúwān Qū), <a href=\\\"Postal%20romanization\\\">formerly romanized</a> as Lokawei, was a district located in central <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"China\\\">China</a> until its merger with <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Huangpu District, Shanghai</a> in June 2011. It had an area of 8.05 km² and population of 350,000 as of 2001.\\nLuwan district was located directly south of <a href=\\\"People%27s%20Square%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">People's Square</a>. The northern part of Luwan included one of the best sections of <a href=\\\"Huaihai%20Road\\\">Huaihai Road</a>, famous for its international fashion shops and high-class <a href=\\\"restaurant\\\">restaurant</a>s.\\nLuwan was a part of the old <a href=\\\"French%20Concession\\\">French Concession</a> area, one of the most prestigious sections of the city. It was famous for its boulevards. The <a href=\\\"London%20Plane\\\">plane tree</a>s lining the main streets were imported from <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a> over 100 years ago. The district included the historical residences of <a href=\\\"Sun%20Yat-sen\\\">Sun Yat-sen</a>, <a href=\\\"Mao%20Zedong\\\">Mao Zedong</a>, <a href=\\\"Zhou%20Enlai\\\">Zhou Enlai</a>, <a href=\\\"Agnes%20Smedley\\\">Agnes Smedley</a> and <a href=\\\"Mei%20Lanfang\\\">Mei Lanfang</a>, among others.\\nIt was announced on June 8, 2011 that the proposed plan of merging Luwan and <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Huangpu</a> districts had been approved by the <a href=\\\"State%20Council%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\\\">State Council</a>. Since the new district would still maintain the name Huangpu, Luwan as a district ceased to exist.\\nThe district was named after \\\"Lujia Wan\\\", literally \\\"Lu's Bay\\\", formerly a bend in a local river which had since been covered up. The name survived in bus stops located near the former location of the bay. Known as Lukawei during the French concession period, this was the location of the main police depot and prison of the French Concession.\\n\",\n \"International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering\\nThe International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) is a non-profit organisation with mission to promote the exchange of knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide in the service of the profession and society, taking into consideration technical, economic, environmental, aesthetic and social aspects. IABSE deals all kinds of structures composed of any kind of material, all phases of the construction process, as well as education and research.\\nThe Association’s name in French is \\\"Association Internationale des Ponts et Charpentes (AIPC)\\\" and in German \\\"Internationale Vereinigung für Brückenbau und Hochbau (IVBH)“. It was founded in 1929 and has its seat in <a href=\\\"Zurich\\\">Zurich</a>.\\nIABSE publishes the quarterly Journal Structural Engineering International SEI, available online via <a href=\\\"Ingenta\\\">Ingenta</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Outstanding%20Structure%20Award\\\">Outstanding Structure Award</a> has been presented annually since 2000. It \\\"recognises the most remarkable, innovative, creative, or otherwise stimulating structures completed within the last few years\\\". As a project award, it recognizes the team effort of the engineer, the architect, the contractor, and the owner involved in completion of the project.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Anton%20Tedesko%20Medal\\\">Anton Tedesko Medal</a> is awarded by the <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.iabsefoundation.org/about-us/iabse-foundation/iabse2_foundation.html\\\">IABSE Foundation</a> to honour a Laureate and support a Fellow of the Association for study leave for a promising young engineer to gain practical experience in a prestigious engineering firm, outside his/her home country.\",\n \"Yangpu District\\nYangpu District is one of the 19 <a href=\\\"districts%20of%20Shanghai\\\">districts</a> of the <a href=\\\"Municipality%20of%20Shanghai\\\">Municipality of Shanghai</a> in the China. It is located in northeastern part of downtown Shanghai, bordering the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a> on the east and south, <a href=\\\"Hongkou%20District\\\">Hongkou District</a> on the west, and <a href=\\\"Baoshan%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Baoshan District</a> in the north. The southern part of Yangpu District is 4 km away from the <a href=\\\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">Bund</a>, a major tourist attraction. It is predominantly composed of residential communities, with a total area of 60.61 km2 and a population of 1.313 million as of 2010. The whole district is divided administratively into 11 resident subdistricts and 1 <a href=\\\"town%20%28PRC%29\\\">town</a>.\\nThe name Yangshupu, <a href=\\\"Postal%20romanization\\\">formerly romanized</a> as Yangtzepoo or Yangtszepoo, is Chinese for \\\"<a href=\\\"poplar%20tree\\\">poplar</a> <a href=\\\"bank%20%28river%29\\\">bank</a>\\\" and refers to the <a href=\\\"Creek%20%28stream%29\\\">creek</a> \\\"Yángshùpǔ Hé\\\") running through the area beside present-day Lanzhou Rd (formerly <a href=\\\"Horatio%20Nelson%20Lay\\\">Lay</a> Road) from the <a href=\\\"Qiu%20River\\\">Qiu</a> in the north to the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu</a> in the south. The <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Municipal%20Government\\\">Shanghai Municipal Government</a> contracted the name to Yangpu in 1949.\\nAs with most of modern Shanghai, the territory of Yangpu has been formed by sediments deposited by the <a href=\\\"Yangtze%20River\\\">Yangtze River</a> over many centuries. It was probably in the shallows of the <a href=\\\"East%20China%20Sea\\\">East China Sea</a> as late as the <a href=\\\"Tang%20Dynasty\\\">Tang Dynasty</a>. During the <a href=\\\"Northern%20Song\\\">Northern Song</a>, the Wuyu River (吴淤江 ) entered the sea somewhere around modern Wujiaochang (五角场 ). <a href=\\\"Daoist\\\">Daoist</a> and <a href=\\\"Buddhist\\\">Buddhist</a> temples are known to have been established in the vicinity around this time. In 1404, the Huangpu River shifted to its present course, entering the Yangtze River around <a href=\\\"Wusong\\\">Wusong</a>. Toward the end of the <a href=\\\"Ming%20Dynasty\\\">Ming Dynasty</a>, villages along the river flourished, engaging in agriculture, banking, textiles and water-borne trade.\\nIn 1842, the <a href=\\\"Treaty%20of%20Nanking\\\">Treaty of Nanking</a> opened Shanghai as a treaty port. In 1899, 10.89 km2 of what is now the south of modern Yangpu District was partitioned to become part of the International Settlement. Factories were constructed soon after in the area, especially along Yangshupu Road. Textile, paper-making, and shipbuilding industries were established by the early 20th century in what was then organized as part of Hongkew (now <a href=\\\"Hongkou%20District\\\">Hongkou</a>). In 1929, the Wujiaochang farmers' market (\\\"Pentagon Plaza\\\") was constructed in the north. Later, during the Japanese occupation from 1937 to 1945, barracks and houses were built in the area. The inland part of the former International Settlement in the area made up part of the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Ghetto\\\">Shanghai Ghetto</a>. In December 1944, Yangshupu District was established with an area of 7.7 km2 .\\nFollowing the <a href=\\\"Chinese%20Communist%20Party\\\">Communist</a> <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Campaign\\\">conquest of Shanghai</a> in 1949, the area was developed and, over the next few decades, a number of neighboring districts were abolished and annexed to Yangpu. The area was especially used for heavy industries. The district's present territory west of the river was formed after the incorporation of Wujiaochang District from <a href=\\\"Baoshan%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Baoshan County</a> in 1984. In 1993, Yangpu's territories east of the Huangpu River were designated part of the <a href=\\\"Pudong%20New%20District\\\">Pudong New District</a>.\\nSince the beginning of the 21st century, Yangpu District has increasingly developed away from labor-intensive industry towards commerce and high technology: the area around Wujiaochang now boast ten large commercial centers and the research facility on Dalian Road is one of the top 500 in the world. One of the region's largest districts, 15.5 kilometers of the Changbai Gold-Bin River runs through the economically strong center. Yangpu is also home to one of Shanghai's four largest city police departments, a new generation of international community programs in New Jiangwan City, and the most graduates of elite <a href=\\\"Tongji%20University\\\">Tongji University</a> in the city.\\nYangpu District is connected to the neighbouring <a href=\\\"Pudong%20New%20Area\\\">Pudong New Area</a> across the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a> by one bridge, three tunnels, and six ferry lines. These include the <a href=\\\"Yangpu%20Bridge\\\">Yangpu Bridge</a>, the <a href=\\\"Xiangyin%20Road%20Tunnel\\\">Xiangyin Road Tunnel</a>, the <a href=\\\"Dalian%20Road%20Tunnel\\\">Dalian Road Tunnel</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Jungong%20Road%20Tunnel\\\">Jungong Road Tunnel</a>. A fourth tunnel, the <a href=\\\"Yinhang%20Road%20Tunnel\\\">Yinhang Road Tunnel</a> is currently under construction.\\nThe Inner Ring Road and Middle Ring Road traverse through Yangpu District.\\nLines 3, 4, 8, 10 and 12 of the Shanghai Metro serve Yangpu district.\\nThe industrial wharves along the Huangpu which service the industrial centres of Yangpu are being phased out by residential developments on the waterfront.\\nSituated in northern Yangpu District are three of China's most distinguished universities, <a href=\\\"Fudan%20University\\\">Fudan University</a>, <a href=\\\"Tongji%20University\\\">Tongji University</a>, <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Shanghai%20for%20Science%20and%20Technology\\\">University of Shanghai for Science and Technology</a> as well as the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20University%20of%20Finance%20and%20Economics\\\">Shanghai University of Finance and Economics</a>.\\nThere is also the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20University%20of%20Sport\\\">Shanghai University of Sport</a>.\\nYangpu is currently served by four metro lines operated by <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro</a>:\",\n \"Huangpu District, Shanghai\\n District, makes up the eastern part of <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>'s traditional urban core and is today the most central of Shanghai's 16 districts. Huangpu district is the seat of municipal government, includes key attractions such as <a href=\\\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">The Bund</a> and the Old <a href=\\\"City%20God%20Temple\\\">City God Temple</a>, as well as popular shopping districts such as <a href=\\\"Nanjing%20Road%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">Nanjing Road</a> and <a href=\\\"Huaihai%20Road\\\">Huaihai Road</a>. The Huangpu District is one of the most densely populated urban districts in the world.\\nThe Huangpu District is located in central <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\\\">People's Republic of China</a> on the left bank (i.e., west or north bank) of <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a>, after which the district is named. It is opposite to <a href=\\\"Pudong\\\">Pudong</a> and is bounded by <a href=\\\"Suzhou%20Creek\\\">Suzhou Creek</a> to the north.\\nToday's Huangpu District is sometimes referred to as \\\"new Huangpu\\\" to distinguish it from the pre-merger Huangpu District which existed before 2000. In 2000, the pre-merger Huangpu and <a href=\\\"Nanshi%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Nanshi</a> districts were combined to form a new district, also called Huangpu. In June 2011, the existing Huangpu District was combined with <a href=\\\"Luwan%20District\\\">Luwan District</a> to form a further new district, again called Huangpu. As a result of this merger, it currently has an area of 20.43 km2 and 678,670 inhabitants (as of 2010 census).\\nOf the three previous districts that make up today's Huangpu, the pre-merger Huangpu District is located to the north, bounded by Suzhou Creek in the north and the Huangpu River to the east. South of the per-merger Huangpu District was Nanshi District, bounded by the Huangpu River to the east. West of Nanshi District was Luwan District, bounded by the Huangpu River to the south.\\nHuangpu District has ten subdistricts.\\nNote: <a href=\\\"Nanshi%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Nanshi District</a> and <a href=\\\"Luwan%20District\\\">Luwan District</a> were merged with the former Huangpu District in June 2000 and June 2011 respectively to form the current Huangpu District\\nToday's Huangpu District is the result of the merger of three long-standing districts of Shanghai: Nanshi, Huangpu and Luwan. Each of these have a distinct history and character.\\nThe former Nanshi District, literally \\\"southern city\\\", was the historical core of Shanghai. It included the <a href=\\\"Old%20City%20of%20Shanghai\\\">old, walled city</a> as well as the nearby docklands on both sides of the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a>. Shanghai County was established at the beginning of the <a href=\\\"Ming%20Dynasty\\\">Ming Dynasty</a>. A city wall was built to repel the <a href=\\\"Wokou\\\">Wokou</a>, and this Ming Dynasty wall defined the extent of urban Shanghai for the next few centuries.\\nIn 1842, the area north of the old city was established as the British concession in Shanghai, which later became the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20International%20Settlement\\\">Shanghai International Settlement</a>. At the time, the concession was referred to by locals as the \\\"northern city\\\" while the walled Chinese city was the \\\"southern city\\\". From this reference was later derived the name \\\"Nanshi\\\" (). Upon the defeat of Japan at the end of <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, a unified municipal administration was established over urban Shanghai for the first time since the mid 19th century.\\nIn 1945, after the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20China\\\">Republic of China</a> government took control, the old city was divided into the Third District (Yimiao District) and the Fourth District (Penglai District). In 1959 these were merged to form Nanshi District (with a small part of former Yimiao District merging into Luwan District).\\nThe pre-merger \\\"Huangpu District\\\" was largely located in the former <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20International%20Settlement\\\">Shanghai International Settlement</a>. In the later part of the 19th century and the early 20th century, this area quickly became the commercial centre of Shanghai. The International Settlement was handed back to the Chinese government in 1943.\\nIn 1945, after the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20China\\\">Republic of China</a> government took control, the south eastern part of the former International Settlement was divided into the First District (Huangpu District) and the Second District (Laozha District). Of these, the First District lay on the bank of the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a>, and so was named after the river. In 1956, the two districts were merged to form a new and expanded Huangpu District.\\nSince 1943, the Shanghai Municipal Government has always been located in Huangpu District – first at the old Shanghai Municipal Council building, then in the <a href=\\\"HSBC%20Building%2C%20Shanghai\\\">old HSBC Building</a>, and presently in a purpose-built building on <a href=\\\"People%27s%20Square%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">People's Square</a>.\\nThe former Luwan District occupied most of the eastern part of the former <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20French%20Concession\\\">Shanghai French Concession</a> and some nearby areas. This area was long regarded as the premier residential and high end commercial area of Shanghai. It is known for its leafy streets lined with <a href=\\\"London%20plane\\\">London plane</a>s, cafes and restaurants, high end retail and historical houses.\\nIn 1945, after the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20China\\\">Republic of China</a> government took control, the eastern-central part of the former French Concession was divided into the Fifth District (Taishan) and the Sixth District (Lujiawan), separated by South Chongqing Road and Luban Road. Of these, the Sixth District was named after <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20French%20Concession%23Localities\\\">Lokawei</a> (), \\\"Lu's Bay\\\", an area named after a bend on the \\\"Zhaojiabang\\\" creek. The main police depot and prison of the French concession was located here. In 1947, Taishan District was renamed \\\"Songshan District\\\".\\nIn 1950, Lujiawan District was renamed \\\"Luwan District\\\". In 1956, Songshan District was merged into Luwan District. In 1959, part of former Yimiao District was also merged into Luwan District.\\nThe district boundaries remained largely unchanged between 1959 and 1993. In 1993, the part of Nanshi east of the Huangpu River was merged into the <a href=\\\"Pudong\\\">Pudong</a> New District.\\nIn 2000, the Shanghai Municipal Government abolished Nanshi District entirely, merging it into Huangpu District. In 2011, the merger of Luwan District with Huangpu District was announced. On June 8, 2011, it was announced that the proposed plan of merging Luwan and Huangpu Districts had been approved by the <a href=\\\"State%20Council%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\\\">State Council</a>.\\nDespite the mergers, the three previous districts which make up today's Huangpu District retain their distinct characters.\\nThe pre-merger Huangpu District was long the commercial centre of Shanghai. Along the Huangpu riverfront were located the major docks of Shanghai. Behind the docks, on <a href=\\\"The%20Bund%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">the Bund</a>, were offices of major financial institutions and trading houses. Extending from the Bund westward are several major commercial streets. These include the <a href=\\\"Nanjing%20Road%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">East Nanjing Road</a>, popular with visitors from around the country. Fuzhou Road is the centre of bookselling in Shanghai, featuring large scale general and specialist book shops and publishers.\\nThe <a href=\\\"People%27s%20Square%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">People's Square</a>, previously the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Race%20Club\\\">Shanghai race course</a>, is now the site of the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Grand%20Theatre\\\">Shanghai Grand Theatre</a>, <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Museum\\\">Shanghai Museum</a>, <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Art%20Museum\\\">Shanghai Art Museum</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Urban%20Planning%20Exhibition%20Hall\\\">Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Hall</a>. The <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Natural%20History%20Museum\\\">Shanghai Natural History Museum</a> is also located in Huangpu District.\\nThe old Nanshi district is the old, walled city of Shanghai, and retains a number of important sights, including <a href=\\\"City%20God%20Temple%20of%20Shanghai\\\">City God Temple</a> and the nearby <a href=\\\"Yuyuan%20Garden\\\">Yuyuan Garden</a>. The old city is undergoing extensive redevelopment, with the existing houses being replaced by high rise apartment buildings as well as modern constructions with traditional Chinese style facades. The boundaries of the walled city can still be traced in the form of a wide ring road built over the course of the old city wall and moat. The city wall has almost entirely been demolished, except for one tower and a short section of wall attached to it, which survived because the tower was converted into a temple in the medieval period.\\nThe old Luwan district was a part of the old <a href=\\\"French%20Concession\\\">French Concession</a> area, traditionally one of the most prestigious sections of the city. It was famous for its boulevards lined with <a href=\\\"London%20Plane\\\">plane trees</a>, which had been imported over 100 years ago. Despite rampant redevelopment, the district retains a distinct character and is a tourist attraction in itself. The district included the historical residences of <a href=\\\"Sun%20Yat-sen\\\">Sun Yat-sen</a>, <a href=\\\"Mao%20Zedong\\\">Mao Zedong</a>, <a href=\\\"Zhou%20Enlai\\\">Zhou Enlai</a>, <a href=\\\"Agnes%20Smedley\\\">Agnes Smedley</a> and <a href=\\\"Mei%20Lanfang\\\">Mei Lanfang</a>, among many others. <a href=\\\"Huaihai%20Road\\\">Huaihai Road</a> is the major commercial thoroughfare in this part of the city.\\nThe Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office in Shanghai is in The Headquarters Building in Huangpu District.\\nHuangpu is currently served by six metro lines operated by <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro</a>:\",\n \"North–South Elevated Road (Shanghai)\\nNorth–South Elevated Road () is an elevated expressway in the city of <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China\\\">China</a>. It begins to the south at Jiyang Road in <a href=\\\"Pudong%20New%20Area\\\">Pudong New Area</a>, crosses the <a href=\\\"Huangpu%20River\\\">Huangpu River</a> into <a href=\\\"Puxi\\\">Puxi</a> using the <a href=\\\"Lupu%20Bridge\\\">Lupu Bridge</a>, and then traverses through Puxi to the <a href=\\\"Outer%20Ring%20Expressway%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">Outer Ring Expressway</a> in <a href=\\\"Baoshan%20District%2C%20Shanghai\\\">Baoshan District</a>.\\nConstruction on the first phase of the expressway, from the <a href=\\\"Lupu%20Bridge\\\">Lupu Bridge</a> to Liuying Road started on 25 October 1993 and was completed on 10 December 1995.\\nConstruction of the second phase, from Liuying Road to <a href=\\\"Outer%20Ring%20Expressway%20%28Shanghai%29\\\">Outer Ring Expressway</a> coincided with the northern extension of <a href=\\\"Line%201%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro Line 1</a>. The metro line is the first level above street level, while the expressway is the second level above street level. This phase was completed on 4 December 2002.\",\n \"Outstanding Structure Award\\nThe Outstanding Structure Award is an award presented by the <a href=\\\"International%20Association%20for%20Bridge%20and%20Structural%20Engineering\\\">International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering</a> to the Engineer, Architect, Contractor, and the Owner in recognition of \\\"the most remarkable, innovative, creative or otherwise stimulating structure completed within the last few years\\\".\\nThe Award consists of a Plaque that can be fixed to the winning structure. One or more structures are awarded annually since 2000.\",\n \"Roundabout interchange\\nA roundabout interchange is a type of <a href=\\\"interchange%20%28road%29\\\">interchange</a> between a controlled access highway, such as a <a href=\\\"motorway\\\">motorway</a> or <a href=\\\"freeway\\\">freeway</a>, and a minor road. The slip roads to and from the motorway carriageways converge at a single <a href=\\\"roundabout\\\">roundabout</a>, which is <a href=\\\"grade%20separation\\\">grade-separated</a> from the motorway lanes with bridges.\\nA roundabout interchange is similar to a <a href=\\\"rotary%20%28interchange%29\\\">rotary interchange</a>, which uses a rotary rather than a roundabout. Roundabouts may also be used in conjunction with other interchange types such as a standard or folded <a href=\\\"diamond%20interchange\\\">diamond interchange</a>, but such use should not be confused with a roundabout interchange.\\nRoundabout interchanges are extremely common in the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a> and <a href=\\\"Ireland\\\">Ireland</a> with hundreds on the <a href=\\\"Motorway%20%28United%20Kingdom%29and%20%28Ireland%29\\\">motorway</a> network alone. However, recent cost-cutting has meant that <a href=\\\"dumbbell%20interchange\\\">dumbbell interchange</a>s are increasingly used instead. These are essentially <a href=\\\"diamond%20interchange\\\">diamond interchange</a>s with roundabouts instead of signals or stop signs where the slip roads meet the minor road. They are cheaper than roundabout interchanges as only one bridge is required instead of two.\\nRoundabout interchanges are much less common in <a href=\\\"North%20America\\\">North America</a> but have been built more frequently since 1995, to improve safety, and to reduce traffic delays and bridge widening costs. However, many of the older and more dangerous <a href=\\\"rotary%20%28interchange%29\\\">rotary</a>-style overpass interchanges have been signalized to improve throughput and safety, such as the former Drum Hill Rotary (now Drum Hill Square) in <a href=\\\"Chelmsford%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Chelmsford, Massachusetts</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20England\\\">New England</a>, where such interchanges are unusually common.\\nA <a href=\\\"Divided%20Diamond%20Interchange\\\">divided diamond</a>, in which the minor road is separated into four intersections, rather than two, also acts like a roundabout interchange, but it is more square in shape and, typically, has traffic light control.\\nA roundabout is used as an interchange between <a href=\\\"Quebec%20Autoroute%2020\\\">Quebec Autoroute 20</a> and <a href=\\\"Quebec%20Autoroute%20520\\\">Quebec Autoroute 520</a> in <a href=\\\"Montreal\\\">Montreal</a>, <a href=\\\"Quebec\\\">Quebec</a>. The roundaboat is known as\\nthe Dorval Circle. Ramps to side streets are added as well. The interchange is\\ncurrently being replaced.\\nThe three-level stacked roundabout is a variation on the roundabout interchange in which both roads are grade-separated. It is similar to the <a href=\\\"three-level%20diamond%20interchange\\\">three-level diamond interchange</a> except that the small square of that latter interchange is enlarged to a true roundabout.\\nThree-level stacked roundabouts are quite common in Britain because they use less land than other four-way junctions where both roads are grade separated. However, they have lower capacity for turning movements – some have had direct-linking slip roads added later in an attempt to solve this problem. Examples of such junctions are found at <a href=\\\"Lofthouse%2C%20West%20Yorkshire\\\">Lofthouse, West Yorkshire</a> (<a href=\\\"M1%20motorway\\\">M1</a>/<a href=\\\"M62%20motorway\\\">M62</a>) and <a href=\\\"Swanley\\\">Swanley</a>, <a href=\\\"Kent\\\">Kent</a> (<a href=\\\"M20%20motorway\\\">M20</a>/<a href=\\\"M25%20motorway\\\">M25</a>) .\",\n \"Xuhui District\\nXuhui District is a district of <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a>. It has a land area of 54.76 km² and a population of 982,200 as of 2008.\\nThe Xuhui District is centred on <a href=\\\"Xujiahui\\\">Xujiahui</a>, after which it is named. Xujiahui was historically land owned by <a href=\\\"Ming%20dynasty\\\">Ming dynasty</a> bureaucrat and scientist <a href=\\\"Xu%20Guangqi\\\">Xu Guangqi</a>, and later donated to the <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Church\\\">Roman Catholic Church</a>. Being the core of Catholic Shanghai, the Xuhui District formed, together with neighbouring <a href=\\\"Luwan%20District\\\">Luwan District</a>, the former <a href=\\\"French%20Concession%20of%20Shanghai\\\">French Concession of Shanghai</a>. Vestiges of the French influence can still be seen in the <a href=\\\"St.%20Ignatius%20Cathedral%20of%20Shanghai\\\">St. Ignatius Cathedral of Shanghai</a>, <a href=\\\"Xuhui%20College\\\">Xuhui College</a>, the Xujiahui Observatory, and some remaining boulevards and French-style districts.\\nParts of today's Xuhui District were once the premier residential districts of Shanghai. After the revolution, however, the large estates near Xujiahui were turned into factories. In the 1990s, the Shanghai municipal government developed the district as a commercial zone. A once-prominent commercial area in the district was the Xiangyang Crafts and Gifts Market, a haven for souvenirs and <a href=\\\"intellectual%20property\\\">intellectual property</a>-infringing products; it was closed on June 30, 2006 by municipal authorities.\\nXujiahui itself has been redeveloped as a commercial centre, with a proliferation of large-scale shopping centres and department stores. Now it is a major shopping destination in the city, with shopping malls such as <a href=\\\"Grand%20Gateway%20Shanghai\\\">Grand Gateway Shanghai</a> and <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Sogo\\\">Pacific Sogo</a>.\\nThe educational tradition begun by Jesuits in Xuhui continues with <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Jiao%20Tong%20University\\\">Shanghai Jiao Tong University</a>, the premier university in China. The district also has some of the best secondary schools in the municipality, such as <a href=\\\"South%20West%20Weiyu%20Middle%20School\\\">South West Weiyu Middle School</a>, <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20High%20School\\\">Shanghai High School</a> and <a href=\\\"Nanyang%20Model%20High%20School\\\">Nanyang Model High School</a>.\\nA number of former residences of prominent personalities remain, including <a href=\\\"Soong%20Ching-ling\\\">Soong Ching-ling</a> and <a href=\\\"Sun%20Yat-sen\\\">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s former residence. <a href=\\\"Yao%20Ming\\\">Yao Ming</a> of Houston Rockets was a resident of the district. <a href=\\\"Luo%20%26quot%3BFerrari%20430%26quot%3B%20Feichi\\\">Luo \\\"Ferrari 430\\\" Feichi</a> currently lives in Xuhui.\\nXuhui District has 10 sub-districts and two townships.\\n<a href=\\\"Home%20Inn\\\">Home Inn</a> has its headquarters in Xuhui. <a href=\\\"Toei%20Animation\\\">Toei Animation Shanghai</a> has its head office in Unit 807 of Feidiao International Plaza in the district.\\nXuhui District has twelve subdistricts, one town and one special township-level division.\\nXuhui is currently served by seven metro lines operated by <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro</a> and one suburban line operated by <a href=\\\"China%20Railways\\\">China Railways</a>:\\nSchools in Xuhui District include:\\nUniversity:\\nHigh School:\\n1. Nan Yang Model High School\\n2. Shanghai Xuhui High School\\n3. Shanghai Weiyu High School\\n4. Shanghai High School\\n5. Shanghai Fifty-forth High School\\n\",\n \"Line 4, Shanghai Metro\\nLine 4 is a <a href=\\\"orbital%20%28metro%29\\\">loop line</a> of the <a href=\\\"Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Shanghai Metro</a> network. Its rolling stock carry a bright violet colour belt to differentiate them from <a href=\\\"Line%203%2C%20Shanghai%20Metro\\\">Line 3</a> trains which share a portion of its track. To determine the direction of travel, the line that travels counter-clockwise is called the \\\"Outer Loop\\\" (外环), while the other line is known as the \\\"Inner Loop\\\" (内环). Although it is a loop line, trains returning to the depot use <a href=\\\"Yishan%20Road%20Station\\\">Yishan Road</a> as a terminal to let all passengers disembark. The first segment of the line between <a href=\\\"Damuqiao%20Road%20Station\\\">Damuqiao Road</a> and <a href=\\\"Lancun%20Road%20Station\\\">Lancun Road</a> (running in a \\\"C\\\"-shape) opened on December 31, 2005. The remainder of the line opened on December 29, 2007. The line is colored purple on system maps.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Bridge Day is an annual one-day festival in Fayetteville, Fayette County, West Virginia, United States The event is coordinated by the New River Gorge Bridge Day Commission, and is sponsored by numerous companies of both local and international significance. The event, held on the third Saturday every October, commemorates the 1977 completion of the New River Gorge Bridge. On this day, all four lanes of the bridge are closed to automobiles and opened to pedestrians. Estimates have 100,000 people attending the overall event.","The New River Gorge Bridge is a steel arch bridge 3030 ft long over the New River Gorge near Fayetteville, West Virginia, in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. With an arch 1700 ft long, the New River Gorge Bridge was for many years the world's longest single-span arch bridge; it is now the fourth longest. Part of U.S. Route 19, its construction marked the completion of Corridor L of the Appalachian Development Highway System. The bridge is crossed by an average of 16,200 motor vehicles per day."],"string":"[\n \"Bridge Day is an annual one-day festival in Fayetteville, Fayette County, West Virginia, United States The event is coordinated by the New River Gorge Bridge Day Commission, and is sponsored by numerous companies of both local and international significance. The event, held on the third Saturday every October, commemorates the 1977 completion of the New River Gorge Bridge. On this day, all four lanes of the bridge are closed to automobiles and opened to pedestrians. Estimates have 100,000 people attending the overall event.\",\n \"The New River Gorge Bridge is a steel arch bridge 3030 ft long over the New River Gorge near Fayetteville, West Virginia, in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. With an arch 1700 ft long, the New River Gorge Bridge was for many years the world's longest single-span arch bridge; it is now the fourth longest. Part of U.S. Route 19, its construction marked the completion of Corridor L of the Appalachian Development Highway System. The bridge is crossed by an average of 16,200 motor vehicles per day.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":63,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"When was the museum founded that had work by Australian painter, performance artist and writer"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1861"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Robert Delford Brown\nRobert Delford Brown (October 25, 1930 – c. March 22, 2009) was an American performance artist. \"The New York Times\" called him \"a painter, sculptor, performance artist and avant-garde philosopher whose exuberantly provocative works challenged orthodoxies of both the art world and the world at large, usually with a big wink.\" Deborah Velders of the Cameron Museum of Art in Wilmington, N.C. called him \"a visionary\" and \"the William Blake of our time.\"\nAllan Kaprow, credited with originating the Happening movement in the early 1960s, said of Robert Delford Brown:\nRobert Delford Brown was born in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains during the Great Depression in Portland, Colorado. “It was very rural,” he said in a series of interviews he did with his biographer, the artist and writer Mark Bloch. His father was employed testing cement as a chemical technician. \"I was born in Central Colorado in 1930. No one is more American than I am,” he told Bloch in 2006. Both sides of his family had been in the USA since Revolutionary times. His father, whose name was also Robert Delford Brown, was of Irish, German, and Dutch stock, originally hailing from a farm in Illinois. His mother’s family were farmers from Kansas. He said that he once told his mother, “If you join the Daughters of the American Revolution, you've lost a son.” Brown was born a Junior but, like the DAR pedigree, dropped it, “I don’t need it.” The family moved to Long Beach when he was 12. “For my benefit,” he added.\nSoon after, Brown discovered jazz, a passion he held throughout his life. “I don’t know how I stumbled on it. I think I found these books in the Junior High School library. There were two books about white musicians in the library, biographies of white musicians, Frank Teschmacher, Muggsy Spanier and Pee Wee Russell.” With a friend, Bill Hagleheimer, Brown would attend jazz gigs in downtown Los Angeles, and at more respectable places like the Los Angeles Philharmonic. “There was this place called The Lightning Room, and the Lightning Room had a little stage about 3 feet by 3 feet and then strip, the strip teaser would do this dance on this little platform. And then there was a blind drummer who played the saxophone.” He continued, “You’d have 50 musicians up at a jazz concert, Coleman Hawkins, Dizzy Gillespie, Lester Young, they all showed up. And I was like 15 years old. My mother would drive me and sit outside while I was in there …a little white boy with all these black people. And the black guys… they’d be passing quarts of vodka around.” He didn’t partake despite being introduced to beer at 15. He was there for the music.\nAs a student at Long Beach State College, Brown met the painter Ed Moses (artist) who had just gotten out of the service. Moses later introduced him to the L.A. gallery owner Virginia Dwan, who rented him a second floor apartment over the merry-go-round in Santa Monica. It kept him awake, “until 2 in the morning…’I’m looking over a four leaf clover’ over and over again…I lived at the Santa Monica Pier for 2 or 3 years.”\nBrown studied art at Long Beach College and at UCLA from 1948–1952, receiving his B.A. from UCLA and his M.A. there in 1956. He studied drawing with the Surrealist Howard Warshaw (1920–1977), who had been given his first solo exhibition by the legendary gallerist Julien Levy in 1945. Brown worked with Warshaw from 1955, when the teacher had a retrospective at the Pasadena Museum of Art, until 1958. Warshaw, known for developing a unique language and philosophy of drawing, infused the scientific knowledge of the day in the work that must also have appealed to the young Brown who later became a vociferous disciple of Buckminster Fuller. In Warshaw’s lines, like Brown’s early work, one can read the emotional tenor of the artist and subject. Also like Brown, the New York-born Organic Cubist Warshaw was a transplant to California. He had moved west in 1942 and found work in the studios of Disney and Warner Brothers. Beginning in 1951, Warshaw taught at the University of California, which he continued for more than 20 years completing monumental murals for several UC campuses.\nAnother future art world fixture that Brown met as a young man was Walter Hopps who would go on to become the curator at the Pasadena Museum of Art and then the Menil Collection in Houston as well as many other positions. The two met at UCLA when Hopps was on the GI Bill. “I thought these kids who had been in the Army, I thought they knew everything. I was 17-18 years old, they were in their 20s. I thought they really knew what the hell was going on,” Brown said. Via a psychiatric clinic associated with UCLA, Brown, Moses and Hopps all became male attendants to a schizophrenic young woman who Hopps recalled liked to be taken to Disneyland in Anaheim. Brown continued working in the mental health area for the next few years.\nIn 1952 Brown had his first show in Ed Kelly’s Frame Shop in LA. Walter Hopps said in a 2004 interview, “I was disappointed that nobody bought anything. After the show was over, he took it all out to the back yard of the place and burned it.”\nIn 1959, Brown moved to Manhattan. “If you aspired toward becoming an artist you had to go to New York.” Brown spent the next few months “walking up and down the streets of the city, visiting every gallery” and “devouring” every art magazine or text about art he could find.\n“The most serendipitous event in my life was my meeting with Rhett Cone.” Brown said in 1990. “She had founded the Cricket Theater on Second Avenue and Tenth Street where she showcased new material, presented the \"Merry Mimes\" children's theater, and produced and directed plays by such writers as Edward Albee, and Samuel Beckett. For the past 27 years Rhett has been my most fervent admirer. For the past 25 years she has been my wife and enthusiastic collaborator, as well as co-conspirator.” His wife and art-partner for the next thirty years, who died of lung cancer in 1988, once told an interviewer, “When I met Bob he was 29 and working in a psychiatric ward. A lot of his work comes out of that experience.” Brown once said, “In 1963 I met Rhett and life got better. I was in a coffee shop and she came in and she looked hot. She’d just been divorced.\" Brown said later of Rhett and her two daughters, Peggy and Carol, “We were like a little family,” Brown had found the support system he needed and his art career as a first rate iconoclast took off shortly thereafter.\n“When I came out of school in 1950, the art world I was preparing for was gone,” Brown said. But in New York, he forged head first into the new art sensibilities that were developing in the late 50s and early 60s. Happenings, Fluxus, Ray Johnson’s New York Correspondence School and even Pop Art had not yet been named, yet change was in the air and Brown was one of the many artists who arrived on the New York scene in those days, sensing that something dramatic was about to happen. “In retrospect, Cubism was Pop Art. The entire history of modern art was Pop Art,” Brown once said. But as Abstract Expressionism faded away, galleries and artists alike were making room for the “Neo-Dada” shows as they were called in those days and the time-based, action-oriented art works emerging at the time that brought art and life one step closer together than had the drip paintings of Jackson Pollock.\n“I met Allan Kaprow when were in Paris on our honeymoon.” Brown said. “Rhett and I went down to this gallery. It was an incredible Happening. And then I met him in New York City. And because Rhett was friendly, we kept in touch.” Brown often credited Rhett with being a license for him not to speak. “She liked to talk and I didn’t. I didn’t have to talk until Rhett died.”\nAn early significant event for Brown was his participation in Allan Kaprow’s presentation of the musical play entitled \"Originale\" by the German avantgarde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. This scandalous event was held at Judson Hall in New York City as part of the Second Annual Avant Garde Festival in 1964. Brown created the memorable image of \"the mad painter\" which was splashed across the pages of local papers and national news magazines.\nNext, Brown’s second success d'scandale, the \"Meat Show\", was staged in 1964 in a large refrigerator unit at the Washington Meat Market….Brown became the first artist to stage a meat performance, renting \"tons of meat and gallons of blood\" and a refrigerated locker for a blood-spattered happening.\n\"We went and rented a meat locker, telling the owner that we were making a movie and needed a set. The trucks arrived bringing all this steaming hot meat. We hung it everywhere on hooks. Then we got thousands of yards of lingerie-like sheer fabric and created rooms as in a brothel. It actually looked very erotic. The cops came in to inspect and said we had to have some red lights in the back which made it even more erotic,\" said Brown’s wife Rhett.\nIn 1967, Rhett and Robert Brown discovered a branch library building that was up for sale in the West Village. They immediately created a physical place for the headquarters of a work begun in 1964: The First National Church of the Exquisite Panic, Inc. The building on West 13th Street, referred to as The Great Building Crack-Up, became an architectural landmark that was later featured in the New York Times. They held many openings and events at the Great Building Crack-Up, including a Westbeth Playwrights Feminist Collective workshop production of \"Wicked Women.\"\nIn \"A Statement About The First National Church Of The Exquisite Panic, Inc.\" Brown said \"When I decided to found the The First National Church of the Exquisite Panic, Inc. in 1964 it had been incubating for over half my life. I had hoped that its rituals and ikons would serve as an endless source of subject matter for my work as a painter and sculptor, and it would also help me to explain to myself a world that was totally overwhelming in its complexity and completely different from the world's that had given birth the established religions.\"\nBrown called the First National Church of the Exquisite Panic, Inc. (FUNKUP for short) an Orthodox Pagan belief. Its chief deity is named WHO? – as in, “We don’t know where we’re going, but WHO? knows!” The church’s main commandment is to live and the main prohibition is, “Do Not Eat Cars,” a nonsensical rule stemming from Brown’s theory that a major problem with modern organized religion is its lack of humor.\nThe Funkup Manifesto states:\nFrom his Church, Brown continued to create collaborative performance artworks for the next three decades.\nHis physical collaboration of choice towards the end of his career was the \"Collaborative Action Gluing\" where by email and telephone, he arranged for a space and a participative audience of non-artists. This could be in another city or another country. He then showed up, armed with glue, scissors, rubber gloves, colored paper, magazines to cut up and several canvases for the participants to embellish collectively with their unschooled musings, each eventually transformed from a day-glo tabula rasa into a vibrant, swirling testimony to the power of joint action by non-artists, yet at the same time, surprisingly reminiscent of the likes of Miró, Kandinsky and of course, Matisse’s cutouts.\nStarting in the early 1990s, did much of his work online via the church website, Funkup.com.\nHis work is represented in the collections of (partial list): The Museum of Modern Art, New York City; Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.; Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado.\nBrown was found dead on March 24, 2009 in the Cape Fear River in Wilmington, North Carolina, where he had moved in 2007 to prepare for an exhibition at the Cameron Art Museum. Brown drowned in the Cape Fear River in Wilmington NC some time between 20 March 2009, when he was last seen, and 24 March 2009, when his body was found by two boaters. He was planning a happening which involved building rafts made of flip-flops and floating them down the river, originally inspired by local Wilmington artist Dixon Stetler. His last work was a Dadaist parade called \"Kazooathon\" in downtown Wilmington a month earlier.","Richard Larter\nRichard Larter (19 May 1929 – 25 July 2014) was an Australian painter, often identified as one of Australia's few highly recognisable pop artists. Larter also frequently painted in a Pointillist style. He took advantage of unusual techniques with painting: using a syringe filled with paint to create his early works, and juxtaposing multiple images on to a canvas. Many of his works are brightly coloured and draw on popular culture for source materials, reproducing news photographs, film stills, and images from pornography. He was married to Pat Larter, an artist who was involved in the Mail art movement, then performance art and finally painting in a brightly coloured style similar to Richard's. The Larters emigrated to Australia in 1962. Richard Larter's pop art was less ironic than his American and English counterparts. In this Larter is similar to other noted Australian pop artists, such as, Mike Brown and Martin Sharp.\nLarter was exhibited consistently from 1965 on across Australia, including as the subject of over 60 solo shows, most often at Niagara Galleries, Melbourne and Watters Gallery, Sydney, and over 100 group shows spanning almost 50 years. Notable exhibitions include his 2002 show \"Stripperama: Richard Larter\" at the Heide Museum of Modern Art and the show \"Andy and Oz: parallel visions\" organised by the National Gallery of Australia and exhibited at The Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh, USA in 2007. Larter was honoured with a retrospective of his work at the National Gallery of Australia in 2008, the exhibition revealing him continuing to be a leading Australian contemporary artist.\nLarter is represented in the collections of major galleries, such as the National Gallery of Australia, National Gallery of Victoria, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Art Gallery of South Australia, Art Gallery of Western Australia and Ballarat Fine Art Gallery, as well as numerous state, regional, university and private collections throughout Australia.\nHe died in Canberra on 25 July 2014.\nAustralian art","Dave McKenzie (artist)\nDave McKenzie is a visual and performance artist born in Kingston, Jamaica. Recent solo exhibitions include “Dave McKenzie: Everything’s Alright, Nothing’s Okay!” at the Rosenwald-Wolf Gallery at the University of the Arts, Philadelphia, PA; “Dave McKenzie,” at the Aspen Art Museum in Aspen, CO; “Screen Doors on Submarines,” REDCAT, Los Angeles; and “Momentum 8: Dave McKenzie,” The Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston. McKenzie’s work was included in “Etched in Collective History,” at the Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, AL; “Radical Presence: Black Performance in Contemporary Art,” at the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, Houston, TX; “Prospect.1” New Orleans, LA; and in other group exhibitions at the RISD Museum, Providence, RI; the New Museum, New York, NY; the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, IN, in “The Studio Museum in Harlem, NY; The Kitchen, New York, NY; and at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, Brooklyn, NY.\nIn 2000, he earned a BFA in printmaking from the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, PA and attended the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture.\n","Stacha Halpern\nStanislav \"Stacha\" Halpern (20 October 1919 – 28 January 1969) was a Polish Australian painter and sculptor. Following the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939, Halpern emigrated to Australia. A decade later he became a naturalised Australian citizen. Based in Melbourne for much of his early career, Halpern painted bold semi-abstract works of street life. Later he travelled throughout Europe and experimented with pure abstraction and expressionistic portraiture. Australian artist and friend Arthur Boyd described Halpern's work as \"original, vigorous and always arresting\".\nPaintings, sculptures and pottery by Halpern are held in several of Australia's public collections including the National Gallery of Australia, the National Gallery of Victoria and the Art Gallery of South Australia.\n","Lewis Miller (Australian artist)\nLewis Miller (born 1959 in Melbourne, Australia) is an Australian painter and visual artist, known for his portraits and figurative works. His father Peter Miller was a painter in the social realist tradition. His sister Lisa Miller is an Australian singer-songwriter.\nLewis studied painting at the Victorian College of the Arts in Melbourne from 1977 to 1979, and then travelled to London, Europe and Malaysia. He held his first solo exhibition in 1986 and is represented in the National Gallery of Australia, state and private galleries. In 1998, he won the Archibald Prize, which brought him greater prominence and led to many further commissions. He has travelled widely, including to the US in 1998, 2000, 2003 and 2005.\nIn 2003 and 2005, Miller was commissioned to produce a series of portraits of the scientists and technicians involved in the mapping of the human genome.\nHis other commissioned portraits include Australian rules football coach Ron Barassi, mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary and scientist James D. Watson. In 2003, he travelled to Iraq as Official Australian War Artist.\nBy 2005, he had entered the Archibald prize 17 times and had been a finalist 13 times. He was interviewed in the 2005 Peter Berner documentary \"Loaded Brush\".\n","Fred Williams\nFrederick Ronald (Fred) Williams OBE (23 January 192722 April 1982) was an Australian painter and printmaker. He was one of Australia’s most important artists, and one of the twentieth century’s major painters of the landscape. He had more than seventy solo exhibitions during his career in Australian galleries, as well as the exhibition \"Fred Williams - Landscapes of a Continent\" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1977.\nFred Williams was born on 23 January 1927 in Richmond, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia, the son of an electrical engineer and a Richmond housewife. Williams left school at 14 and was apprenticed to a firm of Melbourne shopfitters and box makers. From 1943 to 1947 he studied at the National Gallery School, Melbourne, at first part-time and then full-time from 1945 at the age of 18. The Gallery School was traditional and academic, with a long and prestigious history. He also began lessons under George Bell the following year, who had his own art school in Melbourne. This continued until 1950. Bell was a conservative modern artist but a very influential teacher.\nBetween 1951 and 1956, Williams studied part-time at the Chelsea School of Art, London (now Chelsea College of Art and Design) and in 1954 he did an etching course at the Central School of Arts and Crafts. He lived in a South Kensington bedsit and subsidised his art practice by working part-time at Savage’s picture framers. Williams returned to Melbourne in 1956, when his family was able to send him a cheap ticket aboard a ship bringing visitors to the Melbourne Olympics.\nHe had work included in the 'Recent Australian Painting' exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery, London, and 'Australian Painting: Colonial, Impressionism, Modern' at the Tate Gallery.\nAfter mainly working with figures in early paintings and etchings, he began painting landscapes after returning to Melbourne in 1957, which remained the major theme in his art.\nWhile learning etching and printing in London, he produced vivid caricatured sketches of contemporary London life. It was during this period that he established his method of reworking the same motif a number of times in a number of mediums and very often over a number of years.\nAs an artist concerned with form over subjectivity, Williams' approach struck a jarring note against the unity of many of his close associates such as John Brack, Arthur Boyd and Charles Blackman, the authors of the famous ‘Antipodean’ manifesto of 1959. Williams' work was excluded from their major exhibition. As heirs to the expressionist tradition, the Antipodeans lauded a spontaneous, improvised approach to painting and saw the function of art as vested in its expressive potential. They had little time for - and, in fact, denounced - the 'new' art emerging from Europe, the influences which were increasingly informing Williams' development.\nOn his return to Australia, Williams saw the aesthetic potential of the Australian bush in its inherent plasticity. His interest in finding an aesthetic 'language' with which to express the very un-European Australian landscape. This was grounded in establishing a pictorial equivalent to the overwhelmingly vast, primarily flat landscape, in which the traditional European relationship of foreground to background breaks down, necessitating a complete re-imagining of compositional space. In this, Williams looked to the approach taken by Australian Aboriginal artists.\nHe did this by tilting the landscape up against the picture plane, so that frequently the only indicator of horizontal recession is the presence of a horizon line, or where clumps of trees huddle closer together towards the horizon, suggesting recession. Where no horizon is visible, the landscape runs fully parallel to the picture plane, as in the major You Yangs series of the mid-1960s. Here, calligraphic knots of pigment indicate the presence of single trees against the earth, as if seen from the air (example).\nWilliams' first Australian landscape series was based on the Nattai River (1957–58).\nWilliams' landscapes recorded the passage of the Yarra River from its source to its mouth.\nIn 1960, Williams was invited to enter for the Helena Rubenstein Travelling Art Scholarship, the richest and most prestigious art prize at the time with an award of £1000 plus £300 travel expenses aimed at giving the winner overseas experience. Five paintings were required for his entry and he selected \"Landscape with a steep road\" (1957), \"Landscape with a building I\" (c. 1957–58), \"The forest pond\" (c. 1959–60), \"Sherbrooke Forest\" (1960) and \"The St George River\" (1960). He won in 1963 and it proved to be a turning point in his career which, according to fellow artist Jan Senbergs, brought Williams wide acclaim, especially from many influential curators and critics. Sydney art dealer Rudy Komon took Williams on as one of his key artists which enabled Williams to discontinue his part-time work with a Melbourne picture-framer and paint full-time.\nIn 1969, Williams started using a horizontal strip format in his landscape paintings in order to present different aspects of one scene on the same sheet. In 1970, Williams produced a group of four large strip format gouache-on-paper paintings called the \"West Gate Bridge series\" showing the half-constructed West Gate Bridge over the Yarra River in Melbourne. A section of the bridge collapsed on 15 October 1970, while it was still under construction, killing thirty-five workers. Williams had planned to paint the length of the river, but his widow, Lyn said he \"lost heart in the project\" after the accident. In his \"Beachscape with bathers Queenscliff\" I-IV series from 1971, Williams painted from the top of a cliff overlooking the beach during a seaside holiday. Each sheet is broken horizontally into four separate strips representing a different time of day and corresponding shift in the colour and tone of the scene as Williams recorded the effects of light on the landscape. By 1971 he had developed the technique extensively, moving from a vertical format to a horizontal format.\nIn March 1974, Williams travelled to Erith Island in Bass Strait with the historians Stephen Murray-Smith and Ian Turner, and fellow painter Clifton Pugh. Poor weather prevented Williams and his friends from leaving the island when they had intended. When the weather broke Williams painted a number of gouaches, including \"Beachscape, Erith Island\" I and II which employ the horizontal strip format. The \"Beachscape, Erith Island\" pictures show the point where the sea joins the land depicted as if looking down from above in the form of four strips. Williams recorded the event in his diary from 27–28 March 1974, \"I do 'strip' paintings of the beach using sand glued on – but the wind has worn me to a 'frazzle' … My final half doz. strip paintings are my best.\"\nIn May 1976, while Williams and his wife Lyn were visiting Paris and Bologna, many of Williams's paintings and all gouaches stored at the Barrett Malt Factory in Richmond were damaged by a fire.\nIn 1976, Williams flew over the Northern Territory at night on his way to an art fair in Bologna, Italy. He saw lines of bushfires burning and later that year produced the twelve-sheeted gouache series, \"Bushfire in Northern Territory\".\nIn February 1979, Williams visited the Lal Lal Falls on the Moorabool River to the west of Melbourne near Ballarat and painted the \"Lal Lal polyptych\", a four panel painting that he regarded as a single work. The successive canvases of the polyptych depict the changes in light on the waterfall and the surrounding landscape. Williams painted the last of his major landscapes, the four panel \"Waterfall polyptych\" (oil on canvas, each 183.0 cm x 152.5 cm), in his studio in 1979 based on the \"Lal Lal polyptych\". He described the studio painting as \"a major effort on my part\" and it is regarded as one of the most important works of his career. Williams said that his \"enthusiasm was fired\" by Eugene von Guérard's \"Waterfall, Strath Creek\" from 1862.\nIn the last years of his career, Williams produced more landscape series with strong themes, his last being the Pilbara series (1979–81), which remained intact as it was acquired by Con-Zinc Rio Tinto Group, the mining company that had invited him to explore the arid north-west region of Australia\nWilliams received a Helena Rubinstein Travelling Art Scholarship in 1963. In 1976 he was named an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), and awarded a Doctorate of Law (Honoris Causa) by Monash University in 1980.\nWilliams won the Wynne Prize for landscape painting twice; in 1966 with \"Upwey Landscape\" and in 1976 with \"Mt. Kosciusko\".\nHis painting \"Upwey Landscape\" (1965) sold for $1,987,700 in one of the final auctions of Christie's in Australia in April 2006, which at the time was the second highest price for any work sold at an Australian auction. In September 2007, auction house Deutscher-Menzies broke their sales record with Williams' \"Landscape with Water Ponds\" (1965) selling for $1,860,000. The most expensive work sold at an Australian auction in 2009 was Williams' 1965 \"Evening Sky, Upwey\", which sold for $1.15 million.\nTwo of Williams' paintings, \"Dry Creek Bed, Werribee Gorge I\" (1977) and \"Drifting Smoke\" (1981) were included in Quintessence Editions Ltd.'s 2007 edition of \"1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die\". Williams' work is also represented in William Splatt's \"100 Masterpieces of Australian Landscape Painting\".\nWilliams met Lyn Watson in January 1960 while painting at Sherbrooke. They were married in March 1961 and moved to the inner-city suburb of South Yarra. They had three daughters: Isobel, Louise and Kate. In 1963 the couple moved to Upwey, Victoria in the Dandenong Ranges outside Melbourne, a location that would have a decisive impact on his work. In 1964 they travelled through Europe on a Helena Rubenstein Scholarship. In 1969 Williams moved to Hawthorn, an inner suburb of Melbourne.\nIn November 1981, Williams was diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer. He died less than six months later in Hawthorn on 22 April 1982, aged 55. Fellow artist and friend John Brack gave the eulogy at his funeral. He said\nFred brought us a new vision of Australia’s landscape at least as valid and impressive as any of the two or three major illuminations which went before it. He changed the way we see our country: an achievement which will live long after all of us are gone.\nWilliams' estate is managed by his widow, Lyn Williams. Lyn bought a former factory in inner-Melbourne in 1989 and has managed the artist's estate from there since she sorted through his studio at their former home in Hawthorn. All of the artist's known works have been catalogued on a database. The building houses Williams' easel, brushes, the leather-bound diaries he kept from 1963 until his death, clipping books, a range of works and includes a gallery for hanging and photographing the artist's works. Works that are donated to public galleries and museums are prepared there. In 2009, Lyn Williams completed her ongoing gift to the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) of the prints of Fred Williams.\n","Loui Jover\nLoui Jover (born April 1967) is an Australian painter and artist. He is known for his artwork in ink wash paintings on vintage book pages. Jover started his work on art in his childhood, but did not start public art until 1989, when he joined the Australian army as an illustrator and photographer.\nJover stated that he started painting as soon as he was young, saying that he started painting \"\"once [he] left the womb\"\".","Ivan Durrant\nIvan Durrant is an Australian painter, performance artist and writer. Known for creating art with \"great shock value\", such as the 1975 \"Slaughtered Cow Happening\" outside the National Gallery of Victoria, Durrant is often described as the \"enfant terrible\" of Australian art. The larger proportion of Durrant's work consists of paintings using a self-developed style of \"Super-Realism\".\nDurrant now resides in Blairgowrie, Victoria, and his works are held in many public collections.\nBorn in Melbourne in 1947, Ivan Durrant was one of seven children. His father suffered from alcoholism, a factor leading to the decision by Ivan's 22-year-old mother to place the children into state care. From ages seven through 15, Durrant was raised in an orphanage in Brighton, Victoria. He was dealt regular beatings, and suffered emotional abuse - \"even medical experimentation. He can remember being injected with all sorts of things, even when he wasn't sick\". Whilst still alive, neither of Durrant's parents ever visited their children in the orphanage. During those years, Durrant spent his summers on farms where he was billeted to work for the summers. It was during that period that Durrant realise his fondness for birds and animals Durrant says that he has \"always had a love of looking at the structure of animals\".\nIvan began drawing during his years at the orphanage, with his art providing some social advantage for him. \"The 16-year old senior boys, they would look after me and I wouldn't be bullied because I could do drawings in their books for them, so art became my thing\". Durrant's ability to draw developed into an interest in painting during his teenage years.\nGeorges Mora, of Tolarno Galleries, St Kilda was among the first to see potential in Durrant's work, giving him $300 in cash to buy paints, and his first exhibition in 1970.\nDurrant's painting technique began in a childlike, folksy, naïve art style, evolving into paintings of extreme Photorealism, which has come to be referred to \"supraphotolism\" (meaning to work 'above and beyond the photo'), and sculptures of illusionistic still-lives of butchered meats, pigs’ heads and all.\nDurrant spent a short time working in a prosthetics laboratory at Royal Melbourne Hospital and was able to create lifelike body parts. This skill was carried over into an ability to create convincingly accurate sculptures of ears, hands, pig heads and various cuts of meat.\nDurrant's most recent works explore the colours and action of Australian Rules football.\nHis work has ranged from paintings to photography, public performance and installation art, short films and sculpture.\n1968 - 1970: Farm Life\n1970-1972: Flinders Horses and Landscapes - reflections of the period during which Durrant lived in the coastal town of Flinders, Victoria.\n1973: Unreal Realism - first movement into Realism (arts)\n1974: Movie stars period\n1975: Jockeys - First Photorealism show\n1976: New York - Awarded Art Council of Australia Artist in Residence, New York City\n1978: Butcher shop and Pigs Heads Exhibition - Beginnings of Meat period\n1979: Meat Paintings\n1981: Meat Paintings, Hawthorn Art Gallery - Photographic Exhibition of Meat\n1982: Hamilton - Travelling Exhibition of Meat Paintings; United Artists Gallery Beginnings - more meat paintings\n1984: United Artists Gallery - Fuck Art Period: Graffiti photographs of Pine Gap and Meat - response to changes in Uranium Policy. Included \"Uranium, you're standing in it\" exhibition.\n1986: United Artists Gallery - Chernobyl Deformities Exhibition - Deformed babies theme\n1988: United Artists Gallery & Regional Gallery Tour - Interiors of Sheds\n1992: Westpac Gallery - Retrospective Exhibition\n1994: Survey of 70s Racing Paintings\n1995: Australia Felix Arts Festival, Benalla and Sheds\n2002 - 2005: Cows\n2007–present: Boundary Rider\nDurrant is renowned for confronting the public through film, sculpture, performance exhibitions, and social realist paintings of the 1970s and 1980s. Much of his work has been based on concepts relating to socio-political themes; for example animal rights or the social effects of war. \"A lot of his art did have a great shock value\".\nOn 26 May 1975, Durrant dumped the carcass of a \"freshly slaughtered cow\" on the forecourt of the National Gallery of Victoria. In an interview with ABC Online, Durrant's daughter Jacqui says that installations and performance art were still a very new form of artistic expression, and \"to have something as extreme as an animal carcass put at the National Gallery of Victoria was just totally shocking to people\".\nPrior to the event, Durrant had discussed with close friend and mentor, abstractionist artist Asher Bilu, the concept of 'a more confrontational art 'happening' - to kill a cow before an audience'. 'The concept included actively drawing in the mass media to cover the event, thereby pushing it beyond the realm of high art'. Initially, the event was to take place at the Alexander Theatre, at Monash University. The public was to be the unwitting audience to the slaughtering of a cow named Beverley. The performance was described in a flyer as 'a real cow actually performing on stage'.\nThe event was leaked to the press on 23 May 1975, and was front-page news the following day. As a result, Monash University banned the event, and 'the media were on alert'. On the morning of 26 May 1975, Beverley was slaughtered in a cattle yard in Wheelers Hill, 'not far from where the Monash Gallery of Art stands today,' was then 'loaded onto a utility van, and with news crew in tow' was driven to the NGV, her carcass dumped in the forecourt.\nThe media coverage of the event was the most significant aspect of the performance, for 'in order to make a real impact, something about the performance needed to be identified (if not accepted) as art'. Durrant informed the staff at the NGV front desk that he was donating a sculpture, and 'asked whether they would consider leaving it in place for a few days'. The performance coincided with the opening of the gallery's 'first blockbuster exhibition, 'Modern Masters: Manet to Matisse', which was opening that night'. The NGV arranged for the carcass to be promptly removed and the site thoroughly cleaned before 'the scrum of Melbourne's social elite arrived'.\nThe happening was aired on the evening news nationwide, and made newspaper headlines the following day. The public response was 'one of outrage and disgust' and the art world was outraged at the claim that 'the cow was \"art\"'. Durrant was charged with 'depositing litter - to wit a dead cow', with Durrant pleading not guilty 'on the basis that Beverley was not litter. Durrant was fined $100, with the magistrate describing the event as 'an act of ego'.\nThe event was, in part, a statement about societal \"failure to confront the reality of killing ... in contemporary society in the West\".\nThe event was later interpreted as \"a response to the life-wasting Vietnam War, but particularly the direct connection between life and death. Each of us, he argued, must ‘take responsibility for [their] own actions. If we are going to eat meat a cow dies for that. And we have to face it.'\". Durrant's daughter states that she once considered such an interpretation (in relation to the Vietnam War) \"a bit of a retrospectively applied stretch,\" but adds that \"the cow endures as a metaphor for the inhumanity and carelessness with which we treat life generally and the extent to which we can become complacent and inured to this. Mass public outrage at a cow being slaughtered on the 6p.m. news threw into stark relief our preparedness to overlook far worse horrors.\".\nSimilar controversy surrounded Durrant's works of sculptural realism. An exhibition of what appeared to be a severed hand at Hogarth Galleries in Sydney received wide press coverage, leaving Sydney in \"an uproar\". The hand was, in fact, an intricately detailed synthetic polymer resin sculpture.\nTwelve guests were invited to a last supper at Durrant's Brighton home where they learned at the table that they were to prepare their own dinner - Durrant's pigeons. Guests were told that if they wished to eat, they had to slaughter their own pigeon at the table. This event, like other similar happenings demonstrated the point that \"as humans we tend to dissociate animals from the whole process of killing\". A film was made of the event, which was shown at the Dendy Cinema, Brighton; White Street Theatre, New York in 1976; and also at the Museum of Modern Art, New York in 1976.\nSourced from\nand\nDurrant's work is held in the following public collections:\n1975 - Mad Dog Morgan, Special effects\n1976 - \"Chopping Block\": 16mm, pigeon dinner event, MOMA & White Street Theatre, New York\n1977 - Long Weekend, Special effects; -\"Red Dog\", 16mm, Alpine Dingoes\n1980 - \"Self Portrait Blood Red\", Meat Landscape, Awarded Best Experimental Film, Australian Film Institute Awards\n1983 - \"Horse\", 16mm, surreal dream\n\"The Insiders\" - A reflection of childhood days spent at orphanages and farm stays.\nAll characters created by Ivan Durrant : Published by Bent Records, Copyright 1995, Benalla, Vic.\nTo date, the festival remains the largest coming together of artists, poets, and writers in Australia. The festival was a two-week-long event, with 120 exhibiting and visiting artists; and 40 performing poets.\nIvan Durrant is a regular contributor to Essentials Magazine, a Victorian High Country magazine dedicated to culture, culinary and adventure content.\nResides in Blairgowrie, Victoria\nMarried to Judy Durrant\nChildren: Jacqui Durrant; Jamie Durrant\nGrandchildren: Sacha Verrocchio, Elisey Durrant, Yaroslav Durrant (step-grandchild)\nBreeds and races pigeons.\nBreeds cattle.\nWorked in an abattoir to put himself through matriculation.\nIn 1969, Durrant became the first Victorian ward of the state to gain a bachelor's degree (Monash, BEc).\nIn the mid 1970s: Durrant exhibited in New York with the American Realists Chuck Close, and Janet Fish.","John Longstaff\nSir John Campbell Longstaff (10 March 1861 – 1 October 1941) was an Australian painter, war artist and a five-time winner of the Archibald Prize. He was a cousin of Will Longstaff, also a painter, as well as a war artist.\nLongstaff was born at Clunes, Victoria, second son of Ralph Longstaff, storekeeper and Janet (Jessie) Campbell. John was educated at a boarding school in Miners Rest and Clunes State School. He later studied at the Melbourne National Gallery School, after his father initially disapproved of his artistic ambitions. Longstaff's talent was recognised by George Folingsby. He married Rosa Louisa (Topsy) Crocker on 20 July 1887.\nHe won the National Gallery of Victoria's first travelling scholarship for his 1887 narrative painting \"Breaking the News\" (which inspired a 1912 film of the same name), and John and his wife sailed from Melbourne for London in September 1887. In January 1888 they travelled to Paris, where John exhibited in the Paris Salon. He later moved to London, where he painted many portraits. He returned to Australia in 1894 and was given several commissions. He occupied a studio at Grosvenor Chambers in Melbourne from 1897 to 1900. The National Gallery of Victoria assumed ownership of \"The Sirens\" under terms of the scholarship and bought his large landscape \"Gippsland, Sunday night, 20 February 1898\". He travelled to London again in 1901, where he exhibited with the Royal Academy.\nLongstaff was appointed an official war artist with the Australian Infantry Force in the First World War. He made several portraits of officers in the military. On his return to Australia he won several awards and was given distinguished positions, such as his appointment to President of the Victorian Artists Society in 1924 and Trustee of the National Gallery of Victoria in 1927. He was knighted in 1928, the first Australian artist to have had this honour.\nHis 1929 portrait of the artist Ellis Rowan was the first national portrait of an Australian woman.\nThe Art Gallery of South Australia holds his portraits of Paris Nesbit and The Artist's Wife.\nHis biography \"Portrait in Youth\", written by Nina Murdoch was published in 1948. His 1920 portrait of Nina Murdoch hangs in Reading Room of the National Library, Canberra.\nHis Archibald Prize winning pieces:","Mark Bloch\nMark Bloch (born 1956) is an American <a href=\"mail%20artist\">mail artist</a>, performance artist,\narchivist and writer whose work combines visuals and text as well as performance and media to explore\nideas of long distance communication.\nMark Bloch was born to American parents in Würzburg, Germany, in 1956 where his father was\nbased as soldier of the US Army.\nBloch grew up in Cleveland and Akron, Ohio. Exposure in his\nyouth to <a href=\"Robert%20Wyatt\">Robert Wyatt</a>, the <a href=\"Fugs\">Fugs</a>, <a href=\"Frank%20Zappa\">Frank Zappa</a> and <a href=\"Yoko%20Ono\">Yoko Ono</a> led to an\ninterest in the fringes of art. Coincidentally, Bloch later referred to his mentor Ray Johnson as the \"fringe of the fringe.\"\nBloch attended Kent State University, where he was influenced by faculty members Adrian DeWitt, a Jungian who taught in the Romance Languages department, Robert Schimmel and Robert Culley, another Jungian, in the School of Art and visiting artists <a href=\"Joan%20Jonas\">Joan Jonas</a> from New York and\n<a href=\"Iimura%20Takahiko\">Iimura Takahiko</a> from Japan, both videographers. Bloch attended Kent in the aftermath of the 1970 <a href=\"Kent%20State%20shootings\">Kent State shootings</a> and was present during protests of a gymnasium that was built on the site of that incident. Following his work with Jonas, and switching his focus from art to TV, Bloch received his B.A. degree in Broadcasting and was the creator of a \"punk\" performance art movement called The New Irreverence and other avant garde provocations. Bloch was part of the <a href=\"M%27bwebwe\">M'bwebwe</a> group that began in Kent, Ohio in 1974.\nAfter Kent, Bloch moved to Southern California, experimenting with\nperformance, studying with artist <a href=\"Rachel%20Rosenthal\">Rachel Rosenthal</a>, and\nsupporting himself as a maker of corporate communications for corporate clients from\n1978 to 1982.\nBloch performed \"Heart and Technology\" and \"East Meats West\" in <a href=\"Laguna%20Beach%2C%20California\">Laguna Beach, California</a> where he lived until 1981. On November 16, 1980, Bloch produced an early issue of his <a href=\"Do%20it%20yourself\">D.I.Y.</a> <a href=\"zine\">zine</a>, Panmag, numbered \"451\" in honor of the famed <a href=\"Fahrenheit%20451%20Books\">Fahrenheit 451 Books</a> bookstore inviting visitors to create work which he later mailed and spending the day \"in the window of the bookstore working on his <a href=\"mail%20art\">postal art</a> magazine,\" performing a work called \"Artist for Sale,\" in which he made himself available to \"buy or rent\" for \"$10,000 an hour.\" Bloch also typed on a typewriter in the window and gave a lecture on his \"Postal Art Network\" and its relationship to Laguna's status as an \"<a href=\"art%20colony\">art colony</a>.\"\nAfter moving to New York City in 1982, he met many of the\nSixties generation of avant garde artists whom he had long been studying\nin written form, artistic heirs to the legacy of <a href=\"Marcel%20Duchamp\">Marcel Duchamp</a> such as\n<a href=\"Dick%20Higgins\">Dick Higgins</a> and <a href=\"Alison%20Knowles\">Alison Knowles</a>, <a href=\"Jackson%20MacLow\">Jackson MacLow</a>, <a href=\"Al%20Hansen\">Al Hansen</a>, <a href=\"Nam%20June%20Paik\">Nam June Paik</a>\nand others. Bloch also met <a href=\"Ray%20Johnson\">Ray Johnson</a> who had heard of Bloch's mailed performance art pieces and invited him into his New York Correspondence School.\nIn 2012, after studying Digital Marketing, Bloch received a Master of Science degree from the <a href=\"Zicklin%20School%20of%20Business\">Zicklin School of Business</a>, <a href=\"Baruch%20College\">Baruch College</a>, <a href=\"City%20University%20of%20New%20York\">City University of New York</a>.\nSince 1980, Bloch has published Panmag, his mail art-related zine which documented much of the activity of the New York mail art scene in the 1980s and beyond including the visits of various mail artists to New York, his travel in Europe and opinions about the goings on in the fringes of the art world. Bloch's writings on Fluxus, performance, communication, Conceptual art, mail art and contemporary art are referred to on mail art-related blogs.\nIn his \"Open Letter to the Network,\" Bloch offered a \"critique of mail artists’ relations with the existing gallery system, attempting to distinguish 'the differences… between mail art and certified \"art\".' While calling on mail artists to 'ask the difficult questions' and 'digress from the backslapping that is so prevalent in mail art,' Bloch’s proposals are limited to an exhortation to 'pursue a more rigorous dialogue than exists right now.' Bloch asserts that 'we concentrate on content rather than appearance.'\"\nIn \"Offener brief an jeden im netzwerk\" (Open Letter to everyone in the Network) Bloch and visiting mail artist H. R. Fricker of Trogen, Switzerland created a six-point manifesto in English and German that highlighted the importance of person to person correspondence in the mail art network, as opposed to mail art shows, which were increasing in popularity at that time. This focus on the \"communicative processes arising from the exchanges between... artists\" was shared by Bloch and Fricker and many of the other mail artists who entered the fray in the late 70s and early 80s.\nBloch participated in several \"Tourism\" mail art congresses of 1986 and attended the Neoist Festival of Plagiarism in Glasgow and other events in 1989 but felt that two events of that nature were enough so he decided to \"boycott the 1992 congress year\" as well as the \"incongruous meetings year 1998,\" opting, instead, for a \"year of decompression\" in 2004 that was eventually manifested in lieu of Congress participation.\nBloch's work penetrated Neoist and related circles after his writings on <a href=\"Neoism\">Neoism</a>, <a href=\"Stewart%20Home\">Stewart Home</a> and the Festival of Plagiarism in his Panmag subtitled \"The Last Word\" in which he proposed a Word Strike which put forth the oft-repeated motto of that period, \"Don’t say art unless you mean money.\" Bloch later pushed that emphasis in the Panscan area of the Echo Communication teleconferencing system.\nBloch is a vehement defender in online communities of the purity of the <a href=\"Fluxus\">Fluxus</a> generation that preceded him, insisting that his contemporaries are free to be influenced by what he calls the Fluxus \"movement\" (as opposed to those who see it as an open-ended \"spirit\" or \"attitude\") but should not call themselves or their work \"Fluxus\" directly. \"Mark Bloch’s views on the current situation of Fluxus in the mail art network (as well as newer generation artists who call themselves Fluxus) can and do generate heated debate.\" Bloch calls the overuse of the word \"Fluxus\" by younger artists \"misinformation\" and a distortion of the historical record.\nBloch is recognized as being one of a handful of early converts from mail art to online communities. In 1989, Bloch began his experimental foray into\nthe digital space when he founded Panscan, part of the Echo NYC text-based\nteleconferencing system, the first online art discussion group in New York\nCity. Panscan lasted from 1990 to 1995.\nFollowing the death of <a href=\"Ray%20Johnson\">Ray Johnson</a> in 1995, Bloch left Echo and began a twenty-year research project on Communication art and Johnson and wrote several texts on\nhim that were among the earliest to appear online and were cited\nelsewhere in other media. Bloch and writer/editor Elizabeth Zuba brought together \"their distinct visual and literary perspectives to explore Ray Johnson’s innovative interpretations\nof 'the book'\" at the Printed Matter New York Book Fair in 2014.\nIt was Ray Johnson who introduced Bloch to <a href=\"Robert%20Delford%20Brown\">Robert Delford Brown</a> and his wife Rhett Cone Brown by bringing him in the 1980s to their home \"that Mr. Brown called 'The Great Building Crack-Up'\" in <a href=\"Greenwich%20Village\">Greenwich Village</a> which eventually led to Bloch becoming Brown's biographer, writing \"Robert Delford Brown: Meat, Maps, and Militant Metaphysics,\" published by the Cameron Art Museum in 2007.\nSince 1980, Bloch has published a zine called \"Panmag\" and tried to use it a in various ways to push back the boundaries of what art can be. Bloch \"situates his practices within the new expanded field of publishing. As the editor of \"Panmag\", he has combined both digital and traditional media in his periodical… He presents an interesting case for the… periodical to be considered as performance art,\" said scholars Marie Boivent and Stephen Perkins, citing \"his expansion of the traditionally static nature of the periodical into a new role as an active physical agent.\"\nMark Bloch’s one man show \"Secrets of the Ancient 20th Century Gamers\" was presented at Emily Harvey Foundation in NYC\nMarch 18 through April 2, 2010 and received favorable reviews. It featured paintings, collage works, assemblage, issues of his zine \"Panmag\" and other works.\nIn 2014, Bloch curated a New York City arts festival celebrating the centenary of cult hero artist-collector <a href=\"Guglielmo%20Achille%20Cavellini\">Guglielmo Achille Cavellini</a>, at various venues around Manhattan including the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\">Museum of Modern Art</a> Library, Richard L. Feigen & Co., Lynch Tham, and the Whitebox Art Center on the Lower East Side where a 55 foot long wall covered with artworks from the mail art network and local artists and a 14 by 14 foot drawing of Cavellini by Bloch was revealed during a three hour-plus opening marathon of performances, spoken word and music.\nIn 2016, Bloch and the granddaughter of Dada founder <a href=\"Marcel%20Janco\">Marcel Janco</a>, the Israeli art journaler and art therapist, Michaela Mende Janco, created \"Dadawatch,\" a one-year communications project to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Dada and inviting public online participation.","Muggsy Spanier\nFrancis Joseph \"Muggsy\" Spanier (November 9, 1901 – February 12, 1967) was a prominent jazz cornet player based in Chicago.\nSpanier was born in Chicago. At 13 he began playing the cornet and played with <a href=\"Elmer%20Schoebel\">Elmer Schoebel</a> in 1921. He borrowed the sobriquet of Muggsy from John \"Muggsy\" McGraw, the manager of the New York Giants baseball team. In the early 1920s, he played with <a href=\"The%20Bucktown%20Five\">The Bucktown Five</a>.\nIn 1929 he became a member of a band led by <a href=\"Ted%20Lewis%20%28musician%29\">Ted Lewis</a>, then spent two years with <a href=\"Ben%20Pollack\">Ben Pollack</a>. After an illness, he assembled the eight-man group Muggsy Spanier and His Ragtime Band. In 1939 the band recorded several sessions of <a href=\"Dixieland\">Dixieland</a> standards for <a href=\"Bluebird%20Records\">Bluebird Records</a> that were later called The Great Sixteen and influenced a Dixieland revival.\nThe band's members included <a href=\"George%20Brunies\">George Brunies</a> (later Brunis - trombone and vocals), <a href=\"Rod%20Cless\">Rod Cless</a> (clarinet), George Zack or <a href=\"Joe%20Bushkin\">Joe Bushkin</a> (piano), Ray McKinstry, Nick Ciazza or Bernie Billings (tenor sax), and Bob Casey (bass).\nHis other most important ventures were the quartet he co-led with <a href=\"Sidney%20Bechet\">Sidney Bechet</a> (the 'Big Four') in 1940. From 1940–1941 he played with <a href=\"Bob%20Crosby\">Bob Crosby</a>. In the 1950s, he moved to the West Coast and joined <a href=\"Earl%20Hines\">Earl Hines</a>'s band from 1957–1959. After touring Europe, he retired in 1964.\nThe Ragtime Band's theme tune was \"Relaxin' at the Touro\", named for <a href=\"Touro%20Infirmary\">Touro Infirmary</a>, the <a href=\"New%20Orleans%2C%20Louisiana\">New Orleans</a> hospital where Spanier had been treated for a perforated ulcer early in 1938. At the point of death, he was saved by Dr. <a href=\"Alton%20Ochsner\">Alton Ochsner</a> who drained the fluid and eased his weakened breathing. One of Spanier's Dixieland numbers is entitled, \"Oh Doctor Ochsner.\"\n'Relaxin' at the Touro' is a fairly straightforward <a href=\"Twelve-bar%20blues\">12-bar blues</a> with a piano introduction and <a href=\"coda%20%28music%29\">coda</a> by Joe Bushkin. The pianist recalled, many years later: \"When I finally joined Muggsy in Chicago (having left <a href=\"Bunny%20Berigan\">Bunny Berigan's</a> failing big band) we met to talk it over at the Three Deuces, where <a href=\"Art%20Tatum\">Art Tatum</a> was appearing. Muggsy was now playing opposite <a href=\"Fats%20Waller\">Fats Waller</a> at the Sherman hotel and we worked out a kind of stage show for the two bands. Muggsy was a man of great integrity. We played a <a href=\"blues\">blues</a> in C and I made up a little intro. After that I was listed as the co-composer of 'Relaxin' at the Touro'\".\nIn 1950, in Chicago, Spanier’s second marriage was to Ruth Gries O’Connell. He became the stepfather of her sons, Hollywood film writer and director <a href=\"Tom%20Gries\">Tom Gries</a> and Charles Joseph Gries, later professionally known as Buddy Charles, a pop and jazz vocalist and pianist in Chicago. When Spanier was performing at a concert in Chicago in 1956, Buddy Charles was performing at the nearby Black Orchid nightclub. Spanier was heard to exclaim “that’s my boy.”","Originale\nOriginale (Originals, or \"Real Characters\"), musical theatre with \"<a href=\"Kontakte%20%28Stockhausen%29\">Kontakte</a>\", is a music theatre work by the German composer <a href=\"Karlheinz%20Stockhausen\">Karlheinz Stockhausen</a>, written in collaboration with the artist <a href=\"Mary%20Bauermeister\">Mary Bauermeister</a>. It was first performed in 1961 in <a href=\"Cologne\">Cologne</a>, and is given the work number 12⅔ in Stockhausen's catalogue of works.\n\"Originale\" was commissioned from Stockhausen and Bauermeister by Hubertus Durek, manager of the <a href=\"Theater%20am%20Dom\">Theater am Dom</a> in Cologne, and his stage director, Carlheinz Caspari, who wanted \"ein Stück, in dem Schauspieler, Maler, andere Künstler oder eben einfach »originale« Menschen frei in spontanen Aktionen auftreten sollten\" (\"a piece in which actors, painters, other artists, or just simply 'genuine characters' would appear freely in spontaneous actions\") . It was created while the pair were visiting Finland in August 1961. Stockhausen had been invited to lecture at the Summer University of Jyväskylä where, at a presentation of \"Kontakte\", they met the piano virtuoso and <a href=\"Jean%20Sibelius\">Sibelius</a> biographer, Professor Erik Tawastjerna. Together with the Finnish architect and designer <a href=\"Alvar%20Aalto\">Alvar Aalto</a>, a summer house north of Helsinki on <a href=\"Lake%20Saimaa\">Lake Saimaa</a> was put at their disposal, and the score of \"Originale\" was completely worked out there in just two weeks. The \"silence\" scene, in which the events on stage and the music stop for just one minute, and then everything resumes again, was inspired by the \"unearthly\" effect of the northerly summer light, which remained in the sky for just two hours or so during which the sun briefly dipped below the horizon, then rose again, \"as the birds began to twitter, the fish stirred again, the wind came up, and there was day\" (; ).\nPerformances of \"Originale\" subsequent to the twelve first performances in Cologne between 26 October and 6 November 1962 have been rare. Productions took place in New York in September 1964, organized jointly by Mary Bauermeister and <a href=\"Charlotte%20Moorman\">Charlotte Moorman</a> , in 1990 in San Francisco directed and organized by <a href=\"Randall%20Packer\">Randall Packer</a> (; ), and on 21 January 2007 in connection with a 2006–2007 exhibition of Mary Bauermeister's tetralogy \"Fama Fluxus\"—\"Mythos Beuys\"—\"Legende Paik\"—\"Atelier Mary Bauermeister\" in <a href=\"Sindelfingen\">Sindelfingen</a> .\nThe New York performances took place at Judson Hall as part of the second annual New York Festival of the Avant-Garde, during the early performative period of the avant-garde movement <a href=\"Fluxus\">Fluxus</a>. Outside the concert hall on the opening night, 8 September 1964, several New York artists calling themselves Action Against Cultural Imperialism, including Fluxus founder <a href=\"George%20Maciunas\">George Maciunas</a>, <a href=\"Conceptual%20art\">Concept Art</a> creator <a href=\"Henry%20Flynt\">Henry Flynt</a>, poet, journalist, and activist <a href=\"Abdallah%20Schleifer\">Marc Schleifer</a>, violinist and filmmaker <a href=\"Tony%20Conrad\">Tony Conrad</a>, and actor/poet Alan Marlowe protested against Stockhausen as a \"cultural imperialist\" because of some reportedly disparaging remarks about jazz and folk music he was supposed to have made at Harvard in 1958 (; ; ; ). Some of the protesters seen before the event were actually performers involved in the piece, including poet <a href=\"Allen%20Ginsberg\">Allen Ginsberg</a> who, enlisting the support of Schleifer, extorted his way into the picket line against Flynt's wishes. Claims by Moorman and Stage Director <a href=\"Allan%20Kaprow\">Allan Kaprow</a> that they also joined the pickets have been disputed (; ). Meanwhile, Maciunas had recruited cast member <a href=\"Robert%20Delford%20Brown\">Robert Delford Brown</a> as a saboteur. Brown, performing the part of the Painter, came costumed as a huge papier-mache penis and, some way into the performance, lit a stink bomb on stage. This forced an evacuation of the hall and an unscheduled intermission to clear the air. <a href=\"Edgard%20Var%C3%A8se\">Edgard Varèse</a>, who had been seated near the front as guest of honor, had a violent coughing attack and had to be assisted out to the street. Needless to say, Brown disappeared during the interruption and in subsequent performances was replaced by the Japanese artist <a href=\"Ay-O\">Ay-O</a>, who was living at that time in New York. Thrilled press reviews reported that the protest and sabotage were actually part of the performance, a publicity stunt staged by Stockhausen himself (; ; ; ; ). Brown disputed the accounts that he was an intentional saboteur or that any rift developed between him and his friend Kaprow . Brown's only interest was to create as outrageous a spectacle as possible and embody the personna of the \"Artist.\" His own documentation left no evidence of being involved in any way with Maciunas .\nThe May 1990 performance produced and directed by Randall Packer in San Francisco was presented by Zakros InterArts at Theater Artaud. It was the first West Coast performance of \"Originale\" and was the first time it had been performed since the 1964 New York City performances . The production draw from recent technological advancements to introduce digital techniques of sound manipulation and live video, replacing the analog media of the 1960s, to disrupt the linear flow of the work and to enhance its qualities of fragmentation and deconstruction of everyday events.\nA performance celebrating the 50th anniversary of the 1964 New York performance was produced in 2014 by composer/performers Nick Hallett and Zach Layton .\nIn 2015 the <a href=\"Berlin%20State%20Opera\">Berlin State Opera</a> produced a new version of \"Originale\" staged by Georg Schütky (; ; ). It featured a mainly Berlin-based cast (e.g., Irm Hermann, Gerhard Rühm, Thomas Goerge, Max Renne, Vincent Stefan). The performances took place in the Werkstatt im <a href=\"Schiller%20Theater\">Schillertheater</a> which allowed the realisation of Stockhausen's principle of an inverted arena situation.\nThe surreal absurdity of \"Originale\" recalls <a href=\"Samuel%20Beckett\">Samuel Beckett</a>, <a href=\"Alain%20Robbe-Grillet\">Alain Robbe-Grillet</a>'s books and film \"<a href=\"Last%20Year%20at%20Marienbad\">L 'année dernière à Marienbad</a>\", and, in its use of the commonplace, <a href=\"Harold%20Pinter\">Harold Pinter</a> . It combines the rigorous, tightly controlled compositional form of Stockhausen's <a href=\"Serialism\">serial</a> music with the loosely structured improvisational framework of the early <a href=\"Happenings\">Happenings</a>. The score to \"Originale\" is groundbreaking for its incorporation of performance events and other assorted \"actions\" into a musical organization with precise \"timepoints\" or temporal markings, typical of Stockhausen's musical scores. Within the 94' duration of \"Originale\" is a performance of Stockhausen's \"Kontakte\" for piano, percussion, and electronics, that is woven throughout the work, providing a central unifying element to this often disjointed work. In addition to \"Kontakte\", the Cologne performances included tape-recorded excerpts from Stockhausen's \"<a href=\"Carr%C3%A9%20%28Stockhausen%29\">Carré</a>\" for four orchestras and choirs, \"<a href=\"Gesang%20der%20J%C3%BCnglinge\">Gesang der Jünglinge</a>\", \"<a href=\"Gruppen\">Gruppen</a>\" for three orchestras, and \"<a href=\"Zyklus\">Zyklus</a>\" for a percussionist .\nAn unusual assortment of \"characters\" are introduced in \"Originale\", including a pianist, a percussionist, a sound technician, a stage director, a cameraman, a lighting technician, an action composer, an action painter, a poet, a street singer, a coat checker, a newspaper vendor, a fashion model, a child (playing with blocks), an animal handler with animal, a conductor, and five actors reading a collage of unrelated texts .\nAccording to the musicologist Karl Heinz Wörner, \"\"Originale\" is a musical composition. The macrorhythm of scene continuity and the ordering of moments are musical. The individual scenes are composed musically, regardless of whether or not there is any 'music' in them. The verbal counterpoint is musical, as are the 'monodic' word melodies and the polyphony of speaking voices\" . \"Originale\" is constructed in 18 scenes, grouped into seven self-sufficient \"structures\", which may be performed in any order, either successively or with as many as three structures simultaneously, on three separated stages . Each character's actions are specified to take place within a specified number of seconds or minutes, and at one point the actors even speak in what Stockhausen calls \"formant rhythms\": in a span of four minutes one actor speaks three equally spaced words, a second actor has five equally spaced words, a third has eight, and yet another has thirteen, while a fifth provides a \"noise band\" of completely irregular rhythms .","Joan Miró\nJoan Miró i Ferrà (] ; 20 April 1893 – 25 December 1983) was a Spanish <a href=\"painter\">painter</a>, <a href=\"sculptor\">sculptor</a>, and <a href=\"ceramicist\">ceramicist</a> born in <a href=\"Barcelona\">Barcelona</a>. A museum dedicated to his work, the <a href=\"Fundaci%C3%B3%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3\">Fundació Joan Miró</a>, was established in his native city of Barcelona in 1975, and another, the <a href=\"Pilar%20and%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3%20Foundation%20in%20Mallorca\">Fundació Pilar i Joan Miró</a>, was established in his adoptive city of <a href=\"Palma%20de%20Mallorca\">Palma de Mallorca</a> in 1981.\nEarning international acclaim, his work has been interpreted as <a href=\"Surrealism\">Surrealism</a>, a sandbox for the subconscious mind, a re-creation of the childlike, and a manifestation of Catalan pride. In numerous interviews dating from the 1930s onwards, Miró expressed contempt for conventional painting methods as a way of supporting <a href=\"bourgeois\">bourgeois</a> society, and famously declared an \"assassination of painting\" in favour of upsetting the visual elements of established painting.\nBorn into the family of a <a href=\"goldsmith\">goldsmith</a> and a watchmaker, Miró grew up in the <a href=\"Barri%20G%C3%B2tic\">Barri Gòtic</a> neighborhood of Barcelona. The \"Miró\" name indicates <a href=\"Jewish\">Jewish</a> (<a href=\"marrano\">marrano</a> or <a href=\"converso\">converso</a>) roots. His father was Miquel Miró Adzerias and his mother was Dolors Ferrà. He began drawing classes at the age of seven at a private school at Carrer del Regomir 13, a medieval mansion. In 1907 he enrolled at the fine art academy at <a href=\"La%20Llotja\">La Llotja</a>, to the dismay of his father. He studied at the <a href=\"Cercle%20Art%C3%ADstic%20de%20Sant%20Lluc\">Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc</a> and he had his first solo show in 1918 at the Dalmau Gallery, where his work was ridiculed and defaced. Inspired by <a href=\"Cubist\">Cubist</a> and surrealist exhibitions from abroad, Miró was drawn towards the arts community that was gathering in <a href=\"Montparnasse\">Montparnasse</a> and in 1920 moved to <a href=\"Paris\">Paris</a>, but continued to spend his summers in <a href=\"Catalonia\">Catalonia</a>.\nMiró initially went to business school as well as art school. He began his working career when he was a teenager as a clerk, although he abandoned the business world completely for art after suffering a nervous breakdown. His early art, like that of the similarly influenced <a href=\"Fauvism\">Fauves</a> and Cubists exhibited in Barcelona, was inspired by <a href=\"Vincent%20van%20Gogh\">Vincent van Gogh</a> and <a href=\"Paul%20C%C3%A9zanne\">Paul Cézanne</a>. The resemblance of Miró's work to that of the intermediate generation of the avant-garde has led scholars to dub this period his Catalan Fauvist period.\nA few years after Miró’s 1918 Barcelona solo exhibition, he settled in Paris where he finished a number of paintings that he had begun on his parents’ summer home and farm in <a href=\"Mont-roig%20del%20Camp\">Mont-roig del Camp</a>. One such painting, \"<a href=\"The%20Farm%20%28Mir%C3%B3%29\">The Farm</a>\", showed a transition to a more individual style of painting and certain nationalistic qualities. <a href=\"Ernest%20Hemingway\">Ernest Hemingway</a>, who later purchased the piece, compared the artistic accomplishment to James Joyce’s <a href=\"Ulysses%20%28novel%29\">Ulysses</a> and described it by saying, “It has in it all that you feel about Spain when you are there and all that you feel when you are away and cannot go there. No one else has been able to paint these two very opposing things.” Miró annually returned to Mont-roig and developed a symbolism and nationalism that would stick with him throughout his career. Two of Miró’s first works classified as Surrealist, \"<a href=\"Catalan%20Landscape%20%28The%20Hunter%29\">Catalan Landscape (The Hunter)</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Tilled%20Field\">The Tilled Field</a>\", employ the symbolic language that was to dominate the art of the next decade.\nIn 1924, Miró joined the Surrealist group. The already symbolic and poetic nature of Miró’s work, as well as the dualities and contradictions inherent to it, fit well within the context of dream-like automatism espoused by the group. Much of Miró’s work lost the cluttered chaotic lack of focus that had defined his work thus far, and he experimented with collage and the process of painting within his work so as to reject the framing that traditional painting provided. This antagonistic attitude towards painting manifested itself when Miró referred to his work in 1924 ambiguously as “x” in a letter to poet friend <a href=\"Michel%20Leiris\">Michel Leiris</a>. The paintings that came out of this period were eventually dubbed Miró’s dream paintings.\nMiró did not completely abandon subject matter. Despite the Surrealist automatic techniques that he employed extensively in the 1920s, sketches show that his work was often the result of a methodical process. Miró’s work rarely dipped into non-objectivity, maintaining a symbolic, schematic language. This was perhaps most prominent in the repeated \"<a href=\"Head%20of%20a%20Catalan%20Peasant\">Head of a Catalan Peasant</a>\" series of 1924 to 1925. In 1926, he collaborated with <a href=\"Max%20Ernst\">Max Ernst</a> on designs for ballet <a href=\"impresario\">impresario</a> <a href=\"Sergei%20Diaghilev\">Sergei Diaghilev</a>. With Miró's help, Ernst pioneered the technique of \"<a href=\"Surrealist%20techniques%23Grattage\">grattage</a>,\" in which he troweled pigment onto his canvases.\nMiró returned to a more representational form of painting with \"The Dutch Interiors\" of 1928. Crafted after works by <a href=\"Hendrik%20Martenszoon%20Sorgh\">Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh</a> and <a href=\"Jan%20Steen\">Jan Steen</a> seen as postcard reproductions, the paintings reveal the influence of a trip to Holland taken by the artist. These paintings share more in common with \"Tilled Field\" or \"Harlequin’s Carnival\" than with the minimalistic dream paintings produced a few years earlier.\nMiró married Pilar Juncosa in <a href=\"Palma%2C%20Majorca\">Palma</a> (<a href=\"Majorca\">Majorca</a>) on 12 October 1929; their daughter, María Dolores Miró, was born 17 July 1930. In 1931, <a href=\"Pierre%20Matisse\">Pierre Matisse</a> opened an art gallery in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. The Pierre Matisse Gallery (which existed until Matisse's death in 1989) became an influential part of the <a href=\"Modern%20art\">Modern art</a> movement in America. From the outset Matisse represented Joan Miró and introduced his work to the United States market by frequently exhibiting Miró's work in New York.\nUntil the outbreak of the <a href=\"Spanish%20Civil%20War\">Spanish Civil War</a>, Miró habitually returned to Spain in the summers. Once the war began, he was unable to return home. Unlike many of his surrealist contemporaries, Miró had previously preferred to stay away from explicitly political commentary in his work. Though a sense of (Catalan) nationalism pervaded his earliest surreal landscapes and \"Head of a Catalan Peasant\", it was not until Spain’s Republican government commissioned him to paint the mural, \"<a href=\"The%20Reaper%20%28Mir%C3%B3%20painting%29\">The Reaper</a>\", for the Spanish Republican Pavilion at the <a href=\"1937%20Paris%20Exhibition\">1937 Paris Exhibition</a>, that Miró’s work took on a politically charged meaning.\nIn 1939, with Germany’s invasion of France looming, Miró relocated to Varengeville in Normandy, and on 20 May of the following year, as Germans invaded Paris, he narrowly fled to Spain (now controlled by Francisco Franco) for the duration of the Vichy Regime’s rule. In Varengeville, Palma, and Mont-roig, between 1940 and 1941, Miró created the twenty-three <a href=\"gouache\">gouache</a> series \"<a href=\"Ciphers%20and%20Constellations%2C%20in%20Love%20with%20a%20Woman\">Constellations</a>\". Revolving around <a href=\"Celestial%20spheres\">celestial</a> symbolism, \"Constellations\" earned the artist praise from <a href=\"Andr%C3%A9%20Breton\">André Breton</a>, who seventeen years later wrote a series of poems, named after and inspired by Miró's series. Features of this work revealed a shifting focus to the subjects of women, birds, and the moon, which would dominate his iconography for much of the rest of his career.\n<a href=\"Shuzo%20Takiguchi\">Shuzo Takiguchi</a> published the first monograph on Miró in 1940. In 1948–49 Miró lived in Barcelona and made frequent visits to Paris to work on printing techniques at the <a href=\"Mourlot%20Studios\">Mourlot Studios</a> and the <a href=\"Atelier%20Lacouri%C3%A8re\">Atelier Lacourière</a>. He developed a close relationship with <a href=\"Fernand%20Mourlot\">Fernand Mourlot</a> and that resulted in the production of over one thousand different lithographic editions.\nIn 1959, André Breton asked Miró to represent Spain in \"The Homage to Surrealism\" exhibition alongside <a href=\"Enrique%20T%C3%A1bara\">Enrique Tábara</a>, <a href=\"Salvador%20Dal%C3%AD\">Salvador Dalí</a>, and <a href=\"Eugenio%20Granell\">Eugenio Granell</a>. Miró created a series of sculptures and ceramics for the garden of the <a href=\"Maeght%20Foundation\">Maeght Foundation</a> in <a href=\"Saint-Paul-de-Vence\">Saint-Paul-de-Vence</a>, France, which was completed in 1964.\nIn 1974, Miró created a tapestry for the <a href=\"World%20Trade%20Center%20%281973%E2%80%932001%29\">World Trade Center</a> in New York City together with the Catalan artist <a href=\"Josep%20Royo\">Josep Royo</a>. He had initially refused to do a tapestry, then he learned the craft from Royo and the two artists produced several works together. His \"<a href=\"World%20Trade%20Center%20Tapestry\">World Trade Center Tapestry</a>\" was displayed at the building and was one of the most expensive works of art lost during the <a href=\"September%2011%20attacks\">September 11 attacks</a>.\nIn 1977, Miró and Royo finished a tapestry to be exhibited in the <a href=\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Art\">National Gallery of Art</a> in Washington, DC.\nIn 1981, Miró's \"The Sun, the Moon and One Star\"—later renamed \"<a href=\"Mir%C3%B3%27s%20Chicago\">Miró's Chicago</a>\"—was unveiled. This large, mixed media sculpture is situated outdoors in the downtown <a href=\"Chicago%20Loop\">Loop</a> area of <a href=\"Chicago\">Chicago</a>, across the street from another large public sculpture, the <a href=\"Chicago%20Picasso\">Chicago Picasso</a>. Miró had created a bronze model of \"The Sun, the Moon and One Star\" in 1967. The <a href=\"maquette\">maquette</a> now resides in the <a href=\"Milwaukee%20Art%20Museum\">Milwaukee Art Museum</a>.\nIn 1979 Miró received a doctorate \"<a href=\"honoris%20causa\">honoris causa</a>\" from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Barcelona\">University of Barcelona</a>. The artist, who suffered from heart failure, died in his home in <a href=\"Palma%2C%20Majorca\">Palma</a> (<a href=\"Majorca\">Majorca</a>) on December 25, 1983.\nHis early modernist works include \"<a href=\"Portrait%20of%20Vincent%20Nubiola\">Portrait of Vincent Nubiola</a>\" (1917), \"Siurana (the path), \"Nord-Sud\" (1917) and \"Painting of Toledo\". These works show the influence of <a href=\"C%C3%A9zanne\">Cézanne</a>, and fill the canvas with a colorful surface and a more painterly treatment than the hard-edge style of most of his later works. In \"Nord-Sud\", the literary newspaper of that name appears in the still life, a compositional device common in cubist compositions, but also a reference to the literary and avant-garde interests of the painter.\nStarting in 1920, Miró developed a very precise style, picking out every element in isolation and detail and arranging them in deliberate composition. These works, including \"House with Palm Tree\" (1918), \"Nude with a Mirror\" (1919), \"Horse, Pipe and Red Flower\" (1920), and \"The Table - Still Life with Rabbit\" (1920), show the clear influence of <a href=\"Cubism\">Cubism</a>, although in a restrained way, being applied to only a portion of the subject. For example, \"The Farmer's Wife\" (1922–23), is realistic, but some sections are stylized or deformed, such as the treatment of the woman's feet, which are enlarged and flattened.\nThe culmination of this style was \"<a href=\"The%20Farm%20%28Mir%C3%B3%29\">The Farm</a>\" (1921–22). The rural Catalan scene it depicts is augmented by an avant-garde French newspaper in the center, showing Miró sees this work transformed by the Modernist theories he had been exposed to in Paris. The concentration on each element as equally important was a key step towards generating a pictorial sign for each element. The background is rendered in flat or patterned in simple areas, highlighting the separation of figure and ground, which would become important in his mature style.\nMiró made many attempts to promote this work, but his surrealist colleagues found it too realistic and apparently conventional, and so he soon turned to a more explicitly surrealist approach.\nIn 1922, Miró explored abstracted, strongly coloured surrealism in at least one painting. From the summer of 1923 in Mont-roig, Miró began a key set of paintings where abstracted pictorial signs, rather than the realistic representations used in The Farm, are predominant. In \"The Tilled Field\", \"Catalan Landscape (The Hunter)\" and \"Pastoral\" (1923–24), these flat shapes and lines (mostly black or strongly coloured) suggest the subjects, sometimes quite cryptically. For \"Catalan Landscape (The Hunter)\", Miró represents the hunter with a combination of signs: a triangle for the head, curved lines for the moustache, angular lines for the body. So encoded is this work that at a later time Miró provided a precise explanation of the signs used.\nThrough the mid-1920s Miró developed the pictorial sign language which would be central throughout the rest of his career.\nIn \"Harlequin's Carnival\" (1924–25), there is a clear continuation of the line begun with \"The Tilled Field\". But in subsequent works, such as \"The Happiness of Loving My Brunette\" (1925) and \"Painting (Fratellini)\" (1927), there are far fewer foreground figures, and those that remain are simplified.\nSoon after Miró also began his \"Spanish Dancer\" series of works. These simple collages, were like a conceptual counterpoint to his paintings. In \"Spanish Dancer\" (1928) he combines a cork, a feather and a hatpin onto a blank sheet of paper.\nMiró created over 250 illustrated books. These were known as \"<a href=\"Artist%27s%20book\">Livres d' Artiste</a>.\" One such work was published in 1974, at the urging of the widow of the French poet <a href=\"Robert%20Desnos\">Robert Desnos</a>, titled \"Les pénalités de l'enfer ou les nouvelles Hébrides\" (\"The Penalties of Hell or The New Hebrides\"). It was a set of 25 lithographs, five in black, and the others in colors.\nIn 2006 the book was displayed in \"Joan Miró, Illustrated Books\" at the Vero Beach Museum of Art. One critic said it is \"an especially powerful set, not only for the rich imagery but also for the story behind the book's creation. The lithographs are long, narrow verticals, and while they feature Miró's familiar shapes, there's an unusual emphasis on texture.\" The critic continued, \"I was instantly attracted to these four prints, to an emotional lushness, that's in contrast with the cool surfaces of so much of Miró's work. Their poignancy is even greater, I think, when you read how they came to be. The artist met and became friends with Desnos, perhaps the most beloved and influential surrealist writer, in 1925, and before long, they made plans to collaborate on a \"livre d'artiste\". Those plans were put on hold because of the <a href=\"Spanish%20Civil%20War\">Spanish Civil War</a> and <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>. Desnos' bold criticism of the latter led to his imprisonment in <a href=\"Auschwitz\">Auschwitz</a>, and he died at age 45 shortly after his release in 1945. Nearly three decades later, at the suggestion of Desnos' widow, Miró set out to illustrate the poet's manuscript. It was his first work in prose, which was written in Morocco in 1922 but remained unpublished until this posthumous collaboration.\"\nIn Paris, under the influence of poets and writers, he developed his unique style: <a href=\"organic%20%28model%29\">organic</a> forms and flattened picture planes drawn with a sharp line. Generally thought of as a Surrealist because of his interest in <a href=\"Surrealist%20automatism\">automatism</a> and the use of sexual symbols (for example, ovoids with wavy lines emanating from them), Miró's style was influenced in varying degrees by Surrealism and <a href=\"Dada\">Dada</a>, yet he rejected membership in any artistic movement in the interwar European years. André Breton described him as \"the most Surrealist of us all.\" Miró confessed to creating one of his most famous works, \"Harlequin's Carnival\", under similar circumstances:\nHow did I think up my drawings and my ideas for painting? Well I'd come home to my Paris studio in Rue Blomet at night, I'd go to bed, and sometimes I hadn't any supper. I saw things, and I jotted them down in a notebook. I saw shapes on the ceiling...\nMiró's surrealist origins evolved out of \"repression\" much like all Spanish surrealist and magic realist work, especially because of his <a href=\"Catalonia\">Catalan</a> ethnicity, which was subject to special persecution by the Franco regime. Also, Joan Miró was well aware of <a href=\"Haitian%20Vodou\">Haitian Voodoo</a> art and Cuban <a href=\"Santer%C3%ADa\">Santería</a> religion through his travels before going into exile. This led to his signature style of art making.\nJoan Miró was among the first artists to develop <a href=\"automatic%20drawing\">automatic drawing</a> as a way to undo previous established techniques in painting, and thus, with <a href=\"Andr%C3%A9%20Masson\">André Masson</a>, represented the beginning of <a href=\"Surrealism\">Surrealism</a> as an art movement. However, Miró chose not to become an official member of the Surrealists in order to be free to experiment with other artistic styles without compromising his position within the group. He pursued his own interests in the art world, ranging from automatic drawing and <a href=\"surrealism\">surrealism</a>, to <a href=\"expressionism\">expressionism</a>, <a href=\"Lyrical%20Abstraction\">Lyrical Abstraction</a>, and <a href=\"Color%20Field%20painting\">Color Field painting</a>. Four-dimensional painting was a theoretical type of painting Miró proposed in which painting would transcend its two-dimensionality and even the three-dimensionality of <a href=\"sculpture\">sculpture</a>.\nMiró's oft-quoted interest in the \"assassination of painting\" is derived from a dislike of <a href=\"bourgeois\">bourgeois</a> art, which he believed was used as a way to promote propaganda and cultural identity among the wealthy. Specifically, Miró responded to Cubism in this way, which by the time of his quote had become an established art form in France. He is quoted as saying \"\"I will break their guitar,\"\" referring to <a href=\"Pablo%20Picasso\">Picasso's</a> paintings, with the intent to attack the popularity and appropriation of Picasso's art by politics.\nThe spectacle of the sky overwhelms me. I'm overwhelmed when I see, in an immense sky, the crescent of the moon, or the sun. There, in my pictures, tiny forms in huge empty spaces. Empty spaces, empty horizons, empty plains - everything which is bare has always greatly impressed me. —Joan Miró, 1958, quoted in Twentieth-Century Artists on Art\nIn an interview with biographer <a href=\"Walter%20Erben\">Walter Erben</a>, Miró expressed his dislike for <a href=\"art%20critic\">art critic</a>s, saying, they \"are more concerned with being philosophers than anything else. They form a preconceived opinion, then they look at the work of art. Painting merely serves as a cloak in which to wrap their emaciated philosophical systems.\"\nIn the final decades of his life Miró accelerated his work in different media, producing hundreds of ceramics, including the \"Wall of the Moon\" and \"Wall of the Sun\" at the <a href=\"UNESCO\">UNESCO</a> building in Paris. He also made temporary window paintings (on glass) for an exhibit. In the last years of his life Miró wrote his most radical and least known ideas, exploring the possibilities of <a href=\"gas%20sculpture\">gas sculpture</a> and four-dimensional painting.\nThroughout the 1960s, Miró was a featured artist in many salon shows assembled by the Maeght Foundation that also included works by <a href=\"Marc%20Chagall\">Marc Chagall</a>, <a href=\"Giacometti\">Giacometti</a>, Brach, Cesar, <a href=\"Raoul%20Ubac\">Ubac</a>, and <a href=\"Pierre%20Tal-Coat\">Tal-Coat</a>.\nThe large retrospectives devoted to Miró in his old age in towns such as New York (1972), London (1972), Saint-Paul-de-Vence (1973) and Paris (1974) were a good indication of the international acclaim that had grown steadily over the previous half-century; further major retrospectives took place posthumously. Political changes in his native country led in 1978 to the first full exhibition of his painting and graphic work, at the <a href=\"Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa\">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a> in Madrid. In 1993, the year of the hundredth anniversary of his birth, several exhibitions were held, among which the most prominent were those held in the <a href=\"Fundaci%C3%B3%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3\">Fundació Joan Miró</a>, Barcelona, the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\">Museum of Modern Art</a>, New York, the <a href=\"Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa\">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a>, Madrid, and the Galerie Lelong, Paris. In 2011, another retrospective was mounted by the <a href=\"Tate%20Modern\">Tate Modern</a>, London, and travelled to <a href=\"Fundaci%C3%B3%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3\">Fundació Joan Miró</a> and the <a href=\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Art\">National Gallery of Art</a>, Washington, D.C.. \"Joan Miró, Printmaking\", Fundación Joan Miró (2013). And two exhibitions in 2014, \"Miró: From Earth to Sky\" at Albertina Museum, and \"Masterpieces from the Kunsthaus Zürich\", National Art Center, Tokyo.\nExhibitions entitled \"Joan Miró: Instinct & Imagination\" and \"Miró: The Experience of Seeing\" were held at the <a href=\"Denver%20Art%20Museum\">Denver Art Museum</a> from 22 March – 28 June 2015 and at the <a href=\"McNay%20Art%20Museum\">McNay Art Museum</a> from 30 September 2015 - 10 January 2016 (respectively), showing works made by Miró between 1963 and 1981, on loan from the <a href=\"Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa\">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a> in Madrid.\nMiró has been a significant influence on late 20th-century art, in particular the American <a href=\"Abstract%20expressionism\">abstract expressionist</a> artists such as <a href=\"Robert%20Motherwell\">Motherwell</a>, <a href=\"Alexander%20Calder\">Calder</a>, <a href=\"Arshile%20Gorky\">Gorky</a>, <a href=\"Jackson%20Pollock\">Pollock</a>, <a href=\"Roberto%20Matta\">Matta</a> and <a href=\"Mark%20Rothko\">Rothko</a>, while his <a href=\"lyrical%20abstraction\">lyrical abstraction</a>s and <a href=\"color%20field\">color field</a> paintings were precursors of that style by artists such as <a href=\"Helen%20Frankenthaler\">Helen Frankenthaler</a>, <a href=\"Jules%20Olitski\">Olitski</a> and <a href=\"Morris%20Louis\">Louis</a> and others.\nHis work has also influenced modern designers, including <a href=\"Paul%20Rand\">Paul Rand</a> and <a href=\"Lucienne%20Day\">Lucienne Day</a>, and influenced recent painters such as <a href=\"Julian%20Hatton\">Julian Hatton</a>.\nOne of <a href=\"Man%20Ray\">Man Ray</a>'s 1930s photographs, \"Miró with Rope\", depicts the painter with an arranged rope pinned to a wall, and was published in the single-issue surrealist work \"Minotaure\".\nIn 1954 he was given the <a href=\"Venice%20Biennale\">Venice Biennale</a> print making prize, in 1958 the Guggenheim International Award,\nIn 1981, the <a href=\"Palma%2C%20Majorca\">Palma</a> City Council (<a href=\"Majorca\">Majorca</a>) established the \"Fundació Pilar i Joan Miró a Mallorca\", housed in the four studios that Miró had donated for the purpose.\nToday, Miró's paintings sell for between US$250,000 and US$26 million; US$17 million at a U.S. auction for the \"La Caresse des étoiles\" (1938) on 6 May 2008, at the time the highest amount paid for one of his works. In 2012, \"Painting-Poem (\"le corps de ma brune puisque je l'aime comme ma chatte habillée en vert salade comme de la grêle c'est pareil\")\" (1925) was sold at <a href=\"Christie%27s\">Christie's</a> London for $26.6 million. Later that year at <a href=\"Sotheby%27s\">Sotheby's</a> in London, \"<a href=\"Painting%20%28Blue%20Star%29\">Peinture (Etoile Bleue)</a>\" (1927) brought nearly 23.6 million pounds with fees, more than twice what it had sold for at a Paris auction in 2007 and a record price for the artist at auction.\n","Julien Levy\nJulien Levy (1906–1981) was an art dealer and owner of Julien Levy Gallery in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, important as a venue for Surrealists, avante-garde artists and American photographers in the 1930s and 1940s\nLevy was born in New York. After studying museum administration at Harvard under <a href=\"Paul%20J.%20Sachs\">Paul J. Sachs</a>, Levy dropped out, traveled to Paris by boat, and befriended <a href=\"Man%20Ray\">Man Ray</a>, <a href=\"Marcel%20Duchamp\">Marcel Duchamp</a>, and <a href=\"Berenice%20Abbott\">Berenice Abbott</a>, through whom he came into possession of a portion of <a href=\"Eug%C3%A8ne%20Atget\">Eugène Atget</a>'s personal archive. In Paris he also met his future wife, Joella Haweis, daughter of artist and writer <a href=\"Mina%20Loy\">Mina Loy</a>.\nBack in New York, Levy worked briefly at the <a href=\"Weyhe%20Gallery\">Weyhe Gallery</a> before establishing his own New York gallery at 602 Madison Avenue in 1931. Concentrating at first on photography, he staged Man Ray's first major show, introduced <a href=\"Henri%20Cartier-Bresson\">Henri Cartier-Bresson</a> to the U.S., and promoted many other European and American figures. On January 29, 1932 came the landmark multi-media Surrealist exhibition of the work of <a href=\"Pablo%20Picasso\">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href=\"Max%20Ernst\">Max Ernst</a>, <a href=\"Joseph%20Cornell\">Joseph Cornell</a>, <a href=\"Marcel%20Duchamp\">Marcel Duchamp</a>, and the introduction of <a href=\"Salvador%20Dal%C3%AD\">Salvador Dalí</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Persistence%20of%20Memory\">The Persistence of Memory</a>\" (which Levy owned). He also championed the surrealist work of <a href=\"Leon%20Kelly\">Leon Kelly</a>.This exhibition marks the first in New York to display the works of members of the official surrealist group.\nIn 1937 the gallery moved to 15 East 57th Street, where Levy mounted the first solo exhibition of the work of <a href=\"Frida%20Kahlo\">Frida Kahlo</a>, November 1 to 15, 1938. From 1943 to 1949 the gallery was located at 42 East 57th Street. In 1945 <a href=\"Arshile%20Gorky\">Arshile Gorky</a> had his first solo show there.\nAfter closing the gallery, Levy taught at <a href=\"Sarah%20Lawrence%20College\">Sarah Lawrence College</a> and <a href=\"State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20at%20Purchase\">State University of New York at Purchase</a>. Levy's books include \"Memoir of an Art Gallery \"and \"Surrealism.\"","Dizzy Gillespie\nJohn Birks \"Dizzy\" Gillespie ( ; October 21, 1917 – January 6, 1993) was an American <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a> trumpeter, bandleader, composer, and singer.\nGillespie was a trumpet virtuoso and <a href=\"improvisation\">improviser</a>, building on the virtuoso style of <a href=\"Roy%20Eldridge\">Roy Eldridge</a> but adding layers of <a href=\"harmony\">harmonic</a> complexity previously unheard in jazz. His beret and horn-rimmed spectacles, his <a href=\"scat%20singing\">scat singing</a>, his bent horn, pouched cheeks and his light-hearted personality were essential in popularizing <a href=\"bebop\">bebop</a>.\nIn the 1940s Gillespie, with <a href=\"Charlie%20Parker\">Charlie Parker</a>, became a major figure in the development of bebop and modern <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a>. He taught and influenced many other musicians, including trumpeters <a href=\"Miles%20Davis\">Miles Davis</a>, <a href=\"Jon%20Faddis\">Jon Faddis</a>, <a href=\"Fats%20Navarro\">Fats Navarro</a>, <a href=\"Clifford%20Brown\">Clifford Brown</a>, <a href=\"Arturo%20Sandoval\">Arturo Sandoval</a>, <a href=\"Lee%20Morgan\">Lee Morgan</a>, <a href=\"Chuck%20Mangione\">Chuck Mangione</a>, balladeer <a href=\"Johnny%20Hartman\">Johnny Hartman</a>, and one of Gillespie's final pupils before his death, <a href=\"Robert%20Stewart%20%28saxophonist%29\">Robert Stewart (saxophonist)</a>.\n<a href=\"AllMusic\">AllMusic</a>'s <a href=\"Scott%20Yanow\">Scott Yanow</a> wrote: \"Dizzy Gillespie's contributions to jazz were huge. One of the greatest jazz trumpeters of all time, Gillespie was such a complex player that his contemporaries ended up being similar to those of <a href=\"Miles%20Davis\">Miles Davis</a> and <a href=\"Fats%20Navarro\">Fats Navarro</a> instead, and it was not until <a href=\"Jon%20Faddis\">Jon Faddis</a>'s emergence in the 1970s that Dizzy's style was successfully recreated [...] Arguably Gillespie is remembered, by both critics and fans alike, as one of the greatest jazz trumpeters of all time\".\nGillespie was born in <a href=\"Cheraw%2C%20South%20Carolina\">Cheraw, South Carolina</a>, the youngest of nine children of James and Lottie Gillespie. James was a local bandleader, so instruments were made available to the children. Gillespie started to play the piano at the age of four. Gillespie's father died when he was only ten years old. Gillespie taught himself how to play the trombone as well as the trumpet by the age of twelve. From the night he heard his idol, <a href=\"Roy%20Eldridge\">Roy Eldridge</a>, play on the radio, he dreamed of becoming a jazz musician. He received a music scholarship to the <a href=\"Laurinburg%20Institute\">Laurinburg Institute</a> in North Carolina which he attended for two years before accompanying his family when they moved to Philadelphia.\nGillespie's first professional job was with the <a href=\"Frank%20Fairfax\">Frank Fairfax</a> Orchestra in 1935, after which he joined the respective orchestras of <a href=\"Edgar%20Hayes\">Edgar Hayes</a> and <a href=\"Teddy%20Hill\">Teddy Hill</a>, essentially replacing Roy Eldridge as first trumpet in 1937. Teddy Hill's band was where Gillespie made his first recording, \"King Porter Stomp\". In August 1937 while gigging with Hayes in Washington D.C., Gillespie met a young dancer named Lorraine Willis who worked a Baltimore–Philadelphia–New York City circuit which included the <a href=\"Apollo%20Theater\">Apollo Theater</a>. Willis was not immediately friendly but Gillespie was attracted anyway. The two finally married on May 9, 1940. They remained married until his death in 1993.\nGillespie stayed with Teddy Hill's band for a year, then left and free-lanced with numerous other bands. In 1939, Gillespie joined <a href=\"Cab%20Calloway\">Cab Calloway</a>'s orchestra, with which he recorded one of his earliest compositions, the instrumental \"Pickin' the Cabbage\", in 1940. (Originally released on \"Paradiddle\", a 78rpm backed with a co-composition with <a href=\"Cozy%20Cole\">Cozy Cole</a>, Calloway's drummer at the time, on the Vocalion label, No. 5467).\nAfter a notorious altercation between the two men, Calloway fired Gillespie in late 1941. The incident is recounted by Gillespie, along with fellow Calloway band members <a href=\"Milt%20Hinton\">Milt Hinton</a> and <a href=\"Jonah%20Jones\">Jonah Jones</a>, in <a href=\"Jean%20Bach\">Jean Bach</a>'s 1997 film, \"The Spitball Story\". Calloway did not approve of Gillespie's mischievous humor, nor of his adventuresome approach to soloing; according to Jones, Calloway referred to it as \"Chinese music\". Finally, their grudge for each other erupted over a thrown <a href=\"List%20of%20school%20pranks%23Spitball\">spitball</a>. Calloway never thought highly of Gillespie, because he didn't view Gillespie as a good musician. Once during a rehearsal, a member of the band threw a spitball. Already in a foul mood, Calloway decided to blame this on Gillespie. Dizzy didn’t take the blame and the problem quickly escalated into a fist fight, Dizzy stabbed Calloway in leg with knife. Calloway had minor cuts on the thigh and wrist. After the two men were separated, Calloway fired Gillespie. A few days later, Gillespie tried to apologize to Calloway, but he was dismissed.\nDuring his time in Calloway's band, Gillespie started writing big band music for bandleaders like <a href=\"Woody%20Herman\">Woody Herman</a> and <a href=\"Jimmy%20Dorsey\">Jimmy Dorsey</a>. He then freelanced with a few bands – most notably <a href=\"Ella%20Fitzgerald\">Ella Fitzgerald</a>'s orchestra, composed of members of the <a href=\"Chick%20Webb\">Chick Webb</a>'s band.\nGillespie did not serve in <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>. At his <a href=\"Selective%20Service\">Selective Service</a> interview, he told the local board, \"in this stage of my life here in the United States whose foot has been in my ass?\" He was thereafter classed as <a href=\"4-F%20%28Selective%20Service%20System%29\">4-F</a>. In 1943, Gillespie joined the <a href=\"Earl%20Hines\">Earl Hines</a> band. Composer <a href=\"Gunther%20Schuller\">Gunther Schuller</a> said:\" ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.\" Gillespie said of the Hines band, \"[p]eople talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit\".\nThen, Gillespie joined the <a href=\"big%20band\">big band</a> of Hines' long-time collaborator <a href=\"Billy%20Eckstine\">Billy Eckstine</a>, and it was as a member of Eckstine's band that he was reunited with <a href=\"Charlie%20Parker\">Charlie Parker</a>, a fellow member. In 1945, Gillespie left Eckstine's band because he wanted to play with a small combo. A \"small combo\" typically comprised no more than five musicians, playing the trumpet, saxophone, piano, bass and drums.\nBebop was known as the first modern jazz style. However, it was unpopular in the beginning and was not viewed as positively as swing music was. Bebop was seen as an outgrowth of swing, not a revolution. Swing introduced a diversity of new musicians in the bebop era like <a href=\"Charlie%20Parker\">Charlie Parker</a>, <a href=\"Thelonious%20Monk\">Thelonious Monk</a>, <a href=\"Bud%20Powell\">Bud Powell</a>, <a href=\"Kenny%20Clarke\">Kenny Clarke</a>, <a href=\"Oscar%20Pettiford\">Oscar Pettiford</a>, and Gillespie. Through these musicians, a new vocabulary of musical phrases was created. With Parker, Gillespie jammed at famous jazz clubs like <a href=\"Minton%27s%20Playhouse\">Minton's Playhouse</a> and <a href=\"Monroe%27s%20Uptown%20House\">Monroe's Uptown House</a>. Parker's system also held methods of adding chords to existing chord progressions and implying additional chords within the improvised lines.\nGillespie compositions like \"<a href=\"Groovin%27%20High\">Groovin' High</a>\", \"<a href=\"Woody%20N%27%20You\">Woody 'n' You</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Salt%20Peanuts\">Salt Peanuts</a>\" sounded radically different, harmonically and rhythmically, from the <a href=\"swing%20%28genre%29\">swing</a> music popular at the time. \"<a href=\"A%20Night%20in%20Tunisia\">A Night in Tunisia</a>\", written in 1942, while Gillespie was playing with Earl Hines' band, is noted for having a feature that is common in today's music, a non-<a href=\"Bassline%23Walking%20bass\">walking bass</a>line. The song also displays Afro-Cuban rhythms. One of their first small-group performances together was only issued in 2005: a concert in New York's Town Hall on June 22, 1945. Gillespie taught many of the young musicians on <a href=\"52nd%20Street\">52nd Street</a>, including <a href=\"Miles%20Davis\">Miles Davis</a> and <a href=\"Max%20Roach\">Max Roach</a>, about the new style of jazz. After a lengthy <a href=\"gig%20%28musical%20performance%29\">gig</a> at <a href=\"Billy%20Berg%27s\">Billy Berg's</a> club in Los Angeles, which left most of the audience ambivalent or hostile towards the new music, the band broke up. Unlike Parker, who was content to play in small groups and be an occasional featured soloist in big bands, Gillespie aimed to lead a big band himself; his first, unsuccessful, attempt to do this was in 1945.\nAfter his work with Parker, Gillespie led other small combos (including ones with <a href=\"Milt%20Jackson\">Milt Jackson</a>, <a href=\"John%20Coltrane\">John Coltrane</a>, <a href=\"Lalo%20Schifrin\">Lalo Schifrin</a>, <a href=\"Ray%20Brown%20%28musician%29\">Ray Brown</a>, <a href=\"Kenny%20Clarke\">Kenny Clarke</a>, <a href=\"James%20Moody%20%28saxophonist%29\">James Moody</a>, <a href=\"J.J.%20Johnson\">J.J. Johnson</a>, and <a href=\"Yusef%20Lateef\">Yusef Lateef</a>) and finally put together his first successful big band. Gillespie and his band tried to popularize bop and make Gillespie a symbol of the new music. He appeared frequently as a soloist with <a href=\"Norman%20Granz\">Norman Granz</a>'s <a href=\"Jazz%20at%20the%20Philharmonic\">Jazz at the Philharmonic</a>. He also headlined the 1946 independently produced musical revue film \"<a href=\"Jivin%27%20in%20Be-Bop\">Jivin' in Be-Bop</a>\".\nIn 1948, Gillespie was involved in a traffic accident when the bicycle he was riding was bumped by an automobile. He was slightly injured, and found that he could no longer hit the B-flat above high C. He won the case, but the jury awarded him only $1000, in view of his high earnings up to that point.\nOn January 6, 1953, he threw a party for his wife Lorraine at Snookie's, a club in Manhattan, where his trumpet's bell got bent upward in an accident, but he liked the sound so much he had a special trumpet made with a 45 degree raised bell, becoming his trademark.\nIn 1956 Gillespie organized a band to go on a State Department tour of the Middle East which was extremely well received internationally and earned him the nickname \"the Ambassador of Jazz\". During this time, he also continued to lead a big band that performed throughout the United States and featured musicians including <a href=\"Pee%20Wee%20Moore\">Pee Wee Moore</a> and others. This band recorded <a href=\"Dizzy%20Gillespie%20at%20Newport\">a live album</a> at the 1957 Newport jazz festival that featured <a href=\"Mary%20Lou%20Williams\">Mary Lou Williams</a> as a guest artist on piano.\nIn the late 1940s, Gillespie was also involved in the movement called <a href=\"Afro-Cuban%20music\">Afro-Cuban music</a>, bringing <a href=\"Afro-Latin%20American\">Afro-Latin American</a> music and elements to greater prominence in jazz and even pop music, particularly <a href=\"salsa%20music\">salsa</a>. <a href=\"Afro-Cuban%20jazz\">Afro-Cuban jazz</a> is based on traditional Afro-Cuban rhythms. Gillespie was introduced to <a href=\"Chano%20Pozo\">Chano Pozo</a> in 1947 by <a href=\"Mario%20Bauza\">Mario Bauza</a>, a Latin jazz trumpet player. Chano Pozo became Gillespie's conga drummer for his band. Gillespie also worked with Mario Bauza in New York jazz clubs on 52nd Street and several famous dance clubs such as Palladium and the Apollo Theater in Harlem. They played together in the Chick Webb band and Cab Calloway's band, where Gillespie and Bauza became lifelong friends. Gillespie helped develop and mature the Afro-Cuban jazz style.\nAfro-Cuban jazz was considered bebop-oriented, and some musicians classified it as a modern style. Afro-Cuban jazz was successful because it never decreased in popularity and it always attracted people to dance to its unique rhythms. Gillespie's most famous contributions to Afro-Cuban music are the compositions <a href=\"Manteca%20%28song%29\">\"Manteca\"</a> and \"Tin Tin Deo\" (both co-written with Chano Pozo); he was responsible for commissioning <a href=\"George%20Russell%20%28composer%29\">George Russell's</a> \"Cubano Be, Cubano Bop\", which featured Pozo. In 1977, Gillespie discovered <a href=\"Arturo%20Sandoval\">Arturo Sandoval</a> while researching music during a tour of Cuba.\nHis biographer Alyn Shipton quotes Don Waterhouse approvingly that Gillespie in the fifties \"had begun to mellow into an amalgam of his entire jazz experience to form the basis of new classicism\". Another opinion is that, unlike his contemporary Miles Davis, Gillespie essentially remained true to the bebop style for the rest of his career.\nIn 1960, he was inducted into \"<a href=\"Down%20Beat\">Down Beat</a>\" magazine's Jazz Hall of Fame.\nDuring the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201964\">1964 United States presidential campaign</a> the artist, with tongue in cheek, put himself forward as an independent <a href=\"write-in%20candidate\">write-in candidate</a>. He promised that if he were elected, the <a href=\"White%20House\">White House</a> would be renamed the Blues House, and he would have a cabinet composed of <a href=\"Duke%20Ellington\">Duke Ellington</a> (Secretary of State), <a href=\"Miles%20Davis\">Miles Davis</a> (Director of the CIA), <a href=\"Max%20Roach\">Max Roach</a> (Secretary of Defense), <a href=\"Charles%20Mingus\">Charles Mingus</a> (Secretary of Peace), <a href=\"Ray%20Charles\">Ray Charles</a> (Librarian of Congress), <a href=\"Louis%20Armstrong\">Louis Armstrong</a> (Secretary of Agriculture), <a href=\"Mary%20Lou%20Williams\">Mary Lou Williams</a> (Ambassador to the Vatican), <a href=\"Thelonious%20Monk\">Thelonious Monk</a> (Travelling Ambassador) and <a href=\"Malcolm%20X\">Malcolm X</a> (Attorney General). He said his running mate would be <a href=\"Phyllis%20Diller\">Phyllis Diller</a>. Campaign buttons had been manufactured years before by Gillespie's booking agency \"for publicity, as a gag\", but now proceeds from them went to benefit the <a href=\"Congress%20of%20Racial%20Equality\">Congress of Racial Equality</a>, <a href=\"Southern%20Christian%20Leadership%20Conference\">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> and <a href=\"Martin%20Luther%20King%2C%20Jr.\">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a>; in later years they became a collector's item.\nIn 1971, Gillespie announced he would run again but withdrew before the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201972\">election</a> for reasons connected to the <a href=\"Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%20Faith\">Bahá'í Faith</a>.\nDizzy Gillespie, a Bahá'í since 1968, was one of the most famous adherents of the <a href=\"Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%20Faith\">Bahá'í Faith</a>. It brought him to see himself as one of a series of musical messengers, part of a succession of trumpeters somewhat analogous to the series of prophets who bring God's message in religion. The universalist emphasis of his religion prodded him to see himself more as a global citizen and humanitarian, expanding on his already-growing interest in his African heritage. His increasing spirituality brought out a generosity in him, and what author <a href=\"Nat%20Hentoff\">Nat Hentoff</a> called an inner strength, discipline and \"soul force\". Gillespie's conversion was most affected by <a href=\"William%20Sears%20%28Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%29\">Bill Sears'</a> book \"Thief in the Night\". Gillespie spoke about the Bahá'í Faith frequently on his trips abroad. He is honored with weekly jazz sessions at the New York Bahá'í Center in the memorial auditorium.\nGillespie published his autobiography, \"<a href=\"To%20Be%20or%20Not%20to%20Bop\">To Be or Not to Bop</a>\", in 1979.\nGillespie was a vocal fixture in many of <a href=\"John%20Hubley\">John Hubley</a> and <a href=\"Faith%20Hubley\">Faith Hubley</a>'s animated films, such as \"<a href=\"The%20Hole%20%281962%20film%29\">The Hole</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Hat%20%281963%20film%29\">The Hat</a>\", and \"Voyage to Next\".\nIn the 1980s, Gillespie led the United Nation Orchestra. For three years <a href=\"Flora%20Purim\">Flora Purim</a> toured with the Orchestra and she credits Gillespie with evolving her understanding of jazz after being in the field for over two decades. <a href=\"David%20S%C3%A1nchez%20%28musician%29\">David Sánchez</a> also toured with the group and was also greatly influenced by Gillespie. Both artists later were nominated for Grammy awards. Gillespie also had a guest appearance on \"<a href=\"The%20Cosby%20Show\">The Cosby Show</a>\" as well as \"<a href=\"Sesame%20Street\">Sesame Street</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Muppet%20Show\">The Muppet Show</a>\".\nIn 1982, Gillespie had a <a href=\"cameo%20appearance\">cameo appearance</a> on <a href=\"Stevie%20Wonder\">Stevie Wonder</a>'s hit \"<a href=\"Do%20I%20Do\">Do I Do</a>\". Gillespie's tone gradually faded in the last years in life, and his performances often focused more on his proteges such as <a href=\"Arturo%20Sandoval\">Arturo Sandoval</a> and <a href=\"Jon%20Faddis\">Jon Faddis</a>; his good-humored comedic routines became more and more a part of his live act.\nIn 1988, Gillespie had worked with Canadian flautist and saxophonist <a href=\"Moe%20Koffman\">Moe Koffman</a> on their prestigious album \"Oo Pop a Da.\" He did fast scat vocals on the title track and a couple of the other tracks were played only on trumpet.\nIn 1989 Gillespie gave 300 performances in 27 countries, appeared in 100 U.S. cities in 31 states and the District of Columbia, headlined three television specials, performed with two symphonies, and recorded four albums. He was also crowned a traditional chief in Nigeria, received the <a href=\"Ordre%20des%20Arts%20et%20des%20Lettres\">Ordre des Arts et des Lettres</a>; France's most prestigious cultural award. He was named Regent Professor by the <a href=\"University%20of%20California\">University of California</a>, and received his fourteenth <a href=\"Honorary%20degree\">honorary doctoral degree</a>, this one from the <a href=\"Berklee%20College%20of%20Music\">Berklee College of Music</a>.\nIn addition, he was awarded the <a href=\"Grammy%20Lifetime%20Achievement%20Award\">Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award</a> the same year. The next year, at the <a href=\"Kennedy%20Center%20for%20the%20Performing%20Arts\">Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts</a> ceremonies celebrating the centennial of American jazz, Gillespie received the <a href=\"Kennedy%20Center%20Honors\">Kennedy Center Honors</a> Award and the <a href=\"American%20Society%20of%20Composers%2C%20Authors%2C%20and%20Publishers\">American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers</a> \"Duke Ellington Award\" for 50 years of achievement as a composer, performer, and bandleader. In 1993 he received the <a href=\"Polar%20Music%20Prize\">Polar Music Prize</a> in Sweden.\nIn 1991, Bay Area rising star <a href=\"Robert%20Stewart%20%28saxophonist%29\">Robert Stewart (saxophonist)</a> performed for Dizzy at an award ceremony in his honor. Gillespie then asked Stewart to perform with his band a few months later.\nOn November 26, 1992, <a href=\"Carnegie%20Hall\">Carnegie Hall</a>, following the Second <a href=\"Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%20World%20Congress\">Bahá'í World Congress</a>, celebrated Gillespie's 75th birthday concert and his offering to the celebration of the centenary of the passing of <a href=\"Bah%C3%A1%27u%27ll%C3%A1h\">Bahá'u'lláh</a>. Gillespie was to appear at Carnegie Hall for the 33rd time. The line-up included: <a href=\"Jon%20Faddis\">Jon Faddis</a>, <a href=\"James%20Moody%20%28Saxophonist%29\">James Moody</a>, <a href=\"Paquito%20D%27Rivera\">Paquito D'Rivera</a>, and <a href=\"Mike%20Longo\">the Mike Longo Trio</a> with Ben Brown on bass and <a href=\"Mickey%20Roker\">Mickey Roker</a> on drums. But Gillespie didn't make it because he was in bed suffering from <a href=\"pancreatic%20cancer\">pancreatic cancer</a>. \"But the musicians played their real hearts out for him, no doubt suspecting that he would not play again. Each musician gave tribute to their friend, this great soul and innovator in the world of jazz.\" In 2002, Gillespie was posthumously inducted into the <a href=\"International%20Latin%20Music%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">International Latin Music Hall of Fame</a> for his contributions to Afro-Cuban music.\nGillespie also starred in a film called \"The Winter in Lisbon\" released in 2004. He has a star on the <a href=\"Hollywood%20Walk%20of%20Fame\">Hollywood Walk of Fame</a> at 7057 <a href=\"Hollywood%20Boulevard\">Hollywood Boulevard</a>.\nHe was honored on December 31, 2006 in A Jazz New Year's Eve: Freddy Cole & the Dizzy Gillespie All-Star Big Band at The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.\nA longtime resident of <a href=\"Englewood%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Englewood</a>, New Jersey he died of <a href=\"pancreatic%20cancer\">pancreatic cancer</a> on January 6, 1993, aged 75, and was buried in the <a href=\"Flushing%20Cemetery\">Flushing Cemetery</a>, <a href=\"Queens\">Queens</a>, New York City. <a href=\"Mike%20Longo\">Mike Longo</a> delivered a eulogy at his funeral. He was also with Gillespie on the night he died, along with Jon Faddis and a select few others.\nGillespie was survived by his widow, Lorraine Willis Gillespie (died 2004); a daughter, jazz singer <a href=\"Jeanie%20Bryson\">Jeanie Bryson</a>; and a grandson, Radji Birks Bryson-Barrett. Gillespie had two funerals. One was a Bahá'í funeral at his request, at which his closest friends and colleagues attended. The second was at the <a href=\"Cathedral%20of%20Saint%20John%20the%20Divine\">Cathedral of Saint John the Divine</a> in New York City open to the public.\n<a href=\"Dwight%20Morrow%20High%20School\">Dwight Morrow High School</a>, the public high school of Englewood, New Jersey, renamed their auditorium the Dizzy Gillespie Auditorium, in memory of him.\nIn 2014, Gillespie was inducted into the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">New Jersey Hall of Fame</a>.\nGillespie has been described as the \"Sound of Surprise\". \"The Rough Guide to Jazz\" describes his musical style:\nThe whole essence of a Gillespie solo was cliff-hanging suspense: the phrases and the angle of the approach were perpetually varied, breakneck runs were followed by pauses, by huge interval leaps, by long, immensely high notes, by slurs and smears and bluesy phrases; he always took listeners by surprise, always shocking them with a new thought. His lightning reflexes and superb ear meant his instrumental execution matched his thoughts in its power and speed. And he was concerned at all times with swing—even taking the most daring liberties with pulse or beat, his phrases never failed to swing. Gillespies’s magnificent sense of time and emotional intensity of his playing came from childhood roots. His parents were Methodists, but as a boy he used to sneak off every Sunday to the uninhibited Sanctified Church. He said later, \"The Sanctified Church had deep significance for me musically. I first learned the significance of rhythm there and all about how music can transport people spiritually.\"\nIn Gillespie's obituary, Peter Watrous describes his performance style:\nIn the naturally effervescent Mr. Gillespie, opposites existed. His playing—and he performed constantly until nearly the end of his life—was meteoric, full of virtuosic invention and deadly serious. But with his endlessly funny asides, his huge variety of facial expressions and his natural comic gifts, he was as much a pure entertainer as an accomplished artist.\n<a href=\"Wynton%20Marsalis\">Wynton Marsalis</a> summed up Gillespie as a player and teacher:\nHis playing showcases the importance of intelligence. His rhythmic sophistication was unequaled. He was a master of harmony—and fascinated with studying it. He took in all the music of his youth—from Roy Eldridge to Duke Ellington—and developed a unique style built on complex rhythm and harmony balanced by wit. Gillespie was so quick-minded, he could create an endless flow of ideas at unusually fast tempo. Nobody had ever even considered playing a trumpet that way, let alone had actually tried. All the musicians respected him because, in addition to outplaying everyone, he knew so much and was so generous with that knowledge...\nGillespie's trademark trumpet featured a bell which bent upward at a 45-degree angle rather than pointing straight ahead as in the conventional design. According to Gillespie's autobiography, this was originally the result of accidental damage caused by the dancers <a href=\"Stump%20and%20Stumpy\">Stump and Stumpy</a> falling onto the instrument while it was on a trumpet stand on stage at Snookie's in Manhattan on January 6, 1953, during a birthday party for Gillespie's wife Lorraine. The constriction caused by the bending altered the tone of the instrument, and Gillespie liked the effect. He had the trumpet straightened out the next day, but he could not forget the tone. Gillespie sent a request to <a href=\"Martin%20Band%20Instrument%20Company\">Martin</a> to make him a \"bent\" trumpet from a sketch produced by Lorraine, and from that time forward played a trumpet with an upturned bell.\nGillespie's biographer Alyn Shipton writes that Gillespie probably got the idea for a bent trumpet when he saw a similar instrument in 1937 in Manchester, England, while on tour with the <a href=\"Teddy%20Hill\">Teddy Hill</a> Orchestra. According to this account (from British journalist Pat Brand) Gillespie was able to try out the horn and the experience led him, much later, to commission a similar horn for himself.\nWhatever the origins of Gillespie's upswept trumpet, by June 1954 he was using a professionally manufactured horn of this design, and it was to become a visual trademark for him for the rest of his life. Such trumpets were made for him by Martin (from 1954), <a href=\"King%20Musical%20Instruments\">King Musical Instruments</a> (from 1972) and <a href=\"Renold%20Schilke\">Renold Schilke</a> (from 1982, a gift from <a href=\"Jon%20Faddis\">Jon Faddis</a>). Gillespie favored mouthpieces made by <a href=\"Al%20Cass\">Al Cass</a>. In December 1986 Gillespie gave the <a href=\"National%20Museum%20of%20American%20History\">National Museum of American History</a> his 1972 King \"Silver Flair\" trumpet with a Cass mouthpiece. In April 1995, Gillespie's Martin trumpet was auctioned at <a href=\"Christie%27s\">Christie's</a> in New York City, along with instruments used by other famous musicians such as <a href=\"Coleman%20Hawkins\">Coleman Hawkins</a>, <a href=\"Jimi%20Hendrix\">Jimi Hendrix</a> and <a href=\"Elvis%20Presley\">Elvis Presley</a>. An image of Gillespie's trumpet was selected for the cover of the auction program. The battered instrument was sold to Manhattan builder Jeffery Brown for $63,000, the proceeds benefiting jazz musicians suffering from cancer.\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"Robert Delford Brown\\nRobert Delford Brown (October 25, 1930 – c. March 22, 2009) was an American performance artist. \\\"The New York Times\\\" called him \\\"a painter, sculptor, performance artist and avant-garde philosopher whose exuberantly provocative works challenged orthodoxies of both the art world and the world at large, usually with a big wink.\\\" Deborah Velders of the Cameron Museum of Art in Wilmington, N.C. called him \\\"a visionary\\\" and \\\"the William Blake of our time.\\\"\\nAllan Kaprow, credited with originating the Happening movement in the early 1960s, said of Robert Delford Brown:\\nRobert Delford Brown was born in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains during the Great Depression in Portland, Colorado. “It was very rural,” he said in a series of interviews he did with his biographer, the artist and writer Mark Bloch. His father was employed testing cement as a chemical technician. \\\"I was born in Central Colorado in 1930. No one is more American than I am,” he told Bloch in 2006. Both sides of his family had been in the USA since Revolutionary times. His father, whose name was also Robert Delford Brown, was of Irish, German, and Dutch stock, originally hailing from a farm in Illinois. His mother’s family were farmers from Kansas. He said that he once told his mother, “If you join the Daughters of the American Revolution, you've lost a son.” Brown was born a Junior but, like the DAR pedigree, dropped it, “I don’t need it.” The family moved to Long Beach when he was 12. “For my benefit,” he added.\\nSoon after, Brown discovered jazz, a passion he held throughout his life. “I don’t know how I stumbled on it. I think I found these books in the Junior High School library. There were two books about white musicians in the library, biographies of white musicians, Frank Teschmacher, Muggsy Spanier and Pee Wee Russell.” With a friend, Bill Hagleheimer, Brown would attend jazz gigs in downtown Los Angeles, and at more respectable places like the Los Angeles Philharmonic. “There was this place called The Lightning Room, and the Lightning Room had a little stage about 3 feet by 3 feet and then strip, the strip teaser would do this dance on this little platform. And then there was a blind drummer who played the saxophone.” He continued, “You’d have 50 musicians up at a jazz concert, Coleman Hawkins, Dizzy Gillespie, Lester Young, they all showed up. And I was like 15 years old. My mother would drive me and sit outside while I was in there …a little white boy with all these black people. And the black guys… they’d be passing quarts of vodka around.” He didn’t partake despite being introduced to beer at 15. He was there for the music.\\nAs a student at Long Beach State College, Brown met the painter Ed Moses (artist) who had just gotten out of the service. Moses later introduced him to the L.A. gallery owner Virginia Dwan, who rented him a second floor apartment over the merry-go-round in Santa Monica. It kept him awake, “until 2 in the morning…’I’m looking over a four leaf clover’ over and over again…I lived at the Santa Monica Pier for 2 or 3 years.”\\nBrown studied art at Long Beach College and at UCLA from 1948–1952, receiving his B.A. from UCLA and his M.A. there in 1956. He studied drawing with the Surrealist Howard Warshaw (1920–1977), who had been given his first solo exhibition by the legendary gallerist Julien Levy in 1945. Brown worked with Warshaw from 1955, when the teacher had a retrospective at the Pasadena Museum of Art, until 1958. Warshaw, known for developing a unique language and philosophy of drawing, infused the scientific knowledge of the day in the work that must also have appealed to the young Brown who later became a vociferous disciple of Buckminster Fuller. In Warshaw’s lines, like Brown’s early work, one can read the emotional tenor of the artist and subject. Also like Brown, the New York-born Organic Cubist Warshaw was a transplant to California. He had moved west in 1942 and found work in the studios of Disney and Warner Brothers. Beginning in 1951, Warshaw taught at the University of California, which he continued for more than 20 years completing monumental murals for several UC campuses.\\nAnother future art world fixture that Brown met as a young man was Walter Hopps who would go on to become the curator at the Pasadena Museum of Art and then the Menil Collection in Houston as well as many other positions. The two met at UCLA when Hopps was on the GI Bill. “I thought these kids who had been in the Army, I thought they knew everything. I was 17-18 years old, they were in their 20s. I thought they really knew what the hell was going on,” Brown said. Via a psychiatric clinic associated with UCLA, Brown, Moses and Hopps all became male attendants to a schizophrenic young woman who Hopps recalled liked to be taken to Disneyland in Anaheim. Brown continued working in the mental health area for the next few years.\\nIn 1952 Brown had his first show in Ed Kelly’s Frame Shop in LA. Walter Hopps said in a 2004 interview, “I was disappointed that nobody bought anything. After the show was over, he took it all out to the back yard of the place and burned it.”\\nIn 1959, Brown moved to Manhattan. “If you aspired toward becoming an artist you had to go to New York.” Brown spent the next few months “walking up and down the streets of the city, visiting every gallery” and “devouring” every art magazine or text about art he could find.\\n“The most serendipitous event in my life was my meeting with Rhett Cone.” Brown said in 1990. “She had founded the Cricket Theater on Second Avenue and Tenth Street where she showcased new material, presented the \\\"Merry Mimes\\\" children's theater, and produced and directed plays by such writers as Edward Albee, and Samuel Beckett. For the past 27 years Rhett has been my most fervent admirer. For the past 25 years she has been my wife and enthusiastic collaborator, as well as co-conspirator.” His wife and art-partner for the next thirty years, who died of lung cancer in 1988, once told an interviewer, “When I met Bob he was 29 and working in a psychiatric ward. A lot of his work comes out of that experience.” Brown once said, “In 1963 I met Rhett and life got better. I was in a coffee shop and she came in and she looked hot. She’d just been divorced.\\\" Brown said later of Rhett and her two daughters, Peggy and Carol, “We were like a little family,” Brown had found the support system he needed and his art career as a first rate iconoclast took off shortly thereafter.\\n“When I came out of school in 1950, the art world I was preparing for was gone,” Brown said. But in New York, he forged head first into the new art sensibilities that were developing in the late 50s and early 60s. Happenings, Fluxus, Ray Johnson’s New York Correspondence School and even Pop Art had not yet been named, yet change was in the air and Brown was one of the many artists who arrived on the New York scene in those days, sensing that something dramatic was about to happen. “In retrospect, Cubism was Pop Art. The entire history of modern art was Pop Art,” Brown once said. But as Abstract Expressionism faded away, galleries and artists alike were making room for the “Neo-Dada” shows as they were called in those days and the time-based, action-oriented art works emerging at the time that brought art and life one step closer together than had the drip paintings of Jackson Pollock.\\n“I met Allan Kaprow when were in Paris on our honeymoon.” Brown said. “Rhett and I went down to this gallery. It was an incredible Happening. And then I met him in New York City. And because Rhett was friendly, we kept in touch.” Brown often credited Rhett with being a license for him not to speak. “She liked to talk and I didn’t. I didn’t have to talk until Rhett died.”\\nAn early significant event for Brown was his participation in Allan Kaprow’s presentation of the musical play entitled \\\"Originale\\\" by the German avantgarde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. This scandalous event was held at Judson Hall in New York City as part of the Second Annual Avant Garde Festival in 1964. Brown created the memorable image of \\\"the mad painter\\\" which was splashed across the pages of local papers and national news magazines.\\nNext, Brown’s second success d'scandale, the \\\"Meat Show\\\", was staged in 1964 in a large refrigerator unit at the Washington Meat Market….Brown became the first artist to stage a meat performance, renting \\\"tons of meat and gallons of blood\\\" and a refrigerated locker for a blood-spattered happening.\\n\\\"We went and rented a meat locker, telling the owner that we were making a movie and needed a set. The trucks arrived bringing all this steaming hot meat. We hung it everywhere on hooks. Then we got thousands of yards of lingerie-like sheer fabric and created rooms as in a brothel. It actually looked very erotic. The cops came in to inspect and said we had to have some red lights in the back which made it even more erotic,\\\" said Brown’s wife Rhett.\\nIn 1967, Rhett and Robert Brown discovered a branch library building that was up for sale in the West Village. They immediately created a physical place for the headquarters of a work begun in 1964: The First National Church of the Exquisite Panic, Inc. The building on West 13th Street, referred to as The Great Building Crack-Up, became an architectural landmark that was later featured in the New York Times. They held many openings and events at the Great Building Crack-Up, including a Westbeth Playwrights Feminist Collective workshop production of \\\"Wicked Women.\\\"\\nIn \\\"A Statement About The First National Church Of The Exquisite Panic, Inc.\\\" Brown said \\\"When I decided to found the The First National Church of the Exquisite Panic, Inc. in 1964 it had been incubating for over half my life. I had hoped that its rituals and ikons would serve as an endless source of subject matter for my work as a painter and sculptor, and it would also help me to explain to myself a world that was totally overwhelming in its complexity and completely different from the world's that had given birth the established religions.\\\"\\nBrown called the First National Church of the Exquisite Panic, Inc. (FUNKUP for short) an Orthodox Pagan belief. Its chief deity is named WHO? – as in, “We don’t know where we’re going, but WHO? knows!” The church’s main commandment is to live and the main prohibition is, “Do Not Eat Cars,” a nonsensical rule stemming from Brown’s theory that a major problem with modern organized religion is its lack of humor.\\nThe Funkup Manifesto states:\\nFrom his Church, Brown continued to create collaborative performance artworks for the next three decades.\\nHis physical collaboration of choice towards the end of his career was the \\\"Collaborative Action Gluing\\\" where by email and telephone, he arranged for a space and a participative audience of non-artists. This could be in another city or another country. He then showed up, armed with glue, scissors, rubber gloves, colored paper, magazines to cut up and several canvases for the participants to embellish collectively with their unschooled musings, each eventually transformed from a day-glo tabula rasa into a vibrant, swirling testimony to the power of joint action by non-artists, yet at the same time, surprisingly reminiscent of the likes of Miró, Kandinsky and of course, Matisse’s cutouts.\\nStarting in the early 1990s, did much of his work online via the church website, Funkup.com.\\nHis work is represented in the collections of (partial list): The Museum of Modern Art, New York City; Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.; Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado.\\nBrown was found dead on March 24, 2009 in the Cape Fear River in Wilmington, North Carolina, where he had moved in 2007 to prepare for an exhibition at the Cameron Art Museum. Brown drowned in the Cape Fear River in Wilmington NC some time between 20 March 2009, when he was last seen, and 24 March 2009, when his body was found by two boaters. He was planning a happening which involved building rafts made of flip-flops and floating them down the river, originally inspired by local Wilmington artist Dixon Stetler. His last work was a Dadaist parade called \\\"Kazooathon\\\" in downtown Wilmington a month earlier.\",\n \"Richard Larter\\nRichard Larter (19 May 1929 – 25 July 2014) was an Australian painter, often identified as one of Australia's few highly recognisable pop artists. Larter also frequently painted in a Pointillist style. He took advantage of unusual techniques with painting: using a syringe filled with paint to create his early works, and juxtaposing multiple images on to a canvas. Many of his works are brightly coloured and draw on popular culture for source materials, reproducing news photographs, film stills, and images from pornography. He was married to Pat Larter, an artist who was involved in the Mail art movement, then performance art and finally painting in a brightly coloured style similar to Richard's. The Larters emigrated to Australia in 1962. Richard Larter's pop art was less ironic than his American and English counterparts. In this Larter is similar to other noted Australian pop artists, such as, Mike Brown and Martin Sharp.\\nLarter was exhibited consistently from 1965 on across Australia, including as the subject of over 60 solo shows, most often at Niagara Galleries, Melbourne and Watters Gallery, Sydney, and over 100 group shows spanning almost 50 years. Notable exhibitions include his 2002 show \\\"Stripperama: Richard Larter\\\" at the Heide Museum of Modern Art and the show \\\"Andy and Oz: parallel visions\\\" organised by the National Gallery of Australia and exhibited at The Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh, USA in 2007. Larter was honoured with a retrospective of his work at the National Gallery of Australia in 2008, the exhibition revealing him continuing to be a leading Australian contemporary artist.\\nLarter is represented in the collections of major galleries, such as the National Gallery of Australia, National Gallery of Victoria, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Art Gallery of South Australia, Art Gallery of Western Australia and Ballarat Fine Art Gallery, as well as numerous state, regional, university and private collections throughout Australia.\\nHe died in Canberra on 25 July 2014.\\nAustralian art\",\n \"Dave McKenzie (artist)\\nDave McKenzie is a visual and performance artist born in Kingston, Jamaica. Recent solo exhibitions include “Dave McKenzie: Everything’s Alright, Nothing’s Okay!” at the Rosenwald-Wolf Gallery at the University of the Arts, Philadelphia, PA; “Dave McKenzie,” at the Aspen Art Museum in Aspen, CO; “Screen Doors on Submarines,” REDCAT, Los Angeles; and “Momentum 8: Dave McKenzie,” The Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston. McKenzie’s work was included in “Etched in Collective History,” at the Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, AL; “Radical Presence: Black Performance in Contemporary Art,” at the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, Houston, TX; “Prospect.1” New Orleans, LA; and in other group exhibitions at the RISD Museum, Providence, RI; the New Museum, New York, NY; the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, IN, in “The Studio Museum in Harlem, NY; The Kitchen, New York, NY; and at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, Brooklyn, NY.\\nIn 2000, he earned a BFA in printmaking from the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, PA and attended the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture.\\n\",\n \"Stacha Halpern\\nStanislav \\\"Stacha\\\" Halpern (20 October 1919 – 28 January 1969) was a Polish Australian painter and sculptor. Following the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939, Halpern emigrated to Australia. A decade later he became a naturalised Australian citizen. Based in Melbourne for much of his early career, Halpern painted bold semi-abstract works of street life. Later he travelled throughout Europe and experimented with pure abstraction and expressionistic portraiture. Australian artist and friend Arthur Boyd described Halpern's work as \\\"original, vigorous and always arresting\\\".\\nPaintings, sculptures and pottery by Halpern are held in several of Australia's public collections including the National Gallery of Australia, the National Gallery of Victoria and the Art Gallery of South Australia.\\n\",\n \"Lewis Miller (Australian artist)\\nLewis Miller (born 1959 in Melbourne, Australia) is an Australian painter and visual artist, known for his portraits and figurative works. His father Peter Miller was a painter in the social realist tradition. His sister Lisa Miller is an Australian singer-songwriter.\\nLewis studied painting at the Victorian College of the Arts in Melbourne from 1977 to 1979, and then travelled to London, Europe and Malaysia. He held his first solo exhibition in 1986 and is represented in the National Gallery of Australia, state and private galleries. In 1998, he won the Archibald Prize, which brought him greater prominence and led to many further commissions. He has travelled widely, including to the US in 1998, 2000, 2003 and 2005.\\nIn 2003 and 2005, Miller was commissioned to produce a series of portraits of the scientists and technicians involved in the mapping of the human genome.\\nHis other commissioned portraits include Australian rules football coach Ron Barassi, mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary and scientist James D. Watson. In 2003, he travelled to Iraq as Official Australian War Artist.\\nBy 2005, he had entered the Archibald prize 17 times and had been a finalist 13 times. He was interviewed in the 2005 Peter Berner documentary \\\"Loaded Brush\\\".\\n\",\n \"Fred Williams\\nFrederick Ronald (Fred) Williams OBE (23 January 192722 April 1982) was an Australian painter and printmaker. He was one of Australia’s most important artists, and one of the twentieth century’s major painters of the landscape. He had more than seventy solo exhibitions during his career in Australian galleries, as well as the exhibition \\\"Fred Williams - Landscapes of a Continent\\\" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1977.\\nFred Williams was born on 23 January 1927 in Richmond, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia, the son of an electrical engineer and a Richmond housewife. Williams left school at 14 and was apprenticed to a firm of Melbourne shopfitters and box makers. From 1943 to 1947 he studied at the National Gallery School, Melbourne, at first part-time and then full-time from 1945 at the age of 18. The Gallery School was traditional and academic, with a long and prestigious history. He also began lessons under George Bell the following year, who had his own art school in Melbourne. This continued until 1950. Bell was a conservative modern artist but a very influential teacher.\\nBetween 1951 and 1956, Williams studied part-time at the Chelsea School of Art, London (now Chelsea College of Art and Design) and in 1954 he did an etching course at the Central School of Arts and Crafts. He lived in a South Kensington bedsit and subsidised his art practice by working part-time at Savage’s picture framers. Williams returned to Melbourne in 1956, when his family was able to send him a cheap ticket aboard a ship bringing visitors to the Melbourne Olympics.\\nHe had work included in the 'Recent Australian Painting' exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery, London, and 'Australian Painting: Colonial, Impressionism, Modern' at the Tate Gallery.\\nAfter mainly working with figures in early paintings and etchings, he began painting landscapes after returning to Melbourne in 1957, which remained the major theme in his art.\\nWhile learning etching and printing in London, he produced vivid caricatured sketches of contemporary London life. It was during this period that he established his method of reworking the same motif a number of times in a number of mediums and very often over a number of years.\\nAs an artist concerned with form over subjectivity, Williams' approach struck a jarring note against the unity of many of his close associates such as John Brack, Arthur Boyd and Charles Blackman, the authors of the famous ‘Antipodean’ manifesto of 1959. Williams' work was excluded from their major exhibition. As heirs to the expressionist tradition, the Antipodeans lauded a spontaneous, improvised approach to painting and saw the function of art as vested in its expressive potential. They had little time for - and, in fact, denounced - the 'new' art emerging from Europe, the influences which were increasingly informing Williams' development.\\nOn his return to Australia, Williams saw the aesthetic potential of the Australian bush in its inherent plasticity. His interest in finding an aesthetic 'language' with which to express the very un-European Australian landscape. This was grounded in establishing a pictorial equivalent to the overwhelmingly vast, primarily flat landscape, in which the traditional European relationship of foreground to background breaks down, necessitating a complete re-imagining of compositional space. In this, Williams looked to the approach taken by Australian Aboriginal artists.\\nHe did this by tilting the landscape up against the picture plane, so that frequently the only indicator of horizontal recession is the presence of a horizon line, or where clumps of trees huddle closer together towards the horizon, suggesting recession. Where no horizon is visible, the landscape runs fully parallel to the picture plane, as in the major You Yangs series of the mid-1960s. Here, calligraphic knots of pigment indicate the presence of single trees against the earth, as if seen from the air (example).\\nWilliams' first Australian landscape series was based on the Nattai River (1957–58).\\nWilliams' landscapes recorded the passage of the Yarra River from its source to its mouth.\\nIn 1960, Williams was invited to enter for the Helena Rubenstein Travelling Art Scholarship, the richest and most prestigious art prize at the time with an award of £1000 plus £300 travel expenses aimed at giving the winner overseas experience. Five paintings were required for his entry and he selected \\\"Landscape with a steep road\\\" (1957), \\\"Landscape with a building I\\\" (c. 1957–58), \\\"The forest pond\\\" (c. 1959–60), \\\"Sherbrooke Forest\\\" (1960) and \\\"The St George River\\\" (1960). He won in 1963 and it proved to be a turning point in his career which, according to fellow artist Jan Senbergs, brought Williams wide acclaim, especially from many influential curators and critics. Sydney art dealer Rudy Komon took Williams on as one of his key artists which enabled Williams to discontinue his part-time work with a Melbourne picture-framer and paint full-time.\\nIn 1969, Williams started using a horizontal strip format in his landscape paintings in order to present different aspects of one scene on the same sheet. In 1970, Williams produced a group of four large strip format gouache-on-paper paintings called the \\\"West Gate Bridge series\\\" showing the half-constructed West Gate Bridge over the Yarra River in Melbourne. A section of the bridge collapsed on 15 October 1970, while it was still under construction, killing thirty-five workers. Williams had planned to paint the length of the river, but his widow, Lyn said he \\\"lost heart in the project\\\" after the accident. In his \\\"Beachscape with bathers Queenscliff\\\" I-IV series from 1971, Williams painted from the top of a cliff overlooking the beach during a seaside holiday. Each sheet is broken horizontally into four separate strips representing a different time of day and corresponding shift in the colour and tone of the scene as Williams recorded the effects of light on the landscape. By 1971 he had developed the technique extensively, moving from a vertical format to a horizontal format.\\nIn March 1974, Williams travelled to Erith Island in Bass Strait with the historians Stephen Murray-Smith and Ian Turner, and fellow painter Clifton Pugh. Poor weather prevented Williams and his friends from leaving the island when they had intended. When the weather broke Williams painted a number of gouaches, including \\\"Beachscape, Erith Island\\\" I and II which employ the horizontal strip format. The \\\"Beachscape, Erith Island\\\" pictures show the point where the sea joins the land depicted as if looking down from above in the form of four strips. Williams recorded the event in his diary from 27–28 March 1974, \\\"I do 'strip' paintings of the beach using sand glued on – but the wind has worn me to a 'frazzle' … My final half doz. strip paintings are my best.\\\"\\nIn May 1976, while Williams and his wife Lyn were visiting Paris and Bologna, many of Williams's paintings and all gouaches stored at the Barrett Malt Factory in Richmond were damaged by a fire.\\nIn 1976, Williams flew over the Northern Territory at night on his way to an art fair in Bologna, Italy. He saw lines of bushfires burning and later that year produced the twelve-sheeted gouache series, \\\"Bushfire in Northern Territory\\\".\\nIn February 1979, Williams visited the Lal Lal Falls on the Moorabool River to the west of Melbourne near Ballarat and painted the \\\"Lal Lal polyptych\\\", a four panel painting that he regarded as a single work. The successive canvases of the polyptych depict the changes in light on the waterfall and the surrounding landscape. Williams painted the last of his major landscapes, the four panel \\\"Waterfall polyptych\\\" (oil on canvas, each 183.0 cm x 152.5 cm), in his studio in 1979 based on the \\\"Lal Lal polyptych\\\". He described the studio painting as \\\"a major effort on my part\\\" and it is regarded as one of the most important works of his career. Williams said that his \\\"enthusiasm was fired\\\" by Eugene von Guérard's \\\"Waterfall, Strath Creek\\\" from 1862.\\nIn the last years of his career, Williams produced more landscape series with strong themes, his last being the Pilbara series (1979–81), which remained intact as it was acquired by Con-Zinc Rio Tinto Group, the mining company that had invited him to explore the arid north-west region of Australia\\nWilliams received a Helena Rubinstein Travelling Art Scholarship in 1963. In 1976 he was named an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), and awarded a Doctorate of Law (Honoris Causa) by Monash University in 1980.\\nWilliams won the Wynne Prize for landscape painting twice; in 1966 with \\\"Upwey Landscape\\\" and in 1976 with \\\"Mt. Kosciusko\\\".\\nHis painting \\\"Upwey Landscape\\\" (1965) sold for $1,987,700 in one of the final auctions of Christie's in Australia in April 2006, which at the time was the second highest price for any work sold at an Australian auction. In September 2007, auction house Deutscher-Menzies broke their sales record with Williams' \\\"Landscape with Water Ponds\\\" (1965) selling for $1,860,000. The most expensive work sold at an Australian auction in 2009 was Williams' 1965 \\\"Evening Sky, Upwey\\\", which sold for $1.15 million.\\nTwo of Williams' paintings, \\\"Dry Creek Bed, Werribee Gorge I\\\" (1977) and \\\"Drifting Smoke\\\" (1981) were included in Quintessence Editions Ltd.'s 2007 edition of \\\"1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die\\\". Williams' work is also represented in William Splatt's \\\"100 Masterpieces of Australian Landscape Painting\\\".\\nWilliams met Lyn Watson in January 1960 while painting at Sherbrooke. They were married in March 1961 and moved to the inner-city suburb of South Yarra. They had three daughters: Isobel, Louise and Kate. In 1963 the couple moved to Upwey, Victoria in the Dandenong Ranges outside Melbourne, a location that would have a decisive impact on his work. In 1964 they travelled through Europe on a Helena Rubenstein Scholarship. In 1969 Williams moved to Hawthorn, an inner suburb of Melbourne.\\nIn November 1981, Williams was diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer. He died less than six months later in Hawthorn on 22 April 1982, aged 55. Fellow artist and friend John Brack gave the eulogy at his funeral. He said\\nFred brought us a new vision of Australia’s landscape at least as valid and impressive as any of the two or three major illuminations which went before it. He changed the way we see our country: an achievement which will live long after all of us are gone.\\nWilliams' estate is managed by his widow, Lyn Williams. Lyn bought a former factory in inner-Melbourne in 1989 and has managed the artist's estate from there since she sorted through his studio at their former home in Hawthorn. All of the artist's known works have been catalogued on a database. The building houses Williams' easel, brushes, the leather-bound diaries he kept from 1963 until his death, clipping books, a range of works and includes a gallery for hanging and photographing the artist's works. Works that are donated to public galleries and museums are prepared there. In 2009, Lyn Williams completed her ongoing gift to the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) of the prints of Fred Williams.\\n\",\n \"Loui Jover\\nLoui Jover (born April 1967) is an Australian painter and artist. He is known for his artwork in ink wash paintings on vintage book pages. Jover started his work on art in his childhood, but did not start public art until 1989, when he joined the Australian army as an illustrator and photographer.\\nJover stated that he started painting as soon as he was young, saying that he started painting \\\"\\\"once [he] left the womb\\\"\\\".\",\n \"Ivan Durrant\\nIvan Durrant is an Australian painter, performance artist and writer. Known for creating art with \\\"great shock value\\\", such as the 1975 \\\"Slaughtered Cow Happening\\\" outside the National Gallery of Victoria, Durrant is often described as the \\\"enfant terrible\\\" of Australian art. The larger proportion of Durrant's work consists of paintings using a self-developed style of \\\"Super-Realism\\\".\\nDurrant now resides in Blairgowrie, Victoria, and his works are held in many public collections.\\nBorn in Melbourne in 1947, Ivan Durrant was one of seven children. His father suffered from alcoholism, a factor leading to the decision by Ivan's 22-year-old mother to place the children into state care. From ages seven through 15, Durrant was raised in an orphanage in Brighton, Victoria. He was dealt regular beatings, and suffered emotional abuse - \\\"even medical experimentation. He can remember being injected with all sorts of things, even when he wasn't sick\\\". Whilst still alive, neither of Durrant's parents ever visited their children in the orphanage. During those years, Durrant spent his summers on farms where he was billeted to work for the summers. It was during that period that Durrant realise his fondness for birds and animals Durrant says that he has \\\"always had a love of looking at the structure of animals\\\".\\nIvan began drawing during his years at the orphanage, with his art providing some social advantage for him. \\\"The 16-year old senior boys, they would look after me and I wouldn't be bullied because I could do drawings in their books for them, so art became my thing\\\". Durrant's ability to draw developed into an interest in painting during his teenage years.\\nGeorges Mora, of Tolarno Galleries, St Kilda was among the first to see potential in Durrant's work, giving him $300 in cash to buy paints, and his first exhibition in 1970.\\nDurrant's painting technique began in a childlike, folksy, naïve art style, evolving into paintings of extreme Photorealism, which has come to be referred to \\\"supraphotolism\\\" (meaning to work 'above and beyond the photo'), and sculptures of illusionistic still-lives of butchered meats, pigs’ heads and all.\\nDurrant spent a short time working in a prosthetics laboratory at Royal Melbourne Hospital and was able to create lifelike body parts. This skill was carried over into an ability to create convincingly accurate sculptures of ears, hands, pig heads and various cuts of meat.\\nDurrant's most recent works explore the colours and action of Australian Rules football.\\nHis work has ranged from paintings to photography, public performance and installation art, short films and sculpture.\\n1968 - 1970: Farm Life\\n1970-1972: Flinders Horses and Landscapes - reflections of the period during which Durrant lived in the coastal town of Flinders, Victoria.\\n1973: Unreal Realism - first movement into Realism (arts)\\n1974: Movie stars period\\n1975: Jockeys - First Photorealism show\\n1976: New York - Awarded Art Council of Australia Artist in Residence, New York City\\n1978: Butcher shop and Pigs Heads Exhibition - Beginnings of Meat period\\n1979: Meat Paintings\\n1981: Meat Paintings, Hawthorn Art Gallery - Photographic Exhibition of Meat\\n1982: Hamilton - Travelling Exhibition of Meat Paintings; United Artists Gallery Beginnings - more meat paintings\\n1984: United Artists Gallery - Fuck Art Period: Graffiti photographs of Pine Gap and Meat - response to changes in Uranium Policy. Included \\\"Uranium, you're standing in it\\\" exhibition.\\n1986: United Artists Gallery - Chernobyl Deformities Exhibition - Deformed babies theme\\n1988: United Artists Gallery & Regional Gallery Tour - Interiors of Sheds\\n1992: Westpac Gallery - Retrospective Exhibition\\n1994: Survey of 70s Racing Paintings\\n1995: Australia Felix Arts Festival, Benalla and Sheds\\n2002 - 2005: Cows\\n2007–present: Boundary Rider\\nDurrant is renowned for confronting the public through film, sculpture, performance exhibitions, and social realist paintings of the 1970s and 1980s. Much of his work has been based on concepts relating to socio-political themes; for example animal rights or the social effects of war. \\\"A lot of his art did have a great shock value\\\".\\nOn 26 May 1975, Durrant dumped the carcass of a \\\"freshly slaughtered cow\\\" on the forecourt of the National Gallery of Victoria. In an interview with ABC Online, Durrant's daughter Jacqui says that installations and performance art were still a very new form of artistic expression, and \\\"to have something as extreme as an animal carcass put at the National Gallery of Victoria was just totally shocking to people\\\".\\nPrior to the event, Durrant had discussed with close friend and mentor, abstractionist artist Asher Bilu, the concept of 'a more confrontational art 'happening' - to kill a cow before an audience'. 'The concept included actively drawing in the mass media to cover the event, thereby pushing it beyond the realm of high art'. Initially, the event was to take place at the Alexander Theatre, at Monash University. The public was to be the unwitting audience to the slaughtering of a cow named Beverley. The performance was described in a flyer as 'a real cow actually performing on stage'.\\nThe event was leaked to the press on 23 May 1975, and was front-page news the following day. As a result, Monash University banned the event, and 'the media were on alert'. On the morning of 26 May 1975, Beverley was slaughtered in a cattle yard in Wheelers Hill, 'not far from where the Monash Gallery of Art stands today,' was then 'loaded onto a utility van, and with news crew in tow' was driven to the NGV, her carcass dumped in the forecourt.\\nThe media coverage of the event was the most significant aspect of the performance, for 'in order to make a real impact, something about the performance needed to be identified (if not accepted) as art'. Durrant informed the staff at the NGV front desk that he was donating a sculpture, and 'asked whether they would consider leaving it in place for a few days'. The performance coincided with the opening of the gallery's 'first blockbuster exhibition, 'Modern Masters: Manet to Matisse', which was opening that night'. The NGV arranged for the carcass to be promptly removed and the site thoroughly cleaned before 'the scrum of Melbourne's social elite arrived'.\\nThe happening was aired on the evening news nationwide, and made newspaper headlines the following day. The public response was 'one of outrage and disgust' and the art world was outraged at the claim that 'the cow was \\\"art\\\"'. Durrant was charged with 'depositing litter - to wit a dead cow', with Durrant pleading not guilty 'on the basis that Beverley was not litter. Durrant was fined $100, with the magistrate describing the event as 'an act of ego'.\\nThe event was, in part, a statement about societal \\\"failure to confront the reality of killing ... in contemporary society in the West\\\".\\nThe event was later interpreted as \\\"a response to the life-wasting Vietnam War, but particularly the direct connection between life and death. Each of us, he argued, must ‘take responsibility for [their] own actions. If we are going to eat meat a cow dies for that. And we have to face it.'\\\". Durrant's daughter states that she once considered such an interpretation (in relation to the Vietnam War) \\\"a bit of a retrospectively applied stretch,\\\" but adds that \\\"the cow endures as a metaphor for the inhumanity and carelessness with which we treat life generally and the extent to which we can become complacent and inured to this. Mass public outrage at a cow being slaughtered on the 6p.m. news threw into stark relief our preparedness to overlook far worse horrors.\\\".\\nSimilar controversy surrounded Durrant's works of sculptural realism. An exhibition of what appeared to be a severed hand at Hogarth Galleries in Sydney received wide press coverage, leaving Sydney in \\\"an uproar\\\". The hand was, in fact, an intricately detailed synthetic polymer resin sculpture.\\nTwelve guests were invited to a last supper at Durrant's Brighton home where they learned at the table that they were to prepare their own dinner - Durrant's pigeons. Guests were told that if they wished to eat, they had to slaughter their own pigeon at the table. This event, like other similar happenings demonstrated the point that \\\"as humans we tend to dissociate animals from the whole process of killing\\\". A film was made of the event, which was shown at the Dendy Cinema, Brighton; White Street Theatre, New York in 1976; and also at the Museum of Modern Art, New York in 1976.\\nSourced from\\nand\\nDurrant's work is held in the following public collections:\\n1975 - Mad Dog Morgan, Special effects\\n1976 - \\\"Chopping Block\\\": 16mm, pigeon dinner event, MOMA & White Street Theatre, New York\\n1977 - Long Weekend, Special effects; -\\\"Red Dog\\\", 16mm, Alpine Dingoes\\n1980 - \\\"Self Portrait Blood Red\\\", Meat Landscape, Awarded Best Experimental Film, Australian Film Institute Awards\\n1983 - \\\"Horse\\\", 16mm, surreal dream\\n\\\"The Insiders\\\" - A reflection of childhood days spent at orphanages and farm stays.\\nAll characters created by Ivan Durrant : Published by Bent Records, Copyright 1995, Benalla, Vic.\\nTo date, the festival remains the largest coming together of artists, poets, and writers in Australia. The festival was a two-week-long event, with 120 exhibiting and visiting artists; and 40 performing poets.\\nIvan Durrant is a regular contributor to Essentials Magazine, a Victorian High Country magazine dedicated to culture, culinary and adventure content.\\nResides in Blairgowrie, Victoria\\nMarried to Judy Durrant\\nChildren: Jacqui Durrant; Jamie Durrant\\nGrandchildren: Sacha Verrocchio, Elisey Durrant, Yaroslav Durrant (step-grandchild)\\nBreeds and races pigeons.\\nBreeds cattle.\\nWorked in an abattoir to put himself through matriculation.\\nIn 1969, Durrant became the first Victorian ward of the state to gain a bachelor's degree (Monash, BEc).\\nIn the mid 1970s: Durrant exhibited in New York with the American Realists Chuck Close, and Janet Fish.\",\n \"John Longstaff\\nSir John Campbell Longstaff (10 March 1861 – 1 October 1941) was an Australian painter, war artist and a five-time winner of the Archibald Prize. He was a cousin of Will Longstaff, also a painter, as well as a war artist.\\nLongstaff was born at Clunes, Victoria, second son of Ralph Longstaff, storekeeper and Janet (Jessie) Campbell. John was educated at a boarding school in Miners Rest and Clunes State School. He later studied at the Melbourne National Gallery School, after his father initially disapproved of his artistic ambitions. Longstaff's talent was recognised by George Folingsby. He married Rosa Louisa (Topsy) Crocker on 20 July 1887.\\nHe won the National Gallery of Victoria's first travelling scholarship for his 1887 narrative painting \\\"Breaking the News\\\" (which inspired a 1912 film of the same name), and John and his wife sailed from Melbourne for London in September 1887. In January 1888 they travelled to Paris, where John exhibited in the Paris Salon. He later moved to London, where he painted many portraits. He returned to Australia in 1894 and was given several commissions. He occupied a studio at Grosvenor Chambers in Melbourne from 1897 to 1900. The National Gallery of Victoria assumed ownership of \\\"The Sirens\\\" under terms of the scholarship and bought his large landscape \\\"Gippsland, Sunday night, 20 February 1898\\\". He travelled to London again in 1901, where he exhibited with the Royal Academy.\\nLongstaff was appointed an official war artist with the Australian Infantry Force in the First World War. He made several portraits of officers in the military. On his return to Australia he won several awards and was given distinguished positions, such as his appointment to President of the Victorian Artists Society in 1924 and Trustee of the National Gallery of Victoria in 1927. He was knighted in 1928, the first Australian artist to have had this honour.\\nHis 1929 portrait of the artist Ellis Rowan was the first national portrait of an Australian woman.\\nThe Art Gallery of South Australia holds his portraits of Paris Nesbit and The Artist's Wife.\\nHis biography \\\"Portrait in Youth\\\", written by Nina Murdoch was published in 1948. His 1920 portrait of Nina Murdoch hangs in Reading Room of the National Library, Canberra.\\nHis Archibald Prize winning pieces:\",\n \"Mark Bloch\\nMark Bloch (born 1956) is an American <a href=\\\"mail%20artist\\\">mail artist</a>, performance artist,\\narchivist and writer whose work combines visuals and text as well as performance and media to explore\\nideas of long distance communication.\\nMark Bloch was born to American parents in Würzburg, Germany, in 1956 where his father was\\nbased as soldier of the US Army.\\nBloch grew up in Cleveland and Akron, Ohio. Exposure in his\\nyouth to <a href=\\\"Robert%20Wyatt\\\">Robert Wyatt</a>, the <a href=\\\"Fugs\\\">Fugs</a>, <a href=\\\"Frank%20Zappa\\\">Frank Zappa</a> and <a href=\\\"Yoko%20Ono\\\">Yoko Ono</a> led to an\\ninterest in the fringes of art. Coincidentally, Bloch later referred to his mentor Ray Johnson as the \\\"fringe of the fringe.\\\"\\nBloch attended Kent State University, where he was influenced by faculty members Adrian DeWitt, a Jungian who taught in the Romance Languages department, Robert Schimmel and Robert Culley, another Jungian, in the School of Art and visiting artists <a href=\\\"Joan%20Jonas\\\">Joan Jonas</a> from New York and\\n<a href=\\\"Iimura%20Takahiko\\\">Iimura Takahiko</a> from Japan, both videographers. Bloch attended Kent in the aftermath of the 1970 <a href=\\\"Kent%20State%20shootings\\\">Kent State shootings</a> and was present during protests of a gymnasium that was built on the site of that incident. Following his work with Jonas, and switching his focus from art to TV, Bloch received his B.A. degree in Broadcasting and was the creator of a \\\"punk\\\" performance art movement called The New Irreverence and other avant garde provocations. Bloch was part of the <a href=\\\"M%27bwebwe\\\">M'bwebwe</a> group that began in Kent, Ohio in 1974.\\nAfter Kent, Bloch moved to Southern California, experimenting with\\nperformance, studying with artist <a href=\\\"Rachel%20Rosenthal\\\">Rachel Rosenthal</a>, and\\nsupporting himself as a maker of corporate communications for corporate clients from\\n1978 to 1982.\\nBloch performed \\\"Heart and Technology\\\" and \\\"East Meats West\\\" in <a href=\\\"Laguna%20Beach%2C%20California\\\">Laguna Beach, California</a> where he lived until 1981. On November 16, 1980, Bloch produced an early issue of his <a href=\\\"Do%20it%20yourself\\\">D.I.Y.</a> <a href=\\\"zine\\\">zine</a>, Panmag, numbered \\\"451\\\" in honor of the famed <a href=\\\"Fahrenheit%20451%20Books\\\">Fahrenheit 451 Books</a> bookstore inviting visitors to create work which he later mailed and spending the day \\\"in the window of the bookstore working on his <a href=\\\"mail%20art\\\">postal art</a> magazine,\\\" performing a work called \\\"Artist for Sale,\\\" in which he made himself available to \\\"buy or rent\\\" for \\\"$10,000 an hour.\\\" Bloch also typed on a typewriter in the window and gave a lecture on his \\\"Postal Art Network\\\" and its relationship to Laguna's status as an \\\"<a href=\\\"art%20colony\\\">art colony</a>.\\\"\\nAfter moving to New York City in 1982, he met many of the\\nSixties generation of avant garde artists whom he had long been studying\\nin written form, artistic heirs to the legacy of <a href=\\\"Marcel%20Duchamp\\\">Marcel Duchamp</a> such as\\n<a href=\\\"Dick%20Higgins\\\">Dick Higgins</a> and <a href=\\\"Alison%20Knowles\\\">Alison Knowles</a>, <a href=\\\"Jackson%20MacLow\\\">Jackson MacLow</a>, <a href=\\\"Al%20Hansen\\\">Al Hansen</a>, <a href=\\\"Nam%20June%20Paik\\\">Nam June Paik</a>\\nand others. Bloch also met <a href=\\\"Ray%20Johnson\\\">Ray Johnson</a> who had heard of Bloch's mailed performance art pieces and invited him into his New York Correspondence School.\\nIn 2012, after studying Digital Marketing, Bloch received a Master of Science degree from the <a href=\\\"Zicklin%20School%20of%20Business\\\">Zicklin School of Business</a>, <a href=\\\"Baruch%20College\\\">Baruch College</a>, <a href=\\\"City%20University%20of%20New%20York\\\">City University of New York</a>.\\nSince 1980, Bloch has published Panmag, his mail art-related zine which documented much of the activity of the New York mail art scene in the 1980s and beyond including the visits of various mail artists to New York, his travel in Europe and opinions about the goings on in the fringes of the art world. Bloch's writings on Fluxus, performance, communication, Conceptual art, mail art and contemporary art are referred to on mail art-related blogs.\\nIn his \\\"Open Letter to the Network,\\\" Bloch offered a \\\"critique of mail artists’ relations with the existing gallery system, attempting to distinguish 'the differences… between mail art and certified \\\"art\\\".' While calling on mail artists to 'ask the difficult questions' and 'digress from the backslapping that is so prevalent in mail art,' Bloch’s proposals are limited to an exhortation to 'pursue a more rigorous dialogue than exists right now.' Bloch asserts that 'we concentrate on content rather than appearance.'\\\"\\nIn \\\"Offener brief an jeden im netzwerk\\\" (Open Letter to everyone in the Network) Bloch and visiting mail artist H. R. Fricker of Trogen, Switzerland created a six-point manifesto in English and German that highlighted the importance of person to person correspondence in the mail art network, as opposed to mail art shows, which were increasing in popularity at that time. This focus on the \\\"communicative processes arising from the exchanges between... artists\\\" was shared by Bloch and Fricker and many of the other mail artists who entered the fray in the late 70s and early 80s.\\nBloch participated in several \\\"Tourism\\\" mail art congresses of 1986 and attended the Neoist Festival of Plagiarism in Glasgow and other events in 1989 but felt that two events of that nature were enough so he decided to \\\"boycott the 1992 congress year\\\" as well as the \\\"incongruous meetings year 1998,\\\" opting, instead, for a \\\"year of decompression\\\" in 2004 that was eventually manifested in lieu of Congress participation.\\nBloch's work penetrated Neoist and related circles after his writings on <a href=\\\"Neoism\\\">Neoism</a>, <a href=\\\"Stewart%20Home\\\">Stewart Home</a> and the Festival of Plagiarism in his Panmag subtitled \\\"The Last Word\\\" in which he proposed a Word Strike which put forth the oft-repeated motto of that period, \\\"Don’t say art unless you mean money.\\\" Bloch later pushed that emphasis in the Panscan area of the Echo Communication teleconferencing system.\\nBloch is a vehement defender in online communities of the purity of the <a href=\\\"Fluxus\\\">Fluxus</a> generation that preceded him, insisting that his contemporaries are free to be influenced by what he calls the Fluxus \\\"movement\\\" (as opposed to those who see it as an open-ended \\\"spirit\\\" or \\\"attitude\\\") but should not call themselves or their work \\\"Fluxus\\\" directly. \\\"Mark Bloch’s views on the current situation of Fluxus in the mail art network (as well as newer generation artists who call themselves Fluxus) can and do generate heated debate.\\\" Bloch calls the overuse of the word \\\"Fluxus\\\" by younger artists \\\"misinformation\\\" and a distortion of the historical record.\\nBloch is recognized as being one of a handful of early converts from mail art to online communities. In 1989, Bloch began his experimental foray into\\nthe digital space when he founded Panscan, part of the Echo NYC text-based\\nteleconferencing system, the first online art discussion group in New York\\nCity. Panscan lasted from 1990 to 1995.\\nFollowing the death of <a href=\\\"Ray%20Johnson\\\">Ray Johnson</a> in 1995, Bloch left Echo and began a twenty-year research project on Communication art and Johnson and wrote several texts on\\nhim that were among the earliest to appear online and were cited\\nelsewhere in other media. Bloch and writer/editor Elizabeth Zuba brought together \\\"their distinct visual and literary perspectives to explore Ray Johnson’s innovative interpretations\\nof 'the book'\\\" at the Printed Matter New York Book Fair in 2014.\\nIt was Ray Johnson who introduced Bloch to <a href=\\\"Robert%20Delford%20Brown\\\">Robert Delford Brown</a> and his wife Rhett Cone Brown by bringing him in the 1980s to their home \\\"that Mr. Brown called 'The Great Building Crack-Up'\\\" in <a href=\\\"Greenwich%20Village\\\">Greenwich Village</a> which eventually led to Bloch becoming Brown's biographer, writing \\\"Robert Delford Brown: Meat, Maps, and Militant Metaphysics,\\\" published by the Cameron Art Museum in 2007.\\nSince 1980, Bloch has published a zine called \\\"Panmag\\\" and tried to use it a in various ways to push back the boundaries of what art can be. Bloch \\\"situates his practices within the new expanded field of publishing. As the editor of \\\"Panmag\\\", he has combined both digital and traditional media in his periodical… He presents an interesting case for the… periodical to be considered as performance art,\\\" said scholars Marie Boivent and Stephen Perkins, citing \\\"his expansion of the traditionally static nature of the periodical into a new role as an active physical agent.\\\"\\nMark Bloch’s one man show \\\"Secrets of the Ancient 20th Century Gamers\\\" was presented at Emily Harvey Foundation in NYC\\nMarch 18 through April 2, 2010 and received favorable reviews. It featured paintings, collage works, assemblage, issues of his zine \\\"Panmag\\\" and other works.\\nIn 2014, Bloch curated a New York City arts festival celebrating the centenary of cult hero artist-collector <a href=\\\"Guglielmo%20Achille%20Cavellini\\\">Guglielmo Achille Cavellini</a>, at various venues around Manhattan including the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\\\">Museum of Modern Art</a> Library, Richard L. Feigen & Co., Lynch Tham, and the Whitebox Art Center on the Lower East Side where a 55 foot long wall covered with artworks from the mail art network and local artists and a 14 by 14 foot drawing of Cavellini by Bloch was revealed during a three hour-plus opening marathon of performances, spoken word and music.\\nIn 2016, Bloch and the granddaughter of Dada founder <a href=\\\"Marcel%20Janco\\\">Marcel Janco</a>, the Israeli art journaler and art therapist, Michaela Mende Janco, created \\\"Dadawatch,\\\" a one-year communications project to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Dada and inviting public online participation.\",\n \"Muggsy Spanier\\nFrancis Joseph \\\"Muggsy\\\" Spanier (November 9, 1901 – February 12, 1967) was a prominent jazz cornet player based in Chicago.\\nSpanier was born in Chicago. At 13 he began playing the cornet and played with <a href=\\\"Elmer%20Schoebel\\\">Elmer Schoebel</a> in 1921. He borrowed the sobriquet of Muggsy from John \\\"Muggsy\\\" McGraw, the manager of the New York Giants baseball team. In the early 1920s, he played with <a href=\\\"The%20Bucktown%20Five\\\">The Bucktown Five</a>.\\nIn 1929 he became a member of a band led by <a href=\\\"Ted%20Lewis%20%28musician%29\\\">Ted Lewis</a>, then spent two years with <a href=\\\"Ben%20Pollack\\\">Ben Pollack</a>. After an illness, he assembled the eight-man group Muggsy Spanier and His Ragtime Band. In 1939 the band recorded several sessions of <a href=\\\"Dixieland\\\">Dixieland</a> standards for <a href=\\\"Bluebird%20Records\\\">Bluebird Records</a> that were later called The Great Sixteen and influenced a Dixieland revival.\\nThe band's members included <a href=\\\"George%20Brunies\\\">George Brunies</a> (later Brunis - trombone and vocals), <a href=\\\"Rod%20Cless\\\">Rod Cless</a> (clarinet), George Zack or <a href=\\\"Joe%20Bushkin\\\">Joe Bushkin</a> (piano), Ray McKinstry, Nick Ciazza or Bernie Billings (tenor sax), and Bob Casey (bass).\\nHis other most important ventures were the quartet he co-led with <a href=\\\"Sidney%20Bechet\\\">Sidney Bechet</a> (the 'Big Four') in 1940. From 1940–1941 he played with <a href=\\\"Bob%20Crosby\\\">Bob Crosby</a>. In the 1950s, he moved to the West Coast and joined <a href=\\\"Earl%20Hines\\\">Earl Hines</a>'s band from 1957–1959. After touring Europe, he retired in 1964.\\nThe Ragtime Band's theme tune was \\\"Relaxin' at the Touro\\\", named for <a href=\\\"Touro%20Infirmary\\\">Touro Infirmary</a>, the <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans%2C%20Louisiana\\\">New Orleans</a> hospital where Spanier had been treated for a perforated ulcer early in 1938. At the point of death, he was saved by Dr. <a href=\\\"Alton%20Ochsner\\\">Alton Ochsner</a> who drained the fluid and eased his weakened breathing. One of Spanier's Dixieland numbers is entitled, \\\"Oh Doctor Ochsner.\\\"\\n'Relaxin' at the Touro' is a fairly straightforward <a href=\\\"Twelve-bar%20blues\\\">12-bar blues</a> with a piano introduction and <a href=\\\"coda%20%28music%29\\\">coda</a> by Joe Bushkin. The pianist recalled, many years later: \\\"When I finally joined Muggsy in Chicago (having left <a href=\\\"Bunny%20Berigan\\\">Bunny Berigan's</a> failing big band) we met to talk it over at the Three Deuces, where <a href=\\\"Art%20Tatum\\\">Art Tatum</a> was appearing. Muggsy was now playing opposite <a href=\\\"Fats%20Waller\\\">Fats Waller</a> at the Sherman hotel and we worked out a kind of stage show for the two bands. Muggsy was a man of great integrity. We played a <a href=\\\"blues\\\">blues</a> in C and I made up a little intro. After that I was listed as the co-composer of 'Relaxin' at the Touro'\\\".\\nIn 1950, in Chicago, Spanier’s second marriage was to Ruth Gries O’Connell. He became the stepfather of her sons, Hollywood film writer and director <a href=\\\"Tom%20Gries\\\">Tom Gries</a> and Charles Joseph Gries, later professionally known as Buddy Charles, a pop and jazz vocalist and pianist in Chicago. When Spanier was performing at a concert in Chicago in 1956, Buddy Charles was performing at the nearby Black Orchid nightclub. Spanier was heard to exclaim “that’s my boy.”\",\n \"Originale\\nOriginale (Originals, or \\\"Real Characters\\\"), musical theatre with \\\"<a href=\\\"Kontakte%20%28Stockhausen%29\\\">Kontakte</a>\\\", is a music theatre work by the German composer <a href=\\\"Karlheinz%20Stockhausen\\\">Karlheinz Stockhausen</a>, written in collaboration with the artist <a href=\\\"Mary%20Bauermeister\\\">Mary Bauermeister</a>. It was first performed in 1961 in <a href=\\\"Cologne\\\">Cologne</a>, and is given the work number 12⅔ in Stockhausen's catalogue of works.\\n\\\"Originale\\\" was commissioned from Stockhausen and Bauermeister by Hubertus Durek, manager of the <a href=\\\"Theater%20am%20Dom\\\">Theater am Dom</a> in Cologne, and his stage director, Carlheinz Caspari, who wanted \\\"ein Stück, in dem Schauspieler, Maler, andere Künstler oder eben einfach »originale« Menschen frei in spontanen Aktionen auftreten sollten\\\" (\\\"a piece in which actors, painters, other artists, or just simply 'genuine characters' would appear freely in spontaneous actions\\\") . It was created while the pair were visiting Finland in August 1961. Stockhausen had been invited to lecture at the Summer University of Jyväskylä where, at a presentation of \\\"Kontakte\\\", they met the piano virtuoso and <a href=\\\"Jean%20Sibelius\\\">Sibelius</a> biographer, Professor Erik Tawastjerna. Together with the Finnish architect and designer <a href=\\\"Alvar%20Aalto\\\">Alvar Aalto</a>, a summer house north of Helsinki on <a href=\\\"Lake%20Saimaa\\\">Lake Saimaa</a> was put at their disposal, and the score of \\\"Originale\\\" was completely worked out there in just two weeks. The \\\"silence\\\" scene, in which the events on stage and the music stop for just one minute, and then everything resumes again, was inspired by the \\\"unearthly\\\" effect of the northerly summer light, which remained in the sky for just two hours or so during which the sun briefly dipped below the horizon, then rose again, \\\"as the birds began to twitter, the fish stirred again, the wind came up, and there was day\\\" (; ).\\nPerformances of \\\"Originale\\\" subsequent to the twelve first performances in Cologne between 26 October and 6 November 1962 have been rare. Productions took place in New York in September 1964, organized jointly by Mary Bauermeister and <a href=\\\"Charlotte%20Moorman\\\">Charlotte Moorman</a> , in 1990 in San Francisco directed and organized by <a href=\\\"Randall%20Packer\\\">Randall Packer</a> (; ), and on 21 January 2007 in connection with a 2006–2007 exhibition of Mary Bauermeister's tetralogy \\\"Fama Fluxus\\\"—\\\"Mythos Beuys\\\"—\\\"Legende Paik\\\"—\\\"Atelier Mary Bauermeister\\\" in <a href=\\\"Sindelfingen\\\">Sindelfingen</a> .\\nThe New York performances took place at Judson Hall as part of the second annual New York Festival of the Avant-Garde, during the early performative period of the avant-garde movement <a href=\\\"Fluxus\\\">Fluxus</a>. Outside the concert hall on the opening night, 8 September 1964, several New York artists calling themselves Action Against Cultural Imperialism, including Fluxus founder <a href=\\\"George%20Maciunas\\\">George Maciunas</a>, <a href=\\\"Conceptual%20art\\\">Concept Art</a> creator <a href=\\\"Henry%20Flynt\\\">Henry Flynt</a>, poet, journalist, and activist <a href=\\\"Abdallah%20Schleifer\\\">Marc Schleifer</a>, violinist and filmmaker <a href=\\\"Tony%20Conrad\\\">Tony Conrad</a>, and actor/poet Alan Marlowe protested against Stockhausen as a \\\"cultural imperialist\\\" because of some reportedly disparaging remarks about jazz and folk music he was supposed to have made at Harvard in 1958 (; ; ; ). Some of the protesters seen before the event were actually performers involved in the piece, including poet <a href=\\\"Allen%20Ginsberg\\\">Allen Ginsberg</a> who, enlisting the support of Schleifer, extorted his way into the picket line against Flynt's wishes. Claims by Moorman and Stage Director <a href=\\\"Allan%20Kaprow\\\">Allan Kaprow</a> that they also joined the pickets have been disputed (; ). Meanwhile, Maciunas had recruited cast member <a href=\\\"Robert%20Delford%20Brown\\\">Robert Delford Brown</a> as a saboteur. Brown, performing the part of the Painter, came costumed as a huge papier-mache penis and, some way into the performance, lit a stink bomb on stage. This forced an evacuation of the hall and an unscheduled intermission to clear the air. <a href=\\\"Edgard%20Var%C3%A8se\\\">Edgard Varèse</a>, who had been seated near the front as guest of honor, had a violent coughing attack and had to be assisted out to the street. Needless to say, Brown disappeared during the interruption and in subsequent performances was replaced by the Japanese artist <a href=\\\"Ay-O\\\">Ay-O</a>, who was living at that time in New York. Thrilled press reviews reported that the protest and sabotage were actually part of the performance, a publicity stunt staged by Stockhausen himself (; ; ; ; ). Brown disputed the accounts that he was an intentional saboteur or that any rift developed between him and his friend Kaprow . Brown's only interest was to create as outrageous a spectacle as possible and embody the personna of the \\\"Artist.\\\" His own documentation left no evidence of being involved in any way with Maciunas .\\nThe May 1990 performance produced and directed by Randall Packer in San Francisco was presented by Zakros InterArts at Theater Artaud. It was the first West Coast performance of \\\"Originale\\\" and was the first time it had been performed since the 1964 New York City performances . The production draw from recent technological advancements to introduce digital techniques of sound manipulation and live video, replacing the analog media of the 1960s, to disrupt the linear flow of the work and to enhance its qualities of fragmentation and deconstruction of everyday events.\\nA performance celebrating the 50th anniversary of the 1964 New York performance was produced in 2014 by composer/performers Nick Hallett and Zach Layton .\\nIn 2015 the <a href=\\\"Berlin%20State%20Opera\\\">Berlin State Opera</a> produced a new version of \\\"Originale\\\" staged by Georg Schütky (; ; ). It featured a mainly Berlin-based cast (e.g., Irm Hermann, Gerhard Rühm, Thomas Goerge, Max Renne, Vincent Stefan). The performances took place in the Werkstatt im <a href=\\\"Schiller%20Theater\\\">Schillertheater</a> which allowed the realisation of Stockhausen's principle of an inverted arena situation.\\nThe surreal absurdity of \\\"Originale\\\" recalls <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Beckett\\\">Samuel Beckett</a>, <a href=\\\"Alain%20Robbe-Grillet\\\">Alain Robbe-Grillet</a>'s books and film \\\"<a href=\\\"Last%20Year%20at%20Marienbad\\\">L 'année dernière à Marienbad</a>\\\", and, in its use of the commonplace, <a href=\\\"Harold%20Pinter\\\">Harold Pinter</a> . It combines the rigorous, tightly controlled compositional form of Stockhausen's <a href=\\\"Serialism\\\">serial</a> music with the loosely structured improvisational framework of the early <a href=\\\"Happenings\\\">Happenings</a>. The score to \\\"Originale\\\" is groundbreaking for its incorporation of performance events and other assorted \\\"actions\\\" into a musical organization with precise \\\"timepoints\\\" or temporal markings, typical of Stockhausen's musical scores. Within the 94' duration of \\\"Originale\\\" is a performance of Stockhausen's \\\"Kontakte\\\" for piano, percussion, and electronics, that is woven throughout the work, providing a central unifying element to this often disjointed work. In addition to \\\"Kontakte\\\", the Cologne performances included tape-recorded excerpts from Stockhausen's \\\"<a href=\\\"Carr%C3%A9%20%28Stockhausen%29\\\">Carré</a>\\\" for four orchestras and choirs, \\\"<a href=\\\"Gesang%20der%20J%C3%BCnglinge\\\">Gesang der Jünglinge</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Gruppen\\\">Gruppen</a>\\\" for three orchestras, and \\\"<a href=\\\"Zyklus\\\">Zyklus</a>\\\" for a percussionist .\\nAn unusual assortment of \\\"characters\\\" are introduced in \\\"Originale\\\", including a pianist, a percussionist, a sound technician, a stage director, a cameraman, a lighting technician, an action composer, an action painter, a poet, a street singer, a coat checker, a newspaper vendor, a fashion model, a child (playing with blocks), an animal handler with animal, a conductor, and five actors reading a collage of unrelated texts .\\nAccording to the musicologist Karl Heinz Wörner, \\\"\\\"Originale\\\" is a musical composition. The macrorhythm of scene continuity and the ordering of moments are musical. The individual scenes are composed musically, regardless of whether or not there is any 'music' in them. The verbal counterpoint is musical, as are the 'monodic' word melodies and the polyphony of speaking voices\\\" . \\\"Originale\\\" is constructed in 18 scenes, grouped into seven self-sufficient \\\"structures\\\", which may be performed in any order, either successively or with as many as three structures simultaneously, on three separated stages . Each character's actions are specified to take place within a specified number of seconds or minutes, and at one point the actors even speak in what Stockhausen calls \\\"formant rhythms\\\": in a span of four minutes one actor speaks three equally spaced words, a second actor has five equally spaced words, a third has eight, and yet another has thirteen, while a fifth provides a \\\"noise band\\\" of completely irregular rhythms .\",\n \"Joan Miró\\nJoan Miró i Ferrà (] ; 20 April 1893 – 25 December 1983) was a Spanish <a href=\\\"painter\\\">painter</a>, <a href=\\\"sculptor\\\">sculptor</a>, and <a href=\\\"ceramicist\\\">ceramicist</a> born in <a href=\\\"Barcelona\\\">Barcelona</a>. A museum dedicated to his work, the <a href=\\\"Fundaci%C3%B3%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3\\\">Fundació Joan Miró</a>, was established in his native city of Barcelona in 1975, and another, the <a href=\\\"Pilar%20and%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3%20Foundation%20in%20Mallorca\\\">Fundació Pilar i Joan Miró</a>, was established in his adoptive city of <a href=\\\"Palma%20de%20Mallorca\\\">Palma de Mallorca</a> in 1981.\\nEarning international acclaim, his work has been interpreted as <a href=\\\"Surrealism\\\">Surrealism</a>, a sandbox for the subconscious mind, a re-creation of the childlike, and a manifestation of Catalan pride. In numerous interviews dating from the 1930s onwards, Miró expressed contempt for conventional painting methods as a way of supporting <a href=\\\"bourgeois\\\">bourgeois</a> society, and famously declared an \\\"assassination of painting\\\" in favour of upsetting the visual elements of established painting.\\nBorn into the family of a <a href=\\\"goldsmith\\\">goldsmith</a> and a watchmaker, Miró grew up in the <a href=\\\"Barri%20G%C3%B2tic\\\">Barri Gòtic</a> neighborhood of Barcelona. The \\\"Miró\\\" name indicates <a href=\\\"Jewish\\\">Jewish</a> (<a href=\\\"marrano\\\">marrano</a> or <a href=\\\"converso\\\">converso</a>) roots. His father was Miquel Miró Adzerias and his mother was Dolors Ferrà. He began drawing classes at the age of seven at a private school at Carrer del Regomir 13, a medieval mansion. In 1907 he enrolled at the fine art academy at <a href=\\\"La%20Llotja\\\">La Llotja</a>, to the dismay of his father. He studied at the <a href=\\\"Cercle%20Art%C3%ADstic%20de%20Sant%20Lluc\\\">Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc</a> and he had his first solo show in 1918 at the Dalmau Gallery, where his work was ridiculed and defaced. Inspired by <a href=\\\"Cubist\\\">Cubist</a> and surrealist exhibitions from abroad, Miró was drawn towards the arts community that was gathering in <a href=\\\"Montparnasse\\\">Montparnasse</a> and in 1920 moved to <a href=\\\"Paris\\\">Paris</a>, but continued to spend his summers in <a href=\\\"Catalonia\\\">Catalonia</a>.\\nMiró initially went to business school as well as art school. He began his working career when he was a teenager as a clerk, although he abandoned the business world completely for art after suffering a nervous breakdown. His early art, like that of the similarly influenced <a href=\\\"Fauvism\\\">Fauves</a> and Cubists exhibited in Barcelona, was inspired by <a href=\\\"Vincent%20van%20Gogh\\\">Vincent van Gogh</a> and <a href=\\\"Paul%20C%C3%A9zanne\\\">Paul Cézanne</a>. The resemblance of Miró's work to that of the intermediate generation of the avant-garde has led scholars to dub this period his Catalan Fauvist period.\\nA few years after Miró’s 1918 Barcelona solo exhibition, he settled in Paris where he finished a number of paintings that he had begun on his parents’ summer home and farm in <a href=\\\"Mont-roig%20del%20Camp\\\">Mont-roig del Camp</a>. One such painting, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Farm%20%28Mir%C3%B3%29\\\">The Farm</a>\\\", showed a transition to a more individual style of painting and certain nationalistic qualities. <a href=\\\"Ernest%20Hemingway\\\">Ernest Hemingway</a>, who later purchased the piece, compared the artistic accomplishment to James Joyce’s <a href=\\\"Ulysses%20%28novel%29\\\">Ulysses</a> and described it by saying, “It has in it all that you feel about Spain when you are there and all that you feel when you are away and cannot go there. No one else has been able to paint these two very opposing things.” Miró annually returned to Mont-roig and developed a symbolism and nationalism that would stick with him throughout his career. Two of Miró’s first works classified as Surrealist, \\\"<a href=\\\"Catalan%20Landscape%20%28The%20Hunter%29\\\">Catalan Landscape (The Hunter)</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Tilled%20Field\\\">The Tilled Field</a>\\\", employ the symbolic language that was to dominate the art of the next decade.\\nIn 1924, Miró joined the Surrealist group. The already symbolic and poetic nature of Miró’s work, as well as the dualities and contradictions inherent to it, fit well within the context of dream-like automatism espoused by the group. Much of Miró’s work lost the cluttered chaotic lack of focus that had defined his work thus far, and he experimented with collage and the process of painting within his work so as to reject the framing that traditional painting provided. This antagonistic attitude towards painting manifested itself when Miró referred to his work in 1924 ambiguously as “x” in a letter to poet friend <a href=\\\"Michel%20Leiris\\\">Michel Leiris</a>. The paintings that came out of this period were eventually dubbed Miró’s dream paintings.\\nMiró did not completely abandon subject matter. Despite the Surrealist automatic techniques that he employed extensively in the 1920s, sketches show that his work was often the result of a methodical process. Miró’s work rarely dipped into non-objectivity, maintaining a symbolic, schematic language. This was perhaps most prominent in the repeated \\\"<a href=\\\"Head%20of%20a%20Catalan%20Peasant\\\">Head of a Catalan Peasant</a>\\\" series of 1924 to 1925. In 1926, he collaborated with <a href=\\\"Max%20Ernst\\\">Max Ernst</a> on designs for ballet <a href=\\\"impresario\\\">impresario</a> <a href=\\\"Sergei%20Diaghilev\\\">Sergei Diaghilev</a>. With Miró's help, Ernst pioneered the technique of \\\"<a href=\\\"Surrealist%20techniques%23Grattage\\\">grattage</a>,\\\" in which he troweled pigment onto his canvases.\\nMiró returned to a more representational form of painting with \\\"The Dutch Interiors\\\" of 1928. Crafted after works by <a href=\\\"Hendrik%20Martenszoon%20Sorgh\\\">Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh</a> and <a href=\\\"Jan%20Steen\\\">Jan Steen</a> seen as postcard reproductions, the paintings reveal the influence of a trip to Holland taken by the artist. These paintings share more in common with \\\"Tilled Field\\\" or \\\"Harlequin’s Carnival\\\" than with the minimalistic dream paintings produced a few years earlier.\\nMiró married Pilar Juncosa in <a href=\\\"Palma%2C%20Majorca\\\">Palma</a> (<a href=\\\"Majorca\\\">Majorca</a>) on 12 October 1929; their daughter, María Dolores Miró, was born 17 July 1930. In 1931, <a href=\\\"Pierre%20Matisse\\\">Pierre Matisse</a> opened an art gallery in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. The Pierre Matisse Gallery (which existed until Matisse's death in 1989) became an influential part of the <a href=\\\"Modern%20art\\\">Modern art</a> movement in America. From the outset Matisse represented Joan Miró and introduced his work to the United States market by frequently exhibiting Miró's work in New York.\\nUntil the outbreak of the <a href=\\\"Spanish%20Civil%20War\\\">Spanish Civil War</a>, Miró habitually returned to Spain in the summers. Once the war began, he was unable to return home. Unlike many of his surrealist contemporaries, Miró had previously preferred to stay away from explicitly political commentary in his work. Though a sense of (Catalan) nationalism pervaded his earliest surreal landscapes and \\\"Head of a Catalan Peasant\\\", it was not until Spain’s Republican government commissioned him to paint the mural, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Reaper%20%28Mir%C3%B3%20painting%29\\\">The Reaper</a>\\\", for the Spanish Republican Pavilion at the <a href=\\\"1937%20Paris%20Exhibition\\\">1937 Paris Exhibition</a>, that Miró’s work took on a politically charged meaning.\\nIn 1939, with Germany’s invasion of France looming, Miró relocated to Varengeville in Normandy, and on 20 May of the following year, as Germans invaded Paris, he narrowly fled to Spain (now controlled by Francisco Franco) for the duration of the Vichy Regime’s rule. In Varengeville, Palma, and Mont-roig, between 1940 and 1941, Miró created the twenty-three <a href=\\\"gouache\\\">gouache</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Ciphers%20and%20Constellations%2C%20in%20Love%20with%20a%20Woman\\\">Constellations</a>\\\". Revolving around <a href=\\\"Celestial%20spheres\\\">celestial</a> symbolism, \\\"Constellations\\\" earned the artist praise from <a href=\\\"Andr%C3%A9%20Breton\\\">André Breton</a>, who seventeen years later wrote a series of poems, named after and inspired by Miró's series. Features of this work revealed a shifting focus to the subjects of women, birds, and the moon, which would dominate his iconography for much of the rest of his career.\\n<a href=\\\"Shuzo%20Takiguchi\\\">Shuzo Takiguchi</a> published the first monograph on Miró in 1940. In 1948–49 Miró lived in Barcelona and made frequent visits to Paris to work on printing techniques at the <a href=\\\"Mourlot%20Studios\\\">Mourlot Studios</a> and the <a href=\\\"Atelier%20Lacouri%C3%A8re\\\">Atelier Lacourière</a>. He developed a close relationship with <a href=\\\"Fernand%20Mourlot\\\">Fernand Mourlot</a> and that resulted in the production of over one thousand different lithographic editions.\\nIn 1959, André Breton asked Miró to represent Spain in \\\"The Homage to Surrealism\\\" exhibition alongside <a href=\\\"Enrique%20T%C3%A1bara\\\">Enrique Tábara</a>, <a href=\\\"Salvador%20Dal%C3%AD\\\">Salvador Dalí</a>, and <a href=\\\"Eugenio%20Granell\\\">Eugenio Granell</a>. Miró created a series of sculptures and ceramics for the garden of the <a href=\\\"Maeght%20Foundation\\\">Maeght Foundation</a> in <a href=\\\"Saint-Paul-de-Vence\\\">Saint-Paul-de-Vence</a>, France, which was completed in 1964.\\nIn 1974, Miró created a tapestry for the <a href=\\\"World%20Trade%20Center%20%281973%E2%80%932001%29\\\">World Trade Center</a> in New York City together with the Catalan artist <a href=\\\"Josep%20Royo\\\">Josep Royo</a>. He had initially refused to do a tapestry, then he learned the craft from Royo and the two artists produced several works together. His \\\"<a href=\\\"World%20Trade%20Center%20Tapestry\\\">World Trade Center Tapestry</a>\\\" was displayed at the building and was one of the most expensive works of art lost during the <a href=\\\"September%2011%20attacks\\\">September 11 attacks</a>.\\nIn 1977, Miró and Royo finished a tapestry to be exhibited in the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Art\\\">National Gallery of Art</a> in Washington, DC.\\nIn 1981, Miró's \\\"The Sun, the Moon and One Star\\\"—later renamed \\\"<a href=\\\"Mir%C3%B3%27s%20Chicago\\\">Miró's Chicago</a>\\\"—was unveiled. This large, mixed media sculpture is situated outdoors in the downtown <a href=\\\"Chicago%20Loop\\\">Loop</a> area of <a href=\\\"Chicago\\\">Chicago</a>, across the street from another large public sculpture, the <a href=\\\"Chicago%20Picasso\\\">Chicago Picasso</a>. Miró had created a bronze model of \\\"The Sun, the Moon and One Star\\\" in 1967. The <a href=\\\"maquette\\\">maquette</a> now resides in the <a href=\\\"Milwaukee%20Art%20Museum\\\">Milwaukee Art Museum</a>.\\nIn 1979 Miró received a doctorate \\\"<a href=\\\"honoris%20causa\\\">honoris causa</a>\\\" from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Barcelona\\\">University of Barcelona</a>. The artist, who suffered from heart failure, died in his home in <a href=\\\"Palma%2C%20Majorca\\\">Palma</a> (<a href=\\\"Majorca\\\">Majorca</a>) on December 25, 1983.\\nHis early modernist works include \\\"<a href=\\\"Portrait%20of%20Vincent%20Nubiola\\\">Portrait of Vincent Nubiola</a>\\\" (1917), \\\"Siurana (the path), \\\"Nord-Sud\\\" (1917) and \\\"Painting of Toledo\\\". These works show the influence of <a href=\\\"C%C3%A9zanne\\\">Cézanne</a>, and fill the canvas with a colorful surface and a more painterly treatment than the hard-edge style of most of his later works. In \\\"Nord-Sud\\\", the literary newspaper of that name appears in the still life, a compositional device common in cubist compositions, but also a reference to the literary and avant-garde interests of the painter.\\nStarting in 1920, Miró developed a very precise style, picking out every element in isolation and detail and arranging them in deliberate composition. These works, including \\\"House with Palm Tree\\\" (1918), \\\"Nude with a Mirror\\\" (1919), \\\"Horse, Pipe and Red Flower\\\" (1920), and \\\"The Table - Still Life with Rabbit\\\" (1920), show the clear influence of <a href=\\\"Cubism\\\">Cubism</a>, although in a restrained way, being applied to only a portion of the subject. For example, \\\"The Farmer's Wife\\\" (1922–23), is realistic, but some sections are stylized or deformed, such as the treatment of the woman's feet, which are enlarged and flattened.\\nThe culmination of this style was \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Farm%20%28Mir%C3%B3%29\\\">The Farm</a>\\\" (1921–22). The rural Catalan scene it depicts is augmented by an avant-garde French newspaper in the center, showing Miró sees this work transformed by the Modernist theories he had been exposed to in Paris. The concentration on each element as equally important was a key step towards generating a pictorial sign for each element. The background is rendered in flat or patterned in simple areas, highlighting the separation of figure and ground, which would become important in his mature style.\\nMiró made many attempts to promote this work, but his surrealist colleagues found it too realistic and apparently conventional, and so he soon turned to a more explicitly surrealist approach.\\nIn 1922, Miró explored abstracted, strongly coloured surrealism in at least one painting. From the summer of 1923 in Mont-roig, Miró began a key set of paintings where abstracted pictorial signs, rather than the realistic representations used in The Farm, are predominant. In \\\"The Tilled Field\\\", \\\"Catalan Landscape (The Hunter)\\\" and \\\"Pastoral\\\" (1923–24), these flat shapes and lines (mostly black or strongly coloured) suggest the subjects, sometimes quite cryptically. For \\\"Catalan Landscape (The Hunter)\\\", Miró represents the hunter with a combination of signs: a triangle for the head, curved lines for the moustache, angular lines for the body. So encoded is this work that at a later time Miró provided a precise explanation of the signs used.\\nThrough the mid-1920s Miró developed the pictorial sign language which would be central throughout the rest of his career.\\nIn \\\"Harlequin's Carnival\\\" (1924–25), there is a clear continuation of the line begun with \\\"The Tilled Field\\\". But in subsequent works, such as \\\"The Happiness of Loving My Brunette\\\" (1925) and \\\"Painting (Fratellini)\\\" (1927), there are far fewer foreground figures, and those that remain are simplified.\\nSoon after Miró also began his \\\"Spanish Dancer\\\" series of works. These simple collages, were like a conceptual counterpoint to his paintings. In \\\"Spanish Dancer\\\" (1928) he combines a cork, a feather and a hatpin onto a blank sheet of paper.\\nMiró created over 250 illustrated books. These were known as \\\"<a href=\\\"Artist%27s%20book\\\">Livres d' Artiste</a>.\\\" One such work was published in 1974, at the urging of the widow of the French poet <a href=\\\"Robert%20Desnos\\\">Robert Desnos</a>, titled \\\"Les pénalités de l'enfer ou les nouvelles Hébrides\\\" (\\\"The Penalties of Hell or The New Hebrides\\\"). It was a set of 25 lithographs, five in black, and the others in colors.\\nIn 2006 the book was displayed in \\\"Joan Miró, Illustrated Books\\\" at the Vero Beach Museum of Art. One critic said it is \\\"an especially powerful set, not only for the rich imagery but also for the story behind the book's creation. The lithographs are long, narrow verticals, and while they feature Miró's familiar shapes, there's an unusual emphasis on texture.\\\" The critic continued, \\\"I was instantly attracted to these four prints, to an emotional lushness, that's in contrast with the cool surfaces of so much of Miró's work. Their poignancy is even greater, I think, when you read how they came to be. The artist met and became friends with Desnos, perhaps the most beloved and influential surrealist writer, in 1925, and before long, they made plans to collaborate on a \\\"livre d'artiste\\\". Those plans were put on hold because of the <a href=\\\"Spanish%20Civil%20War\\\">Spanish Civil War</a> and <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>. Desnos' bold criticism of the latter led to his imprisonment in <a href=\\\"Auschwitz\\\">Auschwitz</a>, and he died at age 45 shortly after his release in 1945. Nearly three decades later, at the suggestion of Desnos' widow, Miró set out to illustrate the poet's manuscript. It was his first work in prose, which was written in Morocco in 1922 but remained unpublished until this posthumous collaboration.\\\"\\nIn Paris, under the influence of poets and writers, he developed his unique style: <a href=\\\"organic%20%28model%29\\\">organic</a> forms and flattened picture planes drawn with a sharp line. Generally thought of as a Surrealist because of his interest in <a href=\\\"Surrealist%20automatism\\\">automatism</a> and the use of sexual symbols (for example, ovoids with wavy lines emanating from them), Miró's style was influenced in varying degrees by Surrealism and <a href=\\\"Dada\\\">Dada</a>, yet he rejected membership in any artistic movement in the interwar European years. André Breton described him as \\\"the most Surrealist of us all.\\\" Miró confessed to creating one of his most famous works, \\\"Harlequin's Carnival\\\", under similar circumstances:\\nHow did I think up my drawings and my ideas for painting? Well I'd come home to my Paris studio in Rue Blomet at night, I'd go to bed, and sometimes I hadn't any supper. I saw things, and I jotted them down in a notebook. I saw shapes on the ceiling...\\nMiró's surrealist origins evolved out of \\\"repression\\\" much like all Spanish surrealist and magic realist work, especially because of his <a href=\\\"Catalonia\\\">Catalan</a> ethnicity, which was subject to special persecution by the Franco regime. Also, Joan Miró was well aware of <a href=\\\"Haitian%20Vodou\\\">Haitian Voodoo</a> art and Cuban <a href=\\\"Santer%C3%ADa\\\">Santería</a> religion through his travels before going into exile. This led to his signature style of art making.\\nJoan Miró was among the first artists to develop <a href=\\\"automatic%20drawing\\\">automatic drawing</a> as a way to undo previous established techniques in painting, and thus, with <a href=\\\"Andr%C3%A9%20Masson\\\">André Masson</a>, represented the beginning of <a href=\\\"Surrealism\\\">Surrealism</a> as an art movement. However, Miró chose not to become an official member of the Surrealists in order to be free to experiment with other artistic styles without compromising his position within the group. He pursued his own interests in the art world, ranging from automatic drawing and <a href=\\\"surrealism\\\">surrealism</a>, to <a href=\\\"expressionism\\\">expressionism</a>, <a href=\\\"Lyrical%20Abstraction\\\">Lyrical Abstraction</a>, and <a href=\\\"Color%20Field%20painting\\\">Color Field painting</a>. Four-dimensional painting was a theoretical type of painting Miró proposed in which painting would transcend its two-dimensionality and even the three-dimensionality of <a href=\\\"sculpture\\\">sculpture</a>.\\nMiró's oft-quoted interest in the \\\"assassination of painting\\\" is derived from a dislike of <a href=\\\"bourgeois\\\">bourgeois</a> art, which he believed was used as a way to promote propaganda and cultural identity among the wealthy. Specifically, Miró responded to Cubism in this way, which by the time of his quote had become an established art form in France. He is quoted as saying \\\"\\\"I will break their guitar,\\\"\\\" referring to <a href=\\\"Pablo%20Picasso\\\">Picasso's</a> paintings, with the intent to attack the popularity and appropriation of Picasso's art by politics.\\nThe spectacle of the sky overwhelms me. I'm overwhelmed when I see, in an immense sky, the crescent of the moon, or the sun. There, in my pictures, tiny forms in huge empty spaces. Empty spaces, empty horizons, empty plains - everything which is bare has always greatly impressed me. —Joan Miró, 1958, quoted in Twentieth-Century Artists on Art\\nIn an interview with biographer <a href=\\\"Walter%20Erben\\\">Walter Erben</a>, Miró expressed his dislike for <a href=\\\"art%20critic\\\">art critic</a>s, saying, they \\\"are more concerned with being philosophers than anything else. They form a preconceived opinion, then they look at the work of art. Painting merely serves as a cloak in which to wrap their emaciated philosophical systems.\\\"\\nIn the final decades of his life Miró accelerated his work in different media, producing hundreds of ceramics, including the \\\"Wall of the Moon\\\" and \\\"Wall of the Sun\\\" at the <a href=\\\"UNESCO\\\">UNESCO</a> building in Paris. He also made temporary window paintings (on glass) for an exhibit. In the last years of his life Miró wrote his most radical and least known ideas, exploring the possibilities of <a href=\\\"gas%20sculpture\\\">gas sculpture</a> and four-dimensional painting.\\nThroughout the 1960s, Miró was a featured artist in many salon shows assembled by the Maeght Foundation that also included works by <a href=\\\"Marc%20Chagall\\\">Marc Chagall</a>, <a href=\\\"Giacometti\\\">Giacometti</a>, Brach, Cesar, <a href=\\\"Raoul%20Ubac\\\">Ubac</a>, and <a href=\\\"Pierre%20Tal-Coat\\\">Tal-Coat</a>.\\nThe large retrospectives devoted to Miró in his old age in towns such as New York (1972), London (1972), Saint-Paul-de-Vence (1973) and Paris (1974) were a good indication of the international acclaim that had grown steadily over the previous half-century; further major retrospectives took place posthumously. Political changes in his native country led in 1978 to the first full exhibition of his painting and graphic work, at the <a href=\\\"Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa\\\">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a> in Madrid. In 1993, the year of the hundredth anniversary of his birth, several exhibitions were held, among which the most prominent were those held in the <a href=\\\"Fundaci%C3%B3%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3\\\">Fundació Joan Miró</a>, Barcelona, the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Modern%20Art\\\">Museum of Modern Art</a>, New York, the <a href=\\\"Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa\\\">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a>, Madrid, and the Galerie Lelong, Paris. In 2011, another retrospective was mounted by the <a href=\\\"Tate%20Modern\\\">Tate Modern</a>, London, and travelled to <a href=\\\"Fundaci%C3%B3%20Joan%20Mir%C3%B3\\\">Fundació Joan Miró</a> and the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Art\\\">National Gallery of Art</a>, Washington, D.C.. \\\"Joan Miró, Printmaking\\\", Fundación Joan Miró (2013). And two exhibitions in 2014, \\\"Miró: From Earth to Sky\\\" at Albertina Museum, and \\\"Masterpieces from the Kunsthaus Zürich\\\", National Art Center, Tokyo.\\nExhibitions entitled \\\"Joan Miró: Instinct & Imagination\\\" and \\\"Miró: The Experience of Seeing\\\" were held at the <a href=\\\"Denver%20Art%20Museum\\\">Denver Art Museum</a> from 22 March – 28 June 2015 and at the <a href=\\\"McNay%20Art%20Museum\\\">McNay Art Museum</a> from 30 September 2015 - 10 January 2016 (respectively), showing works made by Miró between 1963 and 1981, on loan from the <a href=\\\"Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa\\\">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a> in Madrid.\\nMiró has been a significant influence on late 20th-century art, in particular the American <a href=\\\"Abstract%20expressionism\\\">abstract expressionist</a> artists such as <a href=\\\"Robert%20Motherwell\\\">Motherwell</a>, <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Calder\\\">Calder</a>, <a href=\\\"Arshile%20Gorky\\\">Gorky</a>, <a href=\\\"Jackson%20Pollock\\\">Pollock</a>, <a href=\\\"Roberto%20Matta\\\">Matta</a> and <a href=\\\"Mark%20Rothko\\\">Rothko</a>, while his <a href=\\\"lyrical%20abstraction\\\">lyrical abstraction</a>s and <a href=\\\"color%20field\\\">color field</a> paintings were precursors of that style by artists such as <a href=\\\"Helen%20Frankenthaler\\\">Helen Frankenthaler</a>, <a href=\\\"Jules%20Olitski\\\">Olitski</a> and <a href=\\\"Morris%20Louis\\\">Louis</a> and others.\\nHis work has also influenced modern designers, including <a href=\\\"Paul%20Rand\\\">Paul Rand</a> and <a href=\\\"Lucienne%20Day\\\">Lucienne Day</a>, and influenced recent painters such as <a href=\\\"Julian%20Hatton\\\">Julian Hatton</a>.\\nOne of <a href=\\\"Man%20Ray\\\">Man Ray</a>'s 1930s photographs, \\\"Miró with Rope\\\", depicts the painter with an arranged rope pinned to a wall, and was published in the single-issue surrealist work \\\"Minotaure\\\".\\nIn 1954 he was given the <a href=\\\"Venice%20Biennale\\\">Venice Biennale</a> print making prize, in 1958 the Guggenheim International Award,\\nIn 1981, the <a href=\\\"Palma%2C%20Majorca\\\">Palma</a> City Council (<a href=\\\"Majorca\\\">Majorca</a>) established the \\\"Fundació Pilar i Joan Miró a Mallorca\\\", housed in the four studios that Miró had donated for the purpose.\\nToday, Miró's paintings sell for between US$250,000 and US$26 million; US$17 million at a U.S. auction for the \\\"La Caresse des étoiles\\\" (1938) on 6 May 2008, at the time the highest amount paid for one of his works. In 2012, \\\"Painting-Poem (\\\"le corps de ma brune puisque je l'aime comme ma chatte habillée en vert salade comme de la grêle c'est pareil\\\")\\\" (1925) was sold at <a href=\\\"Christie%27s\\\">Christie's</a> London for $26.6 million. Later that year at <a href=\\\"Sotheby%27s\\\">Sotheby's</a> in London, \\\"<a href=\\\"Painting%20%28Blue%20Star%29\\\">Peinture (Etoile Bleue)</a>\\\" (1927) brought nearly 23.6 million pounds with fees, more than twice what it had sold for at a Paris auction in 2007 and a record price for the artist at auction.\\n\",\n \"Julien Levy\\nJulien Levy (1906–1981) was an art dealer and owner of Julien Levy Gallery in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, important as a venue for Surrealists, avante-garde artists and American photographers in the 1930s and 1940s\\nLevy was born in New York. After studying museum administration at Harvard under <a href=\\\"Paul%20J.%20Sachs\\\">Paul J. Sachs</a>, Levy dropped out, traveled to Paris by boat, and befriended <a href=\\\"Man%20Ray\\\">Man Ray</a>, <a href=\\\"Marcel%20Duchamp\\\">Marcel Duchamp</a>, and <a href=\\\"Berenice%20Abbott\\\">Berenice Abbott</a>, through whom he came into possession of a portion of <a href=\\\"Eug%C3%A8ne%20Atget\\\">Eugène Atget</a>'s personal archive. In Paris he also met his future wife, Joella Haweis, daughter of artist and writer <a href=\\\"Mina%20Loy\\\">Mina Loy</a>.\\nBack in New York, Levy worked briefly at the <a href=\\\"Weyhe%20Gallery\\\">Weyhe Gallery</a> before establishing his own New York gallery at 602 Madison Avenue in 1931. Concentrating at first on photography, he staged Man Ray's first major show, introduced <a href=\\\"Henri%20Cartier-Bresson\\\">Henri Cartier-Bresson</a> to the U.S., and promoted many other European and American figures. On January 29, 1932 came the landmark multi-media Surrealist exhibition of the work of <a href=\\\"Pablo%20Picasso\\\">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href=\\\"Max%20Ernst\\\">Max Ernst</a>, <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Cornell\\\">Joseph Cornell</a>, <a href=\\\"Marcel%20Duchamp\\\">Marcel Duchamp</a>, and the introduction of <a href=\\\"Salvador%20Dal%C3%AD\\\">Salvador Dalí</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Persistence%20of%20Memory\\\">The Persistence of Memory</a>\\\" (which Levy owned). He also championed the surrealist work of <a href=\\\"Leon%20Kelly\\\">Leon Kelly</a>.This exhibition marks the first in New York to display the works of members of the official surrealist group.\\nIn 1937 the gallery moved to 15 East 57th Street, where Levy mounted the first solo exhibition of the work of <a href=\\\"Frida%20Kahlo\\\">Frida Kahlo</a>, November 1 to 15, 1938. From 1943 to 1949 the gallery was located at 42 East 57th Street. In 1945 <a href=\\\"Arshile%20Gorky\\\">Arshile Gorky</a> had his first solo show there.\\nAfter closing the gallery, Levy taught at <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Lawrence%20College\\\">Sarah Lawrence College</a> and <a href=\\\"State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20at%20Purchase\\\">State University of New York at Purchase</a>. Levy's books include \\\"Memoir of an Art Gallery \\\"and \\\"Surrealism.\\\"\",\n \"Dizzy Gillespie\\nJohn Birks \\\"Dizzy\\\" Gillespie ( ; October 21, 1917 – January 6, 1993) was an American <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a> trumpeter, bandleader, composer, and singer.\\nGillespie was a trumpet virtuoso and <a href=\\\"improvisation\\\">improviser</a>, building on the virtuoso style of <a href=\\\"Roy%20Eldridge\\\">Roy Eldridge</a> but adding layers of <a href=\\\"harmony\\\">harmonic</a> complexity previously unheard in jazz. His beret and horn-rimmed spectacles, his <a href=\\\"scat%20singing\\\">scat singing</a>, his bent horn, pouched cheeks and his light-hearted personality were essential in popularizing <a href=\\\"bebop\\\">bebop</a>.\\nIn the 1940s Gillespie, with <a href=\\\"Charlie%20Parker\\\">Charlie Parker</a>, became a major figure in the development of bebop and modern <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a>. He taught and influenced many other musicians, including trumpeters <a href=\\\"Miles%20Davis\\\">Miles Davis</a>, <a href=\\\"Jon%20Faddis\\\">Jon Faddis</a>, <a href=\\\"Fats%20Navarro\\\">Fats Navarro</a>, <a href=\\\"Clifford%20Brown\\\">Clifford Brown</a>, <a href=\\\"Arturo%20Sandoval\\\">Arturo Sandoval</a>, <a href=\\\"Lee%20Morgan\\\">Lee Morgan</a>, <a href=\\\"Chuck%20Mangione\\\">Chuck Mangione</a>, balladeer <a href=\\\"Johnny%20Hartman\\\">Johnny Hartman</a>, and one of Gillespie's final pupils before his death, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Stewart%20%28saxophonist%29\\\">Robert Stewart (saxophonist)</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"AllMusic\\\">AllMusic</a>'s <a href=\\\"Scott%20Yanow\\\">Scott Yanow</a> wrote: \\\"Dizzy Gillespie's contributions to jazz were huge. One of the greatest jazz trumpeters of all time, Gillespie was such a complex player that his contemporaries ended up being similar to those of <a href=\\\"Miles%20Davis\\\">Miles Davis</a> and <a href=\\\"Fats%20Navarro\\\">Fats Navarro</a> instead, and it was not until <a href=\\\"Jon%20Faddis\\\">Jon Faddis</a>'s emergence in the 1970s that Dizzy's style was successfully recreated [...] Arguably Gillespie is remembered, by both critics and fans alike, as one of the greatest jazz trumpeters of all time\\\".\\nGillespie was born in <a href=\\\"Cheraw%2C%20South%20Carolina\\\">Cheraw, South Carolina</a>, the youngest of nine children of James and Lottie Gillespie. James was a local bandleader, so instruments were made available to the children. Gillespie started to play the piano at the age of four. Gillespie's father died when he was only ten years old. Gillespie taught himself how to play the trombone as well as the trumpet by the age of twelve. From the night he heard his idol, <a href=\\\"Roy%20Eldridge\\\">Roy Eldridge</a>, play on the radio, he dreamed of becoming a jazz musician. He received a music scholarship to the <a href=\\\"Laurinburg%20Institute\\\">Laurinburg Institute</a> in North Carolina which he attended for two years before accompanying his family when they moved to Philadelphia.\\nGillespie's first professional job was with the <a href=\\\"Frank%20Fairfax\\\">Frank Fairfax</a> Orchestra in 1935, after which he joined the respective orchestras of <a href=\\\"Edgar%20Hayes\\\">Edgar Hayes</a> and <a href=\\\"Teddy%20Hill\\\">Teddy Hill</a>, essentially replacing Roy Eldridge as first trumpet in 1937. Teddy Hill's band was where Gillespie made his first recording, \\\"King Porter Stomp\\\". In August 1937 while gigging with Hayes in Washington D.C., Gillespie met a young dancer named Lorraine Willis who worked a Baltimore–Philadelphia–New York City circuit which included the <a href=\\\"Apollo%20Theater\\\">Apollo Theater</a>. Willis was not immediately friendly but Gillespie was attracted anyway. The two finally married on May 9, 1940. They remained married until his death in 1993.\\nGillespie stayed with Teddy Hill's band for a year, then left and free-lanced with numerous other bands. In 1939, Gillespie joined <a href=\\\"Cab%20Calloway\\\">Cab Calloway</a>'s orchestra, with which he recorded one of his earliest compositions, the instrumental \\\"Pickin' the Cabbage\\\", in 1940. (Originally released on \\\"Paradiddle\\\", a 78rpm backed with a co-composition with <a href=\\\"Cozy%20Cole\\\">Cozy Cole</a>, Calloway's drummer at the time, on the Vocalion label, No. 5467).\\nAfter a notorious altercation between the two men, Calloway fired Gillespie in late 1941. The incident is recounted by Gillespie, along with fellow Calloway band members <a href=\\\"Milt%20Hinton\\\">Milt Hinton</a> and <a href=\\\"Jonah%20Jones\\\">Jonah Jones</a>, in <a href=\\\"Jean%20Bach\\\">Jean Bach</a>'s 1997 film, \\\"The Spitball Story\\\". Calloway did not approve of Gillespie's mischievous humor, nor of his adventuresome approach to soloing; according to Jones, Calloway referred to it as \\\"Chinese music\\\". Finally, their grudge for each other erupted over a thrown <a href=\\\"List%20of%20school%20pranks%23Spitball\\\">spitball</a>. Calloway never thought highly of Gillespie, because he didn't view Gillespie as a good musician. Once during a rehearsal, a member of the band threw a spitball. Already in a foul mood, Calloway decided to blame this on Gillespie. Dizzy didn’t take the blame and the problem quickly escalated into a fist fight, Dizzy stabbed Calloway in leg with knife. Calloway had minor cuts on the thigh and wrist. After the two men were separated, Calloway fired Gillespie. A few days later, Gillespie tried to apologize to Calloway, but he was dismissed.\\nDuring his time in Calloway's band, Gillespie started writing big band music for bandleaders like <a href=\\\"Woody%20Herman\\\">Woody Herman</a> and <a href=\\\"Jimmy%20Dorsey\\\">Jimmy Dorsey</a>. He then freelanced with a few bands – most notably <a href=\\\"Ella%20Fitzgerald\\\">Ella Fitzgerald</a>'s orchestra, composed of members of the <a href=\\\"Chick%20Webb\\\">Chick Webb</a>'s band.\\nGillespie did not serve in <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>. At his <a href=\\\"Selective%20Service\\\">Selective Service</a> interview, he told the local board, \\\"in this stage of my life here in the United States whose foot has been in my ass?\\\" He was thereafter classed as <a href=\\\"4-F%20%28Selective%20Service%20System%29\\\">4-F</a>. In 1943, Gillespie joined the <a href=\\\"Earl%20Hines\\\">Earl Hines</a> band. Composer <a href=\\\"Gunther%20Schuller\\\">Gunther Schuller</a> said:\\\" ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.\\\" Gillespie said of the Hines band, \\\"[p]eople talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit\\\".\\nThen, Gillespie joined the <a href=\\\"big%20band\\\">big band</a> of Hines' long-time collaborator <a href=\\\"Billy%20Eckstine\\\">Billy Eckstine</a>, and it was as a member of Eckstine's band that he was reunited with <a href=\\\"Charlie%20Parker\\\">Charlie Parker</a>, a fellow member. In 1945, Gillespie left Eckstine's band because he wanted to play with a small combo. A \\\"small combo\\\" typically comprised no more than five musicians, playing the trumpet, saxophone, piano, bass and drums.\\nBebop was known as the first modern jazz style. However, it was unpopular in the beginning and was not viewed as positively as swing music was. Bebop was seen as an outgrowth of swing, not a revolution. Swing introduced a diversity of new musicians in the bebop era like <a href=\\\"Charlie%20Parker\\\">Charlie Parker</a>, <a href=\\\"Thelonious%20Monk\\\">Thelonious Monk</a>, <a href=\\\"Bud%20Powell\\\">Bud Powell</a>, <a href=\\\"Kenny%20Clarke\\\">Kenny Clarke</a>, <a href=\\\"Oscar%20Pettiford\\\">Oscar Pettiford</a>, and Gillespie. Through these musicians, a new vocabulary of musical phrases was created. With Parker, Gillespie jammed at famous jazz clubs like <a href=\\\"Minton%27s%20Playhouse\\\">Minton's Playhouse</a> and <a href=\\\"Monroe%27s%20Uptown%20House\\\">Monroe's Uptown House</a>. Parker's system also held methods of adding chords to existing chord progressions and implying additional chords within the improvised lines.\\nGillespie compositions like \\\"<a href=\\\"Groovin%27%20High\\\">Groovin' High</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Woody%20N%27%20You\\\">Woody 'n' You</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Salt%20Peanuts\\\">Salt Peanuts</a>\\\" sounded radically different, harmonically and rhythmically, from the <a href=\\\"swing%20%28genre%29\\\">swing</a> music popular at the time. \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Night%20in%20Tunisia\\\">A Night in Tunisia</a>\\\", written in 1942, while Gillespie was playing with Earl Hines' band, is noted for having a feature that is common in today's music, a non-<a href=\\\"Bassline%23Walking%20bass\\\">walking bass</a>line. The song also displays Afro-Cuban rhythms. One of their first small-group performances together was only issued in 2005: a concert in New York's Town Hall on June 22, 1945. Gillespie taught many of the young musicians on <a href=\\\"52nd%20Street\\\">52nd Street</a>, including <a href=\\\"Miles%20Davis\\\">Miles Davis</a> and <a href=\\\"Max%20Roach\\\">Max Roach</a>, about the new style of jazz. After a lengthy <a href=\\\"gig%20%28musical%20performance%29\\\">gig</a> at <a href=\\\"Billy%20Berg%27s\\\">Billy Berg's</a> club in Los Angeles, which left most of the audience ambivalent or hostile towards the new music, the band broke up. Unlike Parker, who was content to play in small groups and be an occasional featured soloist in big bands, Gillespie aimed to lead a big band himself; his first, unsuccessful, attempt to do this was in 1945.\\nAfter his work with Parker, Gillespie led other small combos (including ones with <a href=\\\"Milt%20Jackson\\\">Milt Jackson</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Coltrane\\\">John Coltrane</a>, <a href=\\\"Lalo%20Schifrin\\\">Lalo Schifrin</a>, <a href=\\\"Ray%20Brown%20%28musician%29\\\">Ray Brown</a>, <a href=\\\"Kenny%20Clarke\\\">Kenny Clarke</a>, <a href=\\\"James%20Moody%20%28saxophonist%29\\\">James Moody</a>, <a href=\\\"J.J.%20Johnson\\\">J.J. Johnson</a>, and <a href=\\\"Yusef%20Lateef\\\">Yusef Lateef</a>) and finally put together his first successful big band. Gillespie and his band tried to popularize bop and make Gillespie a symbol of the new music. He appeared frequently as a soloist with <a href=\\\"Norman%20Granz\\\">Norman Granz</a>'s <a href=\\\"Jazz%20at%20the%20Philharmonic\\\">Jazz at the Philharmonic</a>. He also headlined the 1946 independently produced musical revue film \\\"<a href=\\\"Jivin%27%20in%20Be-Bop\\\">Jivin' in Be-Bop</a>\\\".\\nIn 1948, Gillespie was involved in a traffic accident when the bicycle he was riding was bumped by an automobile. He was slightly injured, and found that he could no longer hit the B-flat above high C. He won the case, but the jury awarded him only $1000, in view of his high earnings up to that point.\\nOn January 6, 1953, he threw a party for his wife Lorraine at Snookie's, a club in Manhattan, where his trumpet's bell got bent upward in an accident, but he liked the sound so much he had a special trumpet made with a 45 degree raised bell, becoming his trademark.\\nIn 1956 Gillespie organized a band to go on a State Department tour of the Middle East which was extremely well received internationally and earned him the nickname \\\"the Ambassador of Jazz\\\". During this time, he also continued to lead a big band that performed throughout the United States and featured musicians including <a href=\\\"Pee%20Wee%20Moore\\\">Pee Wee Moore</a> and others. This band recorded <a href=\\\"Dizzy%20Gillespie%20at%20Newport\\\">a live album</a> at the 1957 Newport jazz festival that featured <a href=\\\"Mary%20Lou%20Williams\\\">Mary Lou Williams</a> as a guest artist on piano.\\nIn the late 1940s, Gillespie was also involved in the movement called <a href=\\\"Afro-Cuban%20music\\\">Afro-Cuban music</a>, bringing <a href=\\\"Afro-Latin%20American\\\">Afro-Latin American</a> music and elements to greater prominence in jazz and even pop music, particularly <a href=\\\"salsa%20music\\\">salsa</a>. <a href=\\\"Afro-Cuban%20jazz\\\">Afro-Cuban jazz</a> is based on traditional Afro-Cuban rhythms. Gillespie was introduced to <a href=\\\"Chano%20Pozo\\\">Chano Pozo</a> in 1947 by <a href=\\\"Mario%20Bauza\\\">Mario Bauza</a>, a Latin jazz trumpet player. Chano Pozo became Gillespie's conga drummer for his band. Gillespie also worked with Mario Bauza in New York jazz clubs on 52nd Street and several famous dance clubs such as Palladium and the Apollo Theater in Harlem. They played together in the Chick Webb band and Cab Calloway's band, where Gillespie and Bauza became lifelong friends. Gillespie helped develop and mature the Afro-Cuban jazz style.\\nAfro-Cuban jazz was considered bebop-oriented, and some musicians classified it as a modern style. Afro-Cuban jazz was successful because it never decreased in popularity and it always attracted people to dance to its unique rhythms. Gillespie's most famous contributions to Afro-Cuban music are the compositions <a href=\\\"Manteca%20%28song%29\\\">\\\"Manteca\\\"</a> and \\\"Tin Tin Deo\\\" (both co-written with Chano Pozo); he was responsible for commissioning <a href=\\\"George%20Russell%20%28composer%29\\\">George Russell's</a> \\\"Cubano Be, Cubano Bop\\\", which featured Pozo. In 1977, Gillespie discovered <a href=\\\"Arturo%20Sandoval\\\">Arturo Sandoval</a> while researching music during a tour of Cuba.\\nHis biographer Alyn Shipton quotes Don Waterhouse approvingly that Gillespie in the fifties \\\"had begun to mellow into an amalgam of his entire jazz experience to form the basis of new classicism\\\". Another opinion is that, unlike his contemporary Miles Davis, Gillespie essentially remained true to the bebop style for the rest of his career.\\nIn 1960, he was inducted into \\\"<a href=\\\"Down%20Beat\\\">Down Beat</a>\\\" magazine's Jazz Hall of Fame.\\nDuring the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201964\\\">1964 United States presidential campaign</a> the artist, with tongue in cheek, put himself forward as an independent <a href=\\\"write-in%20candidate\\\">write-in candidate</a>. He promised that if he were elected, the <a href=\\\"White%20House\\\">White House</a> would be renamed the Blues House, and he would have a cabinet composed of <a href=\\\"Duke%20Ellington\\\">Duke Ellington</a> (Secretary of State), <a href=\\\"Miles%20Davis\\\">Miles Davis</a> (Director of the CIA), <a href=\\\"Max%20Roach\\\">Max Roach</a> (Secretary of Defense), <a href=\\\"Charles%20Mingus\\\">Charles Mingus</a> (Secretary of Peace), <a href=\\\"Ray%20Charles\\\">Ray Charles</a> (Librarian of Congress), <a href=\\\"Louis%20Armstrong\\\">Louis Armstrong</a> (Secretary of Agriculture), <a href=\\\"Mary%20Lou%20Williams\\\">Mary Lou Williams</a> (Ambassador to the Vatican), <a href=\\\"Thelonious%20Monk\\\">Thelonious Monk</a> (Travelling Ambassador) and <a href=\\\"Malcolm%20X\\\">Malcolm X</a> (Attorney General). He said his running mate would be <a href=\\\"Phyllis%20Diller\\\">Phyllis Diller</a>. Campaign buttons had been manufactured years before by Gillespie's booking agency \\\"for publicity, as a gag\\\", but now proceeds from them went to benefit the <a href=\\\"Congress%20of%20Racial%20Equality\\\">Congress of Racial Equality</a>, <a href=\\\"Southern%20Christian%20Leadership%20Conference\\\">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> and <a href=\\\"Martin%20Luther%20King%2C%20Jr.\\\">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a>; in later years they became a collector's item.\\nIn 1971, Gillespie announced he would run again but withdrew before the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201972\\\">election</a> for reasons connected to the <a href=\\\"Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%20Faith\\\">Bahá'í Faith</a>.\\nDizzy Gillespie, a Bahá'í since 1968, was one of the most famous adherents of the <a href=\\\"Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%20Faith\\\">Bahá'í Faith</a>. It brought him to see himself as one of a series of musical messengers, part of a succession of trumpeters somewhat analogous to the series of prophets who bring God's message in religion. The universalist emphasis of his religion prodded him to see himself more as a global citizen and humanitarian, expanding on his already-growing interest in his African heritage. His increasing spirituality brought out a generosity in him, and what author <a href=\\\"Nat%20Hentoff\\\">Nat Hentoff</a> called an inner strength, discipline and \\\"soul force\\\". Gillespie's conversion was most affected by <a href=\\\"William%20Sears%20%28Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%29\\\">Bill Sears'</a> book \\\"Thief in the Night\\\". Gillespie spoke about the Bahá'í Faith frequently on his trips abroad. He is honored with weekly jazz sessions at the New York Bahá'í Center in the memorial auditorium.\\nGillespie published his autobiography, \\\"<a href=\\\"To%20Be%20or%20Not%20to%20Bop\\\">To Be or Not to Bop</a>\\\", in 1979.\\nGillespie was a vocal fixture in many of <a href=\\\"John%20Hubley\\\">John Hubley</a> and <a href=\\\"Faith%20Hubley\\\">Faith Hubley</a>'s animated films, such as \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hole%20%281962%20film%29\\\">The Hole</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hat%20%281963%20film%29\\\">The Hat</a>\\\", and \\\"Voyage to Next\\\".\\nIn the 1980s, Gillespie led the United Nation Orchestra. For three years <a href=\\\"Flora%20Purim\\\">Flora Purim</a> toured with the Orchestra and she credits Gillespie with evolving her understanding of jazz after being in the field for over two decades. <a href=\\\"David%20S%C3%A1nchez%20%28musician%29\\\">David Sánchez</a> also toured with the group and was also greatly influenced by Gillespie. Both artists later were nominated for Grammy awards. Gillespie also had a guest appearance on \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Cosby%20Show\\\">The Cosby Show</a>\\\" as well as \\\"<a href=\\\"Sesame%20Street\\\">Sesame Street</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Muppet%20Show\\\">The Muppet Show</a>\\\".\\nIn 1982, Gillespie had a <a href=\\\"cameo%20appearance\\\">cameo appearance</a> on <a href=\\\"Stevie%20Wonder\\\">Stevie Wonder</a>'s hit \\\"<a href=\\\"Do%20I%20Do\\\">Do I Do</a>\\\". Gillespie's tone gradually faded in the last years in life, and his performances often focused more on his proteges such as <a href=\\\"Arturo%20Sandoval\\\">Arturo Sandoval</a> and <a href=\\\"Jon%20Faddis\\\">Jon Faddis</a>; his good-humored comedic routines became more and more a part of his live act.\\nIn 1988, Gillespie had worked with Canadian flautist and saxophonist <a href=\\\"Moe%20Koffman\\\">Moe Koffman</a> on their prestigious album \\\"Oo Pop a Da.\\\" He did fast scat vocals on the title track and a couple of the other tracks were played only on trumpet.\\nIn 1989 Gillespie gave 300 performances in 27 countries, appeared in 100 U.S. cities in 31 states and the District of Columbia, headlined three television specials, performed with two symphonies, and recorded four albums. He was also crowned a traditional chief in Nigeria, received the <a href=\\\"Ordre%20des%20Arts%20et%20des%20Lettres\\\">Ordre des Arts et des Lettres</a>; France's most prestigious cultural award. He was named Regent Professor by the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California\\\">University of California</a>, and received his fourteenth <a href=\\\"Honorary%20degree\\\">honorary doctoral degree</a>, this one from the <a href=\\\"Berklee%20College%20of%20Music\\\">Berklee College of Music</a>.\\nIn addition, he was awarded the <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Lifetime%20Achievement%20Award\\\">Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award</a> the same year. The next year, at the <a href=\\\"Kennedy%20Center%20for%20the%20Performing%20Arts\\\">Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts</a> ceremonies celebrating the centennial of American jazz, Gillespie received the <a href=\\\"Kennedy%20Center%20Honors\\\">Kennedy Center Honors</a> Award and the <a href=\\\"American%20Society%20of%20Composers%2C%20Authors%2C%20and%20Publishers\\\">American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers</a> \\\"Duke Ellington Award\\\" for 50 years of achievement as a composer, performer, and bandleader. In 1993 he received the <a href=\\\"Polar%20Music%20Prize\\\">Polar Music Prize</a> in Sweden.\\nIn 1991, Bay Area rising star <a href=\\\"Robert%20Stewart%20%28saxophonist%29\\\">Robert Stewart (saxophonist)</a> performed for Dizzy at an award ceremony in his honor. Gillespie then asked Stewart to perform with his band a few months later.\\nOn November 26, 1992, <a href=\\\"Carnegie%20Hall\\\">Carnegie Hall</a>, following the Second <a href=\\\"Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD%20World%20Congress\\\">Bahá'í World Congress</a>, celebrated Gillespie's 75th birthday concert and his offering to the celebration of the centenary of the passing of <a href=\\\"Bah%C3%A1%27u%27ll%C3%A1h\\\">Bahá'u'lláh</a>. Gillespie was to appear at Carnegie Hall for the 33rd time. The line-up included: <a href=\\\"Jon%20Faddis\\\">Jon Faddis</a>, <a href=\\\"James%20Moody%20%28Saxophonist%29\\\">James Moody</a>, <a href=\\\"Paquito%20D%27Rivera\\\">Paquito D'Rivera</a>, and <a href=\\\"Mike%20Longo\\\">the Mike Longo Trio</a> with Ben Brown on bass and <a href=\\\"Mickey%20Roker\\\">Mickey Roker</a> on drums. But Gillespie didn't make it because he was in bed suffering from <a href=\\\"pancreatic%20cancer\\\">pancreatic cancer</a>. \\\"But the musicians played their real hearts out for him, no doubt suspecting that he would not play again. Each musician gave tribute to their friend, this great soul and innovator in the world of jazz.\\\" In 2002, Gillespie was posthumously inducted into the <a href=\\\"International%20Latin%20Music%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">International Latin Music Hall of Fame</a> for his contributions to Afro-Cuban music.\\nGillespie also starred in a film called \\\"The Winter in Lisbon\\\" released in 2004. He has a star on the <a href=\\\"Hollywood%20Walk%20of%20Fame\\\">Hollywood Walk of Fame</a> at 7057 <a href=\\\"Hollywood%20Boulevard\\\">Hollywood Boulevard</a>.\\nHe was honored on December 31, 2006 in A Jazz New Year's Eve: Freddy Cole & the Dizzy Gillespie All-Star Big Band at The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.\\nA longtime resident of <a href=\\\"Englewood%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Englewood</a>, New Jersey he died of <a href=\\\"pancreatic%20cancer\\\">pancreatic cancer</a> on January 6, 1993, aged 75, and was buried in the <a href=\\\"Flushing%20Cemetery\\\">Flushing Cemetery</a>, <a href=\\\"Queens\\\">Queens</a>, New York City. <a href=\\\"Mike%20Longo\\\">Mike Longo</a> delivered a eulogy at his funeral. He was also with Gillespie on the night he died, along with Jon Faddis and a select few others.\\nGillespie was survived by his widow, Lorraine Willis Gillespie (died 2004); a daughter, jazz singer <a href=\\\"Jeanie%20Bryson\\\">Jeanie Bryson</a>; and a grandson, Radji Birks Bryson-Barrett. Gillespie had two funerals. One was a Bahá'í funeral at his request, at which his closest friends and colleagues attended. The second was at the <a href=\\\"Cathedral%20of%20Saint%20John%20the%20Divine\\\">Cathedral of Saint John the Divine</a> in New York City open to the public.\\n<a href=\\\"Dwight%20Morrow%20High%20School\\\">Dwight Morrow High School</a>, the public high school of Englewood, New Jersey, renamed their auditorium the Dizzy Gillespie Auditorium, in memory of him.\\nIn 2014, Gillespie was inducted into the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">New Jersey Hall of Fame</a>.\\nGillespie has been described as the \\\"Sound of Surprise\\\". \\\"The Rough Guide to Jazz\\\" describes his musical style:\\nThe whole essence of a Gillespie solo was cliff-hanging suspense: the phrases and the angle of the approach were perpetually varied, breakneck runs were followed by pauses, by huge interval leaps, by long, immensely high notes, by slurs and smears and bluesy phrases; he always took listeners by surprise, always shocking them with a new thought. His lightning reflexes and superb ear meant his instrumental execution matched his thoughts in its power and speed. And he was concerned at all times with swing—even taking the most daring liberties with pulse or beat, his phrases never failed to swing. Gillespies’s magnificent sense of time and emotional intensity of his playing came from childhood roots. His parents were Methodists, but as a boy he used to sneak off every Sunday to the uninhibited Sanctified Church. He said later, \\\"The Sanctified Church had deep significance for me musically. I first learned the significance of rhythm there and all about how music can transport people spiritually.\\\"\\nIn Gillespie's obituary, Peter Watrous describes his performance style:\\nIn the naturally effervescent Mr. Gillespie, opposites existed. His playing—and he performed constantly until nearly the end of his life—was meteoric, full of virtuosic invention and deadly serious. But with his endlessly funny asides, his huge variety of facial expressions and his natural comic gifts, he was as much a pure entertainer as an accomplished artist.\\n<a href=\\\"Wynton%20Marsalis\\\">Wynton Marsalis</a> summed up Gillespie as a player and teacher:\\nHis playing showcases the importance of intelligence. His rhythmic sophistication was unequaled. He was a master of harmony—and fascinated with studying it. He took in all the music of his youth—from Roy Eldridge to Duke Ellington—and developed a unique style built on complex rhythm and harmony balanced by wit. Gillespie was so quick-minded, he could create an endless flow of ideas at unusually fast tempo. Nobody had ever even considered playing a trumpet that way, let alone had actually tried. All the musicians respected him because, in addition to outplaying everyone, he knew so much and was so generous with that knowledge...\\nGillespie's trademark trumpet featured a bell which bent upward at a 45-degree angle rather than pointing straight ahead as in the conventional design. According to Gillespie's autobiography, this was originally the result of accidental damage caused by the dancers <a href=\\\"Stump%20and%20Stumpy\\\">Stump and Stumpy</a> falling onto the instrument while it was on a trumpet stand on stage at Snookie's in Manhattan on January 6, 1953, during a birthday party for Gillespie's wife Lorraine. The constriction caused by the bending altered the tone of the instrument, and Gillespie liked the effect. He had the trumpet straightened out the next day, but he could not forget the tone. Gillespie sent a request to <a href=\\\"Martin%20Band%20Instrument%20Company\\\">Martin</a> to make him a \\\"bent\\\" trumpet from a sketch produced by Lorraine, and from that time forward played a trumpet with an upturned bell.\\nGillespie's biographer Alyn Shipton writes that Gillespie probably got the idea for a bent trumpet when he saw a similar instrument in 1937 in Manchester, England, while on tour with the <a href=\\\"Teddy%20Hill\\\">Teddy Hill</a> Orchestra. According to this account (from British journalist Pat Brand) Gillespie was able to try out the horn and the experience led him, much later, to commission a similar horn for himself.\\nWhatever the origins of Gillespie's upswept trumpet, by June 1954 he was using a professionally manufactured horn of this design, and it was to become a visual trademark for him for the rest of his life. Such trumpets were made for him by Martin (from 1954), <a href=\\\"King%20Musical%20Instruments\\\">King Musical Instruments</a> (from 1972) and <a href=\\\"Renold%20Schilke\\\">Renold Schilke</a> (from 1982, a gift from <a href=\\\"Jon%20Faddis\\\">Jon Faddis</a>). Gillespie favored mouthpieces made by <a href=\\\"Al%20Cass\\\">Al Cass</a>. In December 1986 Gillespie gave the <a href=\\\"National%20Museum%20of%20American%20History\\\">National Museum of American History</a> his 1972 King \\\"Silver Flair\\\" trumpet with a Cass mouthpiece. In April 1995, Gillespie's Martin trumpet was auctioned at <a href=\\\"Christie%27s\\\">Christie's</a> in New York City, along with instruments used by other famous musicians such as <a href=\\\"Coleman%20Hawkins\\\">Coleman Hawkins</a>, <a href=\\\"Jimi%20Hendrix\\\">Jimi Hendrix</a> and <a href=\\\"Elvis%20Presley\\\">Elvis Presley</a>. An image of Gillespie's trumpet was selected for the cover of the auction program. The battered instrument was sold to Manhattan builder Jeffery Brown for $63,000, the proceeds benefiting jazz musicians suffering from cancer.\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The National Gallery of Victoria, popularly known as the NGV, is an art museum in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1861, it is Australia's oldest, largest and most visited art museum.","Ivan Durrant is an Australian painter, performance artist and writer. Known for creating art with \"great shock value\", such as the 1975 \"Slaughtered Cow Happening\" outside the National Gallery of Victoria, Durrant is often described as the \"enfant terrible\" of Australian art. The larger proportion of Durrant's work consists of paintings using a self-developed style of \"Super-Realism\"."],"string":"[\n \"The National Gallery of Victoria, popularly known as the NGV, is an art museum in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1861, it is Australia's oldest, largest and most visited art museum.\",\n \"Ivan Durrant is an Australian painter, performance artist and writer. Known for creating art with \\\"great shock value\\\", such as the 1975 \\\"Slaughtered Cow Happening\\\" outside the National Gallery of Victoria, Durrant is often described as the \\\"enfant terrible\\\" of Australian art. The larger proportion of Durrant's work consists of paintings using a self-developed style of \\\"Super-Realism\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":64,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What are people lacking when they have a condition called Alexithymia, which leads to unempathic and ineffective emotional responses?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Empathy"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Amygdala hijack\nAmygdala hijack is a term coined by Daniel Goleman in his 1996 book \"Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ\". Drawing on the work of Joseph E. LeDoux, Goleman uses the term to describe emotional responses from people which are immediate and overwhelming, and out of measure with the actual stimulus because it has triggered a much more significant emotional threat.\nPart of the thalamus's stimuli goes directly to the amygdala, while other parts are sent to the neocortex or \"thinking brain\". If the amygdala perceives a match to the stimulus, i.e., if the record of experiences in the hippocampus tells the amygdala that it is a fight, flight or freeze situation, then the amygdala triggers the HPA (hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal) axis and hijacks the rational brain. This emotional brain activity processes information milliseconds earlier than the rational brain, so in case of a match, the amygdala acts before any possible direction from the neocortex can be received. If, however, the amygdala does not find any match to the stimulus received with its recorded threatening situations, then it acts according to the directions received from the neocortex. When the amygdala perceives a threat, it can lead that person to react irrationally and destructively.\nGoleman states that emotions \"make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?\" The emotional response \"can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened.\"\nAn amygdala hijack exhibits three signs: strong emotional reaction, sudden onset, and post-episode realization if the reaction was inappropriate.\nGoleman later emphasised that \"self-control is crucial...when facing someone who is in the throes of an amygdala hijack\" so as to avoid a complementary hijacking—whether in work situations, or in private life. Thus for example 'one key marital competence is for partners to learn to soothe their own distressed feelings...nothing gets resolved positively when husband or wife is in the midst of an emotional hijacking.' The danger is that \"when our partner becomes, in effect, our enemy, we are in the grip of an 'amygdala hijack' in which our emotional memory, lodged in the limbic center of our brain, rules our reactions without the benefit of logic or reason...which causes our bodies to go into a 'fight or flight' response.\"\nGoleman points out that \"'not all limbic hijackings are distressing. When a joke strikes someone as so uproarious that their laughter is almost explosive, that, too, is a limbic response. It is at work also in moments of intense joy.\"\nHe also cites the case of a man strolling by a canal when he saw a girl staring petrified at the water. \"[B]efore he knew quite why, he had jumped into the water—in his coat and tie. Only once he was in the water did he realize that the girl was staring in shock at a toddler who had fallen in—whom he was able to rescue.\"\nLeDoux was positive about the possibility of learning to control the amygdala's hair-trigger role in emotional outbursts. \"Once your emotional system learns something, it seems you never let it go. What therapy does is teach you how to control it—it teaches your neocortex how to inhibit your amygdala. The propensity to act is suppressed, while your basic emotion about it remains in a subdued form.\"","Unipolar emotions\nUnipolar emotions refer to emotional responses to things that are either entirely positive or entirely negative. These emotional reactions become distinguished over time, causing the good things (like the \"good old times\") to be remembered better than they were, and the bad things recalled even worse than they might have been.","Art and emotion\nIn psychology of art, the relationship between art and emotion has newly been the subject of extensive study thanks to the intervention of esteemed art historian Alexander Nemerov. Emotional or aesthetic responses to art have previously been viewed as basic stimulus response, but new theories and research have suggested that these experiences are more complex and able to be studied experimentally. Emotional responses are often regarded as the keystone to experiencing art, and the creation of an emotional experience has been argued as the purpose of artistic expression. Research has shown that the neurological underpinnings of perceiving art differ from those used in standard object recognition. Instead, brain regions involved in the experience of emotion and goal setting show activation when viewing art.\nEvolutionary ancestry has hard-wired humans to have affective responses for certain patterns and traits. These predispositions lend themselves to responses when looking at certain visual arts as well. Identification of subject matter is the first step in understanding the visual image. Being presented with visual stimuli creates initial confusion. Being able to comprehend a figure and background creates closure and triggers the pleasure centers of the brain by remedying the confusion. Once an image is identified, meaning can be created by accessing memory relative to the visual stimuli and associating personal memories with what is being viewed.\nOther methods of stimulating initial interest that can lead to emotion involves pattern recognition. Symmetry is often found in works of art, and the human brain unconsciously searches for symmetry for a number of reasons. Potential predators were bilaterally symmetrical, as were potential prey. Bilateral symmetry also exists in humans, and a healthy human is typically symmetrical. This attraction to symmetry was therefore advantageous, as it helped humans recognize danger, food, and mates. Art containing symmetry therefore is typically approached and positively valenced to humans.\nAnother example is to observe paintings or photographs of bright, open landscapes that often evoke a feeling of beauty, relaxation, or happiness. This connection to pleasant emotions exists because it was advantageous to humans before today's society to be able to see far into the distance in a brightly lit vista. Similarly, visual images that are dark and/or obscure typically elicit emotions of anxiety and fear. This is because an impeded visual field is disadvantageous for a human to be able to defend itself.\nThe optimal visual artwork creates what Noy & Noy-Sharav call \"meta-emotions.\" These are multiple emotions that are triggered at the same time. They posit that what people see when immediately looking at a piece of artwork are the formal, technical qualities of the work and its complexity. Works that are well-made but lacking in appropriate complexity, or works that are intricate but missing in technical skill will not produce \"meta-emotions.\" For example, seeing a perfectly painted chair (technical quality but no complexity) or a sloppily drawn image of Christ on the cross (complex but no skill) would be unlikely to stimulate deep emotional responses. However, beautifully painted works of Christ's crucifixion are likely make people who can relate or who understand the story behind it weep.\nNoy & Noy-Sharav also claim that art is the most potent form of emotional communication. They cite examples of people being able to listen to and dance to music for hours without getting tired and literature being able to take people to far away, imagined lands inside their heads. Art forms give humans a higher satisfaction in emotional release than simply managing emotions on their own. Art allows people to have a cathartic release of pent-up emotions either by creating work or by witnessing and pseudo-experiencing what they see in front of them. Instead of being passive recipients of actions and images, art is intended for people to challenge themselves and work through the emotions they see presented in the artistic message ./..\nThere is debate among researchers as to what types of emotions works of art can elicit; whether these are defined emotions such as anger, confusion or happiness, or a general feeling of aesthetic appreciation. The aesthetic experience seems to be determined by liking or disliking a work of art, placed along a continuum of pleasure–displeasure. However, other diverse emotions can still be felt in response to art, which can be sorted into three categories: Knowledge Emotions, Hostile Emotions, and Self-Conscious Emotions.\nPleasure elicited by works of art can also have multiple sources. A number of theories suggest that enjoyment of a work of art is dependent on its comprehensibility or ability to be understood easily. Therefore, when more information about a work of art is provided, such as a title, description, or artist's statement, researchers predict that viewers will understand the piece better, and demonstrate greater liking for it. Experimental evidence shows that the presence of a title for a work increases perceived understanding, regardless of whether that title is elaborative or descriptive. Elaborative titles did affect aesthetic responses to the work, suggesting viewers were not creating alternative explanations for the works if an explaining title is given. Descriptive or random titles do not show any of these effects.\nFurthering the thought that pleasure in art derives from its comprehensibility and processing fluency, some authors have described this experience as an emotion. The emotional feeling of beauty, or an aesthetic experience, does not have a valence emotional undercurrent, rather is general cognitive arousal due to the fluent processing of a novel stimuli. Some authors believe that aesthetic emotions is enough of a unique and verifiable experience that it should be included in general theories of emotion.\nKnowledge emotions deal with reactions to thinking and feeling, such as interest, confusion, and surprise. They often stem from self-analysis of what the viewer knows, expects, and perceives. This set of emotions also spur actions that motivate further learning and thinking.\nInterest in a work of art arises from perceiving the work as new, complex, and unfamiliar, as well as understandable. This dimension is studied most often by aesthetics researchers, and can be equated with aesthetic pleasure or an aesthetic experience. This stage of art experience usually occurs as the viewer understands the artwork they are viewing, and the art fits into their knowledge and expectations while providing a new experience.\nConfusion can be viewed as an opposite to interest, and serves as a signal to the self to inform the viewer that they cannot comprehend what they are looking at, and confusion often necessitates a shift in action to remedy the lack of understanding. Confusion is thought to stem from uncertainty, and a lack of one's expectations and knowledge being met by a work of art.\nConfusion is most often experienced by art novices, and therefore must often be dealt with by those in arts education.\nSurprise functions as a disruption of current action to alert a viewer to a significant event. The emotion is centered around the experience of something new and unexpected, and can be ellicied by sensory incongruity. Art can ellicit surprise when expectations about the work are not met, but the work changes those expectations in an understandable way.\nHostile emotions toward art are often very visible in the form of anger or frustration, and can result in censorship, but are less easily described by a continuum of aesthetic pleasure-displeasure. These reactions center around the hostility triad: anger, disgust, and contempt. These emotions often motivate aggression, self-assertion, and violence, and arise from perception of the artist's deliberate trespass onto the expectations of the viewer.\nSelf-conscious emotions are responses that reflect upon the self and one's actions, such as pride, guilt, shame, regret and embarrassment. These are much more complex emotions, and involve assessing events as agreeing with one's self-perception or not, and adjusting one's behavior accordingly. There are numerous instances of artists expressing self-conscious emotions in response to their art, and self-conscious emotions can also be felt collectively.\nResearchers have investigated the experience of the sublime, viewed as similar to aesthetic appreciation, which causes general psychological arousal. The sublime feeling has been connected to a feeling of happiness in response to art, but may be more related to an experience of fear. Researchers have shown that feelings of fear induced before looking at artwork results in more sublime feelings in response to those works.\nAnother common emotional response is that of chills when viewing a work of art. The feeling is predicted to be related to similar aesthetic experiences such as awe, feeling touched, or absorption. Personality traits along the Big 5 Inventory have been shown to be predictors of a persons experience of aesthetic chills, especially a high rating on Openness to Experience. This counters the effect of fluid intelligence, where those with higher amounts of fluid intelligence are less likely to experience chills. Experience with the arts also predicts someone's experience of aesthetic chills, but this may be due to them experiencing art more frequently.\nThe fact that art is analyzed and experienced differently by those with artistic training and expertise than those who are artistically naive has been shown numerous times. Researchers have tried to understand how experts interact with art so differently from the art naive, as experts tend to like more abstract compositions, and show a greater liking for both modern and classical types of art. Experts also exhibit more arousal when looking at modern and abstract works, while non-experts show more arousal to classical works.\nOther researchers predicted that experts find more complex art interesting because they have changed their appraisals of art to create more interest, or are possibly making completely different types of appraisals than novices. Experts described works rated high in complexity as easier to understand and more interesting than did novices, possibly as experts tend to use more idiosyncratic criteria when judging artworks. However, experts seem to use the same appraisals of emotions that novices do, but these appraisals are at a higher level, because a wider range of art is comprehensible to experts.\nDue to most art being in museums and galleries, most people have to make deliberate choices to interact with art. Researchers are interested in what types of experiences and emotions people are looking for when going to experience art in a museum. Most people respond that they visit museums to experience 'the pleasure of art' or 'the desire for cultural learning', but when broken down, visitors of museums of classical art are more motivated to see famous works and learn more about them. Visitors in contemporary art museums were more motivated by a more emotional connection to the art, and went more for the pleasure than a learning experience. Predictors of who would prefer to go to which type of museum lay in education level, art fluency, an socio-economic status.\nResearchers have offered a number of theories to describe emotional responses to art, often aligning with the various theories of the basis of emotions. Authors have argued that the emotional experience is created explicitly by the artist and mimicked in the viewer, or that the emotional experience of art is a by-product of the analysis of that work.\nThe appraisal theory of emotions centers on the assumption that it is the evaluation of events, and not the events themselves, that cause emotional experiences. Emotions are then created by different groups of appraisal structures that events are analyzed through. When applied to art, appraisal theories argue that various artistic structures, such as complexity, prototypically, and understanding are used as appraisal structures, and works that show more typical art principles will create a stronger aesthetic experience . Appraisal theories suggest that art is experienced as interesting after being analyzed through a novelty check and coping-potential check, which analyze the art's newness of experience for the viewer, and the viewer's ability to understand the new experience. Experimental evidence suggests that art is preferred when the viewer finds it easier to understand, and that interest in a work is predictable with knowledge of the viewer's ability to process complex visual works, which supports the appraisal theory. People with higher levels of artistic expertise and knowledge often prefer more complex works of art. Under appraisal theory, experts have a different emotional experience to art due to a preference for more complex works that they can understand better than a naive viewer.\nA newer take on this theory focuses on the consequences of the emotions elicited from art, both positive and negative. The original theory argues that positive emotions are the result of a biobehavioral reward system, where a person feels a positive emotion when they have completed a personal goal. These emotional rewards create actions by motivating approach or withdrawal from a stimuli, depending if the object is positive or negative to the person. However, these theories have not often focused on negative emotions, especially negative emotional experiences from art. These emotions are central to experimental aesthetics research in order to understand why people have negative, rejecting, condemning, or censoring reactions to works of art. By showing research participants controversial photographs, rating their feelings of anger, and measuring their subsequent actions, researchers found that the participants that felt hostile toward the photographs displayed more rejection of the works. This suggests that negative emotions towards a work of art can create a negative action toward it, and suggests the need for further research on negative reactions towards art.\nOther psychologists believe that emotions are of minimal functionality, and are used to move a person towards incentives and away from threats. Therefore, positive emotions are felt upon the attainment of a goal, and negative emotions when a goal has failed to be achieved. The basic states of pleasure or pain can be adapted to aesthetic experiences by a disinterested buffer, where the experience is not explicitly related to the goal-reaching of the person, but a similar experience can be analyzed from a disinterested distance. These emotions are disinterested because the work of art or artist's goals are not affecting the person's well being, but the viewer can feel whether or not those goals were achieved from a third-party distance.\nOther theorists have focused their models on the disrupting and unique experience that comes from the interacting with a powerful work of art. An early model focused on a two-part experience: facile recognition and meta-cognitive perception, or the experience of the work of art and the mind's analysis of that experience. A further cognitive model strengthens this idea into a five-part emotional experience of a work of art. As this five-part model is new, it remains only a theory, as not much empirical evidence for the model had been researched yet.\nThe first stage of this model focuses on the viewer's expectations of the work before seeing it, based on their previous experiences, their observational strategies, and the relation of the work to themselves. Viewers who tend to appreciate art, or know more about it will have different expectations at this stage than those who are not engaged by art.\nAfter viewing the work of art, people will make an initial judgment and classification of the work, often based on their preconceptions of the work. After initial classification, viewers attempt to understand the motive and meaning of the work, which can then inform their perception of the work, creating a cycle of changing perception and the attempt to understand it. It is at this point any discrepancies between expectations and the work, or the work and understanding arise.\nWhen an individual finds a discrepancy in their understanding that cannot be resolved or ignored, they move to the third stage of their interaction with a work of art. At this point, interaction with the work has switched from lower-order and unconscious processes to higher-order cognitive involvement, and tension and frustration starts to be felt. In order to maintain their self-assumptions and to resolve the work, an individual will try to change their environment in order for the issue to be resolved or ignored. This can be done by re-classifying the work and its motives, blaming the discrepancy on an external source, or attempting to escape the situation or mentally withdraw from the work.\nIf viewers cannot escape or reassess the work, they are forced to reassess the self and their interactions with works of art. This experience of self-awareness through a work of art is often externally caused, rather than internally motivated, and starts a transformative process to understand the meaning of the discrepant work, and edit their own self-image.\nAfter the self-transformation and change in expectations, the viewer resets their interaction with the work, and begins the process anew with deeper self-understanding and cognitive mastery of the artwork.\nIn order to research emotional responses to art, researchers often rely on behavioral data. But new psychophysilogical methods of measuring emotional response are beginning to be used, such as the measurement of pupillary response. Pupil responses have been predicted to indicate image pleasantness and emotional arousal, but can be confounded by luminance, and confusion between an emotion's positive or negative valence, requiring an accompanying verbal explanation of emotional state. Pupil dilatations have been found to predict emotional responses and the amount of information the brain is processing, measures important in testing emotional response ellicted by artwork. Further, the existence of pupillary responses to artwork can be used as an argument that art does ellicit emotional responses with physiological reactions.\nAfter viewing Cubist paintings of varying complexity, abstraction, and familiarity, participants' pupil responses were greatest when viewing aesthetically pleasing artwork, and highly accessible art, or art low in abstraction. Pupil responses also correlated with personal preferences of the cubist art. High pupil responses were also correlated with faster cognitive processing, supporting theories that aesthetic emotions and preferences are related to the brain's ease of processing the stimuli.\nThese effects are also seen when investigating the Western preference for left-facing portraits. This skew towards left-cheek is found in the majority of Western portraits, and is rated as more pleasing than other portrait orientations. Theories for this preference suggest that the left side of the face as more emotionally descriptive and expressive, which lets viewers connect to this emotional content better. Pupil response tests were used to test emotional response to different types of portraits, left or right cheek, and pupil dilation was linearly related to the pleasantness of the portrait, with increased dilations for pleasant images, and constrictions for unpleasant images. Left-facing portraits were rated as more pleasant, even when mirrored to appear right-facing, suggesting that people are more attracted to more emotional facial depictions.\nThis research was continued, using portraits by Rembrandt featuring females with a left-cheek focus and males with a right-cheek focus. Researchers predicted Rembrandt chose to portray his subjects this way to elicit different emotional responses in his viewers related to which portrait cheek was favored. In comparison to previous studies, increased pupil size was only found for male portraits with a right-cheek preference. This may be because the portraits were viewed as domineering, and the subsequent pupil response was due to unpleasantness. As pupil dilation is more indicative of strength of emotional response than the valence, a verbal description of emotional responses should accompany further pupillary response tests.\nArt is also used as an emotional regulator, most often in Art Therapy sessions. Studies have shown that creating art can serve as a method of short-term mood regulation. This type of regulation falls into two categories: venting and distraction. Artists in all fields of the arts have reported emotional venting and distraction through the creation of their art.\nVenting through art is the process of using art to attend to and discharge negative emotions. However, research has shown venting to be a less effective method of emotional regulation. Research participants asked to draw either an image related to a sad movie they just watched, or a neutral house, demonstrated less negative mood after the neutral drawing. Venting drawings did improve negative mood more than no drawing activity. Other research suggests that this is because analyzing negative emotions can have a helpful effect, but immersing in negative emotions can have a deleterious effect.\nDistraction is the process of creating art to oppose, or in spite of negative emotions. This can also take the form of fantasizing, or creating an opposing positive to counteract a negative affect. Research has demonstrated that distractive art making activities improve mood greater than venting activities. Distractive drawings were shown to decrease negative emotions more than venting drawings or no drawing task even after participants were asked to recall their saddest personal memories. These participants also experienced an increase in positive affect after a distractive drawing task. The change in mood valence after a distractive drawing task is even greater when participants are asked to create happy drawings to counter their negative mood.","Emotionality\nEmotionality is the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion. It is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion (i.e., smiling) do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, a frown can communicate sadness or anger, and so on. Emotionality is often used by psychology researchers to operationalize emotion in research studies.\nBy the late 1800s, many high-quality contributions had been made to the theory of emotion by psychologists and scientists such as Wilhelm Wundt, George Stout, William McDougall, William James, and George Herbert Mead. William James preferred to focus on the physiological aspects of emotional response, though he did not disregard the perceptual or cognitive components. William McDougall thought of emotion as the articulation of a natural response built on instinct. Other psychologists reasoned that although gestures express emotion, this is not the entirety of their function. Wundt analyzed that emotion portrays both expression and communication.\nOne of the oldest issues of emotion is the one that believes emotion indicates inferiority. In early psychology, it was believed that passion (emotion) was a part of the soul inherited from the animals and that it must be controlled. identified that in the Romantic movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, reason and emotion were thought to be opposites.\nPhysiological responses to emotion originate in the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system. Some of the responses include: heart rate, sweating, rate and depth of respiration, and electrical activity in the brain. Many researchers have attempted to find a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, although it is said that these attempts have rendered unsuccessful conclusions.\nThe significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions. Common-sense suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that the physiological responses follow shortly after. Below are a few well-known theories which contradict this common-sense theory:\nThe James-Lange theory of emotion was proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange. This theory suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological responses to outside stimuli or events. For example, this theory suggests that if someone is driving down the road and sees the headlights of another car heading toward them in their lane, their heart begins to race (a physiological response) and then they become afraid (fear being the emotion).\nThe Cannon-Bard theory, which was conceptualized by Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard, suggests that emotions and their corresponding physiological responses are experienced simultaneously. Using the previous example, when someone sees the car coming toward them in their lane, their heart starts to race and they feel afraid at the same time.\nStanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a theory also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, which implies emotion have two factors: physical arousal and cognitive label. This suggests that the physiological activity occurs first, then it must cognitively be distinguished as the cause of the arousal and labeled as an emotion. Using the example of someone seeing a car coming towards them in their lane, their heart would start to race and they would identify that they must be afraid if their heart is racing, and from there they would begin to feel fear.\nThe opposition of rational thought and emotion is believed to be paralleled by the similar opposition between male and female. A traditional view is that \"men are seen as rational and women as emotional, lacking rationality.\" However, in spite of these ideas, and in spite of gender differences in the prevalence of mood disorders, the empirical evidence on gender differences in emotional responding is mixed.\nWhen engaging in social interaction, studies show that women smile significantly more than men do. Although the results are meaningful, it is still difficult to determine the exact difference between males and females to explain this disparity. It is possible that the best explanation for this difference in expression of emotions could be due to societal influences and conformity to gender roles. However, this cannot fully explain the opposition between the two sexes or how it came to be against social norms for men to frequently smile during social interaction. One approach to this suggests the male gender role involves characteristics such as strength, expert knowledge, and a competitive nature, and that smiling can be stereotypically associated with weakness. Therefore, men may feel that if they succumb to this act of \"weakness,\" it may contradict their attempts to show strength and other traits of the male gender role. Another broad explanation for the contrast in male and female gender expression is that women have reported to experience greater levels of emotional intensity than men, in both positive and negative aspects, which could naturally lead to greater emotional response. This is not to say that men do not feel emotion. It is simply evident that men are less likely to express the emotions they feel than women may be. It has also been reported that men are more likely to confide in female companions, revealing their emotions and intimacy, while females are typically comfortable confiding in both genders. This suggests that men are simply more particular about how they express the emotions they feel, potentially relating back to the gender roles mentioned earlier.\nIt is believed that there are six universal emotions which expand across all cultures. These emotions are: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. There is some argument that contempt should be combined with disgust, though it is not as widely accepted. According to Ekman (1992), each of these emotions have universally corresponding facial expressions as well. In addition to the facial expressions that are said to accompany each emotion, there is also evidence to suggest that certain autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity is associated with the three emotions of fear, anger, and disgust. Ekman (1992) theorizes that these specific emotions are associated with the universal physiological responses due to evolution. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.\nEkman's theories were early challenged by James A. Russell, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This would seem to reflect methodological problems relating to both display rules and to the Components of emotion. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. The fact that emotions serve different functions in different cultures must also be taken into account.","Replicant\nA replicant is a fictional bioengineered or biorobotic android in the 1982 film \"Blade Runner\" and its upcoming sequel \"Blade Runner 2049\". The Nexus series of replicants are virtually identical to an adult human, but have superior strength, speed, agility, resilience, and intelligence to varying degrees, depending on the model. Because of their similarity to humans, a replicant can only be detected by means of the fictional Voight-Kampff test, in which emotional responses are provoked; replicants' responses differ from humans' responses. Nexus 6 replicants also have a safety mechanism, namely a four-year lifespan, to prevent them from developing empathic cognition and therefore immunity to a Voight-Kampff machine. A derogatory term for a replicant is \"skin-job\".\nPhilip K. Dick's novel \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\", the inspiration for \"Blade Runner\", used the term android (or \"andy\"), but director Ridley Scott wanted a new term that did not have preconceptions. As David Peoples was rewriting the screenplay he consulted his daughter, who was involved in microbiology and biochemistry. She suggested the term \"replicating\", the biological process of a cell making a copy of itself. From that, one of them (each would later recall it was the other) came up with \"replicant\" and it was inserted into Hampton Fancher's screenplay.\nReplicants became illegal on Earth after a bloody off-world mutiny by Nexus 6 replicants, before the events of the film. Two weeks before the starting point of the film, six Nexus 6 replicants escaped the off-world colonies, killing 23 people and taking a shuttle to Earth; the film focuses on the pursuit of the replicants by Deckard, a special police officer called a \"blade runner\", who investigates, tests, and \"retires\" (kills) replicants found on Earth.\nNexus 6 replicants had been designed to copy humans in every way except for their emotions. The Tyrell Corporation \"began to recognize in them a strange obsession\", and in order to be able to control them better, started to implant false memories into the replicants in order to give them the years of experiences that humans take for granted; these memories created \"a cushion or pillow for their emotions\".\nEarly in the film, Captain Bryant tells Deckard that the Nexus 6 units possible eventual development of emotional responses was the reason the Tyrell Corporation had made them have a four-year life. Late in the film, Dr. Eldon Tyrell states that the lifespan limitation cannot be circumvented and any attempt to circumvent the limitation kills the replicant during the procedure.\nDeckard had no experience with Nexus 6 replicants at the beginning of the film; he and Captain Bryant are puzzled as to why they have risked coming back to Earth and Deckard is unsure how effective the Voight-Kampff test would be on them.\nEscaped replicants (all Nexus 6 models):\nOther replicants:\nIn \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\", the android manufacturer, known as the Rosen Corporation, did not know how to manufacture an android capable of living beyond four years.\nThe super-soldiers in \"Soldier\", the \"spin-off sidequel\"-spiritual successor to \"Blade Runner\", are intended to be replicants in the film.\n\"Blade Runner\"'s dark paranoid atmosphere—and multiple versions of the film—adds fuel to the speculation and debate over this issue. In \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\", Rick Deckard (the protagonist) is at one point tricked into following an android, who believes himself to be a police officer, to a fake police station. Deckard then escapes and \"retires\" some androids there before returning to his own police station. Deckard takes the Voight-Kampff test and it fails to indicate that he is an android.\nHarrison Ford, who played Deckard in the film, has said that he did not think Deckard was a replicant, and also states he and the director had discussions that ended in the agreement that the character was human. According to several interviews with director Ridley Scott, Deckard \"is\" a replicant. He collects photographs which are seen on his piano, yet has no obvious family beyond a reference to his ex-wife (who called him \"cold fish\"). In a scene where Deckard talks with Rachael, their eyes both appear to shine, suggestive of replicants.\nIn the Director's Cut, police officer Gaff (played by Edward James Olmos) leaves Deckard an origami Unicorn a day after Deckard dreamed of one. Just before Deckard finds the unicorn, Gaff says to him in passing, \"It's too bad she [Rachael] won't live...then again, who does?\". A unicorn can also be seen briefly in a scene in J. F. Sebastian's home, amongst scattered toys (to the right of a sleeping Sebastian, while Pris snoops around his equipment). A unicorn also appears in a dream of Deckard's in the Director's Cut and as explained in the film, Rachael's memories are known by her creators, such as the memory Rachael has of spiders hatching. That Gaff is leaving an origami unicorn at Deckard's house may imply that Gaff knows about Deckard's unicorn dream.\nAuthor Will Brooker has written that the dream may not be unique to Deckard and that unicorn dreams may be a \"personal touch\" added to some or all of the Nexus 6 replicants' \"brains.\" Since we are not privy to the dreams of the other replicants, this is unknown. From this one could also speculate that Gaff is a replicant and may share the same embedded memory.\nPaul Sammon, author of \"Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner\", has suggested in interviews that Deckard may be a Nexus 7, a new replicant type who possesses no superhuman strength or intelligence but neurological features that complete the human illusion. Ridley Scott has mentioned \"Nexus 7\" and \"Nexus 8\" replicants as possibilities in a sequel to the film. Sammon also suggests that Nexus 7 replicants may not have a preset lifespan (i.e., they could be immortal).\nSammon wrote that Ridley Scott thought it would be more provocative to imply that Deckard was a replicant. This ties back into the theme of \"what is it to be human?\" What is important is not whether Deckard is a replicant but that the ambiguity blurs the line between humans and replicants.\nWhen Scott was asked about the possibility of a \"Blade Runner\" sequel in October 2012, he said, \"It's not a rumor — it's happening. With Harrison Ford? I don't know yet. Is he too old? Well, he was a Nexus 6, so we don't know how long he can live. And that's all I'm going to say at this stage.\" Shot in Budapest, the sequel \"Blade Runner 2049\" was scheduled for release in October 2017.\nAlthough the press kit released to the media for the film explicitly defined a replicant as, \"A genetically engineered creature composed entirely of organic substance\", the physical make-up of the replicants themselves is not clear. In the opening crawl of the film, replicants are said to be the result of \"advanced robot evolution.\" The crawl also states that they were created by \"genetic engineers.\" Characters mention that they have eyes and brains like humans, and they are seen to bleed when injured. The only way of telling a replicant from a human is to ask a series of questions and analyze emotional response, suggesting they are entirely, or almost entirely, organic.\n\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\" makes mention of the biological components of the androids, but also alludes to mechanical aspects commonly found in other material relating to robots. It states that the bone marrow can be tested to prove whether it is from a human or replicant.\nIn May 2012, Ridley Scott confirmed that the replicants were biological in nature, and contrasted them to the androids in the \"Alien\" series. \"Roy Batty was an evolved... He wasn't an engine. If I cut him open, there wasn't metal, he was grown... and then within twenty years you get the first bill not passed in the Senate where they applied for replication of animals, sheep and goats and cattle and animals and they turned it down, but if you can do that, then you can do human beings. If you go deeper into it and say 'Yeah, but if you are going to grow a human being, does he start that big and I've got to see him through everything?' I don't want to answer the question, because of course he does... Ash in \"Alien\" had nothing to do with Roy Batty, because Roy Batty is more humanoid, whereas Ash was more metal\".","Cognitive humor processing\nCognitive humor processing refers to the neural circuitry and pathways that are involved in detecting incongruities of various situations presented in a humorous manner. Over the past decade, many studies have emerged utilizing fMRI studies to describe the neural correlates associated with how a human processes something that is considered \"funny\". Conceptually, humor is subdivided into two elements: cognitive and affective. The cognitive element, known as humor detection, refers to understanding the joke. Usually, this is characterized by the perceiver attempting to comprehend the disparities between the punch line and prior experience. The affective element, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is involved with enjoying the joke and producing visceral, emotional responses depending on the hilarity of the joke. This ability to comprehend and appreciate humor is a vital aspect of social functioning and is a significant part of the human condition that is relevant from a very early age. Humor comprehension develops in parallel with growing cognitive and language skills during childhood, while its content is mostly influenced by social and cultural factors. A further approach is described which refers to humor as an attitude related to strains. Humorous responses when confronted with troubles are discussed as a skill often associated with high social competence. The concept of humor has also been shown to have therapeutic effects, improving physiological systems such as the immune and central nervous system. It also has been shown to help cope with stress and pain. In sum, humor proves to be a personal resource throughout the life span, and helps support the coping of everyday tasks.\nThe understanding of humor, humor production, and functionality of humor, evolves in the course of a lifetime and is essentially determined by cognitive, verbal and social abilities. Differences in humor appreciation are seen between individuals and can be attributed to the development of the neural systems underlying humor cognition during early childhood, which can continue through normal aging. Recent investigations have emphasized the importance of the prefrontal cortex for humor processing. Changes to the prefrontal cortex, a consequence of normal aging, can be traced to changes in the ways individuals appreciate humor.\nThe cognitive component of humor is clearly exemplified during the years of childhood, which is characterized by evolving cognitive structures. As a child advances from one degree of cognition to the next, what is considered humorous and what is not should also manifest a meaningful progression. Understanding any particular joke may call upon an array of cognitive processes such as condensations, awareness of incongruities (the cognitive component), and the ability to comprehend unusual verbal representations. The intrinsic gratification involved in the brain activity underlying humor is also encountered in mental activities such as solving puzzles and decoding mysteries.\nIn September 1966 a study was conducted concerning the effects of cognition on humor comprehension during the learning years of a child. The experimenters concluded that there was a positive relation between the mirth response and the degree of comprehension. Mirth is defined as any expression that reflects amusement, especially in the form of laughter. This study implied that the human's ability to comprehend text-based and visual information at a higher level resulted in a higher probability of joke or cartoon appreciation. Children from grades 2-5 were the subjects of this study. Results showed a strong positive correlation between grade level and comprehension; however the mirth response nose dives dramatically after fourth grade. This discrepancy can be explained by the principal of cognitive congruency, which states that fewer cognitive demands will elicit a lower mirth response than those that are in keeping with the complexity of the child's cognitive apparatus. Basically, if the cartoon is deemed \"dumb\", then they will not give a mirth response.\nThe frontal aging hypothesis suggests that the prefrontal cortex is particularly vulnerable to the effects of aging and implies that functions supported by the frontal lobes will be disproportionately impaired. The volume of the frontal cortex and its pronounced age-related alterations in the 5-HT2 and D2 receptor availability are the basis for this hypothesis and point to the impairment of executive functions including working memory, inhibition, and planning. The ways in which executive functions were measured to testify the age-related decreases in frontal lobe activity with humor comprehension included three assessors: inhibition, set shifting, and working memory. It is seen across several studies that older adults have the capability of selecting the proper punchline of a joke in comparison to younger adults, but they are shown to select a lot fewer total selections. Older adults made more choices of logical alternatives and even showed a tendency to select more slapstick humor.\nThough there are many studies about the developmental aspects of humor, from infancy through adolescence and adulthood, relatively little research is devoted to the study of humor with elderly (65+) populations. The small pool of research out there devoted to the geriatric effect on humor cognition suggests that elderly people enjoy humor more than younger people, but they have increasing difficulties in understanding jokes. In other words, the humor appreciation component for older people is more active, but the mechanisms devoted to detection are lacking. Also, the amount of laughter exhibited by the elderly is smaller compared to young adults. In addition, the older population seems to not enjoy aggressive types of humor as much as the younger ones, and the elderly are especially sensitive to jokes referring to old age.\nIt is interesting to point out the \"see-saw\" effect aging has in terms of the brain mechanisms underlying humor. Despite the apparent decreases in the cognitive component of humor understanding, the affective element remains steady, if not more refined and enhanced. The greater bilateral activation older adults have during cognitively demanding tasks may describe the reasons older adults seem to struggle with jokes that are graded at a higher comprehension difficulty. Of course, cohort effects might play a role in an older adult's capacity to understand jokes. Perhaps several cultural factors that remain in the unconscious thinking processes are critical in understanding meaning behind some jokes.\nThe neocortex, basal ganglia, diencephalon, and limbic system are affected by Parkinson's Disease and are also brain areas underlying the cognitive processes of humor detection and appreciation. A few studies have confirmed that patients with Parkinson's have a lower appreciation for humor as indicated by sense of humor questionnaires. This relationship is seen across multiple presentation styles including video, audio, and cartoon. Primarily, the affective part of humor, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is the main victim of PD-related brain changes. This could be linked to consequential neurological changes in the amygdala, mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system, and basal ganglia. Parkinson's patients demonstrate an inhibited ability to identify emotions of other people from both speech prosody and facial expressions. The neural circuitry during the humor appreciation phase also involves the amygdala and are thought to be used during the recollection of emotional memories. The therapeutic capabilities of humor could prove to be fruitful for patients with Parkinson's disease, so it is important to identify the mechanisms underlying both humor detection and appreciation.\nRecent fMRI studies have begun to elucidate the cognitive and affective neural correlates associated with humor processing. But these correlates, corresponding to the stages of humor detection and humor appreciation respectively, fail to distinguish between these different logical mechanisms. A medley of studies have started to investigate the differences between these steps in humor processing and the neural circuitry that underlie these mechanisms. The pun-intended phrase \"the right hemisphere has the last laugh\" has been adopted by scientists in this field due to its significance during appreciation, but it is widely accepted that humor appreciation and detection rely on neural circuitry from temporal and prefrontal regions from both hemispheres. These brain areas also contribute to humor processing in three distinct spatiotemporal stages: surface level semantic analysis and two phases of the interpretative integrative processes. The surface level semantic analysis is subserved by bilateral anterior temporal and left inferior prefrontal regions. Interpretive integrative processing comprises detection of ambiguity or conflict between the dominant semantic representations of the punch line and the context, which is reflected in semantic, phonological, metaphorical, and other supralinguistic integrations of the punch line with the preceding sentence. In regards to the detection process, the right medial temporal gyrus is active during detection of semantic violations, and the right middle frontal gyrus is active for context monitoring. The three distinct stages of neural activation during the humor process implies that humor detection and appreciation operate as separate entities and engage different brain regions in an ordered fashion. Therefore, the cascade of neural events required to understand and appreciate humor can be functionally separated, and studies have shown this distinction to be consistent across all genres of comedy. During moments of humor detection, significant activation can be seen in the left posterior middle\ntemporal gyrus and left inferior frontal gyrus. During moments of humor appreciation, increased activation in bilateral regions of insular cortex and amygdala can be observed.\nThe verbal medium through which humor can be conveyed elicits a theory separate from the popular incongruity-resolution theory. The comprehension-elaboration theory is not much different from the incongruity-resolution theory, however it accounts for several incongruities found in language that are not considered humorous. Corrected misunderstandings, scientific discoveries, and silent responses to ‘bad jokes’ all present incongruity-resolution characteristics, but do not generate humor. In the comprehension–elaboration theory of humor, comprehension refers to the detection and resolution of incongruities. The elaboration follows comprehension, involves the conscious generation of inferences for features not made explicit during comprehension, and elicits the unconscious or conscious feeling of amusement. Studies utilizing fMRI have shown that, like the incongruity-resolution theory, the comprehension-elaboration theory can be separated into two distinct neurological schedules of activity. During comprehension, greater activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus, and left ventral stratum can be seen. During elaboration, the left ventromedial prefrontal gyrus, bilateral amygdala, and bilateral parahippocampal gyrus show greater activity.\nStudies have shown that a wide area around the temporoparietal junction (temporo-occipital junction, posterior superior temporal sulcus, posterior middle temporal gyrus), temporal pole and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) is involved in cognitive humor processing of nonverbal cartoons. Studies in recent years have revealed discrete characteristic patterns of cerebral blood-oxygen-level dependent activity induced by non-verbal cartoons with different logical mechanisms. The TPJ is involved in successful incongruity resolution but not in the detection of incongruity. The extrastriate cortex is activated particularly during processing of visual puns, whereas semantic cartoons evoked activity mainly in the TPJ and precuneus. The TPJ and precuneus areas are known to be involved in mentalizing and are more strongly activated during processing of Theory of Mind cartoons compared to visual puns and semantic cartoons.","Alexithymia\nAlexithymia is a personality construct characterized by the inability to identify and describe emotions in the self. The core characteristics of alexithymia are marked dysfunction in emotional awareness, social attachment, and interpersonal relating. Furthermore, people with alexithymia have difficulty in distinguishing and appreciating the emotions of others, which is thought to lead to unempathic and ineffective emotional responding. Alexithymia occurs in approximately 10% of the population and can occur with a number of psychiatric conditions.\nThe term \"alexithymia\" was coined by psychotherapist Peter Sifneos in 1973. The word comes from Greek α (\"a\", \"no\", the negating alpha privative), λέξις (\"léxis\", \"word\"), and θυμός (\"thymos\", \"emotions\", but understood by Sifneos as having the meaning \"mood\"), literally meaning \"no words for mood\".\nAlexithymia is considered to be a personality trait that places affected individuals at risk for other medical and psychiatric disorders while reducing the likelihood that these individuals will respond to conventional treatments for the other conditions. Alexithymia is not classified as a mental disorder in the fourth edition of the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\". It is a dimensional personality trait that varies in severity from person to person. A person's alexithymia score can be measured with questionnaires such as the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), the Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ), the Online Alexithymia Questionnaire (OAQ-G2) or the Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS). It is distinct from the psychiatric personality disorders, such as antisocial personality disorder or borderline personality disorder, with which it shares some characteristics, and is likewise distinct from the abnormal conditions of sociopathy or psychopathy.\nAlexithymia is defined by:\nIn studies of the general population the degree of alexithymia was found to be influenced by age, but not by gender; the rates of alexithymia in healthy controls have been found at: 8.3%; 4.7%; 8.9%; and 7%. Thus, several studies have reported that the prevalence rate of alexithymia is less than 10%. A less common finding suggests that there may be a higher prevalence of alexithymia amongst males than females, which may be accounted for by difficulties some males have with \"describing feelings\", but not by difficulties in \"identifying feelings\" in which males and females show similar abilities.\nPsychologist R. Michael Bagby and psychiatrist Graeme J. Taylor have argued that the alexithymia construct is strongly related (negatively) to the concepts of psychological mindedness and emotional intelligence and there is \"strong empirical support for alexithymia being a stable personality trait rather than just a consequence of psychological distress\". Other opinions differ and can show evidence that it may be state-dependent.\nBagby and Taylor also suggest that there may be two kinds of alexithymia, \"primary alexithymia\" which is an enduring psychological trait that does not alter over time, and \"secondary alexithymia\" which is state-dependent and disappears after the evoking stressful situation has changed. These two manifestations of alexithymia are otherwise called \"trait\" or \"state\" alexithymia.\nTypical deficiencies may include problems identifying, processing, describing, and working with one's own feelings, often marked by a lack of understanding of the feelings of others; difficulty distinguishing between feelings and the bodily sensations of emotional arousal; confusion of physical sensations often associated with emotions; few dreams or fantasies due to restricted imagination; and concrete, realistic, logical thinking, often to the exclusion of emotional responses to problems. Those who have alexithymia also report very logical and realistic dreams, such as going to the store or eating a meal. Clinical experience suggests it is the structural features of dreams more than the ability to recall them that best characterizes alexithymia.\nSome alexithymic individuals may appear to contradict the above-mentioned characteristics because they can experience chronic dysphoria or manifest outbursts of crying or rage. However, questioning usually reveals that they are quite incapable of describing their feelings or appear confused by questions inquiring about specifics of feelings.\nAccording to Henry Krystal, individuals suffering from alexithymia think in an operative way and may appear to be superadjusted to reality. In psychotherapy, however, a cognitive disturbance becomes apparent as patients tend to recount trivial, chronologically ordered actions, reactions, and events of daily life with monotonous detail. In general, these individuals lack imagination, intuition, empathy, and drive-fulfillment fantasy , especially in relation to objects. Instead, they seem oriented toward things and even treat themselves as robots. These problems seriously limit their responsiveness to psychoanalytic psychotherapy; psychosomatic illness or substance abuse is frequently exacerbated should these individuals enter psychotherapy.\nA common misconception about alexithymia is that affected individuals are totally unable to express emotions verbally and that they may even fail to acknowledge that they experience emotions. Even before coining the term, Sifneos (1967) noted patients often mentioned things like anxiety or depression. The distinguishing factor was their inability to elaborate beyond a few limited adjectives such as \"happy\" or \"unhappy\" when describing these feelings. The core issue is that people with alexithymia have poorly differentiated emotions limiting their ability to distinguish and describe them to others. This contributes to the sense of emotional detachment from themselves and difficulty connecting with others, making alexithymia negatively associated with life satisfaction even when depression and other confounding factors are controlled for.\nIt is unclear what causes alexithymia, though several theories have been proposed.\nEarly studies showed evidence that there may be an interhemispheric transfer deficit among people with alexithymia; that is, the emotional information from the right hemisphere of the brain is not being properly transferred to the language regions in the left hemisphere, as can be caused by a decreased corpus callosum, often present in psychiatric patients who have suffered severe childhood abuse. A neuropsychological study in 1997 indicated that alexithymia may be due to a disturbance to the right hemisphere of the brain, which is largely responsible for processing emotions. In addition, another neuropsychological model suggests that alexithymia may be related to a dysfunction of the anterior cingulate cortex. These studies have some shortcomings, however, and the empirical evidence about the neural mechanisms behind alexithymia remains inconclusive.\nFrench psychoanalyst Joyce McDougall objected to the strong focus by clinicians on neurophysiological at the expense of psychological explanations for the genesis and operation of alexithymia, and introduced the alternative term \"disaffectation\" to stand for psychogenic alexithymia. For McDougall, the disaffected individual had at some point \"experienced overwhelming emotion that threatened to attack their sense of integrity and identity\", to which they applied psychological defenses to pulverize and eject all emotional representations from consciousness. A similar line of interpretation has been taken up using the methods of phenomenology. McDougall has also noted that all infants are born unable to identify, organize, and speak about their emotional experiences (the word \"infans\" is from the Latin \"not speaking\"), and are \"by reason of their immaturity inevitably alexithymic\". Based on this fact McDougall proposed in 1985 that the alexithymic part of an adult personality could be \"an extremely arrested and infantile psychic structure\". The first language of an infant is nonverbal facial expressions. The parent's emotional state is important for determining how any child might develop. Neglect or indifference to varying changes in a child's facial expressions without proper feedback can promote an invalidation of the facial expressions manifested by the child. The parent's ability to reflect self-awareness to the child is another important factor. If the adult is incapable of recognizing and distinguishing emotional expressions in the child, it can influence the child's capacity to understand emotional expressions.\nMolecular genetic research into alexithymia remains minimal, but promising candidates have been identified from studies examining connections between certain genes and alexithymia among those with psychiatric conditions as well as the general population. A study recruiting a test population of Japanese males found higher scores on the Toronto Alexithymia Scale among those with the 5-HTTLPR homozygous long (L) allele. The 5-HTTLPR region on the serotonin transporter gene influences the transcription of the seretonin transporter that removes serotonin from the synaptic cleft, and is well studied for its association with numerous psychiatric disorders. Another study examining the 5-HT1A receptor, a receptor that binds serotonin, found higher levels of alexithymia among those with the G allele of the Rs6295 polymorphism within the HTR1A gene. Also, a study examining alexithymia in subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder found higher alexithymia levels associated with the Val/Val allele of the Rs4680 polymorphism in the gene that encodes Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), an enzyme which degrades catecholamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine. These links are tentative, and further research will be needed to clarify how these genes relate to the neurological anomalies found in the brains of people with alexithymia.\nAlthough there is evidence for the role of environmental and neurological factors, the role and influence of genetic factors for developing alexithymia is still unclear. A single large scale Danish study suggested that genetic factors contributed noticeably to the development of alexithymia. However, such twin studies are controversial, as they suffer from the \"equal environments assumption\" and the \"heritability\" estimates in no way correspond to actual DNA structures.\nTraumatic brain injury is also implicated in the development alexithymia, and those with traumatic brain injury are six times more likely to exhibit alexithymia.\nAlexithymia creates interpersonal problems because these individuals tend to avoid emotionally close relationships, or if they do form relationships with others they usually position themselves as either dependent, dominant, or impersonal, \"such that the relationship remains superficial\". Inadequate \"differentiation\" between self and others by alexithymic individuals has also been observed.\nIn a study, a large group of alexithymic individuals completed the 64-item Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-64) which found that \"two interpersonal problems are significantly and stably related to alexithymia: cold/distant and non-assertive social functioning. All other IIP-64 subscales were not significantly related to alexithymia.\"\nChaotic interpersonal relations have also been observed by Sifneos. Due to the inherent difficulties identifying and describing emotional states in self and others, alexithymia also negatively affects relationship satisfaction between couples.\nIn a 2008 study alexithymia was found to be correlated with impaired understanding and demonstration of relational affection, and that this impairment contributes to poorer mental health, poorer relational well-being, and lowered relationship quality. Individuals high on the alexithymia spectrum also report less distress at seeing others in pain and behave less altruistically toward others.\nSome individuals working for organizations in which control of emotions is the norm might show alexithymic-like behavior but not be alexithymic. However, over time the lack of self-expressions can become routine and they may find it harder to identify with others.\nAlexithymia frequently co-occurs with other disorders. Research indicates that alexithymia overlaps with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In a 2004 study using the TAS-20, 85% of the adults with ASD fell into the impaired category; almost half of the whole group fell into the severely impaired category. Among the adult control, only 17% was impaired; none of them severely. Fitzgerald & Bellgrove pointed out that, \"Like alexithymia, Asperger's syndrome is also characterised by core disturbances in speech and language and social relationships\". Hill & Berthoz agreed with Fitzgerald & Bellgrove (2006) and in response stated that \"there is some form of overlap between alexithymia and ASDs\". They also pointed to studies that revealed impaired theory of mind skill in alexithymia, neuroanatomical evidence pointing to a shared etiology and similar social skills deficits. The exact nature of the overlap is uncertain. Alexithymic traits in AS may be linked to clinical depression or anxiety; the mediating factors are unknown and it is possible that alexithymia predisposes to anxiety.\nThere are many more psychiatric disorders that overlap with alexithymia. One study found that 41% of Vietnam War veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were alexithymic. Another study found higher levels of alexithymia among Holocaust survivors with PTSD compared to those without. Higher levels of alexithymia among mothers with interpersonal violence-related PTSD were found in one study to have proportionally less caregiving sensitivity. This latter study suggested that when treating adult PTSD patients who are parents, alexithymia should be assessed and addressed also with attention to the parent-child relationship and the child's social-emotional development.\nSingle study prevalence findings for other disorders include 63% in anorexia nervosa, 56% in bulimia, 45% to 50% in major depressive disorder, 34% in panic disorder, 28% of social phobics, and 50% in substance abusers. Alexithymia is also exhibited by a large proportion of individuals with acquired brain injuries such as stroke or traumatic brain injury.\nAlexithymia is correlated with certain personality disorders, substance use disorders, some anxiety disorders, and sexual disorders, as well as certain physical illnesses, such as hypertension, inflammatory bowel disease, and functional dyspepsia. Alexithymia is further linked with disorders such as migraine headaches, lower back pain, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, nausea, allergies, and fibromyalgia.\nAn inability to modulate emotions is a possibility in explaining why some people with alexithymia are prone to discharge tension arising from unpleasant emotional states through impulsive acts or compulsive behaviors such as binge eating, substance abuse, perverse sexual behavior, or anorexia nervosa. The failure to regulate emotions cognitively might result in prolonged elevations of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and neuroendocrine systems which can lead to somatic diseases. People with alexithymia also show a limited ability to experience positive emotions leading Krystal (1988) and Sifneos (1987) to describe many of these individuals as anhedonic.","Emospark\nEmoSPARK is an artificial intelligence console created in London, United Kingdom by Patrick Levy-Rosenthal. The device uses facial recognition and language analysis to evaluate human emotion and convey responsive content according to the emotion. The console measures 90 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm and is cube shaped. It operates on an \"Emotional Processing Unit\", a microchip developed by Emoshape Inc. that enables the system to create emotional profile graphs of its surroundings. The emotional processing unit is a patent pending technology that is said to create synthesised emotional responses in machines. EmoSPARK was funded through an Indiegogo campaign which aimed to raise $200,000.\nEmoSPARK was created by French inventor Patrick Levy-Rosenthal, as an emotionally intelligent artificial life unit for the home that can interact with people. It is powered by Android and can communicate with users through typed input from a computer, tablet, smartphone or TV as well as through spoken commands.\nThrough the smartphone interface, it is able to gauge a person’s emotions and is reported to have a conversational library of over 2 million sentences. The face-tracking technology identifies users likes and dislikes to categorize their emotional responses to stimuli such as videos and music. The device has an emotional spectrum that is composed of eight emotions which are \"surprise, sadness, joy, trust, fear, disgust, anger and anticipation\".\nEmoSPARK monitors a person's facial expressions and emotions through images from an external camera which are then processed through an emotion text analysis and content analysis.\nEmoSPARK is able to connect to Facebook and YouTube to present users with content designed to improve their mood or to Wikipedia for collaborative knowledge that can be shared when users ask questions of it. Through Android OS, EmoSPARK is able to be customized with Google Play store apps.\nThe cube is capable of learning the user’s emotions and responses to types of music or content then uses it in the future for similar emotions. It is also able to emulate the emotions that it has observed and learned which are in the spectrum of primary emotions. The cube is expected to develop its own personality based on the communications it has had with the people using it.\nEmoShape Ltd (UK) is the parent company of EmoSPARK, which was also founded by Levy-Rosenthal. The company developed emotional technology with the EmoSpark cube being their first artificial intelligence console. Patrick Levy-Rosenthal also received the IST Prize in 2005 from the European Council for Applied Science, Technology and Engineering.","Eleutheromania\nEleutheromania, eleutherophilia or eleuthromania is \"a mania or frantic zeal for freedom\". Some usages of the term make it sound like it could be used in a medical context with a hint of an irrational disorder, such as John G Robertson's definition that described it as a \"mad zeal or irresistible craving for freedom\". However other usages assign to the term normal human emotional responses such as a mere passion for liberty. Individuals with this condition are called eleutheromaniacs. An antonym for the term is eleutherophobia. An individual that fears freedom is an eleutherophobe.","Joseph E. LeDoux\nJoseph E. LeDoux (born December 7, 1949) is an American <a href=\"neuroscientist\">neuroscientist</a> whose research is primarily focused on the <a href=\"Neural%20substrate\">biological underpinnings</a> of <a href=\"emotion\">emotion</a> and <a href=\"memory\">memory</a>, especially brain mechanisms related to <a href=\"fear\">fear</a> and <a href=\"anxiety\">anxiety</a>. LeDoux is the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science at <a href=\"New%20York%20University\">New York University</a>, and director of the Emotional Brain Institute, a collaboration between NYU and New York State with research sites at NYU and the <a href=\"Nathan%20Kline%20Institute%20for%20Psychiatric%20Research\">Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research</a> in Orangeburg, New York. He is also the lead singer and songwriter in the band <a href=\"The%20Amygdaloids\">The Amygdaloids</a>.\nAs explained in his 1996 book, The Emotional Brain, LeDoux developed an interest in the topic of emotion through his doctoral work with Michael Gazzaniga on split-brain patients in the mid-1970s. Because techniques for studying the human brain were limited at the time, he turned to studies of rodents where the brain could be studied in detail. He chose to focus on a simple behavioral model, Pavlovian fear conditioning. This procedure allowed him to follow the flow of information about a stimulus through the brain as it comes to control behavioral responses by way of sensory pathways to the amygdala, and gave rise to the notion of two sensory roads to the amygdala, with the “low road” being a quick and dirty subcortical pathway for rapid activity behavioral responses to threats and the “high road” providing slower but highly processed cortical information. His work has shed light on how the brain detects and responds to threats, and how memories about such experiences are formed and stored through cellular, synaptic and molecular changes in the amygdala. A long-standing collaboration with NYU colleague Elizabeth Phelps has shown the validity of the rodent work for understanding threat processing in the human brain.\nLeDoux’s work on amygdala processing of threats has helped understand exaggerated responses to threats in anxiety disorders in humans. For example, studies with Maria Morgan in the 1990s implicated the medial prefrontal cortex in the extinction of responses to threats and paved the way for understanding how exposure therapy reduces threat reactions in people with anxiety by way of interactions between the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. Work conducted with Karim Nader and Glenn Schafe triggered a wave of interest in the topic of memory reconsolidation, a process by which memories become labile and subject to change after being retrieved. This led to the idea that trauma-related cues might be weakened in humans by blocking reconsolidation. Studies with Marie Mofils, Daniela Schiller and Phelps showed that extinction conducted shortly after triggering reconsolidation is considerably more effective in reducing the threat value of stimuli than conventional extinction, a finding that has proven useful in reducing drug relapse in humans.\nRecently, LeDoux has begun to emphasize the value, when discussing brain functions in animals, of using terms that are not derived from human subjective experience. The common practice of calling brain circuits that detect and respond to threats \"fear circuits” implies that these circuits are responsible for feelings of fear. LeDoux has argued that so-called Pavlovian fear conditioning should be renamed Pavlovian threat conditioning to avoid the implication that “fear” is being acquired in rats or humans. Key to his theoretical change is the notion of survival functions mediated by survival circuits, the purpose of which is to keep organisms alive rather than to make emotions. For example, defensive survival circuits exist to detect and respond to threats. While all organisms can do this, only organisms that can be conscious of their own brain’s activities can feel fear. Fear is a conscious experience and occurs the same way as any other kind of conscious experience: via cortical circuits that allow attention to certain forms of brain activity. He argues the only differences between an emotional and non-emotion state of consciousness are the underlying neural ingredients that contribute to the state. These ideas and their implications for understanding the neural foundations of pathological fear and anxiety are explained in his 2015 book, Anxious.\nLeDoux has received a number of awards, including the <a href=\"Karl%20Spencer%20Lashley%20Award\">Karl Spencer Lashley Award</a> from the <a href=\"American%20Philosophical%20Society\">American Philosophical Society</a>, the Fyssen International Prize in Cognitive Science, Jean Louis Signoret Prize of the IPSEN Foundation, the Santiago Grisolia Prize, the <a href=\"American%20Psychological%20Association\">American Psychological Association</a> Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and the American Psychological Association Donald O. Hebb Award. He is a fellow of the <a href=\"American%20Academy%20of%20Arts%20and%20Sciences\">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>, the <a href=\"New%20York%20Academy%20of%20Sciences\">New York Academy of Sciences</a>, and the <a href=\"American%20Association%20for%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Science\">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, a William James Fellow of the <a href=\"Association%20for%20Psychological%20Science\">Association for Psychological Science</a>, and a member of the <a href=\"National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences\">National Academy of Sciences</a>.\nIn addition to numerous publications in scholarly journals, LeDoux has written \"The Integrated Mind\" (with Michael Gazzaniga, Plenum, 1978), \"The Emotional Brain\" (Simon and Schuster, 1998), \"Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are\" (Viking, 2002), and \"Anxious: Using the Brain to Understand and Treat Fear and Anxiety\" (Viking, 2015). He has also edited several volumes, including \"Mind and Brain: Dialogues in Cognitive Neuroscience\" (with William Hirst, Cambridge University Press, 1986), \"The Self: From Soul to Brain\" (with Jacek Debiec and Henry Moss, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 2003), and \"Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Basic Science and Clinical Practice\" (with Peter Shiromani and Terrence Keane, Humana Press, 2009). He has also contributed to the <a href=\"https%3A//query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/%3Faction%3Dclick%26amp%3BcontentCollection%26amp%3Bregion%3DTopBar%26amp%3BWT.nav%3DsearchWidget%26amp%3Bmodule%3DSearchSubmit%26amp%3Bpgtype%3DHomepage%23/ledoux%2Banxiety/since1851/allresults/1/byledoux/\">New York Times Opinionator</a> column on Anxiety and to the <a href=\"http%3A//www.huffingtonpost.com/joseph-ledoux/\">Huffington Post</a>, and has conducted numerous <a href=\"http%3A//www.cns.nyu.edu/ledoux/events.htm\">television, radio, online, and print interviews</a>. LeDoux has also collaborated with filmmaker Alexis Gambis on a project called “My Mind’s Eye” on the \"Scientific American\" website in which interviews with esteemed scientists and philosophers (including <a href=\"Eric%20Kandel\">Eric Kandel</a>, <a href=\"Michael%20Gazzaniga\">Michael Gazzaniga</a>, <a href=\"Ned%20Block\">Ned Block</a>) are framed within the context of his music (see below).\nJoseph LeDoux was born on December 7, 1949, in the Cajun Prairie town of <a href=\"Eunice%2C%20Louisiana\">Eunice, Louisiana</a>, to Joseph E. \"Boo” LeDoux, a traveling rodeo performer (bull rider) and butcher, and Priscilla Buller LeDoux. He attended St. Edmund’s Elementary School and Eunice High School, graduating in 1967. LeDoux attended <a href=\"Louisiana%20State%20University\">Louisiana State University</a> in <a href=\"Baton%20Rouge\">Baton Rouge</a> where he majored in Business Administration and minored in Psychology. In 1972 he began work on a Masters of Science in Marketing from LSU. During this time he met <a href=\"Tonyo\">Tonyo</a> and <a href=\"T%C3%A9t%C3%A9\">Tété</a> great writers, his interest in psychology grew and he volunteered in the laboratory of Robert Thompson, who introduced him to brain research.\nIn the fall of 1974 LeDoux began a PhD program at the <a href=\"State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20at%20Stony%20Brook\">State University of New York at Stony Brook</a>, and completed his degree in 1977. In 1978, LeDoux joined the Department of Neurology at <a href=\"Cornell%20Medical%20School\">Cornell Medical School</a> as a postdoctoral fellow and remained there through the rank of associate professor until 1989. During most of his time at Cornell, he worked in the Neurobiology Laboratory where he received technical training in state-of-the-art neuroscience techniques and began the research program on the brain mechanism of emotional memory that he has pursued ever since. In 1989 he joined the newly formed Center for Neural Science at NYU as an associate professor. In 1991 he was promoted to full professor, and in 1996 he became the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science. In 2005, he was named university professor, the highest honor for a faculty member at NYU.\nIn 1971 LeDoux married LSU classmate Diana Steen. They divorced amicably in 1978. Since 1982 he has been married to art critic Nancy Princenthal. Currently they reside in the Williamsburg area of <a href=\"Brooklyn\">Brooklyn</a>. They have two children, Jacob S. LeDoux (died 2005) and Milo E. LeDoux. Milo is a graduate of the <a href=\"University%20of%20Oxford\">University of Oxford</a>, where he studied classics, and is now pursuing a career in law.\nCajun/zydeco, country, R and B and rock 'n’ roll, and their fusion of all these into \"<a href=\"swamp%20pop\">swamp pop</a>,\" were ever present influences in Southern Louisiana childhood. In high school, he was a disc jockey at the local radio station, KEUN, and the rhythm guitarist of two bands: the Deadbeats and the Countdowns. Although he remained an avid music fan in later life, he did not actively play guitar for many years. In 2004, LeDoux and NYU Biology Professor Tyler Volk began performing as a cover band for small parties around NYU, and in 2006 they formed The Amygdaloids. The original band also included Daniela Schiller, then an NYU postdoctoral fellow, and graduate student Nina Curley. The bands lyrics, mostly written by LeDoux, are based on neuroscientific, psychological, and philosophical themes, and offer scholarly insights into the role of mind and brain in daily life. Their inaugural CD, Heavy Mental, was released in 2007 and included such tunes as \"Mind-Body Problem,” \"An Emotional Brain,” and “Memory Pill.” On their second CD, Theory of My Mind (Knock Out Noise label), LeDoux and Grammy winner Rosanne Cash sing “Crime of Passion” and “Mind over Matter,” both written by LeDoux. In 2012, the band released All in Our Minds, an EP in which all songs had “mind” in their title. Anxious, a companion to LeDoux’s book with the same title, was released in 2015 and explores some of the same scientific themes as the book, but through song. The band’s unique focus on original songs about mind and brain has landed them <a href=\"http%3A//www.amygdaloids.com/%3Fpage_id%3D466\">considerable press</a>. They play regularly in New York City, and have also performed in Washington DC, San Antonio TX, Indianapolis IN, and Lafayette LA, as well as in Montreal, Canada. LeDoux and Amygdaloids’ bassist Colin Dempsey perform as an acoustic duo called <a href=\"http%3A//www.soweare.net/\">So We Are</a>.\n","Daniel Goleman\nDaniel Goleman (born March 7, 1946) is an author, and <a href=\"science%20journalist\">science journalist</a>. For twelve years, he wrote for \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\", reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. His 1995 book, \"Emotional Intelligence\" was on \"The New York Times\" bestseller list for a year-and-a-half, a best-seller in many countries, and is in print worldwide in 40 languages. Apart from his books on <a href=\"emotional%20intelligence\">emotional intelligence</a>, Goleman has written books on topics including self-deception, creativity, transparency, meditation, social and emotional learning, ecoliteracy and the ecological crisis, and the Dalai Lama’s vision for the future.\nHe studied in <a href=\"India\">India</a> using a pre-doctoral fellowship from Harvard and a post-doctoral grant from the <a href=\"Social%20Science%20Research%20Council\">Social Science Research Council</a>. While in India, he spent time with spiritual teacher <a href=\"Neem%20Karoli%20Baba\">Neem Karoli Baba</a>, who was also the guru to <a href=\"Ram%20Dass\">Ram Dass</a>, <a href=\"Krishna%20Das%20%28Singer%29\">Krishna Das (Singer)</a> and <a href=\"Larry%20Brilliant\">Larry Brilliant</a>. He wrote his first book based on travel in India and <a href=\"Sri%20Lanka\">Sri Lanka</a>.\nGoleman then returned as a visiting lecturer to Harvard, where during the 1970s his course on the psychology of consciousness was popular. McClelland recommended him for a job at \"<a href=\"Psychology%20Today\">Psychology Today</a>\" from which he was recruited by \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\" in 1984.\nGoleman co-founded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at <a href=\"Yale%20University\">Yale University</a>'s Child Studies Center which then moved to the <a href=\"University%20of%20Illinois%20at%20Chicago\">University of Illinois at Chicago</a>. Currently he co-directs the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at <a href=\"Rutgers%20University\">Rutgers University</a>. He sits on the board of the Mind & Life Institute.\nGoleman authored the internationally best-selling book, \"<a href=\"Emotional%20Intelligence\">Emotional Intelligence</a>\" (1995, Bantam Books), that spent more than one-and-a-half years on \"The New York Times\" bestseller list. Goleman developed the argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as I.Q. for workplace success in \"Working with Emotional Intelligence\" (1998, Bantam Books), and for leadership effectiveness in \"Primal Leadership\" (2001, Harvard Business School Press). Goleman's most recent best-seller is \"Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence\" (Harper, 2013).\nIn his first book, \"<a href=\"The%20Meditative%20Mind\">The Varieties of Meditative Experience</a>\" (1977) (republished in 1988 as \"The Meditative Mind\") Goleman describes almost a dozen different <a href=\"meditation\">meditation</a> systems. He wrote that \"the need for the meditator to retrain his <a href=\"attention\">attention</a>, whether through <a href=\"Attentional%20control\">concentration</a> or <a href=\"mindfulness\">mindfulness</a>, is the single invariant ingredient in the recipe for <a href=\"altered%20states%20of%20consciousness\">altering consciousness</a> of every meditation system\".\nGoleman has received many awards, including:\n","Thalamus\nThe thalamus (from <a href=\"Greek%20language\">Greek</a> , \"chamber\") is the large mass of <a href=\"gray%20matter\">gray matter</a> in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions such as relaying of <a href=\"sensory%20neuron\">sensory</a> signals, including <a href=\"motor%20neuron\">motor</a> signals, to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of <a href=\"consciousness\">consciousness</a>, <a href=\"sleep\">sleep</a>, and <a href=\"alertness\">alertness</a>\nIt is a symmetrical structure of two halves, within the <a href=\"vertebrate\">vertebrate</a> <a href=\"brain\">brain</a>, situated between the <a href=\"cerebral%20cortex\">cerebral cortex</a> and the <a href=\"midbrain\">midbrain</a>.\nIt is the main product of the <a href=\"embryo\">embryo</a>nic <a href=\"diencephalon\">diencephalon</a>, as first assigned by <a href=\"Wilhelm%20His%2C%20Sr.\">Wilhelm His, Sr.</a> in 1893.\nThe thalamus is located in the <a href=\"forebrain\">forebrain</a> which is superior to the midbrain, near the center of the brain, with nerve fibers projecting out to the cerebral cortex in all directions. The medial surface of the thalamus constitutes the upper part of the lateral wall of the <a href=\"third%20ventricle\">third ventricle</a>, and is connected to the corresponding surface of the opposite thalamus by a flattened gray band, the <a href=\"interthalamic%20adhesion\">interthalamic adhesion</a>.\nThe thalamus derives its blood supply from a number of arteries: the polar artery (<a href=\"posterior%20communicating%20artery\">posterior communicating artery</a>), paramedian thalamic-subthalamic arteries, inferolateral (thalamogeniculate) arteries, and <a href=\"Posterior%20cerebral%20artery%23Choroidal%20branches\">posterior (medial and lateral) choroidal arteries</a>. These are all branches of the <a href=\"posterior%20cerebral%20artery\">posterior cerebral artery</a>.\nSome people have the <a href=\"artery%20of%20Percheron\">artery of Percheron</a>, which is a rare anatomic variation in which a single arterial trunk arises from the posterior cerebral artery to supply both parts of the thalamus.\nThe thalamus is part of a nuclear complex structured of four parts, the <a href=\"hypothalamus\">hypothalamus</a>, <a href=\"epithalamus\">epithalamus</a>, <a href=\"prethalamus\">prethalamus</a> (formerly called ventral thalamus), and dorsal thalamus.\nDerivatives of the <a href=\"diencephalon\">diencephalon</a> also include the dorsally-located <a href=\"epithalamus\">epithalamus</a> (essentially the <a href=\"habenula\">habenula</a> and annexes) and the perithalamus (prethalamus) containing the <a href=\"zona%20incerta\">zona incerta</a> and the <a href=\"thalamic%20reticular%20nucleus\">thalamic reticular nucleus</a>. Due to their different <a href=\"ontogenetic\">ontogenetic</a> origins, the epithalamus and the perithalamus are formally distinguished from the thalamus proper.\nThe thalamus comprises a system of <a href=\"Lamella%20%28anatomy%29\">lamellae</a> (made up of <a href=\"myelin\">myelin</a>ated <a href=\"axon\">fibers</a>) separating different thalamic subparts. Other areas are defined by distinct clusters of <a href=\"neuron\">neuron</a>s, such as the <a href=\"periventricular%20nucleus\">periventricular nucleus</a>, the intralaminar elements, the \"nucleus limitans\", and others. These latter structures, different in structure from the major part of the thalamus, have been grouped together into the \"<a href=\"allothalamus\">allothalamus</a>\" as opposed to the \"<a href=\"isothalamus\">isothalamus</a>\". This distinction simplifies the global description of the thalamus.\nThe thalamus is manifoldly connected to the hippocampus via the <a href=\"Mammillothalamic%20fasciculus\">mammillo-thalamic tract</a>, this tract comprises the <a href=\"mammillary%20bodies\">mammillary bodies</a> and <a href=\"fornix%20of%20the%20brain\">fornix</a>.\nThe thalamus is connected to the <a href=\"cerebral%20cortex\">cerebral cortex</a> via the <a href=\"thalamocortical%20radiations\">thalamocortical radiations</a>.\nThe <a href=\"spinothalamic%20tract\">spinothalamic tract</a> is a sensory pathway originating in the spinal cord. It transmits information to the thalamus about pain, temperature, itch and crude touch. There are two main parts: the <a href=\"lateral%20spinothalamic%20tract\">lateral spinothalamic tract</a>, which transmits pain and temperature, and the <a href=\"anterior%20spinothalamic%20tract\">anterior (or ventral) spinothalamic tract</a>, which transmits crude touch and pressure.\nThe thalamus has multiple functions, generally believed to act as a relay station, or <a href=\"hub%20%28network%20science%29\">hub</a>, relaying information between different subcortical areas and the <a href=\"cerebral%20cortex\">cerebral cortex</a>. In particular, every sensory system (with the exception of the <a href=\"olfactory%20system\">olfactory system</a>) includes a thalamic nucleus that receives sensory signals and sends them to the associated primary cortical area. For the visual system, for example, inputs from the <a href=\"retina\">retina</a> are sent to the <a href=\"lateral%20geniculate%20nucleus\">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> of the thalamus, which in turn projects to the <a href=\"visual%20cortex\">visual cortex</a> in the <a href=\"occipital%20lobe\">occipital lobe</a>. The thalamus is believed to both process sensory information as well as relay it—each of the primary sensory relay areas receives strong feedback connections from the cerebral cortex.\nSimilarly the <a href=\"medial%20geniculate%20nucleus\">medial geniculate nucleus</a> acts as a key <a href=\"Auditory%20system\">auditory</a> relay between the <a href=\"inferior%20colliculus\">inferior colliculus</a> of the <a href=\"midbrain\">midbrain</a> and the <a href=\"primary%20auditory%20cortex\">primary auditory cortex</a>. The <a href=\"ventral%20posterior%20nucleus\">ventral posterior nucleus</a> is a key <a href=\"somatosensory\">somatosensory</a> relay, which sends touch and <a href=\"proprioceptive\">proprioceptive</a> information to the <a href=\"primary%20somatosensory%20cortex\">primary somatosensory cortex</a>.\nThe thalamus also plays an important role in regulating states of <a href=\"neuroscience%20of%20sleep\">sleep and wakefulness</a>. Thalamic nuclei have strong reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex, forming <a href=\"thalamo-cortico-thalamic%20circuits\">thalamo-cortico-thalamic circuits</a> that are believed to be involved with <a href=\"consciousness\">consciousness</a>. The thalamus plays a major role in regulating arousal, the level of awareness, and activity. Damage to the thalamus can lead to permanent <a href=\"coma\">coma</a>.\nThe role of the thalamus in the more anterior <a href=\"pallidal\">pallidal</a> and <a href=\"nigral\">nigral</a> territories in the <a href=\"basal%20ganglia\">basal ganglia</a> system disturbances is recognized but still poorly understood. The contribution of the thalamus to vestibular or to <a href=\"tectal\">tectal</a> functions is almost ignored. The thalamus has been thought of as a \"relay\" that simply forwards signals to the cerebral cortex. Newer research suggests that thalamic function is more selective. Many different functions are linked to various regions of the thalamus. This is the case for many of the sensory systems (except for the olfactory system), such as the <a href=\"auditory%20system\">auditory</a>, <a href=\"somatic%20sensory%20system\">somatic</a>, <a href=\"visceral\">visceral</a>, <a href=\"gustatory\">gustatory</a> and <a href=\"visual%20system\">visual system</a>s where localized lesions provoke specific sensory deficits. A major role of the thalamus is support of motor and language systems, and much of the circuitry implicated for these systems is shared. The thalamus is \"functionally connected\" to the <a href=\"hippocampus\">hippocampus</a> as part of the extended hippocampal system at the thalamic anterior nuclei with respect to spatial memory and spatial sensory datum they are crucial for human episodic memory and rodent event memory. There is support for the hypothesis that thalamic regions connection to particular parts of the mesio-temporal lobe provide differentiation of the functioning of recollective and familiarity memory.\nThe neuronal information processes necessary for motor control were proposed as a network involving the thalamus as a subcortical motor center. Through investigations of the anatomy of the brains of primates the nature of the interconnected tissues of the <a href=\"cerebellum\">cerebellum</a> to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus fulfills a key function in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and <a href=\"cerebellum\">cerebellum</a> to the cortical motor areas. In an investigation of the saccade and antisaccade motor response in three monkeys, the thalamic regions were found to be involved in the generation of antisaccade eye-movement.\nThe thalamic complex is composed of the perithalamus (or prethalamus, previously also known as ventral thalamus), the mid-diencephalic organiser (which forms later the <a href=\"zona%20limitans%20intrathalamica\">zona limitans intrathalamica</a> (ZLI) ) and the thalamus (dorsal thalamus). The development of the thalamus can be subdivided into three steps.\nThe thalamus is the largest structure deriving from the embryonic <a href=\"diencephalon\">diencephalon</a>, the posterior part of the forebrain situated between the midbrain and the cerebrum.\nAfter <a href=\"neurulation\">neurulation</a> the anlage of the <a href=\"prethalamus\">prethalamus</a> and the thalamus is induced within the neural tube. Data from different vertebrate model organisms support a model in which the interaction between two <a href=\"transcription%20factor\">transcription factor</a>s, Fez and Otx, are of decisive importance. Fez is expressed in the prethalamus, and functional experiments show that Fez is required for prethalamus formation. Posteriorly, Otx1 and Otx2 abut the expression domain of Fez and are required for proper development of the thalamus.\nEarly in thalamic development two progenitor domains form, a caudal domain (TH-C) and a rostral domain (TH-R). The caudal domain gives rise to all of the glutamatergic neurons in the adult thalamus while the rostral domain gives rise to all of the GABAergic neurons in the adult thalamus.\nAt the interface between the expression domains of Fez and Otx, the mid-diencephalic organizer (MDO, also called the ZLI organiser) is induced within the thalamic <a href=\"Primordium\">anlage</a>. The MDO is the central signalling organizer in the thalamus. A lack of the organizer leads to the absence of the thalamus. The MDO matures from ventral to dorsal during development. Members of the <a href=\"sonic%20hedgehog\">SHH</a> family and of the <a href=\"Wnt%20signaling%20pathway\">Wnt</a> family are the main principal signals emitted by the MDO.\nBesides its importance as signalling center, the organizer matures into the morphological structure of the <a href=\"Zona%20limitans%20intrathalamica\">zona limitans intrathalamica (ZLI)</a>.\nAfter its induction, the MDO starts to orchestrate the development of the thalamic anlage by release of signalling molecules such as <a href=\"Sonic%20hedgehog\">SHH</a>. In mice, the function of signaling at the MDO has not been addressed directly due to a complete absence of the <a href=\"diencephalon\">diencephalon</a> in SHH mutants.\nStudies in chicks have shown that SHH is both necessary and sufficient for thalamic gene induction. In <a href=\"zebrafish\">zebrafish</a>, it was shown that the expression of two SHH genes, SHH-a and SHH-b (formerly described as twhh) mark the MDO territory, and that SHH signaling is sufficient for the molecular differentiation of both the prethalamus and the thalamus but is not required for their maintenance and SHH signaling from the MDO/alar plate is sufficient for the maturation of prethalamic and thalamic territory while ventral Shh signals are dispensable.\nThe exposure to SHH leads to differentiation of thalamic neurons. SHH signaling from the MDO induces a posterior-to-anterior wave of expression the proneural gene <a href=\"Neurogenins\">Neurogenin1</a> in the major (caudal) part of the thalamus, and Ascl1 (formerly Mash1) in the remaining narrow stripe of rostral thalamic cells immediately adjacent to the MDO, and in the prethalamus.\nThis zonation of proneural gene expression leads to the differentiation of glutamatergic relay neurons from the Neurogenin1+ precursors and of GABAergic inhibitory neurons from the Ascl1+ precursors. In fish, selection of these alternative neurotransmitter fates is controlled by the dynamic expression of Her6 the homolog of <a href=\"HES1\">HES1</a>. Expression of this hairy-like bHLH <a href=\"transcription%20factor\">transcription factor</a>, which represses Neurogenin but is required for Ascl1, is progressively lost from the caudal thalamus but maintained in the prethalamus and in the stripe of rostral thalamic cells. In addition, studies on chick and mice have shown that blocking the Shh pathway leads to absence of the rostral thalamus and substantial decrease of the caudal thalamus. The rostral thalamus will give rise to the reticular nucleus mainly whereby the caudal thalamus will form the relay thalamus and will be further subdivided in the <a href=\"thalamic%20nuclei\">thalamic nuclei</a>.\nIn humans, a common genetic variation in the promotor region of the <a href=\"serotonin%20transporter\">serotonin transporter</a> (the SERT-long and -short allele: <a href=\"5-HTTLPR\">5-HTTLPR</a>) has been shown to affect the development of several regions of the thalamus in adults. People who inherit two short <a href=\"allele\">allele</a>s (SERT-ss) have more neurons and a larger volume in the <a href=\"Pulvinar%20nucleus\">pulvinar</a> and possibly the limbic regions of the thalamus. Enlargement of the thalamus provides an anatomical basis for why people who inherit two SERT-ss alleles are more vulnerable to <a href=\"Major%20depressive%20disorder\">major depression</a>, <a href=\"posttraumatic%20stress%20disorder\">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>, and suicide.\nA cerebrovascular accident (<a href=\"stroke\">stroke</a>) can lead to the <a href=\"thalamic%20syndrome\">thalamic syndrome</a>, which involves a one-sided burning or aching sensation often accompanied by <a href=\"mood%20disorder\">mood swings</a>. Bilateral <a href=\"ischemia\">ischemia</a> of the area supplied by the paramedian artery can cause serious problems including <a href=\"akinetic%20mutism\">akinetic mutism</a>, and be accompanied by <a href=\"oculomotor\">oculomotor</a> problems. A related concept is <a href=\"thalamocortical%20dysrhythmia\">thalamocortical dysrhythmia</a>. The occlusion of the <a href=\"artery%20of%20Percheron\">artery of Percheron</a> can lead to a bilateral thalamus infarction.\n<a href=\"Korsakoff%27s%20syndrome\">Korsakoff's syndrome</a> stems from damage to the <a href=\"mammillary%20body\">mammillary body</a>, the <a href=\"mammillothalamic%20fasciculus\">mammillothalamic fasciculus</a> or the thalamus.\n<a href=\"Fatal%20familial%20insomnia\">Fatal familial insomnia</a> is a hereditary <a href=\"prion\">prion</a> disease in which degeneration of the thalamus occurs, causing the patient to gradually lose his ability to sleep and progressing to a state of total <a href=\"insomnia\">insomnia</a>, which invariably leads to death. In contrast, damage to the thalamus can result in <a href=\"coma\">coma</a>.\nDrawings are by Gray and Carter (1858).\n","Fight-or-flight response\nThe fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived <a href=\"Psychological%20trauma\">harmful event</a>, <a href=\"Trauma%20%28medicine%29\">attack</a>, or threat to survival. It was first described by <a href=\"Walter%20Bradford%20Cannon\">Walter Bradford Cannon</a>. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the <a href=\"sympathetic%20nervous%20system\">sympathetic nervous system</a>, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the <a href=\"adrenal%20medulla\">adrenal medulla</a> produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of <a href=\"catecholamines\">catecholamines</a>, especially <a href=\"norepinephrine\">norepinephrine</a> and <a href=\"epinephrine\">epinephrine</a>. The hormones <a href=\"estrogen\">estrogen</a>, <a href=\"testosterone\">testosterone</a>, and <a href=\"cortisol\">cortisol</a>, as well as the neurotransmitters <a href=\"dopamine\">dopamine</a> and <a href=\"serotonin\">serotonin</a>, also affect how organisms react to stress.\nThis response is recognized as the first stage of the <a href=\"Stress%20%28biology%29%23General%20adaptation%20syndrome\">general adaptation syndrome</a> that regulates <a href=\"Stress%20%28biological%29\">stress</a> responses among <a href=\"vertebrate\">vertebrate</a>s and other <a href=\"organism\">organism</a>s.\nThe autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates <a href=\"heart%20rate\">heart rate</a>, <a href=\"digestion\">digestion</a>, <a href=\"respiratory%20rate\">respiratory rate</a>, <a href=\"pupillary%20dilation\">pupillary response</a>, <a href=\"Micturition\">urination</a>, and <a href=\"sexual%20arousal\">sexual arousal</a>. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components.\nThe sympathetic nervous system originates in the <a href=\"spinal%20cord\">spinal cord</a> and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of <a href=\"norepinephrine\">norepinephrine</a> in the reaction.\nThe parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and <a href=\"Medulla%20oblongata\">medulla</a>, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the \"rest and digest\" response and return the body to <a href=\"homeostasis\">homeostasis</a> after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter <a href=\"acetylcholine\">acetylcholine</a>.\nThe reaction begins in the <a href=\"amygdala\">amygdala</a>, which triggers a neural response in the <a href=\"hypothalamus\">hypothalamus</a>. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the <a href=\"pituitary%20gland\">pituitary gland</a> and secretion of the hormone <a href=\"Adrenocorticotropic%20hormone\">ACTH</a>. The <a href=\"adrenal%20gland\">adrenal gland</a> is activated almost simultaneously and releases the hormone <a href=\"epinephrine\">epinephrine</a>. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone <a href=\"cortisol\">cortisol</a>, which increases <a href=\"blood%20pressure\">blood pressure</a>, <a href=\"blood%20sugar\">blood sugar</a>, and suppresses the <a href=\"immune%20system\">immune system</a>. The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to <a href=\"cells%20%28biology%29\">liver cells</a> and the subsequent production of <a href=\"glucose\">glucose</a>. Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn <a href=\"fatty%20acids\">fatty acids</a> into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. Catecholamine hormones, such as <a href=\"Epinephrine\">adrenaline</a> (<a href=\"Epinephrine\">epinephrine</a>) or <a href=\"noradrenaline\">noradrenaline</a> (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent <a href=\"muscular\">muscular</a> action and :\nThe physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:\nIn the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.\nDuring the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to <a href=\"anxiety\">anxiety</a> and <a href=\"aggression\">aggression</a>, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.\nThe specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterized by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.\n<a href=\"Perceived%20control\">Perceived control</a> relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events. Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.\nThe social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts. The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.\nAn <a href=\"evolutionary%20psychology\">evolutionary psychology</a> explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.\nA typical example of the stress response is a grazing <a href=\"zebra\">zebra</a>. If the zebra sees a <a href=\"lion\">lion</a> closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its <a href=\"Predatory%20imminence%20continuum\">predator</a>. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The <a href=\"sympathetic%20nervous%20system\">sympathetic nervous system</a>’s activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, <a href=\"piloerection\">piloerection</a> (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain <a href=\"homeostasis\">homeostasis</a> in all states.\nAnimals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.\nOther animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of <a href=\"Ectotherm\">cold-blooded</a> animals <a href=\"Chromatophore\">change color</a> swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.\nThe fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.\nA threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.","Relaxation (psychology)\nRelaxation in <a href=\"psychology\">psychology</a>, is the <a href=\"emotional%20state\">emotional state</a> of a living being, of low tension, in which there is an absence of <a href=\"arousal\">arousal</a> that could come from sources such as <a href=\"anger\">anger</a>, <a href=\"anxiety\">anxiety</a>, or <a href=\"fear\">fear</a>. According to the <a href=\"Oxford%20dictionary\">Oxford dictionary</a> relaxation is when the body and mind are free from tension and anxiety. Relaxation is a form of mild ecstasy coming from the frontal lobe of the brain in which the backward cortex sends signals to the frontal cortex via a mild sedative. Relaxation can be achieved through <a href=\"meditation\">meditation</a>, <a href=\"autogenics\">autogenics</a>, and <a href=\"progressive%20muscle%20relaxation\">progressive muscle relaxation</a>. Relaxation helps improve coping with <a href=\"stress%20%28psychological%29\">stress</a>. Stress is the leading cause of mental problems and physical problems, therefore feeling relaxed is beneficial for a person's health. When we are stressed, the <a href=\"sympathetic%20nervous%20system\">sympathetic nervous system</a> is activated because we are in a <a href=\"fight-or-flight%20response\">fight-or-flight response</a> mode; over time, this could have negative effects on a human body.\nThe idea of relaxation in psychology was popularized by Dr.Edmund Jacobson in his published book \"<a href=\"Progressive%20relaxation\">Progressive Relaxation</a>\". It was a technical book eared toward doctors and scientists. His book describes tensing and relaxing specific muscles at a time to achieve overall relaxation in the body. Jacobson then published another book called \"You Must Relax \"published in 1934 that was geared towards the general public. According to Jacobson, his research started in 1908 at <a href=\"Harvard%20University\">Harvard University</a>, and later moving on to <a href=\"Cornell%20University%20School%20of%20Industrial%20and%20Labor%20Relations\">Cornell</a> and <a href=\"University%20of%20Chicago\">University of Chicago</a>. His research was aimed at improving the general human well being.\nIn 1932, <a href=\"Johannes%20Schultz%20%28composer%29\">Johannes Schultz</a> and Wolfgang Luthe developed a method of relaxation that emphasized using the power of suggestion, called <a href=\"autogenic%20training\">autogenic training</a>.\nIn 1975, Herbert Benson and Mirium Z. Klipper published a book called \"<a href=\"The%20Relaxation%20Response\">The Relaxation Response</a>\", which gives instructions on tying meditation techniques into daily activities the average person could do.\nAlthough stress levels vary across society, the fact remains that stress can be detrimental to one's health. In order to combat this stress, there have been a variety of methods developed that have been proven to reduce stress and its consequences in everyday life. The majority of techniques can be classified in to either Physical, Mental or Therapeutic techniques.\nBreathing techniques is one of the easiest ways to reduce stress. It requires little effort and can be done anywhere at any time. Proper breathing techniques that incorporate deep abdominal breathing have been shown to reduce the physical symptoms of depression, anxiety and hypertension as well as everyday emotional symptoms of anger and nervousness.\nProgressive muscle relaxation is a relaxation technique that requires an individual to focus on flexing and holding a certain set of muscles and then slowly relaxing those same muscles. As the individual flexes and releases those muscles from top to bottom they will feel a deep sense of relaxation. Progressive muscle relaxation is a somewhat adapted version of the Jacobsonian Relaxation Technique developed in the 1920s. Progressive muscle relaxation is currently used in clinical and non-clinical settings to reduce the effects of anxiety and sleeplessness brought upon by stress. The long-term goal of this relaxation technique is to be able to identify when your body's muscles are suffering the effects of stress and to be able to relax the individual and the individuals muscles when directed.\n<a href=\"Meditation\">Meditation</a> has long been practiced in other regions around the world. However, it is a practice that is fairly new to North America and it is gaining attention quickly for the physical and psychological benefits it provides to your body. Studies have shown that in addition to reducing physiological and psychological stresses placed on your body, individuals who practice meditation have much fewer doctor visits for both physical and psychological illnesses.\n<a href=\"Hypnosis\">Hypnosis</a> relaxation therapy has recently become another technique used among healthcare professionals to promote relaxation. When performed correctly, hypnosis has the ability to put an individual in a deep state of relaxation. During this state the individual is vulnerable to suggestions stated by the person performing the hypnosis. Not only will the hypnotized individual be stress free and in a deep state of relaxation but it is thought that when the individual is out of hypnosis they will be less susceptible to the effects of stress as suggested by the person who performed the hypnosis on them. In addition to relaxation, hypnosis therapy is being used to treat a variety of conditions. Treatments for conditions using hypnosis that are currently being promoted by The <a href=\"Mayo%20Clinic\">Mayo Clinic</a> are; smoking addiction therapy, pain control therapy, weight loss, coping with chemotherapy, asthma, and allergy relief.\n<a href=\"Relaxation%20technique\">Relaxation technique</a>s used in therapy by a certified counselor or therapist could include any of the previous techniques discussed. Professionals in the fields of psychology or counseling will have the ability to administer a variety of these techniques. If they feel it is appropriate they may prescribe medication to assist the patient with relaxation. Although a number of these techniques are simple and can be performed on one's own time, patients may receive better results if they are guided by a professional who is very familiar with the techniques.\n<a href=\"Herbert%20Benson\">Herbert Benson</a>, a professor at the medical school at <a href=\"Harvard%20University\">Harvard University</a>, has proposed in his book \"<a href=\"The%20Relaxation%20Response\">The Relaxation Response</a>\" a mechanism of the body that counters the <a href=\"fight-or-flight%20response\">fight-or-flight response</a>. The relaxation response reduces the body’s metabolism, heart and breathing rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and calms brain activity. It increases the immune response, helps attention and decision making, and changes gene activities that are the opposite of those associated stress. The relaxation response is achieved through meditation. Benson's meditation technique involves these four steps:\n<a href=\"Autogenics\">Autogenics</a> was invented by Dr. <a href=\"Johannes%20Schulz\">Johannes Schulz</a> in the 1920s. The process of autogenics is by relaxing muscles deeply, and by doing so, the mind follows through and relaxes as well. There as six parts to autogenics training:\n<a href=\"Progressive%20muscle%20relaxation\">Progressive muscle relaxation</a> helps relax your muscles by tensing certain parts of the body (such as the neck), and then releasing the tension in order to feel the muscles relaxing. This technique helps for people with <a href=\"anxiety\">anxiety</a> because they are always tense throughout the day.\nThe benefits of relaxation can be found in three main areas of an individual’s health, including; mental, physical and physiological health. Being relaxed can do positive things for someone’s health from just elevating your mood to helping with insomnia. All of these things can help an individual live a happier and healthier life and may increase the longevity of one's life. There are not many draw backs of relaxation. It is an easy technique to understand and follow through with. Three categories that relaxation can help with are mental, physical, and physiological.\nMental health is very important and needs to be worked on every day. Relaxation can help with many impairments that can occur in one's mental health. There is a higher mood and lower anxiety in those who practice relaxation techniques. Those who are relaxed have much slower and clearer thought processes than those who are not relaxed; this can be shown on an EEG. It is well known that relaxation can help reduce stress. With reducing stress, a person can help reduce the negative things that stress can do to the body. Coping mechanisms are also improved with relaxation techniques in both mental and physical pain.\nSleep disorders are an area that can produce stress and mental health issues. Relaxation may help reduce insomnia in those who have sleeping disorders. Those with insomnia may even give up sleeping aids just by practicing relaxation techniques. Being off of unnecessary medication or sleep aids will help health as an over all. Even though relaxation cannot get rid of chronic diseases, it may help dull of the symptoms one may have. Many cancer and AIDS patients are taught relaxation techniques.\nPhysical health is also something that needs to be worked on daily, whether it is exercise, healthy eating, or relaxation. states that blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate will all decrease when one is relaxed. This means that a person's heart does not beat as fast and their breathing is shallow, helping one's body have time to rest. This will reduce the extra stress that these things can do to the body if they are over worked. Muscle tension will decrease. If one's muscle tension is decreased they are not burning up extra energy that they may need later in the day. Metabolism can also decrease; this is mostly seen in hibernation and sleep and that gives the body extra time to rest and focus on other aspect that it needs to. This could be seen as a good or bad thing, depending on the overall quality of health. People who practice relaxation have said to be able to tolerate pain better both mentally and physically.\nIn regards to the nervous system, relaxation can also play a big role. An individual will go from active and alert, which is the sympathetic, to parasympathetic which is rest and digest. When they are relaxing, it gives the body time to catch up. A person does not need to worry about running, because they are sitting still and allowing “rest and digest”. Immune systems will increase with increased relaxation which is why relaxation can be seen as part of treatment for AIDS and cancer patients.","Alexander Nemerov\nAlexander Nemerov (born 1963) is a Professor of Art and Art History at <a href=\"Stanford%20University\">Stanford University</a>. Prior to joining Stanford, he was a Professor of Art History and American Studies at <a href=\"Yale%20University\">Yale University</a>. Over the years he has published several books and articles pertaining to the culture of American art dating from the eighteenth to the 1970s. His writing often analyzes fiction and poetry alongside works of visual art. His father was the poet <a href=\"Howard%20Nemerov\">Howard Nemerov</a>, his aunt the photographer <a href=\"Diane%20Arbus\">Diane Nemerov Arbus</a>.\nBorn in <a href=\"Bennington%2C%20Vermont\">Bennington, Vermont</a> in 1963, the son of the poet Howard Nemerov, Alexander grew up in the context of the academic and contemplative life, his father having taught at <a href=\"Washington%20University%20in%20St.%20Louis\">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, and earlier at <a href=\"Bennington%20College\">Bennington College</a> in Vermont. The period before Alexander's birth was chronicled in Howard's \"Journal of the Fictive Life\". Alexander earned a BA in English and Art History from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Vermont\">University of Vermont</a> in 1985, graduating <a href=\"Phi%20Beta%20Kappa\">Phi Beta Kappa</a>, Cum Laude. He received his Doctorate and master's degrees in history of art from Yale University.\nAfter completing his doctorate under the supervision of <a href=\"Jules%20Prown\">Jules Prown</a> at Yale, Nemerov went on to teach at <a href=\"Stanford%20University\">Stanford University</a> for nine years, eight as Assistant Professor and one as a full Professor. His areas of expertise include American art from the colonial period to the 1970s, American literature, American <a href=\"material%20culture\">material culture</a>, and American history, with special interests in \"defamiliarizing,\" \"counter-intuitive,\" \"close\" readings of works of art and literature, paying particular attention to details of form, and formal analogies between visual and literary source material. Nemerov's approach to his objects of scholarly investigation thus shares certain affinities with methodologies commonly associated with the <a href=\"Yale%20School\">Yale School</a> of literary criticism. As a teacher, Professor Nemerov is known for the quality of his lectures.\nNemerov was the recipient of the Dean's Award at Stanford in 1998, as well as the Internal Faculty Fellowship, Stanford Humanities Center, that year. Other awards/fellowships include the Material Culture Fellowship Smithsonian Institution/University Consortium for Studies in Material Culture, National Museum of American Art (1989–1991). In 2001 he returned to teach at Yale, where he received tenure. In 2012, he moved back to Stanford's art history department. In January 2014, he was named to the \"Stanford Daily\"'s top 10 professors list.\nSince the 1990s, Nemerov has published several books and numerous articles, many of which appear in the journal \"American Art\". He also has organized, or helped in organizing, a few exhibitions, which tend to coincide thematically with his research interests at the time; these include: \"Frederic Remington and the American Civil War: A Ghost Story\", at the Norman Rockwell Museum, Stockbridge, Massachusetts, 2006; \"Mammoth Scale: The Anatomical Sculptures of William Rush, 2002–2003\", at the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, 2002–2003; and \"The West as America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier, 1820-1920\", at the National Museum of American Art, <a href=\"Smithsonian%20Institution\">Smithsonian Institution</a>, Washington, D. C., 1989-1991.\nCurrently, his research interests focus on two projects: a study of a single night’s performance of \"Macbeth\" during Abraham Lincoln’s presidency, and a study of the artistic relationship between his father, the poet Howard Nemerov, and his aunt, the photographer <a href=\"Diane%20Arbus\">Diane Arbus</a>.","Mood (psychology)\nIn <a href=\"psychology\">psychology</a>, a mood is an <a href=\"emotion\">emotion</a>al state. In contrast to emotions, feelings, or <a href=\"Affect%20%28psychology%29\">affects</a>, moods are less specific, less intense and less likely to be provoked or instantiated by a particular <a href=\"Stimulus%20%28physiology%29\">stimulus</a> or event. Moods are typically described as having either a positive or negative valence. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood.\nMood also differs from <a href=\"temperament\">temperament</a> or <a href=\"Trait%20theory\">personality traits</a> which are even longer-lasting. Nevertheless, personality traits such as <a href=\"optimism\">optimism</a> and <a href=\"neuroticism\">neuroticism</a> predispose certain types of moods. Long term disturbances of mood such as <a href=\"Major%20depressive%20disorder\">clinical depression</a> and <a href=\"bipolar%20disorder\">bipolar disorder</a> are considered mood disorders. Mood is an internal, subjective state but it often can be inferred from posture and other behaviors. \"We can be sent into a mood by an unexpected event, from the happiness of seeing an old friend to the anger of discovering betrayal by a partner. We may also just fall into a mood.\"\nResearch also shows that a person's mood can influence how they process advertising. Mood has been found to interact with gender to affect consumer processing of information.\nEtymologically, the word \"mood\" derives from the <a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a> \"mōd\" which denoted military <a href=\"courage\">courage</a>, but could also refer to a person's humor, temper, or disposition at a particular time. The cognate <a href=\"Gothic%20language\">Gothic</a> \"mōds\" translates both <a href=\"Thymos\">θυμός</a> \"mood, spiritedness\" and ὀργή \"<a href=\"anger\">anger</a>\".\nPositive mood\nPositive mood can be caused by many different aspects of life as well as have certain effects on people as a whole. Good mood is usually considered a state without an identified cause; people cannot pinpoint exactly why they are in a good mood. People seem to experience a positive mood when they have a clean slate, have had a good night sleep, and feel no sense of stress in their life.\nThere have been many studies done on the effect of positive emotion on the cognitive mind and there is speculation that positive mood can affect our minds in good or bad ways. Generally, positive mood has been found to enhance creative problem solving and flexible yet careful thinking. Some studies have stated that positive moods let people think creatively, freely, and be more imaginative. Positive mood can also help individuals in situations in which heavy thinking and brainstorming is involved. In one experiment, individuals who were induced with a positive mood enhanced performance on the Remote Associates Task (RAT), a cognitive task that requires creative problem solving. Moreover, the study also suggests that being in a positive mood broadens or expands the breadth of attentional selection such that information that may be useful to the task at hand becomes more accessible for use. Consequently, greater accessibility of relevant information facilitates successful problem solving. Positive mood also facilitates resistance to temptations, especially with regards to <a href=\"Junk%20food\">unhealthy food choices</a>.\nPositive mood has also been proven to show negative effects on cognition as well. According to the article \"Positive mood is associated with implicit use of distraction\", \"There is also evidence that individuals in positive moods show disrupted performance, at least when distracting information is present\". The article states that other things in their peripheral views can easily distract people who are in good moods; an example of this would be if you were trying to study in the library (considering you are in a positive mood) you see people constantly walking around or making small noises. The study is basically stating that it would be harder for positive moods to focus on the task at hand. In particular, happy people may be more sensitive to the <a href=\"hedonism\">hedonic</a> consequences of message processing than sad people. Thus, positive moods are predicted to lead to decreased processing only when thinking about the message is mood threatening. In comparison, if message processing allows a person to maintain or enhance a pleasant state then positive moods need not lead to lower levels of message scrutiny than negative moods. It is assumed that initial information regarding the source either confirms or disconfirms mood-congruent expectations. Specifically, a positive mood may lead to more positive expectations concerning source trustworthiness or likability than a negative mood. As a consequence, people in a positive mood should be more surprised when they encounter an untrustworthy or dislikable source rather than a trustworthy or likable source.\nNegative mood\nLike positive moods, negative moods have important implications for human mental and physical wellbeing. Moods are basic psychological states that can occur as a reaction to an event or can surface for no apparent external cause. Since there is no intentional object that causes the negative mood, it has no specific start and stop date. It can last for hours, days, weeks, or longer. Negative moods can manipulate how individuals interpret and translate the world around them, and can also direct their behavior.\nNegative moods can affect an individual’s judgment and perception of objects and events. In a study done by Niedenthal and Setterlund (1994), research showed that individuals are tuned to perceive things that are congruent with their current mood. Negative moods, mostly low-intense, can control how humans perceive emotion-congruent objects and events. For example, Niedenthal and Setterland used music to induce positive and negative moods. Sad music was used as a stimulus to induce negative moods, and participants labeled other things as negative. This proves that people's current moods tend to affect their judgments and perceptions. These negative moods may lead to problems in social relationships. For example, one maladaptive negative mood regulation is an overactive strategy in which individuals over dramatize their negative feelings in order to provoke support and feedback from others and to guarantee their availability. A second type of maladaptive negative mood regulation is a disabling strategy in which individuals suppress their negative feelings and distance themselves from others in order to avoid frustrations and anxiety caused by others' unavailability.\nNegative moods have been connected with <a href=\"Depression%20%28mood%29\">depression</a>, <a href=\"anxiety\">anxiety</a>, aggression, poor self-esteem, physiological stress and decrease in <a href=\"sexual%20arousal\">sexual arousal</a>. In some individuals, there is evidence that depressed or anxious mood may increase sexual interest or arousal. In general, men were more likely than women to report increased sexual drive during negative mood states. Negative moods are labeled as nonconstructive because it can affect a person’s ability to process information; making them focus solely on the sender of a message, while people in positive moods will pay more attention to both the sender and the context of a message. This can lead to problems in social relationships with others.\nNegative moods, such as <a href=\"anxiety\">anxiety</a>, often lead individuals to misinterpret physical symptoms. According to Jerry Suls, a professor at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Iowa\">University of Iowa</a>, people who are depressed and anxious tend to be in <a href=\"rumination%20%28psychology%29\">rumination</a>. However, although an individual's affective states can influence the somatic changes, these individuals are not <a href=\"hypochondriacs\">hypochondriacs</a>.\nAlthough negative moods are generally characterized as bad, not all negative moods are necessarily damaging. The <a href=\"Negative%20State%20Relief%20Model\">Negative State Relief Model</a> states that human beings have an innate drive to reduce negative moods. People can reduce their negative moods by engaging in any mood-elevating behavior (called <a href=\"Mood%20repair%20strategies\">Mood repair strategies</a>), such as helping behavior, as it is paired with positive value such as smiles and thank you. Thus negative mood increases helpfulness because helping others can reduce one's own bad feelings.\nLack of sleep\nSleep has a complex, and as of yet not fully elucidated, relationship with mood. Most commonly if a person is sleep deprived he/she will become more irritable, angry, more prone to stress, and less energized throughout the day. \"Studies have shown that even partial sleep deprivation has a significant effect on mood. University of Pennsylvania researchers found that subjects who were limited to only 4.5 hours of sleep a night for one week reported feeling more stressed, angry, sad, and mentally exhausted. When the subjects resumed normal sleep, they reported a dramatic improvement in mood.\" Generally, evening oriented people, as compared to morning ones, show decreased energy and pleasantness and heightened tension.\nHowever, in a subset of cases sleep deprivation can, paradoxically, lead to increased energy and alertness and enhanced mood. This effect is most marked in persons with an eveningeness type (so called night-owls) and people suffering from depression. For this reason it has, not surprisingly, been used as a treatment for <a href=\"major%20depressive%20disorder\">major depressive disorder</a>.\nNutrition\nThere is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and positive mood. This evidence is independent of demographic or health variables including <a href=\"Socioeconomic%20status\">socio-economic status</a>, <a href=\"Physical%20exercise\">exercise</a>, smoking, and <a href=\"body%20mass%20index\">body mass index</a> (BMI). Further studies have demonstrated a causal link between greater fruit and vegetable intake with feeling calmer, happier, more energetic, and more positive.\nFacial expression\nResearch studies have indicated that voluntary facial expressions, such as smiling, can produce effects on the body that are similar to those that result from the actual emotion, such as happiness. <a href=\"Paul%20Ekman\">Paul Ekman</a> and his colleagues have studied facial expressions of emotions and have linked specific emotions to the movement of specific facial muscles. Each basic emotion is associated with a distinctive facial expression. Sensory feedback from the expression contributes to the emotional feeling. Example: Smiling if you want to feel happy. Facial expressions have a large effect on self-reported anger and happiness which then affects your mood. Ekman has found that these expressions of emotion are universal and recognizable across widely divergent cultures.\nDepression, chronic stress, bipolar disorder, etc. are considered mood disorders. It has been suggested that such disorders result from chemical imbalances in the brain's neurotransmitters, however some research challenges this hypothesis.\nThe idea of social mood as a \"collectively shared state of mind\" (Nofsinger 2005; Olson 2006) is attributed to <a href=\"Robert%20Prechter\">Robert Prechter</a> and his <a href=\"socionomics\">socionomics</a>. The notion is used primarily in the field of <a href=\"economics\">economics</a> (<a href=\"investment\">investment</a>s).\nIn sociology, philosophy, and psychology, <a href=\"crowd\">crowd</a> behavior is the formation of a \"common mood\" directed toward an object of attention."],"string":"[\n \"Amygdala hijack\\nAmygdala hijack is a term coined by Daniel Goleman in his 1996 book \\\"Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ\\\". Drawing on the work of Joseph E. LeDoux, Goleman uses the term to describe emotional responses from people which are immediate and overwhelming, and out of measure with the actual stimulus because it has triggered a much more significant emotional threat.\\nPart of the thalamus's stimuli goes directly to the amygdala, while other parts are sent to the neocortex or \\\"thinking brain\\\". If the amygdala perceives a match to the stimulus, i.e., if the record of experiences in the hippocampus tells the amygdala that it is a fight, flight or freeze situation, then the amygdala triggers the HPA (hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal) axis and hijacks the rational brain. This emotional brain activity processes information milliseconds earlier than the rational brain, so in case of a match, the amygdala acts before any possible direction from the neocortex can be received. If, however, the amygdala does not find any match to the stimulus received with its recorded threatening situations, then it acts according to the directions received from the neocortex. When the amygdala perceives a threat, it can lead that person to react irrationally and destructively.\\nGoleman states that emotions \\\"make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?\\\" The emotional response \\\"can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened.\\\"\\nAn amygdala hijack exhibits three signs: strong emotional reaction, sudden onset, and post-episode realization if the reaction was inappropriate.\\nGoleman later emphasised that \\\"self-control is crucial...when facing someone who is in the throes of an amygdala hijack\\\" so as to avoid a complementary hijacking—whether in work situations, or in private life. Thus for example 'one key marital competence is for partners to learn to soothe their own distressed feelings...nothing gets resolved positively when husband or wife is in the midst of an emotional hijacking.' The danger is that \\\"when our partner becomes, in effect, our enemy, we are in the grip of an 'amygdala hijack' in which our emotional memory, lodged in the limbic center of our brain, rules our reactions without the benefit of logic or reason...which causes our bodies to go into a 'fight or flight' response.\\\"\\nGoleman points out that \\\"'not all limbic hijackings are distressing. When a joke strikes someone as so uproarious that their laughter is almost explosive, that, too, is a limbic response. It is at work also in moments of intense joy.\\\"\\nHe also cites the case of a man strolling by a canal when he saw a girl staring petrified at the water. \\\"[B]efore he knew quite why, he had jumped into the water—in his coat and tie. Only once he was in the water did he realize that the girl was staring in shock at a toddler who had fallen in—whom he was able to rescue.\\\"\\nLeDoux was positive about the possibility of learning to control the amygdala's hair-trigger role in emotional outbursts. \\\"Once your emotional system learns something, it seems you never let it go. What therapy does is teach you how to control it—it teaches your neocortex how to inhibit your amygdala. The propensity to act is suppressed, while your basic emotion about it remains in a subdued form.\\\"\",\n \"Unipolar emotions\\nUnipolar emotions refer to emotional responses to things that are either entirely positive or entirely negative. These emotional reactions become distinguished over time, causing the good things (like the \\\"good old times\\\") to be remembered better than they were, and the bad things recalled even worse than they might have been.\",\n \"Art and emotion\\nIn psychology of art, the relationship between art and emotion has newly been the subject of extensive study thanks to the intervention of esteemed art historian Alexander Nemerov. Emotional or aesthetic responses to art have previously been viewed as basic stimulus response, but new theories and research have suggested that these experiences are more complex and able to be studied experimentally. Emotional responses are often regarded as the keystone to experiencing art, and the creation of an emotional experience has been argued as the purpose of artistic expression. Research has shown that the neurological underpinnings of perceiving art differ from those used in standard object recognition. Instead, brain regions involved in the experience of emotion and goal setting show activation when viewing art.\\nEvolutionary ancestry has hard-wired humans to have affective responses for certain patterns and traits. These predispositions lend themselves to responses when looking at certain visual arts as well. Identification of subject matter is the first step in understanding the visual image. Being presented with visual stimuli creates initial confusion. Being able to comprehend a figure and background creates closure and triggers the pleasure centers of the brain by remedying the confusion. Once an image is identified, meaning can be created by accessing memory relative to the visual stimuli and associating personal memories with what is being viewed.\\nOther methods of stimulating initial interest that can lead to emotion involves pattern recognition. Symmetry is often found in works of art, and the human brain unconsciously searches for symmetry for a number of reasons. Potential predators were bilaterally symmetrical, as were potential prey. Bilateral symmetry also exists in humans, and a healthy human is typically symmetrical. This attraction to symmetry was therefore advantageous, as it helped humans recognize danger, food, and mates. Art containing symmetry therefore is typically approached and positively valenced to humans.\\nAnother example is to observe paintings or photographs of bright, open landscapes that often evoke a feeling of beauty, relaxation, or happiness. This connection to pleasant emotions exists because it was advantageous to humans before today's society to be able to see far into the distance in a brightly lit vista. Similarly, visual images that are dark and/or obscure typically elicit emotions of anxiety and fear. This is because an impeded visual field is disadvantageous for a human to be able to defend itself.\\nThe optimal visual artwork creates what Noy & Noy-Sharav call \\\"meta-emotions.\\\" These are multiple emotions that are triggered at the same time. They posit that what people see when immediately looking at a piece of artwork are the formal, technical qualities of the work and its complexity. Works that are well-made but lacking in appropriate complexity, or works that are intricate but missing in technical skill will not produce \\\"meta-emotions.\\\" For example, seeing a perfectly painted chair (technical quality but no complexity) or a sloppily drawn image of Christ on the cross (complex but no skill) would be unlikely to stimulate deep emotional responses. However, beautifully painted works of Christ's crucifixion are likely make people who can relate or who understand the story behind it weep.\\nNoy & Noy-Sharav also claim that art is the most potent form of emotional communication. They cite examples of people being able to listen to and dance to music for hours without getting tired and literature being able to take people to far away, imagined lands inside their heads. Art forms give humans a higher satisfaction in emotional release than simply managing emotions on their own. Art allows people to have a cathartic release of pent-up emotions either by creating work or by witnessing and pseudo-experiencing what they see in front of them. Instead of being passive recipients of actions and images, art is intended for people to challenge themselves and work through the emotions they see presented in the artistic message ./..\\nThere is debate among researchers as to what types of emotions works of art can elicit; whether these are defined emotions such as anger, confusion or happiness, or a general feeling of aesthetic appreciation. The aesthetic experience seems to be determined by liking or disliking a work of art, placed along a continuum of pleasure–displeasure. However, other diverse emotions can still be felt in response to art, which can be sorted into three categories: Knowledge Emotions, Hostile Emotions, and Self-Conscious Emotions.\\nPleasure elicited by works of art can also have multiple sources. A number of theories suggest that enjoyment of a work of art is dependent on its comprehensibility or ability to be understood easily. Therefore, when more information about a work of art is provided, such as a title, description, or artist's statement, researchers predict that viewers will understand the piece better, and demonstrate greater liking for it. Experimental evidence shows that the presence of a title for a work increases perceived understanding, regardless of whether that title is elaborative or descriptive. Elaborative titles did affect aesthetic responses to the work, suggesting viewers were not creating alternative explanations for the works if an explaining title is given. Descriptive or random titles do not show any of these effects.\\nFurthering the thought that pleasure in art derives from its comprehensibility and processing fluency, some authors have described this experience as an emotion. The emotional feeling of beauty, or an aesthetic experience, does not have a valence emotional undercurrent, rather is general cognitive arousal due to the fluent processing of a novel stimuli. Some authors believe that aesthetic emotions is enough of a unique and verifiable experience that it should be included in general theories of emotion.\\nKnowledge emotions deal with reactions to thinking and feeling, such as interest, confusion, and surprise. They often stem from self-analysis of what the viewer knows, expects, and perceives. This set of emotions also spur actions that motivate further learning and thinking.\\nInterest in a work of art arises from perceiving the work as new, complex, and unfamiliar, as well as understandable. This dimension is studied most often by aesthetics researchers, and can be equated with aesthetic pleasure or an aesthetic experience. This stage of art experience usually occurs as the viewer understands the artwork they are viewing, and the art fits into their knowledge and expectations while providing a new experience.\\nConfusion can be viewed as an opposite to interest, and serves as a signal to the self to inform the viewer that they cannot comprehend what they are looking at, and confusion often necessitates a shift in action to remedy the lack of understanding. Confusion is thought to stem from uncertainty, and a lack of one's expectations and knowledge being met by a work of art.\\nConfusion is most often experienced by art novices, and therefore must often be dealt with by those in arts education.\\nSurprise functions as a disruption of current action to alert a viewer to a significant event. The emotion is centered around the experience of something new and unexpected, and can be ellicied by sensory incongruity. Art can ellicit surprise when expectations about the work are not met, but the work changes those expectations in an understandable way.\\nHostile emotions toward art are often very visible in the form of anger or frustration, and can result in censorship, but are less easily described by a continuum of aesthetic pleasure-displeasure. These reactions center around the hostility triad: anger, disgust, and contempt. These emotions often motivate aggression, self-assertion, and violence, and arise from perception of the artist's deliberate trespass onto the expectations of the viewer.\\nSelf-conscious emotions are responses that reflect upon the self and one's actions, such as pride, guilt, shame, regret and embarrassment. These are much more complex emotions, and involve assessing events as agreeing with one's self-perception or not, and adjusting one's behavior accordingly. There are numerous instances of artists expressing self-conscious emotions in response to their art, and self-conscious emotions can also be felt collectively.\\nResearchers have investigated the experience of the sublime, viewed as similar to aesthetic appreciation, which causes general psychological arousal. The sublime feeling has been connected to a feeling of happiness in response to art, but may be more related to an experience of fear. Researchers have shown that feelings of fear induced before looking at artwork results in more sublime feelings in response to those works.\\nAnother common emotional response is that of chills when viewing a work of art. The feeling is predicted to be related to similar aesthetic experiences such as awe, feeling touched, or absorption. Personality traits along the Big 5 Inventory have been shown to be predictors of a persons experience of aesthetic chills, especially a high rating on Openness to Experience. This counters the effect of fluid intelligence, where those with higher amounts of fluid intelligence are less likely to experience chills. Experience with the arts also predicts someone's experience of aesthetic chills, but this may be due to them experiencing art more frequently.\\nThe fact that art is analyzed and experienced differently by those with artistic training and expertise than those who are artistically naive has been shown numerous times. Researchers have tried to understand how experts interact with art so differently from the art naive, as experts tend to like more abstract compositions, and show a greater liking for both modern and classical types of art. Experts also exhibit more arousal when looking at modern and abstract works, while non-experts show more arousal to classical works.\\nOther researchers predicted that experts find more complex art interesting because they have changed their appraisals of art to create more interest, or are possibly making completely different types of appraisals than novices. Experts described works rated high in complexity as easier to understand and more interesting than did novices, possibly as experts tend to use more idiosyncratic criteria when judging artworks. However, experts seem to use the same appraisals of emotions that novices do, but these appraisals are at a higher level, because a wider range of art is comprehensible to experts.\\nDue to most art being in museums and galleries, most people have to make deliberate choices to interact with art. Researchers are interested in what types of experiences and emotions people are looking for when going to experience art in a museum. Most people respond that they visit museums to experience 'the pleasure of art' or 'the desire for cultural learning', but when broken down, visitors of museums of classical art are more motivated to see famous works and learn more about them. Visitors in contemporary art museums were more motivated by a more emotional connection to the art, and went more for the pleasure than a learning experience. Predictors of who would prefer to go to which type of museum lay in education level, art fluency, an socio-economic status.\\nResearchers have offered a number of theories to describe emotional responses to art, often aligning with the various theories of the basis of emotions. Authors have argued that the emotional experience is created explicitly by the artist and mimicked in the viewer, or that the emotional experience of art is a by-product of the analysis of that work.\\nThe appraisal theory of emotions centers on the assumption that it is the evaluation of events, and not the events themselves, that cause emotional experiences. Emotions are then created by different groups of appraisal structures that events are analyzed through. When applied to art, appraisal theories argue that various artistic structures, such as complexity, prototypically, and understanding are used as appraisal structures, and works that show more typical art principles will create a stronger aesthetic experience . Appraisal theories suggest that art is experienced as interesting after being analyzed through a novelty check and coping-potential check, which analyze the art's newness of experience for the viewer, and the viewer's ability to understand the new experience. Experimental evidence suggests that art is preferred when the viewer finds it easier to understand, and that interest in a work is predictable with knowledge of the viewer's ability to process complex visual works, which supports the appraisal theory. People with higher levels of artistic expertise and knowledge often prefer more complex works of art. Under appraisal theory, experts have a different emotional experience to art due to a preference for more complex works that they can understand better than a naive viewer.\\nA newer take on this theory focuses on the consequences of the emotions elicited from art, both positive and negative. The original theory argues that positive emotions are the result of a biobehavioral reward system, where a person feels a positive emotion when they have completed a personal goal. These emotional rewards create actions by motivating approach or withdrawal from a stimuli, depending if the object is positive or negative to the person. However, these theories have not often focused on negative emotions, especially negative emotional experiences from art. These emotions are central to experimental aesthetics research in order to understand why people have negative, rejecting, condemning, or censoring reactions to works of art. By showing research participants controversial photographs, rating their feelings of anger, and measuring their subsequent actions, researchers found that the participants that felt hostile toward the photographs displayed more rejection of the works. This suggests that negative emotions towards a work of art can create a negative action toward it, and suggests the need for further research on negative reactions towards art.\\nOther psychologists believe that emotions are of minimal functionality, and are used to move a person towards incentives and away from threats. Therefore, positive emotions are felt upon the attainment of a goal, and negative emotions when a goal has failed to be achieved. The basic states of pleasure or pain can be adapted to aesthetic experiences by a disinterested buffer, where the experience is not explicitly related to the goal-reaching of the person, but a similar experience can be analyzed from a disinterested distance. These emotions are disinterested because the work of art or artist's goals are not affecting the person's well being, but the viewer can feel whether or not those goals were achieved from a third-party distance.\\nOther theorists have focused their models on the disrupting and unique experience that comes from the interacting with a powerful work of art. An early model focused on a two-part experience: facile recognition and meta-cognitive perception, or the experience of the work of art and the mind's analysis of that experience. A further cognitive model strengthens this idea into a five-part emotional experience of a work of art. As this five-part model is new, it remains only a theory, as not much empirical evidence for the model had been researched yet.\\nThe first stage of this model focuses on the viewer's expectations of the work before seeing it, based on their previous experiences, their observational strategies, and the relation of the work to themselves. Viewers who tend to appreciate art, or know more about it will have different expectations at this stage than those who are not engaged by art.\\nAfter viewing the work of art, people will make an initial judgment and classification of the work, often based on their preconceptions of the work. After initial classification, viewers attempt to understand the motive and meaning of the work, which can then inform their perception of the work, creating a cycle of changing perception and the attempt to understand it. It is at this point any discrepancies between expectations and the work, or the work and understanding arise.\\nWhen an individual finds a discrepancy in their understanding that cannot be resolved or ignored, they move to the third stage of their interaction with a work of art. At this point, interaction with the work has switched from lower-order and unconscious processes to higher-order cognitive involvement, and tension and frustration starts to be felt. In order to maintain their self-assumptions and to resolve the work, an individual will try to change their environment in order for the issue to be resolved or ignored. This can be done by re-classifying the work and its motives, blaming the discrepancy on an external source, or attempting to escape the situation or mentally withdraw from the work.\\nIf viewers cannot escape or reassess the work, they are forced to reassess the self and their interactions with works of art. This experience of self-awareness through a work of art is often externally caused, rather than internally motivated, and starts a transformative process to understand the meaning of the discrepant work, and edit their own self-image.\\nAfter the self-transformation and change in expectations, the viewer resets their interaction with the work, and begins the process anew with deeper self-understanding and cognitive mastery of the artwork.\\nIn order to research emotional responses to art, researchers often rely on behavioral data. But new psychophysilogical methods of measuring emotional response are beginning to be used, such as the measurement of pupillary response. Pupil responses have been predicted to indicate image pleasantness and emotional arousal, but can be confounded by luminance, and confusion between an emotion's positive or negative valence, requiring an accompanying verbal explanation of emotional state. Pupil dilatations have been found to predict emotional responses and the amount of information the brain is processing, measures important in testing emotional response ellicted by artwork. Further, the existence of pupillary responses to artwork can be used as an argument that art does ellicit emotional responses with physiological reactions.\\nAfter viewing Cubist paintings of varying complexity, abstraction, and familiarity, participants' pupil responses were greatest when viewing aesthetically pleasing artwork, and highly accessible art, or art low in abstraction. Pupil responses also correlated with personal preferences of the cubist art. High pupil responses were also correlated with faster cognitive processing, supporting theories that aesthetic emotions and preferences are related to the brain's ease of processing the stimuli.\\nThese effects are also seen when investigating the Western preference for left-facing portraits. This skew towards left-cheek is found in the majority of Western portraits, and is rated as more pleasing than other portrait orientations. Theories for this preference suggest that the left side of the face as more emotionally descriptive and expressive, which lets viewers connect to this emotional content better. Pupil response tests were used to test emotional response to different types of portraits, left or right cheek, and pupil dilation was linearly related to the pleasantness of the portrait, with increased dilations for pleasant images, and constrictions for unpleasant images. Left-facing portraits were rated as more pleasant, even when mirrored to appear right-facing, suggesting that people are more attracted to more emotional facial depictions.\\nThis research was continued, using portraits by Rembrandt featuring females with a left-cheek focus and males with a right-cheek focus. Researchers predicted Rembrandt chose to portray his subjects this way to elicit different emotional responses in his viewers related to which portrait cheek was favored. In comparison to previous studies, increased pupil size was only found for male portraits with a right-cheek preference. This may be because the portraits were viewed as domineering, and the subsequent pupil response was due to unpleasantness. As pupil dilation is more indicative of strength of emotional response than the valence, a verbal description of emotional responses should accompany further pupillary response tests.\\nArt is also used as an emotional regulator, most often in Art Therapy sessions. Studies have shown that creating art can serve as a method of short-term mood regulation. This type of regulation falls into two categories: venting and distraction. Artists in all fields of the arts have reported emotional venting and distraction through the creation of their art.\\nVenting through art is the process of using art to attend to and discharge negative emotions. However, research has shown venting to be a less effective method of emotional regulation. Research participants asked to draw either an image related to a sad movie they just watched, or a neutral house, demonstrated less negative mood after the neutral drawing. Venting drawings did improve negative mood more than no drawing activity. Other research suggests that this is because analyzing negative emotions can have a helpful effect, but immersing in negative emotions can have a deleterious effect.\\nDistraction is the process of creating art to oppose, or in spite of negative emotions. This can also take the form of fantasizing, or creating an opposing positive to counteract a negative affect. Research has demonstrated that distractive art making activities improve mood greater than venting activities. Distractive drawings were shown to decrease negative emotions more than venting drawings or no drawing task even after participants were asked to recall their saddest personal memories. These participants also experienced an increase in positive affect after a distractive drawing task. The change in mood valence after a distractive drawing task is even greater when participants are asked to create happy drawings to counter their negative mood.\",\n \"Emotionality\\nEmotionality is the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion. It is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion (i.e., smiling) do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, a frown can communicate sadness or anger, and so on. Emotionality is often used by psychology researchers to operationalize emotion in research studies.\\nBy the late 1800s, many high-quality contributions had been made to the theory of emotion by psychologists and scientists such as Wilhelm Wundt, George Stout, William McDougall, William James, and George Herbert Mead. William James preferred to focus on the physiological aspects of emotional response, though he did not disregard the perceptual or cognitive components. William McDougall thought of emotion as the articulation of a natural response built on instinct. Other psychologists reasoned that although gestures express emotion, this is not the entirety of their function. Wundt analyzed that emotion portrays both expression and communication.\\nOne of the oldest issues of emotion is the one that believes emotion indicates inferiority. In early psychology, it was believed that passion (emotion) was a part of the soul inherited from the animals and that it must be controlled. identified that in the Romantic movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, reason and emotion were thought to be opposites.\\nPhysiological responses to emotion originate in the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system. Some of the responses include: heart rate, sweating, rate and depth of respiration, and electrical activity in the brain. Many researchers have attempted to find a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, although it is said that these attempts have rendered unsuccessful conclusions.\\nThe significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions. Common-sense suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that the physiological responses follow shortly after. Below are a few well-known theories which contradict this common-sense theory:\\nThe James-Lange theory of emotion was proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange. This theory suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological responses to outside stimuli or events. For example, this theory suggests that if someone is driving down the road and sees the headlights of another car heading toward them in their lane, their heart begins to race (a physiological response) and then they become afraid (fear being the emotion).\\nThe Cannon-Bard theory, which was conceptualized by Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard, suggests that emotions and their corresponding physiological responses are experienced simultaneously. Using the previous example, when someone sees the car coming toward them in their lane, their heart starts to race and they feel afraid at the same time.\\nStanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a theory also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, which implies emotion have two factors: physical arousal and cognitive label. This suggests that the physiological activity occurs first, then it must cognitively be distinguished as the cause of the arousal and labeled as an emotion. Using the example of someone seeing a car coming towards them in their lane, their heart would start to race and they would identify that they must be afraid if their heart is racing, and from there they would begin to feel fear.\\nThe opposition of rational thought and emotion is believed to be paralleled by the similar opposition between male and female. A traditional view is that \\\"men are seen as rational and women as emotional, lacking rationality.\\\" However, in spite of these ideas, and in spite of gender differences in the prevalence of mood disorders, the empirical evidence on gender differences in emotional responding is mixed.\\nWhen engaging in social interaction, studies show that women smile significantly more than men do. Although the results are meaningful, it is still difficult to determine the exact difference between males and females to explain this disparity. It is possible that the best explanation for this difference in expression of emotions could be due to societal influences and conformity to gender roles. However, this cannot fully explain the opposition between the two sexes or how it came to be against social norms for men to frequently smile during social interaction. One approach to this suggests the male gender role involves characteristics such as strength, expert knowledge, and a competitive nature, and that smiling can be stereotypically associated with weakness. Therefore, men may feel that if they succumb to this act of \\\"weakness,\\\" it may contradict their attempts to show strength and other traits of the male gender role. Another broad explanation for the contrast in male and female gender expression is that women have reported to experience greater levels of emotional intensity than men, in both positive and negative aspects, which could naturally lead to greater emotional response. This is not to say that men do not feel emotion. It is simply evident that men are less likely to express the emotions they feel than women may be. It has also been reported that men are more likely to confide in female companions, revealing their emotions and intimacy, while females are typically comfortable confiding in both genders. This suggests that men are simply more particular about how they express the emotions they feel, potentially relating back to the gender roles mentioned earlier.\\nIt is believed that there are six universal emotions which expand across all cultures. These emotions are: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. There is some argument that contempt should be combined with disgust, though it is not as widely accepted. According to Ekman (1992), each of these emotions have universally corresponding facial expressions as well. In addition to the facial expressions that are said to accompany each emotion, there is also evidence to suggest that certain autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity is associated with the three emotions of fear, anger, and disgust. Ekman (1992) theorizes that these specific emotions are associated with the universal physiological responses due to evolution. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.\\nEkman's theories were early challenged by James A. Russell, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This would seem to reflect methodological problems relating to both display rules and to the Components of emotion. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. The fact that emotions serve different functions in different cultures must also be taken into account.\",\n \"Replicant\\nA replicant is a fictional bioengineered or biorobotic android in the 1982 film \\\"Blade Runner\\\" and its upcoming sequel \\\"Blade Runner 2049\\\". The Nexus series of replicants are virtually identical to an adult human, but have superior strength, speed, agility, resilience, and intelligence to varying degrees, depending on the model. Because of their similarity to humans, a replicant can only be detected by means of the fictional Voight-Kampff test, in which emotional responses are provoked; replicants' responses differ from humans' responses. Nexus 6 replicants also have a safety mechanism, namely a four-year lifespan, to prevent them from developing empathic cognition and therefore immunity to a Voight-Kampff machine. A derogatory term for a replicant is \\\"skin-job\\\".\\nPhilip K. Dick's novel \\\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\\\", the inspiration for \\\"Blade Runner\\\", used the term android (or \\\"andy\\\"), but director Ridley Scott wanted a new term that did not have preconceptions. As David Peoples was rewriting the screenplay he consulted his daughter, who was involved in microbiology and biochemistry. She suggested the term \\\"replicating\\\", the biological process of a cell making a copy of itself. From that, one of them (each would later recall it was the other) came up with \\\"replicant\\\" and it was inserted into Hampton Fancher's screenplay.\\nReplicants became illegal on Earth after a bloody off-world mutiny by Nexus 6 replicants, before the events of the film. Two weeks before the starting point of the film, six Nexus 6 replicants escaped the off-world colonies, killing 23 people and taking a shuttle to Earth; the film focuses on the pursuit of the replicants by Deckard, a special police officer called a \\\"blade runner\\\", who investigates, tests, and \\\"retires\\\" (kills) replicants found on Earth.\\nNexus 6 replicants had been designed to copy humans in every way except for their emotions. The Tyrell Corporation \\\"began to recognize in them a strange obsession\\\", and in order to be able to control them better, started to implant false memories into the replicants in order to give them the years of experiences that humans take for granted; these memories created \\\"a cushion or pillow for their emotions\\\".\\nEarly in the film, Captain Bryant tells Deckard that the Nexus 6 units possible eventual development of emotional responses was the reason the Tyrell Corporation had made them have a four-year life. Late in the film, Dr. Eldon Tyrell states that the lifespan limitation cannot be circumvented and any attempt to circumvent the limitation kills the replicant during the procedure.\\nDeckard had no experience with Nexus 6 replicants at the beginning of the film; he and Captain Bryant are puzzled as to why they have risked coming back to Earth and Deckard is unsure how effective the Voight-Kampff test would be on them.\\nEscaped replicants (all Nexus 6 models):\\nOther replicants:\\nIn \\\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\\\", the android manufacturer, known as the Rosen Corporation, did not know how to manufacture an android capable of living beyond four years.\\nThe super-soldiers in \\\"Soldier\\\", the \\\"spin-off sidequel\\\"-spiritual successor to \\\"Blade Runner\\\", are intended to be replicants in the film.\\n\\\"Blade Runner\\\"'s dark paranoid atmosphere—and multiple versions of the film—adds fuel to the speculation and debate over this issue. In \\\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\\\", Rick Deckard (the protagonist) is at one point tricked into following an android, who believes himself to be a police officer, to a fake police station. Deckard then escapes and \\\"retires\\\" some androids there before returning to his own police station. Deckard takes the Voight-Kampff test and it fails to indicate that he is an android.\\nHarrison Ford, who played Deckard in the film, has said that he did not think Deckard was a replicant, and also states he and the director had discussions that ended in the agreement that the character was human. According to several interviews with director Ridley Scott, Deckard \\\"is\\\" a replicant. He collects photographs which are seen on his piano, yet has no obvious family beyond a reference to his ex-wife (who called him \\\"cold fish\\\"). In a scene where Deckard talks with Rachael, their eyes both appear to shine, suggestive of replicants.\\nIn the Director's Cut, police officer Gaff (played by Edward James Olmos) leaves Deckard an origami Unicorn a day after Deckard dreamed of one. Just before Deckard finds the unicorn, Gaff says to him in passing, \\\"It's too bad she [Rachael] won't live...then again, who does?\\\". A unicorn can also be seen briefly in a scene in J. F. Sebastian's home, amongst scattered toys (to the right of a sleeping Sebastian, while Pris snoops around his equipment). A unicorn also appears in a dream of Deckard's in the Director's Cut and as explained in the film, Rachael's memories are known by her creators, such as the memory Rachael has of spiders hatching. That Gaff is leaving an origami unicorn at Deckard's house may imply that Gaff knows about Deckard's unicorn dream.\\nAuthor Will Brooker has written that the dream may not be unique to Deckard and that unicorn dreams may be a \\\"personal touch\\\" added to some or all of the Nexus 6 replicants' \\\"brains.\\\" Since we are not privy to the dreams of the other replicants, this is unknown. From this one could also speculate that Gaff is a replicant and may share the same embedded memory.\\nPaul Sammon, author of \\\"Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner\\\", has suggested in interviews that Deckard may be a Nexus 7, a new replicant type who possesses no superhuman strength or intelligence but neurological features that complete the human illusion. Ridley Scott has mentioned \\\"Nexus 7\\\" and \\\"Nexus 8\\\" replicants as possibilities in a sequel to the film. Sammon also suggests that Nexus 7 replicants may not have a preset lifespan (i.e., they could be immortal).\\nSammon wrote that Ridley Scott thought it would be more provocative to imply that Deckard was a replicant. This ties back into the theme of \\\"what is it to be human?\\\" What is important is not whether Deckard is a replicant but that the ambiguity blurs the line between humans and replicants.\\nWhen Scott was asked about the possibility of a \\\"Blade Runner\\\" sequel in October 2012, he said, \\\"It's not a rumor — it's happening. With Harrison Ford? I don't know yet. Is he too old? Well, he was a Nexus 6, so we don't know how long he can live. And that's all I'm going to say at this stage.\\\" Shot in Budapest, the sequel \\\"Blade Runner 2049\\\" was scheduled for release in October 2017.\\nAlthough the press kit released to the media for the film explicitly defined a replicant as, \\\"A genetically engineered creature composed entirely of organic substance\\\", the physical make-up of the replicants themselves is not clear. In the opening crawl of the film, replicants are said to be the result of \\\"advanced robot evolution.\\\" The crawl also states that they were created by \\\"genetic engineers.\\\" Characters mention that they have eyes and brains like humans, and they are seen to bleed when injured. The only way of telling a replicant from a human is to ask a series of questions and analyze emotional response, suggesting they are entirely, or almost entirely, organic.\\n\\\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\\\" makes mention of the biological components of the androids, but also alludes to mechanical aspects commonly found in other material relating to robots. It states that the bone marrow can be tested to prove whether it is from a human or replicant.\\nIn May 2012, Ridley Scott confirmed that the replicants were biological in nature, and contrasted them to the androids in the \\\"Alien\\\" series. \\\"Roy Batty was an evolved... He wasn't an engine. If I cut him open, there wasn't metal, he was grown... and then within twenty years you get the first bill not passed in the Senate where they applied for replication of animals, sheep and goats and cattle and animals and they turned it down, but if you can do that, then you can do human beings. If you go deeper into it and say 'Yeah, but if you are going to grow a human being, does he start that big and I've got to see him through everything?' I don't want to answer the question, because of course he does... Ash in \\\"Alien\\\" had nothing to do with Roy Batty, because Roy Batty is more humanoid, whereas Ash was more metal\\\".\",\n \"Cognitive humor processing\\nCognitive humor processing refers to the neural circuitry and pathways that are involved in detecting incongruities of various situations presented in a humorous manner. Over the past decade, many studies have emerged utilizing fMRI studies to describe the neural correlates associated with how a human processes something that is considered \\\"funny\\\". Conceptually, humor is subdivided into two elements: cognitive and affective. The cognitive element, known as humor detection, refers to understanding the joke. Usually, this is characterized by the perceiver attempting to comprehend the disparities between the punch line and prior experience. The affective element, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is involved with enjoying the joke and producing visceral, emotional responses depending on the hilarity of the joke. This ability to comprehend and appreciate humor is a vital aspect of social functioning and is a significant part of the human condition that is relevant from a very early age. Humor comprehension develops in parallel with growing cognitive and language skills during childhood, while its content is mostly influenced by social and cultural factors. A further approach is described which refers to humor as an attitude related to strains. Humorous responses when confronted with troubles are discussed as a skill often associated with high social competence. The concept of humor has also been shown to have therapeutic effects, improving physiological systems such as the immune and central nervous system. It also has been shown to help cope with stress and pain. In sum, humor proves to be a personal resource throughout the life span, and helps support the coping of everyday tasks.\\nThe understanding of humor, humor production, and functionality of humor, evolves in the course of a lifetime and is essentially determined by cognitive, verbal and social abilities. Differences in humor appreciation are seen between individuals and can be attributed to the development of the neural systems underlying humor cognition during early childhood, which can continue through normal aging. Recent investigations have emphasized the importance of the prefrontal cortex for humor processing. Changes to the prefrontal cortex, a consequence of normal aging, can be traced to changes in the ways individuals appreciate humor.\\nThe cognitive component of humor is clearly exemplified during the years of childhood, which is characterized by evolving cognitive structures. As a child advances from one degree of cognition to the next, what is considered humorous and what is not should also manifest a meaningful progression. Understanding any particular joke may call upon an array of cognitive processes such as condensations, awareness of incongruities (the cognitive component), and the ability to comprehend unusual verbal representations. The intrinsic gratification involved in the brain activity underlying humor is also encountered in mental activities such as solving puzzles and decoding mysteries.\\nIn September 1966 a study was conducted concerning the effects of cognition on humor comprehension during the learning years of a child. The experimenters concluded that there was a positive relation between the mirth response and the degree of comprehension. Mirth is defined as any expression that reflects amusement, especially in the form of laughter. This study implied that the human's ability to comprehend text-based and visual information at a higher level resulted in a higher probability of joke or cartoon appreciation. Children from grades 2-5 were the subjects of this study. Results showed a strong positive correlation between grade level and comprehension; however the mirth response nose dives dramatically after fourth grade. This discrepancy can be explained by the principal of cognitive congruency, which states that fewer cognitive demands will elicit a lower mirth response than those that are in keeping with the complexity of the child's cognitive apparatus. Basically, if the cartoon is deemed \\\"dumb\\\", then they will not give a mirth response.\\nThe frontal aging hypothesis suggests that the prefrontal cortex is particularly vulnerable to the effects of aging and implies that functions supported by the frontal lobes will be disproportionately impaired. The volume of the frontal cortex and its pronounced age-related alterations in the 5-HT2 and D2 receptor availability are the basis for this hypothesis and point to the impairment of executive functions including working memory, inhibition, and planning. The ways in which executive functions were measured to testify the age-related decreases in frontal lobe activity with humor comprehension included three assessors: inhibition, set shifting, and working memory. It is seen across several studies that older adults have the capability of selecting the proper punchline of a joke in comparison to younger adults, but they are shown to select a lot fewer total selections. Older adults made more choices of logical alternatives and even showed a tendency to select more slapstick humor.\\nThough there are many studies about the developmental aspects of humor, from infancy through adolescence and adulthood, relatively little research is devoted to the study of humor with elderly (65+) populations. The small pool of research out there devoted to the geriatric effect on humor cognition suggests that elderly people enjoy humor more than younger people, but they have increasing difficulties in understanding jokes. In other words, the humor appreciation component for older people is more active, but the mechanisms devoted to detection are lacking. Also, the amount of laughter exhibited by the elderly is smaller compared to young adults. In addition, the older population seems to not enjoy aggressive types of humor as much as the younger ones, and the elderly are especially sensitive to jokes referring to old age.\\nIt is interesting to point out the \\\"see-saw\\\" effect aging has in terms of the brain mechanisms underlying humor. Despite the apparent decreases in the cognitive component of humor understanding, the affective element remains steady, if not more refined and enhanced. The greater bilateral activation older adults have during cognitively demanding tasks may describe the reasons older adults seem to struggle with jokes that are graded at a higher comprehension difficulty. Of course, cohort effects might play a role in an older adult's capacity to understand jokes. Perhaps several cultural factors that remain in the unconscious thinking processes are critical in understanding meaning behind some jokes.\\nThe neocortex, basal ganglia, diencephalon, and limbic system are affected by Parkinson's Disease and are also brain areas underlying the cognitive processes of humor detection and appreciation. A few studies have confirmed that patients with Parkinson's have a lower appreciation for humor as indicated by sense of humor questionnaires. This relationship is seen across multiple presentation styles including video, audio, and cartoon. Primarily, the affective part of humor, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is the main victim of PD-related brain changes. This could be linked to consequential neurological changes in the amygdala, mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system, and basal ganglia. Parkinson's patients demonstrate an inhibited ability to identify emotions of other people from both speech prosody and facial expressions. The neural circuitry during the humor appreciation phase also involves the amygdala and are thought to be used during the recollection of emotional memories. The therapeutic capabilities of humor could prove to be fruitful for patients with Parkinson's disease, so it is important to identify the mechanisms underlying both humor detection and appreciation.\\nRecent fMRI studies have begun to elucidate the cognitive and affective neural correlates associated with humor processing. But these correlates, corresponding to the stages of humor detection and humor appreciation respectively, fail to distinguish between these different logical mechanisms. A medley of studies have started to investigate the differences between these steps in humor processing and the neural circuitry that underlie these mechanisms. The pun-intended phrase \\\"the right hemisphere has the last laugh\\\" has been adopted by scientists in this field due to its significance during appreciation, but it is widely accepted that humor appreciation and detection rely on neural circuitry from temporal and prefrontal regions from both hemispheres. These brain areas also contribute to humor processing in three distinct spatiotemporal stages: surface level semantic analysis and two phases of the interpretative integrative processes. The surface level semantic analysis is subserved by bilateral anterior temporal and left inferior prefrontal regions. Interpretive integrative processing comprises detection of ambiguity or conflict between the dominant semantic representations of the punch line and the context, which is reflected in semantic, phonological, metaphorical, and other supralinguistic integrations of the punch line with the preceding sentence. In regards to the detection process, the right medial temporal gyrus is active during detection of semantic violations, and the right middle frontal gyrus is active for context monitoring. The three distinct stages of neural activation during the humor process implies that humor detection and appreciation operate as separate entities and engage different brain regions in an ordered fashion. Therefore, the cascade of neural events required to understand and appreciate humor can be functionally separated, and studies have shown this distinction to be consistent across all genres of comedy. During moments of humor detection, significant activation can be seen in the left posterior middle\\ntemporal gyrus and left inferior frontal gyrus. During moments of humor appreciation, increased activation in bilateral regions of insular cortex and amygdala can be observed.\\nThe verbal medium through which humor can be conveyed elicits a theory separate from the popular incongruity-resolution theory. The comprehension-elaboration theory is not much different from the incongruity-resolution theory, however it accounts for several incongruities found in language that are not considered humorous. Corrected misunderstandings, scientific discoveries, and silent responses to ‘bad jokes’ all present incongruity-resolution characteristics, but do not generate humor. In the comprehension–elaboration theory of humor, comprehension refers to the detection and resolution of incongruities. The elaboration follows comprehension, involves the conscious generation of inferences for features not made explicit during comprehension, and elicits the unconscious or conscious feeling of amusement. Studies utilizing fMRI have shown that, like the incongruity-resolution theory, the comprehension-elaboration theory can be separated into two distinct neurological schedules of activity. During comprehension, greater activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus, and left ventral stratum can be seen. During elaboration, the left ventromedial prefrontal gyrus, bilateral amygdala, and bilateral parahippocampal gyrus show greater activity.\\nStudies have shown that a wide area around the temporoparietal junction (temporo-occipital junction, posterior superior temporal sulcus, posterior middle temporal gyrus), temporal pole and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) is involved in cognitive humor processing of nonverbal cartoons. Studies in recent years have revealed discrete characteristic patterns of cerebral blood-oxygen-level dependent activity induced by non-verbal cartoons with different logical mechanisms. The TPJ is involved in successful incongruity resolution but not in the detection of incongruity. The extrastriate cortex is activated particularly during processing of visual puns, whereas semantic cartoons evoked activity mainly in the TPJ and precuneus. The TPJ and precuneus areas are known to be involved in mentalizing and are more strongly activated during processing of Theory of Mind cartoons compared to visual puns and semantic cartoons.\",\n \"Alexithymia\\nAlexithymia is a personality construct characterized by the inability to identify and describe emotions in the self. The core characteristics of alexithymia are marked dysfunction in emotional awareness, social attachment, and interpersonal relating. Furthermore, people with alexithymia have difficulty in distinguishing and appreciating the emotions of others, which is thought to lead to unempathic and ineffective emotional responding. Alexithymia occurs in approximately 10% of the population and can occur with a number of psychiatric conditions.\\nThe term \\\"alexithymia\\\" was coined by psychotherapist Peter Sifneos in 1973. The word comes from Greek α (\\\"a\\\", \\\"no\\\", the negating alpha privative), λέξις (\\\"léxis\\\", \\\"word\\\"), and θυμός (\\\"thymos\\\", \\\"emotions\\\", but understood by Sifneos as having the meaning \\\"mood\\\"), literally meaning \\\"no words for mood\\\".\\nAlexithymia is considered to be a personality trait that places affected individuals at risk for other medical and psychiatric disorders while reducing the likelihood that these individuals will respond to conventional treatments for the other conditions. Alexithymia is not classified as a mental disorder in the fourth edition of the \\\"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\\\". It is a dimensional personality trait that varies in severity from person to person. A person's alexithymia score can be measured with questionnaires such as the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), the Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ), the Online Alexithymia Questionnaire (OAQ-G2) or the Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS). It is distinct from the psychiatric personality disorders, such as antisocial personality disorder or borderline personality disorder, with which it shares some characteristics, and is likewise distinct from the abnormal conditions of sociopathy or psychopathy.\\nAlexithymia is defined by:\\nIn studies of the general population the degree of alexithymia was found to be influenced by age, but not by gender; the rates of alexithymia in healthy controls have been found at: 8.3%; 4.7%; 8.9%; and 7%. Thus, several studies have reported that the prevalence rate of alexithymia is less than 10%. A less common finding suggests that there may be a higher prevalence of alexithymia amongst males than females, which may be accounted for by difficulties some males have with \\\"describing feelings\\\", but not by difficulties in \\\"identifying feelings\\\" in which males and females show similar abilities.\\nPsychologist R. Michael Bagby and psychiatrist Graeme J. Taylor have argued that the alexithymia construct is strongly related (negatively) to the concepts of psychological mindedness and emotional intelligence and there is \\\"strong empirical support for alexithymia being a stable personality trait rather than just a consequence of psychological distress\\\". Other opinions differ and can show evidence that it may be state-dependent.\\nBagby and Taylor also suggest that there may be two kinds of alexithymia, \\\"primary alexithymia\\\" which is an enduring psychological trait that does not alter over time, and \\\"secondary alexithymia\\\" which is state-dependent and disappears after the evoking stressful situation has changed. These two manifestations of alexithymia are otherwise called \\\"trait\\\" or \\\"state\\\" alexithymia.\\nTypical deficiencies may include problems identifying, processing, describing, and working with one's own feelings, often marked by a lack of understanding of the feelings of others; difficulty distinguishing between feelings and the bodily sensations of emotional arousal; confusion of physical sensations often associated with emotions; few dreams or fantasies due to restricted imagination; and concrete, realistic, logical thinking, often to the exclusion of emotional responses to problems. Those who have alexithymia also report very logical and realistic dreams, such as going to the store or eating a meal. Clinical experience suggests it is the structural features of dreams more than the ability to recall them that best characterizes alexithymia.\\nSome alexithymic individuals may appear to contradict the above-mentioned characteristics because they can experience chronic dysphoria or manifest outbursts of crying or rage. However, questioning usually reveals that they are quite incapable of describing their feelings or appear confused by questions inquiring about specifics of feelings.\\nAccording to Henry Krystal, individuals suffering from alexithymia think in an operative way and may appear to be superadjusted to reality. In psychotherapy, however, a cognitive disturbance becomes apparent as patients tend to recount trivial, chronologically ordered actions, reactions, and events of daily life with monotonous detail. In general, these individuals lack imagination, intuition, empathy, and drive-fulfillment fantasy , especially in relation to objects. Instead, they seem oriented toward things and even treat themselves as robots. These problems seriously limit their responsiveness to psychoanalytic psychotherapy; psychosomatic illness or substance abuse is frequently exacerbated should these individuals enter psychotherapy.\\nA common misconception about alexithymia is that affected individuals are totally unable to express emotions verbally and that they may even fail to acknowledge that they experience emotions. Even before coining the term, Sifneos (1967) noted patients often mentioned things like anxiety or depression. The distinguishing factor was their inability to elaborate beyond a few limited adjectives such as \\\"happy\\\" or \\\"unhappy\\\" when describing these feelings. The core issue is that people with alexithymia have poorly differentiated emotions limiting their ability to distinguish and describe them to others. This contributes to the sense of emotional detachment from themselves and difficulty connecting with others, making alexithymia negatively associated with life satisfaction even when depression and other confounding factors are controlled for.\\nIt is unclear what causes alexithymia, though several theories have been proposed.\\nEarly studies showed evidence that there may be an interhemispheric transfer deficit among people with alexithymia; that is, the emotional information from the right hemisphere of the brain is not being properly transferred to the language regions in the left hemisphere, as can be caused by a decreased corpus callosum, often present in psychiatric patients who have suffered severe childhood abuse. A neuropsychological study in 1997 indicated that alexithymia may be due to a disturbance to the right hemisphere of the brain, which is largely responsible for processing emotions. In addition, another neuropsychological model suggests that alexithymia may be related to a dysfunction of the anterior cingulate cortex. These studies have some shortcomings, however, and the empirical evidence about the neural mechanisms behind alexithymia remains inconclusive.\\nFrench psychoanalyst Joyce McDougall objected to the strong focus by clinicians on neurophysiological at the expense of psychological explanations for the genesis and operation of alexithymia, and introduced the alternative term \\\"disaffectation\\\" to stand for psychogenic alexithymia. For McDougall, the disaffected individual had at some point \\\"experienced overwhelming emotion that threatened to attack their sense of integrity and identity\\\", to which they applied psychological defenses to pulverize and eject all emotional representations from consciousness. A similar line of interpretation has been taken up using the methods of phenomenology. McDougall has also noted that all infants are born unable to identify, organize, and speak about their emotional experiences (the word \\\"infans\\\" is from the Latin \\\"not speaking\\\"), and are \\\"by reason of their immaturity inevitably alexithymic\\\". Based on this fact McDougall proposed in 1985 that the alexithymic part of an adult personality could be \\\"an extremely arrested and infantile psychic structure\\\". The first language of an infant is nonverbal facial expressions. The parent's emotional state is important for determining how any child might develop. Neglect or indifference to varying changes in a child's facial expressions without proper feedback can promote an invalidation of the facial expressions manifested by the child. The parent's ability to reflect self-awareness to the child is another important factor. If the adult is incapable of recognizing and distinguishing emotional expressions in the child, it can influence the child's capacity to understand emotional expressions.\\nMolecular genetic research into alexithymia remains minimal, but promising candidates have been identified from studies examining connections between certain genes and alexithymia among those with psychiatric conditions as well as the general population. A study recruiting a test population of Japanese males found higher scores on the Toronto Alexithymia Scale among those with the 5-HTTLPR homozygous long (L) allele. The 5-HTTLPR region on the serotonin transporter gene influences the transcription of the seretonin transporter that removes serotonin from the synaptic cleft, and is well studied for its association with numerous psychiatric disorders. Another study examining the 5-HT1A receptor, a receptor that binds serotonin, found higher levels of alexithymia among those with the G allele of the Rs6295 polymorphism within the HTR1A gene. Also, a study examining alexithymia in subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder found higher alexithymia levels associated with the Val/Val allele of the Rs4680 polymorphism in the gene that encodes Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), an enzyme which degrades catecholamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine. These links are tentative, and further research will be needed to clarify how these genes relate to the neurological anomalies found in the brains of people with alexithymia.\\nAlthough there is evidence for the role of environmental and neurological factors, the role and influence of genetic factors for developing alexithymia is still unclear. A single large scale Danish study suggested that genetic factors contributed noticeably to the development of alexithymia. However, such twin studies are controversial, as they suffer from the \\\"equal environments assumption\\\" and the \\\"heritability\\\" estimates in no way correspond to actual DNA structures.\\nTraumatic brain injury is also implicated in the development alexithymia, and those with traumatic brain injury are six times more likely to exhibit alexithymia.\\nAlexithymia creates interpersonal problems because these individuals tend to avoid emotionally close relationships, or if they do form relationships with others they usually position themselves as either dependent, dominant, or impersonal, \\\"such that the relationship remains superficial\\\". Inadequate \\\"differentiation\\\" between self and others by alexithymic individuals has also been observed.\\nIn a study, a large group of alexithymic individuals completed the 64-item Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-64) which found that \\\"two interpersonal problems are significantly and stably related to alexithymia: cold/distant and non-assertive social functioning. All other IIP-64 subscales were not significantly related to alexithymia.\\\"\\nChaotic interpersonal relations have also been observed by Sifneos. Due to the inherent difficulties identifying and describing emotional states in self and others, alexithymia also negatively affects relationship satisfaction between couples.\\nIn a 2008 study alexithymia was found to be correlated with impaired understanding and demonstration of relational affection, and that this impairment contributes to poorer mental health, poorer relational well-being, and lowered relationship quality. Individuals high on the alexithymia spectrum also report less distress at seeing others in pain and behave less altruistically toward others.\\nSome individuals working for organizations in which control of emotions is the norm might show alexithymic-like behavior but not be alexithymic. However, over time the lack of self-expressions can become routine and they may find it harder to identify with others.\\nAlexithymia frequently co-occurs with other disorders. Research indicates that alexithymia overlaps with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In a 2004 study using the TAS-20, 85% of the adults with ASD fell into the impaired category; almost half of the whole group fell into the severely impaired category. Among the adult control, only 17% was impaired; none of them severely. Fitzgerald & Bellgrove pointed out that, \\\"Like alexithymia, Asperger's syndrome is also characterised by core disturbances in speech and language and social relationships\\\". Hill & Berthoz agreed with Fitzgerald & Bellgrove (2006) and in response stated that \\\"there is some form of overlap between alexithymia and ASDs\\\". They also pointed to studies that revealed impaired theory of mind skill in alexithymia, neuroanatomical evidence pointing to a shared etiology and similar social skills deficits. The exact nature of the overlap is uncertain. Alexithymic traits in AS may be linked to clinical depression or anxiety; the mediating factors are unknown and it is possible that alexithymia predisposes to anxiety.\\nThere are many more psychiatric disorders that overlap with alexithymia. One study found that 41% of Vietnam War veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were alexithymic. Another study found higher levels of alexithymia among Holocaust survivors with PTSD compared to those without. Higher levels of alexithymia among mothers with interpersonal violence-related PTSD were found in one study to have proportionally less caregiving sensitivity. This latter study suggested that when treating adult PTSD patients who are parents, alexithymia should be assessed and addressed also with attention to the parent-child relationship and the child's social-emotional development.\\nSingle study prevalence findings for other disorders include 63% in anorexia nervosa, 56% in bulimia, 45% to 50% in major depressive disorder, 34% in panic disorder, 28% of social phobics, and 50% in substance abusers. Alexithymia is also exhibited by a large proportion of individuals with acquired brain injuries such as stroke or traumatic brain injury.\\nAlexithymia is correlated with certain personality disorders, substance use disorders, some anxiety disorders, and sexual disorders, as well as certain physical illnesses, such as hypertension, inflammatory bowel disease, and functional dyspepsia. Alexithymia is further linked with disorders such as migraine headaches, lower back pain, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, nausea, allergies, and fibromyalgia.\\nAn inability to modulate emotions is a possibility in explaining why some people with alexithymia are prone to discharge tension arising from unpleasant emotional states through impulsive acts or compulsive behaviors such as binge eating, substance abuse, perverse sexual behavior, or anorexia nervosa. The failure to regulate emotions cognitively might result in prolonged elevations of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and neuroendocrine systems which can lead to somatic diseases. People with alexithymia also show a limited ability to experience positive emotions leading Krystal (1988) and Sifneos (1987) to describe many of these individuals as anhedonic.\",\n \"Emospark\\nEmoSPARK is an artificial intelligence console created in London, United Kingdom by Patrick Levy-Rosenthal. The device uses facial recognition and language analysis to evaluate human emotion and convey responsive content according to the emotion. The console measures 90 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm and is cube shaped. It operates on an \\\"Emotional Processing Unit\\\", a microchip developed by Emoshape Inc. that enables the system to create emotional profile graphs of its surroundings. The emotional processing unit is a patent pending technology that is said to create synthesised emotional responses in machines. EmoSPARK was funded through an Indiegogo campaign which aimed to raise $200,000.\\nEmoSPARK was created by French inventor Patrick Levy-Rosenthal, as an emotionally intelligent artificial life unit for the home that can interact with people. It is powered by Android and can communicate with users through typed input from a computer, tablet, smartphone or TV as well as through spoken commands.\\nThrough the smartphone interface, it is able to gauge a person’s emotions and is reported to have a conversational library of over 2 million sentences. The face-tracking technology identifies users likes and dislikes to categorize their emotional responses to stimuli such as videos and music. The device has an emotional spectrum that is composed of eight emotions which are \\\"surprise, sadness, joy, trust, fear, disgust, anger and anticipation\\\".\\nEmoSPARK monitors a person's facial expressions and emotions through images from an external camera which are then processed through an emotion text analysis and content analysis.\\nEmoSPARK is able to connect to Facebook and YouTube to present users with content designed to improve their mood or to Wikipedia for collaborative knowledge that can be shared when users ask questions of it. Through Android OS, EmoSPARK is able to be customized with Google Play store apps.\\nThe cube is capable of learning the user’s emotions and responses to types of music or content then uses it in the future for similar emotions. It is also able to emulate the emotions that it has observed and learned which are in the spectrum of primary emotions. The cube is expected to develop its own personality based on the communications it has had with the people using it.\\nEmoShape Ltd (UK) is the parent company of EmoSPARK, which was also founded by Levy-Rosenthal. The company developed emotional technology with the EmoSpark cube being their first artificial intelligence console. Patrick Levy-Rosenthal also received the IST Prize in 2005 from the European Council for Applied Science, Technology and Engineering.\",\n \"Eleutheromania\\nEleutheromania, eleutherophilia or eleuthromania is \\\"a mania or frantic zeal for freedom\\\". Some usages of the term make it sound like it could be used in a medical context with a hint of an irrational disorder, such as John G Robertson's definition that described it as a \\\"mad zeal or irresistible craving for freedom\\\". However other usages assign to the term normal human emotional responses such as a mere passion for liberty. Individuals with this condition are called eleutheromaniacs. An antonym for the term is eleutherophobia. An individual that fears freedom is an eleutherophobe.\",\n \"Joseph E. LeDoux\\nJoseph E. LeDoux (born December 7, 1949) is an American <a href=\\\"neuroscientist\\\">neuroscientist</a> whose research is primarily focused on the <a href=\\\"Neural%20substrate\\\">biological underpinnings</a> of <a href=\\\"emotion\\\">emotion</a> and <a href=\\\"memory\\\">memory</a>, especially brain mechanisms related to <a href=\\\"fear\\\">fear</a> and <a href=\\\"anxiety\\\">anxiety</a>. LeDoux is the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science at <a href=\\\"New%20York%20University\\\">New York University</a>, and director of the Emotional Brain Institute, a collaboration between NYU and New York State with research sites at NYU and the <a href=\\\"Nathan%20Kline%20Institute%20for%20Psychiatric%20Research\\\">Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research</a> in Orangeburg, New York. He is also the lead singer and songwriter in the band <a href=\\\"The%20Amygdaloids\\\">The Amygdaloids</a>.\\nAs explained in his 1996 book, The Emotional Brain, LeDoux developed an interest in the topic of emotion through his doctoral work with Michael Gazzaniga on split-brain patients in the mid-1970s. Because techniques for studying the human brain were limited at the time, he turned to studies of rodents where the brain could be studied in detail. He chose to focus on a simple behavioral model, Pavlovian fear conditioning. This procedure allowed him to follow the flow of information about a stimulus through the brain as it comes to control behavioral responses by way of sensory pathways to the amygdala, and gave rise to the notion of two sensory roads to the amygdala, with the “low road” being a quick and dirty subcortical pathway for rapid activity behavioral responses to threats and the “high road” providing slower but highly processed cortical information. His work has shed light on how the brain detects and responds to threats, and how memories about such experiences are formed and stored through cellular, synaptic and molecular changes in the amygdala. A long-standing collaboration with NYU colleague Elizabeth Phelps has shown the validity of the rodent work for understanding threat processing in the human brain.\\nLeDoux’s work on amygdala processing of threats has helped understand exaggerated responses to threats in anxiety disorders in humans. For example, studies with Maria Morgan in the 1990s implicated the medial prefrontal cortex in the extinction of responses to threats and paved the way for understanding how exposure therapy reduces threat reactions in people with anxiety by way of interactions between the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. Work conducted with Karim Nader and Glenn Schafe triggered a wave of interest in the topic of memory reconsolidation, a process by which memories become labile and subject to change after being retrieved. This led to the idea that trauma-related cues might be weakened in humans by blocking reconsolidation. Studies with Marie Mofils, Daniela Schiller and Phelps showed that extinction conducted shortly after triggering reconsolidation is considerably more effective in reducing the threat value of stimuli than conventional extinction, a finding that has proven useful in reducing drug relapse in humans.\\nRecently, LeDoux has begun to emphasize the value, when discussing brain functions in animals, of using terms that are not derived from human subjective experience. The common practice of calling brain circuits that detect and respond to threats \\\"fear circuits” implies that these circuits are responsible for feelings of fear. LeDoux has argued that so-called Pavlovian fear conditioning should be renamed Pavlovian threat conditioning to avoid the implication that “fear” is being acquired in rats or humans. Key to his theoretical change is the notion of survival functions mediated by survival circuits, the purpose of which is to keep organisms alive rather than to make emotions. For example, defensive survival circuits exist to detect and respond to threats. While all organisms can do this, only organisms that can be conscious of their own brain’s activities can feel fear. Fear is a conscious experience and occurs the same way as any other kind of conscious experience: via cortical circuits that allow attention to certain forms of brain activity. He argues the only differences between an emotional and non-emotion state of consciousness are the underlying neural ingredients that contribute to the state. These ideas and their implications for understanding the neural foundations of pathological fear and anxiety are explained in his 2015 book, Anxious.\\nLeDoux has received a number of awards, including the <a href=\\\"Karl%20Spencer%20Lashley%20Award\\\">Karl Spencer Lashley Award</a> from the <a href=\\\"American%20Philosophical%20Society\\\">American Philosophical Society</a>, the Fyssen International Prize in Cognitive Science, Jean Louis Signoret Prize of the IPSEN Foundation, the Santiago Grisolia Prize, the <a href=\\\"American%20Psychological%20Association\\\">American Psychological Association</a> Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and the American Psychological Association Donald O. Hebb Award. He is a fellow of the <a href=\\\"American%20Academy%20of%20Arts%20and%20Sciences\\\">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>, the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Academy%20of%20Sciences\\\">New York Academy of Sciences</a>, and the <a href=\\\"American%20Association%20for%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Science\\\">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, a William James Fellow of the <a href=\\\"Association%20for%20Psychological%20Science\\\">Association for Psychological Science</a>, and a member of the <a href=\\\"National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences\\\">National Academy of Sciences</a>.\\nIn addition to numerous publications in scholarly journals, LeDoux has written \\\"The Integrated Mind\\\" (with Michael Gazzaniga, Plenum, 1978), \\\"The Emotional Brain\\\" (Simon and Schuster, 1998), \\\"Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are\\\" (Viking, 2002), and \\\"Anxious: Using the Brain to Understand and Treat Fear and Anxiety\\\" (Viking, 2015). He has also edited several volumes, including \\\"Mind and Brain: Dialogues in Cognitive Neuroscience\\\" (with William Hirst, Cambridge University Press, 1986), \\\"The Self: From Soul to Brain\\\" (with Jacek Debiec and Henry Moss, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 2003), and \\\"Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Basic Science and Clinical Practice\\\" (with Peter Shiromani and Terrence Keane, Humana Press, 2009). He has also contributed to the <a href=\\\"https%3A//query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/%3Faction%3Dclick%26amp%3BcontentCollection%26amp%3Bregion%3DTopBar%26amp%3BWT.nav%3DsearchWidget%26amp%3Bmodule%3DSearchSubmit%26amp%3Bpgtype%3DHomepage%23/ledoux%2Banxiety/since1851/allresults/1/byledoux/\\\">New York Times Opinionator</a> column on Anxiety and to the <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.huffingtonpost.com/joseph-ledoux/\\\">Huffington Post</a>, and has conducted numerous <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.cns.nyu.edu/ledoux/events.htm\\\">television, radio, online, and print interviews</a>. LeDoux has also collaborated with filmmaker Alexis Gambis on a project called “My Mind’s Eye” on the \\\"Scientific American\\\" website in which interviews with esteemed scientists and philosophers (including <a href=\\\"Eric%20Kandel\\\">Eric Kandel</a>, <a href=\\\"Michael%20Gazzaniga\\\">Michael Gazzaniga</a>, <a href=\\\"Ned%20Block\\\">Ned Block</a>) are framed within the context of his music (see below).\\nJoseph LeDoux was born on December 7, 1949, in the Cajun Prairie town of <a href=\\\"Eunice%2C%20Louisiana\\\">Eunice, Louisiana</a>, to Joseph E. \\\"Boo” LeDoux, a traveling rodeo performer (bull rider) and butcher, and Priscilla Buller LeDoux. He attended St. Edmund’s Elementary School and Eunice High School, graduating in 1967. LeDoux attended <a href=\\\"Louisiana%20State%20University\\\">Louisiana State University</a> in <a href=\\\"Baton%20Rouge\\\">Baton Rouge</a> where he majored in Business Administration and minored in Psychology. In 1972 he began work on a Masters of Science in Marketing from LSU. During this time he met <a href=\\\"Tonyo\\\">Tonyo</a> and <a href=\\\"T%C3%A9t%C3%A9\\\">Tété</a> great writers, his interest in psychology grew and he volunteered in the laboratory of Robert Thompson, who introduced him to brain research.\\nIn the fall of 1974 LeDoux began a PhD program at the <a href=\\\"State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20at%20Stony%20Brook\\\">State University of New York at Stony Brook</a>, and completed his degree in 1977. In 1978, LeDoux joined the Department of Neurology at <a href=\\\"Cornell%20Medical%20School\\\">Cornell Medical School</a> as a postdoctoral fellow and remained there through the rank of associate professor until 1989. During most of his time at Cornell, he worked in the Neurobiology Laboratory where he received technical training in state-of-the-art neuroscience techniques and began the research program on the brain mechanism of emotional memory that he has pursued ever since. In 1989 he joined the newly formed Center for Neural Science at NYU as an associate professor. In 1991 he was promoted to full professor, and in 1996 he became the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science. In 2005, he was named university professor, the highest honor for a faculty member at NYU.\\nIn 1971 LeDoux married LSU classmate Diana Steen. They divorced amicably in 1978. Since 1982 he has been married to art critic Nancy Princenthal. Currently they reside in the Williamsburg area of <a href=\\\"Brooklyn\\\">Brooklyn</a>. They have two children, Jacob S. LeDoux (died 2005) and Milo E. LeDoux. Milo is a graduate of the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Oxford\\\">University of Oxford</a>, where he studied classics, and is now pursuing a career in law.\\nCajun/zydeco, country, R and B and rock 'n’ roll, and their fusion of all these into \\\"<a href=\\\"swamp%20pop\\\">swamp pop</a>,\\\" were ever present influences in Southern Louisiana childhood. In high school, he was a disc jockey at the local radio station, KEUN, and the rhythm guitarist of two bands: the Deadbeats and the Countdowns. Although he remained an avid music fan in later life, he did not actively play guitar for many years. In 2004, LeDoux and NYU Biology Professor Tyler Volk began performing as a cover band for small parties around NYU, and in 2006 they formed The Amygdaloids. The original band also included Daniela Schiller, then an NYU postdoctoral fellow, and graduate student Nina Curley. The bands lyrics, mostly written by LeDoux, are based on neuroscientific, psychological, and philosophical themes, and offer scholarly insights into the role of mind and brain in daily life. Their inaugural CD, Heavy Mental, was released in 2007 and included such tunes as \\\"Mind-Body Problem,” \\\"An Emotional Brain,” and “Memory Pill.” On their second CD, Theory of My Mind (Knock Out Noise label), LeDoux and Grammy winner Rosanne Cash sing “Crime of Passion” and “Mind over Matter,” both written by LeDoux. In 2012, the band released All in Our Minds, an EP in which all songs had “mind” in their title. Anxious, a companion to LeDoux’s book with the same title, was released in 2015 and explores some of the same scientific themes as the book, but through song. The band’s unique focus on original songs about mind and brain has landed them <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.amygdaloids.com/%3Fpage_id%3D466\\\">considerable press</a>. They play regularly in New York City, and have also performed in Washington DC, San Antonio TX, Indianapolis IN, and Lafayette LA, as well as in Montreal, Canada. LeDoux and Amygdaloids’ bassist Colin Dempsey perform as an acoustic duo called <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.soweare.net/\\\">So We Are</a>.\\n\",\n \"Daniel Goleman\\nDaniel Goleman (born March 7, 1946) is an author, and <a href=\\\"science%20journalist\\\">science journalist</a>. For twelve years, he wrote for \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\", reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. His 1995 book, \\\"Emotional Intelligence\\\" was on \\\"The New York Times\\\" bestseller list for a year-and-a-half, a best-seller in many countries, and is in print worldwide in 40 languages. Apart from his books on <a href=\\\"emotional%20intelligence\\\">emotional intelligence</a>, Goleman has written books on topics including self-deception, creativity, transparency, meditation, social and emotional learning, ecoliteracy and the ecological crisis, and the Dalai Lama’s vision for the future.\\nHe studied in <a href=\\\"India\\\">India</a> using a pre-doctoral fellowship from Harvard and a post-doctoral grant from the <a href=\\\"Social%20Science%20Research%20Council\\\">Social Science Research Council</a>. While in India, he spent time with spiritual teacher <a href=\\\"Neem%20Karoli%20Baba\\\">Neem Karoli Baba</a>, who was also the guru to <a href=\\\"Ram%20Dass\\\">Ram Dass</a>, <a href=\\\"Krishna%20Das%20%28Singer%29\\\">Krishna Das (Singer)</a> and <a href=\\\"Larry%20Brilliant\\\">Larry Brilliant</a>. He wrote his first book based on travel in India and <a href=\\\"Sri%20Lanka\\\">Sri Lanka</a>.\\nGoleman then returned as a visiting lecturer to Harvard, where during the 1970s his course on the psychology of consciousness was popular. McClelland recommended him for a job at \\\"<a href=\\\"Psychology%20Today\\\">Psychology Today</a>\\\" from which he was recruited by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\" in 1984.\\nGoleman co-founded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at <a href=\\\"Yale%20University\\\">Yale University</a>'s Child Studies Center which then moved to the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Illinois%20at%20Chicago\\\">University of Illinois at Chicago</a>. Currently he co-directs the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at <a href=\\\"Rutgers%20University\\\">Rutgers University</a>. He sits on the board of the Mind & Life Institute.\\nGoleman authored the internationally best-selling book, \\\"<a href=\\\"Emotional%20Intelligence\\\">Emotional Intelligence</a>\\\" (1995, Bantam Books), that spent more than one-and-a-half years on \\\"The New York Times\\\" bestseller list. Goleman developed the argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as I.Q. for workplace success in \\\"Working with Emotional Intelligence\\\" (1998, Bantam Books), and for leadership effectiveness in \\\"Primal Leadership\\\" (2001, Harvard Business School Press). Goleman's most recent best-seller is \\\"Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence\\\" (Harper, 2013).\\nIn his first book, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Meditative%20Mind\\\">The Varieties of Meditative Experience</a>\\\" (1977) (republished in 1988 as \\\"The Meditative Mind\\\") Goleman describes almost a dozen different <a href=\\\"meditation\\\">meditation</a> systems. He wrote that \\\"the need for the meditator to retrain his <a href=\\\"attention\\\">attention</a>, whether through <a href=\\\"Attentional%20control\\\">concentration</a> or <a href=\\\"mindfulness\\\">mindfulness</a>, is the single invariant ingredient in the recipe for <a href=\\\"altered%20states%20of%20consciousness\\\">altering consciousness</a> of every meditation system\\\".\\nGoleman has received many awards, including:\\n\",\n \"Thalamus\\nThe thalamus (from <a href=\\\"Greek%20language\\\">Greek</a> , \\\"chamber\\\") is the large mass of <a href=\\\"gray%20matter\\\">gray matter</a> in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions such as relaying of <a href=\\\"sensory%20neuron\\\">sensory</a> signals, including <a href=\\\"motor%20neuron\\\">motor</a> signals, to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of <a href=\\\"consciousness\\\">consciousness</a>, <a href=\\\"sleep\\\">sleep</a>, and <a href=\\\"alertness\\\">alertness</a>\\nIt is a symmetrical structure of two halves, within the <a href=\\\"vertebrate\\\">vertebrate</a> <a href=\\\"brain\\\">brain</a>, situated between the <a href=\\\"cerebral%20cortex\\\">cerebral cortex</a> and the <a href=\\\"midbrain\\\">midbrain</a>.\\nIt is the main product of the <a href=\\\"embryo\\\">embryo</a>nic <a href=\\\"diencephalon\\\">diencephalon</a>, as first assigned by <a href=\\\"Wilhelm%20His%2C%20Sr.\\\">Wilhelm His, Sr.</a> in 1893.\\nThe thalamus is located in the <a href=\\\"forebrain\\\">forebrain</a> which is superior to the midbrain, near the center of the brain, with nerve fibers projecting out to the cerebral cortex in all directions. The medial surface of the thalamus constitutes the upper part of the lateral wall of the <a href=\\\"third%20ventricle\\\">third ventricle</a>, and is connected to the corresponding surface of the opposite thalamus by a flattened gray band, the <a href=\\\"interthalamic%20adhesion\\\">interthalamic adhesion</a>.\\nThe thalamus derives its blood supply from a number of arteries: the polar artery (<a href=\\\"posterior%20communicating%20artery\\\">posterior communicating artery</a>), paramedian thalamic-subthalamic arteries, inferolateral (thalamogeniculate) arteries, and <a href=\\\"Posterior%20cerebral%20artery%23Choroidal%20branches\\\">posterior (medial and lateral) choroidal arteries</a>. These are all branches of the <a href=\\\"posterior%20cerebral%20artery\\\">posterior cerebral artery</a>.\\nSome people have the <a href=\\\"artery%20of%20Percheron\\\">artery of Percheron</a>, which is a rare anatomic variation in which a single arterial trunk arises from the posterior cerebral artery to supply both parts of the thalamus.\\nThe thalamus is part of a nuclear complex structured of four parts, the <a href=\\\"hypothalamus\\\">hypothalamus</a>, <a href=\\\"epithalamus\\\">epithalamus</a>, <a href=\\\"prethalamus\\\">prethalamus</a> (formerly called ventral thalamus), and dorsal thalamus.\\nDerivatives of the <a href=\\\"diencephalon\\\">diencephalon</a> also include the dorsally-located <a href=\\\"epithalamus\\\">epithalamus</a> (essentially the <a href=\\\"habenula\\\">habenula</a> and annexes) and the perithalamus (prethalamus) containing the <a href=\\\"zona%20incerta\\\">zona incerta</a> and the <a href=\\\"thalamic%20reticular%20nucleus\\\">thalamic reticular nucleus</a>. Due to their different <a href=\\\"ontogenetic\\\">ontogenetic</a> origins, the epithalamus and the perithalamus are formally distinguished from the thalamus proper.\\nThe thalamus comprises a system of <a href=\\\"Lamella%20%28anatomy%29\\\">lamellae</a> (made up of <a href=\\\"myelin\\\">myelin</a>ated <a href=\\\"axon\\\">fibers</a>) separating different thalamic subparts. Other areas are defined by distinct clusters of <a href=\\\"neuron\\\">neuron</a>s, such as the <a href=\\\"periventricular%20nucleus\\\">periventricular nucleus</a>, the intralaminar elements, the \\\"nucleus limitans\\\", and others. These latter structures, different in structure from the major part of the thalamus, have been grouped together into the \\\"<a href=\\\"allothalamus\\\">allothalamus</a>\\\" as opposed to the \\\"<a href=\\\"isothalamus\\\">isothalamus</a>\\\". This distinction simplifies the global description of the thalamus.\\nThe thalamus is manifoldly connected to the hippocampus via the <a href=\\\"Mammillothalamic%20fasciculus\\\">mammillo-thalamic tract</a>, this tract comprises the <a href=\\\"mammillary%20bodies\\\">mammillary bodies</a> and <a href=\\\"fornix%20of%20the%20brain\\\">fornix</a>.\\nThe thalamus is connected to the <a href=\\\"cerebral%20cortex\\\">cerebral cortex</a> via the <a href=\\\"thalamocortical%20radiations\\\">thalamocortical radiations</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"spinothalamic%20tract\\\">spinothalamic tract</a> is a sensory pathway originating in the spinal cord. It transmits information to the thalamus about pain, temperature, itch and crude touch. There are two main parts: the <a href=\\\"lateral%20spinothalamic%20tract\\\">lateral spinothalamic tract</a>, which transmits pain and temperature, and the <a href=\\\"anterior%20spinothalamic%20tract\\\">anterior (or ventral) spinothalamic tract</a>, which transmits crude touch and pressure.\\nThe thalamus has multiple functions, generally believed to act as a relay station, or <a href=\\\"hub%20%28network%20science%29\\\">hub</a>, relaying information between different subcortical areas and the <a href=\\\"cerebral%20cortex\\\">cerebral cortex</a>. In particular, every sensory system (with the exception of the <a href=\\\"olfactory%20system\\\">olfactory system</a>) includes a thalamic nucleus that receives sensory signals and sends them to the associated primary cortical area. For the visual system, for example, inputs from the <a href=\\\"retina\\\">retina</a> are sent to the <a href=\\\"lateral%20geniculate%20nucleus\\\">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> of the thalamus, which in turn projects to the <a href=\\\"visual%20cortex\\\">visual cortex</a> in the <a href=\\\"occipital%20lobe\\\">occipital lobe</a>. The thalamus is believed to both process sensory information as well as relay it—each of the primary sensory relay areas receives strong feedback connections from the cerebral cortex.\\nSimilarly the <a href=\\\"medial%20geniculate%20nucleus\\\">medial geniculate nucleus</a> acts as a key <a href=\\\"Auditory%20system\\\">auditory</a> relay between the <a href=\\\"inferior%20colliculus\\\">inferior colliculus</a> of the <a href=\\\"midbrain\\\">midbrain</a> and the <a href=\\\"primary%20auditory%20cortex\\\">primary auditory cortex</a>. The <a href=\\\"ventral%20posterior%20nucleus\\\">ventral posterior nucleus</a> is a key <a href=\\\"somatosensory\\\">somatosensory</a> relay, which sends touch and <a href=\\\"proprioceptive\\\">proprioceptive</a> information to the <a href=\\\"primary%20somatosensory%20cortex\\\">primary somatosensory cortex</a>.\\nThe thalamus also plays an important role in regulating states of <a href=\\\"neuroscience%20of%20sleep\\\">sleep and wakefulness</a>. Thalamic nuclei have strong reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex, forming <a href=\\\"thalamo-cortico-thalamic%20circuits\\\">thalamo-cortico-thalamic circuits</a> that are believed to be involved with <a href=\\\"consciousness\\\">consciousness</a>. The thalamus plays a major role in regulating arousal, the level of awareness, and activity. Damage to the thalamus can lead to permanent <a href=\\\"coma\\\">coma</a>.\\nThe role of the thalamus in the more anterior <a href=\\\"pallidal\\\">pallidal</a> and <a href=\\\"nigral\\\">nigral</a> territories in the <a href=\\\"basal%20ganglia\\\">basal ganglia</a> system disturbances is recognized but still poorly understood. The contribution of the thalamus to vestibular or to <a href=\\\"tectal\\\">tectal</a> functions is almost ignored. The thalamus has been thought of as a \\\"relay\\\" that simply forwards signals to the cerebral cortex. Newer research suggests that thalamic function is more selective. Many different functions are linked to various regions of the thalamus. This is the case for many of the sensory systems (except for the olfactory system), such as the <a href=\\\"auditory%20system\\\">auditory</a>, <a href=\\\"somatic%20sensory%20system\\\">somatic</a>, <a href=\\\"visceral\\\">visceral</a>, <a href=\\\"gustatory\\\">gustatory</a> and <a href=\\\"visual%20system\\\">visual system</a>s where localized lesions provoke specific sensory deficits. A major role of the thalamus is support of motor and language systems, and much of the circuitry implicated for these systems is shared. The thalamus is \\\"functionally connected\\\" to the <a href=\\\"hippocampus\\\">hippocampus</a> as part of the extended hippocampal system at the thalamic anterior nuclei with respect to spatial memory and spatial sensory datum they are crucial for human episodic memory and rodent event memory. There is support for the hypothesis that thalamic regions connection to particular parts of the mesio-temporal lobe provide differentiation of the functioning of recollective and familiarity memory.\\nThe neuronal information processes necessary for motor control were proposed as a network involving the thalamus as a subcortical motor center. Through investigations of the anatomy of the brains of primates the nature of the interconnected tissues of the <a href=\\\"cerebellum\\\">cerebellum</a> to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus fulfills a key function in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and <a href=\\\"cerebellum\\\">cerebellum</a> to the cortical motor areas. In an investigation of the saccade and antisaccade motor response in three monkeys, the thalamic regions were found to be involved in the generation of antisaccade eye-movement.\\nThe thalamic complex is composed of the perithalamus (or prethalamus, previously also known as ventral thalamus), the mid-diencephalic organiser (which forms later the <a href=\\\"zona%20limitans%20intrathalamica\\\">zona limitans intrathalamica</a> (ZLI) ) and the thalamus (dorsal thalamus). The development of the thalamus can be subdivided into three steps.\\nThe thalamus is the largest structure deriving from the embryonic <a href=\\\"diencephalon\\\">diencephalon</a>, the posterior part of the forebrain situated between the midbrain and the cerebrum.\\nAfter <a href=\\\"neurulation\\\">neurulation</a> the anlage of the <a href=\\\"prethalamus\\\">prethalamus</a> and the thalamus is induced within the neural tube. Data from different vertebrate model organisms support a model in which the interaction between two <a href=\\\"transcription%20factor\\\">transcription factor</a>s, Fez and Otx, are of decisive importance. Fez is expressed in the prethalamus, and functional experiments show that Fez is required for prethalamus formation. Posteriorly, Otx1 and Otx2 abut the expression domain of Fez and are required for proper development of the thalamus.\\nEarly in thalamic development two progenitor domains form, a caudal domain (TH-C) and a rostral domain (TH-R). The caudal domain gives rise to all of the glutamatergic neurons in the adult thalamus while the rostral domain gives rise to all of the GABAergic neurons in the adult thalamus.\\nAt the interface between the expression domains of Fez and Otx, the mid-diencephalic organizer (MDO, also called the ZLI organiser) is induced within the thalamic <a href=\\\"Primordium\\\">anlage</a>. The MDO is the central signalling organizer in the thalamus. A lack of the organizer leads to the absence of the thalamus. The MDO matures from ventral to dorsal during development. Members of the <a href=\\\"sonic%20hedgehog\\\">SHH</a> family and of the <a href=\\\"Wnt%20signaling%20pathway\\\">Wnt</a> family are the main principal signals emitted by the MDO.\\nBesides its importance as signalling center, the organizer matures into the morphological structure of the <a href=\\\"Zona%20limitans%20intrathalamica\\\">zona limitans intrathalamica (ZLI)</a>.\\nAfter its induction, the MDO starts to orchestrate the development of the thalamic anlage by release of signalling molecules such as <a href=\\\"Sonic%20hedgehog\\\">SHH</a>. In mice, the function of signaling at the MDO has not been addressed directly due to a complete absence of the <a href=\\\"diencephalon\\\">diencephalon</a> in SHH mutants.\\nStudies in chicks have shown that SHH is both necessary and sufficient for thalamic gene induction. In <a href=\\\"zebrafish\\\">zebrafish</a>, it was shown that the expression of two SHH genes, SHH-a and SHH-b (formerly described as twhh) mark the MDO territory, and that SHH signaling is sufficient for the molecular differentiation of both the prethalamus and the thalamus but is not required for their maintenance and SHH signaling from the MDO/alar plate is sufficient for the maturation of prethalamic and thalamic territory while ventral Shh signals are dispensable.\\nThe exposure to SHH leads to differentiation of thalamic neurons. SHH signaling from the MDO induces a posterior-to-anterior wave of expression the proneural gene <a href=\\\"Neurogenins\\\">Neurogenin1</a> in the major (caudal) part of the thalamus, and Ascl1 (formerly Mash1) in the remaining narrow stripe of rostral thalamic cells immediately adjacent to the MDO, and in the prethalamus.\\nThis zonation of proneural gene expression leads to the differentiation of glutamatergic relay neurons from the Neurogenin1+ precursors and of GABAergic inhibitory neurons from the Ascl1+ precursors. In fish, selection of these alternative neurotransmitter fates is controlled by the dynamic expression of Her6 the homolog of <a href=\\\"HES1\\\">HES1</a>. Expression of this hairy-like bHLH <a href=\\\"transcription%20factor\\\">transcription factor</a>, which represses Neurogenin but is required for Ascl1, is progressively lost from the caudal thalamus but maintained in the prethalamus and in the stripe of rostral thalamic cells. In addition, studies on chick and mice have shown that blocking the Shh pathway leads to absence of the rostral thalamus and substantial decrease of the caudal thalamus. The rostral thalamus will give rise to the reticular nucleus mainly whereby the caudal thalamus will form the relay thalamus and will be further subdivided in the <a href=\\\"thalamic%20nuclei\\\">thalamic nuclei</a>.\\nIn humans, a common genetic variation in the promotor region of the <a href=\\\"serotonin%20transporter\\\">serotonin transporter</a> (the SERT-long and -short allele: <a href=\\\"5-HTTLPR\\\">5-HTTLPR</a>) has been shown to affect the development of several regions of the thalamus in adults. People who inherit two short <a href=\\\"allele\\\">allele</a>s (SERT-ss) have more neurons and a larger volume in the <a href=\\\"Pulvinar%20nucleus\\\">pulvinar</a> and possibly the limbic regions of the thalamus. Enlargement of the thalamus provides an anatomical basis for why people who inherit two SERT-ss alleles are more vulnerable to <a href=\\\"Major%20depressive%20disorder\\\">major depression</a>, <a href=\\\"posttraumatic%20stress%20disorder\\\">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>, and suicide.\\nA cerebrovascular accident (<a href=\\\"stroke\\\">stroke</a>) can lead to the <a href=\\\"thalamic%20syndrome\\\">thalamic syndrome</a>, which involves a one-sided burning or aching sensation often accompanied by <a href=\\\"mood%20disorder\\\">mood swings</a>. Bilateral <a href=\\\"ischemia\\\">ischemia</a> of the area supplied by the paramedian artery can cause serious problems including <a href=\\\"akinetic%20mutism\\\">akinetic mutism</a>, and be accompanied by <a href=\\\"oculomotor\\\">oculomotor</a> problems. A related concept is <a href=\\\"thalamocortical%20dysrhythmia\\\">thalamocortical dysrhythmia</a>. The occlusion of the <a href=\\\"artery%20of%20Percheron\\\">artery of Percheron</a> can lead to a bilateral thalamus infarction.\\n<a href=\\\"Korsakoff%27s%20syndrome\\\">Korsakoff's syndrome</a> stems from damage to the <a href=\\\"mammillary%20body\\\">mammillary body</a>, the <a href=\\\"mammillothalamic%20fasciculus\\\">mammillothalamic fasciculus</a> or the thalamus.\\n<a href=\\\"Fatal%20familial%20insomnia\\\">Fatal familial insomnia</a> is a hereditary <a href=\\\"prion\\\">prion</a> disease in which degeneration of the thalamus occurs, causing the patient to gradually lose his ability to sleep and progressing to a state of total <a href=\\\"insomnia\\\">insomnia</a>, which invariably leads to death. In contrast, damage to the thalamus can result in <a href=\\\"coma\\\">coma</a>.\\nDrawings are by Gray and Carter (1858).\\n\",\n \"Fight-or-flight response\\nThe fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived <a href=\\\"Psychological%20trauma\\\">harmful event</a>, <a href=\\\"Trauma%20%28medicine%29\\\">attack</a>, or threat to survival. It was first described by <a href=\\\"Walter%20Bradford%20Cannon\\\">Walter Bradford Cannon</a>. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the <a href=\\\"sympathetic%20nervous%20system\\\">sympathetic nervous system</a>, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the <a href=\\\"adrenal%20medulla\\\">adrenal medulla</a> produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of <a href=\\\"catecholamines\\\">catecholamines</a>, especially <a href=\\\"norepinephrine\\\">norepinephrine</a> and <a href=\\\"epinephrine\\\">epinephrine</a>. The hormones <a href=\\\"estrogen\\\">estrogen</a>, <a href=\\\"testosterone\\\">testosterone</a>, and <a href=\\\"cortisol\\\">cortisol</a>, as well as the neurotransmitters <a href=\\\"dopamine\\\">dopamine</a> and <a href=\\\"serotonin\\\">serotonin</a>, also affect how organisms react to stress.\\nThis response is recognized as the first stage of the <a href=\\\"Stress%20%28biology%29%23General%20adaptation%20syndrome\\\">general adaptation syndrome</a> that regulates <a href=\\\"Stress%20%28biological%29\\\">stress</a> responses among <a href=\\\"vertebrate\\\">vertebrate</a>s and other <a href=\\\"organism\\\">organism</a>s.\\nThe autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates <a href=\\\"heart%20rate\\\">heart rate</a>, <a href=\\\"digestion\\\">digestion</a>, <a href=\\\"respiratory%20rate\\\">respiratory rate</a>, <a href=\\\"pupillary%20dilation\\\">pupillary response</a>, <a href=\\\"Micturition\\\">urination</a>, and <a href=\\\"sexual%20arousal\\\">sexual arousal</a>. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components.\\nThe sympathetic nervous system originates in the <a href=\\\"spinal%20cord\\\">spinal cord</a> and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of <a href=\\\"norepinephrine\\\">norepinephrine</a> in the reaction.\\nThe parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and <a href=\\\"Medulla%20oblongata\\\">medulla</a>, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the \\\"rest and digest\\\" response and return the body to <a href=\\\"homeostasis\\\">homeostasis</a> after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter <a href=\\\"acetylcholine\\\">acetylcholine</a>.\\nThe reaction begins in the <a href=\\\"amygdala\\\">amygdala</a>, which triggers a neural response in the <a href=\\\"hypothalamus\\\">hypothalamus</a>. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the <a href=\\\"pituitary%20gland\\\">pituitary gland</a> and secretion of the hormone <a href=\\\"Adrenocorticotropic%20hormone\\\">ACTH</a>. The <a href=\\\"adrenal%20gland\\\">adrenal gland</a> is activated almost simultaneously and releases the hormone <a href=\\\"epinephrine\\\">epinephrine</a>. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone <a href=\\\"cortisol\\\">cortisol</a>, which increases <a href=\\\"blood%20pressure\\\">blood pressure</a>, <a href=\\\"blood%20sugar\\\">blood sugar</a>, and suppresses the <a href=\\\"immune%20system\\\">immune system</a>. The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to <a href=\\\"cells%20%28biology%29\\\">liver cells</a> and the subsequent production of <a href=\\\"glucose\\\">glucose</a>. Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn <a href=\\\"fatty%20acids\\\">fatty acids</a> into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. Catecholamine hormones, such as <a href=\\\"Epinephrine\\\">adrenaline</a> (<a href=\\\"Epinephrine\\\">epinephrine</a>) or <a href=\\\"noradrenaline\\\">noradrenaline</a> (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent <a href=\\\"muscular\\\">muscular</a> action and :\\nThe physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:\\nIn the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.\\nDuring the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to <a href=\\\"anxiety\\\">anxiety</a> and <a href=\\\"aggression\\\">aggression</a>, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.\\nThe specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterized by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.\\n<a href=\\\"Perceived%20control\\\">Perceived control</a> relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events. Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.\\nThe social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts. The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.\\nAn <a href=\\\"evolutionary%20psychology\\\">evolutionary psychology</a> explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.\\nA typical example of the stress response is a grazing <a href=\\\"zebra\\\">zebra</a>. If the zebra sees a <a href=\\\"lion\\\">lion</a> closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its <a href=\\\"Predatory%20imminence%20continuum\\\">predator</a>. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The <a href=\\\"sympathetic%20nervous%20system\\\">sympathetic nervous system</a>’s activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, <a href=\\\"piloerection\\\">piloerection</a> (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain <a href=\\\"homeostasis\\\">homeostasis</a> in all states.\\nAnimals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.\\nOther animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of <a href=\\\"Ectotherm\\\">cold-blooded</a> animals <a href=\\\"Chromatophore\\\">change color</a> swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.\\nThe fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.\\nA threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.\",\n \"Relaxation (psychology)\\nRelaxation in <a href=\\\"psychology\\\">psychology</a>, is the <a href=\\\"emotional%20state\\\">emotional state</a> of a living being, of low tension, in which there is an absence of <a href=\\\"arousal\\\">arousal</a> that could come from sources such as <a href=\\\"anger\\\">anger</a>, <a href=\\\"anxiety\\\">anxiety</a>, or <a href=\\\"fear\\\">fear</a>. According to the <a href=\\\"Oxford%20dictionary\\\">Oxford dictionary</a> relaxation is when the body and mind are free from tension and anxiety. Relaxation is a form of mild ecstasy coming from the frontal lobe of the brain in which the backward cortex sends signals to the frontal cortex via a mild sedative. Relaxation can be achieved through <a href=\\\"meditation\\\">meditation</a>, <a href=\\\"autogenics\\\">autogenics</a>, and <a href=\\\"progressive%20muscle%20relaxation\\\">progressive muscle relaxation</a>. Relaxation helps improve coping with <a href=\\\"stress%20%28psychological%29\\\">stress</a>. Stress is the leading cause of mental problems and physical problems, therefore feeling relaxed is beneficial for a person's health. When we are stressed, the <a href=\\\"sympathetic%20nervous%20system\\\">sympathetic nervous system</a> is activated because we are in a <a href=\\\"fight-or-flight%20response\\\">fight-or-flight response</a> mode; over time, this could have negative effects on a human body.\\nThe idea of relaxation in psychology was popularized by Dr.Edmund Jacobson in his published book \\\"<a href=\\\"Progressive%20relaxation\\\">Progressive Relaxation</a>\\\". It was a technical book eared toward doctors and scientists. His book describes tensing and relaxing specific muscles at a time to achieve overall relaxation in the body. Jacobson then published another book called \\\"You Must Relax \\\"published in 1934 that was geared towards the general public. According to Jacobson, his research started in 1908 at <a href=\\\"Harvard%20University\\\">Harvard University</a>, and later moving on to <a href=\\\"Cornell%20University%20School%20of%20Industrial%20and%20Labor%20Relations\\\">Cornell</a> and <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Chicago\\\">University of Chicago</a>. His research was aimed at improving the general human well being.\\nIn 1932, <a href=\\\"Johannes%20Schultz%20%28composer%29\\\">Johannes Schultz</a> and Wolfgang Luthe developed a method of relaxation that emphasized using the power of suggestion, called <a href=\\\"autogenic%20training\\\">autogenic training</a>.\\nIn 1975, Herbert Benson and Mirium Z. Klipper published a book called \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Relaxation%20Response\\\">The Relaxation Response</a>\\\", which gives instructions on tying meditation techniques into daily activities the average person could do.\\nAlthough stress levels vary across society, the fact remains that stress can be detrimental to one's health. In order to combat this stress, there have been a variety of methods developed that have been proven to reduce stress and its consequences in everyday life. The majority of techniques can be classified in to either Physical, Mental or Therapeutic techniques.\\nBreathing techniques is one of the easiest ways to reduce stress. It requires little effort and can be done anywhere at any time. Proper breathing techniques that incorporate deep abdominal breathing have been shown to reduce the physical symptoms of depression, anxiety and hypertension as well as everyday emotional symptoms of anger and nervousness.\\nProgressive muscle relaxation is a relaxation technique that requires an individual to focus on flexing and holding a certain set of muscles and then slowly relaxing those same muscles. As the individual flexes and releases those muscles from top to bottom they will feel a deep sense of relaxation. Progressive muscle relaxation is a somewhat adapted version of the Jacobsonian Relaxation Technique developed in the 1920s. Progressive muscle relaxation is currently used in clinical and non-clinical settings to reduce the effects of anxiety and sleeplessness brought upon by stress. The long-term goal of this relaxation technique is to be able to identify when your body's muscles are suffering the effects of stress and to be able to relax the individual and the individuals muscles when directed.\\n<a href=\\\"Meditation\\\">Meditation</a> has long been practiced in other regions around the world. However, it is a practice that is fairly new to North America and it is gaining attention quickly for the physical and psychological benefits it provides to your body. Studies have shown that in addition to reducing physiological and psychological stresses placed on your body, individuals who practice meditation have much fewer doctor visits for both physical and psychological illnesses.\\n<a href=\\\"Hypnosis\\\">Hypnosis</a> relaxation therapy has recently become another technique used among healthcare professionals to promote relaxation. When performed correctly, hypnosis has the ability to put an individual in a deep state of relaxation. During this state the individual is vulnerable to suggestions stated by the person performing the hypnosis. Not only will the hypnotized individual be stress free and in a deep state of relaxation but it is thought that when the individual is out of hypnosis they will be less susceptible to the effects of stress as suggested by the person who performed the hypnosis on them. In addition to relaxation, hypnosis therapy is being used to treat a variety of conditions. Treatments for conditions using hypnosis that are currently being promoted by The <a href=\\\"Mayo%20Clinic\\\">Mayo Clinic</a> are; smoking addiction therapy, pain control therapy, weight loss, coping with chemotherapy, asthma, and allergy relief.\\n<a href=\\\"Relaxation%20technique\\\">Relaxation technique</a>s used in therapy by a certified counselor or therapist could include any of the previous techniques discussed. Professionals in the fields of psychology or counseling will have the ability to administer a variety of these techniques. If they feel it is appropriate they may prescribe medication to assist the patient with relaxation. Although a number of these techniques are simple and can be performed on one's own time, patients may receive better results if they are guided by a professional who is very familiar with the techniques.\\n<a href=\\\"Herbert%20Benson\\\">Herbert Benson</a>, a professor at the medical school at <a href=\\\"Harvard%20University\\\">Harvard University</a>, has proposed in his book \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Relaxation%20Response\\\">The Relaxation Response</a>\\\" a mechanism of the body that counters the <a href=\\\"fight-or-flight%20response\\\">fight-or-flight response</a>. The relaxation response reduces the body’s metabolism, heart and breathing rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and calms brain activity. It increases the immune response, helps attention and decision making, and changes gene activities that are the opposite of those associated stress. The relaxation response is achieved through meditation. Benson's meditation technique involves these four steps:\\n<a href=\\\"Autogenics\\\">Autogenics</a> was invented by Dr. <a href=\\\"Johannes%20Schulz\\\">Johannes Schulz</a> in the 1920s. The process of autogenics is by relaxing muscles deeply, and by doing so, the mind follows through and relaxes as well. There as six parts to autogenics training:\\n<a href=\\\"Progressive%20muscle%20relaxation\\\">Progressive muscle relaxation</a> helps relax your muscles by tensing certain parts of the body (such as the neck), and then releasing the tension in order to feel the muscles relaxing. This technique helps for people with <a href=\\\"anxiety\\\">anxiety</a> because they are always tense throughout the day.\\nThe benefits of relaxation can be found in three main areas of an individual’s health, including; mental, physical and physiological health. Being relaxed can do positive things for someone’s health from just elevating your mood to helping with insomnia. All of these things can help an individual live a happier and healthier life and may increase the longevity of one's life. There are not many draw backs of relaxation. It is an easy technique to understand and follow through with. Three categories that relaxation can help with are mental, physical, and physiological.\\nMental health is very important and needs to be worked on every day. Relaxation can help with many impairments that can occur in one's mental health. There is a higher mood and lower anxiety in those who practice relaxation techniques. Those who are relaxed have much slower and clearer thought processes than those who are not relaxed; this can be shown on an EEG. It is well known that relaxation can help reduce stress. With reducing stress, a person can help reduce the negative things that stress can do to the body. Coping mechanisms are also improved with relaxation techniques in both mental and physical pain.\\nSleep disorders are an area that can produce stress and mental health issues. Relaxation may help reduce insomnia in those who have sleeping disorders. Those with insomnia may even give up sleeping aids just by practicing relaxation techniques. Being off of unnecessary medication or sleep aids will help health as an over all. Even though relaxation cannot get rid of chronic diseases, it may help dull of the symptoms one may have. Many cancer and AIDS patients are taught relaxation techniques.\\nPhysical health is also something that needs to be worked on daily, whether it is exercise, healthy eating, or relaxation. states that blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate will all decrease when one is relaxed. This means that a person's heart does not beat as fast and their breathing is shallow, helping one's body have time to rest. This will reduce the extra stress that these things can do to the body if they are over worked. Muscle tension will decrease. If one's muscle tension is decreased they are not burning up extra energy that they may need later in the day. Metabolism can also decrease; this is mostly seen in hibernation and sleep and that gives the body extra time to rest and focus on other aspect that it needs to. This could be seen as a good or bad thing, depending on the overall quality of health. People who practice relaxation have said to be able to tolerate pain better both mentally and physically.\\nIn regards to the nervous system, relaxation can also play a big role. An individual will go from active and alert, which is the sympathetic, to parasympathetic which is rest and digest. When they are relaxing, it gives the body time to catch up. A person does not need to worry about running, because they are sitting still and allowing “rest and digest”. Immune systems will increase with increased relaxation which is why relaxation can be seen as part of treatment for AIDS and cancer patients.\",\n \"Alexander Nemerov\\nAlexander Nemerov (born 1963) is a Professor of Art and Art History at <a href=\\\"Stanford%20University\\\">Stanford University</a>. Prior to joining Stanford, he was a Professor of Art History and American Studies at <a href=\\\"Yale%20University\\\">Yale University</a>. Over the years he has published several books and articles pertaining to the culture of American art dating from the eighteenth to the 1970s. His writing often analyzes fiction and poetry alongside works of visual art. His father was the poet <a href=\\\"Howard%20Nemerov\\\">Howard Nemerov</a>, his aunt the photographer <a href=\\\"Diane%20Arbus\\\">Diane Nemerov Arbus</a>.\\nBorn in <a href=\\\"Bennington%2C%20Vermont\\\">Bennington, Vermont</a> in 1963, the son of the poet Howard Nemerov, Alexander grew up in the context of the academic and contemplative life, his father having taught at <a href=\\\"Washington%20University%20in%20St.%20Louis\\\">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, and earlier at <a href=\\\"Bennington%20College\\\">Bennington College</a> in Vermont. The period before Alexander's birth was chronicled in Howard's \\\"Journal of the Fictive Life\\\". Alexander earned a BA in English and Art History from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Vermont\\\">University of Vermont</a> in 1985, graduating <a href=\\\"Phi%20Beta%20Kappa\\\">Phi Beta Kappa</a>, Cum Laude. He received his Doctorate and master's degrees in history of art from Yale University.\\nAfter completing his doctorate under the supervision of <a href=\\\"Jules%20Prown\\\">Jules Prown</a> at Yale, Nemerov went on to teach at <a href=\\\"Stanford%20University\\\">Stanford University</a> for nine years, eight as Assistant Professor and one as a full Professor. His areas of expertise include American art from the colonial period to the 1970s, American literature, American <a href=\\\"material%20culture\\\">material culture</a>, and American history, with special interests in \\\"defamiliarizing,\\\" \\\"counter-intuitive,\\\" \\\"close\\\" readings of works of art and literature, paying particular attention to details of form, and formal analogies between visual and literary source material. Nemerov's approach to his objects of scholarly investigation thus shares certain affinities with methodologies commonly associated with the <a href=\\\"Yale%20School\\\">Yale School</a> of literary criticism. As a teacher, Professor Nemerov is known for the quality of his lectures.\\nNemerov was the recipient of the Dean's Award at Stanford in 1998, as well as the Internal Faculty Fellowship, Stanford Humanities Center, that year. Other awards/fellowships include the Material Culture Fellowship Smithsonian Institution/University Consortium for Studies in Material Culture, National Museum of American Art (1989–1991). In 2001 he returned to teach at Yale, where he received tenure. In 2012, he moved back to Stanford's art history department. In January 2014, he was named to the \\\"Stanford Daily\\\"'s top 10 professors list.\\nSince the 1990s, Nemerov has published several books and numerous articles, many of which appear in the journal \\\"American Art\\\". He also has organized, or helped in organizing, a few exhibitions, which tend to coincide thematically with his research interests at the time; these include: \\\"Frederic Remington and the American Civil War: A Ghost Story\\\", at the Norman Rockwell Museum, Stockbridge, Massachusetts, 2006; \\\"Mammoth Scale: The Anatomical Sculptures of William Rush, 2002–2003\\\", at the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, 2002–2003; and \\\"The West as America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier, 1820-1920\\\", at the National Museum of American Art, <a href=\\\"Smithsonian%20Institution\\\">Smithsonian Institution</a>, Washington, D. C., 1989-1991.\\nCurrently, his research interests focus on two projects: a study of a single night’s performance of \\\"Macbeth\\\" during Abraham Lincoln’s presidency, and a study of the artistic relationship between his father, the poet Howard Nemerov, and his aunt, the photographer <a href=\\\"Diane%20Arbus\\\">Diane Arbus</a>.\",\n \"Mood (psychology)\\nIn <a href=\\\"psychology\\\">psychology</a>, a mood is an <a href=\\\"emotion\\\">emotion</a>al state. In contrast to emotions, feelings, or <a href=\\\"Affect%20%28psychology%29\\\">affects</a>, moods are less specific, less intense and less likely to be provoked or instantiated by a particular <a href=\\\"Stimulus%20%28physiology%29\\\">stimulus</a> or event. Moods are typically described as having either a positive or negative valence. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood.\\nMood also differs from <a href=\\\"temperament\\\">temperament</a> or <a href=\\\"Trait%20theory\\\">personality traits</a> which are even longer-lasting. Nevertheless, personality traits such as <a href=\\\"optimism\\\">optimism</a> and <a href=\\\"neuroticism\\\">neuroticism</a> predispose certain types of moods. Long term disturbances of mood such as <a href=\\\"Major%20depressive%20disorder\\\">clinical depression</a> and <a href=\\\"bipolar%20disorder\\\">bipolar disorder</a> are considered mood disorders. Mood is an internal, subjective state but it often can be inferred from posture and other behaviors. \\\"We can be sent into a mood by an unexpected event, from the happiness of seeing an old friend to the anger of discovering betrayal by a partner. We may also just fall into a mood.\\\"\\nResearch also shows that a person's mood can influence how they process advertising. Mood has been found to interact with gender to affect consumer processing of information.\\nEtymologically, the word \\\"mood\\\" derives from the <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a> \\\"mōd\\\" which denoted military <a href=\\\"courage\\\">courage</a>, but could also refer to a person's humor, temper, or disposition at a particular time. The cognate <a href=\\\"Gothic%20language\\\">Gothic</a> \\\"mōds\\\" translates both <a href=\\\"Thymos\\\">θυμός</a> \\\"mood, spiritedness\\\" and ὀργή \\\"<a href=\\\"anger\\\">anger</a>\\\".\\nPositive mood\\nPositive mood can be caused by many different aspects of life as well as have certain effects on people as a whole. Good mood is usually considered a state without an identified cause; people cannot pinpoint exactly why they are in a good mood. People seem to experience a positive mood when they have a clean slate, have had a good night sleep, and feel no sense of stress in their life.\\nThere have been many studies done on the effect of positive emotion on the cognitive mind and there is speculation that positive mood can affect our minds in good or bad ways. Generally, positive mood has been found to enhance creative problem solving and flexible yet careful thinking. Some studies have stated that positive moods let people think creatively, freely, and be more imaginative. Positive mood can also help individuals in situations in which heavy thinking and brainstorming is involved. In one experiment, individuals who were induced with a positive mood enhanced performance on the Remote Associates Task (RAT), a cognitive task that requires creative problem solving. Moreover, the study also suggests that being in a positive mood broadens or expands the breadth of attentional selection such that information that may be useful to the task at hand becomes more accessible for use. Consequently, greater accessibility of relevant information facilitates successful problem solving. Positive mood also facilitates resistance to temptations, especially with regards to <a href=\\\"Junk%20food\\\">unhealthy food choices</a>.\\nPositive mood has also been proven to show negative effects on cognition as well. According to the article \\\"Positive mood is associated with implicit use of distraction\\\", \\\"There is also evidence that individuals in positive moods show disrupted performance, at least when distracting information is present\\\". The article states that other things in their peripheral views can easily distract people who are in good moods; an example of this would be if you were trying to study in the library (considering you are in a positive mood) you see people constantly walking around or making small noises. The study is basically stating that it would be harder for positive moods to focus on the task at hand. In particular, happy people may be more sensitive to the <a href=\\\"hedonism\\\">hedonic</a> consequences of message processing than sad people. Thus, positive moods are predicted to lead to decreased processing only when thinking about the message is mood threatening. In comparison, if message processing allows a person to maintain or enhance a pleasant state then positive moods need not lead to lower levels of message scrutiny than negative moods. It is assumed that initial information regarding the source either confirms or disconfirms mood-congruent expectations. Specifically, a positive mood may lead to more positive expectations concerning source trustworthiness or likability than a negative mood. As a consequence, people in a positive mood should be more surprised when they encounter an untrustworthy or dislikable source rather than a trustworthy or likable source.\\nNegative mood\\nLike positive moods, negative moods have important implications for human mental and physical wellbeing. Moods are basic psychological states that can occur as a reaction to an event or can surface for no apparent external cause. Since there is no intentional object that causes the negative mood, it has no specific start and stop date. It can last for hours, days, weeks, or longer. Negative moods can manipulate how individuals interpret and translate the world around them, and can also direct their behavior.\\nNegative moods can affect an individual’s judgment and perception of objects and events. In a study done by Niedenthal and Setterlund (1994), research showed that individuals are tuned to perceive things that are congruent with their current mood. Negative moods, mostly low-intense, can control how humans perceive emotion-congruent objects and events. For example, Niedenthal and Setterland used music to induce positive and negative moods. Sad music was used as a stimulus to induce negative moods, and participants labeled other things as negative. This proves that people's current moods tend to affect their judgments and perceptions. These negative moods may lead to problems in social relationships. For example, one maladaptive negative mood regulation is an overactive strategy in which individuals over dramatize their negative feelings in order to provoke support and feedback from others and to guarantee their availability. A second type of maladaptive negative mood regulation is a disabling strategy in which individuals suppress their negative feelings and distance themselves from others in order to avoid frustrations and anxiety caused by others' unavailability.\\nNegative moods have been connected with <a href=\\\"Depression%20%28mood%29\\\">depression</a>, <a href=\\\"anxiety\\\">anxiety</a>, aggression, poor self-esteem, physiological stress and decrease in <a href=\\\"sexual%20arousal\\\">sexual arousal</a>. In some individuals, there is evidence that depressed or anxious mood may increase sexual interest or arousal. In general, men were more likely than women to report increased sexual drive during negative mood states. Negative moods are labeled as nonconstructive because it can affect a person’s ability to process information; making them focus solely on the sender of a message, while people in positive moods will pay more attention to both the sender and the context of a message. This can lead to problems in social relationships with others.\\nNegative moods, such as <a href=\\\"anxiety\\\">anxiety</a>, often lead individuals to misinterpret physical symptoms. According to Jerry Suls, a professor at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Iowa\\\">University of Iowa</a>, people who are depressed and anxious tend to be in <a href=\\\"rumination%20%28psychology%29\\\">rumination</a>. However, although an individual's affective states can influence the somatic changes, these individuals are not <a href=\\\"hypochondriacs\\\">hypochondriacs</a>.\\nAlthough negative moods are generally characterized as bad, not all negative moods are necessarily damaging. The <a href=\\\"Negative%20State%20Relief%20Model\\\">Negative State Relief Model</a> states that human beings have an innate drive to reduce negative moods. People can reduce their negative moods by engaging in any mood-elevating behavior (called <a href=\\\"Mood%20repair%20strategies\\\">Mood repair strategies</a>), such as helping behavior, as it is paired with positive value such as smiles and thank you. Thus negative mood increases helpfulness because helping others can reduce one's own bad feelings.\\nLack of sleep\\nSleep has a complex, and as of yet not fully elucidated, relationship with mood. Most commonly if a person is sleep deprived he/she will become more irritable, angry, more prone to stress, and less energized throughout the day. \\\"Studies have shown that even partial sleep deprivation has a significant effect on mood. University of Pennsylvania researchers found that subjects who were limited to only 4.5 hours of sleep a night for one week reported feeling more stressed, angry, sad, and mentally exhausted. When the subjects resumed normal sleep, they reported a dramatic improvement in mood.\\\" Generally, evening oriented people, as compared to morning ones, show decreased energy and pleasantness and heightened tension.\\nHowever, in a subset of cases sleep deprivation can, paradoxically, lead to increased energy and alertness and enhanced mood. This effect is most marked in persons with an eveningeness type (so called night-owls) and people suffering from depression. For this reason it has, not surprisingly, been used as a treatment for <a href=\\\"major%20depressive%20disorder\\\">major depressive disorder</a>.\\nNutrition\\nThere is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and positive mood. This evidence is independent of demographic or health variables including <a href=\\\"Socioeconomic%20status\\\">socio-economic status</a>, <a href=\\\"Physical%20exercise\\\">exercise</a>, smoking, and <a href=\\\"body%20mass%20index\\\">body mass index</a> (BMI). Further studies have demonstrated a causal link between greater fruit and vegetable intake with feeling calmer, happier, more energetic, and more positive.\\nFacial expression\\nResearch studies have indicated that voluntary facial expressions, such as smiling, can produce effects on the body that are similar to those that result from the actual emotion, such as happiness. <a href=\\\"Paul%20Ekman\\\">Paul Ekman</a> and his colleagues have studied facial expressions of emotions and have linked specific emotions to the movement of specific facial muscles. Each basic emotion is associated with a distinctive facial expression. Sensory feedback from the expression contributes to the emotional feeling. Example: Smiling if you want to feel happy. Facial expressions have a large effect on self-reported anger and happiness which then affects your mood. Ekman has found that these expressions of emotion are universal and recognizable across widely divergent cultures.\\nDepression, chronic stress, bipolar disorder, etc. are considered mood disorders. It has been suggested that such disorders result from chemical imbalances in the brain's neurotransmitters, however some research challenges this hypothesis.\\nThe idea of social mood as a \\\"collectively shared state of mind\\\" (Nofsinger 2005; Olson 2006) is attributed to <a href=\\\"Robert%20Prechter\\\">Robert Prechter</a> and his <a href=\\\"socionomics\\\">socionomics</a>. The notion is used primarily in the field of <a href=\\\"economics\\\">economics</a> (<a href=\\\"investment\\\">investment</a>s).\\nIn sociology, philosophy, and psychology, <a href=\\\"crowd\\\">crowd</a> behavior is the formation of a \\\"common mood\\\" directed toward an object of attention.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within the other person's frame of reference, i.e., the capacity to place oneself in another's position. There are many definitions for empathy that encompass a broad range of emotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and empathy.","Alexithymia is a personality construct characterized by the inability to identify and describe emotions in the self. The core characteristics of alexithymia are marked dysfunction in emotional awareness, social attachment, and interpersonal relating. Furthermore, people with alexithymia have difficulty in distinguishing and appreciating the emotions of others, which is thought to lead to unempathic and ineffective emotional responding. Alexithymia occurs in approximately 10% of the population and can occur with a number of psychiatric conditions."],"string":"[\n \"Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within the other person's frame of reference, i.e., the capacity to place oneself in another's position. There are many definitions for empathy that encompass a broad range of emotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and empathy.\",\n \"Alexithymia is a personality construct characterized by the inability to identify and describe emotions in the self. The core characteristics of alexithymia are marked dysfunction in emotional awareness, social attachment, and interpersonal relating. Furthermore, people with alexithymia have difficulty in distinguishing and appreciating the emotions of others, which is thought to lead to unempathic and ineffective emotional responding. Alexithymia occurs in approximately 10% of the population and can occur with a number of psychiatric conditions.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":65,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Walter Leslie Duncan, director of the Adelaide Steamship Company, resigned from the Senate in what year?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1931"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Alaska Steamship Company\nThe Alaska Steamship Company was formed on August 3, 1894. While it originally set out to ship passengers and fishing products, the Alaska Steamship Company began shipping mining equipment, dog sleds, and cattle at the outbreak of the Klondike Gold Rush of 1897. The company was purchased by the Alaska Syndicate and merged with the Northwestern Steamship Company in 1909, but retained its name, and the fleet was expanded to 18 ships. During World War II, the government took over the company's ships. When the war ended, the company struggled to compete with the new Alaska Highway for passengers and freight. It discontinued passenger service altogether in 1954 and shut down operations in 1971.\nThe company was founded by Charles Peabody, Captain George Roberts, Captain Melville Nichols, George Lent, Frank E. Burns and Walter Oakes.This group of six men began gathering $30,000 by selling 300 shares of stock, at $100 each. Peabody served as president of the company from its creation until 1912. The first vessel they purchased was the 140-foot steamer \"Willapa\".\nA railroad to serve the mines in the interior encouraged mining activity and brought more fortune-seekers and tourists. By 1905, service was shifted from the Juneau and Skagway region to the Valdez - Cordova, then eventually to Nome, where Alaska Steamship was ready to capitalize on the bonanza by switching its ships accordingly. Their ships supplied the growing number of religious missions that were being established and the burgeoning fish cannery industry.\nWhen the Klondike Gold Strike took place in 1897, Charles Peabody reorganized the company and rapidly expanded his fleet of ships to meet the sudden demand for service. In 1898, the stockholders formed the Puget Sound Navigation Company as a subsidiary. The new company was legally organized in Nevada where corporate law was more lenient. The Puget Sound routes allowed the company to continue to use some of its smaller, older vessels as they became unsuitable for the strenuous Alaska routes.\nIn 1902, the Puget Sound Navigation Co. started a steamship route from Port Townsend and Port Angeles, Washington to Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, carrying both freight and passengers. Their competitor the Pacific Steamship Company had committed their entire fleet of ships to the Klondike run and were unprepared to switch to alternates when the gold rush subsided. The Canadian Pacific Railway, their other potential competitor, decided at first that would not compete on the Victoria route, and chose to concentrate on their Empress ocean-going sleek steamships which fed passengers into their rail route across the Canadian Rockies and to their Empress Hotels in Victoria and Vancouver. On May 2, 1903, Peabody and his associates purchased the controlling stock of La Conner Trading and Transportation Company. They initially named the merged company the Inland Navigation Co. but later resumed using Puget Sound Navigation Co. The new company became the biggest inland shipping company of Puget Sound.\nIn 1907 the Alaska Syndicate, funded by Morgan & Co. and the Daniel Guggenheim, bought the company to service its growing copper mining operation in the Wrangell Mountains. They merged its operations with the Northwest Steamship Company, which owned 12 canneries, and a retail store, but retained the Alaska Steamship Company name. The merged company began operations with 12 ships, and they added to their fleet until they had 18 ships. They expanded service from Ketchikan to Kotzebue. They served all of southwestern Alaska, southeaster Alaska, the Seward Peninsula, the Bering Sea, St. Michael and Nome. The resulting company had a virtual monopoly on the Alaska shipping industry.\nCharles Peabody retired in 1912 and S.W. Eccles of the Guggenheim Company.\nIn 1915, Kennecott Copper Company, also owned by Morgan & Co. and the M. Guggenheim Sons, acquired the Alaska Syndicate's interests in the Alaska Steamship Company with a stock transaction.\nThe company greatly benefited from the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, which required ships connecting two United States ports to fly the United States flag. The legislation forced two Canadian shipping companies out of the Alaska market. The Alaska Steamship Company eventually enjoyed a near monopoly of freight and passenger service to Alaska.\nIn the 1930s the company bought its long-time rival, the Pacific Steamship Company. Many Alaskan residents began complaining about irregular service and high fares. As a result, the U.S. Congress passed the Intercoastal Shipping Act of 1933. It required specific schedules and approved, published cargo rates.\nWhen World War II broke out, the Federal Government took control of most U.S. registered ships to support the war effort, including the company's fleet of 15 vessels. The company became an agent for the War Administration and was assigned to manage its own ships along with sixty others. During the war, five ships were lost. Before World War II, 42 ships had served Alaska, but after the war, only seven were in service. The Alaska Steamship Company was purchased in August 1944 for $4,290,000 by the Skinner and Eddy Corporation of Seattle.\nThe company's business was slowly eroded due to the end of federal war-related subsidies, rising fuel and labor costs, and new competition from the trucking industry and cargo airlines. In an effort to reduce costs, the Alaska Steamship company added tugs, barges, and container ships to their fleet. These allowed for smaller crews, faster loading and unloading, and less damage to the cargo.\nAfter World War II, when the freight business slowed, the company decided to focus on tourism and introduced their ship the \"Alaska\" in January 1946. It was later joined by the \"Aleutian\", \"Baranof\", \"Yukon\", and \"Denali\". The ships called at Ketchikan (two days journey), Juneau (three days journey) and Seward (five days journey). Intermediate ports of call included Wrangell, Petersburg, Skagway, Sitka, Cordova, Valdez, Kodiak and Seldovia. All the steamers could accommodate over 200 passengers in classes ranging from steerage to a deluxe cabin with private bath.\nUnable to compete with faster, cheaper air service, the company discontinued passenger service altogether in 1954, though by then it had established itself within the container ship industry. Despite these efforts, the Alaska Steamship Company shut down in January 1971.\nThe waters of the inside passage were often inhospitable and the jagged coastline was treacherous. While most of the ships in the Alaska Steamship Company's fleet were sold, scrapped, or repurposed, a number of their ships ended their careers as wrecks.","Adelaide Steamship House\nThe Adelaide Steamship House is located at 10-12 Mouat Street, Fremantle. Built in 1900, the building was designed by Fremantle based architectural firm Charles Oldham and Herbert Eales and was constructed by C. Coghill. The building takes its name from the original owners of the building, the Adelaide Steamship Company, who provided sea passenger and freight services around Australia.\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company (ASC) was formed in September 1875 in Adelaide by a group of pastoralists and businessmen. In 1883 the ASC purchased two steamboats, the \"Otway\" and the \"Rob Roy\" from Anderson & Marshall and Lillie & Company securing the provision of services from Melbourne to Derby. Following the discovery of gold in the Kimberley in 1885, Pilbara in 1888, and Coolgardie-Kalgoorlie in 1892, the ASC further expanded its trading routes in Western Australia.\nIn 1883 the ASC established an office in Fremantle, initially with an agent and then with its own staff. The company originally leased offices in Fremantle at the corner of Cliff and Phillimore Streets. In 1900 the company purchased two properties in Mouat Street to construct their offices close to the Fremantle wharf. The ASC engaged a local architectural firm, Oldham and Eales to design the building. Construction was undertaken by Mr C. Coghill, a local North Fremantle builder, in the latter half of 1900. The building was completed by the end of November 1900 and the manager of Adelaide Steamship, William Ernest Moxon, and his staff took possession of the building. Moxon was appointed as the Western Australian manager of ASC in 1896 and continued in that role for over twenty years, until 1918, when he took the position of manager of the ASC's Queensland operations. During his tenure Moxon was the chairman of the Steamship Owners of Australasia, Fremantle Branch for fifteen years and for two years the president of the Fremantle Chamber of Commerce.\nThe building is a two storey stone structure built in the Federation Free Classical style. The upper floor has a balustrade parapet, elaborate central pediment and stuccoed ionic pilasters. The upper floor rectangular windows have false balustrading and shell decorations above them. The ground floor has a granite plinth, horizontal shadow lines, broad doric pilasters and large arched openings.\nThe building was damaged by fire in January 1946 with a second fire in April 1947 resulting in extensive restorations to its original design occurring during 1947-48, under the supervision of architect F. Hawkins.\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company operated the Western Australian operations of their company from the premises until 1978, when the building was sold. In 1991 the building was restored and converted into a residence, office, store and warehouse.\nThe building was placed on the Register of the National Estate on 21 March 1978 and was classified by the National Trust of Australia (WA) on 5 November 2012.\nThe building was formally listed on the State Register of Heritage Places by the Heritage Council of Western Australia on 1 July 1994. It is also listed on the City of Fremantle's Municipal Heritage List.","SS Oregon (1878)\nSS \"Oregon\" (1878–1906) was a coastal passenger/cargo ship constructed in Chester, Pennsylvania by the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works in February 1878. Originally delivered to the Oregon Steamship Company, she was used on the Portland, Oregon-to-San Francisco, California route for many years. In 1879, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company became the \"Oregon\"′s new owners after purchasing the Oregon Steamship Company. Also included in this purchase were the steamships \"George W. Elder\" and \"City of Chester\". While in O.R. & N service, \"Oregon\" served alongside SS \"Columbia\", which made the first commercial use of Thomas Edison's incandescent light bulb. Like \"Oregon\", \"Columbia\" was also built by John Roach & Sons in Chester, Pennsylvania. Over time, \"Oregon's\" hull became breached after a number of incidents. Furthermore, the hull had been weighted with concrete to the point where she was considered unsuitable for service as a passenger liner. After operating as a cargo ship, she was laid up in 1894 at Portland. In 1899, the \"Oregon\" was re-qualified to carry passengers once more. She was sold by O.R. & N the same year. Despite this, she was viewed as a cursed ship by her crew. The \"Oregon\" was owned by the White Star Steamship Company (not to be confused with the White Star Line) from around 1902 to 1905 . Around this time, \"Oregon\" was operating between Alaska and Puget Sound.\nOn September 13, 1906, \"Oregon\" ran aground on the rocky shoreline of Cape Hinchinbrook, Alaska. At the time, there was no active lighthouse at Cape Hinchinbrook, although one was under construction. It is unknown whether poor navigation or reduced visibility caused the wreck. Shortly after the collision, the bottom of the vessel tore open and water began flooding the ship. \"Oregon\" became stuck on the rocks without any barrier from the open sea. After crew members began boarding the lifeboats without orders, Captain Horace E. Soule threatened to shoot any man attempting to steal one. This led to the crew obeying all further orders and a small party was sent off in a lifeboat to report the disaster in Valdez, Alaska. When the report of \"Oregon\"′s wreck reached Valdez, many ships set out to rescue the passengers and crew. Remarkably, all 110 remaining people on board the \"Oregon\" were rescued by the revenue cutter . \"Oregon\" however, was reported as a total loss.\n","Adelaide Steamship Company\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company was formed by a group of South Australian businessmen in 1875. Their aim was to control the transport of goods between Adelaide and Melbourne and profit from the need for an efficient and comfortable passenger service. For the first 100 years of its life, the main activities of the company were conventional shipping operations on the Australian coast, primary products, consumer cargoes and extensive passenger services.\nIn the 1930s and 1940s, the company diversified into the airline operations, towage, shipbuilding, and the shipping of salt, coal and sugar. Adelaide Airways was formed in 1935, and purchased West Australian Airways before merging with Holyman's Airways to form Australian National Airways (ANA) in 1936. ANA was sold to Reg Ansett in 1957. In 1964, the Interstate fleet merged with McIlwraith, McEacharn & Co, and the partnership developed the world's first purpose built container ships. However, in 1973, the company ceased its shipbuilding operations, and in 1977, in its 103rd year of operation, the company sold its shipping related businesses, and ceased its connection with ship owning and operating. The company did, however, retain its interests in tugboat operations.\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, with John Spalvins at the helm, the company became a corporate raider with a portfolio financed by huge borrowings. The recession of the early 1990s caused lenders, over 200 banks, to demand the return of their assets. This forced the liquidation of the portfolio.\nWith the completion of the liquidation, on 30 April 1997 the company was renamed Residual Assco Group Limited in order that the Adelaide Steamship name could be reused. Residual Assco was delisted on 24 December 1999. In June 1997, the tug boat operations were floated on the Australian Stock Exchange under the name Adsteam Marine. In 2001, Adsteam Marine acquired its joint venture partner (and major rival as the premier Australian towage operator), Howard Smith. Adsteam Marine became the largest towage operator in Australia and the United Kingdom, with further extensive operations in the South Pacific. In 2006, Adsteam Marine was acquired as the Pacific arm of the world's largest shipping company, AP Moeller-Maersk, thus removing the Adelaide Steamship name from the Australian Stock Exchange and Australian Company registers.\nThe company was formed in September 1875 in Adelaide, South Australia, by a group of pastoralists and businessmen some whom already had steamship interests in the Spencer Gulf, namely Federal Wharf Co. Ltd, Port Adelaide Dredging Company Ltd and Spencer Gulf Shipping Co. Ltd, and was incorporated on 8 October 1875.\nIts promoters and founding directors included Andrew Tennant, Robert Barr Smith and Thomas Elder of Elder Smith & Co Ltd. The first ship of the new company was \"Flinders\". In July 1876 the company's leading promoters amalgamated their private ship-owning interests to form the Spencer's Gulf Steamship Co Ltd, trading in South Australian coastal waters. The two companies amalgamated in December 1882. The fleet circled the coast from Derby in northern Western Australia to Cairns in northern Queensland. Shipping operations were supported by a large network of agency offices in almost every major Australian port.\nDuring World War I, several Adelaide Steamship Company ships were requisitioned, as were several other privately owned ships; \"Grantala\" and \"Warilda\" as hospital ships and \"Wandilla\" and \"Willochra\" as troopships. \"Yankalilla\" and \"Echunga\" were also commandeered.\nAdelaide Steamship Company was liquidated and reconstructed twice for more efficient and profitable operation, first in 1900 and subsequently in 1920. On 20 January 1915 they took over Coast Steamships Limited, and kept it running as a subsidiary that retained its own identity until 1968.\nBy the start of World War II, the company owned 30 ships. With World War II, the company was again forced to surrender nine ships to the Navy, including \"Manoora\" and \"Manunda\" which became an Armed Merchant Cruiser and a hospital ship. \"Manunda\" was in Darwin harbour during the Japanese bombing and was able to bring 260 military and civilian casualties to safety in Fremantle. In all during the war she carried about 30,000 sick and wounded back to Australia from the Middle East and New Guinea. During the 1940s, a decline in trade necessitated the company to diversify and they began to acquire interests in other companies and projects. Consequently, after the war, the company diversified into towage, shipbuilding, and the shipping of salt, coal and sugar.\nOn 1 January 1964, its interstate fleet was merged with that of McIlwraith McEacharn in a new company, Associated Steamships Limited, in which Adelaide Steamship Company held 40%. Also in 1964, the merged company developed the world's first purpose built container ship, MV \"Kooringa\". Bulkships Limited, in which Adelaide Steamship held a 40% interest in 1965, acquired all the shares in Associated Steamship Limited in 1968. In 1977 the company's interest in Bulkships was disposed of and Adelaide Steamship Company ceased its connection with ship owning and operating. The company did, however, retain its interests in Tug boats and Tug boat operations and by the late 1980s, Adelaide Steamship was one of Australia's oldest surviving industrial companies.\nShips owned and operated by Adelaide Steamship Company included:\nAdelaide Airways was formed as a subsidiary of the Adelaide Steamship Company on 3 July 1935 and commenced operations on 29 October. It had a number of different types of aircraft in its fleet, including the Short Scion, the General Aircraft Monospar ST-25, and the De Havilland DH.89A.\nOn 12 June 1936, Adelaide Airways purchased West Australian Airways for £25,000. Ivan Holyman (of Holyman's Airways Pty Ltd) approached AdSteam with a view to an amalgamation, aiming to form Australia's most powerful airline which would effectively control airline traffic between Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney. On 12 June 1936 the two companies merged and, on 2 November 1936 with Orient Steam Navigation Company and Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand, formed Australian National Airways (ANA), \"the pre- and post-war giant among Australian domestic airlines\". AdSteam retained partial ownership in ANA until Holyman's death in 1957. The ANA board then unsuccessfully attempted to sell out to the Government owned Trans Australia Airlines, before reaching agreement with Reg Ansett to sell the airline to him for £3.3 million. ANA and Ansett Airways merged to form Ansett-ANA on 3 October 1957.\nAdelaide Ship Construction was set up as a subsidiary of the Adelaide Steamship Company in 1957, and was incorporated in July 1957. At the same time it was issued with the sole Australian licence for the hydroconic hull design patented by Burness, Corlett & Partners of the United Kingdom. This hull design for tugs gave them greater bollard pull from a given horsepower. Adelaide Ship Construction had been set up especially to address the issue of Australia's ageing fleet of tugs. The yard was built on the historic Fletcher's slip site at Birkenhead.\nThe keel for the first tug was laid 20 May 1958 and it was launched 12 February 1959. The shipyard site grew from two acres and one berth to four berths and 6½ acres in 1968, and to cater for vessels up to 425 feet long. At this time it employed more than 1,000 men. Adelaide Ship Construction had also acquired from Burness, Corlett and Partners the licence for their 'Towmaster' patent. Coupled with the Hydroconic hull design this enabled ever greater pull in its tugs. \"Hamersley Comet\", built in 1968 had a bollard pull of 34.1 tons, the strongest to that time.\nHowever, by 1973 the yard was running at a loss of $3.4 million, and it closed in August of that year. Its last ship was \"Cape York\".\nA relatively minor sideline, started in the 1890s, was the company's tug boat operations. Gradually, tug boat operations extended over a number of ports, but until the middle of the 20th century they remained the poor relation of the more significant coastal shipping operations. With the decline of coastal shipping however, towage assumed more importance. By the 1960s, towage and associated operations represented a very significant part of the company's activities.\nIn 1977 the company's interest in Bulkships Limited was disposed of, and Adelaide Steamship Company ceased its connection with ship owning and operating. It had diversified into investment and property ownership, vineyard and wine production, optical goods manufacturing and distribution, engineering, share investment, and, until 1973, shipbuilding. Thus towage and associated operations continued to have prominence, even during the 1970s and 1980s when the Adelaide Steamship Company became the foundation for one the country's major conglomerate organisations.\nAs this activity was happening, towage began to reassert itself as an important element of the company; From 1993 it exhibited a period of aggressive growth until the company had a fleet of 156 tug boats, and operated in over 40 Australian, Indian, Pacific Oceana and British ports. Strengthened by a series of industry rationalisations - Brambles' Port Kembla, Sydney and Newcastle operations and P&O's towage operations in Western Australia - the towage division became a valuable candidate for asset disposal. In April 1997 the company changed its name to Residual Assco Group Limited and in June 1997 floated its marine division which was registered on the Australian Stock Exchange as Adsteam Marine Limited.\nOnce it became a publicly listed company in its own right, Adsteam Marine established a strong investor following. In addition to towage, the company developed shipping agency and tug barging activities. Adsteam Marine doubled its size in May 2001 when it acquired the towage interests of Howard Smith, its partner in many towage ventures, for more than $500 million, making it the largest towage operator in Australia and the United Kingdom, together with operations in Papua New Guinea and Fiji. Other activities included barge operations in the United States, and ships agency services throughout Australia, New Zealand and India.\nIn 2006, it was acquired by AP Moeller-Maersk.\nAfter becoming chief executive of the Adelaide Steamship Company in 1977, John Spalvins built up one of Australia's largest industrial conglomerates and became one of the most feared takeover specialists in corporate Australia. Spalvins transformed himself into an entrepreneur, using vast amounts of debt to launch a series of massive takeovers. Adsteam \"aggressively acquired significant shareholdings in a variety of companies in a number of fields including retailing, hotels, leisure industries and civil engineering.\" \"Adsteam's share price rose dramatically through much of the 1980s and it was hailed by some commentators as being entrepreneurial, well managed and with a highly disciplined reporting system.\"\nAt its height, the Adsteam group included Woolworths, David Jones, brewer Tooth & Co, the Petersville Sleigh food group, the Farmers Union dairy group, Metro Meat, a stable of premium wineries and many others. Also, at various stages, it held a 15% stake in Westpac, a 20% stake in Bell Resources, and numerous other \"strategic\" stakes and investments. During this period of aggressive growth, AdSteam also had 156 tug boats and operated in over 40 Australian, Indian, Pacific Ocean and British ports. The company was Australia's fourth highest capitalised company during the 1980s.\nA characteristic of the AdSteam Group during this period was a complex Group Structure of cross ownership where many of the companies of the group owned not-quite-50% of each other. This served the dual purposes of making the elements of the group \"take-over proof\", but did not trigger the financial reporting requirements of a consolidated set of accounts. In the 1990 Adelaide Steamship Company Annual Report, the following companies were reported as \"Principal operating subsidiaries\" of the AdSteam Group, with the following cross ownerships greater than 5%:\nOther companies, acquisitions and disposals in the group included:\nDuring the 1980s, AdSteam instigated a number of \"Share plays\", and also made significant investments in a number of companies including:\nAll of this was financed by huge borrowings from about 200 banks. For example, the lendings of just one bank, the State Bank of South Australia, are summarised in the following chart.\nThe source of the above data, (South Australian Government Auditor in 1993), in a comment dated 26 April 1990, states: \"Papers also comment on \"off the record\" discussions with Adsteam Group's major bankers and gives exposures of nine banks (including the Bank) which total $4,960M.\" There is little comment on this figure but an analysis of each company's results shows assets exceed liabilities in each company by a good margin.\" A second comment states: 'Paper also comments on recent press issues including potential worst case losses of $110.0M from Bell Resources investment - \"the impact of such a loss ... is not considered a major concern\" '\nA subsequent comment dated 26 July 1990 states: 'Lending Credit Committee minute notes planned reduction in exposure through maturity of facilities. Also notes extension of other facilities to August 1991 which illustrates \"the continued level of confidence this Bank held in Adsteam's continuity\". With the benefit of hindsight, further comments make interesting reading. It is also interesting to note that despite the assurances recorded in the board papers, from that point in time the State Bank of South Australia steadily reduced its exposure to the AdSteam Group.\nThe opaque nature of the AdSteam Group caused rising concern in a variety of circles. Although shareholders continued to enjoy bonus shares, rights issues, and significant dividends, the share price plateaued. Financial journalists started asking questions, and the share price faltered. After the 1990 Annual General Meeting and the announcement of the 25c dividend (per share) against a diminished share price, investor confidence deserted the company and the share price crashed from over $5 to under $1 in one day.\nThe previously \"nervous\" banks were far from happy, and started demanding the return of their capital. Of course, AdSteam had this money invested, and did not have billions of dollars of liquid assets. Also of course, the banks were not keen to force AdSteam into bankruptcy as such a situation would be unlikely to achieve the return of their assets. Hence, AdSteam organised an \"arrangement\" with the 200 banks, and in 1991 the Adsteam group was placed under an informal, receivership-type scheme of arrangement. Under this arrangement, there was an orderly disposal of assets.\nIn order to facilitate the orderly disposal of assets, a number of the group members were renamed:\nDuring the course of the disposal, there were a number of sales, and four successful floats:\nNevertheless, not all of the disposals were made under ideal circumstances, and Adsteam's loss of $4.49 billion represented one of Australia's largest corporate collapses.\nHowever, the major lesson out of the AdSteam collapse was for the accounting profession; a newspaper report on its failure carried the sub-headline \"Adsteam a humiliation for the accounting profession\". \"Adsteam was \"an excellent instance of how the rule-book approach to consolidation accounting imposed by the law and the Accounting Standards at the time determined managerial actions\" \".\nThe \"Adsteam saga\" resulted in major changes to Australian accounting rules pertaining to consolidation and led to the issue of AAS 24 Consolidated Financial Statements by the accounting profession in June 1990 for application from 30 June 1991 (subject to a \"legal impediment\", see Deegan, 2005, p. 880) and the issue of AASB 1024 Consolidated Accounts with statutory backing in 1991\nSpecifically, the definition of \"control\" for consolidation purposes was broadened beyond prescribed ownership interests to embrace control over an entity's financial and operating policies, making use of the notion of \"substance over form\" in determining the existence of a controlled entity.\nThe \"AdSteam saga\" also provided some lessons for banks and auditors. For example, the South Australian Government Auditor produced a number of Case Studies - Volume 6 is titled \"The Management of Credit: Case Studies\", and Chapter 9 is titled \"Case Study in Credit Management: The AdSteam Group\". The opening sentence states: \"The exposure to the Adelaide Steamship Company Limited Group of Companies was complex.\", and if your interests lie in those directions, makes fascinating reading.\nSeveral matters from the collapse are still ongoing - over 15 years after \"the collapse\". Industrial Equity Limited (IEL) is worthy of particular mention:\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company was involved in two court cases which led to changes in the way the Australian Constitution and Australian Law is interpreted.\n\n\"\"Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd\" (1920) 28 CLR 129\" (commonly known as the \"Engineers' Case\") was a landmark Australian court case decided in the High Court of Australia on 31 August 1920. From a legal perspective, this case is widely regarded as one of the most important cases ever decided by the High Court of Australia, for it swept away the earlier doctrines of implied intergovernmental immunities and reserved State powers, firmly establishing the modern basis for the legal understanding of federalism in Australia and Australian constitutional law. In essence, this meant that decisions of the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court were binding on State governments. and that the constitution is no longer read in a way which attempts to preserve the power of the states.\nWhen providing his judgement on \"Strickland v Rocla Concrete Pipes Ltd\", (where the Court unanimously rejected the decision in Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead, holding that it was based on the rejected doctrine of reserved State powers, which was abolished in Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd.), Justice Barwick stated \"\"the earlier doctrine virtually reversed the Constitution\".\"\n\"Residual Assco and Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) vs former Adsteam directors and auditors.\nThroughout its history, many people have been involved with, played significant roles in and/or been associated with the company:","Pacific Coast Steamship Company\nThe Pacific Coast Steamship Company was an important early shipping company that operated steamships on the west coast of North America. Organized in 1867 under the name of Goodall, Nelson and Perkins the company. The Goodall, Nelson & Perkins Steamship Company was formed in 1875, but a year later reorganized as the Pacific Coast Steamship Company. In 1916 the Admiral Line bought the shipping interests of the company.\nThe company was first organized in 1867 under the name of Goodall, Nelson and Perkins. The company's chief rival was the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. The competition was settled in January 1875, with Goodall, Nelson and Perkins buying six side-wheel steamships from Pacific Mail, as well as certain wharves. Goodall Nelson and Perkins would form a new company to handle the traffic between San Diego and San Francisco, while Pacific Mail would control the routes from Central America and those north of San Francisco.\nThe new company, Goodall, Nelson & Perkins Steamship Company was formed in February 1875. That same year, their paddle steamer SS \"Pacific\" was lost in a collision off Cape Flattery, Washington with the deaths of over 200 people. Less than a year later Christopher Nelson retired and the remaining partners reorganized, on October 17, 1876, as the Pacific Coast Steamship Company, providing service to twenty ports in California.\nDuring the Spanish–American War the U.S. Army Quartermaster Department chartered two vessels from the company to transport troops to and from the Philippines. SS \"Senator\" was chartered June 8 1898 for $1000 per day. \"Senator\" displaced 2409 tons and carried 1000 troops. SS \"City of Puebla\" was chartered June 23, 1898, at a rate of $900 per day. \"City of Puebla\" displaced 2623 tons, made 12 knots and carried 635 troops.\nThe company later expanded to operate on routes to Portland, Oregon, Seattle, and Alaska, owning a number of steamships. The company also briefly conducted operations in Puget Sound, running two steamers on the route from Seattle to Bellingham.\nIts steamships regularly sailed from Seattle to SE Alaska before and after the Klondike Gold Rush. The \"City of Topeka\" did a 22-day round trip between Seattle and Skagway, stopping in Port Townsend, Victoria, Mary Island, Wrangell, and Juneau.\nIn 1906, Pacific Coast's SS \"Valencia\" was lost after running aground on the rocky shore of Vancouver Island. Over 100 people, including all women and children on board, lost their lives.\nBeginning around 1873, a horse-powered, narrow gauge tramway transported passengers and freight between Port Harford and a wagon road at Avila Beach. In 1876, the steamship company replaced the tram with the gauge steam-powered San Luis Obispo & Santa Maria Valley Railroad to San Luis Obispo. This railway became the first segment of the Pacific Coast Railway in 1882.\nThe company effectively ceased business in 1916 when its vessels were purchased by the Admiral Line. The Admiral Line however also adopted the name \"The Pacific Steamship Company\", which it used until 1936 when operations ceased.","Inman Line\nThe Inman Line was one of the three largest 19th-century British passenger shipping companies on the North Atlantic, along with the White Star Line and Cunard Line. Founded in 1850, it was absorbed in 1893 into American Line. The firm's formal name for much of its history was the Liverpool, Philadelphia and New York Steamship Company, but it was also variously known as the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company, as Inman Steamship Company, Limited, and, in the last few years before absorption, as the Inman and International Steamship Company.\nBy embracing new technology, Inman Line became the first to show that unsubsidized ocean liners could profitably cross the North Atlantic. With its first steamer, \"City of Glasgow\" of 1850, Inman led the drive to replace wood-hulled paddle steamers with iron-hulled screw-propelled ships. In 1852, Inman established that steerage passengers could be transported in steamships. Inman's \"City of Paris\" of 1866 was the first screw liner that could match the speed of the paddlers. By 1870, Inman landed more passengers in New York than any other line.\nIn 1886, the US-owned International Navigation Company bought the company. The new owners began updating the express fleet with two Blue Riband winners, \"City of New York\" and the second \"City of Paris\" , ushering in the double-screw era that ended the need for auxiliary sails.\nThe Inman Line had its roots in a line of sailing packets owned by John Grubb Richardson and his brothers along with their young business partner, William Inman (1825–81). In 1850, Inman persuaded his partners to form the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company and buy an advanced new ship, \"City of Glasgow\" . She proved profitable because her iron hull required less repair, and her screw propulsion system left more room for passengers and freight. \"City of Glasgow\"' s moderate speed considerably reduced coal consumption. The ship's first voyage for her new owners departed for Philadelphia on 17 December 1850. The next year, she was joined by a larger edition, \"City of Manchester\" .\nIn 1852, the Inman broke new ground by transporting steerage passengers under steam. As Irish Quakers, the Richardsons were concerned about the poor conditions experienced by U.S.-bound emigrants, who traveled by sailing ship with unpredictable passage times. Steerage passengers were required to bring their own food, and often ran short. In 1836, \"Diamond\" lost 17 of her 180 steerage passengers to starvation when the ship required 100 days to make the crossing. From the beginning, Inman provided better steerage quarters and adopted the recommendation of a Parliamentary Committee to provide cooked meals to emigrants. As a result, Inman was able to charge steerage rates of 8 guineas, while the fastest sailing packets charged 4 to 6 guineas. During the period, Inman liners typically carried 500 passengers, 80 percent in steerage.\nDisaster struck the new firm in 1854 when the company lost both \"City of Glasgow\" with all hands and the brand new \"City of Philadelphia\" , albeit with no loss of life. The remaining liner, \"City of Manchester\" was chartered to the French government for the Crimean War, along with three more liners that were completed or bought in 1855. The Richardsons withdrew from the firm because of its involvement with the war, and William Inman assumed full control.\nAt the end of the war, Inman resumed service to Philadelphia. However, New York was now the primary gateway to the west, and Inman decided to alternate between the two ports. The firm's name was changed to the Liverpool, Philadelphia and New York Steam Ship Company, but all ships were routed to New York after its SS \"Kangaroo\" was trapped by ice in the Delaware River. Until 1857, the firm ran a fortnightly service from Liverpool. That same year Collins Line collapsed, and Inman succeeded it as the mail contractor for the United States Post Office. In 1859, a call at Queenstown was added to pick up Irish emigrants. The next year Inman ran a weekly service, increasing in 1863 to three sailings every fortnight, and twice a week during summer in 1866.\nWith the celebrated \"City of Paris\" of 1866, the company ordered five express liners that matched the speed of Cunard's best. In 1867, responsibility for mail contracts was transferred from the Admirality to the Post Office and opened for bid. Inman was awarded one of the three weekly New York mail services and the fortnightly route to Halifax, Nova Scotia formerly held by Cunard. While Cunard continued to receive a subsidy, Inman was paid sea postage. Two years later Inman's New York contract was extended for seven years at an annual subsidy of £35,000, half that of Cunard's subsidy of £70,000 for two weekly New York mail sailings. In 1870, Inman landed 44,100 passengers in New York, almost twice Cunard's 24,500, although Cunard still carried substantially more first-class passengers. Throughout the 1870s, Inman's passage times were shorter than Cunard's. \"City of Brussels\" of 1869 beat \"Scotia\"' s eastbound record and in 1875 \"City of Berlin\" won the Blue Riband by taking the westbound record.\nIn 1871 both companies faced a new rival when White Star Line joined the Atlantic ferry with the revolutionary RMS \"Oceanic\" and her sisters. The new White Star recordbreakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines. \"Oceanic\" consumed only 58 tons of coal per day, compared with 110 tons for \"City of Brussels\". White Star also set new standards for comfort by placing the dining saloon midships and doubling the size of cabins. Inman reacted quickly, bringing its express liners back to the shipyards for compound engines and other changes to match the new White Star liners, while Cunard lagged behind.\nThe Panic of 1873 started a five-year shipping depression that strained the finances of Inman and its rivals. To raise more capital, the partnership was restructured in 1875 as a stock company and renamed the Inman Steamship Company, Limited. The next year, Inman and White Star agreed to coordinate their sailings to reduce competition. When the 1869 mail contracts expired, the UK Post Office ended both Cunard and Inman's subsidies and paid on the basis of weight, but at a rate substantially higher than paid by the US Post Office. Cunard's weekly New York mail sailings were reduced to one and White Star was awarded the third mail sailing. Every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, a liner from one of the three firms departed Liverpool with the mail for New York. Inman reduced its fleet so that only the express liners remained.\nProfits still dropped in as new competitors sought the Blue Riband such as the National Line and the Guion Line, and numerous steamship concerns from mainland Europe competed for the emigrant trade. To restore its fortunes, Inman ordered \"City of Rome\" , which was designed as the largest and fastest liner yet. Unfortunately the ship failed to meet her design specifications and was rejected in 1882 after only six voyages.\nWilliam Inman died before the ship's maiden voyage and the company suffered without his leadership. In 1883, \"City of Brussels\" was lost in the Mersey after colliding with another steamship. Meanwhile, Cunard renewed its mail fleet with four exceptional steel-hulled liners. Needing capital to match its rivals, Inman directors agreed to voluntary liquidation so that the largest creditor, the Philadelphia-based International Navigation Company could buy Inman's assets.\nThe line was reorganized as the Inman and International Steamship Company, and its new owners provided the capital to build two outstanding record breakers, the twin-screw \"City of New York\" and \"City of Paris\" . However, the UK government responded to the ownership change by revoking Inman's mail contract. After considerable lobbying, the US Congress agreed to replace the contract and allow Inman to register its two new record breakers in the US if International Navigation built two similar express liners in US yards. Therefore, on 22 February 1893 the US flag was broken out over the two newest Inman vessels and the company merged into the American Line.\nThe Inman fleet—all of which built for Inman unless otherwise indicated—consisted of the following ships, presented in order of acquisition. List sourced from","David Charleston\nDavid Morley Charleston (27 May 1848 – 20 June 1934) was an Cornish-born, Australian politician. Born in St Erth, Cornwall, he received only a primary education before becoming an apprentice engineer, and later an engineering unionist and marine engineer. Migrating to Australia in 1884, he continued his engineering work with the Adelaide Steamship Company, but resigned in 1887 after labour troubles. He subsequently became President of the Adelaide Trades and Labour Council.\nIn 1891 he was elected to the South Australian Legislative Council as a Labor member, but he left the Labor Party in 1897. Leaving the Council in 1901, he was elected to the Australian Senate as a Free Trader. He was defeated in 1903, and was later General Secretary of the Farmers and Producers Political Union. Several attempts to re-enter the Senate were unsuccessful. Charleston died in 1934.\nCharleston's sister was the suffragist Nellie Martel.\n","HMAT Wandilla\nSS \"Wandilla was a steamship built in 1912 for the Adelaide Steamship Company. The ship operated on the Fremantle to Sydney run until 1915, when she was acquired for military service and redesignated HMAT \"Wandilla. Initially used as a troop transport, the vessel was converted to a hospital ship in 1916. \"Wandilla\" was returned to her owners at the end of the war, then was sold to the Bermuda & West Indies SS Company and renamed Fort St. George in 1921. She was sold in 1935 to Lloyd Triestino and renamed Cesarea before being renamed Arno in 1938. At the start of World War II, the ship was acquired by the Regia Marina for use as a hospital ship. She was sunk by British aircraft on 10 September 1942.\nThe ship was built in 1912, by William Beardmore and Company, Glasgow, together with her sister ships SS \"Warilda\" and SS \"Willochra\".\nShe was used on the Fremantle to Sydney passenger-cargo service until May 1915. After the start of World War I, \"Wandilla\" was one of several Adelaide Steamship Company vessels requisitioned for military service. The ship was initially used as a troop transport under the designation His Majesty's Australian Transport (HMAT) \"Wandilla\", and delivered Australian soldiers to Europe. In July 1916, the vessel was converted into a hospital ship. While serving as a hospital ship, she was torpedoed by a U-boat in February 1918, although the torpedo failed to explode. \"Wandilla\" was manned by Australian officers and (during part of her service) Australian crews. Commonwealth control ended 24 January 1917.\nAfter being returned to her owners in 1919, she continued plying the coastal passenger-cargo service until 1921; Adelaide Steamship Company felt that there was no future in coastal passenger services, and \"Wandilla\" was sold to the Bermuda & West Indies SS Company and renamed \"Fort St. George\". She was modified by replacing her cargo holds with water tanks to supply fresh water to the hotels in Bermuda. She was also modified to accommodate 380 first class and 50 second class passengers. She collided with White Star Line's in 1924 while in New York City, and was out of service for a period of time for repairs. She was sold in 1935 to Lloyd Triestino, Trieste and renamed \"Cesarea\" before being renamed \"Arno\" in 1938.\nThe \"Arno\" was requisitioned as a hospital ship by the Regia Marina during World War II. The ship and its crew members were featured in the 1941 Italian propaganda film \"The White Ship\" (Italian: \"La nave bianca\"). The \"Arno\" was sunk by aerial torpedoes from the Royal Air Force on 10 September 1942 at , about 40 mi north-east of Ras el Tin, near Tobruk. It has been claimed by the British that a German radio message decoded on 31 August 1942 showed that the ship was being used to carry supplies to Benghazi in violation of the Hague Convention, making it a justified attack, while others have called the sinking of the hospital ship a war crime that was not investigated following the end of the war.","SS Penola\nSS \"Perth\", formerly SS \"Penola\" was a GRT steamship operated by the Adelaide Steamship Company. \"Penola\" was notable for ramming and sinking the SS City of Launceston, a passenger steamship, in Port Phillip Bay on 19 November 1865. Renamed \"Perth\", the steamship ran aground and was wrecked off Point Cloates in Western Australia on 17 September 1887.","Walter Leslie Duncan\nWalter Leslie Duncan (14 February 1883 – 28 May 1947) was an Australian politician. Born in Armidale, New South Wales, he was educated at state schools before becoming a clerk, and was President of the Labor Council of New South Wales in 1911. A member of the Labor Party, he joined the Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 split over conscription. Duncan enlisted in the military in 1917, leaving in 1919 to successfully contest the Senate for the Nationalists. A strong supporter of Billy Hughes, he was excluded from the party along with Hughes in 1929 and joined the Australian Party, before being reaccepted into the United Australia Party in 1931. He resigned from the Senate in 1931. He was also a Director of the Adelaide Steamship Company for many years. Duncan died in 1947.\n","Bering Sea\nThe Bering Sea is a <a href=\"marginal%20sea\">marginal sea</a> of the <a href=\"Pacific%20Ocean\">Pacific Ocean</a>. It comprises a deep water basin, which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the <a href=\"continental%20shelf\">continental shelves</a>.\nThe Bering Sea is separated from the <a href=\"Gulf%20of%20Alaska\">Gulf of Alaska</a> by the <a href=\"Alaska%20Peninsula\">Alaska Peninsula</a>. It covers over 2,000,000 km2 and is bordered on the east and northeast by <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a>, on the west by <a href=\"Russian%20Far%20East\">Russian Far East</a> and the <a href=\"Kamchatka%20Peninsula\">Kamchatka Peninsula</a>, on the south by the Alaska Peninsula and the <a href=\"Aleutian%20Islands\">Aleutian Islands</a> and on the far north by the <a href=\"Bering%20Strait\">Bering Strait</a>, which connects the Bering Sea to the <a href=\"Arctic%20Ocean\">Arctic Ocean</a>'s <a href=\"Chukchi%20Sea\">Chukchi Sea</a>. <a href=\"Bristol%20Bay\">Bristol Bay</a> is the portion of the Bering Sea which separates the Alaska Peninsula from mainland Alaska. The Bering Sea is named for <a href=\"Vitus%20Bering\">Vitus Bering</a>, a <a href=\"Denmark\">Danish</a> navigator in Russian service, who in 1728 was the first European to systematically explore it, sailing from the Pacific Ocean northward to the Arctic Ocean.\nThe Bering Sea ecosystem includes resources within the jurisdiction of the United States and Russia, as well as <a href=\"international%20waters\">international waters</a> in the middle of the sea (known as the \"Donut Hole\"). The interaction between currents, sea ice, and weather makes for a vigorous and productive ecosystem.\nMost scientists believe that during the <a href=\"Last%20glacial%20period\">most recent ice age</a>, <a href=\"sea%20level\">sea level</a> was low enough to allow humans to migrate east on foot from <a href=\"Asia\">Asia</a> to <a href=\"North%20America\">North America</a> across what is now the Bering Strait. Other animals including megafauna migrated in both directions. This is commonly referred to as the \"<a href=\"Beringia\">Bering land bridge</a>\" and is believed by most, though not all scientists, to be the first point of entry of humans into the <a href=\"Americas\">Americas</a>.\nThere is a small portion of the <a href=\"Kula%20Plate\">Kula Plate</a> in the Bering Sea. The Kula Plate is an ancient <a href=\"Plate%20tectonics\">tectonic plate</a> that used to <a href=\"subduction\">subduct</a> under Alaska.\nThe <a href=\"International%20Hydrographic%20Organization\">International Hydrographic Organization</a> defines the limits of the Bering Sea as follows:\nIslands of the Bering Sea include:\nRegions of the Bering Sea include:\nThe Bering Sea contains 16 <a href=\"submarine%20canyon\">submarine canyon</a>s including the largest submarine canyon in the world, <a href=\"Zhemchug%20Canyon\">Zhemchug Canyon</a>.\nThe Bering Sea <a href=\"Continental%20shelf\">shelf break</a> is the dominant driver of <a href=\"primary%20production\">primary productivity</a> in the Bering Sea. This zone, where the shallower <a href=\"continental%20shelf\">continental shelf</a> drops off into the <a href=\"North%20Aleutians%20Basin\">North Aleutians Basin</a> is also known as the “Greenbelt”. Nutrient upwelling from the cold waters of the Aleutian basin flowing up the slope and mixing with shallower waters of the shelf provide for constant production of <a href=\"phytoplankton\">phytoplankton</a>.\nThe second driver of productivity in the Bering Sea is seasonal <a href=\"sea%20ice\">sea ice</a> that, in part, triggers the spring phytoplankton bloom. Seasonal melting of sea ice causes an influx of lower salinity water into the middle and other shelf areas, causing stratification and hydrographic effects which influence productivity. In addition to the hydrographic and productivity influence of melting sea ice, the ice itself also provides an attachment substrate for the growth of algae as well as interstitial ice algae.\nSome evidence suggests that great changes to the Bering Sea ecosystem have already occurred. Warm water conditions in the summer of 1997 resulted in a massive bloom of low energy <a href=\"coccolithophore\">coccolithophorid</a> phytoplankton (Stockwell et al. 2001). A long record of <a href=\"Isotopic%20signature\">carbon isotopes</a>, which is reflective of primary production trends of the Bering Sea, exists from historical samples of bowhead whale <a href=\"baleen\">baleen</a>. Trends in carbon isotope ratios in whale baleen samples suggest that a 30–40% decline in average seasonal primary productivity has occurred over the last 50 years. The implication is that the <a href=\"carrying%20capacity\">carrying capacity</a> of the Bering Sea is much lower now than it has been in the past.\nThe sea supports many whale species including the <a href=\"Beluga%20%28whale%29\">beluga</a>, <a href=\"humpback%20whale\">humpback whale</a>, <a href=\"bowhead%20whale\">bowhead whale</a>, <a href=\"gray%20whale\">gray whale</a> and <a href=\"blue%20whale\">blue whale</a>, the vulnerable <a href=\"sperm%20whale\">sperm whale</a>, and the endangered <a href=\"fin%20whale\">fin whale</a>, <a href=\"sei%20whale\">sei whale</a> and the rarest in the world, the <a href=\"North%20Pacific%20right%20whale\">North Pacific right whale</a>. Other marine mammals include <a href=\"walrus\">walrus</a>, <a href=\"Steller%20sea%20lion\">Steller sea lion</a>, <a href=\"northern%20fur%20seal\">northern fur seal</a>, <a href=\"orca\">orca</a> and <a href=\"polar%20bear\">polar bear</a>.\nThe Bering Sea is very important to the seabirds of the world. Over 30 species of seabirds and approximately 20 million individuals breed in the Bering Sea region. Seabird species include <a href=\"tufted%20puffin\">tufted puffin</a>s, the endangered <a href=\"short-tailed%20albatross\">short-tailed albatross</a>, <a href=\"spectacled%20eider\">spectacled eider</a>, and <a href=\"red-legged%20kittiwake\">red-legged kittiwake</a>s. Many of these species are unique to the area, which provides highly productive foraging habitat, particularly along the shelf edge and in other nutrient-rich upwelling regions, such as the Pribilof, <a href=\"Zhemchug%20Canyon\">Zhemchug</a>, and Pervenets canyons. The Bering Sea is also home to colonies of <a href=\"crested%20auklet\">crested auklet</a>s, with upwards of a million individuals.\nTwo Bering Sea species, the <a href=\"Steller%27s%20sea%20cow\">Steller's sea cow</a> (\"Hydrodamalis gigas\") and <a href=\"spectacled%20cormorant\">spectacled cormorant</a> (\"Phalacrocorax perspicillatus\"), are extinct because of <a href=\"overexploitation\">overexploitation</a> by man. In addition, a small subspecies of Canada goose, the Bering Canada goose (\"Branta canadensis asiatica\") is extinct due to overhunting and introduction of rats to their breeding islands.\nThe Bering Sea supports many species of fish. Some species of fish support large and valuable commercial fisheries. Commercial fish species include 6 species of Pacific <a href=\"salmon\">salmon</a>, <a href=\"Alaska%20pollock\">Alaska pollock</a>, <a href=\"Pacific%20cod\">Pacific cod</a>, <a href=\"Pacific%20halibut\">Pacific halibut</a>, yellowfin sole, <a href=\"Pacific%20ocean%20perch\">Pacific ocean perch</a> and <a href=\"sablefish\">sablefish</a>. Shellfish include <a href=\"Paralithodes%20camtschaticus\">red king crab</a> and \"<a href=\"Chionoecetes\">Chionoecetes</a>\".\nFish biodiversity is high, and at least 419 species of fish have been reported from the Bering Sea.\nThe Bering Sea is world-renowned for its enormously productive and profitable fisheries, such as <a href=\"Alaskan%20king%20crab%20fishing\">king crab</a>, opilio and tanner crabs, Bristol Bay salmon, pollock and other groundfish. These fisheries rely on the productivity of the Bering Sea via a complicated and little understood food web. The continued existence of these fisheries requires an intact, healthy, and productive ecosystem.\nCommercial fishing is big business in the Bering Sea, which is relied upon by the largest seafood companies in the world to produce fish and shellfish. On the U.S. side, commercial fisheries catch approximately $1 billion worth of seafood annually, while Russian Bering Sea fisheries are worth approximately $600 million annually.\nThe Bering Sea also serves as the central location of the Alaskan <a href=\"king%20crab\">king crab</a> and <a href=\"Chionoecetes\">opilio crab</a> seasons, which are chronicled on the <a href=\"Discovery%20Channel\">Discovery Channel</a> television program \"<a href=\"Deadliest%20Catch\">Deadliest Catch</a>\". Landings from Alaskan waters represents half the U.S. catch of fish and shellfish.\nBecause of the changes going on in the Arctic, future evolution of the Bering Sea climate/ecosystem is uncertain. Between 1979 and 2012 the region experienced small growth in sea ice extent, standing in contrast to the substantial loss of summer sea ice in the Arctic Ocean to the north.\nThe movie <a href=\"Harbinger%20Down\">Harbinger Down</a>, which was released on August 7, 2015, was about a group of grad students have booked passage on the crabbing boat Harbinger to study the effects of <a href=\"global%20warming\">global warming</a> on a pod of <a href=\"beluga%20whale\">beluga whale</a>s in the Bering Sea.\nOne of the central characters in the 1949 movie <a href=\"Down%20to%20the%20Sea%20in%20Ships%20%281949%20film%29\">Down to the Sea in Ships</a> has the given name \"Bering\" due to having been born in a ship crossing the Bering Sea.\n","St. Michael, Alaska\nSt. Michael (\"Taciq\" in <a href=\"Central%20Alaskan%20Yup%27ik%20language\">Central Alaskan Yup'ik</a>) is a city in <a href=\"Nome%20Census%20Area%2C%20Alaska\">Nome Census Area</a>, <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a>, <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>. The population was 401 at the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>.\nSt. Michael is located at on the east side of <a href=\"St.%20Michael%20Island%2C%20Alaska\">St. Michael Island</a> at the southeastern end of the <a href=\"Norton%20Sound\">Norton Sound</a>.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 28.1 sqmi , of which, 21.8 sqmi of it is land and 6.3 sqmi of it (22.40%) is water.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 368 people, 90 households, and 65 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 16.9 people per square mile (6.5/km²). There were 93 housing units at an average density of 4.3 per square mile (1.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 6.79% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">White</a>, 92.66% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, and 0.54% from two or more races. 0.27% of the population were <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race.\nThere were 90 households out of which 54.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 16.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.7% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.09 and the average family size was 4.79.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 43.8% under the age of 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 14.1% from 45 to 64, and 3.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females there were 114.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.2 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $33,036, and the median income for a family was $34,000. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $16,250 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $10,692. About 24.2% of families and 22.9% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 23.1% of those under age 18 and 41.7% of those age 65 or over.\nSt. Michael is served by the <a href=\"Bering%20Strait%20School%20District\">Bering Strait School District</a>. Anthony A. Andrews School serves grades Pre-K through 12 grades.\n<a href=\"St.%20Michael%20Redoubt%20Site\">Redoubt St. Michael</a> was founded in 1833 by traders of the <a href=\"Russian-American%20Company\">Russian-American Company</a>, as a trading post for trade with the <a href=\"Yup%27ik\">Yup'ik</a> people of the area. The trading settlement and the island were named after the archangel <a href=\"Michael%20%28archangel%29\">Michael</a>.\n<a href=\"Fort%20St.%20Michael\">Fort St. Michael</a>, a U.S. military post, was established in 1897. During the <a href=\"Klondike%20Gold%20Rush\">gold rush of 1897</a>, it was a major gateway to the Alaskan interior via the <a href=\"Yukon%20River\">Yukon River</a> Delta (located about 40 miles to the southwest). As many as 10,000 persons were said to live in St. Michael during the gold rush. St. Michael was also a popular trading post for Alaska Natives to trade their goods for Western supplies. Centralization of many Yup'iks from the surrounding villages intensified after the measles epidemic of 1900 and the influenza epidemic of 1918.\nSt. Michael's population today is largely Yup'ik. Many residents are also descendants of the Russian traders.\nThe St. Michael economy is based on subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and gardening) supplemented by part-time wage earning. Most wage-earning positions are in city government, the IRA council and village corporation, schools and local stores. Some residents hold commercial fishing permits, primarily for the herring fishery.","Wrangell Mountains\nThe Wrangell Mountains are a high <a href=\"mountain%20range\">mountain range</a> of eastern <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a> in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>. Much of the range is included in <a href=\"Wrangell-Saint%20Elias%20National%20Park%20and%20Preserve\">Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve</a>. The Wrangell Mountains are almost entirely volcanic in origin, and they include the second and third highest volcanoes in the United States, <a href=\"Mount%20Blackburn\">Mount Blackburn</a> and <a href=\"Mount%20Sanford%20%28Alaska%29\">Mount Sanford</a>. The range takes its name from <a href=\"Mount%20Wrangell\">Mount Wrangell</a>, which is one of the largest <a href=\"andesite\">andesite</a> <a href=\"shield%20volcano\">shield volcano</a>es in the world, and also the only presently active volcano in the range. The Wrangell Mountains comprise most of the <a href=\"Wrangell%20Volcanic%20Field\">Wrangell Volcanic Field</a>, which also extends into the neighboring <a href=\"Saint%20Elias%20Mountains\">Saint Elias Mountains</a> and the <a href=\"Yukon%20Territory\">Yukon Territory</a> in <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a>.\nThe Wrangell Mountains are just to the northwest of the <a href=\"Saint%20Elias%20Mountains\">Saint Elias Mountains</a> and northeast of the <a href=\"Chugach%20Mountains\">Chugach Mountains</a>, which are along the coast of the <a href=\"Gulf%20of%20Alaska\">Gulf of Alaska</a>. These ranges have the combined effect of blocking the inland areas from warmer moist air over the <a href=\"Pacific%20Ocean\">Pacific Ocean</a>. The inland areas to the north of the Wrangell Mountains are therefore among the coldest areas of <a href=\"North%20America\">North America</a> during the winter.\nThe Wrangell Mountains include 12 of the 40+ Alaskan peaks over 13000 ft (see <a href=\"fourteener\">fourteener</a>s and <a href=\"thirteener\">thirteener</a>s):\nOther prominent mountains include:\nThe mountains are named after explorer, president of <a href=\"Russian-American%20Company\">Russian-American Company</a>, and admiral <a href=\"Ferdinand%20von%20Wrangel\">Ferdinand von Wrangel</a>. American folk singer <a href=\"John%20Denver\">John Denver</a> wrote a song, \"Wrangell Mountain Song\", in reference to the range.\n","Skagway, Alaska\nThe Municipality and Borough of Skagway ( ) is a first-class <a href=\"borough%20%28Alaska%29\">borough</a> in <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a> on the <a href=\"Southeast%20Alaska\">Alaska Panhandle</a>. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>, the population was 920. Estimates put the 2015 population at 1,057 people. The population doubles in the summer tourist season in order to deal with more than 900,000 visitors. Incorporated as a Borough on June 25, 2007, it was previously a city (urban Skagway located at ) in the Skagway-Yakutat-Angoon Census Area (now the <a href=\"Hoonah%E2%80%93Angoon%20Census%20Area\">Hoonah–Angoon Census Area</a>).\nThe port of Skagway is a popular stop for <a href=\"cruise%20ship\">cruise ship</a>s, and the tourist trade is a big part of the business of Skagway. The <a href=\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> <a href=\"narrow-gauge%20railway\">narrow gauge railroad</a>, part of the area's mining past, is now in operation purely for the tourist trade and runs throughout the summer months. Skagway is also part of the setting for <a href=\"Jack%20London\">Jack London</a>'s book \"<a href=\"The%20Call%20of%20the%20Wild\">The Call of the Wild</a>\", <a href=\"Will%20Hobbs\">Will Hobbs</a>'s book \"<a href=\"Jason%27s%20Gold\">Jason's Gold</a>\", and for <a href=\"Joe%20Haldeman\">Joe Haldeman</a>'s novel \"Guardian\", moreover, John Wayne's film \"North to Alaska\" was filmed nearby.\n\"Skagway\" is derived from \"shԍagéi\", a <a href=\"Tlingit%20language\">Tlingit</a> <a href=\"idiom\">idiom</a> which <a href=\"Literal%20and%20figurative%20language\">figuratively</a> refers to rough seas in the <a href=\"Taiya%20Inlet\">Taiya Inlet</a>, that are caused by strong north winds. (\"See\", “<a href=\"Skagway%2C%20Alaska%23Etymology%20and%20the%20Mythical%20Stone%20Woman\">Etymology and the Mythical Stone Woman</a>,” below.)\n\"Skagway\" was derived from \"shԍagéi\", a Tlingit <a href=\"idiom\">idiom</a> which <a href=\"Literal%20and%20figurative%20language\">figuratively</a> refers to \"rough seas in the Taiya Inlet, that are caused by strong north winds\". <a href=\"Literal%20translation\">Literally</a>, \"shԍagéi\" means \"beautiful woman\". The word is also a <a href=\"gerund\">gerund</a> (verbal noun), derived from the Tlingit verb theme \"-sha-ka-l-ԍéi\", which means, in the case of a woman, \"to be beautiful\".\nThe reason for its figurative meaning is that \"Shԍagéi\" or \"Skagway\" is the <a href=\"nickname\">nickname</a> of Kanagu, the <a href=\"Mythology\">mythical</a> woman who <a href=\"Shapeshifting\">transformed</a> herself into stone at Skagway bay and who (according to legend) causes the strong, <a href=\"http%3A//www.williwaw.com/2012-01-20/the-highly-channeled-winds-of-coastal-alaska\">channeled winds</a> which blow toward <a href=\"Haines%2C%20Alaska\">Haines, Alaska</a>. The rough seas caused by these winds are therefore referred to by the use of Kanagu’s nickname, which is \"Shԍagéi\" or \"Skagway\".\nExcept for the fact that “Kanagu … lives in [Skagway] bay,” the identity of the Kanagu stone formation is not recorded. However, it is likely to be <a href=\"https%3A//www.google.com/maps/%4059.452972%2C-135.3168681%2C3a%2C15y%2C292.61h%2C98.04t/data%3D%213m6%211e1%213m4%211scz1SKV1a0vdq0x1UuFzKjQ%212e0%217i13312%218i6656\">Face Mountain</a>, which is seen from Skagway bay. The Tlingit name for Face Mountain translates to \"Kanagu’s Image\".\nThe area around present-day Skagway was inhabited by <a href=\"Tlingit%20people\">Tlingit</a> people from prehistoric times. They fished and hunted in the waters and forests of the area and had become prosperous by trading with other groups of people on the coast and in the interior.\nOne prominent resident of early Skagway was <a href=\"William%20Moore%20%28steamship%20captain%29\">William \"Billy\" Moore</a>, a former steamboat captain. As a member of an 1887 boundary survey expedition, he had made the first recorded investigation of the pass over the <a href=\"Coast%20Mountains\">Coast Mountains</a>, which later became known as White Pass. He believed that gold lay in the Klondike because it had been found in similar mountain ranges in <a href=\"South%20America\">South America</a>, <a href=\"Mexico\">Mexico</a>, <a href=\"California\">California</a>, and <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia</a>. In 1887, he and his son, J. Bernard \"Ben\" Moore, claimed a 160-acre (650,000 m) homestead at the mouth of the <a href=\"Skagway%20River\">Skagway River</a> in Alaska. Moore settled in this area because he believed it provided the most direct route to the potential <a href=\"Gold%20mining\">goldfield</a>s. They built a log cabin, a sawmill, and a wharf in anticipation of future gold <a href=\"Prospecting\">prospectors</a> passing through.\nThe boundary between Canada and the United States along the <a href=\"Alaska%20Panhandle\">Alaska Panhandle</a> was only vaguely defined then (see <a href=\"Alaska%20boundary%20dispute\">Alaska boundary dispute</a>). There were overlapping land claims from the United States' purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 and British claims along the coast. Canada requested a survey after British Columbia united with it in 1871, but the idea was rejected by the United States as being too costly, given the area's remoteness, sparse settlement, and limited economic or strategic interest.\nThe <a href=\"Klondike%20gold%20rush\">Klondike gold rush</a> changed everything. In 1896, <a href=\"gold\">gold</a> was found in the <a href=\"Klondike%2C%20Yukon\">Klondike</a> region of <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a>'s <a href=\"Yukon%20Territory\">Yukon Territory</a>. On July 29, 1897, the steamer <a href=\"Queen%20%28steamship%29\">\"Queen\"</a> docked at Moore's wharf with the first boat load of prospectors. More ships brought thousands of hopeful miners into the new town and prepared for the 500-mile journey to the gold fields in Canada. Moore was overrun by lot jumping prospectors and had his land stolen from him and sold to others.\nThe population of the general area increased enormously and reached 30,000, composed largely of American prospectors. Some realized how difficult the trek ahead would be en route to the gold fields, and chose to stay behind to supply goods and services to miners. Within weeks, stores, saloons, and offices lined the muddy streets of Skagway. The population was estimated at 8,000 residents during the spring of 1898 with approximately 1,000 prospective miners passing through town each week. By June 1898, with a population between 8,000 and 10,000, Skagway was the largest city in Alaska.\nDue to the sudden influx of visitors to Skagway, some town residents began offering miners transportation services to aid them in their journeys to the Yukon, often at highly inflated rates. A group of miners upset with the treatment organized a town council to help protect their interests. But as the members of the council moved north to try their own hands at mining, control of the town reverted to the more unscrupulous, most notably <a href=\"Soapy%20Smith\">Jefferson Randolph \"Soapy\" Smith</a>.\nBetween 1897 and 1898, Skagway was a lawless town, described by one member of the <a href=\"North-West%20Mounted%20Police\">North-West Mounted Police</a> as \"little better than a hell on earth.\" Fights, prostitutes and liquor were ever-present on Skagway's streets, and con man \"Soapy\" Smith, who had risen to considerable power, did little to stop it. Smith was a sophisticated swindler who liked to think of himself as a kind and generous benefactor to the needy. He was gracious to some, giving money to widows and halting lynchings, while simultaneously operating a ring of thieves who swindled prospectors with cards, dice, and the <a href=\"shell%20game\">shell game</a>. His telegraph office charged five dollars to send a message anywhere in the world. Consequently, unknowing prospectors sent news to their families back home without realizing there was no telegraph service to or from Skagway until 1901. Smith also controlled a comprehensive spy network, a private militia called the Skaguay Military Company, the town newspaper, the Deputy U.S. Marshal's office and an array of thieves and <a href=\"Confidence%20trick\">con-men</a> who roamed about the town. Smith was shot and killed by Frank Reid and Jesse Murphy on July 8, 1898, in the famed <a href=\"Shootout%20on%20Juneau%20Wharf\">Shootout on Juneau Wharf</a>. Smith managed to return fire — some accounts claim the two men fired their weapons simultaneously — and Frank Reid died from his wounds twelve days later. Jesse Murphy is accredited as the man responsible for killing Smith. Smith and Reid are now interred at the Klondike Gold Rush Cemetery, also known as \"Skagway's <a href=\"Boot%20Hill\">Boot Hill</a>.\"\nThe prospectors' journey began for many when they climbed the mountains over the <a href=\"White%20Pass\">White Pass</a> above Skagway and onward across the <a href=\"Canada%E2%80%93United%20States%20border\">Canada–US border</a> to <a href=\"Bennett%20Lake\">Bennett Lake</a>, or one of its neighboring lakes, where they built barges and floated down the <a href=\"Yukon%20River\">Yukon River</a> to the gold fields around <a href=\"Dawson%20City\">Dawson City</a>. Others disembarked at nearby <a href=\"Dyea%2C%20Alaska\">Dyea</a>, northwest of Skagway, and crossed northward on the <a href=\"Chilkoot%20Pass\">Chilkoot Pass</a>, an existing Tlingit trade route to reach the lakes. The Dyea route fell out of favor when larger ships began to arrive, as its harbor was too shallow for them except at high tide.\nOfficials in Canada began requiring that each prospector entering Canada on the north side of the White Pass bring with him one <a href=\"ton\">ton</a> (909 kg) of supplies, to ensure that he did not starve during the winter. This placed a large burden on the prospectors and the pack animals climbing the steep pass.\nIn 1898, a 14-mile, steam-operated <a href=\"aerial%20tramway\">aerial tramway</a> was constructed up the Skagway side of the White Pass, easing the burden of those prospectors who could afford the fee to use it. The <a href=\"Chilkoot%20Trail%20tramways\">Chilkoot Trail tramways</a> also began to operate in the Chilkoot Pass above Dyea. In 1896, before the Klondike gold rush had begun, a group of investors saw an opportunity for a railroad over that route. It was not until May 1898 that the <a href=\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> began laying <a href=\"narrow-gauge%20railway\">narrow gauge railroad</a> tracks in Skagway. The railroad depot was constructed between September and December 1898. This destroyed the viability of Dyea, as Skagway had both the deep-water port and the railroad.\nConstruction of <a href=\"McCabe%20College\">McCabe College</a>, the first school in Alaska to offer a college preparatory high school curriculum, began in 1899. The school was completed in 1900.\nBy 1899, the stream of gold-seekers had diminished and Skagway's economy began to collapse. By 1900, when the railroad was completed, the gold rush was nearly over. In 1900, Skagway was incorporated as the first city in the Alaska Territory. Much of the history of Skagway was saved by early residents, such as <a href=\"Martin%20Itjen\">Martin Itjen</a>, who ran a tour bus around the historical town. He was responsible for saving and maintaining the gold rush cemetery from complete loss. He purchased <a href=\"Soapy%20Smith\">Soapy Smith</a>'s saloon (Jeff Smith's Parlor), from going the way of the wrecking ball, and placed many early artifacts of the city's early history inside and opened Skagway's first museum.\nIn July 1923 President <a href=\"Warren%20G.%20Harding\">Warren G. Harding</a> on his historic tour through Alaska visited Skagway. Harding was the first President of the United States to travel and tour Alaska while in office.\nSkagway was one of the few towns in Alaska (along with <a href=\"Petersburg%2C%20Alaska\">Petersburg</a> and <a href=\"Seward%2C%20Alaska\">Seward</a>) to endorse the 1939 <a href=\"Slattery%20Report\">Slattery Report</a> on Alaskan development through immigration, especially of Jews from <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a> and <a href=\"Austria\">Austria</a>.\nSkagway is located at (59.468519, −135.305962).\nSkagway is located in a narrow glaciated valley at the head of the Taiya Inlet, the north end of the <a href=\"Lynn%20Canal\">Lynn Canal</a>, which is the most northern <a href=\"fjord\">fjord</a> on the <a href=\"Alaska%27s%20Inside%20Passage\">Inside Passage</a> on the south coast of Alaska. It is in the <a href=\"Alaska%20Panhandle\">Alaska panhandle</a> 90 miles northwest of <a href=\"Juneau%2C%20Alaska\">Juneau</a>, Alaska's capital city.\nAccording to the <a href=\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the borough has a total area of 464 sqmi , of which 452 sqmi is land and 12 sqmi (2.5%) is water. It is currently the smallest borough in Alaska, having taken the title away from <a href=\"Bristol%20Bay%20Borough%2C%20Alaska\">Bristol Bay Borough</a> at its creation.\nSkagway has a humid <a href=\"humid%20continental%20climate\">continental</a> cool-summer climate (<a href=\"K%C3%B6ppen%20climate%20classification\">Köppen</a> \"Dsb\"). It is in the <a href=\"rain%20shadow\">rain shadow</a> of the coastal mountains, though not as pronounced as the rain shadow in <a href=\"Southcentral%20Alaska\">Southcentral Alaska</a>, in the valley of the <a href=\"Susitna%20River\">Susitna River</a>, this still allows it to receive only half as much precipitation as <a href=\"Juneau%2C%20Alaska\">Juneau</a> and only a sixth as much as <a href=\"Yakutat%20City%20and%20Borough%2C%20Alaska\">Yakutat</a>. Although winters are too cold for the classification, precipitation patterns resemble a <a href=\"mediterranean%20climate\">mediterranean climate</a> due to the dry summers. The highest temperature recorded in Skagway is 92 F in three separate years, most recently in 1975, and the lowest temperature recorded is −24 F on February 2, 1947.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 862 people, 401 households, and 214 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 1.9 people per square mile (0.7/km). There were 502 housing units at an average density of 1.1 per square mile (0.4/km). The racial makeup of the city was 92.34% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">White</a>, 3.02% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 0.58% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.23% <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.81% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 3.02% from two or more races. 2.09% of the population were <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race.\nThere were 401 households out of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.4% were non-families. 36.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.81.\nIn the city the population was distributed with 20.5% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 31.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years old. For every 100 females there were 109.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112.7 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $49,375, and the median income for a family was $62,188. Males had a median income of $44,583 versus $30,956 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $27,700. About 1.0% of families and 3.7% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including none of those under age 18 and 4.5% of those age 65 or over.\nThere are visitors to the <a href=\"Klondike%20Gold%20Rush%20National%20Historical%20Park\">Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park</a> and <a href=\"White%20Pass%20Trail\">White Pass</a> and <a href=\"Chilkoot%20Trail\">Chilkoot Trail</a>s. Skagway has a historical district of about 100 buildings from the gold rush era. It receives about a million tourists annually, most of whom (about three quarters) come on <a href=\"cruise%20ship\">cruise ship</a>s. The <a href=\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> operates its narrow-gauge train around Skagway during the summer months, primarily for tourists. The WPYR also ships copper ore from the interior.\nSkagway is one of three <a href=\"Alaska%20Panhandle\">Southeast Alaskan</a> communities that is connected to the road system; Skagway's connection is via the <a href=\"Klondike%20Highway\">Klondike Highway</a>, completed in 1978. This allows access to the <a href=\"Continental%20United%20States\">lower 48</a>, <a href=\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\">Whitehorse</a>, the <a href=\"Yukon\">Yukon</a>, northern <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia</a>, and the <a href=\"Alaska%20Highway\">Alaska Highway</a>. This also makes Skagway an important port-of-call for the <a href=\"Alaska%20Marine%20Highway\">Alaska Marine Highway</a> — Alaska's ferry system — and serves as the northern terminus of the important and heavily used Lynn Canal corridor. (The other Southeast Alaskan communities with road access are <a href=\"Haines%2C%20Alaska\">Haines</a> and <a href=\"Hyder%2C%20Alaska\">Hyder</a>.)\nThe <a href=\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> is a railway that formerly linked <a href=\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\">Whitehorse</a>, <a href=\"Yukon\">Yukon</a> in Canada to Skagway, the railway's southernmost terminus. Today, trains travel several times a week from May through September from Skagway to the small community of <a href=\"Carcross\">Carcross</a>, approximately 45 miles south/southwest of Whitehorse. There, passengers (mostly tourists) can make connections via bus to Whitehorse.\nThe <a href=\"Skagway%20Airport\">Skagway Airport</a> receives service from two bush carriers: <a href=\"Wings%20of%20Alaska\">Wings of Alaska</a>, and Air Excursions.\nSkagway is served by its local semimonthly newspaper, \"<a href=\"The%20Skagway%20News\">The Skagway News</a>,\" as well as regional public radio station <a href=\"KHNS\">KHNS</a>, which has its principal studios in nearby <a href=\"Haines%2C%20Alaska\">Haines</a> but also has studios and programs based in Skagway. Juneau radio station <a href=\"KINY\">KINY</a> operates a translator in Skagway which serves the entire town.\nSkagway also receives copies of the free regional newspaper \"<a href=\"Capital%20City%20Weekly\">Capital City Weekly</a>.\"\nIn the <a href=\"Three%20Stooges\">Three Stooges</a> short \"<a href=\"In%20the%20Sweet%20Pie%20and%20Pie\">In the Sweet Pie and Pie</a>,\" Skagway receives a humorous mention: \"Edam <a href=\"Neckties\">Neckties</a>, with three convenient locations: Skagway, Alaska; <a href=\"Little%20America%20%28exploration%20base%29\">Little America</a>; and <a href=\"Pago%20Pago\">Pago Pago</a>.\"\nSkagway is featured in the 1955 Western \"<a href=\"The%20Far%20Country\">The Far Country</a>\", directed by <a href=\"Anthony%20Mann\">Anthony Mann</a>.\nSkagway is a town featured in the computer game \"<a href=\"The%20Yukon%20Trail\">The Yukon Trail</a>\".\nIn an episode of \"<a href=\"Homeland%20Security%20USA\">Homeland Security USA</a>\", the border crossing in Skagway was featured as being the least-used crossing in the United States.\nChief Inspector Fenwick often dryly referred to nearby \"big city\" \"Skagway\" when sending his mounty, <a href=\"Dudley%20Do-Right\">Dudley Do-Right</a>, to capture the show's evil nemesis, <a href=\"Snidely%20Whiplash\">Snidely Whiplash</a>.\nSkagway is served by Dahl Memorial Clinic, the only primary health clinic in the area. The facility is usually staffed by 3 Advanced Nurse Practitioners and 3 Medical Assistants and is open Monday through Friday year-round with limited Saturday hours during summer. The clinic also operates after hours in emergency situations. The borough is also served 24/7 by local EMS. Individuals in need of dire medical attention are transported by air via helicopter or air ambulance to Bartlett Regional Hospital in <a href=\"Juneau%2C%20Alaska\">Juneau</a> (an approximately 45 minute flight). <a href=\"Whitehorse%20General%20Hospital\">Whitehorse General Hospital</a> in <a href=\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\">Whitehorse, Yukon</a> is the nearest hospital to Skagway that is accessible by road (an approximately 3 hour drive).\n","Alaska Highway\nThe Alaska Highway (also known as the Alaskan Highway, Alaska-Canadian Highway, or ALCAN Highway) was constructed during <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a> for the purpose of connecting the <a href=\"contiguous%20United%20States\">contiguous United States</a> to <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a> across Canada. It begins at the junction with several Canadian highways in <a href=\"Dawson%20Creek%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Dawson Creek, British Columbia</a>, and runs to <a href=\"Delta%20Junction%2C%20Alaska\">Delta Junction, Alaska</a>, via <a href=\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\">Whitehorse, Yukon</a>. Completed in 1942 at a length of approximately 2700 km , as of 2012 it is 2232 km long. The difference in distance is due to constant reconstruction of the highway, which has rerouted and straightened out numerous sections. The highway was opened to the public in 1948. Legendary over many decades for being a rough, challenging drive, the highway is now paved over its entire length.\nAn informal system of historic <a href=\"milestone\">milepost</a>s developed over the years to denote major stopping points; Delta Junction, at the end of the highway, makes reference to its location at \"Historic Milepost 1422.\" It is at this point that the Alaska Highway meets the <a href=\"Richardson%20Highway\">Richardson Highway</a>, which continues 155 km to the city of <a href=\"Fairbanks\">Fairbanks</a>. This is often regarded, though unofficially, as the northern portion of the Alaska Highway, with Fairbanks at Historic Milepost 1520. Mileposts on this stretch of highway are measured from <a href=\"Valdez%2C%20Alaska\">Valdez</a>, rather than the Alaska Highway. The Alaska Highway is popularly (but unofficially) considered part of the <a href=\"Pan-American%20Highway\">Pan-American Highway</a>, which extends south (despite its <a href=\"Darien%20Gap\">discontinuity in Panama</a>) to Argentina.\nProposals for a highway to Alaska originated in the 1920s. <a href=\"Thomas%20Harris%20MacDonald\">Thomas MacDonald</a>, director of the <a href=\"U.S.%20Bureau%20of%20Public%20Roads\">U.S. Bureau of Public Roads</a>, dreamed of an international highway spanning the United States and Canada. In order to promote the highway, <a href=\"Slim%20Williams\">Slim Williams</a> originally traveled the proposed route by dogsled. Since much of the route would pass through Canada, support from the Canadian government was crucial. However, the Canadian government perceived no value in putting up the required funds to build the road, since the only part of Canada that would benefit was not more than a few thousand people in Yukon.\nHowever, some route consideration was given. The preferred route would pass through the <a href=\"Rocky%20Mountain%20Trench\">Rocky Mountain Trench</a> from <a href=\"Prince%20George%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Prince George, British Columbia</a> to <a href=\"Dawson%20City\">Dawson City</a> before turning west to <a href=\"Fairbanks%2C%20Alaska\">Fairbanks, Alaska</a>.\nIn 1929 the British Columbia government proposed a highway to Alaska to encourage economic development and tourism. American President <a href=\"Herbert%20Hoover\">Herbert Hoover</a> appointed a board with American and three Canadian members to evaluate the idea. Its 1931 report supported the idea for economic reasons, but both American and Canadian members recognized that a highway would benefit the American military in Alaska; the <a href=\"Great%20Depression\">Great Depression</a> and the Canadian government's lack of support caused the project to not proceed. When the United States approached Canada again in February 1936, the Canadian government refused to commit to spending money on a road connecting the United States. The Canadians also worried about the military implications, fearing that in a war between Japan and North America, the United States would use the road to prevent Canadian neutrality. During a June 1936 visit to Canada, President <a href=\"Franklin%20D.%20Roosevelt\">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> told Prime Minister <a href=\"W.%20L.%20M.%20King\">W. L. M. King</a> that a highway to Alaska through Canada could be important in quickly reinforcing the American territory during a foreign crisis. Roosevelt became the first American to publicly discuss the military benefits of a highway in an August speech in <a href=\"Chautauqua%2C%20New%20York\">Chautauqua, New York</a>. He again mentioned the idea during King's visit to Washington in March 1937, suggesting that a $30 million highway would be helpful as part of a larger defense against Japan that included, the Americans hoped, a larger Canadian military presence on the Pacific coast. Roosevelt remained a supporter of the highway, telling <a href=\"Cordell%20Hull\">Cordell Hull</a> in August 1937 that he wanted a road built as soon as possible.\nThe <a href=\"attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and beginning of the <a href=\"Pacific%20War\">Pacific Theater</a> in <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, coupled with Japanese threats to the west coast of North America and the <a href=\"Aleutian%20Islands\">Aleutian Islands</a>, changed the priorities for both nations. On February 6, 1942 the construction of the Alaska Highway was approved by the United States Army and the project received the authorization from the U.S. Congress and Roosevelt to proceed five days later. Canada agreed to allow construction as long as the United States bore the full cost, and that the road and other facilities in Canada be turned over to Canadian authority after the war ended.\nThe official start of construction took place on March 8, 1942 after hundreds of pieces of construction equipment were moved on priority trains by the <a href=\"Northern%20Alberta%20Railways\">Northern Alberta Railways</a> to the northeastern part of British Columbia near Mile 0 at Dawson Creek. Construction accelerated through the spring as the winter weather faded away and crews were able to work from both the northern and southern ends; they were spurred on after reports of the Japanese invasion of <a href=\"Kiska%20Island\">Kiska Island</a> and <a href=\"Attu%20Island\">Attu Island</a> in the Aleutians. During construction the road was nicknamed the \"oil can highway\" by the work crews due to the large number of discarded oil cans and fuel drums that marked the road's progress. On September 24, 1942 crews from both directions met at Mile 588 at what became named Contact Creek, at the British Columbia-Yukon border at the <a href=\"60th%20parallel%20north\">60th parallel</a>; the entire route was completed October 28, 1942 with the northern linkup at Mile 1202, Beaver Creek, and the highway was dedicated on November 20, 1942 at Soldier's Summit.\nThe needs of war dictated the final route, intended to link the airfields of the <a href=\"Northwest%20Staging%20Route\">Northwest Staging Route</a> that conveyed lend-lease aircraft from the United States to the Soviet Union. Thus the long, impractical route over difficult terrain was chosen.\nThe road was originally built mostly by the <a href=\"United%20States%20Army%20Corps%20of%20Engineers\">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a> as a supply route during World War II. In 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers assigned more than 10,000 men, about a third were black soldiers, members of three newly formed \"Negro regiments\". There were four main thrusts in building the route: southeast from <a href=\"Delta%20Junction%2C%20Alaska\">Delta Junction, Alaska</a> toward a linkup at <a href=\"Beaver%20Creek%2C%20Yukon\">Beaver Creek, Yukon</a>; north then west from Dawson Creek (an advance group started from <a href=\"Fort%20Nelson%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Fort Nelson, British Columbia</a> after traveling on winter roads on frozen marshland from railway stations on the Northern Alberta Railways); both east and west from <a href=\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\">Whitehorse</a> after being ferried in via the <a href=\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> railway. The Army commandeered equipment of all kinds, including local riverboats, railway locomotives, and housing originally meant for use in southern <a href=\"California\">California</a>.\nAlthough it was completed on October 28, 1942 and its completion was celebrated at Soldier's Summit on November 21 (and broadcast by radio, the exact outdoor temperature censored due to wartime concerns), the \"highway\" was not usable by general vehicles until 1943. Even then there were many steep grades, a poor surface, switchbacks to gain and descend hills, and few guardrails. Bridges, which progressed during 1942 from <a href=\"pontoon%20bridge\">pontoon bridge</a>s to temporary <a href=\"log%20bridge\">log bridge</a>s, were replaced with steel bridges where necessary. A replica log bridge, the Canyon Creek bridge, can be seen at the <a href=\"Aishihik%20River\">Aishihik River</a> crossing; the bridge was rebuilt in 1987 and refurbished in 2005 by the Yukon government as it is a popular tourist attraction. The easing of the Japanese invasion threat resulted in no more contracts being given to private contractors for upgrading of specific sections.\nSome 100 mi of route between <a href=\"Burwash%20Landing%2C%20Yukon\">Burwash Landing</a> and Koidern, Yukon, became nearly impassable in May and June 1943, as the <a href=\"permafrost\">permafrost</a> thawed, no longer protected by a layer of delicate vegetation. A <a href=\"corduroy%20road\">corduroy road</a> was built to restore the route, and corduroy still underlays old sections of highway in the area. Modern construction methods do not allow the permafrost to thaw, either by building a <a href=\"gravel\">gravel</a> <a href=\"berm\">berm</a> on top or replacing the vegetation and soil immediately with gravel. The Burwash-Koidern section, however, is still a problem as the new highway built there in the late 1990s continues to experience frost heave.\n\"<a href=\"Pincers%20on%20Japan\">Pincers on Japan</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Look%20to%20the%20North\">Look to the North</a>\" both 1944 productions were <a href=\"National%20Film%20Board%20of%20Canada\">National Film Board of Canada</a> documentaries that depicted the construction of the Alaska Highway.\nThe original agreement between Canada and the United States regarding construction of the highway stipulated that its Canadian portion be turned over to Canada six months after the end of the war. This took place on April 1, 1946 when the U.S. Army transferred control of the road through Yukon and British Columbia to the Canadian Army, Northwest Highway System. The Alaskan section was completely paved during the 1960s; largely gravel even in 1981, the Canadian portion of the Alaska Highway is now completely paved, mostly with <a href=\"Road%20surface%23Bituminous%20surface\">bituminous surface treatment</a>.\n\"<a href=\"The%20Milepost\">The Milepost</a>\", an extensive guide book to the Alaska Highway and other highways in Alaska and Northwest Canada, was first published in 1949 and continues to be published annually as the foremost guide to traveling the highway.\nThe <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia</a> government owns the first 82.6 mi of the highway, the only portion paved during the late 1960s and 1970s. <a href=\"Department%20of%20Public%20Works%20and%20Government%20Services%20%28Canada%29\">Public Works Canada</a> manages the highway from Mile 82.6 (km 133) to Historic Mile 630. The Yukon government owns the highway from Historic Mile 630 to Historic Mile 1016 (from near <a href=\"Watson%20Lake%2C%20Yukon\">Watson Lake</a> to <a href=\"Haines%20Junction%2C%20Yukon\">Haines Junction</a>), and manages the remainder to the U.S. border at Historic Mile 1221. The State of Alaska owns the highway within that state (Mile 1221 to Mile 1422).\nThe Alaska Highway was built for military purposes and its route was not ideal for postwar development of northern Canada. Rerouting in Canada has shortened the highway by approximately 35 mi since 1947, mostly by eliminating winding sections and sometimes by bypassing residential areas. The historic milepost markings are therefore no longer accurate but are still important as local location references. Some old sections of the highway are still in use as local roads, while others are left to deteriorate and still others are plowed up. Four sections form local residential streets in Whitehorse and Fort Nelson, and others form country residential roadways outside of Whitehorse. Although <a href=\"Champagne%2C%20Yukon\">Champagne, Yukon</a> was bypassed in 2002, the old highway is still completely in service for that community until a new direct access road is built.\nRerouting continues, expected to continue in the Yukon through 2009 , with the Haines Junction-<a href=\"Beaver%20Creek%2C%20Yukon\">Beaver Creek</a> section covered by the Canada-U.S. <a href=\"Shakwak%20Agreement\">Shakwak Agreement</a>. The new Donjek River bridge was opened 26 September 2007, replacing a 1952 bridge. Under Shakwak, U.S. federal highway money is spent for work done by Canadian contractors who win tenders issued by the Yukon government. The <a href=\"Shakwak%20Agreement\">Shakwak Project</a> completed the <a href=\"Haines%20Highway\">Haines Highway</a> upgrades in the 1980s between Haines Junction and the <a href=\"Alaska%20Panhandle\">Alaska Panhandle</a>, then funding was stalled by Congress for several years.\n\"<a href=\"The%20Milepost\">The Milepost</a>\" shows the Canadian section of the highway now to be approximately 1187 mi , but the first milepost inside Alaska is 1222. The actual length of the highway inside Alaska is no longer clear because rerouting, as in Canada, has shortened the route, but unlike Canada, mileposts in Alaska are not recalibrated. The BC and Yukon governments and Public Works Canada have recalibrated <a href=\"kilometre%20post\">kilometre post</a>s. The latest BC recalibration was carried out in 1990; using its end-point at the border at Historic Mile 630, the Yukon government has recalibrated in three stages: in 2002, from Mile 630 to the west end of the Champagne revision; in fall 2005, to a point just at the southeast shore of Kluane Lake, and in fall 2008, to the border with Alaska.\nThere are historical mileposts along the B.C. and Yukon sections of the highway, installed in 1992, that note specific locations, although the posts no longer represent accurate driving distance. There are 80 mileposts in B.C., 70 in Yukon and 16 in Alaska with a simple number marker of the original mile distance. There are 31 \"historic signs\" in B.C., 22 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska, identifying the significance of the location. There are 18 interpretive panels in B.C., 14 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska which give detailed text information at a turn-off parking area.\nThe portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is designated <a href=\"Alaska%20Route%202\">Alaska Route 2</a>. In Yukon, it is <a href=\"Yukon%20Highway%201\">Highway 1</a> and in British Columbia, <a href=\"British%20Columbia%20Highway%2097\">Highway 97</a>. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska was planned to become part of the <a href=\"United%20States%20Numbered%20Highway%20System\">United States Numbered Highway System</a>, and to be signed as part of <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2097\">U.S. Route 97</a>. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is also unsigned <a href=\"Interstate%20A-1\">Interstate A-1</a> and unsigned <a href=\"Interstate%20A-2\">Interstate A-2</a>.\nThe Canadian section of the road was delineated with mileposts, based on the road as it was in 1947, until 1978, and over the years, reconstruction steadily shortened the distance between some of those mileposts. That year, metric signs were placed on the highway, and the mileposts were replaced with kilometre posts at the approximate locations of a historic mileage of equal value, e.g. km post 1000 was posted approximately where historical Mile 621 would have been posted.\nReconstruction continues to shorten the highway, but the kilometre posts, at 2 km intervals, were recalibrated along the B.C. section of road in 1990 to reflect then-current driving distance. The section of highway covered by the 1990 recalibration has since been rendered shorter by further realignments, such as near Summit Pass and between <a href=\"Muncho%20Lake\">Muncho Lake</a> and <a href=\"Iron%20Creek\">Iron Creek</a>.\nBased on where those values left off, new Yukon kilometre posts were erected in fall 2002 between the B.C. border and the west end of the new bypass around <a href=\"Champagne%2C%20Yukon\">Champagne, Yukon</a>; in 2005, additional recalibrated posts continued from there to the east shore of <a href=\"Kluane%20Lake\">Kluane Lake</a> near Silver City; and in fall 2008, from Silver City to the boundary with Alaska. Old kilometre posts, based on the historic miles, remained on the highway, after the first two recalibrations, from those points around Kluane Lake to the Alaska border. The B.C. and Yukon sections also have a small number of historic mileposts, printed on oval-shaped signs, at locations of historic significance; these special signs were erected in 1992 on the occasion of the highway's 50th anniversary.\nThe Alaska portion of the highway is still marked by mileposts at 1 mi intervals, although they no longer represent accurate driving distance, due to reconstruction.\nThe historic mileposts are still used by residents and businesses along the highway to refer to their location, and in some cases are also used as postal addresses.\nResidents and travelers, and the government of the Yukon, do not use \"east\" and \"west\" to refer to direction of travel on the Yukon section, even though this is the predominant bearing of the Yukon portion of the highway; \"north\" and \"south\" are used, referring to the south (Dawson Creek) and north (Delta Junction) termini of the highway. This is an important consideration for travelers who may otherwise be confused, particularly when a westbound travel routes southwestward or even due south to circumvent a natural obstacle such as Kluane Lake.\nSome B.C. sections west of <a href=\"Fort%20Nelson%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Fort Nelson</a> also route more east-to-west, with southwest bearings in some section; again, \"north\" is used in preference to \"west\".\nSince 1949 \"<a href=\"The%20Milepost\">The Milepost</a>\", an exhaustive guide to the Alaska Highway and all other routes through the region, has been published each year.\nThe community <a href=\"Wonowon%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Wonowon, British Columbia</a> is named by its location at mile 101, spoken \"one-oh-one\".\nThe pioneer road completed in 1942 was approximately 1680 mi from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction. The Army then turned the road over to the <a href=\"Public%20Roads%20Administration\">Public Roads Administration</a>, which then began putting out section contracts to private road contractors to upgrade selected sections of the road. These sections were upgraded, with removal of excess bends and steep grades; often, a traveler could identify upgraded sections by seeing the telephone line along the PRA-approved route alignment. When the Japanese invasion threat eased, the PRA stopped putting out new contracts. Upon hand-off to Canada in 1946, the route was 1422 mi from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction.\nThe route follows a northwest then northward course from Dawson Creek to Fort Nelson. On October 16, 1957, a <a href=\"suspension%20bridge\">suspension bridge</a> crossing the Peace River just south of Fort St. John collapsed. A new bridge was built a few years later. At Fort Nelson, the road turns west and crosses the Rocky Mountains, before resuming a westward course at Coal River. The highway crossed the Yukon-BC border nine times from Mile 590 to Mile 773, six of those crossings were from Mile 590 to Mile 596. After passing the south end of Kluane Lake, the highway follows a north-northwest course to the Alaska border, then northwest to the terminus at Delta Junction.\nPostwar rebuilding has not shifted the highway more than 10 mi from the original alignment, and in most cases, by less than 3 mi . It is not clear if it still crosses the Yukon-BC border six times from Mile 590 to Mile 596.\n\nOther former segments have deteriorated and are no longer usable. More recent construction projects have deliberately plowed up roadway to close it.\n\n\n","Seward Peninsula\nThe Seward Peninsula is a large peninsula on the western coast of the <a href=\"U.S.%20state\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\"Alaska\">Alaska</a>. It projects about 320 km into the <a href=\"Bering%20Sea\">Bering Sea</a> between <a href=\"Norton%20Sound\">Norton Sound</a>, the <a href=\"Bering%20Strait\">Bering Strait</a>, the <a href=\"Chukchi%20Sea\">Chukchi Sea</a>, and <a href=\"Kotzebue%20Sound\">Kotzebue Sound</a>, just below the <a href=\"Arctic%20Circle\">Arctic Circle</a>. The entire peninsula is about 330 km long and 145 km -225 km wide. Like <a href=\"Seward%2C%20Alaska\">Seward, Alaska</a>, it was named after <a href=\"William%20H.%20Seward\">William H. Seward</a>, the <a href=\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20State\">United States Secretary of State</a> who fought for the U.S. <a href=\"Alaska%20Purchase\">purchase of Alaska</a>.\nThe Seward Peninsula is a remnant of the <a href=\"Bering%20land%20bridge\">Bering land bridge</a>, a roughly thousand mile wide swath of land connecting <a href=\"Siberia\">Siberia</a> with mainland Alaska during the <a href=\"Pleistocene\">Pleistocene Ice Age</a>. This land bridge aided in the migration of humans, as well as plant and animal species from Asia to North America. Archeological discoveries throughout the <a href=\"Chukotka%20Peninsula\">Chukotka Peninsula</a> and Seward Peninsula show proof that <a href=\"Inupiat%20people\">Inupiat people</a> have been living in the region for thousands of years. Excavations at sites such as the <a href=\"Trail%20Creek%20Caves\">Trail Creek Caves</a> and Cape Espenberg in the <a href=\"Bering%20Land%20Bridge%20National%20Preserve\">Bering Land Bridge National Preserve</a> as well as <a href=\"Cape%20Denbigh\">Cape Denbigh</a> to the south have provided insight into the timeline of prehistorical migrations from Asia to the Seward Peninsula.\nMost of the peninsula is in the <a href=\"Nome%20Census%20Area\">Nome Census Area</a>, but part is in the <a href=\"Northwest%20Arctic%20Borough\">Northwest Arctic Borough</a>. These are the communities on the Seward Peninsula, with 2005 state population estimates:\nOther locations on the Seward Peninsula include the mining towns of <a href=\"Council%2C%20Alaska\">Council</a>, <a href=\"Solomon%2C%20Alaska\">Solomon</a>, Candle, Haycock and Taylor. While still frequented by locals of neighboring communities, there are no longer year round residents in these locations. There is a <a href=\"United%20States%20Coast%20Guard\">United States Coast Guard</a> <a href=\"LORAN\">LORAN</a> station at <a href=\"Port%20Clarence%2C%20Alaska\">Port Clarence</a>. The <a href=\"U.S.%20Air%20Force\">U.S. Air Force</a> operates a <a href=\"radar\">radar</a> station at the \"Tin City\" site, 7 mi southeast of Wales.\nThe Seward Peninsula has several distinct geologic features. The <a href=\"Devil%20Mountain%20Lakes\">Devil Mountain Lakes</a> on the northern portion of the peninsula are the largest <a href=\"maar\">maar</a> lakes in the world. They were formed over 21,000 years ago as the result of an underground steam explosion. The Killeak Lakes and White Fish Lake are also volcanic maar lakes of notable size on the northern Seward Peninsula. Four mountain ranges line the southern side of the peninsula, the most prominent being the <a href=\"Kigluaik\">Kigluaik</a> (or Sawtooth) Mountains. The highest point in the range and the peninsula is the peak of 4714 ft <a href=\"Mount%20Osborn\">Mount Osborn</a>. Other mountain ranges on the Seward Peninsula include the <a href=\"Bendeleben%20Mountains\">Bendeleben Mountains</a>, <a href=\"Darby%20Mountains\">Darby Mountains</a>, and <a href=\"York%20Mountains\">York Mountains</a>. The <a href=\"Lost%20Jim%20Lava%20Flow\">Lost Jim Lava Flow</a> north of Kuzitrin Lake is a lava field formed roughly 1,000 to 2,000 years ago, which covers roughly 88 sqmi .\nSeveral geothermal hot springs are located throughout the peninsula, including <a href=\"Serpentine%20Hot%20Springs\">Serpentine Hot Springs</a>, <a href=\"Pilgrim%20Hot%20Springs\">Pilgrim Hot Springs</a>, Granite Mountain, Elim, Clear Creek and Lava Creek.\nThe Seward Peninsula has several rivers. The largest include the <a href=\"Koyuk%20River\">Koyuk</a>, <a href=\"Kuzitrin%20River\">Kuzitrin</a>, <a href=\"Niukluk%20River\">Niukluk</a>, <a href=\"Fish%20River%20%28Alaska%29\">Fish</a>, <a href=\"Tubuktilik%20River\">Tubuktilik</a>, <a href=\"Kiwalik%20River\">Kiwalik</a>, <a href=\"Buckland%20River\">Buckland</a> and <a href=\"Agiupuk%20River\">Agiupuk</a> Rivers. These play a vital role in the subsistence lifestyles of many peninsula residents and ease travel, hunting, and fishing. Most peninsula rivers have at least a small yearly run of several varieties of <a href=\"salmon\">salmon</a>, as well as <a href=\"Dolly%20Varden%20trout\">Dolly Varden</a>, <a href=\"Arctic%20Grayling\">Arctic Grayling</a>, <a href=\"Coregonus\">whitefish</a> of various species, <a href=\"Northern%20Pike\">Northern Pike</a>, and <a href=\"Burbot\">Burbot</a>. Most rivers on the Seward Peninsula freeze in mid-October; spring break-up usually occurs in mid- to late May.\nThe Seward Peninsula is the western-most limit of distribution for the <a href=\"Black%20spruce\">Black spruce</a>, \"<a href=\"Picea%20mariana\">Picea mariana</a>\", a dominant overstory species of the region.\nAlaska's reindeer herding was concentrated on Seward Peninsula ever since the first shipment of reindeer were imported there from eastern Siberia in 1892. It was believed that migrating <a href=\"caribou\">caribou</a>, could be prevented from mingling with the domesticated reindeer on the Peninsula because of the geography of the peninsula, thereby avoiding loss of reindeer that might wander off with caribou. However, in 1997 the domesticated reindeer joined the <a href=\"Western%20Arctic%20Caribou%20Herd\">Western Arctic Caribou Herd</a> on their summer migration and disappeared.\n<a href=\"Cape%20Prince%20of%20Wales\">Cape Prince of Wales</a>, the westernmost point on the mainland of the Americas, is on the western tip. The cape is only 51 mi from <a href=\"Cape%20Dezhnev\">Cape Dezhnev</a>, the closest point on the <a href=\"Russia\">Russia</a>n mainland. In August 2011 Russia announced an ambitious project to construct a rail tunnel under the Bering Strait, linking the Seward Peninsula in Alaska with the <a href=\"Chukchi%20Peninsula\">Chukchi Peninsula</a> in Russia. If completed, the project would cost an estimated US $65 billion and would be the world's longest tunnel at 103 km long.\nThe peninsula was named after <a href=\"William%20H.%20Seward\">William H. Seward</a>, the <a href=\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20State\">United States Secretary of State</a> who negotiated the <a href=\"Alaska%20Purchase\">Purchase</a> of Alaska from Russia in 1867.\n","La Conner Trading and Transportation Company\nThe La Conner Trading and Transportation Company was founded in the early 1900s by <a href=\"Joshua%20Green%20%28seaman%20and%20banker%29\">Joshua Green</a> and others, to engage in the shipping business on <a href=\"Puget%20Sound\">Puget Sound</a>.\nThe La Conner Trading and Transportation Company was formed in the early 1890s by four officers of the steamer <a href=\"Henry%20Bailey%20%28sternwheeler%29\">Henry Bailey</a>, <a href=\"Joshua%20Green%20%28seaman%20and%20banker%29\">Joshua Green</a>, purser, Sam Denny, master, Peter Falk, mate, and Frank Zickmund, second engineer. Green persuaded the others to leave the \"Henry Bailey\" and go into business for themselves, by purchasing the freight steamer \"<a href=\"Fannie%20Lake\">Fannie Lake</a>\" and a scow, for a total investment of about $5000. Green at the time had savings of only about $250 and the others had very little. However they were able to secure loans of $1,250 each, secured by the steamer and the scow, from banker <a href=\"Jacob%20Furth\">Jacob Furth</a> and the <a href=\"Puget%20Sound%20National%20Bank\">Puget Sound National Bank</a>.\nRunning in the freight business, the company was not competing for passenger fares. Instead the new firm's main competition came from George T. Willey, a Seattle hay and grain merchant. As business increased, the four partners bought another steamer, the \"<a href=\"Annie%20M.%20Pence\">Annie M. Pence</a>\". Willey then joined with the four original partners and they incorporated the business as the La Conner Trading and Transportation Company.\nThe company suffered business reverses. In April 1893, \"Fannie Lake\" was destroyed by a fire that started in a cargo of hay. The vessel was valued at $5,000 and insured for only $4,000. An economic depression called the <a href=\"Panic%20of%201893\">Panic of 1893</a> hit the company hard, and things got worse when the company's other hay steamer, the uninsurable \"Anna M. Pence\", was also destroyed by fire.\nGreen had the idea to purchase a new boat, which he would name after the builder, which he concluded would save up to $2,000 off the price of the boat. Builders were willing to build for less if the completed vessel were to be named after the builder, as it would function as a floating advertisement. In this way, the company acquired the \"<a href=\"T.W.%20Lake\">T.W. Lake</a>\" built by the shipbuilder of the same name. The \"Lake\" was purpose-built to move freight, and included a winch to lift cargo up to piers, regardless of the state of the tide.\nFollowing the purchase of the Lake, the company continued to expand, adding the steamers <a href=\"E.D.%20Smith%20%28steamboat%29\">\"E.D. Smith\"</a>, <a href=\"Utopia%20%28steamship%29\">\"Utopia\"</a>, <a href=\"George%20E.%20Starr%20%28steamboat%29\">\"George E. Starr\"</a>, and the sternwheelers <a href=\"State%20of%20Washington%20%28sternwheeler%29\">\"State of Washington\"</a>, <a href=\"Fairhaven%20%28sternwheeler%29\">\"Fairhaven\"</a> and <a href=\"La%20Conner%20%28sternwheeler%29\">\"La Conner\"</a> to the roster. The company also built the <a href=\"City%20of%20Denver%20%28steamboat%29\">\"City of Denver\"</a> for Colorado investors. When the Colorado interests defaulted on payment, the company took over the boat and added to their fleet.\nThe company had also expanded into the passenger business, buying the fast steamer \"<a href=\"Inland%20Flyer\">Inland Flyer</a>\" and putting that vessel on the lucrative <a href=\"Seattle\">Seattle</a> – <a href=\"Bremerton\">Bremerton</a> run in opposition to the <a href=\"Athlon%20%28steamboat%29\">\"Athlon\"</a>, owned by H.B. Kennedy.\nBy 1902, Joshua Green had bought out Sam Denny's shares, and some of the stock of George T. Willey. Willey then sold the rest of his shares to the <a href=\"Alaska%20Steamship%20Company\">Alaska Steamship Company</a>, of which Charles E. Peabody was president. This gave Peabody and Alaska Steam a controlling interest in La Conner Trading. Alaska Steam ran ships to Alaska and also had a large fleet of inland vessels operating on Puget Sound. The Puget Sound operations were conducted under the name of the <a href=\"Puget%20Sound%20Navigation%20Company\">Puget Sound Navigation Company</a>. With the acquisition of La Conner Trading, PSN was almost doubled in the size of its fleet. After a period of transition, the La Conner company was effectively merged into the reorganized <a href=\"Puget%20Sound%20Navigation%20Company\">Puget Sound Navigation Company</a>, which in later years came to dominate Puget Sound passenger and ferry business as a near-monopoly.\n"],"string":"[\n \"Alaska Steamship Company\\nThe Alaska Steamship Company was formed on August 3, 1894. While it originally set out to ship passengers and fishing products, the Alaska Steamship Company began shipping mining equipment, dog sleds, and cattle at the outbreak of the Klondike Gold Rush of 1897. The company was purchased by the Alaska Syndicate and merged with the Northwestern Steamship Company in 1909, but retained its name, and the fleet was expanded to 18 ships. During World War II, the government took over the company's ships. When the war ended, the company struggled to compete with the new Alaska Highway for passengers and freight. It discontinued passenger service altogether in 1954 and shut down operations in 1971.\\nThe company was founded by Charles Peabody, Captain George Roberts, Captain Melville Nichols, George Lent, Frank E. Burns and Walter Oakes.This group of six men began gathering $30,000 by selling 300 shares of stock, at $100 each. Peabody served as president of the company from its creation until 1912. The first vessel they purchased was the 140-foot steamer \\\"Willapa\\\".\\nA railroad to serve the mines in the interior encouraged mining activity and brought more fortune-seekers and tourists. By 1905, service was shifted from the Juneau and Skagway region to the Valdez - Cordova, then eventually to Nome, where Alaska Steamship was ready to capitalize on the bonanza by switching its ships accordingly. Their ships supplied the growing number of religious missions that were being established and the burgeoning fish cannery industry.\\nWhen the Klondike Gold Strike took place in 1897, Charles Peabody reorganized the company and rapidly expanded his fleet of ships to meet the sudden demand for service. In 1898, the stockholders formed the Puget Sound Navigation Company as a subsidiary. The new company was legally organized in Nevada where corporate law was more lenient. The Puget Sound routes allowed the company to continue to use some of its smaller, older vessels as they became unsuitable for the strenuous Alaska routes.\\nIn 1902, the Puget Sound Navigation Co. started a steamship route from Port Townsend and Port Angeles, Washington to Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, carrying both freight and passengers. Their competitor the Pacific Steamship Company had committed their entire fleet of ships to the Klondike run and were unprepared to switch to alternates when the gold rush subsided. The Canadian Pacific Railway, their other potential competitor, decided at first that would not compete on the Victoria route, and chose to concentrate on their Empress ocean-going sleek steamships which fed passengers into their rail route across the Canadian Rockies and to their Empress Hotels in Victoria and Vancouver. On May 2, 1903, Peabody and his associates purchased the controlling stock of La Conner Trading and Transportation Company. They initially named the merged company the Inland Navigation Co. but later resumed using Puget Sound Navigation Co. The new company became the biggest inland shipping company of Puget Sound.\\nIn 1907 the Alaska Syndicate, funded by Morgan & Co. and the Daniel Guggenheim, bought the company to service its growing copper mining operation in the Wrangell Mountains. They merged its operations with the Northwest Steamship Company, which owned 12 canneries, and a retail store, but retained the Alaska Steamship Company name. The merged company began operations with 12 ships, and they added to their fleet until they had 18 ships. They expanded service from Ketchikan to Kotzebue. They served all of southwestern Alaska, southeaster Alaska, the Seward Peninsula, the Bering Sea, St. Michael and Nome. The resulting company had a virtual monopoly on the Alaska shipping industry.\\nCharles Peabody retired in 1912 and S.W. Eccles of the Guggenheim Company.\\nIn 1915, Kennecott Copper Company, also owned by Morgan & Co. and the M. Guggenheim Sons, acquired the Alaska Syndicate's interests in the Alaska Steamship Company with a stock transaction.\\nThe company greatly benefited from the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, which required ships connecting two United States ports to fly the United States flag. The legislation forced two Canadian shipping companies out of the Alaska market. The Alaska Steamship Company eventually enjoyed a near monopoly of freight and passenger service to Alaska.\\nIn the 1930s the company bought its long-time rival, the Pacific Steamship Company. Many Alaskan residents began complaining about irregular service and high fares. As a result, the U.S. Congress passed the Intercoastal Shipping Act of 1933. It required specific schedules and approved, published cargo rates.\\nWhen World War II broke out, the Federal Government took control of most U.S. registered ships to support the war effort, including the company's fleet of 15 vessels. The company became an agent for the War Administration and was assigned to manage its own ships along with sixty others. During the war, five ships were lost. Before World War II, 42 ships had served Alaska, but after the war, only seven were in service. The Alaska Steamship Company was purchased in August 1944 for $4,290,000 by the Skinner and Eddy Corporation of Seattle.\\nThe company's business was slowly eroded due to the end of federal war-related subsidies, rising fuel and labor costs, and new competition from the trucking industry and cargo airlines. In an effort to reduce costs, the Alaska Steamship company added tugs, barges, and container ships to their fleet. These allowed for smaller crews, faster loading and unloading, and less damage to the cargo.\\nAfter World War II, when the freight business slowed, the company decided to focus on tourism and introduced their ship the \\\"Alaska\\\" in January 1946. It was later joined by the \\\"Aleutian\\\", \\\"Baranof\\\", \\\"Yukon\\\", and \\\"Denali\\\". The ships called at Ketchikan (two days journey), Juneau (three days journey) and Seward (five days journey). Intermediate ports of call included Wrangell, Petersburg, Skagway, Sitka, Cordova, Valdez, Kodiak and Seldovia. All the steamers could accommodate over 200 passengers in classes ranging from steerage to a deluxe cabin with private bath.\\nUnable to compete with faster, cheaper air service, the company discontinued passenger service altogether in 1954, though by then it had established itself within the container ship industry. Despite these efforts, the Alaska Steamship Company shut down in January 1971.\\nThe waters of the inside passage were often inhospitable and the jagged coastline was treacherous. While most of the ships in the Alaska Steamship Company's fleet were sold, scrapped, or repurposed, a number of their ships ended their careers as wrecks.\",\n \"Adelaide Steamship House\\nThe Adelaide Steamship House is located at 10-12 Mouat Street, Fremantle. Built in 1900, the building was designed by Fremantle based architectural firm Charles Oldham and Herbert Eales and was constructed by C. Coghill. The building takes its name from the original owners of the building, the Adelaide Steamship Company, who provided sea passenger and freight services around Australia.\\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company (ASC) was formed in September 1875 in Adelaide by a group of pastoralists and businessmen. In 1883 the ASC purchased two steamboats, the \\\"Otway\\\" and the \\\"Rob Roy\\\" from Anderson & Marshall and Lillie & Company securing the provision of services from Melbourne to Derby. Following the discovery of gold in the Kimberley in 1885, Pilbara in 1888, and Coolgardie-Kalgoorlie in 1892, the ASC further expanded its trading routes in Western Australia.\\nIn 1883 the ASC established an office in Fremantle, initially with an agent and then with its own staff. The company originally leased offices in Fremantle at the corner of Cliff and Phillimore Streets. In 1900 the company purchased two properties in Mouat Street to construct their offices close to the Fremantle wharf. The ASC engaged a local architectural firm, Oldham and Eales to design the building. Construction was undertaken by Mr C. Coghill, a local North Fremantle builder, in the latter half of 1900. The building was completed by the end of November 1900 and the manager of Adelaide Steamship, William Ernest Moxon, and his staff took possession of the building. Moxon was appointed as the Western Australian manager of ASC in 1896 and continued in that role for over twenty years, until 1918, when he took the position of manager of the ASC's Queensland operations. During his tenure Moxon was the chairman of the Steamship Owners of Australasia, Fremantle Branch for fifteen years and for two years the president of the Fremantle Chamber of Commerce.\\nThe building is a two storey stone structure built in the Federation Free Classical style. The upper floor has a balustrade parapet, elaborate central pediment and stuccoed ionic pilasters. The upper floor rectangular windows have false balustrading and shell decorations above them. The ground floor has a granite plinth, horizontal shadow lines, broad doric pilasters and large arched openings.\\nThe building was damaged by fire in January 1946 with a second fire in April 1947 resulting in extensive restorations to its original design occurring during 1947-48, under the supervision of architect F. Hawkins.\\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company operated the Western Australian operations of their company from the premises until 1978, when the building was sold. In 1991 the building was restored and converted into a residence, office, store and warehouse.\\nThe building was placed on the Register of the National Estate on 21 March 1978 and was classified by the National Trust of Australia (WA) on 5 November 2012.\\nThe building was formally listed on the State Register of Heritage Places by the Heritage Council of Western Australia on 1 July 1994. It is also listed on the City of Fremantle's Municipal Heritage List.\",\n \"SS Oregon (1878)\\nSS \\\"Oregon\\\" (1878–1906) was a coastal passenger/cargo ship constructed in Chester, Pennsylvania by the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works in February 1878. Originally delivered to the Oregon Steamship Company, she was used on the Portland, Oregon-to-San Francisco, California route for many years. In 1879, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company became the \\\"Oregon\\\"′s new owners after purchasing the Oregon Steamship Company. Also included in this purchase were the steamships \\\"George W. Elder\\\" and \\\"City of Chester\\\". While in O.R. & N service, \\\"Oregon\\\" served alongside SS \\\"Columbia\\\", which made the first commercial use of Thomas Edison's incandescent light bulb. Like \\\"Oregon\\\", \\\"Columbia\\\" was also built by John Roach & Sons in Chester, Pennsylvania. Over time, \\\"Oregon's\\\" hull became breached after a number of incidents. Furthermore, the hull had been weighted with concrete to the point where she was considered unsuitable for service as a passenger liner. After operating as a cargo ship, she was laid up in 1894 at Portland. In 1899, the \\\"Oregon\\\" was re-qualified to carry passengers once more. She was sold by O.R. & N the same year. Despite this, she was viewed as a cursed ship by her crew. The \\\"Oregon\\\" was owned by the White Star Steamship Company (not to be confused with the White Star Line) from around 1902 to 1905 . Around this time, \\\"Oregon\\\" was operating between Alaska and Puget Sound.\\nOn September 13, 1906, \\\"Oregon\\\" ran aground on the rocky shoreline of Cape Hinchinbrook, Alaska. At the time, there was no active lighthouse at Cape Hinchinbrook, although one was under construction. It is unknown whether poor navigation or reduced visibility caused the wreck. Shortly after the collision, the bottom of the vessel tore open and water began flooding the ship. \\\"Oregon\\\" became stuck on the rocks without any barrier from the open sea. After crew members began boarding the lifeboats without orders, Captain Horace E. Soule threatened to shoot any man attempting to steal one. This led to the crew obeying all further orders and a small party was sent off in a lifeboat to report the disaster in Valdez, Alaska. When the report of \\\"Oregon\\\"′s wreck reached Valdez, many ships set out to rescue the passengers and crew. Remarkably, all 110 remaining people on board the \\\"Oregon\\\" were rescued by the revenue cutter . \\\"Oregon\\\" however, was reported as a total loss.\\n\",\n \"Adelaide Steamship Company\\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company was formed by a group of South Australian businessmen in 1875. Their aim was to control the transport of goods between Adelaide and Melbourne and profit from the need for an efficient and comfortable passenger service. For the first 100 years of its life, the main activities of the company were conventional shipping operations on the Australian coast, primary products, consumer cargoes and extensive passenger services.\\nIn the 1930s and 1940s, the company diversified into the airline operations, towage, shipbuilding, and the shipping of salt, coal and sugar. Adelaide Airways was formed in 1935, and purchased West Australian Airways before merging with Holyman's Airways to form Australian National Airways (ANA) in 1936. ANA was sold to Reg Ansett in 1957. In 1964, the Interstate fleet merged with McIlwraith, McEacharn & Co, and the partnership developed the world's first purpose built container ships. However, in 1973, the company ceased its shipbuilding operations, and in 1977, in its 103rd year of operation, the company sold its shipping related businesses, and ceased its connection with ship owning and operating. The company did, however, retain its interests in tugboat operations.\\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, with John Spalvins at the helm, the company became a corporate raider with a portfolio financed by huge borrowings. The recession of the early 1990s caused lenders, over 200 banks, to demand the return of their assets. This forced the liquidation of the portfolio.\\nWith the completion of the liquidation, on 30 April 1997 the company was renamed Residual Assco Group Limited in order that the Adelaide Steamship name could be reused. Residual Assco was delisted on 24 December 1999. In June 1997, the tug boat operations were floated on the Australian Stock Exchange under the name Adsteam Marine. In 2001, Adsteam Marine acquired its joint venture partner (and major rival as the premier Australian towage operator), Howard Smith. Adsteam Marine became the largest towage operator in Australia and the United Kingdom, with further extensive operations in the South Pacific. In 2006, Adsteam Marine was acquired as the Pacific arm of the world's largest shipping company, AP Moeller-Maersk, thus removing the Adelaide Steamship name from the Australian Stock Exchange and Australian Company registers.\\nThe company was formed in September 1875 in Adelaide, South Australia, by a group of pastoralists and businessmen some whom already had steamship interests in the Spencer Gulf, namely Federal Wharf Co. Ltd, Port Adelaide Dredging Company Ltd and Spencer Gulf Shipping Co. Ltd, and was incorporated on 8 October 1875.\\nIts promoters and founding directors included Andrew Tennant, Robert Barr Smith and Thomas Elder of Elder Smith & Co Ltd. The first ship of the new company was \\\"Flinders\\\". In July 1876 the company's leading promoters amalgamated their private ship-owning interests to form the Spencer's Gulf Steamship Co Ltd, trading in South Australian coastal waters. The two companies amalgamated in December 1882. The fleet circled the coast from Derby in northern Western Australia to Cairns in northern Queensland. Shipping operations were supported by a large network of agency offices in almost every major Australian port.\\nDuring World War I, several Adelaide Steamship Company ships were requisitioned, as were several other privately owned ships; \\\"Grantala\\\" and \\\"Warilda\\\" as hospital ships and \\\"Wandilla\\\" and \\\"Willochra\\\" as troopships. \\\"Yankalilla\\\" and \\\"Echunga\\\" were also commandeered.\\nAdelaide Steamship Company was liquidated and reconstructed twice for more efficient and profitable operation, first in 1900 and subsequently in 1920. On 20 January 1915 they took over Coast Steamships Limited, and kept it running as a subsidiary that retained its own identity until 1968.\\nBy the start of World War II, the company owned 30 ships. With World War II, the company was again forced to surrender nine ships to the Navy, including \\\"Manoora\\\" and \\\"Manunda\\\" which became an Armed Merchant Cruiser and a hospital ship. \\\"Manunda\\\" was in Darwin harbour during the Japanese bombing and was able to bring 260 military and civilian casualties to safety in Fremantle. In all during the war she carried about 30,000 sick and wounded back to Australia from the Middle East and New Guinea. During the 1940s, a decline in trade necessitated the company to diversify and they began to acquire interests in other companies and projects. Consequently, after the war, the company diversified into towage, shipbuilding, and the shipping of salt, coal and sugar.\\nOn 1 January 1964, its interstate fleet was merged with that of McIlwraith McEacharn in a new company, Associated Steamships Limited, in which Adelaide Steamship Company held 40%. Also in 1964, the merged company developed the world's first purpose built container ship, MV \\\"Kooringa\\\". Bulkships Limited, in which Adelaide Steamship held a 40% interest in 1965, acquired all the shares in Associated Steamship Limited in 1968. In 1977 the company's interest in Bulkships was disposed of and Adelaide Steamship Company ceased its connection with ship owning and operating. The company did, however, retain its interests in Tug boats and Tug boat operations and by the late 1980s, Adelaide Steamship was one of Australia's oldest surviving industrial companies.\\nShips owned and operated by Adelaide Steamship Company included:\\nAdelaide Airways was formed as a subsidiary of the Adelaide Steamship Company on 3 July 1935 and commenced operations on 29 October. It had a number of different types of aircraft in its fleet, including the Short Scion, the General Aircraft Monospar ST-25, and the De Havilland DH.89A.\\nOn 12 June 1936, Adelaide Airways purchased West Australian Airways for £25,000. Ivan Holyman (of Holyman's Airways Pty Ltd) approached AdSteam with a view to an amalgamation, aiming to form Australia's most powerful airline which would effectively control airline traffic between Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney. On 12 June 1936 the two companies merged and, on 2 November 1936 with Orient Steam Navigation Company and Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand, formed Australian National Airways (ANA), \\\"the pre- and post-war giant among Australian domestic airlines\\\". AdSteam retained partial ownership in ANA until Holyman's death in 1957. The ANA board then unsuccessfully attempted to sell out to the Government owned Trans Australia Airlines, before reaching agreement with Reg Ansett to sell the airline to him for £3.3 million. ANA and Ansett Airways merged to form Ansett-ANA on 3 October 1957.\\nAdelaide Ship Construction was set up as a subsidiary of the Adelaide Steamship Company in 1957, and was incorporated in July 1957. At the same time it was issued with the sole Australian licence for the hydroconic hull design patented by Burness, Corlett & Partners of the United Kingdom. This hull design for tugs gave them greater bollard pull from a given horsepower. Adelaide Ship Construction had been set up especially to address the issue of Australia's ageing fleet of tugs. The yard was built on the historic Fletcher's slip site at Birkenhead.\\nThe keel for the first tug was laid 20 May 1958 and it was launched 12 February 1959. The shipyard site grew from two acres and one berth to four berths and 6½ acres in 1968, and to cater for vessels up to 425 feet long. At this time it employed more than 1,000 men. Adelaide Ship Construction had also acquired from Burness, Corlett and Partners the licence for their 'Towmaster' patent. Coupled with the Hydroconic hull design this enabled ever greater pull in its tugs. \\\"Hamersley Comet\\\", built in 1968 had a bollard pull of 34.1 tons, the strongest to that time.\\nHowever, by 1973 the yard was running at a loss of $3.4 million, and it closed in August of that year. Its last ship was \\\"Cape York\\\".\\nA relatively minor sideline, started in the 1890s, was the company's tug boat operations. Gradually, tug boat operations extended over a number of ports, but until the middle of the 20th century they remained the poor relation of the more significant coastal shipping operations. With the decline of coastal shipping however, towage assumed more importance. By the 1960s, towage and associated operations represented a very significant part of the company's activities.\\nIn 1977 the company's interest in Bulkships Limited was disposed of, and Adelaide Steamship Company ceased its connection with ship owning and operating. It had diversified into investment and property ownership, vineyard and wine production, optical goods manufacturing and distribution, engineering, share investment, and, until 1973, shipbuilding. Thus towage and associated operations continued to have prominence, even during the 1970s and 1980s when the Adelaide Steamship Company became the foundation for one the country's major conglomerate organisations.\\nAs this activity was happening, towage began to reassert itself as an important element of the company; From 1993 it exhibited a period of aggressive growth until the company had a fleet of 156 tug boats, and operated in over 40 Australian, Indian, Pacific Oceana and British ports. Strengthened by a series of industry rationalisations - Brambles' Port Kembla, Sydney and Newcastle operations and P&O's towage operations in Western Australia - the towage division became a valuable candidate for asset disposal. In April 1997 the company changed its name to Residual Assco Group Limited and in June 1997 floated its marine division which was registered on the Australian Stock Exchange as Adsteam Marine Limited.\\nOnce it became a publicly listed company in its own right, Adsteam Marine established a strong investor following. In addition to towage, the company developed shipping agency and tug barging activities. Adsteam Marine doubled its size in May 2001 when it acquired the towage interests of Howard Smith, its partner in many towage ventures, for more than $500 million, making it the largest towage operator in Australia and the United Kingdom, together with operations in Papua New Guinea and Fiji. Other activities included barge operations in the United States, and ships agency services throughout Australia, New Zealand and India.\\nIn 2006, it was acquired by AP Moeller-Maersk.\\nAfter becoming chief executive of the Adelaide Steamship Company in 1977, John Spalvins built up one of Australia's largest industrial conglomerates and became one of the most feared takeover specialists in corporate Australia. Spalvins transformed himself into an entrepreneur, using vast amounts of debt to launch a series of massive takeovers. Adsteam \\\"aggressively acquired significant shareholdings in a variety of companies in a number of fields including retailing, hotels, leisure industries and civil engineering.\\\" \\\"Adsteam's share price rose dramatically through much of the 1980s and it was hailed by some commentators as being entrepreneurial, well managed and with a highly disciplined reporting system.\\\"\\nAt its height, the Adsteam group included Woolworths, David Jones, brewer Tooth & Co, the Petersville Sleigh food group, the Farmers Union dairy group, Metro Meat, a stable of premium wineries and many others. Also, at various stages, it held a 15% stake in Westpac, a 20% stake in Bell Resources, and numerous other \\\"strategic\\\" stakes and investments. During this period of aggressive growth, AdSteam also had 156 tug boats and operated in over 40 Australian, Indian, Pacific Ocean and British ports. The company was Australia's fourth highest capitalised company during the 1980s.\\nA characteristic of the AdSteam Group during this period was a complex Group Structure of cross ownership where many of the companies of the group owned not-quite-50% of each other. This served the dual purposes of making the elements of the group \\\"take-over proof\\\", but did not trigger the financial reporting requirements of a consolidated set of accounts. In the 1990 Adelaide Steamship Company Annual Report, the following companies were reported as \\\"Principal operating subsidiaries\\\" of the AdSteam Group, with the following cross ownerships greater than 5%:\\nOther companies, acquisitions and disposals in the group included:\\nDuring the 1980s, AdSteam instigated a number of \\\"Share plays\\\", and also made significant investments in a number of companies including:\\nAll of this was financed by huge borrowings from about 200 banks. For example, the lendings of just one bank, the State Bank of South Australia, are summarised in the following chart.\\nThe source of the above data, (South Australian Government Auditor in 1993), in a comment dated 26 April 1990, states: \\\"Papers also comment on \\\"off the record\\\" discussions with Adsteam Group's major bankers and gives exposures of nine banks (including the Bank) which total $4,960M.\\\" There is little comment on this figure but an analysis of each company's results shows assets exceed liabilities in each company by a good margin.\\\" A second comment states: 'Paper also comments on recent press issues including potential worst case losses of $110.0M from Bell Resources investment - \\\"the impact of such a loss ... is not considered a major concern\\\" '\\nA subsequent comment dated 26 July 1990 states: 'Lending Credit Committee minute notes planned reduction in exposure through maturity of facilities. Also notes extension of other facilities to August 1991 which illustrates \\\"the continued level of confidence this Bank held in Adsteam's continuity\\\". With the benefit of hindsight, further comments make interesting reading. It is also interesting to note that despite the assurances recorded in the board papers, from that point in time the State Bank of South Australia steadily reduced its exposure to the AdSteam Group.\\nThe opaque nature of the AdSteam Group caused rising concern in a variety of circles. Although shareholders continued to enjoy bonus shares, rights issues, and significant dividends, the share price plateaued. Financial journalists started asking questions, and the share price faltered. After the 1990 Annual General Meeting and the announcement of the 25c dividend (per share) against a diminished share price, investor confidence deserted the company and the share price crashed from over $5 to under $1 in one day.\\nThe previously \\\"nervous\\\" banks were far from happy, and started demanding the return of their capital. Of course, AdSteam had this money invested, and did not have billions of dollars of liquid assets. Also of course, the banks were not keen to force AdSteam into bankruptcy as such a situation would be unlikely to achieve the return of their assets. Hence, AdSteam organised an \\\"arrangement\\\" with the 200 banks, and in 1991 the Adsteam group was placed under an informal, receivership-type scheme of arrangement. Under this arrangement, there was an orderly disposal of assets.\\nIn order to facilitate the orderly disposal of assets, a number of the group members were renamed:\\nDuring the course of the disposal, there were a number of sales, and four successful floats:\\nNevertheless, not all of the disposals were made under ideal circumstances, and Adsteam's loss of $4.49 billion represented one of Australia's largest corporate collapses.\\nHowever, the major lesson out of the AdSteam collapse was for the accounting profession; a newspaper report on its failure carried the sub-headline \\\"Adsteam a humiliation for the accounting profession\\\". \\\"Adsteam was \\\"an excellent instance of how the rule-book approach to consolidation accounting imposed by the law and the Accounting Standards at the time determined managerial actions\\\" \\\".\\nThe \\\"Adsteam saga\\\" resulted in major changes to Australian accounting rules pertaining to consolidation and led to the issue of AAS 24 Consolidated Financial Statements by the accounting profession in June 1990 for application from 30 June 1991 (subject to a \\\"legal impediment\\\", see Deegan, 2005, p. 880) and the issue of AASB 1024 Consolidated Accounts with statutory backing in 1991\\nSpecifically, the definition of \\\"control\\\" for consolidation purposes was broadened beyond prescribed ownership interests to embrace control over an entity's financial and operating policies, making use of the notion of \\\"substance over form\\\" in determining the existence of a controlled entity.\\nThe \\\"AdSteam saga\\\" also provided some lessons for banks and auditors. For example, the South Australian Government Auditor produced a number of Case Studies - Volume 6 is titled \\\"The Management of Credit: Case Studies\\\", and Chapter 9 is titled \\\"Case Study in Credit Management: The AdSteam Group\\\". The opening sentence states: \\\"The exposure to the Adelaide Steamship Company Limited Group of Companies was complex.\\\", and if your interests lie in those directions, makes fascinating reading.\\nSeveral matters from the collapse are still ongoing - over 15 years after \\\"the collapse\\\". Industrial Equity Limited (IEL) is worthy of particular mention:\\nThe Adelaide Steamship Company was involved in two court cases which led to changes in the way the Australian Constitution and Australian Law is interpreted.\\n\\n\\\"\\\"Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd\\\" (1920) 28 CLR 129\\\" (commonly known as the \\\"Engineers' Case\\\") was a landmark Australian court case decided in the High Court of Australia on 31 August 1920. From a legal perspective, this case is widely regarded as one of the most important cases ever decided by the High Court of Australia, for it swept away the earlier doctrines of implied intergovernmental immunities and reserved State powers, firmly establishing the modern basis for the legal understanding of federalism in Australia and Australian constitutional law. In essence, this meant that decisions of the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court were binding on State governments. and that the constitution is no longer read in a way which attempts to preserve the power of the states.\\nWhen providing his judgement on \\\"Strickland v Rocla Concrete Pipes Ltd\\\", (where the Court unanimously rejected the decision in Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead, holding that it was based on the rejected doctrine of reserved State powers, which was abolished in Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd.), Justice Barwick stated \\\"\\\"the earlier doctrine virtually reversed the Constitution\\\".\\\"\\n\\\"Residual Assco and Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) vs former Adsteam directors and auditors.\\nThroughout its history, many people have been involved with, played significant roles in and/or been associated with the company:\",\n \"Pacific Coast Steamship Company\\nThe Pacific Coast Steamship Company was an important early shipping company that operated steamships on the west coast of North America. Organized in 1867 under the name of Goodall, Nelson and Perkins the company. The Goodall, Nelson & Perkins Steamship Company was formed in 1875, but a year later reorganized as the Pacific Coast Steamship Company. In 1916 the Admiral Line bought the shipping interests of the company.\\nThe company was first organized in 1867 under the name of Goodall, Nelson and Perkins. The company's chief rival was the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. The competition was settled in January 1875, with Goodall, Nelson and Perkins buying six side-wheel steamships from Pacific Mail, as well as certain wharves. Goodall Nelson and Perkins would form a new company to handle the traffic between San Diego and San Francisco, while Pacific Mail would control the routes from Central America and those north of San Francisco.\\nThe new company, Goodall, Nelson & Perkins Steamship Company was formed in February 1875. That same year, their paddle steamer SS \\\"Pacific\\\" was lost in a collision off Cape Flattery, Washington with the deaths of over 200 people. Less than a year later Christopher Nelson retired and the remaining partners reorganized, on October 17, 1876, as the Pacific Coast Steamship Company, providing service to twenty ports in California.\\nDuring the Spanish–American War the U.S. Army Quartermaster Department chartered two vessels from the company to transport troops to and from the Philippines. SS \\\"Senator\\\" was chartered June 8 1898 for $1000 per day. \\\"Senator\\\" displaced 2409 tons and carried 1000 troops. SS \\\"City of Puebla\\\" was chartered June 23, 1898, at a rate of $900 per day. \\\"City of Puebla\\\" displaced 2623 tons, made 12 knots and carried 635 troops.\\nThe company later expanded to operate on routes to Portland, Oregon, Seattle, and Alaska, owning a number of steamships. The company also briefly conducted operations in Puget Sound, running two steamers on the route from Seattle to Bellingham.\\nIts steamships regularly sailed from Seattle to SE Alaska before and after the Klondike Gold Rush. The \\\"City of Topeka\\\" did a 22-day round trip between Seattle and Skagway, stopping in Port Townsend, Victoria, Mary Island, Wrangell, and Juneau.\\nIn 1906, Pacific Coast's SS \\\"Valencia\\\" was lost after running aground on the rocky shore of Vancouver Island. Over 100 people, including all women and children on board, lost their lives.\\nBeginning around 1873, a horse-powered, narrow gauge tramway transported passengers and freight between Port Harford and a wagon road at Avila Beach. In 1876, the steamship company replaced the tram with the gauge steam-powered San Luis Obispo & Santa Maria Valley Railroad to San Luis Obispo. This railway became the first segment of the Pacific Coast Railway in 1882.\\nThe company effectively ceased business in 1916 when its vessels were purchased by the Admiral Line. The Admiral Line however also adopted the name \\\"The Pacific Steamship Company\\\", which it used until 1936 when operations ceased.\",\n \"Inman Line\\nThe Inman Line was one of the three largest 19th-century British passenger shipping companies on the North Atlantic, along with the White Star Line and Cunard Line. Founded in 1850, it was absorbed in 1893 into American Line. The firm's formal name for much of its history was the Liverpool, Philadelphia and New York Steamship Company, but it was also variously known as the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company, as Inman Steamship Company, Limited, and, in the last few years before absorption, as the Inman and International Steamship Company.\\nBy embracing new technology, Inman Line became the first to show that unsubsidized ocean liners could profitably cross the North Atlantic. With its first steamer, \\\"City of Glasgow\\\" of 1850, Inman led the drive to replace wood-hulled paddle steamers with iron-hulled screw-propelled ships. In 1852, Inman established that steerage passengers could be transported in steamships. Inman's \\\"City of Paris\\\" of 1866 was the first screw liner that could match the speed of the paddlers. By 1870, Inman landed more passengers in New York than any other line.\\nIn 1886, the US-owned International Navigation Company bought the company. The new owners began updating the express fleet with two Blue Riband winners, \\\"City of New York\\\" and the second \\\"City of Paris\\\" , ushering in the double-screw era that ended the need for auxiliary sails.\\nThe Inman Line had its roots in a line of sailing packets owned by John Grubb Richardson and his brothers along with their young business partner, William Inman (1825–81). In 1850, Inman persuaded his partners to form the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company and buy an advanced new ship, \\\"City of Glasgow\\\" . She proved profitable because her iron hull required less repair, and her screw propulsion system left more room for passengers and freight. \\\"City of Glasgow\\\"' s moderate speed considerably reduced coal consumption. The ship's first voyage for her new owners departed for Philadelphia on 17 December 1850. The next year, she was joined by a larger edition, \\\"City of Manchester\\\" .\\nIn 1852, the Inman broke new ground by transporting steerage passengers under steam. As Irish Quakers, the Richardsons were concerned about the poor conditions experienced by U.S.-bound emigrants, who traveled by sailing ship with unpredictable passage times. Steerage passengers were required to bring their own food, and often ran short. In 1836, \\\"Diamond\\\" lost 17 of her 180 steerage passengers to starvation when the ship required 100 days to make the crossing. From the beginning, Inman provided better steerage quarters and adopted the recommendation of a Parliamentary Committee to provide cooked meals to emigrants. As a result, Inman was able to charge steerage rates of 8 guineas, while the fastest sailing packets charged 4 to 6 guineas. During the period, Inman liners typically carried 500 passengers, 80 percent in steerage.\\nDisaster struck the new firm in 1854 when the company lost both \\\"City of Glasgow\\\" with all hands and the brand new \\\"City of Philadelphia\\\" , albeit with no loss of life. The remaining liner, \\\"City of Manchester\\\" was chartered to the French government for the Crimean War, along with three more liners that were completed or bought in 1855. The Richardsons withdrew from the firm because of its involvement with the war, and William Inman assumed full control.\\nAt the end of the war, Inman resumed service to Philadelphia. However, New York was now the primary gateway to the west, and Inman decided to alternate between the two ports. The firm's name was changed to the Liverpool, Philadelphia and New York Steam Ship Company, but all ships were routed to New York after its SS \\\"Kangaroo\\\" was trapped by ice in the Delaware River. Until 1857, the firm ran a fortnightly service from Liverpool. That same year Collins Line collapsed, and Inman succeeded it as the mail contractor for the United States Post Office. In 1859, a call at Queenstown was added to pick up Irish emigrants. The next year Inman ran a weekly service, increasing in 1863 to three sailings every fortnight, and twice a week during summer in 1866.\\nWith the celebrated \\\"City of Paris\\\" of 1866, the company ordered five express liners that matched the speed of Cunard's best. In 1867, responsibility for mail contracts was transferred from the Admirality to the Post Office and opened for bid. Inman was awarded one of the three weekly New York mail services and the fortnightly route to Halifax, Nova Scotia formerly held by Cunard. While Cunard continued to receive a subsidy, Inman was paid sea postage. Two years later Inman's New York contract was extended for seven years at an annual subsidy of £35,000, half that of Cunard's subsidy of £70,000 for two weekly New York mail sailings. In 1870, Inman landed 44,100 passengers in New York, almost twice Cunard's 24,500, although Cunard still carried substantially more first-class passengers. Throughout the 1870s, Inman's passage times were shorter than Cunard's. \\\"City of Brussels\\\" of 1869 beat \\\"Scotia\\\"' s eastbound record and in 1875 \\\"City of Berlin\\\" won the Blue Riband by taking the westbound record.\\nIn 1871 both companies faced a new rival when White Star Line joined the Atlantic ferry with the revolutionary RMS \\\"Oceanic\\\" and her sisters. The new White Star recordbreakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines. \\\"Oceanic\\\" consumed only 58 tons of coal per day, compared with 110 tons for \\\"City of Brussels\\\". White Star also set new standards for comfort by placing the dining saloon midships and doubling the size of cabins. Inman reacted quickly, bringing its express liners back to the shipyards for compound engines and other changes to match the new White Star liners, while Cunard lagged behind.\\nThe Panic of 1873 started a five-year shipping depression that strained the finances of Inman and its rivals. To raise more capital, the partnership was restructured in 1875 as a stock company and renamed the Inman Steamship Company, Limited. The next year, Inman and White Star agreed to coordinate their sailings to reduce competition. When the 1869 mail contracts expired, the UK Post Office ended both Cunard and Inman's subsidies and paid on the basis of weight, but at a rate substantially higher than paid by the US Post Office. Cunard's weekly New York mail sailings were reduced to one and White Star was awarded the third mail sailing. Every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, a liner from one of the three firms departed Liverpool with the mail for New York. Inman reduced its fleet so that only the express liners remained.\\nProfits still dropped in as new competitors sought the Blue Riband such as the National Line and the Guion Line, and numerous steamship concerns from mainland Europe competed for the emigrant trade. To restore its fortunes, Inman ordered \\\"City of Rome\\\" , which was designed as the largest and fastest liner yet. Unfortunately the ship failed to meet her design specifications and was rejected in 1882 after only six voyages.\\nWilliam Inman died before the ship's maiden voyage and the company suffered without his leadership. In 1883, \\\"City of Brussels\\\" was lost in the Mersey after colliding with another steamship. Meanwhile, Cunard renewed its mail fleet with four exceptional steel-hulled liners. Needing capital to match its rivals, Inman directors agreed to voluntary liquidation so that the largest creditor, the Philadelphia-based International Navigation Company could buy Inman's assets.\\nThe line was reorganized as the Inman and International Steamship Company, and its new owners provided the capital to build two outstanding record breakers, the twin-screw \\\"City of New York\\\" and \\\"City of Paris\\\" . However, the UK government responded to the ownership change by revoking Inman's mail contract. After considerable lobbying, the US Congress agreed to replace the contract and allow Inman to register its two new record breakers in the US if International Navigation built two similar express liners in US yards. Therefore, on 22 February 1893 the US flag was broken out over the two newest Inman vessels and the company merged into the American Line.\\nThe Inman fleet—all of which built for Inman unless otherwise indicated—consisted of the following ships, presented in order of acquisition. List sourced from\",\n \"David Charleston\\nDavid Morley Charleston (27 May 1848 – 20 June 1934) was an Cornish-born, Australian politician. Born in St Erth, Cornwall, he received only a primary education before becoming an apprentice engineer, and later an engineering unionist and marine engineer. Migrating to Australia in 1884, he continued his engineering work with the Adelaide Steamship Company, but resigned in 1887 after labour troubles. He subsequently became President of the Adelaide Trades and Labour Council.\\nIn 1891 he was elected to the South Australian Legislative Council as a Labor member, but he left the Labor Party in 1897. Leaving the Council in 1901, he was elected to the Australian Senate as a Free Trader. He was defeated in 1903, and was later General Secretary of the Farmers and Producers Political Union. Several attempts to re-enter the Senate were unsuccessful. Charleston died in 1934.\\nCharleston's sister was the suffragist Nellie Martel.\\n\",\n \"HMAT Wandilla\\nSS \\\"Wandilla was a steamship built in 1912 for the Adelaide Steamship Company. The ship operated on the Fremantle to Sydney run until 1915, when she was acquired for military service and redesignated HMAT \\\"Wandilla. Initially used as a troop transport, the vessel was converted to a hospital ship in 1916. \\\"Wandilla\\\" was returned to her owners at the end of the war, then was sold to the Bermuda & West Indies SS Company and renamed Fort St. George in 1921. She was sold in 1935 to Lloyd Triestino and renamed Cesarea before being renamed Arno in 1938. At the start of World War II, the ship was acquired by the Regia Marina for use as a hospital ship. She was sunk by British aircraft on 10 September 1942.\\nThe ship was built in 1912, by William Beardmore and Company, Glasgow, together with her sister ships SS \\\"Warilda\\\" and SS \\\"Willochra\\\".\\nShe was used on the Fremantle to Sydney passenger-cargo service until May 1915. After the start of World War I, \\\"Wandilla\\\" was one of several Adelaide Steamship Company vessels requisitioned for military service. The ship was initially used as a troop transport under the designation His Majesty's Australian Transport (HMAT) \\\"Wandilla\\\", and delivered Australian soldiers to Europe. In July 1916, the vessel was converted into a hospital ship. While serving as a hospital ship, she was torpedoed by a U-boat in February 1918, although the torpedo failed to explode. \\\"Wandilla\\\" was manned by Australian officers and (during part of her service) Australian crews. Commonwealth control ended 24 January 1917.\\nAfter being returned to her owners in 1919, she continued plying the coastal passenger-cargo service until 1921; Adelaide Steamship Company felt that there was no future in coastal passenger services, and \\\"Wandilla\\\" was sold to the Bermuda & West Indies SS Company and renamed \\\"Fort St. George\\\". She was modified by replacing her cargo holds with water tanks to supply fresh water to the hotels in Bermuda. She was also modified to accommodate 380 first class and 50 second class passengers. She collided with White Star Line's in 1924 while in New York City, and was out of service for a period of time for repairs. She was sold in 1935 to Lloyd Triestino, Trieste and renamed \\\"Cesarea\\\" before being renamed \\\"Arno\\\" in 1938.\\nThe \\\"Arno\\\" was requisitioned as a hospital ship by the Regia Marina during World War II. The ship and its crew members were featured in the 1941 Italian propaganda film \\\"The White Ship\\\" (Italian: \\\"La nave bianca\\\"). The \\\"Arno\\\" was sunk by aerial torpedoes from the Royal Air Force on 10 September 1942 at , about 40 mi north-east of Ras el Tin, near Tobruk. It has been claimed by the British that a German radio message decoded on 31 August 1942 showed that the ship was being used to carry supplies to Benghazi in violation of the Hague Convention, making it a justified attack, while others have called the sinking of the hospital ship a war crime that was not investigated following the end of the war.\",\n \"SS Penola\\nSS \\\"Perth\\\", formerly SS \\\"Penola\\\" was a GRT steamship operated by the Adelaide Steamship Company. \\\"Penola\\\" was notable for ramming and sinking the SS City of Launceston, a passenger steamship, in Port Phillip Bay on 19 November 1865. Renamed \\\"Perth\\\", the steamship ran aground and was wrecked off Point Cloates in Western Australia on 17 September 1887.\",\n \"Walter Leslie Duncan\\nWalter Leslie Duncan (14 February 1883 – 28 May 1947) was an Australian politician. Born in Armidale, New South Wales, he was educated at state schools before becoming a clerk, and was President of the Labor Council of New South Wales in 1911. A member of the Labor Party, he joined the Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 split over conscription. Duncan enlisted in the military in 1917, leaving in 1919 to successfully contest the Senate for the Nationalists. A strong supporter of Billy Hughes, he was excluded from the party along with Hughes in 1929 and joined the Australian Party, before being reaccepted into the United Australia Party in 1931. He resigned from the Senate in 1931. He was also a Director of the Adelaide Steamship Company for many years. Duncan died in 1947.\\n\",\n \"Bering Sea\\nThe Bering Sea is a <a href=\\\"marginal%20sea\\\">marginal sea</a> of the <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Ocean\\\">Pacific Ocean</a>. It comprises a deep water basin, which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the <a href=\\\"continental%20shelf\\\">continental shelves</a>.\\nThe Bering Sea is separated from the <a href=\\\"Gulf%20of%20Alaska\\\">Gulf of Alaska</a> by the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Peninsula\\\">Alaska Peninsula</a>. It covers over 2,000,000 km2 and is bordered on the east and northeast by <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a>, on the west by <a href=\\\"Russian%20Far%20East\\\">Russian Far East</a> and the <a href=\\\"Kamchatka%20Peninsula\\\">Kamchatka Peninsula</a>, on the south by the Alaska Peninsula and the <a href=\\\"Aleutian%20Islands\\\">Aleutian Islands</a> and on the far north by the <a href=\\\"Bering%20Strait\\\">Bering Strait</a>, which connects the Bering Sea to the <a href=\\\"Arctic%20Ocean\\\">Arctic Ocean</a>'s <a href=\\\"Chukchi%20Sea\\\">Chukchi Sea</a>. <a href=\\\"Bristol%20Bay\\\">Bristol Bay</a> is the portion of the Bering Sea which separates the Alaska Peninsula from mainland Alaska. The Bering Sea is named for <a href=\\\"Vitus%20Bering\\\">Vitus Bering</a>, a <a href=\\\"Denmark\\\">Danish</a> navigator in Russian service, who in 1728 was the first European to systematically explore it, sailing from the Pacific Ocean northward to the Arctic Ocean.\\nThe Bering Sea ecosystem includes resources within the jurisdiction of the United States and Russia, as well as <a href=\\\"international%20waters\\\">international waters</a> in the middle of the sea (known as the \\\"Donut Hole\\\"). The interaction between currents, sea ice, and weather makes for a vigorous and productive ecosystem.\\nMost scientists believe that during the <a href=\\\"Last%20glacial%20period\\\">most recent ice age</a>, <a href=\\\"sea%20level\\\">sea level</a> was low enough to allow humans to migrate east on foot from <a href=\\\"Asia\\\">Asia</a> to <a href=\\\"North%20America\\\">North America</a> across what is now the Bering Strait. Other animals including megafauna migrated in both directions. This is commonly referred to as the \\\"<a href=\\\"Beringia\\\">Bering land bridge</a>\\\" and is believed by most, though not all scientists, to be the first point of entry of humans into the <a href=\\\"Americas\\\">Americas</a>.\\nThere is a small portion of the <a href=\\\"Kula%20Plate\\\">Kula Plate</a> in the Bering Sea. The Kula Plate is an ancient <a href=\\\"Plate%20tectonics\\\">tectonic plate</a> that used to <a href=\\\"subduction\\\">subduct</a> under Alaska.\\nThe <a href=\\\"International%20Hydrographic%20Organization\\\">International Hydrographic Organization</a> defines the limits of the Bering Sea as follows:\\nIslands of the Bering Sea include:\\nRegions of the Bering Sea include:\\nThe Bering Sea contains 16 <a href=\\\"submarine%20canyon\\\">submarine canyon</a>s including the largest submarine canyon in the world, <a href=\\\"Zhemchug%20Canyon\\\">Zhemchug Canyon</a>.\\nThe Bering Sea <a href=\\\"Continental%20shelf\\\">shelf break</a> is the dominant driver of <a href=\\\"primary%20production\\\">primary productivity</a> in the Bering Sea. This zone, where the shallower <a href=\\\"continental%20shelf\\\">continental shelf</a> drops off into the <a href=\\\"North%20Aleutians%20Basin\\\">North Aleutians Basin</a> is also known as the “Greenbelt”. Nutrient upwelling from the cold waters of the Aleutian basin flowing up the slope and mixing with shallower waters of the shelf provide for constant production of <a href=\\\"phytoplankton\\\">phytoplankton</a>.\\nThe second driver of productivity in the Bering Sea is seasonal <a href=\\\"sea%20ice\\\">sea ice</a> that, in part, triggers the spring phytoplankton bloom. Seasonal melting of sea ice causes an influx of lower salinity water into the middle and other shelf areas, causing stratification and hydrographic effects which influence productivity. In addition to the hydrographic and productivity influence of melting sea ice, the ice itself also provides an attachment substrate for the growth of algae as well as interstitial ice algae.\\nSome evidence suggests that great changes to the Bering Sea ecosystem have already occurred. Warm water conditions in the summer of 1997 resulted in a massive bloom of low energy <a href=\\\"coccolithophore\\\">coccolithophorid</a> phytoplankton (Stockwell et al. 2001). A long record of <a href=\\\"Isotopic%20signature\\\">carbon isotopes</a>, which is reflective of primary production trends of the Bering Sea, exists from historical samples of bowhead whale <a href=\\\"baleen\\\">baleen</a>. Trends in carbon isotope ratios in whale baleen samples suggest that a 30–40% decline in average seasonal primary productivity has occurred over the last 50 years. The implication is that the <a href=\\\"carrying%20capacity\\\">carrying capacity</a> of the Bering Sea is much lower now than it has been in the past.\\nThe sea supports many whale species including the <a href=\\\"Beluga%20%28whale%29\\\">beluga</a>, <a href=\\\"humpback%20whale\\\">humpback whale</a>, <a href=\\\"bowhead%20whale\\\">bowhead whale</a>, <a href=\\\"gray%20whale\\\">gray whale</a> and <a href=\\\"blue%20whale\\\">blue whale</a>, the vulnerable <a href=\\\"sperm%20whale\\\">sperm whale</a>, and the endangered <a href=\\\"fin%20whale\\\">fin whale</a>, <a href=\\\"sei%20whale\\\">sei whale</a> and the rarest in the world, the <a href=\\\"North%20Pacific%20right%20whale\\\">North Pacific right whale</a>. Other marine mammals include <a href=\\\"walrus\\\">walrus</a>, <a href=\\\"Steller%20sea%20lion\\\">Steller sea lion</a>, <a href=\\\"northern%20fur%20seal\\\">northern fur seal</a>, <a href=\\\"orca\\\">orca</a> and <a href=\\\"polar%20bear\\\">polar bear</a>.\\nThe Bering Sea is very important to the seabirds of the world. Over 30 species of seabirds and approximately 20 million individuals breed in the Bering Sea region. Seabird species include <a href=\\\"tufted%20puffin\\\">tufted puffin</a>s, the endangered <a href=\\\"short-tailed%20albatross\\\">short-tailed albatross</a>, <a href=\\\"spectacled%20eider\\\">spectacled eider</a>, and <a href=\\\"red-legged%20kittiwake\\\">red-legged kittiwake</a>s. Many of these species are unique to the area, which provides highly productive foraging habitat, particularly along the shelf edge and in other nutrient-rich upwelling regions, such as the Pribilof, <a href=\\\"Zhemchug%20Canyon\\\">Zhemchug</a>, and Pervenets canyons. The Bering Sea is also home to colonies of <a href=\\\"crested%20auklet\\\">crested auklet</a>s, with upwards of a million individuals.\\nTwo Bering Sea species, the <a href=\\\"Steller%27s%20sea%20cow\\\">Steller's sea cow</a> (\\\"Hydrodamalis gigas\\\") and <a href=\\\"spectacled%20cormorant\\\">spectacled cormorant</a> (\\\"Phalacrocorax perspicillatus\\\"), are extinct because of <a href=\\\"overexploitation\\\">overexploitation</a> by man. In addition, a small subspecies of Canada goose, the Bering Canada goose (\\\"Branta canadensis asiatica\\\") is extinct due to overhunting and introduction of rats to their breeding islands.\\nThe Bering Sea supports many species of fish. Some species of fish support large and valuable commercial fisheries. Commercial fish species include 6 species of Pacific <a href=\\\"salmon\\\">salmon</a>, <a href=\\\"Alaska%20pollock\\\">Alaska pollock</a>, <a href=\\\"Pacific%20cod\\\">Pacific cod</a>, <a href=\\\"Pacific%20halibut\\\">Pacific halibut</a>, yellowfin sole, <a href=\\\"Pacific%20ocean%20perch\\\">Pacific ocean perch</a> and <a href=\\\"sablefish\\\">sablefish</a>. Shellfish include <a href=\\\"Paralithodes%20camtschaticus\\\">red king crab</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"Chionoecetes\\\">Chionoecetes</a>\\\".\\nFish biodiversity is high, and at least 419 species of fish have been reported from the Bering Sea.\\nThe Bering Sea is world-renowned for its enormously productive and profitable fisheries, such as <a href=\\\"Alaskan%20king%20crab%20fishing\\\">king crab</a>, opilio and tanner crabs, Bristol Bay salmon, pollock and other groundfish. These fisheries rely on the productivity of the Bering Sea via a complicated and little understood food web. The continued existence of these fisheries requires an intact, healthy, and productive ecosystem.\\nCommercial fishing is big business in the Bering Sea, which is relied upon by the largest seafood companies in the world to produce fish and shellfish. On the U.S. side, commercial fisheries catch approximately $1 billion worth of seafood annually, while Russian Bering Sea fisheries are worth approximately $600 million annually.\\nThe Bering Sea also serves as the central location of the Alaskan <a href=\\\"king%20crab\\\">king crab</a> and <a href=\\\"Chionoecetes\\\">opilio crab</a> seasons, which are chronicled on the <a href=\\\"Discovery%20Channel\\\">Discovery Channel</a> television program \\\"<a href=\\\"Deadliest%20Catch\\\">Deadliest Catch</a>\\\". Landings from Alaskan waters represents half the U.S. catch of fish and shellfish.\\nBecause of the changes going on in the Arctic, future evolution of the Bering Sea climate/ecosystem is uncertain. Between 1979 and 2012 the region experienced small growth in sea ice extent, standing in contrast to the substantial loss of summer sea ice in the Arctic Ocean to the north.\\nThe movie <a href=\\\"Harbinger%20Down\\\">Harbinger Down</a>, which was released on August 7, 2015, was about a group of grad students have booked passage on the crabbing boat Harbinger to study the effects of <a href=\\\"global%20warming\\\">global warming</a> on a pod of <a href=\\\"beluga%20whale\\\">beluga whale</a>s in the Bering Sea.\\nOne of the central characters in the 1949 movie <a href=\\\"Down%20to%20the%20Sea%20in%20Ships%20%281949%20film%29\\\">Down to the Sea in Ships</a> has the given name \\\"Bering\\\" due to having been born in a ship crossing the Bering Sea.\\n\",\n \"St. Michael, Alaska\\nSt. Michael (\\\"Taciq\\\" in <a href=\\\"Central%20Alaskan%20Yup%27ik%20language\\\">Central Alaskan Yup'ik</a>) is a city in <a href=\\\"Nome%20Census%20Area%2C%20Alaska\\\">Nome Census Area</a>, <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a>, <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>. The population was 401 at the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>.\\nSt. Michael is located at on the east side of <a href=\\\"St.%20Michael%20Island%2C%20Alaska\\\">St. Michael Island</a> at the southeastern end of the <a href=\\\"Norton%20Sound\\\">Norton Sound</a>.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 28.1 sqmi , of which, 21.8 sqmi of it is land and 6.3 sqmi of it (22.40%) is water.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 368 people, 90 households, and 65 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 16.9 people per square mile (6.5/km²). There were 93 housing units at an average density of 4.3 per square mile (1.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 6.79% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 92.66% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, and 0.54% from two or more races. 0.27% of the population were <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race.\\nThere were 90 households out of which 54.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 16.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.7% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.09 and the average family size was 4.79.\\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 43.8% under the age of 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 14.1% from 45 to 64, and 3.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females there were 114.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.2 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $33,036, and the median income for a family was $34,000. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $16,250 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $10,692. About 24.2% of families and 22.9% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 23.1% of those under age 18 and 41.7% of those age 65 or over.\\nSt. Michael is served by the <a href=\\\"Bering%20Strait%20School%20District\\\">Bering Strait School District</a>. Anthony A. Andrews School serves grades Pre-K through 12 grades.\\n<a href=\\\"St.%20Michael%20Redoubt%20Site\\\">Redoubt St. Michael</a> was founded in 1833 by traders of the <a href=\\\"Russian-American%20Company\\\">Russian-American Company</a>, as a trading post for trade with the <a href=\\\"Yup%27ik\\\">Yup'ik</a> people of the area. The trading settlement and the island were named after the archangel <a href=\\\"Michael%20%28archangel%29\\\">Michael</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Fort%20St.%20Michael\\\">Fort St. Michael</a>, a U.S. military post, was established in 1897. During the <a href=\\\"Klondike%20Gold%20Rush\\\">gold rush of 1897</a>, it was a major gateway to the Alaskan interior via the <a href=\\\"Yukon%20River\\\">Yukon River</a> Delta (located about 40 miles to the southwest). As many as 10,000 persons were said to live in St. Michael during the gold rush. St. Michael was also a popular trading post for Alaska Natives to trade their goods for Western supplies. Centralization of many Yup'iks from the surrounding villages intensified after the measles epidemic of 1900 and the influenza epidemic of 1918.\\nSt. Michael's population today is largely Yup'ik. Many residents are also descendants of the Russian traders.\\nThe St. Michael economy is based on subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and gardening) supplemented by part-time wage earning. Most wage-earning positions are in city government, the IRA council and village corporation, schools and local stores. Some residents hold commercial fishing permits, primarily for the herring fishery.\",\n \"Wrangell Mountains\\nThe Wrangell Mountains are a high <a href=\\\"mountain%20range\\\">mountain range</a> of eastern <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a> in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>. Much of the range is included in <a href=\\\"Wrangell-Saint%20Elias%20National%20Park%20and%20Preserve\\\">Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve</a>. The Wrangell Mountains are almost entirely volcanic in origin, and they include the second and third highest volcanoes in the United States, <a href=\\\"Mount%20Blackburn\\\">Mount Blackburn</a> and <a href=\\\"Mount%20Sanford%20%28Alaska%29\\\">Mount Sanford</a>. The range takes its name from <a href=\\\"Mount%20Wrangell\\\">Mount Wrangell</a>, which is one of the largest <a href=\\\"andesite\\\">andesite</a> <a href=\\\"shield%20volcano\\\">shield volcano</a>es in the world, and also the only presently active volcano in the range. The Wrangell Mountains comprise most of the <a href=\\\"Wrangell%20Volcanic%20Field\\\">Wrangell Volcanic Field</a>, which also extends into the neighboring <a href=\\\"Saint%20Elias%20Mountains\\\">Saint Elias Mountains</a> and the <a href=\\\"Yukon%20Territory\\\">Yukon Territory</a> in <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a>.\\nThe Wrangell Mountains are just to the northwest of the <a href=\\\"Saint%20Elias%20Mountains\\\">Saint Elias Mountains</a> and northeast of the <a href=\\\"Chugach%20Mountains\\\">Chugach Mountains</a>, which are along the coast of the <a href=\\\"Gulf%20of%20Alaska\\\">Gulf of Alaska</a>. These ranges have the combined effect of blocking the inland areas from warmer moist air over the <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Ocean\\\">Pacific Ocean</a>. The inland areas to the north of the Wrangell Mountains are therefore among the coldest areas of <a href=\\\"North%20America\\\">North America</a> during the winter.\\nThe Wrangell Mountains include 12 of the 40+ Alaskan peaks over 13000 ft (see <a href=\\\"fourteener\\\">fourteener</a>s and <a href=\\\"thirteener\\\">thirteener</a>s):\\nOther prominent mountains include:\\nThe mountains are named after explorer, president of <a href=\\\"Russian-American%20Company\\\">Russian-American Company</a>, and admiral <a href=\\\"Ferdinand%20von%20Wrangel\\\">Ferdinand von Wrangel</a>. American folk singer <a href=\\\"John%20Denver\\\">John Denver</a> wrote a song, \\\"Wrangell Mountain Song\\\", in reference to the range.\\n\",\n \"Skagway, Alaska\\nThe Municipality and Borough of Skagway ( ) is a first-class <a href=\\\"borough%20%28Alaska%29\\\">borough</a> in <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a> on the <a href=\\\"Southeast%20Alaska\\\">Alaska Panhandle</a>. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>, the population was 920. Estimates put the 2015 population at 1,057 people. The population doubles in the summer tourist season in order to deal with more than 900,000 visitors. Incorporated as a Borough on June 25, 2007, it was previously a city (urban Skagway located at ) in the Skagway-Yakutat-Angoon Census Area (now the <a href=\\\"Hoonah%E2%80%93Angoon%20Census%20Area\\\">Hoonah–Angoon Census Area</a>).\\nThe port of Skagway is a popular stop for <a href=\\\"cruise%20ship\\\">cruise ship</a>s, and the tourist trade is a big part of the business of Skagway. The <a href=\\\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\\\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> <a href=\\\"narrow-gauge%20railway\\\">narrow gauge railroad</a>, part of the area's mining past, is now in operation purely for the tourist trade and runs throughout the summer months. Skagway is also part of the setting for <a href=\\\"Jack%20London\\\">Jack London</a>'s book \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Call%20of%20the%20Wild\\\">The Call of the Wild</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Will%20Hobbs\\\">Will Hobbs</a>'s book \\\"<a href=\\\"Jason%27s%20Gold\\\">Jason's Gold</a>\\\", and for <a href=\\\"Joe%20Haldeman\\\">Joe Haldeman</a>'s novel \\\"Guardian\\\", moreover, John Wayne's film \\\"North to Alaska\\\" was filmed nearby.\\n\\\"Skagway\\\" is derived from \\\"shԍagéi\\\", a <a href=\\\"Tlingit%20language\\\">Tlingit</a> <a href=\\\"idiom\\\">idiom</a> which <a href=\\\"Literal%20and%20figurative%20language\\\">figuratively</a> refers to rough seas in the <a href=\\\"Taiya%20Inlet\\\">Taiya Inlet</a>, that are caused by strong north winds. (\\\"See\\\", “<a href=\\\"Skagway%2C%20Alaska%23Etymology%20and%20the%20Mythical%20Stone%20Woman\\\">Etymology and the Mythical Stone Woman</a>,” below.)\\n\\\"Skagway\\\" was derived from \\\"shԍagéi\\\", a Tlingit <a href=\\\"idiom\\\">idiom</a> which <a href=\\\"Literal%20and%20figurative%20language\\\">figuratively</a> refers to \\\"rough seas in the Taiya Inlet, that are caused by strong north winds\\\". <a href=\\\"Literal%20translation\\\">Literally</a>, \\\"shԍagéi\\\" means \\\"beautiful woman\\\". The word is also a <a href=\\\"gerund\\\">gerund</a> (verbal noun), derived from the Tlingit verb theme \\\"-sha-ka-l-ԍéi\\\", which means, in the case of a woman, \\\"to be beautiful\\\".\\nThe reason for its figurative meaning is that \\\"Shԍagéi\\\" or \\\"Skagway\\\" is the <a href=\\\"nickname\\\">nickname</a> of Kanagu, the <a href=\\\"Mythology\\\">mythical</a> woman who <a href=\\\"Shapeshifting\\\">transformed</a> herself into stone at Skagway bay and who (according to legend) causes the strong, <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.williwaw.com/2012-01-20/the-highly-channeled-winds-of-coastal-alaska\\\">channeled winds</a> which blow toward <a href=\\\"Haines%2C%20Alaska\\\">Haines, Alaska</a>. The rough seas caused by these winds are therefore referred to by the use of Kanagu’s nickname, which is \\\"Shԍagéi\\\" or \\\"Skagway\\\".\\nExcept for the fact that “Kanagu … lives in [Skagway] bay,” the identity of the Kanagu stone formation is not recorded. However, it is likely to be <a href=\\\"https%3A//www.google.com/maps/%4059.452972%2C-135.3168681%2C3a%2C15y%2C292.61h%2C98.04t/data%3D%213m6%211e1%213m4%211scz1SKV1a0vdq0x1UuFzKjQ%212e0%217i13312%218i6656\\\">Face Mountain</a>, which is seen from Skagway bay. The Tlingit name for Face Mountain translates to \\\"Kanagu’s Image\\\".\\nThe area around present-day Skagway was inhabited by <a href=\\\"Tlingit%20people\\\">Tlingit</a> people from prehistoric times. They fished and hunted in the waters and forests of the area and had become prosperous by trading with other groups of people on the coast and in the interior.\\nOne prominent resident of early Skagway was <a href=\\\"William%20Moore%20%28steamship%20captain%29\\\">William \\\"Billy\\\" Moore</a>, a former steamboat captain. As a member of an 1887 boundary survey expedition, he had made the first recorded investigation of the pass over the <a href=\\\"Coast%20Mountains\\\">Coast Mountains</a>, which later became known as White Pass. He believed that gold lay in the Klondike because it had been found in similar mountain ranges in <a href=\\\"South%20America\\\">South America</a>, <a href=\\\"Mexico\\\">Mexico</a>, <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>, and <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia</a>. In 1887, he and his son, J. Bernard \\\"Ben\\\" Moore, claimed a 160-acre (650,000 m) homestead at the mouth of the <a href=\\\"Skagway%20River\\\">Skagway River</a> in Alaska. Moore settled in this area because he believed it provided the most direct route to the potential <a href=\\\"Gold%20mining\\\">goldfield</a>s. They built a log cabin, a sawmill, and a wharf in anticipation of future gold <a href=\\\"Prospecting\\\">prospectors</a> passing through.\\nThe boundary between Canada and the United States along the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Panhandle\\\">Alaska Panhandle</a> was only vaguely defined then (see <a href=\\\"Alaska%20boundary%20dispute\\\">Alaska boundary dispute</a>). There were overlapping land claims from the United States' purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 and British claims along the coast. Canada requested a survey after British Columbia united with it in 1871, but the idea was rejected by the United States as being too costly, given the area's remoteness, sparse settlement, and limited economic or strategic interest.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Klondike%20gold%20rush\\\">Klondike gold rush</a> changed everything. In 1896, <a href=\\\"gold\\\">gold</a> was found in the <a href=\\\"Klondike%2C%20Yukon\\\">Klondike</a> region of <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a>'s <a href=\\\"Yukon%20Territory\\\">Yukon Territory</a>. On July 29, 1897, the steamer <a href=\\\"Queen%20%28steamship%29\\\">\\\"Queen\\\"</a> docked at Moore's wharf with the first boat load of prospectors. More ships brought thousands of hopeful miners into the new town and prepared for the 500-mile journey to the gold fields in Canada. Moore was overrun by lot jumping prospectors and had his land stolen from him and sold to others.\\nThe population of the general area increased enormously and reached 30,000, composed largely of American prospectors. Some realized how difficult the trek ahead would be en route to the gold fields, and chose to stay behind to supply goods and services to miners. Within weeks, stores, saloons, and offices lined the muddy streets of Skagway. The population was estimated at 8,000 residents during the spring of 1898 with approximately 1,000 prospective miners passing through town each week. By June 1898, with a population between 8,000 and 10,000, Skagway was the largest city in Alaska.\\nDue to the sudden influx of visitors to Skagway, some town residents began offering miners transportation services to aid them in their journeys to the Yukon, often at highly inflated rates. A group of miners upset with the treatment organized a town council to help protect their interests. But as the members of the council moved north to try their own hands at mining, control of the town reverted to the more unscrupulous, most notably <a href=\\\"Soapy%20Smith\\\">Jefferson Randolph \\\"Soapy\\\" Smith</a>.\\nBetween 1897 and 1898, Skagway was a lawless town, described by one member of the <a href=\\\"North-West%20Mounted%20Police\\\">North-West Mounted Police</a> as \\\"little better than a hell on earth.\\\" Fights, prostitutes and liquor were ever-present on Skagway's streets, and con man \\\"Soapy\\\" Smith, who had risen to considerable power, did little to stop it. Smith was a sophisticated swindler who liked to think of himself as a kind and generous benefactor to the needy. He was gracious to some, giving money to widows and halting lynchings, while simultaneously operating a ring of thieves who swindled prospectors with cards, dice, and the <a href=\\\"shell%20game\\\">shell game</a>. His telegraph office charged five dollars to send a message anywhere in the world. Consequently, unknowing prospectors sent news to their families back home without realizing there was no telegraph service to or from Skagway until 1901. Smith also controlled a comprehensive spy network, a private militia called the Skaguay Military Company, the town newspaper, the Deputy U.S. Marshal's office and an array of thieves and <a href=\\\"Confidence%20trick\\\">con-men</a> who roamed about the town. Smith was shot and killed by Frank Reid and Jesse Murphy on July 8, 1898, in the famed <a href=\\\"Shootout%20on%20Juneau%20Wharf\\\">Shootout on Juneau Wharf</a>. Smith managed to return fire — some accounts claim the two men fired their weapons simultaneously — and Frank Reid died from his wounds twelve days later. Jesse Murphy is accredited as the man responsible for killing Smith. Smith and Reid are now interred at the Klondike Gold Rush Cemetery, also known as \\\"Skagway's <a href=\\\"Boot%20Hill\\\">Boot Hill</a>.\\\"\\nThe prospectors' journey began for many when they climbed the mountains over the <a href=\\\"White%20Pass\\\">White Pass</a> above Skagway and onward across the <a href=\\\"Canada%E2%80%93United%20States%20border\\\">Canada–US border</a> to <a href=\\\"Bennett%20Lake\\\">Bennett Lake</a>, or one of its neighboring lakes, where they built barges and floated down the <a href=\\\"Yukon%20River\\\">Yukon River</a> to the gold fields around <a href=\\\"Dawson%20City\\\">Dawson City</a>. Others disembarked at nearby <a href=\\\"Dyea%2C%20Alaska\\\">Dyea</a>, northwest of Skagway, and crossed northward on the <a href=\\\"Chilkoot%20Pass\\\">Chilkoot Pass</a>, an existing Tlingit trade route to reach the lakes. The Dyea route fell out of favor when larger ships began to arrive, as its harbor was too shallow for them except at high tide.\\nOfficials in Canada began requiring that each prospector entering Canada on the north side of the White Pass bring with him one <a href=\\\"ton\\\">ton</a> (909 kg) of supplies, to ensure that he did not starve during the winter. This placed a large burden on the prospectors and the pack animals climbing the steep pass.\\nIn 1898, a 14-mile, steam-operated <a href=\\\"aerial%20tramway\\\">aerial tramway</a> was constructed up the Skagway side of the White Pass, easing the burden of those prospectors who could afford the fee to use it. The <a href=\\\"Chilkoot%20Trail%20tramways\\\">Chilkoot Trail tramways</a> also began to operate in the Chilkoot Pass above Dyea. In 1896, before the Klondike gold rush had begun, a group of investors saw an opportunity for a railroad over that route. It was not until May 1898 that the <a href=\\\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\\\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> began laying <a href=\\\"narrow-gauge%20railway\\\">narrow gauge railroad</a> tracks in Skagway. The railroad depot was constructed between September and December 1898. This destroyed the viability of Dyea, as Skagway had both the deep-water port and the railroad.\\nConstruction of <a href=\\\"McCabe%20College\\\">McCabe College</a>, the first school in Alaska to offer a college preparatory high school curriculum, began in 1899. The school was completed in 1900.\\nBy 1899, the stream of gold-seekers had diminished and Skagway's economy began to collapse. By 1900, when the railroad was completed, the gold rush was nearly over. In 1900, Skagway was incorporated as the first city in the Alaska Territory. Much of the history of Skagway was saved by early residents, such as <a href=\\\"Martin%20Itjen\\\">Martin Itjen</a>, who ran a tour bus around the historical town. He was responsible for saving and maintaining the gold rush cemetery from complete loss. He purchased <a href=\\\"Soapy%20Smith\\\">Soapy Smith</a>'s saloon (Jeff Smith's Parlor), from going the way of the wrecking ball, and placed many early artifacts of the city's early history inside and opened Skagway's first museum.\\nIn July 1923 President <a href=\\\"Warren%20G.%20Harding\\\">Warren G. Harding</a> on his historic tour through Alaska visited Skagway. Harding was the first President of the United States to travel and tour Alaska while in office.\\nSkagway was one of the few towns in Alaska (along with <a href=\\\"Petersburg%2C%20Alaska\\\">Petersburg</a> and <a href=\\\"Seward%2C%20Alaska\\\">Seward</a>) to endorse the 1939 <a href=\\\"Slattery%20Report\\\">Slattery Report</a> on Alaskan development through immigration, especially of Jews from <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a> and <a href=\\\"Austria\\\">Austria</a>.\\nSkagway is located at (59.468519, −135.305962).\\nSkagway is located in a narrow glaciated valley at the head of the Taiya Inlet, the north end of the <a href=\\\"Lynn%20Canal\\\">Lynn Canal</a>, which is the most northern <a href=\\\"fjord\\\">fjord</a> on the <a href=\\\"Alaska%27s%20Inside%20Passage\\\">Inside Passage</a> on the south coast of Alaska. It is in the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Panhandle\\\">Alaska panhandle</a> 90 miles northwest of <a href=\\\"Juneau%2C%20Alaska\\\">Juneau</a>, Alaska's capital city.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\\\">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, the borough has a total area of 464 sqmi , of which 452 sqmi is land and 12 sqmi (2.5%) is water. It is currently the smallest borough in Alaska, having taken the title away from <a href=\\\"Bristol%20Bay%20Borough%2C%20Alaska\\\">Bristol Bay Borough</a> at its creation.\\nSkagway has a humid <a href=\\\"humid%20continental%20climate\\\">continental</a> cool-summer climate (<a href=\\\"K%C3%B6ppen%20climate%20classification\\\">Köppen</a> \\\"Dsb\\\"). It is in the <a href=\\\"rain%20shadow\\\">rain shadow</a> of the coastal mountains, though not as pronounced as the rain shadow in <a href=\\\"Southcentral%20Alaska\\\">Southcentral Alaska</a>, in the valley of the <a href=\\\"Susitna%20River\\\">Susitna River</a>, this still allows it to receive only half as much precipitation as <a href=\\\"Juneau%2C%20Alaska\\\">Juneau</a> and only a sixth as much as <a href=\\\"Yakutat%20City%20and%20Borough%2C%20Alaska\\\">Yakutat</a>. Although winters are too cold for the classification, precipitation patterns resemble a <a href=\\\"mediterranean%20climate\\\">mediterranean climate</a> due to the dry summers. The highest temperature recorded in Skagway is 92 F in three separate years, most recently in 1975, and the lowest temperature recorded is −24 F on February 2, 1947.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 862 people, 401 households, and 214 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 1.9 people per square mile (0.7/km). There were 502 housing units at an average density of 1.1 per square mile (0.4/km). The racial makeup of the city was 92.34% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 3.02% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 0.58% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.23% <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 0.81% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 3.02% from two or more races. 2.09% of the population were <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race.\\nThere were 401 households out of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.4% were non-families. 36.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.81.\\nIn the city the population was distributed with 20.5% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 31.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years old. For every 100 females there were 109.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112.7 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $49,375, and the median income for a family was $62,188. Males had a median income of $44,583 versus $30,956 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $27,700. About 1.0% of families and 3.7% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including none of those under age 18 and 4.5% of those age 65 or over.\\nThere are visitors to the <a href=\\\"Klondike%20Gold%20Rush%20National%20Historical%20Park\\\">Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park</a> and <a href=\\\"White%20Pass%20Trail\\\">White Pass</a> and <a href=\\\"Chilkoot%20Trail\\\">Chilkoot Trail</a>s. Skagway has a historical district of about 100 buildings from the gold rush era. It receives about a million tourists annually, most of whom (about three quarters) come on <a href=\\\"cruise%20ship\\\">cruise ship</a>s. The <a href=\\\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\\\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> operates its narrow-gauge train around Skagway during the summer months, primarily for tourists. The WPYR also ships copper ore from the interior.\\nSkagway is one of three <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Panhandle\\\">Southeast Alaskan</a> communities that is connected to the road system; Skagway's connection is via the <a href=\\\"Klondike%20Highway\\\">Klondike Highway</a>, completed in 1978. This allows access to the <a href=\\\"Continental%20United%20States\\\">lower 48</a>, <a href=\\\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\\\">Whitehorse</a>, the <a href=\\\"Yukon\\\">Yukon</a>, northern <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Highway\\\">Alaska Highway</a>. This also makes Skagway an important port-of-call for the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Marine%20Highway\\\">Alaska Marine Highway</a> — Alaska's ferry system — and serves as the northern terminus of the important and heavily used Lynn Canal corridor. (The other Southeast Alaskan communities with road access are <a href=\\\"Haines%2C%20Alaska\\\">Haines</a> and <a href=\\\"Hyder%2C%20Alaska\\\">Hyder</a>.)\\nThe <a href=\\\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\\\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> is a railway that formerly linked <a href=\\\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\\\">Whitehorse</a>, <a href=\\\"Yukon\\\">Yukon</a> in Canada to Skagway, the railway's southernmost terminus. Today, trains travel several times a week from May through September from Skagway to the small community of <a href=\\\"Carcross\\\">Carcross</a>, approximately 45 miles south/southwest of Whitehorse. There, passengers (mostly tourists) can make connections via bus to Whitehorse.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Skagway%20Airport\\\">Skagway Airport</a> receives service from two bush carriers: <a href=\\\"Wings%20of%20Alaska\\\">Wings of Alaska</a>, and Air Excursions.\\nSkagway is served by its local semimonthly newspaper, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Skagway%20News\\\">The Skagway News</a>,\\\" as well as regional public radio station <a href=\\\"KHNS\\\">KHNS</a>, which has its principal studios in nearby <a href=\\\"Haines%2C%20Alaska\\\">Haines</a> but also has studios and programs based in Skagway. Juneau radio station <a href=\\\"KINY\\\">KINY</a> operates a translator in Skagway which serves the entire town.\\nSkagway also receives copies of the free regional newspaper \\\"<a href=\\\"Capital%20City%20Weekly\\\">Capital City Weekly</a>.\\\"\\nIn the <a href=\\\"Three%20Stooges\\\">Three Stooges</a> short \\\"<a href=\\\"In%20the%20Sweet%20Pie%20and%20Pie\\\">In the Sweet Pie and Pie</a>,\\\" Skagway receives a humorous mention: \\\"Edam <a href=\\\"Neckties\\\">Neckties</a>, with three convenient locations: Skagway, Alaska; <a href=\\\"Little%20America%20%28exploration%20base%29\\\">Little America</a>; and <a href=\\\"Pago%20Pago\\\">Pago Pago</a>.\\\"\\nSkagway is featured in the 1955 Western \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Far%20Country\\\">The Far Country</a>\\\", directed by <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Mann\\\">Anthony Mann</a>.\\nSkagway is a town featured in the computer game \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Yukon%20Trail\\\">The Yukon Trail</a>\\\".\\nIn an episode of \\\"<a href=\\\"Homeland%20Security%20USA\\\">Homeland Security USA</a>\\\", the border crossing in Skagway was featured as being the least-used crossing in the United States.\\nChief Inspector Fenwick often dryly referred to nearby \\\"big city\\\" \\\"Skagway\\\" when sending his mounty, <a href=\\\"Dudley%20Do-Right\\\">Dudley Do-Right</a>, to capture the show's evil nemesis, <a href=\\\"Snidely%20Whiplash\\\">Snidely Whiplash</a>.\\nSkagway is served by Dahl Memorial Clinic, the only primary health clinic in the area. The facility is usually staffed by 3 Advanced Nurse Practitioners and 3 Medical Assistants and is open Monday through Friday year-round with limited Saturday hours during summer. The clinic also operates after hours in emergency situations. The borough is also served 24/7 by local EMS. Individuals in need of dire medical attention are transported by air via helicopter or air ambulance to Bartlett Regional Hospital in <a href=\\\"Juneau%2C%20Alaska\\\">Juneau</a> (an approximately 45 minute flight). <a href=\\\"Whitehorse%20General%20Hospital\\\">Whitehorse General Hospital</a> in <a href=\\\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\\\">Whitehorse, Yukon</a> is the nearest hospital to Skagway that is accessible by road (an approximately 3 hour drive).\\n\",\n \"Alaska Highway\\nThe Alaska Highway (also known as the Alaskan Highway, Alaska-Canadian Highway, or ALCAN Highway) was constructed during <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a> for the purpose of connecting the <a href=\\\"contiguous%20United%20States\\\">contiguous United States</a> to <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a> across Canada. It begins at the junction with several Canadian highways in <a href=\\\"Dawson%20Creek%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Dawson Creek, British Columbia</a>, and runs to <a href=\\\"Delta%20Junction%2C%20Alaska\\\">Delta Junction, Alaska</a>, via <a href=\\\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\\\">Whitehorse, Yukon</a>. Completed in 1942 at a length of approximately 2700 km , as of 2012 it is 2232 km long. The difference in distance is due to constant reconstruction of the highway, which has rerouted and straightened out numerous sections. The highway was opened to the public in 1948. Legendary over many decades for being a rough, challenging drive, the highway is now paved over its entire length.\\nAn informal system of historic <a href=\\\"milestone\\\">milepost</a>s developed over the years to denote major stopping points; Delta Junction, at the end of the highway, makes reference to its location at \\\"Historic Milepost 1422.\\\" It is at this point that the Alaska Highway meets the <a href=\\\"Richardson%20Highway\\\">Richardson Highway</a>, which continues 155 km to the city of <a href=\\\"Fairbanks\\\">Fairbanks</a>. This is often regarded, though unofficially, as the northern portion of the Alaska Highway, with Fairbanks at Historic Milepost 1520. Mileposts on this stretch of highway are measured from <a href=\\\"Valdez%2C%20Alaska\\\">Valdez</a>, rather than the Alaska Highway. The Alaska Highway is popularly (but unofficially) considered part of the <a href=\\\"Pan-American%20Highway\\\">Pan-American Highway</a>, which extends south (despite its <a href=\\\"Darien%20Gap\\\">discontinuity in Panama</a>) to Argentina.\\nProposals for a highway to Alaska originated in the 1920s. <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Harris%20MacDonald\\\">Thomas MacDonald</a>, director of the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Bureau%20of%20Public%20Roads\\\">U.S. Bureau of Public Roads</a>, dreamed of an international highway spanning the United States and Canada. In order to promote the highway, <a href=\\\"Slim%20Williams\\\">Slim Williams</a> originally traveled the proposed route by dogsled. Since much of the route would pass through Canada, support from the Canadian government was crucial. However, the Canadian government perceived no value in putting up the required funds to build the road, since the only part of Canada that would benefit was not more than a few thousand people in Yukon.\\nHowever, some route consideration was given. The preferred route would pass through the <a href=\\\"Rocky%20Mountain%20Trench\\\">Rocky Mountain Trench</a> from <a href=\\\"Prince%20George%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Prince George, British Columbia</a> to <a href=\\\"Dawson%20City\\\">Dawson City</a> before turning west to <a href=\\\"Fairbanks%2C%20Alaska\\\">Fairbanks, Alaska</a>.\\nIn 1929 the British Columbia government proposed a highway to Alaska to encourage economic development and tourism. American President <a href=\\\"Herbert%20Hoover\\\">Herbert Hoover</a> appointed a board with American and three Canadian members to evaluate the idea. Its 1931 report supported the idea for economic reasons, but both American and Canadian members recognized that a highway would benefit the American military in Alaska; the <a href=\\\"Great%20Depression\\\">Great Depression</a> and the Canadian government's lack of support caused the project to not proceed. When the United States approached Canada again in February 1936, the Canadian government refused to commit to spending money on a road connecting the United States. The Canadians also worried about the military implications, fearing that in a war between Japan and North America, the United States would use the road to prevent Canadian neutrality. During a June 1936 visit to Canada, President <a href=\\\"Franklin%20D.%20Roosevelt\\\">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> told Prime Minister <a href=\\\"W.%20L.%20M.%20King\\\">W. L. M. King</a> that a highway to Alaska through Canada could be important in quickly reinforcing the American territory during a foreign crisis. Roosevelt became the first American to publicly discuss the military benefits of a highway in an August speech in <a href=\\\"Chautauqua%2C%20New%20York\\\">Chautauqua, New York</a>. He again mentioned the idea during King's visit to Washington in March 1937, suggesting that a $30 million highway would be helpful as part of a larger defense against Japan that included, the Americans hoped, a larger Canadian military presence on the Pacific coast. Roosevelt remained a supporter of the highway, telling <a href=\\\"Cordell%20Hull\\\">Cordell Hull</a> in August 1937 that he wanted a road built as soon as possible.\\nThe <a href=\\\"attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\\\">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and beginning of the <a href=\\\"Pacific%20War\\\">Pacific Theater</a> in <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, coupled with Japanese threats to the west coast of North America and the <a href=\\\"Aleutian%20Islands\\\">Aleutian Islands</a>, changed the priorities for both nations. On February 6, 1942 the construction of the Alaska Highway was approved by the United States Army and the project received the authorization from the U.S. Congress and Roosevelt to proceed five days later. Canada agreed to allow construction as long as the United States bore the full cost, and that the road and other facilities in Canada be turned over to Canadian authority after the war ended.\\nThe official start of construction took place on March 8, 1942 after hundreds of pieces of construction equipment were moved on priority trains by the <a href=\\\"Northern%20Alberta%20Railways\\\">Northern Alberta Railways</a> to the northeastern part of British Columbia near Mile 0 at Dawson Creek. Construction accelerated through the spring as the winter weather faded away and crews were able to work from both the northern and southern ends; they were spurred on after reports of the Japanese invasion of <a href=\\\"Kiska%20Island\\\">Kiska Island</a> and <a href=\\\"Attu%20Island\\\">Attu Island</a> in the Aleutians. During construction the road was nicknamed the \\\"oil can highway\\\" by the work crews due to the large number of discarded oil cans and fuel drums that marked the road's progress. On September 24, 1942 crews from both directions met at Mile 588 at what became named Contact Creek, at the British Columbia-Yukon border at the <a href=\\\"60th%20parallel%20north\\\">60th parallel</a>; the entire route was completed October 28, 1942 with the northern linkup at Mile 1202, Beaver Creek, and the highway was dedicated on November 20, 1942 at Soldier's Summit.\\nThe needs of war dictated the final route, intended to link the airfields of the <a href=\\\"Northwest%20Staging%20Route\\\">Northwest Staging Route</a> that conveyed lend-lease aircraft from the United States to the Soviet Union. Thus the long, impractical route over difficult terrain was chosen.\\nThe road was originally built mostly by the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Army%20Corps%20of%20Engineers\\\">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a> as a supply route during World War II. In 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers assigned more than 10,000 men, about a third were black soldiers, members of three newly formed \\\"Negro regiments\\\". There were four main thrusts in building the route: southeast from <a href=\\\"Delta%20Junction%2C%20Alaska\\\">Delta Junction, Alaska</a> toward a linkup at <a href=\\\"Beaver%20Creek%2C%20Yukon\\\">Beaver Creek, Yukon</a>; north then west from Dawson Creek (an advance group started from <a href=\\\"Fort%20Nelson%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Fort Nelson, British Columbia</a> after traveling on winter roads on frozen marshland from railway stations on the Northern Alberta Railways); both east and west from <a href=\\\"Whitehorse%2C%20Yukon\\\">Whitehorse</a> after being ferried in via the <a href=\\\"White%20Pass%20and%20Yukon%20Route\\\">White Pass and Yukon Route</a> railway. The Army commandeered equipment of all kinds, including local riverboats, railway locomotives, and housing originally meant for use in southern <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>.\\nAlthough it was completed on October 28, 1942 and its completion was celebrated at Soldier's Summit on November 21 (and broadcast by radio, the exact outdoor temperature censored due to wartime concerns), the \\\"highway\\\" was not usable by general vehicles until 1943. Even then there were many steep grades, a poor surface, switchbacks to gain and descend hills, and few guardrails. Bridges, which progressed during 1942 from <a href=\\\"pontoon%20bridge\\\">pontoon bridge</a>s to temporary <a href=\\\"log%20bridge\\\">log bridge</a>s, were replaced with steel bridges where necessary. A replica log bridge, the Canyon Creek bridge, can be seen at the <a href=\\\"Aishihik%20River\\\">Aishihik River</a> crossing; the bridge was rebuilt in 1987 and refurbished in 2005 by the Yukon government as it is a popular tourist attraction. The easing of the Japanese invasion threat resulted in no more contracts being given to private contractors for upgrading of specific sections.\\nSome 100 mi of route between <a href=\\\"Burwash%20Landing%2C%20Yukon\\\">Burwash Landing</a> and Koidern, Yukon, became nearly impassable in May and June 1943, as the <a href=\\\"permafrost\\\">permafrost</a> thawed, no longer protected by a layer of delicate vegetation. A <a href=\\\"corduroy%20road\\\">corduroy road</a> was built to restore the route, and corduroy still underlays old sections of highway in the area. Modern construction methods do not allow the permafrost to thaw, either by building a <a href=\\\"gravel\\\">gravel</a> <a href=\\\"berm\\\">berm</a> on top or replacing the vegetation and soil immediately with gravel. The Burwash-Koidern section, however, is still a problem as the new highway built there in the late 1990s continues to experience frost heave.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Pincers%20on%20Japan\\\">Pincers on Japan</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Look%20to%20the%20North\\\">Look to the North</a>\\\" both 1944 productions were <a href=\\\"National%20Film%20Board%20of%20Canada\\\">National Film Board of Canada</a> documentaries that depicted the construction of the Alaska Highway.\\nThe original agreement between Canada and the United States regarding construction of the highway stipulated that its Canadian portion be turned over to Canada six months after the end of the war. This took place on April 1, 1946 when the U.S. Army transferred control of the road through Yukon and British Columbia to the Canadian Army, Northwest Highway System. The Alaskan section was completely paved during the 1960s; largely gravel even in 1981, the Canadian portion of the Alaska Highway is now completely paved, mostly with <a href=\\\"Road%20surface%23Bituminous%20surface\\\">bituminous surface treatment</a>.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Milepost\\\">The Milepost</a>\\\", an extensive guide book to the Alaska Highway and other highways in Alaska and Northwest Canada, was first published in 1949 and continues to be published annually as the foremost guide to traveling the highway.\\nThe <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia</a> government owns the first 82.6 mi of the highway, the only portion paved during the late 1960s and 1970s. <a href=\\\"Department%20of%20Public%20Works%20and%20Government%20Services%20%28Canada%29\\\">Public Works Canada</a> manages the highway from Mile 82.6 (km 133) to Historic Mile 630. The Yukon government owns the highway from Historic Mile 630 to Historic Mile 1016 (from near <a href=\\\"Watson%20Lake%2C%20Yukon\\\">Watson Lake</a> to <a href=\\\"Haines%20Junction%2C%20Yukon\\\">Haines Junction</a>), and manages the remainder to the U.S. border at Historic Mile 1221. The State of Alaska owns the highway within that state (Mile 1221 to Mile 1422).\\nThe Alaska Highway was built for military purposes and its route was not ideal for postwar development of northern Canada. Rerouting in Canada has shortened the highway by approximately 35 mi since 1947, mostly by eliminating winding sections and sometimes by bypassing residential areas. The historic milepost markings are therefore no longer accurate but are still important as local location references. Some old sections of the highway are still in use as local roads, while others are left to deteriorate and still others are plowed up. Four sections form local residential streets in Whitehorse and Fort Nelson, and others form country residential roadways outside of Whitehorse. Although <a href=\\\"Champagne%2C%20Yukon\\\">Champagne, Yukon</a> was bypassed in 2002, the old highway is still completely in service for that community until a new direct access road is built.\\nRerouting continues, expected to continue in the Yukon through 2009 , with the Haines Junction-<a href=\\\"Beaver%20Creek%2C%20Yukon\\\">Beaver Creek</a> section covered by the Canada-U.S. <a href=\\\"Shakwak%20Agreement\\\">Shakwak Agreement</a>. The new Donjek River bridge was opened 26 September 2007, replacing a 1952 bridge. Under Shakwak, U.S. federal highway money is spent for work done by Canadian contractors who win tenders issued by the Yukon government. The <a href=\\\"Shakwak%20Agreement\\\">Shakwak Project</a> completed the <a href=\\\"Haines%20Highway\\\">Haines Highway</a> upgrades in the 1980s between Haines Junction and the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Panhandle\\\">Alaska Panhandle</a>, then funding was stalled by Congress for several years.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Milepost\\\">The Milepost</a>\\\" shows the Canadian section of the highway now to be approximately 1187 mi , but the first milepost inside Alaska is 1222. The actual length of the highway inside Alaska is no longer clear because rerouting, as in Canada, has shortened the route, but unlike Canada, mileposts in Alaska are not recalibrated. The BC and Yukon governments and Public Works Canada have recalibrated <a href=\\\"kilometre%20post\\\">kilometre post</a>s. The latest BC recalibration was carried out in 1990; using its end-point at the border at Historic Mile 630, the Yukon government has recalibrated in three stages: in 2002, from Mile 630 to the west end of the Champagne revision; in fall 2005, to a point just at the southeast shore of Kluane Lake, and in fall 2008, to the border with Alaska.\\nThere are historical mileposts along the B.C. and Yukon sections of the highway, installed in 1992, that note specific locations, although the posts no longer represent accurate driving distance. There are 80 mileposts in B.C., 70 in Yukon and 16 in Alaska with a simple number marker of the original mile distance. There are 31 \\\"historic signs\\\" in B.C., 22 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska, identifying the significance of the location. There are 18 interpretive panels in B.C., 14 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska which give detailed text information at a turn-off parking area.\\nThe portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is designated <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Route%202\\\">Alaska Route 2</a>. In Yukon, it is <a href=\\\"Yukon%20Highway%201\\\">Highway 1</a> and in British Columbia, <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia%20Highway%2097\\\">Highway 97</a>. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska was planned to become part of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Numbered%20Highway%20System\\\">United States Numbered Highway System</a>, and to be signed as part of <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2097\\\">U.S. Route 97</a>. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is also unsigned <a href=\\\"Interstate%20A-1\\\">Interstate A-1</a> and unsigned <a href=\\\"Interstate%20A-2\\\">Interstate A-2</a>.\\nThe Canadian section of the road was delineated with mileposts, based on the road as it was in 1947, until 1978, and over the years, reconstruction steadily shortened the distance between some of those mileposts. That year, metric signs were placed on the highway, and the mileposts were replaced with kilometre posts at the approximate locations of a historic mileage of equal value, e.g. km post 1000 was posted approximately where historical Mile 621 would have been posted.\\nReconstruction continues to shorten the highway, but the kilometre posts, at 2 km intervals, were recalibrated along the B.C. section of road in 1990 to reflect then-current driving distance. The section of highway covered by the 1990 recalibration has since been rendered shorter by further realignments, such as near Summit Pass and between <a href=\\\"Muncho%20Lake\\\">Muncho Lake</a> and <a href=\\\"Iron%20Creek\\\">Iron Creek</a>.\\nBased on where those values left off, new Yukon kilometre posts were erected in fall 2002 between the B.C. border and the west end of the new bypass around <a href=\\\"Champagne%2C%20Yukon\\\">Champagne, Yukon</a>; in 2005, additional recalibrated posts continued from there to the east shore of <a href=\\\"Kluane%20Lake\\\">Kluane Lake</a> near Silver City; and in fall 2008, from Silver City to the boundary with Alaska. Old kilometre posts, based on the historic miles, remained on the highway, after the first two recalibrations, from those points around Kluane Lake to the Alaska border. The B.C. and Yukon sections also have a small number of historic mileposts, printed on oval-shaped signs, at locations of historic significance; these special signs were erected in 1992 on the occasion of the highway's 50th anniversary.\\nThe Alaska portion of the highway is still marked by mileposts at 1 mi intervals, although they no longer represent accurate driving distance, due to reconstruction.\\nThe historic mileposts are still used by residents and businesses along the highway to refer to their location, and in some cases are also used as postal addresses.\\nResidents and travelers, and the government of the Yukon, do not use \\\"east\\\" and \\\"west\\\" to refer to direction of travel on the Yukon section, even though this is the predominant bearing of the Yukon portion of the highway; \\\"north\\\" and \\\"south\\\" are used, referring to the south (Dawson Creek) and north (Delta Junction) termini of the highway. This is an important consideration for travelers who may otherwise be confused, particularly when a westbound travel routes southwestward or even due south to circumvent a natural obstacle such as Kluane Lake.\\nSome B.C. sections west of <a href=\\\"Fort%20Nelson%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Fort Nelson</a> also route more east-to-west, with southwest bearings in some section; again, \\\"north\\\" is used in preference to \\\"west\\\".\\nSince 1949 \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Milepost\\\">The Milepost</a>\\\", an exhaustive guide to the Alaska Highway and all other routes through the region, has been published each year.\\nThe community <a href=\\\"Wonowon%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Wonowon, British Columbia</a> is named by its location at mile 101, spoken \\\"one-oh-one\\\".\\nThe pioneer road completed in 1942 was approximately 1680 mi from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction. The Army then turned the road over to the <a href=\\\"Public%20Roads%20Administration\\\">Public Roads Administration</a>, which then began putting out section contracts to private road contractors to upgrade selected sections of the road. These sections were upgraded, with removal of excess bends and steep grades; often, a traveler could identify upgraded sections by seeing the telephone line along the PRA-approved route alignment. When the Japanese invasion threat eased, the PRA stopped putting out new contracts. Upon hand-off to Canada in 1946, the route was 1422 mi from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction.\\nThe route follows a northwest then northward course from Dawson Creek to Fort Nelson. On October 16, 1957, a <a href=\\\"suspension%20bridge\\\">suspension bridge</a> crossing the Peace River just south of Fort St. John collapsed. A new bridge was built a few years later. At Fort Nelson, the road turns west and crosses the Rocky Mountains, before resuming a westward course at Coal River. The highway crossed the Yukon-BC border nine times from Mile 590 to Mile 773, six of those crossings were from Mile 590 to Mile 596. After passing the south end of Kluane Lake, the highway follows a north-northwest course to the Alaska border, then northwest to the terminus at Delta Junction.\\nPostwar rebuilding has not shifted the highway more than 10 mi from the original alignment, and in most cases, by less than 3 mi . It is not clear if it still crosses the Yukon-BC border six times from Mile 590 to Mile 596.\\n\\nOther former segments have deteriorated and are no longer usable. More recent construction projects have deliberately plowed up roadway to close it.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"Seward Peninsula\\nThe Seward Peninsula is a large peninsula on the western coast of the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20state\\\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\\\"Alaska\\\">Alaska</a>. It projects about 320 km into the <a href=\\\"Bering%20Sea\\\">Bering Sea</a> between <a href=\\\"Norton%20Sound\\\">Norton Sound</a>, the <a href=\\\"Bering%20Strait\\\">Bering Strait</a>, the <a href=\\\"Chukchi%20Sea\\\">Chukchi Sea</a>, and <a href=\\\"Kotzebue%20Sound\\\">Kotzebue Sound</a>, just below the <a href=\\\"Arctic%20Circle\\\">Arctic Circle</a>. The entire peninsula is about 330 km long and 145 km -225 km wide. Like <a href=\\\"Seward%2C%20Alaska\\\">Seward, Alaska</a>, it was named after <a href=\\\"William%20H.%20Seward\\\">William H. Seward</a>, the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20State\\\">United States Secretary of State</a> who fought for the U.S. <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Purchase\\\">purchase of Alaska</a>.\\nThe Seward Peninsula is a remnant of the <a href=\\\"Bering%20land%20bridge\\\">Bering land bridge</a>, a roughly thousand mile wide swath of land connecting <a href=\\\"Siberia\\\">Siberia</a> with mainland Alaska during the <a href=\\\"Pleistocene\\\">Pleistocene Ice Age</a>. This land bridge aided in the migration of humans, as well as plant and animal species from Asia to North America. Archeological discoveries throughout the <a href=\\\"Chukotka%20Peninsula\\\">Chukotka Peninsula</a> and Seward Peninsula show proof that <a href=\\\"Inupiat%20people\\\">Inupiat people</a> have been living in the region for thousands of years. Excavations at sites such as the <a href=\\\"Trail%20Creek%20Caves\\\">Trail Creek Caves</a> and Cape Espenberg in the <a href=\\\"Bering%20Land%20Bridge%20National%20Preserve\\\">Bering Land Bridge National Preserve</a> as well as <a href=\\\"Cape%20Denbigh\\\">Cape Denbigh</a> to the south have provided insight into the timeline of prehistorical migrations from Asia to the Seward Peninsula.\\nMost of the peninsula is in the <a href=\\\"Nome%20Census%20Area\\\">Nome Census Area</a>, but part is in the <a href=\\\"Northwest%20Arctic%20Borough\\\">Northwest Arctic Borough</a>. These are the communities on the Seward Peninsula, with 2005 state population estimates:\\nOther locations on the Seward Peninsula include the mining towns of <a href=\\\"Council%2C%20Alaska\\\">Council</a>, <a href=\\\"Solomon%2C%20Alaska\\\">Solomon</a>, Candle, Haycock and Taylor. While still frequented by locals of neighboring communities, there are no longer year round residents in these locations. There is a <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Coast%20Guard\\\">United States Coast Guard</a> <a href=\\\"LORAN\\\">LORAN</a> station at <a href=\\\"Port%20Clarence%2C%20Alaska\\\">Port Clarence</a>. The <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Air%20Force\\\">U.S. Air Force</a> operates a <a href=\\\"radar\\\">radar</a> station at the \\\"Tin City\\\" site, 7 mi southeast of Wales.\\nThe Seward Peninsula has several distinct geologic features. The <a href=\\\"Devil%20Mountain%20Lakes\\\">Devil Mountain Lakes</a> on the northern portion of the peninsula are the largest <a href=\\\"maar\\\">maar</a> lakes in the world. They were formed over 21,000 years ago as the result of an underground steam explosion. The Killeak Lakes and White Fish Lake are also volcanic maar lakes of notable size on the northern Seward Peninsula. Four mountain ranges line the southern side of the peninsula, the most prominent being the <a href=\\\"Kigluaik\\\">Kigluaik</a> (or Sawtooth) Mountains. The highest point in the range and the peninsula is the peak of 4714 ft <a href=\\\"Mount%20Osborn\\\">Mount Osborn</a>. Other mountain ranges on the Seward Peninsula include the <a href=\\\"Bendeleben%20Mountains\\\">Bendeleben Mountains</a>, <a href=\\\"Darby%20Mountains\\\">Darby Mountains</a>, and <a href=\\\"York%20Mountains\\\">York Mountains</a>. The <a href=\\\"Lost%20Jim%20Lava%20Flow\\\">Lost Jim Lava Flow</a> north of Kuzitrin Lake is a lava field formed roughly 1,000 to 2,000 years ago, which covers roughly 88 sqmi .\\nSeveral geothermal hot springs are located throughout the peninsula, including <a href=\\\"Serpentine%20Hot%20Springs\\\">Serpentine Hot Springs</a>, <a href=\\\"Pilgrim%20Hot%20Springs\\\">Pilgrim Hot Springs</a>, Granite Mountain, Elim, Clear Creek and Lava Creek.\\nThe Seward Peninsula has several rivers. The largest include the <a href=\\\"Koyuk%20River\\\">Koyuk</a>, <a href=\\\"Kuzitrin%20River\\\">Kuzitrin</a>, <a href=\\\"Niukluk%20River\\\">Niukluk</a>, <a href=\\\"Fish%20River%20%28Alaska%29\\\">Fish</a>, <a href=\\\"Tubuktilik%20River\\\">Tubuktilik</a>, <a href=\\\"Kiwalik%20River\\\">Kiwalik</a>, <a href=\\\"Buckland%20River\\\">Buckland</a> and <a href=\\\"Agiupuk%20River\\\">Agiupuk</a> Rivers. These play a vital role in the subsistence lifestyles of many peninsula residents and ease travel, hunting, and fishing. Most peninsula rivers have at least a small yearly run of several varieties of <a href=\\\"salmon\\\">salmon</a>, as well as <a href=\\\"Dolly%20Varden%20trout\\\">Dolly Varden</a>, <a href=\\\"Arctic%20Grayling\\\">Arctic Grayling</a>, <a href=\\\"Coregonus\\\">whitefish</a> of various species, <a href=\\\"Northern%20Pike\\\">Northern Pike</a>, and <a href=\\\"Burbot\\\">Burbot</a>. Most rivers on the Seward Peninsula freeze in mid-October; spring break-up usually occurs in mid- to late May.\\nThe Seward Peninsula is the western-most limit of distribution for the <a href=\\\"Black%20spruce\\\">Black spruce</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Picea%20mariana\\\">Picea mariana</a>\\\", a dominant overstory species of the region.\\nAlaska's reindeer herding was concentrated on Seward Peninsula ever since the first shipment of reindeer were imported there from eastern Siberia in 1892. It was believed that migrating <a href=\\\"caribou\\\">caribou</a>, could be prevented from mingling with the domesticated reindeer on the Peninsula because of the geography of the peninsula, thereby avoiding loss of reindeer that might wander off with caribou. However, in 1997 the domesticated reindeer joined the <a href=\\\"Western%20Arctic%20Caribou%20Herd\\\">Western Arctic Caribou Herd</a> on their summer migration and disappeared.\\n<a href=\\\"Cape%20Prince%20of%20Wales\\\">Cape Prince of Wales</a>, the westernmost point on the mainland of the Americas, is on the western tip. The cape is only 51 mi from <a href=\\\"Cape%20Dezhnev\\\">Cape Dezhnev</a>, the closest point on the <a href=\\\"Russia\\\">Russia</a>n mainland. In August 2011 Russia announced an ambitious project to construct a rail tunnel under the Bering Strait, linking the Seward Peninsula in Alaska with the <a href=\\\"Chukchi%20Peninsula\\\">Chukchi Peninsula</a> in Russia. If completed, the project would cost an estimated US $65 billion and would be the world's longest tunnel at 103 km long.\\nThe peninsula was named after <a href=\\\"William%20H.%20Seward\\\">William H. Seward</a>, the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20State\\\">United States Secretary of State</a> who negotiated the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Purchase\\\">Purchase</a> of Alaska from Russia in 1867.\\n\",\n \"La Conner Trading and Transportation Company\\nThe La Conner Trading and Transportation Company was founded in the early 1900s by <a href=\\\"Joshua%20Green%20%28seaman%20and%20banker%29\\\">Joshua Green</a> and others, to engage in the shipping business on <a href=\\\"Puget%20Sound\\\">Puget Sound</a>.\\nThe La Conner Trading and Transportation Company was formed in the early 1890s by four officers of the steamer <a href=\\\"Henry%20Bailey%20%28sternwheeler%29\\\">Henry Bailey</a>, <a href=\\\"Joshua%20Green%20%28seaman%20and%20banker%29\\\">Joshua Green</a>, purser, Sam Denny, master, Peter Falk, mate, and Frank Zickmund, second engineer. Green persuaded the others to leave the \\\"Henry Bailey\\\" and go into business for themselves, by purchasing the freight steamer \\\"<a href=\\\"Fannie%20Lake\\\">Fannie Lake</a>\\\" and a scow, for a total investment of about $5000. Green at the time had savings of only about $250 and the others had very little. However they were able to secure loans of $1,250 each, secured by the steamer and the scow, from banker <a href=\\\"Jacob%20Furth\\\">Jacob Furth</a> and the <a href=\\\"Puget%20Sound%20National%20Bank\\\">Puget Sound National Bank</a>.\\nRunning in the freight business, the company was not competing for passenger fares. Instead the new firm's main competition came from George T. Willey, a Seattle hay and grain merchant. As business increased, the four partners bought another steamer, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Annie%20M.%20Pence\\\">Annie M. Pence</a>\\\". Willey then joined with the four original partners and they incorporated the business as the La Conner Trading and Transportation Company.\\nThe company suffered business reverses. In April 1893, \\\"Fannie Lake\\\" was destroyed by a fire that started in a cargo of hay. The vessel was valued at $5,000 and insured for only $4,000. An economic depression called the <a href=\\\"Panic%20of%201893\\\">Panic of 1893</a> hit the company hard, and things got worse when the company's other hay steamer, the uninsurable \\\"Anna M. Pence\\\", was also destroyed by fire.\\nGreen had the idea to purchase a new boat, which he would name after the builder, which he concluded would save up to $2,000 off the price of the boat. Builders were willing to build for less if the completed vessel were to be named after the builder, as it would function as a floating advertisement. In this way, the company acquired the \\\"<a href=\\\"T.W.%20Lake\\\">T.W. Lake</a>\\\" built by the shipbuilder of the same name. The \\\"Lake\\\" was purpose-built to move freight, and included a winch to lift cargo up to piers, regardless of the state of the tide.\\nFollowing the purchase of the Lake, the company continued to expand, adding the steamers <a href=\\\"E.D.%20Smith%20%28steamboat%29\\\">\\\"E.D. Smith\\\"</a>, <a href=\\\"Utopia%20%28steamship%29\\\">\\\"Utopia\\\"</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20E.%20Starr%20%28steamboat%29\\\">\\\"George E. Starr\\\"</a>, and the sternwheelers <a href=\\\"State%20of%20Washington%20%28sternwheeler%29\\\">\\\"State of Washington\\\"</a>, <a href=\\\"Fairhaven%20%28sternwheeler%29\\\">\\\"Fairhaven\\\"</a> and <a href=\\\"La%20Conner%20%28sternwheeler%29\\\">\\\"La Conner\\\"</a> to the roster. The company also built the <a href=\\\"City%20of%20Denver%20%28steamboat%29\\\">\\\"City of Denver\\\"</a> for Colorado investors. When the Colorado interests defaulted on payment, the company took over the boat and added to their fleet.\\nThe company had also expanded into the passenger business, buying the fast steamer \\\"<a href=\\\"Inland%20Flyer\\\">Inland Flyer</a>\\\" and putting that vessel on the lucrative <a href=\\\"Seattle\\\">Seattle</a> – <a href=\\\"Bremerton\\\">Bremerton</a> run in opposition to the <a href=\\\"Athlon%20%28steamboat%29\\\">\\\"Athlon\\\"</a>, owned by H.B. Kennedy.\\nBy 1902, Joshua Green had bought out Sam Denny's shares, and some of the stock of George T. Willey. Willey then sold the rest of his shares to the <a href=\\\"Alaska%20Steamship%20Company\\\">Alaska Steamship Company</a>, of which Charles E. Peabody was president. This gave Peabody and Alaska Steam a controlling interest in La Conner Trading. Alaska Steam ran ships to Alaska and also had a large fleet of inland vessels operating on Puget Sound. The Puget Sound operations were conducted under the name of the <a href=\\\"Puget%20Sound%20Navigation%20Company\\\">Puget Sound Navigation Company</a>. With the acquisition of La Conner Trading, PSN was almost doubled in the size of its fleet. After a period of transition, the La Conner company was effectively merged into the reorganized <a href=\\\"Puget%20Sound%20Navigation%20Company\\\">Puget Sound Navigation Company</a>, which in later years came to dominate Puget Sound passenger and ferry business as a near-monopoly.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Adelaide Steamship Company was formed by a group of South Australian businessmen in 1875. Their aim was to control the transport of goods between Adelaide and Melbourne and profit from the need for an efficient and comfortable passenger service. For the first 100 years of its life, the main activities of the company were conventional shipping operations on the Australian coast, primary products, consumer cargoes and extensive passenger services.","Walter Leslie Duncan (14 February 1883 – 28 May 1947) was an Australian politician. Born in Armidale, New South Wales, he was educated at state schools before becoming a clerk, and was President of the Labor Council of New South Wales in 1911. A member of the Labor Party, he joined the Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 split over conscription. Duncan enlisted in the military in 1917, leaving in 1919 to successfully contest the Senate for the Nationalists. A strong supporter of Billy Hughes, he was excluded from the party along with Hughes in 1929 and joined the Australian Party, before being reaccepted into the United Australia Party in 1931. He resigned from the Senate in 1931. He was also a Director of the Adelaide Steamship Company for many years. Duncan died in 1947."],"string":"[\n \"The Adelaide Steamship Company was formed by a group of South Australian businessmen in 1875. Their aim was to control the transport of goods between Adelaide and Melbourne and profit from the need for an efficient and comfortable passenger service. For the first 100 years of its life, the main activities of the company were conventional shipping operations on the Australian coast, primary products, consumer cargoes and extensive passenger services.\",\n \"Walter Leslie Duncan (14 February 1883 – 28 May 1947) was an Australian politician. Born in Armidale, New South Wales, he was educated at state schools before becoming a clerk, and was President of the Labor Council of New South Wales in 1911. A member of the Labor Party, he joined the Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 split over conscription. Duncan enlisted in the military in 1917, leaving in 1919 to successfully contest the Senate for the Nationalists. A strong supporter of Billy Hughes, he was excluded from the party along with Hughes in 1929 and joined the Australian Party, before being reaccepted into the United Australia Party in 1931. He resigned from the Senate in 1931. He was also a Director of the Adelaide Steamship Company for many years. Duncan died in 1947.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":66,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What animation division was tasked for production feature length animated film worked with Tor Seidler's books?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Twentieth Century Fox Animation"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["20th Century Fox Animation\nTwentieth Century Fox Animation (stylized as 20th Century Fox Animation) is the animation division of the film studio 20th Century Fox, tasked for production feature-length animated film.\nBefore 20th Century Fox started its animation division in 1997, 20th Century Fox released its first six animated films, such as \"Wizards\", \"\" (both released in 1977), \"Fire and Ice\" (released in 1983), \"\", \"Once Upon a Forest\" and \"The Pagemaster\". From 1994–2000, they operated Fox Animation Studios, a traditional animation studio which was started to compete with Walt Disney Animation Studios, which was experiencing great success at the time with films such as \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Aladdin\" and \"The Lion King\". The Fox studio, however, was not as successful. Their first feature \"Anastasia\" made nearly $140 million at the worldwide box office on a $53 million budget in 1997, but their next feature, \"Titan A.E.\", was a large financial loss, losing $100 million for 20th Century Fox in 2000. The lack of box office success, coupled with the rise of computer animation, led Fox to shut down the Fox Animation Studios.\nSince 1997, Fox owns Blue Sky Studios, a computer animation company known for the \"Ice Age\" franchise. Fox has had much more success with Blue Sky, and the box office receipts of their films are competitive with those of Pixar and DreamWorks. They have released eleven features:\n","Estonian animation\nEstonian animation tradition dates back to the 1930s when the first experimental films were made. The only surviving short film from the era is \"Kutsu-Juku seiklusi\" (Adventures of Juku the dog) (1931). After the Great Depression, World War II, and Soviet Occupation interrupted its development, Estonian animation was reborn in 1958. Elbert Tuganov founded a puppet film division Nukufilm in Tallinnfilm Studio. The first film was titled \"Peetrikese unenägu\" based on a Danish writer Jens Sigsgaard's children story \"Palle alene i verden\". Joonisfilm a traditional cell animation division of Tallinnfilm was founded by Rein Raamat in 1971. Films like \"Põld\" (1978), nominee for Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival in 1979; \"Lend\" (1973), the winner of Special Jury Award at the Zagreb World Festival of Animated Films; the \"Suur Tõll\" (1980), 2nd place at Ottawa International Animation Festival in 1982 and \"Põrgu\" (Hell) (1983), the winner of FIPRESCI Prize and Special Jury Award at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival made Raamat the first internationally recognized Estonian animation director.\nSince Estonia regained independence in 1991 Nukufilm and Joonisfilm continued to operate as private companies owned by the filmmakers. During the era internationally most successful Estonian animation director has been Priit Pärn the winner of Grand Prize at the Ottawa International Animation Festival in 1998 for Porgandite öö (Night of the Carrots).\n\"Crocodile\" by Kaspar Jancis was selected to be the Best European Anima film at Cartoon d'or 2010. The other film of Jancis \"Villa Antropoff\" was awarded with the Special Mention on Scancroma Festival\n","Tor Seidler\nTor Seidler (born 1952 in Littleton, New Hampshire) is an American author of children's literature. Many of his books feature anthropomorphic animals. \"Mean Margaret\" was nominated for a National Book Award, \"The Wainscott Weasel\" was named a Notable Children's Book by the American Library Association, and \"A Rat's Tale\" was named Best Book of the Year by \"Publishers Weekly\". In 1998, \"A Rat's Tale\" was adapted into a puppet film by Augsburger Puppenkiste and distributed by Warner Bros. Family Entertainment. 20th Century Fox Animation and Blue Sky Studios planned to adapt \"The Wainscott Weasel\" into a movie, which started development in 2003. However, Fox shelved the concept in 2006.\nHe studied literature at Stanford University.","The Legend of the Sky Kingdom\nThe Legend of the Sky Kingdom is a 2003 animated feature film by Sunrise Productions. Produced in Zimbabwe, the film was the first full length animated feature film to come out of Africa. It was based on a children's book of the same name by Phil Cunningham, who was also the film's producer. It premiered at the Durban International Film Festival in October 2003.\nThree orphans escape from the Underground City ruled by the Evil Emperor and search for the Sky Kingdom while facing many challenges along the way.\nThe film was animated using stop motion animation. The puppets and all of the sets were built from pieces of junk that the filmmakers found - a necessity of the low budget as well as an artistic choice inspired by Africa's folk artists, who often turn things that others have thrown away into works of art. The filmmakers call this animation style \"junkmation\".\nThe filmmakers also spent two years custom-building a motion camera out of bicycle parts because they did not have the money to buy a professional one.","Gumnutz: A Juicy Tale\nGumnutz: A Juicy Tale is an 80-minute length animated film directed by Clive Harrison and released in 2007. It was nominated for APRA Music Awards of 2008 as the Best Music for Children's Television but lost to Animalia.\nOne morning it is Claude's first day to work at his Uncle Calvin's Gumnut juice factory. Claude doesn't feel up to it at first. Calvin receives an order for Gumnut juice from the business man Peer Point J. Marino which if successful will grant Calvin's company a contract. The rival Hot Spot Charlie hoping to beat Calvin to the contract first, sends Frankie to steal the secret sweetening formula to fulfill his quota.\nHot Spot has the apothecarie Cobra analyse the ingredients of the secret formula, but without any success. Hot Spot sends his goons to kidnap Calvin. Claude finds a lead to Bad Manor, but Calvin is well hidden. Hot Spot gets hold a riddle book which has a clue to the secret formula. Catching wind of this, Claude and Pepper sneak into Bad Manor and copy the riddle, Hot Spot also getting the knowledge.\nClaude and Pepper follow the riddle to Darwin Platypus who tells them the secret formula, Hot Spot listening in. Hot Spot traps Claude, Pepper and Darwin Platypus, but Cobra defects and rescues them and they return to the Gumnut juice factory to begin a large production. Claude is briefly separated from the others, but uses Calvin's special instrument to rally all the Cicadas for the essential ingredient of the formula.\nClaude, his friends and a swarm of Cicadas thwart Hot Spot's attempt to destroy the Gumnut juice factory, then follow him to Bad Manor to rescue Calvin helped by Ghoulie Gilly. Once Calvin is rescued, Cobra blows Bad Manor with Hot Spot and his goons to the Arctic. After that Calvin is able to meet Marino's quota and get the contract.","Twin Peaks: The Missing Pieces\nTwin Peaks: The Missing Pieces (also known as Twin Peaks: The Entire Mystery) is a 2014 feature length compilation of deleted and extended scenes from \"\" directed by David Lynch and written by Lynch and Robert Engels. Several scenes from \"Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me\" were left unused, to keep the movie at a two hour and fifteen minute running time. This film comprises the unused footage from \"\", piecing together all of the deleted scenes to make a feature length film, featuring the cast of original film including Sheryl Lee, Moira Kelly, David Bowie, Chris Isaak, Harry Dean Stanton, Ray Wise, Kyle MacLachlan, and Mädchen Amick. Due to the expanded content, this film shows a closer look into investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks (Pamela Gidley), expands on the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee), a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks, and has scenes that feature characters from the television series that were excluded from \"Fire Walk with Me\" such as Josie Packard (Joan Chen), Ed Hurley (Everett McGill), and Nadine Hurley (Wendy Robie).\nThe first scene shows Agent Sam Stanley and Agent Chet Desmond late at night after performing the autopsy on the body of Teresa Banks as they discuss how much time had passed since they went entered the morgue. Later, they arrive at Hap’s Diner, where Teresa once worked the night shift as a waitress, and question the owner of Hap’s about Teresa. Sheriff Cable of Deer Meadow goes outside with Desmond, and fights him over taking the body of Teresa with him back to Portland, which took the murder investigation out of the hands of the local and corrupt Police Department. Later, Special Agent Dale Cooper is shown in a doorway in the Philadelphia headquarters of the FBI talking to his secretary Diane. Next, Cooper meets Sam Stanley after Desmond went missing.\nPhillip Jeffries is shown checking into a hotel in Argentina. Agent Jeffries is then seen vanishing when entering an elevator. He emerges out of a different elevator several years later on the other side of the world and discusses the things that he saw in between worlds. Later, the Black Lodge spirits, the Man from Another Place and Killer Bob, above a convenience store.\nOne year later in Twin Peaks, Bobby Briggs and Mike Nelson discuss the fact that they owe Leo Johnson $5,000 and that their cocaine supply is running low. After going to school, Laura Palmer is horrified when she discovers pages ripped out of her diary. As she runs downstairs, she bumps into her mother, Sarah Palmer, who just got done grocery shopping. Laura asks to use the car, claiming she forgot her books.\nLater, the Palmer family is having dinner, when Leland Palmer, pretends to be a giant looking for his ax. Leland attempts to teach his family how to introduce themselves and say their names in Norwegian, because Benjamin Horne is having a delegation of Norwegians arriving in a week, and Leland want his family to be able to introduce themselves properly. The entire family starts to laugh.\nOne night, Laura sneaks out of her house and meets a trucker in his truck, and exchanges sex for drugs. Later, Laura is shown at the Double R Diner preparing to make the Meals on Wheels deliveries. Ed Hurley and Nadine Hurley enter the diner for coffee. When Nadine sees Norma Jennings working at the counter, she angrily makes Ed leave with her. When Shelly Johnson sees Laura staring at the place where Mrs. Tremond and her grandson were standing, Laura tells her that she cannot make the deliveries and runs off. Norma tells Shelly to do Laura's route. Norma begins to cry in a booth. Ed reenters the diner and apologizes.\nDale Cooper, trapped in the Black Lodge/Red Room, is shown talking to the Man from Another Place. When Laura discovers that BOB is her father, she runs crying to her best friend Donna Hayward’s house. Laura and Donna enter the house and Will Hayward gives his wife Eileen a suspicious look after Leland calls Laura home, both acknowledging that something is \"off\" in the Palmer household.\nAt the Packard Saw Mill, Dell Mibbler complains to Josie Packard and Pete Martell that their two-by-fours are not exactly two inches by four inches. This causes Josie to become anxious and Pete to become irritated, who tells him that at Dell's bank the dollar is not worth the same as it used to be, which causes Dell to apologize.\nLaura Palmer goes up the stairs and begins to hear the voice of BOB, coming from the ceiling fan. She slowly begins to become possessed by BOB, only to have her mother Sarah interrupt the possession. Sarah begins to have a nervous breakdown and Laura attempts to comfort her. Leo, is later shown verbally and physically abusing his wife Shelly, and forces her to clean the kitchen floor.\nOne night, Laura and Donna go with two strangers that the former met at the Roadhouse, as they drive drunk and high on cocaine across the Canadian border to a night club. Teresa Banks pieces together information about her client who backed out earlier, and realizes it was Laura's father. She calls him in an attempt to blackmail him. Sheriff Harry S. Truman and his deputies, Andy and Hawk meet to discuss catching a local drug dealer.\nAfter Bobby killed a crooked cop the night before, he meets Laura at her locker at school and asks her to hide $10,000 in her safety deposit box. Laura antagonizes Bobby about the situation, which makes him angry. Bobby goes into the woods and discovers that the drugs he almost got killed over were nothing but baby laxatives. Dr. Lawrence Jacoby calls Laura and questions why she has not called or visited him recently. Laura shows disgust in her facial expression and says that she made audio tapes for him.\nOn the night of her death, Laura is having dinner with her mother, fully aware that her father is BOB. Feeling disgusted with her father and herself, she asks if she can go to Bobby’s house. Major Briggs reads aloud from the Book of Revelation to his wife Betty. Lucy, Andy and Truman are shown at the Sheriff's Station. Later that night, Laura climbs out her bedroom window to meet James Hurley, one last time, she hides in the bushes outside her house as her father approaches the front door. Leland sees her, and follows her. The Log Lady is shown clenching her log as she hears the screams of Laura's murder.\nTwo scenes take place after the end of the original television series. The first scene depicts Annie Blackburn being wheeled into the hospital after her encounter with Dale Cooper in the Black Lodge. She is wearing the ring Laura Palmer and Teresa Banks wore before their deaths until a nurse steals the ring off of her finger. The next scene, Dr. Hayward and Sheriff Truman hear Cooper/Bob smash his head against the mirror. The doppelgänger, still cackling \"How's Annie?\" hears them and lies on the floor. Truman tries to tell him they should go to a hospital, the doppelganger replies, \"But I haven't finished brushing my teeth yet.\"\nSeveral scenes from \"Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me\" had to be cut from the final product to keep the movie at a two hour and fifteen minute running time. This film comprises the unused footage from \"Fire Walk with Me.\" Lynch pieced together all of the deleted scenes to make a feature length film. This film shows a closer look into investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks and expands on the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer, a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks, and has scenes that feature characters from the television series that had their scenes deleted from the final version of \"Fire Walk with Me\". The production companies for the film are Absurda and MK2 Diffusion. The film was distributed by CBS/Fox Home Video and MK2 Diffusion.\nThe shooting script features several additional scenes that were never shot, including a conversation between Pete Martell and Big Ed Hurley at Big Ed's Gas Farm, a lunchtime picnic at which Sheriff Truman serenades Josie Packard and discusses why he would never eat fish eyes, and a rendezvous between Laura Palmer and Ben Horne at Johnny Horne's birthday party. This last scene was dropped due to actor Richard Beymer's reluctance to play it, because of the intimacy implied between his character and the 17-year-old Laura Palmer, as well as the fact that in the scene, Ben supplies Laura with cocaine.\n\"The Missing Pieces\" premiered on July 16, 2014, in Los Angeles' Vista Theatre before being released as a part of \"Twin Peaks: The Entire Mystery\" on Blu-ray.\nJace Lacob noted how \"The Missing Pieces\" is not a typical \"film\" but is rather a collection of different moments that each capture a variety of emotions stating:\nHe then goes on to say that while the film does not solve any of the mysteries surrounding Twin Peaks, it offers a different perspective for the intentions that Lynch had for \"Fire Walk with Me\" and gives a greater appreciation for Sheryl Lee's performance as Laura, noting:\n","List of films based on toys\nThis is a list of feature length animated and live-action theatrical, television, and direct-to-video films based on toys, tabletop games, and trading cards. Many of these films are based on dolls and action figures made by the toy companies Hasbro, Kenner, and Mattel.\nPrior to 1977, toys were released together with films as merchandising tie-ins. Films that were suitably toyetic spawned numerous licensed properties, often marketed heavily to children. Beginning in the late 1970s, this approach was flipped as films began to appear that were based on popular toys. In 1977, \"\" debuted as the first theatrical motion picture in which a consumer toy was the star. During the 1980s, action figures got their own films, such as Masters of the Universe (\"The Secret of the Sword\") and Transformers (\"\"), as did dolls, such as Pound Puppies (\"Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw\") and My Little Pony (\"\"). Also in the 1980s, the greeting card companies American Greetings and Hallmark Cards created popular characters that were made into toys, on which films were later based, such as The Care Bears (\"The Care Bears Movie\") and Rainbow Brite (\"Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer\").\nA resurgence of live action film adaptions of toy properties began in 2007 with the release of \"Transformers\", the first film in what would become the Transformers film franchise. The first film in the G.I. Joe film franchise, \"\", was released two years later. In 2008, Hasbro Inc. entered into a deal with Universal Pictures to make at least four movies based on the toy company's products. In 2012, the poor performance of the first film from this partnership, \"Battleship\", caused other projects in development to be shelved or sold off to other studios. The success of \"The Lego Movie\" released in 2014 renewed the interest of toy companies and film studios in producing long-rumored toy-related projects stuck in development hell.\nIn addition to films, several animated cartoon series have also been created based on toy properties, often airing at the same time, or soon after, the toys were launched. The extension of toy properties into films and television, as well as video games, books, apparel, and other products marketed to children has allowed companies to build lucrative franchises around their most popular characters and brands.","John the Fearless (film)\nJohn the Fearless (Dutch: \"Jan zonder vrees\" ) is a 1984 Belgian animated film. It is notable for being the first feature length animated film produced in Flanders in its entirety. It is based on a novel by Constant de Kinder and features voice work by Belgian character actor Jan Decleir. An English dubbed version of the film was produced by Canadian animation studio Cinar Films and was released on video in 1989 by Just For Kids Video.\nThe story begins in Antwerp, Belgium in the year 1410 when John resigns his job as a sailor and goes back home to his grandmother. After seeing all of the burglars in town, he takes it upon himself to rid the town of all evildoers. After he's become the word around town, he lets everyone in the town know that he has no fear. His cousin, in jealousy of John's newfound fame decides to disprove this statement, by showing up at the local graveyard dressed as a ghost. John, annoyed with the ghost's presence, accidentally kills his cousin. Realizing his mistake, he reports it, only to be arrested and sentenced to prison. However, he easily escapes the prison guards and goes about his ways. He ends up soon after in the countryside, to find a servant being beaten by his master. After showing the boss the error of his ways, the boss recognizes his goodheartedness and sends him on a quest to destroy a shape shifting evil water demon called Kludde,with the servant as his sidekick. John, true to his claim of having \"no fear\" begins his quest with good spirits. After accomplishing numerous brave deeds, he is knighted by the historical John the Fearless.\n","Fire and Ice (1983 film)\nFire and Ice is a 1983 American <a href=\"Adult%20animation\">adult animated</a> <a href=\"Epic%20film\">epic</a> <a href=\"high%20fantasy\">high fantasy</a> <a href=\"adventure%20film\">adventure film</a> directed by <a href=\"Ralph%20Bakshi\">Ralph Bakshi</a>. The film, a collaboration between Bakshi and <a href=\"Frank%20Frazetta\">Frank Frazetta</a>, was distributed by <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>, which also distributed Bakshi's 1977 release, \"<a href=\"Wizards%20%28film%29\">Wizards</a>\". The animated feature, based on characters Bakshi and Frazetta co-created, was made using the process of <a href=\"Rotoscope\">rotoscoping</a>, in which scenes were shot in live action and then traced onto animation cels.\nThe screenplay was written by <a href=\"Gerry%20Conway\">Gerry Conway</a> and <a href=\"Roy%20Thomas\">Roy Thomas</a>, both of whom had written \"<a href=\"Conan%20%28comics%29\">Conan</a>\" stories for <a href=\"Marvel%20Comics\">Marvel Comics</a>. Background painter was <a href=\"James%20Gurney\">James Gurney</a>, the author and artist of the \"<a href=\"Dinotopia\">Dinotopia</a>\" illustrated novels. <a href=\"Thomas%20Kinkade\">Thomas Kinkade</a> also worked on the backgrounds to various scenes. <a href=\"Peter%20Chung\">Peter Chung</a>, of <a href=\"Aeon%20Flux\">Aeon Flux</a> fame, was a layout artist.\nFrom their stronghold in Icepeak, the evil Queen Juliana (Eileen O'Neill) and her son, Nekron (Stephen Mendel), send forth a wave of glaciers, forcing humanity to retreat south towards the <a href=\"equator\">equator</a>. Nekron sends a <a href=\"delegation\">delegation</a> to King Jarol (<a href=\"Leo%20Gordon\">Leo Gordon</a>) in Firekeep to request his surrender, but this is a ruse orchestrated by Queen Juliana for Nekron’s sub-humans to kidnap Jarol’s barefoot, bikini-clad daughter, Princess Teegra (Cynthia Leake); Queen Juliana feels that Nekron should take a bride to produce an heir.\nBut Teegra makes an escape and comes upon Larn (Randy Norton), a young warrior and the only survivor of a village razed by glaciers, who offers to escort her back to Firekeep. As Teegra is recaptured, Larn teams with the mysterious Darkwolf (<a href=\"Steve%20Sandor\">Steve Sandor</a>) to save Teegra and then travel to Icepeak to stop Juliana. Darkwolf faces Nekron and kills him as Icepeak succumbs to lava released by King Jarol and is destroyed.\nThe film finishes with Larn about to kill a beaten sub-human until Teegra stops him saying that \"it's over\" and embraces him. Darkwolf is seen atop a cliff; he watches the pair, smiles and then disappears. Teegra and Larn kiss as the credits roll.\nBy 1982, <a href=\"fantasy%20film\">fantasy film</a>s had proven to be considerably successful at the box office, including \"<a href=\"The%20Beastmaster%20%28film%29\">The Beastmaster</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Conan%20the%20Barbarian%20%281982%20film%29\">Conan the Barbarian</a>\", and Bakshi had a desire to work with long-time friend and fantasy illustrator <a href=\"Frank%20Frazetta\">Frank Frazetta</a>. Bakshi received $1.2 million to finance \"Fire and Ice\" from some of the same investors as \"<a href=\"American%20Pop\">American Pop</a>\", and 20th Century Fox agreed to distribute the film based upon the financial longevity of \"Wizards\".\nBecause \"Fire and Ice\" was the most action-oriented story Bakshi had directed up until that point, rotoscoping was again used, and the realism of the animation and design replicated Frazetta's artwork. Bakshi and Frazetta were heavily involved in the production of the live-action sequences, from casting sessions to the final shoot. The film's crew included background artists <a href=\"James%20Gurney\">James Gurney</a> and <a href=\"Thomas%20Kinkade\">Thomas Kinkade</a>, layout artist <a href=\"Peter%20Chung\">Peter Chung</a>, and established Bakshi Productions artists Sparey, <a href=\"Steven%20E.%20Gordon\">Steven E. Gordon</a>, Bell and Banks. Chung strongly admired Bakshi and Frazetta's work, and animated his sequences on the film while simultaneously working for <a href=\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\">The Walt Disney Company</a>.\nAndrew Leal wrote, \"The plot is standard [...] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of <a href=\"Filmation\">Filmation</a>'s \"<a href=\"He-Man%20and%20the%20Masters%20of%20the%20Universe\">He-Man</a>\" series. [...] \"Fire and Ice\" essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of <a href=\"Arnold%20Schwarzenegger\">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>'s appearance as <a href=\"Conan%20the%20Barbarian%20%281982%20film%29\">Conan</a>.\"\nIn 2003, the <a href=\"Online%20Film%20Critics%20Society\">Online Film Critics Society</a> ranked the film as the 99th greatest animated film of all time.\nThe film was released on <a href=\"VHS\">VHS</a> twice. First by <a href=\"Sony%20Pictures%20Home%20Entertainment\">RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video</a> in 1983 and by <a href=\"GoodTimes%20Entertainment\">GoodTimes Home Video</a> in 1988. In 2005, it was released on <a href=\"DVD\">DVD</a> by <a href=\"Blue%20Underground\">Blue Underground Entertainment</a> on a limited edition two-disc set, paired with the documentary \"Frazetta: Painting With Fire\", about the film's co-creator and producer, Frank Frazetta. The company later released the film on <a href=\"Blu-ray\">Blu-ray</a> in 2008 with Remastered <a href=\"1080p\">1080p</a> video and a <a href=\"7.1%20surround%20sound\">7.1 surround sound</a> remix in both <a href=\"Dolby%20TrueHD\">Dolby TrueHD</a> and <a href=\"DTS%20HD%20Master%20Audio\">DTS HD Master Audio</a>\nIn 2010, <a href=\"Robert%20Rodriguez\">Robert Rodriguez</a> announced that he would direct a live-action <a href=\"remake\">remake</a> of the film. Bakshi stated that he did not want any involvement with the film, but he agreed to license the rights to Rodriguez. The deal closed shortly after Frazetta's death. On December 18, 2014, <a href=\"Sony%20Pictures%20Entertainment\">Sony Pictures Entertainment</a> acquired the filming rights to the live-action remake version of the 1983 animated film \"Fire and Ice\" that will be directed by <a href=\"Robert%20Rodriguez\">Robert Rodriguez</a>.","Titan A.E.\nTitan A.E. is a 2000 American <a href=\"animation\">animated</a> <a href=\"science%20fiction%20film\">science fiction</a> <a href=\"film\">film</a> directed by <a href=\"Don%20Bluth\">Don Bluth</a> and <a href=\"Gary%20Goldman\">Gary Goldman</a>. Its title refers to the <a href=\"spacecraft\">spacecraft</a> central to the plot, with \"A.E.\" meaning \"After Earth\". It stars <a href=\"Matt%20Damon\">Matt Damon</a>, <a href=\"Bill%20Pullman\">Bill Pullman</a>, <a href=\"John%20Leguizamo\">John Leguizamo</a>, <a href=\"Nathan%20Lane\">Nathan Lane</a>, <a href=\"Janeane%20Garofalo\">Janeane Garofalo</a> and <a href=\"Drew%20Barrymore\">Drew Barrymore</a>. The film's animation technique combines <a href=\"traditional%20animation\">traditional hand-drawn animation</a> and extensive use of <a href=\"computer%20generated%20imagery\">computer generated imagery</a>. Its working title was \"Planet Ice\". It was theatrically released on June 16, 2000, by <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a> and was the final film for <a href=\"Fox%20Animation%20Studios\">Fox Animation Studios</a>. The film grossed $36.8 million on a $75–$90 million budget, making a $100-million loss for the studio.\nIn 3028 A.D., humanity has mastered deep space travel and interacted with several alien species. A human invention called \"Project Titan\" alarms the Drej, a pure <a href=\"energy\">energy</a>-based alien species. As the Drej start to attack Earth, Professor Sam Tucker, the lead researcher for \"Project Titan\", sends his son Cale on one of the evacuation ships with his alien friend Tek, while Tucker and other members of his team fly the \"Titan\" spacecraft into <a href=\"hyperspace%20%28science%20fiction%29\">hyperspace</a> just as the Drej mother ship arrives and fires a <a href=\"directed-energy%20weapon\">directed-energy weapon</a> into the planet that completely destroys Earth, while debris from the explosion also destroys the <a href=\"Moon\">Moon</a>. The surviving humans become nomads, generally ridiculed by other alien species.\nFifteen years later, Cale works at the salvage yard in an <a href=\"asteroid%20belt\">asteroid belt</a> called Tau 14. He is tracked down by Joseph Korso, captain of the spaceship \"Valkyrie\". Korso reveals that Tucker encoded a map to the \"Titan\" in the ring he gave for Cale. Tek tells Cale that humanity depends on finding the \"Titan\". When the Drej attack the salvage yard, Cale is forced to escape aboard the \"Valkyrie\" with Korso and his crew: Akima, a human female pilot, and Preed, Gune and Stith, aliens of various species.\nOn the planet Sesharrim, the <a href=\"bat\">bat</a>-like Gaoul interpret the map and discover the \"Titan\" hidden in the Andali <a href=\"Nebula\">Nebula</a>. Drej fighters arrive, and capture Cale and Akima. The Drej eventually discard Akima and extract the \"Titan\"'s map from Cale. Korso's crew rescues Akima, while Cale eventually escapes in a Drej ship and rejoins the group. Cale's map has changed and now shows the \"Titan's\" final location.\nWhile resupplying at a human <a href=\"space%20station\">space station</a> called New <a href=\"Bangkok\">Bangkok</a>, Cale and Akima discover that Korso and Preed are planning to betray the \"Titan\" to the Drej. Cale and Akima manage to escape the \"Valkyrie\", but they are stranded on New Bangkok, when Korso and the rest of the crew set off for the \"Titan\". With the help of New Bangkok's colonists, Cale and Akima salvage a small spaceship named \"Phoenix\", and race to find the \"Titan\" before Korso.\nCale and Akima navigate through the huge ice field in the Andali Nebula and dock with the \"Titan\", before the \"Valkyrie\" arrives. They discover <a href=\"DNA\">DNA</a> samples of Earth animals and a pre-recorded holographic message left by Tucker. Tucker explains that the \"Titan\" was designed to <a href=\"Terraforming\">create an Earth-like planet</a>. However, due to its escape from Earth before its destruction, its power cells lack the energy necessary for the process. The message is interrupted by the arrival of Korso and Preed. Preed reveals himself to be a mercenary for the Drej and betrays Korso while holding him, Cale, and Akima at gunpoint. Preed attempts to kill all three of them for the Drej, but he is killed by Korso. Moments later, the Drej attack the \"Titan\". While the remaining crew of the \"Valkyrie\" distracts them, Cale - given the fact that Drej are, essentially, beings of pure energy - modifies the \"Titan\" to absorb them, thus re-energizing the ship. A repentant Korso sacrifices his life to help Cale complete the repairs. The \"Titan\" absorbs the Drej mothership along with everyone aboard and uses gained power to mold the ice field into a new habitable planet.\nWhile on the newly-formed Planet \"Bob\" (named by Cale), Cale and Akima witness the weather of the new planet as it begins to rain. Stith and Gune leave on the \"Valkyrie\" as human colony ships approach the planet to start life anew.\nThe story of \"Titan A.E\". had been in development at 20th Century Fox since 1998 and was originally intended to be a live-action science fiction film. The script had been passed around to various writers, such as <a href=\"Ben%20Edlund\">Ben Edlund</a> and <a href=\"Joss%20Whedon\">Joss Whedon</a>, and had been given to Art Vitello. After $30 million had been spent in the film's early development with no progress, Art Vitello was sacked. Then-chairman of <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a> <a href=\"Bill%20Mechanic\">Bill Mechanic</a> gave the script to <a href=\"Fox%20Animation%20Studios\">Fox Animation</a> producers <a href=\"Don%20Bluth\">Don Bluth</a> and <a href=\"Gary%20Goldman\">Gary Goldman</a>, who were fresh from the success of their recent film \"<a href=\"Anastasia%20%281997%20film%29\">Anastasia</a>\" (1997). Mechanic had no scripts for Fox Animation to work on, and was faced with the choice of laying off the animation staff unless they took \"Titan A.E.\" Bluth and Goldman, who were not fans of science fiction, took the script regardless.\nFox Animation Studios were given a budget of $75 million dollars and 19 months to produce the film. Unlike Bluth and Goldman's previous films, the animation in \"Titan A.E\". is predominantly computer-generated, while main characters and several backgrounds were traditionally animated. Many of the scenes were enacted by the animation staff using handbuilt props before being captured by a computer. Many scenes and backgrounds were painted by concept artist Paul Cheng, who had worked on \"Anastasia\" and its direct-to-video spinoff \"<a href=\"Bartok%20the%20Magnificent\">Bartok the Magnificent</a>\" (1999). Like \"Anastasia\", the storytelling and tone in \"Titan A.E.\" is much darker and edgier than Bluth and Goldman's previous films, with the film being regularly compared to Japanese <a href=\"anime\">anime</a>. Although Bluth and Goldman denied any influence by anime, they have acknowledged the comparison.\nDuring the production of \"Titan A.E.\", Fox Animation suffered a number of cutbacks which ultimately led to its closure in 2000. Over 300 animation staff were laid off from the studio in 1999, and as a result, much of the film's animation was outsourced to a number of independent companies. Several scenes were contracted to David Paul Dozoretz's POVDE group, the \"Wake Angels\" scene was animated by Reality Check Studios (their first feature film work), while the film's \"genesis\" scene was animated by <a href=\"Blue%20Sky%20Studios\">Blue Sky Studios</a>, who would later go on to animating 20th Century Fox's \"<a href=\"Ice%20Age%20%28franchise%29\">Ice Age</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Rio%20%282011%20film%29\">Rio</a>\" film franchises as well as \"<a href=\"The%20Peanuts%20Movie\">The Peanuts Movie</a>\" (2015). Under pressure from executives, Bill Mechanic was dismissed from 20th Century Fox prior to \"Titan A.E.\"'s release, eventuating in the closure of Fox Animation Studios on June 26, 2000, ten days after the film's release. All these events stunted the film's promotion and distribution.\nOn November 24, 1997, Matt Damon joined the cast of the film along with <a href=\"Bill%20Pullman\">Bill Pullman</a>, <a href=\"Drew%20Barrymore\">Drew Barrymore</a>, <a href=\"Hank%20Azaria\">Hank Azaria</a>, <a href=\"Nathan%20Lane\">Nathan Lane</a>, <a href=\"Jim%20Breuer\">Jim Breuer</a>, <a href=\"Janeane%20Garofalo\">Janeane Garofalo</a>, and <a href=\"Lena%20Olin\">Lena Olin</a> joined the cast of the film. . Later, <a href=\"John%20Leguizamo\">John Leguizamo</a> joined the cast. Azaria was cast as \"Ship's Navigator\" but was cut from the film.\nThe soundtrack for \"Titan A.E.\" was released on <a href=\"compact%20cassette\">audio cassette</a> and <a href=\"compact%20disc\">CD</a> by <a href=\"Capitol%20Records\">Capitol</a>/<a href=\"EMI%20Records\">EMI Records</a> on June 6, 2000 and features 11 tracks by various contemporary rock bands, including <a href=\"Lit%20%28band%29\">Lit</a>, <a href=\"Powerman%205000\">Powerman 5000</a>, <a href=\"Electrasy\">Electrasy</a>, <a href=\"Fun%20Lovin%27%20Criminals\">Fun Lovin' Criminals</a>, <a href=\"The%20Urge\">The Urge</a>, <a href=\"Texas%20%28band%29\">Texas</a>, <a href=\"Bliss%2066\">Bliss 66</a>, <a href=\"Jamiroquai\">Jamiroquai</a>, <a href=\"Splashdown%20%28band%29\">Splashdown</a>, <a href=\"The%20Wailing%20Souls\">The Wailing Souls</a>, and <a href=\"Luscious%20Jackson\">Luscious Jackson</a>.\nThe background music for \"Titan A.E.\" was composed <a href=\"Graeme%20Revell\">Graeme Revell</a>, although an official album containing the film's underscore was originally not released alongside the film. On October 23, 2014, the movie's score was made available for the first time by <a href=\"La-La%20Land%20Records\">La-La Land Records</a>, released as limited edition CD of 1,500 copies, containing most of what Revell wrote for the feature. It contains 32 tracks and music cues, including two bonus tracks: an orchestra-only version of \"Creation\", and an alternative version of \"Prologue\" with a different opening.\n\"Titan A.E.\" became the first major motion picture screened in end-to-end <a href=\"digital%20cinema\">digital cinema</a>. On June 6, 2000, ten days before the movie was released, at the SuperComm 2000 trade show, the movie was projected simultaneously at the trade show in <a href=\"Atlanta%2C%20Georgia\">Atlanta, Georgia</a> as well as a screen in <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\">Los Angeles, California</a>. It was sent to both screens from the <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a> production facilities in Los Angeles via a <a href=\"virtual%20private%20network\">VPN</a>.\n\"Titan A.E.\" was released on <a href=\"VHS\">VHS</a> and \"Special Edition\" <a href=\"DVD\">DVD</a> on November 7, 2000 by <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>, which contains extras such as a commentary track by Don Bluth and Gary Goldman, a \"Quest for Titan\" featurette, deleted scenes, web links, and a music video for <a href=\"Lit%20%28band%29\">Lit</a>'s \"Over My Head\". The <a href=\"DVD%20region%20code\">region 1</a> North American version also comes with an exclusive <a href=\"DTS%20%28sound%20system%29\">DTS</a> English audio track in addition to <a href=\"Dolby%20Digital\">Dolby Digital 5.1</a> featured in most international releases. Chris Carle of <a href=\"IGN\">IGN</a> rated the DVD an 8 out of 10, calling the movie \"thrilling... with some obvious plot and character flaws\" but called the video itself \"a fully-packed disc which looks and sounds great\" and \"for animation and sci-fi fans, it's a must-have.\" The film has never been released on <a href=\"Blu-ray\">Blu-ray</a>.\nA video game adaptation by <a href=\"Blitz%20Games\">Blitz Games</a> was planned to be released for the <a href=\"PlayStation\">PlayStation</a> and <a href=\"Microsoft%20Windows\">PC</a> in Fall 2000 in North America, following the film's Summer release. Development on both platforms had begun in March 1999 under the film's original title \"Planet Ice\", and an early playable version was showcased at the 2000 <a href=\"Electronic%20Entertainment%20Expo\">Electronic Entertainment Expo</a> in <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>. In July 2000, a spokesman from the game's publisher, <a href=\"Fox%20Interactive\">Fox Interactive</a>, announced that development on the title had been halted largely due to the film's failed box office, which was \"only one of many different factors\" that led to its cancellation.\n\"Titan A.E.\" received a mixed response from critics, with a 48 out of 100 score from <a href=\"Metacritic\">Metacritic</a>, and 52% approval rating from <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> based on 99 reviews with the consensus \"Great visuals, but the story feels like a cut-and-paste job of other sci-fi movies.\" Film critic <a href=\"Roger%20Ebert\">Roger Ebert</a> enjoyed it, giving it 3.5/4 stars for its \"rousing story\", \"largeness of spirit\", and \"lush galactic visuals [which] are beautiful in the same way photos by the <a href=\"Hubble%20Space%20Telescope\">Hubble Space Telescope</a> are beautiful\". He cited the Ice Rings sequence as \"a perfect examine [sic] of what animation can do and live action cannot\".\nThe film opened at #5, with $9,376,845 for an average of $3,430 from 2,734 theaters. The film then lost 60% of its audience in its second weekend, dropping to #8, with a gross of $3,735,300 for an average of $1,346 from 2,775 theaters. The film ended up grossing only $36,754,634 worldwide ($22,753,426 in the United States and Canada, and $14,001,208 in international markets). The film's budget is estimated at between $75 million and $90 million. According to <a href=\"Chris%20Meledandri\">Chris Meledandri</a>, the supervisor of the film, \"Titan A.E.\" lost $100 million for 20th Century Fox. After the film's failure, Fox Animation Studios was shut down.\n\"Titan A.E.\" won a <a href=\"Motion%20Picture%20Sound%20Editors\">Golden Reel Award</a> for \"Best Sound Editing for an Animated Feature\", and was nominated by the same organization for \"Best Sound Editing for Music in Animation\", and a <a href=\"Satellite%20Award\">Satellite Award</a> for \"Best Motion Picture, Animated or Mixed Media\", losing both to \"<a href=\"Chicken%20Run\">Chicken Run</a>\". The film was also nominated for three <a href=\"Annie%20Award\">Annie Award</a>s, including \"Outstanding Achievement in An Animated Theatrical Feature\", \"Effects Animation\", and \"Production Design\" which it lost to \"<a href=\"Toy%20Story%202\">Toy Story 2</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Fantasia%202000\">Fantasia 2000</a>\", respectively, and was nominated for <a href=\"Saturn%20Award%20for%20Best%20Science%20Fiction%20Film\">Best Science Fiction Film</a> at <a href=\"27th%20Saturn%20Awards\">27th Saturn Awards</a>, but lost to \"<a href=\"X-Men%20%28film%29\">X-Men</a>\", another film from <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>. Drew Barrymore was nominated for \"Best Voice-Over Performance\" by the Online Film & Television Association for her role as Akima but was beaten by <a href=\"Eartha%20Kitt\">Eartha Kitt</a> from \"<a href=\"The%20Emperor%27s%20New%20Groove\">The Emperor's New Groove</a>\".\nTo tie in with the film, a series of prequel novels written by <a href=\"Kevin%20J.%20Anderson\">Kevin J. Anderson</a> and <a href=\"Rebecca%20Moesta\">Rebecca Moesta</a> were released on February 10, 2000, by <a href=\"Ace%20Books\">Ace Books</a>, the same day as the official novelization of the movie written by Steve and Dal Perry. A comic series focusing on the character Sam was also released in May 2000.\n\n","Wizards (film)\nWizards is a 1977 American <a href=\"Animation\">animated</a> <a href=\"Apocalyptic%20and%20post-apocalyptic%20fiction\">post-apocalyptic</a> <a href=\"science%20fantasy\">science fantasy</a> film written, produced, and directed by <a href=\"Ralph%20Bakshi\">Ralph Bakshi</a>. The film follows the battle between two wizards, one representing the forces of <a href=\"Magic%20%28paranormal%29\">magic</a> and one representing the forces of <a href=\"industrial%20technology\">industrial technology</a>.\nNotable for being the first <a href=\"fantasy%20film\">fantasy film</a> by Bakshi, who was previously known only for urban films such as \"<a href=\"Fritz%20the%20Cat%20%28film%29\">Fritz the Cat</a>\", \"<a href=\"Heavy%20Traffic\">Heavy Traffic</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Coonskin%20%28film%29\">Coonskin</a>\", the film grossed $9 million theatrically from a $2 million budget, and has since become a <a href=\"Cult%20film\">cult classic</a>.\nEarth has been devastated by a <a href=\"nuclear%20war\">nuclear war</a> instigated by five <a href=\"terrorism\">terrorists</a>, and it has taken two million years for the <a href=\"radioactive%20cloud\">radioactive cloud</a>s to once again allow sunlight to reach the surface. Only a handful of humans have survived, while the rest have changed into mutants who roam the radioactive wastelands. In the idyllic land of Montagar, the true ancestors of man – fairies, elves and dwarves – have returned and live in peace. During a celebration of 3,000 years of peace Delia, queen of the fairies, falls into a trance and leaves the party. Puzzled, the fairies follow her to her home and discover that she has given birth to twin wizards. Avatar, a kind and good wizard, spends much of his boyhood entertaining his mother with beautiful visions, while Blackwolf, a mutant, never visits his mother, but spends his time <a href=\"zoosadism\">torturing small animals</a>.\nAfter many years, Delia dies. Blackwolf is excited; he believes he will take over her leadership and rule the land. Avatar opposes his evil brother and forces him to fight for the kingship. Avatar's magic is empowered by his grief, allowing him to defeat Blackwolf. Blackwolf leaves Montagar with a vow to return and \"make this a planet where mutants rule\".\nYears later, Blackwolf has risen to lead the dark land of Scortch, where he and his vast army of goblins, ogres and mutants salvage and restore ancient technology. He tries to attack Montagar twice, but is foiled both times when his mutant warriors become bored or sidetracked in the midst of battle. Blackwolf then discovers an old projector and reels of <a href=\"Nazi%20propaganda\">Nazi propaganda</a> footage. He enhances the projector with magical power and uses it in battle to both inspire his own soldiers and horrify enemy troops. The mutants destroy the elf army.\nMeanwhile, in Montagar, Avatar has become a tutor tasked with training the president's daughter Elinore to become a full-fledged fairy. Suddenly, the president is assassinated by Necron 99, a robot sent by Blackwolf to kill believers in magic. Avatar confronts the robot and battles it using brain reading. Necron 99 loses the desire for war and Avatar changes his name to Peace \"in the hopes that he will bring it\". Avatar learns from the robot that the \"dream machine\" – the projector – is Blackwolf's secret weapon, inspiring his armies with images of ancient warfare. Avatar, Elinore, Peace, and the elf spy Weehawk set out to destroy the projector and save the world from another Holocaust.\nIn a forest inhabited by fairies, Peace has an intuition that something is amiss shortly before the group is accosted by the leader of the fairies, Sean (Mark Hamill). Weehawk realizes that Peace is missing, when an unseen assassin kills Sean and kidnaps Elinore. Avatar and Weehawk begin to search for Elinore in the forbidden Fairy Sanctuary, but Weehawk falls into a chasm and insists that Avatar leave him and find the girl. He locates her, captured by fairies and small human-like creatures, just as she is about to be killed. Avatar attempts to explain that they did not kill Sean, but the fairies don't believe him, and shoot him with an arrow. Wounded in the shoulder, Avatar refuses to fight back, which impresses the fairy king. Instead of executing them, he merely teleports Avatar and Elinore to a snowy mountaintop. Avatar and Elinore resume their journey despite the poor conditions, but they soon realize they are wandering in circles. Weehawk and Peace finally find them and together they find their way out of the mountains. Soon Avatar and the others encounter the encamped army of an elf General who is preparing to attack Scortch the following day, but Blackwolf launches a sneak attack that night. Elinore is outside with Peace when one of Blackwolf's mutants sneaks into camp and attacks her, but Avatar is able to stop it before it hurts her. Things turn for the worse, though, as a battle tank arrives to destroy the camp. Peace manages to disable the crew, but as he inspects the vehicle, Elinore kills him with a sword and climbs into the tank. It drives away as Avatar and Weehawk watch in confusion.\nThe next day, Avatar and Weehawk enter Scortch by ship and make for Blackwolf's castle while the General leads his elf warriors in a bloody battle to distract Blackwolf's forces. The pair splits up, Weehawk tracking Elinore while Avatar goes after his brother Blackwolf. Weehawk nearly kills Elinore, but she explains that Blackwolf had been controlling her mind ever since she first touched Peace. Blackwolf declares his magic superior to Avatar's and demands his surrender. Avatar admits that he hasn't practiced magic in some time, and offers to show Blackwolf one last trick that their mother showed him when Blackwolf wasn't around. Avatar then pulls a gun and fatally shoots Blackwolf. With the loss of their leader, the mutants give up fighting. With Montagar's safety secured, Weehawk returns home as the new ruler, but Avatar and Elinore decide to go start their own kingdom instead.\n<a href=\"Ralph%20Bakshi\">Ralph Bakshi</a> had long had an interest in fantasy, and had been drawing fantasy artwork as far back as 1955, while he was still in high school. \"Wizards\" originated in the concept for \"Tee-Witt\", an unproduced television series Bakshi developed and pitched to <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> in 1967. In 1976, Bakshi pitched \"War Wizards\" to <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>. Returning to the fantasy drawings he had created in high school for inspiration, Bakshi intended to prove that he could produce a \"family picture\" that had the same impact as his adult-oriented films.\nThe film is an <a href=\"allegory\">allegorical</a> comment on the moral ambiguity of technology and the potentially destructive powers of <a href=\"propaganda\">propaganda</a>. Blackwolf's secret weapon is propaganda, used to incite his legions and terrorize the fairy folk of Montagar; but Avatar's willingness to use a technological tool (a handgun pulled from \"up his sleeve\") destroys his <a href=\"evil%20twin\">evil twin</a>. Bakshi also states that \"Wizards\" \"was about the creation of the state of <a href=\"Israel\">Israel</a> and the Holocaust, about the <a href=\"Jewish\">Jews</a> looking for a homeland, and about the fact that <a href=\"fascism\">fascism</a> was on the rise again\".\nBritish illustrator <a href=\"Ian%20Miller%20%28illustrator%29\">Ian Miller</a> and comic book artist <a href=\"Mike%20Ploog\">Mike Ploog</a> were hired to contribute backgrounds and designs. The crew included Vita, Turek, Sparey, Vitello and Spence, who had become comfortable with Bakshi's limited <a href=\"storyboarding\">storyboarding</a> and lack of <a href=\"pencil%20test%20%28animation%29\">pencil test</a>s. Artist <a href=\"Alex%20Ni%C3%B1o\">Alex Niño</a> signed a contract with Bakshi to work on the film, and was granted a work <a href=\"Visa%20%28document%29\">visa</a>, but was unable to gain permission from the <a href=\"Philippines\">Philippine</a> government to leave for the United States until two months afterward, and later found that by the time he had arrived in the United States, not only had the film's animation been completed, but Niño's visa did not allow him to submit freelance work on any other projects.\nThe film's main cast includes Bob Holt, Jesse Welles, Richard Romanus, David Proval and Steve Gravers. Bakshi cast Holt based on his ability to imitate the voice of actor <a href=\"Peter%20Falk\">Peter Falk</a>, of whom Bakshi is a fan. Welles, Romanus and Proval had previously worked with Bakshi on \"<a href=\"Hey%20Good%20Lookin%27%20%28film%29\">Hey Good Lookin'</a>\", where Romanus and Proval provided the voices of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro, respectively. Actress Tina Bowman, who plays a small role in \"Wizards\", has a larger role in \"Hey Good Lookin<nowiki>'</nowiki>\". Actor <a href=\"Mark%20Hamill\">Mark Hamill</a> auditioned for and received a voice role in the film. Bakshi states that \"He needed a job, and he came to me, and I thought he was great, and <a href=\"George%20Lucas\">Lucas</a> thought he should do it, and he got not only \"Wizards\", he got \"<a href=\"Star%20Wars\">Star Wars</a>\".\" Bakshi had wanted a female narrator for his film, and he loved <a href=\"Susan%20Tyrrell\">Susan Tyrrell</a>'s acting. Tyrrell performed the narration for the film, but Bakshi was told that he couldn't credit her for her narration. Years later, Tyrrell told Bakshi that she got most of her work from her narration on the film, and that she wished she had allowed him to put her name on it.\nJohn Grant writes in his book \"Masters of Animation\" that \"[the] overall affect [sic] of the animation is akin to that of the great <a href=\"anime\">anime</a> creators – one has to keep reminding oneself that \"Wizards\" predates <a href=\"Hayao%20Miyazaki\">Miyazaki</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Castle%20of%20Cagliostro\">The Castle of Cagliostro</a>\" (1979), not the other way round. [...] The backgrounds [...] are especially lovely, even the simplest of them; and in general the movie has a strong visual \"brio\" despite occasional technical hurriedness.\" Notable artists involved in the production of Wizards include <a href=\"Ian%20Miller%20%28illustrator%29\">Ian Miller</a>, who produced the gloomy backgrounds of Scortch, and <a href=\"Mike%20Ploog\">Mike Ploog</a>, who contributed likewise for the more arcadian landscapes of Montagar.\nBakshi was unable to complete the battle sequences with the budget Fox had given him. When he asked them for a budget increase, they refused (during the same meeting, director <a href=\"George%20Lucas\">George Lucas</a> had asked for a budget increase for \"Star Wars\" and was also refused). As a result, Bakshi finished his film by paying out of his own pocket and using <a href=\"rotoscoping\">rotoscoping</a> for the unfinished battle sequences. According to Bakshi, \"I thought that if we dropped all the detail, it would look very artistic, and very beautiful, and I felt, why bother animating all of this? I'm looking for a way to get realism into my film and get real emotion.\" In his audio commentary for the film's DVD release, Bakshi states that \"There's no question that it was an easier way to get these gigantic scenes that I wanted. It also was the way that showed me how to do \"<a href=\"The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings%20%281978%20film%29\">Lord of the Rings</a>\", so it worked two ways.\" In addition to stock footage, the film used battle sequences from films such as \"<a href=\"Zulu%20%281964%20film%29\">Zulu</a>\", \"<a href=\"El%20Cid%20%28film%29\">El Cid</a>\", \"<a href=\"Battle%20of%20the%20Bulge%20%28film%29\">Battle of the Bulge</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Alexander%20Nevsky%20%28film%29\">Alexander Nevsky</a>\" for <a href=\"rotoscoping\">rotoscoping</a>. Live-action sequences from \"<a href=\"Patton%20%28film%29\">Patton</a>\" were also featured.\n<a href=\"Vaughn%20Bod%C3%A9\">Vaughn Bode</a>'s work has been credited as an influence on \"Wizards\". <a href=\"Quentin%20Tarantino\">Quentin Tarantino</a> describes Avatar as \"a cross between <a href=\"J.R.R.%20Tolkien\">Tolkien</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Hobbit\">Hobbit</a>\", <a href=\"Mel%20Brooks\">Mel Brooks</a>' \"<a href=\"2000%20Year%20Old%20Man\">2000 Year Old Man</a>\", and <a href=\"Marvel%20Comics\">Marvel Comics</a>' \"<a href=\"Howard%20the%20Duck\">Howard the Duck</a>\"\" and Blackwolf as physically similar to <a href=\"Sergei%20Eisenstein\">Sergei Eisenstein</a>'s \"<a href=\"Ivan%20the%20Terrible%20%28film%29\">Ivan the Terrible</a>\". In <a href=\"Jerry%20Beck\">Jerry Beck</a>'s \"Animated Movie Guide\", Andrew Leal writes that \"The central figure, Avatar [...] sounds a great deal like <a href=\"Peter%20Falk\">Peter Falk</a>, and clearly owes much to cartoonist Vaughn Bodé's <a href=\"Cheech%20Wizard\">Cheech Wizard</a> character.\"\nAs \"War Wizards\" neared completion, Lucas requested that Bakshi change the title of his film to \"Wizards\" in order to avoid conflict with \"Star Wars\", and Bakshi agreed because Lucas had allowed <a href=\"Mark%20Hamill\">Mark Hamill</a> to take time off from \"Star Wars\" in order to record a voice for \"Wizards\".\nAlthough \"Wizards\" received a <a href=\"limited%20release\">limited release</a>, it was very successful in the theaters that showed it, and developed a worldwide audience. According to Bakshi, he was once interviewed by a German reporter who was unsure as to why the Nazi <a href=\"Swastika\">Swastika</a> was used to represent war. Bakshi said \"I didn't get any criticism. People pretty much loved \"Wizards\".\" Film website <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>, which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics, gives the film a score of 61%, considered \"Fresh\".\nAudio clips from the film have been sampled by <a href=\"Toxik\">Toxik</a> on the album \"<a href=\"Think%20This\">Think This</a>\", <a href=\"Cypress%20Hill\">Cypress Hill</a> on the albums \"<a href=\"IV%20%28Cypress%20Hill%20album%29\">IV</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Skull%20%26amp%3B%20Bones%20%28album%29\">Skull & Bones</a>\", <a href=\"Vanilla%20Ice\">Vanilla Ice</a> on \"<a href=\"Platinum%20Underground\">Platinum Underground</a>\" and <a href=\"65daysofstatic\">65daysofstatic</a> on the album \"\".\n20th Century Fox Home Entertainment responded to an online petition created by Animation on DVD.com and written by Keith Finch demanding the film's release on DVD. The disc, released on May 25, 2004, featured an <a href=\"audio%20commentary\">audio commentary</a> track by Bakshi and the interview segment \"Ralph Bakshi: The Wizard of Animation\". Bakshi has stated that \"Wizards\" was always intended as a trilogy. One of the sequels was pitched to Fox, who have yet to greenlight the project.\n20th Century Fox released a Special Edition <a href=\"Blu-ray%20Disc\">Blu-ray Disc</a> of the film on March 13, 2012, to commemorate the film's 35th anniversary. The disc includes the special features from the DVD, along with a 24-page book including rare artwork from the film and an introduction from Bakshi. Three Floyds Brewing Co. produces \"Necron 99\" marketed as a \"scortch-style ale\"\nBakshi mentioned he had plans for a sequel entitled \"Wizards 2\" that involved the relationship between Avatar and Elinore. Bakshi said the plot would be \"where [their relationship] doesn't work out, and Weehawk gets in the way\", The sequel was never developed due to production difficulties and the other projects on which Bakshi was then focused.\nIn late 2004, a \"Wizards II\" graphic novel went into production, produced by Bakshi. The stories will be from the Wizards \"universe\" and each story will be created by a different artist. In September 2008, it was announced that Main Street Pictures would collaborate with Bakshi on a sequel to \"Wizards\".\nAs of 2015, Bakshi has stated that he has a script finished and hopes to have it be his next film. In a November interview, while promoting \"<a href=\"Last%20Days%20of%20Coney%20Island\">Last Days of Coney Island</a>,\" Bakshi stated that \"Wizards 2\" is about \"madness, absolute madness!\"","The Pagemaster\nThe Pagemaster is a 1994 American <a href=\"live-action%20film\">live-action</a>/<a href=\"animated%20film\">animated</a> <a href=\"Fantasy%20film\">fantasy</a> <a href=\"adventure%20film\">adventure film</a> starring <a href=\"Macaulay%20Culkin\">Macaulay Culkin</a>, <a href=\"Christopher%20Lloyd\">Christopher Lloyd</a>, <a href=\"Whoopi%20Goldberg\">Whoopi Goldberg</a>, <a href=\"Patrick%20Stewart\">Patrick Stewart</a>, <a href=\"Leonard%20Nimoy\">Leonard Nimoy</a>, and <a href=\"Frank%20Welker\">Frank Welker</a>. The film was produced by <a href=\"Turner%20Pictures\">Turner Pictures</a> and released by <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a> on November 23, 1994.\nThe film was written for the screen by David Casci, based on a six-page pitch by writer Charles Pogue entitled \"Library Days,\" presented to Casci by producer <a href=\"David%20Kirschner\">David Kirschner</a>. The film was directed by <a href=\"Joe%20Johnston\">Joe Johnston</a> (live action) and Pixote Hunt and Glenn Chaika (animation), and produced by David Kirschner and Paul Gertz.\n<a href=\"Pessimism\">Pessimistic</a> Richard Tyler lives life based on statistics and <a href=\"panphobia\">fears everything</a>. His exasperated parents have tried multiple ways to build up the courage of their son, but to little success. Richard is sent to buy a bag of nails for building a <a href=\"treehouse\">treehouse</a>. However, Richard gets caught in a harsh thunderstorm and takes shelter in a <a href=\"library\">library</a>. He meets Mr. Dewey, an eccentric <a href=\"librarian\">librarian</a> who gives him a library card, despite Richard's protests. Searching for a phone, Richard finds a large <a href=\"Rotunda%20%28architecture%29\">rotunda</a> painted with famous literary characters. He slips on some water dripping from his coat and falls down, knocking himself out. Richard awakens to find the rotunda art melting, which washes over him and the library, turning them into <a href=\"illustration\">illustration</a>s.\nHe is met by the Pagemaster, who sends him through the fiction section to find the library's exit. Along the way, Richard befriends three <a href=\"Anthropomorphism\">anthropomorphic</a> books: Adventure, a swashbuckling pirate-like book; Fantasy, a sassy but caring fairy tale book; and Horror, a fearful \"Hunchbook\" with a misshapen spine. The three agree to help Richard if he checks them out. Together, the quartet encounters classic-fictional characters. They meet <a href=\"Dr.%20Jekyll%20and%20Mr.%20Hyde%20%28character%29\">Dr. Jekyll</a> who turns into Mr. Hyde, driving them to the open waters of the Land of Adventure. However, the group is separated after <a href=\"Moby-Dick\">Moby-Dick</a> attacks, following the whale's battle with <a href=\"Ahab%20%28Moby-Dick%29\">Captain Ahab</a>. Richard and Adventure are picked up by the \"Hispaniola\", captained by <a href=\"Long%20John%20Silver\">Long John Silver</a>. The pirates go to <a href=\"Treasure%20Island\">Treasure Island</a>, but find no treasure but one gold coin, nearly causing a mutiny. Fantasy and Horror return and defeat the pirates. Silver attempts taking Richard with him, but surrenders when Richard threatens him with a sword.\nIn the fantasy section, Richard sees the exit sign on the top of a mountain. However, Adventure's bumbling awakens a dormant <a href=\"dragon\">dragon</a>. Richard tries to fight the dragon with a sword and shield, but the dragon swallows him. Richard finds books in the dragon's stomach and uses a beanstalk from \"<a href=\"Jack%20and%20the%20Beanstalk\">Jack and the Beanstalk</a>\" to escape through the dragon's mouth. He and the books climb it to reach the exit. They enter a large dark room where the Pagemaster awaits them. Richard accuses the Pagemaster of causing the horrors that he suffered, but the Pagemaster reveals the journey was intended to make Richard face his fears. Dr. Jekyll, Captain Ahab, <a href=\"Long%20John%20Silver\">Long John Silver</a>, and the <a href=\"dragon\">dragon</a> reappear in a magical twister and congratulate him. The Pagemaster then swoops Richard and the books into the twister, sending them back to the real world.\nRichard awakens, finding Adventure, Fantasy, and Horror next to him as real books. Mr. Dewey finds him, and, even though the library policy only allows a person to check out two books at time, lets him check out all three books \"just this once\". Richard returns home a braver child, sleeping in his new treehouse with his books.\nThe Pirates of the Hispaniola are voiced by <a href=\"Richard%20Erdman\">Richard Erdman</a>, <a href=\"Fernando%20Escandon\">Fernando Escandon</a>, <a href=\"Dorian%20Harewood\">Dorian Harewood</a>, and <a href=\"Robert%20Picardo\">Robert Picardo</a>.\n\"The Pagemaster\" took three years to produce; the animation in the film was produced by <a href=\"Turner%20Feature%20Animation\">Turner Feature Animation</a>, headed by <a href=\"David%20Kirschner\">David Kirschner</a> and recently spun off from <a href=\"Hanna-Barbera%20Cartoons\">Hanna-Barbera Cartoons</a>. The crew included animators who were veterans of productions such as \"<a href=\"An%20American%20Tail\">An American Tail</a>\" (1986) (also produced by <a href=\"David%20Kirschner\">David Kirschner</a> and composed by <a href=\"James%20Horner\">James Horner</a>), \"<a href=\"The%20Land%20Before%20Time\">The Land Before Time</a>\" (1988) and \"<a href=\"Aladdin%20%281992%20Disney%20film%29\">Aladdin</a>\" (1992). This was one of the first films to feature live-action, traditional animation, and CGI animation all together. One scene involving a computer-generated <a href=\"dragon\">dragon</a> made from paint was used, a challenge for the filmmakers. All of the fictional works featured in the film were created and first published before January 1, 1923, making them a part of the <a href=\"public%20domain\">public domain</a> in most countries. The theme songs to the movie are \"<a href=\"Dream%20Away%20%28Babyface%20and%20Lisa%20Stansfield%20song%29\">Dream Away</a>\", sung by <a href=\"Kenneth%20%26quot%3BBabyface%26quot%3B%20Edmonds\">Babyface</a> and <a href=\"Lisa%20Stansfield\">Lisa Stansfield</a>, and \"Whatever You Imagine\", sung by <a href=\"Wendy%20Moten\">Wendy Moten</a>.\nMany of the cast members have had roles in the \"<a href=\"Star%20Trek\">Star Trek</a>\" franchise: <a href=\"Patrick%20Stewart\">Patrick Stewart</a> played Captain <a href=\"Jean-Luc%20Picard\">Jean-Luc Picard</a>, <a href=\"Whoopi%20Goldberg\">Whoopi Goldberg</a> played , <a href=\"Leonard%20Nimoy\">Leonard Nimoy</a> played <a href=\"Spock\">Mr. Spock</a>, <a href=\"Christopher%20Lloyd\">Christopher Lloyd</a> played Kruge in \"\", <a href=\"Ed%20Begley%2C%20Jr.\">Ed Begley, Jr.</a> played Henry Starling in a two-part episode of \"\", <a href=\"George%20Hearn\">George Hearn</a> played Dr. Berel in an episode of \"\", and <a href=\"B.%20J.%20Ward%20%28actress%29\">B.J. Ward</a> played numerous characters in \"Star Trek\" computer games, as did <a href=\"Jim%20Cummings\">Jim Cummings</a>. Composer <a href=\"James%20Horner\">James Horner</a> was also the composer for \"\" and \"\". <a href=\"Frank%20Welker\">Frank Welker</a> voiced Spock's screams in \"Star Trek III\" and the alien creature in the \"Star Trek: Voyager\" episode \"\". <a href=\"Robert%20Picardo\">Robert Picardo</a> played on \"\".\nAdditionally, both Nimoy and Welker voiced the character Galvatron in \"Transformers\" (with Nimoy voicing him in , and Welker voicing him in <a href=\"The%20Transformers%20%28TV%20series%29\">the television series</a> and again in \"\").\nPromotional advertisements for this film used the theme from the 1984 film, \"<a href=\"The%20Last%20Starfighter\">The Last Starfighter</a>\".\nCasci's original screenplay included a story arc for the protagonist, Richard Tyler (played by Macaulay Culkin), who begins the tale as a boy who hates reading, but by the end of the film, learns to love reading. The revised screenplay by Contreras and Kirschner omitted the reading-themed story arc, instead emphasizing the boy's journey from cowardice to courage.\nAccording to the film's animation crew, the film went overbudget during animation production due to mismanagement and changes to the narrative. The 2001 book \"Producing Animation\" by <a href=\"Catherine%20Winder\">Catherine Winder</a> and Zahra Dowlatbadi (Johnston's assistant on \"The Pagemaster\") recommends against making story changes during the animation process.\nFantasy and Long John Silver are voiced by Goldberg and Cummings. The two of them (along with <a href=\"Cheech%20Marin\">Cheech Marin</a>) voiced the three troublesome hyenas in \"<a href=\"The%20Lion%20King\">The Lion King</a>\", another animated film released the same year.\nAnimation production began in August 1992, and live-action scenes were filmed from September 21 to October 15, 1992. After two years in the making, the film was completed and wrapped in the summer of 1994. According to the copyright holder, it was believed to be made in 1993 (although the film was just released a year later).\nThe screenwriting credits for this film were the subject of a protracted <a href=\"Arbitration\">legal arbitration</a> with the <a href=\"WGA%20screenwriting%20credit%20system\">Writers Guild of America (WGA)</a> when its producer, <a href=\"David%20Kirschner\">David Kirschner</a>, attempted to claim sole authorship of the screenplay and original story, with no credit for its original screenwriter, David Casci. Typically, proposed <a href=\"WGA%20screenwriting%20credit%20system\">credits</a> are submitted to the WGA for approval well in advance of the release of a movie or the publishing of posters or novelizations on which writing credits appear. In the case of \"The Pagemaster,\" the producers attempted to claim that, as the film was now largely animated, the WGA did not have jurisdiction to determine credits. Casci had written the screenplay under a WGA contract, as well as previous live-action versions for <a href=\"Walt%20Disney%20Television\">Disney Television</a> dating back to 1985, also written under WGA contract. These facts positioned the WGA to get involved, testing their tenuous authority over a feature film with animated elements.\nAfter a lengthy investigation and interviews with those intimately familiar with the genesis of the \"Pagemaster\" project, including three persons within Kirschner's own office, the WGA credit arbitration process determined that David Casci was, in fact, the primary writer, and that Kirschner did not provide a sufficient creative contribution to the writing process to warrant any screenwriting credit. Upon receiving this determination by the WGA, Fox threatened to pull out of arbitration and release the film without WGA-approved credits, positioning the WGA to be forced to file an injunction blocking the film's heavily promoted Christmas season release.\nUltimately, a settlement was reached, and Fox released the film with both Kirschner and Casci receiving story and screenplay credit, with a third writer, Ernie Contreras, also receiving screenplay credit.\nAt the time, this case was the most expensive and extensive investigation of its type undertaken by the <a href=\"Writers%20Guild%20of%20America%2C%20West\">WGA</a> on behalf of one of its members.\n\"The Pagemaster\" is presented in an extended cut version. During the production, some original scenes were removed, both live-action and animation. The deleted scenes and characters can be still seen during the making of the film, trailers and TV spots, <a href=\"SkyBox%20International\">SkyBox International</a> trading cards, books and other related products. They can be also seen during the sneak peek on the 1993 VHS release of \"<a href=\"Once%20Upon%20a%20Forest\">Once Upon a Forest</a>\", the 1994 VHS release of \"<a href=\"Rookie%20of%20the%20Year%20%28film%29\">Rookie of the Year</a>\", and in the promotional trailer of the VHS release of the film on the promotional demo/screener VHS copy in 1995.\nThe film was a production by Turner Pictures. 20th Century Fox handled U.S. distribution, while Turner Pictures Worldwide handled International distribution. <a href=\"Turner%20Broadcasting%20System\">Turner Broadcasting System</a> handles the broadcasting rights of the film to be aired on their variety of television networks (including <a href=\"Cartoon%20Network\">Cartoon Network</a>). <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.\">Warner Bros.</a> now handles International and television distribution to the film as a result of the Turner/<a href=\"Time%20Warner\">Time Warner</a> merger on October 10, 1996.\nThe film grossed $13,670,688 in theaters, on a $27 million budget. \"The Pagemaster\" earned a <a href=\"Razzie%20Award\">Razzie Award</a> nomination for Macaulay Culkin as Worst Actor for his performance in the movie (also for \"<a href=\"Getting%20Even%20with%20Dad\">Getting Even with Dad</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Richie%20Rich%20%28film%29\">Richie Rich</a>\") but lost the award to <a href=\"Kevin%20Costner\">Kevin Costner</a> for \"<a href=\"Wyatt%20Earp%20%28film%29\">Wyatt Earp</a>\".\nThe film received an 18% score on <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>. <a href=\"Roger%20Ebert\">Roger Ebert</a> of the \"<a href=\"Chicago%20Sun-Times\">Chicago Sun-Times</a>\" criticized the way the film's message came across, calling it a \"sad and dreary film,\" adding that its message seemed to be that \"books can be almost as much fun as TV cartoons and video arcade games.\" Brian Lowry of \"<a href=\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\">Variety</a>\" said that the film's principal appeal for adults would be its abbreviated running time, and that it did not do enough with its famous fictional characters, noting \"A more inspired moment has Richard using a book, 'Jack and the Beanstalk,' to escape from the belly of a dragon. Unfortunately, such moments are few and far between.\"\nRita Kempley of \"<a href=\"The%20Washington%20Post\">The Washington Post</a>\", however, gave the film a positive review, calling it a \"splendidly original children's fantasy about the world of books.\" <a href=\"James%20Berardinelli\">James Berardinelli</a> of ReelViews gave another positive review, calling it a \"clever, often engaging, and always fast-paced motion picture\" that \"uses the visual medium to encourage its viewers to reach out with their imagination.\"\n\"The Pagemaster\" was first released on <a href=\"VHS\">VHS</a> and <a href=\"LaserDisc\">LaserDisc</a> on April 4, 1995. <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox%20Home%20Entertainment\">20th Century Fox Home Entertainment</a> released the film on <a href=\"DVD\">DVD</a> and <a href=\"Blu-ray\">Blu-ray</a> on August 6, 2013.\nContrary to any claims, the screenplay and film are not based on any book. David Casci's screenplay preceded all novelizations and illustrated books by several years.\nA number of books based on the film exist, including an illustrated book attributed to <a href=\"David%20Kirschner\">David Kirschner</a> and Ernie Contreras, illustrated by Jerry Tiritilli, which contained large passages from the Casci screenplay without giving Casci writing credit. The film was well into production by the time this book was introduced in the 1993 F. A. O. Schwarz Christmas Catalog. Other properties based on the film include a novelization of the film, children's story books, pop-up books and other film ancillaries such as toys and games.\nVideo game adaptations of the film was released the same year as the film. They were developed by <a href=\"Probe%20Software\">Probe Software Ltd.</a> and published by <a href=\"Fox%20Interactive\">Fox Interactive</a>. The PC and handheld versions of the game are almost entirely different games; the PC game is an interactive game, and the handheld version is a platformer.\n","Anastasia (1997 film)\nAnastasia is a 1997 American <a href=\"Animation\">animated</a> <a href=\"epic%20film\">epic</a> <a href=\"musical%20film\">musical</a> <a href=\"alternative%20history\">alternative history</a> film produced by <a href=\"Fox%20Animation%20Studios\">Fox Animation Studios</a> and distributed by <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>, directed by former <a href=\"Walt%20Disney%20Animation%20Studios\">Walt Disney Animation Studios</a> directors <a href=\"Don%20Bluth\">Don Bluth</a> and <a href=\"Gary%20Goldman\">Gary Goldman</a>, and starring the voices of <a href=\"Meg%20Ryan\">Meg Ryan</a>, <a href=\"John%20Cusack\">John Cusack</a>, <a href=\"Kelsey%20Grammer\">Kelsey Grammer</a>, <a href=\"Hank%20Azaria\">Hank Azaria</a>, <a href=\"Christopher%20Lloyd\">Christopher Lloyd</a> and <a href=\"Angela%20Lansbury\">Angela Lansbury</a>. The film is a loose adaptation of the legend of <a href=\"Grand%20Duchess%20Anastasia%20Nikolaevna%20of%20Russia\">Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia</a>, which claims that she, in fact, escaped the <a href=\"Shooting%20of%20the%20Romanov%20family\">execution of her family</a>. Its basic plot—that of an eighteen-year-old amnesiac orphan named Anya who, in hopes of finding some trace of her family, sides with con men who wish to take advantage of her likeness to the Grand Duchess—is the same as the <a href=\"Anastasia%20%281956%20film%29\">1956 film by Fox</a>, which, in turn, was based on the 1955 play by <a href=\"Marcelle%20Maurette\">Marcelle Maurette</a>.\nThe film was met with criticism by some historians to its fantastical retelling of the life of the Grand Duchess, though it enjoyed a positive reception from many critics. From a $50 million budget, the film grossed $139,804,348 worldwide, making \"Anastasia\" a box office success.\nThe film received nominations for several awards, including for <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Original%20Song\">Best Original Song</a> (\"<a href=\"Journey%20to%20the%20Past\">Journey to the Past</a>\") and <a href=\"Best%20Original%20Musical%20or%20Comedy%20Score\">Best Original Musical or Comedy Score</a> at the <a href=\"70th%20Academy%20Awards\">70th Academy Awards</a>. It is the most profitable film from Don Bluth and Fox Animation Studios to date. The success of \"Anastasia\" spawned various adaptations of the film into other media, including a direct-to-video <a href=\"Bartok%20the%20Magnificent\">spin-off</a> film, a computer game, books, toys and a <a href=\"Anastasia%20%28musical%29\">stage musical</a>, which premiered in 2016.\nIn 1916, <a href=\"Tsar\">Tsar</a> <a href=\"Nicholas%20II%20of%20Russia\">Nicholas II</a> hosts a ball at the <a href=\"Catherine%20Palace\">Catherine Palace</a> to celebrate the <a href=\"300th%20anniversary%20of%20the%20Romanov%20dynasty\">Romanov tricentennial</a>. His mother, the <a href=\"Maria%20Feodorovna%20%28Dagmar%20of%20Denmark%29\">Dowager Empress Marie Feodorovna</a>, is visiting from <a href=\"Paris\">Paris</a>, and gives a music box and a necklace inscribed with the words “Together in Paris” as parting gifts to her youngest granddaughter, the 8-year-old Grand Duchess Anastasia. The ball is suddenly interrupted by the sorcerer <a href=\"Grigori%20Rasputin\">Grigori Rasputin</a>, the former royal advisor of the Romanovs until he was banished by Nicholas for treason. Seeking revenge, Rasputin <a href=\"Deal%20with%20the%20Devil\">sold his soul</a> in exchange for an unholy reliquary, which he uses to place a curse on the <a href=\"House%20of%20Romanov\">Romanov family</a>, sparking the <a href=\"Russian%20Revolution\">Russian Revolution</a>. During the siege of the palace, only Marie and Anastasia are able to escape with the aid of a servant boy named Dimitri, who shows them a secret passageway in Anastasia's room. Rasputin confronts the two royals outside on a frozen river, only to fall through the ice and drown. The pair manage to reach a moving train, but only Marie climbs aboard while Anastasia falls, hitting her head on the platform and suffering <a href=\"amnesia\">amnesia</a>.\nTen years later, Russia is under <a href=\"Soviet%20Union\">communist rule</a> and Marie has publicly offered 10 million <a href=\"Soviet%20ruble\">rubles</a> for the safe return of her granddaughter. Dimitri and his friend/partner-in-crime Vladimir search for a look-alike to bring to Paris and pass off as Anastasia so they can collect the reward. Elsewhere, Anastasia, now 18 years of age and known as Anya, leaves the rural orphanage where she grew up. Accompanied by a stray puppy she names Pooka, she decides to head to <a href=\"Saint%20Petersburg\">Saint Petersburg</a> in order to arrange transportation to Paris, inspired by the message on her necklace and believing it will lead her to her family. She is unable to leave Russia, however, due to not having an exit visa, but an old woman advises her to see Dimitri at the abandoned palace where he has made residence. Dimitri and Vladimir are impressed by Anya's resemblance to the Grand Duchess Anastasia. After learning that she wishes to go to Paris, Dimitri manages to convince Anya that, because of her lost memories, she cannot rule out the possibility that she is the Grand Duchess. This leads to Anya agreeing to accompany Dimitri and Vladimir to Paris to see Marie, without knowing anything of the reward, which Dimitri has no intention of splitting with her.\nBartok, Rasputin's albino bat minion, is nearby and notices his master's dormant reliquary suddenly revived by Anastasia's presence; it drags him to limbo, where Rasputin survives. Enraged to hear that Anastasia escaped the curse, Rasputin sends his demonic minions from the reliquary to kill her. They fail, forcing Rasputin to travel back to the world of the living to kill Anastasia himself.\nAnya, Dimitri, and Vladimir eventually reach Paris and go to meet Marie, but learn that she has given up the search, having been nearly fooled numerous times by impostors. Despite this, Marie's cousin, Sophie, meets with Anya and quizzes her to confirm her identity. Anya offers every answer taught to her, but Sophie then asks Anya how she escaped from the palace ten years ago - a question which Dimitri and Vladimir had not anticipated. Anya, however, vaguely recollects a servant boy and a secret passageway, causing Dimitri to realize that Anya is the real Anastasia. Sophie, also convinced of Anastasia's identity, arranges a meeting with Marie at the <a href=\"Palais%20Garnier\">Palais Garnier</a> Opera house. There, Dimitri tries to establish an introduction, but Marie refuses, having already heard of Dimitri's initial scheme to con her. Anastasia overhears the conversation and angrily leaves, feeling used. Dimitri then kidnaps Marie and takes her to see Anastasia, showing Marie the music box he recovered during their escape. Anastasia finally meets Marie and regains her memories as they converse, convincing the empress of her identity. The two are joyfully reunited.\nMarie offers Dimitri the reward money, but to her surprise, he refuses it and leaves for Russia. Marie finally recognizes him as the servant boy who saved her. That night at Anastasia's return celebration, Marie informs her of Dimitri's gesture, leaving Anastasia torn between staying or being with him. Pooka suddenly runs off; Anastasia chases him to the <a href=\"Pont%20Alexandre%20III\">Pont Alexandre III</a>, where she is has her dress torn and attacked by Rasputin. Dimitri returns to save her but is injured and knocked unconscious while Bartok abandons Rasputin. In the struggle, Pooka manages to get hold of Rasputin's reliquary and Anastasia crushes it under her foot, causing Rasputin to disintegrate and avenging her family.\nIn the aftermath, Dimitri and Anastasia reconcile; they then elope, and Anastasia sends a farewell letter to Marie and Sophie, promising to return one day.\n<a href=\"J.%20K.%20Simmons\">J.K. Simmons</a>, <a href=\"Victoria%20Clark\">Victoria Clark</a>, and <a href=\"Lillias%20White\">Lillias White</a> are among the ensemble and character voices.\nIn May 1994, \"<a href=\"The%20Los%20Angeles%20Times\">The Los Angeles Times</a>\" reported that Don Bluth and Gary Goldman had signed a long-term deal to produce animated features with 20th Century Fox with the studio channeling more than $100 million in constructing the animation studio. For the location of the new animation studio, <a href=\"Phoenix%2C%20Arizona\">Phoenix, Arizona</a> was selected because the state offered the company about $1 million in job training funds and low-interest loans for the state-of-the-art digital animation equipment, with a staff of 300 artists and technicians, a third of whom worked with Bluth and Goldman in <a href=\"Dublin%2C%20Ireland\">Dublin, Ireland</a> for <a href=\"Sullivan%20Bluth%20Studios\">Sullivan Bluth Studios</a>. For their first project, the studio insisted they select one out of a dozen existing properties which they owned where Bluth and Goldman suggested adapting \"<a href=\"The%20King%20and%20I\">The King and I</a>\" and \"<a href=\"My%20Fair%20Lady\">My Fair Lady</a>\", though Bluth and Goldman felt it would be impossible to improve on <a href=\"Audrey%20Hepburn\">Audrey Hepburn</a>'s performance and <a href=\"Lerner%20and%20Loewe\">Lerner and Loewe</a>'s score. Following several story suggestions, the idea to adapt \"<a href=\"Anastasia%20%281956%20film%29\">Anastasia</a>\" originated from Fox Filmed Entertainment CEO <a href=\"Bill%20Mechanic\">Bill Mechanic</a>. They would later adapt story elements from \"<a href=\"Pygmalion%20%28play%29\">Pygmalion</a>\" with the peasant Anya being molded into a regal woman.\nWhen Bluth and Goldman began researching the actual events, they discovered the history of Anastasia and the Romanov dynasty was too dark for their film, and decided to use the basic facts of the Romanovs' demise and the <a href=\"Russian%20Revolution\">Russian Revolution</a> as a starting point and ask, \"What if this girl escaped, and what would have happened to her?\" opting to \"'tell a myth or a fairy tale.'\" Bluth also did not take into consideration depicting <a href=\"Vladimir%20Lenin\">Vladimir Lenin</a> and the <a href=\"Bolsheviks\">Bolsheviks</a> as the villains, and instead incorporated <a href=\"Grigori%20Rasputin\">Grigori Rasputin</a>, explaining \"We wanted to stay out of politics.\" In reality, Rasputin was already dead when the Romanovs were assassinated. In addition to this, Bluth created the idea for Bartok, the albino bat, as a sidekick for Rasputin. \"I just thought the villain had to have a comic sidekick, just to let everyone know that it was all right to laugh. A bat seemed a natural friend for Rasputin. Making him a white bat came later - just to make him different.\" Composers Ahrens and Flaherty recalled being at Au Bon Pain in New York City where Rasputin and Bartok were pitched, and being dismayed at the decision to go down a historically inaccurate route; they made their stage musical adaption \"more sophisticated, more far-reaching, more political\" to encompass their original vision.\nBluth stated that <a href=\"Meg%20Ryan\">Meg Ryan</a> was his first and only choice for the title character. However, Ryan was indecisive about accepting the role due to its dark historical events. To persuade her, the animation team took an audio clip of Annie Reed from \"<a href=\"Sleepless%20in%20Seattle\">Sleepless in Seattle</a>\" and created an animation reel based on it which was screened for her following an invitation to the studio. \"I was blown away that they did that,\" Ryan later confessed, and accepted the role. Before Ryan was cast, Broadway actress and singer <a href=\"Liz%20Callaway\">Liz Callaway</a> was brought in to record several demos of the songs hoping to land a job in <a href=\"backing%20vocalist\">background vocals</a>, but were liked well enough by the songwriters that were ultimately used in the final film. Cusack openly admitted after being cast that he couldn't sing, in which his singing duties were performed by <a href=\"Jonathan%20Dokuchitz\">Jonathan Dokuchitz</a> as well as <a href=\"Jim%20Cummings\">Jim Cummings</a> substituting for <a href=\"Christopher%20Lloyd\">Christopher Lloyd</a>.\nThe film score was composed, co-orchestrated, and conducted by <a href=\"David%20Newman%20%28composer%29\">David Newman</a>, whose father, <a href=\"Alfred%20Newman%20%28composer%29\">Alfred Newman</a>, composed the score of the 1956 <a href=\"Anastasia%20%281956%20film%29\">film of the same name</a>. The songs, of which \"Journey to the Past\" was nominated for the <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Original%20Song\">Academy Award for Best Original Song</a>, were written by <a href=\"Lynn%20Ahrens\">Lynn Ahrens</a> and <a href=\"Stephen%20Flaherty\">Stephen Flaherty</a>. The first song they wrote for the project was \"Once Upon a December\"; it was written during a heatwave \"so you’re sweating and writing winter imagery\". The film's soundtrack was released in CD and audio cassette format on October 28, 1997.\n20th Century Fox scheduled for \"Anastasia\" to be released on November 21, 1997, notably a week after the 1997 re-release of Disney's \"<a href=\"The%20Little%20Mermaid%20%281989%20film%29\">The Little Mermaid</a>\". Disney claimed it had long-planned for the seventeen-day re-release to coincide with a consumer products campaign leading into Christmas and the film's home video release in March 1998, as well continue the tradition for re-releasing the film within a seven to eight-year interval. In addition to this, Disney would release several competing family films including \"<a href=\"Flubber%20%28film%29\">Flubber</a>\" on the following weekend, as well as a <a href=\"double%20feature\">double feature</a> of \"<a href=\"George%20of%20the%20Jungle%20%28film%29\">George of the Jungle</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Hercules%20%281997%20film%29\">Hercules</a>\". As a response, Disney refused to advertise for \"Anastasia\" on the <a href=\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\">ABC</a> program \"<a href=\"Walt%20Disney%20anthology%20television%20series%23The%20Wonderful%20World%20of%20Disney%20%281991%20%E2%80%93%20present%29\">The Wonderful World of Disney</a>\", and banned its corporate sponsors from airing film clips during their television commercials. Commenting on the fierce competition between the two films, Disney spokesman John Dreyer brushed off allegations of studio rivalry claiming \"We always re-release our movies around holiday periods.\" However, Fox executives refused to believe Dreyer's statement with Bill Mechanic responding that \"It's a deliberate attempt to be a bully, to kick sand in our face. They can't be trying to maximize their own business; the amount they're spending on advertising is ridiculous...It's a concentrated effort to keep our film from fulfilling its potential.\"\n\"Anastasia\" was accompanied with a marketing campaign at more than $50 million with promotional sponsors from <a href=\"Burger%20King\">Burger King</a>, <a href=\"Dole%20Food%20Company\">Dole Food Company</a>, <a href=\"The%20Hershey%20Company\">Hershey</a>, <a href=\"Pond%27s\">Chesebrough-Ponds</a>, <a href=\"Macy%27s%20Thanksgiving%20Day%20Parade\">Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade</a>, <a href=\"Shell%20Oil%20Company\">Shell Oil</a>, and the <a href=\"1997%20U.S.%20Figure%20Skating%20Championships\">1997 U.S. Figure Skating Championships</a>. Overall, the marketing costs exceeded that of \"<a href=\"Independence%20Day%20%281996%20film%29\">Independence Day</a>\" by more than 35 percent. For merchandising, Fox selected <a href=\"Galoob\">Galoob</a> to license dolls based on Anastasia. In August 1997, the <a href=\"SeaWorld\">SeaWorld</a> theme parks in <a href=\"San%20Diego\">San Diego</a> and <a href=\"Orlando\">Orlando</a> featured a 40-foot-long, 20-foot-high inflatable playground for children called \"Anastasia's Kingdom\".\nOn April 28, 1998, \"Anastasia\" was released on VHS and sold eight million units. On March 14, 2006, the film was reissued on a two-disc \"Family Fun Edition\" DVD with the film in its original theatrical 2.35:1 widescreen format. The first disc contained the film, an optional audio commentary from directors/writers Don Bluth and Gary Goldman, and bonus features. The second disc contained a making-of documentary, music video and making-of featurette of <a href=\"Aaliyah\">Aaliyah</a>'s \"Journey to the Past\", and additional bonus content. The film was released on Blu-ray on March 22, 2011.\n\"Anastasia\" received a positive reception from critics. <a href=\"Review%20aggregator\">Review aggregator</a> website <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> gives the film a score of 85% based on 52 reviews with an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's consensus reads, \"Beautiful animation, an affable take on Russian history, and strong voice performances make \"Anastasia\" a winning first film from Fox animation studios.\" <a href=\"Roger%20Ebert\">Roger Ebert</a> of the \"<a href=\"Chicago%20Sun-Times\">Chicago Sun-Times</a>\" awarded the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, writing, \"The result is entertaining and sometimes exciting\". Margaret A. McGurk of \"<a href=\"The%20Cincinnati%20Enquirer\">The Cincinnati Enquirer</a>\" described \"Anastasia\" as \"charming\" and \"entertaining,\" concluding, \"\"Anastasia\" serves up a tasty tale about a fairy-tale princess.\" Lisa Osbourne of \"<a href=\"Boxoffice%20%28magazine%29\">Boxoffice</a>\" called the film \"pure family entertainment.\" Awarding the film three out of five stars, \"<a href=\"Empire%20%28magazine%29\">Empire</a>\"'s Philip Thomas wrote, \"Historical inaccuracies aside, Anastasia manages to be a charming little movie\".\nSeveral critics have drawn positive comparisons between \"Anastasia\" and the Disney films released during the <a href=\"Disney%20Renaissance\">Disney Renaissance</a>, noting similarities in their story and animation styles. Marjorie Baumgarten of \"<a href=\"The%20Austin%20Chronicle\">The Austin Chronicle</a>\" awarded the film three out of five stars. Likening its quality to that of a Disney animated film, Baumgarten wrote, \"\"Anastasia\"...may not beat Disney at its own game, but it sure won't be for lack of trying.\" Baumgarten continued, \"[t]his sumptuous-looking film clearly spared no expense in its visual rendering; its optical flourishes and attention to detail aim for the Disney gold standard and, for the most part, come pretty darn close.\" \"<a href=\"The%20Phoenix%20%28newspaper%29\">The Phoenix</a>\"'s Jeffrey Gantz jokingly stated, \"[i]f imitation is indeed the sincerest form of flattery, then the folks at Disney should feel royally complimented by Twentieth Century Fox's new animated feature about Tsar Nicholas II's youngest daughter.\" <a href=\"Owen%20Gleiberman\">Owen Gleiberman</a> of \"<a href=\"Entertainment%20Weekly\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\" wrote, \"Fox's challenge to the Disney empire is a beautifully animated musical\". However, Gleiberman continued, \"\"Anastasia\" has the Disney house style down cold, yet the magic is missing.\"\nCritical reception in Russia was also, for the most part, positive despite the artistic liberties that the film took with Russian history. Gemini Films, the Russian distributor of \"Anastasia\", stressed the fact that the story was \"not history\", but rather \"a fairy tale set against the background of real Russian events\" in the film's Russian marketing campaign so that its Russian audience would not view \"Anastasia\" \"as a historical film\". As a result, many Russians praised the film for its art and storytelling and saw it as \"not so much a piece of history but another Western import to be consumed and enjoyed\".\nSome Russian Orthodox Christians, on the other hand, found \"Anastasia\" to be an offensive depiction of the Grand Duchess, who was <a href=\"Canonization%20of%20the%20Romanovs\">canonized</a> as a <a href=\"new%20martyr\">new martyr</a> in 1981 by the <a href=\"Russian%20Orthodox%20Church%20Outside%20Russia\">Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia</a> and a <a href=\"passion%20bearer\">passion bearer</a> in 2000 by the <a href=\"Russian%20Orthodox%20Church\">Russian Orthodox Church</a>. Many historians echoed their sentiments, criticizing the film as a \"sanitized, sugar-coated reworking of the story of the Czar's youngest daughter.\" While the filmmakers acknowledged the fact that \"\"Anastasia\" uses history only as a starting point\", others complained that the film would provide its audience with misleading facts about Russian history, which, according to the author and historian Suzanne Massie, \"has been falsified for so many years.\" Similarly, the amateur historian Bob Atchison said that \"Anastasia\" was akin to someone making a film in which \"<a href=\"Anne%20Frank\">Anne Frank</a> moves to Orlando and opens a crocodile farm with a guy named Mort.\"\nSome of Anastasia's contemporary relatives also felt that the film was distasteful, but most Romanovs have come to accept the \"repeated exploitation of Anastasia's romantic tale ... with equanimity.\"\nA <a href=\"limited%20release\">limited release</a> of \"Anastasia\" at the <a href=\"Ziegfeld%20Theatre%20%281969%29\">Ziegfeld Theatre</a> in New York City on the weekend of November 14, 1997 grossed $120,541. The following week, the wide release of \"Anastasia\" in the United States made $14,104,933 (for an average of about $5,692 from 2,478 theaters), which placed it as the #2 film for the weekend of November 21–23, 1997. By the end of its theatrical run, \"Anastasia\" had grossed $58,406,347 in the North American box office and $81,398,001 internationally. The worldwide gross totaled up to about $139,804,348, making it Don Bluth's highest-grossing film to date, beating out his previous record holder of that title \"<a href=\"The%20Land%20Before%20Time\">The Land Before Time</a>\" from 1988 by about $55,343,502. It should also be noted that this was Don Bluth's first financially successful film since \"<a href=\"All%20Dogs%20Go%20to%20Heaven\">All Dogs Go to Heaven</a>\".\nAnastasia On Ice was a licensed adaptation produced by <a href=\"Feld%20Entertainment\">Feld Entertainment</a>'s <a href=\"Ice%20Follies\">on ice unit</a> that ran from at least 1998 to 1999.\nIn 1999 a direct-to-video spin-off and prequel called \"<a href=\"Bartok%20the%20Magnificent\">Bartok the Magnificent</a>\" was released which focused on the character of Bartok.\nOn April 21, 2015, Hartford Stage, <a href=\"Hartford%2C%20Connecticut\">Hartford, Connecticut</a> announced that they will premiere a new stage production of \"Anastasia\", with the book by <a href=\"Terrence%20McNally\">Terrence McNally</a>, lyrics by <a href=\"Lynn%20Ahrens\">Lynn Ahrens</a>, music by <a href=\"Stephen%20Flaherty\">Stephen Flaherty</a> and directed by Darko Tresnjak. The production ran from May 13 through June 19, 2016.\nIt is an original new musical combining both the 1956 Fox film and the 1997 animated film. According to Tresnjak, the musical features six songs from the animated movie and additionally includes 16 new songs. Additionally, there have been some newly rewritten characters including Checkist secret Police officer Gleb Vaganov (in the place of Rasputin), and Lily, who has been renamed in the place of Sophie. McNally said \"This is a stage version for a modern theatre audience...The libretto’s 'a blend' of old and new...There are characters in the musical that appear in neither the cartoon nor the Ingrid Bergman version.”\nThe Hartford production featured <a href=\"Christy%20Altomare\">Christy Altomare</a> as Anastasia/Anya, <a href=\"Derek%20Klena\">Derek Klena</a> as Dimitri, <a href=\"Mary%20Beth%20Peil\">Mary Beth Peil</a> as The Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, <a href=\"Manoel%20Felciano\">Manoel Felciano</a> as Gleb Vaganov, <a href=\"John%20Bolton%20%28actor%29\">John Bolton</a> as Vladimir, <a href=\"Caroline%20O%27Connor%20%28actress%29\">Caroline O'Connor</a> as Lily, and Nicole Scimeca as Young Anastasia. The musical transferred to <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a> with much of the original Hartford cast, opening on April 24, 2017 at the <a href=\"Broadhurst%20Theatre\">Broadhurst Theater</a> to mixed reviews.\n\"Anastasia\" received the <a href=\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association\">Broadcast Film Critics Association</a> <a href=\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Award%20for%20Best%20Family%20Film\">Award for Best Family Film</a> and was nominated for 7 others, including two <a href=\"Academy%20Awards\">Academy Awards</a> in the categories of \"<a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Original%20Music%20Score\">Best Original Musical or Comedy Score</a>\" (lost to \"<a href=\"The%20Full%20Monty\">The Full Monty</a>\") and \"<a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Song\">Best Original Song</a>\" for \"<a href=\"Journey%20to%20the%20Past\">Journey to the Past</a>\" (lost to <a href=\"My%20Heart%20Will%20Go%20On\">My Heart Will Go On</a> from \"<a href=\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\">Titanic</a>\"). The <a href=\"contemporary%20R%26amp%3BB\">R&B</a> singer <a href=\"Aaliyah\">Aaliyah</a> performed her pop single version of \"Journey to the Past\" at the <a href=\"70th%20Academy%20Awards\">70th Academy Awards</a>.\n","Division (business)\nA division of a <a href=\"business\">business</a>, sometimes called a business sector, is one of the parts into which a business, <a href=\"organization\">organization</a> or <a href=\"company\">company</a> is divided. The divisions are distinct parts of that business. If these divisions are all part of the same company, then that company is legally responsible for all of the obligations and debts of the divisions. However, in a large organization, various parts of the business may be run by different <a href=\"subsidiary\">subsidiaries</a>, and a business division may include one or many subsidiaries. Each subsidiary is a separate legal entity owned by the primary business or by another subsidiary in the hierarchy. Often a division operates under a separate name and is the equivalent of a <a href=\"corporation\">corporation</a> or <a href=\"limited%20liability%20company\">limited liability company</a> obtaining a <a href=\"fictitious%20name\">fictitious name</a> or \"<a href=\"doing%20business%20as\">doing business as</a>\" certificate and operating a business under that fictitious name. Companies often set up business units to operate in divisions prior to the legal formation of subsidiaries.\nGenerally, only an \"entity\", e.g. a corporation, <a href=\"Public%20limited%20company\">public limited company (plc)</a> or limited liability company, etc. would have a \"division\"; an individual operating in this manner would simply be \"operating under a fictitious name\".\nAn example of this would be to look at <a href=\"Hewlett%20Packard\">Hewlett Packard</a> (HP), the <a href=\"computer\">computer</a> and <a href=\"Printer%20%28computing%29\">printer</a> company. HP has several divisions, with the printer division, that makes laser and inkjet printers, being the largest and most profitable division. The divisions of HP, like the Printing & Multifunction division, the Handheld Devices (includes the old calculator) division, the Servers division (mini and mainframe computers), etc., all use the HP brand name. But, <a href=\"Compaq\">Compaq</a> (a part of HP since 2002), operates as a \"subsidiary\", using the Compaq brand name.\n<a href=\"Mack%20Trucks\">Mack Trucks</a> continues to run itself separately, but is a wholly owned subsidiary of <a href=\"AB%20Volvo\">AB Volvo</a>. Volvo Trucks also sells <a href=\"truck\">truck</a>s under the Volvo name. Within Mack, there is a division named Mack de Venezuela C.A. that does final assembly and sells trucks in <a href=\"South%20America\">South America</a>.\nAnother less obvious example is that <a href=\"Google%20Video\">Google Video</a> is a \"division\" of <a href=\"Google\">Google</a>, and is part of the same corporate entity. But the <a href=\"YouTube\">YouTube</a> video service is a \"subsidiary\" of Google because it remains operated as YouTube, LLC, a separate <a href=\"business%20entity\">business entity</a> even though it is owned by Google.\n","Blue Sky Studios\nBlue Sky Studios is an American <a href=\"computer%20animation\">computer animation</a> film studio based in <a href=\"Greenwich%2C%20Connecticut\">Greenwich, Connecticut</a> that has been owned by <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a> since 1997. The studio was founded in 1987 by <a href=\"Chris%20Wedge\">Chris Wedge</a>, Michael Ferraro, Carl Ludwig, Alison Brown, David Brown, and Eugene Troubetzkoy after the company they worked in, <a href=\"Mathematical%20Applications%20Group\">MAGI</a>, one of the visual effects studios behind \"<a href=\"Tron\">Tron</a>\" (1982), shut down. Using its in-house rendering software, the studio had worked on visual effects for commercials and films before completely dedicating itself to animated film production in 2002 with the release of \"<a href=\"Ice%20Age%20%282002%20film%29\">Ice Age</a>\".\n\"<a href=\"Ice%20Age%20%28franchise%29\">Ice Age</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Rio%20%282011%20film%29\">Rio</a>\" are the studio's most successful franchises, while \"<a href=\"The%20Peanuts%20Movie\">The Peanuts Movie</a>\" is its most critically acclaimed film. As of 2013, <a href=\"Scrat\">Scrat</a>, a character from the \"Ice Age\" films, is the studio's mascot.\nIn the late 1970s, <a href=\"Chris%20Wedge\">Chris Wedge</a>, then an undergraduate at <a href=\"Purchase%20College\">Purchase College</a> studying film, was employed by <a href=\"Mathematical%20Applications%20Group\">Mathematical Applications Group, Inc.</a> (MAGI). MAGI was an early computer technology company which produced SynthaVision, a software application that could replicate the laws of physics to measure <a href=\"nuclear%20radiation\">nuclear radiation</a> rays for <a href=\"U.S.%20government\">U.S. government</a> contracts. At MAGI, Wedge met Eugene Troubetzkoy, who held a <a href=\"Doctor%20of%20Philosophy\">Ph.D</a> in <a href=\"theoretical%20physics\">theoretical physics</a> and was one of the first <a href=\"Computer%20animation\">computer animators</a>. Using his background in character animation, Wedge helped MAGI produce animation for television commercials, which eventually led to an offer from <a href=\"Walt%20Disney%20Pictures\">Walt Disney Productions</a> to produce animation for the film \"<a href=\"Tron\">Tron</a>\" (1982). For \"Tron\", MAGI hired Michael Ferraro, a <a href=\"systems%20architect\">systems architect</a>, and Carl Ludwig, an <a href=\"Electrical%20engineering\">electrical engineer</a>. As MAGI's success began to decline, the company employed David Brown from <a href=\"CBS/Fox%20Video\">CBS/Fox Video</a> to be a marketing executive and Alison Brown to be a managing producer. After MAGI shut down, the six individuals—Wedge, Troubetzkoy, Ferraro, Ludwig, David Brown, and Alison Brown—founded Blue Sky Studios in February 1987 to continue their work in computer animation.\nFerraro began to build a programming language specifically tailored for Blue Sky's proprietary animation software, CGI Studio. At the time, <a href=\"Scanline%20rendering\">scanline renderers</a> were prevalent in the computer graphics industry, and they required computer animators and digital artists to add lighting effects in manually; Troubetzkoy, Ferraro, and Ludwig developed CGI Studio to use <a href=\"Ray%20tracing%20%28graphics%29\">ray tracing</a>, which allows the renderer to simulate the physical properties of light and produce lighting effects automatically. To accomplish this, Ludwig examined how light passes through water, ice, and crystal, and programmed those properties into the software. Following the <a href=\"Black%20Monday%20%281987%29\">stock market crash of 1987</a>, Blue Sky Studios did not find their first client until about two years later: a company \"that wanted their logo animated so it would be seen flying over the ocean in front of a sunset.\" In order to receive the commission, Blue Sky spent two days rendering a single frame and submitted it to the prospective client. However, once the client accepted their offer, Blue Sky found that they could not produce the entire animation in time without help from a local graphics studio, which provided them with extra computer processors.\nThroughout the late 1980s and 1990s, Blue Sky Studios concentrated on the production of television commercials and visual effects for film. The studio began by animating commercials that depicted the mechanisms of time-release <a href=\"Capsule%20%28pharmacy%29\">capsules</a> for <a href=\"Pharmaceutical%20industry\">pharmaceutical corporations.</a> The studio also produced a <a href=\"Chock%20Full%20O%27%20Nuts\">Chock Full O' Nuts</a> commercial with a talking coffee bean and developed the first computer-animated <a href=\"M%26amp%3BM%27s\">M&M's</a>. Using CGI Studio, the studio produced over 200 other commercials for clients such as <a href=\"Chrysler\">Chrysler</a>, <a href=\"General%20Foods\">General Foods</a>, <a href=\"Texaco\">Texaco</a>, and the <a href=\"United%20States%20Marine%20Corps\">United States Marines</a>. Blue Sky Studios also produced the computer animation for the \"<a href=\"Mathman\">Mathman</a>\" video game segments of PBS's \"<a href=\"Square%20One%20Television\">Square One Television</a>\".\nIn the mid-1990s, <a href=\"MTV\">MTV</a> hired Blue Sky Studios to animate their network IDs, which led to additional collaboration between the two companies on the film \"<a href=\"Joe%27s%20Apartment\">Joe's Apartment</a>\" (1996), for which Blue Sky animated the insect characters. Other clients included <a href=\"Bell%20Atlantic\">Bell Atlantic</a>, <a href=\"Rayovac\">Rayovac</a>, <a href=\"Gillette\">Gillette</a>, and <a href=\"Braun%20%28company%29\">Braun</a>. The Braun commercial was awarded a <a href=\"Clio%20Awards\">CLIO Award for Advertising</a>. Recalling the award, Carl Ludwig stated that the judges had initially mistaken the commercial as a live action submission as a result of the photorealism of the computer-animated razor. In August 1997, <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>'s Los Angeles-based visual effects company, VIFX, acquired <a href=\"majority%20interest\">majority interest</a> in Blue Sky Studios to form a new visual effects and animation company, temporarily renamed \"Blue Sky/VIFX\". Following the studio's expansion, Blue Sky produced character animation for the films \"\" (1997), \"<a href=\"A%20Simple%20Wish\">A Simple Wish</a>\" (1997), \"<a href=\"MouseHunt%20%28film%29\">Mousehunt</a>\" (1997), \"\" (1998), and \"<a href=\"Fight%20Club\">Fight Club</a>\" (1999).\nMeanwhile, starting in 1990, Chris Wedge had been working on a short film named \"<a href=\"Bunny%20%281998%20film%29\">Bunny</a>\", intended to demonstrate CGI Studio. The film revolves around a rabbit widow who is irritated by a moth. The moth subsequently leads the rabbit into \"a heavenly glow, reuniting her with her husband.\" At the time, Wedge had been the thesis advisor for <a href=\"Carlos%20Saldanha\">Carlos Saldanha</a> while Saldanha was a graduate student at the <a href=\"School%20of%20Visual%20Arts\">School of Visual Arts</a>; Wedge shared storyboard panels for \"Bunny\" with Saldanha during this time. After Saldanha's graduation, Blue Sky Studios hired him as an animator, and he later directed a few commercials. It was not until 1996 when Nina Rappaport, a producer at Blue Sky Studios, assigned Wedge to complete the \"Bunny\" project, which required CGI Studio to render fur, glass, and metal from multiple light sources, such as a swinging light bulb and an \"ethereal cloudscape\". In the initial stages of the \"Bunny\" project, Carl Ludwig modified CGI Studio to simulate <a href=\"Radiosity%20%28computer%20graphics%29\">radiosity</a>, which tracks light rays as they reflect off of multiple surfaces. Blue Sky Studios released \"Bunny\" in 1998, and it received the <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Animated%20Short%20Film\">Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film</a>. \"Bunny\"'s success gave Blue Sky Studios the opportunity to produce feature length films.\nDue to the F/X market crash, Fox decided to leave the visual effects business. In March 1999, they sold VIFX to another visual effects house, <a href=\"Rhythm%20%26amp%3B%20Hues%20Studios\">Rhythm & Hues Studios</a>, and considered selling Blue Sky next. At the time, the studio got the opportunity with the \"<a href=\"Ice%20Age%20%282002%20film%29\">Ice Age</a>\" script to turn it into a comedy. In 2002, \"Ice Age\" was released to great critical and commercial success. The film got a nomination for an <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Animated%20Feature\">Academy Award for Best Animated Feature</a>, and established Blue Sky as the third studio, after <a href=\"Pixar\">Pixar</a> and <a href=\"DreamWorks%20Animation\">DreamWorks Animation</a>, to launch a successful CGI franchise.\nIn January 2009, the studio moved from <a href=\"White%20Plains%2C%20New%20York\">White Plains, New York</a> to <a href=\"Greenwich%2C%20Connecticut\">Greenwich, Connecticut</a>, taking advantage of the state's 30 percent tax credit and having more space to grow. The studio stated in April 2017 that it intends to stay in Connecticut until 2025.\nIn 2013, Chris Wedge took a leave of absence to direct <a href=\"Paramount%20Animation\">Paramount Animation</a>'s live-action/computer-animated film \"<a href=\"Monster%20Trucks%20%28film%29\">Monster Trucks</a>\".\n","Priit Pärn\nPriit Pärn (born 26 August 1946 in <a href=\"Tallinn\">Tallinn</a>) is an <a href=\"Estonia\">Estonia</a>n <a href=\"cartoonist\">cartoonist</a> and <a href=\"animation%20director\">animation director</a> whose films have enjoyed success among critics as well as the public at various film festivals.\nPärn formerly worked as a plant ecologist; his career in animation began when he accepted <a href=\"Rein%20Raamat\">Rein Raamat</a>'s proposal to make a design for \"Kilplased\" (1974). After a brief apprenticeship in Joonisfilm, he directed his first film \"Is the Earth Round?\" in 1977.\nPärn's most important films are considered to be \"Triangle\" (1982), \"Breakfast on the Grass\" (1987), \"Hotel E\" (1991), \"1895\" (co-directed by <a href=\"Janno%20P%C3%B5ldma\">Janno Põldma</a>, 1995) and \"Night of the Carrots\" (1998).\nPärn's style is characterized by black humour, playful surrealism and a unique graphic style. His somewhat crude style marked the departure from both <a href=\"Rein%20Raamat\">Rein Raamat</a>'s overtly serious and moralizing films as well as the Disneyesque style propagated by the directors of <a href=\"Soyuzmultfilm\">Soyuzmultfilm</a>. In his footsteps (and occasionally copying his style to a large degree) have followed numerous new generation Estonian film makers, most notably <a href=\"%C3%9Clo%20Pikkov\">Ülo Pikkov</a> and <a href=\"Priit%20Tender\">Priit Tender</a>.\nInfluences of Pärn's graphical style can be also be seen in such commercial animated series as \"<a href=\"Rugrats\">Rugrats</a>\" and \"<a href=\"AAAHH%21%21%21%20Real%20Monsters%21\">AAAHH!!! Real Monsters!</a>\" directed by <a href=\"Igor%20Kovalyov\">Igor Kovalyov</a>.\nIn 2002 Pärn was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award from the <a href=\"International%20Animated%20Film%20Association\">International Animated Film Association</a>, and he received Lifetime Achievement Award at the World Festival of Animated Film - <a href=\"Animafest%20Zagreb\">Animafest Zagreb</a> in 2008.\n\"Divers in the Rain\" (2010), co-directed with his wife <a href=\"Olga%20P%C3%A4rn\">Olga Pärn</a>, became the most successful Estonian animated film of all time with its 18th award at KROK International Animated Film Festival in Ukraine.<a href=\"http%3A//www.joonisfilm.ee/archives/1223%3Flang%3Den\"></a>\nPärn had taught animation at the Arts Academy of the <a href=\"Turku%20University%20of%20Applied%20Sciences\">Turku University of Applied Sciences</a> in <a href=\"Turku\">Turku</a>, Finland since 1994 and now he is teaching at <a href=\"Estonian%20Academy%20of%20Arts\">Estonian Academy of Arts</a>.","Cartoon d'or\nThe Cartoon d'Or is the pan-European award for <a href=\"animation\">animation</a> <a href=\"short%20film\">short film</a>s. It rewards every year the best one since only prize-winning films from Cartoon's partner festivals can compete.\nAmongst this short list, a <a href=\"jury\">jury</a> selects 5 films that will be screened during the Cartoon Forum (in order to promote 5 <a href=\"filmmaker\">filmmaker</a>s each year) and one film will receive the Cartoon d'Or\nCreated in 1991, the Cartoon d'Or is still remaining the only completely European animation prize. This competition aims to \"promote the talents of European animation.\"\nThe Cartoon d'Or was created in order to nourish the European animation industry by work from creative filmmakers. European <a href=\"television%20series\">television series</a> lacked of <a href=\"creativity\">creativity</a> to compete with programming on offer from the United States and Japan.\nMoreover, although major financial support was being given to develop European animation, no special place was made for it at major European festivals and awards (<a href=\"Cannes%20Film%20Festival\">Cannes Film Festival</a>, Berlin, <a href=\"Venice\">Venice</a>, the European Felix etc.).\nThe <a href=\"award%20ceremony\">award ceremony</a> takes place during the Cartoon Forum which gathers all the players in the economic structure of European animation (700 professionals including 250 potential investors, 350 producers, 60 journalists and 40 public funding bodies). Consequently, the Cartoon Forum can act as a pipeline between short film makers and the industry. Indeed, the finalists are often approached by producers to work on series or <a href=\"feature%20film\">feature film</a>s. Some finalists and prize-winners have themselves gone on to make series or feature films.\nIn 1991, the first Cartoon d'Or went to British director <a href=\"Nick%20Park\">Nick Park</a>, still unknown at the time, for his film \"<a href=\"Creature%20Comforts\">Creature Comforts</a>\". Since then, he has created \"<a href=\"Wallace%20%26amp%3B%20Gromit\">Wallace & Gromit</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Chicken%20Run\">Chicken Run</a>\". <a href=\"Sylvain%20Chomet\">Sylvain Chomet</a> received the Cartoon d'Or in 1997 for his short \"<a href=\"The%20Old%20Lady%20and%20the%20Pigeons\">The Old Lady and the Pigeons</a>\". A few years later, he enjoyed success through \"<a href=\"The%20Triplets%20of%20Belleville\">The Triplets of Belleville</a>\", nominated for two <a href=\"Academy%20Awards\">Academy Awards</a>. He has now released his second feature, \"<a href=\"The%20Illusionist%20%282010%20film%29\">The Illusionist</a>\". Jacques-Rémy Girerd walked away with the award in 1998 for \"Charlie's Christmas\". The French director founded an animation studio, <a href=\"Folimage\">Folimage</a>, and released two feature films: \"<a href=\"Raining%20Cats%20and%20Frogs\">Raining Cats and Frogs</a>\" and \"Mia & the Migoo\". <a href=\"Mark%20Baker%20%28animator%29\">Mark Baker</a>, who created TV series such as \"<a href=\"The%20Big%20Knights\">The Big Knights</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Peppa%20Pig\">Peppa Pig</a>\", <a href=\"Micha%C3%ABl%20Dudok%20de%20Wit\">Michaël Dudok de Wit</a> for his much acclaimed \"Father & Daughter\" and <a href=\"Joanna%20Quinn\">Joanna Quinn</a> for \"Dreams and desires – Family Ties\".\n<a href=\"wiktionary%3AAnimated%20cartoon\">Animated Cartoon</a>\n<a href=\"wiktionary%3ACartoon\">Cartoon</a>\n<a href=\"wiktionary%3ACartoon%20series\">Cartoon series</a>\n<a href=\"wiktionary%3AHistory%20of%20animation\">History of animation</a>","Rein Raamat\nRein Raamat (born 20 March 1931) is an <a href=\"Estonia\">Estonia</a>n animation film director, artist and screenwriter. He is the first internationally successful Estonian animator and along with <a href=\"Elbert%20Tuganov\">Elbert Tuganov</a> is regarded as the \"Father of Estonian Animation\". He has directed many short animated films since the early 1970s and also produced over 20 documentary films.\nRaamat was born in <a href=\"T%C3%BCri\">Türi</a>, <a href=\"J%C3%A4rva%20County\">Järva County</a> and graduated from the <a href=\"Estonian%20Art%20Institute\">Estonian Art Institute</a> in 1957 as a painter and between 1957–1971 worked as an artist and director in feature films based in Tallinn. In 1971, he founded his own animation studio, Joonisfilm, a division of the <a href=\"Tallinnfilm\">Tallinnfilm</a> studio, and commenced making his own films. From 1989–1995 he was artistic director of Studio B which he established, employing some 120 people.\nOne of his notable films is \"Põrgu\" (\"Hell\"), released in 1983, that he based on the art of fellow Estonian <a href=\"Eduard%20Wiiralt\">Eduard Wiiralt</a> from the 1930s.\nSince the early 1990s he has been involved with many documentaries in Estonia. In 1998, he worked with journalist <a href=\"Martti%20Soosaar\">Martti Soosaar</a> in producing the documentary \"Enn Põldroosi härrasmeeste seltskond\"."],"string":"[\n \"20th Century Fox Animation\\nTwentieth Century Fox Animation (stylized as 20th Century Fox Animation) is the animation division of the film studio 20th Century Fox, tasked for production feature-length animated film.\\nBefore 20th Century Fox started its animation division in 1997, 20th Century Fox released its first six animated films, such as \\\"Wizards\\\", \\\"\\\" (both released in 1977), \\\"Fire and Ice\\\" (released in 1983), \\\"\\\", \\\"Once Upon a Forest\\\" and \\\"The Pagemaster\\\". From 1994–2000, they operated Fox Animation Studios, a traditional animation studio which was started to compete with Walt Disney Animation Studios, which was experiencing great success at the time with films such as \\\"Beauty and the Beast\\\", \\\"Aladdin\\\" and \\\"The Lion King\\\". The Fox studio, however, was not as successful. Their first feature \\\"Anastasia\\\" made nearly $140 million at the worldwide box office on a $53 million budget in 1997, but their next feature, \\\"Titan A.E.\\\", was a large financial loss, losing $100 million for 20th Century Fox in 2000. The lack of box office success, coupled with the rise of computer animation, led Fox to shut down the Fox Animation Studios.\\nSince 1997, Fox owns Blue Sky Studios, a computer animation company known for the \\\"Ice Age\\\" franchise. Fox has had much more success with Blue Sky, and the box office receipts of their films are competitive with those of Pixar and DreamWorks. They have released eleven features:\\n\",\n \"Estonian animation\\nEstonian animation tradition dates back to the 1930s when the first experimental films were made. The only surviving short film from the era is \\\"Kutsu-Juku seiklusi\\\" (Adventures of Juku the dog) (1931). After the Great Depression, World War II, and Soviet Occupation interrupted its development, Estonian animation was reborn in 1958. Elbert Tuganov founded a puppet film division Nukufilm in Tallinnfilm Studio. The first film was titled \\\"Peetrikese unenägu\\\" based on a Danish writer Jens Sigsgaard's children story \\\"Palle alene i verden\\\". Joonisfilm a traditional cell animation division of Tallinnfilm was founded by Rein Raamat in 1971. Films like \\\"Põld\\\" (1978), nominee for Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival in 1979; \\\"Lend\\\" (1973), the winner of Special Jury Award at the Zagreb World Festival of Animated Films; the \\\"Suur Tõll\\\" (1980), 2nd place at Ottawa International Animation Festival in 1982 and \\\"Põrgu\\\" (Hell) (1983), the winner of FIPRESCI Prize and Special Jury Award at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival made Raamat the first internationally recognized Estonian animation director.\\nSince Estonia regained independence in 1991 Nukufilm and Joonisfilm continued to operate as private companies owned by the filmmakers. During the era internationally most successful Estonian animation director has been Priit Pärn the winner of Grand Prize at the Ottawa International Animation Festival in 1998 for Porgandite öö (Night of the Carrots).\\n\\\"Crocodile\\\" by Kaspar Jancis was selected to be the Best European Anima film at Cartoon d'or 2010. The other film of Jancis \\\"Villa Antropoff\\\" was awarded with the Special Mention on Scancroma Festival\\n\",\n \"Tor Seidler\\nTor Seidler (born 1952 in Littleton, New Hampshire) is an American author of children's literature. Many of his books feature anthropomorphic animals. \\\"Mean Margaret\\\" was nominated for a National Book Award, \\\"The Wainscott Weasel\\\" was named a Notable Children's Book by the American Library Association, and \\\"A Rat's Tale\\\" was named Best Book of the Year by \\\"Publishers Weekly\\\". In 1998, \\\"A Rat's Tale\\\" was adapted into a puppet film by Augsburger Puppenkiste and distributed by Warner Bros. Family Entertainment. 20th Century Fox Animation and Blue Sky Studios planned to adapt \\\"The Wainscott Weasel\\\" into a movie, which started development in 2003. However, Fox shelved the concept in 2006.\\nHe studied literature at Stanford University.\",\n \"The Legend of the Sky Kingdom\\nThe Legend of the Sky Kingdom is a 2003 animated feature film by Sunrise Productions. Produced in Zimbabwe, the film was the first full length animated feature film to come out of Africa. It was based on a children's book of the same name by Phil Cunningham, who was also the film's producer. It premiered at the Durban International Film Festival in October 2003.\\nThree orphans escape from the Underground City ruled by the Evil Emperor and search for the Sky Kingdom while facing many challenges along the way.\\nThe film was animated using stop motion animation. The puppets and all of the sets were built from pieces of junk that the filmmakers found - a necessity of the low budget as well as an artistic choice inspired by Africa's folk artists, who often turn things that others have thrown away into works of art. The filmmakers call this animation style \\\"junkmation\\\".\\nThe filmmakers also spent two years custom-building a motion camera out of bicycle parts because they did not have the money to buy a professional one.\",\n \"Gumnutz: A Juicy Tale\\nGumnutz: A Juicy Tale is an 80-minute length animated film directed by Clive Harrison and released in 2007. It was nominated for APRA Music Awards of 2008 as the Best Music for Children's Television but lost to Animalia.\\nOne morning it is Claude's first day to work at his Uncle Calvin's Gumnut juice factory. Claude doesn't feel up to it at first. Calvin receives an order for Gumnut juice from the business man Peer Point J. Marino which if successful will grant Calvin's company a contract. The rival Hot Spot Charlie hoping to beat Calvin to the contract first, sends Frankie to steal the secret sweetening formula to fulfill his quota.\\nHot Spot has the apothecarie Cobra analyse the ingredients of the secret formula, but without any success. Hot Spot sends his goons to kidnap Calvin. Claude finds a lead to Bad Manor, but Calvin is well hidden. Hot Spot gets hold a riddle book which has a clue to the secret formula. Catching wind of this, Claude and Pepper sneak into Bad Manor and copy the riddle, Hot Spot also getting the knowledge.\\nClaude and Pepper follow the riddle to Darwin Platypus who tells them the secret formula, Hot Spot listening in. Hot Spot traps Claude, Pepper and Darwin Platypus, but Cobra defects and rescues them and they return to the Gumnut juice factory to begin a large production. Claude is briefly separated from the others, but uses Calvin's special instrument to rally all the Cicadas for the essential ingredient of the formula.\\nClaude, his friends and a swarm of Cicadas thwart Hot Spot's attempt to destroy the Gumnut juice factory, then follow him to Bad Manor to rescue Calvin helped by Ghoulie Gilly. Once Calvin is rescued, Cobra blows Bad Manor with Hot Spot and his goons to the Arctic. After that Calvin is able to meet Marino's quota and get the contract.\",\n \"Twin Peaks: The Missing Pieces\\nTwin Peaks: The Missing Pieces (also known as Twin Peaks: The Entire Mystery) is a 2014 feature length compilation of deleted and extended scenes from \\\"\\\" directed by David Lynch and written by Lynch and Robert Engels. Several scenes from \\\"Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me\\\" were left unused, to keep the movie at a two hour and fifteen minute running time. This film comprises the unused footage from \\\"\\\", piecing together all of the deleted scenes to make a feature length film, featuring the cast of original film including Sheryl Lee, Moira Kelly, David Bowie, Chris Isaak, Harry Dean Stanton, Ray Wise, Kyle MacLachlan, and Mädchen Amick. Due to the expanded content, this film shows a closer look into investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks (Pamela Gidley), expands on the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee), a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks, and has scenes that feature characters from the television series that were excluded from \\\"Fire Walk with Me\\\" such as Josie Packard (Joan Chen), Ed Hurley (Everett McGill), and Nadine Hurley (Wendy Robie).\\nThe first scene shows Agent Sam Stanley and Agent Chet Desmond late at night after performing the autopsy on the body of Teresa Banks as they discuss how much time had passed since they went entered the morgue. Later, they arrive at Hap’s Diner, where Teresa once worked the night shift as a waitress, and question the owner of Hap’s about Teresa. Sheriff Cable of Deer Meadow goes outside with Desmond, and fights him over taking the body of Teresa with him back to Portland, which took the murder investigation out of the hands of the local and corrupt Police Department. Later, Special Agent Dale Cooper is shown in a doorway in the Philadelphia headquarters of the FBI talking to his secretary Diane. Next, Cooper meets Sam Stanley after Desmond went missing.\\nPhillip Jeffries is shown checking into a hotel in Argentina. Agent Jeffries is then seen vanishing when entering an elevator. He emerges out of a different elevator several years later on the other side of the world and discusses the things that he saw in between worlds. Later, the Black Lodge spirits, the Man from Another Place and Killer Bob, above a convenience store.\\nOne year later in Twin Peaks, Bobby Briggs and Mike Nelson discuss the fact that they owe Leo Johnson $5,000 and that their cocaine supply is running low. After going to school, Laura Palmer is horrified when she discovers pages ripped out of her diary. As she runs downstairs, she bumps into her mother, Sarah Palmer, who just got done grocery shopping. Laura asks to use the car, claiming she forgot her books.\\nLater, the Palmer family is having dinner, when Leland Palmer, pretends to be a giant looking for his ax. Leland attempts to teach his family how to introduce themselves and say their names in Norwegian, because Benjamin Horne is having a delegation of Norwegians arriving in a week, and Leland want his family to be able to introduce themselves properly. The entire family starts to laugh.\\nOne night, Laura sneaks out of her house and meets a trucker in his truck, and exchanges sex for drugs. Later, Laura is shown at the Double R Diner preparing to make the Meals on Wheels deliveries. Ed Hurley and Nadine Hurley enter the diner for coffee. When Nadine sees Norma Jennings working at the counter, she angrily makes Ed leave with her. When Shelly Johnson sees Laura staring at the place where Mrs. Tremond and her grandson were standing, Laura tells her that she cannot make the deliveries and runs off. Norma tells Shelly to do Laura's route. Norma begins to cry in a booth. Ed reenters the diner and apologizes.\\nDale Cooper, trapped in the Black Lodge/Red Room, is shown talking to the Man from Another Place. When Laura discovers that BOB is her father, she runs crying to her best friend Donna Hayward’s house. Laura and Donna enter the house and Will Hayward gives his wife Eileen a suspicious look after Leland calls Laura home, both acknowledging that something is \\\"off\\\" in the Palmer household.\\nAt the Packard Saw Mill, Dell Mibbler complains to Josie Packard and Pete Martell that their two-by-fours are not exactly two inches by four inches. This causes Josie to become anxious and Pete to become irritated, who tells him that at Dell's bank the dollar is not worth the same as it used to be, which causes Dell to apologize.\\nLaura Palmer goes up the stairs and begins to hear the voice of BOB, coming from the ceiling fan. She slowly begins to become possessed by BOB, only to have her mother Sarah interrupt the possession. Sarah begins to have a nervous breakdown and Laura attempts to comfort her. Leo, is later shown verbally and physically abusing his wife Shelly, and forces her to clean the kitchen floor.\\nOne night, Laura and Donna go with two strangers that the former met at the Roadhouse, as they drive drunk and high on cocaine across the Canadian border to a night club. Teresa Banks pieces together information about her client who backed out earlier, and realizes it was Laura's father. She calls him in an attempt to blackmail him. Sheriff Harry S. Truman and his deputies, Andy and Hawk meet to discuss catching a local drug dealer.\\nAfter Bobby killed a crooked cop the night before, he meets Laura at her locker at school and asks her to hide $10,000 in her safety deposit box. Laura antagonizes Bobby about the situation, which makes him angry. Bobby goes into the woods and discovers that the drugs he almost got killed over were nothing but baby laxatives. Dr. Lawrence Jacoby calls Laura and questions why she has not called or visited him recently. Laura shows disgust in her facial expression and says that she made audio tapes for him.\\nOn the night of her death, Laura is having dinner with her mother, fully aware that her father is BOB. Feeling disgusted with her father and herself, she asks if she can go to Bobby’s house. Major Briggs reads aloud from the Book of Revelation to his wife Betty. Lucy, Andy and Truman are shown at the Sheriff's Station. Later that night, Laura climbs out her bedroom window to meet James Hurley, one last time, she hides in the bushes outside her house as her father approaches the front door. Leland sees her, and follows her. The Log Lady is shown clenching her log as she hears the screams of Laura's murder.\\nTwo scenes take place after the end of the original television series. The first scene depicts Annie Blackburn being wheeled into the hospital after her encounter with Dale Cooper in the Black Lodge. She is wearing the ring Laura Palmer and Teresa Banks wore before their deaths until a nurse steals the ring off of her finger. The next scene, Dr. Hayward and Sheriff Truman hear Cooper/Bob smash his head against the mirror. The doppelgänger, still cackling \\\"How's Annie?\\\" hears them and lies on the floor. Truman tries to tell him they should go to a hospital, the doppelganger replies, \\\"But I haven't finished brushing my teeth yet.\\\"\\nSeveral scenes from \\\"Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me\\\" had to be cut from the final product to keep the movie at a two hour and fifteen minute running time. This film comprises the unused footage from \\\"Fire Walk with Me.\\\" Lynch pieced together all of the deleted scenes to make a feature length film. This film shows a closer look into investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks and expands on the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer, a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks, and has scenes that feature characters from the television series that had their scenes deleted from the final version of \\\"Fire Walk with Me\\\". The production companies for the film are Absurda and MK2 Diffusion. The film was distributed by CBS/Fox Home Video and MK2 Diffusion.\\nThe shooting script features several additional scenes that were never shot, including a conversation between Pete Martell and Big Ed Hurley at Big Ed's Gas Farm, a lunchtime picnic at which Sheriff Truman serenades Josie Packard and discusses why he would never eat fish eyes, and a rendezvous between Laura Palmer and Ben Horne at Johnny Horne's birthday party. This last scene was dropped due to actor Richard Beymer's reluctance to play it, because of the intimacy implied between his character and the 17-year-old Laura Palmer, as well as the fact that in the scene, Ben supplies Laura with cocaine.\\n\\\"The Missing Pieces\\\" premiered on July 16, 2014, in Los Angeles' Vista Theatre before being released as a part of \\\"Twin Peaks: The Entire Mystery\\\" on Blu-ray.\\nJace Lacob noted how \\\"The Missing Pieces\\\" is not a typical \\\"film\\\" but is rather a collection of different moments that each capture a variety of emotions stating:\\nHe then goes on to say that while the film does not solve any of the mysteries surrounding Twin Peaks, it offers a different perspective for the intentions that Lynch had for \\\"Fire Walk with Me\\\" and gives a greater appreciation for Sheryl Lee's performance as Laura, noting:\\n\",\n \"List of films based on toys\\nThis is a list of feature length animated and live-action theatrical, television, and direct-to-video films based on toys, tabletop games, and trading cards. Many of these films are based on dolls and action figures made by the toy companies Hasbro, Kenner, and Mattel.\\nPrior to 1977, toys were released together with films as merchandising tie-ins. Films that were suitably toyetic spawned numerous licensed properties, often marketed heavily to children. Beginning in the late 1970s, this approach was flipped as films began to appear that were based on popular toys. In 1977, \\\"\\\" debuted as the first theatrical motion picture in which a consumer toy was the star. During the 1980s, action figures got their own films, such as Masters of the Universe (\\\"The Secret of the Sword\\\") and Transformers (\\\"\\\"), as did dolls, such as Pound Puppies (\\\"Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw\\\") and My Little Pony (\\\"\\\"). Also in the 1980s, the greeting card companies American Greetings and Hallmark Cards created popular characters that were made into toys, on which films were later based, such as The Care Bears (\\\"The Care Bears Movie\\\") and Rainbow Brite (\\\"Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer\\\").\\nA resurgence of live action film adaptions of toy properties began in 2007 with the release of \\\"Transformers\\\", the first film in what would become the Transformers film franchise. The first film in the G.I. Joe film franchise, \\\"\\\", was released two years later. In 2008, Hasbro Inc. entered into a deal with Universal Pictures to make at least four movies based on the toy company's products. In 2012, the poor performance of the first film from this partnership, \\\"Battleship\\\", caused other projects in development to be shelved or sold off to other studios. The success of \\\"The Lego Movie\\\" released in 2014 renewed the interest of toy companies and film studios in producing long-rumored toy-related projects stuck in development hell.\\nIn addition to films, several animated cartoon series have also been created based on toy properties, often airing at the same time, or soon after, the toys were launched. The extension of toy properties into films and television, as well as video games, books, apparel, and other products marketed to children has allowed companies to build lucrative franchises around their most popular characters and brands.\",\n \"John the Fearless (film)\\nJohn the Fearless (Dutch: \\\"Jan zonder vrees\\\" ) is a 1984 Belgian animated film. It is notable for being the first feature length animated film produced in Flanders in its entirety. It is based on a novel by Constant de Kinder and features voice work by Belgian character actor Jan Decleir. An English dubbed version of the film was produced by Canadian animation studio Cinar Films and was released on video in 1989 by Just For Kids Video.\\nThe story begins in Antwerp, Belgium in the year 1410 when John resigns his job as a sailor and goes back home to his grandmother. After seeing all of the burglars in town, he takes it upon himself to rid the town of all evildoers. After he's become the word around town, he lets everyone in the town know that he has no fear. His cousin, in jealousy of John's newfound fame decides to disprove this statement, by showing up at the local graveyard dressed as a ghost. John, annoyed with the ghost's presence, accidentally kills his cousin. Realizing his mistake, he reports it, only to be arrested and sentenced to prison. However, he easily escapes the prison guards and goes about his ways. He ends up soon after in the countryside, to find a servant being beaten by his master. After showing the boss the error of his ways, the boss recognizes his goodheartedness and sends him on a quest to destroy a shape shifting evil water demon called Kludde,with the servant as his sidekick. John, true to his claim of having \\\"no fear\\\" begins his quest with good spirits. After accomplishing numerous brave deeds, he is knighted by the historical John the Fearless.\\n\",\n \"Fire and Ice (1983 film)\\nFire and Ice is a 1983 American <a href=\\\"Adult%20animation\\\">adult animated</a> <a href=\\\"Epic%20film\\\">epic</a> <a href=\\\"high%20fantasy\\\">high fantasy</a> <a href=\\\"adventure%20film\\\">adventure film</a> directed by <a href=\\\"Ralph%20Bakshi\\\">Ralph Bakshi</a>. The film, a collaboration between Bakshi and <a href=\\\"Frank%20Frazetta\\\">Frank Frazetta</a>, was distributed by <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>, which also distributed Bakshi's 1977 release, \\\"<a href=\\\"Wizards%20%28film%29\\\">Wizards</a>\\\". The animated feature, based on characters Bakshi and Frazetta co-created, was made using the process of <a href=\\\"Rotoscope\\\">rotoscoping</a>, in which scenes were shot in live action and then traced onto animation cels.\\nThe screenplay was written by <a href=\\\"Gerry%20Conway\\\">Gerry Conway</a> and <a href=\\\"Roy%20Thomas\\\">Roy Thomas</a>, both of whom had written \\\"<a href=\\\"Conan%20%28comics%29\\\">Conan</a>\\\" stories for <a href=\\\"Marvel%20Comics\\\">Marvel Comics</a>. Background painter was <a href=\\\"James%20Gurney\\\">James Gurney</a>, the author and artist of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Dinotopia\\\">Dinotopia</a>\\\" illustrated novels. <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Kinkade\\\">Thomas Kinkade</a> also worked on the backgrounds to various scenes. <a href=\\\"Peter%20Chung\\\">Peter Chung</a>, of <a href=\\\"Aeon%20Flux\\\">Aeon Flux</a> fame, was a layout artist.\\nFrom their stronghold in Icepeak, the evil Queen Juliana (Eileen O'Neill) and her son, Nekron (Stephen Mendel), send forth a wave of glaciers, forcing humanity to retreat south towards the <a href=\\\"equator\\\">equator</a>. Nekron sends a <a href=\\\"delegation\\\">delegation</a> to King Jarol (<a href=\\\"Leo%20Gordon\\\">Leo Gordon</a>) in Firekeep to request his surrender, but this is a ruse orchestrated by Queen Juliana for Nekron’s sub-humans to kidnap Jarol’s barefoot, bikini-clad daughter, Princess Teegra (Cynthia Leake); Queen Juliana feels that Nekron should take a bride to produce an heir.\\nBut Teegra makes an escape and comes upon Larn (Randy Norton), a young warrior and the only survivor of a village razed by glaciers, who offers to escort her back to Firekeep. As Teegra is recaptured, Larn teams with the mysterious Darkwolf (<a href=\\\"Steve%20Sandor\\\">Steve Sandor</a>) to save Teegra and then travel to Icepeak to stop Juliana. Darkwolf faces Nekron and kills him as Icepeak succumbs to lava released by King Jarol and is destroyed.\\nThe film finishes with Larn about to kill a beaten sub-human until Teegra stops him saying that \\\"it's over\\\" and embraces him. Darkwolf is seen atop a cliff; he watches the pair, smiles and then disappears. Teegra and Larn kiss as the credits roll.\\nBy 1982, <a href=\\\"fantasy%20film\\\">fantasy film</a>s had proven to be considerably successful at the box office, including \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Beastmaster%20%28film%29\\\">The Beastmaster</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Conan%20the%20Barbarian%20%281982%20film%29\\\">Conan the Barbarian</a>\\\", and Bakshi had a desire to work with long-time friend and fantasy illustrator <a href=\\\"Frank%20Frazetta\\\">Frank Frazetta</a>. Bakshi received $1.2 million to finance \\\"Fire and Ice\\\" from some of the same investors as \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Pop\\\">American Pop</a>\\\", and 20th Century Fox agreed to distribute the film based upon the financial longevity of \\\"Wizards\\\".\\nBecause \\\"Fire and Ice\\\" was the most action-oriented story Bakshi had directed up until that point, rotoscoping was again used, and the realism of the animation and design replicated Frazetta's artwork. Bakshi and Frazetta were heavily involved in the production of the live-action sequences, from casting sessions to the final shoot. The film's crew included background artists <a href=\\\"James%20Gurney\\\">James Gurney</a> and <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Kinkade\\\">Thomas Kinkade</a>, layout artist <a href=\\\"Peter%20Chung\\\">Peter Chung</a>, and established Bakshi Productions artists Sparey, <a href=\\\"Steven%20E.%20Gordon\\\">Steven E. Gordon</a>, Bell and Banks. Chung strongly admired Bakshi and Frazetta's work, and animated his sequences on the film while simultaneously working for <a href=\\\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\\\">The Walt Disney Company</a>.\\nAndrew Leal wrote, \\\"The plot is standard [...] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of <a href=\\\"Filmation\\\">Filmation</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"He-Man%20and%20the%20Masters%20of%20the%20Universe\\\">He-Man</a>\\\" series. [...] \\\"Fire and Ice\\\" essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of <a href=\\\"Arnold%20Schwarzenegger\\\">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>'s appearance as <a href=\\\"Conan%20the%20Barbarian%20%281982%20film%29\\\">Conan</a>.\\\"\\nIn 2003, the <a href=\\\"Online%20Film%20Critics%20Society\\\">Online Film Critics Society</a> ranked the film as the 99th greatest animated film of all time.\\nThe film was released on <a href=\\\"VHS\\\">VHS</a> twice. First by <a href=\\\"Sony%20Pictures%20Home%20Entertainment\\\">RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video</a> in 1983 and by <a href=\\\"GoodTimes%20Entertainment\\\">GoodTimes Home Video</a> in 1988. In 2005, it was released on <a href=\\\"DVD\\\">DVD</a> by <a href=\\\"Blue%20Underground\\\">Blue Underground Entertainment</a> on a limited edition two-disc set, paired with the documentary \\\"Frazetta: Painting With Fire\\\", about the film's co-creator and producer, Frank Frazetta. The company later released the film on <a href=\\\"Blu-ray\\\">Blu-ray</a> in 2008 with Remastered <a href=\\\"1080p\\\">1080p</a> video and a <a href=\\\"7.1%20surround%20sound\\\">7.1 surround sound</a> remix in both <a href=\\\"Dolby%20TrueHD\\\">Dolby TrueHD</a> and <a href=\\\"DTS%20HD%20Master%20Audio\\\">DTS HD Master Audio</a>\\nIn 2010, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Rodriguez\\\">Robert Rodriguez</a> announced that he would direct a live-action <a href=\\\"remake\\\">remake</a> of the film. Bakshi stated that he did not want any involvement with the film, but he agreed to license the rights to Rodriguez. The deal closed shortly after Frazetta's death. On December 18, 2014, <a href=\\\"Sony%20Pictures%20Entertainment\\\">Sony Pictures Entertainment</a> acquired the filming rights to the live-action remake version of the 1983 animated film \\\"Fire and Ice\\\" that will be directed by <a href=\\\"Robert%20Rodriguez\\\">Robert Rodriguez</a>.\",\n \"Titan A.E.\\nTitan A.E. is a 2000 American <a href=\\\"animation\\\">animated</a> <a href=\\\"science%20fiction%20film\\\">science fiction</a> <a href=\\\"film\\\">film</a> directed by <a href=\\\"Don%20Bluth\\\">Don Bluth</a> and <a href=\\\"Gary%20Goldman\\\">Gary Goldman</a>. Its title refers to the <a href=\\\"spacecraft\\\">spacecraft</a> central to the plot, with \\\"A.E.\\\" meaning \\\"After Earth\\\". It stars <a href=\\\"Matt%20Damon\\\">Matt Damon</a>, <a href=\\\"Bill%20Pullman\\\">Bill Pullman</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Leguizamo\\\">John Leguizamo</a>, <a href=\\\"Nathan%20Lane\\\">Nathan Lane</a>, <a href=\\\"Janeane%20Garofalo\\\">Janeane Garofalo</a> and <a href=\\\"Drew%20Barrymore\\\">Drew Barrymore</a>. The film's animation technique combines <a href=\\\"traditional%20animation\\\">traditional hand-drawn animation</a> and extensive use of <a href=\\\"computer%20generated%20imagery\\\">computer generated imagery</a>. Its working title was \\\"Planet Ice\\\". It was theatrically released on June 16, 2000, by <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a> and was the final film for <a href=\\\"Fox%20Animation%20Studios\\\">Fox Animation Studios</a>. The film grossed $36.8 million on a $75–$90 million budget, making a $100-million loss for the studio.\\nIn 3028 A.D., humanity has mastered deep space travel and interacted with several alien species. A human invention called \\\"Project Titan\\\" alarms the Drej, a pure <a href=\\\"energy\\\">energy</a>-based alien species. As the Drej start to attack Earth, Professor Sam Tucker, the lead researcher for \\\"Project Titan\\\", sends his son Cale on one of the evacuation ships with his alien friend Tek, while Tucker and other members of his team fly the \\\"Titan\\\" spacecraft into <a href=\\\"hyperspace%20%28science%20fiction%29\\\">hyperspace</a> just as the Drej mother ship arrives and fires a <a href=\\\"directed-energy%20weapon\\\">directed-energy weapon</a> into the planet that completely destroys Earth, while debris from the explosion also destroys the <a href=\\\"Moon\\\">Moon</a>. The surviving humans become nomads, generally ridiculed by other alien species.\\nFifteen years later, Cale works at the salvage yard in an <a href=\\\"asteroid%20belt\\\">asteroid belt</a> called Tau 14. He is tracked down by Joseph Korso, captain of the spaceship \\\"Valkyrie\\\". Korso reveals that Tucker encoded a map to the \\\"Titan\\\" in the ring he gave for Cale. Tek tells Cale that humanity depends on finding the \\\"Titan\\\". When the Drej attack the salvage yard, Cale is forced to escape aboard the \\\"Valkyrie\\\" with Korso and his crew: Akima, a human female pilot, and Preed, Gune and Stith, aliens of various species.\\nOn the planet Sesharrim, the <a href=\\\"bat\\\">bat</a>-like Gaoul interpret the map and discover the \\\"Titan\\\" hidden in the Andali <a href=\\\"Nebula\\\">Nebula</a>. Drej fighters arrive, and capture Cale and Akima. The Drej eventually discard Akima and extract the \\\"Titan\\\"'s map from Cale. Korso's crew rescues Akima, while Cale eventually escapes in a Drej ship and rejoins the group. Cale's map has changed and now shows the \\\"Titan's\\\" final location.\\nWhile resupplying at a human <a href=\\\"space%20station\\\">space station</a> called New <a href=\\\"Bangkok\\\">Bangkok</a>, Cale and Akima discover that Korso and Preed are planning to betray the \\\"Titan\\\" to the Drej. Cale and Akima manage to escape the \\\"Valkyrie\\\", but they are stranded on New Bangkok, when Korso and the rest of the crew set off for the \\\"Titan\\\". With the help of New Bangkok's colonists, Cale and Akima salvage a small spaceship named \\\"Phoenix\\\", and race to find the \\\"Titan\\\" before Korso.\\nCale and Akima navigate through the huge ice field in the Andali Nebula and dock with the \\\"Titan\\\", before the \\\"Valkyrie\\\" arrives. They discover <a href=\\\"DNA\\\">DNA</a> samples of Earth animals and a pre-recorded holographic message left by Tucker. Tucker explains that the \\\"Titan\\\" was designed to <a href=\\\"Terraforming\\\">create an Earth-like planet</a>. However, due to its escape from Earth before its destruction, its power cells lack the energy necessary for the process. The message is interrupted by the arrival of Korso and Preed. Preed reveals himself to be a mercenary for the Drej and betrays Korso while holding him, Cale, and Akima at gunpoint. Preed attempts to kill all three of them for the Drej, but he is killed by Korso. Moments later, the Drej attack the \\\"Titan\\\". While the remaining crew of the \\\"Valkyrie\\\" distracts them, Cale - given the fact that Drej are, essentially, beings of pure energy - modifies the \\\"Titan\\\" to absorb them, thus re-energizing the ship. A repentant Korso sacrifices his life to help Cale complete the repairs. The \\\"Titan\\\" absorbs the Drej mothership along with everyone aboard and uses gained power to mold the ice field into a new habitable planet.\\nWhile on the newly-formed Planet \\\"Bob\\\" (named by Cale), Cale and Akima witness the weather of the new planet as it begins to rain. Stith and Gune leave on the \\\"Valkyrie\\\" as human colony ships approach the planet to start life anew.\\nThe story of \\\"Titan A.E\\\". had been in development at 20th Century Fox since 1998 and was originally intended to be a live-action science fiction film. The script had been passed around to various writers, such as <a href=\\\"Ben%20Edlund\\\">Ben Edlund</a> and <a href=\\\"Joss%20Whedon\\\">Joss Whedon</a>, and had been given to Art Vitello. After $30 million had been spent in the film's early development with no progress, Art Vitello was sacked. Then-chairman of <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a> <a href=\\\"Bill%20Mechanic\\\">Bill Mechanic</a> gave the script to <a href=\\\"Fox%20Animation%20Studios\\\">Fox Animation</a> producers <a href=\\\"Don%20Bluth\\\">Don Bluth</a> and <a href=\\\"Gary%20Goldman\\\">Gary Goldman</a>, who were fresh from the success of their recent film \\\"<a href=\\\"Anastasia%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Anastasia</a>\\\" (1997). Mechanic had no scripts for Fox Animation to work on, and was faced with the choice of laying off the animation staff unless they took \\\"Titan A.E.\\\" Bluth and Goldman, who were not fans of science fiction, took the script regardless.\\nFox Animation Studios were given a budget of $75 million dollars and 19 months to produce the film. Unlike Bluth and Goldman's previous films, the animation in \\\"Titan A.E\\\". is predominantly computer-generated, while main characters and several backgrounds were traditionally animated. Many of the scenes were enacted by the animation staff using handbuilt props before being captured by a computer. Many scenes and backgrounds were painted by concept artist Paul Cheng, who had worked on \\\"Anastasia\\\" and its direct-to-video spinoff \\\"<a href=\\\"Bartok%20the%20Magnificent\\\">Bartok the Magnificent</a>\\\" (1999). Like \\\"Anastasia\\\", the storytelling and tone in \\\"Titan A.E.\\\" is much darker and edgier than Bluth and Goldman's previous films, with the film being regularly compared to Japanese <a href=\\\"anime\\\">anime</a>. Although Bluth and Goldman denied any influence by anime, they have acknowledged the comparison.\\nDuring the production of \\\"Titan A.E.\\\", Fox Animation suffered a number of cutbacks which ultimately led to its closure in 2000. Over 300 animation staff were laid off from the studio in 1999, and as a result, much of the film's animation was outsourced to a number of independent companies. Several scenes were contracted to David Paul Dozoretz's POVDE group, the \\\"Wake Angels\\\" scene was animated by Reality Check Studios (their first feature film work), while the film's \\\"genesis\\\" scene was animated by <a href=\\\"Blue%20Sky%20Studios\\\">Blue Sky Studios</a>, who would later go on to animating 20th Century Fox's \\\"<a href=\\\"Ice%20Age%20%28franchise%29\\\">Ice Age</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Rio%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Rio</a>\\\" film franchises as well as \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Peanuts%20Movie\\\">The Peanuts Movie</a>\\\" (2015). Under pressure from executives, Bill Mechanic was dismissed from 20th Century Fox prior to \\\"Titan A.E.\\\"'s release, eventuating in the closure of Fox Animation Studios on June 26, 2000, ten days after the film's release. All these events stunted the film's promotion and distribution.\\nOn November 24, 1997, Matt Damon joined the cast of the film along with <a href=\\\"Bill%20Pullman\\\">Bill Pullman</a>, <a href=\\\"Drew%20Barrymore\\\">Drew Barrymore</a>, <a href=\\\"Hank%20Azaria\\\">Hank Azaria</a>, <a href=\\\"Nathan%20Lane\\\">Nathan Lane</a>, <a href=\\\"Jim%20Breuer\\\">Jim Breuer</a>, <a href=\\\"Janeane%20Garofalo\\\">Janeane Garofalo</a>, and <a href=\\\"Lena%20Olin\\\">Lena Olin</a> joined the cast of the film. . Later, <a href=\\\"John%20Leguizamo\\\">John Leguizamo</a> joined the cast. Azaria was cast as \\\"Ship's Navigator\\\" but was cut from the film.\\nThe soundtrack for \\\"Titan A.E.\\\" was released on <a href=\\\"compact%20cassette\\\">audio cassette</a> and <a href=\\\"compact%20disc\\\">CD</a> by <a href=\\\"Capitol%20Records\\\">Capitol</a>/<a href=\\\"EMI%20Records\\\">EMI Records</a> on June 6, 2000 and features 11 tracks by various contemporary rock bands, including <a href=\\\"Lit%20%28band%29\\\">Lit</a>, <a href=\\\"Powerman%205000\\\">Powerman 5000</a>, <a href=\\\"Electrasy\\\">Electrasy</a>, <a href=\\\"Fun%20Lovin%27%20Criminals\\\">Fun Lovin' Criminals</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Urge\\\">The Urge</a>, <a href=\\\"Texas%20%28band%29\\\">Texas</a>, <a href=\\\"Bliss%2066\\\">Bliss 66</a>, <a href=\\\"Jamiroquai\\\">Jamiroquai</a>, <a href=\\\"Splashdown%20%28band%29\\\">Splashdown</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Wailing%20Souls\\\">The Wailing Souls</a>, and <a href=\\\"Luscious%20Jackson\\\">Luscious Jackson</a>.\\nThe background music for \\\"Titan A.E.\\\" was composed <a href=\\\"Graeme%20Revell\\\">Graeme Revell</a>, although an official album containing the film's underscore was originally not released alongside the film. On October 23, 2014, the movie's score was made available for the first time by <a href=\\\"La-La%20Land%20Records\\\">La-La Land Records</a>, released as limited edition CD of 1,500 copies, containing most of what Revell wrote for the feature. It contains 32 tracks and music cues, including two bonus tracks: an orchestra-only version of \\\"Creation\\\", and an alternative version of \\\"Prologue\\\" with a different opening.\\n\\\"Titan A.E.\\\" became the first major motion picture screened in end-to-end <a href=\\\"digital%20cinema\\\">digital cinema</a>. On June 6, 2000, ten days before the movie was released, at the SuperComm 2000 trade show, the movie was projected simultaneously at the trade show in <a href=\\\"Atlanta%2C%20Georgia\\\">Atlanta, Georgia</a> as well as a screen in <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\\\">Los Angeles, California</a>. It was sent to both screens from the <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a> production facilities in Los Angeles via a <a href=\\\"virtual%20private%20network\\\">VPN</a>.\\n\\\"Titan A.E.\\\" was released on <a href=\\\"VHS\\\">VHS</a> and \\\"Special Edition\\\" <a href=\\\"DVD\\\">DVD</a> on November 7, 2000 by <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>, which contains extras such as a commentary track by Don Bluth and Gary Goldman, a \\\"Quest for Titan\\\" featurette, deleted scenes, web links, and a music video for <a href=\\\"Lit%20%28band%29\\\">Lit</a>'s \\\"Over My Head\\\". The <a href=\\\"DVD%20region%20code\\\">region 1</a> North American version also comes with an exclusive <a href=\\\"DTS%20%28sound%20system%29\\\">DTS</a> English audio track in addition to <a href=\\\"Dolby%20Digital\\\">Dolby Digital 5.1</a> featured in most international releases. Chris Carle of <a href=\\\"IGN\\\">IGN</a> rated the DVD an 8 out of 10, calling the movie \\\"thrilling... with some obvious plot and character flaws\\\" but called the video itself \\\"a fully-packed disc which looks and sounds great\\\" and \\\"for animation and sci-fi fans, it's a must-have.\\\" The film has never been released on <a href=\\\"Blu-ray\\\">Blu-ray</a>.\\nA video game adaptation by <a href=\\\"Blitz%20Games\\\">Blitz Games</a> was planned to be released for the <a href=\\\"PlayStation\\\">PlayStation</a> and <a href=\\\"Microsoft%20Windows\\\">PC</a> in Fall 2000 in North America, following the film's Summer release. Development on both platforms had begun in March 1999 under the film's original title \\\"Planet Ice\\\", and an early playable version was showcased at the 2000 <a href=\\\"Electronic%20Entertainment%20Expo\\\">Electronic Entertainment Expo</a> in <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>. In July 2000, a spokesman from the game's publisher, <a href=\\\"Fox%20Interactive\\\">Fox Interactive</a>, announced that development on the title had been halted largely due to the film's failed box office, which was \\\"only one of many different factors\\\" that led to its cancellation.\\n\\\"Titan A.E.\\\" received a mixed response from critics, with a 48 out of 100 score from <a href=\\\"Metacritic\\\">Metacritic</a>, and 52% approval rating from <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> based on 99 reviews with the consensus \\\"Great visuals, but the story feels like a cut-and-paste job of other sci-fi movies.\\\" Film critic <a href=\\\"Roger%20Ebert\\\">Roger Ebert</a> enjoyed it, giving it 3.5/4 stars for its \\\"rousing story\\\", \\\"largeness of spirit\\\", and \\\"lush galactic visuals [which] are beautiful in the same way photos by the <a href=\\\"Hubble%20Space%20Telescope\\\">Hubble Space Telescope</a> are beautiful\\\". He cited the Ice Rings sequence as \\\"a perfect examine [sic] of what animation can do and live action cannot\\\".\\nThe film opened at #5, with $9,376,845 for an average of $3,430 from 2,734 theaters. The film then lost 60% of its audience in its second weekend, dropping to #8, with a gross of $3,735,300 for an average of $1,346 from 2,775 theaters. The film ended up grossing only $36,754,634 worldwide ($22,753,426 in the United States and Canada, and $14,001,208 in international markets). The film's budget is estimated at between $75 million and $90 million. According to <a href=\\\"Chris%20Meledandri\\\">Chris Meledandri</a>, the supervisor of the film, \\\"Titan A.E.\\\" lost $100 million for 20th Century Fox. After the film's failure, Fox Animation Studios was shut down.\\n\\\"Titan A.E.\\\" won a <a href=\\\"Motion%20Picture%20Sound%20Editors\\\">Golden Reel Award</a> for \\\"Best Sound Editing for an Animated Feature\\\", and was nominated by the same organization for \\\"Best Sound Editing for Music in Animation\\\", and a <a href=\\\"Satellite%20Award\\\">Satellite Award</a> for \\\"Best Motion Picture, Animated or Mixed Media\\\", losing both to \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicken%20Run\\\">Chicken Run</a>\\\". The film was also nominated for three <a href=\\\"Annie%20Award\\\">Annie Award</a>s, including \\\"Outstanding Achievement in An Animated Theatrical Feature\\\", \\\"Effects Animation\\\", and \\\"Production Design\\\" which it lost to \\\"<a href=\\\"Toy%20Story%202\\\">Toy Story 2</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Fantasia%202000\\\">Fantasia 2000</a>\\\", respectively, and was nominated for <a href=\\\"Saturn%20Award%20for%20Best%20Science%20Fiction%20Film\\\">Best Science Fiction Film</a> at <a href=\\\"27th%20Saturn%20Awards\\\">27th Saturn Awards</a>, but lost to \\\"<a href=\\\"X-Men%20%28film%29\\\">X-Men</a>\\\", another film from <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>. Drew Barrymore was nominated for \\\"Best Voice-Over Performance\\\" by the Online Film & Television Association for her role as Akima but was beaten by <a href=\\\"Eartha%20Kitt\\\">Eartha Kitt</a> from \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Emperor%27s%20New%20Groove\\\">The Emperor's New Groove</a>\\\".\\nTo tie in with the film, a series of prequel novels written by <a href=\\\"Kevin%20J.%20Anderson\\\">Kevin J. Anderson</a> and <a href=\\\"Rebecca%20Moesta\\\">Rebecca Moesta</a> were released on February 10, 2000, by <a href=\\\"Ace%20Books\\\">Ace Books</a>, the same day as the official novelization of the movie written by Steve and Dal Perry. A comic series focusing on the character Sam was also released in May 2000.\\n\\n\",\n \"Wizards (film)\\nWizards is a 1977 American <a href=\\\"Animation\\\">animated</a> <a href=\\\"Apocalyptic%20and%20post-apocalyptic%20fiction\\\">post-apocalyptic</a> <a href=\\\"science%20fantasy\\\">science fantasy</a> film written, produced, and directed by <a href=\\\"Ralph%20Bakshi\\\">Ralph Bakshi</a>. The film follows the battle between two wizards, one representing the forces of <a href=\\\"Magic%20%28paranormal%29\\\">magic</a> and one representing the forces of <a href=\\\"industrial%20technology\\\">industrial technology</a>.\\nNotable for being the first <a href=\\\"fantasy%20film\\\">fantasy film</a> by Bakshi, who was previously known only for urban films such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Fritz%20the%20Cat%20%28film%29\\\">Fritz the Cat</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Heavy%20Traffic\\\">Heavy Traffic</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Coonskin%20%28film%29\\\">Coonskin</a>\\\", the film grossed $9 million theatrically from a $2 million budget, and has since become a <a href=\\\"Cult%20film\\\">cult classic</a>.\\nEarth has been devastated by a <a href=\\\"nuclear%20war\\\">nuclear war</a> instigated by five <a href=\\\"terrorism\\\">terrorists</a>, and it has taken two million years for the <a href=\\\"radioactive%20cloud\\\">radioactive cloud</a>s to once again allow sunlight to reach the surface. Only a handful of humans have survived, while the rest have changed into mutants who roam the radioactive wastelands. In the idyllic land of Montagar, the true ancestors of man – fairies, elves and dwarves – have returned and live in peace. During a celebration of 3,000 years of peace Delia, queen of the fairies, falls into a trance and leaves the party. Puzzled, the fairies follow her to her home and discover that she has given birth to twin wizards. Avatar, a kind and good wizard, spends much of his boyhood entertaining his mother with beautiful visions, while Blackwolf, a mutant, never visits his mother, but spends his time <a href=\\\"zoosadism\\\">torturing small animals</a>.\\nAfter many years, Delia dies. Blackwolf is excited; he believes he will take over her leadership and rule the land. Avatar opposes his evil brother and forces him to fight for the kingship. Avatar's magic is empowered by his grief, allowing him to defeat Blackwolf. Blackwolf leaves Montagar with a vow to return and \\\"make this a planet where mutants rule\\\".\\nYears later, Blackwolf has risen to lead the dark land of Scortch, where he and his vast army of goblins, ogres and mutants salvage and restore ancient technology. He tries to attack Montagar twice, but is foiled both times when his mutant warriors become bored or sidetracked in the midst of battle. Blackwolf then discovers an old projector and reels of <a href=\\\"Nazi%20propaganda\\\">Nazi propaganda</a> footage. He enhances the projector with magical power and uses it in battle to both inspire his own soldiers and horrify enemy troops. The mutants destroy the elf army.\\nMeanwhile, in Montagar, Avatar has become a tutor tasked with training the president's daughter Elinore to become a full-fledged fairy. Suddenly, the president is assassinated by Necron 99, a robot sent by Blackwolf to kill believers in magic. Avatar confronts the robot and battles it using brain reading. Necron 99 loses the desire for war and Avatar changes his name to Peace \\\"in the hopes that he will bring it\\\". Avatar learns from the robot that the \\\"dream machine\\\" – the projector – is Blackwolf's secret weapon, inspiring his armies with images of ancient warfare. Avatar, Elinore, Peace, and the elf spy Weehawk set out to destroy the projector and save the world from another Holocaust.\\nIn a forest inhabited by fairies, Peace has an intuition that something is amiss shortly before the group is accosted by the leader of the fairies, Sean (Mark Hamill). Weehawk realizes that Peace is missing, when an unseen assassin kills Sean and kidnaps Elinore. Avatar and Weehawk begin to search for Elinore in the forbidden Fairy Sanctuary, but Weehawk falls into a chasm and insists that Avatar leave him and find the girl. He locates her, captured by fairies and small human-like creatures, just as she is about to be killed. Avatar attempts to explain that they did not kill Sean, but the fairies don't believe him, and shoot him with an arrow. Wounded in the shoulder, Avatar refuses to fight back, which impresses the fairy king. Instead of executing them, he merely teleports Avatar and Elinore to a snowy mountaintop. Avatar and Elinore resume their journey despite the poor conditions, but they soon realize they are wandering in circles. Weehawk and Peace finally find them and together they find their way out of the mountains. Soon Avatar and the others encounter the encamped army of an elf General who is preparing to attack Scortch the following day, but Blackwolf launches a sneak attack that night. Elinore is outside with Peace when one of Blackwolf's mutants sneaks into camp and attacks her, but Avatar is able to stop it before it hurts her. Things turn for the worse, though, as a battle tank arrives to destroy the camp. Peace manages to disable the crew, but as he inspects the vehicle, Elinore kills him with a sword and climbs into the tank. It drives away as Avatar and Weehawk watch in confusion.\\nThe next day, Avatar and Weehawk enter Scortch by ship and make for Blackwolf's castle while the General leads his elf warriors in a bloody battle to distract Blackwolf's forces. The pair splits up, Weehawk tracking Elinore while Avatar goes after his brother Blackwolf. Weehawk nearly kills Elinore, but she explains that Blackwolf had been controlling her mind ever since she first touched Peace. Blackwolf declares his magic superior to Avatar's and demands his surrender. Avatar admits that he hasn't practiced magic in some time, and offers to show Blackwolf one last trick that their mother showed him when Blackwolf wasn't around. Avatar then pulls a gun and fatally shoots Blackwolf. With the loss of their leader, the mutants give up fighting. With Montagar's safety secured, Weehawk returns home as the new ruler, but Avatar and Elinore decide to go start their own kingdom instead.\\n<a href=\\\"Ralph%20Bakshi\\\">Ralph Bakshi</a> had long had an interest in fantasy, and had been drawing fantasy artwork as far back as 1955, while he was still in high school. \\\"Wizards\\\" originated in the concept for \\\"Tee-Witt\\\", an unproduced television series Bakshi developed and pitched to <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> in 1967. In 1976, Bakshi pitched \\\"War Wizards\\\" to <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>. Returning to the fantasy drawings he had created in high school for inspiration, Bakshi intended to prove that he could produce a \\\"family picture\\\" that had the same impact as his adult-oriented films.\\nThe film is an <a href=\\\"allegory\\\">allegorical</a> comment on the moral ambiguity of technology and the potentially destructive powers of <a href=\\\"propaganda\\\">propaganda</a>. Blackwolf's secret weapon is propaganda, used to incite his legions and terrorize the fairy folk of Montagar; but Avatar's willingness to use a technological tool (a handgun pulled from \\\"up his sleeve\\\") destroys his <a href=\\\"evil%20twin\\\">evil twin</a>. Bakshi also states that \\\"Wizards\\\" \\\"was about the creation of the state of <a href=\\\"Israel\\\">Israel</a> and the Holocaust, about the <a href=\\\"Jewish\\\">Jews</a> looking for a homeland, and about the fact that <a href=\\\"fascism\\\">fascism</a> was on the rise again\\\".\\nBritish illustrator <a href=\\\"Ian%20Miller%20%28illustrator%29\\\">Ian Miller</a> and comic book artist <a href=\\\"Mike%20Ploog\\\">Mike Ploog</a> were hired to contribute backgrounds and designs. The crew included Vita, Turek, Sparey, Vitello and Spence, who had become comfortable with Bakshi's limited <a href=\\\"storyboarding\\\">storyboarding</a> and lack of <a href=\\\"pencil%20test%20%28animation%29\\\">pencil test</a>s. Artist <a href=\\\"Alex%20Ni%C3%B1o\\\">Alex Niño</a> signed a contract with Bakshi to work on the film, and was granted a work <a href=\\\"Visa%20%28document%29\\\">visa</a>, but was unable to gain permission from the <a href=\\\"Philippines\\\">Philippine</a> government to leave for the United States until two months afterward, and later found that by the time he had arrived in the United States, not only had the film's animation been completed, but Niño's visa did not allow him to submit freelance work on any other projects.\\nThe film's main cast includes Bob Holt, Jesse Welles, Richard Romanus, David Proval and Steve Gravers. Bakshi cast Holt based on his ability to imitate the voice of actor <a href=\\\"Peter%20Falk\\\">Peter Falk</a>, of whom Bakshi is a fan. Welles, Romanus and Proval had previously worked with Bakshi on \\\"<a href=\\\"Hey%20Good%20Lookin%27%20%28film%29\\\">Hey Good Lookin'</a>\\\", where Romanus and Proval provided the voices of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro, respectively. Actress Tina Bowman, who plays a small role in \\\"Wizards\\\", has a larger role in \\\"Hey Good Lookin<nowiki>'</nowiki>\\\". Actor <a href=\\\"Mark%20Hamill\\\">Mark Hamill</a> auditioned for and received a voice role in the film. Bakshi states that \\\"He needed a job, and he came to me, and I thought he was great, and <a href=\\\"George%20Lucas\\\">Lucas</a> thought he should do it, and he got not only \\\"Wizards\\\", he got \\\"<a href=\\\"Star%20Wars\\\">Star Wars</a>\\\".\\\" Bakshi had wanted a female narrator for his film, and he loved <a href=\\\"Susan%20Tyrrell\\\">Susan Tyrrell</a>'s acting. Tyrrell performed the narration for the film, but Bakshi was told that he couldn't credit her for her narration. Years later, Tyrrell told Bakshi that she got most of her work from her narration on the film, and that she wished she had allowed him to put her name on it.\\nJohn Grant writes in his book \\\"Masters of Animation\\\" that \\\"[the] overall affect [sic] of the animation is akin to that of the great <a href=\\\"anime\\\">anime</a> creators – one has to keep reminding oneself that \\\"Wizards\\\" predates <a href=\\\"Hayao%20Miyazaki\\\">Miyazaki</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Castle%20of%20Cagliostro\\\">The Castle of Cagliostro</a>\\\" (1979), not the other way round. [...] The backgrounds [...] are especially lovely, even the simplest of them; and in general the movie has a strong visual \\\"brio\\\" despite occasional technical hurriedness.\\\" Notable artists involved in the production of Wizards include <a href=\\\"Ian%20Miller%20%28illustrator%29\\\">Ian Miller</a>, who produced the gloomy backgrounds of Scortch, and <a href=\\\"Mike%20Ploog\\\">Mike Ploog</a>, who contributed likewise for the more arcadian landscapes of Montagar.\\nBakshi was unable to complete the battle sequences with the budget Fox had given him. When he asked them for a budget increase, they refused (during the same meeting, director <a href=\\\"George%20Lucas\\\">George Lucas</a> had asked for a budget increase for \\\"Star Wars\\\" and was also refused). As a result, Bakshi finished his film by paying out of his own pocket and using <a href=\\\"rotoscoping\\\">rotoscoping</a> for the unfinished battle sequences. According to Bakshi, \\\"I thought that if we dropped all the detail, it would look very artistic, and very beautiful, and I felt, why bother animating all of this? I'm looking for a way to get realism into my film and get real emotion.\\\" In his audio commentary for the film's DVD release, Bakshi states that \\\"There's no question that it was an easier way to get these gigantic scenes that I wanted. It also was the way that showed me how to do \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings%20%281978%20film%29\\\">Lord of the Rings</a>\\\", so it worked two ways.\\\" In addition to stock footage, the film used battle sequences from films such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Zulu%20%281964%20film%29\\\">Zulu</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"El%20Cid%20%28film%29\\\">El Cid</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20the%20Bulge%20%28film%29\\\">Battle of the Bulge</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Alexander%20Nevsky%20%28film%29\\\">Alexander Nevsky</a>\\\" for <a href=\\\"rotoscoping\\\">rotoscoping</a>. Live-action sequences from \\\"<a href=\\\"Patton%20%28film%29\\\">Patton</a>\\\" were also featured.\\n<a href=\\\"Vaughn%20Bod%C3%A9\\\">Vaughn Bode</a>'s work has been credited as an influence on \\\"Wizards\\\". <a href=\\\"Quentin%20Tarantino\\\">Quentin Tarantino</a> describes Avatar as \\\"a cross between <a href=\\\"J.R.R.%20Tolkien\\\">Tolkien</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hobbit\\\">Hobbit</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Mel%20Brooks\\\">Mel Brooks</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"2000%20Year%20Old%20Man\\\">2000 Year Old Man</a>\\\", and <a href=\\\"Marvel%20Comics\\\">Marvel Comics</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"Howard%20the%20Duck\\\">Howard the Duck</a>\\\"\\\" and Blackwolf as physically similar to <a href=\\\"Sergei%20Eisenstein\\\">Sergei Eisenstein</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Ivan%20the%20Terrible%20%28film%29\\\">Ivan the Terrible</a>\\\". In <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Beck\\\">Jerry Beck</a>'s \\\"Animated Movie Guide\\\", Andrew Leal writes that \\\"The central figure, Avatar [...] sounds a great deal like <a href=\\\"Peter%20Falk\\\">Peter Falk</a>, and clearly owes much to cartoonist Vaughn Bodé's <a href=\\\"Cheech%20Wizard\\\">Cheech Wizard</a> character.\\\"\\nAs \\\"War Wizards\\\" neared completion, Lucas requested that Bakshi change the title of his film to \\\"Wizards\\\" in order to avoid conflict with \\\"Star Wars\\\", and Bakshi agreed because Lucas had allowed <a href=\\\"Mark%20Hamill\\\">Mark Hamill</a> to take time off from \\\"Star Wars\\\" in order to record a voice for \\\"Wizards\\\".\\nAlthough \\\"Wizards\\\" received a <a href=\\\"limited%20release\\\">limited release</a>, it was very successful in the theaters that showed it, and developed a worldwide audience. According to Bakshi, he was once interviewed by a German reporter who was unsure as to why the Nazi <a href=\\\"Swastika\\\">Swastika</a> was used to represent war. Bakshi said \\\"I didn't get any criticism. People pretty much loved \\\"Wizards\\\".\\\" Film website <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>, which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics, gives the film a score of 61%, considered \\\"Fresh\\\".\\nAudio clips from the film have been sampled by <a href=\\\"Toxik\\\">Toxik</a> on the album \\\"<a href=\\\"Think%20This\\\">Think This</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Cypress%20Hill\\\">Cypress Hill</a> on the albums \\\"<a href=\\\"IV%20%28Cypress%20Hill%20album%29\\\">IV</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Skull%20%26amp%3B%20Bones%20%28album%29\\\">Skull & Bones</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Vanilla%20Ice\\\">Vanilla Ice</a> on \\\"<a href=\\\"Platinum%20Underground\\\">Platinum Underground</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"65daysofstatic\\\">65daysofstatic</a> on the album \\\"\\\".\\n20th Century Fox Home Entertainment responded to an online petition created by Animation on DVD.com and written by Keith Finch demanding the film's release on DVD. The disc, released on May 25, 2004, featured an <a href=\\\"audio%20commentary\\\">audio commentary</a> track by Bakshi and the interview segment \\\"Ralph Bakshi: The Wizard of Animation\\\". Bakshi has stated that \\\"Wizards\\\" was always intended as a trilogy. One of the sequels was pitched to Fox, who have yet to greenlight the project.\\n20th Century Fox released a Special Edition <a href=\\\"Blu-ray%20Disc\\\">Blu-ray Disc</a> of the film on March 13, 2012, to commemorate the film's 35th anniversary. The disc includes the special features from the DVD, along with a 24-page book including rare artwork from the film and an introduction from Bakshi. Three Floyds Brewing Co. produces \\\"Necron 99\\\" marketed as a \\\"scortch-style ale\\\"\\nBakshi mentioned he had plans for a sequel entitled \\\"Wizards 2\\\" that involved the relationship between Avatar and Elinore. Bakshi said the plot would be \\\"where [their relationship] doesn't work out, and Weehawk gets in the way\\\", The sequel was never developed due to production difficulties and the other projects on which Bakshi was then focused.\\nIn late 2004, a \\\"Wizards II\\\" graphic novel went into production, produced by Bakshi. The stories will be from the Wizards \\\"universe\\\" and each story will be created by a different artist. In September 2008, it was announced that Main Street Pictures would collaborate with Bakshi on a sequel to \\\"Wizards\\\".\\nAs of 2015, Bakshi has stated that he has a script finished and hopes to have it be his next film. In a November interview, while promoting \\\"<a href=\\\"Last%20Days%20of%20Coney%20Island\\\">Last Days of Coney Island</a>,\\\" Bakshi stated that \\\"Wizards 2\\\" is about \\\"madness, absolute madness!\\\"\",\n \"The Pagemaster\\nThe Pagemaster is a 1994 American <a href=\\\"live-action%20film\\\">live-action</a>/<a href=\\\"animated%20film\\\">animated</a> <a href=\\\"Fantasy%20film\\\">fantasy</a> <a href=\\\"adventure%20film\\\">adventure film</a> starring <a href=\\\"Macaulay%20Culkin\\\">Macaulay Culkin</a>, <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Lloyd\\\">Christopher Lloyd</a>, <a href=\\\"Whoopi%20Goldberg\\\">Whoopi Goldberg</a>, <a href=\\\"Patrick%20Stewart\\\">Patrick Stewart</a>, <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Nimoy\\\">Leonard Nimoy</a>, and <a href=\\\"Frank%20Welker\\\">Frank Welker</a>. The film was produced by <a href=\\\"Turner%20Pictures\\\">Turner Pictures</a> and released by <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a> on November 23, 1994.\\nThe film was written for the screen by David Casci, based on a six-page pitch by writer Charles Pogue entitled \\\"Library Days,\\\" presented to Casci by producer <a href=\\\"David%20Kirschner\\\">David Kirschner</a>. The film was directed by <a href=\\\"Joe%20Johnston\\\">Joe Johnston</a> (live action) and Pixote Hunt and Glenn Chaika (animation), and produced by David Kirschner and Paul Gertz.\\n<a href=\\\"Pessimism\\\">Pessimistic</a> Richard Tyler lives life based on statistics and <a href=\\\"panphobia\\\">fears everything</a>. His exasperated parents have tried multiple ways to build up the courage of their son, but to little success. Richard is sent to buy a bag of nails for building a <a href=\\\"treehouse\\\">treehouse</a>. However, Richard gets caught in a harsh thunderstorm and takes shelter in a <a href=\\\"library\\\">library</a>. He meets Mr. Dewey, an eccentric <a href=\\\"librarian\\\">librarian</a> who gives him a library card, despite Richard's protests. Searching for a phone, Richard finds a large <a href=\\\"Rotunda%20%28architecture%29\\\">rotunda</a> painted with famous literary characters. He slips on some water dripping from his coat and falls down, knocking himself out. Richard awakens to find the rotunda art melting, which washes over him and the library, turning them into <a href=\\\"illustration\\\">illustration</a>s.\\nHe is met by the Pagemaster, who sends him through the fiction section to find the library's exit. Along the way, Richard befriends three <a href=\\\"Anthropomorphism\\\">anthropomorphic</a> books: Adventure, a swashbuckling pirate-like book; Fantasy, a sassy but caring fairy tale book; and Horror, a fearful \\\"Hunchbook\\\" with a misshapen spine. The three agree to help Richard if he checks them out. Together, the quartet encounters classic-fictional characters. They meet <a href=\\\"Dr.%20Jekyll%20and%20Mr.%20Hyde%20%28character%29\\\">Dr. Jekyll</a> who turns into Mr. Hyde, driving them to the open waters of the Land of Adventure. However, the group is separated after <a href=\\\"Moby-Dick\\\">Moby-Dick</a> attacks, following the whale's battle with <a href=\\\"Ahab%20%28Moby-Dick%29\\\">Captain Ahab</a>. Richard and Adventure are picked up by the \\\"Hispaniola\\\", captained by <a href=\\\"Long%20John%20Silver\\\">Long John Silver</a>. The pirates go to <a href=\\\"Treasure%20Island\\\">Treasure Island</a>, but find no treasure but one gold coin, nearly causing a mutiny. Fantasy and Horror return and defeat the pirates. Silver attempts taking Richard with him, but surrenders when Richard threatens him with a sword.\\nIn the fantasy section, Richard sees the exit sign on the top of a mountain. However, Adventure's bumbling awakens a dormant <a href=\\\"dragon\\\">dragon</a>. Richard tries to fight the dragon with a sword and shield, but the dragon swallows him. Richard finds books in the dragon's stomach and uses a beanstalk from \\\"<a href=\\\"Jack%20and%20the%20Beanstalk\\\">Jack and the Beanstalk</a>\\\" to escape through the dragon's mouth. He and the books climb it to reach the exit. They enter a large dark room where the Pagemaster awaits them. Richard accuses the Pagemaster of causing the horrors that he suffered, but the Pagemaster reveals the journey was intended to make Richard face his fears. Dr. Jekyll, Captain Ahab, <a href=\\\"Long%20John%20Silver\\\">Long John Silver</a>, and the <a href=\\\"dragon\\\">dragon</a> reappear in a magical twister and congratulate him. The Pagemaster then swoops Richard and the books into the twister, sending them back to the real world.\\nRichard awakens, finding Adventure, Fantasy, and Horror next to him as real books. Mr. Dewey finds him, and, even though the library policy only allows a person to check out two books at time, lets him check out all three books \\\"just this once\\\". Richard returns home a braver child, sleeping in his new treehouse with his books.\\nThe Pirates of the Hispaniola are voiced by <a href=\\\"Richard%20Erdman\\\">Richard Erdman</a>, <a href=\\\"Fernando%20Escandon\\\">Fernando Escandon</a>, <a href=\\\"Dorian%20Harewood\\\">Dorian Harewood</a>, and <a href=\\\"Robert%20Picardo\\\">Robert Picardo</a>.\\n\\\"The Pagemaster\\\" took three years to produce; the animation in the film was produced by <a href=\\\"Turner%20Feature%20Animation\\\">Turner Feature Animation</a>, headed by <a href=\\\"David%20Kirschner\\\">David Kirschner</a> and recently spun off from <a href=\\\"Hanna-Barbera%20Cartoons\\\">Hanna-Barbera Cartoons</a>. The crew included animators who were veterans of productions such as \\\"<a href=\\\"An%20American%20Tail\\\">An American Tail</a>\\\" (1986) (also produced by <a href=\\\"David%20Kirschner\\\">David Kirschner</a> and composed by <a href=\\\"James%20Horner\\\">James Horner</a>), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Land%20Before%20Time\\\">The Land Before Time</a>\\\" (1988) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Aladdin%20%281992%20Disney%20film%29\\\">Aladdin</a>\\\" (1992). This was one of the first films to feature live-action, traditional animation, and CGI animation all together. One scene involving a computer-generated <a href=\\\"dragon\\\">dragon</a> made from paint was used, a challenge for the filmmakers. All of the fictional works featured in the film were created and first published before January 1, 1923, making them a part of the <a href=\\\"public%20domain\\\">public domain</a> in most countries. The theme songs to the movie are \\\"<a href=\\\"Dream%20Away%20%28Babyface%20and%20Lisa%20Stansfield%20song%29\\\">Dream Away</a>\\\", sung by <a href=\\\"Kenneth%20%26quot%3BBabyface%26quot%3B%20Edmonds\\\">Babyface</a> and <a href=\\\"Lisa%20Stansfield\\\">Lisa Stansfield</a>, and \\\"Whatever You Imagine\\\", sung by <a href=\\\"Wendy%20Moten\\\">Wendy Moten</a>.\\nMany of the cast members have had roles in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Star%20Trek\\\">Star Trek</a>\\\" franchise: <a href=\\\"Patrick%20Stewart\\\">Patrick Stewart</a> played Captain <a href=\\\"Jean-Luc%20Picard\\\">Jean-Luc Picard</a>, <a href=\\\"Whoopi%20Goldberg\\\">Whoopi Goldberg</a> played , <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Nimoy\\\">Leonard Nimoy</a> played <a href=\\\"Spock\\\">Mr. Spock</a>, <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Lloyd\\\">Christopher Lloyd</a> played Kruge in \\\"\\\", <a href=\\\"Ed%20Begley%2C%20Jr.\\\">Ed Begley, Jr.</a> played Henry Starling in a two-part episode of \\\"\\\", <a href=\\\"George%20Hearn\\\">George Hearn</a> played Dr. Berel in an episode of \\\"\\\", and <a href=\\\"B.%20J.%20Ward%20%28actress%29\\\">B.J. Ward</a> played numerous characters in \\\"Star Trek\\\" computer games, as did <a href=\\\"Jim%20Cummings\\\">Jim Cummings</a>. Composer <a href=\\\"James%20Horner\\\">James Horner</a> was also the composer for \\\"\\\" and \\\"\\\". <a href=\\\"Frank%20Welker\\\">Frank Welker</a> voiced Spock's screams in \\\"Star Trek III\\\" and the alien creature in the \\\"Star Trek: Voyager\\\" episode \\\"\\\". <a href=\\\"Robert%20Picardo\\\">Robert Picardo</a> played on \\\"\\\".\\nAdditionally, both Nimoy and Welker voiced the character Galvatron in \\\"Transformers\\\" (with Nimoy voicing him in , and Welker voicing him in <a href=\\\"The%20Transformers%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">the television series</a> and again in \\\"\\\").\\nPromotional advertisements for this film used the theme from the 1984 film, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Last%20Starfighter\\\">The Last Starfighter</a>\\\".\\nCasci's original screenplay included a story arc for the protagonist, Richard Tyler (played by Macaulay Culkin), who begins the tale as a boy who hates reading, but by the end of the film, learns to love reading. The revised screenplay by Contreras and Kirschner omitted the reading-themed story arc, instead emphasizing the boy's journey from cowardice to courage.\\nAccording to the film's animation crew, the film went overbudget during animation production due to mismanagement and changes to the narrative. The 2001 book \\\"Producing Animation\\\" by <a href=\\\"Catherine%20Winder\\\">Catherine Winder</a> and Zahra Dowlatbadi (Johnston's assistant on \\\"The Pagemaster\\\") recommends against making story changes during the animation process.\\nFantasy and Long John Silver are voiced by Goldberg and Cummings. The two of them (along with <a href=\\\"Cheech%20Marin\\\">Cheech Marin</a>) voiced the three troublesome hyenas in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lion%20King\\\">The Lion King</a>\\\", another animated film released the same year.\\nAnimation production began in August 1992, and live-action scenes were filmed from September 21 to October 15, 1992. After two years in the making, the film was completed and wrapped in the summer of 1994. According to the copyright holder, it was believed to be made in 1993 (although the film was just released a year later).\\nThe screenwriting credits for this film were the subject of a protracted <a href=\\\"Arbitration\\\">legal arbitration</a> with the <a href=\\\"WGA%20screenwriting%20credit%20system\\\">Writers Guild of America (WGA)</a> when its producer, <a href=\\\"David%20Kirschner\\\">David Kirschner</a>, attempted to claim sole authorship of the screenplay and original story, with no credit for its original screenwriter, David Casci. Typically, proposed <a href=\\\"WGA%20screenwriting%20credit%20system\\\">credits</a> are submitted to the WGA for approval well in advance of the release of a movie or the publishing of posters or novelizations on which writing credits appear. In the case of \\\"The Pagemaster,\\\" the producers attempted to claim that, as the film was now largely animated, the WGA did not have jurisdiction to determine credits. Casci had written the screenplay under a WGA contract, as well as previous live-action versions for <a href=\\\"Walt%20Disney%20Television\\\">Disney Television</a> dating back to 1985, also written under WGA contract. These facts positioned the WGA to get involved, testing their tenuous authority over a feature film with animated elements.\\nAfter a lengthy investigation and interviews with those intimately familiar with the genesis of the \\\"Pagemaster\\\" project, including three persons within Kirschner's own office, the WGA credit arbitration process determined that David Casci was, in fact, the primary writer, and that Kirschner did not provide a sufficient creative contribution to the writing process to warrant any screenwriting credit. Upon receiving this determination by the WGA, Fox threatened to pull out of arbitration and release the film without WGA-approved credits, positioning the WGA to be forced to file an injunction blocking the film's heavily promoted Christmas season release.\\nUltimately, a settlement was reached, and Fox released the film with both Kirschner and Casci receiving story and screenplay credit, with a third writer, Ernie Contreras, also receiving screenplay credit.\\nAt the time, this case was the most expensive and extensive investigation of its type undertaken by the <a href=\\\"Writers%20Guild%20of%20America%2C%20West\\\">WGA</a> on behalf of one of its members.\\n\\\"The Pagemaster\\\" is presented in an extended cut version. During the production, some original scenes were removed, both live-action and animation. The deleted scenes and characters can be still seen during the making of the film, trailers and TV spots, <a href=\\\"SkyBox%20International\\\">SkyBox International</a> trading cards, books and other related products. They can be also seen during the sneak peek on the 1993 VHS release of \\\"<a href=\\\"Once%20Upon%20a%20Forest\\\">Once Upon a Forest</a>\\\", the 1994 VHS release of \\\"<a href=\\\"Rookie%20of%20the%20Year%20%28film%29\\\">Rookie of the Year</a>\\\", and in the promotional trailer of the VHS release of the film on the promotional demo/screener VHS copy in 1995.\\nThe film was a production by Turner Pictures. 20th Century Fox handled U.S. distribution, while Turner Pictures Worldwide handled International distribution. <a href=\\\"Turner%20Broadcasting%20System\\\">Turner Broadcasting System</a> handles the broadcasting rights of the film to be aired on their variety of television networks (including <a href=\\\"Cartoon%20Network\\\">Cartoon Network</a>). <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.\\\">Warner Bros.</a> now handles International and television distribution to the film as a result of the Turner/<a href=\\\"Time%20Warner\\\">Time Warner</a> merger on October 10, 1996.\\nThe film grossed $13,670,688 in theaters, on a $27 million budget. \\\"The Pagemaster\\\" earned a <a href=\\\"Razzie%20Award\\\">Razzie Award</a> nomination for Macaulay Culkin as Worst Actor for his performance in the movie (also for \\\"<a href=\\\"Getting%20Even%20with%20Dad\\\">Getting Even with Dad</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Richie%20Rich%20%28film%29\\\">Richie Rich</a>\\\") but lost the award to <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Costner\\\">Kevin Costner</a> for \\\"<a href=\\\"Wyatt%20Earp%20%28film%29\\\">Wyatt Earp</a>\\\".\\nThe film received an 18% score on <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a>. <a href=\\\"Roger%20Ebert\\\">Roger Ebert</a> of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicago%20Sun-Times\\\">Chicago Sun-Times</a>\\\" criticized the way the film's message came across, calling it a \\\"sad and dreary film,\\\" adding that its message seemed to be that \\\"books can be almost as much fun as TV cartoons and video arcade games.\\\" Brian Lowry of \\\"<a href=\\\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\\\">Variety</a>\\\" said that the film's principal appeal for adults would be its abbreviated running time, and that it did not do enough with its famous fictional characters, noting \\\"A more inspired moment has Richard using a book, 'Jack and the Beanstalk,' to escape from the belly of a dragon. Unfortunately, such moments are few and far between.\\\"\\nRita Kempley of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Washington%20Post\\\">The Washington Post</a>\\\", however, gave the film a positive review, calling it a \\\"splendidly original children's fantasy about the world of books.\\\" <a href=\\\"James%20Berardinelli\\\">James Berardinelli</a> of ReelViews gave another positive review, calling it a \\\"clever, often engaging, and always fast-paced motion picture\\\" that \\\"uses the visual medium to encourage its viewers to reach out with their imagination.\\\"\\n\\\"The Pagemaster\\\" was first released on <a href=\\\"VHS\\\">VHS</a> and <a href=\\\"LaserDisc\\\">LaserDisc</a> on April 4, 1995. <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox%20Home%20Entertainment\\\">20th Century Fox Home Entertainment</a> released the film on <a href=\\\"DVD\\\">DVD</a> and <a href=\\\"Blu-ray\\\">Blu-ray</a> on August 6, 2013.\\nContrary to any claims, the screenplay and film are not based on any book. David Casci's screenplay preceded all novelizations and illustrated books by several years.\\nA number of books based on the film exist, including an illustrated book attributed to <a href=\\\"David%20Kirschner\\\">David Kirschner</a> and Ernie Contreras, illustrated by Jerry Tiritilli, which contained large passages from the Casci screenplay without giving Casci writing credit. The film was well into production by the time this book was introduced in the 1993 F. A. O. Schwarz Christmas Catalog. Other properties based on the film include a novelization of the film, children's story books, pop-up books and other film ancillaries such as toys and games.\\nVideo game adaptations of the film was released the same year as the film. They were developed by <a href=\\\"Probe%20Software\\\">Probe Software Ltd.</a> and published by <a href=\\\"Fox%20Interactive\\\">Fox Interactive</a>. The PC and handheld versions of the game are almost entirely different games; the PC game is an interactive game, and the handheld version is a platformer.\\n\",\n \"Anastasia (1997 film)\\nAnastasia is a 1997 American <a href=\\\"Animation\\\">animated</a> <a href=\\\"epic%20film\\\">epic</a> <a href=\\\"musical%20film\\\">musical</a> <a href=\\\"alternative%20history\\\">alternative history</a> film produced by <a href=\\\"Fox%20Animation%20Studios\\\">Fox Animation Studios</a> and distributed by <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>, directed by former <a href=\\\"Walt%20Disney%20Animation%20Studios\\\">Walt Disney Animation Studios</a> directors <a href=\\\"Don%20Bluth\\\">Don Bluth</a> and <a href=\\\"Gary%20Goldman\\\">Gary Goldman</a>, and starring the voices of <a href=\\\"Meg%20Ryan\\\">Meg Ryan</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Cusack\\\">John Cusack</a>, <a href=\\\"Kelsey%20Grammer\\\">Kelsey Grammer</a>, <a href=\\\"Hank%20Azaria\\\">Hank Azaria</a>, <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Lloyd\\\">Christopher Lloyd</a> and <a href=\\\"Angela%20Lansbury\\\">Angela Lansbury</a>. The film is a loose adaptation of the legend of <a href=\\\"Grand%20Duchess%20Anastasia%20Nikolaevna%20of%20Russia\\\">Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia</a>, which claims that she, in fact, escaped the <a href=\\\"Shooting%20of%20the%20Romanov%20family\\\">execution of her family</a>. Its basic plot—that of an eighteen-year-old amnesiac orphan named Anya who, in hopes of finding some trace of her family, sides with con men who wish to take advantage of her likeness to the Grand Duchess—is the same as the <a href=\\\"Anastasia%20%281956%20film%29\\\">1956 film by Fox</a>, which, in turn, was based on the 1955 play by <a href=\\\"Marcelle%20Maurette\\\">Marcelle Maurette</a>.\\nThe film was met with criticism by some historians to its fantastical retelling of the life of the Grand Duchess, though it enjoyed a positive reception from many critics. From a $50 million budget, the film grossed $139,804,348 worldwide, making \\\"Anastasia\\\" a box office success.\\nThe film received nominations for several awards, including for <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Original%20Song\\\">Best Original Song</a> (\\\"<a href=\\\"Journey%20to%20the%20Past\\\">Journey to the Past</a>\\\") and <a href=\\\"Best%20Original%20Musical%20or%20Comedy%20Score\\\">Best Original Musical or Comedy Score</a> at the <a href=\\\"70th%20Academy%20Awards\\\">70th Academy Awards</a>. It is the most profitable film from Don Bluth and Fox Animation Studios to date. The success of \\\"Anastasia\\\" spawned various adaptations of the film into other media, including a direct-to-video <a href=\\\"Bartok%20the%20Magnificent\\\">spin-off</a> film, a computer game, books, toys and a <a href=\\\"Anastasia%20%28musical%29\\\">stage musical</a>, which premiered in 2016.\\nIn 1916, <a href=\\\"Tsar\\\">Tsar</a> <a href=\\\"Nicholas%20II%20of%20Russia\\\">Nicholas II</a> hosts a ball at the <a href=\\\"Catherine%20Palace\\\">Catherine Palace</a> to celebrate the <a href=\\\"300th%20anniversary%20of%20the%20Romanov%20dynasty\\\">Romanov tricentennial</a>. His mother, the <a href=\\\"Maria%20Feodorovna%20%28Dagmar%20of%20Denmark%29\\\">Dowager Empress Marie Feodorovna</a>, is visiting from <a href=\\\"Paris\\\">Paris</a>, and gives a music box and a necklace inscribed with the words “Together in Paris” as parting gifts to her youngest granddaughter, the 8-year-old Grand Duchess Anastasia. The ball is suddenly interrupted by the sorcerer <a href=\\\"Grigori%20Rasputin\\\">Grigori Rasputin</a>, the former royal advisor of the Romanovs until he was banished by Nicholas for treason. Seeking revenge, Rasputin <a href=\\\"Deal%20with%20the%20Devil\\\">sold his soul</a> in exchange for an unholy reliquary, which he uses to place a curse on the <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Romanov\\\">Romanov family</a>, sparking the <a href=\\\"Russian%20Revolution\\\">Russian Revolution</a>. During the siege of the palace, only Marie and Anastasia are able to escape with the aid of a servant boy named Dimitri, who shows them a secret passageway in Anastasia's room. Rasputin confronts the two royals outside on a frozen river, only to fall through the ice and drown. The pair manage to reach a moving train, but only Marie climbs aboard while Anastasia falls, hitting her head on the platform and suffering <a href=\\\"amnesia\\\">amnesia</a>.\\nTen years later, Russia is under <a href=\\\"Soviet%20Union\\\">communist rule</a> and Marie has publicly offered 10 million <a href=\\\"Soviet%20ruble\\\">rubles</a> for the safe return of her granddaughter. Dimitri and his friend/partner-in-crime Vladimir search for a look-alike to bring to Paris and pass off as Anastasia so they can collect the reward. Elsewhere, Anastasia, now 18 years of age and known as Anya, leaves the rural orphanage where she grew up. Accompanied by a stray puppy she names Pooka, she decides to head to <a href=\\\"Saint%20Petersburg\\\">Saint Petersburg</a> in order to arrange transportation to Paris, inspired by the message on her necklace and believing it will lead her to her family. She is unable to leave Russia, however, due to not having an exit visa, but an old woman advises her to see Dimitri at the abandoned palace where he has made residence. Dimitri and Vladimir are impressed by Anya's resemblance to the Grand Duchess Anastasia. After learning that she wishes to go to Paris, Dimitri manages to convince Anya that, because of her lost memories, she cannot rule out the possibility that she is the Grand Duchess. This leads to Anya agreeing to accompany Dimitri and Vladimir to Paris to see Marie, without knowing anything of the reward, which Dimitri has no intention of splitting with her.\\nBartok, Rasputin's albino bat minion, is nearby and notices his master's dormant reliquary suddenly revived by Anastasia's presence; it drags him to limbo, where Rasputin survives. Enraged to hear that Anastasia escaped the curse, Rasputin sends his demonic minions from the reliquary to kill her. They fail, forcing Rasputin to travel back to the world of the living to kill Anastasia himself.\\nAnya, Dimitri, and Vladimir eventually reach Paris and go to meet Marie, but learn that she has given up the search, having been nearly fooled numerous times by impostors. Despite this, Marie's cousin, Sophie, meets with Anya and quizzes her to confirm her identity. Anya offers every answer taught to her, but Sophie then asks Anya how she escaped from the palace ten years ago - a question which Dimitri and Vladimir had not anticipated. Anya, however, vaguely recollects a servant boy and a secret passageway, causing Dimitri to realize that Anya is the real Anastasia. Sophie, also convinced of Anastasia's identity, arranges a meeting with Marie at the <a href=\\\"Palais%20Garnier\\\">Palais Garnier</a> Opera house. There, Dimitri tries to establish an introduction, but Marie refuses, having already heard of Dimitri's initial scheme to con her. Anastasia overhears the conversation and angrily leaves, feeling used. Dimitri then kidnaps Marie and takes her to see Anastasia, showing Marie the music box he recovered during their escape. Anastasia finally meets Marie and regains her memories as they converse, convincing the empress of her identity. The two are joyfully reunited.\\nMarie offers Dimitri the reward money, but to her surprise, he refuses it and leaves for Russia. Marie finally recognizes him as the servant boy who saved her. That night at Anastasia's return celebration, Marie informs her of Dimitri's gesture, leaving Anastasia torn between staying or being with him. Pooka suddenly runs off; Anastasia chases him to the <a href=\\\"Pont%20Alexandre%20III\\\">Pont Alexandre III</a>, where she is has her dress torn and attacked by Rasputin. Dimitri returns to save her but is injured and knocked unconscious while Bartok abandons Rasputin. In the struggle, Pooka manages to get hold of Rasputin's reliquary and Anastasia crushes it under her foot, causing Rasputin to disintegrate and avenging her family.\\nIn the aftermath, Dimitri and Anastasia reconcile; they then elope, and Anastasia sends a farewell letter to Marie and Sophie, promising to return one day.\\n<a href=\\\"J.%20K.%20Simmons\\\">J.K. Simmons</a>, <a href=\\\"Victoria%20Clark\\\">Victoria Clark</a>, and <a href=\\\"Lillias%20White\\\">Lillias White</a> are among the ensemble and character voices.\\nIn May 1994, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Los%20Angeles%20Times\\\">The Los Angeles Times</a>\\\" reported that Don Bluth and Gary Goldman had signed a long-term deal to produce animated features with 20th Century Fox with the studio channeling more than $100 million in constructing the animation studio. For the location of the new animation studio, <a href=\\\"Phoenix%2C%20Arizona\\\">Phoenix, Arizona</a> was selected because the state offered the company about $1 million in job training funds and low-interest loans for the state-of-the-art digital animation equipment, with a staff of 300 artists and technicians, a third of whom worked with Bluth and Goldman in <a href=\\\"Dublin%2C%20Ireland\\\">Dublin, Ireland</a> for <a href=\\\"Sullivan%20Bluth%20Studios\\\">Sullivan Bluth Studios</a>. For their first project, the studio insisted they select one out of a dozen existing properties which they owned where Bluth and Goldman suggested adapting \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20King%20and%20I\\\">The King and I</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"My%20Fair%20Lady\\\">My Fair Lady</a>\\\", though Bluth and Goldman felt it would be impossible to improve on <a href=\\\"Audrey%20Hepburn\\\">Audrey Hepburn</a>'s performance and <a href=\\\"Lerner%20and%20Loewe\\\">Lerner and Loewe</a>'s score. Following several story suggestions, the idea to adapt \\\"<a href=\\\"Anastasia%20%281956%20film%29\\\">Anastasia</a>\\\" originated from Fox Filmed Entertainment CEO <a href=\\\"Bill%20Mechanic\\\">Bill Mechanic</a>. They would later adapt story elements from \\\"<a href=\\\"Pygmalion%20%28play%29\\\">Pygmalion</a>\\\" with the peasant Anya being molded into a regal woman.\\nWhen Bluth and Goldman began researching the actual events, they discovered the history of Anastasia and the Romanov dynasty was too dark for their film, and decided to use the basic facts of the Romanovs' demise and the <a href=\\\"Russian%20Revolution\\\">Russian Revolution</a> as a starting point and ask, \\\"What if this girl escaped, and what would have happened to her?\\\" opting to \\\"'tell a myth or a fairy tale.'\\\" Bluth also did not take into consideration depicting <a href=\\\"Vladimir%20Lenin\\\">Vladimir Lenin</a> and the <a href=\\\"Bolsheviks\\\">Bolsheviks</a> as the villains, and instead incorporated <a href=\\\"Grigori%20Rasputin\\\">Grigori Rasputin</a>, explaining \\\"We wanted to stay out of politics.\\\" In reality, Rasputin was already dead when the Romanovs were assassinated. In addition to this, Bluth created the idea for Bartok, the albino bat, as a sidekick for Rasputin. \\\"I just thought the villain had to have a comic sidekick, just to let everyone know that it was all right to laugh. A bat seemed a natural friend for Rasputin. Making him a white bat came later - just to make him different.\\\" Composers Ahrens and Flaherty recalled being at Au Bon Pain in New York City where Rasputin and Bartok were pitched, and being dismayed at the decision to go down a historically inaccurate route; they made their stage musical adaption \\\"more sophisticated, more far-reaching, more political\\\" to encompass their original vision.\\nBluth stated that <a href=\\\"Meg%20Ryan\\\">Meg Ryan</a> was his first and only choice for the title character. However, Ryan was indecisive about accepting the role due to its dark historical events. To persuade her, the animation team took an audio clip of Annie Reed from \\\"<a href=\\\"Sleepless%20in%20Seattle\\\">Sleepless in Seattle</a>\\\" and created an animation reel based on it which was screened for her following an invitation to the studio. \\\"I was blown away that they did that,\\\" Ryan later confessed, and accepted the role. Before Ryan was cast, Broadway actress and singer <a href=\\\"Liz%20Callaway\\\">Liz Callaway</a> was brought in to record several demos of the songs hoping to land a job in <a href=\\\"backing%20vocalist\\\">background vocals</a>, but were liked well enough by the songwriters that were ultimately used in the final film. Cusack openly admitted after being cast that he couldn't sing, in which his singing duties were performed by <a href=\\\"Jonathan%20Dokuchitz\\\">Jonathan Dokuchitz</a> as well as <a href=\\\"Jim%20Cummings\\\">Jim Cummings</a> substituting for <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Lloyd\\\">Christopher Lloyd</a>.\\nThe film score was composed, co-orchestrated, and conducted by <a href=\\\"David%20Newman%20%28composer%29\\\">David Newman</a>, whose father, <a href=\\\"Alfred%20Newman%20%28composer%29\\\">Alfred Newman</a>, composed the score of the 1956 <a href=\\\"Anastasia%20%281956%20film%29\\\">film of the same name</a>. The songs, of which \\\"Journey to the Past\\\" was nominated for the <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Original%20Song\\\">Academy Award for Best Original Song</a>, were written by <a href=\\\"Lynn%20Ahrens\\\">Lynn Ahrens</a> and <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Flaherty\\\">Stephen Flaherty</a>. The first song they wrote for the project was \\\"Once Upon a December\\\"; it was written during a heatwave \\\"so you’re sweating and writing winter imagery\\\". The film's soundtrack was released in CD and audio cassette format on October 28, 1997.\\n20th Century Fox scheduled for \\\"Anastasia\\\" to be released on November 21, 1997, notably a week after the 1997 re-release of Disney's \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Little%20Mermaid%20%281989%20film%29\\\">The Little Mermaid</a>\\\". Disney claimed it had long-planned for the seventeen-day re-release to coincide with a consumer products campaign leading into Christmas and the film's home video release in March 1998, as well continue the tradition for re-releasing the film within a seven to eight-year interval. In addition to this, Disney would release several competing family films including \\\"<a href=\\\"Flubber%20%28film%29\\\">Flubber</a>\\\" on the following weekend, as well as a <a href=\\\"double%20feature\\\">double feature</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"George%20of%20the%20Jungle%20%28film%29\\\">George of the Jungle</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Hercules%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Hercules</a>\\\". As a response, Disney refused to advertise for \\\"Anastasia\\\" on the <a href=\\\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">ABC</a> program \\\"<a href=\\\"Walt%20Disney%20anthology%20television%20series%23The%20Wonderful%20World%20of%20Disney%20%281991%20%E2%80%93%20present%29\\\">The Wonderful World of Disney</a>\\\", and banned its corporate sponsors from airing film clips during their television commercials. Commenting on the fierce competition between the two films, Disney spokesman John Dreyer brushed off allegations of studio rivalry claiming \\\"We always re-release our movies around holiday periods.\\\" However, Fox executives refused to believe Dreyer's statement with Bill Mechanic responding that \\\"It's a deliberate attempt to be a bully, to kick sand in our face. They can't be trying to maximize their own business; the amount they're spending on advertising is ridiculous...It's a concentrated effort to keep our film from fulfilling its potential.\\\"\\n\\\"Anastasia\\\" was accompanied with a marketing campaign at more than $50 million with promotional sponsors from <a href=\\\"Burger%20King\\\">Burger King</a>, <a href=\\\"Dole%20Food%20Company\\\">Dole Food Company</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Hershey%20Company\\\">Hershey</a>, <a href=\\\"Pond%27s\\\">Chesebrough-Ponds</a>, <a href=\\\"Macy%27s%20Thanksgiving%20Day%20Parade\\\">Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade</a>, <a href=\\\"Shell%20Oil%20Company\\\">Shell Oil</a>, and the <a href=\\\"1997%20U.S.%20Figure%20Skating%20Championships\\\">1997 U.S. Figure Skating Championships</a>. Overall, the marketing costs exceeded that of \\\"<a href=\\\"Independence%20Day%20%281996%20film%29\\\">Independence Day</a>\\\" by more than 35 percent. For merchandising, Fox selected <a href=\\\"Galoob\\\">Galoob</a> to license dolls based on Anastasia. In August 1997, the <a href=\\\"SeaWorld\\\">SeaWorld</a> theme parks in <a href=\\\"San%20Diego\\\">San Diego</a> and <a href=\\\"Orlando\\\">Orlando</a> featured a 40-foot-long, 20-foot-high inflatable playground for children called \\\"Anastasia's Kingdom\\\".\\nOn April 28, 1998, \\\"Anastasia\\\" was released on VHS and sold eight million units. On March 14, 2006, the film was reissued on a two-disc \\\"Family Fun Edition\\\" DVD with the film in its original theatrical 2.35:1 widescreen format. The first disc contained the film, an optional audio commentary from directors/writers Don Bluth and Gary Goldman, and bonus features. The second disc contained a making-of documentary, music video and making-of featurette of <a href=\\\"Aaliyah\\\">Aaliyah</a>'s \\\"Journey to the Past\\\", and additional bonus content. The film was released on Blu-ray on March 22, 2011.\\n\\\"Anastasia\\\" received a positive reception from critics. <a href=\\\"Review%20aggregator\\\">Review aggregator</a> website <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> gives the film a score of 85% based on 52 reviews with an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's consensus reads, \\\"Beautiful animation, an affable take on Russian history, and strong voice performances make \\\"Anastasia\\\" a winning first film from Fox animation studios.\\\" <a href=\\\"Roger%20Ebert\\\">Roger Ebert</a> of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicago%20Sun-Times\\\">Chicago Sun-Times</a>\\\" awarded the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, writing, \\\"The result is entertaining and sometimes exciting\\\". Margaret A. McGurk of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Cincinnati%20Enquirer\\\">The Cincinnati Enquirer</a>\\\" described \\\"Anastasia\\\" as \\\"charming\\\" and \\\"entertaining,\\\" concluding, \\\"\\\"Anastasia\\\" serves up a tasty tale about a fairy-tale princess.\\\" Lisa Osbourne of \\\"<a href=\\\"Boxoffice%20%28magazine%29\\\">Boxoffice</a>\\\" called the film \\\"pure family entertainment.\\\" Awarding the film three out of five stars, \\\"<a href=\\\"Empire%20%28magazine%29\\\">Empire</a>\\\"'s Philip Thomas wrote, \\\"Historical inaccuracies aside, Anastasia manages to be a charming little movie\\\".\\nSeveral critics have drawn positive comparisons between \\\"Anastasia\\\" and the Disney films released during the <a href=\\\"Disney%20Renaissance\\\">Disney Renaissance</a>, noting similarities in their story and animation styles. Marjorie Baumgarten of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Austin%20Chronicle\\\">The Austin Chronicle</a>\\\" awarded the film three out of five stars. Likening its quality to that of a Disney animated film, Baumgarten wrote, \\\"\\\"Anastasia\\\"...may not beat Disney at its own game, but it sure won't be for lack of trying.\\\" Baumgarten continued, \\\"[t]his sumptuous-looking film clearly spared no expense in its visual rendering; its optical flourishes and attention to detail aim for the Disney gold standard and, for the most part, come pretty darn close.\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Phoenix%20%28newspaper%29\\\">The Phoenix</a>\\\"'s Jeffrey Gantz jokingly stated, \\\"[i]f imitation is indeed the sincerest form of flattery, then the folks at Disney should feel royally complimented by Twentieth Century Fox's new animated feature about Tsar Nicholas II's youngest daughter.\\\" <a href=\\\"Owen%20Gleiberman\\\">Owen Gleiberman</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"Entertainment%20Weekly\\\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\\\" wrote, \\\"Fox's challenge to the Disney empire is a beautifully animated musical\\\". However, Gleiberman continued, \\\"\\\"Anastasia\\\" has the Disney house style down cold, yet the magic is missing.\\\"\\nCritical reception in Russia was also, for the most part, positive despite the artistic liberties that the film took with Russian history. Gemini Films, the Russian distributor of \\\"Anastasia\\\", stressed the fact that the story was \\\"not history\\\", but rather \\\"a fairy tale set against the background of real Russian events\\\" in the film's Russian marketing campaign so that its Russian audience would not view \\\"Anastasia\\\" \\\"as a historical film\\\". As a result, many Russians praised the film for its art and storytelling and saw it as \\\"not so much a piece of history but another Western import to be consumed and enjoyed\\\".\\nSome Russian Orthodox Christians, on the other hand, found \\\"Anastasia\\\" to be an offensive depiction of the Grand Duchess, who was <a href=\\\"Canonization%20of%20the%20Romanovs\\\">canonized</a> as a <a href=\\\"new%20martyr\\\">new martyr</a> in 1981 by the <a href=\\\"Russian%20Orthodox%20Church%20Outside%20Russia\\\">Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia</a> and a <a href=\\\"passion%20bearer\\\">passion bearer</a> in 2000 by the <a href=\\\"Russian%20Orthodox%20Church\\\">Russian Orthodox Church</a>. Many historians echoed their sentiments, criticizing the film as a \\\"sanitized, sugar-coated reworking of the story of the Czar's youngest daughter.\\\" While the filmmakers acknowledged the fact that \\\"\\\"Anastasia\\\" uses history only as a starting point\\\", others complained that the film would provide its audience with misleading facts about Russian history, which, according to the author and historian Suzanne Massie, \\\"has been falsified for so many years.\\\" Similarly, the amateur historian Bob Atchison said that \\\"Anastasia\\\" was akin to someone making a film in which \\\"<a href=\\\"Anne%20Frank\\\">Anne Frank</a> moves to Orlando and opens a crocodile farm with a guy named Mort.\\\"\\nSome of Anastasia's contemporary relatives also felt that the film was distasteful, but most Romanovs have come to accept the \\\"repeated exploitation of Anastasia's romantic tale ... with equanimity.\\\"\\nA <a href=\\\"limited%20release\\\">limited release</a> of \\\"Anastasia\\\" at the <a href=\\\"Ziegfeld%20Theatre%20%281969%29\\\">Ziegfeld Theatre</a> in New York City on the weekend of November 14, 1997 grossed $120,541. The following week, the wide release of \\\"Anastasia\\\" in the United States made $14,104,933 (for an average of about $5,692 from 2,478 theaters), which placed it as the #2 film for the weekend of November 21–23, 1997. By the end of its theatrical run, \\\"Anastasia\\\" had grossed $58,406,347 in the North American box office and $81,398,001 internationally. The worldwide gross totaled up to about $139,804,348, making it Don Bluth's highest-grossing film to date, beating out his previous record holder of that title \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Land%20Before%20Time\\\">The Land Before Time</a>\\\" from 1988 by about $55,343,502. It should also be noted that this was Don Bluth's first financially successful film since \\\"<a href=\\\"All%20Dogs%20Go%20to%20Heaven\\\">All Dogs Go to Heaven</a>\\\".\\nAnastasia On Ice was a licensed adaptation produced by <a href=\\\"Feld%20Entertainment\\\">Feld Entertainment</a>'s <a href=\\\"Ice%20Follies\\\">on ice unit</a> that ran from at least 1998 to 1999.\\nIn 1999 a direct-to-video spin-off and prequel called \\\"<a href=\\\"Bartok%20the%20Magnificent\\\">Bartok the Magnificent</a>\\\" was released which focused on the character of Bartok.\\nOn April 21, 2015, Hartford Stage, <a href=\\\"Hartford%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Hartford, Connecticut</a> announced that they will premiere a new stage production of \\\"Anastasia\\\", with the book by <a href=\\\"Terrence%20McNally\\\">Terrence McNally</a>, lyrics by <a href=\\\"Lynn%20Ahrens\\\">Lynn Ahrens</a>, music by <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Flaherty\\\">Stephen Flaherty</a> and directed by Darko Tresnjak. The production ran from May 13 through June 19, 2016.\\nIt is an original new musical combining both the 1956 Fox film and the 1997 animated film. According to Tresnjak, the musical features six songs from the animated movie and additionally includes 16 new songs. Additionally, there have been some newly rewritten characters including Checkist secret Police officer Gleb Vaganov (in the place of Rasputin), and Lily, who has been renamed in the place of Sophie. McNally said \\\"This is a stage version for a modern theatre audience...The libretto’s 'a blend' of old and new...There are characters in the musical that appear in neither the cartoon nor the Ingrid Bergman version.”\\nThe Hartford production featured <a href=\\\"Christy%20Altomare\\\">Christy Altomare</a> as Anastasia/Anya, <a href=\\\"Derek%20Klena\\\">Derek Klena</a> as Dimitri, <a href=\\\"Mary%20Beth%20Peil\\\">Mary Beth Peil</a> as The Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, <a href=\\\"Manoel%20Felciano\\\">Manoel Felciano</a> as Gleb Vaganov, <a href=\\\"John%20Bolton%20%28actor%29\\\">John Bolton</a> as Vladimir, <a href=\\\"Caroline%20O%27Connor%20%28actress%29\\\">Caroline O'Connor</a> as Lily, and Nicole Scimeca as Young Anastasia. The musical transferred to <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a> with much of the original Hartford cast, opening on April 24, 2017 at the <a href=\\\"Broadhurst%20Theatre\\\">Broadhurst Theater</a> to mixed reviews.\\n\\\"Anastasia\\\" received the <a href=\\\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association\\\">Broadcast Film Critics Association</a> <a href=\\\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Award%20for%20Best%20Family%20Film\\\">Award for Best Family Film</a> and was nominated for 7 others, including two <a href=\\\"Academy%20Awards\\\">Academy Awards</a> in the categories of \\\"<a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Original%20Music%20Score\\\">Best Original Musical or Comedy Score</a>\\\" (lost to \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Full%20Monty\\\">The Full Monty</a>\\\") and \\\"<a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Song\\\">Best Original Song</a>\\\" for \\\"<a href=\\\"Journey%20to%20the%20Past\\\">Journey to the Past</a>\\\" (lost to <a href=\\\"My%20Heart%20Will%20Go%20On\\\">My Heart Will Go On</a> from \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Titanic</a>\\\"). The <a href=\\\"contemporary%20R%26amp%3BB\\\">R&B</a> singer <a href=\\\"Aaliyah\\\">Aaliyah</a> performed her pop single version of \\\"Journey to the Past\\\" at the <a href=\\\"70th%20Academy%20Awards\\\">70th Academy Awards</a>.\\n\",\n \"Division (business)\\nA division of a <a href=\\\"business\\\">business</a>, sometimes called a business sector, is one of the parts into which a business, <a href=\\\"organization\\\">organization</a> or <a href=\\\"company\\\">company</a> is divided. The divisions are distinct parts of that business. If these divisions are all part of the same company, then that company is legally responsible for all of the obligations and debts of the divisions. However, in a large organization, various parts of the business may be run by different <a href=\\\"subsidiary\\\">subsidiaries</a>, and a business division may include one or many subsidiaries. Each subsidiary is a separate legal entity owned by the primary business or by another subsidiary in the hierarchy. Often a division operates under a separate name and is the equivalent of a <a href=\\\"corporation\\\">corporation</a> or <a href=\\\"limited%20liability%20company\\\">limited liability company</a> obtaining a <a href=\\\"fictitious%20name\\\">fictitious name</a> or \\\"<a href=\\\"doing%20business%20as\\\">doing business as</a>\\\" certificate and operating a business under that fictitious name. Companies often set up business units to operate in divisions prior to the legal formation of subsidiaries.\\nGenerally, only an \\\"entity\\\", e.g. a corporation, <a href=\\\"Public%20limited%20company\\\">public limited company (plc)</a> or limited liability company, etc. would have a \\\"division\\\"; an individual operating in this manner would simply be \\\"operating under a fictitious name\\\".\\nAn example of this would be to look at <a href=\\\"Hewlett%20Packard\\\">Hewlett Packard</a> (HP), the <a href=\\\"computer\\\">computer</a> and <a href=\\\"Printer%20%28computing%29\\\">printer</a> company. HP has several divisions, with the printer division, that makes laser and inkjet printers, being the largest and most profitable division. The divisions of HP, like the Printing & Multifunction division, the Handheld Devices (includes the old calculator) division, the Servers division (mini and mainframe computers), etc., all use the HP brand name. But, <a href=\\\"Compaq\\\">Compaq</a> (a part of HP since 2002), operates as a \\\"subsidiary\\\", using the Compaq brand name.\\n<a href=\\\"Mack%20Trucks\\\">Mack Trucks</a> continues to run itself separately, but is a wholly owned subsidiary of <a href=\\\"AB%20Volvo\\\">AB Volvo</a>. Volvo Trucks also sells <a href=\\\"truck\\\">truck</a>s under the Volvo name. Within Mack, there is a division named Mack de Venezuela C.A. that does final assembly and sells trucks in <a href=\\\"South%20America\\\">South America</a>.\\nAnother less obvious example is that <a href=\\\"Google%20Video\\\">Google Video</a> is a \\\"division\\\" of <a href=\\\"Google\\\">Google</a>, and is part of the same corporate entity. But the <a href=\\\"YouTube\\\">YouTube</a> video service is a \\\"subsidiary\\\" of Google because it remains operated as YouTube, LLC, a separate <a href=\\\"business%20entity\\\">business entity</a> even though it is owned by Google.\\n\",\n \"Blue Sky Studios\\nBlue Sky Studios is an American <a href=\\\"computer%20animation\\\">computer animation</a> film studio based in <a href=\\\"Greenwich%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Greenwich, Connecticut</a> that has been owned by <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a> since 1997. The studio was founded in 1987 by <a href=\\\"Chris%20Wedge\\\">Chris Wedge</a>, Michael Ferraro, Carl Ludwig, Alison Brown, David Brown, and Eugene Troubetzkoy after the company they worked in, <a href=\\\"Mathematical%20Applications%20Group\\\">MAGI</a>, one of the visual effects studios behind \\\"<a href=\\\"Tron\\\">Tron</a>\\\" (1982), shut down. Using its in-house rendering software, the studio had worked on visual effects for commercials and films before completely dedicating itself to animated film production in 2002 with the release of \\\"<a href=\\\"Ice%20Age%20%282002%20film%29\\\">Ice Age</a>\\\".\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Ice%20Age%20%28franchise%29\\\">Ice Age</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Rio%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Rio</a>\\\" are the studio's most successful franchises, while \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Peanuts%20Movie\\\">The Peanuts Movie</a>\\\" is its most critically acclaimed film. As of 2013, <a href=\\\"Scrat\\\">Scrat</a>, a character from the \\\"Ice Age\\\" films, is the studio's mascot.\\nIn the late 1970s, <a href=\\\"Chris%20Wedge\\\">Chris Wedge</a>, then an undergraduate at <a href=\\\"Purchase%20College\\\">Purchase College</a> studying film, was employed by <a href=\\\"Mathematical%20Applications%20Group\\\">Mathematical Applications Group, Inc.</a> (MAGI). MAGI was an early computer technology company which produced SynthaVision, a software application that could replicate the laws of physics to measure <a href=\\\"nuclear%20radiation\\\">nuclear radiation</a> rays for <a href=\\\"U.S.%20government\\\">U.S. government</a> contracts. At MAGI, Wedge met Eugene Troubetzkoy, who held a <a href=\\\"Doctor%20of%20Philosophy\\\">Ph.D</a> in <a href=\\\"theoretical%20physics\\\">theoretical physics</a> and was one of the first <a href=\\\"Computer%20animation\\\">computer animators</a>. Using his background in character animation, Wedge helped MAGI produce animation for television commercials, which eventually led to an offer from <a href=\\\"Walt%20Disney%20Pictures\\\">Walt Disney Productions</a> to produce animation for the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Tron\\\">Tron</a>\\\" (1982). For \\\"Tron\\\", MAGI hired Michael Ferraro, a <a href=\\\"systems%20architect\\\">systems architect</a>, and Carl Ludwig, an <a href=\\\"Electrical%20engineering\\\">electrical engineer</a>. As MAGI's success began to decline, the company employed David Brown from <a href=\\\"CBS/Fox%20Video\\\">CBS/Fox Video</a> to be a marketing executive and Alison Brown to be a managing producer. After MAGI shut down, the six individuals—Wedge, Troubetzkoy, Ferraro, Ludwig, David Brown, and Alison Brown—founded Blue Sky Studios in February 1987 to continue their work in computer animation.\\nFerraro began to build a programming language specifically tailored for Blue Sky's proprietary animation software, CGI Studio. At the time, <a href=\\\"Scanline%20rendering\\\">scanline renderers</a> were prevalent in the computer graphics industry, and they required computer animators and digital artists to add lighting effects in manually; Troubetzkoy, Ferraro, and Ludwig developed CGI Studio to use <a href=\\\"Ray%20tracing%20%28graphics%29\\\">ray tracing</a>, which allows the renderer to simulate the physical properties of light and produce lighting effects automatically. To accomplish this, Ludwig examined how light passes through water, ice, and crystal, and programmed those properties into the software. Following the <a href=\\\"Black%20Monday%20%281987%29\\\">stock market crash of 1987</a>, Blue Sky Studios did not find their first client until about two years later: a company \\\"that wanted their logo animated so it would be seen flying over the ocean in front of a sunset.\\\" In order to receive the commission, Blue Sky spent two days rendering a single frame and submitted it to the prospective client. However, once the client accepted their offer, Blue Sky found that they could not produce the entire animation in time without help from a local graphics studio, which provided them with extra computer processors.\\nThroughout the late 1980s and 1990s, Blue Sky Studios concentrated on the production of television commercials and visual effects for film. The studio began by animating commercials that depicted the mechanisms of time-release <a href=\\\"Capsule%20%28pharmacy%29\\\">capsules</a> for <a href=\\\"Pharmaceutical%20industry\\\">pharmaceutical corporations.</a> The studio also produced a <a href=\\\"Chock%20Full%20O%27%20Nuts\\\">Chock Full O' Nuts</a> commercial with a talking coffee bean and developed the first computer-animated <a href=\\\"M%26amp%3BM%27s\\\">M&M's</a>. Using CGI Studio, the studio produced over 200 other commercials for clients such as <a href=\\\"Chrysler\\\">Chrysler</a>, <a href=\\\"General%20Foods\\\">General Foods</a>, <a href=\\\"Texaco\\\">Texaco</a>, and the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Marine%20Corps\\\">United States Marines</a>. Blue Sky Studios also produced the computer animation for the \\\"<a href=\\\"Mathman\\\">Mathman</a>\\\" video game segments of PBS's \\\"<a href=\\\"Square%20One%20Television\\\">Square One Television</a>\\\".\\nIn the mid-1990s, <a href=\\\"MTV\\\">MTV</a> hired Blue Sky Studios to animate their network IDs, which led to additional collaboration between the two companies on the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Joe%27s%20Apartment\\\">Joe's Apartment</a>\\\" (1996), for which Blue Sky animated the insect characters. Other clients included <a href=\\\"Bell%20Atlantic\\\">Bell Atlantic</a>, <a href=\\\"Rayovac\\\">Rayovac</a>, <a href=\\\"Gillette\\\">Gillette</a>, and <a href=\\\"Braun%20%28company%29\\\">Braun</a>. The Braun commercial was awarded a <a href=\\\"Clio%20Awards\\\">CLIO Award for Advertising</a>. Recalling the award, Carl Ludwig stated that the judges had initially mistaken the commercial as a live action submission as a result of the photorealism of the computer-animated razor. In August 1997, <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>'s Los Angeles-based visual effects company, VIFX, acquired <a href=\\\"majority%20interest\\\">majority interest</a> in Blue Sky Studios to form a new visual effects and animation company, temporarily renamed \\\"Blue Sky/VIFX\\\". Following the studio's expansion, Blue Sky produced character animation for the films \\\"\\\" (1997), \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Simple%20Wish\\\">A Simple Wish</a>\\\" (1997), \\\"<a href=\\\"MouseHunt%20%28film%29\\\">Mousehunt</a>\\\" (1997), \\\"\\\" (1998), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Fight%20Club\\\">Fight Club</a>\\\" (1999).\\nMeanwhile, starting in 1990, Chris Wedge had been working on a short film named \\\"<a href=\\\"Bunny%20%281998%20film%29\\\">Bunny</a>\\\", intended to demonstrate CGI Studio. The film revolves around a rabbit widow who is irritated by a moth. The moth subsequently leads the rabbit into \\\"a heavenly glow, reuniting her with her husband.\\\" At the time, Wedge had been the thesis advisor for <a href=\\\"Carlos%20Saldanha\\\">Carlos Saldanha</a> while Saldanha was a graduate student at the <a href=\\\"School%20of%20Visual%20Arts\\\">School of Visual Arts</a>; Wedge shared storyboard panels for \\\"Bunny\\\" with Saldanha during this time. After Saldanha's graduation, Blue Sky Studios hired him as an animator, and he later directed a few commercials. It was not until 1996 when Nina Rappaport, a producer at Blue Sky Studios, assigned Wedge to complete the \\\"Bunny\\\" project, which required CGI Studio to render fur, glass, and metal from multiple light sources, such as a swinging light bulb and an \\\"ethereal cloudscape\\\". In the initial stages of the \\\"Bunny\\\" project, Carl Ludwig modified CGI Studio to simulate <a href=\\\"Radiosity%20%28computer%20graphics%29\\\">radiosity</a>, which tracks light rays as they reflect off of multiple surfaces. Blue Sky Studios released \\\"Bunny\\\" in 1998, and it received the <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Animated%20Short%20Film\\\">Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film</a>. \\\"Bunny\\\"'s success gave Blue Sky Studios the opportunity to produce feature length films.\\nDue to the F/X market crash, Fox decided to leave the visual effects business. In March 1999, they sold VIFX to another visual effects house, <a href=\\\"Rhythm%20%26amp%3B%20Hues%20Studios\\\">Rhythm & Hues Studios</a>, and considered selling Blue Sky next. At the time, the studio got the opportunity with the \\\"<a href=\\\"Ice%20Age%20%282002%20film%29\\\">Ice Age</a>\\\" script to turn it into a comedy. In 2002, \\\"Ice Age\\\" was released to great critical and commercial success. The film got a nomination for an <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Animated%20Feature\\\">Academy Award for Best Animated Feature</a>, and established Blue Sky as the third studio, after <a href=\\\"Pixar\\\">Pixar</a> and <a href=\\\"DreamWorks%20Animation\\\">DreamWorks Animation</a>, to launch a successful CGI franchise.\\nIn January 2009, the studio moved from <a href=\\\"White%20Plains%2C%20New%20York\\\">White Plains, New York</a> to <a href=\\\"Greenwich%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Greenwich, Connecticut</a>, taking advantage of the state's 30 percent tax credit and having more space to grow. The studio stated in April 2017 that it intends to stay in Connecticut until 2025.\\nIn 2013, Chris Wedge took a leave of absence to direct <a href=\\\"Paramount%20Animation\\\">Paramount Animation</a>'s live-action/computer-animated film \\\"<a href=\\\"Monster%20Trucks%20%28film%29\\\">Monster Trucks</a>\\\".\\n\",\n \"Priit Pärn\\nPriit Pärn (born 26 August 1946 in <a href=\\\"Tallinn\\\">Tallinn</a>) is an <a href=\\\"Estonia\\\">Estonia</a>n <a href=\\\"cartoonist\\\">cartoonist</a> and <a href=\\\"animation%20director\\\">animation director</a> whose films have enjoyed success among critics as well as the public at various film festivals.\\nPärn formerly worked as a plant ecologist; his career in animation began when he accepted <a href=\\\"Rein%20Raamat\\\">Rein Raamat</a>'s proposal to make a design for \\\"Kilplased\\\" (1974). After a brief apprenticeship in Joonisfilm, he directed his first film \\\"Is the Earth Round?\\\" in 1977.\\nPärn's most important films are considered to be \\\"Triangle\\\" (1982), \\\"Breakfast on the Grass\\\" (1987), \\\"Hotel E\\\" (1991), \\\"1895\\\" (co-directed by <a href=\\\"Janno%20P%C3%B5ldma\\\">Janno Põldma</a>, 1995) and \\\"Night of the Carrots\\\" (1998).\\nPärn's style is characterized by black humour, playful surrealism and a unique graphic style. His somewhat crude style marked the departure from both <a href=\\\"Rein%20Raamat\\\">Rein Raamat</a>'s overtly serious and moralizing films as well as the Disneyesque style propagated by the directors of <a href=\\\"Soyuzmultfilm\\\">Soyuzmultfilm</a>. In his footsteps (and occasionally copying his style to a large degree) have followed numerous new generation Estonian film makers, most notably <a href=\\\"%C3%9Clo%20Pikkov\\\">Ülo Pikkov</a> and <a href=\\\"Priit%20Tender\\\">Priit Tender</a>.\\nInfluences of Pärn's graphical style can be also be seen in such commercial animated series as \\\"<a href=\\\"Rugrats\\\">Rugrats</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"AAAHH%21%21%21%20Real%20Monsters%21\\\">AAAHH!!! Real Monsters!</a>\\\" directed by <a href=\\\"Igor%20Kovalyov\\\">Igor Kovalyov</a>.\\nIn 2002 Pärn was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award from the <a href=\\\"International%20Animated%20Film%20Association\\\">International Animated Film Association</a>, and he received Lifetime Achievement Award at the World Festival of Animated Film - <a href=\\\"Animafest%20Zagreb\\\">Animafest Zagreb</a> in 2008.\\n\\\"Divers in the Rain\\\" (2010), co-directed with his wife <a href=\\\"Olga%20P%C3%A4rn\\\">Olga Pärn</a>, became the most successful Estonian animated film of all time with its 18th award at KROK International Animated Film Festival in Ukraine.<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.joonisfilm.ee/archives/1223%3Flang%3Den\\\"></a>\\nPärn had taught animation at the Arts Academy of the <a href=\\\"Turku%20University%20of%20Applied%20Sciences\\\">Turku University of Applied Sciences</a> in <a href=\\\"Turku\\\">Turku</a>, Finland since 1994 and now he is teaching at <a href=\\\"Estonian%20Academy%20of%20Arts\\\">Estonian Academy of Arts</a>.\",\n \"Cartoon d'or\\nThe Cartoon d'Or is the pan-European award for <a href=\\\"animation\\\">animation</a> <a href=\\\"short%20film\\\">short film</a>s. It rewards every year the best one since only prize-winning films from Cartoon's partner festivals can compete.\\nAmongst this short list, a <a href=\\\"jury\\\">jury</a> selects 5 films that will be screened during the Cartoon Forum (in order to promote 5 <a href=\\\"filmmaker\\\">filmmaker</a>s each year) and one film will receive the Cartoon d'Or\\nCreated in 1991, the Cartoon d'Or is still remaining the only completely European animation prize. This competition aims to \\\"promote the talents of European animation.\\\"\\nThe Cartoon d'Or was created in order to nourish the European animation industry by work from creative filmmakers. European <a href=\\\"television%20series\\\">television series</a> lacked of <a href=\\\"creativity\\\">creativity</a> to compete with programming on offer from the United States and Japan.\\nMoreover, although major financial support was being given to develop European animation, no special place was made for it at major European festivals and awards (<a href=\\\"Cannes%20Film%20Festival\\\">Cannes Film Festival</a>, Berlin, <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venice</a>, the European Felix etc.).\\nThe <a href=\\\"award%20ceremony\\\">award ceremony</a> takes place during the Cartoon Forum which gathers all the players in the economic structure of European animation (700 professionals including 250 potential investors, 350 producers, 60 journalists and 40 public funding bodies). Consequently, the Cartoon Forum can act as a pipeline between short film makers and the industry. Indeed, the finalists are often approached by producers to work on series or <a href=\\\"feature%20film\\\">feature film</a>s. Some finalists and prize-winners have themselves gone on to make series or feature films.\\nIn 1991, the first Cartoon d'Or went to British director <a href=\\\"Nick%20Park\\\">Nick Park</a>, still unknown at the time, for his film \\\"<a href=\\\"Creature%20Comforts\\\">Creature Comforts</a>\\\". Since then, he has created \\\"<a href=\\\"Wallace%20%26amp%3B%20Gromit\\\">Wallace & Gromit</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicken%20Run\\\">Chicken Run</a>\\\". <a href=\\\"Sylvain%20Chomet\\\">Sylvain Chomet</a> received the Cartoon d'Or in 1997 for his short \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Old%20Lady%20and%20the%20Pigeons\\\">The Old Lady and the Pigeons</a>\\\". A few years later, he enjoyed success through \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Triplets%20of%20Belleville\\\">The Triplets of Belleville</a>\\\", nominated for two <a href=\\\"Academy%20Awards\\\">Academy Awards</a>. He has now released his second feature, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Illusionist%20%282010%20film%29\\\">The Illusionist</a>\\\". Jacques-Rémy Girerd walked away with the award in 1998 for \\\"Charlie's Christmas\\\". The French director founded an animation studio, <a href=\\\"Folimage\\\">Folimage</a>, and released two feature films: \\\"<a href=\\\"Raining%20Cats%20and%20Frogs\\\">Raining Cats and Frogs</a>\\\" and \\\"Mia & the Migoo\\\". <a href=\\\"Mark%20Baker%20%28animator%29\\\">Mark Baker</a>, who created TV series such as \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Big%20Knights\\\">The Big Knights</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Peppa%20Pig\\\">Peppa Pig</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Micha%C3%ABl%20Dudok%20de%20Wit\\\">Michaël Dudok de Wit</a> for his much acclaimed \\\"Father & Daughter\\\" and <a href=\\\"Joanna%20Quinn\\\">Joanna Quinn</a> for \\\"Dreams and desires – Family Ties\\\".\\n<a href=\\\"wiktionary%3AAnimated%20cartoon\\\">Animated Cartoon</a>\\n<a href=\\\"wiktionary%3ACartoon\\\">Cartoon</a>\\n<a href=\\\"wiktionary%3ACartoon%20series\\\">Cartoon series</a>\\n<a href=\\\"wiktionary%3AHistory%20of%20animation\\\">History of animation</a>\",\n \"Rein Raamat\\nRein Raamat (born 20 March 1931) is an <a href=\\\"Estonia\\\">Estonia</a>n animation film director, artist and screenwriter. He is the first internationally successful Estonian animator and along with <a href=\\\"Elbert%20Tuganov\\\">Elbert Tuganov</a> is regarded as the \\\"Father of Estonian Animation\\\". He has directed many short animated films since the early 1970s and also produced over 20 documentary films.\\nRaamat was born in <a href=\\\"T%C3%BCri\\\">Türi</a>, <a href=\\\"J%C3%A4rva%20County\\\">Järva County</a> and graduated from the <a href=\\\"Estonian%20Art%20Institute\\\">Estonian Art Institute</a> in 1957 as a painter and between 1957–1971 worked as an artist and director in feature films based in Tallinn. In 1971, he founded his own animation studio, Joonisfilm, a division of the <a href=\\\"Tallinnfilm\\\">Tallinnfilm</a> studio, and commenced making his own films. From 1989–1995 he was artistic director of Studio B which he established, employing some 120 people.\\nOne of his notable films is \\\"Põrgu\\\" (\\\"Hell\\\"), released in 1983, that he based on the art of fellow Estonian <a href=\\\"Eduard%20Wiiralt\\\">Eduard Wiiralt</a> from the 1930s.\\nSince the early 1990s he has been involved with many documentaries in Estonia. In 1998, he worked with journalist <a href=\\\"Martti%20Soosaar\\\">Martti Soosaar</a> in producing the documentary \\\"Enn Põldroosi härrasmeeste seltskond\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Twentieth Century Fox Animation (stylized as 20th Century Fox Animation) is the animation division of the film studio 20th Century Fox, tasked for production feature-length animated film.","Tor Seidler (born 1952 in Littleton, New Hampshire) is an American author of children's literature. Many of his books feature anthropomorphic animals. \"Mean Margaret\" was nominated for a National Book Award, \"The Wainscott Weasel\" was named a Notable Children's Book by the American Library Association, and \"A Rat's Tale\" was named Best Book of the Year by \"Publishers Weekly\". In 1998, \"A Rat's Tale\" was adapted into a puppet film by Augsburger Puppenkiste and distributed by Warner Bros. Family Entertainment. 20th Century Fox Animation and Blue Sky Studios planned to adapt \"The Wainscott Weasel\" into a movie, which started development in 2003. However, Fox shelved the concept in 2006."],"string":"[\n \"Twentieth Century Fox Animation (stylized as 20th Century Fox Animation) is the animation division of the film studio 20th Century Fox, tasked for production feature-length animated film.\",\n \"Tor Seidler (born 1952 in Littleton, New Hampshire) is an American author of children's literature. Many of his books feature anthropomorphic animals. \\\"Mean Margaret\\\" was nominated for a National Book Award, \\\"The Wainscott Weasel\\\" was named a Notable Children's Book by the American Library Association, and \\\"A Rat's Tale\\\" was named Best Book of the Year by \\\"Publishers Weekly\\\". In 1998, \\\"A Rat's Tale\\\" was adapted into a puppet film by Augsburger Puppenkiste and distributed by Warner Bros. Family Entertainment. 20th Century Fox Animation and Blue Sky Studios planned to adapt \\\"The Wainscott Weasel\\\" into a movie, which started development in 2003. However, Fox shelved the concept in 2006.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":67,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which 7 foot tall, 325 lb basketball player missed the first 22 games of the 1995–96 NBA season?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Shaquille Rashaun O'Neal"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Damon Stoudamire\nDamon Lamon Stoudamire (born September 3, 1973) is an American retired professional basketball player and the current head men's basketball coach at the University of the Pacific. The 5 ft , 171 lb point guard was selected with the 7th overall pick by the Toronto Raptors in the 1995 NBA draft and won the 1995–96 NBA Rookie of the Year Award. He played collegiately at the University of Arizona, and professionally for the Toronto Raptors, Portland Trail Blazers, Memphis Grizzlies and San Antonio Spurs. He is the cousin of former Arizona Wildcats standout Salim Stoudamire and current NBA player Terrence Jones.\nStoudamire was born to Willie Stoudamire and Liz Washington in Portland, Oregon; he was the only child, with three stepsisters; his parents never married. Willie Stoudamire moved away to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to work in a brewery when Damon was seven years old. Stoudamire was raised by his mother, Liz, and his grandmother, Wanda Stoudamire-Matthews.\nWhile Stoudamire was growing up, his uncles, Charles and Anthony Stoudamire, got him involved in sports, mainly basketball and football. They acted as fathers and personal coaches to Stoudamire in his younger years, as he grew up watching his favorite player, Nate Archibald, and attempted to pattern his game after his childhood hero. As he grew older, Damon began to play basketball at Irving Park in the Portland–Irvington neighborhood and at the Matt Dishman Community Center in Portland.\nStoudamire attended Holy Redeemer grade school (a Catholic school) and Harriet Tubman Middle School, then attended Woodrow Wilson High School. During his junior year in high school, his grandmother Wanda died of cancer. He would later tattoo Wanda's face and her address on his left arm in remembrance. He was accepted to attend and play basketball at the University of Oregon, but chose to attend the University of Arizona instead.\nStoudamire attended Woodrow Wilson High School, playing there for the Trojans, where he led his team to a 74–4 record and state championships in 1989 and 1991. He averaged 26.1 points, 9.2 assists, and 3.6 rebounds per game while playing for his school. He earned two \"Oregon Player of the Year\" and one \"Converse High School All-American\" awards during his senior year.\nStoudamire played point guard for the Arizona Wildcats and legendary coach, Lute Olson. He was a first-team All-American and finalist for \"College Player of the Year\". He teamed with Khalid Reeves his junior year to lead the team to the Final Four. During his senior year he earned the All-American honors for his 22.8 points per game. He also finished his college career first on the Wildcats' all-time list in three-pointers made (272), second in points (1,849), fourth in assists (663), and was the only player in Arizona history to have two 40-point games. Stoudamire scored his career-high 45 points at Stanford University on January 14, 1995. He was named a 1995 \"Wooden Award\" finalist after sharing the \"Pac-10 Player of the Year\" award with Ed O'Bannon.\nStoudamire had a noteworthy rookie season with the Toronto Raptors, being the team's first ever draft pick, and averaging 9.3 assists and 19 points per game. He earned the nickname \"Mighty Mouse\" because he stands only 5 ft , and that he had a Mighty Mouse tattoo on his right arm going into his rookie season. He set the record for three-point field goals made by a rookie with 133 breaking the record at the time held by Dennis Scott. This record has been broken several times over since Stoudamire's 133 mark. It is currently held by Damian Lillard, who made 185 threes in his rookie season. Stoudamire is third in assist average by a rookie. He ranked second in scoring among all rookies in 1995–96, and led all rookies in minutes played and assists. He received the \"Schick Rookie of the Month\" award twice and unanimously made the Schick All Rookie First Team, and eventually won the \"Rookie of the Year\" award, receiving 76 of the possible 113 votes, and the MVP award of the Rookie All-Star Game. He holds the record for being the third-lowest draft pick (7th overall) to ever win the Rookie of the Year award, with the lowest being Malcolm Brogdon (36th in the second round.) He is also known as the shortest player to ever win this award. He did not play the last 10 games of his rookie season due to tendinitis in his left knee. The Raptors finished that year and his rookie season with 21 wins and 61 losses.\nStoudamire previously held the record for most triple doubles with the Toronto Raptors with 3 triple doubles, a record that stood until 2014, when it was broken by Kyle Lowry.\nOn February 13, 1998, he was traded by the Raptors along with Walt Williams and Carlos Rogers to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Kenny Anderson, Alvin Williams, Gary Trent, two first-round draft picks, a second-round draft pick and cash considerations. As a member of the Blazers, his stats fell somewhat from his career highs. In the 2001–02 season, the Blazers benched Stoudamire for most of the time. The new head coach, Maurice Cheeks, went with Scottie Pippen and Bonzi Wells instead at the guard positions. However, Stoudamire received significant playing time in the playoffs that season.\nOn January 14, 2005, Stoudamire hit a career-high and Blazers franchise record 54 points, which included 8 3-pointers, against the New Orleans Hornets. The same season, on April 15, he shot an NBA record 21 3-point attempts, making only 5 of them.\nStoudamire's contract with the Blazers expired at the end of the 2004–05 season, and it became widely known that the Blazers, who were focusing on youth movement and looking for players with good character, had no intention of re-signing him. This became abundantly clear in August 2005, when the team signed free agent guard Juan Dixon to a contract, and assigned him Stoudamire's uniform number (3). Stoudamire wanted the Blazers to work out a sign-and-trade deal whereby he would end up with the Houston Rockets, but since this would have required Portland to take one of Houston's overpaid players in return and the team, at that time, had a relatively high payroll, Portland management decided to go in another direction with players like Travis Outlaw and Sebastian Telfair.\nOn August 5, 2005, after Stoudamire had been in discussions with several teams, it was announced he signed a 4-year deal with the Memphis Grizzlies, where he replaced Jason Williams, who left for the Miami Heat, as the starting point guard. On December 30, 2005, he tore his right patellar tendon, coincidentally in his hometown of Portland. He was carted off the court, and had successful surgery in Birmingham, Alabama the following week. He missed the rest of the 2005–06 season, returning for 2006–07, and ended up playing 62 games, of which he started 51 (evenly splitting point guard duties with veteran backup Chucky Atkins).\nDuring the 2007–08 season, on NBA Access with Ahmad Rashad, he said that he was working hard with Mike Conley, Jr., a 2007 draft pick by the Grizzlies, who, after Stoudamire had left, would play a major role as a point guard. When Conley returned from an injury, Grizzlies head coach Marc Iavaroni placed Stoudamire on the inactive list and used inexperienced rookie Mike Conley as the starting point guard, causing Stoudamire to look for a trade or a buyout. On January 26, 2008, the Grizzlies reached a tentative contractual buyout agreement with Stoudamire, with the San Antonio Spurs, Boston Celtics, Phoenix Suns, Denver Nuggets and Toronto Raptors registering strong interest in signing him. On January 28, the buyout was completed and Stoudamire was placed on waivers. The Celtics initially showed strong interest in Stoudamire but since set their sights on the LA Clippers' Sam Cassell. According to Stoudamire's agent, Stoudamire was to sign with the Spurs.\nOn February 3, 2008, Stoudamire signed a contract with the San Antonio Spurs. He briefly started for the Spurs while Tony Parker was injured, but then was relegated to spot duty throughout the rest of the season and the playoffs.\nStoudamire considered going to camp with the Houston Rockets, but he did not attend training camp.\nIn December 2008, Stoudamire accepted a coaching position as director of player development for the guard-heavy Rice University Owls squad under head coach Ben Braun.\nIn February 2009, Stoudamire joined the coaching staff of the Grizzlies, along with Henry Bibby.\nIn May 2011, Stoudamire joined the coaching staff of the University of Memphis Tigers men's basketball team, where his coaching and recruiting contributions were noted with enthusiasm during the '11-'12 season.\nIn May 2013, Stoudamire left Memphis to join the coaching staff of the Arizona Wildcats men's basketball team.\nIn May 2015, Stoudamire left Arizona to rejoin the coaching staff of the Memphis Tigers men's basketball team.\nIn March 2016, Stoudamire left Memphis to take over the head coaching position for the Pacific Tigers men's basketball team.\nHis stint with the Portland Trail Blazers was marred by several marijuana related incidents including one during the 2002–03 season where, with then-starting power forward Rasheed Wallace, his yellow Hummer was pulled over on I-5 for speeding and driving under the influence of marijuana. In July 2003, after his third arrest for marijuana possession, he was fined $250,000 and was suspended by the team for three months. Blazers president Steve Patterson announced that he wanted to void Stoudamire's contract, but did not find a provision in the contract that would allow him to do so.\nStoudamire completed a 90-day rehabilitation program. In addition, he made an agreement with \"The Oregonian\" sports columnist John Canzano to take an unannounced urine test during any point of the 2003–04 season to prove his sobriety. Midway through the season, Canzano appeared in the team locker room and produced a specimen bottle which Stoudamire filled. An independent testing laboratory reported back the result that he was indeed clean. The incident rehabilitated Stoudamire in the minds of many Portland fans, who had come to regard him as one of the \"Jail Blazers\". However, Stoudamire was widely criticized by the NBA Players Association for the drug test, who claimed that NBA players may only submit to such tests as prescribed by the league's Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA). The fact that the test was voluntary, and not administered by the league or any of its teams, did not make Stoudamire immune to such criticism. Despite the criticism, no official action was taken by the union against Stoudamire for his participation in the test.\n","Paul Sturgess (basketball)\nPaul Sturgess (born 25 November 1987) is an English professional basketball player who last played for the Cheshire Phoenix of the British Basketball League. He was officially measured barefeet by Guinness World Records in November 2011 at 7 ft and 325 lb . Sturgess was the tallest college basketball player in the United States, and is currently the tallest professional basketball player in the world.\nPaul \"Tiny\" Sturgess was \"drafted\" by the Harlem Globetrotters in August 2011 and is the tallest ever to play for the team. He joined the team with fellow rookie Jonte \"Too Tall\" Hall, who at 5 ft is the shortest player ever and is 2.5 ft shorter than Sturgess.\nSturgess wears a size 18 shoe. He is the tallest man in Britain after Neil Fingleton (who was 7 ft tall) died unexpectedly on 25 February 2017. Examinations as a teenager revealed that his growth is healthy and not the result of disorder, but rather he possesses familial tall stature—that is to say his height is genetic. His biological father is 6 ft , and there are other tall members in his family although his mother is 5 ft and his younger sister is 5 ft . He featured prominently in the 2007 ITV1 television documentary \"Supersize Kids: Britain's Tallest Teens\" when he was 19 and playing at Florida Institute of Technology.\nSturgess enjoys playing many other sports and before concentrating on basketball also played golf and football. He started playing team basketball at age 14 when he was 5 ft , was 7 ft aged 16 playing at Burleigh Community College, and was 7 ft when he graduated high school at age 18. A growth spurt during ages of 16 and 17 resulted in a 1 ft of height added within a single year. Sturgess can hold the 10 ft high rim whilst standing. He declined offers to play professional basketball in Europe, preferring to pursue basketball in the US.\nOn 1 November 2013, Sturgess was selected by the Springfield Armor in the third round of the 2013 NBA Development League Draft. On 4 November 2013, he was traded to the Texas Legends where he played for the rest of the season.\nOn 19 November 2014 he was signed by Cheshire Phoenix of the British Basketball League.","1997–98 Miami Heat season\nThe 1997–98 NBA season was the tenth season for the Miami Heat in the National Basketball Association. In the offseason, the Heat signed free agent Eric Murdock and acquired Duane Causwell from the Sacramento Kings. Despite Alonzo Mourning missing the first 22 games of the season due to an offseason knee injury, the Heat continued to play strong basketball as backup center Isaac Austin played string coming off the bench. Jamal Mashburn was also injured only playing just 48 games due to a thumb injury. Mourning would eventually return as Austin was traded at midseason to the Los Angeles Clippers for Brent Barry, as the Heat posted a 13–2 record in February. The Heat finished first place in the Atlantic Division with a 55–27 record. Tim Hardaway was the only member of the team to be selected for the 1998 NBA All-Star Game.\nIn the first round of the playoffs, the Heat faced the 7th-seeded New York Knicks. The Heat would take a 2–1 lead in the series. However, in Game 4, Mourning was suspended for fighting Larry Johnson, his former teammate of the Charlotte Hornets now playing for the Knicks. Without Mourning, the Heat would lose Game 5 at the Miami Arena, 98–81. Following the season, Barry signed as a free agent with the Chicago Bulls, and Murdock signed with the New Jersey Nets.\n(2) Miami Heat vs. (7) New York Knicks\nLast Playoff Meeting: 1997 Eastern Conference Semifinals (Miami won 4-3)\n","1990–91 San Antonio Spurs season\nThe 1990–91 NBA season was the Spurs' 15th season in the National Basketball Association, and 24th season as a franchise. After a promising rookie season from second-year star David Robinson, the Spurs would win 17 of their first 22 games on their way to a 30–10 start. However, with Terry Cummings and Rod Strickland lost for long stretched games due to injuries, the Spurs struggled in February with a 4–7 record. The Spurs would bounce back winning 13 of their final 17 games as they won the Midwest Division with a solid 55–27 record. Robinson averaged 25.6 points, 13.0 rebounds, and 3.9 blocks per game while being selected to the All-NBA First Team, All-Defensive Second Team, and for the 1991 NBA All-Star Game. However, in the first round of the playoffs, the Spurs would be stunned by the 7th-seeded Golden State Warriors in four games after winning Game 1.\n(2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (7) Golden State Warriors: \"Warriors win series 3-1\"\nLast Playoff Meeting: Not available (first playoff series)\n","Henry Bibby\nCharles Henry Bibby (born November 24, 1949) is a former professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player.\nHis brother, <a href=\"Jim%20Bibby\">Jim Bibby</a>, was a <a href=\"Major%20League%20Baseball\">Major League Baseball</a> pitcher, and his son, <a href=\"Mike%20Bibby\">Mike Bibby</a>, is a retired point guard of the <a href=\"National%20Basketball%20Association\">National Basketball Association</a>.\nBibby was a starting <a href=\"point%20guard\">point guard</a> as the <a href=\"UCLA%20Bruins%20men%27s%20basketball\">UCLA Bruins</a> won three straight <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\">NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship</a>s in <a href=\"1970%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1970</a>, <a href=\"1971%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1971</a> and <a href=\"1972%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1972</a> under head coach <a href=\"John%20Wooden\">John Wooden</a>. Bibby helped lead the Bruins through the first 47 games of an 88-game winning streak and was named an All-American his senior year. He was one of only 4 players to have started on 3 NCAA championship teams; the others all played for Wooden at UCLA: <a href=\"Kareem%20Abdul-Jabbar\">Lew Alcindor</a>, <a href=\"Curtis%20Rowe\">Curtis Rowe</a> and <a href=\"Lynn%20Shackelford\">Lynn Shackelford</a>.\nIn the <a href=\"1972%20NBA%20draft\">1972 NBA draft</a>, Bibby was drafted in the fourth round by the <a href=\"New%20York%20Knicks\">New York Knicks</a> and in the second round of the <a href=\"1972%20ABA%20Draft\">1972 ABA Draft</a> by the <a href=\"Carolina%20Cougars\">Carolina Cougars</a>. Bibby opted to play for the Knicks and was with the team for two-and-a-half seasons, which included an <a href=\"NBA%20Finals\">NBA title</a> in 1973.\nBibby spent nine seasons in the <a href=\"National%20Basketball%20Association\">NBA</a>, and was a part of the 1977 and 1980 <a href=\"Philadelphia%2076ers\">Philadelphia 76ers</a> teams that made the <a href=\"NBA%20Finals\">NBA Finals</a> but lost both times.\nBibby started his coaching career in the <a href=\"Continental%20Basketball%20Association\">Continental Basketball Association</a> (CBA) and won two championships in 1982 and 1989. He coached the <a href=\"Winnipeg%20Thunder\">Winnipeg Thunder</a>.\nIn 1996, he was named coach of the men's <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> team at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Southern%20California\">University of Southern California</a> (USC), and kept that position for nine seasons. Bibby had an overall won-loss record of 131-111 at USC. He led his 1997, 2001 and 2002 teams to the <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">NCAA</a> tournament, including an \"<a href=\"Elite%20Eight\">Elite Eight</a>\" appearance in 2001. He was fired four games into his ninth season.\nIn April 2005, he was named head coach of the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Sparks\">Los Angeles Sparks</a> of the <a href=\"Women%27s%20National%20Basketball%20Association\">Women's National Basketball Association</a> (WNBA). After 28 games, he was replaced by his assistant coach, <a href=\"Joe%20Bryant\">Joe Bryant</a>.\nOn January 17, 2006, Bibby was hired by the <a href=\"Philadelphia%2076ers\">Philadelphia 76ers</a> as an assistant coach on <a href=\"Maurice%20Cheeks\">Maurice Cheeks</a>' staff and remained there until the end of the 2007–2008 season, when his contract was not renewed. In February 2009 he was hired by the <a href=\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\">Memphis Grizzlies</a> as an assistant coach. He remained with the team until 2013, when he joined the <a href=\"Detroit%20Pistons\">Detroit Pistons</a>' coaching staff.\nBibby is the brother of <a href=\"Jim%20Bibby\">Jim Bibby</a>, a former Major League Baseball <a href=\"pitcher\">pitcher</a>, and father of <a href=\"Mike%20Bibby\">Mike Bibby</a>, who played in the NBA. Henry Bibby and son Mike are one of four father-son duos to each win an NCAA basketball championship. Henry and Mike were initially estranged after Henry divorced from Mike's mother, leading Mike to publicly state \"My father is not part of my life\" after winning the NCAA title in 1997, but they later reconnected starting in 2002 as Mike was reaching his peak in the NBA.\nclass=\"wikitable succession-box\" style=\"margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%;clear:both;\"","Ben Braun\nBenjamin Abraham Braun (born November 25, 1953) is a men's college basketball coach.\nHe is the former coach at <a href=\"Rice%20University\">Rice University</a>, where he spent eight seasons. Previously, Braun spent 12 years with the <a href=\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\">California</a> Golden Bears program and 11 years at <a href=\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20men%27s%20basketball\">Eastern Michigan University</a>. He won the most games (185) of any coach in Eastern Michigan's history, and he was named <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> Coach of the Year three times. As the head coach at <a href=\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\">Cal</a>, he won the <a href=\"Pac-12%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Coach%20of%20the%20Year\">Pac-10 Coach of the Year</a>, and had a 202–138 record (.606).\nBraun was born in Chicago, Illinois, and is Jewish. His father is Academy Award nominee producer <a href=\"Zev%20Braun\">Zev Braun</a>. He graduated from <a href=\"New%20Trier%20High%20School\">New Trier High School</a> in <a href=\"Winnetka%2C%20Illinois\">Winnetka, Illinois</a>, where he excelled on both the basketball and, as a shortstop, baseball teams.\nBraun played one year of basketball at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Wisconsin%26amp%3Bndash%3BLa%20Crosse\">University of Wisconsin–La Crosse</a>. He then transferred to the <a href=\"University%20of%20Wisconsin%26amp%3Bndash%3BMadison\">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>. He earned a teaching degree in English, with a minor in African-American Studies, in June 1975. He earned a master's degree in guidance and counseling from <a href=\"Siena%20Heights\">Siena Heights</a> in 1980.\nHe and his wife, Jessica, have a son Julius and a daughter Eliza.\nAfter graduating from <a href=\"University%20of%20Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison\">Wisconsin</a> in 1975, Braun began his career as an assistant coach at <a href=\"Washington%20Park%20High%20School\">Washington Park High School</a> in <a href=\"Racine%2C%20Wisconsin\">Racine, Wisconsin</a>. After two years of coaching high school basketball, he accepted the head coaching job at <a href=\"Siena%20Heights%20University\">Siena Heights University</a>. Braun coached Siena Heights for eight years, taking the <a href=\"National%20Association%20of%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics\">National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics</a> (NAIA) school to a 148–103 record and five postseason tournaments.\nPrior to the 1985–86 season, Braun took on the position of associate head coach at <a href=\"Eastern%20Michigan%20University\">Eastern Michigan</a>. Midway through the year, on January 15, 1986, he was elevated to interim head coach. Within two years his Hurons (Eagles from 1991 onwards) were in the NCAA Tournament for the first time in school history. During his 11 years at Eastern Michigan, he guided the Eagles to four postseason berths, including three NCAA appearances. Braun accumulated a record of 185–132 and was named Mid-American Conference Coach of the Year three times. His 185 wins are the most by a coach in <a href=\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20men%27s%20basketball\">Eastern Michigan Eagles men's basketball</a> history.\nIn the summer of 1989, he was the head coach of the U.S. men's basketball team at the <a href=\"1989%20Maccabiah%20Games\">1989 Maccabiah Games</a>. The team lost to Team Israel in the final.\nBraun replaced <a href=\"Todd%20Bozeman\">Todd Bozeman</a> as the head coach at <a href=\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\">Cal</a> prior to the 1996–97 season. Expectations were low as the Golden Bears were predicted to finish in the bottom half of the conference. However, the team finished tied for second in the conference and reached the NCAA Sweet 16. The team finished the season 23–9 and gave Braun a school record for most wins by a Bear coach in his first year with the program. Braun went on to win the <a href=\"Pac-12%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Coach%20of%20the%20Year\">Pac-10 Coach of the Year</a> - the first Cal coach to ever receive the award.\nIn the 1998–99 season, Braun's club defeated North Carolina, UCLA, and Arizona during the course of the year to become the first team ever at Cal to beat three Top 10 schools in the same season. Then after entering the <a href=\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">NIT</a>, the Bears, led by <a href=\"Geno%20Carlisle\">Geno Carlisle</a>, won five consecutive postseason games to capture the NIT title - Cal's first postseason tournament championship since the Bears won the 1959 NCAA title. Cal finished the 1998–99 campaign with a 22–11 record.\nIn 2000–01, the Bears returned to the NCAA Tournament, finishing with a 20–11 record, and <a href=\"Sean%20Lampley\">Sean Lampley</a> - Braun's first recruit at Cal after NCAA sanctions were lifted from Bozeman's tenure - became the school's all-time leading scorer late in his senior campaign, finishing with 1,776 points.\nIn 2001–02, the Bears again went 23–9 and tied for second in the Pac-10 standings. Cal earned a No. 6 seed in the NCAA playoffs, where the Bears toppled Penn before falling to Pittsburgh in the second round.\nIn 2002–03, Cal again reached the second round of the NCAA Tournament behind All-Pac-10 forwards <a href=\"Joe%20Shipp\">Joe Shipp</a> and <a href=\"Amit%20Tamir\">Amit Tamir</a>. Shipp ended his career in the No. 3 position on the Bears' all-time scoring list, while teammate <a href=\"Brian%20Wethers\">Brian Wethers</a> finished in the No. 15 position.\nIn 2005–06, Cal defeated USC and Oregon to reach the Pac-10 Tournament final for the first time ever. <a href=\"Leon%20Powe\">Leon Powe</a> and the Bears then earned a No. 7 regional seed in the NCAA Tournament and finished the year with a 20–11 mark. On November 21, 2005, Cal defeated Long Beach State, 88-69, to give Braun his 500th career win.\nDuring his tenure at Cal, Braun directed the Bears to more postseason appearances and more postseason victories than any coach in school history. He finished the 2006–07 campaign with a 202–138 record with the Bears and a 29-year career mark of 535–373. He ranks second to <a href=\"Nibs%20Price\">Nibs Price</a> (1925–54, 449–294) in both tenure and wins at Cal, while his Cal winning percentage (.606) is the best at the school since Hall of Famer <a href=\"Pete%20Newell\">Pete Newell</a> guided the Bears to a 119–44 mark from 1955–60.\nTwo days after losing to <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20men%27s%20basketball\">Ohio State</a> in the <a href=\"2008%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">2008 National Invitation Tournament</a>, Braun was fired as head coach of the Golden Bears on March 26, 2008.\nBraun was hired as the men's head coach at <a href=\"Rice%20University\">Rice</a>, replacing <a href=\"Willis%20Wilson\">Willis Wilson</a> in 2008. He resigned on March 13, 2014, after six seasons with the Owls, compiling a 63-128 record.\n","Rasheed Wallace\nRasheed Abdul \"Sheed\" Wallace (born September 17, 1974) is an American retired professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player who played 16 seasons in the <a href=\"National%20Basketball%20Association\">National Basketball Association</a> (NBA). A native of <a href=\"Philadelphia\">Philadelphia</a>, Wallace played <a href=\"college%20basketball\">college basketball</a> at the <a href=\"University%20of%20North%20Carolina%20at%20Chapel%20Hill\">University of North Carolina</a> before moving on to the NBA in 1995.\nOriginally selected by the <a href=\"Washington%20Bullets\">Washington Bullets</a> (now known as the Washington Wizards) as the fourth pick in the <a href=\"1995%20NBA%20draft\">1995 NBA draft</a>, Wallace was named to the All-Rookie second team following his <a href=\"1995%E2%80%9396%20NBA%20season\">first season</a>. He was then traded to the <a href=\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\">Portland Trail Blazers</a> after the season. With Portland he was a key member of the Trail Blazers team that made it to the Western Conference Finals in <a href=\"1999%20NBA%20Playoffs\">1999</a> and <a href=\"2000%20NBA%20Playoffs\">2000</a>, and was an <a href=\"NBA%20All-Star\">NBA All-Star</a> in 2000 and 2001. Wallace averaged a career best 19.4 points per game in 2002 for the Trail Blazers.\nDuring the <a href=\"2003%E2%80%9304%20NBA%20season\">2003–04 season</a> Portland traded him to the <a href=\"Atlanta%20Hawks\">Atlanta Hawks</a> where he played one game before he was traded to the <a href=\"Detroit%20Pistons\">Detroit Pistons</a>. With the Pistons, Wallace won the <a href=\"2004%20NBA%20Finals\">NBA championship in 2004</a>, but lost the <a href=\"2005%20NBA%20Finals\">NBA Finals</a> in the following season. Individually, Wallace was an <a href=\"NBA%20All-Star\">NBA All-Star</a> in 2006 and 2008. After the <a href=\"2008%E2%80%9309%20NBA%20season\">2008–09 season</a>, Wallace left the Pistons as a free agent and signed with the <a href=\"Boston%20Celtics\">Boston Celtics</a>, where he played until retiring in 2010. He returned to sign a one-year deal to play for the <a href=\"New%20York%20Knicks\">New York Knicks</a> in 2012.\nWallace is currently the NBA's all-time leader in player <a href=\"technical%20foul\">technical foul</a>s, with 317. Wallace also holds the single-season record for technical fouls. In the 2000–01 season, Wallace received 41 technical fouls over a span of 80 games, about one technical foul for every two games. On April 17, 2013, Wallace announced his second retirement.\nWallace was born and raised in the <a href=\"inner%20city\">inner city</a> neighborhoods of <a href=\"Philadelphia\">Philadelphia</a>, where he began his basketball career and attended <a href=\"Simon%20Gratz%20High%20School\">Simon Gratz High School</a>. He was named \"<a href=\"USA%20Today\">USA Today</a> High School Player of the Year\" after his senior season and was selected first team All America by Basketball Times. Wallace was also a two-time Parade All-American first teamer. Despite playing time of just 19 minutes per game, Wallace averaged 16 points, 15 rebounds and seven blocks his senior year. In addition to basketball, Wallace also ran track and <a href=\"high%20jump\">high jump</a>ed as a teenager. Wallace was outplayed by <a href=\"Darnell%20Robinson\">Darnell Robinson</a> in the McDonald's Game, where his battle with Robinson caused him to get ejected from the game, but he rebounded in the Roundball Classic, getting 30 points in a losing effort. Wallace, along with Randy Livingston and Jerry Stackhouse, were considered the top three players in the 1993 class.\n<a href=\"University%20of%20North%20Carolina\">University of North Carolina</a> coach <a href=\"Dean%20Smith\">Dean Smith</a> recruited Wallace to <a href=\"Chapel%20Hill%2C%20North%20Carolina\">Chapel Hill, North Carolina</a> for his college years. Smith was a revered mentor both to Wallace and Wallace's eventual Detroit coach <a href=\"Larry%20Brown%20%28basketball%29\">Larry Brown</a>. Wallace has indicated that this North Carolina bond with Brown helped him adjust quickly to the Pistons system. During his brief time at North Carolina, Wallace had success in the national spotlight. He was named a second-team All-American by the AP his second year at UNC.\nWallace and fellow future NBA player <a href=\"Jerry%20Stackhouse\">Jerry Stackhouse</a> helped lead the <a href=\"Tar%20Heels\">Tar Heels</a> to the <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\">NCAA Final Four</a> in 1995. He left North Carolina to enter the <a href=\"1995%20NBA%20draft\">1995 NBA draft</a> after his sophomore season, being selected with the fourth pick overall by the <a href=\"Washington%20Bullets\">Washington Bullets</a>.\nAs a rookie with the Bullets, Wallace played in 65 games, of which he started 51 for the injured <a href=\"Chris%20Webber\">Chris Webber</a>. Wallace was selected to the rookie team for the All-Star Weekend. Late that year, he fractured his left thumb during a game against Orlando and did not return until the following season. Wallace scored 655 points and played 1,788 minutes during his rookie season in Washington.\nAfter the season, Wallace was traded to the <a href=\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\">Portland Trail Blazers</a>, along with <a href=\"Mitchell%20Butler\">Mitchell Butler</a> in exchange for <a href=\"Rod%20Strickland\">Rod Strickland</a> and <a href=\"Harvey%20Grant\">Harvey Grant</a>. This move that beneficial for both sides: Strickland averaged 17.2 ppg and 8.9 apg after the trade, helping the Bullets make the playoffs in 1997 for the first time in eight seasons, and upped those stats to 17.8 ppg and a league-leading 10.5 apg the following year.\nMeanwhile, Wallace ranked third in the league in field goal percentage. However, just as his season was gaining momentum, Wallace again broke his left thumb and was forced to miss the next month of the season, but he returned in time for a strong performance in the first round playoff series against the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\">Los Angeles Lakers</a>, which the Trail Blazers lost.\nNext season, he signed a long-term contract to stay with the Trail Blazers. He began extending himself into the community more than ever, most notably with his Rasheed Wallace Foundation, but his career suffered from numerous missteps on and off the court. He set an NBA record with 38 <a href=\"technical%20foul\">technical foul</a>s for the season. However, he would be fifth in the league in <a href=\"Field%20goal%20%28basketball%29\">field goal</a> percentage. The following year, he broke his own record with 40 technicals. Wallace was also suspended by the NBA for seven games for threatening then-referee <a href=\"Tim%20Donaghy\">Tim Donaghy</a> on an arena loading dock after a home game in 2003. That was the league's longest suspension for an offense that did not involve violence or substance abuse.\nWallace was named an <a href=\"NBA%20All-Star%20Game\">NBA All-Star</a> in 2000 and 2001 and led the Trail Blazers to the Western Conference Finals in 1999 and 2000, losing to the <a href=\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\">San Antonio Spurs</a> and the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\">Los Angeles Lakers</a>, respectively. Both teams would go on to win the <a href=\"NBA%20Finals\">NBA Finals</a>. The 2000 series against the Lakers was most noted for the underdog Blazers squandering a 15-point lead going into the fourth quarter of Game 7.\nOn February 9, 2004, Wallace was traded to the <a href=\"Atlanta%20Hawks\">Atlanta Hawks</a> along with <a href=\"Wesley%20Person\">Wesley Person</a> for <a href=\"Shareef%20Abdur-Rahim\">Shareef Abdur-Rahim</a>, <a href=\"Theo%20Ratliff\">Theo Ratliff</a> and <a href=\"Dan%20Dickau\">Dan Dickau</a>. Wallace played only one game for the Hawks, scoring 20 points through three quarters. He also had six rebounds, five blocks, two assists and a steal in a close loss on the road against the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Nets\">New Jersey Nets</a>, though he did not score in the fourth quarter. Wallace was again traded, in a deal that saw him go from the Hawks along with guard <a href=\"Mike%20James%20%28basketball%2C%20born%201975%29\">Mike James</a> from the Celtics to the Pistons. In turn, Detroit sent guards <a href=\"Chucky%20Atkins\">Chucky Atkins</a>, <a href=\"Lindsey%20Hunter\">Lindsey Hunter</a> and a first-round draft pick to Boston and guard <a href=\"Bob%20Sura\">Bob Sura</a>, center <a href=\"%C5%BDeljko%20Rebra%C4%8Da\">Željko Rebrača</a> and a first-round draft pick to Atlanta. Boston also sent forward <a href=\"Chris%20Mills%20%28basketball%29\">Chris Mills</a> to Atlanta to complete the deal.\nAfter falling behind against the <a href=\"Indiana%20Pacers\">Indiana Pacers</a> in the 2004 Eastern Conference Finals, he stated boldly in an interview that \"We will win Game 2,\" a promise he helped fulfill.\nWallace helped the Pistons win an unexpected NBA title, beating the heavily favored Lakers four games to one. After the championship season, he paid for replica <a href=\"World%20Heavyweight%20Championship%20%28WWE%29\">WWE World Heavyweight Championship</a> belts to be made for each of his teammates and presented them as gifts when the 2004–05 regular season started.\nIn the off-season following the Pistons' championship win, Wallace signed a five-year, $57 million contract to remain with Detroit. He also changed the number of his jersey from #30 to #36.\nThroughout the 2004–05 season, Wallace often carried the belt into his locker before games to inspire the Pistons' title defense. He had several notable moments in the playoffs. After the second-round elimination of the Pacers, Wallace played his best series of the postseason in the Eastern Conference finals against the top-seeded <a href=\"Miami%20Heat\">Miami Heat</a>. After falling behind again, he again \"guaranteed success\". He shot a 50% field goal percentage and averaged 14.5 points per game in the series' seven games, and saved his hottest-shooting night for the decisive Game 7. Against the <a href=\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\">San Antonio Spurs</a> in the NBA Finals, Wallace was criticized for leaving <a href=\"Robert%20Horry\">Robert Horry</a> open for the game-winning three-pointer in Game 5. Wallace's defense and clutch shooting helped the Pistons to split the series 3–3, but in the final game, the Pistons lost 81–74.\nIn the 2005–06 season, he helped lead them to a 64–18 record, and the top seed in the Eastern Conference for the playoffs. The Pistons beat the <a href=\"Milwaukee%20Bucks\">Milwaukee Bucks</a>, 4–1 in the first round and then beat the Cleveland Cavaliers 4–3 in the second round of the playoffs. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Pistons played the Heat in a rematch of the previous year's Conference Finals. The Pistons lost in six games to the Miami Heat, who went on to capture their first NBA title.\nOn March 26, 2007, in a game against the <a href=\"Denver%20Nuggets\">Denver Nuggets</a>, Wallace threw up a 60-foot shot off a stolen inbound pass with 1.5 seconds remaining and banked it in from just behind halfcourt to force overtime letting out a huge roar from what was left of the Palace crowd. The Pistons went on to win the game, 113–109.\nOn June 2, 2007, Wallace fouled out of Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals after committing a foul on <a href=\"LeBron%20James\">LeBron James</a> and then received two technical fouls, resulting in an automatic ejection, for arguing with a referee.\nPrior to the <a href=\"2007%E2%80%9308%20NBA%20season\">2007–08 NBA season</a>, the Pistons would not re-sign <a href=\"Chris%20Webber\">Chris Webber</a>, and putting <a href=\"Antonio%20McDyess\">Antonio McDyess</a> as a starting power forward, put Wallace at center. On February 10, 2008, it was announced that Wallace would be replacing Boston Celtics' injured forward Kevin Garnett in the <a href=\"2008%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game\">2008 NBA All-Star Game</a> in New Orleans. The decision was made by NBA commissioner <a href=\"David%20Stern\">David Stern</a>. This was Wallace's fourth All-Star appearance.\nIn the 2008 Eastern Conference Finals, the Pistons played Garnett and the Celtics. This marked the sixth consecutive time that the Pistons had made it to this point, and five times they had gotten there with Wallace in the lineup. Still, Detroit lost a third consecutive year in the Conference Finals, losing to Boston 4–2. After the game, Wallace reportedly told reporters, without taking any questions, \"It's over, man\", perhaps indicating that Pistons' General Manager <a href=\"Joe%20Dumars\">Joe Dumars</a> would break up the core of the team following the defeat. He changed his number from 36 back to his original 30, perhaps to change his and the team's fortunes, but sure enough, Dumars did indeed break up the core: at the beginning of the 2008–09 season, Dumars traded longtime starting point guard and 2004 Finals MVP <a href=\"Chauncey%20Billups\">Chauncey Billups</a> to Denver. It was to be Wallace's last year with the team; after the season came to a close, Wallace and the Pistons decided to part ways.\nWallace signed a three-year contract with the <a href=\"Boston%20Celtics\">Boston Celtics</a> on July 8, 2009. During the regular season, Wallace struggled, averaging career lows in points per game and rebounds per game. Also, he shot 28% on three pointers and 40% from the field. The Celtics reached the <a href=\"2010%20NBA%20Finals\">NBA Finals in 2010</a> but lost the series to the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\">Los Angeles Lakers</a> four games to three. In Game 6 of the Finals, the Celtics' starting center <a href=\"Kendrick%20Perkins\">Kendrick Perkins</a> injured his right knee, so Wallace started Game 7. Wallace scored 11 points and was 5 of 11 from the field in the loss. Wallace's agent Bill Strickland announced on June 25, 2010 that Wallace would likely retire from the NBA, which was made official on August 10, following the buyout of his contract by the Celtics.\nOn October 3, 2012, Wallace came out of retirement, and signed with the <a href=\"New%20York%20Knicks\">New York Knicks</a>.\nOn February 27, 2013, Wallace announced that he had a broken left foot and was expected to miss eight weeks. He was scheduled for surgery. He returned for a final game on April 15, 2013, playing three minutes off the bench. On April 17, 2013, after a short return, Wallace announced his second retirement.\nIn July 2013, Wallace joined the Detroit Pistons staff as an assistant coach after signing a two-year contract with the team. He worked for the Pistons for the <a href=\"2013%E2%80%9314%20Detroit%20Pistons%20season\">2013–14 season</a>, but was not rehired to the staff of new coach <a href=\"Stan%20Van%20Gundy\">Stan Van Gundy</a> following that season.\nWallace was known for his intensity and unique personality, resulting in frequent confrontations with opponents and officials (often leading to <a href=\"technical%20foul\">technical foul</a>s and ejections) but also moments of humor. Wallace holds the league records for most career technical fouls, most technical fouls in a season, and most ejections in a season. During the <a href=\"2008%20NBA%20Playoffs\">2008 Playoffs</a> Wallace went on an expletive-laced tirade following Game 5 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the <a href=\"Boston%20Celtics\">Boston Celtics</a> in which he lashed out at the officiating.\nWallace popularized the phrase \"Ball don't lie\", used when a player on the opposing team misses a free throw after a disputed call by the referees. One notable incident occurred in a December 2, 2012, game against the <a href=\"Phoenix%20Suns\">Phoenix Suns</a>. After Wallace pushed <a href=\"Luis%20Scola\">Luis Scola</a> and received a technical foul, <a href=\"Goran%20Dragi%C4%87\">Goran Dragić</a> missed the technical free throw, to which Wallace responded by saying \"Ball don't lie.\" Wallace then received a second technical, leading to his ejection. He played 1:25 before his ejection.\nDuring the <a href=\"2010%20NBA%20Playoffs\">2010 NBA Playoffs</a> Wallace, a native of Philadelphia and <a href=\"Philadelphia%20Flyers\">Flyers</a> fan, frequently wore hats and other articles of clothing with the Philadelphia Flyers logo during Boston Celtics press conferences and interviews. This caused a stir with fans throughout the Boston area as the Philadelphia Flyers were playing the <a href=\"Boston%20Bruins\">Boston Bruins</a> in the <a href=\"2010%20Stanley%20Cup%20playoffs\">NHL Playoffs</a> at the time. The resentment by Bostonians only grew after the Flyers' comeback from a 0–3 game deficit to win the series 4–3. Wallace continued to wear his Flyers gear despite criticism from sports commentators and fans.\nWallace has three children with his former wife Fatima. He is <a href=\"Muslim\">Muslim</a>. His nephew, <a href=\"Quadir%20Welton\">Quadir Welton</a>, is a professional basketball player.\nWallace roots for his hometown <a href=\"Philadelphia%20Flyers\">Philadelphia Flyers</a> (<a href=\"National%20Hockey%20League\">NHL</a>) and <a href=\"Philadelphia%20Phillies\">Philadelphia Phillies</a> (<a href=\"MLB\">MLB</a>), but not the <a href=\"Philadelphia%20Eagles\">Philadelphia Eagles</a> of the <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a>. Instead, he is a longtime fan of the <a href=\"Kansas%20City%20Chiefs\">Kansas City Chiefs</a>.","Arizona Wildcats men's basketball\nThe Arizona Wildcats men's basketball team is the <a href=\"college%20basketball\">intercollegiate men's basketball</a> program representing the <a href=\"University%20of%20Arizona\">University of Arizona</a> in <a href=\"Tucson%2C%20Arizona\">Tucson, Arizona</a>. They compete in the <a href=\"Pac-12%20Conference%20men%27s%20basketball\">Pac-12 Conference</a> of <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I\">NCAA Division I</a> and are currently coached by <a href=\"Sean%20Miller\">Sean Miller</a>.\nArizona has a long and rich basketball history. The program came to national prominence under the tutelage of former head coach <a href=\"Lute%20Olson\">Lute Olson</a> (1983–2007), who established the program as among America's elite in college basketball. One writer referred to UA as \"Point Guard U\" because the school has produced successful guards like <a href=\"Steve%20Kerr\">Steve Kerr</a>, <a href=\"Damon%20Stoudamire\">Damon Stoudamire</a>, <a href=\"Khalid%20Reeves\">Khalid Reeves</a>, <a href=\"Mike%20Bibby\">Mike Bibby</a>, <a href=\"Jason%20Terry\">Jason Terry</a>, <a href=\"Gilbert%20Arenas\">Gilbert Arenas</a>, <a href=\"Jason%20Gardner\">Jason Gardner</a>, <a href=\"Jerryd%20Bayless\">Jerryd Bayless</a>, and <a href=\"T.%20J.%20McConnell\">T. J. McConnell</a>, among others.\nFrom 1985 to 2009, the Arizona basketball team reached the <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\">NCAA Division I Tournament</a> for 25 consecutive years, two years shy of <a href=\"North%20Carolina%20Tar%20Heels%20men%27s%20basketball\">North Carolina</a>'s record with 27. Despite having their 1999 and 2008 appearances later vacated by the NCAA, the media still cites Arizona's streak, and simply notes the changes. The Wildcats have reached the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament on four occasions (<a href=\"1988%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1988</a>, <a href=\"1994%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1994</a>, <a href=\"1997%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1997</a>, and <a href=\"2001%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">2001</a>). They have also made two appearances in the National Championship (won over <a href=\"Kentucky%20Wildcats%20men%27s%20basketball\">Kentucky Wildcats</a> in 1997, lost to <a href=\"Duke%20Blue%20Devils%20men%27s%20basketball\">Duke Blue Devils</a> in 2001). In Pac-10 play, former head coach Lute Olson currently holds the record for most wins as a Pac-10 coach with 327. In addition, the team has won 15 Pac-10/12 regular season titles and six Pac-10/12 tournament championships. Arizona also holds the distinction of recording five out of the seven 17–1 Pac-10 seasons (one-loss seasons). No team has gone undefeated since the formation of the Pac-10/12.\nArizona ranks 16th all time heading into the 2016–17 season with 1,737 wins and ranks 10th by winning percentage at ( ). Arizona has spent 37 weeks at No. 1 in the AP Poll, which is tied for eighth-most all-time; 145 weeks in the Top 5, seventh all-time; 291 weeks in the Top 10, sixth all-time; and 446 weeks in the Top 25, ninth all-time.\nThe University of Arizona fielded its first men's basketball team in 1904–05. Orin Albert Kates coached the team and drew opponents from local YMCAs. The first game Arizona played ended in a 40–32 victory over the Morenci YMCA.\nIn 1914, Arizona's first famous coach, <a href=\"Pop%20McKale\">James Fred \"Pop\" McKale</a> was lured away from a teaching and coaching job at Tucson High School to take over as <a href=\"Athletic%20Director\">Athletic Director</a> and coach <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a>, <a href=\"American%20football\">football</a>, <a href=\"baseball\">baseball</a> and <a href=\"Track%20and%20field\">track</a>. McKale took things to a new level, posting a 9–0 record his first season as a basketball coach. Moreover, McKale elevated the program to intercollegiate play. While basketball was his least favorite of the many sports he coached while at UA, He chalked up three undefeated seasons and a career-winning average of .803, which has never been bested by a UA coach who has held the post for at least three years. The <a href=\"McKale%20Center\">McKale Memorial Center</a>, the main arena for Arizona basketball, is named in his honor.\nFrom 1925 to 1961, the program was under the stewardship of <a href=\"Fred%20Enke\">Fred Enke</a>, UA's longest tenured coach. Coach Fred A. Enke was responsible for the early successes of Wildcat basketball. Enke amassed 509 wins in his tenure on the UA sidelines and still ranks as the second-winningest coach in school history, winning more than 60 percent of his games. Enke also led the Cats to the first four postseason appearances (3 N.I.T./1 NCAA) in school history and in 1950–51 competed in both the N.I.T. and NCAA postseason tournaments. Finally, he was the first coach to lead Arizona to a national ranking. Two of his teams (1950, 1951) finished the season ranked in the top 15.\nUnder Enke, UA competed in the now defunct <a href=\"Border%20Intercollegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">Border Conference</a>. Under Enke's direction, Arizona won 12 conference championships, including a span in which the Cats won or shared seven consecutive Border\nConference titles (1942–51). No Border Conference team won as many league games (231) or overall contests (398) during its membership. In 1962, Arizona joined the <a href=\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\">Western Athletic Conference</a> as a founding member after the Border Conference disbanded.\nIn 1972, <a href=\"Fred%20Snowden\">Fred Snowden</a> was hired as the head basketball coach, making Arizona the second Division I school and the first major program to hire an <a href=\"African%20American\">African American</a> head coach. Known as \"The Fox\", Snowden brought the excitement back to Wildcat basketball during his 10 years on the Arizona sideline, averaging more than 80 points per game in six of his 10 years and topping the 100-point barrier 27 times. Snowden led Arizona to the NCAA tournament twice, in <a href=\"1976%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1976</a> and <a href=\"1977%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1977</a>, getting as far as the Elite Eight in 1976 before losing to <a href=\"UCLA%20Bruins%20men%27s%20basketball\">UCLA</a> 82–66, a game after defeating <a href=\"UNLV%20Runnin%27%20Rebels%20men%27s%20basketball\">UNLV</a> in a Sweet Sixteen matchup. During the 1976 tournament he also logged Arizona's first and only tournament wins until Lute Olson's hiring, beating <a href=\"John%20Thompson%20%28basketball%29\">John Thompson's</a> <a href=\"1975%E2%80%9376%20Georgetown%20Hoyas%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Georgetown</a> team 83–76. Snowden's 1976 team also won the school's only WAC championship title on a buzzer-beater by <a href=\"Gilbert%20Myles\">Gilbert Myles</a> verses <a href=\"New%20Mexico%20Lobos%20men%27s%20basketball\">New Mexico</a>, with the help of the spectacular play of <a href=\"Bob%20Elliott%20%28basketball%29\">Bob Elliott</a>, Jim Rappis, and <a href=\"Al%20Fleming%20%28basketball%29\">Al Fleming</a>. In 1978, Coach Snowden helped transition the basketball program over to the newly formed Pac-10. Snowden could not sustain success in the Pac-10, however, finishing no higher than 4th place in the conference. His 9–18 final season led UA to look for a replacement.\nKnown for his high-octane offense and remembered as a trailblazer, Fred \"The Fox\" Snowden brought excitement to Arizona basketball during his 10-year tenure as the program's head coach. Snowden, who led the Wildcats from 1972–82, was the first African-American head basketball coach at an NCAA Division I institution, amassing a 167–108 mark. The 1973 Western Athletic Conference Coach of the Year, his career winning percentage of .607 has been topped by only three UA coaches since 1924. Nicknamed \"The Fox\" due to his cool demeanor, Snowden led Arizona to three postseason berths, including the 1975 National Commissioners’ Invitational Tournament and the 1976 and 1977 NCAA Tournaments. His best season came in 1976, when the Wildcats went 24–9, won the Western Athletic Conference championship and advanced to the NCAA West Regional Final. The Brewton, Ala., native was the head coach who led Arizona into the Pac-10 in the 1978–79 season, guiding the program for its first four seasons in the Conference. Snowden also oversaw the transition into the McKale Center after its opening in 1973. He was inducted into the Arizona Sports Hall of Fame in 1988. Prior to his role at Arizona, Snowden was an assistant coach at Michigan. He also served on the coaching staff of his high school, Northwestern High School in Detroit, Mich., where he coached for five years after attending Wayne State University from 1954–58. Snowden died in 1994 at the age of 57.\nAthletic Director Dave Strack brought in <a href=\"Ben%20Lindsey%20%28basketball%29\">Ben Lindsey</a> to replace Fred Snowden in 1983, and on the surface, it seemed like a reasonable move. Lindsey had junior college expertise, having had a successful career at <a href=\"Grand%20Canyon%20University\">Grand Canyon University</a>, where he won two national titles. What resulted, however, was nothing short of disaster. The 1983 team finished with the worst season in school history at 4–24, with only one Pac-10 win.\nNewly hired UA Athletic director <a href=\"Cedric%20Dempsey\">Cedric Dempsey</a> fired Lindsey after only one season and hired <a href=\"Iowa%20Hawkeyes%20men%27s%20basketball\">University of Iowa</a> coach Lute Olson as his successor. UA needed a coach with a history of quickly turning around programs, which Olson had done previously at Iowa. \"I knew we had a tremendous amount of work to do\", Olson recalled in a recent interview with Tucson Lifestyle. \"The program was in shambles at that point, after the terrible year before...\"\nUnder Olson, Arizona quickly rose to national prominence. Arizona won its first Pac-10 title in 1986, only three years after his arrival. That season set up an amazing 1987–88 season, which included taking the <a href=\"Great%20Alaska%20Shootout\">Great Alaska Shootout</a> championship, the Valley Bank Fiesta Bowl Classic championship and the Pac-10 championship. Under players <a href=\"Steve%20Kerr\">Steve Kerr</a>, <a href=\"Kenny%20Lofton\">Kenny Lofton</a> and <a href=\"Sean%20Elliott\">Sean Elliott</a>, Arizona spent much of the season ranked #1 and made their first (and Olson's second) Final Four. While Arizona lost in the Final Four round, their play put the program on the map and launched Arizona's reign as a perennial Pac-10 and NCAA tournament contender. Sean Elliott was awarded the John R. Wooden Award on the season and would set the PAC-10 scoring record.\nIn 1997, Arizona defeated the <a href=\"Kentucky%20Wildcats%20men%27s%20basketball\">University of Kentucky</a>, the defending national champions, to win the NCAA National Championship. Prior to winning the championship in 1997, Arizona stormed back from 10-point deficits in the Southeast Regional First Round and Second Round against #13 <a href=\"South%20Alabama%20Jaguars%20men%27s%20basketball\">South Alabama</a> and #12 <a href=\"College%20of%20Charleston%20Cougars%20men%27s%20basketball\">College of Charleston</a>, respectively winning 65–57 and 73–69. The Southeast Regional Semifinal pitted against overall #1 Kansas (34–1) which had defeated Arizona the year before in the 1996 West Regional Semifinal. However, Arizona came out fast and stunned the <a href=\"Kansas%20Jayhawks%20men%27s%20basketball\">Jayhawks</a> 85–82, then prevailed in overtime against <a href=\"Providence%20Friars%20men%27s%20basketball\">Providence</a> 96–92 in the Elite Eight to clinch a berth in the Final Four. Arizona then beat #1 seed <a href=\"North%20Carolina%20Tar%20Heels%20men%27s%20basketball\">North Carolina</a> 66–58 in the Final Four, which turned out to be <a href=\"Dean%20Smith\">Dean Smith</a>'s last game as a coach. Arizona also accomplished the unprecedented feat of beating three number one seeds in the 1997 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. This feat has never been accomplished by another team.\nThe year following the Championship season, 1998, Arizona returned all 5 starters (<a href=\"Mike%20Bibby\">Mike Bibby</a>, <a href=\"Michael%20Dickerson\">Michael Dickerson</a>, <a href=\"Miles%20Simon\">Miles Simon</a>, <a href=\"Bennett%20Davison\">Bennett Davison</a>, and <a href=\"A.%20J.%20Bramlett\">A. J. Bramlett</a>) and were poised to make another run after receiving the #1 overall seed in the West, but were upset by Utah in the <a href=\"1998%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">Elite 8</a>.\nIn 1999, all 5 starters were lost to graduation or early entry to the NBA draft and Arizona's hopes of continuing its streak of consecutives trip to the NCAA tournament was in jeopardy until senior point guard <a href=\"Jason%20Terry\">Jason Terry</a> (the 6th man the previous two seasons) elevated his game (receiving National Player of the Year honors) and continued the school's amazing streak.\n2001 was one of the most challenging and rewarding years for the program. Lute Olson's wife Bobbi, well known to players and fans alike as a steadfast presence on the sidelines, lost her battle with cancer. The team, which had been a preseason pick by many to win the national title had to play without Olson for three weeks while Olson was on bereavement leave. The Cats vowed to dedicate their season to Bobbi. With guard <a href=\"Jason%20Gardner\">Jason Gardner</a>, center <a href=\"Loren%20Woods\">Loren Woods</a> and forward <a href=\"Michael%20Wright%20%28basketball%29\">Michael Wright</a> — each an All-American — leading the way, the Cats trounced their opponents, beating Oregon 104–65, devastating USC 105–61, and charging through the <a href=\"2001%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">Final Four</a>. They took down Eastern Illinois, <a href=\"Butler%20Bulldogs%20men%27s%20basketball\">Butler</a>, Mississippi, <a href=\"Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball\">Illinois</a>, and <a href=\"Michigan%20State%20Spartans%20men%27s%20basketball\">Michigan State</a>, only to be stopped by <a href=\"Duke%20Blue%20Devils%20men%27s%20basketball\">Duke</a> in the title game. While being considered the favorite to win the title, which would have been Coach Olsen's 2nd and tied him with Coach Mike Krzyzewski, his opponent, the Blue Devils claimed a ten-point victory in the game. This is the last game Coach Olsen ever coached in the Final Four and is considered by fans of the program to be his most bitter defeat. A championship would have vaulted him into hallowed ground among coaches, being one of few with multiple titles. Instead he remains tied with many coaches who have a single championship ring to their name. Meanwhile, his opponent in that game now is alone in second place among college coaches with five championship rings, behind only John Wooden's ten. It should be noted that all five of Krzyzewski's titles came in the 64 team field era while zero of Wooden's did. Still Coach Olsen earned the respect of his contemporary, Coach K said in the post game interview that \"Arizona had a great team and an amazing season and was worthy of winning the championship, lets give a hand to Coach Olsen and his team.\" The comment drew rousing applause from the audience in attendance and made Coach Olsen proud, even in defeat, to be honored as an equal by Coach Krzyzewski who many claim is the best coach in college history.\nIn his later years at UA, Olson fielded competitive teams with extremely talented point guards. Continuing the reputation and nickname \"Point Guard U,\" recent standouts include <a href=\"Jason%20Gardner\">Jason Gardner</a>, <a href=\"Salim%20Stoudamire\">Salim Stoudamire</a>, <a href=\"Mustafa%20Shakur\">Mustafa Shakur</a>, <a href=\"Jerryd%20Bayless\">Jerryd Bayless</a> and <a href=\"Nic%20Wise\">Nic Wise</a>. Arizona would win Olson's last Pac-10 title during the 2004–2005 season under the spectacular play of seniors Salim Stoudamire and center <a href=\"Channing%20Frye\">Channing Frye</a>. That team also made it to the Elite 8 and the verge of the Final Four before blowing a 15-point lead with four minutes to play and losing in overtime, 90–89, to the No. 1 seed and eventual national runner-up, <a href=\"Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball\">University of Illinois</a>.\nOlson took an unexplained leave of absence at the beginning of the 2007–2008 season. Assistant coach Kevin O'Neill took over interim head coaching duties for the Arizona Wildcats. At that time, Olson announced that he intended to be back for the 2008–09 season and finish out his contract, which was scheduled to end in 2011. His departure was criticized by some members of the media. They also questioned how he and the UA athletic department handled his return and the verbal succession agreement with coach O'Neill. However, on October 23, 2008, he unexpectedly announced his retirement from the program (by way of an announcement from Arizona athletic director Jim Livengood). A few days later, Olson's personal physician held a press conference and explained that the retirement was strongly advised due to health concerns.\nAfter Lute Olson's abrupt retirement, Arizona Athletic Director Jim Livengood appointed assistant coach <a href=\"Russ%20Pennell\">Russ Pennell</a> as the interim head coach for the <a href=\"2008%E2%80%9309%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20season\">2008–2009 season</a> 23 days before the start of the season. The appointment came after <a href=\"Mike%20Dunlap\">Mike Dunlap</a>, the associate head coach brought in to replace Kevin O'Neill, turned down the job. Under Pennell, the Cats finished 19–13 in the regular season, including a non-conference win over Kansas and a 7-game win streak with wins over UCLA and Washington. Despite a 19–13 finish to the season, Arizona was controversially selected as one of the last teams into the field of 65 as a 12th seed in the Midwest region, extending its NCAA consecutive tournament appearances to 25 years. The Cats made it to the Sweet 16 (regional semi-finals) with wins over 5-seed <a href=\"Utah%20Utes%20men%27s%20basketball\">Utah</a> and 13-seed <a href=\"Cleveland%20State%20Vikings%20men%27s%20basketball\">Cleveland State</a>, before falling to overall 1-seed, <a href=\"Louisville%20Cardinals%20men%27s%20basketball\">Louisville</a>. Despite Pennell's post-season success, he was not retained, as Arizona announced before his hiring they would hold a national coaching search after the season ended. (On April 9, 2009, Pennell was hired as head coach of the men's basketball team at Division II <a href=\"Grand%20Canyon%20University\">Grand Canyon University</a>, a member of the <a href=\"Pacific%20West%20Conference\">Pacific West Conference</a>.)\nAfter the end of the season, various coaching names were considered to succeed Lute Olson on a permanent basis. Arizona was perceived to have interest in <a href=\"Gonzaga%20University\">Gonzaga</a>'s <a href=\"Mark%20Few\">Mark Few</a>, <a href=\"University%20of%20Pittsburgh\">Pittsburgh</a>'s <a href=\"Jamie%20Dixon\">Jamie Dixon</a> and then-<a href=\"University%20of%20Memphis\">Memphis</a> coach <a href=\"John%20Calipari\">John Calipari</a> (before he accepted the vacant position at <a href=\"University%20of%20Kentucky\">Kentucky</a>) to take the job. Arizona even brought <a href=\"University%20of%20Southern%20California\">USC</a>'s <a href=\"Tim%20Floyd\">Tim Floyd</a> on campus for an interview and while Arizona claims no formal offer was ever presented, Floyd ultimately turned down the job publicly.\nArizona hired <a href=\"Sean%20Miller\">Sean Miller</a> from <a href=\"Xavier%20Musketeers%20men%27s%20basketball\">Xavier University</a> to fill the head coaching position. He initially turned the job down before changing his mind and accepting the job on Apr. 6, 2009 despite having never visited the Arizona campus. Miller was formally introduced as the 13th head men's basketball coach at Arizona at a press conference on April 7, 2009 at McKale Center. At the press conference, Miller acknowledged Lute Olson's impact on the Arizona program by addressing Olson personally: \"One of the reasons I sit here today is because of the great legacy you built.\" Miller also promised U of A fans that they would enjoy the style of both offense and defense he would bring to Wildcat basketball. Miller's salary is $1.6 million per year; he will receive an additional $400,000 per season from <a href=\"Nike%2C%20Inc.\">Nike</a> and media contracts during a five-year deal, as well as a $1 million signing bonus and other amenities such as season tickets to other Wildcat sporting events and the use of a private jet. Within three months of joining the program, Miller compiled a strong five-player recruiting class that ranked 13th nationally in 2009. After going 16–15 and missing the NCAA tournament for the first time in 25 years during Miller's initial 2009–10 campaign.\nIn his second season as the head coach at Arizona, the Cats finished the season with 30–8, 14–4 Pac-12 play, behind the play of sophomore <a href=\"Pac-10%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Player%20of%20the%20Year\">Pac-10 Player of the Year</a> Derrick Williams. It would be the Wildcats' first outright Pac-10 regular season title (its 12th overall), 4th 30+ win season (1st overall) and Elite Eight appearance (8th overall) since the 2004–2005 season. In addition, Miller led the Wildcats to their first unbeaten home record (17–0) in 14 years and was named Pac-10 Coach of the Year. This was the first time an Arizona coach received this honor since <a href=\"Lute%20Olson\">Lute Olson</a> in 2003. The 17 wins without a loss at home is tied for the second most in school history. Miller would add to the season's success by guiding the Cats to their first Elite Eight appearance since the 2004–2005 Season as a 5-seed. In the second round, Arizona secured a 2-point victory over 12th seeded <a href=\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Memphis%20Tigers%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Memphis</a> (coached by former Wildcat (and member of the 1997 national title team) <a href=\"Josh%20Pastner\">Josh Pastner</a>) with a blocked shot in the final seconds by Derrick Williams. Arizona would follow with another close game—a controversial one-point win against 4-seed <a href=\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Texas%20Longhorns%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Texas</a>. In the Sweet-16 match-up, Arizona found itself pitted against top-seeded <a href=\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Duke%20Blue%20Devils%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Duke</a>, the first time since the 2001 title game that the two schools had met. Duke would extend an early lead, but 25 points from Derrick Williams kept the Cats in the game and down by 6 points at the half. In the second half, Williams' teammates picked up the slack, dominating the Blue Devils by scoring 55 second-half points and routing the defending champs 93–77. Arizona's run at the Final Four would fall 2 points short, losing to 3-seed (and eventual national champion) Connecticut 65–63.\nFor his third season, Arizona's 2011 recruiting class was ranked 7th, notably signing Nick Johnson and Josiah Turner. Arizona secured three players in the top nine of the ESPNU 100, with all four newly signed players within the top 36. This has cemented Arizona as the No. 1 signing class nationally, surpassing <a href=\"Kentucky%20Wildcats%20men%27s%20basketball\">Kentucky</a> who held the No. 1 spot 2010 and 2011. The Wildcats missed the postseason for the second time, reached to the NIT Tournament before falling to Bucknell to finish the season 23–12 overall, 12–6 in Pac-12.\nIn his fourth season, Miller guided to its second top-5 ranking in the AP poll(the first coming in weeks 7–10 of the 2012–2013 season), Arizona reached the Sweet 16 in 2013 falling to Ohio State, finished the season with 27–8, 12–6 in Pac-12.\nIn his fifth season with the most talent Coach Miller has had since arriving in Tucson. On December 9, 2013, Arizona became the #1 ranked Team in the Country for the 6th time in school history, after a 9–0 start with wins over traditional national powerhouses Duke and UNLV. The Wildcats followed this up by securing a key come-from-behind victory on the road at <a href=\"Michigan%20Wolverines%20men%27s%20basketball\">Michigan</a> on December 14 and led the Wildcats to their second outright Pac-12 Regular Season Title (its 13th overall, 26th regular season overall) in Sean Miller's fifth year as the head coach. Arizona reached the second unbeaten home record at (18–0), Coach Miller again named the second Pac-10/12 coach of the year, 5th 30+ wins season (2nd overall), 2nd Elite Eight appearance (9th overall) in 2014. But in the 2014 NCAA tournament, the Wildcats would fall to Wisconsin in overtime, they finish the season with 33–5, 15–3 in Pac-12.\nIn his sixth season as the Arizona Wildcats basketball head coach, after Gonzaga's home loss to BYU on February 28, 2015, Arizona claimed the longest active home winning streak in D-I men's college basketball (38th home win at 2nd all-time, 82nd home win at 5th all-time). Arizona defeated #13 Utah in Salt Lake City the same day, winning its share of the Pac-12 regular season title. After three losses to Pac-12 archrival Arizona State, Oregon State and UNLV, Arizona won their third Pac-12 regular season championship title (2nd straight year, its 14th overall, 27th overall). Arizona reached the third unbeaten home record at (17–0). The Wildcats completes their sixth ever 30+ win (3rd overall) and won their first Pac-12 Tournament title (5th overall) since 2002. In the 2015 NCAA tournament, the Wildcats fell to the Wisconsin Badgers in Elite Eight, 85–78, and finished the season 34–4, 16–2 in the Pac-12.\nSean Miller is currently in his eighth season as the Arizona Wildcats head coach.\nOn September 26, 2017, federal prosecutors announced bribery, soliciting a bribe and wire fraud charges against assistant coach Emanuel \"Book\" Richardson.\nThe Wildcats have had 15 coaches in their 113-year history. Sean Miller is the current coach. To date, 1 Wildcats coach have won the two National Coach-of-the-Year award: Lute Olson in 1988 and 1990. Additionally, 2 Wildcats coaches have been named Pac-12 Conference Coach-of-the-Year: Lute Olson in 1986, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1998 and 2003 and Sean Miller in 2011, 2014, and 2017.\nUnder Sean Miller\nTraditional rivalries\nOther rivals\nSince becoming a University in December 5, 1958 ASU trails Arizona 54–69. Since both schools joined the <a href=\"Pac-12%20Conference\">Pac-10 conference</a> in the 1978–79 season Arizona leads ASU 55–26. Since Lute Olson took over as head coach for the 1983–84 season Arizona leads ASU 53–15. In 2010 Arizona State beat Arizona at home for the third straight time in the <a href=\"McKale%20Center\">McKale Center</a>, the first time this feat had been achieved by the Sun Devils since the 1981–82 season; Arizona has a 36–10 Record at Mckale Center. Before the arrival of <a href=\"Lute%20Olson\">Lute Olson</a> at Arizona, the Bruins had won 21 of 23 games against the Wildcats. UCLA had been seen as the dominant college basketball program in the west, with few teams able to challenge UCLA for the throne beyond a few wins. The rivalry did not gather steam until Lute Olson's arrival in 1984, who compiled a 28–23 record against the Bruins during his tenure as Arizona's head coach.\nSince then, the two schools competed for the Pac-10 (now Pac-12) Championship every year, with the two teams winning 22 out of the 30 conference titles, and 8 of 17 conference tournament titles. Arizona clinched their first conference title in 1986, when they won on the road at UCLA in Olsen's third season. The UCLA-Arizona basketball rivalry is still seen as the match up of the two premier teams in the conference. Also, the performance of the two schools influences the national opinion of the conference. California Coach <a href=\"Mike%20Montgomery\">Mike Montgomery</a> has stated, \"...If those two are not good, the conference is not perceived as being good. People don't give credit to the schools across the board in the league.\" Since the mid-1980s, Arizona has also had a basketball rivalry with UCLA, as the two schools competed for the Pac-10 Championship every year. Since 1985 the two teams have combined to win 21 out of the 29 conference titles. The UCLA-Arizona basketball rivalry still is seen as the match up of the two premier teams in the conference. Also, the performance of the two schools influences the national opinion of the conference.\nArizona also has intense rivalries with the in-state Arizona State, Grand Canyon and Northern Arizona. As well as out-of-state rivalries, including Kansas, Duke, San Diego State and Gonzaga.\nSource: Arizona 2017-18 Media Guide\n13 NBA Championships have been won by Wildcats players. Since the NBA draft was shortened to two rounds in 1989, 40 Arizona players have been selected. Former Wildcats have had successful NBA careers, totaling $1.25 billion in total contracts through the 2016–2017 NBA season\nSource: Arizona 2008–09 Media Guide\n'All-time NBA players'\n'Non-NBA professional players'\nAll-time non-NBA professional players\nCurrent non-NBA professional players\nThe following Arizona Wildcats men's basketball players have represented their country in basketball in the Summer Olympics:\nThe individual honors, awards, and accomplishments listed in the succeeding subsections are aggregated by player in the following table. Players with only all-conference honors (other than conference player of the year), lower than first-team All-America honors, or later than second-round draft positions are not included.\nSource: Arizona 2008–09 Media Guide\nNational honors and awards (Players)\nConference honors and awards (players)\nConference tournament most valuable player\nAll-Americans\n","Khalid Reeves\nKhalid Reeves (born July 15, 1972) was an American professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player, selected by the <a href=\"Miami%20Heat\">Miami Heat</a> in the first round (12th pick) of the <a href=\"1994%20NBA%20Draft\">1994 NBA Draft</a>.\nReeves attended <a href=\"Christ%20The%20King%20Regional%20High%20School\">Christ The King Regional High School</a> in <a href=\"Middle%20Village%2C%20Queens\">Middle Village, Queens</a>, <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a>, and played college basketball at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Arizona\">University of Arizona</a>.\nReeves found his way to UA when he told his high school coach he wanted to play in a warm climate. His coach, Bob Oliva, reached out to then-UA coach <a href=\"Lute%20Olson\">Lute Olson</a> and his staff. Reeves went on to be one of the most prolific scorers in UA history, still owning the season scoring record of 848 points achieved in 1993-94 a 2010 report remembered. He led the Wildcats to the <a href=\"1994%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">1994 NCAA Final Four</a> with backcourt teammate <a href=\"Damon%20Stoudamire\">Damon Stoudamire</a>. The Wildcats lost to eventual champion <a href=\"University%20of%20Arkansas\">Arkansas</a>.\nReeves played for numerous NBA teams from 1994 to 2000 averaging 7.8 points per game for his career. The last NBA team Reeves played for was the <a href=\"Chicago%20Bulls\">Chicago Bulls</a> during the 1999-2000 season. After Reeves' NBA career ended, he continued to play professionally for smaller US-based leagues and in Greece, France, Lebanon, and Venezuela before retiring in 2005.\nReeves is currently an assistant coach at his high school alma mater, Christ the King Regional High School.\n","Salim Stoudamire\nCharles Salim Stoudamire (born October 11, 1982) is an American professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player.\nStoudamire was selected by the <a href=\"Atlanta%20Hawks\">Atlanta Hawks</a> in the second round (31st overall pick) of the <a href=\"2005%20NBA%20Draft\">2005 NBA Draft</a>.\nStoudamire graduated from <a href=\"Lake%20Oswego%20High%20School\">Lake Oswego High School</a> in <a href=\"Lake%20Oswego%2C%20Oregon\">Lake Oswego, Oregon</a> as a member of the class of 2001. He also attended <a href=\"Lincoln%20High%20School%20%28Portland%2C%20Oregon%29\">Lincoln High School</a> in Portland during his freshman year.\nAt the <a href=\"University%20of%20Arizona\">University of Arizona</a>, Stoudamire led the Wildcats to an Elite Eight appearance in 2005. Stoudamire hit a fadeaway shot with less than two seconds on the clock to beat <a href=\"Oklahoma%20State%20University\">Oklahoma State University</a> in the <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\">Sweet 16</a>. In his Arizona career, the guard made 342 three-point field goals. He ranks second in Arizona history in career three-point field goal percentage (45.8%, behind <a href=\"Steve%20Kerr\">Steve Kerr</a>'s 57.3%).\nStoudamire was drafted by the <a href=\"Atlanta%20Hawks\">Atlanta Hawks</a> with the 31st overall pick in the <a href=\"2005%20NBA%20draft\">2005 NBA draft</a>. Stoudamire played three seasons with the Hawks. He spent the 2008 preseason with the <a href=\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\">San Antonio Spurs</a> and 2009 preseason with the <a href=\"Milwaukee%20Bucks\">Milwaukee Bucks</a>.\nOn November 1, 2010, he was acquired by the <a href=\"Idaho%20Stampede\">Idaho Stampede</a>. He was later waived by the Stampede on December 30. On January 5, 2011, he was acquired by the Reno Bighorns.\nOn November 1, 2013, he was acquired by the <a href=\"Fort%20Wayne%20Mad%20Ants\">Fort Wayne Mad Ants</a>. He was later waived by the Mad Ants on November 12.\nIn 2006, after the National Basketball Association season ended, Stoudamire announced his intentions to eat <a href=\"vegan\">vegan</a>. After initially monitoring his weight daily, team managers accepted that his new diet had not caused weight loss.\nHe is a cousin of former NBA point guard and 1996 NBA Rookie of the Year <a href=\"Damon%20Stoudamire\">Damon Stoudamire</a> and current NBA player <a href=\"Terrence%20Jones\">Terrence Jones</a>.\n","John Canzano\nJohn Canzano is an <a href=\"United%20States\">American</a> sports <a href=\"columnist\">columnist</a>, <a href=\"talk%20radio\">radio talk show</a> host on Portland's 102.9-FM and <a href=\"KXTG\">750 AM \"The Game\"</a>. The show is also syndicated in Eugene, Ore. and Klamath Falls, Ore. He is also the lead sports columnist at \"<a href=\"The%20Oregonian\">The Oregonian</a>\" newspaper in <a href=\"Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Portland, Oregon</a> and a sports commentator on <a href=\"KGW\">KGW</a>-TV, Portland's NBC affiliate. He hosts a daily radio show called \"The Bald-Faced Truth\".\nCanzano was born in Medford, Oregon. He grew up in Gilroy, Calif. and graduated from Gilroy High School. He graduated from <a href=\"California%20State%20University%2C%20Chico\">California State University, Chico</a>, in 1995 with a B.A. in English. While at Chico State, he played baseball.\nIn his career, Canzano has worked at six daily newspapers including \"<a href=\"The%20San%20Jose%20Mercury%20News\">The San Jose Mercury News</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Fresno%20Bee\">The Fresno Bee</a>\". He covered <a href=\"University%20of%20Notre%20Dame\">University of Notre Dame</a> <a href=\"American%20football\">football</a> and <a href=\"Indiana%20University%20Bloomington\">Indiana University</a> <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> as the beat writer during the tenure of coach <a href=\"Bob%20Knight\">Bob Knight</a>. He is a former national Major League Baseball writer and national NFL writer at the San Jose Mercury News as well. He has also covered five Olympics Games.\nCanzano was hired as lead sports columnist at \"The Oregonian\" in 2002. He also appears on KGW-TV, where he offers commentary and analysis on sports. Canzano also hosts a radio show called \"The Bald-Faced Truth\" on Portland's <a href=\"KXTG\">750 AM \"The Game\"</a> and 102.9-FM. The radio show airs weekdays from 12-3 p.m. in the Portland metro area. The show is also syndicated in Eugene, Ore. on Fox Sports Eugene (95.7-FM and 1050-AM) and in Klamath Falls, Ore. on KLAD (93.3-FM and 960-AM).\nHe worked as the NFL and Major League Baseball columnist at the <a href=\"San%20Jose%20Mercury%20News\">San Jose Mercury News</a> and is a member of the <a href=\"Baseball%20Writers%20Association%20of%20America\">Baseball Writers Association of America</a>. He holds a Baseball Hall of Fame Vote and is a voter for the Heisman Trophy. Canzano's work has also appeared in \"GQ\" magazine and \"<a href=\"Sporting%20News\">The Sporting News</a>.\"\nCanzano is a nine-time Associated Press Sports Editors (APSE) award winner. He's won APSE awards in four different writing categories (column, investigative reporting, enterprise and projects), with his most recent award coming in 2016 for column writing. In 2008, Canzano was voted America's No. 1 sports columnist among large-circulation newspapers by the APSE. In 2006 and 2007, Canzano finished second in the same category, both times to Bill Plaschke of the Los Angeles Times.\nIn 2010 and again in 2015, the Society of Professional Journalists named Canzano the National Sports Columnist of the Year.\nCanzano was recognized by The Press Club of Atlantic City as national sportswriter of the year in 2004, 2010 and 2014. Canzano's investigative work and reporting about Brenda Tracy, the survivor of an alleged gang raped by four college football players, was recognized as the best sports writing in 2014 with a first place in the National Headliner Awards.\nIn 2013, Canzano won first place in Special Topic Column Writing in the Best of the West contest for his portfolio of columns that included a column on a soldier who died in action in Afghanistan and Canzano's own experience coaching a girls fourth-grade volleyball team with a player who has Down Syndrome.\nIn 2002, Canzano was named the nation's top investigative sports writer by the Associated Press News Executives Council for his enterprise piece on Carlos Rodriguez, a 21-year-old Dominican basketball star who was masquerading as a 17-year-old high school basketball player.\nCanzano is a five-time Oregon Sportswriter of the Year winner (2005, 2006, 2012, 2013, 2014) as named by the National Sports Media Association (NSMA). In 2016, the NSMA named Canzano the \"Broadcaster of the Year\" for the state of Oregon.\nOn July 7, 2007, the Portland Beavers' Triple-A baseball team held \"John Canzano Bobblehead Night.\" Also, on Aug. 29, 2009, the LPGA Safeway Classic featured \"John Canzano Bobblehead Day,\" as part of the tour event held at Pumpkin Ridge Golf Club in Oregon.\nIn July 2010, Canzano married <a href=\"Anna%20Canzano\">Anna Song</a>, weekend anchor for Portland television station <a href=\"KOIN\">KOIN</a>. He and his wife have three daughters: Dakota, Graziana and Sojourner.\nIn 2009, Canzano co-founded The Bald Faced Truth Foundation, a <a href=\"501%28c%29_organization%23501.28c.29.283.29\">501(c)(3)</a> <a href=\"nonprofit%20organization\">nonprofit organization</a> funding <a href=\"extracurricular%20activities\">extracurricular activities</a> for children.","Travis Outlaw\nTravis Marquez Outlaw (born September 18, 1984) is an American professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player who is currently a free agent.\nOutlaw attended <a href=\"Starkville%20High%20School\">Starkville High School</a>, where he played for the Starkville Yellowjackets high school basketball team. Considered a five-star recruit by <a href=\"Rivals.com\">Rivals.com</a>, he was listed as the No. 7 small forward and the No. 13 player in the nation in 2003.\nEntering the <a href=\"2003%20NBA%20Draft\">2003 NBA Draft</a> directly out of high school, Outlaw was a first-round selection (23rd overall) by the <a href=\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\">Portland Trail Blazers</a>. He averaged 8.6 points on 44.2% field goal shooting and 3.2 rebounds per game during his first five years in the NBA.\nIn the 2005 <a href=\"NBA%20Summer%20League\">Las Vegas Summer League</a>, Outlaw averaged 18.7 points and 6.3 rebounds in 35.5 minutes. The performance earned him First Team All-RVSL honors. Following the NBA summer league, several teams offered to trade for Outlaw in exchange for a first-round draft pick. Former Portland Trail Blazers director of player personnel <a href=\"Kevin%20Pritchard\">Kevin Pritchard</a> said that Travis \"... [is] going to be with us for a long time. I feel comfortable enough to say he's going to be a special player.\"\nOn April 18, 2007, Outlaw set a new career-high with 36 points against the <a href=\"Golden%20State%20Warriors\">Golden State Warriors</a>. He became a restricted free agent on July 1, 2007, and signed a three-year contract extension on July 17.\nIn February 2010, the Trail Blazers traded Outlaw, <a href=\"Steve%20Blake\">Steve Blake</a> and $1.5 million in cash to the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Clippers\">Los Angeles Clippers</a> for <a href=\"Marcus%20Camby\">Marcus Camby</a>.\nOn July 8, 2010, Outlaw signed a 5-year deal worth $35 million with the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Nets\">New Jersey Nets</a>.\nOn December 15, 2011, the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Nets\">New Jersey Nets</a> waived Outlaw under the amnesty provision.\nOn December 17, 2011, Outlaw was claimed by the <a href=\"Sacramento%20Kings\">Sacramento Kings</a> off waivers.\nOn August 6, 2014, Outlaw was traded, along with <a href=\"Quincy%20Acy\">Quincy Acy</a>, to the <a href=\"New%20York%20Knicks\">New York Knicks</a> in exchange for <a href=\"Wayne%20Ellington\">Wayne Ellington</a> and <a href=\"Jeremy%20Tyler\">Jeremy Tyler</a>. On October 27, 2014, Outlaw was traded, along with a 2019 second-round draft selection and the option exchange 2018 second-round draft selections, to the <a href=\"Philadelphia%2076ers\">Philadelphia 76ers</a> in exchange for <a href=\"Arnett%20Moultrie\">Arnett Moultrie</a>. He was waived by the 76ers later that day.\nOn August 14, 2016, Outlaw was arrested and charged with felony marijuana possession in his hometown of <a href=\"Starkville%2C%20Mississippi\">Starkville, Mississippi</a>.","Pacific Tigers men's basketball\nThe University of the Pacific Tigers men's basketball team is an <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I\">NCAA Division I</a> member, part of the <a href=\"West%20Coast%20Conference\">West Coast Conference</a>. The team is based in <a href=\"Stockton%2C%20California\">Stockton, California</a>. They play their home games at the <a href=\"Alex%20G.%20Spanos%20Center\">Alex G. Spanos Center</a> and are led by head coach <a href=\"Damon%20Stoudamire\">Damon Stoudamire</a>.\nOn July 15, 2013, Pacific left the <a href=\"Big%20West%20Conference\">Big West Conference</a> to rejoin the West Coast Conference. It had been a charter member of the WCC since 1952, but left in 1971 to join the Pacific Coast Athletic Association, later renamed to the Big West Conference.\nIn late 2015, investigations into improper academic benefits being provided to basketball players began. On December 11, the school placed head coach <a href=\"Ron%20Verlin\">Ron Verlin</a> and assistant coach Dwight Young on suspension. On December 18, the school self imposed a postseason ban for 2016 and a reduction in scholarships due to the pending academic fraud investigations. On March 3, 2016, the school revealed that Verlin and Young were no longer employed by the university.\nOn March 15, 2016, Pacific hired 13-year <a href=\"NBA\">NBA</a> veteran and 1996 <a href=\"NBA%20Rookie%20of%20the%20Year\">NBA Rookie of the Year</a> <a href=\"Damon%20Stoudamire\">Damon Stoudamire</a> as head coach.\nThe Tigers have appeared in nine <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournaments</a>. Their combined record is 4–10.\nThe Tigers have appeared in one <a href=\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">National Invitation Tournament</a>. Their record is 0–1.\nThe Tigers have appeared in three <a href=\"CollegeInsider.com%20Postseason%20Tournament\">CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament</a>s. Their combined record is 8–3.\n","Irvington, Portland, Oregon\nIrvington is a neighborhood in the Northeast section of <a href=\"Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Portland, Oregon</a>. According to the city's Office of Neighborhood Involvement, it consists of a rectangular area extending east to west from NE 7th Ave. to NE 26th Ave., and north to south from NE Fremont St. to NE Broadway. It borders the <a href=\"King%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">King</a>, <a href=\"Sabin%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Sabin</a>, and <a href=\"Alameda%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Alameda</a> neighborhoods to the north; <a href=\"Alameda%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Alameda</a> and <a href=\"Grant%20Park%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Grant Park</a> to the east; <a href=\"Sullivan%27s%20Gulch%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Sullivan's Gulch</a> and the <a href=\"Lloyd%20District%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Lloyd District</a> to the south; and <a href=\"Eliot%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Eliot</a> to the west. (The Sabin and Alameda neighborhoods extend into the northeastern part of Irvington, creating two areas of overlap.)\nThe neighborhood is distinguished by a number of large stately homes, often positioned on multiple or oversized lots. The Irvington Community Association funds its activities by holding a well-attended tour of these homes each spring.\nThe Irvington Addition was platted in 1887 and underwent its initial development in the 1890s under the oversight of developer Ellis Hughes and the Irvington Investment Company. The addition was planned as a self-contained middle to upper class residential district in which commercial activity was to be prohibited, so as to maintain property values. After a period of nominal growth, development in Irvington began to slow due to competition from the <a href=\"Rose%20City%20Park%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Rose City Park</a> and <a href=\"Laurelhurst%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Laurelhurst</a> developments, as well as the outbreak of <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a>. The neighborhood was added to the <a href=\"National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places\">National Register of Historic Places</a> as the Irvington Historic District in 2010.\nIn December, 2014, the Irvington Historic District Northeast Boundary Decrease Committee proposed removing 34 blocks from the Irvington Historic District. Citing differences in physical appearance and historic development, the committee of Irvington property owners advocated trimming an area roughly bounded on the south by NE Knott Street, on the north by NE Fremont Street, on the east by NE 27th, and on the west by NE 21st. The committee suggested that the proposed boundary decrease area more closely resembles an early-to-mid twentieth century residential working-class neighborhood, not the core area of historic Irvington.\n","Nate Archibald\nNathaniel \"Tiny\" Archibald (born September 2, 1948) is an American retired professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player. He spent 14 years playing in the <a href=\"National%20Basketball%20Association\">NBA</a>, most notably with the <a href=\"Cincinnati%20Royals\">Cincinnati Royals</a>, <a href=\"Kansas%20City%E2%80%93Omaha%20Kings\">Kansas City–Omaha Kings</a> and <a href=\"Boston%20Celtics\">Boston Celtics</a>. In 1991, he was enshrined in the <a href=\"Naismith%20Memorial%20Basketball%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame</a>.\nArchibald was a willing passer and an adequate shooter from midrange. However, it was his quickness and speed and shiftiness that made him difficult to guard in the open court, as he would regularly drive past defenders on his way to the basket.\nArchibald, a playground legend while growing up in a rough-and-tumble neighborhood in the <a href=\"South%20Bronx\">South Bronx</a>, New York City, only played high school basketball for one-and-a-half seasons, and was cut from the varsity squad at <a href=\"DeWitt%20Clinton%20High%20School\">DeWitt Clinton High School</a> as a sophomore. He returned to the team as a junior. During his time without basketball, Archibald briefly flirted with dropping out of school after having been largely truant in past years. But with the help of two mentors, Floyd Layne and Pablo Robertson, Archibald turned it around. Robertson, a former standout at <a href=\"Loyola%20of%20Chicago\">Loyola of Chicago</a> and a <a href=\"Harlem\">Harlem</a>, New York playground impresario, had seen the gifted, mercurial Archibald in action on the playgrounds and convinced the young man's high school coach to re-instate him on the squad.\nDespite only playing in blowouts as a junior, the shy, quiet teen managed to blossom into a high-school star, being named team captain and an All-City selection in 1966. Off the court, Archibald began to attend school regularly and worked to improve his poor academic standing, which deterred most colleges from offering him a scholarship. To improve his chances of playing major college basketball, Archibald enrolled at <a href=\"Arizona%20Western%20College\">Arizona Western College</a>, transferring to the <a href=\"University%20of%20Texas%20at%20El%20Paso\">University of Texas at El Paso</a> (UTEP) the following year. He had three standout seasons at El Paso, from 1967 to 1970 under <a href=\"Naismith%20Memorial%20Basketball%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">Hall of Fame</a> coach <a href=\"Don%20Haskins\">Don Haskins</a>.\nArchibald was selected in the second round of the <a href=\"1970%20NBA%20draft\">1970 NBA draft</a> (19th pick) by the <a href=\"Cincinnati%20Royals\">Cincinnati Royals</a>. He was also drafted by the <a href=\"Texas%20Chaparrals\">Texas Chaparrals</a> of the <a href=\"American%20Basketball%20Association\">American Basketball Association</a>. In <a href=\"1972%E2%80%9373%20NBA%20season\">1972–73 season</a>, Archibald led the NBA in scoring and <a href=\"assist%20%28basketball%29\">assist</a>s, becoming the only player to win the titles in both categories in the same season. (In the <a href=\"1967%E2%80%9368%20NBA%20season\">1967–68 season</a>, <a href=\"Oscar%20Robertson\">Oscar Robertson</a> led the NBA in points and assists per game but did not win the titles because they were based on totals rather than averages at the time.) His scoring average of <a href=\"List%20of%20National%20Basketball%20Association%20top%20individual%20scoring%20season%20averages\">34.0 points per game</a> broke the NBA record for a guard. His 910 assists that season (11.4 assists per game) was also an NBA record at the time, breaking <a href=\"Guy%20Rodgers\">Guy Rodgers</a>' mark of 908. He was named the <a href=\"Sporting%20News\">Sporting News</a> NBA MVP that season. Archibald played for the Kansas City Kings from 1970 to 1976.\nAlthough he was the Kings' most popular player, he was traded to the <a href=\"New%20York%20Nets\">New York Nets</a> for two draft picks and two players in 1976.\nInjured for much of the 1976–77 season, he was traded by the Nets to the <a href=\"Buffalo%20Braves\">Buffalo Braves</a> before the 1977–78 season. Archibald tore his <a href=\"achilles%20tendon\">achilles tendon</a> and never played a regular-season game for the Braves.\nBuffalo traded him to the Boston Celtics as part of a 7-player deal before the start of the next season. His career at the Celtics started poorly. He showed up 20 pounds overweight. However, he adjusted and helped guide the Celtics to the best record in the NBA for three consecutive years (1979–1982). Archibald won his first and only <a href=\"NBA%20Finals\">NBA championship</a> with the Boston Celtics in the <a href=\"1980%E2%80%9381%20NBA%20season\">1980–81 season</a> alongside young NBA star <a href=\"Larry%20Bird\">Larry Bird</a>.\nArchibald was an All-NBA First Team selection three times (<a href=\"1972%E2%80%9373%20NBA%20season\">1973</a>, <a href=\"1974%E2%80%9375%20NBA%20season\">1975</a>, <a href=\"1975%E2%80%9376%20NBA%20season\">1976</a>) and an All-NBA Second Team selection two times (<a href=\"1971%E2%80%9372%20NBA%20season\">1972</a>, <a href=\"1980%E2%80%9381%20NBA%20season\">1981</a>). A seven-time <a href=\"NBA%20All-Star%20Game\">NBA All-Star Game</a> selection (1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, and 1982), he was named the <a href=\"1981%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game\">1981 NBA All-Star Game</a> MVP. Archibald led the NBA in free throws made three times and free throw attempts twice. He competed in 876 professional games, scored 16,841 points (18.8 points per game), and dished out 6,476 assists. He was named to the <a href=\"NBA%27s%2050th%20Anniversary%20All-Time%20team\">NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time team</a>. Nate Archibald was inducted to the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991.\nHe completed his <a href=\"bachelor%27s%20degree\">bachelor's degree</a> from <a href=\"University%20of%20Texas-El%20Paso\">University of Texas-El Paso</a> by going back for three consecutive summers just prior to finishing his NBA career. He then taught in the New York City school system and attended night school at Fordham University. He received a <a href=\"master%27s%20degree\">master's degree</a> from <a href=\"Fordham%20University\">Fordham University</a> in 1990 and a professional diploma in supervision and administration in 1994. He began long-distance correspondence work toward a <a href=\"doctorate\">doctorate</a> from <a href=\"California%20Coast%20University\">California Coast University</a> in 2000 but ceased his studies because of \"his lack of funds and the motivation to complete a long-distance correspondence curriculum.\" He has stated his hope to complete the degree in the future at Fordham.\nArchibald was an assistant coach, spending one season in the <a href=\"University%20of%20Georgia\">University of Georgia</a> and two with Texas-El Paso (where he worked with <a href=\"Tim%20Hardaway\">Tim Hardaway</a>). He has also coached the New Jersey Jammers of the <a href=\"USBL\">USBL</a> and in a Boston recreational league. Archibald coached in the <a href=\"National%20Basketball%20Development%20League\">National Basketball Development League</a> in 2001. He resigned a year later to take a position with the NBA's community relations department. Archibald was also named the head coach for the <a href=\"Long%20Beach%20Jam\">Long Beach Jam</a> in 2004 in the revived <a href=\"American%20Basketball%20Association%20%282000-present%29\">ABA</a>, but he would ultimately resign from his position on January 17, 2005 during their second and final season in the ABA.","Bonzi Wells\nGawen DeAngelo \"Bonzi\" Wells (born September 28, 1976) is an American former professional <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> player. He played college basketball at <a href=\"Ball%20State%20University\">Ball State University</a> and was drafted in the <a href=\"1998%20NBA%20Draft\">1998 NBA Draft</a>. In the NBA, Wells played for five teams from 1998 to 2008: the <a href=\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\">Portland Trail Blazers</a>, <a href=\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\">Memphis Grizzlies</a>, <a href=\"Sacramento%20Kings\">Sacramento Kings</a>, <a href=\"Houston%20Rockets\">Houston Rockets</a>, and <a href=\"New%20Orleans%20Hornets\">New Orleans Hornets</a>.\nWells attended Muncie Central High School and then went on to play at <a href=\"Ball%20State%20University\">Ball State University</a>, also in Muncie. There he was named the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> Freshman Player of the Year in the 1994–1995 season. Wells broke <a href=\"Ron%20Harper\">Ron Harper</a>'s conference record of 2,377 career points on a one-handed dunk against Northern Illinois on February 21, 1998. The dunk sent the sell-out crowd at University Arena into a frenzy. A timeout was immediately called and Wells was awarded the game ball by Ball State president John Worthen. Wells also led the Mid-American Conference in steals in 1998 with 73, averaging 3.55 steals in 29 games. Wells led the conference in steals during all four years at Ball State and finished his career as the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> all-time career records in points (2,485) and steals (347). While at Ball State he averaged 21.4 PPG, 3 SPG, and 7.3 RPG. He was selected eleventh overall by the <a href=\"Detroit%20Pistons\">Detroit Pistons</a> in the <a href=\"1998%20NBA%20Draft\">1998 NBA Draft</a>, but he never played for the Pistons as his draft rights were traded to the <a href=\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\">Portland Trail Blazers</a> for the Blazers' <a href=\"1999%20NBA%20Draft\">1999 first round pick</a>. Six years later Ball State would retire his jersey number, 42, in recognition of his achievements.\nAs a <a href=\"swingman\">swingman</a> in Portland, Wells achieved career highs in scoring and improved somewhat on defense, and picked up what some would call a bad-boy image while sharing the role of co-captain with <a href=\"Rasheed%20Wallace\">Rasheed Wallace</a>. Bonzi, however, did have his share of on- and off-court incidents. During his tenure with the Blazers, Bonzi was suspended for two games for publicly cursing at his coach after being taken out of a game. Bonzi was also fined in a separate incident for making an obscene gesture to a fan in a loss to the <a href=\"Philadelphia%2076ers\">Philadelphia 76ers</a>. When asked by a media reporter about the incident, he said, \"I black out sometimes.\" Wells was suspended one game without pay and fined $10,000 for intentionally striking and verbally abusing an official in 2000. Bonzi and teammate <a href=\"Erick%20Barkley\">Erick Barkley</a> in 2001 were cited for criminal trespass after they refused to follow the order of an officer to leave the scene of a fight near a downtown nightclub. This only went to further the team's derisive nickname, \"The Jail Blazers\". Trail Blazers management made an oath to the City of Portland to have a team of upstanding Portlanders and drastically restructured the team. In an exchange that emphasized the urgency to release Wells, he was sent to the <a href=\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\">Memphis Grizzlies</a> in a trade for reserve guard <a href=\"Wesley%20Person\">Wesley Person</a>.\nBonzi's legacy in Portland has also been positive. He set the franchise record for most points scored in a playoff game at 45 against the <a href=\"Dallas%20Mavericks\">Dallas Mavericks</a> in the first round of the <a href=\"2003%20NBA%20Playoffs\">2003 NBA Playoffs</a>. The co-captains would carry the sixth-seeded Trail Blazers to a decisive Game 7 versus the <a href=\"Steve%20Nash\">Steve Nash</a> and <a href=\"Dirk%20Nowitzki\">Dirk Nowitzki</a> led three-seed. The Mavericks won the series, and thirteen games into the following season Wells was traded to the <a href=\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\">Memphis Grizzlies</a>.\nThe unorthodox coaching methods of <a href=\"Hubie%20Brown\">Hubie Brown</a> and his strict 10-man rotation limited Wells to just under 25 minutes per game for the Grizzlies. This tactic helped them earn their first <a href=\"NBA%20Playoffs\">playoff</a> appearance in franchise history.\nAfter Brown suddenly quit as coach midway through the <a href=\"2004%E2%80%9305%20NBA%20season\">2004–05 season</a>, <a href=\"Mike%20Fratello\">Mike Fratello</a> took over as head coach. It appeared Wells was finally going to be given a chance to pose a threat on the court. This would not come to be, highlighted by the fact that Wells played a total of 27 minutes in the Grizzlies' second playoff appearance in 2005. Citing undisclosed reasons, Fratello suspended him for Game 2 of the series against the powerhouse <a href=\"Phoenix%20Suns\">Phoenix Suns</a>. He returned in Game 3, only to play nine minutes. Wells did not dress for the series-ending Game 4.\nPrior to the start of the <a href=\"2005%E2%80%9306%20NBA%20season\">2005–06 NBA season</a>, Wells was acquired from the Grizzlies by the Kings in a trade for <a href=\"point%20guard\">point guard</a> <a href=\"Bobby%20Jackson%20%28basketball%29\">Bobby Jackson</a> and <a href=\"center%20%28basketball%29\">center</a> <a href=\"Greg%20Ostertag\">Greg Ostertag</a>. He was also forced to change his jersey number from 6 to 42 upon arrival. In Sacramento the number 6 has been retired in honor of the fans, as in they are the \"sixth man\" of the team. In the early part of the season, Wells had been a rebounding force for the Kings, recording career-best numbers in rebounds, while also recording excellent assists and steals totals.\nIn the playoffs, Wells was extremely productive, averaging 23.2 points and 12 rebounds per game in 6 games against the <a href=\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\">San Antonio Spurs</a>, though the Kings lost the series. When Wells entered free agency at the closing of the season, teammate <a href=\"Ron%20Artest\">Ron Artest</a> (now known as Metta World Peace) offered to forgo his entire salary in order to keep him on the team.\nThe day before the 2006 training camp began, Wells signed with the <a href=\"Houston%20Rockets\">Houston Rockets</a>, with a salary of \"only\" $2 million in the initial season. This was considered to be a great bargain for the Rockets, as Wells had turned down a 5-year, $38.5 million offer from the Kings.\nWells missed the beginning of training camp recovering from a groin injury, and then missed several days following dental work. In addition, he was absent on more than one occasion for \"personal reasons\". Wells played only 30 minutes total, scoring only six points, in the Rockets' second and third games of the season. Wells was not pleased with his playing time, and neither was coach <a href=\"Jeff%20Van%20Gundy\">Jeff Van Gundy</a> with Wells' weight and lack of conditioning. Van Gundy placed Wells on the inactive list, dismissed him from team practices for over a month, and relegated him to working with trainers and on the exercise bicycle to improve his conditioning. Unsatisfied with his progress, Van Gundy eventually told him to stay away from the <a href=\"Toyota%20Center%20%28Houston%29\">Toyota Center</a>.\nIn December, Wells and his coach reconciled their differences and Bonzi was allowed back into practice. He returned to action against the <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\">Los Angeles Lakers</a> on December 12, and over the next two weeks, his playing time gradually increased. He suffered a back injury in late December that would force him to miss the Rockets' next 10 games. He returned to the lineup on January 17, and saw consistent playing time off the bench, highlighted by his 14 points in a win against his former team, the Trail Blazers.\nOn April 9, Wells failed to show up for a road trip to face the <a href=\"Seattle%20SuperSonics\">Seattle SuperSonics</a>. His status was unknown, but it was reported that he left a message on athletic trainer Keith Jones' answering machine. In it, he said he felt like he was \"disrupting team chemistry.\" After coach Jeff Van Gundy was fired and the former Kings coach <a href=\"Rick%20Adelman\">Rick Adelman</a> was named as the replacement, he expressed his willingness to return. On June 23, it was announced he had opted to stay with the Rockets and exercised the last year of his contract.\nOn February 21, 2008, Wells was traded to the <a href=\"New%20Orleans%20Hornets\">New Orleans Hornets</a> along with <a href=\"Mike%20James%20%28basketball%2C%20born%201975%29\">Mike James</a> as part of a three-team deal involving Houston and the <a href=\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\">Memphis Grizzlies</a>. The agreement sent New Orleans guard Bobby Jackson to Houston, marking the second time Wells and Jackson swapped teams via trade. February 23, Bonzi made his Hornets debut when he came off the bench registering 2 points, 3 rebounds, 1 assist and 2 steals in a 98–89 loss to the <a href=\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\">San Antonio Spurs</a>.\nThe Hornets decided not to renew Wells's contract for the <a href=\"2008%E2%80%9309%20NBA%20season\">2008–09 NBA season</a>.\nIn December 2011, Wells signed with the <a href=\"Minnesota%20Timberwolves\">Minnesota Timberwolves</a>, but he did not make their final roster.\nWells chose to sign with <a href=\"Shanxi%20Zhongyu\">Shanxi Zhongyu</a> of the <a href=\"Chinese%20Basketball%20Association\">Chinese Basketball Association</a> rather than play for the NBA's minimum salary. In his debut with the Shanxi Zhongyu, he scored 48 points and tallied 11 rebounds.\nHis contract with the team was terminated on February 2, 2009, after he failed to promptly return to the team after the <a href=\"Chinese%20New%20Year\">Chinese New Year</a> break.\nOn November 25, 2009 Wells signed a contract with <a href=\"Puerto%20Rico\">Puerto Rican</a> team <a href=\"Capitanes%20de%20Arecibo\">Capitanes de Arecibo</a>.\nGawen DeAngelo Wells is named after his father Gawen Wells. The nickname, Bonzi, originated from the cravings his mother, Christine Scaife Coleman, had for ice cream <a href=\"bonbon\">bonbon</a>s during her pregnancy with him. His parents called him \"bonbon\" until the age of two, and it eventually evolved into what it is today. He is the father to three sons, Duane, Gawen and Christian.\nIn 2003, Wells shed tears when his hometown Roy C. Buley Community Center named its gymnasium in his honor. It is now called the Bonzi Wells Gymnasium. As a small child at the <a href=\"community%20center\">community center</a> watching teams get picked for a game from the sidelines \"like a cheerleader,\" his uncle and team captain chose the young Bonzi. \"I thought he was kidding,\" Wells recalls, \"but he really picked me. And I played as hard as I can. I can remember that day like it was yesterday and that was the day that really made me want to be one of the best.\" Wells, who donated money to keep the gymnasium from closing its doors, said he did not expect such a reaction, that he was \"doing it for the children.\"\n"],"string":"[\n \"Damon Stoudamire\\nDamon Lamon Stoudamire (born September 3, 1973) is an American retired professional basketball player and the current head men's basketball coach at the University of the Pacific. The 5 ft , 171 lb point guard was selected with the 7th overall pick by the Toronto Raptors in the 1995 NBA draft and won the 1995–96 NBA Rookie of the Year Award. He played collegiately at the University of Arizona, and professionally for the Toronto Raptors, Portland Trail Blazers, Memphis Grizzlies and San Antonio Spurs. He is the cousin of former Arizona Wildcats standout Salim Stoudamire and current NBA player Terrence Jones.\\nStoudamire was born to Willie Stoudamire and Liz Washington in Portland, Oregon; he was the only child, with three stepsisters; his parents never married. Willie Stoudamire moved away to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to work in a brewery when Damon was seven years old. Stoudamire was raised by his mother, Liz, and his grandmother, Wanda Stoudamire-Matthews.\\nWhile Stoudamire was growing up, his uncles, Charles and Anthony Stoudamire, got him involved in sports, mainly basketball and football. They acted as fathers and personal coaches to Stoudamire in his younger years, as he grew up watching his favorite player, Nate Archibald, and attempted to pattern his game after his childhood hero. As he grew older, Damon began to play basketball at Irving Park in the Portland–Irvington neighborhood and at the Matt Dishman Community Center in Portland.\\nStoudamire attended Holy Redeemer grade school (a Catholic school) and Harriet Tubman Middle School, then attended Woodrow Wilson High School. During his junior year in high school, his grandmother Wanda died of cancer. He would later tattoo Wanda's face and her address on his left arm in remembrance. He was accepted to attend and play basketball at the University of Oregon, but chose to attend the University of Arizona instead.\\nStoudamire attended Woodrow Wilson High School, playing there for the Trojans, where he led his team to a 74–4 record and state championships in 1989 and 1991. He averaged 26.1 points, 9.2 assists, and 3.6 rebounds per game while playing for his school. He earned two \\\"Oregon Player of the Year\\\" and one \\\"Converse High School All-American\\\" awards during his senior year.\\nStoudamire played point guard for the Arizona Wildcats and legendary coach, Lute Olson. He was a first-team All-American and finalist for \\\"College Player of the Year\\\". He teamed with Khalid Reeves his junior year to lead the team to the Final Four. During his senior year he earned the All-American honors for his 22.8 points per game. He also finished his college career first on the Wildcats' all-time list in three-pointers made (272), second in points (1,849), fourth in assists (663), and was the only player in Arizona history to have two 40-point games. Stoudamire scored his career-high 45 points at Stanford University on January 14, 1995. He was named a 1995 \\\"Wooden Award\\\" finalist after sharing the \\\"Pac-10 Player of the Year\\\" award with Ed O'Bannon.\\nStoudamire had a noteworthy rookie season with the Toronto Raptors, being the team's first ever draft pick, and averaging 9.3 assists and 19 points per game. He earned the nickname \\\"Mighty Mouse\\\" because he stands only 5 ft , and that he had a Mighty Mouse tattoo on his right arm going into his rookie season. He set the record for three-point field goals made by a rookie with 133 breaking the record at the time held by Dennis Scott. This record has been broken several times over since Stoudamire's 133 mark. It is currently held by Damian Lillard, who made 185 threes in his rookie season. Stoudamire is third in assist average by a rookie. He ranked second in scoring among all rookies in 1995–96, and led all rookies in minutes played and assists. He received the \\\"Schick Rookie of the Month\\\" award twice and unanimously made the Schick All Rookie First Team, and eventually won the \\\"Rookie of the Year\\\" award, receiving 76 of the possible 113 votes, and the MVP award of the Rookie All-Star Game. He holds the record for being the third-lowest draft pick (7th overall) to ever win the Rookie of the Year award, with the lowest being Malcolm Brogdon (36th in the second round.) He is also known as the shortest player to ever win this award. He did not play the last 10 games of his rookie season due to tendinitis in his left knee. The Raptors finished that year and his rookie season with 21 wins and 61 losses.\\nStoudamire previously held the record for most triple doubles with the Toronto Raptors with 3 triple doubles, a record that stood until 2014, when it was broken by Kyle Lowry.\\nOn February 13, 1998, he was traded by the Raptors along with Walt Williams and Carlos Rogers to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Kenny Anderson, Alvin Williams, Gary Trent, two first-round draft picks, a second-round draft pick and cash considerations. As a member of the Blazers, his stats fell somewhat from his career highs. In the 2001–02 season, the Blazers benched Stoudamire for most of the time. The new head coach, Maurice Cheeks, went with Scottie Pippen and Bonzi Wells instead at the guard positions. However, Stoudamire received significant playing time in the playoffs that season.\\nOn January 14, 2005, Stoudamire hit a career-high and Blazers franchise record 54 points, which included 8 3-pointers, against the New Orleans Hornets. The same season, on April 15, he shot an NBA record 21 3-point attempts, making only 5 of them.\\nStoudamire's contract with the Blazers expired at the end of the 2004–05 season, and it became widely known that the Blazers, who were focusing on youth movement and looking for players with good character, had no intention of re-signing him. This became abundantly clear in August 2005, when the team signed free agent guard Juan Dixon to a contract, and assigned him Stoudamire's uniform number (3). Stoudamire wanted the Blazers to work out a sign-and-trade deal whereby he would end up with the Houston Rockets, but since this would have required Portland to take one of Houston's overpaid players in return and the team, at that time, had a relatively high payroll, Portland management decided to go in another direction with players like Travis Outlaw and Sebastian Telfair.\\nOn August 5, 2005, after Stoudamire had been in discussions with several teams, it was announced he signed a 4-year deal with the Memphis Grizzlies, where he replaced Jason Williams, who left for the Miami Heat, as the starting point guard. On December 30, 2005, he tore his right patellar tendon, coincidentally in his hometown of Portland. He was carted off the court, and had successful surgery in Birmingham, Alabama the following week. He missed the rest of the 2005–06 season, returning for 2006–07, and ended up playing 62 games, of which he started 51 (evenly splitting point guard duties with veteran backup Chucky Atkins).\\nDuring the 2007–08 season, on NBA Access with Ahmad Rashad, he said that he was working hard with Mike Conley, Jr., a 2007 draft pick by the Grizzlies, who, after Stoudamire had left, would play a major role as a point guard. When Conley returned from an injury, Grizzlies head coach Marc Iavaroni placed Stoudamire on the inactive list and used inexperienced rookie Mike Conley as the starting point guard, causing Stoudamire to look for a trade or a buyout. On January 26, 2008, the Grizzlies reached a tentative contractual buyout agreement with Stoudamire, with the San Antonio Spurs, Boston Celtics, Phoenix Suns, Denver Nuggets and Toronto Raptors registering strong interest in signing him. On January 28, the buyout was completed and Stoudamire was placed on waivers. The Celtics initially showed strong interest in Stoudamire but since set their sights on the LA Clippers' Sam Cassell. According to Stoudamire's agent, Stoudamire was to sign with the Spurs.\\nOn February 3, 2008, Stoudamire signed a contract with the San Antonio Spurs. He briefly started for the Spurs while Tony Parker was injured, but then was relegated to spot duty throughout the rest of the season and the playoffs.\\nStoudamire considered going to camp with the Houston Rockets, but he did not attend training camp.\\nIn December 2008, Stoudamire accepted a coaching position as director of player development for the guard-heavy Rice University Owls squad under head coach Ben Braun.\\nIn February 2009, Stoudamire joined the coaching staff of the Grizzlies, along with Henry Bibby.\\nIn May 2011, Stoudamire joined the coaching staff of the University of Memphis Tigers men's basketball team, where his coaching and recruiting contributions were noted with enthusiasm during the '11-'12 season.\\nIn May 2013, Stoudamire left Memphis to join the coaching staff of the Arizona Wildcats men's basketball team.\\nIn May 2015, Stoudamire left Arizona to rejoin the coaching staff of the Memphis Tigers men's basketball team.\\nIn March 2016, Stoudamire left Memphis to take over the head coaching position for the Pacific Tigers men's basketball team.\\nHis stint with the Portland Trail Blazers was marred by several marijuana related incidents including one during the 2002–03 season where, with then-starting power forward Rasheed Wallace, his yellow Hummer was pulled over on I-5 for speeding and driving under the influence of marijuana. In July 2003, after his third arrest for marijuana possession, he was fined $250,000 and was suspended by the team for three months. Blazers president Steve Patterson announced that he wanted to void Stoudamire's contract, but did not find a provision in the contract that would allow him to do so.\\nStoudamire completed a 90-day rehabilitation program. In addition, he made an agreement with \\\"The Oregonian\\\" sports columnist John Canzano to take an unannounced urine test during any point of the 2003–04 season to prove his sobriety. Midway through the season, Canzano appeared in the team locker room and produced a specimen bottle which Stoudamire filled. An independent testing laboratory reported back the result that he was indeed clean. The incident rehabilitated Stoudamire in the minds of many Portland fans, who had come to regard him as one of the \\\"Jail Blazers\\\". However, Stoudamire was widely criticized by the NBA Players Association for the drug test, who claimed that NBA players may only submit to such tests as prescribed by the league's Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA). The fact that the test was voluntary, and not administered by the league or any of its teams, did not make Stoudamire immune to such criticism. Despite the criticism, no official action was taken by the union against Stoudamire for his participation in the test.\\n\",\n \"Paul Sturgess (basketball)\\nPaul Sturgess (born 25 November 1987) is an English professional basketball player who last played for the Cheshire Phoenix of the British Basketball League. He was officially measured barefeet by Guinness World Records in November 2011 at 7 ft and 325 lb . Sturgess was the tallest college basketball player in the United States, and is currently the tallest professional basketball player in the world.\\nPaul \\\"Tiny\\\" Sturgess was \\\"drafted\\\" by the Harlem Globetrotters in August 2011 and is the tallest ever to play for the team. He joined the team with fellow rookie Jonte \\\"Too Tall\\\" Hall, who at 5 ft is the shortest player ever and is 2.5 ft shorter than Sturgess.\\nSturgess wears a size 18 shoe. He is the tallest man in Britain after Neil Fingleton (who was 7 ft tall) died unexpectedly on 25 February 2017. Examinations as a teenager revealed that his growth is healthy and not the result of disorder, but rather he possesses familial tall stature—that is to say his height is genetic. His biological father is 6 ft , and there are other tall members in his family although his mother is 5 ft and his younger sister is 5 ft . He featured prominently in the 2007 ITV1 television documentary \\\"Supersize Kids: Britain's Tallest Teens\\\" when he was 19 and playing at Florida Institute of Technology.\\nSturgess enjoys playing many other sports and before concentrating on basketball also played golf and football. He started playing team basketball at age 14 when he was 5 ft , was 7 ft aged 16 playing at Burleigh Community College, and was 7 ft when he graduated high school at age 18. A growth spurt during ages of 16 and 17 resulted in a 1 ft of height added within a single year. Sturgess can hold the 10 ft high rim whilst standing. He declined offers to play professional basketball in Europe, preferring to pursue basketball in the US.\\nOn 1 November 2013, Sturgess was selected by the Springfield Armor in the third round of the 2013 NBA Development League Draft. On 4 November 2013, he was traded to the Texas Legends where he played for the rest of the season.\\nOn 19 November 2014 he was signed by Cheshire Phoenix of the British Basketball League.\",\n \"1997–98 Miami Heat season\\nThe 1997–98 NBA season was the tenth season for the Miami Heat in the National Basketball Association. In the offseason, the Heat signed free agent Eric Murdock and acquired Duane Causwell from the Sacramento Kings. Despite Alonzo Mourning missing the first 22 games of the season due to an offseason knee injury, the Heat continued to play strong basketball as backup center Isaac Austin played string coming off the bench. Jamal Mashburn was also injured only playing just 48 games due to a thumb injury. Mourning would eventually return as Austin was traded at midseason to the Los Angeles Clippers for Brent Barry, as the Heat posted a 13–2 record in February. The Heat finished first place in the Atlantic Division with a 55–27 record. Tim Hardaway was the only member of the team to be selected for the 1998 NBA All-Star Game.\\nIn the first round of the playoffs, the Heat faced the 7th-seeded New York Knicks. The Heat would take a 2–1 lead in the series. However, in Game 4, Mourning was suspended for fighting Larry Johnson, his former teammate of the Charlotte Hornets now playing for the Knicks. Without Mourning, the Heat would lose Game 5 at the Miami Arena, 98–81. Following the season, Barry signed as a free agent with the Chicago Bulls, and Murdock signed with the New Jersey Nets.\\n(2) Miami Heat vs. (7) New York Knicks\\nLast Playoff Meeting: 1997 Eastern Conference Semifinals (Miami won 4-3)\\n\",\n \"1990–91 San Antonio Spurs season\\nThe 1990–91 NBA season was the Spurs' 15th season in the National Basketball Association, and 24th season as a franchise. After a promising rookie season from second-year star David Robinson, the Spurs would win 17 of their first 22 games on their way to a 30–10 start. However, with Terry Cummings and Rod Strickland lost for long stretched games due to injuries, the Spurs struggled in February with a 4–7 record. The Spurs would bounce back winning 13 of their final 17 games as they won the Midwest Division with a solid 55–27 record. Robinson averaged 25.6 points, 13.0 rebounds, and 3.9 blocks per game while being selected to the All-NBA First Team, All-Defensive Second Team, and for the 1991 NBA All-Star Game. However, in the first round of the playoffs, the Spurs would be stunned by the 7th-seeded Golden State Warriors in four games after winning Game 1.\\n(2) San Antonio Spurs vs. (7) Golden State Warriors: \\\"Warriors win series 3-1\\\"\\nLast Playoff Meeting: Not available (first playoff series)\\n\",\n \"Henry Bibby\\nCharles Henry Bibby (born November 24, 1949) is a former professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player.\\nHis brother, <a href=\\\"Jim%20Bibby\\\">Jim Bibby</a>, was a <a href=\\\"Major%20League%20Baseball\\\">Major League Baseball</a> pitcher, and his son, <a href=\\\"Mike%20Bibby\\\">Mike Bibby</a>, is a retired point guard of the <a href=\\\"National%20Basketball%20Association\\\">National Basketball Association</a>.\\nBibby was a starting <a href=\\\"point%20guard\\\">point guard</a> as the <a href=\\\"UCLA%20Bruins%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">UCLA Bruins</a> won three straight <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\\\">NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship</a>s in <a href=\\\"1970%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1970</a>, <a href=\\\"1971%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1971</a> and <a href=\\\"1972%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1972</a> under head coach <a href=\\\"John%20Wooden\\\">John Wooden</a>. Bibby helped lead the Bruins through the first 47 games of an 88-game winning streak and was named an All-American his senior year. He was one of only 4 players to have started on 3 NCAA championship teams; the others all played for Wooden at UCLA: <a href=\\\"Kareem%20Abdul-Jabbar\\\">Lew Alcindor</a>, <a href=\\\"Curtis%20Rowe\\\">Curtis Rowe</a> and <a href=\\\"Lynn%20Shackelford\\\">Lynn Shackelford</a>.\\nIn the <a href=\\\"1972%20NBA%20draft\\\">1972 NBA draft</a>, Bibby was drafted in the fourth round by the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Knicks\\\">New York Knicks</a> and in the second round of the <a href=\\\"1972%20ABA%20Draft\\\">1972 ABA Draft</a> by the <a href=\\\"Carolina%20Cougars\\\">Carolina Cougars</a>. Bibby opted to play for the Knicks and was with the team for two-and-a-half seasons, which included an <a href=\\\"NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA title</a> in 1973.\\nBibby spent nine seasons in the <a href=\\\"National%20Basketball%20Association\\\">NBA</a>, and was a part of the 1977 and 1980 <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%2076ers\\\">Philadelphia 76ers</a> teams that made the <a href=\\\"NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA Finals</a> but lost both times.\\nBibby started his coaching career in the <a href=\\\"Continental%20Basketball%20Association\\\">Continental Basketball Association</a> (CBA) and won two championships in 1982 and 1989. He coached the <a href=\\\"Winnipeg%20Thunder\\\">Winnipeg Thunder</a>.\\nIn 1996, he was named coach of the men's <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> team at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Southern%20California\\\">University of Southern California</a> (USC), and kept that position for nine seasons. Bibby had an overall won-loss record of 131-111 at USC. He led his 1997, 2001 and 2002 teams to the <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">NCAA</a> tournament, including an \\\"<a href=\\\"Elite%20Eight\\\">Elite Eight</a>\\\" appearance in 2001. He was fired four games into his ninth season.\\nIn April 2005, he was named head coach of the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Sparks\\\">Los Angeles Sparks</a> of the <a href=\\\"Women%27s%20National%20Basketball%20Association\\\">Women's National Basketball Association</a> (WNBA). After 28 games, he was replaced by his assistant coach, <a href=\\\"Joe%20Bryant\\\">Joe Bryant</a>.\\nOn January 17, 2006, Bibby was hired by the <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%2076ers\\\">Philadelphia 76ers</a> as an assistant coach on <a href=\\\"Maurice%20Cheeks\\\">Maurice Cheeks</a>' staff and remained there until the end of the 2007–2008 season, when his contract was not renewed. In February 2009 he was hired by the <a href=\\\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\\\">Memphis Grizzlies</a> as an assistant coach. He remained with the team until 2013, when he joined the <a href=\\\"Detroit%20Pistons\\\">Detroit Pistons</a>' coaching staff.\\nBibby is the brother of <a href=\\\"Jim%20Bibby\\\">Jim Bibby</a>, a former Major League Baseball <a href=\\\"pitcher\\\">pitcher</a>, and father of <a href=\\\"Mike%20Bibby\\\">Mike Bibby</a>, who played in the NBA. Henry Bibby and son Mike are one of four father-son duos to each win an NCAA basketball championship. Henry and Mike were initially estranged after Henry divorced from Mike's mother, leading Mike to publicly state \\\"My father is not part of my life\\\" after winning the NCAA title in 1997, but they later reconnected starting in 2002 as Mike was reaching his peak in the NBA.\\nclass=\\\"wikitable succession-box\\\" style=\\\"margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%;clear:both;\\\"\",\n \"Ben Braun\\nBenjamin Abraham Braun (born November 25, 1953) is a men's college basketball coach.\\nHe is the former coach at <a href=\\\"Rice%20University\\\">Rice University</a>, where he spent eight seasons. Previously, Braun spent 12 years with the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\\\">California</a> Golden Bears program and 11 years at <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Eastern Michigan University</a>. He won the most games (185) of any coach in Eastern Michigan's history, and he was named <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> Coach of the Year three times. As the head coach at <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\\\">Cal</a>, he won the <a href=\\\"Pac-12%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Coach%20of%20the%20Year\\\">Pac-10 Coach of the Year</a>, and had a 202–138 record (.606).\\nBraun was born in Chicago, Illinois, and is Jewish. His father is Academy Award nominee producer <a href=\\\"Zev%20Braun\\\">Zev Braun</a>. He graduated from <a href=\\\"New%20Trier%20High%20School\\\">New Trier High School</a> in <a href=\\\"Winnetka%2C%20Illinois\\\">Winnetka, Illinois</a>, where he excelled on both the basketball and, as a shortstop, baseball teams.\\nBraun played one year of basketball at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Wisconsin%26amp%3Bndash%3BLa%20Crosse\\\">University of Wisconsin–La Crosse</a>. He then transferred to the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Wisconsin%26amp%3Bndash%3BMadison\\\">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>. He earned a teaching degree in English, with a minor in African-American Studies, in June 1975. He earned a master's degree in guidance and counseling from <a href=\\\"Siena%20Heights\\\">Siena Heights</a> in 1980.\\nHe and his wife, Jessica, have a son Julius and a daughter Eliza.\\nAfter graduating from <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison\\\">Wisconsin</a> in 1975, Braun began his career as an assistant coach at <a href=\\\"Washington%20Park%20High%20School\\\">Washington Park High School</a> in <a href=\\\"Racine%2C%20Wisconsin\\\">Racine, Wisconsin</a>. After two years of coaching high school basketball, he accepted the head coaching job at <a href=\\\"Siena%20Heights%20University\\\">Siena Heights University</a>. Braun coached Siena Heights for eight years, taking the <a href=\\\"National%20Association%20of%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics\\\">National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics</a> (NAIA) school to a 148–103 record and five postseason tournaments.\\nPrior to the 1985–86 season, Braun took on the position of associate head coach at <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Michigan%20University\\\">Eastern Michigan</a>. Midway through the year, on January 15, 1986, he was elevated to interim head coach. Within two years his Hurons (Eagles from 1991 onwards) were in the NCAA Tournament for the first time in school history. During his 11 years at Eastern Michigan, he guided the Eagles to four postseason berths, including three NCAA appearances. Braun accumulated a record of 185–132 and was named Mid-American Conference Coach of the Year three times. His 185 wins are the most by a coach in <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Eastern Michigan Eagles men's basketball</a> history.\\nIn the summer of 1989, he was the head coach of the U.S. men's basketball team at the <a href=\\\"1989%20Maccabiah%20Games\\\">1989 Maccabiah Games</a>. The team lost to Team Israel in the final.\\nBraun replaced <a href=\\\"Todd%20Bozeman\\\">Todd Bozeman</a> as the head coach at <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\\\">Cal</a> prior to the 1996–97 season. Expectations were low as the Golden Bears were predicted to finish in the bottom half of the conference. However, the team finished tied for second in the conference and reached the NCAA Sweet 16. The team finished the season 23–9 and gave Braun a school record for most wins by a Bear coach in his first year with the program. Braun went on to win the <a href=\\\"Pac-12%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Coach%20of%20the%20Year\\\">Pac-10 Coach of the Year</a> - the first Cal coach to ever receive the award.\\nIn the 1998–99 season, Braun's club defeated North Carolina, UCLA, and Arizona during the course of the year to become the first team ever at Cal to beat three Top 10 schools in the same season. Then after entering the <a href=\\\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">NIT</a>, the Bears, led by <a href=\\\"Geno%20Carlisle\\\">Geno Carlisle</a>, won five consecutive postseason games to capture the NIT title - Cal's first postseason tournament championship since the Bears won the 1959 NCAA title. Cal finished the 1998–99 campaign with a 22–11 record.\\nIn 2000–01, the Bears returned to the NCAA Tournament, finishing with a 20–11 record, and <a href=\\\"Sean%20Lampley\\\">Sean Lampley</a> - Braun's first recruit at Cal after NCAA sanctions were lifted from Bozeman's tenure - became the school's all-time leading scorer late in his senior campaign, finishing with 1,776 points.\\nIn 2001–02, the Bears again went 23–9 and tied for second in the Pac-10 standings. Cal earned a No. 6 seed in the NCAA playoffs, where the Bears toppled Penn before falling to Pittsburgh in the second round.\\nIn 2002–03, Cal again reached the second round of the NCAA Tournament behind All-Pac-10 forwards <a href=\\\"Joe%20Shipp\\\">Joe Shipp</a> and <a href=\\\"Amit%20Tamir\\\">Amit Tamir</a>. Shipp ended his career in the No. 3 position on the Bears' all-time scoring list, while teammate <a href=\\\"Brian%20Wethers\\\">Brian Wethers</a> finished in the No. 15 position.\\nIn 2005–06, Cal defeated USC and Oregon to reach the Pac-10 Tournament final for the first time ever. <a href=\\\"Leon%20Powe\\\">Leon Powe</a> and the Bears then earned a No. 7 regional seed in the NCAA Tournament and finished the year with a 20–11 mark. On November 21, 2005, Cal defeated Long Beach State, 88-69, to give Braun his 500th career win.\\nDuring his tenure at Cal, Braun directed the Bears to more postseason appearances and more postseason victories than any coach in school history. He finished the 2006–07 campaign with a 202–138 record with the Bears and a 29-year career mark of 535–373. He ranks second to <a href=\\\"Nibs%20Price\\\">Nibs Price</a> (1925–54, 449–294) in both tenure and wins at Cal, while his Cal winning percentage (.606) is the best at the school since Hall of Famer <a href=\\\"Pete%20Newell\\\">Pete Newell</a> guided the Bears to a 119–44 mark from 1955–60.\\nTwo days after losing to <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Ohio State</a> in the <a href=\\\"2008%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">2008 National Invitation Tournament</a>, Braun was fired as head coach of the Golden Bears on March 26, 2008.\\nBraun was hired as the men's head coach at <a href=\\\"Rice%20University\\\">Rice</a>, replacing <a href=\\\"Willis%20Wilson\\\">Willis Wilson</a> in 2008. He resigned on March 13, 2014, after six seasons with the Owls, compiling a 63-128 record.\\n\",\n \"Rasheed Wallace\\nRasheed Abdul \\\"Sheed\\\" Wallace (born September 17, 1974) is an American retired professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player who played 16 seasons in the <a href=\\\"National%20Basketball%20Association\\\">National Basketball Association</a> (NBA). A native of <a href=\\\"Philadelphia\\\">Philadelphia</a>, Wallace played <a href=\\\"college%20basketball\\\">college basketball</a> at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20North%20Carolina%20at%20Chapel%20Hill\\\">University of North Carolina</a> before moving on to the NBA in 1995.\\nOriginally selected by the <a href=\\\"Washington%20Bullets\\\">Washington Bullets</a> (now known as the Washington Wizards) as the fourth pick in the <a href=\\\"1995%20NBA%20draft\\\">1995 NBA draft</a>, Wallace was named to the All-Rookie second team following his <a href=\\\"1995%E2%80%9396%20NBA%20season\\\">first season</a>. He was then traded to the <a href=\\\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\\\">Portland Trail Blazers</a> after the season. With Portland he was a key member of the Trail Blazers team that made it to the Western Conference Finals in <a href=\\\"1999%20NBA%20Playoffs\\\">1999</a> and <a href=\\\"2000%20NBA%20Playoffs\\\">2000</a>, and was an <a href=\\\"NBA%20All-Star\\\">NBA All-Star</a> in 2000 and 2001. Wallace averaged a career best 19.4 points per game in 2002 for the Trail Blazers.\\nDuring the <a href=\\\"2003%E2%80%9304%20NBA%20season\\\">2003–04 season</a> Portland traded him to the <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Hawks\\\">Atlanta Hawks</a> where he played one game before he was traded to the <a href=\\\"Detroit%20Pistons\\\">Detroit Pistons</a>. With the Pistons, Wallace won the <a href=\\\"2004%20NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA championship in 2004</a>, but lost the <a href=\\\"2005%20NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA Finals</a> in the following season. Individually, Wallace was an <a href=\\\"NBA%20All-Star\\\">NBA All-Star</a> in 2006 and 2008. After the <a href=\\\"2008%E2%80%9309%20NBA%20season\\\">2008–09 season</a>, Wallace left the Pistons as a free agent and signed with the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Celtics\\\">Boston Celtics</a>, where he played until retiring in 2010. He returned to sign a one-year deal to play for the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Knicks\\\">New York Knicks</a> in 2012.\\nWallace is currently the NBA's all-time leader in player <a href=\\\"technical%20foul\\\">technical foul</a>s, with 317. Wallace also holds the single-season record for technical fouls. In the 2000–01 season, Wallace received 41 technical fouls over a span of 80 games, about one technical foul for every two games. On April 17, 2013, Wallace announced his second retirement.\\nWallace was born and raised in the <a href=\\\"inner%20city\\\">inner city</a> neighborhoods of <a href=\\\"Philadelphia\\\">Philadelphia</a>, where he began his basketball career and attended <a href=\\\"Simon%20Gratz%20High%20School\\\">Simon Gratz High School</a>. He was named \\\"<a href=\\\"USA%20Today\\\">USA Today</a> High School Player of the Year\\\" after his senior season and was selected first team All America by Basketball Times. Wallace was also a two-time Parade All-American first teamer. Despite playing time of just 19 minutes per game, Wallace averaged 16 points, 15 rebounds and seven blocks his senior year. In addition to basketball, Wallace also ran track and <a href=\\\"high%20jump\\\">high jump</a>ed as a teenager. Wallace was outplayed by <a href=\\\"Darnell%20Robinson\\\">Darnell Robinson</a> in the McDonald's Game, where his battle with Robinson caused him to get ejected from the game, but he rebounded in the Roundball Classic, getting 30 points in a losing effort. Wallace, along with Randy Livingston and Jerry Stackhouse, were considered the top three players in the 1993 class.\\n<a href=\\\"University%20of%20North%20Carolina\\\">University of North Carolina</a> coach <a href=\\\"Dean%20Smith\\\">Dean Smith</a> recruited Wallace to <a href=\\\"Chapel%20Hill%2C%20North%20Carolina\\\">Chapel Hill, North Carolina</a> for his college years. Smith was a revered mentor both to Wallace and Wallace's eventual Detroit coach <a href=\\\"Larry%20Brown%20%28basketball%29\\\">Larry Brown</a>. Wallace has indicated that this North Carolina bond with Brown helped him adjust quickly to the Pistons system. During his brief time at North Carolina, Wallace had success in the national spotlight. He was named a second-team All-American by the AP his second year at UNC.\\nWallace and fellow future NBA player <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Stackhouse\\\">Jerry Stackhouse</a> helped lead the <a href=\\\"Tar%20Heels\\\">Tar Heels</a> to the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\\\">NCAA Final Four</a> in 1995. He left North Carolina to enter the <a href=\\\"1995%20NBA%20draft\\\">1995 NBA draft</a> after his sophomore season, being selected with the fourth pick overall by the <a href=\\\"Washington%20Bullets\\\">Washington Bullets</a>.\\nAs a rookie with the Bullets, Wallace played in 65 games, of which he started 51 for the injured <a href=\\\"Chris%20Webber\\\">Chris Webber</a>. Wallace was selected to the rookie team for the All-Star Weekend. Late that year, he fractured his left thumb during a game against Orlando and did not return until the following season. Wallace scored 655 points and played 1,788 minutes during his rookie season in Washington.\\nAfter the season, Wallace was traded to the <a href=\\\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\\\">Portland Trail Blazers</a>, along with <a href=\\\"Mitchell%20Butler\\\">Mitchell Butler</a> in exchange for <a href=\\\"Rod%20Strickland\\\">Rod Strickland</a> and <a href=\\\"Harvey%20Grant\\\">Harvey Grant</a>. This move that beneficial for both sides: Strickland averaged 17.2 ppg and 8.9 apg after the trade, helping the Bullets make the playoffs in 1997 for the first time in eight seasons, and upped those stats to 17.8 ppg and a league-leading 10.5 apg the following year.\\nMeanwhile, Wallace ranked third in the league in field goal percentage. However, just as his season was gaining momentum, Wallace again broke his left thumb and was forced to miss the next month of the season, but he returned in time for a strong performance in the first round playoff series against the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\\\">Los Angeles Lakers</a>, which the Trail Blazers lost.\\nNext season, he signed a long-term contract to stay with the Trail Blazers. He began extending himself into the community more than ever, most notably with his Rasheed Wallace Foundation, but his career suffered from numerous missteps on and off the court. He set an NBA record with 38 <a href=\\\"technical%20foul\\\">technical foul</a>s for the season. However, he would be fifth in the league in <a href=\\\"Field%20goal%20%28basketball%29\\\">field goal</a> percentage. The following year, he broke his own record with 40 technicals. Wallace was also suspended by the NBA for seven games for threatening then-referee <a href=\\\"Tim%20Donaghy\\\">Tim Donaghy</a> on an arena loading dock after a home game in 2003. That was the league's longest suspension for an offense that did not involve violence or substance abuse.\\nWallace was named an <a href=\\\"NBA%20All-Star%20Game\\\">NBA All-Star</a> in 2000 and 2001 and led the Trail Blazers to the Western Conference Finals in 1999 and 2000, losing to the <a href=\\\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\\\">San Antonio Spurs</a> and the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\\\">Los Angeles Lakers</a>, respectively. Both teams would go on to win the <a href=\\\"NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA Finals</a>. The 2000 series against the Lakers was most noted for the underdog Blazers squandering a 15-point lead going into the fourth quarter of Game 7.\\nOn February 9, 2004, Wallace was traded to the <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Hawks\\\">Atlanta Hawks</a> along with <a href=\\\"Wesley%20Person\\\">Wesley Person</a> for <a href=\\\"Shareef%20Abdur-Rahim\\\">Shareef Abdur-Rahim</a>, <a href=\\\"Theo%20Ratliff\\\">Theo Ratliff</a> and <a href=\\\"Dan%20Dickau\\\">Dan Dickau</a>. Wallace played only one game for the Hawks, scoring 20 points through three quarters. He also had six rebounds, five blocks, two assists and a steal in a close loss on the road against the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Nets\\\">New Jersey Nets</a>, though he did not score in the fourth quarter. Wallace was again traded, in a deal that saw him go from the Hawks along with guard <a href=\\\"Mike%20James%20%28basketball%2C%20born%201975%29\\\">Mike James</a> from the Celtics to the Pistons. In turn, Detroit sent guards <a href=\\\"Chucky%20Atkins\\\">Chucky Atkins</a>, <a href=\\\"Lindsey%20Hunter\\\">Lindsey Hunter</a> and a first-round draft pick to Boston and guard <a href=\\\"Bob%20Sura\\\">Bob Sura</a>, center <a href=\\\"%C5%BDeljko%20Rebra%C4%8Da\\\">Željko Rebrača</a> and a first-round draft pick to Atlanta. Boston also sent forward <a href=\\\"Chris%20Mills%20%28basketball%29\\\">Chris Mills</a> to Atlanta to complete the deal.\\nAfter falling behind against the <a href=\\\"Indiana%20Pacers\\\">Indiana Pacers</a> in the 2004 Eastern Conference Finals, he stated boldly in an interview that \\\"We will win Game 2,\\\" a promise he helped fulfill.\\nWallace helped the Pistons win an unexpected NBA title, beating the heavily favored Lakers four games to one. After the championship season, he paid for replica <a href=\\\"World%20Heavyweight%20Championship%20%28WWE%29\\\">WWE World Heavyweight Championship</a> belts to be made for each of his teammates and presented them as gifts when the 2004–05 regular season started.\\nIn the off-season following the Pistons' championship win, Wallace signed a five-year, $57 million contract to remain with Detroit. He also changed the number of his jersey from #30 to #36.\\nThroughout the 2004–05 season, Wallace often carried the belt into his locker before games to inspire the Pistons' title defense. He had several notable moments in the playoffs. After the second-round elimination of the Pacers, Wallace played his best series of the postseason in the Eastern Conference finals against the top-seeded <a href=\\\"Miami%20Heat\\\">Miami Heat</a>. After falling behind again, he again \\\"guaranteed success\\\". He shot a 50% field goal percentage and averaged 14.5 points per game in the series' seven games, and saved his hottest-shooting night for the decisive Game 7. Against the <a href=\\\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\\\">San Antonio Spurs</a> in the NBA Finals, Wallace was criticized for leaving <a href=\\\"Robert%20Horry\\\">Robert Horry</a> open for the game-winning three-pointer in Game 5. Wallace's defense and clutch shooting helped the Pistons to split the series 3–3, but in the final game, the Pistons lost 81–74.\\nIn the 2005–06 season, he helped lead them to a 64–18 record, and the top seed in the Eastern Conference for the playoffs. The Pistons beat the <a href=\\\"Milwaukee%20Bucks\\\">Milwaukee Bucks</a>, 4–1 in the first round and then beat the Cleveland Cavaliers 4–3 in the second round of the playoffs. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Pistons played the Heat in a rematch of the previous year's Conference Finals. The Pistons lost in six games to the Miami Heat, who went on to capture their first NBA title.\\nOn March 26, 2007, in a game against the <a href=\\\"Denver%20Nuggets\\\">Denver Nuggets</a>, Wallace threw up a 60-foot shot off a stolen inbound pass with 1.5 seconds remaining and banked it in from just behind halfcourt to force overtime letting out a huge roar from what was left of the Palace crowd. The Pistons went on to win the game, 113–109.\\nOn June 2, 2007, Wallace fouled out of Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals after committing a foul on <a href=\\\"LeBron%20James\\\">LeBron James</a> and then received two technical fouls, resulting in an automatic ejection, for arguing with a referee.\\nPrior to the <a href=\\\"2007%E2%80%9308%20NBA%20season\\\">2007–08 NBA season</a>, the Pistons would not re-sign <a href=\\\"Chris%20Webber\\\">Chris Webber</a>, and putting <a href=\\\"Antonio%20McDyess\\\">Antonio McDyess</a> as a starting power forward, put Wallace at center. On February 10, 2008, it was announced that Wallace would be replacing Boston Celtics' injured forward Kevin Garnett in the <a href=\\\"2008%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game\\\">2008 NBA All-Star Game</a> in New Orleans. The decision was made by NBA commissioner <a href=\\\"David%20Stern\\\">David Stern</a>. This was Wallace's fourth All-Star appearance.\\nIn the 2008 Eastern Conference Finals, the Pistons played Garnett and the Celtics. This marked the sixth consecutive time that the Pistons had made it to this point, and five times they had gotten there with Wallace in the lineup. Still, Detroit lost a third consecutive year in the Conference Finals, losing to Boston 4–2. After the game, Wallace reportedly told reporters, without taking any questions, \\\"It's over, man\\\", perhaps indicating that Pistons' General Manager <a href=\\\"Joe%20Dumars\\\">Joe Dumars</a> would break up the core of the team following the defeat. He changed his number from 36 back to his original 30, perhaps to change his and the team's fortunes, but sure enough, Dumars did indeed break up the core: at the beginning of the 2008–09 season, Dumars traded longtime starting point guard and 2004 Finals MVP <a href=\\\"Chauncey%20Billups\\\">Chauncey Billups</a> to Denver. It was to be Wallace's last year with the team; after the season came to a close, Wallace and the Pistons decided to part ways.\\nWallace signed a three-year contract with the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Celtics\\\">Boston Celtics</a> on July 8, 2009. During the regular season, Wallace struggled, averaging career lows in points per game and rebounds per game. Also, he shot 28% on three pointers and 40% from the field. The Celtics reached the <a href=\\\"2010%20NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA Finals in 2010</a> but lost the series to the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\\\">Los Angeles Lakers</a> four games to three. In Game 6 of the Finals, the Celtics' starting center <a href=\\\"Kendrick%20Perkins\\\">Kendrick Perkins</a> injured his right knee, so Wallace started Game 7. Wallace scored 11 points and was 5 of 11 from the field in the loss. Wallace's agent Bill Strickland announced on June 25, 2010 that Wallace would likely retire from the NBA, which was made official on August 10, following the buyout of his contract by the Celtics.\\nOn October 3, 2012, Wallace came out of retirement, and signed with the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Knicks\\\">New York Knicks</a>.\\nOn February 27, 2013, Wallace announced that he had a broken left foot and was expected to miss eight weeks. He was scheduled for surgery. He returned for a final game on April 15, 2013, playing three minutes off the bench. On April 17, 2013, after a short return, Wallace announced his second retirement.\\nIn July 2013, Wallace joined the Detroit Pistons staff as an assistant coach after signing a two-year contract with the team. He worked for the Pistons for the <a href=\\\"2013%E2%80%9314%20Detroit%20Pistons%20season\\\">2013–14 season</a>, but was not rehired to the staff of new coach <a href=\\\"Stan%20Van%20Gundy\\\">Stan Van Gundy</a> following that season.\\nWallace was known for his intensity and unique personality, resulting in frequent confrontations with opponents and officials (often leading to <a href=\\\"technical%20foul\\\">technical foul</a>s and ejections) but also moments of humor. Wallace holds the league records for most career technical fouls, most technical fouls in a season, and most ejections in a season. During the <a href=\\\"2008%20NBA%20Playoffs\\\">2008 Playoffs</a> Wallace went on an expletive-laced tirade following Game 5 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Celtics\\\">Boston Celtics</a> in which he lashed out at the officiating.\\nWallace popularized the phrase \\\"Ball don't lie\\\", used when a player on the opposing team misses a free throw after a disputed call by the referees. One notable incident occurred in a December 2, 2012, game against the <a href=\\\"Phoenix%20Suns\\\">Phoenix Suns</a>. After Wallace pushed <a href=\\\"Luis%20Scola\\\">Luis Scola</a> and received a technical foul, <a href=\\\"Goran%20Dragi%C4%87\\\">Goran Dragić</a> missed the technical free throw, to which Wallace responded by saying \\\"Ball don't lie.\\\" Wallace then received a second technical, leading to his ejection. He played 1:25 before his ejection.\\nDuring the <a href=\\\"2010%20NBA%20Playoffs\\\">2010 NBA Playoffs</a> Wallace, a native of Philadelphia and <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%20Flyers\\\">Flyers</a> fan, frequently wore hats and other articles of clothing with the Philadelphia Flyers logo during Boston Celtics press conferences and interviews. This caused a stir with fans throughout the Boston area as the Philadelphia Flyers were playing the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Bruins\\\">Boston Bruins</a> in the <a href=\\\"2010%20Stanley%20Cup%20playoffs\\\">NHL Playoffs</a> at the time. The resentment by Bostonians only grew after the Flyers' comeback from a 0–3 game deficit to win the series 4–3. Wallace continued to wear his Flyers gear despite criticism from sports commentators and fans.\\nWallace has three children with his former wife Fatima. He is <a href=\\\"Muslim\\\">Muslim</a>. His nephew, <a href=\\\"Quadir%20Welton\\\">Quadir Welton</a>, is a professional basketball player.\\nWallace roots for his hometown <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%20Flyers\\\">Philadelphia Flyers</a> (<a href=\\\"National%20Hockey%20League\\\">NHL</a>) and <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%20Phillies\\\">Philadelphia Phillies</a> (<a href=\\\"MLB\\\">MLB</a>), but not the <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%20Eagles\\\">Philadelphia Eagles</a> of the <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a>. Instead, he is a longtime fan of the <a href=\\\"Kansas%20City%20Chiefs\\\">Kansas City Chiefs</a>.\",\n \"Arizona Wildcats men's basketball\\nThe Arizona Wildcats men's basketball team is the <a href=\\\"college%20basketball\\\">intercollegiate men's basketball</a> program representing the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arizona\\\">University of Arizona</a> in <a href=\\\"Tucson%2C%20Arizona\\\">Tucson, Arizona</a>. They compete in the <a href=\\\"Pac-12%20Conference%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Pac-12 Conference</a> of <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I\\\">NCAA Division I</a> and are currently coached by <a href=\\\"Sean%20Miller\\\">Sean Miller</a>.\\nArizona has a long and rich basketball history. The program came to national prominence under the tutelage of former head coach <a href=\\\"Lute%20Olson\\\">Lute Olson</a> (1983–2007), who established the program as among America's elite in college basketball. One writer referred to UA as \\\"Point Guard U\\\" because the school has produced successful guards like <a href=\\\"Steve%20Kerr\\\">Steve Kerr</a>, <a href=\\\"Damon%20Stoudamire\\\">Damon Stoudamire</a>, <a href=\\\"Khalid%20Reeves\\\">Khalid Reeves</a>, <a href=\\\"Mike%20Bibby\\\">Mike Bibby</a>, <a href=\\\"Jason%20Terry\\\">Jason Terry</a>, <a href=\\\"Gilbert%20Arenas\\\">Gilbert Arenas</a>, <a href=\\\"Jason%20Gardner\\\">Jason Gardner</a>, <a href=\\\"Jerryd%20Bayless\\\">Jerryd Bayless</a>, and <a href=\\\"T.%20J.%20McConnell\\\">T. J. McConnell</a>, among others.\\nFrom 1985 to 2009, the Arizona basketball team reached the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\\\">NCAA Division I Tournament</a> for 25 consecutive years, two years shy of <a href=\\\"North%20Carolina%20Tar%20Heels%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">North Carolina</a>'s record with 27. Despite having their 1999 and 2008 appearances later vacated by the NCAA, the media still cites Arizona's streak, and simply notes the changes. The Wildcats have reached the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament on four occasions (<a href=\\\"1988%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1988</a>, <a href=\\\"1994%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1994</a>, <a href=\\\"1997%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1997</a>, and <a href=\\\"2001%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">2001</a>). They have also made two appearances in the National Championship (won over <a href=\\\"Kentucky%20Wildcats%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Kentucky Wildcats</a> in 1997, lost to <a href=\\\"Duke%20Blue%20Devils%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Duke Blue Devils</a> in 2001). In Pac-10 play, former head coach Lute Olson currently holds the record for most wins as a Pac-10 coach with 327. In addition, the team has won 15 Pac-10/12 regular season titles and six Pac-10/12 tournament championships. Arizona also holds the distinction of recording five out of the seven 17–1 Pac-10 seasons (one-loss seasons). No team has gone undefeated since the formation of the Pac-10/12.\\nArizona ranks 16th all time heading into the 2016–17 season with 1,737 wins and ranks 10th by winning percentage at ( ). Arizona has spent 37 weeks at No. 1 in the AP Poll, which is tied for eighth-most all-time; 145 weeks in the Top 5, seventh all-time; 291 weeks in the Top 10, sixth all-time; and 446 weeks in the Top 25, ninth all-time.\\nThe University of Arizona fielded its first men's basketball team in 1904–05. Orin Albert Kates coached the team and drew opponents from local YMCAs. The first game Arizona played ended in a 40–32 victory over the Morenci YMCA.\\nIn 1914, Arizona's first famous coach, <a href=\\\"Pop%20McKale\\\">James Fred \\\"Pop\\\" McKale</a> was lured away from a teaching and coaching job at Tucson High School to take over as <a href=\\\"Athletic%20Director\\\">Athletic Director</a> and coach <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a>, <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">football</a>, <a href=\\\"baseball\\\">baseball</a> and <a href=\\\"Track%20and%20field\\\">track</a>. McKale took things to a new level, posting a 9–0 record his first season as a basketball coach. Moreover, McKale elevated the program to intercollegiate play. While basketball was his least favorite of the many sports he coached while at UA, He chalked up three undefeated seasons and a career-winning average of .803, which has never been bested by a UA coach who has held the post for at least three years. The <a href=\\\"McKale%20Center\\\">McKale Memorial Center</a>, the main arena for Arizona basketball, is named in his honor.\\nFrom 1925 to 1961, the program was under the stewardship of <a href=\\\"Fred%20Enke\\\">Fred Enke</a>, UA's longest tenured coach. Coach Fred A. Enke was responsible for the early successes of Wildcat basketball. Enke amassed 509 wins in his tenure on the UA sidelines and still ranks as the second-winningest coach in school history, winning more than 60 percent of his games. Enke also led the Cats to the first four postseason appearances (3 N.I.T./1 NCAA) in school history and in 1950–51 competed in both the N.I.T. and NCAA postseason tournaments. Finally, he was the first coach to lead Arizona to a national ranking. Two of his teams (1950, 1951) finished the season ranked in the top 15.\\nUnder Enke, UA competed in the now defunct <a href=\\\"Border%20Intercollegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">Border Conference</a>. Under Enke's direction, Arizona won 12 conference championships, including a span in which the Cats won or shared seven consecutive Border\\nConference titles (1942–51). No Border Conference team won as many league games (231) or overall contests (398) during its membership. In 1962, Arizona joined the <a href=\\\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">Western Athletic Conference</a> as a founding member after the Border Conference disbanded.\\nIn 1972, <a href=\\\"Fred%20Snowden\\\">Fred Snowden</a> was hired as the head basketball coach, making Arizona the second Division I school and the first major program to hire an <a href=\\\"African%20American\\\">African American</a> head coach. Known as \\\"The Fox\\\", Snowden brought the excitement back to Wildcat basketball during his 10 years on the Arizona sideline, averaging more than 80 points per game in six of his 10 years and topping the 100-point barrier 27 times. Snowden led Arizona to the NCAA tournament twice, in <a href=\\\"1976%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1976</a> and <a href=\\\"1977%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1977</a>, getting as far as the Elite Eight in 1976 before losing to <a href=\\\"UCLA%20Bruins%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">UCLA</a> 82–66, a game after defeating <a href=\\\"UNLV%20Runnin%27%20Rebels%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">UNLV</a> in a Sweet Sixteen matchup. During the 1976 tournament he also logged Arizona's first and only tournament wins until Lute Olson's hiring, beating <a href=\\\"John%20Thompson%20%28basketball%29\\\">John Thompson's</a> <a href=\\\"1975%E2%80%9376%20Georgetown%20Hoyas%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Georgetown</a> team 83–76. Snowden's 1976 team also won the school's only WAC championship title on a buzzer-beater by <a href=\\\"Gilbert%20Myles\\\">Gilbert Myles</a> verses <a href=\\\"New%20Mexico%20Lobos%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">New Mexico</a>, with the help of the spectacular play of <a href=\\\"Bob%20Elliott%20%28basketball%29\\\">Bob Elliott</a>, Jim Rappis, and <a href=\\\"Al%20Fleming%20%28basketball%29\\\">Al Fleming</a>. In 1978, Coach Snowden helped transition the basketball program over to the newly formed Pac-10. Snowden could not sustain success in the Pac-10, however, finishing no higher than 4th place in the conference. His 9–18 final season led UA to look for a replacement.\\nKnown for his high-octane offense and remembered as a trailblazer, Fred \\\"The Fox\\\" Snowden brought excitement to Arizona basketball during his 10-year tenure as the program's head coach. Snowden, who led the Wildcats from 1972–82, was the first African-American head basketball coach at an NCAA Division I institution, amassing a 167–108 mark. The 1973 Western Athletic Conference Coach of the Year, his career winning percentage of .607 has been topped by only three UA coaches since 1924. Nicknamed \\\"The Fox\\\" due to his cool demeanor, Snowden led Arizona to three postseason berths, including the 1975 National Commissioners’ Invitational Tournament and the 1976 and 1977 NCAA Tournaments. His best season came in 1976, when the Wildcats went 24–9, won the Western Athletic Conference championship and advanced to the NCAA West Regional Final. The Brewton, Ala., native was the head coach who led Arizona into the Pac-10 in the 1978–79 season, guiding the program for its first four seasons in the Conference. Snowden also oversaw the transition into the McKale Center after its opening in 1973. He was inducted into the Arizona Sports Hall of Fame in 1988. Prior to his role at Arizona, Snowden was an assistant coach at Michigan. He also served on the coaching staff of his high school, Northwestern High School in Detroit, Mich., where he coached for five years after attending Wayne State University from 1954–58. Snowden died in 1994 at the age of 57.\\nAthletic Director Dave Strack brought in <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lindsey%20%28basketball%29\\\">Ben Lindsey</a> to replace Fred Snowden in 1983, and on the surface, it seemed like a reasonable move. Lindsey had junior college expertise, having had a successful career at <a href=\\\"Grand%20Canyon%20University\\\">Grand Canyon University</a>, where he won two national titles. What resulted, however, was nothing short of disaster. The 1983 team finished with the worst season in school history at 4–24, with only one Pac-10 win.\\nNewly hired UA Athletic director <a href=\\\"Cedric%20Dempsey\\\">Cedric Dempsey</a> fired Lindsey after only one season and hired <a href=\\\"Iowa%20Hawkeyes%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">University of Iowa</a> coach Lute Olson as his successor. UA needed a coach with a history of quickly turning around programs, which Olson had done previously at Iowa. \\\"I knew we had a tremendous amount of work to do\\\", Olson recalled in a recent interview with Tucson Lifestyle. \\\"The program was in shambles at that point, after the terrible year before...\\\"\\nUnder Olson, Arizona quickly rose to national prominence. Arizona won its first Pac-10 title in 1986, only three years after his arrival. That season set up an amazing 1987–88 season, which included taking the <a href=\\\"Great%20Alaska%20Shootout\\\">Great Alaska Shootout</a> championship, the Valley Bank Fiesta Bowl Classic championship and the Pac-10 championship. Under players <a href=\\\"Steve%20Kerr\\\">Steve Kerr</a>, <a href=\\\"Kenny%20Lofton\\\">Kenny Lofton</a> and <a href=\\\"Sean%20Elliott\\\">Sean Elliott</a>, Arizona spent much of the season ranked #1 and made their first (and Olson's second) Final Four. While Arizona lost in the Final Four round, their play put the program on the map and launched Arizona's reign as a perennial Pac-10 and NCAA tournament contender. Sean Elliott was awarded the John R. Wooden Award on the season and would set the PAC-10 scoring record.\\nIn 1997, Arizona defeated the <a href=\\\"Kentucky%20Wildcats%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">University of Kentucky</a>, the defending national champions, to win the NCAA National Championship. Prior to winning the championship in 1997, Arizona stormed back from 10-point deficits in the Southeast Regional First Round and Second Round against #13 <a href=\\\"South%20Alabama%20Jaguars%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">South Alabama</a> and #12 <a href=\\\"College%20of%20Charleston%20Cougars%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">College of Charleston</a>, respectively winning 65–57 and 73–69. The Southeast Regional Semifinal pitted against overall #1 Kansas (34–1) which had defeated Arizona the year before in the 1996 West Regional Semifinal. However, Arizona came out fast and stunned the <a href=\\\"Kansas%20Jayhawks%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Jayhawks</a> 85–82, then prevailed in overtime against <a href=\\\"Providence%20Friars%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Providence</a> 96–92 in the Elite Eight to clinch a berth in the Final Four. Arizona then beat #1 seed <a href=\\\"North%20Carolina%20Tar%20Heels%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">North Carolina</a> 66–58 in the Final Four, which turned out to be <a href=\\\"Dean%20Smith\\\">Dean Smith</a>'s last game as a coach. Arizona also accomplished the unprecedented feat of beating three number one seeds in the 1997 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. This feat has never been accomplished by another team.\\nThe year following the Championship season, 1998, Arizona returned all 5 starters (<a href=\\\"Mike%20Bibby\\\">Mike Bibby</a>, <a href=\\\"Michael%20Dickerson\\\">Michael Dickerson</a>, <a href=\\\"Miles%20Simon\\\">Miles Simon</a>, <a href=\\\"Bennett%20Davison\\\">Bennett Davison</a>, and <a href=\\\"A.%20J.%20Bramlett\\\">A. J. Bramlett</a>) and were poised to make another run after receiving the #1 overall seed in the West, but were upset by Utah in the <a href=\\\"1998%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">Elite 8</a>.\\nIn 1999, all 5 starters were lost to graduation or early entry to the NBA draft and Arizona's hopes of continuing its streak of consecutives trip to the NCAA tournament was in jeopardy until senior point guard <a href=\\\"Jason%20Terry\\\">Jason Terry</a> (the 6th man the previous two seasons) elevated his game (receiving National Player of the Year honors) and continued the school's amazing streak.\\n2001 was one of the most challenging and rewarding years for the program. Lute Olson's wife Bobbi, well known to players and fans alike as a steadfast presence on the sidelines, lost her battle with cancer. The team, which had been a preseason pick by many to win the national title had to play without Olson for three weeks while Olson was on bereavement leave. The Cats vowed to dedicate their season to Bobbi. With guard <a href=\\\"Jason%20Gardner\\\">Jason Gardner</a>, center <a href=\\\"Loren%20Woods\\\">Loren Woods</a> and forward <a href=\\\"Michael%20Wright%20%28basketball%29\\\">Michael Wright</a> — each an All-American — leading the way, the Cats trounced their opponents, beating Oregon 104–65, devastating USC 105–61, and charging through the <a href=\\\"2001%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">Final Four</a>. They took down Eastern Illinois, <a href=\\\"Butler%20Bulldogs%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Butler</a>, Mississippi, <a href=\\\"Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Illinois</a>, and <a href=\\\"Michigan%20State%20Spartans%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Michigan State</a>, only to be stopped by <a href=\\\"Duke%20Blue%20Devils%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Duke</a> in the title game. While being considered the favorite to win the title, which would have been Coach Olsen's 2nd and tied him with Coach Mike Krzyzewski, his opponent, the Blue Devils claimed a ten-point victory in the game. This is the last game Coach Olsen ever coached in the Final Four and is considered by fans of the program to be his most bitter defeat. A championship would have vaulted him into hallowed ground among coaches, being one of few with multiple titles. Instead he remains tied with many coaches who have a single championship ring to their name. Meanwhile, his opponent in that game now is alone in second place among college coaches with five championship rings, behind only John Wooden's ten. It should be noted that all five of Krzyzewski's titles came in the 64 team field era while zero of Wooden's did. Still Coach Olsen earned the respect of his contemporary, Coach K said in the post game interview that \\\"Arizona had a great team and an amazing season and was worthy of winning the championship, lets give a hand to Coach Olsen and his team.\\\" The comment drew rousing applause from the audience in attendance and made Coach Olsen proud, even in defeat, to be honored as an equal by Coach Krzyzewski who many claim is the best coach in college history.\\nIn his later years at UA, Olson fielded competitive teams with extremely talented point guards. Continuing the reputation and nickname \\\"Point Guard U,\\\" recent standouts include <a href=\\\"Jason%20Gardner\\\">Jason Gardner</a>, <a href=\\\"Salim%20Stoudamire\\\">Salim Stoudamire</a>, <a href=\\\"Mustafa%20Shakur\\\">Mustafa Shakur</a>, <a href=\\\"Jerryd%20Bayless\\\">Jerryd Bayless</a> and <a href=\\\"Nic%20Wise\\\">Nic Wise</a>. Arizona would win Olson's last Pac-10 title during the 2004–2005 season under the spectacular play of seniors Salim Stoudamire and center <a href=\\\"Channing%20Frye\\\">Channing Frye</a>. That team also made it to the Elite 8 and the verge of the Final Four before blowing a 15-point lead with four minutes to play and losing in overtime, 90–89, to the No. 1 seed and eventual national runner-up, <a href=\\\"Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">University of Illinois</a>.\\nOlson took an unexplained leave of absence at the beginning of the 2007–2008 season. Assistant coach Kevin O'Neill took over interim head coaching duties for the Arizona Wildcats. At that time, Olson announced that he intended to be back for the 2008–09 season and finish out his contract, which was scheduled to end in 2011. His departure was criticized by some members of the media. They also questioned how he and the UA athletic department handled his return and the verbal succession agreement with coach O'Neill. However, on October 23, 2008, he unexpectedly announced his retirement from the program (by way of an announcement from Arizona athletic director Jim Livengood). A few days later, Olson's personal physician held a press conference and explained that the retirement was strongly advised due to health concerns.\\nAfter Lute Olson's abrupt retirement, Arizona Athletic Director Jim Livengood appointed assistant coach <a href=\\\"Russ%20Pennell\\\">Russ Pennell</a> as the interim head coach for the <a href=\\\"2008%E2%80%9309%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20season\\\">2008–2009 season</a> 23 days before the start of the season. The appointment came after <a href=\\\"Mike%20Dunlap\\\">Mike Dunlap</a>, the associate head coach brought in to replace Kevin O'Neill, turned down the job. Under Pennell, the Cats finished 19–13 in the regular season, including a non-conference win over Kansas and a 7-game win streak with wins over UCLA and Washington. Despite a 19–13 finish to the season, Arizona was controversially selected as one of the last teams into the field of 65 as a 12th seed in the Midwest region, extending its NCAA consecutive tournament appearances to 25 years. The Cats made it to the Sweet 16 (regional semi-finals) with wins over 5-seed <a href=\\\"Utah%20Utes%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Utah</a> and 13-seed <a href=\\\"Cleveland%20State%20Vikings%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Cleveland State</a>, before falling to overall 1-seed, <a href=\\\"Louisville%20Cardinals%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Louisville</a>. Despite Pennell's post-season success, he was not retained, as Arizona announced before his hiring they would hold a national coaching search after the season ended. (On April 9, 2009, Pennell was hired as head coach of the men's basketball team at Division II <a href=\\\"Grand%20Canyon%20University\\\">Grand Canyon University</a>, a member of the <a href=\\\"Pacific%20West%20Conference\\\">Pacific West Conference</a>.)\\nAfter the end of the season, various coaching names were considered to succeed Lute Olson on a permanent basis. Arizona was perceived to have interest in <a href=\\\"Gonzaga%20University\\\">Gonzaga</a>'s <a href=\\\"Mark%20Few\\\">Mark Few</a>, <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Pittsburgh\\\">Pittsburgh</a>'s <a href=\\\"Jamie%20Dixon\\\">Jamie Dixon</a> and then-<a href=\\\"University%20of%20Memphis\\\">Memphis</a> coach <a href=\\\"John%20Calipari\\\">John Calipari</a> (before he accepted the vacant position at <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Kentucky\\\">Kentucky</a>) to take the job. Arizona even brought <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Southern%20California\\\">USC</a>'s <a href=\\\"Tim%20Floyd\\\">Tim Floyd</a> on campus for an interview and while Arizona claims no formal offer was ever presented, Floyd ultimately turned down the job publicly.\\nArizona hired <a href=\\\"Sean%20Miller\\\">Sean Miller</a> from <a href=\\\"Xavier%20Musketeers%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Xavier University</a> to fill the head coaching position. He initially turned the job down before changing his mind and accepting the job on Apr. 6, 2009 despite having never visited the Arizona campus. Miller was formally introduced as the 13th head men's basketball coach at Arizona at a press conference on April 7, 2009 at McKale Center. At the press conference, Miller acknowledged Lute Olson's impact on the Arizona program by addressing Olson personally: \\\"One of the reasons I sit here today is because of the great legacy you built.\\\" Miller also promised U of A fans that they would enjoy the style of both offense and defense he would bring to Wildcat basketball. Miller's salary is $1.6 million per year; he will receive an additional $400,000 per season from <a href=\\\"Nike%2C%20Inc.\\\">Nike</a> and media contracts during a five-year deal, as well as a $1 million signing bonus and other amenities such as season tickets to other Wildcat sporting events and the use of a private jet. Within three months of joining the program, Miller compiled a strong five-player recruiting class that ranked 13th nationally in 2009. After going 16–15 and missing the NCAA tournament for the first time in 25 years during Miller's initial 2009–10 campaign.\\nIn his second season as the head coach at Arizona, the Cats finished the season with 30–8, 14–4 Pac-12 play, behind the play of sophomore <a href=\\\"Pac-10%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Player%20of%20the%20Year\\\">Pac-10 Player of the Year</a> Derrick Williams. It would be the Wildcats' first outright Pac-10 regular season title (its 12th overall), 4th 30+ win season (1st overall) and Elite Eight appearance (8th overall) since the 2004–2005 season. In addition, Miller led the Wildcats to their first unbeaten home record (17–0) in 14 years and was named Pac-10 Coach of the Year. This was the first time an Arizona coach received this honor since <a href=\\\"Lute%20Olson\\\">Lute Olson</a> in 2003. The 17 wins without a loss at home is tied for the second most in school history. Miller would add to the season's success by guiding the Cats to their first Elite Eight appearance since the 2004–2005 Season as a 5-seed. In the second round, Arizona secured a 2-point victory over 12th seeded <a href=\\\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Memphis%20Tigers%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Memphis</a> (coached by former Wildcat (and member of the 1997 national title team) <a href=\\\"Josh%20Pastner\\\">Josh Pastner</a>) with a blocked shot in the final seconds by Derrick Williams. Arizona would follow with another close game—a controversial one-point win against 4-seed <a href=\\\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Texas%20Longhorns%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Texas</a>. In the Sweet-16 match-up, Arizona found itself pitted against top-seeded <a href=\\\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Duke%20Blue%20Devils%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Duke</a>, the first time since the 2001 title game that the two schools had met. Duke would extend an early lead, but 25 points from Derrick Williams kept the Cats in the game and down by 6 points at the half. In the second half, Williams' teammates picked up the slack, dominating the Blue Devils by scoring 55 second-half points and routing the defending champs 93–77. Arizona's run at the Final Four would fall 2 points short, losing to 3-seed (and eventual national champion) Connecticut 65–63.\\nFor his third season, Arizona's 2011 recruiting class was ranked 7th, notably signing Nick Johnson and Josiah Turner. Arizona secured three players in the top nine of the ESPNU 100, with all four newly signed players within the top 36. This has cemented Arizona as the No. 1 signing class nationally, surpassing <a href=\\\"Kentucky%20Wildcats%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Kentucky</a> who held the No. 1 spot 2010 and 2011. The Wildcats missed the postseason for the second time, reached to the NIT Tournament before falling to Bucknell to finish the season 23–12 overall, 12–6 in Pac-12.\\nIn his fourth season, Miller guided to its second top-5 ranking in the AP poll(the first coming in weeks 7–10 of the 2012–2013 season), Arizona reached the Sweet 16 in 2013 falling to Ohio State, finished the season with 27–8, 12–6 in Pac-12.\\nIn his fifth season with the most talent Coach Miller has had since arriving in Tucson. On December 9, 2013, Arizona became the #1 ranked Team in the Country for the 6th time in school history, after a 9–0 start with wins over traditional national powerhouses Duke and UNLV. The Wildcats followed this up by securing a key come-from-behind victory on the road at <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Wolverines%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Michigan</a> on December 14 and led the Wildcats to their second outright Pac-12 Regular Season Title (its 13th overall, 26th regular season overall) in Sean Miller's fifth year as the head coach. Arizona reached the second unbeaten home record at (18–0), Coach Miller again named the second Pac-10/12 coach of the year, 5th 30+ wins season (2nd overall), 2nd Elite Eight appearance (9th overall) in 2014. But in the 2014 NCAA tournament, the Wildcats would fall to Wisconsin in overtime, they finish the season with 33–5, 15–3 in Pac-12.\\nIn his sixth season as the Arizona Wildcats basketball head coach, after Gonzaga's home loss to BYU on February 28, 2015, Arizona claimed the longest active home winning streak in D-I men's college basketball (38th home win at 2nd all-time, 82nd home win at 5th all-time). Arizona defeated #13 Utah in Salt Lake City the same day, winning its share of the Pac-12 regular season title. After three losses to Pac-12 archrival Arizona State, Oregon State and UNLV, Arizona won their third Pac-12 regular season championship title (2nd straight year, its 14th overall, 27th overall). Arizona reached the third unbeaten home record at (17–0). The Wildcats completes their sixth ever 30+ win (3rd overall) and won their first Pac-12 Tournament title (5th overall) since 2002. In the 2015 NCAA tournament, the Wildcats fell to the Wisconsin Badgers in Elite Eight, 85–78, and finished the season 34–4, 16–2 in the Pac-12.\\nSean Miller is currently in his eighth season as the Arizona Wildcats head coach.\\nOn September 26, 2017, federal prosecutors announced bribery, soliciting a bribe and wire fraud charges against assistant coach Emanuel \\\"Book\\\" Richardson.\\nThe Wildcats have had 15 coaches in their 113-year history. Sean Miller is the current coach. To date, 1 Wildcats coach have won the two National Coach-of-the-Year award: Lute Olson in 1988 and 1990. Additionally, 2 Wildcats coaches have been named Pac-12 Conference Coach-of-the-Year: Lute Olson in 1986, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1998 and 2003 and Sean Miller in 2011, 2014, and 2017.\\nUnder Sean Miller\\nTraditional rivalries\\nOther rivals\\nSince becoming a University in December 5, 1958 ASU trails Arizona 54–69. Since both schools joined the <a href=\\\"Pac-12%20Conference\\\">Pac-10 conference</a> in the 1978–79 season Arizona leads ASU 55–26. Since Lute Olson took over as head coach for the 1983–84 season Arizona leads ASU 53–15. In 2010 Arizona State beat Arizona at home for the third straight time in the <a href=\\\"McKale%20Center\\\">McKale Center</a>, the first time this feat had been achieved by the Sun Devils since the 1981–82 season; Arizona has a 36–10 Record at Mckale Center. Before the arrival of <a href=\\\"Lute%20Olson\\\">Lute Olson</a> at Arizona, the Bruins had won 21 of 23 games against the Wildcats. UCLA had been seen as the dominant college basketball program in the west, with few teams able to challenge UCLA for the throne beyond a few wins. The rivalry did not gather steam until Lute Olson's arrival in 1984, who compiled a 28–23 record against the Bruins during his tenure as Arizona's head coach.\\nSince then, the two schools competed for the Pac-10 (now Pac-12) Championship every year, with the two teams winning 22 out of the 30 conference titles, and 8 of 17 conference tournament titles. Arizona clinched their first conference title in 1986, when they won on the road at UCLA in Olsen's third season. The UCLA-Arizona basketball rivalry is still seen as the match up of the two premier teams in the conference. Also, the performance of the two schools influences the national opinion of the conference. California Coach <a href=\\\"Mike%20Montgomery\\\">Mike Montgomery</a> has stated, \\\"...If those two are not good, the conference is not perceived as being good. People don't give credit to the schools across the board in the league.\\\" Since the mid-1980s, Arizona has also had a basketball rivalry with UCLA, as the two schools competed for the Pac-10 Championship every year. Since 1985 the two teams have combined to win 21 out of the 29 conference titles. The UCLA-Arizona basketball rivalry still is seen as the match up of the two premier teams in the conference. Also, the performance of the two schools influences the national opinion of the conference.\\nArizona also has intense rivalries with the in-state Arizona State, Grand Canyon and Northern Arizona. As well as out-of-state rivalries, including Kansas, Duke, San Diego State and Gonzaga.\\nSource: Arizona 2017-18 Media Guide\\n13 NBA Championships have been won by Wildcats players. Since the NBA draft was shortened to two rounds in 1989, 40 Arizona players have been selected. Former Wildcats have had successful NBA careers, totaling $1.25 billion in total contracts through the 2016–2017 NBA season\\nSource: Arizona 2008–09 Media Guide\\n'All-time NBA players'\\n'Non-NBA professional players'\\nAll-time non-NBA professional players\\nCurrent non-NBA professional players\\nThe following Arizona Wildcats men's basketball players have represented their country in basketball in the Summer Olympics:\\nThe individual honors, awards, and accomplishments listed in the succeeding subsections are aggregated by player in the following table. Players with only all-conference honors (other than conference player of the year), lower than first-team All-America honors, or later than second-round draft positions are not included.\\nSource: Arizona 2008–09 Media Guide\\nNational honors and awards (Players)\\nConference honors and awards (players)\\nConference tournament most valuable player\\nAll-Americans\\n\",\n \"Khalid Reeves\\nKhalid Reeves (born July 15, 1972) was an American professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player, selected by the <a href=\\\"Miami%20Heat\\\">Miami Heat</a> in the first round (12th pick) of the <a href=\\\"1994%20NBA%20Draft\\\">1994 NBA Draft</a>.\\nReeves attended <a href=\\\"Christ%20The%20King%20Regional%20High%20School\\\">Christ The King Regional High School</a> in <a href=\\\"Middle%20Village%2C%20Queens\\\">Middle Village, Queens</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a>, and played college basketball at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arizona\\\">University of Arizona</a>.\\nReeves found his way to UA when he told his high school coach he wanted to play in a warm climate. His coach, Bob Oliva, reached out to then-UA coach <a href=\\\"Lute%20Olson\\\">Lute Olson</a> and his staff. Reeves went on to be one of the most prolific scorers in UA history, still owning the season scoring record of 848 points achieved in 1993-94 a 2010 report remembered. He led the Wildcats to the <a href=\\\"1994%20NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">1994 NCAA Final Four</a> with backcourt teammate <a href=\\\"Damon%20Stoudamire\\\">Damon Stoudamire</a>. The Wildcats lost to eventual champion <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arkansas\\\">Arkansas</a>.\\nReeves played for numerous NBA teams from 1994 to 2000 averaging 7.8 points per game for his career. The last NBA team Reeves played for was the <a href=\\\"Chicago%20Bulls\\\">Chicago Bulls</a> during the 1999-2000 season. After Reeves' NBA career ended, he continued to play professionally for smaller US-based leagues and in Greece, France, Lebanon, and Venezuela before retiring in 2005.\\nReeves is currently an assistant coach at his high school alma mater, Christ the King Regional High School.\\n\",\n \"Salim Stoudamire\\nCharles Salim Stoudamire (born October 11, 1982) is an American professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player.\\nStoudamire was selected by the <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Hawks\\\">Atlanta Hawks</a> in the second round (31st overall pick) of the <a href=\\\"2005%20NBA%20Draft\\\">2005 NBA Draft</a>.\\nStoudamire graduated from <a href=\\\"Lake%20Oswego%20High%20School\\\">Lake Oswego High School</a> in <a href=\\\"Lake%20Oswego%2C%20Oregon\\\">Lake Oswego, Oregon</a> as a member of the class of 2001. He also attended <a href=\\\"Lincoln%20High%20School%20%28Portland%2C%20Oregon%29\\\">Lincoln High School</a> in Portland during his freshman year.\\nAt the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arizona\\\">University of Arizona</a>, Stoudamire led the Wildcats to an Elite Eight appearance in 2005. Stoudamire hit a fadeaway shot with less than two seconds on the clock to beat <a href=\\\"Oklahoma%20State%20University\\\">Oklahoma State University</a> in the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\\\">Sweet 16</a>. In his Arizona career, the guard made 342 three-point field goals. He ranks second in Arizona history in career three-point field goal percentage (45.8%, behind <a href=\\\"Steve%20Kerr\\\">Steve Kerr</a>'s 57.3%).\\nStoudamire was drafted by the <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Hawks\\\">Atlanta Hawks</a> with the 31st overall pick in the <a href=\\\"2005%20NBA%20draft\\\">2005 NBA draft</a>. Stoudamire played three seasons with the Hawks. He spent the 2008 preseason with the <a href=\\\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\\\">San Antonio Spurs</a> and 2009 preseason with the <a href=\\\"Milwaukee%20Bucks\\\">Milwaukee Bucks</a>.\\nOn November 1, 2010, he was acquired by the <a href=\\\"Idaho%20Stampede\\\">Idaho Stampede</a>. He was later waived by the Stampede on December 30. On January 5, 2011, he was acquired by the Reno Bighorns.\\nOn November 1, 2013, he was acquired by the <a href=\\\"Fort%20Wayne%20Mad%20Ants\\\">Fort Wayne Mad Ants</a>. He was later waived by the Mad Ants on November 12.\\nIn 2006, after the National Basketball Association season ended, Stoudamire announced his intentions to eat <a href=\\\"vegan\\\">vegan</a>. After initially monitoring his weight daily, team managers accepted that his new diet had not caused weight loss.\\nHe is a cousin of former NBA point guard and 1996 NBA Rookie of the Year <a href=\\\"Damon%20Stoudamire\\\">Damon Stoudamire</a> and current NBA player <a href=\\\"Terrence%20Jones\\\">Terrence Jones</a>.\\n\",\n \"John Canzano\\nJohn Canzano is an <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">American</a> sports <a href=\\\"columnist\\\">columnist</a>, <a href=\\\"talk%20radio\\\">radio talk show</a> host on Portland's 102.9-FM and <a href=\\\"KXTG\\\">750 AM \\\"The Game\\\"</a>. The show is also syndicated in Eugene, Ore. and Klamath Falls, Ore. He is also the lead sports columnist at \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Oregonian\\\">The Oregonian</a>\\\" newspaper in <a href=\\\"Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Portland, Oregon</a> and a sports commentator on <a href=\\\"KGW\\\">KGW</a>-TV, Portland's NBC affiliate. He hosts a daily radio show called \\\"The Bald-Faced Truth\\\".\\nCanzano was born in Medford, Oregon. He grew up in Gilroy, Calif. and graduated from Gilroy High School. He graduated from <a href=\\\"California%20State%20University%2C%20Chico\\\">California State University, Chico</a>, in 1995 with a B.A. in English. While at Chico State, he played baseball.\\nIn his career, Canzano has worked at six daily newspapers including \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20San%20Jose%20Mercury%20News\\\">The San Jose Mercury News</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Fresno%20Bee\\\">The Fresno Bee</a>\\\". He covered <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Notre%20Dame\\\">University of Notre Dame</a> <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">football</a> and <a href=\\\"Indiana%20University%20Bloomington\\\">Indiana University</a> <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> as the beat writer during the tenure of coach <a href=\\\"Bob%20Knight\\\">Bob Knight</a>. He is a former national Major League Baseball writer and national NFL writer at the San Jose Mercury News as well. He has also covered five Olympics Games.\\nCanzano was hired as lead sports columnist at \\\"The Oregonian\\\" in 2002. He also appears on KGW-TV, where he offers commentary and analysis on sports. Canzano also hosts a radio show called \\\"The Bald-Faced Truth\\\" on Portland's <a href=\\\"KXTG\\\">750 AM \\\"The Game\\\"</a> and 102.9-FM. The radio show airs weekdays from 12-3 p.m. in the Portland metro area. The show is also syndicated in Eugene, Ore. on Fox Sports Eugene (95.7-FM and 1050-AM) and in Klamath Falls, Ore. on KLAD (93.3-FM and 960-AM).\\nHe worked as the NFL and Major League Baseball columnist at the <a href=\\\"San%20Jose%20Mercury%20News\\\">San Jose Mercury News</a> and is a member of the <a href=\\\"Baseball%20Writers%20Association%20of%20America\\\">Baseball Writers Association of America</a>. He holds a Baseball Hall of Fame Vote and is a voter for the Heisman Trophy. Canzano's work has also appeared in \\\"GQ\\\" magazine and \\\"<a href=\\\"Sporting%20News\\\">The Sporting News</a>.\\\"\\nCanzano is a nine-time Associated Press Sports Editors (APSE) award winner. He's won APSE awards in four different writing categories (column, investigative reporting, enterprise and projects), with his most recent award coming in 2016 for column writing. In 2008, Canzano was voted America's No. 1 sports columnist among large-circulation newspapers by the APSE. In 2006 and 2007, Canzano finished second in the same category, both times to Bill Plaschke of the Los Angeles Times.\\nIn 2010 and again in 2015, the Society of Professional Journalists named Canzano the National Sports Columnist of the Year.\\nCanzano was recognized by The Press Club of Atlantic City as national sportswriter of the year in 2004, 2010 and 2014. Canzano's investigative work and reporting about Brenda Tracy, the survivor of an alleged gang raped by four college football players, was recognized as the best sports writing in 2014 with a first place in the National Headliner Awards.\\nIn 2013, Canzano won first place in Special Topic Column Writing in the Best of the West contest for his portfolio of columns that included a column on a soldier who died in action in Afghanistan and Canzano's own experience coaching a girls fourth-grade volleyball team with a player who has Down Syndrome.\\nIn 2002, Canzano was named the nation's top investigative sports writer by the Associated Press News Executives Council for his enterprise piece on Carlos Rodriguez, a 21-year-old Dominican basketball star who was masquerading as a 17-year-old high school basketball player.\\nCanzano is a five-time Oregon Sportswriter of the Year winner (2005, 2006, 2012, 2013, 2014) as named by the National Sports Media Association (NSMA). In 2016, the NSMA named Canzano the \\\"Broadcaster of the Year\\\" for the state of Oregon.\\nOn July 7, 2007, the Portland Beavers' Triple-A baseball team held \\\"John Canzano Bobblehead Night.\\\" Also, on Aug. 29, 2009, the LPGA Safeway Classic featured \\\"John Canzano Bobblehead Day,\\\" as part of the tour event held at Pumpkin Ridge Golf Club in Oregon.\\nIn July 2010, Canzano married <a href=\\\"Anna%20Canzano\\\">Anna Song</a>, weekend anchor for Portland television station <a href=\\\"KOIN\\\">KOIN</a>. He and his wife have three daughters: Dakota, Graziana and Sojourner.\\nIn 2009, Canzano co-founded The Bald Faced Truth Foundation, a <a href=\\\"501%28c%29_organization%23501.28c.29.283.29\\\">501(c)(3)</a> <a href=\\\"nonprofit%20organization\\\">nonprofit organization</a> funding <a href=\\\"extracurricular%20activities\\\">extracurricular activities</a> for children.\",\n \"Travis Outlaw\\nTravis Marquez Outlaw (born September 18, 1984) is an American professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player who is currently a free agent.\\nOutlaw attended <a href=\\\"Starkville%20High%20School\\\">Starkville High School</a>, where he played for the Starkville Yellowjackets high school basketball team. Considered a five-star recruit by <a href=\\\"Rivals.com\\\">Rivals.com</a>, he was listed as the No. 7 small forward and the No. 13 player in the nation in 2003.\\nEntering the <a href=\\\"2003%20NBA%20Draft\\\">2003 NBA Draft</a> directly out of high school, Outlaw was a first-round selection (23rd overall) by the <a href=\\\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\\\">Portland Trail Blazers</a>. He averaged 8.6 points on 44.2% field goal shooting and 3.2 rebounds per game during his first five years in the NBA.\\nIn the 2005 <a href=\\\"NBA%20Summer%20League\\\">Las Vegas Summer League</a>, Outlaw averaged 18.7 points and 6.3 rebounds in 35.5 minutes. The performance earned him First Team All-RVSL honors. Following the NBA summer league, several teams offered to trade for Outlaw in exchange for a first-round draft pick. Former Portland Trail Blazers director of player personnel <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Pritchard\\\">Kevin Pritchard</a> said that Travis \\\"... [is] going to be with us for a long time. I feel comfortable enough to say he's going to be a special player.\\\"\\nOn April 18, 2007, Outlaw set a new career-high with 36 points against the <a href=\\\"Golden%20State%20Warriors\\\">Golden State Warriors</a>. He became a restricted free agent on July 1, 2007, and signed a three-year contract extension on July 17.\\nIn February 2010, the Trail Blazers traded Outlaw, <a href=\\\"Steve%20Blake\\\">Steve Blake</a> and $1.5 million in cash to the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Clippers\\\">Los Angeles Clippers</a> for <a href=\\\"Marcus%20Camby\\\">Marcus Camby</a>.\\nOn July 8, 2010, Outlaw signed a 5-year deal worth $35 million with the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Nets\\\">New Jersey Nets</a>.\\nOn December 15, 2011, the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Nets\\\">New Jersey Nets</a> waived Outlaw under the amnesty provision.\\nOn December 17, 2011, Outlaw was claimed by the <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20Kings\\\">Sacramento Kings</a> off waivers.\\nOn August 6, 2014, Outlaw was traded, along with <a href=\\\"Quincy%20Acy\\\">Quincy Acy</a>, to the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Knicks\\\">New York Knicks</a> in exchange for <a href=\\\"Wayne%20Ellington\\\">Wayne Ellington</a> and <a href=\\\"Jeremy%20Tyler\\\">Jeremy Tyler</a>. On October 27, 2014, Outlaw was traded, along with a 2019 second-round draft selection and the option exchange 2018 second-round draft selections, to the <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%2076ers\\\">Philadelphia 76ers</a> in exchange for <a href=\\\"Arnett%20Moultrie\\\">Arnett Moultrie</a>. He was waived by the 76ers later that day.\\nOn August 14, 2016, Outlaw was arrested and charged with felony marijuana possession in his hometown of <a href=\\\"Starkville%2C%20Mississippi\\\">Starkville, Mississippi</a>.\",\n \"Pacific Tigers men's basketball\\nThe University of the Pacific Tigers men's basketball team is an <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I\\\">NCAA Division I</a> member, part of the <a href=\\\"West%20Coast%20Conference\\\">West Coast Conference</a>. The team is based in <a href=\\\"Stockton%2C%20California\\\">Stockton, California</a>. They play their home games at the <a href=\\\"Alex%20G.%20Spanos%20Center\\\">Alex G. Spanos Center</a> and are led by head coach <a href=\\\"Damon%20Stoudamire\\\">Damon Stoudamire</a>.\\nOn July 15, 2013, Pacific left the <a href=\\\"Big%20West%20Conference\\\">Big West Conference</a> to rejoin the West Coast Conference. It had been a charter member of the WCC since 1952, but left in 1971 to join the Pacific Coast Athletic Association, later renamed to the Big West Conference.\\nIn late 2015, investigations into improper academic benefits being provided to basketball players began. On December 11, the school placed head coach <a href=\\\"Ron%20Verlin\\\">Ron Verlin</a> and assistant coach Dwight Young on suspension. On December 18, the school self imposed a postseason ban for 2016 and a reduction in scholarships due to the pending academic fraud investigations. On March 3, 2016, the school revealed that Verlin and Young were no longer employed by the university.\\nOn March 15, 2016, Pacific hired 13-year <a href=\\\"NBA\\\">NBA</a> veteran and 1996 <a href=\\\"NBA%20Rookie%20of%20the%20Year\\\">NBA Rookie of the Year</a> <a href=\\\"Damon%20Stoudamire\\\">Damon Stoudamire</a> as head coach.\\nThe Tigers have appeared in nine <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournaments</a>. Their combined record is 4–10.\\nThe Tigers have appeared in one <a href=\\\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">National Invitation Tournament</a>. Their record is 0–1.\\nThe Tigers have appeared in three <a href=\\\"CollegeInsider.com%20Postseason%20Tournament\\\">CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament</a>s. Their combined record is 8–3.\\n\",\n \"Irvington, Portland, Oregon\\nIrvington is a neighborhood in the Northeast section of <a href=\\\"Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Portland, Oregon</a>. According to the city's Office of Neighborhood Involvement, it consists of a rectangular area extending east to west from NE 7th Ave. to NE 26th Ave., and north to south from NE Fremont St. to NE Broadway. It borders the <a href=\\\"King%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">King</a>, <a href=\\\"Sabin%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Sabin</a>, and <a href=\\\"Alameda%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Alameda</a> neighborhoods to the north; <a href=\\\"Alameda%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Alameda</a> and <a href=\\\"Grant%20Park%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Grant Park</a> to the east; <a href=\\\"Sullivan%27s%20Gulch%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Sullivan's Gulch</a> and the <a href=\\\"Lloyd%20District%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Lloyd District</a> to the south; and <a href=\\\"Eliot%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Eliot</a> to the west. (The Sabin and Alameda neighborhoods extend into the northeastern part of Irvington, creating two areas of overlap.)\\nThe neighborhood is distinguished by a number of large stately homes, often positioned on multiple or oversized lots. The Irvington Community Association funds its activities by holding a well-attended tour of these homes each spring.\\nThe Irvington Addition was platted in 1887 and underwent its initial development in the 1890s under the oversight of developer Ellis Hughes and the Irvington Investment Company. The addition was planned as a self-contained middle to upper class residential district in which commercial activity was to be prohibited, so as to maintain property values. After a period of nominal growth, development in Irvington began to slow due to competition from the <a href=\\\"Rose%20City%20Park%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Rose City Park</a> and <a href=\\\"Laurelhurst%2C%20Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Laurelhurst</a> developments, as well as the outbreak of <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a>. The neighborhood was added to the <a href=\\\"National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places\\\">National Register of Historic Places</a> as the Irvington Historic District in 2010.\\nIn December, 2014, the Irvington Historic District Northeast Boundary Decrease Committee proposed removing 34 blocks from the Irvington Historic District. Citing differences in physical appearance and historic development, the committee of Irvington property owners advocated trimming an area roughly bounded on the south by NE Knott Street, on the north by NE Fremont Street, on the east by NE 27th, and on the west by NE 21st. The committee suggested that the proposed boundary decrease area more closely resembles an early-to-mid twentieth century residential working-class neighborhood, not the core area of historic Irvington.\\n\",\n \"Nate Archibald\\nNathaniel \\\"Tiny\\\" Archibald (born September 2, 1948) is an American retired professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player. He spent 14 years playing in the <a href=\\\"National%20Basketball%20Association\\\">NBA</a>, most notably with the <a href=\\\"Cincinnati%20Royals\\\">Cincinnati Royals</a>, <a href=\\\"Kansas%20City%E2%80%93Omaha%20Kings\\\">Kansas City–Omaha Kings</a> and <a href=\\\"Boston%20Celtics\\\">Boston Celtics</a>. In 1991, he was enshrined in the <a href=\\\"Naismith%20Memorial%20Basketball%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame</a>.\\nArchibald was a willing passer and an adequate shooter from midrange. However, it was his quickness and speed and shiftiness that made him difficult to guard in the open court, as he would regularly drive past defenders on his way to the basket.\\nArchibald, a playground legend while growing up in a rough-and-tumble neighborhood in the <a href=\\\"South%20Bronx\\\">South Bronx</a>, New York City, only played high school basketball for one-and-a-half seasons, and was cut from the varsity squad at <a href=\\\"DeWitt%20Clinton%20High%20School\\\">DeWitt Clinton High School</a> as a sophomore. He returned to the team as a junior. During his time without basketball, Archibald briefly flirted with dropping out of school after having been largely truant in past years. But with the help of two mentors, Floyd Layne and Pablo Robertson, Archibald turned it around. Robertson, a former standout at <a href=\\\"Loyola%20of%20Chicago\\\">Loyola of Chicago</a> and a <a href=\\\"Harlem\\\">Harlem</a>, New York playground impresario, had seen the gifted, mercurial Archibald in action on the playgrounds and convinced the young man's high school coach to re-instate him on the squad.\\nDespite only playing in blowouts as a junior, the shy, quiet teen managed to blossom into a high-school star, being named team captain and an All-City selection in 1966. Off the court, Archibald began to attend school regularly and worked to improve his poor academic standing, which deterred most colleges from offering him a scholarship. To improve his chances of playing major college basketball, Archibald enrolled at <a href=\\\"Arizona%20Western%20College\\\">Arizona Western College</a>, transferring to the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Texas%20at%20El%20Paso\\\">University of Texas at El Paso</a> (UTEP) the following year. He had three standout seasons at El Paso, from 1967 to 1970 under <a href=\\\"Naismith%20Memorial%20Basketball%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">Hall of Fame</a> coach <a href=\\\"Don%20Haskins\\\">Don Haskins</a>.\\nArchibald was selected in the second round of the <a href=\\\"1970%20NBA%20draft\\\">1970 NBA draft</a> (19th pick) by the <a href=\\\"Cincinnati%20Royals\\\">Cincinnati Royals</a>. He was also drafted by the <a href=\\\"Texas%20Chaparrals\\\">Texas Chaparrals</a> of the <a href=\\\"American%20Basketball%20Association\\\">American Basketball Association</a>. In <a href=\\\"1972%E2%80%9373%20NBA%20season\\\">1972–73 season</a>, Archibald led the NBA in scoring and <a href=\\\"assist%20%28basketball%29\\\">assist</a>s, becoming the only player to win the titles in both categories in the same season. (In the <a href=\\\"1967%E2%80%9368%20NBA%20season\\\">1967–68 season</a>, <a href=\\\"Oscar%20Robertson\\\">Oscar Robertson</a> led the NBA in points and assists per game but did not win the titles because they were based on totals rather than averages at the time.) His scoring average of <a href=\\\"List%20of%20National%20Basketball%20Association%20top%20individual%20scoring%20season%20averages\\\">34.0 points per game</a> broke the NBA record for a guard. His 910 assists that season (11.4 assists per game) was also an NBA record at the time, breaking <a href=\\\"Guy%20Rodgers\\\">Guy Rodgers</a>' mark of 908. He was named the <a href=\\\"Sporting%20News\\\">Sporting News</a> NBA MVP that season. Archibald played for the Kansas City Kings from 1970 to 1976.\\nAlthough he was the Kings' most popular player, he was traded to the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Nets\\\">New York Nets</a> for two draft picks and two players in 1976.\\nInjured for much of the 1976–77 season, he was traded by the Nets to the <a href=\\\"Buffalo%20Braves\\\">Buffalo Braves</a> before the 1977–78 season. Archibald tore his <a href=\\\"achilles%20tendon\\\">achilles tendon</a> and never played a regular-season game for the Braves.\\nBuffalo traded him to the Boston Celtics as part of a 7-player deal before the start of the next season. His career at the Celtics started poorly. He showed up 20 pounds overweight. However, he adjusted and helped guide the Celtics to the best record in the NBA for three consecutive years (1979–1982). Archibald won his first and only <a href=\\\"NBA%20Finals\\\">NBA championship</a> with the Boston Celtics in the <a href=\\\"1980%E2%80%9381%20NBA%20season\\\">1980–81 season</a> alongside young NBA star <a href=\\\"Larry%20Bird\\\">Larry Bird</a>.\\nArchibald was an All-NBA First Team selection three times (<a href=\\\"1972%E2%80%9373%20NBA%20season\\\">1973</a>, <a href=\\\"1974%E2%80%9375%20NBA%20season\\\">1975</a>, <a href=\\\"1975%E2%80%9376%20NBA%20season\\\">1976</a>) and an All-NBA Second Team selection two times (<a href=\\\"1971%E2%80%9372%20NBA%20season\\\">1972</a>, <a href=\\\"1980%E2%80%9381%20NBA%20season\\\">1981</a>). A seven-time <a href=\\\"NBA%20All-Star%20Game\\\">NBA All-Star Game</a> selection (1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, and 1982), he was named the <a href=\\\"1981%20NBA%20All-Star%20Game\\\">1981 NBA All-Star Game</a> MVP. Archibald led the NBA in free throws made three times and free throw attempts twice. He competed in 876 professional games, scored 16,841 points (18.8 points per game), and dished out 6,476 assists. He was named to the <a href=\\\"NBA%27s%2050th%20Anniversary%20All-Time%20team\\\">NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time team</a>. Nate Archibald was inducted to the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991.\\nHe completed his <a href=\\\"bachelor%27s%20degree\\\">bachelor's degree</a> from <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Texas-El%20Paso\\\">University of Texas-El Paso</a> by going back for three consecutive summers just prior to finishing his NBA career. He then taught in the New York City school system and attended night school at Fordham University. He received a <a href=\\\"master%27s%20degree\\\">master's degree</a> from <a href=\\\"Fordham%20University\\\">Fordham University</a> in 1990 and a professional diploma in supervision and administration in 1994. He began long-distance correspondence work toward a <a href=\\\"doctorate\\\">doctorate</a> from <a href=\\\"California%20Coast%20University\\\">California Coast University</a> in 2000 but ceased his studies because of \\\"his lack of funds and the motivation to complete a long-distance correspondence curriculum.\\\" He has stated his hope to complete the degree in the future at Fordham.\\nArchibald was an assistant coach, spending one season in the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Georgia\\\">University of Georgia</a> and two with Texas-El Paso (where he worked with <a href=\\\"Tim%20Hardaway\\\">Tim Hardaway</a>). He has also coached the New Jersey Jammers of the <a href=\\\"USBL\\\">USBL</a> and in a Boston recreational league. Archibald coached in the <a href=\\\"National%20Basketball%20Development%20League\\\">National Basketball Development League</a> in 2001. He resigned a year later to take a position with the NBA's community relations department. Archibald was also named the head coach for the <a href=\\\"Long%20Beach%20Jam\\\">Long Beach Jam</a> in 2004 in the revived <a href=\\\"American%20Basketball%20Association%20%282000-present%29\\\">ABA</a>, but he would ultimately resign from his position on January 17, 2005 during their second and final season in the ABA.\",\n \"Bonzi Wells\\nGawen DeAngelo \\\"Bonzi\\\" Wells (born September 28, 1976) is an American former professional <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> player. He played college basketball at <a href=\\\"Ball%20State%20University\\\">Ball State University</a> and was drafted in the <a href=\\\"1998%20NBA%20Draft\\\">1998 NBA Draft</a>. In the NBA, Wells played for five teams from 1998 to 2008: the <a href=\\\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\\\">Portland Trail Blazers</a>, <a href=\\\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\\\">Memphis Grizzlies</a>, <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20Kings\\\">Sacramento Kings</a>, <a href=\\\"Houston%20Rockets\\\">Houston Rockets</a>, and <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans%20Hornets\\\">New Orleans Hornets</a>.\\nWells attended Muncie Central High School and then went on to play at <a href=\\\"Ball%20State%20University\\\">Ball State University</a>, also in Muncie. There he was named the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> Freshman Player of the Year in the 1994–1995 season. Wells broke <a href=\\\"Ron%20Harper\\\">Ron Harper</a>'s conference record of 2,377 career points on a one-handed dunk against Northern Illinois on February 21, 1998. The dunk sent the sell-out crowd at University Arena into a frenzy. A timeout was immediately called and Wells was awarded the game ball by Ball State president John Worthen. Wells also led the Mid-American Conference in steals in 1998 with 73, averaging 3.55 steals in 29 games. Wells led the conference in steals during all four years at Ball State and finished his career as the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> all-time career records in points (2,485) and steals (347). While at Ball State he averaged 21.4 PPG, 3 SPG, and 7.3 RPG. He was selected eleventh overall by the <a href=\\\"Detroit%20Pistons\\\">Detroit Pistons</a> in the <a href=\\\"1998%20NBA%20Draft\\\">1998 NBA Draft</a>, but he never played for the Pistons as his draft rights were traded to the <a href=\\\"Portland%20Trail%20Blazers\\\">Portland Trail Blazers</a> for the Blazers' <a href=\\\"1999%20NBA%20Draft\\\">1999 first round pick</a>. Six years later Ball State would retire his jersey number, 42, in recognition of his achievements.\\nAs a <a href=\\\"swingman\\\">swingman</a> in Portland, Wells achieved career highs in scoring and improved somewhat on defense, and picked up what some would call a bad-boy image while sharing the role of co-captain with <a href=\\\"Rasheed%20Wallace\\\">Rasheed Wallace</a>. Bonzi, however, did have his share of on- and off-court incidents. During his tenure with the Blazers, Bonzi was suspended for two games for publicly cursing at his coach after being taken out of a game. Bonzi was also fined in a separate incident for making an obscene gesture to a fan in a loss to the <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%2076ers\\\">Philadelphia 76ers</a>. When asked by a media reporter about the incident, he said, \\\"I black out sometimes.\\\" Wells was suspended one game without pay and fined $10,000 for intentionally striking and verbally abusing an official in 2000. Bonzi and teammate <a href=\\\"Erick%20Barkley\\\">Erick Barkley</a> in 2001 were cited for criminal trespass after they refused to follow the order of an officer to leave the scene of a fight near a downtown nightclub. This only went to further the team's derisive nickname, \\\"The Jail Blazers\\\". Trail Blazers management made an oath to the City of Portland to have a team of upstanding Portlanders and drastically restructured the team. In an exchange that emphasized the urgency to release Wells, he was sent to the <a href=\\\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\\\">Memphis Grizzlies</a> in a trade for reserve guard <a href=\\\"Wesley%20Person\\\">Wesley Person</a>.\\nBonzi's legacy in Portland has also been positive. He set the franchise record for most points scored in a playoff game at 45 against the <a href=\\\"Dallas%20Mavericks\\\">Dallas Mavericks</a> in the first round of the <a href=\\\"2003%20NBA%20Playoffs\\\">2003 NBA Playoffs</a>. The co-captains would carry the sixth-seeded Trail Blazers to a decisive Game 7 versus the <a href=\\\"Steve%20Nash\\\">Steve Nash</a> and <a href=\\\"Dirk%20Nowitzki\\\">Dirk Nowitzki</a> led three-seed. The Mavericks won the series, and thirteen games into the following season Wells was traded to the <a href=\\\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\\\">Memphis Grizzlies</a>.\\nThe unorthodox coaching methods of <a href=\\\"Hubie%20Brown\\\">Hubie Brown</a> and his strict 10-man rotation limited Wells to just under 25 minutes per game for the Grizzlies. This tactic helped them earn their first <a href=\\\"NBA%20Playoffs\\\">playoff</a> appearance in franchise history.\\nAfter Brown suddenly quit as coach midway through the <a href=\\\"2004%E2%80%9305%20NBA%20season\\\">2004–05 season</a>, <a href=\\\"Mike%20Fratello\\\">Mike Fratello</a> took over as head coach. It appeared Wells was finally going to be given a chance to pose a threat on the court. This would not come to be, highlighted by the fact that Wells played a total of 27 minutes in the Grizzlies' second playoff appearance in 2005. Citing undisclosed reasons, Fratello suspended him for Game 2 of the series against the powerhouse <a href=\\\"Phoenix%20Suns\\\">Phoenix Suns</a>. He returned in Game 3, only to play nine minutes. Wells did not dress for the series-ending Game 4.\\nPrior to the start of the <a href=\\\"2005%E2%80%9306%20NBA%20season\\\">2005–06 NBA season</a>, Wells was acquired from the Grizzlies by the Kings in a trade for <a href=\\\"point%20guard\\\">point guard</a> <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Jackson%20%28basketball%29\\\">Bobby Jackson</a> and <a href=\\\"center%20%28basketball%29\\\">center</a> <a href=\\\"Greg%20Ostertag\\\">Greg Ostertag</a>. He was also forced to change his jersey number from 6 to 42 upon arrival. In Sacramento the number 6 has been retired in honor of the fans, as in they are the \\\"sixth man\\\" of the team. In the early part of the season, Wells had been a rebounding force for the Kings, recording career-best numbers in rebounds, while also recording excellent assists and steals totals.\\nIn the playoffs, Wells was extremely productive, averaging 23.2 points and 12 rebounds per game in 6 games against the <a href=\\\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\\\">San Antonio Spurs</a>, though the Kings lost the series. When Wells entered free agency at the closing of the season, teammate <a href=\\\"Ron%20Artest\\\">Ron Artest</a> (now known as Metta World Peace) offered to forgo his entire salary in order to keep him on the team.\\nThe day before the 2006 training camp began, Wells signed with the <a href=\\\"Houston%20Rockets\\\">Houston Rockets</a>, with a salary of \\\"only\\\" $2 million in the initial season. This was considered to be a great bargain for the Rockets, as Wells had turned down a 5-year, $38.5 million offer from the Kings.\\nWells missed the beginning of training camp recovering from a groin injury, and then missed several days following dental work. In addition, he was absent on more than one occasion for \\\"personal reasons\\\". Wells played only 30 minutes total, scoring only six points, in the Rockets' second and third games of the season. Wells was not pleased with his playing time, and neither was coach <a href=\\\"Jeff%20Van%20Gundy\\\">Jeff Van Gundy</a> with Wells' weight and lack of conditioning. Van Gundy placed Wells on the inactive list, dismissed him from team practices for over a month, and relegated him to working with trainers and on the exercise bicycle to improve his conditioning. Unsatisfied with his progress, Van Gundy eventually told him to stay away from the <a href=\\\"Toyota%20Center%20%28Houston%29\\\">Toyota Center</a>.\\nIn December, Wells and his coach reconciled their differences and Bonzi was allowed back into practice. He returned to action against the <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Lakers\\\">Los Angeles Lakers</a> on December 12, and over the next two weeks, his playing time gradually increased. He suffered a back injury in late December that would force him to miss the Rockets' next 10 games. He returned to the lineup on January 17, and saw consistent playing time off the bench, highlighted by his 14 points in a win against his former team, the Trail Blazers.\\nOn April 9, Wells failed to show up for a road trip to face the <a href=\\\"Seattle%20SuperSonics\\\">Seattle SuperSonics</a>. His status was unknown, but it was reported that he left a message on athletic trainer Keith Jones' answering machine. In it, he said he felt like he was \\\"disrupting team chemistry.\\\" After coach Jeff Van Gundy was fired and the former Kings coach <a href=\\\"Rick%20Adelman\\\">Rick Adelman</a> was named as the replacement, he expressed his willingness to return. On June 23, it was announced he had opted to stay with the Rockets and exercised the last year of his contract.\\nOn February 21, 2008, Wells was traded to the <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans%20Hornets\\\">New Orleans Hornets</a> along with <a href=\\\"Mike%20James%20%28basketball%2C%20born%201975%29\\\">Mike James</a> as part of a three-team deal involving Houston and the <a href=\\\"Memphis%20Grizzlies\\\">Memphis Grizzlies</a>. The agreement sent New Orleans guard Bobby Jackson to Houston, marking the second time Wells and Jackson swapped teams via trade. February 23, Bonzi made his Hornets debut when he came off the bench registering 2 points, 3 rebounds, 1 assist and 2 steals in a 98–89 loss to the <a href=\\\"San%20Antonio%20Spurs\\\">San Antonio Spurs</a>.\\nThe Hornets decided not to renew Wells's contract for the <a href=\\\"2008%E2%80%9309%20NBA%20season\\\">2008–09 NBA season</a>.\\nIn December 2011, Wells signed with the <a href=\\\"Minnesota%20Timberwolves\\\">Minnesota Timberwolves</a>, but he did not make their final roster.\\nWells chose to sign with <a href=\\\"Shanxi%20Zhongyu\\\">Shanxi Zhongyu</a> of the <a href=\\\"Chinese%20Basketball%20Association\\\">Chinese Basketball Association</a> rather than play for the NBA's minimum salary. In his debut with the Shanxi Zhongyu, he scored 48 points and tallied 11 rebounds.\\nHis contract with the team was terminated on February 2, 2009, after he failed to promptly return to the team after the <a href=\\\"Chinese%20New%20Year\\\">Chinese New Year</a> break.\\nOn November 25, 2009 Wells signed a contract with <a href=\\\"Puerto%20Rico\\\">Puerto Rican</a> team <a href=\\\"Capitanes%20de%20Arecibo\\\">Capitanes de Arecibo</a>.\\nGawen DeAngelo Wells is named after his father Gawen Wells. The nickname, Bonzi, originated from the cravings his mother, Christine Scaife Coleman, had for ice cream <a href=\\\"bonbon\\\">bonbon</a>s during her pregnancy with him. His parents called him \\\"bonbon\\\" until the age of two, and it eventually evolved into what it is today. He is the father to three sons, Duane, Gawen and Christian.\\nIn 2003, Wells shed tears when his hometown Roy C. Buley Community Center named its gymnasium in his honor. It is now called the Bonzi Wells Gymnasium. As a small child at the <a href=\\\"community%20center\\\">community center</a> watching teams get picked for a game from the sidelines \\\"like a cheerleader,\\\" his uncle and team captain chose the young Bonzi. \\\"I thought he was kidding,\\\" Wells recalls, \\\"but he really picked me. And I played as hard as I can. I can remember that day like it was yesterday and that was the day that really made me want to be one of the best.\\\" Wells, who donated money to keep the gymnasium from closing its doors, said he did not expect such a reaction, that he was \\\"doing it for the children.\\\"\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Shaquille Rashaun O'Neal ( ; born March 6, 1972), nicknamed \"Shaq\" ( ), is an American retired professional basketball player and rapper, currently serving as a sports analyst on the television program \"Inside the NBA\". Listed at 7 ft tall and weighing 325 lb , he was one of the heaviest players ever to play in the NBA, where he played for six teams throughout his 19-year career.","The 1995–96 NBA season was the Magic's seventh season in the National Basketball Association. During the offseason, the Magic signed unrestricted free agent Jon Koncak. Coming off their trip to the NBA Finals, the Magic clinched the Atlantic Division title with a 60–22 record. A regular season record which still stands as the best in franchise history. This despite missing Shaquille O'Neal for the first 22 games of the season due to a thumb injury. Anfernee Hardaway stepped up in O'Neal's absence and was awarded Player of the Month for November. The season saw Dennis Scott take a place in the league history books by scoring 267 three-point field goals, a single season record since broken by Stephen Curry, while O'Neal and Hardaway were both selected for the 1996 NBA All-Star Game."],"string":"[\n \"Shaquille Rashaun O'Neal ( ; born March 6, 1972), nicknamed \\\"Shaq\\\" ( ), is an American retired professional basketball player and rapper, currently serving as a sports analyst on the television program \\\"Inside the NBA\\\". Listed at 7 ft tall and weighing 325 lb , he was one of the heaviest players ever to play in the NBA, where he played for six teams throughout his 19-year career.\",\n \"The 1995–96 NBA season was the Magic's seventh season in the National Basketball Association. During the offseason, the Magic signed unrestricted free agent Jon Koncak. Coming off their trip to the NBA Finals, the Magic clinched the Atlantic Division title with a 60–22 record. A regular season record which still stands as the best in franchise history. This despite missing Shaquille O'Neal for the first 22 games of the season due to a thumb injury. Anfernee Hardaway stepped up in O'Neal's absence and was awarded Player of the Month for November. The season saw Dennis Scott take a place in the league history books by scoring 267 three-point field goals, a single season record since broken by Stephen Curry, while O'Neal and Hardaway were both selected for the 1996 NBA All-Star Game.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":68,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The 2015 film starring an actor whose debut was in the television series White Christmas was directed by whom?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Lee Byeong-heon"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Twenty (film)\nTwenty () is a 2015 South Korean coming-of-age film starring Kim Woo-bin, Lee Junho and Kang Ha-neul. It was written and directed by Lee Byeong-heon, his second feature after the 2012 indie \"Cheer Up, Mr. Lee\".\nChi-ho, Kyung-jae and Dong-woo are best friends who've just graduated from high school and turned 20. Chi-ho is an unemployed player living in the moment and whose number one priority is dating and chasing women. Kyung-jae is a goody-two-shoes university student whose goal is to get accepted at a corporate job; he's extremely shy around girls, but completely transforms when he gets drunk. And happy-go-lucky Dong-woo dreams of becoming a cartoonist, but when his family goes bankrupt, he's forced to become the breadwinner and take on several part-time jobs.\nTwo singles were released as the film's \"special\" soundtrack. Part 1 (released on March 6, 2015) featured a duet by Lee Junho and Lee Yu-bi titled \"Cupid's Arrow,\" and Part 2 (released on March 18, 2015) featured \"Twenty\" sung by boyband Sweet Sorrow with narration by Kim Woo-bin.\n\"Twenty\" was released in South Korea on March 25, 2015. It topped the box office in its opening weekend, drawing 1,136,866 viewers and earning ₩8.74 billion (). As of April 19, 2015, it has grossed with nearly 3 million admissions.\nThe film was released by CJ Entertainment America in 25 theaters across North America on April 17, 2015.\nIt will also receive a theatrical release in other Asian countries such as Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, and Vietnam.","A Snow White Christmas\nA Snow White Christmas is a Christmas animated television special produced by Filmation and telecast December 19, 1980, on CBS. It is a sequel to the fairy tale \"Snow White\", unrelated to Filmation's other sequel to \"Snow White\" titled \"Happily Ever After\" (1990). While this is a sequel to the original story and not the 1937 Disney film, there are some similarities. The film's plot revolves around the return of the Wicked Queen, who is unexpectedly brought back to life and casts an evil spell that freezes the entire land. It is up to young Snow White, the daughter of the original Snow White aided by the seven giants, to defeat her once-and-for-all and save the kingdom.\nAfter vanquishing the Wicked Queen, the new queen, Snow White and her husband King Charming are now the rulers of the land of Noel. They have a young daughter, also named Snow White for her snow-white hair. The royal family decides to host a Christmas winter sports festival. One of the participants is Grunyon, a bumbling dwarf and a friend of the young Snow White. Snow White says her Christmas wish is to build a playhouse for all the children and suggests remodeling the old abandoned castle that belonged to Snow White's evil stepmother.\nHowever, a reflection of sunlight causes an ice block to melt, freeing the Wicked Queen, who has been encased within it for years. Returning to her castle, she finds her Magic Mirror and asks it who is the fairest. When it replies that there are two who are equally fair, the witch accuses it of taking the coward's way out by saying that she and Snow White are equally beautiful, only for it to answer that it was talking about two Snow Whites. The furious Queen creates a magical ice storm and freezes the entire kingdom, just barely missing the horrified princess Snow White. Grunyon, who was also spared being frozen, leads Snow White into the forest to escape the storm. After finding their way into the Warm Valley, they accidentally wander upon a giant garden and two giants appear - Finicky and Corny - who mistake them for bugs and try to squash them. Snow White starts crying, and Grunyon scolds the giants who apologize and introduce themselves through song, along with five other giants - Thinker, Hicker, Tiny, Weeper, and Brawny. After hearing their story, they take pity on Snow White and Grunyon, and allow them to stay in their cottage.\nAfter the Wicked Queen discovers the young Snow White is still alive, she first turns herself into a giant rat to attack her, but is foiled when one of the giants returns home. The Queen then melts all the ice on the mountains to form a flood, which Brawny saves Snow White from. The giants decide to leave Snow White at home and post Hicker as a guard. The Queen turns two vultures into wyvern-like creatures to distract Hicker, then disguises herself as a giant old woman and tricks Snow White into smelling the scent of a poisoned flower that puts her to sleep, just as she had tricked Snow White's mother with the poisoned apple. However, Hicker's hiccups are loud and the other giants hear them and get back to the cottage. Seeing Snow White apparently dead, they run off to attack the Queen's castle. The witch tries to stop them by casting lightning bolts, but Brawny is too tough for it. She then summons seven demons to fight the giants, but Hicker begins hiccuping which causes an earthquake and the Queen's castle collapses. The Magic Mirror, revealed as the source of her power, is shattered and the demons vanish as the Queen herself evaporates into nothingness.\nWith the Wicked Queen's demise, the curse she has placed over the kingdom is broken, causing the ice statues to revert to people, King Charming and Snow White. Grunyon and the Giants bring Snow White home to her parents in a rose-filled coffin. They kiss Snow White's cheeks and she awakens, and everyone rejoices. Brawny also tells that he and the other giants built a castle for the children while Snow White was asleep.","Jon Opstad\nJon Opstad is a British composer. He studied music at St Catharine's College, Cambridge, and film composition at the National Film and Television School. His film and television work includes scoring two episodes of Charlie Brooker's critically acclaimed dystopian television drama \"Black Mirror\", including the 2014 feature-length special White Christmas, starring Jon Hamm, Rafe Spall and Oona Chaplin. Other scores include the Channel 4 dramas \"Cyber Bully and Blackout\", the \"Pals\" episode of BBC Three drama \"Our World War\" and the award-winning documentary feature fil\"m A World Not Ours\", directed by Mahdi Fleifel. He was the co-composer (with Sheridan Tongue) on several episodes of series 16 of BBC One crime drama \"Silent Witness\".\nOpstad was nominated for a 2014 British Composer Award, in the Stage Works category, for his score for the contemporary dance theatre production Ignis, first staged in February 2014 at The Print Room in west London, choreographed by Hubert Essakow and featuring actor Sara Kestelman.\nOpstad has worked with a number of other film and television composers, including Martin Phipps, Sheridan Tongue, Jocelyn Pook, Max Richter, Ruth Barrett and Richard Thomas, contributing to a range of projects.\nOpstad's music has been broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on a number of occasions, including on the programmes Late Junction and In Tune.\nHe is based in London.","White Christmas (Black Mirror)\n\"White Christmas\" is a 2014 Christmas special episode of the British science fiction anthology series \"Black Mirror\". It was written by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker and directed by Carl Tibbetts, and first aired on Channel 4 on 16 December 2014. The only television special of the series, it is also the last episode to be aired on Channel 4, as the series would move to Netflix for its third series.\nThe episode starts with two men, Matt (Jon Hamm) and Joe (Rafe Spall), stationed at a remote outpost in the middle of a snowy wilderness. As they tell each other their respective lives to pass the time, those events are depicted on-screen, forming three mini-stories ultimately relating to the characters' current situation. Oona Chaplin co-stars as Greta, a character in one of Matt's stories.\nThe episode received very positive reviews.\nMatt Trent (Jon Hamm) and Joe Potter (Rafe Spall) are stationed at a small, remote outpost in the middle of a snowy wilderness. On Christmas Day, Matt is preparing Christmas dinner, while \"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday\" plays on the radio. He talks to Joe about what brought him to the outpost, a topic they never discussed in the five years they have been there. Joe is reluctant, so Matt opens up first to explain why he came.\nIn flashback, Matt is shown to be a dating coach to single men to help them seduce women. Matt uses the ubiquitous \"Z-Eye\" technology, an irremovable augmented reality device implanted in one's eyes granting access to the Internet, to see and hear what his clients witness and provide instructions to them. His latest client is shy and socially awkward Harry (Rasmus Hardiker), whom Matt has instructed to crashgate an office Christmas party. Matt, along with several other single men sharing in Harry's video stream, identify Jennifer (Natalia Tena) as a quiet, \"attractive outsider\" from her social media profile. Matt guides Harry to starting a conversation with her. Jennifer states that she hears voices in her head, and once took medicine to quell them but no longer, and now has difficulty deciding whether to leave her job, given that the voices offer her conflicting advice. Harry boldly suggests she leave the job, which she is appreciative of. When she steps to the restroom, Harry converses with Matt and the others, worried about his deceitfulness. Jennifer leaves the restroom and sees Harry seemingly talking to himself. She suggests they leave for her place, which Harry, Matt and the others assume that they will have sex.\nJennifer takes Harry to her room and pours them a drink, which Harry has difficulty swallowing. Jennifer explains that the drink will help liberate them from the voices in their heads. Matt realises that Jennifer is dangerous, likely attempting to poison them both, and orders Harry to leave. However, Jennifer restrains him and forces the drink down him via funnel. As Harry's attempts to fight back become weaker, Matt disables the feed, instructs the other men to erase what they have, and proceeds to delete his own records to avoid being implicated in Harry's death. Matt tries to sneak back into his bedroom but discovered by his wife, who finds out what he has been up to. She enables the Z-Eye's \"block\" on him, causing his vision to only see her as a static-like silhouette. She leaves him and takes custody of the child, and Matt later resigns to join the outpost to avoid any memory of that life.\nIn the present, Joe is stunned by Matt's story, but Matt continues on, noting that being a dating coach was only a side job to his real profession.\nMatt describes his real profession in flashback. Technology has created a bean-size chip called a \"cookie\", which can be temporarily implanted in someone's brain to create a copy of the person's consciousness. These chips can then be removed and used in egg-shaped devices to run smart houses and act as a personal assistant to the original person, helping in a nearly perfect manner. Matt is one to help acclimate the artificial consciousness to their new position, specifically to break their willpower to become emotionless performers. Matt is shown doing this for the wealthy Greta (Oona Chaplin). The \"Greta cookie\" expresses great concern about her situation, still believing she is the real Greta when Matt first talks to her. He provides her with a virtual body, a stark-white room, and a computer desk to carry out her tasks. When she refuses to cooperate, he alters the \"Greta cookie\"' s perception of time, making her experience six months of boredom and isolation, in what—in reality—was just a few seconds. Consequently, the \"Greta cookie\" becomes catatonic and finally has its will broken.\nIn the present day, Joe expresses his disgust at Matt's career, which requires the use of torture on self-aware creations. Matt observes that Joe is an empathetic, \"good person\" and asks again why he came to the outpost. Having loosened up with alcohol, Joe says that his girlfriend's father never liked him and then explains his situation.\nJoe once had a serious relationship with Beth (Janet Montgomery), which was impeded by Joe's tendency to get drunk. One evening, they are having dinner with their friends Tim and Gita, but Beth is withdrawn and seems to be in a bad mood, which Joe attributes to his drunken state. After the dinner, Joe discovers a positive pregnancy test in their trash, and thinking he will be a dad, congratulates Beth. Beth states she doesn't want the child and plans to have an abortion. Joe, still drunk, angrily retorts that she is being selfish and guilty of harming their unborn child. Beth is incited by this, and places a Z-Eye \"block\" on Joe, and she leaves the next day, unable to hear his apology.\nFrom Tim and Gita, he learns Beth has left her job. He spends several months writing her apology letters sent to her father's cottage with no reply. Knowing that Beth spends her Christmas with her father, he watches the cabin from a distance to see that she is very pregnant, and did not go through with the abortion. Over the next few years, Joe watches the cabin, and as the Z-Eye block extends to one's legal children, he cannot see Beth's child, only its silhouette, but eventually can make out it is a girl. He leaves presents at the cabin doorstep for the child.\nOne day at home, Joe discovers Beth had died in a train accident, which has caused the Z-Eye block to be removed. Though saddened by Beth's death, he is elated at the block's removal. He goes her father's cabin and can see the child for the first time. He follows her into the cabin but shortly discovers that she has strong Asian features, despite neither he nor Beth having such heritage. He flashes back to the party with Tim and Gita, and realises that Tim, who is Asian, was having an affair with Beth, and this is Tim's child. Beth's father appears, demanding to know why he is here. Joe asks him if she ever got the letters he sent, but he admits to having burned them all for Beth's sake. Angered, Joe bashes Beth's father's head with the snowglobe he brought as a gift, killing him. Stunned, Joe quickly leaves the cabin.\nMatt asks Joe what happened to Beth's daughter. Joe knows that she attempted to go get help for her grandfather but got no farther than a tree near the cabin before dying from the cold weather. He knows he is responsible for both deaths. As Joe states this, he realises the cabin they are in is the same as Beth's father, and sees Beth's daughter's corpse outside by the tree. He demands Matt to tell him what is happening. Matt speaks to the empty air, stating he got the \"confession\", apologizes to Joe, and suddenly disappears.\nIn reality, the events of the episode have been taking place inside a \"cookie\" like Greta's, but copied from Joe's consciousness. Matt used his techniques to make \"Joe\" think five years had passed when only seventy minutes have passed in real time. Matt did this to coerce a confession from Joe for the deaths of Beth's father and daughter for the police, in exchange for his own release from prison for his involvement in Harry's death. Officer Holder (Robin Weaver) keeps her promise, but by law has registered Matt as a Sex Offender, causing him to be blocked by everyone's Z-Eye, making him unable to communicate with anyone else.\nHolder tells the real Joe that they have gotten their confession and thanks him. As the officers leave for the Christmas night, they use the cookie equipment to set \"Joe\"'s time perception to 1,000 years a minute, planning to turn it off the next day. In the virtual cabin, \"Joe\" is confronted with \"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday\" on the radio, and no matter how many times he smashes the radio, it returns the moment he looks back. He curls up on the floor, screaming.\nThe episode features Jon Hamm, Oona Chaplin, and Rafe Spall in the main roles. Hamm later elaborated that he \"had been a fan of \"Black Mirror\" and Charlie Brooker, because I have a strange predilection for offbeat British things, and this was no exception. It came about in this very odd way, with me asking my agent if I could meet Mr. Brooker. I didn't know he was even working on a third series or a Christmas special or anything, it was simply that I really liked his work and really wanted to meet the guy.\" Hamm mentioned that he had \"seen both previous series and absolutely loved it\", and Brooker described Hamm's casting as \"fortuitous\". In contrast to Hamm, Spall accepted a part in the episode without having seen the series, but having once read a script for a previous episode. Chaplin, who had just moved from the UK to Los Angeles to capitalise on her success in \"Game of Thrones\", similarly praised the script, stating that she \"flew out there with a plan to stay for a year, and then a week later I was coming back to the UK to do this.”\nThe special makes references to previous \"Black Mirror\" episodes. In the beginning of the scene in which Matt's computer shows dating club clients in the conference call, one of the users has the nickname, \"I_AM_WALDO\", and another, \"Pie Ape\". The Z-Eyes are reminiscent of a similar device in \"The Entire History of You\". Clips of TV shows from \"The Waldo Moment\" and \"Fifteen Million Merits\" are visible when Joe flicks through the TV channels. The pregnancy test Joe finds is the same one used in \"Be Right Back\". The ticker during a news report mentions the prime minister from \"The National Anthem\", as well as Victoria Skillane from \"White Bear\", and Liam Monroe from \"The Waldo Moment\". Bethany sings \"Anyone Who Knows What Love Is\", the same song that Abi sings in \"Fifteen Million Merits\".\nThe episode received critical acclaim. Ben Beaumont-Thomas of \"The Guardian\" praised the episode's comic satire and noted that \"sentimentality is offset with wicked wit, and Brooker's brio and imagination paper over any gaps in logic\". \"The Telegraph\" reviewer Mark Monahan gave the episode 4/5 stars and noted that the drama was \"thrilling stuff: escapist entertainment with a very real-world sting in its tail\". He equated the episode with the stronger of the previous \"Black Mirror\" episodes, stating that \"it exaggerated present-day technology and obsessions to subtle but infernal effect, a nightmare-before-Christmas reminder that to revere our digital gizmos is to become their pathetic slave\".\nEllen Ejonar of \"The Independent\" also praised the episode, summarising that the episode was \"great on our technology culture, but also just great; well cast, expertly structured and genuinely unsettling\". She also compared it favourably to other Christmas television episodes, concluding that: \"at a time of year when schmaltz usually covers the TV schedules like a snowdrift, this sidelong look at the state of humanity is all the more welcome\". Danny Krupa of IGN gave the episode 8.5/10. In particular, he praised the acting, although he noted that Chaplin's role was the least developed. Despite Hamm's star billing, Krupa noted: \"it's really Spall who shines brightest over the course of 90 minutes, as we experience the full depth of his misery\". Finally, Den of Geek noted that the episode's finale was \"a thrilling development that invites you to rewatch right from the beginning (something that will greatly benefit from the DVD release, when we can do it without all those ad breaks)\".\n","White Christmas Blues\n\"White Christmas Blues\" is the eighth episode of the 25th season of the American animated sitcom \"The Simpsons\", and the 538th episode of the series. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 15, 2013. The episode was written by Don Payne and directed by Steven Dean Moore. It was the first Christmas episode since \"Holidays of Future Passed\" and the twelfth Christmas episode of the show.\nIn the episode, Springfield becomes a tourist hotspot after an accident involving the nuclear plant and the Springfield tire fire causes snow to fall for the first time in a long time—and when Springfield's stores raise their prices, Marge turns their house into a bed and breakfast for the out-of-towners.\nAs Marge scolds Homer for hanging up the house's Christmas decorations before taking down the ones for Halloween, a bored Bart and Lisa watch a television news broadcast in which Kent Brockman announces that all of America will have no snow at Christmas due to global warming. Soon, however, snow does begin to fall in Springfield; Professor Frink explains that due to the combination of radioactive steam from the nuclear power plant and airborne particulates from the city's tire fire, it is the only location in America with snow. Mayor Quimby declares the town a tourist attraction, and the residents quickly get into the holiday spirit as out-of-town travelers converge on Springfield.\nOverwhelmed by the sudden crowds at the Kwik-E-Mart, and seeing the money spent by the tourists, Marge begins to feel like a failure since she cannot afford to spend lavishly on her family. As she returns to the house, a family drives past and offers to pay $300 per night to stay there. She hesitantly accepts the offer; Homer is surprised to find this other family in the house, but Marge explains the situation and persuades him to turn the house into a bed-and-breakfast for the duration of the holiday season. They take in more guests as Christmas approaches, but Marge becomes irritated at their constant requests and complaints over shoddy service and activities. On Christmas Day, Marge finds the guests gathered in the living room and thinks they are going to confront her, but instead they surprise her by singing Christmas carols.\nMeanwhile, Lisa buys gifts for the family that are intended to make her feel good about herself - such as a bag of radish seeds for Homer, and a book for Bart - rather than to be something the recipients can use. She is appalled to find Bart burning the book soon afterward, but their argument leads her to see that her gift-giving effort was misguided. She sells the gift Bart gave her and buys him a tablet pre-loaded with books and apps he can enjoy, and he gives her some money to donate to charity.\nDennis Perkins of \"The A.V. Club\" gave the episode a C, saying \"While \"The Simpsons\" has always excelled at tossed-off sign gags and the like, this sequence is just a jumble of writers’ room bulletin board material—and not especially inspired material at that. A few hit—the loony not-logic behind “A Zombie Christmas With Bing Crosby And The 1932 All-American Football Team” smacks of something alumnus Conan O’Brien might have come up with—but all too often the rest truck in either laziness or the aforementioned pop-culture references. (If \"The Simpsons\" never mentions a Kardashian again, that would be a step in the right direction.) The same goes for the closing credits, where we see all of the out-of-state license plates Marge marveled at earlier. Like so much of \"The Simpsons\" this year, there are some decent jokes scattered in there—any guesses on which is the “Touch It With A Stick State?”—but, as any grumpy old man would say, the show would be better served jettisoning the bulk of the extraneous spitballing for a coherent plot and some decent character development.\" Teresa Lopez of \"TV Fanatic\" gave the episode two and a half stars out of five, saying \"\"The Simpsons\" Christmas Specials have always been one of my favorites (along with the Treehouse of Horror), but tonight's episode was a disappointing, uneven, and (again!) overly familiar installment.\"\nThe episode received a 3.5 rating and was watched by a total of 8.48 million people, this made it the most watched show on Animation Domination that night beating \"American Dad!\", \"Bob's Burgers\" and \"Family Guy\".\n","White Christmas (TV series)\nWhite Christmas () is a 2011 South Korean television series starring Kim Sang-kyung, Baek Sung-hyun, and a cast of then-rookie actors, namely Kim Young-kwang, Lee Soo-hyuk, Kwak Jung-wook, Hong Jong-hyun, Esom, Kim Woo-bin, Sung Joon, Jung Suk-won, and Lee El. Written by Park Yeon-seon and directed by Kim Yong-soo, it aired as part of the Drama Special anthology series on KBS2 from January 30 to March 20, 2011 on Sundays at 23:15 for 8 episodes.\nA series of deaths, including murder and suicide, take place over eight days in a private, elite high school deep in the mountains, with the students cut off from the outside world and in highly volatile and unstable emotional conditions. The drama deals with the question of whether evil is organic or environmental, and the potential for adolescents to be extremely empathetic as well as equally cruel.\nDeep in the mountains of Gangwon, the private, elite Soo-sin High School is attended by the top 1% of students in the country. Their stellar marks are the result of constant pressure and a strict punishment system, to the point where students avoid any activities outside of studying. It is in this atmosphere that seven students and a teacher remain at school for the winter break, joined by Kim Yo-han (Kim Sang-kyung), a psychiatrist who was forced to take shelter with them after he was injured in a car accident nearby. Stranded from heavy snow, they spend eight days together ― from Christmas Eve to New Year's Day.\nPark Mu-yeol (Baek Sung-hyun) is an honor student who chooses to remain in school during the winter break after receiving an abusive letter. Jo Young-jae (Kim Young-kwang) is a detested bully who attacks other people to hide his inferiority complex. Yoon Soo (Lee Soo-hyuk) is a disturbed, but rich student fronting a rock band. Yoon Eun-sung (Esom) was once a popular girl in school before having a sudden change of personality.\nAt a time when everyone else is celebrating the holidays, the students realize that the anonymous letters they each received were not the result of a harmless prank; there is a murderer in their midst. A question lies unspoken: Are monsters created, or are humans born monsters?","Sweet Stranger and Me\nSweet Stranger and Me () is a South Korean television series based on the 2015 webtoon of the same name by Yoo Hyun-sook. It was aired every Mondays and Tuesdays at 22:00 (KST) on KBS2. This drama reunited Kim Young-kwang and Lee Soo-hyuk in KBS 2011 Drama Special \"White Christmas\",\nHong Na-ri (Soo Ae) is a middle-aged flight attendant who suddenly comes home to find her deceased mother's husband, Go Nan-gil (Kim Young-kwang), has decided to live in her house. The problem is her mother's husband is three years younger than Hong Na-ri. Go Nan-gil runs a dumpling shop inherited from his late wife, where the shop and Na-ri's house are located on a hotly disputed land.\nFirst script reading took place on September 12, 2016 at KBS Broadcasting Station in Yeouido, Seoul, South Korea.\n\n","White Christmas (film)\nWhite Christmas is a 1954 American musical romantic comedy film directed by Michael Curtiz and starring Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye, Rosemary Clooney, and Vera-Ellen. Filmed in VistaVision and Technicolor, it features the songs of Irving Berlin, including a new version of the title song, \"White Christmas\", introduced by Crosby in the film \"Holiday Inn\".\nProduced and distributed by Paramount Pictures, the film is notable for being the first to be released in VistaVision, a widescreen process developed by Paramount that entailed using twice the surface area of standard 35mm film; this large-area negative was used to yield finer-grained standard-sized 35mm prints.\nOn Christmas Eve, 1944, somewhere in Europe, two World War II U.S. Army soldiers, one a Broadway entertainer, Captain Bob Wallace (Bing Crosby), the other an aspiring entertainer, Private Phil Davis (Danny Kaye), perform for the 151st Division. But, word has come down that their beloved commanding officer, Major General Thomas F. Waverly (Dean Jagger), is being relieved of his command. He arrives for the end of the show and delivers an emotional farewell. The men give him a rousing send-off (\"The Old Man\").\nAfter the war, Bob and Phil make it big in nightclubs, radio, and then on Broadway, eventually becoming successful producers. They mount their newest hit musical titled \"Playing Around\". The same day they receive a letter from \"Freckle-Faced Haynes, the dog-faced boy,\" their mess sergeant from the war, asking them to look at an act that his two sisters are doing.\nWhen they go to the club to watch the act (\"Sisters\"), Phil notices that Bob is smitten with Betty (Rosemary Clooney). Phil has eyes for her sister, Judy (Vera-Ellen). Betty and Judy join Bob and Phil at their table, and Phil dances with Judy, so that Bob and Betty can get to know each other. Phil and Judy hit it off (\"The Best Things Happen While You're Dancing\"). Bob and Betty do not, getting into a minor argument about how Bob thinks that everyone has an angle in show business.\nJudy and Betty are headed for the Columbia Inn in Pine Tree, Vermont, where they are booked to perform over the holidays. Due to a disagreement with their landlord, the girls have to leave immediately, so Phil gives the sisters his and Bob's sleeping-room accommodations aboard the train. Bob and Phil board later and Bob is extremely upset that they have to stay up all night in the club car on their way to NYC. They are joined by Betty and Judy, who thank them profusely for the tickets and convince them to come with them to Pine Tree (\"Snow\").\nWhen the train arrives in Pine Tree, there's not a snowflake in sight, and chances of it falling appear dim. Bob and Phil discover that the inn is run by their former commanding officer, General Waverly. Waverly has invested all of his savings into the lodge, which is in danger of failing because there's no snow and thus no guests. To bring business to the inn, Bob and Phil bring the entire cast and crew of their musical \"Playing Around\", and add in Betty and Judy. Bob and Betty's relationship blooms (\"Count Your Blessings\") and they spend a good deal of time together. Meanwhile, Bob discovers the General's request to rejoin the army has been rejected. He decides to prove to the General that he isn't forgotten.\nBob calls Ed Harrison (Johnny Grant), an old army buddy, now a successful variety show host, to arrange a televised invitation to all the men formerly under the command of the General to come to the inn on Christmas Eve as a surprise. In response, Harrison suggests they go all out and put the show on national television to generate free advertising for Wallace and Davis, but Bob insists that it will have nothing to do with their business. Unbeknownst to Bob, nosy housekeeper Emma Allen (Mary Wickes) was eavesdropping, but she only heard the part about free advertising, not Bob's rejection of the idea.\nMistakenly believing that her beloved boss will be portrayed as a pitiable figure in a nationwide broadcast, Emma reveals what she heard to a shocked Betty. The misunderstanding causes Betty to grow suddenly cold towards a baffled Bob. While this is happening, Judy becomes convinced that Betty will never take on a serious relationship until Judy is engaged or married. She pressures a reluctant Phil to announce a phony engagement, but the plan backfires when Betty abruptly departs for New York City to take a job offer since Judy is taken care of.\nPhil and Judy reveal to Bob that the engagement was phony. Bob, still unaware of the real reason behind Betty's coldness, goes to New York for \"The Ed Harrison Show\", but decides to stop and try to convince Betty to come back. Bob sees Betty's new act (\"Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me\") and reveals the truth about the engagement, and Betty starts to warm up to him, but he is called away by Ed Harrison before learning what is really bothering her. Back at the Inn, Phil fakes an injury to distract the General so he won't see the broadcast of Bob's announcement.\nOn the broadcast, Bob invites veterans of the 151st Division to come to Pine Tree, Vermont, on Christmas Eve (\"What Can You Do with a General\"). Betty catches Bob's televised pitch and realizes she was mistaken. She returns to Pine Tree in time for the Christmas Eve show, but only tells Judy. The whole division comes into Pine Tree secretly. When the General enters the lodge, he is greeted by his former division, who sing a rousing chorus of \"The Old Man.\" Just as the following number (\"Gee, I Wish I Was Back in the Army\") ends, he learns that snow is finally falling.\nIn the finale, Bob and Betty declare their love for one another, as do Phil and Judy. The background of the set is removed to show the snow falling, everyone raises a glass, and toasts, \"May your days be merry and bright; and may all your Christmases be white.\"\nAll songs were written by Irving Berlin. The centerpiece of the film is the title song, first used in \"Holiday Inn\", which won that film an Oscar for Best Original Song in 1942. In addition, \"Count Your Blessings\" earned the picture its own Oscar nomination in the same category.\nThe song \"Snow\" was originally written for \"Call Me Madam\" with the title \"Free,\" but was dropped in out-of-town tryouts. The melody and some of the words were kept, but the lyrics were changed to be more appropriate for a Christmas movie. For example, one of the lines of the original song is:\n<poem>Free – the only thing worth fighting for is to be free.\nFree – a different world you'd see if it were left to me.</poem>\nA composer's demo of the original song can be found on the CD \"Irving Sings Berlin\".\nThe song \"What Can You Do with a General?\" was originally written for an un-produced project called \"Stars on My Shoulders\".\nTrudy Stevens provided the singing voice for Vera-Ellen, except for \"Sisters\", where Rosemary Clooney sang both parts. It was not possible to issue an \"original soundtrack album\" of the film, because Decca Records controlled the soundtrack rights, but Clooney was under exclusive contract with Columbia Records. Consequently, each company issued a separate \"soundtrack recording\": Decca issuing \"Selections from Irving Berlin's White Christmas,\" while Columbia issued \"Irving Berlin's White Christmas.\" On the former, the song \"Sisters\" (as well as all of Clooney's vocal parts) was recorded by Peggy Lee, while on the latter, the song was sung by Rosemary Clooney and her own sister, Betty.\nBerlin wrote \"A Singer, A Dancer\" for Crosby and his planned co-star Fred Astaire but when he was unavailable, Berlin re-wrote it as \"A Crooner – A Comic\" for Crosby and Donald O'Connor, but when O'Connor left the project so did the song. Another song written by Berlin for the film was \"Sittin' in the Sun (Countin' My Money)\" but because of delays in production Berlin decided to publish it independently. Crosby and Kaye also recorded another Berlin song (\"Santa Claus\") for the opening WWII Christmas Eve show scene, but it was not used in the final film. Their recording of the song survives, however, and can be found on the Bear Family Records 7-CD set called \"Come On-A My House\".\n\"White Christmas\" was intended to reunite Crosby and Fred Astaire for their third Irving Berlin showcase musical. Crosby and Astaire had previously co-starred in \"Holiday Inn\" (1942) – where the song 'White Christmas' first appeared – and \"Blue Skies\" (1946). Astaire declined the project after reading the script and asked to be released from his contract with Paramount. Crosby also left the project shortly thereafter, to spend more time with his sons after the death of his wife, Dixie Lee. Near the end of January 1953, Crosby returned to the project, and Donald O'Connor was signed to replace Astaire. Just before shooting was to begin, O'Connor had to drop out due to illness and was replaced by Danny Kaye, who asked for and received a salary of $200,000 and 10% of the gross. Financially, the film was a partnership between Crosby and Irving Berlin, who shared half the profits, and Paramount, which got the other half.\nWithin the film, a number of soon-to-be famous performers appear. Dancer Barrie Chase appears un-billed, as the character Doris Lenz (\"Mutual, I'm sure!\"). Future Academy Award winner George Chakiris also appears as one of the stone-faced black-clad dancers surrounding Rosemary Clooney in \"Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me\". John Brascia leads the dance troupe and appears opposite Vera-Ellen throughout much of the movie, particularly in the \"Mandy\" and \"Choreography\" numbers. The photo Vera-Ellen shows of her brother Benny (the one Phil refers to as \"Freckle-faced Haynes, the dog-faced boy\") is actually a photo of Carl Switzer, who played Alfalfa in The Little Rascals, in an army field jacket and helmet liner.\nA scene from the film featuring Crosby and Kaye was broadcast the year after the film's release, on Christmas Day 1955, in the final episode of the NBC TV show \"Colgate Comedy Hour\" (1950–1955).\nPrincipal photography took place between September and December 1953. The film was the first to be shot using Paramount's new VistaVision process, with color by Technicolor, and also introduced the Perspecta directional sound system which used three inaudible tones in order to pan the monaural sound into either left, center or right.\nAs with \"Easter Parade\" but unlike many other musicals of the 1950s which have been able to be remixed to stereo or 5.1, it is impossible to do this for \"White Christmas\", due to the fact that although the picture was released in an extremely limited fashion with a full three-channel stereo mix carried on 4-track mag release prints, no complete true stereo print has ever been able to be assembled from all known elements.\nAll the original separate recording angles for both the pre-records and post-records for the picture were destroyed in a fire, and all that remains is a magnetic high-fidelity monaural music master, prepared for international release, and a low-fidelity optical mono composite master which includes all dialogue, sound effects and other elements. These were restored and combined for the Criterion Collection LaserDisc release; however, on the newer releases the monaural composite occupies the front center and the magnetic music-only track is fattened up a bit and placed in the surrounds by itself.\nBosley Crowther of \"The New York Times\" was not impressed: \"...the use of VistaVision, which is another process of projecting on a wide, flat screen, has made it possible to endow \"White Christmas\" with a fine pictorial quality. The colors on the big screen are rich and luminous, the images are clear and sharp, and rapid movements are got without blurring—or very little—such as sometimes is seen on other large screens. Director Michael Curtiz has made his picture look good. It is too bad that it doesn’t hit the eardrums and the funnybone with equal force.\"\n\"Variety\" liked it: \"\"White Christmas\" should be a natural at the boxoffice, introducing as it does Paramount’s new VistaVision system with such a hot combination as Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye and an Irving Berlin score...Crosby and Kaye, along with VV, keep the entertainment going in this fancifully staged Robert Emmett Dolan production, clicking so well the teaming should call for a repeat...Certainly he \"(Crosby)\" has never had a more facile partner than Kaye against whom to bounce his misleading nonchalance.\"\n\"White Christmas\" was enormously popular with audiences, earning $12 million in theatrical rentals – $102.7 million in 2012 dollars, adjusted for inflation – making it the top moneymaker of 1954 by a wide margin. The second highest moneymaker of that year, \"The Caine Mutiny\", earned $8.7 million. Overall, the film grossed $30 million at the domestic box office.\nThere was also a US theatrical re-release by Paramount in 1961.\nSix decades after its release, \"White Christmas\" still features in popular culture, as in neo burlesque routines.\n\"White Christmas\" was released on VHS in 1986 and again in 1997.\nIt was first released on DVD in 2000. It was subsequently released in 2009 and again in 2014 as a 4-disc \"Diamond Anniversary Edition\". This four-disc collection contains a Blu-ray disc, with a commentary by Clooney, as well as two copies of the DVD and a fourth disc of Christmas songs on compact disc. These songs are performed individually by Crosby, Clooney, and Kaye.\nIt was first released on Blu-ray in 2010 and again in 2014 in the \"Diamond Anniversary Edition\".\nA stage adaptation of the musical, titled \"Irving Berlin's White Christmas\" premiered in San Francisco in 2004 and has played in various venues in the US, such as Boston, Buffalo, Los Angeles, Detroit and Louisville.\nThe musical played a limited engagement on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre, from November 14, 2008 until January 4, 2009. The musical also toured the United Kingdom in 2006 - 2008. It headed to the Sunderland Empire in Sunderland from November 2010 to January 2011 after a successful earlier run in Manchester and has continued in various cities with a London West End run at the end of 2014.\n","CJ E&M Film Division\nThe CJ E&M Film Division (CJ E&M 영화사업부문 - <a href=\"doing%20business%20as\">doing business as</a> CJ E&M Pictures), formerly known as CJ Entertainment (), is a <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a>n entertainment company which is involved in film production, investment, distribution and exhibition. It is the largest entertainment company in South Korea and a subsidiary of <a href=\"CJ%20Group\">CJ Group</a>.\nDuring early 1995, Cheil Jedang invested in the upstart film company <a href=\"DreamWorks\">DreamWorks</a> SKG, and in June of the same year, Cheil Jedang established its own entertainment division. The division's title was changed to CJ Entertainment by September the next year, in time for their first film distribution deal with the movie \"<a href=\"Secrets%20%26amp%3B%20Lies%20%28film%29\">Secrets and Lies</a>\". To aid their position in the film distribution industry CJ Entertainment built the first <a href=\"movie%20theater\">multiplexes</a> of Korea with the first one, CGV Gangbyeon 11, opening in April 1998.\nCJ Entertainment's importance in the Korean film industry grew in 1997-1998 when the nation was caught in the wave of the <a href=\"Asian%20financial%20crisis\">Asian financial crisis</a>. Many smaller film companies had to close up, leaving the road open for CJ Entertainment to capitalize on the new-found popularity of <a href=\"Cinema%20of%20Korea\">Korean cinema</a> brought on by the success of \"<a href=\"Shiri%20%28film%29\">Shiri</a>\" in 1999.\nThe success of their own films, most notably \"<a href=\"Joint%20Security%20Area%20%28film%29\">Joint Security Area</a>\" that broke the Korean box-office records previously set by \"Shiri\", helped the company grow into one of the two largest film companies in the country along with <a href=\"Kang%20Woo-suk\">Kang Woo-suk</a>'s <a href=\"Cinema%20Service\">Cinema Service</a>. Lately CJ Entertainment has expanded into other fields of entertainment industry, including <a href=\"Internet\">Internet</a> and <a href=\"Cable%20TV\">Cable TV</a> businesses.\nFrom 2007 onwards, CJ Entertainment was the Korean distributor for films by <a href=\"Paramount%20Pictures\">Paramount Pictures</a>, including films by DreamWorks which was bought by Paramount, as <a href=\"Universal%20Studios\">Universal Pictures</a> had taken over the Korean branch of its joint venture with Paramount, <a href=\"United%20International%20Pictures\">United International Pictures</a>. CJ had already been distributing DreamWorks films for nearly a decade as a result of investing in the studio. It holds the highest market share among the distributors at 27.8 percent.\nIn 2010, CJ Entertainment was merged with CJ Media, M-net Media, On Media and CJ Internet to form the entertainment & media subsidiary \"CJ E&M\", of the CJ Group.\n\n","Lee Yu-bi\nLee Yu-bi (; born November 22, 1990) is a <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a>n actress. She began her career in the 2011 <a href=\"sitcom\">sitcom</a> \"<a href=\"Vampire%20Idol\">Vampire Idol</a>\", then played supporting roles in <a href=\"Korean%20drama\">television drama</a>s \"<a href=\"The%20Innocent%20Man%20%28TV%20series%29\">The Innocent Man</a>\" (2012), \"<a href=\"Gu%20Family%20Book\">Gu Family Book</a>\" (2013), and \"<a href=\"Pinocchio%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\">Pinocchio</a>\" (2014), as well as the films \"<a href=\"The%20Royal%20Tailor\">The Royal Tailor</a>\" (2014) and \"<a href=\"Twenty%20%28film%29\">Twenty</a>\" (2015). Lee plays her first leading role in \"<a href=\"Scholar%20Who%20Walks%20the%20Night\">Scholar Who Walks the Night</a>\", adapted from the <a href=\"webtoon\">webtoon</a> about a <a href=\"Joseon\">Joseon</a> vampire scholar and a cross-dressing bookseller.\nLee is the daughter of the actors <a href=\"Kyeon%20Mi-ri\">Kyeon Mi-ri</a> and Im Young-gyu. Her parents divorced in 1993. When her mother remarried in 1998 their stepfather, Lee Hong-heon legally adopted her and her sister, Lee Da-in who is also an actress.","Lee Jun-ho (singer)\nLee Jun-ho (; born January 25, 1990), simply known as Junho, is a <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a>n <a href=\"singer-songwriter\">singer-songwriter</a>, <a href=\"dancer\">dancer</a> and <a href=\"actor\">actor</a>. He is a member of the South Korean <a href=\"boy%20band\">boy band</a> <a href=\"2PM\">2PM</a>.\nJunho first gained public attention when he won \"Superstar Survival\" in 2006. The show started with twelve teenage competitors and, as the weeks went on, they were eliminated one by one until three were left. The process followed a similar style to that of reality show \"<a href=\"Survivor%20%28TV%20series%29\">Survivor</a>\". Junho signed a contract with <a href=\"JYP%20Entertainment\">JYP Entertainment</a> after winning the contest, placing first out of 6,500 competitors. Future 2PM bandmates <a href=\"Taecyeon\">Taecyeon</a> and <a href=\"Chansung\">Chansung</a> had also competed.\nJunho took an undergraduate program at <a href=\"Howon%20University\">Howon University</a> (Gunsan, South Korea) with his beloved friends <a href=\"Hwang%20Chan-sung\">Hwang Chan-sung</a> and <a href=\"Jang%20Wooyoung\">Jang Wooyoung</a> 2PM. They have graduated together from there. In addition, He is continuing a master degree of cinematography at <a href=\"Sejong%20University\">Sejong University</a>, 209 Neungdong-ro, Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, South Korea.\nJunho debuted as a member of 2PM in 2009.\nIn 2012, Junho coupled with actress <a href=\"Kim%20So-eun\">Kim So-eun</a> on MBC's \"Music and Lyrics\" for the song \"Sad Love\", written by Kim So-eun and composed by Junho. The single was a hit and debuted at top 10 spots on various music charts, and was chosen as the theme song of MBC's weekend drama \"<a href=\"Feast%20of%20the%20Gods\">Feast of the Gods</a>\". He also collaborated with <a href=\"Vanness%20Wu\">Vanness Wu</a> in the song \"Undefeated\" for Taiwanese drama \"<a href=\"Ti%20Amo%20Chocolate\">Ti Amo Chocolate</a>\" soundtrack. His self-penned single \"Move On\", which was included in 2PM’s \"2PM Best~ 2008-2011 in Korea\" album, topped Japan’s Recochoku Chart. In 2013, Junho participated as a composer for fellow member <a href=\"Jang%20Wooyoung\">Jang Wooyoung</a>'s debut EP \"<a href=\"23%2C%20Male%2C%20Single\">23, Male, Single</a>\" with the song \"Be With You\".\nJunho debuted as a solo singer in Japan, with his first solo mini album, \"Kimi no Koe\", for which he produced, composed and wrote all the tracks. The album landed on no. 1 in Tower Records′ charts and no. 3 on Oricon′s daily chart. On July 9, Junho began his first solo tour, \"Junho 1st Solo Tour Kimi no Koe\" which ended on August 29 in Tokyo.\nOn July 9, 2014, Junho released his second self-composed Japanese mini-album, \"FEEL\". \"FEEL\" topped Oricon's daily album chart the day of its release. From July 3 to August 13, Junho embarked on his second solo tour in Japan titled \" Junho Solo Tour 2014 - Feel\" which traveled to five different Japanese cities.\nOn July 15, 2015, Junho released his third Japanese mini-album, \"SO GOOD\". The album ranked third in Oricon‘s weekly music chart, and sold more than 40,000 albums in its first week. He embarked on his 2015 Japan tour \"Last Night\" in seven cities, which started July 7.\nIn September, he released his first album in Korea, a special album titled \"One\". The album contained Korean version of 11 self-composed Japanese songs that were released in the past. He held his solo concert “Last Night in Seoul” at Olympic Hall in Olympic Park, Seoul, from September 19-20.\nIn 2016, Junho released his fourth Japanese mini-album, \"DMSN\". The album topped Oricon Daily Chart and also the daily sales rankings at Tower Records. Moreover, the pre-released single \"DMSN\" was also popular in Japan’s ringtone website. He embarked on his fourth Japanese tour \"Hyper\" which concluded to a 20,000 audience in Tokyo on August 25.\nIn 2017, Junho released his fifth Japanese mini-album \"2017 S/S\" in Japan. The album achieved the best records for Junho thus far, peaking at number two on Oricon's weekly music chart. From July to August, Junho embarked on his fifth Japanese tour \"2017 S/S\". He is set to release his first Korean mini-album \"Canvas\" in Korea.\nJunho made his film debut in the action thriller \"<a href=\"Cold%20Eyes\">Cold Eyes</a>\", where he impressed viewers for his acting. The film was a success, and broke 4.5 million admissions.\nIn 2015, Junho featured in martial arts period drama \"<a href=\"Memories%20of%20the%20Sword\">Memories of the Sword</a>\", acting as <a href=\"Kim%20Go-eun\">Kim Go-eun</a>'s love interest. He next starred alongside <a href=\"Kim%20Woo-bin\">Kim Woo-bin</a> and <a href=\"Kang%20Ha-neul\">Kang Ha-neul</a> in the coming-of-age film \"<a href=\"Twenty%20%28film%29\">Twenty</a>\" by indie director Lee Byung-heon.\nIn 2016, Junho had a supporting role in tvN's thriller \"<a href=\"Memory%20%282016%20TV%20Series%29\">Memory</a>\".\nIn 2017, Junho starred in the hit comedy drama \"<a href=\"Good%20Manager\">Good Manager</a>\". He was praised for his villainous acting in the drama as the arrogant director of finances. The same year, Junho landed his first lead role in JTBC's romantic comedy series \"<a href=\"Just%20in%20Love%20%28TV%20series%29\">Just in Love</a>\".\nIn 2012, Junho was appointed as the honorary ambassador of the 24 Hour Famine Program hosted by World Vision.\nStudio albums\nEPs\nEPs\n","Kang Ha-neul\nKang Ha-neul (born Kim Ha-neul on February 21, 1990) is a <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a>n film, television and theater <a href=\"actor\">actor</a>.\nKang began his career in <a href=\"musical%20theatre\">musical theatre</a>, notably in \"<a href=\"Thrill%20Me\">Thrill Me</a>\" (2010), \"Prince Puzzle\" (2011), \"Black Mary Poppins\" (2012), and \"<a href=\"Assassins%20%28musical%29\">Assassins</a>\" (2012). He later shifted to the screen, starring in the <a href=\"Korean%20drama\">television dramas</a> \"<a href=\"The%20Heirs\">The Heirs</a>\" (2013) and \"<a href=\"Misaeng%20%28TV%20series%29\">Misaeng</a>\" (2014).\n2015 was a busy year for Kang as he appeared in four films; <a href=\"musical%20film\">musical film</a> \"<a href=\"C%27est%20si%20bon%20%28film%29\">C'est si bon</a>\", <a href=\"Historical%20period%20drama\">period film</a> \"<a href=\"Empire%20of%20Lust\">Empire of Lust</a>\", <a href=\"Coming-of-age%20story\">coming-of-age film</a> \"<a href=\"Twenty%20%28film%29\">Twenty</a>\" and <a href=\"black%20and%20white\">black and white</a> <a href=\"Biographical%20film\">biographical</a> <a href=\"Historical%20period%20drama\">period film</a> \"\", where he played the titular role of poet <a href=\"Yun%20Dong-ju\">Yun Dong-ju</a>.\nIn 2016, Kang starred in <a href=\"romantic%20comedy%20film\">romantic comedy film</a> \"<a href=\"Like%20for%20Likes\">Like for Likes</a>\", playing young songwriter who suffers a hearing disability. The same year, he co-starred in the <a href=\"sageuk\">historical drama</a> \"\", playing the role of 8th Prince .\nIn 2017, Kang starred in the film <a href=\"New%20Trial%20%28film%29\">\"New Trial\"</a>, acting as a young man who spent a decade in prison after an abusive investigation for a crime he did not commit in. He then starred alongside <a href=\"Park%20Seo-joon\">Park Seo-joon</a> in the <a href=\"Action%20film\">action</a> <a href=\"Comedy%20film\">comedy</a> film \"<a href=\"Midnight%20Runners\">Midnight Runners</a>\", plying a <a href=\"nerd\">nerd</a>y student of the <a href=\"Korean%20National%20Police%20University\">Korean National Police University</a>.\nKang has also confirmed his casting in <a href=\"Mystery%20film\">mystery</a> <a href=\"Thriller%20film\">thriller</a> \"<a href=\"Recall%20the%20Night\">Recall the Night</a>\" in which he plays the role of the younger brother for <a href=\"Kim%20Mu-yeol\">Kim Mu-yeol</a>'s character.\nKang is set to begin his <a href=\"Conscription%20in%20South%20Korea\">mandatory military service</a> on September 11, 2017. He will serve as a military police officer for a period of 21 months.","Happily Ever After (1990 film)\nHappily Ever After (also known as Snow White in the Land of Doom, Snow White: Happily Ever After and Happily Ever After: Snow White's Greatest Adventure) is a 1990 American <a href=\"Animation\">animated</a> <a href=\"Musical%20film\">musical</a> <a href=\"fantasy%20film\">fantasy film</a> written by Robby London and Martha Moran, and directed by <a href=\"John%20Howley\">John Howley</a>. The film stars <a href=\"Irene%20Cara\">Irene Cara</a>, <a href=\"Malcolm%20McDowell\">Malcolm McDowell</a>, <a href=\"Edward%20Asner\">Edward Asner</a>, <a href=\"Carol%20Channing\">Carol Channing</a>, <a href=\"Dom%20DeLuise\">Dom DeLuise</a> and <a href=\"Phyllis%20Diller\">Phyllis Diller</a>. Its story is a <a href=\"Sequel\">continuation</a> of the <a href=\"fairy%20tale\">fairy tale</a> \"<a href=\"Snow%20White\">Snow White</a>\", wherein the titular heroine and the Prince are about to be married, but the late evil <a href=\"Queen%20%28Snow%20White%29\">Queen</a>'s brother Lord Maliss appears to seek revenge upon them. The film replaces the Dwarfs with their female cousins, called the Dwarfelles.\n\"Happily Ever After\" is unrelated to <a href=\"Filmation\">Filmation</a>'s fellow \"<a href=\"A%20Snow%20White%20Christmas\">A Snow White Christmas</a>\", a television animated film that was the company's earlier Snow White sequel. It was troubled by severe legal problems with <a href=\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\">The Walt Disney Company</a>, and had a poor financial and critical reception, resulting in the bankruptcy of Filmation. A was released in 1994.\nThe film starts as the <a href=\"Magic%20Mirror%20%28Snow%20White%29\">Looking Glass</a> recaps the story of \"<a href=\"Snow%20White\">Snow White</a>.\" The wicked <a href=\"Queen%20%28Snow%20White%29\">Queen</a> has been vanquished and the kingdom is at peace as Snow White and the Prince prepare to marry. Meanwhile, back at the castle, the Queen's animal like minions are celebrating their freedom by throwing a party for themselves. Then, the Queen's equally evil <a href=\"Magician%20%28fantasy%29\">wizard</a> brother, Lord Maliss, arrives at the castle, wondering where his sister is. After learning about his sister's demise, he vows to avenge her death. In the process, he transforms into a <a href=\"wyvern\">wyvern</a> and decides to take control of the palace, while Scowl, (a red colored owl) starts training his companion, a purple bat named Batso, on how to be evil.\nThe next day, Snow White and the Prince are in the meadow picking flowers for their wedding, when suddenly Lord Maliss, in his dragon form, begins attacking Snow White and the Prince as they are traveling to the cottage of the Seven Dwarfs. He targets the Prince, but Snow White manages to flee.\nSnow White reaches the cottage and meets the Dwarves' female cousins, the Seven \"Dwarfelles\": Muddy, Sunburn, Blossom, Marina, Critterina, Moonbeam, and Thunderella. The Dwarves have left the cottage after they bought another mine in a different kingdom, but the Dwarfelles gladly assist Snow White, taking her to visit <a href=\"Mother%20Nature\">Mother Nature</a> at Rainbow Falls. Mother Nature has given the Dwarfelles individual powers to assist her; she holds Thunderella accountable for not being able to master her powers correctly, and accuses the other Dwarfelles of improperly using their powers, and threatens to take them away as punishment. Lord Maliss attacks them, but Mother Nature shoots him with lightning, causing him to crash and return to his human form. Before leaving, Lord Maliss informs Snow White that the Prince is held captive in his castle.\nSnow White and the Dwarfelles travel to Lord Maliss' castle in the Realm of Doom, along the way encountering a strange cloaked humanoid known as the \"Shadow Man.\" Lord Maliss sends his one-horned wolves after the group, and they manage to escape with the help of the \"Shadow Man.\" Lord Maliss is furious at this failure and transforms into his dragon form, finally capturing Snow White successfully himself and taking her to the castle. The Dwarfelles follow them and sneak into the castle as well.\nIn the castle, Snow White is reunited with her Prince, who begins exhibiting strange behaviors, and takes her through a secret passage to supposedly escape. When Snow White realizes that he's not the real Prince but is actually Lord Maliss in disguise, he attempts to throw a magical red cloak on Snow White to petrify her into stone. He almost succeeds, but is attacked by the \"Shadow Man.\" The Dwarfelles arrive and attack Lord Maliss as well, but fail and become petrified themselves. The only one unharmed is Thunderella, who finally regains control of her powers and assists Snow White to subdue Lord Maliss. The cloak is thrown on him and Lord Maliss is petrified in mid-transition between his human and dragon form.\nAs the sun shines onto the castle, the Dwarfelles are restored back to their normal selves. Snow White tearfully mourns the \"Shadow Man\", believing that she lost both him and her Prince, until Mother Nature arrives at the scene. Suddenly, the \"Shadow Man\" wakes up and he turns out to be the Prince; as he is waking up he begins comforting Snow White, telling her not to cry, and she notices that he is back to his normal self. The Prince reveals that Lord Maliss had cast a spell on him and he has been watching over Snow White during her journey, guarding her with his life.\nMother Nature decides to let the Dwarfelles keep their powers because they have finally proven themselves by working together as one, and she allows them to attend Snow White's wedding. In the end, Mother Nature takes in Batso and Scowl to be trained as her new apprentices. Sunburn steals Scowl's cigar from him and this allows him to stop smoking. Scowl realizes that he is able to breathe again; he then comments to Batso that working for Mother Nature might not be so bad, even realizing that he can smell again as he wasn't able to before. Batso replies by saying \"But with your cigar, you always smell\" and the Dwarfelles begin laughing. Snow White and the Prince are reunited, as the two of them share a kiss, and begin to live happily ever after.\nFilmation had previously developed a plan to create a series of direct-to-video sequels to popular <a href=\"Walt%20Disney%20Pictures\">Disney motion pictures</a>, but only this film and \"<a href=\"Pinocchio%20and%20the%20Emperor%20of%20the%20Night\">Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night</a>\" were ever completed. The film was eventually released during the same summer that <a href=\"Walt%20Disney\">Walt Disney</a>'s \"<a href=\"Snow%20White%20and%20the%20Seven%20Dwarfs%20%281937%20film%29\">Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</a>\" was re-released theatrically. Sued by <a href=\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\">The Walt Disney Company</a> in 1987, Filmation promised their characters would not resemble the ones from the Disney version. It was also the reason Filmation changed the title of the film from the original \"Snow White in the Land of Doom\" to \"Happily Ever After\".\n\"Happily Ever After\" was originally supposed to be a 1990 release in the United States. While it received a 1990 theatrical release in France, it was not released to theaters in the United States until May 28, 1993. when it took only $1.76 million over the four-day <a href=\"Memorial%20Day\">Memorial Day</a> weekend preceded by a $10 million advertising campaign from the distributor First National Film Corp. The distributor tried to popularize it by creating and selling dragon stickers as well as Seven Dwarfelle dolls; it also gained a commercial tie-in with <a href=\"Chiquita%20Brands%20International\">Chiquita</a> bananas. First National's bankruptcy followed just weeks after the film's failed premiere.\nDespite a substantial advertising campaign and having been expected to become \"one of the biggest hits of the year,\" \"Happily Ever After\" did poorly in the box office during its theatrical run. Its domestic gross was only $3,299,382.\nCritics generally disliked the film. According to <a href=\"Stephen%20Holden\">Stephen Holden</a> of \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\", \"visually, \"Happily Ever After\" is mundane. The animation is jumpy, the settings flat, the colors pretty but less than enchanting. The movie's strongest element is its storytelling, which is not only imaginative but also clear and smoothly paced.\" <a href=\"Kevin%20Thomas%20%28film%20critic%29\">Kevin Thomas</a> of \"<a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\">Los Angeles Times</a>\" opined the characters (especially the Prince) were \"bland\" and called the film's songs \"instantly forgettable.\" Rita Kemple of \"<a href=\"The%20Washington%20Post\">The Washington Post</a>\" derided the \"inane\" humor attempts as well as \"badly drawn characters\" and their \"clumsy\" animation. Steve Daly of \"<a href=\"Entertainment%20Weekly\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\" gave the film a score of F and recommended to \"give this Snow White the big kiss-off.\" \"<a href=\"Chicago%20Tribune\">Chicago Tribune</a>\"'s Mark Caro wrote that the comparison with Disney's classic \"Snow White\" \"couldn't be more brutal.\"\nSome other reviews were more positive. <a href=\"Jeff%20Shannon\">Jeff Shannon</a> of \"<a href=\"Seattle%20Times\">Seattle Times</a>\" opined \"this one's a cut above in the animation contest, deserving attention in the once-exclusive realm of Disney and <a href=\"Don%20Bluth\">Don Bluth</a>. It almost, but not quite, escapes those nagging comparisons.\" Ralph Novak of \"<a href=\"People%20%28magazine%29\">People</a>\" wrote that although \"the animation is less sophisticated than the Disney standard,\" the story \"moves nicely, though,\" with a \"colorful\" cast of voices. Candice Russell of \"<a href=\"Sun-Sentinel\">Sun-Sentinel</a>\" called it \"a sweet and likable film,\" crediting a screenplay \"that avoids cuteness and sentimentality and remembers that kiddie fare is fun\" and \"a few charming songs adding to the merriment.\"\nAn unreleased <a href=\"Nintendo%20Entertainment%20System\">Nintendo Entertainment System</a> video game was planned in 1990. A <a href=\"Sega\">Sega</a> game was also considered in 1993. An eventual <a href=\"Super%20Nintendo%20Entertainment%20System\">Super Nintendo Entertainment System</a> version was developed by <a href=\"ASC%20Games\">ASC Games</a> and released by <a href=\"Imagitec%20Design\">Imagitec Design</a> four years later (and one year after the film's release) in 1994.","Magic Mirror (Snow White)\nThe Magic Mirror is a mystical object that is featured in the story of \"<a href=\"Snow%20White\">Snow White</a>\".\nThe Magic Mirror is owned by the <a href=\"Queen%20%28Snow%20White%29\">Evil Queen</a> and has been depicted in different versions as either a hand mirror or a mirror on the wall. Every morning, the Evil Queen asked the Magic Mirror the question \"Magic mirror in my hand, who is the fairest in the land?\". The mirror always replies: \"My Queen, you are the fairest in the land.\" The Queen is always pleased with that, because the magic mirror never lies. But, when Snow White reaches the age of seven, she becomes as beautiful as the day and even more beautiful than the Queen and when the Queen asks her mirror, it responds: \"My Queen, you are the fairest here so true. But Snow White is a thousand times more beautiful than you.\" This resulted in the Evil Queen enlisting a <a href=\"Huntsman%20%28Snow%20White%29\">huntsman</a> to kill Snow White and bring her Snow White's lungs and liver.\nAfter eating the lungs and liver of a boar that the Huntsman passed off as Snow White's lungs and liver, the Evil Queen asked the Magic Mirror the question \"Magic Mirror in my hand, who is the fairest in the land?\" The mirror replies: \"My Queen, you are the fairest here so true. But Snow White beyond the mountains at the seven Dwarfs is a thousand times more beautiful than you.\" This caused the Evil Queen to disguise herself as different women to kill Snow White.\nAfter the latest attempt with a poison apple which was undone by the Prince and Snow White marrying him, the Evil Queen asked the Magic Mirror who the fairest in the land was, the Magic Mirror quoted \"You, my Queen, are fair so true. But the young Queen is a thousand times fairer than you.\" The Evil Queen learned too late at the wedding that the young queen in question was Snow White which eventually leads to the Queen's death which varied per version.\nGerman pharmacist and fairy-tale parodist Karlheinz Bartels suggests, in a tongue-in-cheek manner, that the German <a href=\"Folklore\">folk tale</a> \"Snow White\" is influenced by Maria Sophia Margaretha Catherina von und zu Erthal, who was born in <a href=\"Lohr%20am%20Main\">Lohr am Main</a> in 1725. After the death of Maria Sophia's birth mother in 1738, her father Philipp Christoph von und zu Erthal remarried. Claudia Elisabeth von Reichenstein, the stepmother, was domineering and greatly favored the children from her first marriage. The Queen's iconic mirror, referred to as “The Talking Mirror,” can still be viewed today at Spessart Museum in the Lohr Castle, where Maria Sophia was born. The mirror was likely a gift from Philipp Christoph to Claudia Elisabeth. It was a product of the Lohr Mirror Manufacture (\"Kurmainzische Spiegelmanufaktur\"). The mirror “talked” predominantly in <a href=\"aphorisms\">aphorisms</a>. The upper right corner of “The Talking Mirror” contains a clear reference to self-love (\"Amour Propre\"). Moreover, mirrors from Lohr were so elaborately worked that they were accorded the reputation of “always speaking the truth”. They became a favorite gift at European crown and aristocratic courts.\nIn April 2017 Amazon announced <a href=\"https%3A//www.amazon.com/dp/B0186JAEWK\">Echo Look</a>, a “style assistant” camera that helps catalog your outfits and rates your look based on “machine learning algorithms with advice from fashion specialists.\nThe Magic Mirror appeared in Disney's \"<a href=\"Snow%20White%20and%20the%20Seven%20Dwarfs%20%281937%20film%29\">Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</a>\" voiced by <a href=\"Moroni%20Olsen\">Moroni Olsen</a>. The Magic Mirror contained an imprisoned spirit who is referred to as the Slave in the Magic Mirror. In his first appearance in the film, the Evil Queen would consult with the Magic Mirror to ask who the fairest of one all was. The Magic Mirror always told the Evil Queen that she was the fairest one of all. When asked who the fairest of all is, the spirit replies that, while the Queen is beautiful, a fairer being exists. When the Queen angrily asks for the girl's name, the spirit describes her, making it obvious to the Queen that Snow White is the one being referred to. The Queen then orders her Huntsman to kill Snow White and bring her back her heart. When the Evil Queen asks the Magic Mirror who the fairest of them all was later that evening, the Magic Mirror told her that Snow White was the fairest of them all. Though the Queen at first believes the spirit to be incorrect and showed it the heart in question, she is told that she holds the heart of a <a href=\"pig\">pig</a> and that Snow White still lives in the Cottage of the Seven Dwarfs.\nThe Magic Mirror appeared in \"<a href=\"Disney%27s%20House%20of%20Mouse\">Disney's House of Mouse</a>\" voiced by <a href=\"Tony%20Jay\">Tony Jay</a>. It was seen in the lobby of the club. The Magic Mirror would always answer questions given to him by the guests or give advice to the staff members.\nThe Magic Mirror also appeared in \"<a href=\"Fantasmic%21\">Fantasmic!</a>\" voiced again by Tony Jay.\nThe Magic Mirror appears in \"\" voiced by <a href=\"Corey%20Burton\">Corey Burton</a>. The Magic Mirror first appears in Terra's storyline. As per the movie, it told the Queen that Snow White was now much fairer than the vain ruler. However, it added on that her heart was a pure light than shone bright. It was then promised by the Evil Queen usage by Terra to find Master Xehanort if he brought her Snow White's heart. However, he did not do so and told the Evil Queen he never intended to. Terra then proceeds to tell her that unlike Snow White, she has much darkness in her heart. The Evil Queen, insulted and outraged, commanded the mirror to destroy Terra. The Magic Mirror refused saying it can only answer questions. The Evil Queen's increasing rage then caused the mirror to have a potion slammed on its face sucking Terra in and fighting him. However, he is defeated and releases Terra. The Evil Queen reluctantly has the Magic Mirror tell Terra where he can find Master Xehanort. The Magic Mirror quotes \"Beyond both light and dark he dwells, where war was waged upon the fells.\" Upon learning this information, Terra takes his leave from the Evil Queen and the Magic Mirror where the Magic Mirror's cryptic response would direct Terra to the Keyblade Graveyard. The Magic Mirror later appears in Aqua's storyline. When Aqua looks for a cure for Snow White in the castle, the still-possessed Magic Mirror drags her into the mirror for a fight, but she also manages to defeat him and is released. The Magic Mirror then disappears stating to Aqua \"The Queen is gone, my service done. Adieu, oh victorious one.\"\nA different version of the Magic Mirror appeared in \"<a href=\"The%207D\">The 7D</a>\" voiced by <a href=\"Whoopi%20Goldberg\">Whoopi Goldberg</a>. This version is a female that serves Queen Delightful of Jollyland.\nThe mirror in \"<a href=\"Faerie%20Tale%20Theatre\">Faerie Tale Theatre</a>\" was played by <a href=\"Vincent%20Price\">Vincent Price</a>, whose face appeared as if mounted on the top of the mirror (in reality, Price stuck his face through a hole). This mirror, as did all of the Queen's (<a href=\"Vanessa%20Redgrave\">Vanessa Redgrave</a>) other mirrors, turned black as she found out that Snow White was alive.\nThe mirror was white with white heads.\nThe Magic Mirror appears in the \"Snow White\" episode of \"<a href=\"Grimm%27s%20Fairy%20Tale%20Classics\">Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics</a>\". It is kept in a cabinet in the Evil Queen's chambers. Like the story, the Magic Mirror told the Evil Queen that she was the fairest of them all until the day when Snow White came of age. In this version when the Magic Mirror told the Evil Queen that the Seven Dwarfs freed Snow White from the deadly laces and that she can't be killed when she is in their protection, the Evil Queen breaks the Magic Mirror vowing to prove it wrong.\nThe Magic Mirror appeared as the Looking Glass in \"<a href=\"Happily%20Ever%20After%20%281990%20film%29\">Happily Ever After</a>\" voiced by <a href=\"Dom%20DeLuise\">Dom DeLuise</a>. When Lord Maliss tells him where his sister the Evil Queen is and threatens it for information, the Looking Glass tells him that she died trying to kill Snow White. After Snow White evaded Lord Maliss' dragon form, Lord Maliss consults the Looking Glass again as the Looking Glass tells him that Snow White and the Dwarfelles are heading to Rainbow Falls. When Snow White ventures to Lord Maliss' castle, the Looking Glass tells him that it will be tough for Snow White to find his castle. When the Dwarfelles enter Lord Maliss' castle and wonder where Lord Maliss has taken Snow White, the Looking Glass states that \"beneath the Queen lies a secret door.\" After searching the area, they find a panel to the hidden door underneath the Evil Queen's bust.\nIn <a href=\"Jim%20C.%20Hines\">Jim C. Hines</a>' \"Princesses\" series – chronicling the adventures of Snow White with Princess Danielle Whiteshore (<a href=\"Cinderella\">Cinderella</a>) and former Princess Talia Malak-el-Dahshat (<a href=\"Sleeping%20Beauty\">Sleeping Beauty</a>) after their tales concluded with Snow and Talia being banished from their kingdoms and taken in by Danielle's mother-in-law – Snow White is a sorceress who uses her mother's mirror as a key focus of her spells, relying on various smaller mirrors to maintain a link to it when away from the palace; her power is commonly focused by using various rhymes as spells, although she can create other spells without speaking. The fourth novel, \"The Snow Queen's Revenge\", reveals that the magic mirror was created by Snow White's mother imprisoning a demon and binding it to her service. The plot suggests that the mirror's role in the original story was motivated by the demon attempting to create a set of circumstances that would allow it to escape, inspiring Snow's mother to attack her daughter so that Snow would inherit the mother and some day make a mistake that would let the demon out. The protagonists return to Snow White's kingdom to rediscover the secrets used by Snow White's mother to bind the demon in hopes of exorcising it after it possesses Snow White when the mirror shatters after she tries to perform a particularly complex spell. The demon attempts to recreate a larger ice-mirror to summon further demons into this world, using the part-fairy blood of Danielle's son Jakub – Danielle having some fairy blood in her from her mother's side of the family – but a reflection of Snow's untainted self helps to protect her friends long enough to destroy the demon.\nThe Magic Mirror appeared in Episode 685 of \"<a href=\"Sesame%20Street\">Sesame Street</a>\" with the Magic Mirror's face being the face of <a href=\"Jerry%20Nelson\">Jerry Nelson</a>. In the \"<a href=\"Sesame%20Street%20News%20Flash\">Sesame Street News Flash</a>\" segment, <a href=\"Kermit%20the%20Frog\">Kermit the Frog</a> interviews the Magic Mirror on which question the evil witch will ask him and tells Kermit that it is the same question where the Snow White answer \"drives her up the wall.\" The witch who is the fairest in the land, has two beautiful eyes, is green, wearing a hat, wielding a microphone, and is in the same room as the Magic Mirror. The Magic Mirror states that Kermit the Frog is the fairest. The witch then notices Kermit the Frog hiding behind the curtain and states that he is good-looking.\nIn \"\", this version has the mirror a property of Lady Claudia (<a href=\"Sigourney%20Weaver\">Sigourney Weaver</a>). It is a wooden closet with a statue as the door and hands acting as locks. It is regarded as a family heritage artifact by her. Snow White's nanny, tries to see what's inside while cleaning it and immediately suffers a heart attack. The mirror displays a beautiful and younger version of the Queen who advices her what to do. The mirror also contains her life force and she ages rapidly when Snow White stabs the mirror and then engulfs in flame of the burning room.\nIn the TV miniseries \"<a href=\"The%2010th%20Kingdom\">The 10th Kingdom</a>\", a magic mirror is a key element of the plot, as protagonists Tony and Virginia Lewis travel from New York into the fairy-tale realm via a traveling mirror, which they subsequently lose and must spend the rest of the series searching for, while their enemy, the evil Queen and protégé of Snow White's deceased stepmother, spies on them with other magic mirrors. The travelling mirror that brought them to this world is destroyed in an accident, but an old mirror referred to as Gustav- which can only communicate and respond to queries made in rhyme- reveals that there were two other travelling mirrors made, with one sunk at the bottom of the ocean and the other in the possession of the Queen. With the Queen's defeat, Virginia returns to New York, although Tony decides to remain in the fairy-tale realm to enjoy his new status as a hero.\nThe Magic Mirror appears in the \"<a href=\"Shrek%20%28franchise%29\">Shrek</a>\" franchise voiced by <a href=\"Chris%20Miller%20%28animator%29\">Chris Miller</a>. It is depicted as a mirror with a live spirit communicating through it, and with magical displaying abilities.\nHere, the wicked queen Elspeth possesses a hall of magic mirrors, and a hand mirror that displays several attributes not seen before. The Queen may command the hand mirror to terminate enemies (as she did to the Huntsman), use it as a means of transport or step through it to change appearances, even turning others into animals.\nA parody version of the Magic Mirror appears as a recurring character throughout \"<a href=\"The%20Suite%20Life%20of%20Zack%20%26amp%3B%20Cody\">The Suite Life of Zack & Cody</a>\" voiced by Brian Peck. It is a high tech mirror that often compliments London Tipton's attire.\nA direct representation of the Magic Mirror in \"<a href=\"The%20Suite%20Life%20on%20Deck\">The Suite Life on Deck</a>\" episode \"Once Upon A Suite Life\" voiced by Michael Airington. It is seen when all the characters are dreaming of themselves in the classic fairytales such as <a href=\"Snow%20White\">Snow White</a>, <a href=\"Jack%20and%20the%20Beanstalk\">Jack and the Beanstalk</a> and <a href=\"Hansel%20and%20Gretel\">Hansel and Gretel</a>.\nIn \"<a href=\"Once%20Upon%20a%20Time%20%28TV%20series%29\">Once Upon a Time</a>\", the Magic Mirror started out as a <a href=\"Jinn\">Genie</a> (played by <a href=\"Giancarlo%20Esposito\">Giancarlo Esposito</a>) where he and his lamp were discovered by King Leopold. King Leopold feels he no need to wish for anything and uses the first and second wishes to free the Genie from the lamp and to give the third wish to the Genie. The Genie expresses the desire to find true love, so King Leopold takes the Genie to his castle as he believes the Genie can find true love there. He falls in love with the King's wife <a href=\"Regina%20Mills\">Queen Regina</a> and gives her a hand mirror. The King reads in the Queen's diary that she has fallen in love with the man who gave her the hand mirror and asks the Genie to locate him. The Queen is then locked in her room to prevent her from leaving the King. To free her, her father has the Genie bring her a locked box, which turns out to be filled with poisonous <a href=\"Viperidae\">vipers</a> from Agrabah so the Queen can kill herself. Instead, the Genie uses the vipers to kill King Leopold and allow the Queen to be with him. She tells him that since the vipers were from his country, the guards will find out that he was the murderer and flee. Realizing the Queen never loved him, he uses his wish to be always with her and to never leave her sight. This traps him in the hand mirror. As a spirit in the Magic Mirror, he is able to move between and see through all other mirrors in the Enchanted Forest. He is used by Regina to spy on and locate others.\nIn Storybrooke, he is Sidney Glass, a <a href=\"Journalist\">reporter</a> for Storybrooke's local newspaper \"The Daily Mirror\". On Regina's request, he researches <a href=\"Emma%20Swan\">Emma Swan</a>'s past to help Regina expel her from Storybrooke. After Graham's death, Regina attempts to appoint him sheriff, but the wording of the town charter calls for an election. He loses the position to Emma Swan. Regina has him removed from the newspaper staff, and Sidney goes to Emma, claiming that he wants to expose Regina as the corrupt person she is. However, the exposé reveals Regina's attempts to improve the community. Despite this, Sidney tells Emma that he will help her take down Regina, but it is revealed that he is secretly in league with Regina, who is using Emma's trust in Sidney to gain leverage over Emma. Emma later learns that he planted a bug in a vase glass after it is used to tip off Regina upon discovering a key piece of evidence that would have cleared <a href=\"Mary%20Margaret%20Blanchard\">Mary Margaret Blanchard</a> of Kathryn Nolan's murder. Emma confronts Sidney and realizes that he is in love with Regina. Still, Emma presses him to help defeat Regina. However, after Kathryn is found alive, Sidney falsely confesses to kidnapping Kathryn and framing Mary Margaret so that he could \"find\" Kathryn and become famous. Later, a cell labeled \"S. Glass\" is seen in the hospital basement's psychiatric ward. The name \"S. Glass\" is visible on a door in the first season finale, suggesting that Regina had locked him in the Storybrooke Hospital's psychiatric ward after he confessed to the kidnapping. In \"A Tale of Two Sisters,\" Regina frees Sidney Glass from the psychiatric ward to be her Mirror again in order to enlist him into helping get rid of the people that are in the middle of her happiness. Regina temporarily places Sidney in the mirror to find the exact moment in which Maid Marian was apprehended by Regina's men. Regina later consults with Sidney on how to change fate. Regina tells Sidney that the villains in the book don't get a happy ending and wants him to find the writer of the book so that she can make some changes like allowing the villains to get their happy endings. In \"Breaking Glass,\" Regina has Sidney Glass look for the <a href=\"The%20Snow%20Queen\">Snow Queen</a>'s hideout in order to force her into thawing <a href=\"Maid%20Marian\">Maid Marian</a> from her freezing spell. When Emma arrives to know where Sidney Glass is, Regina states that she's too busy to tell her where Sidney Glass is. Sidney later reports to Regina about where the Snow Queen is hiding out after his failed attempt to get a leverage on Regina. Using a <a href=\"Compact%20%28cosmetics%29\">compact</a> to remain in contact to Sidney Glass, Regina heads in the directions of the Snow Queen's hideout. Regina later admits that Sidney was in the mirror. Upon strong winds reaching Emma and Regina, Sidney states the Snow Queen had swayed him to her side as Elsa's ice bridge breaks. After Emma and Regina defeat a large Viking made of ice, the Snow Queen takes the compact that Sidney is and retreats. At her hideout, the Snow Queen frees Sidney from the mirror as she wanted the mirror that he was trapped in to go with her mirror that she is putting together. The Snow Queen states that she wants the mirror that Sidney Glass is in since it is filled with dark magic. Before declaring Sidney free, the Snow Queen advises Sidney to get a warm coat since it is \"going to get cooler around here.\"\nIn the \"Sister's Grimm\" series by Michael Buckley, the Magic Mirror appears as a minor protagonist in the first six books, but is revealed to be the main antagonist in book seven and remains evil until near the end of book nine.\nIn the film \"<a href=\"Mirror%20Mirror%20%28film%29\">Mirror Mirror</a>\", elements of the Magic Mirror are featured as a large mirror that serves as a portal to the Mirror House where Queen Clementianna consults with the Mirror Queen (played by <a href=\"Lisa%20Roberts%20Gillian\">Lisa Roberts Gillian</a>). To access the portal to the Mirror House, Queen Clementianna would quote \"Mirror Mirror on the Wall.\" The Mirror Queen would always advise Queen Clementianna not to use dark magic for her own gain. After the aged Queen Clementianna takes the slice of an apple she was to give to Snow White from her, the Mirror Queen declared that it was Snow White's story all along as the Mirror House and the Mirror Portal shattered.\nIn \"<a href=\"Snow%20White%20and%20the%20Huntsman\">Snow White and the Huntsman</a>\", the Magic Mirror appears as a golden gong-like mirror that oozes out a hooded robed being (voiced by Christopher Obi) whenever Queen Ravenna called upon it for information, although apparently, the being is only visible to Ravenna, as her henchmen observe her talking to thin air. The Magic Mirror first appeared where he told Queen Ravenna that Snow White was coming to the age where she will be more fairer than Queen Ravenna. The Mirror is last seen when Snow White defeats Ravenna, ending the Evil Queen's rule.\nIn prequel/sequel, \"\", the Magic Mirror (voiced by <a href=\"Fred%20Tatasciore\">Fred Tatasciore</a>) is revealed to hold darker forms of magic. He is seen in flashbacks of Queen Ravenna's tyrannical reign, where it tells Ravenna that her sister Freya will give birth to a child who will exceed Ravenna's beauty as the fairest of them all. The Mirror also predicts that if the child was to be harmed, Freya will unleash powers, prompting Ravenna to orchestrate the murder of her own niece, both to preserve her own beauty and, in her own twisted way, help her sister. Freya, in horror at her discovery, releases icy powers that kill her lover and turns her hair white. Years later, after Ravenna's death, the Magic Mirror has gone missing while travelling to a Sanctuary where Snow White believes its evil can be contained. It is revealed to be in the hands of a troll in a forest, but Freya, seeking the mirror for herself, orders Sara- the Huntsman's presumed-dead wife- to retrieve it. Although Sara obeys this order, she tricks Freya by sparing Eric's life. Freya's subsequent attempt to use the Mirror herself reveals that Ravenna had hidden a part of herself in the mirror, restoring her to a form of life apparently formed of the Mirror's gold while still appearing human. In the final confrontation, Freya learns the truth about her sister's role in the death of her daughter (Ravenna was now the mirror spirit and was thus bound to answer Freya's questions truthfully), prompting her to aid Eric in destroying the Mirror at the cost of her own life. However, the final scene shows a golden raven flying away, suggesting that a part of the mirror - and thus Ravenna - may have survived.\nIn the 2013 SyFy film \"<a href=\"The%20Hunters%20%282013%20film%29\">The Hunters</a>\", it is revealed that the Magic Mirror was inspired by a fabled mirror that is said to grant the wish of whoever looks into it; supposedly, the mirror triggered the <a href=\"Dark%20Ages%20%28historiography%29\">Dark Ages</a>. The mirror was sought by an ancient army known as the Krugen before the hunters- a group of scientist knights dedicated to protecting fairy-tale artefacts- acquired the mirror, breaking off four shards from the mirror and hiding them and the mirror away when destroying it completely proved impossible. The film focuses on a family of hunters, the Flynns, with the parents being experienced hunters seeking the shards to keep them away from the Krugen and their sons being forced to take up the hunt when their parents go missing. The mirror is eventually reassembled by the film's antagonist, but he is tricked into making a wish that caused the mirror to destroy him, with the protagonists subsequently wishing for the mirror to destroy itself.\nIn the Disney Channel original movie \"<a href=\"Descendants%20%282015%20film%29\">Descendants</a>\", the Evil Queen has retained the Mirror after her exile to the Isle of the Lost, reduced to a small hand-mirror that is passed on to her daughter Evie. Although it is still controlled by rhymes spoken by the user and doesn't have an inhabitant in it.\nAppearing as a magical object in the Business Office, the Magic Mirror is a minor protagonist in \"<a href=\"The%20Wolf%20Among%20Us\">The Wolf Among Us</a>\". Usually demanding its request be given to it in rhyme form, the Magic Mirror is capable of showing a brief vision of its requested subject. The Magic Mirror's shattering and the search for its missing shard play key aspects following the end of the second episode.\nNear the end of the game, the player can use the Magic Mirror in Sordid's tower as an surveillance monitor, using any reflecting surface like a camera.\n","Late Junction\nLate Junction is a music programme broadcast on three nights a week by <a href=\"BBC%20Radio%203\">BBC Radio 3</a>. Billed as \"an eclectic mix of world music, ranging from the ancient to the contemporary\", the programme has a wide musical scope. It is not uncommon to hear medieval ballads juxtaposed with 21st-century electronica, or jazz followed by international folk music followed by an ambient track. Each edition of the programme – which normally starts at 23.00 on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays – runs for 90 minutes.\nThe programme was created soon after <a href=\"Roger%20Wright%20%28music%20administrator%29\">Roger Wright</a> took over as controller of <a href=\"BBC%20Radio%203\">BBC Radio 3</a>, as part of changes with which Wright believed that he was addressing \"this feeling people had that they didn't want to put Radio 3 on unless they were going to listen carefully\". The first programme was broadcast in September 1999 and produced by <a href=\"Antony%20Pitts\">Antony Pitts</a>.\n\"Late Junction\" won a <a href=\"Sony%20Radio%20Awards\">Sony gold award</a> in 2003 for Music Programming. The comment made at the time was \"A radio jewel. Is there a show like this anywhere else in the radio world? Everyone who hears the show falls in love with it. Surprising, revealing, accessible. Brilliantly programmed - a show where the real star is the music.\"\nThe programme's main regular presenter is <a href=\"Fiona%20Talkington\">Fiona Talkington</a> and, until March 2013, <a href=\"Verity%20Sharp\">Verity Sharp</a> was also a regular presenter. Other presenters include <a href=\"Shaheera%20Asante\">Shaheera Asante</a> until 2006, <a href=\"Max%20Reinhardt%20%28radio%20presenter%29\">Max Reinhardt</a>, <a href=\"Nick%20Luscombe\">Nick Luscombe</a>, Anne Hilde Neset and <a href=\"Mara%20Carlyle\">Mara Carlyle</a>. While the selection of music to be played in any one programme is the result of a collaboration between producer and presenter, some individual preferences can be detected. Fiona Talkington, for instance, tends to play more conventional jazz and Scandinavian music and Verity Sharp more folk music, especially that featuring fiddle-playing. Nick Luscombe's shows often feature music from Japan.","St Catharine's College, Cambridge\nSt Catharine’s College is a <a href=\"Colleges%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Cambridge\">constituent college</a> of the <a href=\"University%20of%20Cambridge\">University of Cambridge</a>. Founded in 1473 as Katharine Hall, it adopted its current name in 1860. The college is nicknamed \"Catz\". The college is located in the historic city-centre of Cambridge, and lies just south of <a href=\"King%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">King's College</a> and across the street from <a href=\"Corpus%20Christi%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">Corpus Christi College</a>. The college is notable for its open court (rather than closed <a href=\"quadrangle%20%28architecture%29\">quadrangle</a>) that faces towards <a href=\"Trumpington%20Street\">Trumpington Street</a>.\nSt Catharine’s is unique in being the only <a href=\"Oxbridge\">Oxbridge</a> college founded by the serving head of another college. The college community is moderately sized, consisting of approximately 70 <a href=\"Oxford%20fellow\">fellows</a>, 150 graduate students, and 410 undergraduates. As of 2016, the college's endowment stood at £62.2 million, placing the college 15th richest of the University's colleges.\n<a href=\"Robert%20Woodlark\">Robert Woodlark</a>, Provost of <a href=\"King%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">King’s College</a>, had begun preparations for the founding of a new college as early as 1459 when he bought tenements on which the new college could be built. The preparation cost him a great deal of his private fortune (he was suspected of diverting King’s College funds), and he was forced to scale down the foundation to only three Fellows. He stipulated that they must study <a href=\"theology\">theology</a> and <a href=\"philosophy\">philosophy</a> only. The college was established as \"Lady Katharine Hall\" in 1473. The college received its Royal Charter of Incorporation in 1475 from <a href=\"Edward%20IV%20of%20England\">King Edward IV</a>. Woodlark may have chosen the name in homage to the mother of <a href=\"Henry%20VI%20of%20England\">King Henry VI</a> who was called Catharine, although it is more likely that it was named as part of the <a href=\"Renaissance\">Renaissance</a> cult of St Catharine, who was a patron saint of learning. At any rate, the college was ready for habitation and formally founded on St Catharine’s day (November 25) 1473. There are six Saints Catharine, but the college was named for <a href=\"Catherine%20of%20Alexandria\">Saint Catharine of Alexandria</a>.\nThe initial foundation was not well-provided for. Woodlark was principally interested in the welfare of fellows and the college had no undergraduates at all for many years. By 1550, however, there was an increasing number of junior students and the focus of the college changed to that of teaching undergraduates.\nAs the college entered the 17th century, it was still one of the smallest colleges in Cambridge. However, a series of prudent Masters and generous benefactors were to change the fortunes of the college and expand its size. Rapid growth in the fellowship and undergraduate population made it necessary to expand the college, and short-lived additions were made in 1622. By 1630 the college began to demolish its existing buildings which were decaying, and started work on a new court. In 1637 the college came into possession of the George Inn (later the Bull Inn) on <a href=\"Trumpington%20Street\">Trumpington Street</a>. Behind this Inn was a stables which was already famous for the practice of its manager, <a href=\"Thomas%20Hobson\">Thomas Hobson</a>, not to allow a hirer to take any horse other than the one longest in the stable, leading to the expression “<a href=\"Hobson%27s%20choice\">Hobson's choice</a>”, meaning \"take it or leave it\".\nThe period of 1675 to 1757 saw the redevelopment of the college's site into a large three-sided court, one of only four at Oxbridge colleges; the others are at Jesus and Downing at Cambridge and <a href=\"Worcester%20College%2C%20Oxford\">Worcester</a>, St Catharine’s sister college, at Oxford. Proposals for a range of buildings to complete the fourth side of the court have been made on many occasions.\nThe college was granted new statutes in 1860 and adopted its current name. In 1880, a movement to merge the college with <a href=\"King%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">King’s College</a> began. The two colleges were adjacent and it seemed a solution to King’s need for more rooms and St Catharine’s need for a more substantial financial basis. However, the Master (<a href=\"Charles%20Kirkby%20Robinson\">Charles Kirkby Robinson</a>) was opposed and St Catharine’s eventually refused.\nIn 1966 a major rebuilding project took place under the Mastership of Professor E. E. Rich. This saw the creation of a new larger hall, new kitchens and an accommodation block shared between St Catharine's and King's College. Pressure on accommodation continued to grow, and in 1981 further accommodation was built at St. Chad's on <a href=\"Grange%20Road%2C%20Cambridge\">Grange Road</a>, with further rooms added there in 1998. In 2013 the College completed the building of a new lecture theatre, college bar and JCR.\nIn 1979, the membership of the college was broadened to welcome female students, and in 2006 the first woman was appointed as Master of the college, <a href=\"Jean%20Thomas%20%28academic%29\">Dame Jean Thomas</a>.\nA history of the college was written by W.H.S. Jones in 1936.\nIn 2015, St Catharine's became the first college in Cambridge to implement a gender-neutral dress code for formal hall.\nHistorically, St Catharine's academic position has been unexceptional and in the annual league table of colleges placed towards the middle. In 2014 its position slipped to 21st, but rose to 13th in 2015 with over 25% of students gaining a First. The college had been placed at the top of the <a href=\"Tompkins%20Table\">Tompkins Table</a>, which ranks the colleges by the class of degrees obtained by their undergraduates, for the first time in 2005. Between 1997 and 2010, the college averaged 9th of the 29 colleges.\nThe college maintains a friendly rivalry with <a href=\"Queens%27%20College%2C%20Cambridge\">Queens’ College</a> after the construction of the main court of St Catharine's College on Cambridge’s former High Street relegated one side of Queens' College into a back alley. A more modern rivalry with <a href=\"Robinson%20College\">Robinson College</a> resulted from the construction in the 1970s of a modern block of flats named St Chad’s (in which the rooms are octagonal to resemble the wheel on the college crest) by the <a href=\"Cambridge%20University%20Library\">University Library</a>.\nThe college has a strong reputation in hockey and racquet sports, in part due to its facilities for these sports including grass tennis courts and an astroturf hockey pitch. <a href=\"St%20Catharine%27s%20College%20Boat%20Club%20%28Cambridge%29\">St Catharine's College Boat Club</a>, the college boat club, hosts the Cardinals Regatta each year, in which teams compete along a short course in fancy dress with an emphasis on bribery to secure victory. The college's Boat Club is moderately strong, with both Men's and Women's 1st boats generally residing in the middle of the 1st division of the <a href=\"May%20Bumps\">May Bumps</a> races.\nThe college hosts several other notable societies. The Shirley Society is the college literary society, the oldest in Cambridge, it regularly hosts significant figures from the arts world throughout the academic year. The college-based girls' choir is the first of its kind in a UK university and is composed of girls aged 8–14 from local schools.","Print Room (theatre)\nThe Print Room is a fringe theatre located in the old <a href=\"Coronet%20Cinema\">Coronet Cinema</a> in London, England. The company was founded in <a href=\"Westbourne%20Grove\">Westbourne Grove</a>, West London, and opened in September 2010. It produces a programme of theatre, art, dance and music events. The theatre is run by artistic director Anda Winters.\nThe theatre began in a converted 1950s warehouse which had served as a graphic design workshop in Westbourne Grove. The venue had two spaces: an 80-seater studio, which it used for its larger productions, and a 40-seater space for smaller theatre pieces, play readings and art exhibitions.\nIn July 2014, it was announced that the Print Room was taking over the <a href=\"Coronet%20Cinema\">Coronet Cinema</a> in <a href=\"Notting%20Hill%20Gate\">Notting Hill Gate</a> as its new home.\nThe Print Room operates in the Coronet using the 180-seat main auditorium, and a smaller, 100-seat studio space.\nThe Print Room stages lesser-known work by classic authors such as <a href=\"T.S%20Eliot\">T.S Eliot</a>, <a href=\"Arthur%20Miller\">Arthur Miller</a> and <a href=\"Harold%20Pinter\">Harold Pinter</a>, and new works by contemporary dramatists such as <a href=\"Brian%20Friel\">Brian Friel</a> and <a href=\"Will%20Eno\">Will Eno</a>.\nOn the 19th January 2017 a protest was held outside the theatre in a row over white actors playing characters with Chinese names. Hundreds of protesters accused The Print Room of yellow face casting for its production of Howard Barker's play In The Depths of Love.\n","National Film and Television School\nThe National Film and Television School (NFTS) is a <a href=\"Film%20school\">film, television and games school</a> established in 1971 and based at <a href=\"Beaconsfield%20Film%20Studios\">Beaconsfield Studios</a> in <a href=\"Beaconsfield\">Beaconsfield</a>, <a href=\"Buckinghamshire\">Buckinghamshire</a>. It is featured in the 2017 ranking by \"<a href=\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\">The Hollywood Reporter</a>\" of the top 15 International film schools.<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-1\"></a>\nIts community of students makes around a hundred and fifty films a year on courses that are over 90% practical and unlike courses offered at other UK film schools. As of 2017 it had over 400 students and about a thousand a year on its short courses. Beaconsfield Studios comprises state-of-the art facilities including film and television stages; animation and production design studios; edit suites; sound post-production facilities; a music recording studio and three dubbing theatres, all furnished with current digital equipment comparable to that used in the film and television industry. The school completed an expansion and modernisation programme in early 2017 with new teaching facilities, a third cinema and a new 4K Television Studio that is the most advanced dedicated training facility in the UK with the ability to shoot, record and stream live content in <a href=\"high%20definition%204k\">high definition 4k</a>.\nThe <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a> stated that the NFTS was the \"leading centre of excellence for education in film and television programme making\", and noted that it was \"relevant to the industry's present and future needs.\"<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-2\"></a> British Film Magazine once described the NFTS as being one of the few schools to come \"very, very close\" to guaranteeing a job in the film industry, and named its leader (Powell) a \"maverick\";<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-3\"></a> Filmmaking.net named it one of two films schools outside the US which had such a high international reputation.<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-4\"></a>\nNFTS student films have been nominated for an Oscar three times in the last six years. Additionally, in 2017 NFTS graduation film, \"A Love Story,\" directed and co-written by Anushka Naanayakkara, won the British Short Animation BAFTA at the EE British Academy Film Awards making it the fourth year in a row that NFTS students have picked up this accolade. This is the second consecutive year that two of NFTS students’ graduation films competed for the same prize with \"A Love Story\" up against \"The Alan Dimension\" directed & co-written by Jac Clinch. NFTS student films are regularly selected for the top film festivals around the world. This year’s highlights include selections at <a href=\"Cannes\">Cannes</a> and <a href=\"Annecy%20Animation%20Festival\">Annecy Animation Festival</a> and top prizes in nearly all the <a href=\"Royal%20Television%20Society\">Royal Television Society</a> categories for which they are eligible.\nIn 2016 the National Film and Television School won accolades in all three categories in the CILECT Prize, the global film school awards. This is the third time that the NFTS has taken top place in these prestigious awards having also won two out of three categories in 2015, and in 2013, the school made history by becoming the first institution to win first prize in all three categories. This year, 117 film schools submitted entries, which were voted on by 107 of the world’s major film and television schools from 57 countries.\nNFTS in 2011\nThe National Film School opened in 1971, the work of four years of planning to create an institution to train personnel for the British film industry. <a href=\"Department%20of%20Education%20and%20Science\">Department of Education and Science</a> had in 1967 recommended the creation of a national film school for the UK, and in 1969 an inquiry led by Lord Lloyd of Hampstead began to develop plans.\nIn 1970 a Scot named <a href=\"Colin%20Young%20%28film%20educator%29\">Colin Young</a>, then chairing the <a href=\"UCLA\">UCLA's</a> Department of Theater Arts, was appointed as the School's first director. The NFS bought the old Beaconsfield Film Studios in Buckinghamshire and set about refitting it to professional industry standards. Young established four permanent departments—production, camera, editing and sound—and in 1971 accepted the first intake of 25 students.\nThe curriculum in the early days was loosely structured; sporadic seminars and workshops were secondary to production, with students spending most of their time doing what they had come to the School to do—making films. But by the early 1980s, Young felt this system no longer served the students' best interests and a more structured curriculum was introduced. Links with the industry were strengthened to supply collaborative, financial and production expertise.\nIn the 1980s, the school officially changed its name to the National Film and Television School to incorporate the demand for courses in television production and has since added games to its remit. In 1982 the School launched a pilot project for re-training freelance industry professionals. This led to the establishment of the National Short Course Training Programme (now ShortCourses@NFTS), which has been running courses ever since on all areas of film and television production. By the early 1990s the school had modified its original stance on course structure, deciding to provide specialisation at the time of entry. The first year still offered a general course, followed in the next two years by focused training in one of the ten specialist areas (direction, writing, editing, camera, sound, animation, design, producing, documentary and composing).\nColin Young retired in 1992 and was succeeded by <a href=\"Henning%20Camre\">Henning Camre</a>, formerly Head of the <a href=\"National%20Film%20School%20of%20Denmark\">National Film School of Denmark</a>. Camre aimed for more balanced numbers in each of the ten specialist areas, creating separate departments with their own head tutors and curricula. He secured a Lottery grant to install state-of-the-art equipment, supporting new production methods offered by innovations in technology and ensuring that graduates were trained on up-to-date equipment.\nCamre was succeeded in 1998 by Stephen Bayly, an NFTS graduate and film producer (<a href=\"Richard%20III%20%281995%20film%29\">\"Richard III\"</a>, \"<a href=\"Mrs%20Dalloway\">Mrs Dalloway</a>\"). His first move was to reorganise the curriculum to run over two years, instead of three. Recognising a growing trend towards a requirement for academic qualifications, he sought to achieve this. Eventually, <a href=\"The%20Royal%20College%20of%20Art\">The Royal College of Art</a> agreed to validate the School's courses and 2000 saw the first intake of students who would graduate with an MA. In 2002, Bayly introduced the first of the shorter Diploma courses, established to meet an urgent Industry need for properly trained sound recordists.\nSeptember 2003 saw <a href=\"Nik%20Powell\">Nik Powell</a>, one of the UK's leading producers, to take over from Bayly. Powell has rapidly expanded the programme of new courses, introducing Diplomas in Producing & Directing Television Entertainment (now an MA), Digital Post-Production, SFX/VFX, Writing & Producing Comedy Diploma, and Script Development (a partnership venture with The Script Factory). New courses for 2017 include MA’s in Marketing for Film, TV & Games, Directing & Producing Science & Natural History, Production Technology and Creative Business for Entrepreneurs & Executives and Diplomas in Production Accounting, Directing Commercials and Graphics & Titles for Film & Television. Powell has reinvigorated the programme of visiting filmmakers, and set up a programme of masterclasses run at London cinemas for NFTS students and the public. He has also introduced a range of development deals with broadcasters and independent production\nIn 2016, the NFTS announced it had received funding to increase the capacity of its site in Beaconsfield including a state-of-the-art 4k Digital Content Production Training Studio and the addition of a number of new MA and Diploma courses including Directing & Producing Natural History & Science; Production Technology; Marketing for Film, TV & Games; Graphics & Titles for Television & Film and Creative Business for Entrepreneurs & Executives.\nThe NFTS holds yearly graduation shows at the <a href=\"BFI%20Southbank\">BFI Southbank</a> (formerly known as the National Film Theatre). These are highly selective and invite-only events which showcase the student's projects to scouts and industry professionals, ensuring that the students receive maximum exposure.<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-7\"></a>\nAlumni of the National Film and Television School have gone on to win <a href=\"Academy%20Award\">Oscars</a>, <a href=\"British%20Academy%20of%20Film%20and%20Television%20Arts\">BAFTAs</a> and <a href=\"Emmy%20Award\">Emmys</a> as well as film festival prizes from around the world. In the last 6 years student films \"The Confession\" (2011), \"<a href=\"Head%20over%20Heels%20%282012%20film%29\">Head Over Heels</a>\" (2013), \"<a href=\"The%20Bigger%20Picture\">The Bigger Picture</a>\" (2015) have gone on to be nominated for three <a href=\"Academy%20Award\">Oscars</a>, and the graduation film \"A Love Story\" won the 2017 <a href=\"British%20Academy%20of%20Film%20and%20Television%20Arts\">BAFTA</a> for <a href=\"BAFTA%20Award%20for%20Best%20Short%20Animation\">Best Short Animation</a>, the fourth year in a row an NFTS animation has won the category.<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-9\"></a>\nIn 2013 the NFTS graduation film \"Miss Todd\" won the <a href=\"Student%20Academy%20Awards\">Student Academy Award</a> for Best Foreign Film presented by <a href=\"Academy%20of%20Motion%20Picture%20Arts%20and%20Sciences\">Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences</a>. This marked the sixth time the NFTS had won in this category, more than any other Film School outside of the United States. In 2016, The National Film and Television School once again affirmed its place as the number one international film school by winning accolades in all three categories in the CILECT Prize, the global film school awards. The NFTS won ‘Best Documentary’ for \"The Archipelago\", ‘Best Animation’ for \"Edmond\" and was awarded second prize in the ‘Fiction’ category for \"Patriot\".\nThis is the third time that the NFTS has taken top place in these prestigious awards having also won two out of three categories in 2015, and in 2013, the school made history by becoming the first institution to win first prize in all three categories.\nThe NFTS has recently undergone a major renovation and has opened new state-of-the-art facilities completed in January 2017 including a 4K Digital Content Production Training Studio. The Games Design and Development, Sound Design and Digital Effects MA courses have brand new dedicated teaching space, additional studio space. There is also an extra cinema, café and incubation space to enable graduates to start new businesses and accommodate new ground-breaking courses, enhancing the NFTS’ already diverse programme.\nThe school's facilities were expanded in 2008 with the addition of new teaching spaces, public spaces and a new cinema, designed by Glenn Howells Architects. Upon its completion in 2008, the strikingly modern three story building (see photo above) won a coveted <a href=\"RIBA\">RIBA</a> prize.<a href=\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-10\"></a> In June 2009 it was formally named The Oswald Morris Building in honour of veteran cinematographer <a href=\"Oswald%20Morris\">Ossie Morris</a>.\nUntil its repeal in 1986, the school was funded partly through a tax on cinema ticket sales known as the <a href=\"Eady%20Levy\">Eady Levy</a>, named after then <a href=\"HM%20Treasury\">UK Treasury</a> official Sir Wilfred Eady. The NFTS has since been funded by the UK Government, via (today) the <a href=\"Department%20for%20Culture%2C%20Media%20and%20Sport\">Department for Culture, Media and Sport</a>, and the television and film industries.\nKey Partner Sponsors include ODEON, the Film Distributors’ Association and the UK Cinema Association in addition to the main UK <a href=\"Terrestrial%20television\">terrestrial</a> and <a href=\"satellite%20broadcasting\">satellite broadcasting</a> companies <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a>, <a href=\"Channel%204\">Channel 4</a>, <a href=\"BSkyB\">BSkyB</a>, <a href=\"S4C\">S4C</a>. In addition, a large number of public and private donors fund <a href=\"scholarships\">scholarships</a> to assist (chiefly <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">British</a> and <a href=\"European%20Union\">EU</a>) students.\nPostgraduate students from the UK/EU/EEA can now apply for a loan to help with their studies at any UK university including the NFTS via the Student Loans Company – which will make a big difference for many who wish to come and study at the NFTS.\nThe school has around 90 full-time staff as well as many top tutors from within the industry.\nThe National Film and Television School has awarded over 20 fellowships since 1981 with ceremonies taking place at their graduation ceremony each year. The NFTS Fellowship is awarded in recognition of outstanding contribution to the British film and television industry.\n","Jocelyn Pook\nJocelyn Pook ( ; born 14 February 1960) is an English composer, pianist and <a href=\"viola\">viola</a> player.\nPook graduated in 1983 from London's <a href=\"Guildhall%20School%20of%20Music%20and%20Drama\">Guildhall School of Music and Drama</a> where she studied the viola. She performed with many pop artists including \"<a href=\"The%20Communards\">The Communards</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Massive%20Attack\">Massive Attack</a>\", and formed \"<a href=\"Electra%20Strings\">Electra Strings</a>\" together with <a href=\"Sonia%20Slany\">Sonia Slany</a> for whom she wrote original material. She has worked extensively with eminent dance companies such as \"<a href=\"DV8\">DV8</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Shobana%20Jeyasingh%20Dance%20Company\">Shobana Jeyasingh</a>\", and in 2002 she was commissioned by \"<a href=\"The%20Proms\">The Proms</a>\" to write a work for \"The <a href=\"King%27s%20Singers\">King's Singers</a>\" in collaboration with <a href=\"Andrew%20Motion\">Andrew Motion</a>.\nPook recorded on two occasions with pianist <a href=\"Jeremy%20Peyton%20Jones\">Jeremy Peyton Jones</a> for \"<a href=\"Rough%20Trade%20Records\">Rough Trade</a>\" and later for \"Century XXI\". About a year later, she joined <a href=\"Anne%20Stephenson\">Anne Stephenson</a> and <a href=\"Audrey%20Riley\">Audrey Riley</a> to accompany <a href=\"Virginia%20Astley\">Virginia Astley</a> both on stage and record. Session work followed and alternated with her co-founding of the \"<a href=\"Electra%20Strings\">Electra Strings</a>\" with Australian violinist <a href=\"Sonia%20Slany\">Sonia Slany</a> and an album on the \"<a href=\"Village%20Life\">Village Life</a>\" label. This neoclassical chamber <a href=\"quartet\">quartet</a> later transformed into the \"Brilliant Strings\" after she and Slany had gone their separate ways.\nAs a solo recording artist, Pook released several albums. These included \"Deluge\" (1997), \"Flood\" (1999) and \"Untold Things\" (2001).\nHer career as a <a href=\"film%20score\">film composer</a> took flight when cuts from her album \"Flood\" were used in <a href=\"Stanley%20Kubrick\">Stanley Kubrick</a>'s film \"<a href=\"Eyes%20Wide%20Shut\">Eyes Wide Shut</a>\". The piece \"Masked Ball\",\nwhich incorporates a fragment of an Orthodox <a href=\"Liturgy\">Liturgy</a> played backwards and lyrics sung (or <a href=\"chant\">chant</a>ed) in <a href=\"Romanian%20language\">Romanian</a>, underscored the masked ball sequence.\nFurther scores have subsequently been contributed to several European films, notably the 2004 film version of <a href=\"William%20Shakespeare\">William Shakespeare</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Merchant%20of%20Venice%20%282004%20film%29\">The Merchant of Venice</a>\", <a href=\"Peter%20Kosminsky\">Peter Kosminsky</a>'s film on <a href=\"David%20Kelly%20%28weapons%20expert%29\">David Kelly</a>, \"<a href=\"The%20Government%20Inspector%20%28television%20drama%29\">The Government Inspector</a>\", \"<a href=\"Brick%20Lane%20%282007%20film%29\">Brick Lane</a>\" and 2007's \"<a href=\"Ca%C3%B3tica%20Ana\">Caótica Ana</a>\".\nPook was commissioned to write a short opera, \"Ingerland\",\nfor <a href=\"ROH2\">ROH2</a> (the contemporary producing arm of London's <a href=\"Royal%20Opera%20House\">Royal Opera House</a>) which was performed in the Royal Opera House's Linbury Studio Theatre in June 2010.\nOn 3 December 2012 her work \"Hearing Voices\", was performed in premiere by <a href=\"Melanie%20Pappenheim\">Melanie Pappenheim</a> with <a href=\"Charles%20Hazlewood\">Charles Hazlewood</a> conducting the <a href=\"BBC%20Concert%20Orchestra\">BBC Concert Orchestra</a> at the <a href=\"Queen%20Elizabeth%20Hall\">Queen Elizabeth Hall</a> in a concert on the theme of hysteria. In June 2014 the English National Ballet made their <a href=\"http%3A//www.glastonburyfestivals.co.uk/\">Glastonbury debut</a> on the iconic the Pyramid Stage on the Sunday morning with their performance of Akram Khan's First World War-themed Dust, with Music composed by Jocelyn Pook. The performance was <a href=\"http%3A//www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b048sqb6\">broadcast by the BBC</a> on BBC2.\nIn 1983 Jocelyn appeared in the \"<a href=\"ABC%20%28band%29\">ABC</a>\" movie \"<a href=\"Mantrap%20%281983%20film%29\">Mantrap</a>\" as one of many string players for the album \"<a href=\"The%20Lexicon%20of%20Love\">The Lexicon of Love</a>\".","Oona Chaplin\nOona Castilla Chaplin ] (born 4 June 1986), known professionally as Oona Chaplin, is a Spanish actress. She is known for playing Marnie Madden in \"<a href=\"The%20Hour%20%28BBC%20TV%20series%29\">The Hour</a>\", <a href=\"List%20of%20Game%20of%20Thrones%20characters%23Talisa%20Maegyr\">Talisa Maegyr</a> in the <a href=\"HBO\">HBO</a> TV series \"<a href=\"Game%20of%20Thrones\">Game of Thrones</a>\", Kitty Trevelyan in \"<a href=\"The%20Crimson%20Field\">The Crimson Field</a>\" and Zilpha Geary in \"<a href=\"Taboo%20%282017%20TV%20series%29\">Taboo</a>\".\nA member of the <a href=\"Chaplin%20family\">Chaplin family</a>, she is the daughter of actress <a href=\"Geraldine%20Chaplin\">Geraldine Chaplin</a>, the granddaughter of acclaimed English filmmaker and actor <a href=\"Charlie%20Chaplin\">Charlie Chaplin</a>, and the great-granddaughter of American playwright <a href=\"Eugene%20O%27Neill\">Eugene O'Neill</a>. She was named after her maternal grandmother <a href=\"Oona%20O%27Neill\">Oona O'Neill</a>, Charlie's wife.\nOona Chaplin was born in <a href=\"Madrid\">Madrid</a> to Anglo-American actress <a href=\"Geraldine%20Chaplin\">Geraldine Chaplin</a> and <a href=\"Chile\">Chile</a>an cinematographer Patricio Castilla. Her paternal grandmother is a <a href=\"mapuche\">mapuche</a> Indian. She was named after her maternal grandmother, <a href=\"Oona%20O%27Neill\">Oona O'Neill Chaplin</a>. She spent her childhood mostly in Spain, Great Britain, <a href=\"Switzerland\">Switzerland</a>, and <a href=\"Cuba\">Cuba</a>, but also travelled often because of her mother's film career. She started dancing ballet, <a href=\"salsa%20%28dance%29\">salsa</a> and <a href=\"flamenco\">flamenco</a> at an early age.\nWhen Chaplin was fifteen, she began studying at <a href=\"Gordonstoun%20School\">Gordonstoun School</a> in Scotland on a drama scholarship. During her time there, she appeared in several school plays, touring the United Kingdom in an adaptation of \"<a href=\"Romeo%20and%20Juliet\">Romeo and Juliet</a>\" and impersonating her grandfather in the role of Bottom in an adaptation of \"<a href=\"A%20Midsummer%20Night%27s%20Dream\">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a>\", which was performed at the <a href=\"Edinburgh%20Festival%20Fringe\">Edinburgh Festival Fringe</a>. After leaving Gordonstoun, she was accepted to the <a href=\"Royal%20Academy%20of%20Dramatic%20Art\">Royal Academy of Dramatic Art</a>, from which she graduated in 2007. Oona has a half-brother named Shane from her mother's previous relationship with film director, <a href=\"Carlos%20Saura\">Carlos Saura</a>.\nSince graduating from RADA, Chaplin has acted in mainly British and Spanish short and feature films. She has played alongside her mother in three feature films: \"<a href=\"Inconceivable%20%282008%20film%29\">Inconceivable</a>\", \"<a href=\"%C2%BFPara%20qu%C3%A9%20sirve%20un%20oso%3F\">¿Para qué sirve un oso?</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Imago%20Mortis\">Imago Mortis</a>\". Chaplin has also had several supporting roles in British and American television. In 2010, she appeared as a Brazilian cage dancer in <a href=\"ITV%20Network\">ITV</a>'s \"<a href=\"Married%20Single%20Other\">Married Single Other</a>\" (2010), followed by roles as the wife of one of the main characters, Hector Madden, in the <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a> period drama \"<a href=\"The%20Hour%20%28BBC%20TV%20series%29\">The Hour</a>\" (2011–2012), as Dr. John Watson's girlfriend in <a href=\"A%20Scandal%20in%20Belgravia\">an episode</a> of <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a>'s \"<a href=\"Sherlock%20%28TV%20series%29\">Sherlock</a>\" (2012) and as <a href=\"List%20of%20A%20Song%20of%20Ice%20and%20Fire%20characters%23Jeyne%20Westerling\">Talisa Maegyr</a> in <a href=\"HBO\">HBO</a>'s \"<a href=\"Game%20of%20Thrones\">Game of Thrones</a>\" (2012–2013).\nShe plays Kitty Trevelyan, a lead character, in the BBC drama \"<a href=\"The%20Crimson%20Field\">The Crimson Field</a>\" (2014) and Ruth Levinson, wife of Ira Levinson, in \"<a href=\"The%20Longest%20Ride\">The Longest Ride</a>\" (2015).\nChaplin stars as Zilpha Geary in the eight-part <a href=\"historical%20fiction\">historical fiction</a> series \"<a href=\"Taboo%20%282017%20TV%20series%29\">Taboo</a>\" (2017) on <a href=\"BBC%20One\">BBC One</a> and <a href=\"FX%20%28TV%20channel%29\">FX</a>."],"string":"[\n \"Twenty (film)\\nTwenty () is a 2015 South Korean coming-of-age film starring Kim Woo-bin, Lee Junho and Kang Ha-neul. It was written and directed by Lee Byeong-heon, his second feature after the 2012 indie \\\"Cheer Up, Mr. Lee\\\".\\nChi-ho, Kyung-jae and Dong-woo are best friends who've just graduated from high school and turned 20. Chi-ho is an unemployed player living in the moment and whose number one priority is dating and chasing women. Kyung-jae is a goody-two-shoes university student whose goal is to get accepted at a corporate job; he's extremely shy around girls, but completely transforms when he gets drunk. And happy-go-lucky Dong-woo dreams of becoming a cartoonist, but when his family goes bankrupt, he's forced to become the breadwinner and take on several part-time jobs.\\nTwo singles were released as the film's \\\"special\\\" soundtrack. Part 1 (released on March 6, 2015) featured a duet by Lee Junho and Lee Yu-bi titled \\\"Cupid's Arrow,\\\" and Part 2 (released on March 18, 2015) featured \\\"Twenty\\\" sung by boyband Sweet Sorrow with narration by Kim Woo-bin.\\n\\\"Twenty\\\" was released in South Korea on March 25, 2015. It topped the box office in its opening weekend, drawing 1,136,866 viewers and earning ₩8.74 billion (). As of April 19, 2015, it has grossed with nearly 3 million admissions.\\nThe film was released by CJ Entertainment America in 25 theaters across North America on April 17, 2015.\\nIt will also receive a theatrical release in other Asian countries such as Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, and Vietnam.\",\n \"A Snow White Christmas\\nA Snow White Christmas is a Christmas animated television special produced by Filmation and telecast December 19, 1980, on CBS. It is a sequel to the fairy tale \\\"Snow White\\\", unrelated to Filmation's other sequel to \\\"Snow White\\\" titled \\\"Happily Ever After\\\" (1990). While this is a sequel to the original story and not the 1937 Disney film, there are some similarities. The film's plot revolves around the return of the Wicked Queen, who is unexpectedly brought back to life and casts an evil spell that freezes the entire land. It is up to young Snow White, the daughter of the original Snow White aided by the seven giants, to defeat her once-and-for-all and save the kingdom.\\nAfter vanquishing the Wicked Queen, the new queen, Snow White and her husband King Charming are now the rulers of the land of Noel. They have a young daughter, also named Snow White for her snow-white hair. The royal family decides to host a Christmas winter sports festival. One of the participants is Grunyon, a bumbling dwarf and a friend of the young Snow White. Snow White says her Christmas wish is to build a playhouse for all the children and suggests remodeling the old abandoned castle that belonged to Snow White's evil stepmother.\\nHowever, a reflection of sunlight causes an ice block to melt, freeing the Wicked Queen, who has been encased within it for years. Returning to her castle, she finds her Magic Mirror and asks it who is the fairest. When it replies that there are two who are equally fair, the witch accuses it of taking the coward's way out by saying that she and Snow White are equally beautiful, only for it to answer that it was talking about two Snow Whites. The furious Queen creates a magical ice storm and freezes the entire kingdom, just barely missing the horrified princess Snow White. Grunyon, who was also spared being frozen, leads Snow White into the forest to escape the storm. After finding their way into the Warm Valley, they accidentally wander upon a giant garden and two giants appear - Finicky and Corny - who mistake them for bugs and try to squash them. Snow White starts crying, and Grunyon scolds the giants who apologize and introduce themselves through song, along with five other giants - Thinker, Hicker, Tiny, Weeper, and Brawny. After hearing their story, they take pity on Snow White and Grunyon, and allow them to stay in their cottage.\\nAfter the Wicked Queen discovers the young Snow White is still alive, she first turns herself into a giant rat to attack her, but is foiled when one of the giants returns home. The Queen then melts all the ice on the mountains to form a flood, which Brawny saves Snow White from. The giants decide to leave Snow White at home and post Hicker as a guard. The Queen turns two vultures into wyvern-like creatures to distract Hicker, then disguises herself as a giant old woman and tricks Snow White into smelling the scent of a poisoned flower that puts her to sleep, just as she had tricked Snow White's mother with the poisoned apple. However, Hicker's hiccups are loud and the other giants hear them and get back to the cottage. Seeing Snow White apparently dead, they run off to attack the Queen's castle. The witch tries to stop them by casting lightning bolts, but Brawny is too tough for it. She then summons seven demons to fight the giants, but Hicker begins hiccuping which causes an earthquake and the Queen's castle collapses. The Magic Mirror, revealed as the source of her power, is shattered and the demons vanish as the Queen herself evaporates into nothingness.\\nWith the Wicked Queen's demise, the curse she has placed over the kingdom is broken, causing the ice statues to revert to people, King Charming and Snow White. Grunyon and the Giants bring Snow White home to her parents in a rose-filled coffin. They kiss Snow White's cheeks and she awakens, and everyone rejoices. Brawny also tells that he and the other giants built a castle for the children while Snow White was asleep.\",\n \"Jon Opstad\\nJon Opstad is a British composer. He studied music at St Catharine's College, Cambridge, and film composition at the National Film and Television School. His film and television work includes scoring two episodes of Charlie Brooker's critically acclaimed dystopian television drama \\\"Black Mirror\\\", including the 2014 feature-length special White Christmas, starring Jon Hamm, Rafe Spall and Oona Chaplin. Other scores include the Channel 4 dramas \\\"Cyber Bully and Blackout\\\", the \\\"Pals\\\" episode of BBC Three drama \\\"Our World War\\\" and the award-winning documentary feature fil\\\"m A World Not Ours\\\", directed by Mahdi Fleifel. He was the co-composer (with Sheridan Tongue) on several episodes of series 16 of BBC One crime drama \\\"Silent Witness\\\".\\nOpstad was nominated for a 2014 British Composer Award, in the Stage Works category, for his score for the contemporary dance theatre production Ignis, first staged in February 2014 at The Print Room in west London, choreographed by Hubert Essakow and featuring actor Sara Kestelman.\\nOpstad has worked with a number of other film and television composers, including Martin Phipps, Sheridan Tongue, Jocelyn Pook, Max Richter, Ruth Barrett and Richard Thomas, contributing to a range of projects.\\nOpstad's music has been broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on a number of occasions, including on the programmes Late Junction and In Tune.\\nHe is based in London.\",\n \"White Christmas (Black Mirror)\\n\\\"White Christmas\\\" is a 2014 Christmas special episode of the British science fiction anthology series \\\"Black Mirror\\\". It was written by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker and directed by Carl Tibbetts, and first aired on Channel 4 on 16 December 2014. The only television special of the series, it is also the last episode to be aired on Channel 4, as the series would move to Netflix for its third series.\\nThe episode starts with two men, Matt (Jon Hamm) and Joe (Rafe Spall), stationed at a remote outpost in the middle of a snowy wilderness. As they tell each other their respective lives to pass the time, those events are depicted on-screen, forming three mini-stories ultimately relating to the characters' current situation. Oona Chaplin co-stars as Greta, a character in one of Matt's stories.\\nThe episode received very positive reviews.\\nMatt Trent (Jon Hamm) and Joe Potter (Rafe Spall) are stationed at a small, remote outpost in the middle of a snowy wilderness. On Christmas Day, Matt is preparing Christmas dinner, while \\\"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday\\\" plays on the radio. He talks to Joe about what brought him to the outpost, a topic they never discussed in the five years they have been there. Joe is reluctant, so Matt opens up first to explain why he came.\\nIn flashback, Matt is shown to be a dating coach to single men to help them seduce women. Matt uses the ubiquitous \\\"Z-Eye\\\" technology, an irremovable augmented reality device implanted in one's eyes granting access to the Internet, to see and hear what his clients witness and provide instructions to them. His latest client is shy and socially awkward Harry (Rasmus Hardiker), whom Matt has instructed to crashgate an office Christmas party. Matt, along with several other single men sharing in Harry's video stream, identify Jennifer (Natalia Tena) as a quiet, \\\"attractive outsider\\\" from her social media profile. Matt guides Harry to starting a conversation with her. Jennifer states that she hears voices in her head, and once took medicine to quell them but no longer, and now has difficulty deciding whether to leave her job, given that the voices offer her conflicting advice. Harry boldly suggests she leave the job, which she is appreciative of. When she steps to the restroom, Harry converses with Matt and the others, worried about his deceitfulness. Jennifer leaves the restroom and sees Harry seemingly talking to himself. She suggests they leave for her place, which Harry, Matt and the others assume that they will have sex.\\nJennifer takes Harry to her room and pours them a drink, which Harry has difficulty swallowing. Jennifer explains that the drink will help liberate them from the voices in their heads. Matt realises that Jennifer is dangerous, likely attempting to poison them both, and orders Harry to leave. However, Jennifer restrains him and forces the drink down him via funnel. As Harry's attempts to fight back become weaker, Matt disables the feed, instructs the other men to erase what they have, and proceeds to delete his own records to avoid being implicated in Harry's death. Matt tries to sneak back into his bedroom but discovered by his wife, who finds out what he has been up to. She enables the Z-Eye's \\\"block\\\" on him, causing his vision to only see her as a static-like silhouette. She leaves him and takes custody of the child, and Matt later resigns to join the outpost to avoid any memory of that life.\\nIn the present, Joe is stunned by Matt's story, but Matt continues on, noting that being a dating coach was only a side job to his real profession.\\nMatt describes his real profession in flashback. Technology has created a bean-size chip called a \\\"cookie\\\", which can be temporarily implanted in someone's brain to create a copy of the person's consciousness. These chips can then be removed and used in egg-shaped devices to run smart houses and act as a personal assistant to the original person, helping in a nearly perfect manner. Matt is one to help acclimate the artificial consciousness to their new position, specifically to break their willpower to become emotionless performers. Matt is shown doing this for the wealthy Greta (Oona Chaplin). The \\\"Greta cookie\\\" expresses great concern about her situation, still believing she is the real Greta when Matt first talks to her. He provides her with a virtual body, a stark-white room, and a computer desk to carry out her tasks. When she refuses to cooperate, he alters the \\\"Greta cookie\\\"' s perception of time, making her experience six months of boredom and isolation, in what—in reality—was just a few seconds. Consequently, the \\\"Greta cookie\\\" becomes catatonic and finally has its will broken.\\nIn the present day, Joe expresses his disgust at Matt's career, which requires the use of torture on self-aware creations. Matt observes that Joe is an empathetic, \\\"good person\\\" and asks again why he came to the outpost. Having loosened up with alcohol, Joe says that his girlfriend's father never liked him and then explains his situation.\\nJoe once had a serious relationship with Beth (Janet Montgomery), which was impeded by Joe's tendency to get drunk. One evening, they are having dinner with their friends Tim and Gita, but Beth is withdrawn and seems to be in a bad mood, which Joe attributes to his drunken state. After the dinner, Joe discovers a positive pregnancy test in their trash, and thinking he will be a dad, congratulates Beth. Beth states she doesn't want the child and plans to have an abortion. Joe, still drunk, angrily retorts that she is being selfish and guilty of harming their unborn child. Beth is incited by this, and places a Z-Eye \\\"block\\\" on Joe, and she leaves the next day, unable to hear his apology.\\nFrom Tim and Gita, he learns Beth has left her job. He spends several months writing her apology letters sent to her father's cottage with no reply. Knowing that Beth spends her Christmas with her father, he watches the cabin from a distance to see that she is very pregnant, and did not go through with the abortion. Over the next few years, Joe watches the cabin, and as the Z-Eye block extends to one's legal children, he cannot see Beth's child, only its silhouette, but eventually can make out it is a girl. He leaves presents at the cabin doorstep for the child.\\nOne day at home, Joe discovers Beth had died in a train accident, which has caused the Z-Eye block to be removed. Though saddened by Beth's death, he is elated at the block's removal. He goes her father's cabin and can see the child for the first time. He follows her into the cabin but shortly discovers that she has strong Asian features, despite neither he nor Beth having such heritage. He flashes back to the party with Tim and Gita, and realises that Tim, who is Asian, was having an affair with Beth, and this is Tim's child. Beth's father appears, demanding to know why he is here. Joe asks him if she ever got the letters he sent, but he admits to having burned them all for Beth's sake. Angered, Joe bashes Beth's father's head with the snowglobe he brought as a gift, killing him. Stunned, Joe quickly leaves the cabin.\\nMatt asks Joe what happened to Beth's daughter. Joe knows that she attempted to go get help for her grandfather but got no farther than a tree near the cabin before dying from the cold weather. He knows he is responsible for both deaths. As Joe states this, he realises the cabin they are in is the same as Beth's father, and sees Beth's daughter's corpse outside by the tree. He demands Matt to tell him what is happening. Matt speaks to the empty air, stating he got the \\\"confession\\\", apologizes to Joe, and suddenly disappears.\\nIn reality, the events of the episode have been taking place inside a \\\"cookie\\\" like Greta's, but copied from Joe's consciousness. Matt used his techniques to make \\\"Joe\\\" think five years had passed when only seventy minutes have passed in real time. Matt did this to coerce a confession from Joe for the deaths of Beth's father and daughter for the police, in exchange for his own release from prison for his involvement in Harry's death. Officer Holder (Robin Weaver) keeps her promise, but by law has registered Matt as a Sex Offender, causing him to be blocked by everyone's Z-Eye, making him unable to communicate with anyone else.\\nHolder tells the real Joe that they have gotten their confession and thanks him. As the officers leave for the Christmas night, they use the cookie equipment to set \\\"Joe\\\"'s time perception to 1,000 years a minute, planning to turn it off the next day. In the virtual cabin, \\\"Joe\\\" is confronted with \\\"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday\\\" on the radio, and no matter how many times he smashes the radio, it returns the moment he looks back. He curls up on the floor, screaming.\\nThe episode features Jon Hamm, Oona Chaplin, and Rafe Spall in the main roles. Hamm later elaborated that he \\\"had been a fan of \\\"Black Mirror\\\" and Charlie Brooker, because I have a strange predilection for offbeat British things, and this was no exception. It came about in this very odd way, with me asking my agent if I could meet Mr. Brooker. I didn't know he was even working on a third series or a Christmas special or anything, it was simply that I really liked his work and really wanted to meet the guy.\\\" Hamm mentioned that he had \\\"seen both previous series and absolutely loved it\\\", and Brooker described Hamm's casting as \\\"fortuitous\\\". In contrast to Hamm, Spall accepted a part in the episode without having seen the series, but having once read a script for a previous episode. Chaplin, who had just moved from the UK to Los Angeles to capitalise on her success in \\\"Game of Thrones\\\", similarly praised the script, stating that she \\\"flew out there with a plan to stay for a year, and then a week later I was coming back to the UK to do this.”\\nThe special makes references to previous \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes. In the beginning of the scene in which Matt's computer shows dating club clients in the conference call, one of the users has the nickname, \\\"I_AM_WALDO\\\", and another, \\\"Pie Ape\\\". The Z-Eyes are reminiscent of a similar device in \\\"The Entire History of You\\\". Clips of TV shows from \\\"The Waldo Moment\\\" and \\\"Fifteen Million Merits\\\" are visible when Joe flicks through the TV channels. The pregnancy test Joe finds is the same one used in \\\"Be Right Back\\\". The ticker during a news report mentions the prime minister from \\\"The National Anthem\\\", as well as Victoria Skillane from \\\"White Bear\\\", and Liam Monroe from \\\"The Waldo Moment\\\". Bethany sings \\\"Anyone Who Knows What Love Is\\\", the same song that Abi sings in \\\"Fifteen Million Merits\\\".\\nThe episode received critical acclaim. Ben Beaumont-Thomas of \\\"The Guardian\\\" praised the episode's comic satire and noted that \\\"sentimentality is offset with wicked wit, and Brooker's brio and imagination paper over any gaps in logic\\\". \\\"The Telegraph\\\" reviewer Mark Monahan gave the episode 4/5 stars and noted that the drama was \\\"thrilling stuff: escapist entertainment with a very real-world sting in its tail\\\". He equated the episode with the stronger of the previous \\\"Black Mirror\\\" episodes, stating that \\\"it exaggerated present-day technology and obsessions to subtle but infernal effect, a nightmare-before-Christmas reminder that to revere our digital gizmos is to become their pathetic slave\\\".\\nEllen Ejonar of \\\"The Independent\\\" also praised the episode, summarising that the episode was \\\"great on our technology culture, but also just great; well cast, expertly structured and genuinely unsettling\\\". She also compared it favourably to other Christmas television episodes, concluding that: \\\"at a time of year when schmaltz usually covers the TV schedules like a snowdrift, this sidelong look at the state of humanity is all the more welcome\\\". Danny Krupa of IGN gave the episode 8.5/10. In particular, he praised the acting, although he noted that Chaplin's role was the least developed. Despite Hamm's star billing, Krupa noted: \\\"it's really Spall who shines brightest over the course of 90 minutes, as we experience the full depth of his misery\\\". Finally, Den of Geek noted that the episode's finale was \\\"a thrilling development that invites you to rewatch right from the beginning (something that will greatly benefit from the DVD release, when we can do it without all those ad breaks)\\\".\\n\",\n \"White Christmas Blues\\n\\\"White Christmas Blues\\\" is the eighth episode of the 25th season of the American animated sitcom \\\"The Simpsons\\\", and the 538th episode of the series. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 15, 2013. The episode was written by Don Payne and directed by Steven Dean Moore. It was the first Christmas episode since \\\"Holidays of Future Passed\\\" and the twelfth Christmas episode of the show.\\nIn the episode, Springfield becomes a tourist hotspot after an accident involving the nuclear plant and the Springfield tire fire causes snow to fall for the first time in a long time—and when Springfield's stores raise their prices, Marge turns their house into a bed and breakfast for the out-of-towners.\\nAs Marge scolds Homer for hanging up the house's Christmas decorations before taking down the ones for Halloween, a bored Bart and Lisa watch a television news broadcast in which Kent Brockman announces that all of America will have no snow at Christmas due to global warming. Soon, however, snow does begin to fall in Springfield; Professor Frink explains that due to the combination of radioactive steam from the nuclear power plant and airborne particulates from the city's tire fire, it is the only location in America with snow. Mayor Quimby declares the town a tourist attraction, and the residents quickly get into the holiday spirit as out-of-town travelers converge on Springfield.\\nOverwhelmed by the sudden crowds at the Kwik-E-Mart, and seeing the money spent by the tourists, Marge begins to feel like a failure since she cannot afford to spend lavishly on her family. As she returns to the house, a family drives past and offers to pay $300 per night to stay there. She hesitantly accepts the offer; Homer is surprised to find this other family in the house, but Marge explains the situation and persuades him to turn the house into a bed-and-breakfast for the duration of the holiday season. They take in more guests as Christmas approaches, but Marge becomes irritated at their constant requests and complaints over shoddy service and activities. On Christmas Day, Marge finds the guests gathered in the living room and thinks they are going to confront her, but instead they surprise her by singing Christmas carols.\\nMeanwhile, Lisa buys gifts for the family that are intended to make her feel good about herself - such as a bag of radish seeds for Homer, and a book for Bart - rather than to be something the recipients can use. She is appalled to find Bart burning the book soon afterward, but their argument leads her to see that her gift-giving effort was misguided. She sells the gift Bart gave her and buys him a tablet pre-loaded with books and apps he can enjoy, and he gives her some money to donate to charity.\\nDennis Perkins of \\\"The A.V. Club\\\" gave the episode a C, saying \\\"While \\\"The Simpsons\\\" has always excelled at tossed-off sign gags and the like, this sequence is just a jumble of writers’ room bulletin board material—and not especially inspired material at that. A few hit—the loony not-logic behind “A Zombie Christmas With Bing Crosby And The 1932 All-American Football Team” smacks of something alumnus Conan O’Brien might have come up with—but all too often the rest truck in either laziness or the aforementioned pop-culture references. (If \\\"The Simpsons\\\" never mentions a Kardashian again, that would be a step in the right direction.) The same goes for the closing credits, where we see all of the out-of-state license plates Marge marveled at earlier. Like so much of \\\"The Simpsons\\\" this year, there are some decent jokes scattered in there—any guesses on which is the “Touch It With A Stick State?”—but, as any grumpy old man would say, the show would be better served jettisoning the bulk of the extraneous spitballing for a coherent plot and some decent character development.\\\" Teresa Lopez of \\\"TV Fanatic\\\" gave the episode two and a half stars out of five, saying \\\"\\\"The Simpsons\\\" Christmas Specials have always been one of my favorites (along with the Treehouse of Horror), but tonight's episode was a disappointing, uneven, and (again!) overly familiar installment.\\\"\\nThe episode received a 3.5 rating and was watched by a total of 8.48 million people, this made it the most watched show on Animation Domination that night beating \\\"American Dad!\\\", \\\"Bob's Burgers\\\" and \\\"Family Guy\\\".\\n\",\n \"White Christmas (TV series)\\nWhite Christmas () is a 2011 South Korean television series starring Kim Sang-kyung, Baek Sung-hyun, and a cast of then-rookie actors, namely Kim Young-kwang, Lee Soo-hyuk, Kwak Jung-wook, Hong Jong-hyun, Esom, Kim Woo-bin, Sung Joon, Jung Suk-won, and Lee El. Written by Park Yeon-seon and directed by Kim Yong-soo, it aired as part of the Drama Special anthology series on KBS2 from January 30 to March 20, 2011 on Sundays at 23:15 for 8 episodes.\\nA series of deaths, including murder and suicide, take place over eight days in a private, elite high school deep in the mountains, with the students cut off from the outside world and in highly volatile and unstable emotional conditions. The drama deals with the question of whether evil is organic or environmental, and the potential for adolescents to be extremely empathetic as well as equally cruel.\\nDeep in the mountains of Gangwon, the private, elite Soo-sin High School is attended by the top 1% of students in the country. Their stellar marks are the result of constant pressure and a strict punishment system, to the point where students avoid any activities outside of studying. It is in this atmosphere that seven students and a teacher remain at school for the winter break, joined by Kim Yo-han (Kim Sang-kyung), a psychiatrist who was forced to take shelter with them after he was injured in a car accident nearby. Stranded from heavy snow, they spend eight days together ― from Christmas Eve to New Year's Day.\\nPark Mu-yeol (Baek Sung-hyun) is an honor student who chooses to remain in school during the winter break after receiving an abusive letter. Jo Young-jae (Kim Young-kwang) is a detested bully who attacks other people to hide his inferiority complex. Yoon Soo (Lee Soo-hyuk) is a disturbed, but rich student fronting a rock band. Yoon Eun-sung (Esom) was once a popular girl in school before having a sudden change of personality.\\nAt a time when everyone else is celebrating the holidays, the students realize that the anonymous letters they each received were not the result of a harmless prank; there is a murderer in their midst. A question lies unspoken: Are monsters created, or are humans born monsters?\",\n \"Sweet Stranger and Me\\nSweet Stranger and Me () is a South Korean television series based on the 2015 webtoon of the same name by Yoo Hyun-sook. It was aired every Mondays and Tuesdays at 22:00 (KST) on KBS2. This drama reunited Kim Young-kwang and Lee Soo-hyuk in KBS 2011 Drama Special \\\"White Christmas\\\",\\nHong Na-ri (Soo Ae) is a middle-aged flight attendant who suddenly comes home to find her deceased mother's husband, Go Nan-gil (Kim Young-kwang), has decided to live in her house. The problem is her mother's husband is three years younger than Hong Na-ri. Go Nan-gil runs a dumpling shop inherited from his late wife, where the shop and Na-ri's house are located on a hotly disputed land.\\nFirst script reading took place on September 12, 2016 at KBS Broadcasting Station in Yeouido, Seoul, South Korea.\\n\\n\",\n \"White Christmas (film)\\nWhite Christmas is a 1954 American musical romantic comedy film directed by Michael Curtiz and starring Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye, Rosemary Clooney, and Vera-Ellen. Filmed in VistaVision and Technicolor, it features the songs of Irving Berlin, including a new version of the title song, \\\"White Christmas\\\", introduced by Crosby in the film \\\"Holiday Inn\\\".\\nProduced and distributed by Paramount Pictures, the film is notable for being the first to be released in VistaVision, a widescreen process developed by Paramount that entailed using twice the surface area of standard 35mm film; this large-area negative was used to yield finer-grained standard-sized 35mm prints.\\nOn Christmas Eve, 1944, somewhere in Europe, two World War II U.S. Army soldiers, one a Broadway entertainer, Captain Bob Wallace (Bing Crosby), the other an aspiring entertainer, Private Phil Davis (Danny Kaye), perform for the 151st Division. But, word has come down that their beloved commanding officer, Major General Thomas F. Waverly (Dean Jagger), is being relieved of his command. He arrives for the end of the show and delivers an emotional farewell. The men give him a rousing send-off (\\\"The Old Man\\\").\\nAfter the war, Bob and Phil make it big in nightclubs, radio, and then on Broadway, eventually becoming successful producers. They mount their newest hit musical titled \\\"Playing Around\\\". The same day they receive a letter from \\\"Freckle-Faced Haynes, the dog-faced boy,\\\" their mess sergeant from the war, asking them to look at an act that his two sisters are doing.\\nWhen they go to the club to watch the act (\\\"Sisters\\\"), Phil notices that Bob is smitten with Betty (Rosemary Clooney). Phil has eyes for her sister, Judy (Vera-Ellen). Betty and Judy join Bob and Phil at their table, and Phil dances with Judy, so that Bob and Betty can get to know each other. Phil and Judy hit it off (\\\"The Best Things Happen While You're Dancing\\\"). Bob and Betty do not, getting into a minor argument about how Bob thinks that everyone has an angle in show business.\\nJudy and Betty are headed for the Columbia Inn in Pine Tree, Vermont, where they are booked to perform over the holidays. Due to a disagreement with their landlord, the girls have to leave immediately, so Phil gives the sisters his and Bob's sleeping-room accommodations aboard the train. Bob and Phil board later and Bob is extremely upset that they have to stay up all night in the club car on their way to NYC. They are joined by Betty and Judy, who thank them profusely for the tickets and convince them to come with them to Pine Tree (\\\"Snow\\\").\\nWhen the train arrives in Pine Tree, there's not a snowflake in sight, and chances of it falling appear dim. Bob and Phil discover that the inn is run by their former commanding officer, General Waverly. Waverly has invested all of his savings into the lodge, which is in danger of failing because there's no snow and thus no guests. To bring business to the inn, Bob and Phil bring the entire cast and crew of their musical \\\"Playing Around\\\", and add in Betty and Judy. Bob and Betty's relationship blooms (\\\"Count Your Blessings\\\") and they spend a good deal of time together. Meanwhile, Bob discovers the General's request to rejoin the army has been rejected. He decides to prove to the General that he isn't forgotten.\\nBob calls Ed Harrison (Johnny Grant), an old army buddy, now a successful variety show host, to arrange a televised invitation to all the men formerly under the command of the General to come to the inn on Christmas Eve as a surprise. In response, Harrison suggests they go all out and put the show on national television to generate free advertising for Wallace and Davis, but Bob insists that it will have nothing to do with their business. Unbeknownst to Bob, nosy housekeeper Emma Allen (Mary Wickes) was eavesdropping, but she only heard the part about free advertising, not Bob's rejection of the idea.\\nMistakenly believing that her beloved boss will be portrayed as a pitiable figure in a nationwide broadcast, Emma reveals what she heard to a shocked Betty. The misunderstanding causes Betty to grow suddenly cold towards a baffled Bob. While this is happening, Judy becomes convinced that Betty will never take on a serious relationship until Judy is engaged or married. She pressures a reluctant Phil to announce a phony engagement, but the plan backfires when Betty abruptly departs for New York City to take a job offer since Judy is taken care of.\\nPhil and Judy reveal to Bob that the engagement was phony. Bob, still unaware of the real reason behind Betty's coldness, goes to New York for \\\"The Ed Harrison Show\\\", but decides to stop and try to convince Betty to come back. Bob sees Betty's new act (\\\"Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me\\\") and reveals the truth about the engagement, and Betty starts to warm up to him, but he is called away by Ed Harrison before learning what is really bothering her. Back at the Inn, Phil fakes an injury to distract the General so he won't see the broadcast of Bob's announcement.\\nOn the broadcast, Bob invites veterans of the 151st Division to come to Pine Tree, Vermont, on Christmas Eve (\\\"What Can You Do with a General\\\"). Betty catches Bob's televised pitch and realizes she was mistaken. She returns to Pine Tree in time for the Christmas Eve show, but only tells Judy. The whole division comes into Pine Tree secretly. When the General enters the lodge, he is greeted by his former division, who sing a rousing chorus of \\\"The Old Man.\\\" Just as the following number (\\\"Gee, I Wish I Was Back in the Army\\\") ends, he learns that snow is finally falling.\\nIn the finale, Bob and Betty declare their love for one another, as do Phil and Judy. The background of the set is removed to show the snow falling, everyone raises a glass, and toasts, \\\"May your days be merry and bright; and may all your Christmases be white.\\\"\\nAll songs were written by Irving Berlin. The centerpiece of the film is the title song, first used in \\\"Holiday Inn\\\", which won that film an Oscar for Best Original Song in 1942. In addition, \\\"Count Your Blessings\\\" earned the picture its own Oscar nomination in the same category.\\nThe song \\\"Snow\\\" was originally written for \\\"Call Me Madam\\\" with the title \\\"Free,\\\" but was dropped in out-of-town tryouts. The melody and some of the words were kept, but the lyrics were changed to be more appropriate for a Christmas movie. For example, one of the lines of the original song is:\\n<poem>Free – the only thing worth fighting for is to be free.\\nFree – a different world you'd see if it were left to me.</poem>\\nA composer's demo of the original song can be found on the CD \\\"Irving Sings Berlin\\\".\\nThe song \\\"What Can You Do with a General?\\\" was originally written for an un-produced project called \\\"Stars on My Shoulders\\\".\\nTrudy Stevens provided the singing voice for Vera-Ellen, except for \\\"Sisters\\\", where Rosemary Clooney sang both parts. It was not possible to issue an \\\"original soundtrack album\\\" of the film, because Decca Records controlled the soundtrack rights, but Clooney was under exclusive contract with Columbia Records. Consequently, each company issued a separate \\\"soundtrack recording\\\": Decca issuing \\\"Selections from Irving Berlin's White Christmas,\\\" while Columbia issued \\\"Irving Berlin's White Christmas.\\\" On the former, the song \\\"Sisters\\\" (as well as all of Clooney's vocal parts) was recorded by Peggy Lee, while on the latter, the song was sung by Rosemary Clooney and her own sister, Betty.\\nBerlin wrote \\\"A Singer, A Dancer\\\" for Crosby and his planned co-star Fred Astaire but when he was unavailable, Berlin re-wrote it as \\\"A Crooner – A Comic\\\" for Crosby and Donald O'Connor, but when O'Connor left the project so did the song. Another song written by Berlin for the film was \\\"Sittin' in the Sun (Countin' My Money)\\\" but because of delays in production Berlin decided to publish it independently. Crosby and Kaye also recorded another Berlin song (\\\"Santa Claus\\\") for the opening WWII Christmas Eve show scene, but it was not used in the final film. Their recording of the song survives, however, and can be found on the Bear Family Records 7-CD set called \\\"Come On-A My House\\\".\\n\\\"White Christmas\\\" was intended to reunite Crosby and Fred Astaire for their third Irving Berlin showcase musical. Crosby and Astaire had previously co-starred in \\\"Holiday Inn\\\" (1942) – where the song 'White Christmas' first appeared – and \\\"Blue Skies\\\" (1946). Astaire declined the project after reading the script and asked to be released from his contract with Paramount. Crosby also left the project shortly thereafter, to spend more time with his sons after the death of his wife, Dixie Lee. Near the end of January 1953, Crosby returned to the project, and Donald O'Connor was signed to replace Astaire. Just before shooting was to begin, O'Connor had to drop out due to illness and was replaced by Danny Kaye, who asked for and received a salary of $200,000 and 10% of the gross. Financially, the film was a partnership between Crosby and Irving Berlin, who shared half the profits, and Paramount, which got the other half.\\nWithin the film, a number of soon-to-be famous performers appear. Dancer Barrie Chase appears un-billed, as the character Doris Lenz (\\\"Mutual, I'm sure!\\\"). Future Academy Award winner George Chakiris also appears as one of the stone-faced black-clad dancers surrounding Rosemary Clooney in \\\"Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me\\\". John Brascia leads the dance troupe and appears opposite Vera-Ellen throughout much of the movie, particularly in the \\\"Mandy\\\" and \\\"Choreography\\\" numbers. The photo Vera-Ellen shows of her brother Benny (the one Phil refers to as \\\"Freckle-faced Haynes, the dog-faced boy\\\") is actually a photo of Carl Switzer, who played Alfalfa in The Little Rascals, in an army field jacket and helmet liner.\\nA scene from the film featuring Crosby and Kaye was broadcast the year after the film's release, on Christmas Day 1955, in the final episode of the NBC TV show \\\"Colgate Comedy Hour\\\" (1950–1955).\\nPrincipal photography took place between September and December 1953. The film was the first to be shot using Paramount's new VistaVision process, with color by Technicolor, and also introduced the Perspecta directional sound system which used three inaudible tones in order to pan the monaural sound into either left, center or right.\\nAs with \\\"Easter Parade\\\" but unlike many other musicals of the 1950s which have been able to be remixed to stereo or 5.1, it is impossible to do this for \\\"White Christmas\\\", due to the fact that although the picture was released in an extremely limited fashion with a full three-channel stereo mix carried on 4-track mag release prints, no complete true stereo print has ever been able to be assembled from all known elements.\\nAll the original separate recording angles for both the pre-records and post-records for the picture were destroyed in a fire, and all that remains is a magnetic high-fidelity monaural music master, prepared for international release, and a low-fidelity optical mono composite master which includes all dialogue, sound effects and other elements. These were restored and combined for the Criterion Collection LaserDisc release; however, on the newer releases the monaural composite occupies the front center and the magnetic music-only track is fattened up a bit and placed in the surrounds by itself.\\nBosley Crowther of \\\"The New York Times\\\" was not impressed: \\\"...the use of VistaVision, which is another process of projecting on a wide, flat screen, has made it possible to endow \\\"White Christmas\\\" with a fine pictorial quality. The colors on the big screen are rich and luminous, the images are clear and sharp, and rapid movements are got without blurring—or very little—such as sometimes is seen on other large screens. Director Michael Curtiz has made his picture look good. It is too bad that it doesn’t hit the eardrums and the funnybone with equal force.\\\"\\n\\\"Variety\\\" liked it: \\\"\\\"White Christmas\\\" should be a natural at the boxoffice, introducing as it does Paramount’s new VistaVision system with such a hot combination as Bing Crosby, Danny Kaye and an Irving Berlin score...Crosby and Kaye, along with VV, keep the entertainment going in this fancifully staged Robert Emmett Dolan production, clicking so well the teaming should call for a repeat...Certainly he \\\"(Crosby)\\\" has never had a more facile partner than Kaye against whom to bounce his misleading nonchalance.\\\"\\n\\\"White Christmas\\\" was enormously popular with audiences, earning $12 million in theatrical rentals – $102.7 million in 2012 dollars, adjusted for inflation – making it the top moneymaker of 1954 by a wide margin. The second highest moneymaker of that year, \\\"The Caine Mutiny\\\", earned $8.7 million. Overall, the film grossed $30 million at the domestic box office.\\nThere was also a US theatrical re-release by Paramount in 1961.\\nSix decades after its release, \\\"White Christmas\\\" still features in popular culture, as in neo burlesque routines.\\n\\\"White Christmas\\\" was released on VHS in 1986 and again in 1997.\\nIt was first released on DVD in 2000. It was subsequently released in 2009 and again in 2014 as a 4-disc \\\"Diamond Anniversary Edition\\\". This four-disc collection contains a Blu-ray disc, with a commentary by Clooney, as well as two copies of the DVD and a fourth disc of Christmas songs on compact disc. These songs are performed individually by Crosby, Clooney, and Kaye.\\nIt was first released on Blu-ray in 2010 and again in 2014 in the \\\"Diamond Anniversary Edition\\\".\\nA stage adaptation of the musical, titled \\\"Irving Berlin's White Christmas\\\" premiered in San Francisco in 2004 and has played in various venues in the US, such as Boston, Buffalo, Los Angeles, Detroit and Louisville.\\nThe musical played a limited engagement on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre, from November 14, 2008 until January 4, 2009. The musical also toured the United Kingdom in 2006 - 2008. It headed to the Sunderland Empire in Sunderland from November 2010 to January 2011 after a successful earlier run in Manchester and has continued in various cities with a London West End run at the end of 2014.\\n\",\n \"CJ E&M Film Division\\nThe CJ E&M Film Division (CJ E&M 영화사업부문 - <a href=\\\"doing%20business%20as\\\">doing business as</a> CJ E&M Pictures), formerly known as CJ Entertainment (), is a <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a>n entertainment company which is involved in film production, investment, distribution and exhibition. It is the largest entertainment company in South Korea and a subsidiary of <a href=\\\"CJ%20Group\\\">CJ Group</a>.\\nDuring early 1995, Cheil Jedang invested in the upstart film company <a href=\\\"DreamWorks\\\">DreamWorks</a> SKG, and in June of the same year, Cheil Jedang established its own entertainment division. The division's title was changed to CJ Entertainment by September the next year, in time for their first film distribution deal with the movie \\\"<a href=\\\"Secrets%20%26amp%3B%20Lies%20%28film%29\\\">Secrets and Lies</a>\\\". To aid their position in the film distribution industry CJ Entertainment built the first <a href=\\\"movie%20theater\\\">multiplexes</a> of Korea with the first one, CGV Gangbyeon 11, opening in April 1998.\\nCJ Entertainment's importance in the Korean film industry grew in 1997-1998 when the nation was caught in the wave of the <a href=\\\"Asian%20financial%20crisis\\\">Asian financial crisis</a>. Many smaller film companies had to close up, leaving the road open for CJ Entertainment to capitalize on the new-found popularity of <a href=\\\"Cinema%20of%20Korea\\\">Korean cinema</a> brought on by the success of \\\"<a href=\\\"Shiri%20%28film%29\\\">Shiri</a>\\\" in 1999.\\nThe success of their own films, most notably \\\"<a href=\\\"Joint%20Security%20Area%20%28film%29\\\">Joint Security Area</a>\\\" that broke the Korean box-office records previously set by \\\"Shiri\\\", helped the company grow into one of the two largest film companies in the country along with <a href=\\\"Kang%20Woo-suk\\\">Kang Woo-suk</a>'s <a href=\\\"Cinema%20Service\\\">Cinema Service</a>. Lately CJ Entertainment has expanded into other fields of entertainment industry, including <a href=\\\"Internet\\\">Internet</a> and <a href=\\\"Cable%20TV\\\">Cable TV</a> businesses.\\nFrom 2007 onwards, CJ Entertainment was the Korean distributor for films by <a href=\\\"Paramount%20Pictures\\\">Paramount Pictures</a>, including films by DreamWorks which was bought by Paramount, as <a href=\\\"Universal%20Studios\\\">Universal Pictures</a> had taken over the Korean branch of its joint venture with Paramount, <a href=\\\"United%20International%20Pictures\\\">United International Pictures</a>. CJ had already been distributing DreamWorks films for nearly a decade as a result of investing in the studio. It holds the highest market share among the distributors at 27.8 percent.\\nIn 2010, CJ Entertainment was merged with CJ Media, M-net Media, On Media and CJ Internet to form the entertainment & media subsidiary \\\"CJ E&M\\\", of the CJ Group.\\n\\n\",\n \"Lee Yu-bi\\nLee Yu-bi (; born November 22, 1990) is a <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a>n actress. She began her career in the 2011 <a href=\\\"sitcom\\\">sitcom</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Vampire%20Idol\\\">Vampire Idol</a>\\\", then played supporting roles in <a href=\\\"Korean%20drama\\\">television drama</a>s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Innocent%20Man%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">The Innocent Man</a>\\\" (2012), \\\"<a href=\\\"Gu%20Family%20Book\\\">Gu Family Book</a>\\\" (2013), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Pinocchio%20%282014%20TV%20series%29\\\">Pinocchio</a>\\\" (2014), as well as the films \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Royal%20Tailor\\\">The Royal Tailor</a>\\\" (2014) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Twenty%20%28film%29\\\">Twenty</a>\\\" (2015). Lee plays her first leading role in \\\"<a href=\\\"Scholar%20Who%20Walks%20the%20Night\\\">Scholar Who Walks the Night</a>\\\", adapted from the <a href=\\\"webtoon\\\">webtoon</a> about a <a href=\\\"Joseon\\\">Joseon</a> vampire scholar and a cross-dressing bookseller.\\nLee is the daughter of the actors <a href=\\\"Kyeon%20Mi-ri\\\">Kyeon Mi-ri</a> and Im Young-gyu. Her parents divorced in 1993. When her mother remarried in 1998 their stepfather, Lee Hong-heon legally adopted her and her sister, Lee Da-in who is also an actress.\",\n \"Lee Jun-ho (singer)\\nLee Jun-ho (; born January 25, 1990), simply known as Junho, is a <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a>n <a href=\\\"singer-songwriter\\\">singer-songwriter</a>, <a href=\\\"dancer\\\">dancer</a> and <a href=\\\"actor\\\">actor</a>. He is a member of the South Korean <a href=\\\"boy%20band\\\">boy band</a> <a href=\\\"2PM\\\">2PM</a>.\\nJunho first gained public attention when he won \\\"Superstar Survival\\\" in 2006. The show started with twelve teenage competitors and, as the weeks went on, they were eliminated one by one until three were left. The process followed a similar style to that of reality show \\\"<a href=\\\"Survivor%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Survivor</a>\\\". Junho signed a contract with <a href=\\\"JYP%20Entertainment\\\">JYP Entertainment</a> after winning the contest, placing first out of 6,500 competitors. Future 2PM bandmates <a href=\\\"Taecyeon\\\">Taecyeon</a> and <a href=\\\"Chansung\\\">Chansung</a> had also competed.\\nJunho took an undergraduate program at <a href=\\\"Howon%20University\\\">Howon University</a> (Gunsan, South Korea) with his beloved friends <a href=\\\"Hwang%20Chan-sung\\\">Hwang Chan-sung</a> and <a href=\\\"Jang%20Wooyoung\\\">Jang Wooyoung</a> 2PM. They have graduated together from there. In addition, He is continuing a master degree of cinematography at <a href=\\\"Sejong%20University\\\">Sejong University</a>, 209 Neungdong-ro, Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, South Korea.\\nJunho debuted as a member of 2PM in 2009.\\nIn 2012, Junho coupled with actress <a href=\\\"Kim%20So-eun\\\">Kim So-eun</a> on MBC's \\\"Music and Lyrics\\\" for the song \\\"Sad Love\\\", written by Kim So-eun and composed by Junho. The single was a hit and debuted at top 10 spots on various music charts, and was chosen as the theme song of MBC's weekend drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Feast%20of%20the%20Gods\\\">Feast of the Gods</a>\\\". He also collaborated with <a href=\\\"Vanness%20Wu\\\">Vanness Wu</a> in the song \\\"Undefeated\\\" for Taiwanese drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Ti%20Amo%20Chocolate\\\">Ti Amo Chocolate</a>\\\" soundtrack. His self-penned single \\\"Move On\\\", which was included in 2PM’s \\\"2PM Best~ 2008-2011 in Korea\\\" album, topped Japan’s Recochoku Chart. In 2013, Junho participated as a composer for fellow member <a href=\\\"Jang%20Wooyoung\\\">Jang Wooyoung</a>'s debut EP \\\"<a href=\\\"23%2C%20Male%2C%20Single\\\">23, Male, Single</a>\\\" with the song \\\"Be With You\\\".\\nJunho debuted as a solo singer in Japan, with his first solo mini album, \\\"Kimi no Koe\\\", for which he produced, composed and wrote all the tracks. The album landed on no. 1 in Tower Records′ charts and no. 3 on Oricon′s daily chart. On July 9, Junho began his first solo tour, \\\"Junho 1st Solo Tour Kimi no Koe\\\" which ended on August 29 in Tokyo.\\nOn July 9, 2014, Junho released his second self-composed Japanese mini-album, \\\"FEEL\\\". \\\"FEEL\\\" topped Oricon's daily album chart the day of its release. From July 3 to August 13, Junho embarked on his second solo tour in Japan titled \\\" Junho Solo Tour 2014 - Feel\\\" which traveled to five different Japanese cities.\\nOn July 15, 2015, Junho released his third Japanese mini-album, \\\"SO GOOD\\\". The album ranked third in Oricon‘s weekly music chart, and sold more than 40,000 albums in its first week. He embarked on his 2015 Japan tour \\\"Last Night\\\" in seven cities, which started July 7.\\nIn September, he released his first album in Korea, a special album titled \\\"One\\\". The album contained Korean version of 11 self-composed Japanese songs that were released in the past. He held his solo concert “Last Night in Seoul” at Olympic Hall in Olympic Park, Seoul, from September 19-20.\\nIn 2016, Junho released his fourth Japanese mini-album, \\\"DMSN\\\". The album topped Oricon Daily Chart and also the daily sales rankings at Tower Records. Moreover, the pre-released single \\\"DMSN\\\" was also popular in Japan’s ringtone website. He embarked on his fourth Japanese tour \\\"Hyper\\\" which concluded to a 20,000 audience in Tokyo on August 25.\\nIn 2017, Junho released his fifth Japanese mini-album \\\"2017 S/S\\\" in Japan. The album achieved the best records for Junho thus far, peaking at number two on Oricon's weekly music chart. From July to August, Junho embarked on his fifth Japanese tour \\\"2017 S/S\\\". He is set to release his first Korean mini-album \\\"Canvas\\\" in Korea.\\nJunho made his film debut in the action thriller \\\"<a href=\\\"Cold%20Eyes\\\">Cold Eyes</a>\\\", where he impressed viewers for his acting. The film was a success, and broke 4.5 million admissions.\\nIn 2015, Junho featured in martial arts period drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Memories%20of%20the%20Sword\\\">Memories of the Sword</a>\\\", acting as <a href=\\\"Kim%20Go-eun\\\">Kim Go-eun</a>'s love interest. He next starred alongside <a href=\\\"Kim%20Woo-bin\\\">Kim Woo-bin</a> and <a href=\\\"Kang%20Ha-neul\\\">Kang Ha-neul</a> in the coming-of-age film \\\"<a href=\\\"Twenty%20%28film%29\\\">Twenty</a>\\\" by indie director Lee Byung-heon.\\nIn 2016, Junho had a supporting role in tvN's thriller \\\"<a href=\\\"Memory%20%282016%20TV%20Series%29\\\">Memory</a>\\\".\\nIn 2017, Junho starred in the hit comedy drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Good%20Manager\\\">Good Manager</a>\\\". He was praised for his villainous acting in the drama as the arrogant director of finances. The same year, Junho landed his first lead role in JTBC's romantic comedy series \\\"<a href=\\\"Just%20in%20Love%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Just in Love</a>\\\".\\nIn 2012, Junho was appointed as the honorary ambassador of the 24 Hour Famine Program hosted by World Vision.\\nStudio albums\\nEPs\\nEPs\\n\",\n \"Kang Ha-neul\\nKang Ha-neul (born Kim Ha-neul on February 21, 1990) is a <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a>n film, television and theater <a href=\\\"actor\\\">actor</a>.\\nKang began his career in <a href=\\\"musical%20theatre\\\">musical theatre</a>, notably in \\\"<a href=\\\"Thrill%20Me\\\">Thrill Me</a>\\\" (2010), \\\"Prince Puzzle\\\" (2011), \\\"Black Mary Poppins\\\" (2012), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Assassins%20%28musical%29\\\">Assassins</a>\\\" (2012). He later shifted to the screen, starring in the <a href=\\\"Korean%20drama\\\">television dramas</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Heirs\\\">The Heirs</a>\\\" (2013) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Misaeng%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Misaeng</a>\\\" (2014).\\n2015 was a busy year for Kang as he appeared in four films; <a href=\\\"musical%20film\\\">musical film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"C%27est%20si%20bon%20%28film%29\\\">C'est si bon</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Historical%20period%20drama\\\">period film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Empire%20of%20Lust\\\">Empire of Lust</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Coming-of-age%20story\\\">coming-of-age film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Twenty%20%28film%29\\\">Twenty</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"black%20and%20white\\\">black and white</a> <a href=\\\"Biographical%20film\\\">biographical</a> <a href=\\\"Historical%20period%20drama\\\">period film</a> \\\"\\\", where he played the titular role of poet <a href=\\\"Yun%20Dong-ju\\\">Yun Dong-ju</a>.\\nIn 2016, Kang starred in <a href=\\\"romantic%20comedy%20film\\\">romantic comedy film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Like%20for%20Likes\\\">Like for Likes</a>\\\", playing young songwriter who suffers a hearing disability. The same year, he co-starred in the <a href=\\\"sageuk\\\">historical drama</a> \\\"\\\", playing the role of 8th Prince .\\nIn 2017, Kang starred in the film <a href=\\\"New%20Trial%20%28film%29\\\">\\\"New Trial\\\"</a>, acting as a young man who spent a decade in prison after an abusive investigation for a crime he did not commit in. He then starred alongside <a href=\\\"Park%20Seo-joon\\\">Park Seo-joon</a> in the <a href=\\\"Action%20film\\\">action</a> <a href=\\\"Comedy%20film\\\">comedy</a> film \\\"<a href=\\\"Midnight%20Runners\\\">Midnight Runners</a>\\\", plying a <a href=\\\"nerd\\\">nerd</a>y student of the <a href=\\\"Korean%20National%20Police%20University\\\">Korean National Police University</a>.\\nKang has also confirmed his casting in <a href=\\\"Mystery%20film\\\">mystery</a> <a href=\\\"Thriller%20film\\\">thriller</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Recall%20the%20Night\\\">Recall the Night</a>\\\" in which he plays the role of the younger brother for <a href=\\\"Kim%20Mu-yeol\\\">Kim Mu-yeol</a>'s character.\\nKang is set to begin his <a href=\\\"Conscription%20in%20South%20Korea\\\">mandatory military service</a> on September 11, 2017. He will serve as a military police officer for a period of 21 months.\",\n \"Happily Ever After (1990 film)\\nHappily Ever After (also known as Snow White in the Land of Doom, Snow White: Happily Ever After and Happily Ever After: Snow White's Greatest Adventure) is a 1990 American <a href=\\\"Animation\\\">animated</a> <a href=\\\"Musical%20film\\\">musical</a> <a href=\\\"fantasy%20film\\\">fantasy film</a> written by Robby London and Martha Moran, and directed by <a href=\\\"John%20Howley\\\">John Howley</a>. The film stars <a href=\\\"Irene%20Cara\\\">Irene Cara</a>, <a href=\\\"Malcolm%20McDowell\\\">Malcolm McDowell</a>, <a href=\\\"Edward%20Asner\\\">Edward Asner</a>, <a href=\\\"Carol%20Channing\\\">Carol Channing</a>, <a href=\\\"Dom%20DeLuise\\\">Dom DeLuise</a> and <a href=\\\"Phyllis%20Diller\\\">Phyllis Diller</a>. Its story is a <a href=\\\"Sequel\\\">continuation</a> of the <a href=\\\"fairy%20tale\\\">fairy tale</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Snow%20White\\\">Snow White</a>\\\", wherein the titular heroine and the Prince are about to be married, but the late evil <a href=\\\"Queen%20%28Snow%20White%29\\\">Queen</a>'s brother Lord Maliss appears to seek revenge upon them. The film replaces the Dwarfs with their female cousins, called the Dwarfelles.\\n\\\"Happily Ever After\\\" is unrelated to <a href=\\\"Filmation\\\">Filmation</a>'s fellow \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Snow%20White%20Christmas\\\">A Snow White Christmas</a>\\\", a television animated film that was the company's earlier Snow White sequel. It was troubled by severe legal problems with <a href=\\\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\\\">The Walt Disney Company</a>, and had a poor financial and critical reception, resulting in the bankruptcy of Filmation. A was released in 1994.\\nThe film starts as the <a href=\\\"Magic%20Mirror%20%28Snow%20White%29\\\">Looking Glass</a> recaps the story of \\\"<a href=\\\"Snow%20White\\\">Snow White</a>.\\\" The wicked <a href=\\\"Queen%20%28Snow%20White%29\\\">Queen</a> has been vanquished and the kingdom is at peace as Snow White and the Prince prepare to marry. Meanwhile, back at the castle, the Queen's animal like minions are celebrating their freedom by throwing a party for themselves. Then, the Queen's equally evil <a href=\\\"Magician%20%28fantasy%29\\\">wizard</a> brother, Lord Maliss, arrives at the castle, wondering where his sister is. After learning about his sister's demise, he vows to avenge her death. In the process, he transforms into a <a href=\\\"wyvern\\\">wyvern</a> and decides to take control of the palace, while Scowl, (a red colored owl) starts training his companion, a purple bat named Batso, on how to be evil.\\nThe next day, Snow White and the Prince are in the meadow picking flowers for their wedding, when suddenly Lord Maliss, in his dragon form, begins attacking Snow White and the Prince as they are traveling to the cottage of the Seven Dwarfs. He targets the Prince, but Snow White manages to flee.\\nSnow White reaches the cottage and meets the Dwarves' female cousins, the Seven \\\"Dwarfelles\\\": Muddy, Sunburn, Blossom, Marina, Critterina, Moonbeam, and Thunderella. The Dwarves have left the cottage after they bought another mine in a different kingdom, but the Dwarfelles gladly assist Snow White, taking her to visit <a href=\\\"Mother%20Nature\\\">Mother Nature</a> at Rainbow Falls. Mother Nature has given the Dwarfelles individual powers to assist her; she holds Thunderella accountable for not being able to master her powers correctly, and accuses the other Dwarfelles of improperly using their powers, and threatens to take them away as punishment. Lord Maliss attacks them, but Mother Nature shoots him with lightning, causing him to crash and return to his human form. Before leaving, Lord Maliss informs Snow White that the Prince is held captive in his castle.\\nSnow White and the Dwarfelles travel to Lord Maliss' castle in the Realm of Doom, along the way encountering a strange cloaked humanoid known as the \\\"Shadow Man.\\\" Lord Maliss sends his one-horned wolves after the group, and they manage to escape with the help of the \\\"Shadow Man.\\\" Lord Maliss is furious at this failure and transforms into his dragon form, finally capturing Snow White successfully himself and taking her to the castle. The Dwarfelles follow them and sneak into the castle as well.\\nIn the castle, Snow White is reunited with her Prince, who begins exhibiting strange behaviors, and takes her through a secret passage to supposedly escape. When Snow White realizes that he's not the real Prince but is actually Lord Maliss in disguise, he attempts to throw a magical red cloak on Snow White to petrify her into stone. He almost succeeds, but is attacked by the \\\"Shadow Man.\\\" The Dwarfelles arrive and attack Lord Maliss as well, but fail and become petrified themselves. The only one unharmed is Thunderella, who finally regains control of her powers and assists Snow White to subdue Lord Maliss. The cloak is thrown on him and Lord Maliss is petrified in mid-transition between his human and dragon form.\\nAs the sun shines onto the castle, the Dwarfelles are restored back to their normal selves. Snow White tearfully mourns the \\\"Shadow Man\\\", believing that she lost both him and her Prince, until Mother Nature arrives at the scene. Suddenly, the \\\"Shadow Man\\\" wakes up and he turns out to be the Prince; as he is waking up he begins comforting Snow White, telling her not to cry, and she notices that he is back to his normal self. The Prince reveals that Lord Maliss had cast a spell on him and he has been watching over Snow White during her journey, guarding her with his life.\\nMother Nature decides to let the Dwarfelles keep their powers because they have finally proven themselves by working together as one, and she allows them to attend Snow White's wedding. In the end, Mother Nature takes in Batso and Scowl to be trained as her new apprentices. Sunburn steals Scowl's cigar from him and this allows him to stop smoking. Scowl realizes that he is able to breathe again; he then comments to Batso that working for Mother Nature might not be so bad, even realizing that he can smell again as he wasn't able to before. Batso replies by saying \\\"But with your cigar, you always smell\\\" and the Dwarfelles begin laughing. Snow White and the Prince are reunited, as the two of them share a kiss, and begin to live happily ever after.\\nFilmation had previously developed a plan to create a series of direct-to-video sequels to popular <a href=\\\"Walt%20Disney%20Pictures\\\">Disney motion pictures</a>, but only this film and \\\"<a href=\\\"Pinocchio%20and%20the%20Emperor%20of%20the%20Night\\\">Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night</a>\\\" were ever completed. The film was eventually released during the same summer that <a href=\\\"Walt%20Disney\\\">Walt Disney</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Snow%20White%20and%20the%20Seven%20Dwarfs%20%281937%20film%29\\\">Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</a>\\\" was re-released theatrically. Sued by <a href=\\\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\\\">The Walt Disney Company</a> in 1987, Filmation promised their characters would not resemble the ones from the Disney version. It was also the reason Filmation changed the title of the film from the original \\\"Snow White in the Land of Doom\\\" to \\\"Happily Ever After\\\".\\n\\\"Happily Ever After\\\" was originally supposed to be a 1990 release in the United States. While it received a 1990 theatrical release in France, it was not released to theaters in the United States until May 28, 1993. when it took only $1.76 million over the four-day <a href=\\\"Memorial%20Day\\\">Memorial Day</a> weekend preceded by a $10 million advertising campaign from the distributor First National Film Corp. The distributor tried to popularize it by creating and selling dragon stickers as well as Seven Dwarfelle dolls; it also gained a commercial tie-in with <a href=\\\"Chiquita%20Brands%20International\\\">Chiquita</a> bananas. First National's bankruptcy followed just weeks after the film's failed premiere.\\nDespite a substantial advertising campaign and having been expected to become \\\"one of the biggest hits of the year,\\\" \\\"Happily Ever After\\\" did poorly in the box office during its theatrical run. Its domestic gross was only $3,299,382.\\nCritics generally disliked the film. According to <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Holden\\\">Stephen Holden</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\", \\\"visually, \\\"Happily Ever After\\\" is mundane. The animation is jumpy, the settings flat, the colors pretty but less than enchanting. The movie's strongest element is its storytelling, which is not only imaginative but also clear and smoothly paced.\\\" <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Thomas%20%28film%20critic%29\\\">Kevin Thomas</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\\\">Los Angeles Times</a>\\\" opined the characters (especially the Prince) were \\\"bland\\\" and called the film's songs \\\"instantly forgettable.\\\" Rita Kemple of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Washington%20Post\\\">The Washington Post</a>\\\" derided the \\\"inane\\\" humor attempts as well as \\\"badly drawn characters\\\" and their \\\"clumsy\\\" animation. Steve Daly of \\\"<a href=\\\"Entertainment%20Weekly\\\">Entertainment Weekly</a>\\\" gave the film a score of F and recommended to \\\"give this Snow White the big kiss-off.\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"Chicago%20Tribune\\\">Chicago Tribune</a>\\\"'s Mark Caro wrote that the comparison with Disney's classic \\\"Snow White\\\" \\\"couldn't be more brutal.\\\"\\nSome other reviews were more positive. <a href=\\\"Jeff%20Shannon\\\">Jeff Shannon</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"Seattle%20Times\\\">Seattle Times</a>\\\" opined \\\"this one's a cut above in the animation contest, deserving attention in the once-exclusive realm of Disney and <a href=\\\"Don%20Bluth\\\">Don Bluth</a>. It almost, but not quite, escapes those nagging comparisons.\\\" Ralph Novak of \\\"<a href=\\\"People%20%28magazine%29\\\">People</a>\\\" wrote that although \\\"the animation is less sophisticated than the Disney standard,\\\" the story \\\"moves nicely, though,\\\" with a \\\"colorful\\\" cast of voices. Candice Russell of \\\"<a href=\\\"Sun-Sentinel\\\">Sun-Sentinel</a>\\\" called it \\\"a sweet and likable film,\\\" crediting a screenplay \\\"that avoids cuteness and sentimentality and remembers that kiddie fare is fun\\\" and \\\"a few charming songs adding to the merriment.\\\"\\nAn unreleased <a href=\\\"Nintendo%20Entertainment%20System\\\">Nintendo Entertainment System</a> video game was planned in 1990. A <a href=\\\"Sega\\\">Sega</a> game was also considered in 1993. An eventual <a href=\\\"Super%20Nintendo%20Entertainment%20System\\\">Super Nintendo Entertainment System</a> version was developed by <a href=\\\"ASC%20Games\\\">ASC Games</a> and released by <a href=\\\"Imagitec%20Design\\\">Imagitec Design</a> four years later (and one year after the film's release) in 1994.\",\n \"Magic Mirror (Snow White)\\nThe Magic Mirror is a mystical object that is featured in the story of \\\"<a href=\\\"Snow%20White\\\">Snow White</a>\\\".\\nThe Magic Mirror is owned by the <a href=\\\"Queen%20%28Snow%20White%29\\\">Evil Queen</a> and has been depicted in different versions as either a hand mirror or a mirror on the wall. Every morning, the Evil Queen asked the Magic Mirror the question \\\"Magic mirror in my hand, who is the fairest in the land?\\\". The mirror always replies: \\\"My Queen, you are the fairest in the land.\\\" The Queen is always pleased with that, because the magic mirror never lies. But, when Snow White reaches the age of seven, she becomes as beautiful as the day and even more beautiful than the Queen and when the Queen asks her mirror, it responds: \\\"My Queen, you are the fairest here so true. But Snow White is a thousand times more beautiful than you.\\\" This resulted in the Evil Queen enlisting a <a href=\\\"Huntsman%20%28Snow%20White%29\\\">huntsman</a> to kill Snow White and bring her Snow White's lungs and liver.\\nAfter eating the lungs and liver of a boar that the Huntsman passed off as Snow White's lungs and liver, the Evil Queen asked the Magic Mirror the question \\\"Magic Mirror in my hand, who is the fairest in the land?\\\" The mirror replies: \\\"My Queen, you are the fairest here so true. But Snow White beyond the mountains at the seven Dwarfs is a thousand times more beautiful than you.\\\" This caused the Evil Queen to disguise herself as different women to kill Snow White.\\nAfter the latest attempt with a poison apple which was undone by the Prince and Snow White marrying him, the Evil Queen asked the Magic Mirror who the fairest in the land was, the Magic Mirror quoted \\\"You, my Queen, are fair so true. But the young Queen is a thousand times fairer than you.\\\" The Evil Queen learned too late at the wedding that the young queen in question was Snow White which eventually leads to the Queen's death which varied per version.\\nGerman pharmacist and fairy-tale parodist Karlheinz Bartels suggests, in a tongue-in-cheek manner, that the German <a href=\\\"Folklore\\\">folk tale</a> \\\"Snow White\\\" is influenced by Maria Sophia Margaretha Catherina von und zu Erthal, who was born in <a href=\\\"Lohr%20am%20Main\\\">Lohr am Main</a> in 1725. After the death of Maria Sophia's birth mother in 1738, her father Philipp Christoph von und zu Erthal remarried. Claudia Elisabeth von Reichenstein, the stepmother, was domineering and greatly favored the children from her first marriage. The Queen's iconic mirror, referred to as “The Talking Mirror,” can still be viewed today at Spessart Museum in the Lohr Castle, where Maria Sophia was born. The mirror was likely a gift from Philipp Christoph to Claudia Elisabeth. It was a product of the Lohr Mirror Manufacture (\\\"Kurmainzische Spiegelmanufaktur\\\"). The mirror “talked” predominantly in <a href=\\\"aphorisms\\\">aphorisms</a>. The upper right corner of “The Talking Mirror” contains a clear reference to self-love (\\\"Amour Propre\\\"). Moreover, mirrors from Lohr were so elaborately worked that they were accorded the reputation of “always speaking the truth”. They became a favorite gift at European crown and aristocratic courts.\\nIn April 2017 Amazon announced <a href=\\\"https%3A//www.amazon.com/dp/B0186JAEWK\\\">Echo Look</a>, a “style assistant” camera that helps catalog your outfits and rates your look based on “machine learning algorithms with advice from fashion specialists.\\nThe Magic Mirror appeared in Disney's \\\"<a href=\\\"Snow%20White%20and%20the%20Seven%20Dwarfs%20%281937%20film%29\\\">Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</a>\\\" voiced by <a href=\\\"Moroni%20Olsen\\\">Moroni Olsen</a>. The Magic Mirror contained an imprisoned spirit who is referred to as the Slave in the Magic Mirror. In his first appearance in the film, the Evil Queen would consult with the Magic Mirror to ask who the fairest of one all was. The Magic Mirror always told the Evil Queen that she was the fairest one of all. When asked who the fairest of all is, the spirit replies that, while the Queen is beautiful, a fairer being exists. When the Queen angrily asks for the girl's name, the spirit describes her, making it obvious to the Queen that Snow White is the one being referred to. The Queen then orders her Huntsman to kill Snow White and bring her back her heart. When the Evil Queen asks the Magic Mirror who the fairest of them all was later that evening, the Magic Mirror told her that Snow White was the fairest of them all. Though the Queen at first believes the spirit to be incorrect and showed it the heart in question, she is told that she holds the heart of a <a href=\\\"pig\\\">pig</a> and that Snow White still lives in the Cottage of the Seven Dwarfs.\\nThe Magic Mirror appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"Disney%27s%20House%20of%20Mouse\\\">Disney's House of Mouse</a>\\\" voiced by <a href=\\\"Tony%20Jay\\\">Tony Jay</a>. It was seen in the lobby of the club. The Magic Mirror would always answer questions given to him by the guests or give advice to the staff members.\\nThe Magic Mirror also appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"Fantasmic%21\\\">Fantasmic!</a>\\\" voiced again by Tony Jay.\\nThe Magic Mirror appears in \\\"\\\" voiced by <a href=\\\"Corey%20Burton\\\">Corey Burton</a>. The Magic Mirror first appears in Terra's storyline. As per the movie, it told the Queen that Snow White was now much fairer than the vain ruler. However, it added on that her heart was a pure light than shone bright. It was then promised by the Evil Queen usage by Terra to find Master Xehanort if he brought her Snow White's heart. However, he did not do so and told the Evil Queen he never intended to. Terra then proceeds to tell her that unlike Snow White, she has much darkness in her heart. The Evil Queen, insulted and outraged, commanded the mirror to destroy Terra. The Magic Mirror refused saying it can only answer questions. The Evil Queen's increasing rage then caused the mirror to have a potion slammed on its face sucking Terra in and fighting him. However, he is defeated and releases Terra. The Evil Queen reluctantly has the Magic Mirror tell Terra where he can find Master Xehanort. The Magic Mirror quotes \\\"Beyond both light and dark he dwells, where war was waged upon the fells.\\\" Upon learning this information, Terra takes his leave from the Evil Queen and the Magic Mirror where the Magic Mirror's cryptic response would direct Terra to the Keyblade Graveyard. The Magic Mirror later appears in Aqua's storyline. When Aqua looks for a cure for Snow White in the castle, the still-possessed Magic Mirror drags her into the mirror for a fight, but she also manages to defeat him and is released. The Magic Mirror then disappears stating to Aqua \\\"The Queen is gone, my service done. Adieu, oh victorious one.\\\"\\nA different version of the Magic Mirror appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%207D\\\">The 7D</a>\\\" voiced by <a href=\\\"Whoopi%20Goldberg\\\">Whoopi Goldberg</a>. This version is a female that serves Queen Delightful of Jollyland.\\nThe mirror in \\\"<a href=\\\"Faerie%20Tale%20Theatre\\\">Faerie Tale Theatre</a>\\\" was played by <a href=\\\"Vincent%20Price\\\">Vincent Price</a>, whose face appeared as if mounted on the top of the mirror (in reality, Price stuck his face through a hole). This mirror, as did all of the Queen's (<a href=\\\"Vanessa%20Redgrave\\\">Vanessa Redgrave</a>) other mirrors, turned black as she found out that Snow White was alive.\\nThe mirror was white with white heads.\\nThe Magic Mirror appears in the \\\"Snow White\\\" episode of \\\"<a href=\\\"Grimm%27s%20Fairy%20Tale%20Classics\\\">Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics</a>\\\". It is kept in a cabinet in the Evil Queen's chambers. Like the story, the Magic Mirror told the Evil Queen that she was the fairest of them all until the day when Snow White came of age. In this version when the Magic Mirror told the Evil Queen that the Seven Dwarfs freed Snow White from the deadly laces and that she can't be killed when she is in their protection, the Evil Queen breaks the Magic Mirror vowing to prove it wrong.\\nThe Magic Mirror appeared as the Looking Glass in \\\"<a href=\\\"Happily%20Ever%20After%20%281990%20film%29\\\">Happily Ever After</a>\\\" voiced by <a href=\\\"Dom%20DeLuise\\\">Dom DeLuise</a>. When Lord Maliss tells him where his sister the Evil Queen is and threatens it for information, the Looking Glass tells him that she died trying to kill Snow White. After Snow White evaded Lord Maliss' dragon form, Lord Maliss consults the Looking Glass again as the Looking Glass tells him that Snow White and the Dwarfelles are heading to Rainbow Falls. When Snow White ventures to Lord Maliss' castle, the Looking Glass tells him that it will be tough for Snow White to find his castle. When the Dwarfelles enter Lord Maliss' castle and wonder where Lord Maliss has taken Snow White, the Looking Glass states that \\\"beneath the Queen lies a secret door.\\\" After searching the area, they find a panel to the hidden door underneath the Evil Queen's bust.\\nIn <a href=\\\"Jim%20C.%20Hines\\\">Jim C. Hines</a>' \\\"Princesses\\\" series – chronicling the adventures of Snow White with Princess Danielle Whiteshore (<a href=\\\"Cinderella\\\">Cinderella</a>) and former Princess Talia Malak-el-Dahshat (<a href=\\\"Sleeping%20Beauty\\\">Sleeping Beauty</a>) after their tales concluded with Snow and Talia being banished from their kingdoms and taken in by Danielle's mother-in-law – Snow White is a sorceress who uses her mother's mirror as a key focus of her spells, relying on various smaller mirrors to maintain a link to it when away from the palace; her power is commonly focused by using various rhymes as spells, although she can create other spells without speaking. The fourth novel, \\\"The Snow Queen's Revenge\\\", reveals that the magic mirror was created by Snow White's mother imprisoning a demon and binding it to her service. The plot suggests that the mirror's role in the original story was motivated by the demon attempting to create a set of circumstances that would allow it to escape, inspiring Snow's mother to attack her daughter so that Snow would inherit the mother and some day make a mistake that would let the demon out. The protagonists return to Snow White's kingdom to rediscover the secrets used by Snow White's mother to bind the demon in hopes of exorcising it after it possesses Snow White when the mirror shatters after she tries to perform a particularly complex spell. The demon attempts to recreate a larger ice-mirror to summon further demons into this world, using the part-fairy blood of Danielle's son Jakub – Danielle having some fairy blood in her from her mother's side of the family – but a reflection of Snow's untainted self helps to protect her friends long enough to destroy the demon.\\nThe Magic Mirror appeared in Episode 685 of \\\"<a href=\\\"Sesame%20Street\\\">Sesame Street</a>\\\" with the Magic Mirror's face being the face of <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Nelson\\\">Jerry Nelson</a>. In the \\\"<a href=\\\"Sesame%20Street%20News%20Flash\\\">Sesame Street News Flash</a>\\\" segment, <a href=\\\"Kermit%20the%20Frog\\\">Kermit the Frog</a> interviews the Magic Mirror on which question the evil witch will ask him and tells Kermit that it is the same question where the Snow White answer \\\"drives her up the wall.\\\" The witch who is the fairest in the land, has two beautiful eyes, is green, wearing a hat, wielding a microphone, and is in the same room as the Magic Mirror. The Magic Mirror states that Kermit the Frog is the fairest. The witch then notices Kermit the Frog hiding behind the curtain and states that he is good-looking.\\nIn \\\"\\\", this version has the mirror a property of Lady Claudia (<a href=\\\"Sigourney%20Weaver\\\">Sigourney Weaver</a>). It is a wooden closet with a statue as the door and hands acting as locks. It is regarded as a family heritage artifact by her. Snow White's nanny, tries to see what's inside while cleaning it and immediately suffers a heart attack. The mirror displays a beautiful and younger version of the Queen who advices her what to do. The mirror also contains her life force and she ages rapidly when Snow White stabs the mirror and then engulfs in flame of the burning room.\\nIn the TV miniseries \\\"<a href=\\\"The%2010th%20Kingdom\\\">The 10th Kingdom</a>\\\", a magic mirror is a key element of the plot, as protagonists Tony and Virginia Lewis travel from New York into the fairy-tale realm via a traveling mirror, which they subsequently lose and must spend the rest of the series searching for, while their enemy, the evil Queen and protégé of Snow White's deceased stepmother, spies on them with other magic mirrors. The travelling mirror that brought them to this world is destroyed in an accident, but an old mirror referred to as Gustav- which can only communicate and respond to queries made in rhyme- reveals that there were two other travelling mirrors made, with one sunk at the bottom of the ocean and the other in the possession of the Queen. With the Queen's defeat, Virginia returns to New York, although Tony decides to remain in the fairy-tale realm to enjoy his new status as a hero.\\nThe Magic Mirror appears in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Shrek%20%28franchise%29\\\">Shrek</a>\\\" franchise voiced by <a href=\\\"Chris%20Miller%20%28animator%29\\\">Chris Miller</a>. It is depicted as a mirror with a live spirit communicating through it, and with magical displaying abilities.\\nHere, the wicked queen Elspeth possesses a hall of magic mirrors, and a hand mirror that displays several attributes not seen before. The Queen may command the hand mirror to terminate enemies (as she did to the Huntsman), use it as a means of transport or step through it to change appearances, even turning others into animals.\\nA parody version of the Magic Mirror appears as a recurring character throughout \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Suite%20Life%20of%20Zack%20%26amp%3B%20Cody\\\">The Suite Life of Zack & Cody</a>\\\" voiced by Brian Peck. It is a high tech mirror that often compliments London Tipton's attire.\\nA direct representation of the Magic Mirror in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Suite%20Life%20on%20Deck\\\">The Suite Life on Deck</a>\\\" episode \\\"Once Upon A Suite Life\\\" voiced by Michael Airington. It is seen when all the characters are dreaming of themselves in the classic fairytales such as <a href=\\\"Snow%20White\\\">Snow White</a>, <a href=\\\"Jack%20and%20the%20Beanstalk\\\">Jack and the Beanstalk</a> and <a href=\\\"Hansel%20and%20Gretel\\\">Hansel and Gretel</a>.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Once%20Upon%20a%20Time%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Once Upon a Time</a>\\\", the Magic Mirror started out as a <a href=\\\"Jinn\\\">Genie</a> (played by <a href=\\\"Giancarlo%20Esposito\\\">Giancarlo Esposito</a>) where he and his lamp were discovered by King Leopold. King Leopold feels he no need to wish for anything and uses the first and second wishes to free the Genie from the lamp and to give the third wish to the Genie. The Genie expresses the desire to find true love, so King Leopold takes the Genie to his castle as he believes the Genie can find true love there. He falls in love with the King's wife <a href=\\\"Regina%20Mills\\\">Queen Regina</a> and gives her a hand mirror. The King reads in the Queen's diary that she has fallen in love with the man who gave her the hand mirror and asks the Genie to locate him. The Queen is then locked in her room to prevent her from leaving the King. To free her, her father has the Genie bring her a locked box, which turns out to be filled with poisonous <a href=\\\"Viperidae\\\">vipers</a> from Agrabah so the Queen can kill herself. Instead, the Genie uses the vipers to kill King Leopold and allow the Queen to be with him. She tells him that since the vipers were from his country, the guards will find out that he was the murderer and flee. Realizing the Queen never loved him, he uses his wish to be always with her and to never leave her sight. This traps him in the hand mirror. As a spirit in the Magic Mirror, he is able to move between and see through all other mirrors in the Enchanted Forest. He is used by Regina to spy on and locate others.\\nIn Storybrooke, he is Sidney Glass, a <a href=\\\"Journalist\\\">reporter</a> for Storybrooke's local newspaper \\\"The Daily Mirror\\\". On Regina's request, he researches <a href=\\\"Emma%20Swan\\\">Emma Swan</a>'s past to help Regina expel her from Storybrooke. After Graham's death, Regina attempts to appoint him sheriff, but the wording of the town charter calls for an election. He loses the position to Emma Swan. Regina has him removed from the newspaper staff, and Sidney goes to Emma, claiming that he wants to expose Regina as the corrupt person she is. However, the exposé reveals Regina's attempts to improve the community. Despite this, Sidney tells Emma that he will help her take down Regina, but it is revealed that he is secretly in league with Regina, who is using Emma's trust in Sidney to gain leverage over Emma. Emma later learns that he planted a bug in a vase glass after it is used to tip off Regina upon discovering a key piece of evidence that would have cleared <a href=\\\"Mary%20Margaret%20Blanchard\\\">Mary Margaret Blanchard</a> of Kathryn Nolan's murder. Emma confronts Sidney and realizes that he is in love with Regina. Still, Emma presses him to help defeat Regina. However, after Kathryn is found alive, Sidney falsely confesses to kidnapping Kathryn and framing Mary Margaret so that he could \\\"find\\\" Kathryn and become famous. Later, a cell labeled \\\"S. Glass\\\" is seen in the hospital basement's psychiatric ward. The name \\\"S. Glass\\\" is visible on a door in the first season finale, suggesting that Regina had locked him in the Storybrooke Hospital's psychiatric ward after he confessed to the kidnapping. In \\\"A Tale of Two Sisters,\\\" Regina frees Sidney Glass from the psychiatric ward to be her Mirror again in order to enlist him into helping get rid of the people that are in the middle of her happiness. Regina temporarily places Sidney in the mirror to find the exact moment in which Maid Marian was apprehended by Regina's men. Regina later consults with Sidney on how to change fate. Regina tells Sidney that the villains in the book don't get a happy ending and wants him to find the writer of the book so that she can make some changes like allowing the villains to get their happy endings. In \\\"Breaking Glass,\\\" Regina has Sidney Glass look for the <a href=\\\"The%20Snow%20Queen\\\">Snow Queen</a>'s hideout in order to force her into thawing <a href=\\\"Maid%20Marian\\\">Maid Marian</a> from her freezing spell. When Emma arrives to know where Sidney Glass is, Regina states that she's too busy to tell her where Sidney Glass is. Sidney later reports to Regina about where the Snow Queen is hiding out after his failed attempt to get a leverage on Regina. Using a <a href=\\\"Compact%20%28cosmetics%29\\\">compact</a> to remain in contact to Sidney Glass, Regina heads in the directions of the Snow Queen's hideout. Regina later admits that Sidney was in the mirror. Upon strong winds reaching Emma and Regina, Sidney states the Snow Queen had swayed him to her side as Elsa's ice bridge breaks. After Emma and Regina defeat a large Viking made of ice, the Snow Queen takes the compact that Sidney is and retreats. At her hideout, the Snow Queen frees Sidney from the mirror as she wanted the mirror that he was trapped in to go with her mirror that she is putting together. The Snow Queen states that she wants the mirror that Sidney Glass is in since it is filled with dark magic. Before declaring Sidney free, the Snow Queen advises Sidney to get a warm coat since it is \\\"going to get cooler around here.\\\"\\nIn the \\\"Sister's Grimm\\\" series by Michael Buckley, the Magic Mirror appears as a minor protagonist in the first six books, but is revealed to be the main antagonist in book seven and remains evil until near the end of book nine.\\nIn the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Mirror%20Mirror%20%28film%29\\\">Mirror Mirror</a>\\\", elements of the Magic Mirror are featured as a large mirror that serves as a portal to the Mirror House where Queen Clementianna consults with the Mirror Queen (played by <a href=\\\"Lisa%20Roberts%20Gillian\\\">Lisa Roberts Gillian</a>). To access the portal to the Mirror House, Queen Clementianna would quote \\\"Mirror Mirror on the Wall.\\\" The Mirror Queen would always advise Queen Clementianna not to use dark magic for her own gain. After the aged Queen Clementianna takes the slice of an apple she was to give to Snow White from her, the Mirror Queen declared that it was Snow White's story all along as the Mirror House and the Mirror Portal shattered.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Snow%20White%20and%20the%20Huntsman\\\">Snow White and the Huntsman</a>\\\", the Magic Mirror appears as a golden gong-like mirror that oozes out a hooded robed being (voiced by Christopher Obi) whenever Queen Ravenna called upon it for information, although apparently, the being is only visible to Ravenna, as her henchmen observe her talking to thin air. The Magic Mirror first appeared where he told Queen Ravenna that Snow White was coming to the age where she will be more fairer than Queen Ravenna. The Mirror is last seen when Snow White defeats Ravenna, ending the Evil Queen's rule.\\nIn prequel/sequel, \\\"\\\", the Magic Mirror (voiced by <a href=\\\"Fred%20Tatasciore\\\">Fred Tatasciore</a>) is revealed to hold darker forms of magic. He is seen in flashbacks of Queen Ravenna's tyrannical reign, where it tells Ravenna that her sister Freya will give birth to a child who will exceed Ravenna's beauty as the fairest of them all. The Mirror also predicts that if the child was to be harmed, Freya will unleash powers, prompting Ravenna to orchestrate the murder of her own niece, both to preserve her own beauty and, in her own twisted way, help her sister. Freya, in horror at her discovery, releases icy powers that kill her lover and turns her hair white. Years later, after Ravenna's death, the Magic Mirror has gone missing while travelling to a Sanctuary where Snow White believes its evil can be contained. It is revealed to be in the hands of a troll in a forest, but Freya, seeking the mirror for herself, orders Sara- the Huntsman's presumed-dead wife- to retrieve it. Although Sara obeys this order, she tricks Freya by sparing Eric's life. Freya's subsequent attempt to use the Mirror herself reveals that Ravenna had hidden a part of herself in the mirror, restoring her to a form of life apparently formed of the Mirror's gold while still appearing human. In the final confrontation, Freya learns the truth about her sister's role in the death of her daughter (Ravenna was now the mirror spirit and was thus bound to answer Freya's questions truthfully), prompting her to aid Eric in destroying the Mirror at the cost of her own life. However, the final scene shows a golden raven flying away, suggesting that a part of the mirror - and thus Ravenna - may have survived.\\nIn the 2013 SyFy film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hunters%20%282013%20film%29\\\">The Hunters</a>\\\", it is revealed that the Magic Mirror was inspired by a fabled mirror that is said to grant the wish of whoever looks into it; supposedly, the mirror triggered the <a href=\\\"Dark%20Ages%20%28historiography%29\\\">Dark Ages</a>. The mirror was sought by an ancient army known as the Krugen before the hunters- a group of scientist knights dedicated to protecting fairy-tale artefacts- acquired the mirror, breaking off four shards from the mirror and hiding them and the mirror away when destroying it completely proved impossible. The film focuses on a family of hunters, the Flynns, with the parents being experienced hunters seeking the shards to keep them away from the Krugen and their sons being forced to take up the hunt when their parents go missing. The mirror is eventually reassembled by the film's antagonist, but he is tricked into making a wish that caused the mirror to destroy him, with the protagonists subsequently wishing for the mirror to destroy itself.\\nIn the Disney Channel original movie \\\"<a href=\\\"Descendants%20%282015%20film%29\\\">Descendants</a>\\\", the Evil Queen has retained the Mirror after her exile to the Isle of the Lost, reduced to a small hand-mirror that is passed on to her daughter Evie. Although it is still controlled by rhymes spoken by the user and doesn't have an inhabitant in it.\\nAppearing as a magical object in the Business Office, the Magic Mirror is a minor protagonist in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Wolf%20Among%20Us\\\">The Wolf Among Us</a>\\\". Usually demanding its request be given to it in rhyme form, the Magic Mirror is capable of showing a brief vision of its requested subject. The Magic Mirror's shattering and the search for its missing shard play key aspects following the end of the second episode.\\nNear the end of the game, the player can use the Magic Mirror in Sordid's tower as an surveillance monitor, using any reflecting surface like a camera.\\n\",\n \"Late Junction\\nLate Junction is a music programme broadcast on three nights a week by <a href=\\\"BBC%20Radio%203\\\">BBC Radio 3</a>. Billed as \\\"an eclectic mix of world music, ranging from the ancient to the contemporary\\\", the programme has a wide musical scope. It is not uncommon to hear medieval ballads juxtaposed with 21st-century electronica, or jazz followed by international folk music followed by an ambient track. Each edition of the programme – which normally starts at 23.00 on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays – runs for 90 minutes.\\nThe programme was created soon after <a href=\\\"Roger%20Wright%20%28music%20administrator%29\\\">Roger Wright</a> took over as controller of <a href=\\\"BBC%20Radio%203\\\">BBC Radio 3</a>, as part of changes with which Wright believed that he was addressing \\\"this feeling people had that they didn't want to put Radio 3 on unless they were going to listen carefully\\\". The first programme was broadcast in September 1999 and produced by <a href=\\\"Antony%20Pitts\\\">Antony Pitts</a>.\\n\\\"Late Junction\\\" won a <a href=\\\"Sony%20Radio%20Awards\\\">Sony gold award</a> in 2003 for Music Programming. The comment made at the time was \\\"A radio jewel. Is there a show like this anywhere else in the radio world? Everyone who hears the show falls in love with it. Surprising, revealing, accessible. Brilliantly programmed - a show where the real star is the music.\\\"\\nThe programme's main regular presenter is <a href=\\\"Fiona%20Talkington\\\">Fiona Talkington</a> and, until March 2013, <a href=\\\"Verity%20Sharp\\\">Verity Sharp</a> was also a regular presenter. Other presenters include <a href=\\\"Shaheera%20Asante\\\">Shaheera Asante</a> until 2006, <a href=\\\"Max%20Reinhardt%20%28radio%20presenter%29\\\">Max Reinhardt</a>, <a href=\\\"Nick%20Luscombe\\\">Nick Luscombe</a>, Anne Hilde Neset and <a href=\\\"Mara%20Carlyle\\\">Mara Carlyle</a>. While the selection of music to be played in any one programme is the result of a collaboration between producer and presenter, some individual preferences can be detected. Fiona Talkington, for instance, tends to play more conventional jazz and Scandinavian music and Verity Sharp more folk music, especially that featuring fiddle-playing. Nick Luscombe's shows often feature music from Japan.\",\n \"St Catharine's College, Cambridge\\nSt Catharine’s College is a <a href=\\\"Colleges%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Cambridge\\\">constituent college</a> of the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Cambridge\\\">University of Cambridge</a>. Founded in 1473 as Katharine Hall, it adopted its current name in 1860. The college is nicknamed \\\"Catz\\\". The college is located in the historic city-centre of Cambridge, and lies just south of <a href=\\\"King%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">King's College</a> and across the street from <a href=\\\"Corpus%20Christi%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">Corpus Christi College</a>. The college is notable for its open court (rather than closed <a href=\\\"quadrangle%20%28architecture%29\\\">quadrangle</a>) that faces towards <a href=\\\"Trumpington%20Street\\\">Trumpington Street</a>.\\nSt Catharine’s is unique in being the only <a href=\\\"Oxbridge\\\">Oxbridge</a> college founded by the serving head of another college. The college community is moderately sized, consisting of approximately 70 <a href=\\\"Oxford%20fellow\\\">fellows</a>, 150 graduate students, and 410 undergraduates. As of 2016, the college's endowment stood at £62.2 million, placing the college 15th richest of the University's colleges.\\n<a href=\\\"Robert%20Woodlark\\\">Robert Woodlark</a>, Provost of <a href=\\\"King%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">King’s College</a>, had begun preparations for the founding of a new college as early as 1459 when he bought tenements on which the new college could be built. The preparation cost him a great deal of his private fortune (he was suspected of diverting King’s College funds), and he was forced to scale down the foundation to only three Fellows. He stipulated that they must study <a href=\\\"theology\\\">theology</a> and <a href=\\\"philosophy\\\">philosophy</a> only. The college was established as \\\"Lady Katharine Hall\\\" in 1473. The college received its Royal Charter of Incorporation in 1475 from <a href=\\\"Edward%20IV%20of%20England\\\">King Edward IV</a>. Woodlark may have chosen the name in homage to the mother of <a href=\\\"Henry%20VI%20of%20England\\\">King Henry VI</a> who was called Catharine, although it is more likely that it was named as part of the <a href=\\\"Renaissance\\\">Renaissance</a> cult of St Catharine, who was a patron saint of learning. At any rate, the college was ready for habitation and formally founded on St Catharine’s day (November 25) 1473. There are six Saints Catharine, but the college was named for <a href=\\\"Catherine%20of%20Alexandria\\\">Saint Catharine of Alexandria</a>.\\nThe initial foundation was not well-provided for. Woodlark was principally interested in the welfare of fellows and the college had no undergraduates at all for many years. By 1550, however, there was an increasing number of junior students and the focus of the college changed to that of teaching undergraduates.\\nAs the college entered the 17th century, it was still one of the smallest colleges in Cambridge. However, a series of prudent Masters and generous benefactors were to change the fortunes of the college and expand its size. Rapid growth in the fellowship and undergraduate population made it necessary to expand the college, and short-lived additions were made in 1622. By 1630 the college began to demolish its existing buildings which were decaying, and started work on a new court. In 1637 the college came into possession of the George Inn (later the Bull Inn) on <a href=\\\"Trumpington%20Street\\\">Trumpington Street</a>. Behind this Inn was a stables which was already famous for the practice of its manager, <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hobson\\\">Thomas Hobson</a>, not to allow a hirer to take any horse other than the one longest in the stable, leading to the expression “<a href=\\\"Hobson%27s%20choice\\\">Hobson's choice</a>”, meaning \\\"take it or leave it\\\".\\nThe period of 1675 to 1757 saw the redevelopment of the college's site into a large three-sided court, one of only four at Oxbridge colleges; the others are at Jesus and Downing at Cambridge and <a href=\\\"Worcester%20College%2C%20Oxford\\\">Worcester</a>, St Catharine’s sister college, at Oxford. Proposals for a range of buildings to complete the fourth side of the court have been made on many occasions.\\nThe college was granted new statutes in 1860 and adopted its current name. In 1880, a movement to merge the college with <a href=\\\"King%27s%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">King’s College</a> began. The two colleges were adjacent and it seemed a solution to King’s need for more rooms and St Catharine’s need for a more substantial financial basis. However, the Master (<a href=\\\"Charles%20Kirkby%20Robinson\\\">Charles Kirkby Robinson</a>) was opposed and St Catharine’s eventually refused.\\nIn 1966 a major rebuilding project took place under the Mastership of Professor E. E. Rich. This saw the creation of a new larger hall, new kitchens and an accommodation block shared between St Catharine's and King's College. Pressure on accommodation continued to grow, and in 1981 further accommodation was built at St. Chad's on <a href=\\\"Grange%20Road%2C%20Cambridge\\\">Grange Road</a>, with further rooms added there in 1998. In 2013 the College completed the building of a new lecture theatre, college bar and JCR.\\nIn 1979, the membership of the college was broadened to welcome female students, and in 2006 the first woman was appointed as Master of the college, <a href=\\\"Jean%20Thomas%20%28academic%29\\\">Dame Jean Thomas</a>.\\nA history of the college was written by W.H.S. Jones in 1936.\\nIn 2015, St Catharine's became the first college in Cambridge to implement a gender-neutral dress code for formal hall.\\nHistorically, St Catharine's academic position has been unexceptional and in the annual league table of colleges placed towards the middle. In 2014 its position slipped to 21st, but rose to 13th in 2015 with over 25% of students gaining a First. The college had been placed at the top of the <a href=\\\"Tompkins%20Table\\\">Tompkins Table</a>, which ranks the colleges by the class of degrees obtained by their undergraduates, for the first time in 2005. Between 1997 and 2010, the college averaged 9th of the 29 colleges.\\nThe college maintains a friendly rivalry with <a href=\\\"Queens%27%20College%2C%20Cambridge\\\">Queens’ College</a> after the construction of the main court of St Catharine's College on Cambridge’s former High Street relegated one side of Queens' College into a back alley. A more modern rivalry with <a href=\\\"Robinson%20College\\\">Robinson College</a> resulted from the construction in the 1970s of a modern block of flats named St Chad’s (in which the rooms are octagonal to resemble the wheel on the college crest) by the <a href=\\\"Cambridge%20University%20Library\\\">University Library</a>.\\nThe college has a strong reputation in hockey and racquet sports, in part due to its facilities for these sports including grass tennis courts and an astroturf hockey pitch. <a href=\\\"St%20Catharine%27s%20College%20Boat%20Club%20%28Cambridge%29\\\">St Catharine's College Boat Club</a>, the college boat club, hosts the Cardinals Regatta each year, in which teams compete along a short course in fancy dress with an emphasis on bribery to secure victory. The college's Boat Club is moderately strong, with both Men's and Women's 1st boats generally residing in the middle of the 1st division of the <a href=\\\"May%20Bumps\\\">May Bumps</a> races.\\nThe college hosts several other notable societies. The Shirley Society is the college literary society, the oldest in Cambridge, it regularly hosts significant figures from the arts world throughout the academic year. The college-based girls' choir is the first of its kind in a UK university and is composed of girls aged 8–14 from local schools.\",\n \"Print Room (theatre)\\nThe Print Room is a fringe theatre located in the old <a href=\\\"Coronet%20Cinema\\\">Coronet Cinema</a> in London, England. The company was founded in <a href=\\\"Westbourne%20Grove\\\">Westbourne Grove</a>, West London, and opened in September 2010. It produces a programme of theatre, art, dance and music events. The theatre is run by artistic director Anda Winters.\\nThe theatre began in a converted 1950s warehouse which had served as a graphic design workshop in Westbourne Grove. The venue had two spaces: an 80-seater studio, which it used for its larger productions, and a 40-seater space for smaller theatre pieces, play readings and art exhibitions.\\nIn July 2014, it was announced that the Print Room was taking over the <a href=\\\"Coronet%20Cinema\\\">Coronet Cinema</a> in <a href=\\\"Notting%20Hill%20Gate\\\">Notting Hill Gate</a> as its new home.\\nThe Print Room operates in the Coronet using the 180-seat main auditorium, and a smaller, 100-seat studio space.\\nThe Print Room stages lesser-known work by classic authors such as <a href=\\\"T.S%20Eliot\\\">T.S Eliot</a>, <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Miller\\\">Arthur Miller</a> and <a href=\\\"Harold%20Pinter\\\">Harold Pinter</a>, and new works by contemporary dramatists such as <a href=\\\"Brian%20Friel\\\">Brian Friel</a> and <a href=\\\"Will%20Eno\\\">Will Eno</a>.\\nOn the 19th January 2017 a protest was held outside the theatre in a row over white actors playing characters with Chinese names. Hundreds of protesters accused The Print Room of yellow face casting for its production of Howard Barker's play In The Depths of Love.\\n\",\n \"National Film and Television School\\nThe National Film and Television School (NFTS) is a <a href=\\\"Film%20school\\\">film, television and games school</a> established in 1971 and based at <a href=\\\"Beaconsfield%20Film%20Studios\\\">Beaconsfield Studios</a> in <a href=\\\"Beaconsfield\\\">Beaconsfield</a>, <a href=\\\"Buckinghamshire\\\">Buckinghamshire</a>. It is featured in the 2017 ranking by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\\\">The Hollywood Reporter</a>\\\" of the top 15 International film schools.<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-1\\\"></a>\\nIts community of students makes around a hundred and fifty films a year on courses that are over 90% practical and unlike courses offered at other UK film schools. As of 2017 it had over 400 students and about a thousand a year on its short courses. Beaconsfield Studios comprises state-of-the art facilities including film and television stages; animation and production design studios; edit suites; sound post-production facilities; a music recording studio and three dubbing theatres, all furnished with current digital equipment comparable to that used in the film and television industry. The school completed an expansion and modernisation programme in early 2017 with new teaching facilities, a third cinema and a new 4K Television Studio that is the most advanced dedicated training facility in the UK with the ability to shoot, record and stream live content in <a href=\\\"high%20definition%204k\\\">high definition 4k</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a> stated that the NFTS was the \\\"leading centre of excellence for education in film and television programme making\\\", and noted that it was \\\"relevant to the industry's present and future needs.\\\"<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-2\\\"></a> British Film Magazine once described the NFTS as being one of the few schools to come \\\"very, very close\\\" to guaranteeing a job in the film industry, and named its leader (Powell) a \\\"maverick\\\";<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-3\\\"></a> Filmmaking.net named it one of two films schools outside the US which had such a high international reputation.<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-4\\\"></a>\\nNFTS student films have been nominated for an Oscar three times in the last six years. Additionally, in 2017 NFTS graduation film, \\\"A Love Story,\\\" directed and co-written by Anushka Naanayakkara, won the British Short Animation BAFTA at the EE British Academy Film Awards making it the fourth year in a row that NFTS students have picked up this accolade. This is the second consecutive year that two of NFTS students’ graduation films competed for the same prize with \\\"A Love Story\\\" up against \\\"The Alan Dimension\\\" directed & co-written by Jac Clinch. NFTS student films are regularly selected for the top film festivals around the world. This year’s highlights include selections at <a href=\\\"Cannes\\\">Cannes</a> and <a href=\\\"Annecy%20Animation%20Festival\\\">Annecy Animation Festival</a> and top prizes in nearly all the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Television%20Society\\\">Royal Television Society</a> categories for which they are eligible.\\nIn 2016 the National Film and Television School won accolades in all three categories in the CILECT Prize, the global film school awards. This is the third time that the NFTS has taken top place in these prestigious awards having also won two out of three categories in 2015, and in 2013, the school made history by becoming the first institution to win first prize in all three categories. This year, 117 film schools submitted entries, which were voted on by 107 of the world’s major film and television schools from 57 countries.\\nNFTS in 2011\\nThe National Film School opened in 1971, the work of four years of planning to create an institution to train personnel for the British film industry. <a href=\\\"Department%20of%20Education%20and%20Science\\\">Department of Education and Science</a> had in 1967 recommended the creation of a national film school for the UK, and in 1969 an inquiry led by Lord Lloyd of Hampstead began to develop plans.\\nIn 1970 a Scot named <a href=\\\"Colin%20Young%20%28film%20educator%29\\\">Colin Young</a>, then chairing the <a href=\\\"UCLA\\\">UCLA's</a> Department of Theater Arts, was appointed as the School's first director. The NFS bought the old Beaconsfield Film Studios in Buckinghamshire and set about refitting it to professional industry standards. Young established four permanent departments—production, camera, editing and sound—and in 1971 accepted the first intake of 25 students.\\nThe curriculum in the early days was loosely structured; sporadic seminars and workshops were secondary to production, with students spending most of their time doing what they had come to the School to do—making films. But by the early 1980s, Young felt this system no longer served the students' best interests and a more structured curriculum was introduced. Links with the industry were strengthened to supply collaborative, financial and production expertise.\\nIn the 1980s, the school officially changed its name to the National Film and Television School to incorporate the demand for courses in television production and has since added games to its remit. In 1982 the School launched a pilot project for re-training freelance industry professionals. This led to the establishment of the National Short Course Training Programme (now ShortCourses@NFTS), which has been running courses ever since on all areas of film and television production. By the early 1990s the school had modified its original stance on course structure, deciding to provide specialisation at the time of entry. The first year still offered a general course, followed in the next two years by focused training in one of the ten specialist areas (direction, writing, editing, camera, sound, animation, design, producing, documentary and composing).\\nColin Young retired in 1992 and was succeeded by <a href=\\\"Henning%20Camre\\\">Henning Camre</a>, formerly Head of the <a href=\\\"National%20Film%20School%20of%20Denmark\\\">National Film School of Denmark</a>. Camre aimed for more balanced numbers in each of the ten specialist areas, creating separate departments with their own head tutors and curricula. He secured a Lottery grant to install state-of-the-art equipment, supporting new production methods offered by innovations in technology and ensuring that graduates were trained on up-to-date equipment.\\nCamre was succeeded in 1998 by Stephen Bayly, an NFTS graduate and film producer (<a href=\\\"Richard%20III%20%281995%20film%29\\\">\\\"Richard III\\\"</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Mrs%20Dalloway\\\">Mrs Dalloway</a>\\\"). His first move was to reorganise the curriculum to run over two years, instead of three. Recognising a growing trend towards a requirement for academic qualifications, he sought to achieve this. Eventually, <a href=\\\"The%20Royal%20College%20of%20Art\\\">The Royal College of Art</a> agreed to validate the School's courses and 2000 saw the first intake of students who would graduate with an MA. In 2002, Bayly introduced the first of the shorter Diploma courses, established to meet an urgent Industry need for properly trained sound recordists.\\nSeptember 2003 saw <a href=\\\"Nik%20Powell\\\">Nik Powell</a>, one of the UK's leading producers, to take over from Bayly. Powell has rapidly expanded the programme of new courses, introducing Diplomas in Producing & Directing Television Entertainment (now an MA), Digital Post-Production, SFX/VFX, Writing & Producing Comedy Diploma, and Script Development (a partnership venture with The Script Factory). New courses for 2017 include MA’s in Marketing for Film, TV & Games, Directing & Producing Science & Natural History, Production Technology and Creative Business for Entrepreneurs & Executives and Diplomas in Production Accounting, Directing Commercials and Graphics & Titles for Film & Television. Powell has reinvigorated the programme of visiting filmmakers, and set up a programme of masterclasses run at London cinemas for NFTS students and the public. He has also introduced a range of development deals with broadcasters and independent production\\nIn 2016, the NFTS announced it had received funding to increase the capacity of its site in Beaconsfield including a state-of-the-art 4k Digital Content Production Training Studio and the addition of a number of new MA and Diploma courses including Directing & Producing Natural History & Science; Production Technology; Marketing for Film, TV & Games; Graphics & Titles for Television & Film and Creative Business for Entrepreneurs & Executives.\\nThe NFTS holds yearly graduation shows at the <a href=\\\"BFI%20Southbank\\\">BFI Southbank</a> (formerly known as the National Film Theatre). These are highly selective and invite-only events which showcase the student's projects to scouts and industry professionals, ensuring that the students receive maximum exposure.<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-7\\\"></a>\\nAlumni of the National Film and Television School have gone on to win <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award\\\">Oscars</a>, <a href=\\\"British%20Academy%20of%20Film%20and%20Television%20Arts\\\">BAFTAs</a> and <a href=\\\"Emmy%20Award\\\">Emmys</a> as well as film festival prizes from around the world. In the last 6 years student films \\\"The Confession\\\" (2011), \\\"<a href=\\\"Head%20over%20Heels%20%282012%20film%29\\\">Head Over Heels</a>\\\" (2013), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Bigger%20Picture\\\">The Bigger Picture</a>\\\" (2015) have gone on to be nominated for three <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award\\\">Oscars</a>, and the graduation film \\\"A Love Story\\\" won the 2017 <a href=\\\"British%20Academy%20of%20Film%20and%20Television%20Arts\\\">BAFTA</a> for <a href=\\\"BAFTA%20Award%20for%20Best%20Short%20Animation\\\">Best Short Animation</a>, the fourth year in a row an NFTS animation has won the category.<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-9\\\"></a>\\nIn 2013 the NFTS graduation film \\\"Miss Todd\\\" won the <a href=\\\"Student%20Academy%20Awards\\\">Student Academy Award</a> for Best Foreign Film presented by <a href=\\\"Academy%20of%20Motion%20Picture%20Arts%20and%20Sciences\\\">Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences</a>. This marked the sixth time the NFTS had won in this category, more than any other Film School outside of the United States. In 2016, The National Film and Television School once again affirmed its place as the number one international film school by winning accolades in all three categories in the CILECT Prize, the global film school awards. The NFTS won ‘Best Documentary’ for \\\"The Archipelago\\\", ‘Best Animation’ for \\\"Edmond\\\" and was awarded second prize in the ‘Fiction’ category for \\\"Patriot\\\".\\nThis is the third time that the NFTS has taken top place in these prestigious awards having also won two out of three categories in 2015, and in 2013, the school made history by becoming the first institution to win first prize in all three categories.\\nThe NFTS has recently undergone a major renovation and has opened new state-of-the-art facilities completed in January 2017 including a 4K Digital Content Production Training Studio. The Games Design and Development, Sound Design and Digital Effects MA courses have brand new dedicated teaching space, additional studio space. There is also an extra cinema, café and incubation space to enable graduates to start new businesses and accommodate new ground-breaking courses, enhancing the NFTS’ already diverse programme.\\nThe school's facilities were expanded in 2008 with the addition of new teaching spaces, public spaces and a new cinema, designed by Glenn Howells Architects. Upon its completion in 2008, the strikingly modern three story building (see photo above) won a coveted <a href=\\\"RIBA\\\">RIBA</a> prize.<a href=\\\"National%20Film%20and%20Television%20School%23cite%20note-10\\\"></a> In June 2009 it was formally named The Oswald Morris Building in honour of veteran cinematographer <a href=\\\"Oswald%20Morris\\\">Ossie Morris</a>.\\nUntil its repeal in 1986, the school was funded partly through a tax on cinema ticket sales known as the <a href=\\\"Eady%20Levy\\\">Eady Levy</a>, named after then <a href=\\\"HM%20Treasury\\\">UK Treasury</a> official Sir Wilfred Eady. The NFTS has since been funded by the UK Government, via (today) the <a href=\\\"Department%20for%20Culture%2C%20Media%20and%20Sport\\\">Department for Culture, Media and Sport</a>, and the television and film industries.\\nKey Partner Sponsors include ODEON, the Film Distributors’ Association and the UK Cinema Association in addition to the main UK <a href=\\\"Terrestrial%20television\\\">terrestrial</a> and <a href=\\\"satellite%20broadcasting\\\">satellite broadcasting</a> companies <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a>, <a href=\\\"Channel%204\\\">Channel 4</a>, <a href=\\\"BSkyB\\\">BSkyB</a>, <a href=\\\"S4C\\\">S4C</a>. In addition, a large number of public and private donors fund <a href=\\\"scholarships\\\">scholarships</a> to assist (chiefly <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">British</a> and <a href=\\\"European%20Union\\\">EU</a>) students.\\nPostgraduate students from the UK/EU/EEA can now apply for a loan to help with their studies at any UK university including the NFTS via the Student Loans Company – which will make a big difference for many who wish to come and study at the NFTS.\\nThe school has around 90 full-time staff as well as many top tutors from within the industry.\\nThe National Film and Television School has awarded over 20 fellowships since 1981 with ceremonies taking place at their graduation ceremony each year. The NFTS Fellowship is awarded in recognition of outstanding contribution to the British film and television industry.\\n\",\n \"Jocelyn Pook\\nJocelyn Pook ( ; born 14 February 1960) is an English composer, pianist and <a href=\\\"viola\\\">viola</a> player.\\nPook graduated in 1983 from London's <a href=\\\"Guildhall%20School%20of%20Music%20and%20Drama\\\">Guildhall School of Music and Drama</a> where she studied the viola. She performed with many pop artists including \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Communards\\\">The Communards</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Massive%20Attack\\\">Massive Attack</a>\\\", and formed \\\"<a href=\\\"Electra%20Strings\\\">Electra Strings</a>\\\" together with <a href=\\\"Sonia%20Slany\\\">Sonia Slany</a> for whom she wrote original material. She has worked extensively with eminent dance companies such as \\\"<a href=\\\"DV8\\\">DV8</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Shobana%20Jeyasingh%20Dance%20Company\\\">Shobana Jeyasingh</a>\\\", and in 2002 she was commissioned by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Proms\\\">The Proms</a>\\\" to write a work for \\\"The <a href=\\\"King%27s%20Singers\\\">King's Singers</a>\\\" in collaboration with <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Motion\\\">Andrew Motion</a>.\\nPook recorded on two occasions with pianist <a href=\\\"Jeremy%20Peyton%20Jones\\\">Jeremy Peyton Jones</a> for \\\"<a href=\\\"Rough%20Trade%20Records\\\">Rough Trade</a>\\\" and later for \\\"Century XXI\\\". About a year later, she joined <a href=\\\"Anne%20Stephenson\\\">Anne Stephenson</a> and <a href=\\\"Audrey%20Riley\\\">Audrey Riley</a> to accompany <a href=\\\"Virginia%20Astley\\\">Virginia Astley</a> both on stage and record. Session work followed and alternated with her co-founding of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Electra%20Strings\\\">Electra Strings</a>\\\" with Australian violinist <a href=\\\"Sonia%20Slany\\\">Sonia Slany</a> and an album on the \\\"<a href=\\\"Village%20Life\\\">Village Life</a>\\\" label. This neoclassical chamber <a href=\\\"quartet\\\">quartet</a> later transformed into the \\\"Brilliant Strings\\\" after she and Slany had gone their separate ways.\\nAs a solo recording artist, Pook released several albums. These included \\\"Deluge\\\" (1997), \\\"Flood\\\" (1999) and \\\"Untold Things\\\" (2001).\\nHer career as a <a href=\\\"film%20score\\\">film composer</a> took flight when cuts from her album \\\"Flood\\\" were used in <a href=\\\"Stanley%20Kubrick\\\">Stanley Kubrick</a>'s film \\\"<a href=\\\"Eyes%20Wide%20Shut\\\">Eyes Wide Shut</a>\\\". The piece \\\"Masked Ball\\\",\\nwhich incorporates a fragment of an Orthodox <a href=\\\"Liturgy\\\">Liturgy</a> played backwards and lyrics sung (or <a href=\\\"chant\\\">chant</a>ed) in <a href=\\\"Romanian%20language\\\">Romanian</a>, underscored the masked ball sequence.\\nFurther scores have subsequently been contributed to several European films, notably the 2004 film version of <a href=\\\"William%20Shakespeare\\\">William Shakespeare</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Merchant%20of%20Venice%20%282004%20film%29\\\">The Merchant of Venice</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Peter%20Kosminsky\\\">Peter Kosminsky</a>'s film on <a href=\\\"David%20Kelly%20%28weapons%20expert%29\\\">David Kelly</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Government%20Inspector%20%28television%20drama%29\\\">The Government Inspector</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Brick%20Lane%20%282007%20film%29\\\">Brick Lane</a>\\\" and 2007's \\\"<a href=\\\"Ca%C3%B3tica%20Ana\\\">Caótica Ana</a>\\\".\\nPook was commissioned to write a short opera, \\\"Ingerland\\\",\\nfor <a href=\\\"ROH2\\\">ROH2</a> (the contemporary producing arm of London's <a href=\\\"Royal%20Opera%20House\\\">Royal Opera House</a>) which was performed in the Royal Opera House's Linbury Studio Theatre in June 2010.\\nOn 3 December 2012 her work \\\"Hearing Voices\\\", was performed in premiere by <a href=\\\"Melanie%20Pappenheim\\\">Melanie Pappenheim</a> with <a href=\\\"Charles%20Hazlewood\\\">Charles Hazlewood</a> conducting the <a href=\\\"BBC%20Concert%20Orchestra\\\">BBC Concert Orchestra</a> at the <a href=\\\"Queen%20Elizabeth%20Hall\\\">Queen Elizabeth Hall</a> in a concert on the theme of hysteria. In June 2014 the English National Ballet made their <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.glastonburyfestivals.co.uk/\\\">Glastonbury debut</a> on the iconic the Pyramid Stage on the Sunday morning with their performance of Akram Khan's First World War-themed Dust, with Music composed by Jocelyn Pook. The performance was <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b048sqb6\\\">broadcast by the BBC</a> on BBC2.\\nIn 1983 Jocelyn appeared in the \\\"<a href=\\\"ABC%20%28band%29\\\">ABC</a>\\\" movie \\\"<a href=\\\"Mantrap%20%281983%20film%29\\\">Mantrap</a>\\\" as one of many string players for the album \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lexicon%20of%20Love\\\">The Lexicon of Love</a>\\\".\",\n \"Oona Chaplin\\nOona Castilla Chaplin ] (born 4 June 1986), known professionally as Oona Chaplin, is a Spanish actress. She is known for playing Marnie Madden in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hour%20%28BBC%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Hour</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Game%20of%20Thrones%20characters%23Talisa%20Maegyr\\\">Talisa Maegyr</a> in the <a href=\\\"HBO\\\">HBO</a> TV series \\\"<a href=\\\"Game%20of%20Thrones\\\">Game of Thrones</a>\\\", Kitty Trevelyan in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Crimson%20Field\\\">The Crimson Field</a>\\\" and Zilpha Geary in \\\"<a href=\\\"Taboo%20%282017%20TV%20series%29\\\">Taboo</a>\\\".\\nA member of the <a href=\\\"Chaplin%20family\\\">Chaplin family</a>, she is the daughter of actress <a href=\\\"Geraldine%20Chaplin\\\">Geraldine Chaplin</a>, the granddaughter of acclaimed English filmmaker and actor <a href=\\\"Charlie%20Chaplin\\\">Charlie Chaplin</a>, and the great-granddaughter of American playwright <a href=\\\"Eugene%20O%27Neill\\\">Eugene O'Neill</a>. She was named after her maternal grandmother <a href=\\\"Oona%20O%27Neill\\\">Oona O'Neill</a>, Charlie's wife.\\nOona Chaplin was born in <a href=\\\"Madrid\\\">Madrid</a> to Anglo-American actress <a href=\\\"Geraldine%20Chaplin\\\">Geraldine Chaplin</a> and <a href=\\\"Chile\\\">Chile</a>an cinematographer Patricio Castilla. Her paternal grandmother is a <a href=\\\"mapuche\\\">mapuche</a> Indian. She was named after her maternal grandmother, <a href=\\\"Oona%20O%27Neill\\\">Oona O'Neill Chaplin</a>. She spent her childhood mostly in Spain, Great Britain, <a href=\\\"Switzerland\\\">Switzerland</a>, and <a href=\\\"Cuba\\\">Cuba</a>, but also travelled often because of her mother's film career. She started dancing ballet, <a href=\\\"salsa%20%28dance%29\\\">salsa</a> and <a href=\\\"flamenco\\\">flamenco</a> at an early age.\\nWhen Chaplin was fifteen, she began studying at <a href=\\\"Gordonstoun%20School\\\">Gordonstoun School</a> in Scotland on a drama scholarship. During her time there, she appeared in several school plays, touring the United Kingdom in an adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"Romeo%20and%20Juliet\\\">Romeo and Juliet</a>\\\" and impersonating her grandfather in the role of Bottom in an adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Midsummer%20Night%27s%20Dream\\\">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a>\\\", which was performed at the <a href=\\\"Edinburgh%20Festival%20Fringe\\\">Edinburgh Festival Fringe</a>. After leaving Gordonstoun, she was accepted to the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Academy%20of%20Dramatic%20Art\\\">Royal Academy of Dramatic Art</a>, from which she graduated in 2007. Oona has a half-brother named Shane from her mother's previous relationship with film director, <a href=\\\"Carlos%20Saura\\\">Carlos Saura</a>.\\nSince graduating from RADA, Chaplin has acted in mainly British and Spanish short and feature films. She has played alongside her mother in three feature films: \\\"<a href=\\\"Inconceivable%20%282008%20film%29\\\">Inconceivable</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"%C2%BFPara%20qu%C3%A9%20sirve%20un%20oso%3F\\\">¿Para qué sirve un oso?</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Imago%20Mortis\\\">Imago Mortis</a>\\\". Chaplin has also had several supporting roles in British and American television. In 2010, she appeared as a Brazilian cage dancer in <a href=\\\"ITV%20Network\\\">ITV</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Married%20Single%20Other\\\">Married Single Other</a>\\\" (2010), followed by roles as the wife of one of the main characters, Hector Madden, in the <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a> period drama \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hour%20%28BBC%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Hour</a>\\\" (2011–2012), as Dr. John Watson's girlfriend in <a href=\\\"A%20Scandal%20in%20Belgravia\\\">an episode</a> of <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Sherlock%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Sherlock</a>\\\" (2012) and as <a href=\\\"List%20of%20A%20Song%20of%20Ice%20and%20Fire%20characters%23Jeyne%20Westerling\\\">Talisa Maegyr</a> in <a href=\\\"HBO\\\">HBO</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Game%20of%20Thrones\\\">Game of Thrones</a>\\\" (2012–2013).\\nShe plays Kitty Trevelyan, a lead character, in the BBC drama \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Crimson%20Field\\\">The Crimson Field</a>\\\" (2014) and Ruth Levinson, wife of Ira Levinson, in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Longest%20Ride\\\">The Longest Ride</a>\\\" (2015).\\nChaplin stars as Zilpha Geary in the eight-part <a href=\\\"historical%20fiction\\\">historical fiction</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Taboo%20%282017%20TV%20series%29\\\">Taboo</a>\\\" (2017) on <a href=\\\"BBC%20One\\\">BBC One</a> and <a href=\\\"FX%20%28TV%20channel%29\\\">FX</a>.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Twenty () is a 2015 South Korean coming-of-age film starring Kim Woo-bin, Lee Junho and Kang Ha-neul. It was written and directed by Lee Byeong-heon, his second feature after the 2012 indie \"Cheer Up, Mr. Lee\".","Kim Woo-bin (born Kim Hyun-joong on July 16, 1989) is a South Korean model and actor. He began his career as a runway model and made his acting debut in the television drama \"White Christmas\". He subsequently gained attention in \"A Gentleman's Dignity\" (2012), and made his breakthrough with \"School 2013\" (2012-2013) and \"The Heirs\" (2013). Kim later starred in box office hits \"\" (2013), \"The Con Artists\" (2014) and \"Twenty\" (2015). In 2016, he took on his first leading role on television in \"Uncontrollably Fond\"."],"string":"[\n \"Twenty () is a 2015 South Korean coming-of-age film starring Kim Woo-bin, Lee Junho and Kang Ha-neul. It was written and directed by Lee Byeong-heon, his second feature after the 2012 indie \\\"Cheer Up, Mr. Lee\\\".\",\n \"Kim Woo-bin (born Kim Hyun-joong on July 16, 1989) is a South Korean model and actor. He began his career as a runway model and made his acting debut in the television drama \\\"White Christmas\\\". He subsequently gained attention in \\\"A Gentleman's Dignity\\\" (2012), and made his breakthrough with \\\"School 2013\\\" (2012-2013) and \\\"The Heirs\\\" (2013). Kim later starred in box office hits \\\"\\\" (2013), \\\"The Con Artists\\\" (2014) and \\\"Twenty\\\" (2015). In 2016, he took on his first leading role on television in \\\"Uncontrollably Fond\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":69,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What actor appeared in the CBS television series \"Knots Landing\" and the movie \"Sweet Revenge\"?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Theodore Tillman \"Ted\" Shackelford III"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Knots Landing\nKnots Landing is an American prime time television soap opera that aired on CBS from December 27, 1979, to May 13, 1993. A spin-off of \"Dallas\", it was set in a fictitious coastal suburb of Los Angeles, and centered on the lives of four married couples living in a cul-de-sac, Seaview Circle. By the time of its conclusion, \"Knots Landing\" had become one of the longest-running primetime dramas on U.S. television after \"Gunsmoke\" and \"Bonanza\".\n\"Knots Landing\" was created by David Jacobs (one-time writer of \"Family\" and later producer of \"\") in conjunction with producer Michael Filerman (who would also later co-produce \"Falcon Crest\"). Although a spin-off of \"Dallas\", the concept predates that series, and was initially rebuffed by CBS in 1977, as the network wanted something more \"saga-like\". Jacobs then created \"Dallas\", which the network accepted and premiered in 1978. After \"Dallas\" became a hit, Jacobs was then able to adapt \"Knots Landing\" as a spin-off series by way of incorporating characters originally introduced in the parent series. The series was largely inspired by a 1957 movie \"No Down Payment\" but also by the 1973 Ingmar Bergman television miniseries \"Scenes from a Marriage\". Storylines included rape, murder, kidnapping, assassinations, drug smuggling, corporate intrigue and criminal investigations. Though initially not as popular as \"Dallas\", \"Knots Landing\" eventually outlasted it and garnered much critical acclaim. The series peaked during the 1983–84 season with a 20.8 rating (finishing in 11th place) and a 20.0 rating for the 1984–85 season (when it finished 9th). This can be attributed, in part, to more dramatic storylines as the series became more soap-opera like, and the gradual inclusion of newer characters to interact with the original cast. By the 1988–89 season, \"Knots Landing\" was ahead of \"Dallas\" in the ratings, though audiences for both shows by this time were less than their earlier years.\nThere were 344 episodes and 14 seasons of \"Knots Landing\" from 1979 to 1993. In 1997, much of the cast reunited for a two-part mini-series entitled \"\". In 2005, they reunited again for the non-fiction special \"\" in which the cast reminisced about their time on the show. \"Dallas\" itself was revived in 2012, with characters from \"Knots Landing\" appearing in its second season. During nearly the entire run of the original series, \"Knots Landing\" occupied the same timeslot: Thursday nights at 10:00 p.m.\nGary Ewing was the middle son and the black sheep of the Ewing family from \"Dallas\". Gary was an alcoholic, and his father Jock and older brother J.R. had never treated him as an equal. The insecure Gary met Valene when they were aged 17 and 15 years old respectively. They were married briefly and had a daughter, Lucy, but Gary left Southfork Ranch and later divorced Valene. With Gary gone from Southfork Ranch, J.R. had Valene followed and 'run out of town' as he took her daughter and manipulated Gary away from her. Years later, Valene and Lucy reconnected, causing Valene and Gary to reunite. They remarried and Gary's mother, Miss Ellie, bought the couple a house in California. \"Knots Landing\" is officially spun off from \"Dallas\" in the third-season episode entitled \"Return Engagements\".\nIn the first episode, newly remarried Gary (Ted Shackelford) and Valene Ewing (Joan Van Ark) move to Knots Landing, California in a cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle. They meet their neighbors, Sid Fairgate (Don Murray), the owner of Knots Landing Motors, a used car dealership, and his wife Karen (Michele Lee), the parents of three children: Diana (Claudia Lonow), Eric (Steve Shaw), and Michael (Patrick Petersen). Also living on the cul-de-sac is corporate lawyer Richard Avery (John Pleshette) and his real estate agent wife Laura (Constance McCashin), who have a young son, Jason. Other neighbors include the young couple Kenny Ward (James Houghton), a record producer, and his wife Ginger (Kim Lankford), a kindergarten teacher. Early in the series, Gary becomes a salesman at Knots Landing Motors, and deals with visits from his wealthy brothers from Dallas, Bobby (guest star Patrick Duffy) and J. R. Ewing (guest star Larry Hagman). Gary and Valene get a visit from their teenage daughter Lucy (Charlene Tilton), although she decides to return to Dallas, and from Valene's estranged mother, Lilimae (Julie Harris). Sid and Karen deal with problems surrounding Sid's oldest daughter, Annie (Karen Allen), Richard and Laura deal with the circumstances surrounding Laura's rape, and Kenny and Ginger's marriage hits the rocks when Kenny starts an affair with a young singer named Sylvie (Louise Vallance). In the season finale, Gary relapses into alcoholism, endangering his marriage.\nAt the beginning of the second season, Sid's manipulative younger sister, Abby Cunningham (Donna Mills), a recent divorcée and the mother of two children, Olivia (Tonya Crowe) and Brian (Bobby Jacoby, later Brian Austin Green), move to Knots Landing. Abby starts working for her brother at Knots Landing Motors and immediately takes an interest in Richard, beginning a rather open affair with him, and she makes sure that Valene discovers Gary having an affair with Judy Trent (guest star Jane Elliot), the wife of a man he befriended while in Alcoholics Anonymous. In the meantime, Laura starts an affair with her boss, Scooter Warren (Allan Miller), and Abby soon dumps Richard when her ex-husband, Jeff (Barry Jenner), threatens to take her children from her. While separated from Kenny, Ginger starts a romance with the father of one of her students, although she and Kenny eventually reconcile. Near the end of the season, Jeff succeeds in taking Olivia and Brian from Abby, leaving her frantic. When Sid discovered some car parts that Gary and Abby had purchased were actually stolen, his brakes were tampered with to keep him from testifying in court. As a result, in the season finale, Sid's car plunges off a cliff, leaving him in critical condition in the hospital.\nAt the start of the third season, Karen signs for Sid to have a life-threatening surgery, which results in his death. After Sid's death, Karen becomes the head of Knots Landing Motors, subsequently firing Abby, although she was soon rehired. Meanwhile, Abby and Gary start an affair, and Ginger gives birth to a daughter, Erin Molly, and makes Karen her godmother. Karen's brother, Joe Cooper (Stephen Macht), takes a job at USC as a bookkeeper and briefly stays with the Fairgate family before leaving town. Valene's mother, Lilimae, moves in with Gary and Valene, which results in Valene and Lilimae gradually strengthening their estranged relationship. Laura plans to leave Richard and marry Scooter, but when she learns that she is pregnant, she decides to reconcile with Richard and end her affair with Scooter. However, Richard's career takes a turn for the worse, and once he loses his job, he suffers a nervous breakdown and holds Laura hostage in their home. Laura subsequently sends Richard to a mental institution. After Karen passes up the opportunity to fund a methanol-powered vehicle project, Gary and Abby devote the majority of their time to making the deal without Karen's help. In the season finale, Valene, having been humiliated by Gary and Abby's affair, leaves Seaview Circle in tears.\nIn season four, Valene returns to the cul-de-sac and throws Gary out of her house, leaving him free to move in with Abby. He soon inherits millions left to him in her father's will. Investing money in several ways, Gary takes an interest in a beautiful younger singer named Ciji Dunne (Lisa Hartman). Valene begins writing a book, titled \"Capricorn Crude\", an exposé on her and Gary's life with his wealthy oil family in Texas. With the charges dropped against Sid Fairgate's killers, Karen seeks the help of federal prosecutor Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson), whom she starts dating and eventually marries mid-season. Valene's publicist, Chip Roberts (Michael Sabatino), moves in with Valene and Lilimae, and trouble starts when he dates Diana and Ciji (who was also romantically linked to Gary and Kenny) at the same time. At the end of the season, Richard leaves Knots Landing, finally realizing his marriage to Laura was over and believing that Laura and Ciji were engaging in a lesbian romance (although, in reality, they were no more than friends). In the finale, Ciji's dead body is discovered on the shore of a beach, and there are many suspects: Gary, Chip, and Richard.\nIn season five, Gary has been arrested for Ciji's murder, and Lilimae learns that Chip is really a wanted criminal whose real name is Tony Fenice. Chip runs away with Diana, and is later found guilty of killing Ciji, resulting in the charges against Gary being dropped. Meanwhile, Sid and Abby's uncle died, leaving Abby and (by default) Karen land inheritance at Lotus Point, California. Without Karen's knowledge, Abby schemed to build a resort on the land while cutting Karen out of her plans. Abby then forms a company called Apolune, a secret subsidiary of Gary's corporation, and she convinces Gary to marry her so she can share his inheritance he got from his father's death. Valene begins a relationship with journalist Ben Gibson (Douglas Sheehan), but after a one-night stand with Gary, she learns she is pregnant with twins. Valene decides not to tell Gary that he is the father, as he was now married to Abby, and as she had fallen in love with Ben. However, Ben could not accept that Valene was pregnant with another man's children and he and Valene broke up. Abby hires a Ciji look-alike, Cathy Geary (also Lisa Hartman), to keep Gary distracted so he would not learn about her crooked business practices. The events surrounding Diana running away with Chip stresses Karen to point where she becomes addicted to prescription pain pills. Politician Greg Sumner (William Devane), an old college friend of Mack's who was running for U.S. Senator, received the endorsements of Mack and Karen, as well as Abby, who wanted to buy herself a senator. Greg hired Mack to lead his Senate Crime Commission investigating the sinister Wolfbridge Group, but when Abby convinced Greg to get her an illegal land variance to build on Lotus Point, Greg pinned it on Mack, thus ending their friendship. After Karen's recovery from her drug addiction, she and Diana recovered their relationship, after Diana returned to Knots Landing after Chip's sudden death. Wolfbridge forced Abby into making them her partners in the developments at Lotus Point. When Mack discovered that Apolune owned all the land in Lotus Point, except Karen and Abby's inheritances, he thought Apolune was a division of Wolfbridge. Laura confessed that Apolune was Abby's company and Gary decided to divorce Abby. When Mack faked Gary's death to get Wolfbridge, Karen left him, believing his obsession with Wolfbridge had cost them their marriage. In the season finale, Mack tried to trick Mark St. Claire (guest star Joseph Chapman), the head of the Wolfbridge Group, into trying to shoot Gary, but St. Claire's assassin hit Karen instead. Meanwhile, Abby was kidnapped by the Wolfbridge Group when they realized they had failed.\nGreg kills Mark St. Claire, who was holding Abby hostage on a boat. After being shot, Karen refuses to have risky surgery, fearing she would die in the process, although she soon recovers. Meanwhile, Gary and Abby reconcile and the couple, along with Karen, agreed to become partners in Lotus Point. Lilimae's secret son and Valene's half-brother, Joshua Rush (Alec Baldwin), whom Lilimae abandoned as an infant, arrives in Knots Landing and moves in with Lilimae and Valene. Joshua, a televangelist, soon starts a romance with Cathy, who has moved into the cul-de-sac with Laura and her children. Abby starts running a television station, World Pacific Cable, that Ben becomes a journalist for after Gary purchased it. Abby was stunned to learn that Gary was the father of Valene's twins, and Abby tells Scott Easton (Jack Bannon), an influential lobbyist with shady connections, about her problem. As a favor to Abby, Scott arranges to have Valene's babies kidnapped at birth, though without Abby's approval, who becomes furious at his actions. Valene is told the babies were stillborn, although she insists she saw them alive, and thereby lives Knots Landing for Tennessee, where she assumes the identity of Verna Ellers (a character from one of her books) and works as a waitress. Karen and Mack reconcile, and Karen eventually gets the operation she needed in order to make a full recovery. Gary befriends the aging millionaire Paul Galveston (Howard Duff), and Galveston offers Gary the opportunity to develop Empire Valley, a large piece of real estate. Galveston soon dies, and he leaves his millions to Greg, who is proven to have been his son. Assuming he had been left Empire Valley, Greg resigns from the Senate, but is shocked to learn that the land had been left to Gary. Greg's devious mother, Ruth (guest star Ava Gardner), comes to visit her son after Galveston's death. Ruth becomes close to Abby (since they have similar interests), but loathes Laura, who, by this time has started a relationship with Greg. Around this same time, Joshua and Cathy grow closer, and the two soon marry. Valene (still believing she is \"Verna\") becomes engaged to a man in Tennessee, but Gary finally finds her and brings her back to Knots Landing, where she rekindles her romance with Ben, still believing her babies to be alive. Karen and Ben discovered that Valene's doctor had paid off a nurse to assist in the kidnapping of Valene's children. Mack thereby tracked down Valene's babies, who had been adopted illegally. Abby confided in Greg that she inadvertently caused the kidnapping of Valene's babies, but she wanted to get them back. With Ruth's help, Abby was able to get address to the home where Valene's babies had been living. In the season finale, Abby goes to Valene and tells her that she knows where her babies are, and the two go to the home of Sheila (Robin Ginsburg) and Harry Fisher (Joe Regalbuto). Sheila disbelieves their claims that the babies were adopted illegally, and Harry takes off with one of the twins.\nEarly in season seven, after a frantic battle to expose the illegal black market adoption, Valene's children are returned to her, whom she names Betsy and Bobby. Valene and Ben agree to raise the children as theirs, and the two soon marry. Abby successfully covers her tacks in the matter by simply telling Gary that she had received a phone call for a \"Mrs. Ewing\" telling her where the babies could be found. Gary receives news of his brother Bobby's death and returns to Dallas for the funeral (Bobby Ewing's death was later explained as being a \"dream\" on \"Dallas\" at the start of its tenth season in 1986, although never acknowledged on \"Knots Landing\" since Bobby was never mentioned again). Empire Valley went awry when Gary learned that Galveston Industries and its partners were secretly building an underground espionage operation there. Gary subsequently blows Empire Valley up. Peter Hollister (Hunt Block) goes to work for Greg, and with the help of Sylvia Lean (guest star Ruth Roman) acting as his mother, Peter convinces Greg that he is also Paul Galveston's son, therefore making he and Greg half brothers. Jill Bennett (Teri Austin), Peter's sister, becomes Mack's new colleague, although Jill and Peter keep their relationship a secret as an effort to get revenge on the Galveston family for having wronged their family years before. Abby soon discovers that Sylvia is not Peter's mother and that Peter is not Galveston's son, therefore blackmailing Peter into paying her to keep their secret safe. In the meantime, Joshua becomes increasingly controlling and abusive towards Cathy, and in a moment of rage, Joshua falls of the roof of a building, thus killing himself. Lilimae and Cathy spend the remainder of the season mourning his death, although Cathy soon starts an affair with Ben, who becomes her manager for her budding singing career. However, at the end of the season, Cathy leaves town, having ended her romance with Ben, and Abby becomes aware that her daughter Olivia has developed a drug problem. Also, a young woman, Paige Matheson (Nicollette Sheridan), comes to Knots Landing and explains to Mac that she is his illegitimate daughter. In the finale, Karen disappears and is being held hostage by a man in his basement.\nKaren's kidnapper was revealed to be Phil Harbert (guest star Louis Giambalvo), an old friend of Greg and Mack's from law school, who had become bitter towards Mack, having blamed him for causing the death of his wife. Karen later escapes, and Phil is later killed after being hit by a car. Ben returns to Valene, promising to make their marriage work. However, this promise was compromised when he was contacted by Jean Hackney (Wendy Fulton), who had tried to trick Ben into doing a mission for an underground organization to kill Greg. When Valene's babies were threatened, Ben reluctantly agrees to assist Jean. With Mack's help, Ben foiled the plan, although Jean's insistence on following him required Ben to leave the country and Valene at the end of the season. Although Valene had helped in the situation stopping Greg's murder, an angry Laura, whom Valene had failed to tell what was going on, blamed her for the incident and ended their friendship. Laura tells Greg that she is pregnant, but he is not enthusiastic about it, and she refuses to have an abortion. In the meantime, Paige reveals that she faked her death in order to escape the control of her wealthy grandparents, although Karen doubts the story, believing her to be an impostor. Also, Paige had developed a romantic relationship with Michael, Karen's son, but she soon tires of him and starts romancing Peter. Abby's daughter Olivia's drug addiction has worsened, eventually leading to the injuring of Lilimae in a car accident, and Abby resorts to desperate measures to get her clean. When her drug dealer beat up her younger brother Brian, Olivia finally admitted to her addiction and decided to get clean. Olivia then becomes friends with Peter, and starts crushing on him, although he is interested in Paige. Peter, having become state senator with Greg's support, goes to the extreme to hide the fact that Jill is his sister, who has started an affair with Gary. When Jill and Peter have an argument, Jill falls from a cliff, and Peter flees the scene to avoid any link to Jill or the accident, although he does report what happened. Later, Paige's mother, Anne Matheson (Michelle Phillips), whom Paige had said was dead, appears and tries to rekindle her love affair with Mack. When Mack refuses her advances, she turns her attention to Greg, who also turns her down, and she therefore leaves town. At the end of the season, Abby finds Olivia standing over Peter's dead body. With both assuming the other had killed Peter, Abby frantically buries his body under the soil at Lotus Point where cement is to be poured the following day. Some weeks later, believing she had successfully hid Peter's body, Abby is informed by Karen that there was a crack found in the cement and that it would have to be tore up and redone.\nWhen Peter's body was discovered, Olivia is prosecuted for his murder, although Abby steps in to take the blame for her daughter. It is soon learned, however, that Paige accidentally caused Peter's death, although no charges are made against her. After a talk with Karen, a depressed Laura decides to make up with Valene. Laura then told Greg that she was dying of brain tumor, but he refuses to accept it. Laura soon left Knots Landing to die elsewhere, thus leaving Greg with their infant child, a daughter named Meg. Overcome with grief and feeling unable to raise the child himself, Greg asks Karen and Mack to adopt Meg, which they agree to. Meanwhile, Lilimae leaves town after starting a new romance, and Abby rekindles her love affair with her old flame, Charles Scott (Michael York). Abby and Charles briefly marry, but when Abby discovers his ulterior motives about developing a Lotus Point Marina, she ends the marriage. Frank (Larry Riley) and Pat Williams (Lynne Moody) and their daughter Julie (Kent Masters-King) move into Laura's old house on the cul-de-sac. Karen and Mack were initially suspicious of them, but became their friends upon learning they were in the Witness Protection Program. With business at Lotus Point reaching a low, Karen, Abby, and Gary agree to expand the marina to accommodate the business of Manny Vasquez (John Aprea). Paige starts working for Greg, and soon finds herself attracted to him. Paige and Michael went on an archaeological dig in Mexico. When it was learned that Manny was selling illegal drugs through Lotus Point, Karen, Abby, and Gary try to stop him, but to no avail. Manny tells them that he will hold Paige and Michael hostage in Mexico until they allow him to continue his dealings through Lotus Point. Gary takes an increased interest in Valene's twins, his biological children, much to the annoyance of Jill, who has moved in with Gary. Jill made an elaborate plan where she edited audio recordings of Ben's voice to make Valene think he was trying to contact her. In an effort to make Valene appear unstable, Jill steals the tapes, leaving Valene with no proof of Ben trying to contact her. In the season finale, Jill goes to Valene's home, and at gunpoint, she forces Valene to swallow sleeping pills, hoping it will appear that Valene has committed suicide. The following morning, Valene is found motionless on her bedroom floor.\nFrank finds Valene unconscious and telephones for an ambulance. Valene survives and says that Jill had tried to kill her, although Jill has provided herself with an alibi, although Valene's testimony is later proven true. With doubt on her innocence, Jill was left friendless and she thereby tied herself up and locked herself in the trunk of Gary's car, hoping to frame Gary for kidnapping her. When Jill dies in the trunk, Gary is convicted her murder, although Mack has the charges dropped when it is learned Jill had deliberately locked herself in the trunk. A con artist tried to extort money from Frank and Pat by threatening to reveal their whereabouts to the people that had threatened Pat's life years earlier. Mack halted the con artist, and used dental records from a deceased family to make him believe that the Sollars (the Williamses original surname) were dead. Paige and Michael were eventually able to get out of Mexico, and Manny Vasquez's nephew, Harold Dyer (Paul Carafotes), kills his uncle when he tried to kill Mack. Paige seduced Greg and the two became a couple, although their relationship soon ended when Greg decided to run for mayor of Los Angeles. Realizing Paige would not make a good political wife, Greg instead marries Abby, although Paige keeps her job with Greg's company. Greg tried to regain custody of his daughter Meg from Mack and Karen, but he lost the case. Later, Mack goes through a mid-life crisis and quits his job, and thereby starts his own law practice. Following a health and safety report, the Lotus Point land has to be sold. However, it was soon revealed that Abby had falsified the report after she discovered that there was oil underneath Lotus Point, and created a company to conceal who was buying the resort from her partners. Paige exposed that the whole thing had been initiated by Abby and her cohort Ted Melcher (Robert Desiderio), which infuriated Karen, who was determined to send Abby to jail for fraud. Abby narrowly avoided being imprisoned, and agreed to donate Lotus Point to city as a public park. Abby then leaves Greg and Knots Landing, accepting a Trade Envoy job in Japan (a job Greg himself wanted after losing the run for mayor). Paige, meanwhile, finds herself caught between Greg and Ted Melcher, one of whom is a murderer.\nValene and Gary become separately involved with another divorced couple, Danny (Sam Behrens) and Amanda Waleska (Penny Peyser). Gary learns that Danny had beaten and raped Amanda, but when he tells Valene she refuses to believe him, and she ends up marrying Danny. However, when she realizes the truth, Valene tries to kick him out of her house. When Danny becomes violent, Valene takes her twins and moves in with Gary. The two rekindle their romance and eventually make plans to remarry. While drunk, Danny hits Pat Williams with his car, and she is left on life support in the hospital. When told that Pat is permanently brain dead, Frank decides to have her life support turned off. Olivia marries Harold, but they run into financial troubles when Abby cuts Olivia off financially. The couple soon make the decision to leave Knots Landing and move to Miami. Eric's wife Linda Fairgate (Lar Park-Lincoln) moves in with Karen and Mack, and starts an affair with Eric's younger brother Michael. Linda then divorces Eric and finds employment with the Sumner Group, where she becomes a rival of Paige's. Greg's daughter, Mary Frances (Stacy Galina), visits him after a six-year estrangement and is shot dead in her father's office, making Greg believe that he had been the intended target. Greg himself had been shot by Mary Frances' activist boyfriend, Robert Scarrow (John David Bland), although he survives. Robert blames Greg for manufacturing poisonous chemicals that cause liver cancer, and he also admits to being the one that killed Mary Frances. Now broke, Paige's mother Anne returns to Knots Landing, in an attempt to cheat Paige out of an inheritance that her grandfather left her. Anne steals Paige's identity in an effort to obtain her daughter's money, although the plan soon goes awry. Paige soon falls in love with Tom Ryan (Joseph Gian), a crooked cop, and the two plan to marry, but Tom leaves Paige at the altar after Greg blackmailed him. Karen starts presenting a television talk show, but she becomes the target of an obsessive fan by the name of Jeff Cameron (Chris Lemmon), one of the show's producers.\nJeff starts a plot to murder Karen, but he is eventually caught and imprisoned. With Greg's health on a downward spiral, his half-sister Claudia Whittaker (Kathleen Noone) comes to town along with her daughter Kate (also Stacy Galina), who bears a striking resemblance to Greg's dead daughter Mary Frances. When she realizes she is not in Greg's will, Claudia arranges for him to get a liver so he will live. Kate meets Steve Brewer (Lance Guest), a man claiming to be her brother. Steve, who had been put up for adoption by Claudia, was the product of an affair between Claudia and Paul Galveston (her mother's dead husband, and Greg's biological father). Kate and Steve become good friends, but Claudia, who wants Steve gone, has him framed by placing a gun in his car. Since Steve was already a felon, the gun violated his parole and he was later gunned down trying to run away from the police. Mack befriends a high school named Jason Lochner (Thomas Wilson Brown), who was living with an abusive father. Jason later moves in with Mack and Karen, and dates Julie Williams. Frank, Julie's father, passes his lawyer bar exam and goes to work as an attorney with Mack's independent practice. Danny continues harassing Valene, and he soon assaults Gary with a baseball bat. After forcing Gary to drink alcohol, Danny puts him a car a sends it over a cliff, hoping to make his death appear accidental. However, the airbag saves Gary's life, but Danny is found dead in the Williamses' swimming pool. In the investigation surrounding Danny's death, almost everyone is a suspect, although it was soon discovered that his death was accidental. Valene falls from a horse and suffers from psychiatric problems, but she soon recovers and she and Gary get married for the third time. Anne meets the scheming Italian Nick Schillace (Lorenzo Caccialanza), with whom she romances and embarks on a series of illegal schemes in an effort to obtain wealth. Their plans backfire when Nick suddenly leaves town, leaving Anne homeless. Paige and Linda continue to despise one another, a mutual disliking that is further fueled when Linda has an affair with Greg. At the end of the season, Jason is injured in a car crash witnessed by Karen and Valene, although he survives.\nKate blames Claudia for Steve's death and removes her mother from her life, but they soon reconcile when Claudia attempts suicide. After some months of living on the streets, Anne meets the shady Benny Appleman (Stuart Pankin), and the two try to scheme their way into getting money. Anne later agrees to pose nude for a magazine and she also becomes the host of a late-night advice show, which becomes a success. Linda, Eric's ex-wife, is murdered by Brian Johnston (Philip Brown), who holds the MacKenzie hostage. Jason soon leaves Knots Landing for Sweden, and, shortly thereafter, Julie decides to move away as well. Frank has a brief relationship with schoolteacher Debbie Porter (Halle Berry), before he too leaves town. Gary invested in a project that turned energy from the ocean's tides into usable electric energy. The man behind the operation, Joseph Barringer (Mark Soper), becomes Kate's boyfriend. Paige, meanwhile, joins Gary and her new boyfriend Pierce (Bruce Greenwood) in a partnership. A former flame of Pierce's, Victoria Broyelard (Marcia Cross), informs Paige that Pierce had killed his previous girlfriend, but Paige does not believe her. Paige is later shot by Pierce (who was aiming for Greg, whom he hated), temporarily paralyzing her. Pierce thereby kidnaps Paige, and holds her hostage on his yacht. Mack and Greg rescue her after she and Pierce fall into the water. Pierce's body is never found, and it was presumed he drowned. Alex Barth (Boyd Kestner), the nephew of the Galveston housekeeper, blackmails Claudia for refusing to allow her ailing to receive treatment, thus leading to her death. Claudia, too, takes a disliking to Joseph and she arranges for him to get another job, thus ending his romance with Kate. Gary, who had been left bankrupt after losing his money to Tidal Energy, moves back to Seaview Circle with Valene. Mary Robeson (Maree Cheatham) arrives in Knots Landing and tells Valene she is Meg's grandmother and that she is Laura's biological mother. Valene does not believe her, and while researching Mary in Florida, Valene is kidnapped. Later, while Paige gets into her car, she is horrified to see the presumably dead Pierce looking at her in the mirror.\nWhile trying to find Valene, Gary sees the car she was in explode. Greg decides to retire from the Sumner Group, and he leaves one-third of the company to Claudia, one-third to Paige, and one-third to Mack and Karen in a trust for Meg. Anne's revealing she is pregnant leads to Greg marrying her, but it soon learned Anne was suffering from hysterical pregnancy. In the meantime, Anne's old beau Nick returns and the two rekindle their affair and their old conniving ways. Mack seeks $1 million to get Mary Robeson to stop the custody battle over Meg. Claudia gives Mack $500,000 from the Sumner Group, and gives the other half to Nick to start a restaurant. Paige demanded an audit, but Claudia cannot get the money from Nick back because he already spent it. Karen did not believe Mack would be able to stop Mary Robeson's efforts to win custody of Meg, and she soon leaves him, moving to New York with her daughter Diana. Meanwhile, a shady organization run by Daniel Treadwell (Daniel Gerroll), and Gary starts a relationship with Kate. In the series finale, Karen returns to Mack, and the presumed dead Valene returns, revealing she had faked her death to hide from Treadwell's people, who had threatened to harm her for coming across secretive information. Treadwell's mysterious partner is revealed to be Abby, who has been orchestrating the takeover of the Sumner Group all along. However, Greg stops Abby by threatening to reveal her dirty dealings while she was in Japan. As Treadwell prepares to kill Nick, who was working for him, Treadwell himself was killed by Vanessa Hunt (Felicity Waterman). Anne offers to divorce Greg so he can resume his relationship with her daughter Paige, whom he loves. Claudia decides to leave Knots Landing for Monaco, and at the airport, she runs into Anne and Nick, who are also leaving town. In the final scenes, back at Seaview Circle, Karen, Mack, Valene, and Gary prepare a barbecue as a new couple begin moving into Frank Williams' old home. Meanwhile, Abby arrives at the gathering and reveals that she has purchased her old house in Seaview Circle. Valene simply smiles and welcomes Abby back, before she and Gary go home. In the final shot, Abby is left face-to-face with Karen, whom she asks, \"Just like old times, isn't it?\"\nBetween Seasons 1 and 4 of \"Knots Landing\", there were nine episodes where \"Dallas\" characters appeared, played by their respective actors.\nIn addition to the above, the characters of Gary Ewing and Valene Ewing appeared in the following episodes of \"Dallas\", as listed below.\nOn \"Dallas\", the character of Bobby Ewing (Patrick Duffy) was killed off in the final episode of the 1984–85 season. The following year, Duffy decided to return to \"Dallas\" and the character of Bobby was resurrected in the infamous \"shower scene\" at the end of the 1985–86 season. At the start of the 1986–87 season, it was revealed that Bobby's death and all but the final scene of the 1985–86 season had been a dream of Bobby's ex-wife, Pamela Barnes Ewing (Victoria Principal).\nOn \"Knots Landing\" during the 1985-86 season, Bobby's death had an indelible impact on some of the characters (i.e. Gary struggling to deal with his brother's death and being comforted by his wife Abby, Abby and Greg then taking advantage of Gary going to Southfork for Bobby's funeral to gain politically at Empire Valley in Gary's absence, and Valene naming her baby son after the late Bobby). When Bobby's death and the subsequent season were revealed to be a dream on \"Dallas\", this did not get applied to the continuity of \"Knots Landing\" and Bobby's return was never addressed or even mentioned. Following this, no further crossover storylines were featured on \"Knots Landing\".\nWith the 2012 continuation of \"Dallas\", rumors began surfacing that both Joan Van Ark and Ted Shackelford would reprise their roles as Valene and Gary Ewing on the new series. Shackelford passed on the small role the producers offered him during the first season, but accepted a multi-episode role during the second. Shackelford returned to \"Dallas\" for three episodes and Van Ark returned for one. This was the first time the characters had been seen since the 1997 mini-series \"\". Although both Shackelford and Van Ark appeared in the 1991 series finale of \"Dallas\" playing \"alternative\" versions of Gary and Valene (the episode depicted an alternate reality in which J.R. Ewing had never been born), there have been no real crossovers of story or characters from \"Knots Landing\" to \"Dallas\" or vice versa since the 1985-86 season of each show (which, on \"Dallas\", turned out to be a dream had by Pam Ewing). In the 2013 \"Dallas\" storyline, it is made clear that Gary and Val had still been living together at their home in California, though had recently separated due to Gary's brief relapse into alcoholism due to financial worries. At the end of their appearances on the new series of \"Dallas\", Gary and Val return to California together.\n\"Knots Landing\" was created by David Jacobs, whose original concept was a show based on \"family issues and examining relationships at the middle class level\". CBS initially turned down this idea, as they wanted something more \"glitzy\" to put on the air, with wealthier characters, which would become \"Dallas\". Once that show became a success after the initial run as a five-episode miniseries, the producers decided to expand the roles of certain characters. They introduced the parents of Lucy Ewing (Charlene Tilton), who had not been shown on-screen until that point, in the two-part episode \"The Reunion\". After the success of \"Dallas\", Jacobs presented his initial idea again and created \"Knots Landing\", with some alterations of his original script. In an interview, Jacobs explained: \" Well, that's pretty good, but you know-and then he pulled out the pages that we'd left for them a few years ago on \"Knots Landing\", or a year before on \"Knots\", and he said, 'Is there any way we can make this a spin-off?' I just took one of the couples and made it, you know, Val and Gary who had already been created on the parent series and putting them into the mix, but when you have four couples and you change one, you sort of have to change the dynamic all the way around. However, once I wrote the script, remarkably little changed from the script and the pilot as you would see it.\"\nGary Ewing was originally played by David Ackroyd on \"Dallas\", but Ackroyd was unable to sign on for \"Knots Landing\", and Ted Shackelford assumed the role. Joan Van Ark continued to play Val Ewing for the spin-off. Initially, it was presumed that Tilton would also be joining \"Knots Landing\" (and have Lucy move in with her parents to the Seaview Circle cul-de-sac), but the network decided to keep her on \"Dallas\" in order to keep the two shows separate. She did, however, make a guest appearance in the first-season episode \"Home is for Healing\".\nThe actors on \"Knots Landing\" had more input than actors on other 1980s primetime soaps. In 1987, the writers wanted Mack (Kevin Dobson) to have an extramarital affair with Anne (Michelle Phillips). Michele Lee, who played Mack's wife Karen, protested this to Jacobs, saying, \"There has to be one stable couple on the show.\" The extramarital affair storyline was nixed, and Michelle Phillips, who had been signed to a contract, was written out for a couple of seasons before returning in 1990. When she did return, Anne did not pursue Mack. William Devane, who played Greg Sumner, re-wrote most of his character's dialogue, to the point where, in co-star Michele Lee's words, \"most people (on set) were (probably) frightened of him\". The Gary/Val/Abby triangle that provided story throughout the mid-1980s was suggested by Ted Shackelford and Joan Van Ark in 1980, and the producers hesitated for a year and a half before going through with it in 1982. The famous 1984 storyline where Valene's babies got kidnapped was originally envisioned as one of scheming Abby's plots. Donna Mills, who played Abby, acknowledged that her character was evil but did not think she was \"that\" evil. Fearing the audience would never forgive her character for kidnapping another woman's babies, she asked the writers to make the kidnappings a result of Abby's actions, but only by accident, and the writers complied.\nThe writing team of Bernard Lechowick and Lynn Marie Latham (the head writers from 1986 to 1991) was controversial among both fans and actors. Their humor-imbued style of writing made them the favorites of Michele Lee, while John Pleshette felt they were \"awful people\". Pleshette, however, was not a cast member during their tenure and harbored resentment because the writing team, who had been represented by his wife, moved to a different agency. Joan van Ark, whose character was struck by a brain illness in season 12 and proceeded to thereafter go crazy, felt that Latham and Lechowick had turned her character into the \"village idiot\". Joan Van Ark and Donna Mills' favorite \"Knots Landing\" writer was Peter Dunne, who was responsible for making \"Knots Landing\" a top ten show in 1984.\nIn 1987, CBS demanded that production costs be cut. This meant the firing of two regulars, Constance McCashin and Julie Harris. Season 13 saw a large ratings drop for the show after writer/producers Bernard Lechowick and Lynn Marie Latham left to create \"Homefront\" and creator David Jacobs had a health crisis and pulled back his involvement in production. Jacobs has publicly stated that the way he knew the show was in trouble was when waitresses at his favorite diner, whom he had heard gossiping about \"Knots Landing\" every Friday during past seasons, suddenly stopped discussing the show in late 1991. He attempted to save face by shutting down production on November 20, 1991, firing head writer John Romano, and replacing him with Ann Marcus. Cost cutting again plagued the series in its final season, when only 19 episodes were produced, and (with the exception of Michele Lee) regular castmembers did not appear in every episode. Not wanting to compromise what he felt had been a good run, series creator David Jacobs described its end as a \"mutual decision\" between \"Knots Landing\"'s producers and the CBS Network, saying, \"We don't know if they would have picked us up anyway...but even if they had, we would have had to pare away more to survive.\"\nThe series' signature cul-de-sac, Seaview Circle, was actually Crystalaire Place in Granada Hills, California, a suburban street in Los Angeles' San Fernando Valley about 20 miles north of the Pacific Ocean. The opening credits during the first two seasons were edited in such a way to make it appear that the cul-de-sac was closer to the beach.\nThe theme song, which lasted all 14 seasons was composed by Jerrold Immel. Immel, along with Craig Huxley composed the background music for the pilot. The original background music cues by Immel and Huxley were never fully abandoned by the show, and were heard as late as the final season. The early Knots Landing background music cues heavily emphasized the brass section, and were often played with a very sparse bass line accompaniment. It was, in fact, the \"only\" aspect of the series ever to win an Emmy award, for the music orchestration during its 1979–80 season.\nBy season 4 of Knots Landing, the lushness of the 1980s was in full swing and Knots Landing's background cues reflected that style. The new dramatic cues emphasized full orchestral arrangements as formerly middle class Knots Landing became upwardly mobile. The background music of seasons 4–7 was frequently composed by either Lance Rubin or Ron Grant.\nSeason 8 introduced a completely new score for \"Knots Landing\". By 1986 new wave artists and bands had taken America by storm and the new style of music cues made good use of the synthesizer instead of a full orchestra. Bruce Miller was one of the main composers during this era. Updated orchestrations of the by-then-familiar Lance Rubin cues were also re-arranged to be played by the synthesizer, and the Immel/Huxley cues were similarly utilized, albeit less commonly.\nIn the early 1990s, soft contemporary acoustic music became popular and \"Knots Landing\" began incorporating this into its background music during season 12. Lance Rubin's music cues were completely phased out at this point. Patrick Gleeson and Kennard Ramsey composed during this period.\n\"Knots Landing\" had five completely different styles of opening credits over its 14 years, in contrast to \"Dallas\", which changed to a variation on its original style for only its final two seasons.\nReruns of \"Knots Landing\" were first packaged into syndication for off-network broadcast in local markets by Lorimar in 1984. Before the show opening, each episode was preceded by a \"Lorimar Presents\" logo, followed by a narrated recap of the previous episode with the theme music played under. The first 190 episodes (the first eight seasons) were packaged in this manner, but only the first 160 episodes (the first seven seasons) were syndicated to local stations.\n\"Knots Landing\" later appeared on the cable channel TNT in September 1992 and ran through May 1993; as with the syndicated run, only the first 160 episodes (the first seven seasons) were broadcast. TNT would later become the first network to broadcast all 344 episodes of \"Knots Landing\" during its second syndication run of the series beginning in 1995.\nSOAPnet later acquired the rights to the series when it first went on the air in January 2000. \"Knots Landing\" has not been seen in United States syndication since SOAPnet quit broadcasting it in 2005.\nThe UK satellite channel CBS Drama began airing the series in its entirety starting from April 1, 2013. This was the first time the show had been rerun in the UK since the early 2000s when it was shown on UK Gold. Once CBS Drama completed the series in July 2014, the channel immediately began a second round of reruns, followed by a third in 2015.\nRTÉ television in Ireland broadcast the first seven seasons in an early morning weekend slot in 2011.\nThe first season of \"Knots Landing\" was released on DVD on March 28, 2006 in Region 1. Fans of the series lobbied Warner Home Video via an online petition at www.knotslanding.net for further releases, and Warner Home Video released Season Two on April 14, 2009. No further seasons have yet been announced for release, largely due to music copyright issues.\n","Paige Matheson\nPaige Matheson is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera \"Knots Landing\", a long-running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles, California. She was played by actress Nicollette Sheridan between 1986 and 1993. She debuted in the penultimate episode of the seventh season and remained in the series until the final episode in 1993. The character made her last television appearance in 1997, when she appeared in the \"Knots Landing\" reunion series \"\".\nPaige arrived in Knots Landing in 1986 on the MacKenzies' doorstep claiming to be the daughter of Mack. She moved in with the MacKenzies and had an affair with her stepbrother Michael. It was later discovered by Karen MacKenzie that Paige had fled from her wealthy grandparents and mother Anne by faking her death. Anne then turned up reunite with her daughter and to get Mack back into her life but she failed. Out of spite she told Mack and Paige that Greg Sumner was Paige's real father. However, her true paternity was later confirmed to be Mack. Paige was employed at Lotus Point where she met Peter Hollister and they began a relationship but during an argument, Paige accidentally stabbed Peter and killed him. Paige began to work for Greg where they had an affair and she fell in love with him but Paige was later crushed when Greg married Abby Cunningham. Paige met dirty cop Tom Ryan and their relationship resulted in a marriage proposal. However, on their wedding day, Paige was left at the altar. Unknown to her, Greg had blackmailed Tom to leave Paige. When Paige discovered this, she and Tom briefly rekindled their relationship. Paige later met Pierce Lawton and they worked with Gary Ewing on a tidal energy project. This relationship took a scary turn when Pierce shot Paige and later kidnapped her after she had recovered. During this time, she and Greg fell in and out of love again. A while later, Greg left shares of the Sumner Group to Paige, Karen and Mack (in trust for his daughter Meg), and to his sister Claudia Whittaker. Paige and Claudia often fought over control of the company. Eventually, Claudia sold her shares back to Greg and Mack gave Meg's shares to Paige, giving her majority control of the company. Paige and Greg finally got back together but after a few years they broke up once again when Greg refused to have children and so Paige moved to New York.","Knots Landing: Back to the Cul-de-Sac\nKnots Landing: Back to the Cul-de-Sac is a 1997 American television miniseries. It is a continuation of the 1979–1993 prime time soap opera \"Knots Landing\" and takes place four years after the series ended. Directed by Bill Corcoran, the four-hour miniseries was originally broadcast in two parts on CBS on May 7 and May 9, 1997.\nThe miniseries reunites cast members William Devane, Kevin Dobson, Michele Lee, Donna Mills, Ted Shackelford, Joan Van Ark, Michelle Phillips and Stacy Galina in starring roles. It also includes cameo appearances by cast members Tonya Crowe, Brian Austin Green, Kim Lankford, Claudia Lonow, Patrick Petersen and Nicollette Sheridan.\nThe mini-series opens up with Paige Matheson ending her longstanding relationship with Greg Sumner, as she wants to have a baby but he doesn't. Meanwhile, recently unemployed factory workers turn to Mack MacKenzie for help in suing Sumner for wrongful termination. When Sumner bought the factory from Gary Ewing, he fired everyone regardless of the written agreement he signed promising not to close the factory. The agreement, however, is in a box somewhere in the Ewing warehouse. Back at the Seaview Circle cul-de-sac, Valene throws Mack and Karen a party for their 15th wedding anniversary. Many of the past and present residents of Knots Landing are there, including Karen's grown children Diana and Michael, as is former neighbor Ginger Ward (who left the cul-de-sac in 1983). Karen's conniving ex sister-in-law and neighbor Abby Fairgate is also present, as well as Abby's two grown children, Olivia and Brian. During the party, Abby announces to Karen and Val that she will be moving to Malibu. But the joy is short-lived when the IRS freezes all of her assets for failure to pay over $1 million in back taxes. Abby then convinces Greg Sumner to pay her $1 million to steal the agreement from Gary's company warehouse. As she is homeless, she persuades Mack and Karen to allow her to stay with them and gets a job working at Karen and Gary's construction company so that she can find the agreement Sumner needs.\nMeanwhile, Greg is surprised when Anne Matheson-Sumner (one of his ex-wives and Paige's mother) returns after four years in Paris. Mack and Karen are approached by Meg, their 12-year-old adopted daughter, who asks for the truth about the identity of her biological father. Mack will never reveal the answer and chooses to lie to Meg again. Valene, who has written a best-selling book called \"Hostage\" about her year-long kidnapping four years earlier, has been contracted by a major film studio to adapt the book into a screenplay. The studio assign Clay McKinney, a once promising writer whose career was plagued by his alcoholism, to be her writing partner. Meanwhile, Gary gets an unexpected visit from Kate, Greg Sumner's niece with whom he had a relationship some years earlier. Kate tells Gary that she was pregnant when she left Knots Landing four years earlier and that Gary is the father of her daughter, Molly. Clay's drinking and persistent advances towards Valene begins to compromise their working relationship. After a studio party in which Clay takes credit for Valene's work, the two argue. Later at Clay's house, he makes a drunken pass at Valene but she pushes him away and he falls down. Without looking back, Valene leaves and goes home, but the following morning, Clay's body is found floating face down in his swimming pool.\nVal and Gary learn that Clay McKinney has been found dead. Because Val was the last person to see Clay alive, the police question her about an earring they found near Clay's pool. Val denies that the earring is hers and refuses to tell Gary what happened that night. Concerned about her secrecy, Gary accuses Val of having an affair with Clay. Greg Sumner decides to settle the lawsuit brought against him by Mack and the unemployed workers. This now means the deal with Abby to steal the agreement is off and now she is out the $1 million. However, this news comes too late because Abby already hired her friend Robert Simons to break into the Ewing warehouse that night. When she goes to call off the deal, Abby finds the warehouse in flames after Robert accidentally killed a security guard and then set fire to the warehouse to cover his tracks. Mack is going through a mid-life crisis but refuses to open up to Karen and moves out of their house.\nMeanwhile, after Meg accidentally finds out that Greg Sumner is her father, she absconds from school and goes to visit him. Greg explains why he allowed Karen and Mack to adopt her after her real mother, Laura, died when Meg was still an infant. He plays her a videotape that Laura made for her before her death. Abby, now broke and desperate for money to pay her back taxes, begins to snoop around Greg's private business affairs, determined to find something she can use for blackmail. To her surprise, Sumner puts her in charge of an operation in Thailand which will make her rich.\nValene decides to tell Gary and the police what really happened at Clay McKinney's house the night before he was found dead, and they accept her explanation. Back at the cul-de-sac, Karen and Mack have resolved their differences. Karen's son Michael and his fiance Lori visit to announce they are expecting their first child. Abby cattily sniggers that Karen is going to be a grandmother, but her glee is short-lived when Abby's son Brian arrives with his girlfriend Kate and announce they are also expecting a baby, which means Abby is to be a grandmother too. Gary and Valene can hardly control their laughter.\nFollowing the ratings success of the \"Dallas\" reunion movie \"\" in 1996, Warner Bros. Television opted to make a reunion movie for \"Knots Landing\" which had ended its 14-year run in 1993. The miniseries was filmed in early 1997, with external filming taking place at the series' signature cul-de-sac location in the Granada Hills district of Los Angeles.\nKey castmember Nicollette Sheridan (Paige Matheson) initially declined to appear, but later agreed to an uncredited cameo appearance. The video tape of Laura Avery-Sumner's message to her family (recorded before her death ten years earlier) was not shown but was heard, though the audio was rerecorded with another actress's voice as Constance McCashin, who played Laura in the original series, refused to let the original clip she filmed in 1987 be used.\n","Karen MacKenzie\nKaren MacKenzie (maiden name Cooper; formerly Fairgate) is a long-running fictional character in the CBS primetime soap opera \"Knots Landing\". Karen is portrayed by actress Michele Lee, and has appeared on the show since its pilot episode, first broadcast on December 27, 1979. \"Knots Landing\" follows the trials of four middle-class families living on a suburban cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in California. Lee portrayed Karen for the entire run of \"Knots Landing\", being the sole cast member to appear in every episode of its fourteen seasons. At the time, her appearances in all 344 episodes set a record for an actress on American primetime television. Karen's storylines focus on family troubles, addiction and kidnapping. In her early years on the serial, the character had much more of an \"edge\" in order to test the audience on who would be the most like J. R. Ewing (Larry Hagman), the primary character of its parent series \"Dallas\". (The bad girl role would later be taken on by Abby Cunningham, Karen's sister-in-law.)\nOver time, she became much more of a wholesome character. Series creator David Jacobs said \"Karen is the tent pole. She says the things I want to say. She's the voice of the viewer.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" also described Karen as being \"efficient, kind, and understanding\". During the course of her existence on the program, she was married to both Sid Fairgate (Don Murray) and second husband Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson). Many other characters would try to undermine her relationship with Mack, such as his daughter, Paige Matheson (Nicollette Sheridan), and former love interest Anne Matheson (Michelle Phillips), though she learned to accept Paige as his daughter later on.\nDue to her long-running tenure, television personality Joan Rivers commented that Lee was, in theory, the \"First Lady of \"Knots Landing\"\" during her guest appearance on \"The Late Show\", which Rivers hosted at the time. The characters of the serial often represented what was happening in society at the time. Lee acknowledged that, saying: \"Karen wanted to be a Pollyanna and wasn't ashamed of that. Remember in our society, maybe people don't remember, but remember when we could go over to other people's houses and come in through an open back door? I remember when I was a little girl and my mother and father would have people over and they'd walk into an unlocked door in our house.\"\nPrior to be cast in \"Knots Landing\", Michele Lee had made a slew of film and television appearances. Lee holds the sole record for appearing in every single episode of the dramatic serial, setting a record for being one of the only female actresses in primetime television history to do so. (S. Epatha Merkerson, who portrayed character Anita Van Buren on the crime drama \"Law & Order\", surpassed Lee's record in 2008.) After the success of \"Dallas\", David Jacobs' presented his initial idea again and created \"Knots Landing\", with some alterations of his original script. In an interview, Jacobs explained: \"Well, that's pretty good, but you know-and then he pulled out the pages that we'd left for them a few years ago on the show, or a year before on \"Knots\", and he said, 'Is there any way we can make this a spin-off?' I just took one of the couples and made it, you know, Val and Gary who had already been created on the parent series and putting them into the mix, but when you have four couples and you change one, you sort of have to change the dynamic all the way around. However, once I wrote the script, remarkably little changed from the script and the pilot as you would see it.\"\nSeries creator David Jacobs has said, \"Karen is the tent pole. She says the things I want to say. She's the voice of the viewer.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" has said of Lee's character, \"Her character, Karen MacKenzie, is efficient, kind, and understanding. Today, she's headed for big trouble, but Karen, onetime widow, single mom, addict, kidnappee, shooting victim, talk show hostess, and target of a psychotic fan, is resilient. Some on \"Knots\" say the show could not survive the loss of its moral mouthpiece.\" The actress herself also commented, \"Karen has gone through so much that it's hard to get her a [new] story line. Although she may be the only character who doesn't \"need\" a story line. She's a rock. She helps \"solve\" the problems. Certainly, after 12 years of playing Karen, you think, 'Oh, God, I wish I could play the town slut. But I have to save those roles for my hiatus.\"\nJacobs also said, \"Karen, Michele Lee's character, was - made the speeches that I would have made about subjects, so she sort of was my footprint. . .but she was different. And also, I never had to - I never had a problem hearing Karen, you know. She and I spoke the same way.\" The character evolved significantly from the beginning of the series to the end. In the beginning, Karen was somewhat of a \"bad girl\" in order to lure over some fans of J.R. Ewing from \"Dallas\". He noted:\n\"Well, Karen in the beginning was limited by her - well, we made Karen a little bit harsher in the first season than we otherwise would have because we were toying with the audience. And because it was a \"Dallas\" spin-off, the natural question was always, 'Well, where's your JR? Who's your JR?' And so, even though Michele Lee herself is a very likeable person, and even if she's being over the top she's a person of great enthusiasm, she's a person of great strength, in the pilot anyway, we were sort of pushing the possibility that she was gonna be roughly our equivalent. I always wanted to project the idea that we weren't \"Dallas\", it was a different scale from\n\"Dallas\", that whoever we had wasn't gonna be as successful as JR. But later on, the line \"being married to a saint\" was - Don Murray was so sweet, you know, and so rational all the time that, um, her enthusiasm, or the size of her enthusiasm, sometimes grew shrill and - I don't remember the context in which she said,'It's difficult being married to a saint\" - but it's true, Sid had - you know, even the way he ran his business was totally moral. He was a totally moral kind of guy. Then later on, when Kevin makes the comment to her, it's really about her - um - if I recall, it's really about her correctness, you know, her dedication to her issues.\"\nThough she was often a maternal figure, Karen was never able to become a grandmother on the serial. Lee said on her personal website, \"Yes. I know it might sound like a big ego...far from it. It was a business option to prolong a career.\"\nWhen often interviewed about the show, Lee brings up the fact that \"as society changed...so did \"Knots Landing\".\" Her character, Karen, once gave a large speech about how society was often changing and becoming less of the trustworthy place it used to be. Karen became addicted to prescription medication, a key plotline for her character in the fifth season. Lee said, \"Karen's addiction, at a time when we as a nation were examining our culture and addiction problems. It was powerful because of the knowledge that addiction could come to anyone, including a First Lady and Karen Mackenzie.\" In an interview with the official \"Knots Landing\" website, the actress said: \"Oh! Let me add to that last question by also mentioning the Pollyanna speech as one of my favorite moments as Karen. The Pollyanna speech was a testimony to our writers keeping our fingers on the pulse of what (the audience) was feeling in their own lives. If we were doing the show today I could give the Pollyanna speech and add a few more items.\" She went further into detail by saying:\n\"I think Karen was very assertive in that statement. I hope there's a Pollyanna in all of us and that part doesn't ever die. I still have that part in me. I think what was interesting about that speech was that we weren't used to hearing our characters that impassioned. Karen showed the frustrations we were having with our society. There are two things to consider with that speech - the issue of Karen being called a Pollyanna and whether Karen actually was a Pollyanna. Karen wanted to be a Pollyanna and wasn't ashamed of that. Remember in our society, maybe people don't remember, but remember when we could go over to other people's houses and come in through an open back door? I remember when I was a little girl and my mother and father would have people over and they'd walk into an unlocked door in our house. Maybe apropos \"Knots Landing\" would have been Val opening the back door and Karen saying (simulates Karen calling from another room), 'Hi Val, come on in!' That would never happen now.\"\nBefore the pilot, Karen Cooper moves to Philadelphia to study, where she meets and falls in love with young mechanic Sid Fairgate (Don Murray), who lives with his wife, Susan Philby and their daughter, Annie. When Sid divorces Susan, he marries Karen and they move to Knots Landing, California where they live with their three children Diana (Claudia Lonow), Eric (Steve Shaw) and Michael Fairgate (Patrick Petersen). Karen gets along with everybody in the neighborhood, except for her sister-in-law, Abby Cunningham (Donna Mills), who joins the show in its second season. She always sees through her conniving, manipulating persona, much to the dismay of Sid. However, it is Valene Ewing (Joan Van Ark), her next door neighbor, who soon becomes her closest and dearest friend. In 1981, Sid's brakes are messed with and he plunges off the side of a cliff. When Sid dies shortly after, Karen takes over the running of Knots Landing Motors, and when Sid’s killers are released in 1982, she goes to see Detective Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson), who is the Federal Prosecutor, in order to get help to try and bring them to justice. Her and Mack fall in love and they elope in Las Vegas. Karen soon gets hooked on prescription pills when her daughter, Diana, runs off and marries Chip Roberts, the murderer of singer Ciji Dunne (Lisa Hartman Black). When Chip accidentally dies, Diana goes to live with her Aunt Abby and Gary Ewing at Westfork, thus increasing Karen’s dependency on pills. When Mack finds her unconscious in the bathroom, she is admitted to hospital to recuperate.\nKaren decides to divorce Mack when she discovers he is still tracking down the Wolfbridge Group, a dangerous crime organization. Karen’s children frantically try to get her to change her mind from divorcing Mack and she eventually forgives him, as she is still in love with him. She ends up having an operation to try and remove a bullet from a gunshot wound, which was lodged in a precarious position, thus preventing her from being paralysed. She goes to work at Lotus Point when Gary makes her an equal partner to make up for Abby’s indiscretion with Sid’s uncle’s apartment. In 1986, an old friend of Mack’s, Phil Harbert, kidnaps Karen as he is seeking revenge for Mack testifying against him years ago. However, she escapes and is soon reunited with Mack.\nWhen her friend Laura (Constance McCashin) dies, she leaves behind her forlorn husband, Greg Sumner (William Devane) and their baby daughter, Meg. When Karen realizes that Greg is grieving and is having a tough time coping without Laura, Greg gives Meg to Karen and Mack to bring up as their own child. While running Lotus Point with her fellow partners, Karen fights Manny Vasquez, who tries to arrange a deal which involves drugs. Lotus Point then becomes a focus of bad news because of the drug bust and is later sold to a Japanese firm, which is actually headed by her former sister-in-law Abby. Later on, she goes to work on \"Open Mike\", a TV show, and subsequently becomes a victim of harassment by the shows assistant producer, Jeff Cameron. Soon after starting work there, she receives nasty packages which include an animals heart and a box of flowers which contain snakes. Karen and Mack separate once again when they are called to battle to keep Meg when Mary Robeson arrives claiming to be Meg’s grandmother through Laura. Karen takes Meg and goes to stay with her daughter Diana in New York, but reconciles with Mack when he comes to visit them and return home to the familiar cul-de-sac.\nJamey Giddens of \"Pop Confidential\" praised Lee, saying: \"I can't breathe. I can't breathe. I can't breathe! My Karen from \"Knots Landing\", Michele-To-The-Lee. Oh, this is too good! I can't remember a more comforting primetime presence than Lee, as Seaview Circle's courageous heroine Karen Fairgate MacKenzie. For 14 seasons, Lee's Karen was the glue that held \"Knots\" together. Amid dead husbands, nubile, surprise stepdaughters, snatched up baby twins, philandering neighbors and one hoeish sister-in-law, you could always count on Karen!\"","Greg Sumner\nGregory \"Greg\" Sumner is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera \"Knots Landing\", a long-running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles, California. He was played by actor William Devane between 1983 and 1993. He debuted in the fourth episode of the fifth season. Devane remained a principal actor in the series until the final episode. The character made his last television appearance in 1997, when he appeared in the \"Knots Landing\" reunion series \"\".\nDuring the planning stages for the fifth season, the producers of the series decided to add a new male to stir up the pot. Devane explained his casting, \"They brought me in for 8-10 episodes and said we’ll try it for that. Donna Mills came on the show as a female antagonist, about a year before, so now they wanted to have a male antagonist. I was cast as a Senator to shake things up\".\nDuring the thirteenth season in 1992, Devane resigned from his role as Greg due to the production schedule. Devane said: I resigned. I had had enough. It had gotten so absurd. And I was offered a deal with ABC. I left Knots Landing because I didn't want to go in the toilet with this shit. The problem really comes down to the writing and trying to come up with good stories and most of us just said, “ we've done good work and let’s be proud of that and not have the show’s legacy ruined.”\". Another reason he resigned was due to the L.A. riots inspired story. \"It’s one of the reasons I left. It didn't help, that’s for sure. Ted turning the seawater into fresh water or whatever the hell he did was better\".\nOne of Greg's notable relationships was with Laura Avery (Constance McCashin) who became his second wife. Devane described this as his favorite story and spoke of his co-star Constance McCashin: \"I liked the Laura story. The whole thing. Constance is very smart and very quick so it was a joy to work with her. Our dynamic had elements of Tracy and Hepburn in it. At times we were able to do sophisticated comedy and I would have liked to do more of that. Not enough for my tastes, but when we did it, it worked well\". Greg also had on and off again affair with Paige Matheson, and short marriages to Abby Cunningham and Anne Matheson.\nBefore his arrival, Greg went to Law School and met Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson) and they became friends. At this time, Greg was a committed environmental idealist. Greg became smitten with Mack's girlfriend Anne Winston but married Jane and they had a daughter called Mary Frances. Greg appeared in Knots Landing when he was running for Senator. Gary Ewing donated to Greg's campaign, believing Greg to still be a committed environmental idealist like himself, but Greg had now become a cynical politician who was interested in playing power games at any cost. This turned Greg and Mack's former friendship into a complex love-hate relationship, with the moral crusading attorney Mack despising Greg's turn to the dark side, and Greg viewing Mack's no-nonsense crusading methods as going about things the wrong way. Greg also had an affair with Abby and Laura. Greg won the race for Senator when his wife Jane ask for a divorce.\nWhen Paul Galveston turned up, he wanted Greg to take over Galveston Industries, but Greg refused to get involved and told Paul to stay away. Greg revealed to Laura that Paul was his biological father and was still determined to win Greg's approval after years of failing. Greg despised Paul for taking his legal father's place soon after he had been killed in the Korean War, and for Paul having had an affair with Greg's mother for years beforehand. Greg's mother Ruth (Ava Gardner) inherited Paul's company and passed it onto Greg, who renamed it the Sumner Group. Ruth appointed Abby to break up Greg and Laura and she succeeded. Greg's new assistant Peter Hollister tried to convince Greg that he was his half-brother but it was a lie. Greg managed to win Laura back and they married and had a daughter called Meg. Greg was devastated when Laura died of a brain tumor. Unable to bring up Meg alone, he asked Karen (Michele Lee) and Mack to adopt her, which they did. Greg hired Paige Matheson (Nicollette Sheridan) to work with him at the Sumner Group and they began an on/off affair. Greg decided to marry Abby as he believed she would be a good political partner when he wanted to return to the world of Politics. However, Paige ruined his chances of running for Mayor. When his daughter Mary Frances returned, she was shot dead by a sniper, who went on to shoot and poison Greg. When his medical records were leaked, Greg's sister Claudia Whittaker (Kathleen Noone) and his niece Kate (Stacy Galina), who looked a lot like Mary Frances, showed up. Greg married Anne Matheson but it was short lived. When Greg was going through a mid-life crisis, he split his company and gave shares to Paige, Claudia and Meg. When he realised he wanted his company back, he bought Claudia's shares but Meg's shares were sold to Paige, who gained control of the Sumner Group. Greg and Paige finally got together but their relationship ended again when Greg didn't want to have children with Paige.","Abby Cunningham\nAbby Fairgate (formerly Cunningham, Ewing and Sumner) is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera \"Knots Landing\", a long-running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles, California. She was played by actress Donna Mills between 1980 and 1989. Abby was created by producer David Jacobs as one of \"Knots Landing\"'s earliest characters. She debuted in the first episode of the second season. Mills remained a principal actor in the series until she left in its tenth season. She returned for the two-part series finale to provide closure for the fans. The character made her last television appearance in 1997, when she appeared in the \"Knots Landing\" reunion series \"\", and was reunited with former cast members.\nPrior to being cast on \"Knots Landing\", Mills was predominantly known for playing \"damsel in distress\" roles, which is why the producers didn't initially consider her. Abby's storylines focused on business dealings, affairs and family troubles. Introduced as the sister of Sid Fairgate, she was initially portrayed as a friendly, warm-hearted woman with great love for her children. In due time, she evolved into the series' main antagonist, constantly causing mayhem in others' lives. According to series creator David Jacobs, the producers always intended Abby to be a J.R. Ewing-esque character. Jacobs said, \"When we were casting the role of Abby, we were looking for a homey type, someone whom the other women characters would trust. It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them. We didn't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade. We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen.\"\nThe character became known for her manipulative behavior and was often labeled a \"soap vixen\". She was praised by television critics, with Carolyn McGuire of \"The Chicago Tribune\" saying: \"Whoever shows up as the next villain, chances are his or her work won't be easy. That's because at least one resident—Abby Ewing—knows how to dish nasty with the best of them.\" When asked which character he wished he had created, Mike Kelly, the creator of ABC's popular primetime-soap opera \"Revenge\", said: \"Abby Ewing. Donna Mills, you rocked my world.\" John Mapes of \"The Biography Channel\" said, \"Any great soap opera needs a great villain. While viewers may identify more with the protagonist, the villains in a serial drama always spice things up, cause trouble, and make it more fun to watch.\"\nMills portrayed Abby from 1980–1989. Prior to being cast in \"Knots Landing\", Mills was primarily known for playing the \"damsel in distress\" archetype in both film and television media. The actress became somewhat famous for playing these roles, often leading to unwanted typecasting. In an interview with Jerry Buck for the \"Toledo Blade\", Mills said: \"I got tired of playing the victim. It's a more active role. Abby keeps things stirred up, and I like that.\" According to Jacobs, Abby was not planned when the show began. He knew that he wanted a female J.R. Ewing-esque character. However, he had a different sense of the character and who would wind up in the role. With Mills' reputation of playing the victim, he initially didn't choose her for the part.\nIn the early planning stages of season two, CBS executive Tony Barch suggested Mills for the role of Abby Cunningham. The character was initially conceived as the sister of Sid Fairgate (Don Murray), one of the central characters on the show, who was killed off in the next season. Casting agent Barbara Miller-Gidaly introduced Mills and Jacobs. After meeting with Miller-Gidaly, Jacobs decided to have Mills test for the role, which was unusual for an established actress. She auditioned shortly after and convinced the producers that she was the right person for the part. Jacobs said, \"She came back that afternoon and she read and she was great, and it meant reshaping the role a little bit, but, um, not that much. You know, she still came in, she drove up in the Volvo station wagon. She had the kids in the back. It was very middle class.\"\nIn 1989, Mills announced her intention to leave the long-running nighttime soap after nine years as Abby. According to Mills, she wanted to take a break from acting for a while, and from Abby as well. In an interview with \"The Cedartown Standard\", Mills explained: \"I'm tired of the show. It's been too long. I'm not particularly happy with the way they've been writing Abby lately. She's too soft. I'd like Abby to get back to her old self.\" Mills returned for the series finale and the subsequent reunion specials (\"\" and \"\"). Virginia Heffernan of \"The New York Times\" praised her scenes with fellow actor William Devane, saying: \"The Jean Naté-scented banter between the actors Donna Mills and William Devane is both the daffiest and the most enlightening part of the reunion special.\"\nThe producers always intended Abby to be the \"pot stirrer\". Devane, who played Greg Sumner, said that the show was looking for a woman \"in high heels with the throat of the guy – that's what they wanted\". He added, \"It was your character that influenced all these unhappy women today who have jobs and are out there working hard, trying to raise kids by themselves, going crazy.\" Mark Harris of \"Entertainment Weekly\" said, \"Michelle Phillips is the last of prime-time's great schemers, an essential element of the show since the departure of Donna Mills, whose Abby Cunningham was \"Knots\"' resident harpy for years.\"\nIn an interview with Greg Hernandez, Mills explained: \"I knew that she was going to be a trouble maker but actually knowing the writers and the producers, I knew that the character would be rounded and have dimension and that was really fun for me to play. It wasn’t one-note all the time, it was a lot of different colors.\" Television personality Julie Chen said, \"The women of \"Knots\", Michele Lee, Joan Van Ark, and Donna Mills have been compared to earth, wind, and fire, with Donna Mills bringing the heat as Abby, the conniving vixen that everybody loved to hate.\" According to Mills, many people were wary of meeting her in person because they assumed she would be like Abby. She said, \"They were very trepedacious about what I was going to do.\" Mike Celizic of NBC said that her character was \"the archetypal predatory female\", while Meredith Vieira said \"even the bad girl could show a tender side every once in a while\", in reference to her daughter's on-screen drug addiction. It was this very storyline that showed Abby at her most vulnerable and human, a story which audiences recall as perhaps one of her most desperate and motherly of moments. In addition to that, Abby also helped Val get her kidnapped babies back, even though she was blamed she said she \"could never do a thing like that to anyone\". When Karen and Mack began to have some problems in their marriage and Karen distanced herself from Mack, Abby confronted Karen aggressively and told her she was wrong for doing so to him.\nMills became known for wearing a lot of eye makeup in her scenes, to the point where it became a major character trait for her fictional personality. Carole Glinez of \"Star\" magazine said, \"Mills was so famous for her dramatic eye makeup on the show that she produced her own beauty video called \"The Eyes Have It\".\" Eddie Shapiro of \"Out\" magazine said that \"Abby's eye makeup was legendary!\" Glinez also referred to her as \"Knots\" \"Fox\", saying: \"Mills was one of the queens of the nighttime soap. Abby Cunningham Ewing was the conniving, bed hopping blonde beauty on the \"Dallas\" spin-off \"Knots Landing\".\nAbby was always intended to be the show's promiscuous seductress. In an interview with Carolyn McGuire of \"The Chicago Tribune\", Jacobs said: \"When we were casting the role of Abby, we were looking for a homey type, someone whom the other women characters would trust. It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them. We didn't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade. We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen.\" Author June L. May of \"Monsters and Critics\" said, \"In season two of \"Knots Landing\", a catalyst moves into the neighborhood in the form of Sid’s sister, the drop dead gorgeous Abby Cunningham. Whether Abby is directly involved, or simply in the neighborhood, she has a detrimental affect on the harmony of couples.\" Almost immediately, Abby sank her claws into Richard Avery (John Pleshette), one of the neighborhood husbands. Though the affair was brief, it set the stage for what was to come.\nIn season three, Abby sets her sights on the wealthy Gary Ewing, the husband of her good friend Valene Ewing. While Gary initially thwarted her attempts, he eventually gave in and had a full-fledged affair with her. Actress Joan Van Ark, who played Val, said: \"I went in way early, whenever Donna Mills came on the show, and told David Jacobs that it made total sense that Gary would fall for Abby. Because they were celebrating Donna Mills and she became the center I can’t believe I did that but it really provided us with some great stories. And it was the longest running story on the show.\" Dan Lewis of the \"Sarasota Journal\" said, \"In a recent episode, Abby lures Gary Ewing into an affair, and sets it up so that his wife will discover it. After she completed the scene, Miss Mills recalls, the crew hissing at her – jokingly, of course.\" The character was known for her numerous rivalries with other female characters, such as Paige and Karen. Carole Glinez said, \"Mills' character faced her rival Paige, played by future \"Desperate Housewives\" sexpot Nicollette Sheridan.\"\nBefore her first appearance, Abby meets and marries Jeff Cunningham. They move to San Luis Obispo, California, and have two children, Olivia and Brian. When she and Jeff divorce, Abby moves to San Diego. On the way she stops to visit her brother, Sid, and decides to stay in Knots Landing. She rents a house on Seaview Circle, and has an affair with Richard Avery. Abby soon sets her eyes on neighbor Gary Ewing, which becomes obvious after she starts working as a bookkeeper for Knots Landing Motors. She and Gary get the company involved with the mob, which results in her brother Sid's death. At the same time, Jeff kidnaps her children. She eventually gets them back. Abby and Gary go into a methanol business together and start an affair. Valene finds out and kicks Gary out, so he moves in with Abby. Gary soon inherits millions from his father Jock Ewing's death. Abby uses the money to manipulate those around her, and Gary starts drinking again. Gary sobers up and buys a ranch, similar to Southfork, the ranch his family owns. They move there and marry.\nAbby begins running Gary's company, and uses his money to fund her own corporation, Apaloon, which she uses to develop Lotus Point. She becomes involved with politician Greg Sumner and the Wolfbridge group. When Gary finds out about her illegal dealings, he leaves her. After Abby is kidnapped, he takes her back, and makes Karen a partner in Lotus Point. Abby soon finds out that Val is pregnant with Gary's twins. She expresses her displeasure to employee Scott Easton, who has Val's twins kidnapped at birth. Abby works to find out where the twins are, and brings Val to them. Abby finagles her way to become a part of the \"real\" Empire Valley. After Gary blows it up, he leaves Abby again. She attempts to get him back, but instead they divorce. Abby soon starts an affair with Peter Hollister as a way to get information on Greg. Then Charles Scott, her first love, returns. He is married, but he divorces his wife and asks Abby to marry him.\nAbby is in love again, but then finds out that Charles is the front for a group of thugs wanting to build a marina at Lotus Point for drug trafficking. Abby pretends to go along with the marriage and accepts a two million dollar wedding gift from Charles. After the ceremony she has the marriage annulled, but keeps the money. After this, Abby marries Greg Sumner. It isn't love, but rather a political marriage. Abby forms another company, Morikame, in order to buy Lotus Point. When her former partners find out and threaten to have her arrested for fraud, she donates Lotus Point to the government as a wildlife preserve. Abby goes after a political appointment that Greg wants, and leaves Knots Landing to be a trade representative in Japan. Abby later forms another illegal company with Nigel Treadwell, and tries to take over the Sumner Group, but her plan fails. She moves back into her old house on the cul-de-sac.\nIn the 1997 reunion mini-series, Abby sells her house and prepares to leave the cul-de-sac and move to Malibu. However, the IRS freezes her assets for non-payment of back taxes, and she temporarily moves in with Karen and Mack, and gets a job from Gary at the construction company he runs with Karen. However, Abby's motives are to obtain a legal document from their company in order to help Greg Sumner, who is being sued. Should she obtain the document, Greg will pay her the $1 million she needs. Greg then informs her he no longer needs the document. Abby tries to infiltrate his other business dealings to her advantage. Instead of paying her off, Greg offers her a job overseeing one of his business operations in Thailand, which will make her rich again. Before departing, Abby learns that Brian's girlfriend (Kate Whittaker) is expecting their first child, thus making her a grandmother.\nAbby was well received by television critics. Carolyn McGuire of \"The Chicago Tribune\" commented, \"Whoever shows up as the next villain, chances are his or her work won't be easy. That's because at least one resident—Abby Ewing—knows how to dish nasty with the best of them. Only Alexis Carrington Colby Dexter, played by Joan Collins on \"Dynasty\", and Angela Channing, portrayed by Jane Wyman on \"Falcon Crest\", rival Abby Ewing, played by Donna Mills, for best prime-time female villain.\" When asked which character he wished he had created, Mike Kelly, the creator of ABC's popular primetime-soap \"Revenge\", said: \"Abby Ewing. Donna Mills, you rocked my world.\" Jamey Giddens of Zap2it said, \"While I readily admit Alexis will go down in soap history as the most famous of the 80's primetime soap vixens, she was never truly my cup of detergent. I much preferred the more subdued, methodical villainy of characters like Abby Fairgate (Donna Mills), who slept her way through Seaview Circle, and to the top of Corporate California on \"Knots Landing\". God I miss that damn Cul-de-Sac!\"\nJosh Mapes of \"The Biography Channel\" listed her in the category \"10 Primetime Stars We Love to Hate\". He said, \"Any great soap opera needs a great villain. While viewers may identify more with the protagonist, the villains in a serial drama always spice things up, cause trouble, and make it more fun to watch. From tongue lashings to catfights, underhanded tricks to boldface lies, the characters we love to hate have each brought a fair share of great moments to primetime soaps. While Larry Hagman played the bad guy on \"Dallas\", Donna Mills played bad girl on its spin-off, \"Knots Landing\". Unapologetically going after what she wanted, Mills' character engaged in affairs with two of the husbands on the Knots Landing cul-de-sac. But, like most vixens on primetime soaps, she was only out for money, not love.\" Steve Eighinger of the \"Quincy Newspapers\" listed Abby as the third-most memorable TV character in an article he wrote for the \"Quincy Herald-Whig\". He said, \"No one, absolutely no one, rocked eye shadow and the messy-hair look like Abby Ewing, who was this marvelous combination of vixen and corporate sleuth. As her character developed, life on the cul-de-sac made \"Knots Landing\" destination TV every Thursday night for more than a decade.\"\nMarta Hoelsher of Technorati Media said: \"The biggest news of season two, though, is the appearance of Donna Mills as Abby Cunningham, the blonde bombshell who wreaks havoc all through the neighborhood. With the appearance of Abby, things really started to heat up and get interesting. No marriage is off limits when Abby sets her eyes on it. Played to perfection by Donna Mills, Abby is wicked, vicious, bitchy, and heartless enough to keep us loving and hating her for years. Abby's clashes with Karen MacKenzie and Val were legendary, and season two gets things rolling. After a fairly peaceful start to the season, we start to see the beginnings of the rivalry that defines the show for years: Karen vs. Abby. It's fun watching their early friendship evolve into a bitter rivalry.\"","Sweet Revenge (1987 film)\nSweet Revenge is a 1987 American motion picture starring Nancy Allen as Jillian Grey, a newscaster abducted and sold into white slavery while doing an undercover expose. Ted Shackelford, Martin Landau, Gina Gershon, Michele Little, and Lotis Key round out the cast of this R-rated action adventure directed by Mark Sobel with Roger Corman acting as executive producer.\n","Constance McCashin\nConstance McCashin (born June 18, 1947) is an American actress, best known for her role as <a href=\"Laura%20Avery%20Sumner\">Laura Avery Sumner</a> in the CBS prime time soap opera, \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\".\nMcCashin was born in <a href=\"Chicago\">Chicago</a>. She is best known for her role as Laura Avery Sumner on the prime time drama \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\", which she played from the show's debut in 1979 until 1987 when the character died of a brain tumor and her funeral was the basis of the show's 200th episode. McCashin's character was written out of the show due to cost-cutting measures along with fellow actress <a href=\"Julie%20Harris%20%28American%20actress%29\">Julie Harris</a>. McCashin explained to \"<a href=\"Boston.com\">Boston.com</a>\" in 2009 stating, \"I was very hurt the way I was let go for financial reasons. I wish they'd handled my demise better\".\nDuring her career, McCashin starred in a number of made for television movies. She appeared in several episodes of the CBS sitcom \"<a href=\"Brooklyn%20Bridge%20%28TV%20series%29\">Brooklyn Bridge</a>\" playing the role of Rosemary Monahan. She was a contestant on the <a href=\"Dick%20Clark\">Dick Clark</a>-hosted \"<a href=\"Pyramid%20%28game%20show%29\">$25,000 Pyramid</a>\" and would later appear as a panelist on \"<a href=\"Password%20Plus%20and%20Super%20Password\">Super Password</a>\". She made her final screen appearance playing supporting role in the 1999 comedy film \"<a href=\"The%20Out-of-Towners%20%281999%20film%29\">The Out-of-Towners</a>\".\nMcCashin appeared at the TV Land awards in April 2009 for the 30th year celebration of \"Knots Landing\". Other \"Knots Landing\" actors who appeared with her included <a href=\"Kevin%20Dobson\">Kevin Dobson</a>, <a href=\"Lisa%20Hartman%20Black\">Lisa Hartman Black</a>, <a href=\"Michele%20Lee\">Michele Lee</a>, <a href=\"Donna%20Mills\">Donna Mills</a>, <a href=\"Don%20Murray%20%28actor%29\">Don Murray</a>, <a href=\"Michelle%20Phillips\">Michelle Phillips</a>, <a href=\"Ted%20Shackelford\">Ted Shackelford</a>, and <a href=\"Joan%20Van%20Ark\">Joan Van Ark</a>.\nSucceeding her turn in the Hollywood limelight, McCashin has transitioned into a social worker and therapist who specializes in the treatment of eating disorders and body image issues.\nMcCashin lives in Massachusetts with her husband, producer <a href=\"Sam%20Weisman\">Sam Weisman</a>, with whom she has two children: Marguerite Weisman, an editorial assistant at <a href=\"Harper%20Collins\">Harper Collins</a>; and Daniel Weisman, a music manager, who manages <a href=\"Capital%20Cities%20%28band%29\">Capital Cities</a> and <a href=\"Wale%20%28rapper%29\">Wale</a> and formerly managed <a href=\"Mike%20Posner\">Mike Posner</a>.","Julie Harris (actress)\nJulia Ann \"Julie\" Harris (December 2, 1925 – August 24, 2013) was an American stage, screen, and television actress. A 10-time <a href=\"Tony%20Award\">Tony Award</a> nominee and five-time winner, she won for \"<a href=\"I%20Am%20a%20Camera\">I Am a Camera</a>\" (1952), \"<a href=\"The%20Lark%20%28play%29\">The Lark</a>\" (1956), \"<a href=\"Forty%20Carats\">Forty Carats</a>\" (1969), \"<a href=\"The%20Last%20of%20Mrs.%20Lincoln\">The Last of Mrs. Lincoln</a>\" (1973), and \"<a href=\"The%20Belle%20of%20Amherst\">The Belle of Amherst</a>\" (1977). She also won three <a href=\"Emmy%20Award\">Emmy Award</a>s, a <a href=\"Grammy%20Award\">Grammy Award</a>, and was nominated for the <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\">Academy Award for Best Actress</a> for the 1952 film \"<a href=\"The%20Member%20of%20the%20Wedding%20%28film%29\">The Member of the Wedding</a>\". She was inducted into the <a href=\"American%20Theatre%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">American Theatre Hall of Fame</a> in 1979, received the <a href=\"National%20Medal%20of%20Arts\">National Medal of Arts</a> in 1994, and the 2002 Special Lifetime Achievement Tony Award.\nJulia Ann Harris was born in <a href=\"Grosse%20Pointe%2C%20Michigan\">Grosse Pointe, Michigan</a>, the daughter of Elsie L. (<a href=\"married%20and%20maiden%20names\">née</a> Smith), a nurse, and William Pickett Harris, an investment banker. She had an older brother, William, and a younger brother, Richard. She graduated from Grosse Pointe Country Day School, which later merged with two others to form the <a href=\"University%20Liggett%20School\">University Liggett School</a>. In New York City, she attended <a href=\"The%20Hewitt%20School%20%28New%20York%2C%20New%20York%29\">The Hewitt School</a>.\nAs a teenager, she also trained at the <a href=\"Perry-Mansfield%20Performing%20Arts%20School%20%26amp%3B%20Camp\">Perry-Mansfield Performing Arts School & Camp</a> in <a href=\"Colorado\">Colorado</a> with Charlotte Perry, a mentor who encouraged Harris to apply to the <a href=\"Yale%20School%20of%20Drama\">Yale School of Drama</a>, which she soon attended for a year.\nIn 1952, Harris won her first Best Actress Tony for originating the role of insouciant <a href=\"Sally%20Bowles\">Sally Bowles</a> in \"<a href=\"I%20Am%20a%20Camera\">I Am a Camera</a>\", the stage version of <a href=\"Christopher%20Isherwood\">Christopher Isherwood</a>'s \"<a href=\"Goodbye%20to%20Berlin\">Goodbye to Berlin</a>\" (later adapted as the Broadway musical \"<a href=\"Cabaret%20%28musical%29\">Cabaret</a>\" (1966) and as the 1972 <a href=\"Cabaret%20%281972%20film%29\">film</a>, with <a href=\"Liza%20Minnelli\">Liza Minnelli</a> as Sally). Harris repeated her stage role in the film version of \"<a href=\"I%20Am%20a%20Camera%20%28film%29\">I Am a Camera</a>\" (1955).\nOf particular note is her Tony-winning performance in \"<a href=\"The%20Belle%20of%20Amherst\">The Belle of Amherst</a>\", a one-woman play (written by <a href=\"William%20Luce\">William Luce</a> and directed by <a href=\"Charles%20Nelson%20Reilly\">Charles Nelson Reilly</a>) based on the life and poetry of <a href=\"Emily%20Dickinson\">Emily Dickinson</a>. She received a <a href=\"Grammy%20Award\">Grammy Award</a> for Best Spoken Word Recording for the audio recording of the play. She first performed the play in 1976 and subsequently appeared in other solo shows, including Luce's \"Bronte\". Other <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a> credits include \"<a href=\"The%20Playboy%20of%20the%20Western%20World\">The Playboy of the Western World</a>\", \"<a href=\"Macbeth\">Macbeth</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Member%20of%20the%20Wedding\">The Member of the Wedding</a>\", \"<a href=\"L%27Idiote\">A Shot in the Dark</a>\", \"<a href=\"Skyscraper%20%28musical%29\">Skyscraper</a>\", \"<a href=\"And%20Miss%20Reardon%20Drinks%20a%20Little\">And Miss Reardon Drinks a Little</a>\", \"<a href=\"Forty%20Carats\">Forty Carats</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Glass%20Menagerie\">The Glass Menagerie</a>\", \"<a href=\"A%20Doll%27s%20House\">A Doll's House</a>\", and \"<a href=\"The%20Gin%20Game\">The Gin Game</a>\", and a North American tour in 1992 of \"<a href=\"Lettice%20and%20Lovage\">Lettice and Lovage</a>\" in the lead part originated by <a href=\"Maggie%20Smith\">Maggie Smith</a> on Broadway.\nIn 1983, Harris also became a company member of <a href=\"The%20Mirror%20Theater%20Ltd\">The Mirror Theater Ltd</a>'s Mirror Repertory Company. Julie Harris became a mentor to the company, having urged Founding Artistic Director Sabra Jones to create the company from 1976 forward, when Jones married <a href=\"John%20Strasberg\">John Strasberg</a>. Harris and Jones met at a performance of \"The Belle of Amherst\", a revival of which <a href=\"The%20Mirror%20Theater%20Ltd\">The Mirror Theater Ltd</a> recently performed in their summer home in Vermont.\nAlong with <a href=\"Chita%20Rivera\">Chita Rivera</a>, Harris holds the record for the most individual <a href=\"Tony%20Award\">Tony Award</a> nominations, with 10 nominations. She held the record for most competitive Tony wins (five) until <a href=\"Angela%20Lansbury\">Angela Lansbury</a> tied her in 2009. <a href=\"Audra%20McDonald\">Audra McDonald</a> has since passed them both, with six acting Tony Award wins. In 1966, Harris won the <a href=\"Sarah%20Siddons%20Award\">Sarah Siddons Award</a> for her work in <a href=\"Chicago%20theatre\">Chicago theatre</a>.\nHarris's screen debut was in 1952, repeating her Broadway success as the monumentally lonely teenaged girl Frankie in <a href=\"Carson%20McCullers\">Carson McCullers</a>' \"<a href=\"The%20Member%20of%20the%20Wedding\">The Member of the Wedding</a>\", for which she was nominated for the <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\">Academy Award for Best Actress</a>. Harris played the ethereal Eleanor Lance in \"<a href=\"The%20Haunting%20%281963%20film%29\">The Haunting</a>\" (1963), director <a href=\"Robert%20Wise\">Robert Wise</a>'s screen adaptation of a novel by <a href=\"Shirley%20Jackson\">Shirley Jackson</a>, a classic film of the horror genre. Another cast member recalled Harris maintaining a social distance from the other actors while not on set, later explaining that she had done so as a method of emphasizing the alienation from the other characters experienced by her character in the film. She reprised her Tony-winning role as <a href=\"Mary%20Todd%20Lincoln\">Mary Todd Lincoln</a> in \"<a href=\"The%20Last%20of%20Mrs.%20Lincoln\">The Last of Mrs. Lincoln</a>\" (1973) in the film version (1976). Another noteworthy film appearance was the World War II drama \"<a href=\"The%20Hiding%20Place%20%28film%29\">The Hiding Place</a>\" (1975). She also appeared in such films as \"<a href=\"East%20of%20Eden%20%28film%29\">East of Eden</a>\" (also 1955), with <a href=\"James%20Dean\">James Dean</a> (with whom she became close friends), \"<a href=\"Requiem%20for%20a%20Heavyweight%23The%20Movie%20Version\">\"Requiem for a Heavyweight\"</a>\" (1962), with <a href=\"Paul%20Newman\">Paul Newman</a> in the private-detective film \"<a href=\"Harper%20%28film%29\">Harper</a>\" (1966), and \"<a href=\"Reflections%20in%20a%20Golden%20Eye%20%28film%29\">Reflections in a Golden Eye</a>\" (1967).\nFor her television work, Harris had won three <a href=\"Emmy%20Award\">Emmy Award</a>s and had been nominated 11 times. One of her most famous television roles was as <a href=\"Queen%20Victoria\">Queen Victoria</a>, in the 1961 \"<a href=\"Hallmark%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">Hallmark Hall of Fame</a>\" <a href=\"Victoria%20Regina%20%28TV%20film%29\">production</a> of <a href=\"Laurence%20Housman\">Laurence Housman</a>'s \"<a href=\"Victoria%20Regina%20%28play%29\">Victoria Regina</a>\", for which she won an <a href=\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Lead%20Actress%20in%20a%20Limited%20Series%20or%20Movie\">Emmy</a>. Earlier, also for the \"Hallmark Hall of Fame\", she starred as Nora Helmer opposite <a href=\"Christopher%20Plummer\">Christopher Plummer</a> in \"<a href=\"A%20Doll%27s%20House%20%281959%20TV%20drama%29\">A Doll's House</a>\" (1959), a 90-minute television adaptation of <a href=\"Henrik%20Ibsen\">Ibsen</a>'s play. She made more appearances in leading roles on the Hallmark program than any other actress, also appearing in two different adaptations of the play \"Little Moon of Alban\". In her later career, she was perhaps best known as country singer Lilimae Clements, the eccentric and protective mother of <a href=\"Valene%20Ewing\">Valene Ewing</a> (played by <a href=\"Joan%20Van%20Ark\">Joan Van Ark</a>) on the <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> nighttime soap opera \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\". The role was as a guest appearance in 1980 before returning as a series regular from 1981–87. In 1986, she provided the voice-over of the adult Clara in \"Nutcracker: The Motion Picture\".\nOn December 5, 2005, she was named a <a href=\"Kennedy%20Center%20Honors\">Kennedy Center Honoree</a>. At a <a href=\"White%20House\">White House</a> ceremony, President <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a> remarked, \"It's hard to imagine the American stage without the face, the voice, and the limitless talent of Julie Harris. She has found happiness in her life's work, and we thank her for sharing that happiness with the whole world.\"\nHarris continued to work until 2009, well into her eighties, narrating five historical documentaries by <a href=\"Christopher%20Seufert\">Christopher Seufert</a> and <a href=\"Mooncusser%20Films\">Mooncusser Films</a>, as well as being active as a director on the board of the independent <a href=\"Wellfleet%2C%20Massachusetts\">Wellfleet</a> Harbor Actors Theater. She also did extensive voice work for documentary maker <a href=\"Ken%20Burns\">Ken Burns</a>: the voices of <a href=\"Emily%20Warren%20Roebling\">Emily Warren Roebling</a> in \"<a href=\"Brooklyn%20Bridge%20%28film%29\">Brooklyn Bridge</a>\", <a href=\"Ann%20Lee\">Ann Lee</a> in \"\", <a href=\"Susan%20B.%20Anthony\">Susan B. Anthony</a> in \"\" and most notably Southern diarist <a href=\"Mary%20Boykin%20Chesnut\">Mary Boykin Chesnut</a> for Burns' 1990 series \"<a href=\"The%20Civil%20War%20%28TV%20series%29\">The Civil War</a>\".\nIn the summer of 2008, she appeared on stage again in <a href=\"Chatham%2C%20Massachusetts\">Chatham, Massachusetts</a> as \"Nanny\" in a Monomoy Theater production of \"<a href=\"The%20Effect%20of%20Gamma%20Rays%20on%20Man-in-the-Moon%20Marigolds\">The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds</a>\".\nHarris lived in <a href=\"Chatham%2C%20Massachusetts\">West Chatham, Cape Cod</a> for many years until her death. Thrice divorced, she had one son, Peter Gurian. A <a href=\"breast%20cancer\">breast cancer</a> survivor, she suffered a severe fall requiring surgery, a stroke in 2001, and a second stroke in 2010.\nHarris died on August 24, 2013, of <a href=\"congestive%20heart%20failure\">congestive heart failure</a> at her home in <a href=\"West%20Chatham%2C%20Massachusetts\">West Chatham, Massachusetts</a>, aged 87. She was survived by her son, Peter Gurian. <a href=\"Ben%20Brantley\">Ben Brantley</a>, theater critic for \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\", considered her \"the actress who towered most luminously ... rather like a Statue of Liberty for Broadway.\" <a href=\"Alec%20Baldwin\">Alec Baldwin</a>, with whom she appeared in \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\", praised her in a tribute in the \"<a href=\"Huffington%20Post\">Huffington Post</a>\". \"Her voice was like rainfall. Her eyes connected directly to and channeled the depths of her powerful and tender heart. Her talent, a gift from God.\"\nOn August 28, 2013, Broadway theaters dimmed their lights for one minute in honor of Harris.\nThe asterisk (*) indicates a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress, and the caret (^) indicates a win.","Stephen Macht\nStephen Robert Macht (born May 1, 1942) is an American television and film actor. He is also father of actor <a href=\"Gabriel%20Macht\">Gabriel Macht</a>.\nMacht was born in <a href=\"Philadelphia\">Philadelphia</a>, <a href=\"Pennsylvania\">Pennsylvania</a>. He was raised in <a href=\"Brooklyn%20Heights\">Brooklyn Heights, New York</a> until, at age nine, his father died and he moved with his mother, Janette, and older brother, to live with his maternal grandfather, a haberdasher, in <a href=\"Mystic%2C%20Connecticut\">Mystic, Connecticut</a>.\nAfter graduating from <a href=\"Dartmouth%20College\">Dartmouth College</a> in 1963 (where he roomed with future actor <a href=\"Michael%20Moriarty\">Michael Moriarty</a>), Macht attended <a href=\"Tufts%20University\">Tufts University</a>, receiving an M.A. in Drama in 1967. He later enrolled at <a href=\"Indiana%20University\">Indiana University</a> and obtained a Ph.D. in Dramatic Literature and Theatre History in 1970. Macht studied acting at the <a href=\"London%20Academy%20of%20Music%20and%20Dramatic%20Art\">London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art</a> and wrote his Ph.D. dissertation on the history of acting training there. He also trained with <a href=\"Milton%20Katselas\">Milton Katselas</a> at the <a href=\"Beverly%20Hills%20Playhouse\">Beverly Hills Playhouse</a>.\nWhile teaching at <a href=\"Queens%20College\">Queens College</a>, Macht received approval by his department chair to appear in plays in New York City in lieu of publishing scholarly articles as part of the tenure track.\nSpotted by a <a href=\"Universal%20Studios\">Universal Studios</a> talent scout while starring at the <a href=\"Stratford%20Shakespeare%20Festival\">Stratford Shakespeare Festival</a> in Canada in 1975, Macht was signed to a contract and by the mid 1970s had left teaching and was making frequent appearances in TV episodes and movies.\nIn \"<a href=\"Raid%20on%20Entebbe%20%28film%29\">Raid on Entebbe</a>\" (1977), he portrayed <a href=\"Yonatan%20Netanyahu\">Yoni Netanyahu</a>, the Israeli officer killed in the <a href=\"Operation%20Entebbe\">rescue of hostages in Uganda</a>. In 1978, he had a lead role in \"<a href=\"The%20Immigrants\">The Immigrants</a>\" a syndicated miniseries about the rise of the son of Italian immigrants in turn-of-the-century San Francisco.\nThe successful television movie \"American Dream\" (ABC, 1981) led to a critically acclaimed short-lived series which cast Macht in the role of a family man who chucks the suburban life to set up home in the inner city of Chicago. The following season, he landed the role of Joe Cooper, brother of Karen MacKenzie (<a href=\"Michele%20Lee\">Michele Lee</a>), on \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\" (CBS, 1982–83). Other notable roles included playing <a href=\"Nancy%20McKeon\">Nancy McKeon</a>'s father in \"<a href=\"Strange%20Voices\">Strange Voices</a>\" (NBC, 1987). He was <a href=\"Benedict%20Arnold\">Benedict Arnold</a> in the miniseries \"<a href=\"George%20Washington%20%28TV%20miniseries%29\">George Washington</a>\" (1984) and played one of the survivors of an air crash in \"\" (NBC, 1984). He spent three seasons (1985–88) as David Keeler, love interest to Cagney (<a href=\"Sharon%20Gless\">Sharon Gless</a>), on \"<a href=\"Cagney%20%26amp%3B%20Lacey\">Cagney & Lacey</a>\" (CBS). During his run on the show, he moved behind the cameras to make his directorial debut. In 1993, Macht played Krim Aldos in \"\", an early Season 2 episode of \"\". Macht had been <a href=\"Gene%20Roddenberry\">Gene Roddenberry</a>'s first choice to play Captain <a href=\"Jean-Luc%20Picard\">Jean-Luc Picard</a> in \"\", but the role eventually went to <a href=\"Patrick%20Stewart\">Patrick Stewart</a> in 1986.\nMore recent credits have included playing an Austrian Jew who must be baptized along with his wife and daughter in order to escape the Nazis in \"<a href=\"A%20Friendship%20in%20Vienna\">A Friendship in Vienna</a>\" (1988 The Disney Channel); a doctor helping <a href=\"Jane%20Seymour%20%28actress%29\">Jane Seymour</a> in the syndicated miniseries \"Sidney Sheldon's Memories of Midnight\" (1991), and as cult member <a href=\"Joan%20Van%20Ark\">Joan Van Ark</a>'s suffering husband in \"\" (1994 NBC). Macht appeared in the 1995 third season \"<a href=\"Babylon%205\">Babylon 5</a>\" episode \"<a href=\"A%20Day%20in%20the%20Strife\">A Day in the Strife</a>\" as the character 'Na'Far'. Na'Far was the new official Narn representative, replacing <a href=\"G%27Kar\">G'Kar</a>, after the Centauri's invasion of the <a href=\"Narn\">Narn</a> homeworld. In 1996 he did a six-month stint on the ABC daytime drama \"<a href=\"One%20Life%20to%20Live\">One Life to Live</a>\" as Elliot Durban. From August 24, 2007 to February 13, 2009 he portrayed <a href=\"Trevor%20Lansing\">Trevor Lansing</a>, attorney of organized crime boss Anthony Zacchara and father of attorney <a href=\"Ric%20Lansing\">Ric Lansing</a>, in the <a href=\"soap%20opera\">soap opera</a> \"<a href=\"General%20Hospital\">General Hospital</a>\" for which \"<a href=\"Soap%20Opera%20Digest\">Soap Opera Digest</a>\" nominated him Best Villain of 2007. In 2014, 2015 and 2016, Macht guest starred opposite his son, actor <a href=\"Gabriel%20Macht\">Gabriel Macht</a>, in \"<a href=\"Suits%20%28TV%20series%29\">Suits</a>\".\nMacht's work in feature films has been more sporadic, beginning with a turn as one of \"<a href=\"The%20Choirboys%20%28film%29\">The Choirboys</a>\" (1977). He also had roles in \"<a href=\"Nightwing%20%28film%29\">Nightwing</a>\" (1979), \"<a href=\"The%20Mountain%20Men\">The Mountain Men</a>\" (1980), \"<a href=\"Galaxina\">Galaxina</a>\" (1980), \"<a href=\"The%20Last%20Winter%20%281984%20film%29\">The Last Winter</a>\" (1984), \"<a href=\"The%20Monster%20Squad\">The Monster Squad</a>\" (1987), \"<a href=\"Graveyard%20Shift%20%281990%20film%29\">Stephen King's Graveyard Shift</a>\" (1990), \"\" (1992), \"<a href=\"The%20Adventures%20of%20Galgameth\">The Legend of Galgameth</a>\" (1996), and \"<a href=\"Watchers%20Reborn\">Watchers Reborn</a>\" (1998). Macht has also played Dr. Harris in three instalments of the \"<a href=\"Trancers\">Trancers</a>\" series of films.\nMacht has been married to archivist/museum curator Suzanne Victoria Pulier since 1964. He has four children: Julie, Ari Serbin, actor <a href=\"Gabriel%20Macht\">Gabriel Macht</a> and musician <a href=\"Jesse%20Macht\">Jesse Macht</a>. Macht is also an ordained <a href=\"chaplain\">chaplain</a>. and his book, \"Moral Change: A Tragedy or A Return?: How Aristotle’s Tragic Reversal Illuminates Maimonides’ Teshuva\" was published on Amazon.com in October 2016.","Jane Elliot\nJane Elliot (born January 17, 1947) is an American actress, best known for her role as <a href=\"Tracy%20Quartermaine\">Tracy Quartermaine</a> in the <a href=\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\">ABC</a> daytime <a href=\"soap%20opera\">soap opera</a>, \"<a href=\"General%20Hospital\">General Hospital</a>\".\nElliot was born in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. She was married to Luis Rojas and has three children Isiah Doss-Elliot, Adrian Elliot, and Annie Rose Elliot. Elliot made her daytime debut in the short-lived ABC soap \"<a href=\"A%20Flame%20in%20the%20Wind\">A Flame in the Wind</a>\" in 1965. She later guest-starred in a number of television series, like \"<a href=\"The%20Mod%20Squad\">The Mod Squad</a>\", \"<a href=\"Kojak\">Kojak</a>\", \"<a href=\"Barnaby%20Jones\">Barnaby Jones</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Police%20Woman%20%28TV%20series%29\">Police Woman</a>\". Elliot also co-starred in films \"<a href=\"Change%20of%20Habit\">Change of Habit</a>\" (1969) opposite <a href=\"Elvis%20Presley\">Elvis Presley</a> and <a href=\"Mary%20Tyler%20Moore\">Mary Tyler Moore</a>, and \"<a href=\"One%20Is%20a%20Lonely%20Number\">One Is a Lonely Number</a>\" (1972). She had a lead role in the short-lived <a href=\"NBC\">NBC</a> series \"<a href=\"Rosetti%20and%20Ryan\">Rosetti and Ryan</a>\" in 1977.\nElliot is best known for her role as Tracy Quartermaine on the ABC daytime soap opera \"General Hospital\". Elliot debuted in 1978 and became a fan favorite. Her first stint was highlighted by an episode in which Tracy withholds her father's heart medication when he appears to be suffering a heart attack. Elliot left in 1980 and won a <a href=\"Daytime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Supporting%20Actress%20in%20a%20Drama%20Series\">Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series</a> for the role in 1981. The same year, she landed the recurring role of Judy Trent on the prime time <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> series \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\".\nFrom 1981 to 1982, Elliot appeared on the CBS soap opera \"<a href=\"Guiding%20Light\">Guiding Light</a>\" as Carrie Todd, a character who turns about to be a murderer suffering from a <a href=\"split%20personality\">split personality</a>. From 1984 to 1986 she played \"<a href=\"All%20My%20Children\">All My Children</a>\"'s Cynthia Chandler Preston Cortlandt, who marries a wealthy older man for his money while having an affair with his son. Elliot portrayed Anjelica Deveraux on \"<a href=\"Days%20of%20Our%20Lives\">Days of Our Lives</a>\" from 1987 to 1989; her character has an affair with the much younger <a href=\"Justin%20Kiriakis\">Justin Kiriakis</a> (played by <a href=\"Wally%20Kurth\">Wally Kurth</a>) but marries someone else despite being pregnant with Justin's child. In 1987, Elliot appeared in the films \"<a href=\"Some%20Kind%20of%20Wonderful%20%28film%29\">Some Kind of Wonderful</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Baby%20Boom%20%28film%29\">Baby Boom</a>\". After two years on \"Days of Our Lives\", she returned to \"General Hospital\" in 1989, and in 1991 was reunited with Kurth, who was cast as Tracy's son, <a href=\"Ned%20Ashton%20%28General%20Hospital%29\">Ned Ashton</a>. Elliot left again in mid-1993, later becoming a producer on the 1995 ABC soap opera \"<a href=\"The%20City%20%281995%20TV%20series%29\">The City</a>\". From 1996 to 1997 she reprised the role of Tracy Quartermaine on \"The City\" after briefly appearing as Tracy again on \"General Hospital\". In 2003, Elliot returned to \"General Hospital\" as a regular cast member. In 2014, she was nominated for another Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, 33 years after her win and 21 years since her last nomination. Elliot announced her retirement in March 2017.","Laura Avery Sumner\nLaura Avery Sumner (maiden name Murphy) is a <a href=\"fictional%20character\">fictional character</a> from the <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> <a href=\"soap%20opera\">soap opera</a> \"<a href=\"Knots%20Landing\">Knots Landing</a>\", a long-running serial about <a href=\"middle%20class\">middle class</a> life on the fictional <a href=\"cul-de-sac\">cul-de-sac</a> known as Seaview Circle in <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\">Los Angeles, California</a>. She was played by actress <a href=\"Constance%20McCashin\">Constance McCashin</a> between 1979 and 1987. She debuted in the pilot episode and remained a principal actor in the series until the ninth season episode \"The Gift of Life\".\nLaura was adopted as a baby by Hank Murphy and his wife and lived in Pittsburgh.Laura had an older brother and two older sisters. By age 12, Laura's adoptive mother died. Laura graduated High School and did some post-High School studies where she met Law student Richard Avery. Laura was very much attracted to Richard, because Richard gave her the attention she was always seeking. The two were later married, and Laura had to quit school and work hard to support Richard through Law School. Richard graduated from Law School and became a lawyer. Later, Laura and Richard had a son, Jason Avery and the family moved to Knots Landing.\nLaura lived a rather boring life in Knots Landing trying to help support her husband through law school and being a mother. When Richard's dependence on her began to wane as his job as a lawyer brought in good money, Laura began to seek attention from other men, which resulted in her getting raped. Later, Laura wanted to work, much to the objection of Richard, and she studied to become a real-estate agent. Meanwhile, Richard lost his job and their marriage began to deteriorate further. Laura began an affair with her boss, Scooter, while Richard started seeing neighbor <a href=\"Abby%20Cunningham\">Abby Cunningham</a>. As Laura's career grew, Richard's wilted and the marriage suffered more. Laura decided to divorce Richard until she discovered she was pregnant. However, Laura decided she would leave Richard and caused him to have a mental breakdown. When Richard returned home, after being institutionalized, there was a glimmer of hope and they tried to rebuild their marriage. They opened a restaurant together named Daniel, after their newborn son.\nRichard became jealous of Laura's closeness with singer Ciji Dunne, and made no attempt to hide his disdain for her. After Ciji was murdered, Richard felt remorseful and tried to apologize to Laura, but she refused to forgive him. Believing that Laura no longer loved him, Richard left his family one night and would not return until years later. Laura at first believed Richard left because he had a role in Ciji's death, but as events unfolded, she came to know otherwise and accepted some responsibility for the loss of her marriage.\nLaura's life improved as she started working for Gary Ewing Enterprises, although she had to work closely with Abby, There she met <a href=\"Gregory%20Sumner\">Gregory Sumner</a> and they began an affair. However, Abby and Greg's mother, Ruth (<a href=\"Ava%20Gardner\">Ava Gardner</a>), succeeded in breaking them up but Laura and Greg both realized they needed each other and they got married. When Laura announced she was pregnant, Greg told her he didn't want to be a father again but Laura stubbornly decided to have the baby and Greg later warmed to the idea. After giving birth to her daughter, Margaret, Laura is diagnosed with an incurable brain tumor. Laura chose to enter a clinic and die alone. When Laura died, Greg had Meg adopted by Laura's best friend, <a href=\"Karen%20MacKenzie\">Karen MacKenzie</a>.\nIn 1987, the production of \"Knots Landing\" was hit by major budget cuts and many actors were let go, including McCashin. Much controversy surrounded this decision made by the producers and was even objected to openly by McCashin herself. McCashin explained to \"<a href=\"Boston.com\">Boston.com</a>\" in 2009 stating, \"I was very hurt the way I was let go for financial reasons. I wish they'd handled my demise better\".","Michael York\nMichael York, <a href=\"Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire\">OBE</a> (born Michael Hugh Johnson; 27 March 1942) is an English actor.\nYork was born in <a href=\"Fulmer\">Fulmer</a>, <a href=\"Gerrards%20Cross\">Gerrards Cross</a>, <a href=\"Buckinghamshire\">Buckinghamshire</a>, the son of Florence Edith May (<a href=\"married%20and%20maiden%20names\">née</a> Chown), a musician; and Joseph Gwynne Johnson, a <a href=\"Llandovery\">Llandovery</a>-born <a href=\"Wales\">Welsh</a> ex-<a href=\"Royal%20Artillery\">Royal Artillery</a> <a href=\"British%20Army\">British Army</a> officer and executive with <a href=\"Marks%20%26amp%3B%20Spencer\">Marks & Spencer</a> department stores. York has an older sister, Penelope Anne (born 1940) and younger twin sisters, Caroline and Bridget (born 1947); Bridget died a few hours after birth, according to his autobiography. He was brought up in <a href=\"Burgess%20Hill\">Burgess Hill</a>, <a href=\"Sussex\">Sussex</a>.\nDuring his teenage years, York was educated at <a href=\"Ravensbourne%20School%2C%20Bromley\">Bromley Grammar School for Boys</a>, <a href=\"Hurstpierpoint%20College\">Hurstpierpoint College</a> and <a href=\"University%20College%2C%20Oxford\">University College, Oxford</a>. He began his career in a 1956 production of \"The Yellow Jacket\". In 1959 he made his <a href=\"West%20End%20theatre\">West End</a> début with a small part in a production of \"<a href=\"Hamlet\">Hamlet</a>\". York was a member of <a href=\"National%20Youth%20Theatre\">National Youth Theatre</a>\nHe met photographer Patricia McCallum in 1967 when she was assigned to photograph him, and they married on 27 March 1968, York's 26th birthday. His stepson is \"<a href=\"Star%20Wars\">Star Wars</a>\" producer <a href=\"Rick%20McCallum\">Rick McCallum</a>. York was named to the <a href=\"International%20Best%20Dressed%20List\">International Best Dressed List</a> Hall of Fame in 1977.\nIn 2013, York announced he was suffering from the rare disease <a href=\"amyloidosis\">amyloidosis</a>. Doctors initially thought he had bone cancer. In 2012, he had undergone a stem cell transplant, which can alleviate symptoms.\nPrior to graduating with a degree in English from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Oxford\">University of Oxford</a> in 1964, York had toured with the <a href=\"National%20Youth%20Theatre\">National Youth Theatre</a>, also performing with the <a href=\"Oxford%20University%20Dramatic%20Society\">Oxford University Dramatic Society</a> and the <a href=\"University%20College%20Players\">University College Players</a>. After some time with the <a href=\"Dundee%20Repertory%20Theatre\">Dundee Repertory Theatre</a>, where he played in <a href=\"Brendan%20Behan\">Brendan Behan</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Hostage%20%28play%29\">The Hostage</a>\", York joined <a href=\"Royal%20National%20Theatre\">National Theatre</a> under <a href=\"Laurence%20Olivier\">Laurence Olivier</a> where he worked with <a href=\"Franco%20Zeffirelli\">Franco Zeffirelli</a> during the 1965 staging of \"<a href=\"Much%20Ado%20About%20Nothing\">Much Ado About Nothing</a>\". Following his role on British TV as Jolyon (Jolly) in \"<a href=\"The%20Forsyte%20Saga%20%281967%20series%29\">The Forsyte Saga</a>\" (1967), York made his film debut as Lucentio in Zeffirelli's \"<a href=\"The%20Taming%20of%20the%20Shrew%20%281967%20film%29\">The Taming of the Shrew</a>\" (1967), then was cast as <a href=\"Tybalt\">Tybalt</a> in Zeffirelli's 1968 film adaptation of \"<a href=\"Romeo%20and%20Juliet%20%281968%20film%29\">Romeo and Juliet</a>\". He starred in \"<a href=\"The%20Guru%20%281969%20film%29\">The Guru</a>\" (1969), played an amoral <a href=\"Bisexuality\">bisexual</a> drifter in \"<a href=\"Something%20for%20Everyone\">Something for Everyone</a>\" (<a href=\"1970%20in%20film\">1970</a>) and portrayed the bisexual Brian Roberts in <a href=\"Bob%20Fosse\">Bob Fosse</a>'s film version of \"<a href=\"Cabaret%20%281972%20film%29\">Cabaret</a>\" (<a href=\"1972%20in%20film\">1972</a>). In 1971 he portrayed a World War I soldier with conflicted family loyalties who pretends to side with the Germans in \"<a href=\"Zeppelin%20%28film%29\">Zeppelin</a>\". In 1975 he portrayed a British soldier in 19th century colonial India in \"<a href=\"Conduct%20Unbecoming%20%28film%29\">Conduct Unbecoming</a>\", the first of three movies he did with director <a href=\"Michael%20Anderson%20%28director%29\">Michael Anderson</a>. In 1977, he reunited with Franco Zeffirelli as <a href=\"John%20the%20Baptist\">John the Baptist</a> in \"<a href=\"Jesus%20of%20Nazareth%20%28miniseries%29\">Jesus of Nazareth</a>\".\nYork starred as <a href=\"Charles%20de%20Batz-Castelmore%20d%27Artagnan\">D'Artagnan</a> in the 1973 adaptation of \"<a href=\"The%20Three%20Musketeers%20%281973%20film%29\">The Three Musketeers</a>\" and he made his <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a> début in the original production of <a href=\"Tennessee%20Williams\">Tennessee Williams</a>'s \"<a href=\"Out%20Cry\">Out Cry</a>\". One year later the sequel to \"The Three Musketeers\" was released (roughly covering events in the second half of the book) titled \"<a href=\"The%20Four%20Musketeers%20%28film%29\">The Four Musketeers</a>\". . Fifteen years later, most of the cast (and crew) joined together in a third film titled \"<a href=\"The%20Return%20of%20the%20Musketeers\">The Return of the Musketeers</a>\" based on the Dumas novel \"<a href=\"Twenty%20Years%20After\">Twenty Years After</a>\". He played the title character in the film adaptation of \"<a href=\"Logan%27s%20Run%20%28film%29\">Logan's Run</a>\" (1976). The following year, he starred in \"<a href=\"The%20Island%20of%20Dr.%20Moreau%20%281977%20film%29\">The Island of Dr. Moreau</a>\" opposite <a href=\"Burt%20Lancaster\">Burt Lancaster</a>.\nSince his auspicious early work, York has enjoyed a busy and varied career in film, <a href=\"television\">television</a> and on the stage. He appeared in two episodes in the second season of the \"<a href=\"Road%20to%20Avonlea\">Road to Avonlea</a>\" series as Ezekiel Crane, the lighthouse keeper of Avonlea and foster father of Gus Pike. His <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway theatre</a> credits include \"<a href=\"Bent%20%28play%29\">Bent</a>\" (1980), \"<a href=\"The%20Crucible\">The Crucible</a>\" (1992), \"<a href=\"Someone%20Who%27ll%20Watch%20Over%20Me\">Someone Who'll Watch Over Me</a>\" (1993) and the ill-fated musical \"<a href=\"The%20Little%20Prince%20and%20the%20Aviator\">The Little Prince and the Aviator</a>\" (1982), which closed during previews. He also has made many sound recordings as a reader, including Harper Audio's production of <a href=\"C.%26amp%3Bnbsp%3BS.%20Lewis\">C. S. Lewis</a>' \"<a href=\"The%20Lion%2C%20the%20Witch%20and%20the%20Wardrobe\">The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe</a>\".\nYork appeared in the \"<a href=\"Babylon%205\">Babylon 5</a>\" episode \"<a href=\"A%20Late%20Delivery%20from%20Avalon\">A Late Delivery from Avalon</a>\" as a delusional man who believed himself to be King Arthur returned. He also appeared as Professor Asher Fleming, a 60-year-old <a href=\"Yale%20University\">Yale</a> professor and boyfriend of Yale student <a href=\"List%20of%20Gilmore%20Girls%20characters%23Paris%20Geller\">Paris Geller</a> (<a href=\"Liza%20Weil\">Liza Weil</a>) during the fourth season of \"<a href=\"Gilmore%20Girls\">Gilmore Girls</a>\". He performed the voice of the character <a href=\"Ares%20%28DC%20Comics%29\">Ares</a> in the \"<a href=\"Justice%20League%20Unlimited\">Justice League Unlimited</a>\" episode \"Hawk & Dove\", as well as Dr. Montague Kane in the \"\" episode \"Zatanna\" and <a href=\"Kanto%20%28comics%29\">Kanto</a> in the \"\" episode \"Tools of the Trade\". York starred in both \"<a href=\"The%20Omega%20Code\">The Omega Code</a>\" and its sequel, \"\", as Stone Alexander, the <a href=\"Antichrist\">Antichrist</a> from <a href=\"Christian%20eschatology\">Christian eschatology</a>.\nHe played <a href=\"Characters%20of%20seaQuest%202032%23President%20Alexander%20Bourne\">President Alexander Bourne</a> of <a href=\"Macronesia\">Macronesia</a> on \"<a href=\"seaQuest%20DSV%23Season%203\">seaQuest 2032</a>\". He played <a href=\"List%20of%20Austin%20Powers%20characters%23Basil%20Exposition\">Basil Exposition</a> in all three of the \"<a href=\"Austin%20Powers%20%28film%20series%29\">Austin Powers</a>\" films. He has made an appearance on \"<a href=\"The%20Simpsons\">The Simpsons</a>\" as Mason Fairbanks, <a href=\"Homer%20Simpson\">Homer Simpson</a>'s possible father, in \"<a href=\"Homer%27s%20Paternity%20Coot\">Homer's Paternity Coot</a>\". In 2006, York played the character Bernard Fremont (inspired by real life <a href=\"serial%20killer\">serial killer</a> <a href=\"Charles%20Sobhraj\">Charles Sobhraj</a>) in the \"\" episode \"\". He also appeared as a fictionalised version of himself in several episodes of the third season of \"<a href=\"Curb%20Your%20Enthusiasm\">Curb Your Enthusiasm</a>\" as an investor in Larry's new restaurant 'BoBo's. In 2009, he lent his voice to \"\".\nYork voiced <a href=\"List%20of%20The%20Land%20Before%20Time%20characters%23Petrie\">Petrie</a>'s uncle Pterano in \"\". In 2009 he narrated the entire Bible for \"The Word of Promise Audio Bible,\" a star-studded, performance of the <a href=\"New%20King%20James%20Version\">New King James Version</a>. York again played <a href=\"King%20Arthur\">King Arthur</a> in a revival of <a href=\"Alan%20Jay%20Lerner\">Lerner</a> and <a href=\"Frederick%20Loewe\">Loewe</a>'s \"<a href=\"Camelot%20%28musical%29\">Camelot</a>\", which began its run at the La Mirada Theatre in <a href=\"Southern%20California\">Southern California</a>, and toured nationally in 2006 and 2007.\nYork portrays Luke in \"The Truth & Life Dramatised Audio New Testament Bible\", a 22-hour audio dramatisation of the New Testament, which uses the <a href=\"Revised%20Standard%20Version%20Catholic%20Edition\">Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition</a> translation. In 2008, York took part in the <a href=\"BBC%20Cymru%20Wales\">BBC Wales</a> programme \"<a href=\"Coming%20Home%20%28UK%20TV%20series%29\">Coming Home</a>\" about his Welsh family history. In September 2013, York played Albany in the Gala Performance of <a href=\"William%20Shakespeare\">William Shakespeare</a>'s \"<a href=\"King%20Lear\">King Lear</a>\" at <a href=\"the%20Old%20Vic\">the Old Vic</a> in London."],"string":"[\n \"Knots Landing\\nKnots Landing is an American prime time television soap opera that aired on CBS from December 27, 1979, to May 13, 1993. A spin-off of \\\"Dallas\\\", it was set in a fictitious coastal suburb of Los Angeles, and centered on the lives of four married couples living in a cul-de-sac, Seaview Circle. By the time of its conclusion, \\\"Knots Landing\\\" had become one of the longest-running primetime dramas on U.S. television after \\\"Gunsmoke\\\" and \\\"Bonanza\\\".\\n\\\"Knots Landing\\\" was created by David Jacobs (one-time writer of \\\"Family\\\" and later producer of \\\"\\\") in conjunction with producer Michael Filerman (who would also later co-produce \\\"Falcon Crest\\\"). Although a spin-off of \\\"Dallas\\\", the concept predates that series, and was initially rebuffed by CBS in 1977, as the network wanted something more \\\"saga-like\\\". Jacobs then created \\\"Dallas\\\", which the network accepted and premiered in 1978. After \\\"Dallas\\\" became a hit, Jacobs was then able to adapt \\\"Knots Landing\\\" as a spin-off series by way of incorporating characters originally introduced in the parent series. The series was largely inspired by a 1957 movie \\\"No Down Payment\\\" but also by the 1973 Ingmar Bergman television miniseries \\\"Scenes from a Marriage\\\". Storylines included rape, murder, kidnapping, assassinations, drug smuggling, corporate intrigue and criminal investigations. Though initially not as popular as \\\"Dallas\\\", \\\"Knots Landing\\\" eventually outlasted it and garnered much critical acclaim. The series peaked during the 1983–84 season with a 20.8 rating (finishing in 11th place) and a 20.0 rating for the 1984–85 season (when it finished 9th). This can be attributed, in part, to more dramatic storylines as the series became more soap-opera like, and the gradual inclusion of newer characters to interact with the original cast. By the 1988–89 season, \\\"Knots Landing\\\" was ahead of \\\"Dallas\\\" in the ratings, though audiences for both shows by this time were less than their earlier years.\\nThere were 344 episodes and 14 seasons of \\\"Knots Landing\\\" from 1979 to 1993. In 1997, much of the cast reunited for a two-part mini-series entitled \\\"\\\". In 2005, they reunited again for the non-fiction special \\\"\\\" in which the cast reminisced about their time on the show. \\\"Dallas\\\" itself was revived in 2012, with characters from \\\"Knots Landing\\\" appearing in its second season. During nearly the entire run of the original series, \\\"Knots Landing\\\" occupied the same timeslot: Thursday nights at 10:00 p.m.\\nGary Ewing was the middle son and the black sheep of the Ewing family from \\\"Dallas\\\". Gary was an alcoholic, and his father Jock and older brother J.R. had never treated him as an equal. The insecure Gary met Valene when they were aged 17 and 15 years old respectively. They were married briefly and had a daughter, Lucy, but Gary left Southfork Ranch and later divorced Valene. With Gary gone from Southfork Ranch, J.R. had Valene followed and 'run out of town' as he took her daughter and manipulated Gary away from her. Years later, Valene and Lucy reconnected, causing Valene and Gary to reunite. They remarried and Gary's mother, Miss Ellie, bought the couple a house in California. \\\"Knots Landing\\\" is officially spun off from \\\"Dallas\\\" in the third-season episode entitled \\\"Return Engagements\\\".\\nIn the first episode, newly remarried Gary (Ted Shackelford) and Valene Ewing (Joan Van Ark) move to Knots Landing, California in a cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle. They meet their neighbors, Sid Fairgate (Don Murray), the owner of Knots Landing Motors, a used car dealership, and his wife Karen (Michele Lee), the parents of three children: Diana (Claudia Lonow), Eric (Steve Shaw), and Michael (Patrick Petersen). Also living on the cul-de-sac is corporate lawyer Richard Avery (John Pleshette) and his real estate agent wife Laura (Constance McCashin), who have a young son, Jason. Other neighbors include the young couple Kenny Ward (James Houghton), a record producer, and his wife Ginger (Kim Lankford), a kindergarten teacher. Early in the series, Gary becomes a salesman at Knots Landing Motors, and deals with visits from his wealthy brothers from Dallas, Bobby (guest star Patrick Duffy) and J. R. Ewing (guest star Larry Hagman). Gary and Valene get a visit from their teenage daughter Lucy (Charlene Tilton), although she decides to return to Dallas, and from Valene's estranged mother, Lilimae (Julie Harris). Sid and Karen deal with problems surrounding Sid's oldest daughter, Annie (Karen Allen), Richard and Laura deal with the circumstances surrounding Laura's rape, and Kenny and Ginger's marriage hits the rocks when Kenny starts an affair with a young singer named Sylvie (Louise Vallance). In the season finale, Gary relapses into alcoholism, endangering his marriage.\\nAt the beginning of the second season, Sid's manipulative younger sister, Abby Cunningham (Donna Mills), a recent divorcée and the mother of two children, Olivia (Tonya Crowe) and Brian (Bobby Jacoby, later Brian Austin Green), move to Knots Landing. Abby starts working for her brother at Knots Landing Motors and immediately takes an interest in Richard, beginning a rather open affair with him, and she makes sure that Valene discovers Gary having an affair with Judy Trent (guest star Jane Elliot), the wife of a man he befriended while in Alcoholics Anonymous. In the meantime, Laura starts an affair with her boss, Scooter Warren (Allan Miller), and Abby soon dumps Richard when her ex-husband, Jeff (Barry Jenner), threatens to take her children from her. While separated from Kenny, Ginger starts a romance with the father of one of her students, although she and Kenny eventually reconcile. Near the end of the season, Jeff succeeds in taking Olivia and Brian from Abby, leaving her frantic. When Sid discovered some car parts that Gary and Abby had purchased were actually stolen, his brakes were tampered with to keep him from testifying in court. As a result, in the season finale, Sid's car plunges off a cliff, leaving him in critical condition in the hospital.\\nAt the start of the third season, Karen signs for Sid to have a life-threatening surgery, which results in his death. After Sid's death, Karen becomes the head of Knots Landing Motors, subsequently firing Abby, although she was soon rehired. Meanwhile, Abby and Gary start an affair, and Ginger gives birth to a daughter, Erin Molly, and makes Karen her godmother. Karen's brother, Joe Cooper (Stephen Macht), takes a job at USC as a bookkeeper and briefly stays with the Fairgate family before leaving town. Valene's mother, Lilimae, moves in with Gary and Valene, which results in Valene and Lilimae gradually strengthening their estranged relationship. Laura plans to leave Richard and marry Scooter, but when she learns that she is pregnant, she decides to reconcile with Richard and end her affair with Scooter. However, Richard's career takes a turn for the worse, and once he loses his job, he suffers a nervous breakdown and holds Laura hostage in their home. Laura subsequently sends Richard to a mental institution. After Karen passes up the opportunity to fund a methanol-powered vehicle project, Gary and Abby devote the majority of their time to making the deal without Karen's help. In the season finale, Valene, having been humiliated by Gary and Abby's affair, leaves Seaview Circle in tears.\\nIn season four, Valene returns to the cul-de-sac and throws Gary out of her house, leaving him free to move in with Abby. He soon inherits millions left to him in her father's will. Investing money in several ways, Gary takes an interest in a beautiful younger singer named Ciji Dunne (Lisa Hartman). Valene begins writing a book, titled \\\"Capricorn Crude\\\", an exposé on her and Gary's life with his wealthy oil family in Texas. With the charges dropped against Sid Fairgate's killers, Karen seeks the help of federal prosecutor Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson), whom she starts dating and eventually marries mid-season. Valene's publicist, Chip Roberts (Michael Sabatino), moves in with Valene and Lilimae, and trouble starts when he dates Diana and Ciji (who was also romantically linked to Gary and Kenny) at the same time. At the end of the season, Richard leaves Knots Landing, finally realizing his marriage to Laura was over and believing that Laura and Ciji were engaging in a lesbian romance (although, in reality, they were no more than friends). In the finale, Ciji's dead body is discovered on the shore of a beach, and there are many suspects: Gary, Chip, and Richard.\\nIn season five, Gary has been arrested for Ciji's murder, and Lilimae learns that Chip is really a wanted criminal whose real name is Tony Fenice. Chip runs away with Diana, and is later found guilty of killing Ciji, resulting in the charges against Gary being dropped. Meanwhile, Sid and Abby's uncle died, leaving Abby and (by default) Karen land inheritance at Lotus Point, California. Without Karen's knowledge, Abby schemed to build a resort on the land while cutting Karen out of her plans. Abby then forms a company called Apolune, a secret subsidiary of Gary's corporation, and she convinces Gary to marry her so she can share his inheritance he got from his father's death. Valene begins a relationship with journalist Ben Gibson (Douglas Sheehan), but after a one-night stand with Gary, she learns she is pregnant with twins. Valene decides not to tell Gary that he is the father, as he was now married to Abby, and as she had fallen in love with Ben. However, Ben could not accept that Valene was pregnant with another man's children and he and Valene broke up. Abby hires a Ciji look-alike, Cathy Geary (also Lisa Hartman), to keep Gary distracted so he would not learn about her crooked business practices. The events surrounding Diana running away with Chip stresses Karen to point where she becomes addicted to prescription pain pills. Politician Greg Sumner (William Devane), an old college friend of Mack's who was running for U.S. Senator, received the endorsements of Mack and Karen, as well as Abby, who wanted to buy herself a senator. Greg hired Mack to lead his Senate Crime Commission investigating the sinister Wolfbridge Group, but when Abby convinced Greg to get her an illegal land variance to build on Lotus Point, Greg pinned it on Mack, thus ending their friendship. After Karen's recovery from her drug addiction, she and Diana recovered their relationship, after Diana returned to Knots Landing after Chip's sudden death. Wolfbridge forced Abby into making them her partners in the developments at Lotus Point. When Mack discovered that Apolune owned all the land in Lotus Point, except Karen and Abby's inheritances, he thought Apolune was a division of Wolfbridge. Laura confessed that Apolune was Abby's company and Gary decided to divorce Abby. When Mack faked Gary's death to get Wolfbridge, Karen left him, believing his obsession with Wolfbridge had cost them their marriage. In the season finale, Mack tried to trick Mark St. Claire (guest star Joseph Chapman), the head of the Wolfbridge Group, into trying to shoot Gary, but St. Claire's assassin hit Karen instead. Meanwhile, Abby was kidnapped by the Wolfbridge Group when they realized they had failed.\\nGreg kills Mark St. Claire, who was holding Abby hostage on a boat. After being shot, Karen refuses to have risky surgery, fearing she would die in the process, although she soon recovers. Meanwhile, Gary and Abby reconcile and the couple, along with Karen, agreed to become partners in Lotus Point. Lilimae's secret son and Valene's half-brother, Joshua Rush (Alec Baldwin), whom Lilimae abandoned as an infant, arrives in Knots Landing and moves in with Lilimae and Valene. Joshua, a televangelist, soon starts a romance with Cathy, who has moved into the cul-de-sac with Laura and her children. Abby starts running a television station, World Pacific Cable, that Ben becomes a journalist for after Gary purchased it. Abby was stunned to learn that Gary was the father of Valene's twins, and Abby tells Scott Easton (Jack Bannon), an influential lobbyist with shady connections, about her problem. As a favor to Abby, Scott arranges to have Valene's babies kidnapped at birth, though without Abby's approval, who becomes furious at his actions. Valene is told the babies were stillborn, although she insists she saw them alive, and thereby lives Knots Landing for Tennessee, where she assumes the identity of Verna Ellers (a character from one of her books) and works as a waitress. Karen and Mack reconcile, and Karen eventually gets the operation she needed in order to make a full recovery. Gary befriends the aging millionaire Paul Galveston (Howard Duff), and Galveston offers Gary the opportunity to develop Empire Valley, a large piece of real estate. Galveston soon dies, and he leaves his millions to Greg, who is proven to have been his son. Assuming he had been left Empire Valley, Greg resigns from the Senate, but is shocked to learn that the land had been left to Gary. Greg's devious mother, Ruth (guest star Ava Gardner), comes to visit her son after Galveston's death. Ruth becomes close to Abby (since they have similar interests), but loathes Laura, who, by this time has started a relationship with Greg. Around this same time, Joshua and Cathy grow closer, and the two soon marry. Valene (still believing she is \\\"Verna\\\") becomes engaged to a man in Tennessee, but Gary finally finds her and brings her back to Knots Landing, where she rekindles her romance with Ben, still believing her babies to be alive. Karen and Ben discovered that Valene's doctor had paid off a nurse to assist in the kidnapping of Valene's children. Mack thereby tracked down Valene's babies, who had been adopted illegally. Abby confided in Greg that she inadvertently caused the kidnapping of Valene's babies, but she wanted to get them back. With Ruth's help, Abby was able to get address to the home where Valene's babies had been living. In the season finale, Abby goes to Valene and tells her that she knows where her babies are, and the two go to the home of Sheila (Robin Ginsburg) and Harry Fisher (Joe Regalbuto). Sheila disbelieves their claims that the babies were adopted illegally, and Harry takes off with one of the twins.\\nEarly in season seven, after a frantic battle to expose the illegal black market adoption, Valene's children are returned to her, whom she names Betsy and Bobby. Valene and Ben agree to raise the children as theirs, and the two soon marry. Abby successfully covers her tacks in the matter by simply telling Gary that she had received a phone call for a \\\"Mrs. Ewing\\\" telling her where the babies could be found. Gary receives news of his brother Bobby's death and returns to Dallas for the funeral (Bobby Ewing's death was later explained as being a \\\"dream\\\" on \\\"Dallas\\\" at the start of its tenth season in 1986, although never acknowledged on \\\"Knots Landing\\\" since Bobby was never mentioned again). Empire Valley went awry when Gary learned that Galveston Industries and its partners were secretly building an underground espionage operation there. Gary subsequently blows Empire Valley up. Peter Hollister (Hunt Block) goes to work for Greg, and with the help of Sylvia Lean (guest star Ruth Roman) acting as his mother, Peter convinces Greg that he is also Paul Galveston's son, therefore making he and Greg half brothers. Jill Bennett (Teri Austin), Peter's sister, becomes Mack's new colleague, although Jill and Peter keep their relationship a secret as an effort to get revenge on the Galveston family for having wronged their family years before. Abby soon discovers that Sylvia is not Peter's mother and that Peter is not Galveston's son, therefore blackmailing Peter into paying her to keep their secret safe. In the meantime, Joshua becomes increasingly controlling and abusive towards Cathy, and in a moment of rage, Joshua falls of the roof of a building, thus killing himself. Lilimae and Cathy spend the remainder of the season mourning his death, although Cathy soon starts an affair with Ben, who becomes her manager for her budding singing career. However, at the end of the season, Cathy leaves town, having ended her romance with Ben, and Abby becomes aware that her daughter Olivia has developed a drug problem. Also, a young woman, Paige Matheson (Nicollette Sheridan), comes to Knots Landing and explains to Mac that she is his illegitimate daughter. In the finale, Karen disappears and is being held hostage by a man in his basement.\\nKaren's kidnapper was revealed to be Phil Harbert (guest star Louis Giambalvo), an old friend of Greg and Mack's from law school, who had become bitter towards Mack, having blamed him for causing the death of his wife. Karen later escapes, and Phil is later killed after being hit by a car. Ben returns to Valene, promising to make their marriage work. However, this promise was compromised when he was contacted by Jean Hackney (Wendy Fulton), who had tried to trick Ben into doing a mission for an underground organization to kill Greg. When Valene's babies were threatened, Ben reluctantly agrees to assist Jean. With Mack's help, Ben foiled the plan, although Jean's insistence on following him required Ben to leave the country and Valene at the end of the season. Although Valene had helped in the situation stopping Greg's murder, an angry Laura, whom Valene had failed to tell what was going on, blamed her for the incident and ended their friendship. Laura tells Greg that she is pregnant, but he is not enthusiastic about it, and she refuses to have an abortion. In the meantime, Paige reveals that she faked her death in order to escape the control of her wealthy grandparents, although Karen doubts the story, believing her to be an impostor. Also, Paige had developed a romantic relationship with Michael, Karen's son, but she soon tires of him and starts romancing Peter. Abby's daughter Olivia's drug addiction has worsened, eventually leading to the injuring of Lilimae in a car accident, and Abby resorts to desperate measures to get her clean. When her drug dealer beat up her younger brother Brian, Olivia finally admitted to her addiction and decided to get clean. Olivia then becomes friends with Peter, and starts crushing on him, although he is interested in Paige. Peter, having become state senator with Greg's support, goes to the extreme to hide the fact that Jill is his sister, who has started an affair with Gary. When Jill and Peter have an argument, Jill falls from a cliff, and Peter flees the scene to avoid any link to Jill or the accident, although he does report what happened. Later, Paige's mother, Anne Matheson (Michelle Phillips), whom Paige had said was dead, appears and tries to rekindle her love affair with Mack. When Mack refuses her advances, she turns her attention to Greg, who also turns her down, and she therefore leaves town. At the end of the season, Abby finds Olivia standing over Peter's dead body. With both assuming the other had killed Peter, Abby frantically buries his body under the soil at Lotus Point where cement is to be poured the following day. Some weeks later, believing she had successfully hid Peter's body, Abby is informed by Karen that there was a crack found in the cement and that it would have to be tore up and redone.\\nWhen Peter's body was discovered, Olivia is prosecuted for his murder, although Abby steps in to take the blame for her daughter. It is soon learned, however, that Paige accidentally caused Peter's death, although no charges are made against her. After a talk with Karen, a depressed Laura decides to make up with Valene. Laura then told Greg that she was dying of brain tumor, but he refuses to accept it. Laura soon left Knots Landing to die elsewhere, thus leaving Greg with their infant child, a daughter named Meg. Overcome with grief and feeling unable to raise the child himself, Greg asks Karen and Mack to adopt Meg, which they agree to. Meanwhile, Lilimae leaves town after starting a new romance, and Abby rekindles her love affair with her old flame, Charles Scott (Michael York). Abby and Charles briefly marry, but when Abby discovers his ulterior motives about developing a Lotus Point Marina, she ends the marriage. Frank (Larry Riley) and Pat Williams (Lynne Moody) and their daughter Julie (Kent Masters-King) move into Laura's old house on the cul-de-sac. Karen and Mack were initially suspicious of them, but became their friends upon learning they were in the Witness Protection Program. With business at Lotus Point reaching a low, Karen, Abby, and Gary agree to expand the marina to accommodate the business of Manny Vasquez (John Aprea). Paige starts working for Greg, and soon finds herself attracted to him. Paige and Michael went on an archaeological dig in Mexico. When it was learned that Manny was selling illegal drugs through Lotus Point, Karen, Abby, and Gary try to stop him, but to no avail. Manny tells them that he will hold Paige and Michael hostage in Mexico until they allow him to continue his dealings through Lotus Point. Gary takes an increased interest in Valene's twins, his biological children, much to the annoyance of Jill, who has moved in with Gary. Jill made an elaborate plan where she edited audio recordings of Ben's voice to make Valene think he was trying to contact her. In an effort to make Valene appear unstable, Jill steals the tapes, leaving Valene with no proof of Ben trying to contact her. In the season finale, Jill goes to Valene's home, and at gunpoint, she forces Valene to swallow sleeping pills, hoping it will appear that Valene has committed suicide. The following morning, Valene is found motionless on her bedroom floor.\\nFrank finds Valene unconscious and telephones for an ambulance. Valene survives and says that Jill had tried to kill her, although Jill has provided herself with an alibi, although Valene's testimony is later proven true. With doubt on her innocence, Jill was left friendless and she thereby tied herself up and locked herself in the trunk of Gary's car, hoping to frame Gary for kidnapping her. When Jill dies in the trunk, Gary is convicted her murder, although Mack has the charges dropped when it is learned Jill had deliberately locked herself in the trunk. A con artist tried to extort money from Frank and Pat by threatening to reveal their whereabouts to the people that had threatened Pat's life years earlier. Mack halted the con artist, and used dental records from a deceased family to make him believe that the Sollars (the Williamses original surname) were dead. Paige and Michael were eventually able to get out of Mexico, and Manny Vasquez's nephew, Harold Dyer (Paul Carafotes), kills his uncle when he tried to kill Mack. Paige seduced Greg and the two became a couple, although their relationship soon ended when Greg decided to run for mayor of Los Angeles. Realizing Paige would not make a good political wife, Greg instead marries Abby, although Paige keeps her job with Greg's company. Greg tried to regain custody of his daughter Meg from Mack and Karen, but he lost the case. Later, Mack goes through a mid-life crisis and quits his job, and thereby starts his own law practice. Following a health and safety report, the Lotus Point land has to be sold. However, it was soon revealed that Abby had falsified the report after she discovered that there was oil underneath Lotus Point, and created a company to conceal who was buying the resort from her partners. Paige exposed that the whole thing had been initiated by Abby and her cohort Ted Melcher (Robert Desiderio), which infuriated Karen, who was determined to send Abby to jail for fraud. Abby narrowly avoided being imprisoned, and agreed to donate Lotus Point to city as a public park. Abby then leaves Greg and Knots Landing, accepting a Trade Envoy job in Japan (a job Greg himself wanted after losing the run for mayor). Paige, meanwhile, finds herself caught between Greg and Ted Melcher, one of whom is a murderer.\\nValene and Gary become separately involved with another divorced couple, Danny (Sam Behrens) and Amanda Waleska (Penny Peyser). Gary learns that Danny had beaten and raped Amanda, but when he tells Valene she refuses to believe him, and she ends up marrying Danny. However, when she realizes the truth, Valene tries to kick him out of her house. When Danny becomes violent, Valene takes her twins and moves in with Gary. The two rekindle their romance and eventually make plans to remarry. While drunk, Danny hits Pat Williams with his car, and she is left on life support in the hospital. When told that Pat is permanently brain dead, Frank decides to have her life support turned off. Olivia marries Harold, but they run into financial troubles when Abby cuts Olivia off financially. The couple soon make the decision to leave Knots Landing and move to Miami. Eric's wife Linda Fairgate (Lar Park-Lincoln) moves in with Karen and Mack, and starts an affair with Eric's younger brother Michael. Linda then divorces Eric and finds employment with the Sumner Group, where she becomes a rival of Paige's. Greg's daughter, Mary Frances (Stacy Galina), visits him after a six-year estrangement and is shot dead in her father's office, making Greg believe that he had been the intended target. Greg himself had been shot by Mary Frances' activist boyfriend, Robert Scarrow (John David Bland), although he survives. Robert blames Greg for manufacturing poisonous chemicals that cause liver cancer, and he also admits to being the one that killed Mary Frances. Now broke, Paige's mother Anne returns to Knots Landing, in an attempt to cheat Paige out of an inheritance that her grandfather left her. Anne steals Paige's identity in an effort to obtain her daughter's money, although the plan soon goes awry. Paige soon falls in love with Tom Ryan (Joseph Gian), a crooked cop, and the two plan to marry, but Tom leaves Paige at the altar after Greg blackmailed him. Karen starts presenting a television talk show, but she becomes the target of an obsessive fan by the name of Jeff Cameron (Chris Lemmon), one of the show's producers.\\nJeff starts a plot to murder Karen, but he is eventually caught and imprisoned. With Greg's health on a downward spiral, his half-sister Claudia Whittaker (Kathleen Noone) comes to town along with her daughter Kate (also Stacy Galina), who bears a striking resemblance to Greg's dead daughter Mary Frances. When she realizes she is not in Greg's will, Claudia arranges for him to get a liver so he will live. Kate meets Steve Brewer (Lance Guest), a man claiming to be her brother. Steve, who had been put up for adoption by Claudia, was the product of an affair between Claudia and Paul Galveston (her mother's dead husband, and Greg's biological father). Kate and Steve become good friends, but Claudia, who wants Steve gone, has him framed by placing a gun in his car. Since Steve was already a felon, the gun violated his parole and he was later gunned down trying to run away from the police. Mack befriends a high school named Jason Lochner (Thomas Wilson Brown), who was living with an abusive father. Jason later moves in with Mack and Karen, and dates Julie Williams. Frank, Julie's father, passes his lawyer bar exam and goes to work as an attorney with Mack's independent practice. Danny continues harassing Valene, and he soon assaults Gary with a baseball bat. After forcing Gary to drink alcohol, Danny puts him a car a sends it over a cliff, hoping to make his death appear accidental. However, the airbag saves Gary's life, but Danny is found dead in the Williamses' swimming pool. In the investigation surrounding Danny's death, almost everyone is a suspect, although it was soon discovered that his death was accidental. Valene falls from a horse and suffers from psychiatric problems, but she soon recovers and she and Gary get married for the third time. Anne meets the scheming Italian Nick Schillace (Lorenzo Caccialanza), with whom she romances and embarks on a series of illegal schemes in an effort to obtain wealth. Their plans backfire when Nick suddenly leaves town, leaving Anne homeless. Paige and Linda continue to despise one another, a mutual disliking that is further fueled when Linda has an affair with Greg. At the end of the season, Jason is injured in a car crash witnessed by Karen and Valene, although he survives.\\nKate blames Claudia for Steve's death and removes her mother from her life, but they soon reconcile when Claudia attempts suicide. After some months of living on the streets, Anne meets the shady Benny Appleman (Stuart Pankin), and the two try to scheme their way into getting money. Anne later agrees to pose nude for a magazine and she also becomes the host of a late-night advice show, which becomes a success. Linda, Eric's ex-wife, is murdered by Brian Johnston (Philip Brown), who holds the MacKenzie hostage. Jason soon leaves Knots Landing for Sweden, and, shortly thereafter, Julie decides to move away as well. Frank has a brief relationship with schoolteacher Debbie Porter (Halle Berry), before he too leaves town. Gary invested in a project that turned energy from the ocean's tides into usable electric energy. The man behind the operation, Joseph Barringer (Mark Soper), becomes Kate's boyfriend. Paige, meanwhile, joins Gary and her new boyfriend Pierce (Bruce Greenwood) in a partnership. A former flame of Pierce's, Victoria Broyelard (Marcia Cross), informs Paige that Pierce had killed his previous girlfriend, but Paige does not believe her. Paige is later shot by Pierce (who was aiming for Greg, whom he hated), temporarily paralyzing her. Pierce thereby kidnaps Paige, and holds her hostage on his yacht. Mack and Greg rescue her after she and Pierce fall into the water. Pierce's body is never found, and it was presumed he drowned. Alex Barth (Boyd Kestner), the nephew of the Galveston housekeeper, blackmails Claudia for refusing to allow her ailing to receive treatment, thus leading to her death. Claudia, too, takes a disliking to Joseph and she arranges for him to get another job, thus ending his romance with Kate. Gary, who had been left bankrupt after losing his money to Tidal Energy, moves back to Seaview Circle with Valene. Mary Robeson (Maree Cheatham) arrives in Knots Landing and tells Valene she is Meg's grandmother and that she is Laura's biological mother. Valene does not believe her, and while researching Mary in Florida, Valene is kidnapped. Later, while Paige gets into her car, she is horrified to see the presumably dead Pierce looking at her in the mirror.\\nWhile trying to find Valene, Gary sees the car she was in explode. Greg decides to retire from the Sumner Group, and he leaves one-third of the company to Claudia, one-third to Paige, and one-third to Mack and Karen in a trust for Meg. Anne's revealing she is pregnant leads to Greg marrying her, but it soon learned Anne was suffering from hysterical pregnancy. In the meantime, Anne's old beau Nick returns and the two rekindle their affair and their old conniving ways. Mack seeks $1 million to get Mary Robeson to stop the custody battle over Meg. Claudia gives Mack $500,000 from the Sumner Group, and gives the other half to Nick to start a restaurant. Paige demanded an audit, but Claudia cannot get the money from Nick back because he already spent it. Karen did not believe Mack would be able to stop Mary Robeson's efforts to win custody of Meg, and she soon leaves him, moving to New York with her daughter Diana. Meanwhile, a shady organization run by Daniel Treadwell (Daniel Gerroll), and Gary starts a relationship with Kate. In the series finale, Karen returns to Mack, and the presumed dead Valene returns, revealing she had faked her death to hide from Treadwell's people, who had threatened to harm her for coming across secretive information. Treadwell's mysterious partner is revealed to be Abby, who has been orchestrating the takeover of the Sumner Group all along. However, Greg stops Abby by threatening to reveal her dirty dealings while she was in Japan. As Treadwell prepares to kill Nick, who was working for him, Treadwell himself was killed by Vanessa Hunt (Felicity Waterman). Anne offers to divorce Greg so he can resume his relationship with her daughter Paige, whom he loves. Claudia decides to leave Knots Landing for Monaco, and at the airport, she runs into Anne and Nick, who are also leaving town. In the final scenes, back at Seaview Circle, Karen, Mack, Valene, and Gary prepare a barbecue as a new couple begin moving into Frank Williams' old home. Meanwhile, Abby arrives at the gathering and reveals that she has purchased her old house in Seaview Circle. Valene simply smiles and welcomes Abby back, before she and Gary go home. In the final shot, Abby is left face-to-face with Karen, whom she asks, \\\"Just like old times, isn't it?\\\"\\nBetween Seasons 1 and 4 of \\\"Knots Landing\\\", there were nine episodes where \\\"Dallas\\\" characters appeared, played by their respective actors.\\nIn addition to the above, the characters of Gary Ewing and Valene Ewing appeared in the following episodes of \\\"Dallas\\\", as listed below.\\nOn \\\"Dallas\\\", the character of Bobby Ewing (Patrick Duffy) was killed off in the final episode of the 1984–85 season. The following year, Duffy decided to return to \\\"Dallas\\\" and the character of Bobby was resurrected in the infamous \\\"shower scene\\\" at the end of the 1985–86 season. At the start of the 1986–87 season, it was revealed that Bobby's death and all but the final scene of the 1985–86 season had been a dream of Bobby's ex-wife, Pamela Barnes Ewing (Victoria Principal).\\nOn \\\"Knots Landing\\\" during the 1985-86 season, Bobby's death had an indelible impact on some of the characters (i.e. Gary struggling to deal with his brother's death and being comforted by his wife Abby, Abby and Greg then taking advantage of Gary going to Southfork for Bobby's funeral to gain politically at Empire Valley in Gary's absence, and Valene naming her baby son after the late Bobby). When Bobby's death and the subsequent season were revealed to be a dream on \\\"Dallas\\\", this did not get applied to the continuity of \\\"Knots Landing\\\" and Bobby's return was never addressed or even mentioned. Following this, no further crossover storylines were featured on \\\"Knots Landing\\\".\\nWith the 2012 continuation of \\\"Dallas\\\", rumors began surfacing that both Joan Van Ark and Ted Shackelford would reprise their roles as Valene and Gary Ewing on the new series. Shackelford passed on the small role the producers offered him during the first season, but accepted a multi-episode role during the second. Shackelford returned to \\\"Dallas\\\" for three episodes and Van Ark returned for one. This was the first time the characters had been seen since the 1997 mini-series \\\"\\\". Although both Shackelford and Van Ark appeared in the 1991 series finale of \\\"Dallas\\\" playing \\\"alternative\\\" versions of Gary and Valene (the episode depicted an alternate reality in which J.R. Ewing had never been born), there have been no real crossovers of story or characters from \\\"Knots Landing\\\" to \\\"Dallas\\\" or vice versa since the 1985-86 season of each show (which, on \\\"Dallas\\\", turned out to be a dream had by Pam Ewing). In the 2013 \\\"Dallas\\\" storyline, it is made clear that Gary and Val had still been living together at their home in California, though had recently separated due to Gary's brief relapse into alcoholism due to financial worries. At the end of their appearances on the new series of \\\"Dallas\\\", Gary and Val return to California together.\\n\\\"Knots Landing\\\" was created by David Jacobs, whose original concept was a show based on \\\"family issues and examining relationships at the middle class level\\\". CBS initially turned down this idea, as they wanted something more \\\"glitzy\\\" to put on the air, with wealthier characters, which would become \\\"Dallas\\\". Once that show became a success after the initial run as a five-episode miniseries, the producers decided to expand the roles of certain characters. They introduced the parents of Lucy Ewing (Charlene Tilton), who had not been shown on-screen until that point, in the two-part episode \\\"The Reunion\\\". After the success of \\\"Dallas\\\", Jacobs presented his initial idea again and created \\\"Knots Landing\\\", with some alterations of his original script. In an interview, Jacobs explained: \\\" Well, that's pretty good, but you know-and then he pulled out the pages that we'd left for them a few years ago on \\\"Knots Landing\\\", or a year before on \\\"Knots\\\", and he said, 'Is there any way we can make this a spin-off?' I just took one of the couples and made it, you know, Val and Gary who had already been created on the parent series and putting them into the mix, but when you have four couples and you change one, you sort of have to change the dynamic all the way around. However, once I wrote the script, remarkably little changed from the script and the pilot as you would see it.\\\"\\nGary Ewing was originally played by David Ackroyd on \\\"Dallas\\\", but Ackroyd was unable to sign on for \\\"Knots Landing\\\", and Ted Shackelford assumed the role. Joan Van Ark continued to play Val Ewing for the spin-off. Initially, it was presumed that Tilton would also be joining \\\"Knots Landing\\\" (and have Lucy move in with her parents to the Seaview Circle cul-de-sac), but the network decided to keep her on \\\"Dallas\\\" in order to keep the two shows separate. She did, however, make a guest appearance in the first-season episode \\\"Home is for Healing\\\".\\nThe actors on \\\"Knots Landing\\\" had more input than actors on other 1980s primetime soaps. In 1987, the writers wanted Mack (Kevin Dobson) to have an extramarital affair with Anne (Michelle Phillips). Michele Lee, who played Mack's wife Karen, protested this to Jacobs, saying, \\\"There has to be one stable couple on the show.\\\" The extramarital affair storyline was nixed, and Michelle Phillips, who had been signed to a contract, was written out for a couple of seasons before returning in 1990. When she did return, Anne did not pursue Mack. William Devane, who played Greg Sumner, re-wrote most of his character's dialogue, to the point where, in co-star Michele Lee's words, \\\"most people (on set) were (probably) frightened of him\\\". The Gary/Val/Abby triangle that provided story throughout the mid-1980s was suggested by Ted Shackelford and Joan Van Ark in 1980, and the producers hesitated for a year and a half before going through with it in 1982. The famous 1984 storyline where Valene's babies got kidnapped was originally envisioned as one of scheming Abby's plots. Donna Mills, who played Abby, acknowledged that her character was evil but did not think she was \\\"that\\\" evil. Fearing the audience would never forgive her character for kidnapping another woman's babies, she asked the writers to make the kidnappings a result of Abby's actions, but only by accident, and the writers complied.\\nThe writing team of Bernard Lechowick and Lynn Marie Latham (the head writers from 1986 to 1991) was controversial among both fans and actors. Their humor-imbued style of writing made them the favorites of Michele Lee, while John Pleshette felt they were \\\"awful people\\\". Pleshette, however, was not a cast member during their tenure and harbored resentment because the writing team, who had been represented by his wife, moved to a different agency. Joan van Ark, whose character was struck by a brain illness in season 12 and proceeded to thereafter go crazy, felt that Latham and Lechowick had turned her character into the \\\"village idiot\\\". Joan Van Ark and Donna Mills' favorite \\\"Knots Landing\\\" writer was Peter Dunne, who was responsible for making \\\"Knots Landing\\\" a top ten show in 1984.\\nIn 1987, CBS demanded that production costs be cut. This meant the firing of two regulars, Constance McCashin and Julie Harris. Season 13 saw a large ratings drop for the show after writer/producers Bernard Lechowick and Lynn Marie Latham left to create \\\"Homefront\\\" and creator David Jacobs had a health crisis and pulled back his involvement in production. Jacobs has publicly stated that the way he knew the show was in trouble was when waitresses at his favorite diner, whom he had heard gossiping about \\\"Knots Landing\\\" every Friday during past seasons, suddenly stopped discussing the show in late 1991. He attempted to save face by shutting down production on November 20, 1991, firing head writer John Romano, and replacing him with Ann Marcus. Cost cutting again plagued the series in its final season, when only 19 episodes were produced, and (with the exception of Michele Lee) regular castmembers did not appear in every episode. Not wanting to compromise what he felt had been a good run, series creator David Jacobs described its end as a \\\"mutual decision\\\" between \\\"Knots Landing\\\"'s producers and the CBS Network, saying, \\\"We don't know if they would have picked us up anyway...but even if they had, we would have had to pare away more to survive.\\\"\\nThe series' signature cul-de-sac, Seaview Circle, was actually Crystalaire Place in Granada Hills, California, a suburban street in Los Angeles' San Fernando Valley about 20 miles north of the Pacific Ocean. The opening credits during the first two seasons were edited in such a way to make it appear that the cul-de-sac was closer to the beach.\\nThe theme song, which lasted all 14 seasons was composed by Jerrold Immel. Immel, along with Craig Huxley composed the background music for the pilot. The original background music cues by Immel and Huxley were never fully abandoned by the show, and were heard as late as the final season. The early Knots Landing background music cues heavily emphasized the brass section, and were often played with a very sparse bass line accompaniment. It was, in fact, the \\\"only\\\" aspect of the series ever to win an Emmy award, for the music orchestration during its 1979–80 season.\\nBy season 4 of Knots Landing, the lushness of the 1980s was in full swing and Knots Landing's background cues reflected that style. The new dramatic cues emphasized full orchestral arrangements as formerly middle class Knots Landing became upwardly mobile. The background music of seasons 4–7 was frequently composed by either Lance Rubin or Ron Grant.\\nSeason 8 introduced a completely new score for \\\"Knots Landing\\\". By 1986 new wave artists and bands had taken America by storm and the new style of music cues made good use of the synthesizer instead of a full orchestra. Bruce Miller was one of the main composers during this era. Updated orchestrations of the by-then-familiar Lance Rubin cues were also re-arranged to be played by the synthesizer, and the Immel/Huxley cues were similarly utilized, albeit less commonly.\\nIn the early 1990s, soft contemporary acoustic music became popular and \\\"Knots Landing\\\" began incorporating this into its background music during season 12. Lance Rubin's music cues were completely phased out at this point. Patrick Gleeson and Kennard Ramsey composed during this period.\\n\\\"Knots Landing\\\" had five completely different styles of opening credits over its 14 years, in contrast to \\\"Dallas\\\", which changed to a variation on its original style for only its final two seasons.\\nReruns of \\\"Knots Landing\\\" were first packaged into syndication for off-network broadcast in local markets by Lorimar in 1984. Before the show opening, each episode was preceded by a \\\"Lorimar Presents\\\" logo, followed by a narrated recap of the previous episode with the theme music played under. The first 190 episodes (the first eight seasons) were packaged in this manner, but only the first 160 episodes (the first seven seasons) were syndicated to local stations.\\n\\\"Knots Landing\\\" later appeared on the cable channel TNT in September 1992 and ran through May 1993; as with the syndicated run, only the first 160 episodes (the first seven seasons) were broadcast. TNT would later become the first network to broadcast all 344 episodes of \\\"Knots Landing\\\" during its second syndication run of the series beginning in 1995.\\nSOAPnet later acquired the rights to the series when it first went on the air in January 2000. \\\"Knots Landing\\\" has not been seen in United States syndication since SOAPnet quit broadcasting it in 2005.\\nThe UK satellite channel CBS Drama began airing the series in its entirety starting from April 1, 2013. This was the first time the show had been rerun in the UK since the early 2000s when it was shown on UK Gold. Once CBS Drama completed the series in July 2014, the channel immediately began a second round of reruns, followed by a third in 2015.\\nRTÉ television in Ireland broadcast the first seven seasons in an early morning weekend slot in 2011.\\nThe first season of \\\"Knots Landing\\\" was released on DVD on March 28, 2006 in Region 1. Fans of the series lobbied Warner Home Video via an online petition at www.knotslanding.net for further releases, and Warner Home Video released Season Two on April 14, 2009. No further seasons have yet been announced for release, largely due to music copyright issues.\\n\",\n \"Paige Matheson\\nPaige Matheson is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera \\\"Knots Landing\\\", a long-running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles, California. She was played by actress Nicollette Sheridan between 1986 and 1993. She debuted in the penultimate episode of the seventh season and remained in the series until the final episode in 1993. The character made her last television appearance in 1997, when she appeared in the \\\"Knots Landing\\\" reunion series \\\"\\\".\\nPaige arrived in Knots Landing in 1986 on the MacKenzies' doorstep claiming to be the daughter of Mack. She moved in with the MacKenzies and had an affair with her stepbrother Michael. It was later discovered by Karen MacKenzie that Paige had fled from her wealthy grandparents and mother Anne by faking her death. Anne then turned up reunite with her daughter and to get Mack back into her life but she failed. Out of spite she told Mack and Paige that Greg Sumner was Paige's real father. However, her true paternity was later confirmed to be Mack. Paige was employed at Lotus Point where she met Peter Hollister and they began a relationship but during an argument, Paige accidentally stabbed Peter and killed him. Paige began to work for Greg where they had an affair and she fell in love with him but Paige was later crushed when Greg married Abby Cunningham. Paige met dirty cop Tom Ryan and their relationship resulted in a marriage proposal. However, on their wedding day, Paige was left at the altar. Unknown to her, Greg had blackmailed Tom to leave Paige. When Paige discovered this, she and Tom briefly rekindled their relationship. Paige later met Pierce Lawton and they worked with Gary Ewing on a tidal energy project. This relationship took a scary turn when Pierce shot Paige and later kidnapped her after she had recovered. During this time, she and Greg fell in and out of love again. A while later, Greg left shares of the Sumner Group to Paige, Karen and Mack (in trust for his daughter Meg), and to his sister Claudia Whittaker. Paige and Claudia often fought over control of the company. Eventually, Claudia sold her shares back to Greg and Mack gave Meg's shares to Paige, giving her majority control of the company. Paige and Greg finally got back together but after a few years they broke up once again when Greg refused to have children and so Paige moved to New York.\",\n \"Knots Landing: Back to the Cul-de-Sac\\nKnots Landing: Back to the Cul-de-Sac is a 1997 American television miniseries. It is a continuation of the 1979–1993 prime time soap opera \\\"Knots Landing\\\" and takes place four years after the series ended. Directed by Bill Corcoran, the four-hour miniseries was originally broadcast in two parts on CBS on May 7 and May 9, 1997.\\nThe miniseries reunites cast members William Devane, Kevin Dobson, Michele Lee, Donna Mills, Ted Shackelford, Joan Van Ark, Michelle Phillips and Stacy Galina in starring roles. It also includes cameo appearances by cast members Tonya Crowe, Brian Austin Green, Kim Lankford, Claudia Lonow, Patrick Petersen and Nicollette Sheridan.\\nThe mini-series opens up with Paige Matheson ending her longstanding relationship with Greg Sumner, as she wants to have a baby but he doesn't. Meanwhile, recently unemployed factory workers turn to Mack MacKenzie for help in suing Sumner for wrongful termination. When Sumner bought the factory from Gary Ewing, he fired everyone regardless of the written agreement he signed promising not to close the factory. The agreement, however, is in a box somewhere in the Ewing warehouse. Back at the Seaview Circle cul-de-sac, Valene throws Mack and Karen a party for their 15th wedding anniversary. Many of the past and present residents of Knots Landing are there, including Karen's grown children Diana and Michael, as is former neighbor Ginger Ward (who left the cul-de-sac in 1983). Karen's conniving ex sister-in-law and neighbor Abby Fairgate is also present, as well as Abby's two grown children, Olivia and Brian. During the party, Abby announces to Karen and Val that she will be moving to Malibu. But the joy is short-lived when the IRS freezes all of her assets for failure to pay over $1 million in back taxes. Abby then convinces Greg Sumner to pay her $1 million to steal the agreement from Gary's company warehouse. As she is homeless, she persuades Mack and Karen to allow her to stay with them and gets a job working at Karen and Gary's construction company so that she can find the agreement Sumner needs.\\nMeanwhile, Greg is surprised when Anne Matheson-Sumner (one of his ex-wives and Paige's mother) returns after four years in Paris. Mack and Karen are approached by Meg, their 12-year-old adopted daughter, who asks for the truth about the identity of her biological father. Mack will never reveal the answer and chooses to lie to Meg again. Valene, who has written a best-selling book called \\\"Hostage\\\" about her year-long kidnapping four years earlier, has been contracted by a major film studio to adapt the book into a screenplay. The studio assign Clay McKinney, a once promising writer whose career was plagued by his alcoholism, to be her writing partner. Meanwhile, Gary gets an unexpected visit from Kate, Greg Sumner's niece with whom he had a relationship some years earlier. Kate tells Gary that she was pregnant when she left Knots Landing four years earlier and that Gary is the father of her daughter, Molly. Clay's drinking and persistent advances towards Valene begins to compromise their working relationship. After a studio party in which Clay takes credit for Valene's work, the two argue. Later at Clay's house, he makes a drunken pass at Valene but she pushes him away and he falls down. Without looking back, Valene leaves and goes home, but the following morning, Clay's body is found floating face down in his swimming pool.\\nVal and Gary learn that Clay McKinney has been found dead. Because Val was the last person to see Clay alive, the police question her about an earring they found near Clay's pool. Val denies that the earring is hers and refuses to tell Gary what happened that night. Concerned about her secrecy, Gary accuses Val of having an affair with Clay. Greg Sumner decides to settle the lawsuit brought against him by Mack and the unemployed workers. This now means the deal with Abby to steal the agreement is off and now she is out the $1 million. However, this news comes too late because Abby already hired her friend Robert Simons to break into the Ewing warehouse that night. When she goes to call off the deal, Abby finds the warehouse in flames after Robert accidentally killed a security guard and then set fire to the warehouse to cover his tracks. Mack is going through a mid-life crisis but refuses to open up to Karen and moves out of their house.\\nMeanwhile, after Meg accidentally finds out that Greg Sumner is her father, she absconds from school and goes to visit him. Greg explains why he allowed Karen and Mack to adopt her after her real mother, Laura, died when Meg was still an infant. He plays her a videotape that Laura made for her before her death. Abby, now broke and desperate for money to pay her back taxes, begins to snoop around Greg's private business affairs, determined to find something she can use for blackmail. To her surprise, Sumner puts her in charge of an operation in Thailand which will make her rich.\\nValene decides to tell Gary and the police what really happened at Clay McKinney's house the night before he was found dead, and they accept her explanation. Back at the cul-de-sac, Karen and Mack have resolved their differences. Karen's son Michael and his fiance Lori visit to announce they are expecting their first child. Abby cattily sniggers that Karen is going to be a grandmother, but her glee is short-lived when Abby's son Brian arrives with his girlfriend Kate and announce they are also expecting a baby, which means Abby is to be a grandmother too. Gary and Valene can hardly control their laughter.\\nFollowing the ratings success of the \\\"Dallas\\\" reunion movie \\\"\\\" in 1996, Warner Bros. Television opted to make a reunion movie for \\\"Knots Landing\\\" which had ended its 14-year run in 1993. The miniseries was filmed in early 1997, with external filming taking place at the series' signature cul-de-sac location in the Granada Hills district of Los Angeles.\\nKey castmember Nicollette Sheridan (Paige Matheson) initially declined to appear, but later agreed to an uncredited cameo appearance. The video tape of Laura Avery-Sumner's message to her family (recorded before her death ten years earlier) was not shown but was heard, though the audio was rerecorded with another actress's voice as Constance McCashin, who played Laura in the original series, refused to let the original clip she filmed in 1987 be used.\\n\",\n \"Karen MacKenzie\\nKaren MacKenzie (maiden name Cooper; formerly Fairgate) is a long-running fictional character in the CBS primetime soap opera \\\"Knots Landing\\\". Karen is portrayed by actress Michele Lee, and has appeared on the show since its pilot episode, first broadcast on December 27, 1979. \\\"Knots Landing\\\" follows the trials of four middle-class families living on a suburban cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in California. Lee portrayed Karen for the entire run of \\\"Knots Landing\\\", being the sole cast member to appear in every episode of its fourteen seasons. At the time, her appearances in all 344 episodes set a record for an actress on American primetime television. Karen's storylines focus on family troubles, addiction and kidnapping. In her early years on the serial, the character had much more of an \\\"edge\\\" in order to test the audience on who would be the most like J. R. Ewing (Larry Hagman), the primary character of its parent series \\\"Dallas\\\". (The bad girl role would later be taken on by Abby Cunningham, Karen's sister-in-law.)\\nOver time, she became much more of a wholesome character. Series creator David Jacobs said \\\"Karen is the tent pole. She says the things I want to say. She's the voice of the viewer.\\\" \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" also described Karen as being \\\"efficient, kind, and understanding\\\". During the course of her existence on the program, she was married to both Sid Fairgate (Don Murray) and second husband Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson). Many other characters would try to undermine her relationship with Mack, such as his daughter, Paige Matheson (Nicollette Sheridan), and former love interest Anne Matheson (Michelle Phillips), though she learned to accept Paige as his daughter later on.\\nDue to her long-running tenure, television personality Joan Rivers commented that Lee was, in theory, the \\\"First Lady of \\\"Knots Landing\\\"\\\" during her guest appearance on \\\"The Late Show\\\", which Rivers hosted at the time. The characters of the serial often represented what was happening in society at the time. Lee acknowledged that, saying: \\\"Karen wanted to be a Pollyanna and wasn't ashamed of that. Remember in our society, maybe people don't remember, but remember when we could go over to other people's houses and come in through an open back door? I remember when I was a little girl and my mother and father would have people over and they'd walk into an unlocked door in our house.\\\"\\nPrior to be cast in \\\"Knots Landing\\\", Michele Lee had made a slew of film and television appearances. Lee holds the sole record for appearing in every single episode of the dramatic serial, setting a record for being one of the only female actresses in primetime television history to do so. (S. Epatha Merkerson, who portrayed character Anita Van Buren on the crime drama \\\"Law & Order\\\", surpassed Lee's record in 2008.) After the success of \\\"Dallas\\\", David Jacobs' presented his initial idea again and created \\\"Knots Landing\\\", with some alterations of his original script. In an interview, Jacobs explained: \\\"Well, that's pretty good, but you know-and then he pulled out the pages that we'd left for them a few years ago on the show, or a year before on \\\"Knots\\\", and he said, 'Is there any way we can make this a spin-off?' I just took one of the couples and made it, you know, Val and Gary who had already been created on the parent series and putting them into the mix, but when you have four couples and you change one, you sort of have to change the dynamic all the way around. However, once I wrote the script, remarkably little changed from the script and the pilot as you would see it.\\\"\\nSeries creator David Jacobs has said, \\\"Karen is the tent pole. She says the things I want to say. She's the voice of the viewer.\\\" \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" has said of Lee's character, \\\"Her character, Karen MacKenzie, is efficient, kind, and understanding. Today, she's headed for big trouble, but Karen, onetime widow, single mom, addict, kidnappee, shooting victim, talk show hostess, and target of a psychotic fan, is resilient. Some on \\\"Knots\\\" say the show could not survive the loss of its moral mouthpiece.\\\" The actress herself also commented, \\\"Karen has gone through so much that it's hard to get her a [new] story line. Although she may be the only character who doesn't \\\"need\\\" a story line. She's a rock. She helps \\\"solve\\\" the problems. Certainly, after 12 years of playing Karen, you think, 'Oh, God, I wish I could play the town slut. But I have to save those roles for my hiatus.\\\"\\nJacobs also said, \\\"Karen, Michele Lee's character, was - made the speeches that I would have made about subjects, so she sort of was my footprint. . .but she was different. And also, I never had to - I never had a problem hearing Karen, you know. She and I spoke the same way.\\\" The character evolved significantly from the beginning of the series to the end. In the beginning, Karen was somewhat of a \\\"bad girl\\\" in order to lure over some fans of J.R. Ewing from \\\"Dallas\\\". He noted:\\n\\\"Well, Karen in the beginning was limited by her - well, we made Karen a little bit harsher in the first season than we otherwise would have because we were toying with the audience. And because it was a \\\"Dallas\\\" spin-off, the natural question was always, 'Well, where's your JR? Who's your JR?' And so, even though Michele Lee herself is a very likeable person, and even if she's being over the top she's a person of great enthusiasm, she's a person of great strength, in the pilot anyway, we were sort of pushing the possibility that she was gonna be roughly our equivalent. I always wanted to project the idea that we weren't \\\"Dallas\\\", it was a different scale from\\n\\\"Dallas\\\", that whoever we had wasn't gonna be as successful as JR. But later on, the line \\\"being married to a saint\\\" was - Don Murray was so sweet, you know, and so rational all the time that, um, her enthusiasm, or the size of her enthusiasm, sometimes grew shrill and - I don't remember the context in which she said,'It's difficult being married to a saint\\\" - but it's true, Sid had - you know, even the way he ran his business was totally moral. He was a totally moral kind of guy. Then later on, when Kevin makes the comment to her, it's really about her - um - if I recall, it's really about her correctness, you know, her dedication to her issues.\\\"\\nThough she was often a maternal figure, Karen was never able to become a grandmother on the serial. Lee said on her personal website, \\\"Yes. I know it might sound like a big ego...far from it. It was a business option to prolong a career.\\\"\\nWhen often interviewed about the show, Lee brings up the fact that \\\"as society changed...so did \\\"Knots Landing\\\".\\\" Her character, Karen, once gave a large speech about how society was often changing and becoming less of the trustworthy place it used to be. Karen became addicted to prescription medication, a key plotline for her character in the fifth season. Lee said, \\\"Karen's addiction, at a time when we as a nation were examining our culture and addiction problems. It was powerful because of the knowledge that addiction could come to anyone, including a First Lady and Karen Mackenzie.\\\" In an interview with the official \\\"Knots Landing\\\" website, the actress said: \\\"Oh! Let me add to that last question by also mentioning the Pollyanna speech as one of my favorite moments as Karen. The Pollyanna speech was a testimony to our writers keeping our fingers on the pulse of what (the audience) was feeling in their own lives. If we were doing the show today I could give the Pollyanna speech and add a few more items.\\\" She went further into detail by saying:\\n\\\"I think Karen was very assertive in that statement. I hope there's a Pollyanna in all of us and that part doesn't ever die. I still have that part in me. I think what was interesting about that speech was that we weren't used to hearing our characters that impassioned. Karen showed the frustrations we were having with our society. There are two things to consider with that speech - the issue of Karen being called a Pollyanna and whether Karen actually was a Pollyanna. Karen wanted to be a Pollyanna and wasn't ashamed of that. Remember in our society, maybe people don't remember, but remember when we could go over to other people's houses and come in through an open back door? I remember when I was a little girl and my mother and father would have people over and they'd walk into an unlocked door in our house. Maybe apropos \\\"Knots Landing\\\" would have been Val opening the back door and Karen saying (simulates Karen calling from another room), 'Hi Val, come on in!' That would never happen now.\\\"\\nBefore the pilot, Karen Cooper moves to Philadelphia to study, where she meets and falls in love with young mechanic Sid Fairgate (Don Murray), who lives with his wife, Susan Philby and their daughter, Annie. When Sid divorces Susan, he marries Karen and they move to Knots Landing, California where they live with their three children Diana (Claudia Lonow), Eric (Steve Shaw) and Michael Fairgate (Patrick Petersen). Karen gets along with everybody in the neighborhood, except for her sister-in-law, Abby Cunningham (Donna Mills), who joins the show in its second season. She always sees through her conniving, manipulating persona, much to the dismay of Sid. However, it is Valene Ewing (Joan Van Ark), her next door neighbor, who soon becomes her closest and dearest friend. In 1981, Sid's brakes are messed with and he plunges off the side of a cliff. When Sid dies shortly after, Karen takes over the running of Knots Landing Motors, and when Sid’s killers are released in 1982, she goes to see Detective Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson), who is the Federal Prosecutor, in order to get help to try and bring them to justice. Her and Mack fall in love and they elope in Las Vegas. Karen soon gets hooked on prescription pills when her daughter, Diana, runs off and marries Chip Roberts, the murderer of singer Ciji Dunne (Lisa Hartman Black). When Chip accidentally dies, Diana goes to live with her Aunt Abby and Gary Ewing at Westfork, thus increasing Karen’s dependency on pills. When Mack finds her unconscious in the bathroom, she is admitted to hospital to recuperate.\\nKaren decides to divorce Mack when she discovers he is still tracking down the Wolfbridge Group, a dangerous crime organization. Karen’s children frantically try to get her to change her mind from divorcing Mack and she eventually forgives him, as she is still in love with him. She ends up having an operation to try and remove a bullet from a gunshot wound, which was lodged in a precarious position, thus preventing her from being paralysed. She goes to work at Lotus Point when Gary makes her an equal partner to make up for Abby’s indiscretion with Sid’s uncle’s apartment. In 1986, an old friend of Mack’s, Phil Harbert, kidnaps Karen as he is seeking revenge for Mack testifying against him years ago. However, she escapes and is soon reunited with Mack.\\nWhen her friend Laura (Constance McCashin) dies, she leaves behind her forlorn husband, Greg Sumner (William Devane) and their baby daughter, Meg. When Karen realizes that Greg is grieving and is having a tough time coping without Laura, Greg gives Meg to Karen and Mack to bring up as their own child. While running Lotus Point with her fellow partners, Karen fights Manny Vasquez, who tries to arrange a deal which involves drugs. Lotus Point then becomes a focus of bad news because of the drug bust and is later sold to a Japanese firm, which is actually headed by her former sister-in-law Abby. Later on, she goes to work on \\\"Open Mike\\\", a TV show, and subsequently becomes a victim of harassment by the shows assistant producer, Jeff Cameron. Soon after starting work there, she receives nasty packages which include an animals heart and a box of flowers which contain snakes. Karen and Mack separate once again when they are called to battle to keep Meg when Mary Robeson arrives claiming to be Meg’s grandmother through Laura. Karen takes Meg and goes to stay with her daughter Diana in New York, but reconciles with Mack when he comes to visit them and return home to the familiar cul-de-sac.\\nJamey Giddens of \\\"Pop Confidential\\\" praised Lee, saying: \\\"I can't breathe. I can't breathe. I can't breathe! My Karen from \\\"Knots Landing\\\", Michele-To-The-Lee. Oh, this is too good! I can't remember a more comforting primetime presence than Lee, as Seaview Circle's courageous heroine Karen Fairgate MacKenzie. For 14 seasons, Lee's Karen was the glue that held \\\"Knots\\\" together. Amid dead husbands, nubile, surprise stepdaughters, snatched up baby twins, philandering neighbors and one hoeish sister-in-law, you could always count on Karen!\\\"\",\n \"Greg Sumner\\nGregory \\\"Greg\\\" Sumner is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera \\\"Knots Landing\\\", a long-running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles, California. He was played by actor William Devane between 1983 and 1993. He debuted in the fourth episode of the fifth season. Devane remained a principal actor in the series until the final episode. The character made his last television appearance in 1997, when he appeared in the \\\"Knots Landing\\\" reunion series \\\"\\\".\\nDuring the planning stages for the fifth season, the producers of the series decided to add a new male to stir up the pot. Devane explained his casting, \\\"They brought me in for 8-10 episodes and said we’ll try it for that. Donna Mills came on the show as a female antagonist, about a year before, so now they wanted to have a male antagonist. I was cast as a Senator to shake things up\\\".\\nDuring the thirteenth season in 1992, Devane resigned from his role as Greg due to the production schedule. Devane said: I resigned. I had had enough. It had gotten so absurd. And I was offered a deal with ABC. I left Knots Landing because I didn't want to go in the toilet with this shit. The problem really comes down to the writing and trying to come up with good stories and most of us just said, “ we've done good work and let’s be proud of that and not have the show’s legacy ruined.”\\\". Another reason he resigned was due to the L.A. riots inspired story. \\\"It’s one of the reasons I left. It didn't help, that’s for sure. Ted turning the seawater into fresh water or whatever the hell he did was better\\\".\\nOne of Greg's notable relationships was with Laura Avery (Constance McCashin) who became his second wife. Devane described this as his favorite story and spoke of his co-star Constance McCashin: \\\"I liked the Laura story. The whole thing. Constance is very smart and very quick so it was a joy to work with her. Our dynamic had elements of Tracy and Hepburn in it. At times we were able to do sophisticated comedy and I would have liked to do more of that. Not enough for my tastes, but when we did it, it worked well\\\". Greg also had on and off again affair with Paige Matheson, and short marriages to Abby Cunningham and Anne Matheson.\\nBefore his arrival, Greg went to Law School and met Mack MacKenzie (Kevin Dobson) and they became friends. At this time, Greg was a committed environmental idealist. Greg became smitten with Mack's girlfriend Anne Winston but married Jane and they had a daughter called Mary Frances. Greg appeared in Knots Landing when he was running for Senator. Gary Ewing donated to Greg's campaign, believing Greg to still be a committed environmental idealist like himself, but Greg had now become a cynical politician who was interested in playing power games at any cost. This turned Greg and Mack's former friendship into a complex love-hate relationship, with the moral crusading attorney Mack despising Greg's turn to the dark side, and Greg viewing Mack's no-nonsense crusading methods as going about things the wrong way. Greg also had an affair with Abby and Laura. Greg won the race for Senator when his wife Jane ask for a divorce.\\nWhen Paul Galveston turned up, he wanted Greg to take over Galveston Industries, but Greg refused to get involved and told Paul to stay away. Greg revealed to Laura that Paul was his biological father and was still determined to win Greg's approval after years of failing. Greg despised Paul for taking his legal father's place soon after he had been killed in the Korean War, and for Paul having had an affair with Greg's mother for years beforehand. Greg's mother Ruth (Ava Gardner) inherited Paul's company and passed it onto Greg, who renamed it the Sumner Group. Ruth appointed Abby to break up Greg and Laura and she succeeded. Greg's new assistant Peter Hollister tried to convince Greg that he was his half-brother but it was a lie. Greg managed to win Laura back and they married and had a daughter called Meg. Greg was devastated when Laura died of a brain tumor. Unable to bring up Meg alone, he asked Karen (Michele Lee) and Mack to adopt her, which they did. Greg hired Paige Matheson (Nicollette Sheridan) to work with him at the Sumner Group and they began an on/off affair. Greg decided to marry Abby as he believed she would be a good political partner when he wanted to return to the world of Politics. However, Paige ruined his chances of running for Mayor. When his daughter Mary Frances returned, she was shot dead by a sniper, who went on to shoot and poison Greg. When his medical records were leaked, Greg's sister Claudia Whittaker (Kathleen Noone) and his niece Kate (Stacy Galina), who looked a lot like Mary Frances, showed up. Greg married Anne Matheson but it was short lived. When Greg was going through a mid-life crisis, he split his company and gave shares to Paige, Claudia and Meg. When he realised he wanted his company back, he bought Claudia's shares but Meg's shares were sold to Paige, who gained control of the Sumner Group. Greg and Paige finally got together but their relationship ended again when Greg didn't want to have children with Paige.\",\n \"Abby Cunningham\\nAbby Fairgate (formerly Cunningham, Ewing and Sumner) is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera \\\"Knots Landing\\\", a long-running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul-de-sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles, California. She was played by actress Donna Mills between 1980 and 1989. Abby was created by producer David Jacobs as one of \\\"Knots Landing\\\"'s earliest characters. She debuted in the first episode of the second season. Mills remained a principal actor in the series until she left in its tenth season. She returned for the two-part series finale to provide closure for the fans. The character made her last television appearance in 1997, when she appeared in the \\\"Knots Landing\\\" reunion series \\\"\\\", and was reunited with former cast members.\\nPrior to being cast on \\\"Knots Landing\\\", Mills was predominantly known for playing \\\"damsel in distress\\\" roles, which is why the producers didn't initially consider her. Abby's storylines focused on business dealings, affairs and family troubles. Introduced as the sister of Sid Fairgate, she was initially portrayed as a friendly, warm-hearted woman with great love for her children. In due time, she evolved into the series' main antagonist, constantly causing mayhem in others' lives. According to series creator David Jacobs, the producers always intended Abby to be a J.R. Ewing-esque character. Jacobs said, \\\"When we were casting the role of Abby, we were looking for a homey type, someone whom the other women characters would trust. It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them. We didn't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade. We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen.\\\"\\nThe character became known for her manipulative behavior and was often labeled a \\\"soap vixen\\\". She was praised by television critics, with Carolyn McGuire of \\\"The Chicago Tribune\\\" saying: \\\"Whoever shows up as the next villain, chances are his or her work won't be easy. That's because at least one resident—Abby Ewing—knows how to dish nasty with the best of them.\\\" When asked which character he wished he had created, Mike Kelly, the creator of ABC's popular primetime-soap opera \\\"Revenge\\\", said: \\\"Abby Ewing. Donna Mills, you rocked my world.\\\" John Mapes of \\\"The Biography Channel\\\" said, \\\"Any great soap opera needs a great villain. While viewers may identify more with the protagonist, the villains in a serial drama always spice things up, cause trouble, and make it more fun to watch.\\\"\\nMills portrayed Abby from 1980–1989. Prior to being cast in \\\"Knots Landing\\\", Mills was primarily known for playing the \\\"damsel in distress\\\" archetype in both film and television media. The actress became somewhat famous for playing these roles, often leading to unwanted typecasting. In an interview with Jerry Buck for the \\\"Toledo Blade\\\", Mills said: \\\"I got tired of playing the victim. It's a more active role. Abby keeps things stirred up, and I like that.\\\" According to Jacobs, Abby was not planned when the show began. He knew that he wanted a female J.R. Ewing-esque character. However, he had a different sense of the character and who would wind up in the role. With Mills' reputation of playing the victim, he initially didn't choose her for the part.\\nIn the early planning stages of season two, CBS executive Tony Barch suggested Mills for the role of Abby Cunningham. The character was initially conceived as the sister of Sid Fairgate (Don Murray), one of the central characters on the show, who was killed off in the next season. Casting agent Barbara Miller-Gidaly introduced Mills and Jacobs. After meeting with Miller-Gidaly, Jacobs decided to have Mills test for the role, which was unusual for an established actress. She auditioned shortly after and convinced the producers that she was the right person for the part. Jacobs said, \\\"She came back that afternoon and she read and she was great, and it meant reshaping the role a little bit, but, um, not that much. You know, she still came in, she drove up in the Volvo station wagon. She had the kids in the back. It was very middle class.\\\"\\nIn 1989, Mills announced her intention to leave the long-running nighttime soap after nine years as Abby. According to Mills, she wanted to take a break from acting for a while, and from Abby as well. In an interview with \\\"The Cedartown Standard\\\", Mills explained: \\\"I'm tired of the show. It's been too long. I'm not particularly happy with the way they've been writing Abby lately. She's too soft. I'd like Abby to get back to her old self.\\\" Mills returned for the series finale and the subsequent reunion specials (\\\"\\\" and \\\"\\\"). Virginia Heffernan of \\\"The New York Times\\\" praised her scenes with fellow actor William Devane, saying: \\\"The Jean Naté-scented banter between the actors Donna Mills and William Devane is both the daffiest and the most enlightening part of the reunion special.\\\"\\nThe producers always intended Abby to be the \\\"pot stirrer\\\". Devane, who played Greg Sumner, said that the show was looking for a woman \\\"in high heels with the throat of the guy – that's what they wanted\\\". He added, \\\"It was your character that influenced all these unhappy women today who have jobs and are out there working hard, trying to raise kids by themselves, going crazy.\\\" Mark Harris of \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" said, \\\"Michelle Phillips is the last of prime-time's great schemers, an essential element of the show since the departure of Donna Mills, whose Abby Cunningham was \\\"Knots\\\"' resident harpy for years.\\\"\\nIn an interview with Greg Hernandez, Mills explained: \\\"I knew that she was going to be a trouble maker but actually knowing the writers and the producers, I knew that the character would be rounded and have dimension and that was really fun for me to play. It wasn’t one-note all the time, it was a lot of different colors.\\\" Television personality Julie Chen said, \\\"The women of \\\"Knots\\\", Michele Lee, Joan Van Ark, and Donna Mills have been compared to earth, wind, and fire, with Donna Mills bringing the heat as Abby, the conniving vixen that everybody loved to hate.\\\" According to Mills, many people were wary of meeting her in person because they assumed she would be like Abby. She said, \\\"They were very trepedacious about what I was going to do.\\\" Mike Celizic of NBC said that her character was \\\"the archetypal predatory female\\\", while Meredith Vieira said \\\"even the bad girl could show a tender side every once in a while\\\", in reference to her daughter's on-screen drug addiction. It was this very storyline that showed Abby at her most vulnerable and human, a story which audiences recall as perhaps one of her most desperate and motherly of moments. In addition to that, Abby also helped Val get her kidnapped babies back, even though she was blamed she said she \\\"could never do a thing like that to anyone\\\". When Karen and Mack began to have some problems in their marriage and Karen distanced herself from Mack, Abby confronted Karen aggressively and told her she was wrong for doing so to him.\\nMills became known for wearing a lot of eye makeup in her scenes, to the point where it became a major character trait for her fictional personality. Carole Glinez of \\\"Star\\\" magazine said, \\\"Mills was so famous for her dramatic eye makeup on the show that she produced her own beauty video called \\\"The Eyes Have It\\\".\\\" Eddie Shapiro of \\\"Out\\\" magazine said that \\\"Abby's eye makeup was legendary!\\\" Glinez also referred to her as \\\"Knots\\\" \\\"Fox\\\", saying: \\\"Mills was one of the queens of the nighttime soap. Abby Cunningham Ewing was the conniving, bed hopping blonde beauty on the \\\"Dallas\\\" spin-off \\\"Knots Landing\\\".\\nAbby was always intended to be the show's promiscuous seductress. In an interview with Carolyn McGuire of \\\"The Chicago Tribune\\\", Jacobs said: \\\"When we were casting the role of Abby, we were looking for a homey type, someone whom the other women characters would trust. It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them. We didn't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade. We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen.\\\" Author June L. May of \\\"Monsters and Critics\\\" said, \\\"In season two of \\\"Knots Landing\\\", a catalyst moves into the neighborhood in the form of Sid’s sister, the drop dead gorgeous Abby Cunningham. Whether Abby is directly involved, or simply in the neighborhood, she has a detrimental affect on the harmony of couples.\\\" Almost immediately, Abby sank her claws into Richard Avery (John Pleshette), one of the neighborhood husbands. Though the affair was brief, it set the stage for what was to come.\\nIn season three, Abby sets her sights on the wealthy Gary Ewing, the husband of her good friend Valene Ewing. While Gary initially thwarted her attempts, he eventually gave in and had a full-fledged affair with her. Actress Joan Van Ark, who played Val, said: \\\"I went in way early, whenever Donna Mills came on the show, and told David Jacobs that it made total sense that Gary would fall for Abby. Because they were celebrating Donna Mills and she became the center I can’t believe I did that but it really provided us with some great stories. And it was the longest running story on the show.\\\" Dan Lewis of the \\\"Sarasota Journal\\\" said, \\\"In a recent episode, Abby lures Gary Ewing into an affair, and sets it up so that his wife will discover it. After she completed the scene, Miss Mills recalls, the crew hissing at her – jokingly, of course.\\\" The character was known for her numerous rivalries with other female characters, such as Paige and Karen. Carole Glinez said, \\\"Mills' character faced her rival Paige, played by future \\\"Desperate Housewives\\\" sexpot Nicollette Sheridan.\\\"\\nBefore her first appearance, Abby meets and marries Jeff Cunningham. They move to San Luis Obispo, California, and have two children, Olivia and Brian. When she and Jeff divorce, Abby moves to San Diego. On the way she stops to visit her brother, Sid, and decides to stay in Knots Landing. She rents a house on Seaview Circle, and has an affair with Richard Avery. Abby soon sets her eyes on neighbor Gary Ewing, which becomes obvious after she starts working as a bookkeeper for Knots Landing Motors. She and Gary get the company involved with the mob, which results in her brother Sid's death. At the same time, Jeff kidnaps her children. She eventually gets them back. Abby and Gary go into a methanol business together and start an affair. Valene finds out and kicks Gary out, so he moves in with Abby. Gary soon inherits millions from his father Jock Ewing's death. Abby uses the money to manipulate those around her, and Gary starts drinking again. Gary sobers up and buys a ranch, similar to Southfork, the ranch his family owns. They move there and marry.\\nAbby begins running Gary's company, and uses his money to fund her own corporation, Apaloon, which she uses to develop Lotus Point. She becomes involved with politician Greg Sumner and the Wolfbridge group. When Gary finds out about her illegal dealings, he leaves her. After Abby is kidnapped, he takes her back, and makes Karen a partner in Lotus Point. Abby soon finds out that Val is pregnant with Gary's twins. She expresses her displeasure to employee Scott Easton, who has Val's twins kidnapped at birth. Abby works to find out where the twins are, and brings Val to them. Abby finagles her way to become a part of the \\\"real\\\" Empire Valley. After Gary blows it up, he leaves Abby again. She attempts to get him back, but instead they divorce. Abby soon starts an affair with Peter Hollister as a way to get information on Greg. Then Charles Scott, her first love, returns. He is married, but he divorces his wife and asks Abby to marry him.\\nAbby is in love again, but then finds out that Charles is the front for a group of thugs wanting to build a marina at Lotus Point for drug trafficking. Abby pretends to go along with the marriage and accepts a two million dollar wedding gift from Charles. After the ceremony she has the marriage annulled, but keeps the money. After this, Abby marries Greg Sumner. It isn't love, but rather a political marriage. Abby forms another company, Morikame, in order to buy Lotus Point. When her former partners find out and threaten to have her arrested for fraud, she donates Lotus Point to the government as a wildlife preserve. Abby goes after a political appointment that Greg wants, and leaves Knots Landing to be a trade representative in Japan. Abby later forms another illegal company with Nigel Treadwell, and tries to take over the Sumner Group, but her plan fails. She moves back into her old house on the cul-de-sac.\\nIn the 1997 reunion mini-series, Abby sells her house and prepares to leave the cul-de-sac and move to Malibu. However, the IRS freezes her assets for non-payment of back taxes, and she temporarily moves in with Karen and Mack, and gets a job from Gary at the construction company he runs with Karen. However, Abby's motives are to obtain a legal document from their company in order to help Greg Sumner, who is being sued. Should she obtain the document, Greg will pay her the $1 million she needs. Greg then informs her he no longer needs the document. Abby tries to infiltrate his other business dealings to her advantage. Instead of paying her off, Greg offers her a job overseeing one of his business operations in Thailand, which will make her rich again. Before departing, Abby learns that Brian's girlfriend (Kate Whittaker) is expecting their first child, thus making her a grandmother.\\nAbby was well received by television critics. Carolyn McGuire of \\\"The Chicago Tribune\\\" commented, \\\"Whoever shows up as the next villain, chances are his or her work won't be easy. That's because at least one resident—Abby Ewing—knows how to dish nasty with the best of them. Only Alexis Carrington Colby Dexter, played by Joan Collins on \\\"Dynasty\\\", and Angela Channing, portrayed by Jane Wyman on \\\"Falcon Crest\\\", rival Abby Ewing, played by Donna Mills, for best prime-time female villain.\\\" When asked which character he wished he had created, Mike Kelly, the creator of ABC's popular primetime-soap \\\"Revenge\\\", said: \\\"Abby Ewing. Donna Mills, you rocked my world.\\\" Jamey Giddens of Zap2it said, \\\"While I readily admit Alexis will go down in soap history as the most famous of the 80's primetime soap vixens, she was never truly my cup of detergent. I much preferred the more subdued, methodical villainy of characters like Abby Fairgate (Donna Mills), who slept her way through Seaview Circle, and to the top of Corporate California on \\\"Knots Landing\\\". God I miss that damn Cul-de-Sac!\\\"\\nJosh Mapes of \\\"The Biography Channel\\\" listed her in the category \\\"10 Primetime Stars We Love to Hate\\\". He said, \\\"Any great soap opera needs a great villain. While viewers may identify more with the protagonist, the villains in a serial drama always spice things up, cause trouble, and make it more fun to watch. From tongue lashings to catfights, underhanded tricks to boldface lies, the characters we love to hate have each brought a fair share of great moments to primetime soaps. While Larry Hagman played the bad guy on \\\"Dallas\\\", Donna Mills played bad girl on its spin-off, \\\"Knots Landing\\\". Unapologetically going after what she wanted, Mills' character engaged in affairs with two of the husbands on the Knots Landing cul-de-sac. But, like most vixens on primetime soaps, she was only out for money, not love.\\\" Steve Eighinger of the \\\"Quincy Newspapers\\\" listed Abby as the third-most memorable TV character in an article he wrote for the \\\"Quincy Herald-Whig\\\". He said, \\\"No one, absolutely no one, rocked eye shadow and the messy-hair look like Abby Ewing, who was this marvelous combination of vixen and corporate sleuth. As her character developed, life on the cul-de-sac made \\\"Knots Landing\\\" destination TV every Thursday night for more than a decade.\\\"\\nMarta Hoelsher of Technorati Media said: \\\"The biggest news of season two, though, is the appearance of Donna Mills as Abby Cunningham, the blonde bombshell who wreaks havoc all through the neighborhood. With the appearance of Abby, things really started to heat up and get interesting. No marriage is off limits when Abby sets her eyes on it. Played to perfection by Donna Mills, Abby is wicked, vicious, bitchy, and heartless enough to keep us loving and hating her for years. Abby's clashes with Karen MacKenzie and Val were legendary, and season two gets things rolling. After a fairly peaceful start to the season, we start to see the beginnings of the rivalry that defines the show for years: Karen vs. Abby. It's fun watching their early friendship evolve into a bitter rivalry.\\\"\",\n \"Sweet Revenge (1987 film)\\nSweet Revenge is a 1987 American motion picture starring Nancy Allen as Jillian Grey, a newscaster abducted and sold into white slavery while doing an undercover expose. Ted Shackelford, Martin Landau, Gina Gershon, Michele Little, and Lotis Key round out the cast of this R-rated action adventure directed by Mark Sobel with Roger Corman acting as executive producer.\\n\",\n \"Constance McCashin\\nConstance McCashin (born June 18, 1947) is an American actress, best known for her role as <a href=\\\"Laura%20Avery%20Sumner\\\">Laura Avery Sumner</a> in the CBS prime time soap opera, \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\".\\nMcCashin was born in <a href=\\\"Chicago\\\">Chicago</a>. She is best known for her role as Laura Avery Sumner on the prime time drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\", which she played from the show's debut in 1979 until 1987 when the character died of a brain tumor and her funeral was the basis of the show's 200th episode. McCashin's character was written out of the show due to cost-cutting measures along with fellow actress <a href=\\\"Julie%20Harris%20%28American%20actress%29\\\">Julie Harris</a>. McCashin explained to \\\"<a href=\\\"Boston.com\\\">Boston.com</a>\\\" in 2009 stating, \\\"I was very hurt the way I was let go for financial reasons. I wish they'd handled my demise better\\\".\\nDuring her career, McCashin starred in a number of made for television movies. She appeared in several episodes of the CBS sitcom \\\"<a href=\\\"Brooklyn%20Bridge%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Brooklyn Bridge</a>\\\" playing the role of Rosemary Monahan. She was a contestant on the <a href=\\\"Dick%20Clark\\\">Dick Clark</a>-hosted \\\"<a href=\\\"Pyramid%20%28game%20show%29\\\">$25,000 Pyramid</a>\\\" and would later appear as a panelist on \\\"<a href=\\\"Password%20Plus%20and%20Super%20Password\\\">Super Password</a>\\\". She made her final screen appearance playing supporting role in the 1999 comedy film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Out-of-Towners%20%281999%20film%29\\\">The Out-of-Towners</a>\\\".\\nMcCashin appeared at the TV Land awards in April 2009 for the 30th year celebration of \\\"Knots Landing\\\". Other \\\"Knots Landing\\\" actors who appeared with her included <a href=\\\"Kevin%20Dobson\\\">Kevin Dobson</a>, <a href=\\\"Lisa%20Hartman%20Black\\\">Lisa Hartman Black</a>, <a href=\\\"Michele%20Lee\\\">Michele Lee</a>, <a href=\\\"Donna%20Mills\\\">Donna Mills</a>, <a href=\\\"Don%20Murray%20%28actor%29\\\">Don Murray</a>, <a href=\\\"Michelle%20Phillips\\\">Michelle Phillips</a>, <a href=\\\"Ted%20Shackelford\\\">Ted Shackelford</a>, and <a href=\\\"Joan%20Van%20Ark\\\">Joan Van Ark</a>.\\nSucceeding her turn in the Hollywood limelight, McCashin has transitioned into a social worker and therapist who specializes in the treatment of eating disorders and body image issues.\\nMcCashin lives in Massachusetts with her husband, producer <a href=\\\"Sam%20Weisman\\\">Sam Weisman</a>, with whom she has two children: Marguerite Weisman, an editorial assistant at <a href=\\\"Harper%20Collins\\\">Harper Collins</a>; and Daniel Weisman, a music manager, who manages <a href=\\\"Capital%20Cities%20%28band%29\\\">Capital Cities</a> and <a href=\\\"Wale%20%28rapper%29\\\">Wale</a> and formerly managed <a href=\\\"Mike%20Posner\\\">Mike Posner</a>.\",\n \"Julie Harris (actress)\\nJulia Ann \\\"Julie\\\" Harris (December 2, 1925 – August 24, 2013) was an American stage, screen, and television actress. A 10-time <a href=\\\"Tony%20Award\\\">Tony Award</a> nominee and five-time winner, she won for \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Am%20a%20Camera\\\">I Am a Camera</a>\\\" (1952), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lark%20%28play%29\\\">The Lark</a>\\\" (1956), \\\"<a href=\\\"Forty%20Carats\\\">Forty Carats</a>\\\" (1969), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Last%20of%20Mrs.%20Lincoln\\\">The Last of Mrs. Lincoln</a>\\\" (1973), and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Belle%20of%20Amherst\\\">The Belle of Amherst</a>\\\" (1977). She also won three <a href=\\\"Emmy%20Award\\\">Emmy Award</a>s, a <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award\\\">Grammy Award</a>, and was nominated for the <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\\\">Academy Award for Best Actress</a> for the 1952 film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Member%20of%20the%20Wedding%20%28film%29\\\">The Member of the Wedding</a>\\\". She was inducted into the <a href=\\\"American%20Theatre%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">American Theatre Hall of Fame</a> in 1979, received the <a href=\\\"National%20Medal%20of%20Arts\\\">National Medal of Arts</a> in 1994, and the 2002 Special Lifetime Achievement Tony Award.\\nJulia Ann Harris was born in <a href=\\\"Grosse%20Pointe%2C%20Michigan\\\">Grosse Pointe, Michigan</a>, the daughter of Elsie L. (<a href=\\\"married%20and%20maiden%20names\\\">née</a> Smith), a nurse, and William Pickett Harris, an investment banker. She had an older brother, William, and a younger brother, Richard. She graduated from Grosse Pointe Country Day School, which later merged with two others to form the <a href=\\\"University%20Liggett%20School\\\">University Liggett School</a>. In New York City, she attended <a href=\\\"The%20Hewitt%20School%20%28New%20York%2C%20New%20York%29\\\">The Hewitt School</a>.\\nAs a teenager, she also trained at the <a href=\\\"Perry-Mansfield%20Performing%20Arts%20School%20%26amp%3B%20Camp\\\">Perry-Mansfield Performing Arts School & Camp</a> in <a href=\\\"Colorado\\\">Colorado</a> with Charlotte Perry, a mentor who encouraged Harris to apply to the <a href=\\\"Yale%20School%20of%20Drama\\\">Yale School of Drama</a>, which she soon attended for a year.\\nIn 1952, Harris won her first Best Actress Tony for originating the role of insouciant <a href=\\\"Sally%20Bowles\\\">Sally Bowles</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Am%20a%20Camera\\\">I Am a Camera</a>\\\", the stage version of <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Isherwood\\\">Christopher Isherwood</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Goodbye%20to%20Berlin\\\">Goodbye to Berlin</a>\\\" (later adapted as the Broadway musical \\\"<a href=\\\"Cabaret%20%28musical%29\\\">Cabaret</a>\\\" (1966) and as the 1972 <a href=\\\"Cabaret%20%281972%20film%29\\\">film</a>, with <a href=\\\"Liza%20Minnelli\\\">Liza Minnelli</a> as Sally). Harris repeated her stage role in the film version of \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Am%20a%20Camera%20%28film%29\\\">I Am a Camera</a>\\\" (1955).\\nOf particular note is her Tony-winning performance in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Belle%20of%20Amherst\\\">The Belle of Amherst</a>\\\", a one-woman play (written by <a href=\\\"William%20Luce\\\">William Luce</a> and directed by <a href=\\\"Charles%20Nelson%20Reilly\\\">Charles Nelson Reilly</a>) based on the life and poetry of <a href=\\\"Emily%20Dickinson\\\">Emily Dickinson</a>. She received a <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award\\\">Grammy Award</a> for Best Spoken Word Recording for the audio recording of the play. She first performed the play in 1976 and subsequently appeared in other solo shows, including Luce's \\\"Bronte\\\". Other <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a> credits include \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Playboy%20of%20the%20Western%20World\\\">The Playboy of the Western World</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Macbeth\\\">Macbeth</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Member%20of%20the%20Wedding\\\">The Member of the Wedding</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"L%27Idiote\\\">A Shot in the Dark</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Skyscraper%20%28musical%29\\\">Skyscraper</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"And%20Miss%20Reardon%20Drinks%20a%20Little\\\">And Miss Reardon Drinks a Little</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Forty%20Carats\\\">Forty Carats</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Glass%20Menagerie\\\">The Glass Menagerie</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Doll%27s%20House\\\">A Doll's House</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Gin%20Game\\\">The Gin Game</a>\\\", and a North American tour in 1992 of \\\"<a href=\\\"Lettice%20and%20Lovage\\\">Lettice and Lovage</a>\\\" in the lead part originated by <a href=\\\"Maggie%20Smith\\\">Maggie Smith</a> on Broadway.\\nIn 1983, Harris also became a company member of <a href=\\\"The%20Mirror%20Theater%20Ltd\\\">The Mirror Theater Ltd</a>'s Mirror Repertory Company. Julie Harris became a mentor to the company, having urged Founding Artistic Director Sabra Jones to create the company from 1976 forward, when Jones married <a href=\\\"John%20Strasberg\\\">John Strasberg</a>. Harris and Jones met at a performance of \\\"The Belle of Amherst\\\", a revival of which <a href=\\\"The%20Mirror%20Theater%20Ltd\\\">The Mirror Theater Ltd</a> recently performed in their summer home in Vermont.\\nAlong with <a href=\\\"Chita%20Rivera\\\">Chita Rivera</a>, Harris holds the record for the most individual <a href=\\\"Tony%20Award\\\">Tony Award</a> nominations, with 10 nominations. She held the record for most competitive Tony wins (five) until <a href=\\\"Angela%20Lansbury\\\">Angela Lansbury</a> tied her in 2009. <a href=\\\"Audra%20McDonald\\\">Audra McDonald</a> has since passed them both, with six acting Tony Award wins. In 1966, Harris won the <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Siddons%20Award\\\">Sarah Siddons Award</a> for her work in <a href=\\\"Chicago%20theatre\\\">Chicago theatre</a>.\\nHarris's screen debut was in 1952, repeating her Broadway success as the monumentally lonely teenaged girl Frankie in <a href=\\\"Carson%20McCullers\\\">Carson McCullers</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Member%20of%20the%20Wedding\\\">The Member of the Wedding</a>\\\", for which she was nominated for the <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\\\">Academy Award for Best Actress</a>. Harris played the ethereal Eleanor Lance in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Haunting%20%281963%20film%29\\\">The Haunting</a>\\\" (1963), director <a href=\\\"Robert%20Wise\\\">Robert Wise</a>'s screen adaptation of a novel by <a href=\\\"Shirley%20Jackson\\\">Shirley Jackson</a>, a classic film of the horror genre. Another cast member recalled Harris maintaining a social distance from the other actors while not on set, later explaining that she had done so as a method of emphasizing the alienation from the other characters experienced by her character in the film. She reprised her Tony-winning role as <a href=\\\"Mary%20Todd%20Lincoln\\\">Mary Todd Lincoln</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Last%20of%20Mrs.%20Lincoln\\\">The Last of Mrs. Lincoln</a>\\\" (1973) in the film version (1976). Another noteworthy film appearance was the World War II drama \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hiding%20Place%20%28film%29\\\">The Hiding Place</a>\\\" (1975). She also appeared in such films as \\\"<a href=\\\"East%20of%20Eden%20%28film%29\\\">East of Eden</a>\\\" (also 1955), with <a href=\\\"James%20Dean\\\">James Dean</a> (with whom she became close friends), \\\"<a href=\\\"Requiem%20for%20a%20Heavyweight%23The%20Movie%20Version\\\">\\\"Requiem for a Heavyweight\\\"</a>\\\" (1962), with <a href=\\\"Paul%20Newman\\\">Paul Newman</a> in the private-detective film \\\"<a href=\\\"Harper%20%28film%29\\\">Harper</a>\\\" (1966), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Reflections%20in%20a%20Golden%20Eye%20%28film%29\\\">Reflections in a Golden Eye</a>\\\" (1967).\\nFor her television work, Harris had won three <a href=\\\"Emmy%20Award\\\">Emmy Award</a>s and had been nominated 11 times. One of her most famous television roles was as <a href=\\\"Queen%20Victoria\\\">Queen Victoria</a>, in the 1961 \\\"<a href=\\\"Hallmark%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">Hallmark Hall of Fame</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Victoria%20Regina%20%28TV%20film%29\\\">production</a> of <a href=\\\"Laurence%20Housman\\\">Laurence Housman</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Victoria%20Regina%20%28play%29\\\">Victoria Regina</a>\\\", for which she won an <a href=\\\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Lead%20Actress%20in%20a%20Limited%20Series%20or%20Movie\\\">Emmy</a>. Earlier, also for the \\\"Hallmark Hall of Fame\\\", she starred as Nora Helmer opposite <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Plummer\\\">Christopher Plummer</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Doll%27s%20House%20%281959%20TV%20drama%29\\\">A Doll's House</a>\\\" (1959), a 90-minute television adaptation of <a href=\\\"Henrik%20Ibsen\\\">Ibsen</a>'s play. She made more appearances in leading roles on the Hallmark program than any other actress, also appearing in two different adaptations of the play \\\"Little Moon of Alban\\\". In her later career, she was perhaps best known as country singer Lilimae Clements, the eccentric and protective mother of <a href=\\\"Valene%20Ewing\\\">Valene Ewing</a> (played by <a href=\\\"Joan%20Van%20Ark\\\">Joan Van Ark</a>) on the <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> nighttime soap opera \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\". The role was as a guest appearance in 1980 before returning as a series regular from 1981–87. In 1986, she provided the voice-over of the adult Clara in \\\"Nutcracker: The Motion Picture\\\".\\nOn December 5, 2005, she was named a <a href=\\\"Kennedy%20Center%20Honors\\\">Kennedy Center Honoree</a>. At a <a href=\\\"White%20House\\\">White House</a> ceremony, President <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a> remarked, \\\"It's hard to imagine the American stage without the face, the voice, and the limitless talent of Julie Harris. She has found happiness in her life's work, and we thank her for sharing that happiness with the whole world.\\\"\\nHarris continued to work until 2009, well into her eighties, narrating five historical documentaries by <a href=\\\"Christopher%20Seufert\\\">Christopher Seufert</a> and <a href=\\\"Mooncusser%20Films\\\">Mooncusser Films</a>, as well as being active as a director on the board of the independent <a href=\\\"Wellfleet%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Wellfleet</a> Harbor Actors Theater. She also did extensive voice work for documentary maker <a href=\\\"Ken%20Burns\\\">Ken Burns</a>: the voices of <a href=\\\"Emily%20Warren%20Roebling\\\">Emily Warren Roebling</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"Brooklyn%20Bridge%20%28film%29\\\">Brooklyn Bridge</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Ann%20Lee\\\">Ann Lee</a> in \\\"\\\", <a href=\\\"Susan%20B.%20Anthony\\\">Susan B. Anthony</a> in \\\"\\\" and most notably Southern diarist <a href=\\\"Mary%20Boykin%20Chesnut\\\">Mary Boykin Chesnut</a> for Burns' 1990 series \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Civil%20War%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">The Civil War</a>\\\".\\nIn the summer of 2008, she appeared on stage again in <a href=\\\"Chatham%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Chatham, Massachusetts</a> as \\\"Nanny\\\" in a Monomoy Theater production of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Effect%20of%20Gamma%20Rays%20on%20Man-in-the-Moon%20Marigolds\\\">The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds</a>\\\".\\nHarris lived in <a href=\\\"Chatham%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">West Chatham, Cape Cod</a> for many years until her death. Thrice divorced, she had one son, Peter Gurian. A <a href=\\\"breast%20cancer\\\">breast cancer</a> survivor, she suffered a severe fall requiring surgery, a stroke in 2001, and a second stroke in 2010.\\nHarris died on August 24, 2013, of <a href=\\\"congestive%20heart%20failure\\\">congestive heart failure</a> at her home in <a href=\\\"West%20Chatham%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">West Chatham, Massachusetts</a>, aged 87. She was survived by her son, Peter Gurian. <a href=\\\"Ben%20Brantley\\\">Ben Brantley</a>, theater critic for \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\", considered her \\\"the actress who towered most luminously ... rather like a Statue of Liberty for Broadway.\\\" <a href=\\\"Alec%20Baldwin\\\">Alec Baldwin</a>, with whom she appeared in \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\", praised her in a tribute in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Huffington%20Post\\\">Huffington Post</a>\\\". \\\"Her voice was like rainfall. Her eyes connected directly to and channeled the depths of her powerful and tender heart. Her talent, a gift from God.\\\"\\nOn August 28, 2013, Broadway theaters dimmed their lights for one minute in honor of Harris.\\nThe asterisk (*) indicates a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress, and the caret (^) indicates a win.\",\n \"Stephen Macht\\nStephen Robert Macht (born May 1, 1942) is an American television and film actor. He is also father of actor <a href=\\\"Gabriel%20Macht\\\">Gabriel Macht</a>.\\nMacht was born in <a href=\\\"Philadelphia\\\">Philadelphia</a>, <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">Pennsylvania</a>. He was raised in <a href=\\\"Brooklyn%20Heights\\\">Brooklyn Heights, New York</a> until, at age nine, his father died and he moved with his mother, Janette, and older brother, to live with his maternal grandfather, a haberdasher, in <a href=\\\"Mystic%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Mystic, Connecticut</a>.\\nAfter graduating from <a href=\\\"Dartmouth%20College\\\">Dartmouth College</a> in 1963 (where he roomed with future actor <a href=\\\"Michael%20Moriarty\\\">Michael Moriarty</a>), Macht attended <a href=\\\"Tufts%20University\\\">Tufts University</a>, receiving an M.A. in Drama in 1967. He later enrolled at <a href=\\\"Indiana%20University\\\">Indiana University</a> and obtained a Ph.D. in Dramatic Literature and Theatre History in 1970. Macht studied acting at the <a href=\\\"London%20Academy%20of%20Music%20and%20Dramatic%20Art\\\">London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art</a> and wrote his Ph.D. dissertation on the history of acting training there. He also trained with <a href=\\\"Milton%20Katselas\\\">Milton Katselas</a> at the <a href=\\\"Beverly%20Hills%20Playhouse\\\">Beverly Hills Playhouse</a>.\\nWhile teaching at <a href=\\\"Queens%20College\\\">Queens College</a>, Macht received approval by his department chair to appear in plays in New York City in lieu of publishing scholarly articles as part of the tenure track.\\nSpotted by a <a href=\\\"Universal%20Studios\\\">Universal Studios</a> talent scout while starring at the <a href=\\\"Stratford%20Shakespeare%20Festival\\\">Stratford Shakespeare Festival</a> in Canada in 1975, Macht was signed to a contract and by the mid 1970s had left teaching and was making frequent appearances in TV episodes and movies.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Raid%20on%20Entebbe%20%28film%29\\\">Raid on Entebbe</a>\\\" (1977), he portrayed <a href=\\\"Yonatan%20Netanyahu\\\">Yoni Netanyahu</a>, the Israeli officer killed in the <a href=\\\"Operation%20Entebbe\\\">rescue of hostages in Uganda</a>. In 1978, he had a lead role in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Immigrants\\\">The Immigrants</a>\\\" a syndicated miniseries about the rise of the son of Italian immigrants in turn-of-the-century San Francisco.\\nThe successful television movie \\\"American Dream\\\" (ABC, 1981) led to a critically acclaimed short-lived series which cast Macht in the role of a family man who chucks the suburban life to set up home in the inner city of Chicago. The following season, he landed the role of Joe Cooper, brother of Karen MacKenzie (<a href=\\\"Michele%20Lee\\\">Michele Lee</a>), on \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\" (CBS, 1982–83). Other notable roles included playing <a href=\\\"Nancy%20McKeon\\\">Nancy McKeon</a>'s father in \\\"<a href=\\\"Strange%20Voices\\\">Strange Voices</a>\\\" (NBC, 1987). He was <a href=\\\"Benedict%20Arnold\\\">Benedict Arnold</a> in the miniseries \\\"<a href=\\\"George%20Washington%20%28TV%20miniseries%29\\\">George Washington</a>\\\" (1984) and played one of the survivors of an air crash in \\\"\\\" (NBC, 1984). He spent three seasons (1985–88) as David Keeler, love interest to Cagney (<a href=\\\"Sharon%20Gless\\\">Sharon Gless</a>), on \\\"<a href=\\\"Cagney%20%26amp%3B%20Lacey\\\">Cagney & Lacey</a>\\\" (CBS). During his run on the show, he moved behind the cameras to make his directorial debut. In 1993, Macht played Krim Aldos in \\\"\\\", an early Season 2 episode of \\\"\\\". Macht had been <a href=\\\"Gene%20Roddenberry\\\">Gene Roddenberry</a>'s first choice to play Captain <a href=\\\"Jean-Luc%20Picard\\\">Jean-Luc Picard</a> in \\\"\\\", but the role eventually went to <a href=\\\"Patrick%20Stewart\\\">Patrick Stewart</a> in 1986.\\nMore recent credits have included playing an Austrian Jew who must be baptized along with his wife and daughter in order to escape the Nazis in \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Friendship%20in%20Vienna\\\">A Friendship in Vienna</a>\\\" (1988 The Disney Channel); a doctor helping <a href=\\\"Jane%20Seymour%20%28actress%29\\\">Jane Seymour</a> in the syndicated miniseries \\\"Sidney Sheldon's Memories of Midnight\\\" (1991), and as cult member <a href=\\\"Joan%20Van%20Ark\\\">Joan Van Ark</a>'s suffering husband in \\\"\\\" (1994 NBC). Macht appeared in the 1995 third season \\\"<a href=\\\"Babylon%205\\\">Babylon 5</a>\\\" episode \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Day%20in%20the%20Strife\\\">A Day in the Strife</a>\\\" as the character 'Na'Far'. Na'Far was the new official Narn representative, replacing <a href=\\\"G%27Kar\\\">G'Kar</a>, after the Centauri's invasion of the <a href=\\\"Narn\\\">Narn</a> homeworld. In 1996 he did a six-month stint on the ABC daytime drama \\\"<a href=\\\"One%20Life%20to%20Live\\\">One Life to Live</a>\\\" as Elliot Durban. From August 24, 2007 to February 13, 2009 he portrayed <a href=\\\"Trevor%20Lansing\\\">Trevor Lansing</a>, attorney of organized crime boss Anthony Zacchara and father of attorney <a href=\\\"Ric%20Lansing\\\">Ric Lansing</a>, in the <a href=\\\"soap%20opera\\\">soap opera</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"General%20Hospital\\\">General Hospital</a>\\\" for which \\\"<a href=\\\"Soap%20Opera%20Digest\\\">Soap Opera Digest</a>\\\" nominated him Best Villain of 2007. In 2014, 2015 and 2016, Macht guest starred opposite his son, actor <a href=\\\"Gabriel%20Macht\\\">Gabriel Macht</a>, in \\\"<a href=\\\"Suits%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Suits</a>\\\".\\nMacht's work in feature films has been more sporadic, beginning with a turn as one of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Choirboys%20%28film%29\\\">The Choirboys</a>\\\" (1977). He also had roles in \\\"<a href=\\\"Nightwing%20%28film%29\\\">Nightwing</a>\\\" (1979), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Mountain%20Men\\\">The Mountain Men</a>\\\" (1980), \\\"<a href=\\\"Galaxina\\\">Galaxina</a>\\\" (1980), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Last%20Winter%20%281984%20film%29\\\">The Last Winter</a>\\\" (1984), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Monster%20Squad\\\">The Monster Squad</a>\\\" (1987), \\\"<a href=\\\"Graveyard%20Shift%20%281990%20film%29\\\">Stephen King's Graveyard Shift</a>\\\" (1990), \\\"\\\" (1992), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Adventures%20of%20Galgameth\\\">The Legend of Galgameth</a>\\\" (1996), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Watchers%20Reborn\\\">Watchers Reborn</a>\\\" (1998). Macht has also played Dr. Harris in three instalments of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Trancers\\\">Trancers</a>\\\" series of films.\\nMacht has been married to archivist/museum curator Suzanne Victoria Pulier since 1964. He has four children: Julie, Ari Serbin, actor <a href=\\\"Gabriel%20Macht\\\">Gabriel Macht</a> and musician <a href=\\\"Jesse%20Macht\\\">Jesse Macht</a>. Macht is also an ordained <a href=\\\"chaplain\\\">chaplain</a>. and his book, \\\"Moral Change: A Tragedy or A Return?: How Aristotle’s Tragic Reversal Illuminates Maimonides’ Teshuva\\\" was published on Amazon.com in October 2016.\",\n \"Jane Elliot\\nJane Elliot (born January 17, 1947) is an American actress, best known for her role as <a href=\\\"Tracy%20Quartermaine\\\">Tracy Quartermaine</a> in the <a href=\\\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">ABC</a> daytime <a href=\\\"soap%20opera\\\">soap opera</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"General%20Hospital\\\">General Hospital</a>\\\".\\nElliot was born in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. She was married to Luis Rojas and has three children Isiah Doss-Elliot, Adrian Elliot, and Annie Rose Elliot. Elliot made her daytime debut in the short-lived ABC soap \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Flame%20in%20the%20Wind\\\">A Flame in the Wind</a>\\\" in 1965. She later guest-starred in a number of television series, like \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Mod%20Squad\\\">The Mod Squad</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Kojak\\\">Kojak</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Barnaby%20Jones\\\">Barnaby Jones</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Police%20Woman%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Police Woman</a>\\\". Elliot also co-starred in films \\\"<a href=\\\"Change%20of%20Habit\\\">Change of Habit</a>\\\" (1969) opposite <a href=\\\"Elvis%20Presley\\\">Elvis Presley</a> and <a href=\\\"Mary%20Tyler%20Moore\\\">Mary Tyler Moore</a>, and \\\"<a href=\\\"One%20Is%20a%20Lonely%20Number\\\">One Is a Lonely Number</a>\\\" (1972). She had a lead role in the short-lived <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Rosetti%20and%20Ryan\\\">Rosetti and Ryan</a>\\\" in 1977.\\nElliot is best known for her role as Tracy Quartermaine on the ABC daytime soap opera \\\"General Hospital\\\". Elliot debuted in 1978 and became a fan favorite. Her first stint was highlighted by an episode in which Tracy withholds her father's heart medication when he appears to be suffering a heart attack. Elliot left in 1980 and won a <a href=\\\"Daytime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Supporting%20Actress%20in%20a%20Drama%20Series\\\">Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series</a> for the role in 1981. The same year, she landed the recurring role of Judy Trent on the prime time <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\".\\nFrom 1981 to 1982, Elliot appeared on the CBS soap opera \\\"<a href=\\\"Guiding%20Light\\\">Guiding Light</a>\\\" as Carrie Todd, a character who turns about to be a murderer suffering from a <a href=\\\"split%20personality\\\">split personality</a>. From 1984 to 1986 she played \\\"<a href=\\\"All%20My%20Children\\\">All My Children</a>\\\"'s Cynthia Chandler Preston Cortlandt, who marries a wealthy older man for his money while having an affair with his son. Elliot portrayed Anjelica Deveraux on \\\"<a href=\\\"Days%20of%20Our%20Lives\\\">Days of Our Lives</a>\\\" from 1987 to 1989; her character has an affair with the much younger <a href=\\\"Justin%20Kiriakis\\\">Justin Kiriakis</a> (played by <a href=\\\"Wally%20Kurth\\\">Wally Kurth</a>) but marries someone else despite being pregnant with Justin's child. In 1987, Elliot appeared in the films \\\"<a href=\\\"Some%20Kind%20of%20Wonderful%20%28film%29\\\">Some Kind of Wonderful</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Baby%20Boom%20%28film%29\\\">Baby Boom</a>\\\". After two years on \\\"Days of Our Lives\\\", she returned to \\\"General Hospital\\\" in 1989, and in 1991 was reunited with Kurth, who was cast as Tracy's son, <a href=\\\"Ned%20Ashton%20%28General%20Hospital%29\\\">Ned Ashton</a>. Elliot left again in mid-1993, later becoming a producer on the 1995 ABC soap opera \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20City%20%281995%20TV%20series%29\\\">The City</a>\\\". From 1996 to 1997 she reprised the role of Tracy Quartermaine on \\\"The City\\\" after briefly appearing as Tracy again on \\\"General Hospital\\\". In 2003, Elliot returned to \\\"General Hospital\\\" as a regular cast member. In 2014, she was nominated for another Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, 33 years after her win and 21 years since her last nomination. Elliot announced her retirement in March 2017.\",\n \"Laura Avery Sumner\\nLaura Avery Sumner (maiden name Murphy) is a <a href=\\\"fictional%20character\\\">fictional character</a> from the <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> <a href=\\\"soap%20opera\\\">soap opera</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Knots%20Landing\\\">Knots Landing</a>\\\", a long-running serial about <a href=\\\"middle%20class\\\">middle class</a> life on the fictional <a href=\\\"cul-de-sac\\\">cul-de-sac</a> known as Seaview Circle in <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\\\">Los Angeles, California</a>. She was played by actress <a href=\\\"Constance%20McCashin\\\">Constance McCashin</a> between 1979 and 1987. She debuted in the pilot episode and remained a principal actor in the series until the ninth season episode \\\"The Gift of Life\\\".\\nLaura was adopted as a baby by Hank Murphy and his wife and lived in Pittsburgh.Laura had an older brother and two older sisters. By age 12, Laura's adoptive mother died. Laura graduated High School and did some post-High School studies where she met Law student Richard Avery. Laura was very much attracted to Richard, because Richard gave her the attention she was always seeking. The two were later married, and Laura had to quit school and work hard to support Richard through Law School. Richard graduated from Law School and became a lawyer. Later, Laura and Richard had a son, Jason Avery and the family moved to Knots Landing.\\nLaura lived a rather boring life in Knots Landing trying to help support her husband through law school and being a mother. When Richard's dependence on her began to wane as his job as a lawyer brought in good money, Laura began to seek attention from other men, which resulted in her getting raped. Later, Laura wanted to work, much to the objection of Richard, and she studied to become a real-estate agent. Meanwhile, Richard lost his job and their marriage began to deteriorate further. Laura began an affair with her boss, Scooter, while Richard started seeing neighbor <a href=\\\"Abby%20Cunningham\\\">Abby Cunningham</a>. As Laura's career grew, Richard's wilted and the marriage suffered more. Laura decided to divorce Richard until she discovered she was pregnant. However, Laura decided she would leave Richard and caused him to have a mental breakdown. When Richard returned home, after being institutionalized, there was a glimmer of hope and they tried to rebuild their marriage. They opened a restaurant together named Daniel, after their newborn son.\\nRichard became jealous of Laura's closeness with singer Ciji Dunne, and made no attempt to hide his disdain for her. After Ciji was murdered, Richard felt remorseful and tried to apologize to Laura, but she refused to forgive him. Believing that Laura no longer loved him, Richard left his family one night and would not return until years later. Laura at first believed Richard left because he had a role in Ciji's death, but as events unfolded, she came to know otherwise and accepted some responsibility for the loss of her marriage.\\nLaura's life improved as she started working for Gary Ewing Enterprises, although she had to work closely with Abby, There she met <a href=\\\"Gregory%20Sumner\\\">Gregory Sumner</a> and they began an affair. However, Abby and Greg's mother, Ruth (<a href=\\\"Ava%20Gardner\\\">Ava Gardner</a>), succeeded in breaking them up but Laura and Greg both realized they needed each other and they got married. When Laura announced she was pregnant, Greg told her he didn't want to be a father again but Laura stubbornly decided to have the baby and Greg later warmed to the idea. After giving birth to her daughter, Margaret, Laura is diagnosed with an incurable brain tumor. Laura chose to enter a clinic and die alone. When Laura died, Greg had Meg adopted by Laura's best friend, <a href=\\\"Karen%20MacKenzie\\\">Karen MacKenzie</a>.\\nIn 1987, the production of \\\"Knots Landing\\\" was hit by major budget cuts and many actors were let go, including McCashin. Much controversy surrounded this decision made by the producers and was even objected to openly by McCashin herself. McCashin explained to \\\"<a href=\\\"Boston.com\\\">Boston.com</a>\\\" in 2009 stating, \\\"I was very hurt the way I was let go for financial reasons. I wish they'd handled my demise better\\\".\",\n \"Michael York\\nMichael York, <a href=\\\"Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire\\\">OBE</a> (born Michael Hugh Johnson; 27 March 1942) is an English actor.\\nYork was born in <a href=\\\"Fulmer\\\">Fulmer</a>, <a href=\\\"Gerrards%20Cross\\\">Gerrards Cross</a>, <a href=\\\"Buckinghamshire\\\">Buckinghamshire</a>, the son of Florence Edith May (<a href=\\\"married%20and%20maiden%20names\\\">née</a> Chown), a musician; and Joseph Gwynne Johnson, a <a href=\\\"Llandovery\\\">Llandovery</a>-born <a href=\\\"Wales\\\">Welsh</a> ex-<a href=\\\"Royal%20Artillery\\\">Royal Artillery</a> <a href=\\\"British%20Army\\\">British Army</a> officer and executive with <a href=\\\"Marks%20%26amp%3B%20Spencer\\\">Marks & Spencer</a> department stores. York has an older sister, Penelope Anne (born 1940) and younger twin sisters, Caroline and Bridget (born 1947); Bridget died a few hours after birth, according to his autobiography. He was brought up in <a href=\\\"Burgess%20Hill\\\">Burgess Hill</a>, <a href=\\\"Sussex\\\">Sussex</a>.\\nDuring his teenage years, York was educated at <a href=\\\"Ravensbourne%20School%2C%20Bromley\\\">Bromley Grammar School for Boys</a>, <a href=\\\"Hurstpierpoint%20College\\\">Hurstpierpoint College</a> and <a href=\\\"University%20College%2C%20Oxford\\\">University College, Oxford</a>. He began his career in a 1956 production of \\\"The Yellow Jacket\\\". In 1959 he made his <a href=\\\"West%20End%20theatre\\\">West End</a> début with a small part in a production of \\\"<a href=\\\"Hamlet\\\">Hamlet</a>\\\". York was a member of <a href=\\\"National%20Youth%20Theatre\\\">National Youth Theatre</a>\\nHe met photographer Patricia McCallum in 1967 when she was assigned to photograph him, and they married on 27 March 1968, York's 26th birthday. His stepson is \\\"<a href=\\\"Star%20Wars\\\">Star Wars</a>\\\" producer <a href=\\\"Rick%20McCallum\\\">Rick McCallum</a>. York was named to the <a href=\\\"International%20Best%20Dressed%20List\\\">International Best Dressed List</a> Hall of Fame in 1977.\\nIn 2013, York announced he was suffering from the rare disease <a href=\\\"amyloidosis\\\">amyloidosis</a>. Doctors initially thought he had bone cancer. In 2012, he had undergone a stem cell transplant, which can alleviate symptoms.\\nPrior to graduating with a degree in English from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Oxford\\\">University of Oxford</a> in 1964, York had toured with the <a href=\\\"National%20Youth%20Theatre\\\">National Youth Theatre</a>, also performing with the <a href=\\\"Oxford%20University%20Dramatic%20Society\\\">Oxford University Dramatic Society</a> and the <a href=\\\"University%20College%20Players\\\">University College Players</a>. After some time with the <a href=\\\"Dundee%20Repertory%20Theatre\\\">Dundee Repertory Theatre</a>, where he played in <a href=\\\"Brendan%20Behan\\\">Brendan Behan</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hostage%20%28play%29\\\">The Hostage</a>\\\", York joined <a href=\\\"Royal%20National%20Theatre\\\">National Theatre</a> under <a href=\\\"Laurence%20Olivier\\\">Laurence Olivier</a> where he worked with <a href=\\\"Franco%20Zeffirelli\\\">Franco Zeffirelli</a> during the 1965 staging of \\\"<a href=\\\"Much%20Ado%20About%20Nothing\\\">Much Ado About Nothing</a>\\\". Following his role on British TV as Jolyon (Jolly) in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Forsyte%20Saga%20%281967%20series%29\\\">The Forsyte Saga</a>\\\" (1967), York made his film debut as Lucentio in Zeffirelli's \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Taming%20of%20the%20Shrew%20%281967%20film%29\\\">The Taming of the Shrew</a>\\\" (1967), then was cast as <a href=\\\"Tybalt\\\">Tybalt</a> in Zeffirelli's 1968 film adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"Romeo%20and%20Juliet%20%281968%20film%29\\\">Romeo and Juliet</a>\\\". He starred in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Guru%20%281969%20film%29\\\">The Guru</a>\\\" (1969), played an amoral <a href=\\\"Bisexuality\\\">bisexual</a> drifter in \\\"<a href=\\\"Something%20for%20Everyone\\\">Something for Everyone</a>\\\" (<a href=\\\"1970%20in%20film\\\">1970</a>) and portrayed the bisexual Brian Roberts in <a href=\\\"Bob%20Fosse\\\">Bob Fosse</a>'s film version of \\\"<a href=\\\"Cabaret%20%281972%20film%29\\\">Cabaret</a>\\\" (<a href=\\\"1972%20in%20film\\\">1972</a>). In 1971 he portrayed a World War I soldier with conflicted family loyalties who pretends to side with the Germans in \\\"<a href=\\\"Zeppelin%20%28film%29\\\">Zeppelin</a>\\\". In 1975 he portrayed a British soldier in 19th century colonial India in \\\"<a href=\\\"Conduct%20Unbecoming%20%28film%29\\\">Conduct Unbecoming</a>\\\", the first of three movies he did with director <a href=\\\"Michael%20Anderson%20%28director%29\\\">Michael Anderson</a>. In 1977, he reunited with Franco Zeffirelli as <a href=\\\"John%20the%20Baptist\\\">John the Baptist</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"Jesus%20of%20Nazareth%20%28miniseries%29\\\">Jesus of Nazareth</a>\\\".\\nYork starred as <a href=\\\"Charles%20de%20Batz-Castelmore%20d%27Artagnan\\\">D'Artagnan</a> in the 1973 adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Three%20Musketeers%20%281973%20film%29\\\">The Three Musketeers</a>\\\" and he made his <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a> début in the original production of <a href=\\\"Tennessee%20Williams\\\">Tennessee Williams</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Out%20Cry\\\">Out Cry</a>\\\". One year later the sequel to \\\"The Three Musketeers\\\" was released (roughly covering events in the second half of the book) titled \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Four%20Musketeers%20%28film%29\\\">The Four Musketeers</a>\\\". . Fifteen years later, most of the cast (and crew) joined together in a third film titled \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Return%20of%20the%20Musketeers\\\">The Return of the Musketeers</a>\\\" based on the Dumas novel \\\"<a href=\\\"Twenty%20Years%20After\\\">Twenty Years After</a>\\\". He played the title character in the film adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"Logan%27s%20Run%20%28film%29\\\">Logan's Run</a>\\\" (1976). The following year, he starred in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Island%20of%20Dr.%20Moreau%20%281977%20film%29\\\">The Island of Dr. Moreau</a>\\\" opposite <a href=\\\"Burt%20Lancaster\\\">Burt Lancaster</a>.\\nSince his auspicious early work, York has enjoyed a busy and varied career in film, <a href=\\\"television\\\">television</a> and on the stage. He appeared in two episodes in the second season of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Road%20to%20Avonlea\\\">Road to Avonlea</a>\\\" series as Ezekiel Crane, the lighthouse keeper of Avonlea and foster father of Gus Pike. His <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway theatre</a> credits include \\\"<a href=\\\"Bent%20%28play%29\\\">Bent</a>\\\" (1980), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Crucible\\\">The Crucible</a>\\\" (1992), \\\"<a href=\\\"Someone%20Who%27ll%20Watch%20Over%20Me\\\">Someone Who'll Watch Over Me</a>\\\" (1993) and the ill-fated musical \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Little%20Prince%20and%20the%20Aviator\\\">The Little Prince and the Aviator</a>\\\" (1982), which closed during previews. He also has made many sound recordings as a reader, including Harper Audio's production of <a href=\\\"C.%26amp%3Bnbsp%3BS.%20Lewis\\\">C. S. Lewis</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lion%2C%20the%20Witch%20and%20the%20Wardrobe\\\">The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe</a>\\\".\\nYork appeared in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Babylon%205\\\">Babylon 5</a>\\\" episode \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Late%20Delivery%20from%20Avalon\\\">A Late Delivery from Avalon</a>\\\" as a delusional man who believed himself to be King Arthur returned. He also appeared as Professor Asher Fleming, a 60-year-old <a href=\\\"Yale%20University\\\">Yale</a> professor and boyfriend of Yale student <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Gilmore%20Girls%20characters%23Paris%20Geller\\\">Paris Geller</a> (<a href=\\\"Liza%20Weil\\\">Liza Weil</a>) during the fourth season of \\\"<a href=\\\"Gilmore%20Girls\\\">Gilmore Girls</a>\\\". He performed the voice of the character <a href=\\\"Ares%20%28DC%20Comics%29\\\">Ares</a> in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Justice%20League%20Unlimited\\\">Justice League Unlimited</a>\\\" episode \\\"Hawk & Dove\\\", as well as Dr. Montague Kane in the \\\"\\\" episode \\\"Zatanna\\\" and <a href=\\\"Kanto%20%28comics%29\\\">Kanto</a> in the \\\"\\\" episode \\\"Tools of the Trade\\\". York starred in both \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Omega%20Code\\\">The Omega Code</a>\\\" and its sequel, \\\"\\\", as Stone Alexander, the <a href=\\\"Antichrist\\\">Antichrist</a> from <a href=\\\"Christian%20eschatology\\\">Christian eschatology</a>.\\nHe played <a href=\\\"Characters%20of%20seaQuest%202032%23President%20Alexander%20Bourne\\\">President Alexander Bourne</a> of <a href=\\\"Macronesia\\\">Macronesia</a> on \\\"<a href=\\\"seaQuest%20DSV%23Season%203\\\">seaQuest 2032</a>\\\". He played <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Austin%20Powers%20characters%23Basil%20Exposition\\\">Basil Exposition</a> in all three of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Austin%20Powers%20%28film%20series%29\\\">Austin Powers</a>\\\" films. He has made an appearance on \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Simpsons\\\">The Simpsons</a>\\\" as Mason Fairbanks, <a href=\\\"Homer%20Simpson\\\">Homer Simpson</a>'s possible father, in \\\"<a href=\\\"Homer%27s%20Paternity%20Coot\\\">Homer's Paternity Coot</a>\\\". In 2006, York played the character Bernard Fremont (inspired by real life <a href=\\\"serial%20killer\\\">serial killer</a> <a href=\\\"Charles%20Sobhraj\\\">Charles Sobhraj</a>) in the \\\"\\\" episode \\\"\\\". He also appeared as a fictionalised version of himself in several episodes of the third season of \\\"<a href=\\\"Curb%20Your%20Enthusiasm\\\">Curb Your Enthusiasm</a>\\\" as an investor in Larry's new restaurant 'BoBo's. In 2009, he lent his voice to \\\"\\\".\\nYork voiced <a href=\\\"List%20of%20The%20Land%20Before%20Time%20characters%23Petrie\\\">Petrie</a>'s uncle Pterano in \\\"\\\". In 2009 he narrated the entire Bible for \\\"The Word of Promise Audio Bible,\\\" a star-studded, performance of the <a href=\\\"New%20King%20James%20Version\\\">New King James Version</a>. York again played <a href=\\\"King%20Arthur\\\">King Arthur</a> in a revival of <a href=\\\"Alan%20Jay%20Lerner\\\">Lerner</a> and <a href=\\\"Frederick%20Loewe\\\">Loewe</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Camelot%20%28musical%29\\\">Camelot</a>\\\", which began its run at the La Mirada Theatre in <a href=\\\"Southern%20California\\\">Southern California</a>, and toured nationally in 2006 and 2007.\\nYork portrays Luke in \\\"The Truth & Life Dramatised Audio New Testament Bible\\\", a 22-hour audio dramatisation of the New Testament, which uses the <a href=\\\"Revised%20Standard%20Version%20Catholic%20Edition\\\">Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition</a> translation. In 2008, York took part in the <a href=\\\"BBC%20Cymru%20Wales\\\">BBC Wales</a> programme \\\"<a href=\\\"Coming%20Home%20%28UK%20TV%20series%29\\\">Coming Home</a>\\\" about his Welsh family history. In September 2013, York played Albany in the Gala Performance of <a href=\\\"William%20Shakespeare\\\">William Shakespeare</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"King%20Lear\\\">King Lear</a>\\\" at <a href=\\\"the%20Old%20Vic\\\">the Old Vic</a> in London.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Sweet Revenge is a 1987 American motion picture starring Nancy Allen as Jillian Grey, a newscaster abducted and sold into white slavery while doing an undercover expose. Ted Shackelford, Martin Landau, Gina Gershon, Michele Little, and Lotis Key round out the cast of this R-rated action adventure directed by Mark Sobel with Roger Corman acting as executive producer.","Theodore Tillman \"Ted\" Shackelford III (born June 23, 1946) is an American actor. He played Gary Ewing in the CBS television series \"Knots Landing\" (1979–1993); since 2006, he has appeared in a recurring role on the CBS soap \"The Young and the Restless,\" portraying twin brothers William and Jeffrey Bardwell."],"string":"[\n \"Sweet Revenge is a 1987 American motion picture starring Nancy Allen as Jillian Grey, a newscaster abducted and sold into white slavery while doing an undercover expose. Ted Shackelford, Martin Landau, Gina Gershon, Michele Little, and Lotis Key round out the cast of this R-rated action adventure directed by Mark Sobel with Roger Corman acting as executive producer.\",\n \"Theodore Tillman \\\"Ted\\\" Shackelford III (born June 23, 1946) is an American actor. He played Gary Ewing in the CBS television series \\\"Knots Landing\\\" (1979–1993); since 2006, he has appeared in a recurring role on the CBS soap \\\"The Young and the Restless,\\\" portraying twin brothers William and Jeffrey Bardwell.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":70,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which ANA motorcycle engine is named after a dragon in Norse mythology?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Fafnir became a dragon"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Gná and Hófvarpnir\nIn Norse mythology, Gná is a goddess who runs errands in other worlds for the goddess Frigg and rides the flying, sea-treading horse Hófvarpnir (Old Norse \"he who throws his hoofs about\", \"hoof-thrower\" or \"hoof kicker\"). Gná and Hófvarpnir are attested in the \"Prose Edda\", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Scholarly theories have been proposed about Gná as a \"goddess of fullness\" and as potentially cognate to Fama from Roman mythology. Hófvarpnir and the eight-legged steed Sleipnir have been cited examples of transcendent horses in Norse mythology.\nIn chapter 35 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur. High lists Gná thirteenth, and says that Frigg sends her off to different worlds to run errands. High adds that Gná rides the horse Hófvarpnir, and that this horse has the ability to ride through the air and atop the sea. High continues that \"once some Vanir saw her path as she rode through the air\" and that an unnamed one of these Vanir says, in verse:\nGná responds in verse, in doing so providing the parentage of Hófvarpnir; the horses Hamskerpir and Garðrofa:\nThe source for these stanzas is not provided and they are otherwise unattested. High ends his description of Gná by saying that \"from Gna's name comes the custom of saying that something \"gnaefir\" [looms] when it rises up high.\" In the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Gná is included among a list of 27 ásynjur names.\nRudolf Simek says that the etymology that Snorri presents in \"Gylfaginning\" for the name \"Gná\" may not be correct, yet it is unclear what the name may otherwise mean, though Gná has also been etymologically theorized as a \"goddess of fullness.\" John Lindow calls the verse exchange between the Vanir and Gná \"strange\" and points out that it's unclear why it should specifically be the Vanir that witness Gná flying through the air.\nUlla Loumand cites Hófvarpnir and the eight-legged horse Sleipnir as \"prime examples\" of horses in Norse mythology as being able to \"mediate between earth and sky, between Ásgarðr, Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld.\" In the 19th century, Jacob Grimm proposed a cognate in the personified rumor in Roman mythology; Fama. However, Grimm notes that unlike Fama, Gná is not described as winged but rather that Hófvarpnir, like the winged-horse Pegasus, may have been.\n","Harley-Davidson Knucklehead engine\nThe knucklehead is a retronym used by enthusiasts to refer to a Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine, so named because of the distinct shape of the rocker boxes. The engine is a two-cylinder, 45 degree, pushrod actuated overhead valve V-twin engine with two valves per cylinder. It was the third basic type of V-Twin engine used by Harley-Davidson, replacing the Flathead-engined VL model in 1936 as HD's top-of-the-line model. The engine was manufactured until 1947 and was replaced by the Panhead engine in 1948. The Knucklehead-engined models were originally referred to as \"OHVs\" by enthusiasts of the time and in Harley's official literature; the nickname arose from the California chopper culture of the late 1960s.\nAs the design of Harley-Davidson engines has evolved through the years, the distinctive shape of the valve covers has allowed Harley enthusiasts to classify an engine simply by looking at the shape of the cover. The knucklehead engine valve covers have contours resembling knuckles on a person's fist that give the knucklehead its name.","Mjölnir\nIn Norse mythology, Mjölnir (Old Norse: \"Mjǫllnir\" , ] ) is the hammer of Thor, a major Norse god associated with thunder. Mjölnir is depicted in Norse mythology as one of the most fearsome and powerful weapons in existence, capable of leveling mountains. In his account of Norse mythology, Snorri Sturluson relates how the hammer was made by the dwarven brothers Eitri and Brokkr, and how its characteristically short handle was due to a mishap during its manufacture. Similar hammers (Ukonvasara) were a common symbol of the god of thunder in other North European mythologies.\nOld Norse \"Mjǫllnir\" /ˈmjɔlːnir/ regularly becomes \"Mjøllnir\" /ˈmjœlːnir/ in Old Icelandic by the 13th century.\nThe modern Icelandic form is \"Mjölnir\", Norwegian and Danish \"Mjølner\", Swedish \"Mjölner\".\nThe name is derived from a Proto-Germanic form \"*meldunjaz\", from the Germanic root of \"*malanan\" \"to grind\" (\"*melwan\", Old Icelandic \"meldr, mjǫll, mjǫl\" \"meal, flour\"), yielding an interpretation of \"the grinder; crusher\".\nAdditionally, there is a suggestion that the mythological \"thunder weapon\" being named after the word for \"grindstone\" is of considerable, Proto-Indo-European (if not Indo-Hittite) age;\naccording to this suggestion, the divine thunder weapon (identified with lightning) of the storm god was imagined as a grindstone (Russian \"molot\" and possibly Hittite \"malatt-\" \"sledgehammer, bludgeon\"), reflected in Russian молния (\"molniya\") and Welsh \"mellt\" \"lightning\" (possibly cognate with Old Norse \"mjuln\" \"fire\").\nIn the Old Norse texts, Mjölnir is identified as \"hamarr\" \"a hammer\", a word that in Old Norse and some modern Norwegian dialects can mean \"hammer\" as well as \"stone, rock, cliff\", ultimately derived from an Indo-European word for \"stone, stone tool\", \"h₂éḱmō\"; as such it is cognate with Sanskrit \"aśman\", meaning \"stone, rock, stone tool; hammer\" as well as \"thunderbolt\".\nAn account of the origin of Mjölnir is found in \"Skáldskaparmál\" from Snorri's Edda:\nIn this story, Loki bets his head with Sindri (or Eitri) and his brother Brokkr that they could never succeed in making items more beautiful than those of the Sons of Ivaldi (the dwarves who created other precious items for the gods: Odin's spear Gungnir, and Freyr's foldable boat Skíðblaðnir).\nSindri and Brokkr accept Loki's bet and the two brothers begin working. They begin to work in their workshop and Sindri puts a pig's skin in the forge and tells his brother (Brokkr) never to stop working the bellows until he comes and takes out what he put in.\nLoki, in disguise as a fly, comes and bites Brokkr on the arm. Nevertheless, he continues to pump the bellows.\nThen, Sindri takes out Gullinbursti, Freyr's boar with shining bristles. Next, Sindri puts some gold in the forge and gives Brokkr the same order. Again, Loki, still in the guise of a fly comes and, again, bites Brokkr's neck twice as hard as he had bitten his arm. Just as before, Brokkr continues to work the bellows despite the pain. When Sindri returns, he takes out Draupnir, Odin's ring, which drops eight duplicates of itself every ninth night.\nFinally, Sindri puts some iron in the forge and tells Brokkr not to stop pumping the bellows. Loki comes a third time and this time bites Brokkr on the eyelid even harder. The bite is so deep that it draws blood. The blood runs into Brokkr's eyes and forces him stop working the bellows just long enough to wipe his eyes. This time, when Sindri returns, he takes Mjölnir out of the forge. The handle is shorter than Sindri had planned and so the hammer can only be wielded with one hand.\nDespite the flaw in the handle, Sindri and Brokkr win the bet and go to take Loki's head. However, Loki worms his way out of the bet by pointing out that the dwarves would need to cut his neck to remove his head, but Loki's neck was not part of the deal. As a consolation prize, Brokkr sews Loki's mouth shut to teach him a lesson.\nThe final product is then presented to Thor, and its properties are described, as follows,\nThen he gave the hammer to Thor, and said that Thor might smite as hard as he desired, whatsoever might be before him, and the hammer would not fail; and if he threw it at anything, it would never miss, and never fly so far as not to return to his hand; and if be desired, he might keep it in his sark, it was so small; but indeed it was a flaw in the hammer that the fore-haft was somewhat short. \"(Original: Þá gaf hann Þór hamarinn ok sagði, at hann myndi mega ljósta svá stórt sem hann vildi, hvat sem fyrir væri, at eigi myndi hamarrinn bila, ok ef hann yrpi honum til, þá myndi hann aldri missa ok aldri fljúga svá langt, at eigi myndi hann sækja heim hönd, ok ef þat vildi, þá var hann svá lítill, at hafa mátti serk sér. En þat var lýi á, ar forskeftit var heldr skammt.)\"\nThor possessed a formidable chariot, which is drawn by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr. A belt, Megingjörð, and iron gloves, Járngreipr, were used to lift Mjölnir. Mjölnir is the focal point of some of Thor's adventures.\nThis is clearly illustrated in a poem found in the \"Poetic Edda\" titled \"Þrymskviða\". The myth relates that the giant, Þrymr, steals Mjölnir from Thor and then demands the goddess Freyja in exchange. Loki, the god notorious for his duplicity, conspires with the other Æsir to recover Mjölnir by disguising Thor as Freyja and presenting him as the \"goddess\" to Þrymr.\nAt a banquet Þrymr holds in honor of the impending union, Þrymr takes the bait. Unable to contain his passion for his new maiden with long, blond locks (and broad shoulders), as Þrymr approaches the bride by placing Mjölnir on \"her\" lap, Thor rips off his disguise and destroys Þrymr and his giant cohorts.\nA precedent of these Viking Age Thor's hammer amulets are recorded for the migration period Alemanni, who took to wearing Roman \"Hercules' Clubs\" as symbols of Donar. A possible remnant of these Donar amulets was recorded in 1897, as a custom of Unterinn (South Tyrolian Alps) of incising a T-shape above front doors for protection against evils of all kinds, especially storms.\nAbout 50 specimens of Mjölnir amulets have been found widely dispersed throughout Scandinavia, dating from the 9th to 11th centuries, most commonly discovered in areas with a strong Christian influence including southern Norway, south-eastern Sweden, and Denmark. Due to the similarity of equal-armed, square crosses featuring figures of Christ on them at around the same time, the wearing of Thor's hammers as pendants may have come into fashion in defiance of the square amulets worn by newly converted Christians in the regions.\nAn iron Thor's hammer pendant excavated in Yorkshire, dating to ca. AD 1000 bears an uncial inscription preceded and followed by a cross, interpreted as indicating a Christian owner synchronising pagan and Christian symbolism.\nA 10th-century soapstone mold found at Trendgården, Jutland, Denmark is notable for allowing the casting of both crucifix and Thor's hammer pendants. A silver specimen found near Fossi, Iceland (now in the National Museum of Iceland) can be interpreted as either a Christian cross or a Thor's hammer. Unusually, the elongated limb of the cross ends in a beast's (perhaps a wolf's) head.\nThe Købelev Runic-Thor’s Hammer, found at the Danish island of Lolland in 2014, is so far the only one bearing an inscription, proving that this kind of pendant is meant to be a hammer. The inscription reads \"Hmar x is,\" which translates to \"This is a hammer.\" However, the proper spelling is \"hamar,\" indicating the creator was not a fully literate individual.\nSome image stones and runestones found in Denmark and southern Sweden bear an inscription of a hammer. Runestones depicting Thor's hammer include runestones U 1161 in Altuna, Sö 86 in Åby, Sö 111 in Stenkvista, Sö 140 in Jursta, Vg 113 in Lärkegapet, Öl 1 in Karlevi, DR 26 in Laeborg, DR 48 in Hanning, DR 120 in Spentrup, and DR 331 in Gårdstånga. Other runestones included an inscription calling for Thor to safeguard the stone. For example, the stone of Virring in Denmark had the inscription \"þur uiki þisi kuml\", which translates into English as \"May Thor hallow this memorial.\" There are several examples of a similar inscription, each one asking for Thor to \"hallow\" or protect the specific artifact. Such inscriptions may have been in response to the Christians, who would ask for God's protection over their dead.\nAccording to some scholars, the swastika shape may have been a variant popular in Anglo-Saxon England prior to Christianization, especially in East Anglia and Kent. Wilson (1894) points out that while the swastika had been \"vulgarly called in Scandinavia the hammer of Thor\" (in Icelandic: \"Thorshamarmerki\", mark of Thor's hammer), the symbol properly so called had a Y or T shape.\nMost practitioners of Germanic Neopagan faiths wear Mjölnir pendants as a symbol of that faith worldwide. Renditions of Mjölnir are designed, crafted and sold by some Germanic Neopagan groups and individuals.\nSome controversy has occurred concerning the potential recognition of the symbol as a religious symbol by the United States government. In May 2013 the \"Hammer of Thor\" was added to the list of United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers.\n\n","Elizabeth H. Boyer\nElizabeth Hall Boyer (born 1952) is an American fantasy author who produced a number of books in the 1980s and early 1990s. Her stories were deeply influenced by Norse mythology, and are set in a fantasy world whose climate and geography resembles that of the Scandinavia of Norse myths. While Norse mythology has been an influence on the fantasy genre, and many authors such as Tolkien and Lewis were influenced by these myths, Boyer's books followed them much more closely. Her stories are characterized by light and dark elves, dwarves, trolls, sorcerers, ley lines, burial mounds, wizards, and so forth. Boyer tended to follow the Norse versions of these story elements closely without much deviation. Boyer's early books are dominated by the theme of the heroic quest.\nBoyer attended Brigham Young University where she studied English literature and Scandinavian mythology. She was last reported living near Atlanta on a farm, and no longer writing.\nHer works have maintained a level of popularity through the years since their publication, however critics have described her later works to have been inferior efforts compared to the original \"Alfar\" series. The \"Skyla\" series in particular was noted as \"less ambitious\" and darker yet slow-paced, patchy, and tentative. Other critics attribute her lack of popular appeal (compared to contemporaries like Tolkien and Lewis) to a narrower thematic subtext. As an early contributor to the mass-market fantasy genre, Boyer's fate is described as similar to her contemporary Niel Hancock in that her books required the reader to be interested in a specialized area of study, in this case, Norse mythology, in order to fully appreciate the books, and thus she did not find the sort of wide acceptance which would have given her a more prominent place as a pioneer in the genre.\nBoyer also contributed the short story, \"The Last Gift,\" to the anthology \"Catfantastic II\" in 1990.","Norse mythology in popular culture\nThe Norse mythology, preserved in such ancient Icelandic texts as the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, and other lays and sagas, was little known outside Scandinavia until the 19th century. With the widespread publication of Norse myths and legends at this time, references to the Norse gods and heroes spread into European literary culture, especially in Scandinavia, Germany, and Britain. In the later 20th century, references to Norse mythology became common in science fiction and fantasy literature, role-playing games, and eventually other cultural products such as Japanese animation.\nAntiquaries of the 19th century such as George Webbe Dasent brought the mythology of Scandinavia back to the popular notice of many people in Germany and England; in both cases, Norse mythology was recognized as the latest surviving form of Germanic paganism. Germany and England were Christianized far earlier than the Scandinavian countries and much of their own traditions were lost.\nIn Britain, William Morris composed poetry such as \"Sigurd the Volsung\" on Norse legendary subjects as well as translating Icelandic sagas into English. In Germany, Richard Wagner borrowed characters and themes from Norse mythology to compose the four operas that make up \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\" (\"The Ring of the Nibelung\"), though he also utilized medieval German sources and Germanized the names of the Norse gods.\nNorse mythology influenced Richard Wagner's use of literary themes from it to compose the four operas that make up \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\" (\"The Ring of the Nibelung\").","Harley-Davidson Shovelhead engine\nThe Shovelhead engine is a motorcycle engine that was produced by Harley-Davidson from 1966 to 1984, built as a successor to the previous Panhead engine. When the engine was first produced, the Shovelhead had a shallower combustion chamber, larger valve drop for both intake and exhaust, better porting, and stronger valves and pistons. This gave the new engine an extra 10 horsepower, along with a different appearance. The engine gained the nickname “Shovelhead” due to the look of the rocker heads having the appearance of an old coal shovel that was flipped upside down, giving the appearance of a shovel. While the engine did have problems earlier in its timeline, the new and improved motor gave Harley-Davidson a 26% sales increase.\nThe Shovelhead engine was created due to the previous Panhead engine starting to become obsolete, with many Harley-Davidson owners demanding more power to compete with the more modern motorcycles. Throughout the Shovelhead’s run, the engine had many different changes made to it to improve power, cooling and oil consumption. The engines had only 10 fins for cooling, which caused them to run hot. Another problem was that oil would pool in the cylinder heads, causing it to leak into the valves and burn oil. Another problem was that oil would pool in the crankcase rather than being pumped, causing the engine to overheat and seriously harm performance. Oil leakage and consumption became such a problem with the bikes, many owners reported losing as much as a quart of oil every 500 miles. The excessive overheating in the motors also caused serious problems, which frequently led to failure. With a lack of oil and excessive heat, the valves were prone to sticking and destroying the top end. Numerous Harley technicians even stated that without necessary top-end modifications, the motors would often last only between 500 and 5,000 miles. With Harley-Davidson trying to fix the engine rather than research and develop, they fell far behind the competition of the cheaper and more reliable Japanese bikes taking control over the market.\nAs a way to try to combat their financial struggles, the company merged with the American Machine and Foundry (known as AMF) hoping to gain help from their struggles. After AMF took control, the merged company started to make attempts at improving the engine with their own funds. In 1970, the alternator was redesigned for less strain, hidden behind a new and redesigned side case. The carburetors were changed to Zenith-Bendix, improving flow and power that started to gain a better image for the engine. However, in 1974, the engine started to show many more problems. With the United States involved in the 1973 oil crisis, gasoline had a much lower octane and consistency that severely hurt the engine’s performance. Engine knock became a large problem; causing overheating that led to blown gaskets and damaged head bolts. AMF tried to combat this by producing more units in 1976 despite the engine’s problems, which ended up leading to a damaged employee reputation, along with seriously declined quality in their units. After realizing they would need some serious improvement to fix their current situation, they produced some updates in 1978 to the engine that consisted of a larger displacement, and steel struts cast into the pistons to prevent them from expanding from the heat. However, the changes were not enough for the declining quality of American fuel at the time. Valves and guides were prone to problems, along with more overheating, detonation, and oil consumption.\nAnother problem that arose in 1979 was that the motors were fitted with electronic ignition units, which were prone to failure. Many owners would swap the units for an older point-ignition system for reliability. The larger compression ratio on the newer engines was still a serious problem, due to the low fuel quality and octane. With many Shovelhead owners having to turn towards aftermarket parts to keep the bike running properly, Harley-Davidson realized they would have to start developing a new engine. Towards the end of the Shovelhead's production, Harley-Davidson made numerous modifications in an attempt to keep the engine usable for production. Belt drive was added to their motorcycles in 1980 to prevent the oil leakage from the enclosed chain, along with a 5-speed transmission and rubber motor mounts to help reduce vibration. In 1981, Harley Davidson purchased AMF's share of the company back, adding a new oil pump, improved valve guides, and lowering the compression to help the engines run on the lower quality gasoline in the United States. The engine was produced until 1984, where the Evolution engine, which had aluminum heads and barrels, began to take over on most models. The engine could still be found in certain models such as the FLH in 1985, but was shortly replaced by the succeeding Evolution engine.\nThe Shovelhead engine was ultimately fitted to all of Harley-Davidson's big twin motorcycles throughout its production. The motors were first met with controversy due to the Shovelhead's weight and ground clearance. Because of this steering and weaving became a new issue that arose with motorcycles fitted with the engine. To bring more models into production, the FX Super Glide was released in 1971 with a \"chopper\" look that was ultimately an FLH with a Sportster front. This brought the motorcycle scene at the time to a broader audience and improved sales for the company. The FLH was also available with an Electra-glide package, which was used as a police engine for the motorcycles. It allowed the engines to turn over for a longer period while idling, along with having an electric start. Because of the added weight of the larger engine on motorcycles with the Electra-glide package, the bikes were faster and more powerful at the trade off of being much harder to maneuver. Due to the police package being a rarity, it is highly sought after by collectors. Today, the engines are commonly used by classic motorcycle enthusiasts for restoration projects due to the engine's simple transmission, high torque, and smooth powerband.","ANA (motorcycle)\nThe ANA motorcycle was manufactured by Martin J Shelley at the ANA Cycle Works in Rathdowne Street, North Carlton, Victoria between 1910 and 1919. The ANA used a wide variety of different engines: Fafnir, JAP Precision, Abingdon King Dick, as well as Sturmey-Archer gearboxes.\n","Big-bang firing order\nA big bang engine is an unconventional motorcycle engine designed so that most of the power strokes occur simultaneously or in close succession. This is achieved by changing the ignition timing, changing or re-timing the camshaft, and sometimes in combination with a change in crankpin angle. The goal is to change the power delivery characteristics of the engine. A regular firing multi-cylinder engine fires at approximately even intervals, giving a smooth-running engine. Because of a big bang engine's power delivery imbalance, there exists more vibration and stress in the engine. Thus, the power peaks are very strong and can overwhelm the rear tire (if used in a motorcycle), but when the rear tire does slide, the temporary lull in power between power strokes generally makes the slide easier to catch.\nThe classic British parallel-twins (BSA, Triumph, Norton, AJS & Matchless) all had 360° crankshafts that, compared to a single, gave twice as many ignition pulses which were evenly spaced. However, the 360 twin had a mechanical primary engine balance that was no better than a single.\nBy contrast, Japanese parallel twins of the 1960s (such as the 1966 Honda “Black Bomber” and the Yamaha TX500) adopted a 180° crank that afforded perfect mechanical primary engine balance. However, the 180° crank yielded some \"tingling\" secondary vibration (which could be minimised with a balance shaft), and an uneven firing order.\nThe Yamaha TRX850 pioneered the use of a 270° crank. This configuration allowed a firing pattern more regular than a 180° crank, and less regular than a 360° crank. A 270° crank gives the best possible secondary engine balance for a parallel twin, and its exhaust note and power delivery resembles those of a 90° V-twin.\nA twingle is a four-stroke twin-cylinder engine with an altered firing order designed to give power pulses similar to a single-cylinder four-stroke engine.\nInline twins with a 360° crankpin offset or flat-twins can be easily converted into twingles by firing both of the cylinders at the same time and installing a camshaft or camshafts that operate both cylinders' valves in parallel. Because many such engines already employ the wasted spark principle, only the camshaft modification is necessary. The Vintage Dirt Track Racing Association (VDTRA) 2010 Rules have banned vintage motorcycles from being set up as a twingle.\nA narrow angle V-twin such as the 45° Harley-Davidson naturally has slightly unevenly spaced power strokes. By changing the ignition timing on one of the cylinders by 360° the power strokes are very closely spaced. This will cause uneven fuel distribution in an engine with a single carburettor. The Harley-Davidson XR-750 with twin carburettors was a popular bike to twingle. It had great success in flattrack racing.\nNote that typical 2-stroke V4s have four crank throws or pins (see below) so it is important to stipulate all four crank pin phases with the two-stroke engines. The \"split\" in this case is referring to the difference in phase between piston pairs in \"opposite\" banks that would normally share a crank pin in a four-stroke engine.\nThe Ford V4s use split-pin crankshafts, like many 60° V6s. Just as with a boxer-four, piston pairs from opposite banks reach top-dead-centre at the same time, but with a crankpin split of only 60° instead of 180°, potentially giving a shorter and stronger or stiffer crankshaft. For 60° V6s, the crankpins are usually split the other way causing the paired pistons to reach top-dead-centre 120° apart.\nA four-cylinder engine with a regular firing interval is sometimes referred to as a screamer. A long bang fires both pairs of cylinders in quick succession; the power delivery is identical to a parallel twin with a 180° crank and similar to a V-twin. In 2005 Kawasaki experimented with this configuration on the ZX-RR MotoGP bike.\nThe 2009 Yamaha YZF-R1 was the first production sportbike to use a crossplane crankshaft and big-bang firing order. The power delivery is the same as a 90° V4 with a 180° crank, such as the Honda VFR800 and very similar to the Yamaha V-Max which has been lauded for its exhaust sound.\n\n\nTypical two-stroke V4s have four crank throws, or crank pins, instead of the two that most four-stroke V4s have (two connecting rods sharing each pin). This is primarily because each piston needed its own sealed crankcase volume for the purposes of efficient induction, where in some cases separate crankshafts served each bank in order to achieve this.\nThe Honda NSR500 began and ended its life as a 'screamer', where the pistons were phased similarly to a four-stroke V-four with a 180° crank. However, in 1990 Honda set the crankpin phases of each pair of pistons within each bank to be the same (like a four-stroke 'droner': 360° crank), but with each bank's crankpins offset by 180° to each other (effectively \"splitting\" the pins and changing the V-angle, in terms of ignition timing). This was called a 'big bang' engine.\nYamaha created a big bang YZR500 in 1992. The YZR500 had two crankshafts like a U engine and the angle between each pair of cylinders was 90°, like a V4.\nIn 1997 Mick Doohan wanted to run a 180° screamer engine. HRC crew chief Jerry Burgess explains why: \"The 180 got back a direct relationship between the throttle and the rear wheel, When the tire spun I could roll off without losing drive. The big bang has a lot of engine braking, so it upsets the bike into corners, then when you open the throttle you get this sudden pulse of power, which again upsets the suspension. Mick's secret is corner speed, so he needs the bike to be smooth and the 180 is much smoother.\"","Norse cosmology\nThe cosmology of Norse mythology has \"<a href=\"Numbers%20in%20Norse%20mythology\">nine</a> homeworlds\" or \"nine realms\", unified by the <a href=\"world%20tree\">world tree</a> <a href=\"Yggdrasil\">Yggdrasil</a>. Mapping the nine worlds escapes precision because the \"<a href=\"Poetic%20Edda\">Poetic Edda</a>\" often alludes vaguely. The Norse creation myth tells how everything came into existence in the gap between fire and ice, and how the gods shaped the homeworld of humans.\nA cosmic <a href=\"fraxinus\">ash tree</a>, <a href=\"Yggdrasil\">Yggdrasil</a>, lies at the center of the Norse cosmos. Three roots drink the waters of the homeworlds, one in the homeworld of the gods, the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a>, Asgard, one in the homeworld of the humans, Midgard, and one in the homeworld of the dead, Helheim. Beneath the root in the world of the frost giants is the spring of <a href=\"M%C3%ADmir\">Mímir</a>, whose waters contain wisdom and understanding.\nThe root in the Æsir homeworld taps the sacred wellspring of fate, the Well of <a href=\"Ur%C3%B0r\">Urðr</a>. The tree is tended by the <a href=\"Norns\">Norns</a>, who live near it. Each day, they water it with pure water and whiten it with clay from the spring to preserve it. The water falls down to the earth as dew.\nAnimals continually feed on the tree, threatening it, but its vitality persists evergreen as it heals and nourishes the vibrant aggression of life. On the topmost branch of the tree sits an eagle. The beating of its wings cause the winds in the world of men. At the root of the tree lies a great dragon, <a href=\"N%C3%AD%C3%B0h%C3%B6ggr\">Niðhǫggr</a>, gnawing at it continuously, together with other unnamed serpents. The squirrel <a href=\"Ratatoskr\">Ratatoskr</a> carries insults from one to the other. Harts and goats devour the branches and tender shoots.\nIn the beginning, there were two regions: <a href=\"Muspelheim\">Muspelheim</a> in the south, full of fire, light and heat; and <a href=\"Niflheim\">Niflheim</a> in the north, full of arctic waters, mists, and cold. Between them stretched the yawning emptiness of <a href=\"Ginnungagap\">Ginnungagap</a>, and into it poured sparks and smoke from the south and layers of <a href=\"hard%20rime\">rime</a> and glacial rivers from the north. As heat and cold met in Ginnungagap, a living <a href=\"j%C3%B6tunn\">jǫtunn</a>, <a href=\"Ymir\">Ymir</a>, appeared in the melting ice. From his left armpit, the first man and woman were born. From his legs, the frost jötnar were born, making Ymir the progenitor of the jǫtnar. Most sources identify Ymir's oldest son as <a href=\"%C3%9Er%C3%BA%C3%B0gelmir\">Þrúðgelmir</a>, who bore Ymir's grandson, <a href=\"Bergelmir\">Bergelmir</a>. The other jǫtnar are usually unnamed. Ymir fed on the milk of the cow <a href=\"Au%C3%B0umbla\">Auðumbla</a>. She licked the blocks of salty ice, releasing <a href=\"B%C3%BAri\">Búri</a>.\nBúri's son <a href=\"Borr\">Borr</a> had three sons, the gods <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a>, <a href=\"Vili%20and%20V%C3%A9\">Vili and Vé</a>. The three slew Ymir, and all of the jötnar (giants) except for Bergelmir and his wife, who were drowned in the blood of the others. From Ymir's body, they made the world of humans: his blood the seas and lakes, his flesh the earth, his bones the mountains and his teeth the rocks. From his skull they made the dome of the sky, setting a dwarf at each of the four corners to hold it high above the earth. They protected it from the jötnar with a wall made from Ymir's eyebrows. Next they caused time to exist, and placed the orbs of the sun and moon in chariots which were to circle around the sky.\nOdin, passing through the world of the jötnar, found two beautiful young giants named <a href=\"S%C3%B3l%20%28sun%29\">Sól</a> and <a href=\"M%C3%A1ni\">Máni</a>, sun and moon. They were brother and sister, and their father had named them after the beautiful lights in the sky. Odin decreed that Sól and Mani should drive the chariots of the sun and the moon across the sky, and to ensure that their journey was always constant and never slowed, he created two great wolves. These wolves were called <a href=\"Hati%20Hr%C3%B3%C3%B0vitnisson\">Hati</a> and <a href=\"Sk%C3%B6ll\">Sköll</a>, and they were placed in the sky to pursue the chariots and devour them if they caught them.\nThe realm of the Norse gods, the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a>, is called <a href=\"Asgard\">Asgard</a> or the \"Court of the Ás\". The Æsir built it after the homeworld of humans, and it contains many halls. <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a>'s hall, Válaskjálf, is roofed in silver. He can sit within it and view all the worlds at once. <a href=\"Giml%C3%A9\">Gimli</a>, a hall roofed in gold, to which righteous men are said to go after death, also lies somewhere in Asgard. <a href=\"Valhalla\">Valhalla</a>, the hall of the slain, is the feast hall of Odin. Those who died in battle are then raised in the evening to feast in Valhalla. Two important gods, the brother and sister, <a href=\"Freyr\">Freyr</a> and <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a>, are citizens of Asgard but actually exchange-hostages from Vanaheimr. <a href=\"Heimdallr\">Heimdallr</a>, the gods' warden, dwells beside <a href=\"Bifr%C3%B6st\">Bifröst</a>, the rainbow bridge. Each day, the gods ride over Bifröst to their meeting place at the <a href=\"Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr\">Urðarbrunnr</a>.\nThe phrase \"nine homeworlds\" is \"Níu Heimar\" in Old Norse. Relating to another term \"heima\" meaning \"home\" or \"homestead\", the term \"heimr\" means a \"place of abode\" in the sense of a homeland or region, or in a larger sense a world.\nThe nine homeworlds are not listed in surviving texts, though based on places mentioned in the myths, the most common listing in modern recreations are:\nIn the Poetic Edda, the phrase \"Níu Heimar\" occurs in the following Old Norse texts.\nIn the Prose Edda, the phrase occurs here.\nIn the \"<a href=\"Poetic%20Edda\">Poetic Edda</a>\", the poem Alvíssmál has a stanza that lists six worlds, clarifying each \"homeworld\" (heimr) is the realm of a different family of beings. Þórr asks: What is the wind named \"in every world\" (\"heimi hverjum í\")? Álvíss answers:\nThus there are at least six worlds, each being the homeworld of a particular family of beings. They can be inferred to correspond to the following place names mentioned elsewhere in the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda.\nThe homeworld of the <a href=\"Dvergar\">Dvergar</a> is missing from the above list. Elsewhere, the poem mentions the Dvergar separately from the other families of beings. For example, Alvíssmál 14 lists the Dvergar as distinct from the Álfar. Moreover the two place names, Álfheimr and <a href=\"Svart%C3%A1lfaheimr\">Svartálfaheimr</a>, confirm there are two separate heimar or \"homeworlds\", one for each family. The byname <a href=\"Svart%C3%A1lfar\">Svartálfar</a> or \"Black Elves\" refers to the Dvergar, and likewise Svartálfaheimr or the \"Homeworld of the Black Elves\" is the home of the dwarf <a href=\"Brokkr\">Brokkr</a> (Skáldskaparmál 46). Alternatively, the home of the Dvergar is called <a href=\"Ni%C3%B0avellir\">Niðavellir</a> or the \"Downward Fields\" (Völuspá 37). Thus, these families of beings mentioned in the poem Alvíssmál are identified with seven of the nine homeworlds.\nSeven homeworlds for seven families of beings. The last two of the homeworlds are less certain. Usually, the list adds the primordial realms of the elements of ice and fire, counting them as \"homeworlds\". The place name of the element of ice, Niflheimr, means the arctic \"Mist Homeworld\", suggesting it is one of the \"Nine Homeworlds\".\nThe above identities for the Nine Homeworlds are common. However the relationships between these and other significant realms have resulted in confusion. Precise mapping remains uncertain. For example, Hel is said to be located in Niflheim:\n<a href=\"Hel%20%28location%29\">Hel</a>, or at least Niflhel, may be identical with Niflheimr. According to one interpretation of the Prose Edda (Gylfaginning), Niflhel is the lowest level of Hel where the evil dead suffer torment, whereas Niflheimr is the primordial realm of icy mist, yet some early manuscripts consistently confuse these two names.\nThe primordial Niflheimr and the punishing Niflhel are \"equally dreadful\" places; it is not clear whether they are identical or distinct.","Gylfaginning\nGylfaginning ( [ˈgʏlvaˌgɪnːɪŋg]; ] ; either \"Tricking of <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gylfi</a>\" or \"Gylfi's empowerment\"; c. 20,000 words), is the first part of <a href=\"Snorri%20Sturluson\">Snorri Sturluson</a>'s \"<a href=\"Prose%20Edda\">Prose Edda</a>\" after <a href=\"Prologue%20%28Prose%20Edda%29\">Prologue</a>. The \"Gylfaginning\" deals with the creation and destruction of the world of the <a href=\"Norse%20gods\">Norse gods</a>, and many other aspects of <a href=\"Norse%20mythology\">Norse mythology</a>. The second part of the Prose Edda is called the \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\" and the third \"<a href=\"H%C3%A1ttatal\">Háttatal</a>\".\nThe \"Gylfaginning\" tells the story of Gylfi, a king of \"the land that men now call Sweden\", who after being tricked by one of the goddesses of the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a>, wonders if all <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a> use magic and tricks for their will to be done. This is why he journeys to <a href=\"Asgard\">Asgard</a>, but on the way he is tricked by the gods and arrives in some other place, where he finds a great palace. Inside the palace he encounters a man who asks Gylfi's name and so king Gylfi introduces himself as Gangleri. Gangleri then is taken to the king of the palace and comes upon three men; <a href=\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\">High, Just-As-High, and Third</a>.\nGangleri is then challenged to show his wisdom by asking questions, as is the custom in many <a href=\"Norse%20sagas\">Norse sagas</a>. Each question made to High, Just-As-High, and Third is about an aspect of the Norse mythology or its gods, and also about the creation and destruction of the world (<a href=\"Ragnar%C3%B6k\">Ragnarök</a>). In the end all the palace and its people just vanish and Gylfi is left standing on empty ground. It is then implied that as Gylfi returns to his nation, he retells the tales he was told. It can be argued that Snorri used this narrative device as a means of being able to safely document a vanishing and largely oral tradition within a <a href=\"Christian\">Christian</a> context.\n\n","Rumor\nA rumor (<a href=\"American%20English\">American English</a>) or rumour (<a href=\"British%20English\">British English</a>; <a href=\"American%20and%20British%20English%20spelling%20differences%23-our%2C%20-or\">see spelling differences</a>) is \"a tall tale of explanations of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern.\"\nIn the <a href=\"social%20sciences\">social sciences</a>, a rumor involves some kind of a statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed. In addition, some scholars have identified rumor as a subset of <a href=\"propaganda\">propaganda</a>. <a href=\"Sociology\">Sociology</a>, <a href=\"psychology\">psychology</a>, and communication studies have widely varying definitions of rumor.\nRumors are also often discussed with regard to \"misinformation\" and \"disinformation\" (the former often seen as simply false and the latter seen as deliberately false, though usually from a government source given to the media or a foreign government). Rumors thus have often been viewed as particular forms of other communication concepts.\nFrench and German social science research on rumor locates the modern scholarly definition of it to the pioneering work of the German <a href=\"Louis%20William%20Stern\">William Stern</a> in 1902. Stern experimented on rumor involving a \"chain of subjects\" who passed a story from \"mouth to ear\" without the right to repeat or explain it. He found that the story was shortened and changed by the time it reached the end of the chain. His student was another pioneer in the field, <a href=\"Gordon%20Allport\">Gordon Allport</a>.\nThe experiment is similar to the children's game <a href=\"Chinese%20whispers\">Chinese whispers</a>.\n\"A Psychology of Rumor\" was published by in 1944, in which he reports on his analysis of over one thousand rumors during World War II that were printed in the <a href=\"Boston%20Herald\">\"Boston Herald\"</a>'s \"<a href=\"Boston%20Herald%20Rumor%20Clinic\">Rumor Clinic</a>\" Column. He defines rumor as\na proposition for belief of topical reference disseminated without official verification\". So formidably defined, rumor is but a special case of informal social communications, including myth, legend, and current humor. From myth and legend it is distinguished by its emphasis on the topical. Where humor is designed to provoke laughter, rumor begs for belief.\nKnapp identified three basic characteristics that apply to rumor:\nCrucial to this definition and its characteristics is the emphasis on transmission (word of mouth, which then was heard and reported in the newspaper); on content (\"topical\" means that it can somehow be distinguished from trivial and private subjects—its domain is public issues); and on reception (\"emotional needs of the community\" suggests that though it is received by an individual from an individual, it is not comprehended in individual but community or social terms).\nBased on his study of the newspaper column, Knapp divided those rumors into three types:\nKnapp also found that negative rumors were more likely to be disseminated than positive rumors. These types also differentiate between positive (pipe dream) and negative (bogie and wedge-driving) rumors.\nIn the 1947 study, \"Psychology of Rumor\", Gordon Allport and concluded that, \"as rumor travels it [...] grows shorter, more concise, more easily grasped and told.\" This conclusion was based on a test of message diffusion between persons, which found that about 70% of details in a message were lost in the first 5-6 mouth-to-mouth transmissions.\nIn the experiment, a test subject was shown an illustration and given time to look it over. They were then asked to describe the scene from memory to a second test subject. This second test subject was then asked to describe the scene to a third, and so forth and so on. Each person’s reproduction was recorded. This process was repeated with different illustrations with very different settings and contents.\nAllport and Postman used three terms to describe the movement of rumor. They are: \"leveling\", \"sharpening\", and \"assimilation\". Leveling refers to the loss of detail during the transmission process; sharpening to the selection of certain details of which to transmit; and assimilation to a distortion in the transmission of information as a result of <a href=\"subconscious\">subconscious</a> motivations.\nAssimilation was observed when test subjects described the illustrations as they ought to be but not as they actually were. For example, in an illustration depicting a battle-scene, test subjects often incorrectly reported an ambulance truck in the background of the illustration as carrying “medical supplies,” when, in fact, it was clearly carrying boxes marked “TNT (102).”\nIn 2004, Prashant Bordia and Nicholas DiFonzo published their \"Problem Solving in Social Interactions on the Internet: Rumor As Social Cognition\" and found that rumor transmission is probably reflective of a \"collective explanation process.\" This conclusion was based on an analysis of archived message board discussions in which the statements were coded and analyzed. It was found that 29% (the majority) of statements within these discussions could be coded as “sensemaking” statements, which involved, “[...] attempts at solving a problem.”\nIt was noted that the rest of the discussion was constructed around these statements, further reinforcing the idea of collective problem solving. The researchers also found that each rumor went through a four-stage pattern of development in which a rumor was introduced for discussion, information was volunteered and discussed, and finally a resolution was drawn or interest was lost.\nFor the study, archived discussions concerning rumors on the internet and other computer networks such as BITnet were retrieved. As a rule, each discussion had a minimum of five statements posted over a period of at least two days. The statements were then coded as being one of the following: \"prudent\", \"apprehensive\", \"authenticating\", \"interrogatory\", \"providing information\", \"belief\", \"disbelief\", \"sensemaking\", \"digressive\", or \"uncodable\". Each rumor discussion was then analyzed based on this coding system. A similar coding system based on statistical analysis was applied to each discussion as a whole, and the aforementioned four-stage pattern of rumor discussion emerged.\nRumor has always played a major role in politics, with negative rumors about an opponent typically more effective than positive rumors about one's own side.\nIn the past, much research on rumor came from psychological approaches (as the discussion of Allport and DiFonzio demonstrates above). The focus was especially on how statements of questionable veracity (absolutely false to the ears of some listeners) circulated orally from person to person. Scholarly attention to political rumors is at least as old as Aristotle's \"Rhetoric\"; however, not until recently has any sustained attention and conceptual development been directed at political uses of rumor, outside of its role in war situations. Almost no work had been done until recently on how different forms of media and particular cultural-historical conditions may facilitate a rumor's diffusion.\nThe Internet's recent appearance as a new media technology has shown ever new possibilities for the fast diffusion of rumor, as the debunking sites such as snopes.com, urbanlegend.com, and factcheck.org demonstrate. Nor had previous research taken into consideration the particular form or style of deliberately chosen rumors for political purposes in particular circumstances (even though significant attention to the power of rumor for mass-media-diffused war propaganda has been in vogue since World War I; see Lasswell 1927). In the early part of the 21st century, some legal scholars have attended to political uses of rumor, though their conceptualization of it remains social psychological and their solutions to it as public problem are from a legal scholarly perspective, largely having to do with libel and privacy laws and the damage to personal reputations.\nWorking within political communication studies, in 2006, Jayson Harsin introduced the concept of the \"rumor bomb\" as a response to the widespread empirical phenomenon of rumoresque communication in contemporary relations between <a href=\"media%20and%20politics\">media and politics</a>, especially within the complex convergence of multiple forms of media, from cell phones and internet, to radio, TV, and print. Harsin starts with the widespread definition of rumor as a claim whose truthfulness is in doubt and which often has no clear source even if its ideological or partisan origins and intents are clear. He then treats it as a particular rhetorical strategy in current contexts of media and politics in many societies. For Harsin a \"rumor bomb\" extends the definition of rumor into a political communication concept with the following features:\nIn addition, Harsin locates the \"rumor bomb\" within other communication genres, such as disinformation (intentional false information) and propaganda,as rumor has been viewed by others. However, he distinguishes it from these concepts as well, since disinformation is often too associated with government, and propaganda is a widely varying concept used to describe attempts to control opinion without regard for ethics and accuracy of statement. Similarly, \"<a href=\"Spin%20%28public%20relations%29\">spin</a>\" is a generic term for strategic political communication that attempts to frame or re-frame an event or a statement in a way that is politically profitable for one side and detrimental to another, though at its core it may simply be a red herring (Bennett 2003, p. 130).\nIn addition, a \"<a href=\"smear%20campaign\">smear campaign</a>\" is a term that loosely means a coordinated effort to attack a person's character. Unlike a \"smear campaign,\" rumor bombs need not be about discrediting a person (as is the case, for example, in claims about Iraq and 9/11 or weapons of mass destruction moved to Syria). “Spin” also specifically refers to an event and its re-framing. Rumor bombs may seek to produce events themselves.\nA rumor bomb can be seen as having some characteristics of these general concepts, but rumor bombs happen in very particular cultural and historical conditions. They are not about mouth-to-ear interpersonal rumors as much rumor research has been interested in. They begin in a rapport between deliberate \"disinformers\" and \"media\", whether TV news, talk shows, newspapers, radio, or websites. They then circulate across these media, perhaps but not necessarily resulting in interpersonal mouth-to-ear rumor diffusion.\nHarsin distinguishes the rumor bomb from other more general concepts of rumor by \"emphasizing changes in politics, media technology, and culture\". According to Harsin, rumor in politics has always existed, but recent changes have created an environment ripe for a new kind of political rumor: a new media \"convergence culture\" where information produced on the internet can influence the production of media content in other forms;new media technologies and business values that emphasize speed and circulation that combine with entertainment values in news, political marketing, and public craving of tabloid news that mirrors other entertainment genres.\nRumors of affairs, of \"weapons of mass destruction\" and their alleged removal to other countries\"John Kerry is French,\" Obama is a Muslim, John McCain had an illegitimate black child—all of these involve statements whose veracity is in question or that are simply false. Other statements may have an ambiguous nature that makes them potentially appealing to different audiences who may interpret them in particular ways and circulate them. Harsin builds on rumor research that has emphasized social cognition and diffusion of propaganda. He extends Prashant and Difonzio's work in particular, since they attempt to distinguish rumor from <a href=\"gossip\">gossip</a>, in that rumor is supposedly about public issues and gossip is about private, trivial things. The emergence of infotainment and tabloidization in especially American and British news has broken that distinction, since politics is now just as much about bringing the private into the public view, as was clear with the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal.\nSimilar to their appearance and function in political communication, wherein rumors can be deployed for specific deleterious effect (rumor bomb) or can otherwise plague a candidate for office, rumors also play an important role in <a href=\"strategic%20communication\">strategic communication</a>. Strategic communication is the process of crafting messages in support of specific organizational goals, and is usually concerned with governments, militaries and Non-Governmental Organizations (<a href=\"NGO\">NGO</a>s). Adroit strategic communication requires an understanding of stories, trends and memes circulating within a culture.\nRumors can be viewed as stories that seem rational but that are steeped into speculation, in connection with a certain narrative landscape (the vast array of cultural expression circulating within a community or region). In their book, <a href=\"http%3A//rutgerspress.rutgers.edu/acatalog/narrative_landmines.html\">\"Narrative Landmines: Rumors, Islamist Extremism and the Struggle for Strategic Influence\"</a>, co-authors Daniel Bernardi, Pauline Hope Cheong, Chris Lundry and Scott W. Ruston coin the term <a href=\"narrative%20IED\">narrative IED</a> to help explain the function and danger of rumors in a strategic communication context. Rumors, as narrative IEDs, are low-cost, low-tech communication weapons that can be used by anyone to disrupt the efforts of communication, civil affairs or outreach campaigns such as those undertaken by governments in crisis response situations or militaries in insurgencies. As Bernardi notes, “\"Like their explosive cousins, rumors can be created and planted by nearly anybody, require limited resources to utilize, can be deadly for those in its direct path, and can instill fear”.\n","Hoof\nA hoof ( or ), plural \"hooves\" ( or ) or \"hoofs\" , is the tip of a <a href=\"toe\">toe</a> of an <a href=\"ungulate\">ungulate</a> <a href=\"mammal\">mammal</a>, strengthened by a thick, horny, <a href=\"keratin\">keratin</a> covering.\n<a href=\"Artiodactyl\">Artiodactyl</a>s are even-toed ungulates, meaning that these species have an even number of digits on each foot. Ruminants, with two main digits, are the largest group. Examples include deer, bison, cattle, goats and sheep. <a href=\"Perissodactyl\">Perissodactyl</a>s have an odd number of toes. Examples of perissodactyl mammals are horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs.\nHooves are generally cited as limb structures restricted to <a href=\"placental\">placental</a> mammals, which unlike other mammal groups undergo prolonged pregnancies. However, the <a href=\"marsupial\">marsupial</a> \"<a href=\"Chaeropus\">Chaeropus</a>\" had hooves.\nThe hoof surrounds the distal end of the <a href=\"Phalanx%20bone\">second phalanx</a>, the <a href=\"distal%20phalanx\">distal phalanx</a>, and the <a href=\"navicular%20bone\">navicular bone</a>. The hoof consists of the <a href=\"Nail%20%28anatomy%29\">hoof wall</a>, the bars of the hoof, the sole and <a href=\"frog%20%28horse%20anatomy%29\">frog</a> and soft tissue shock absorption structures. The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall. Hooves perform many functions, including supporting the weight of the animal, dissipating the energy impact as the hooves strike the ground or surface, protecting the tissues and bone within the hoof capsule, and providing traction for the animal. Numerous factors can affect hoof structure and health, including genetics, hoof conformation, environmental influences, and athletic performance of the animal. The ideal hoof has a parallel hoof-pastern axis, a thick hoof wall, adequate sole depth, a solid heel base and growth rings of equal size under the coronary band.\nThere are four layers within the exterior wall of the hoof. From the outside, a hoof is made up of the stratum externum, the stratum medium, the stratum internum and the dermis parietis. The stratum externum and the stratum medium are difficult to distinguish, the stratum externum is thin and the stratum medium is what makes up the bulk of the hoof wall. Inside the hoof wall is a <a href=\"laminae%20%28horse%20hoof%29\">laminar junction</a>, a soft tissue structure that allows the hoof to withstand the demands of force transmission it undergoes. This tissue structure binds the inner surface of the hoof wall, the dermis parietis and the outer surface of the third phalanx.\nMost <a href=\"even-toed%20ungulate\">even-toed ungulate</a>s (such as <a href=\"sheep\">sheep</a>, <a href=\"goat\">goat</a>s, <a href=\"deer\">deer</a>, <a href=\"cattle\">cattle</a>, <a href=\"bison\">bison</a> and <a href=\"pig\">pig</a>s) have two main hooves on each foot, together called a <a href=\"cloven%20hoof\">cloven hoof</a>. Most of these cloven-hooved animals also have two smaller hooves called \"<a href=\"dewclaw\">dewclaw</a>s\" a little further up the leg – these are not normally used for walking, but in some species with larger dewclaws (such as deer and pigs) they may touch the ground when running or jumping, or if the ground is soft. In the mountain goat, the dewclaw serves to provide extra traction when descending rocky slopes as well as additional drag on loose or slippery surfaces made of ice, dirt, or snow. Other cloven-hooved animals (such as <a href=\"giraffe\">giraffe</a>s and <a href=\"pronghorn\">pronghorn</a>s) have no dewclaws.\nIn some so-called \"cloven-hooved\" animals, such as <a href=\"camel\">camel</a>s, the \"hoof\" is not properly a hoof – it is not a hard or rubbery sole with a hard wall formed by a thick nail – instead it is a soft toe with little more than a nail merely having an appearance of a hoof.\nSome <a href=\"odd-toed%20ungulate\">odd-toed ungulate</a>s (<a href=\"Equidae\">equid</a>s) have one hoof on each foot; others have (or had) three distinct hooved or heavily nailed toes, or one hoof and two dewclaws. The <a href=\"tapir\">tapir</a> is a special case, having three toes on each hind foot and four toes on each front foot.\nHooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down by use, such as in systems like the dairy, ovine and equine industries, hooves may need to be trimmed by a <a href=\"farrier\">farrier</a>. Appropriate hoof trimming is essential to prevent lameness. Within the equine world, the expression, \"no foot, no horse\" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and <a href=\"mastitis\">mastitis</a>, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer.\nHoof care and trimming is most well known with the <a href=\"equine%20industry\">equine industry</a>. Problems that can arise with poor <a href=\"horse%20hoof\">horse hoof</a> care include hoof cracks, thrush, abcesses and <a href=\"laminitis\">laminitis</a>.\nHooves have historical significance in ceremonies and games. They have been used in burial ceremonies.","Frigg\nIn <a href=\"Germanic%20mythology\">Germanic mythology</a>, Frigg (<a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a>), Frija (<a href=\"Old%20High%20German\">Old High German</a>), Frea (<a href=\"Langobardic%20language\">Langobardic</a>), and Frige (<a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a>) is a goddess. In nearly all sources, she is described as the wife of the god <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a>. In Old High German and Old Norse sources, she is also connected with the goddess <a href=\"Fulla\">Fulla</a>. The English weekday name <a href=\"Friday\">Friday</a> (<a href=\"etymology\">etymologically</a> Old English \"Frīge's day\") bears her name.\nFrigg is described as a goddess associated with foreknowledge and wisdom in <a href=\"Norse%20mythology\">Norse mythology</a>, the northernmost branch of Germanic mythology and most extensively attested. Frigg is the wife of the major god <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a> and dwells in the wetland halls of <a href=\"Fensalir\">Fensalir</a>, is famous for her <a href=\"Precognition\">foreknowledge</a>, is associated with the goddesses Fulla, <a href=\"Lofn\">Lofn</a>, <a href=\"Hl%C3%ADn\">Hlín</a>, and <a href=\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\">Gná</a>, and is ambiguously associated with the Earth, otherwise personified as an apparently separate entity <a href=\"J%C3%B6r%C3%B0\">Jörð</a> (Old Norse \"Earth\"). The children of Frigg and Odin include the gleaming god <a href=\"Baldr\">Baldr</a>. Due to significant thematic overlap, scholars have proposed a particular connection to the goddess <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a>.\nAfter <a href=\"Christianization\">Christianization</a>, mention of Frigg continued to occur in <a href=\"Scandinavian%20folklore\">Scandinavian folklore</a>. In modern times, Frigg has appeared in modern popular culture, has been the subject of art, and receives modern veneration in <a href=\"Germanic%20Neopaganism\">Germanic Neopaganism</a>.\nThe <a href=\"theonym\">theonym</a>s \"Frigg\" (Old Norse) and \"Frija\" (Old High German) are <a href=\"cognate\">cognate</a> forms—linguistic siblings of the same origin—that descend from a substantivized feminine of <a href=\"Proto-Germanic\">Proto-Germanic</a> <a href=\"Asterisk%23Historical%20linguistics\">*</a>\"frijaz\" (via <a href=\"Holtzmann%27s%20law\">Holtzmann's law</a>). *\"frijaz\" descends from the same source (<a href=\"Proto-Indo-European\">Proto-Indo-European</a>) as the feminine <a href=\"Sanskrit\">Sanskrit</a> noun \"priyā\" and the feminine <a href=\"Avestan\">Avestan</a> noun \"fryā\" (both meaning \"own, dear, beloved\"). In the modern period, an <a href=\"Latin%20declension%23First%20declension%20%28a%29\">-a suffix</a> is sometimes applied to denote femininity, resulting in the form \"Frigga\". This spelling also serves the purpose of distancing the goddess from the English word \"<a href=\"Frig%20%28interjection%29\">frig</a>\".\nThe connection with and possible earlier identification of the goddess <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a> with Frigg in the <a href=\"Common%20Germanic%20deities\">Proto-Germanic</a> period (<a href=\"Frigg%20and%20Freyja%20origin%20hypothesis\">Frigg and Freyja origin hypothesis</a>) is a matter of scholarly debate. The name \"Freyja\" is not attested outside of <a href=\"Scandinavia\">Scandinavia</a>, like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the <a href=\"Vanir\">Vanir</a>. This is in contrast to the name of the goddess \"Frigg\", who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as <a href=\"Proto-Germanic\">Proto-Germanic</a> *\"<a href=\"Frijj%C5%8D\">Frijjō</a>\". Evidence does not exist for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Old Norse \"Freyja\" descends, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of surviving sources.\nRegarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar <a href=\"Stephan%20Grundy\">Stephan Grundy</a> comments that \"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-<a href=\"Viking%20Age\">Viking Age</a> references to <a href=\"List%20of%20Germanic%20deities%20and%20heroes\">Germanic goddesses</a>, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.\"\nThe English <a href=\"weekday\">weekday</a> name \"Friday\" comes from Old English \"Frīge's Day\" and is cognate with <a href=\"Old%20High%20German\">Old High German</a> \"frîatac\". Both weekday names are result of \"<a href=\"interpretatio%20germanica\">interpretatio germanica</a>\" that occurred at or before the 3rd or 4th century CE, glossing the <a href=\"Latin\">Latin</a> weekday name \"dies Veneris\" 'Day of <a href=\"Venus%20%28mythology%29\">Venus</a>'. Several <a href=\"toponymy\">place names</a> refer to Frigg in what are now Norway and Sweden, although her name is altogether absent in recorded place names in Denmark.\nThe 7th-century \"<a href=\"Origo%20Gentis%20Langobardorum\">Origo Gentis Langobardorum</a>\", and <a href=\"Paul%20the%20Deacon\">Paul the Deacon</a>'s 8th-century \"<a href=\"Historia%20Langobardorum\">Historia Langobardorum</a>\" derived from it, recount a founding myth of the <a href=\"Langobards\">Langobards</a>, a Germanic people who ruled a region of what is now Italy (see <a href=\"Lombardy\">Lombardy</a>). According to this legend, a \"small people\" known as the \"<a href=\"Winnili\">Winnili</a>\" were ruled by a woman named <a href=\"Gambara\">Gambara</a> who had two sons, <a href=\"Ybor%20and%20Agio\">Ybor and Agio</a>. The <a href=\"Vandals\">Vandals</a>, ruled by <a href=\"Ambri%20and%20Assi\">Ambri and Assi</a>, came to the Winnili with their army and demanded that they pay them tribute or prepare for war. Ybor, Agio, and their mother Gambara rejected their demands for tribute. Ambra and Assi then asked the god Godan for victory over the Winnili, to which Godan responded (in the longer version in the \"Origo\"): \"Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them will I give the victory.\"\nMeanwhile, Ybor and Agio called upon Frea, Godan's wife. Frea counseled them that \"at sunrise the Winnil[i] should come, and that their women, with their hair let down around the face in the likeness of a beard should also come with their husbands\". At sunrise, Frea turned Godan's bed around to face east and woke him. Godan saw the Winnili, including their whiskered women, and asked \"who are those Long-beards?\" Frea responded to Godan, \"As you have given them a name, give them also the victory\". Godan did so, \"so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory\". Thenceforth the Winnili were known as the \"Langobards\" (<a href=\"Lombardic%20language\">Langobardic</a> \"long-beards\").\nA 10th-century manuscript found in what is now <a href=\"Merseburg\">Merseburg</a>, Germany, features a heathen invocation known as the <a href=\"Merseburg%20Incantations\">Second Merseburg Incantation</a>. The incantation calls upon various continental Germanic gods, including Old High German Frija and a goddess associated with her—<a href=\"Fulla\">Volla</a>, to assist in healing a horse:\nIn the \"Poetic Edda\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional material, Frigg is mentioned in the poems \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1\">Völuspá</a>\", \"<a href=\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nism%C3%A1l\">Vafþrúðnismál</a>\", the prose of \"<a href=\"Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l\">Grímnismál</a>\", \"<a href=\"Lokasenna\">Lokasenna</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Oddr%C3%BAnargr%C3%A1tr\">Oddrúnargrátr</a>\".\nFrigg receives three mentions in the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"Völuspá\". In the first mention, the poem recounts that Frigg wept for the death of her son <a href=\"Baldr\">Baldr</a> in <a href=\"Fensalir\">Fensalir</a>. Later in the poem, when the future death of Odin is foretold, Odin himself is referred to as the \"beloved of Frigg\" and his future death is referred to as the \"second grief of Frigg\". Like the reference to Frigg weeping in Fensalir earlier in the poem, the implied \"first grief\" is a reference to the grief she felt upon the death of her son, <a href=\"Baldr\">Baldr</a>.\nIn the prose introduction to the poem \"<a href=\"Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l\">Grímnismál</a>\", Frigg plays a prominent role. The prose introduction recounts that two sons of king <a href=\"Hrau%C3%B0ungr\">Hrauðungr</a>, Agnar (age 10) and Geirröðr (age 8), once sailed out with a trailing line to catch small fish. However, wind drove them out into the ocean and, during the darkness of night, their boat wrecked. The brothers went ashore and there they met a <a href=\"Croft%20%28land%29\">crofter</a>. They stayed on the croft for one winter. During that winter, the couple separately fostered the two children: the old woman fostered Agnar and the old man fostered Geirröðr. Upon the arrival of spring, the old man brought them a ship. The old couple took the boys to the shore, and the old man took Geirröðr aside and spoke to him. The boys entered the boat and a breeze came.\nThe boat returned to the harbor of their father. Geirröðr, forward in the ship, jumped to shore and pushed the boat, containing his brother, out and said \"go where an evil spirit may get thee.\" Away went the ship and Geirröðr walked to a house, where he was greeted with joy; while the boys were gone, their father had died, and now Geirröðr was king. He \"became a splendid man\". The scene switches to Odin and Frigg sitting in <a href=\"Hli%C3%B0skj%C3%A1lf\">Hliðskjálf</a>, \"look[ing] into <a href=\"Norse%20cosmology\">all the worlds</a>\". Odin says: \"'Seest thou Agnar, thy foster-son, where he is getting children a giantess [Old Norse \"<a href=\"g%C8%B3gi\">gȳgi</a>\"] in a cave? while Geirröd, my foster son, is a king residing in his country.' Frigg answered, 'He is so inhospitable that he tortures his guests, if he thinks that too many come.'\"\nOdin replied that this was a great untruth and so the two made a wager. Frigg sent her \"waiting-maid\" <a href=\"Fulla\">Fulla</a> to warn Geirröðr to be wary, lest a wizard who seeks him should harm him, and that he would know this wizard by the refusal of dogs, no matter how ferocious, to attack the stranger. While it was not true that Geirröðr was inhospitable with his guests, Geirröðr did as instructed and had the wizard arrested. Upon being questioned, the wizard, wearing a blue cloak, said no more than that his name is \"<a href=\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\">Grímnir</a>\". Geirröðr has Grímnir tortured and sits him between two fires for 8 nights. Upon the 9th night, Grímnir is brought a full <a href=\"drinking%20horn\">drinking horn</a> by Geirröðr's son, Agnar (so named after Geirröðr's brother), and the poem continues without further mention or involvement of Frigg.\nIn the poem \"<a href=\"Lokasenna\">Lokasenna</a>\", where <a href=\"Loki\">Loki</a> accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity and/or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between the god Loki and the goddess Frigg (and thereafter between Loki and the goddess Freyja about Frigg). A prose introduction to the poem describes that numerous gods and goddesses attended a banquet held by <a href=\"%C3%86gir\">Ægir</a>. These gods and goddesses include Odin and, \"his wife\", Frigg.\nFrigg is mentioned throughout the \"Poetic Edda\", compiled in the 13th century by <a href=\"Snorri%20Sturluson\">Snorri Sturluson</a>. Frigg is first mentioned in the \"Prose Edda\" <a href=\"Prologue%20%28Prose%20Edda%29\">Prologue (Prose Edda)</a>, wherein a <a href=\"Euhemerus\">euhemerized</a> account of the Norse gods is provided. The author describes Frigg as the wife of Odin, and, in a case of <a href=\"folk%20etymology\">folk etymology</a>, the author attempts to associate the name \"Frigg\" with the Latin-influenced form \"Frigida\". The Prologue adds that both Frigg and Odin \"had the gift of prophecy\".\nIn the next section of the \"Prose Edda\", \"<a href=\"Gylfaginning\">Gylfaginning</a>\", <a href=\"High%2C%20Just-as-High%2C%20and%20Third\">High</a> tells <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gangleri</a> (the king <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gylfi</a> in disguise) that Frigg, daughter of <a href=\"Fj%C3%B6rgynn\">Fjörgynn</a> (Old Norse \"Fjörgynsdóttir\") is married to Odin and that the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a> are descended from the couple, and adds that \"the earth [\"<a href=\"J%C3%B6r%C3%B0\">Jörð</a>in\"] was [Odin's] daughter and his wife\". According to High, the two had many sons, the first of which was the mighty god <a href=\"Thor\">Thor</a>.\nLater in \"<a href=\"Gylfaginning\">Gylfaginning</a>\", Gangleri asks about the \"<a href=\"%C3%A1synjur\">ásynjur</a>\", a term for Norse goddesses. High says that \"highest\" among them is Frigg and that only <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a> \"is highest in rank next to her\". Frigg dwells in <a href=\"Fensalir\">Fensalir</a> \"and it is very splendid\". In this section of \"Gylfaginning\", Frigg is also mentioned in connection to other \"ásynjur\": <a href=\"Fulla\">Fulla</a> carries Frigg's ashen box, \"looks after her footwear and shares her secrets\"; <a href=\"Lofn\">Lofn</a> is given special permission by Frigg and Odin to \"arrange unions\" among men and women; <a href=\"Hl%C3%ADn\">Hlín</a> is charged by Frigg to protect those that Frigg deems worthy of keeping from danger; and <a href=\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\">Gná</a> is sent by Frigg \"into various worlds to carry out her business\".\nIn section 49 of \"Gylfaginning\", a narrative about the fate of Frigg's son Baldr is told. According to High, Baldr once started to have dreams indicating that his life was in danger. When Baldr told his fellow Æsir about his dreams, the gods met together for a <a href=\"thing%20%28assembly%29\">thing</a> and decided that they should \"request immunity for Baldr from all kinds of danger\". Frigg subsequently receives promises from the elements, the environment, diseases, animals, and stones, amongst other things. The request successful, the Æsir make sport of Baldr's newfound invincibility; shot or struck, Baldr remained unharmed. However, <a href=\"Loki\">Loki</a> discovers this and is not pleased by this turn of events, so, in the form of a woman, he goes to Frigg in Fensalir.\nThere, Frigg asks this female visitor what the Æsir are up to assembled at the <a href=\"Thing%20%28assembly%29\">thing</a>. The woman says that all of the Æsir are shooting at Baldr and yet he remains unharmed. Frigg explains that \"Weapons and wood will not hurt Baldr. I have received oaths from them all.\" The woman asks Frigg if all things have sworn not to hurt Baldr, to which Frigg notes one exception; \"there grows a shoot of a tree to the west of <a href=\"Valhalla\">Val-hall</a>. It is called <a href=\"mistletoe\">mistletoe</a>. It seemed young to me to demand the oath from.\" Loki immediately disappears.\nNow armed with mistletoe, Loki arrives at the thing where the Æsir are assembled and tricks the blind <a href=\"H%C3%B6%C3%B0r\">Höðr</a>, Baldr's brother, into shooting Baldr with a mistletoe projectile. To the horror of the assembled gods, the mistletoe goes directly through Baldr, killing him. Standing in horror and shock, the gods are initially only able to weep due to their grief. Frigg speaks up and asks \"who there was among the Æsir who wished to earn all her love and favour and was willing to ride the road to <a href=\"Hel%20%28location%29\">Hel</a> and try if he could find Baldr, and offer <a href=\"Hel%20%28being%29\">Hel</a> a ransom if she would let Baldr go back to Asgard\".\n<a href=\"Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0r\">Hermóðr</a>, Baldr's brother, accepts Freyja's request and rides to Hel. Meanwhile, Baldr is given a grand funeral attended by many beings—foremost mentioned of which are his mother and father, Frigg and Odin. During the funeral, <a href=\"Nanna%20%28Norse%20deity%29\">Nanna</a> dies of grief and is placed in the funeral pyre with Baldr, her dead husband. Hermóðr locates Baldr and Nanna in Hel. Hermodr secures an agreement for the return of Baldr and with Hermóðr Nanna sends gifts to Frigg (a linen robe) and Fulla (a finger-ring). Hermóðr rides back to the Æsir and tells them what has happened. However, the agreement fails due to the sabotage of a jötunn in a cave named <a href=\"%C3%9E%C3%B6kk\">Þökk</a> (Old Norse 'thanks'), described perhaps Loki in disguise.\nFrigg is mentioned several times in the \"Prose Edda\" section \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\". The first mention occurs at the beginning of the section, where the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a> and Ásynjur are said to have once held a banquet in a hall in a land of gods, <a href=\"Asgard\">Asgard</a>. Frigg is one of the twelve ásynjur in attendance.\nIn \"<a href=\"Ynglinga%20saga\">Ynglinga saga</a>\", the first book of \"<a href=\"Heimskringla\">Heimskringla</a>\", an <a href=\"Euhemerized\">Euhemerized</a> account of the origin of the gods is provided. Frigg is mentioned once. According to the saga, while Odin was away, Odin's brothers <a href=\"Vili%20and%20V%C3%A9\">Vili and Vé</a> oversaw Odin's holdings. Once, while Odin was gone for an extended period, the Æsir concluded that he was not coming back. His brothers started to divvy up Odin's inheritance, \"but his wife Frigg they shared between them. However, a short while afterwards, [Odin] returned and took possession of his wife again.\nIn \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lsunga%20saga\">Völsunga saga</a>\", the great king <a href=\"Rerir\">Rerir</a> and his wife (unnamed) are unable to conceive a child; \"that lack displeased them both, and they fervently implored the gods that they might have a child. It is said that Frigg heard their prayers and told Odin what they asked\".\nA 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the <a href=\"Schleswig%20Cathedral\">Schleswig Cathedral</a> in <a href=\"Schleswig-Holstein\">Schleswig-Holstein</a>, <a href=\"Northern%20Germany\">Northern Germany</a>. Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a <a href=\"distaff\">distaff</a>. Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively.\nFrigg is referenced in art and literature into the modern period. In the 18th century, <a href=\"Gustav%20III%20of%20Sweden\">Gustav III of Sweden</a>, king of Sweden, composed \"Friggja\", a play, so named after the goddess, and H. F. Block and <a href=\"Hans%20Friedrich%20Blunck\">Hans Friedrich Blunck</a>'s \"Frau Frigg und Doktor Faust\" in 1937. Other examples include fine art works by K. Ehrenberg (\"Frigg, Freyja\", drawing, 1883), <a href=\"John%20Charles%20Dollman\">John Charles Dollman</a> (\"Frigga Spinning the Clouds\", painting, c. 1900), <a href=\"Emil%20Doepler\">Emil Doepler</a> (\"Wodan und Frea am Himmelsfenster\", painting, 1901), and H. Thoma (\"Fricka\", drawing, date not provided).\nThe name has been taken by the 21st-century Finnish folk band <a href=\"Frigg%20%28band%29\">Frigg</a>.","High, Just-as-High, and Third\nHigh, Just-As-High, and Third (<a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a> \"Hár\", \"Jafnhár\", and \"Þriði\", respectively) are <a href=\"Numbers%20in%20Germanic%20paganism\">three</a> men that respond to questions posed by <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gangleri</a> (described as king <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gylfi</a> in disguise) in the \"<a href=\"Prose%20Edda\">Prose Edda</a>\" book \"<a href=\"Gylfaginning\">Gylfaginning</a>\". The three figures sit upon thrones; High upon the lowest, Just-As-High on the mid-highest, and Third on the highest of the thrones.\nIt is stated in Chapter 20 of \"Gylfaginning\" (translation by <a href=\"Anthony%20Faulkes\">Anthony Faulkes</a>) that these names are <a href=\"pseudonym\">pseudonym</a>s employed by <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a>:\n[Odin] called himself various other names on his visit to King Geirrod:\n","Vanir\nIn <a href=\"Norse%20mythology\">Norse Religion</a>, the Vanir ( ; singular Vanr) are a group of gods associated with fertility, wisdom, nature, magic, and the ability to see the future. The Vanir are one of two groups of gods (the other being the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a>) and are the namesake of the location <a href=\"Vanaheimr\">Vanaheimr</a> (<a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a> \"Home of the Vanir\"). After the <a href=\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>, the Vanir became a subgroup of the Æsir. Subsequently, members of the Vanir are sometimes also referred to as members of the Æsir.\nThe Vanir are attested in the \"<a href=\"Poetic%20Edda\">Poetic Edda</a>\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the \"<a href=\"Prose%20Edda\">Prose Edda</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Heimskringla\">Heimskringla</a>\", both written in the 13th century by <a href=\"Snorri%20Sturluson\">Snorri Sturluson</a>; and in the poetry of <a href=\"skald\">skald</a>s. The Vanir are only attested in these <a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a> sources. \"Vanir\" is sometimes anglicized to Wanes (singular Wane).\nAll sources describe the deities <a href=\"Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\">Njörðr</a>, <a href=\"Freyr\">Freyr</a> and <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a> as members of the Vanir. A <a href=\"euhemerism\">euhemerized</a> prose account in \"Heimskringla\" adds that <a href=\"Sister-wife%20of%20Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\">Njörðr's sister</a>—whose name is not provided—and <a href=\"Kvasir\">Kvasir</a> were Vanir. In addition, \"Heimskringla\" reports a tale involving king <a href=\"Sveig%C3%B0ir\">Sveigðir</a>'s visit to Vanaheimr, where he meets a woman by the name of Vana and the two produce a child named <a href=\"Vanlandi\">Vanlandi</a> (whose name means \"Man from the Land of the Vanir\").\nWhile not attested as Vanir, the gods <a href=\"Heimdallr\">Heimdallr</a> and <a href=\"Ullr\">Ullr</a> have been theorized as potential members of the group. In the \"Prose Edda\", a name listed for <a href=\"wild%20boar\">boar</a>s is \"Van-child\". Scholars have theorized that the Vanir may be connected to <a href=\"gullgubber\">small pieces of gold foil</a> found in Scandinavia at some building sites from the <a href=\"Migration%20Period\">Migration Period</a> to the <a href=\"Viking%20Age\">Viking Age</a> and occasionally in graves. They have speculated whether the Vanir originally represented <a href=\"Neolithic%20Europe\">pre-Indo-European deities</a> or <a href=\"Proto-Indo-European%20religion\">Indo-European fertility gods</a>, and have theorized a form of the gods as venerated by the <a href=\"Anglo-Saxon%20paganism\">pagan Anglo-Saxon</a>s.\nNumerous theories have been proposed for the etymology of \"Vanir\". Scholar <a href=\"R.%20I.%20Page\">R. I. Page</a> says that, while there are no shortages of etymologies for the word, it is tempting to link the word with \"Old Norse \"vinr\", 'friend', and Latin \"<a href=\"Venus%20%28mythology%29\">Venus</a>\", 'goddess of physical love.'\"\nIn the \"Poetic Edda\", the Vanir, as a group, are specifically referenced in the poems \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1\">Völuspá</a>\", \"<a href=\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nism%C3%A1l\">Vafþrúðnismál</a>\", \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%ADrnism%C3%A1l\">Skírnismál</a>\", \"<a href=\"%C3%9Erymskvi%C3%B0a\">Þrymskviða</a>\", \"<a href=\"Alv%C3%ADssm%C3%A1l\">Alvíssmál</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l\">Sigrdrífumál</a>\". In \"Völuspá\", a stanza describes the events of the <a href=\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>, noting that during the war the Vanir broke the walls of the stronghold of the Æsir, and that the Vanir were \"indomitable, trampling the plain.\"\nIn \"<a href=\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nism%C3%A1l\">Vafþrúðnismál</a>\", <a href=\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\">Gagnráðr</a> (the god <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a> in disguise) engages in a game of wits with the <a href=\"j%C3%B6tunn\">jötunn</a> <a href=\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nir\">Vafþrúðnir</a>. Gagnráðr asks Vafþrúðnir where the Van god <a href=\"Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\">Njörðr</a> came from, for though he rules over many <a href=\"Heathen%20hofs\">hofs</a> and <a href=\"h%C3%B6rgr\">hörgr</a>s, Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir. Vafþrúðnir responds that Njörðr was created in <a href=\"Vanaheimr\">Vanaheimr</a> (\"home of the Vanir\") by \"wise powers\" and details that during the Æsir–Vanir War, Njörðr was exchanged as a hostage. In addition, when the world ends (<a href=\"Ragnar%C3%B6k\">Ragnarök</a>), Njörðr \"will return to the wise Vanir.\"\n\"<a href=\"Alv%C3%ADssm%C3%A1l\">Alvíssmál</a>\" consists of question and answer exchanges between the dwarf <a href=\"Alv%C3%ADss\">Alvíss</a> and the god <a href=\"Thor\">Thor</a>. In the poem, Alvíss supplies terms that various groups, including the Vanir, use to refer to various subjects. Alvíss attributes nine terms to the Vanir; one for Earth (\"The Ways\"), Heaven (\"The Weaver of Winds\"), clouds (\"Kites of the Wind\"), calm (\"The Hush of the Winds\"), the sea (\"The Wave\"), fire (\"Wildfire\"), wood (\"The Wand\"), seed (\"growth\"), and ale (\"The Foaming\").\nThe poem \"<a href=\"%C3%9Erymskvi%C3%B0a\">Þrymskviða</a>\" states that the god Heimdallr possesses foreknowledge, \"as the Vanir also can.\" \"<a href=\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l\">Sigrdrífumál</a>\" records that the Vanir are in possession of a \"sacred <a href=\"mead\">mead</a>\". In the poem, the <a href=\"valkyrie\">valkyrie</a> <a href=\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfa\">Sigrdrífa</a> provides mystical lore about <a href=\"runes\">runes</a> to the hero Sigurd. Sigrdrífa notes that runes were once carved on to various creatures, deities and other figures, and then shaved off and mixed with a \"sacred <a href=\"mead\">mead</a>.\" This mead is possessed by the Æsir, the elves, mankind, and the Vanir.\nIn \"Skírnismál\", the beautiful <a href=\"j%C3%B6tunn\">jötunn</a> <a href=\"Ger%C3%B0r\">Gerðr</a> first encounters the god <a href=\"Freyr\">Freyr</a>'s messenger <a href=\"Sk%C3%ADrnir\">Skírnir</a>, and asks him if he is of the elves, of the Æsir, or of the \"wise Vanir.\" Skírnir responds that he is not of any of the three groups. Later in the poem, Skírnir is successful in his threats against Gerðr (to have Gerðr accept Freyr's affections), and Gerðr offers Skírnir a crystal cup full of mead, noting that she never thought that she would love one of the Vanir.\nThe Vanir are mentioned in the \"<a href=\"Prose%20Edda\">Prose Edda</a>\" books \"<a href=\"Gylfaginning\">Gylfaginning</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\". In chapter 23 of \"Gylfaginning\", the enthroned figure of <a href=\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\">High</a> relates that Njörðr was raised in <a href=\"Vanaheimr\">Vanaheimr</a>. High says that during the <a href=\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>, the Vanir sent Njörðr as a hostage to the Æsir, and the Æsir sent to the Vanir the god <a href=\"H%C5%93nir\">Hœnir</a>. The sending of Njörðr as a hostage resulted in a peace agreement between the Æsir and the Vanir.\nChapter 35 provides information regarding the goddess <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a>, including that one of her names is \"<a href=\"D%C3%ADs\">Dis</a> of the Vanir.\" In the same chapter, High tells that the goddess <a href=\"Gn%C3%A1\">Gná</a> rides the horse <a href=\"H%C3%B3fvarpnir\">Hófvarpnir</a>, and that this horse has the ability to ride through the air and atop the sea. High continues that \"once some Vanir saw her path as she rode through the air\" and that an unnamed one of these Vanir says, in verse (for which no source is provided):\nGná responds:\nIn chapter 57 of \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\", the god <a href=\"Bragi\">Bragi</a> explains the origin of poetry. Bragi says the origin of poetry lies in the Æsir-Vanir War. During the peace conference held to end the war both the Æsir and the Vanir formed a truce by spitting into a vat. When they left, the gods decided that it shouldn't be poured out, but rather kept as a symbol of their peace, and so from the contents they made a man; Kvasir. Kvasir is later murdered by <a href=\"Norse%20dwarves\">dwarves</a>, and from his blood the <a href=\"Mead%20of%20Poetry\">Mead of Poetry</a> is made.\nIn chapter 6, poetic names for Njörðr are provided, including \"descendant of Vanir or a Van\". As reference, a poem by the 11th century <a href=\"skald\">skald</a> <a href=\"%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0r%20Sj%C3%A1reksson\">Þórðr Sjáreksson</a> is provided where Njörðr is described as a Vanr. In chapter 7, poetic names for Freyr are listed, including names that reference his association with the Vanir; \"Vanir god,\" \"descendant of Vanir,\" and \"a Van.\" Freyja is also repeatedly cited as a Vanr. In chapter 20, some of Freyja's names are listed and include \"Van-deity\" and\"Van-lady,\" and chapter 37 provides skaldic verse referring to Freyja as \"Van-bride.\" In chapter 75, names for <a href=\"pig\">pig</a>s are provided, including \"Van-child.\"\nThe \"<a href=\"Heimskringla\">Heimskringla</a>\" book \"<a href=\"Ynglinga%20saga\">Ynglinga saga</a>\" (chapter 4) provides an <a href=\"euhemerism\">euhemerized</a> account of the <a href=\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>. As a peace agreement, the two sides agreed to trade hostages. The Vanir sent Njörðr and Freyr to the Æsir, and in turn the Æsir sent to the Vanir <a href=\"H%C5%93nir\">Hœnir</a> and <a href=\"M%C3%ADmir\">Mímir</a>. Upon receiving <a href=\"M%C3%ADmir\">Mímir</a>, the Vanir sent the \"cleverest amongst them,\" <a href=\"Kvasir\">Kvasir</a>. In Vanaheimr, the Vanir made Hœnir a chieftain. However, whenever Hœnir appeared at assemblies or meetings where the Vanir asked him his opinion on difficult issues, his response was \"let others decide.\" The Vanir suspected that they had been cheated by the Æsir in the hostage exchange, and so grabbed hold of Mímir, cut off Mímir's head, and sent it to the Æsir.\nThe same chapter describes that while Njörðr lived among the Vanir, his wife (unnamed) was his sister, and the couple had two children; Freyr and Freyja. However, \"among the Æsir it was forbidden to marry so near a kin.\" By Odin's appointment, Njörðr and Freyr became <a href=\"gothi\">priests</a> over <a href=\"Bl%C3%B3t\">offerings of sacrifice</a>, and they were recognized as gods among the Æsir. Freyja was priestess at the sacrifices, and \"it was she who first taught the Æsir magic as was practiced among the Vanir.\"\nIn chapter 15, the king <a href=\"Sveig%C3%B0ir\">Sveigðir</a> is recorded as having married a woman named Vana in \"Vanaland\", located in <a href=\"Sweden\">Sweden</a>. The two produced a child, who they named <a href=\"Vanlandi\">Vanlandi</a> (Old Norse \"Man from the Land of the Vanir\").\nSmall pieces of gold foil decorated with pictures of figures dating from the <a href=\"Migration%20Period\">Migration Period</a> into the early <a href=\"Viking%20Age\">Viking Age</a> (known as \"<a href=\"gullgubber\">gullgubber</a>\") have been discovered in various locations in <a href=\"Scandinavia\">Scandinavia</a>, in one case almost 2,500. The foil pieces have been found largely at sites of buildings, only rarely in graves. The figures are sometimes single, occasionally an animal, sometimes a man and a woman with a leafy bough between them, facing or embracing one another. The human figures are almost always clothed and are sometimes depicted with their knees bent. Scholar <a href=\"Hilda%20Ellis%20Davidson\">Hilda Ellis Davidson</a> says that it has been suggested that the figures are partaking in a dance, and that they may have been connected with weddings and linked to the Vanir, representing the notion of a divine marriage, such as in the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%ADrnism%C3%A1l\">Skírnismál</a>\"; the coming together of the Vanir god Freyr and his love, Gerðr.\nLike the Vanr goddess Freyja, the Vanir as a group are not attested outside Scandinavia. Traditionally, following \"Völuspá\" and Snorri Sturluson's account in the \"Prose Edda\", scholarship on the Vanir has focused on the Æsir–Vanir War, its possible basis in a war between tribes, and whether the Vanir originated as the deities of a distinct people. Some scholars have doubted that they were known outside Scandinavia; however, there is evidence that the god Freyr is the same god as the Germanic deity <a href=\"Yngvi\">Ing</a> (reconstructed as <a href=\"Proto-Germanic\">Proto-Germanic</a> \"*Ingwaz\"), and that, if so, he is attested as having been known among the <a href=\"Goths\">Goths</a>. More recently, the view put forward by <a href=\"Georges%20Dum%C3%A9zil\">Georges Dumézil</a> based on Indo-European parallels has dominated, wherein the Vanir, like the Æsir, derive from the <a href=\"Proto-Indo-European%20religion\">pre-Germanic heritage</a> of Germanic religion and embody the third of the three \"functions\" in his <a href=\"trifunctional%20hypothesis\">trifunctional hypothesis</a>: <a href=\"chthonic\">chthonic</a> and fertility deities.\nHilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that all of the wives of the gods may have originally been members of the Vanir, noting that many of them appear to have originally been children of <a href=\"j%C3%B6tunn\">jötnar</a>. Davidson additionally notes that \"it is the Vanir and Odin who seem to receive the most hostile treatment in Christian stories about mythological personages.\" Alaric Hall has equated the Vanir with the <a href=\"Elf\">elves</a>, and Joseph S. Hopkins and Haukur Þorgeirsson, building on suggestions by archaeologist <a href=\"Ole%20Crumlin-Pedersen\">Ole Crumlin-Pedersen</a> and others, link the Vanir to <a href=\"ship%20burial\">ship burial</a> customs among the North Germanic peoples, proposing an early Germanic model of a ship in a \"field of the dead\" that may be represented both by Freyja's afterlife field <a href=\"F%C3%B3lkvangr\">Fólkvangr</a> and by the Old English <a href=\"Neorxnawang\">Neorxnawang</a> (the mysterious first element of which may be linked to the name of Freyja's father, Njörðr).\n<a href=\"Richard%20North%20%28academic%29\">Richard North</a> theorizes that glossing Latin \"vanitates\" (\"vanities\", \"idols\") for \"gods\" in <a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a> sources implies the existence of \"*uuani\" (a <a href=\"Linguistic%20reconstruction\">reconstructed</a> cognate to Old Norse \"Vanir\") in <a href=\"Deira\">Deira</a>n dialect and hence that the gods that <a href=\"Edwin%20of%20Northumbria\">Edwin of Northumbria</a> and the northern Angles worshiped in pre-Christian <a href=\"Anglo-Saxon%20England\">Anglo-Saxon England</a> were likely to have been the *\"uuani\". He comments that they likely \"shared not only the name but also the orgiastic character of the [Old Icelandic] \"Vanir\".\"\nIn 2010 <a href=\"Rudolf%20Simek\">Rudolf Simek</a>, building on an analysis by <a href=\"Lotte%20Motz\">Lotte Motz</a>, argued that \"vanir\" was originally nothing more than a general term for deities like \"æsir\", and that its employment as a distinct group of deities was Snorri's invention, and the Vanir are therefore \"a figment of imagination from the 13th to 20th centuries\". Simek's argument is supported by a statistical analysis (published in the same journal issue) of the small corpus of poetic usages, which suggests that the term \"vanir\" was a \"suspended archaism\" used as a metrical alternative to \"Æsir\".\nIn contrast, in a concurrently published response, Clive Tolley argues that the term must have originated in historical usage, and as such \"it is something of a misrepresentation of the evidence to suggest that Snorri is the main source for the \"vanir\".\" Returning to the Indo-European origins theory, he argues that the Vanir strengthen the Æsir by contributing their relationality, their ability to absorb the other and their receptivity to sacrifice. In contrast, continuing the same journal thread, Leszek P. Słupecki argues that the Vanir remained distinct from the Æsir—except for Freyja and Freyr, whom he follows Snorri in seeing as having been born after Njörðr became a hostage among the Æsir, and thus regards as Æsir—and therefore that <a href=\"Ragnar%C3%B6k\">Ragnarök</a> \"[has] no importance for their world\".\nThe Vanir are featured in the poem \"Om vanerne\" in \"Nordens Guder\" (1819) by <a href=\"Adam%20Gottlob%20Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger\">Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger</a>. Some <a href=\"Germanic%20Neopaganism\">Germanic Neopagans</a> refer to their beliefs as \"Vanatrú\" (meaning \"those who honor the Vanir\").\n","Hamskerpir and Garðrofa\nIn <a href=\"Norse%20mythology\">Norse mythology</a>, Hamskerpir and Garðrofa are a pair of <a href=\"horse\">horse</a>s who sired <a href=\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\">Hófvarpnir</a>, the horse ridden by the <a href=\"%C3%81ss\">goddess</a> <a href=\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\">Gná</a>. Hamskerpir and Garðrofa are attested in the \"<a href=\"Prose%20Edda\">Prose Edda</a>\", written in the 13th century by <a href=\"Snorri%20Sturluson\">Snorri Sturluson</a>.\nIn chapter 35 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"<a href=\"Gylfaginning\">Gylfaginning</a>\", <a href=\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\">High</a> provides brief descriptions of 16 <a href=\"%C3%A1synjur\">ásynjur</a>. High lists Gná thirteenth, and in his description provides a stanza that gives Gná's horse Hófvarpnir's parents as Hamskerðir and Garðrofa:\n<a href=\"John%20Lindow\">John Lindow</a> says that the name \"Hamskerpir\" does not have an obvious meaning, but that \"Garðrofa\" may mean \"fence breaker.\" Lindow adds that two horses are otherwise unknown from any other source, and that the myths surrounding them have not survived.","John Lindow\nJohn Lindow (born 1946) is a professor emeritus (<a href=\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\">University of California, Berkeley</a>) specializing in <a href=\"Scandinavia\">Scandinavia</a>n <a href=\"medieval%20studies\">medieval studies</a> and <a href=\"folklore\">folklore</a>. Lindow's works include \"Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Rituals, and Beliefs\", a handbook for <a href=\"Norse%20mythology\">Norse mythology</a>. He received his Ph.D. in Germanic languages and literature from <a href=\"Harvard%20University\">Harvard University</a> in 1972 and began teaching at Berkeley in 1978. In 1977 he was elected as a corresponding member of the <a href=\"Royal%20Gustavus%20Adolphus%20Academy\">Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy</a>.\n","Rudolf Simek\nRudolf Simek (born 21 February 1954 in <a href=\"Eisenstadt\">Eisenstadt</a>, <a href=\"Burgenland\">Burgenland</a>) is an <a href=\"Austria\">Austria</a>n <a href=\"German%20studies\">Germanist</a> and <a href=\"philologist\">philologist</a>.\nSimek studied <a href=\"German%20literature\">German literature</a>, <a href=\"philosophy\">philosophy</a> and <a href=\"Catholic%20theology\">Catholic theology</a> in the <a href=\"University%20of%20Vienna\">University of Vienna</a>, before becoming a librarian and a <a href=\"docent\">docent</a> at the institution. He taught among others in the universities of <a href=\"University%20of%20Edinburgh\">Edinburgh</a>, <a href=\"University%20of%20Troms%C3%B8\">Tromsø</a> and <a href=\"University%20of%20Sydney\">Sydney</a>. Since 1995 he has been a <a href=\"Professor\">Professor</a> of <a href=\"German%20studies\">German studies</a> at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Bonn\">University of Bonn</a>. Rudolf Simek is the editor-in-chief of \"Studia Medievalia Septentrionalia\".\nOn 8 October 2013 Rudolf Simek received an Honorary degree at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Rzesz%C3%B3w\">University of Rzeszów</a>.\nRudolf Simek has translated into <a href=\"German%20language\">German</a> 5 volumes of <a href=\"Norse%20sagas\">Norse sagas</a>. He has also written numerous articles for journals and a number of books on the history of <a href=\"Germanic%20peoples\">Germanic peoples</a>, the <a href=\"Viking%20Age\">Viking Age</a> and <a href=\"Germanic%20mythology\">Germanic mythology</a>. The most important of them are:\n","Sleipnir\nIn <a href=\"Norse%20mythology\">Norse mythology</a>, Sleipnir (<a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a> \"slippy\" or \"the slipper\") is an eight-legged <a href=\"horse\">horse</a>. Sleipnir is attested in the \"<a href=\"Poetic%20Edda\">Poetic Edda</a>\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the \"<a href=\"Prose%20Edda\">Prose Edda</a>\", written in the 13th century by <a href=\"Snorri%20Sturluson\">Snorri Sturluson</a>. In both sources, Sleipnir is <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a>'s steed, is the child of <a href=\"Loki\">Loki</a> and <a href=\"Sva%C3%B0ilfari\">Svaðilfari</a>, is described as the best of all horses, and is sometimes ridden to the location of <a href=\"Hel%20%28location%29\">Hel</a>. The \"Prose Edda\" contains extended information regarding the circumstances of Sleipnir's birth, and details that he is grey in color.\nAdditionally, Sleipnir is mentioned in a riddle found in the 13th century <a href=\"legendary%20saga\">legendary saga</a> \"<a href=\"Hervarar%20saga%20ok%20Hei%C3%B0reks\">Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks</a>\", in the 13th century legendary saga \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lsunga%20saga\">Völsunga saga</a>\" as the ancestor of the horse <a href=\"Grani\">Grani</a>, and book I of \"<a href=\"Gesta%20Danorum\">Gesta Danorum</a>\", written in the 12th century by <a href=\"Saxo%20Grammaticus\">Saxo Grammaticus</a>, contains an episode considered by many scholars to involve Sleipnir. Sleipnir is generally accepted as depicted on two 8th century <a href=\"Gotland\">Gotland</a>ic <a href=\"image%20stones\">image stones</a>: the <a href=\"Tj%C3%A4ngvide%20image%20stone\">Tjängvide image stone</a> and the <a href=\"Ardre%20image%20stones\">Ardre VIII image stone</a>.\nScholarly theories have been proposed regarding Sleipnir's potential connection to <a href=\"shamanism\">shamanic</a> practices among the <a href=\"Norse%20paganism\">Norse pagans</a>. In modern times, Sleipnir appears in <a href=\"Scandinavian%20folklore\">Icelandic folklore</a> as the creator of <a href=\"%C3%81sbyrgi\">Ásbyrgi</a>, in works of art, literature, software, and in the names of ships.\nIn the \"Poetic Edda\", Sleipnir appears or is mentioned in the poems \"<a href=\"Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l\">Grímnismál</a>\", \"<a href=\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l\">Sigrdrífumál</a>\", \"<a href=\"Baldrs%20draumar\">Baldrs draumar</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Hyndlulj%C3%B3%C3%B0\">Hyndluljóð</a>\". In \"Grímnismál\", <a href=\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\">Grimnir</a> (Odin in disguise and not yet having revealed his identity) tells the boy Agnar in verse that Sleipnir is the best of horses (\"Odin is the best of the <a href=\"%C3%86sir\">Æsir</a>, Sleipnir of horses\"). In \"Sigrdrífumál\", the <a href=\"valkyrie\">valkyrie</a> <a href=\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfa\">Sigrdrífa</a> tells the hero <a href=\"Sigurd\">Sigurðr</a> that <a href=\"runic%20alphabet\">runes</a> should be cut \"on Sleipnir's teeth and on the sledge's strap-bands.\" In \"<a href=\"Baldrs%20draumar\">Baldrs draumar</a>\", after the Æsir convene about the god <a href=\"Baldr\">Baldr</a>'s bad dreams, Odin places a <a href=\"saddle\">saddle</a> on Sleipnir and the two ride to the location of <a href=\"Hel%20%28location%29\">Hel</a>. The \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1%20hin%20skamma\">Völuspá hin skamma</a>\" section of \"Hyndluljóð\" says that Loki produced \"<a href=\"Fenrir\">the wolf</a>\" with <a href=\"Angrbo%C3%B0a\">Angrboða</a>, produced Sleipnir with <a href=\"Sva%C3%B0ilfari\">Svaðilfari</a>, and thirdly \"one monster that was thought the most baleful, who was descended from <a href=\"B%C3%BDleistr\">Býleistr</a>'s brother.\"\nIn the \"Prose Edda\" book \"<a href=\"Gylfaginning\">Gylfaginning</a>\", Sleipnir is first mentioned in chapter 15 where the enthroned figure of <a href=\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\">High</a> says that every day the Æsir ride across the bridge <a href=\"Bifr%C3%B6st\">Bifröst</a>, and provides a list of the Æsir's horses. The list begins with Sleipnir: \"best is Sleipnir, he is Odin's, he has eight legs.\" In chapter 41, High quotes the \"Grímnismál\" stanza that mentions Sleipnir.\nIn chapter 42, Sleipnir's origins are described. <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gangleri</a> (described earlier in the book as King <a href=\"Gylfi\">Gylfi</a> in disguise) asks High who the horse Sleipnir belongs to and what there is to tell about it. High expresses surprise in Gangleri's lack of knowledge about Sleipnir and its origin. High tells a story set \"right at the beginning of the gods' settlement, when the gods established <a href=\"Midgard\">Midgard</a> and built <a href=\"Valhalla\">Val-Hall</a>\" about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods in three seasons that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a>, the <a href=\"S%C3%B3l%20%28Sun%29\">sun</a>, and the <a href=\"M%C3%A1ni\">moon</a>. After some debate, the gods agree to this, but place a number of restrictions on the builder, including that he must complete the work within three seasons with the help of no man. The builder makes a single request; that he may have help from his stallion <a href=\"Sva%C3%B0ilfari\">Svaðilfari</a>, and due to Loki's influence, this is allowed. The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder, and hauls enormous rocks to the surprise of the gods. The builder, with Svaðilfari, makes fast progress on the wall, and three days before the deadline of summer, the builder was nearly at the entrance to the fortification. The gods convene, and figured out who was responsible, resulting in a unanimous agreement that, along with most trouble, Loki was to blame.\nThe gods declare that Loki would deserve a horrible death if he could not find a scheme that would cause the builder to forfeit his payment, and threatened to attack him. Loki, afraid, swore oaths that he would devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment, whatever it would cost himself. That night, the builder drove out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari, and out from a wood ran a mare. The mare neighed at Svaðilfari, and \"realizing what kind of horse it was,\" Svaðilfari became frantic, neighed, tore apart his tackle, and ran towards the mare. The mare ran to the wood, Svaðilfari followed, and the builder chased after. The two horses ran around all night, causing the building work to be held up for the night, and the previous momentum of building work that the builder had been able to maintain was not continued.\nWhen the Æsir realize that the builder is a <a href=\"hrimthurs\">hrimthurs</a>, they disregard their previous oaths with the builder, and call for Thor. Thor arrives, and kills the builder by smashing the builder's skull into shards with the hammer <a href=\"Mj%C3%B6llnir\">Mjöllnir</a>. However, Loki had \"such dealings\" with Svaðilfari that \"somewhat later\" Loki gave birth to a grey <a href=\"foal\">foal</a> with eight legs; the horse Sleipnir, \"the best horse among gods and men.\"\nIn chapter 49, High describes the death of the god <a href=\"Baldr\">Baldr</a>. <a href=\"Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0r\">Hermóðr</a> agrees to ride to Hel to offer a ransom for Baldr's return, and so \"then Odin's horse Sleipnir was fetched and led forward.\" Hermóðr mounts Sleipnir and rides away. Hermóðr rides for <a href=\"Numbers%20in%20Germanic%20paganism\">nine nights</a> in deep, dark valleys where Hermóðr can see nothing. The two arrive at the river <a href=\"Gj%C3%B6ll\">Gjöll</a> and then continue to Gjöll bridge, encountering a maiden guarding the bridge named <a href=\"M%C3%B3%C3%B0gu%C3%B0r\">Móðguðr</a>. Some dialogue occurs between Hermóðr and Móðguðr, including that Móðguðr notes that recently there had ridden five battalions of dead men across the bridge that made less sound than he. Sleipnir and Hermóðr continue \"downwards and northwards\" on the road to Hel, until the two arrive at Hel's gates. Hermóðr dismounts from Sleipnir, tightens Sleipnir's <a href=\"Girth%20%28tack%29\">girth</a>, mounts him, and spurs Sleipnir on. Sleipnir \"jumped so hard and over the gate that it came nowhere near.\" Hermóðr rides up to the hall, and dismounts from Sleipnir. After Hermóðr's pleas to <a href=\"Hel%20%28being%29\">Hel</a> to return Baldr are accepted under a condition, Hermóðr and Baldr retrace their path backward and return to <a href=\"Asgard\">Asgard</a>.\nIn chapter 16 of the book \"<a href=\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\", a <a href=\"kenning\">kenning</a> given for Loki is \"relative of Sleipnir.\" In chapter 17, a story is provided in which Odin rides Sleipnir into the land of <a href=\"J%C3%B6tunheimr\">Jötunheimr</a> and arrives at the residence of the <a href=\"j%C3%B6tunn\">jötunn</a> <a href=\"Hrungnir\">Hrungnir</a>. Hrungnir asks \"what sort of person this was\" wearing a golden helmet, \"riding sky and sea,\" and says that the stranger \"has a marvellously good horse.\" Odin wagers his head that no horse as good could be found in all of Jötunheimr. Hrungnir admitted that it was a fine horse, yet states that he owns a much longer-paced horse; <a href=\"Gullfaxi\">Gullfaxi</a>. Incensed, Hrungnir leaps atop Gullfaxi, intending to attack Odin for Odin's boasting. Odin gallops hard ahead of Hrungnir, and, in his, fury, Hrungnir finds himself having rushed into the gates of Asgard. In chapter 58, Sleipnir is mentioned among a list of horses in \"<a href=\"%C3%9Eorgr%C3%ADms%C3%BEula\">Þorgrímsþula</a>\": \"Hrafn and Sleipnir, splendid horses [...]\". In addition, Sleipnir occurs twice in kennings for \"<a href=\"ship\">ship</a>\" (once appearing in chapter 25 in a work by the <a href=\"skald\">skald</a> Refr, and \"sea-Sleipnir\" appearing in chapter 49 in \"<a href=\"H%C3%BAsdr%C3%A1pa\">Húsdrápa</a>\", a work by the 10th century skald <a href=\"%C3%9Alfr%20Uggason\">Úlfr Uggason</a>).\nIn \"<a href=\"Hervarar%20saga%20ok%20Hei%C3%B0reks\">Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks</a>\", the poem \"<a href=\"Hei%C3%B0reks%20g%C3%A1tur\">Heiðreks gátur</a>\" contains a riddle that mentions Sleipnir and Odin:\nIn chapter 13 of \"<a href=\"V%C3%B6lsunga%20saga\">Völsunga saga</a>\", the hero <a href=\"Sigurd\">Sigurðr</a> is on his way to a wood and he meets a <a href=\"Odin\">long-bearded old man</a> he had never seen before. Sigurd tells the old man that he is going to choose a horse, and asks the old man to come with him to help him decide. The old man says that they should drive the horses down to the river Busiltjörn. The two drive the horses down into the deeps of Busiltjörn, and all of the horses swim back to land but a large, young, and handsome grey horse that no one had ever mounted. The grey-bearded old man says that the horse is from \"Sleipnir's kin\" and that \"he must be raised carefully, because he will become better than any other horse.\" The old man vanishes. Sigurd names the horse <a href=\"Grani\">Grani</a>, and the narrative adds that the old man was none other than (the god) <a href=\"Odin\">Odin</a>.\nSleipnir is generally considered as appearing in a sequence of events described in book I of \"<a href=\"Gesta%20Danorum\">Gesta Danorum</a>\". In book I, the young <a href=\"Hadingus\">Hadingus</a> encounters \"a certain man of great age who had lost an eye\" who allies him with Liserus. Hadingus and Liserus set out to wage war on Lokerus, ruler of <a href=\"Courland\">Kurland</a>. Meeting defeat, the old man takes Hadingus with him onto his horse as they flee to the old man's house, and the two drink an invigorating drought. The old man sings a prophecy, and takes Hadingus back to where he found him on his horse. During the ride back, Hadingus trembles beneath the old man's <a href=\"Mantle%20%28vesture%29\">mantle</a>, and peers out of its holes. Hadingus realizes that he is flying through the air: \"and he saw that before the steps of the horse lay the sea; but was told not to steal a glimpse of the forbidden thing, and therefore turned his amazed eyes from the dread spectacle of the roads that he journeyed.\" Additionally, in book II, <a href=\"B%C3%B6dvar%20Bjarki\">Biarco</a> mentions Odin and Sleipnir: \"If I may look on the awful husband of <a href=\"Frigg\">Frigg</a>, howsoever he be covered in his white shield, and guide his tall steed, he shall in no way go safe out of <a href=\"Lejre\">Leire</a>; it is lawful to lay low in war the war-waging god.\"\nTwo of the 8th century <a href=\"picture%20stone\">picture stone</a>s from the island of <a href=\"Gotland\">Gotland</a>, <a href=\"Sweden\">Sweden</a> depict eight-legged horses, which are thought by most scholars to depict Sleipnir: the <a href=\"Tj%C3%A4ngvide%20image%20stone\">Tjängvide image stone</a> and the <a href=\"Ardre%20image%20stones\">Ardre VIII image stone</a>. Both stones feature a rider sitting atop an eight-legged horse, which some scholars view as Odin. Above the rider on the Tjängvide image stone is a horizontal figure holding a spear, which may be a <a href=\"valkyrie\">valkyrie</a>, and a female figure greets the rider with a cup. The scene has been interpreted as a rider arriving at the world of the dead. The mid-7th century <a href=\"Eggja%20stone\">Eggja stone</a> bearing the <a href=\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\">Odinic name</a> \"haras\" (<a href=\"Old%20Norse\">Old Norse</a> 'army god') may be interpreted as depicting Sleipnir.\n<a href=\"John%20Lindow\">John Lindow</a> theorizes that Sleipnir's \"connection to the world of the dead grants a special poignancy to one of the kennings in which Sleipnir turns up as a horse word,\" referring to the skald Úlfr Uggason's usage of \"sea-Sleipnir\" in his \"Húsdrápa\", which describes the funeral of Baldr. Lindow continues that \"his use of Sleipnir in the kenning may show that Sleipnir's role in the failed recovery of Baldr was known at that time and place in Iceland; it certainly indicates that Sleipnir was an active participant in the mythology of the last decades of paganism.\" Lindow adds that the eight legs of Sleipnir \"have been interpreted as an indication of great speed or as being connected in some unclear way with cult activity.\"\n<a href=\"Hilda%20Ellis%20Davidson\">Hilda Ellis Davidson</a> says that \"the eight-legged horse of Odin is the typical steed of the shaman\" and that in the shaman's journeys to the heavens or the underworld, a shaman \"is usually represented as riding on some bird or animal.\" Davidson says that while the creature may vary, the horse is fairly common \"in the lands where horses are in general use, and Sleipnir's ability to bear the god through the air is typical of the shaman's steed\" and cites an example from a study of shamanism by <a href=\"Mircea%20Eliade\">Mircea Eliade</a> of an eight-legged foal from a story of a <a href=\"Buryats\">Buryat</a> shaman. Davidson says that while attempts have been made to connect Sleipnir with <a href=\"hobby%20horse\">hobby horse</a>s and steeds with more than four feet that appear in carnivals and processions, but that \"a more fruitful resemblance seems to be on the <a href=\"bier\">bier</a> on which a dead man is carried in the funeral procession by four bearers; borne along thus, he may be described as riding on a steed with eight legs.\" As an example, Davidson cites a funeral <a href=\"dirge\">dirge</a> from the <a href=\"Gondi%20people\">Gondi people</a> in <a href=\"India\">India</a> as recorded by <a href=\"Verrier%20Elwin\">Verrier Elwin</a>, stating that \"it contains references to <a href=\"Bagri%20Maro\">Bagri Maro</a>, the horse with eight legs, and it is clear from the song that it is the dead man's bier.\" Davidson says that the song is sung when a distinguished <a href=\"Muria%20people\">Muria</a> dies, and provides a verse:\nDavidson adds that the representation of Odin's steed as eight-legged could arise naturally out of such an image, and that \"this is in accordance with the picture of Sleipnir as a horse that could bear its rider to the land of the dead.\"\nUlla Loumand cites Sleipnir and the flying horse <a href=\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\">Hófvarpnir</a> as \"prime examples\" of horses in Norse mythology as being able to \"mediate between earth and sky, between <a href=\"%C3%81sgar%C3%B0r\">Ásgarðr</a>, <a href=\"Mi%C3%B0gar%C3%B0r\">Miðgarðr</a> and <a href=\"%C3%9Atgar%C3%B0r\">Útgarðr</a> and between the world of mortal men and the underworld.\"\nThe \"<a href=\"Encyclopedia%20of%20Indo-European%20Culture\">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a>\" theorizes that Sleipnir's eight legs may be the remnants of horse-associated <a href=\"divine%20twins\">divine twins</a> found in <a href=\"Proto-Indo-Europeans\">Indo-European</a> cultures and ultimately stemming from <a href=\"Proto-Indo-European%20religion\">Proto-Indo-European religion</a>. The encyclopedia states that \"[...] Sleipnir is born with an extra set of legs, thus representing an original pair of horses. Like <a href=\"Freyr\">Freyr</a> and <a href=\"Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\">Njörðr</a>, Sleipnir is responsible for carrying the dead to the otherworld.\" The encyclopedia cites parallels between the birth of Sleipnir and myths originally pointing to a <a href=\"Celtic%20polytheism\">Celtic</a> goddess who gave birth to the Divine horse twins. These elements include a demand for a goddess by an unwanted suitor (the <a href=\"hrimthurs\">hrimthurs</a> demanding the goddess <a href=\"Freyja\">Freyja</a>) and the seduction of builders.\nAccording to Icelandic folklore, the <a href=\"horseshoe\">horseshoe</a>-shaped canyon <a href=\"%C3%81sbyrgi\">Ásbyrgi</a> located in <a href=\"J%C3%B6kuls%C3%A1rglj%C3%BAfur%20National%20Park\">Jökulsárgljúfur National Park</a>, northern <a href=\"Iceland\">Iceland</a> was formed by Sleipnir's hoof. Sleipnir is depicted with Odin on <a href=\"Dagfin%20Werenskiold\">Dagfin Werenskiold</a>'s wooden relief \"Odin på Sleipnir\" (1945–1950) on the exterior of the <a href=\"Oslo%20City%20Hall\">Oslo City Hall</a> in <a href=\"Oslo\">Oslo</a>, <a href=\"Norway\">Norway</a>. Sleipnir has been and remains a popular name for ships in northern Europe, and <a href=\"Rudyard%20Kipling\">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s short story entitled \"Sleipnir, late Thurinda\" (1888) features a horse named Sleipnir. A statue of Sleipnir (1998) stands in <a href=\"Wednesbury\">Wednesbury</a>, <a href=\"England\">England</a>, a town which takes its name from the <a href=\"Anglo-Saxon%20paganism\">Anglo-Saxon</a> version of Odin, <a href=\"W%C5%8Dden\">Wōden</a>.\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"Gná and Hófvarpnir\\nIn Norse mythology, Gná is a goddess who runs errands in other worlds for the goddess Frigg and rides the flying, sea-treading horse Hófvarpnir (Old Norse \\\"he who throws his hoofs about\\\", \\\"hoof-thrower\\\" or \\\"hoof kicker\\\"). Gná and Hófvarpnir are attested in the \\\"Prose Edda\\\", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Scholarly theories have been proposed about Gná as a \\\"goddess of fullness\\\" and as potentially cognate to Fama from Roman mythology. Hófvarpnir and the eight-legged steed Sleipnir have been cited examples of transcendent horses in Norse mythology.\\nIn chapter 35 of the \\\"Prose Edda\\\" book \\\"Gylfaginning\\\", the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur. High lists Gná thirteenth, and says that Frigg sends her off to different worlds to run errands. High adds that Gná rides the horse Hófvarpnir, and that this horse has the ability to ride through the air and atop the sea. High continues that \\\"once some Vanir saw her path as she rode through the air\\\" and that an unnamed one of these Vanir says, in verse:\\nGná responds in verse, in doing so providing the parentage of Hófvarpnir; the horses Hamskerpir and Garðrofa:\\nThe source for these stanzas is not provided and they are otherwise unattested. High ends his description of Gná by saying that \\\"from Gna's name comes the custom of saying that something \\\"gnaefir\\\" [looms] when it rises up high.\\\" In the \\\"Prose Edda\\\" book \\\"Skáldskaparmál\\\", Gná is included among a list of 27 ásynjur names.\\nRudolf Simek says that the etymology that Snorri presents in \\\"Gylfaginning\\\" for the name \\\"Gná\\\" may not be correct, yet it is unclear what the name may otherwise mean, though Gná has also been etymologically theorized as a \\\"goddess of fullness.\\\" John Lindow calls the verse exchange between the Vanir and Gná \\\"strange\\\" and points out that it's unclear why it should specifically be the Vanir that witness Gná flying through the air.\\nUlla Loumand cites Hófvarpnir and the eight-legged horse Sleipnir as \\\"prime examples\\\" of horses in Norse mythology as being able to \\\"mediate between earth and sky, between Ásgarðr, Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld.\\\" In the 19th century, Jacob Grimm proposed a cognate in the personified rumor in Roman mythology; Fama. However, Grimm notes that unlike Fama, Gná is not described as winged but rather that Hófvarpnir, like the winged-horse Pegasus, may have been.\\n\",\n \"Harley-Davidson Knucklehead engine\\nThe knucklehead is a retronym used by enthusiasts to refer to a Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine, so named because of the distinct shape of the rocker boxes. The engine is a two-cylinder, 45 degree, pushrod actuated overhead valve V-twin engine with two valves per cylinder. It was the third basic type of V-Twin engine used by Harley-Davidson, replacing the Flathead-engined VL model in 1936 as HD's top-of-the-line model. The engine was manufactured until 1947 and was replaced by the Panhead engine in 1948. The Knucklehead-engined models were originally referred to as \\\"OHVs\\\" by enthusiasts of the time and in Harley's official literature; the nickname arose from the California chopper culture of the late 1960s.\\nAs the design of Harley-Davidson engines has evolved through the years, the distinctive shape of the valve covers has allowed Harley enthusiasts to classify an engine simply by looking at the shape of the cover. The knucklehead engine valve covers have contours resembling knuckles on a person's fist that give the knucklehead its name.\",\n \"Mjölnir\\nIn Norse mythology, Mjölnir (Old Norse: \\\"Mjǫllnir\\\" , ] ) is the hammer of Thor, a major Norse god associated with thunder. Mjölnir is depicted in Norse mythology as one of the most fearsome and powerful weapons in existence, capable of leveling mountains. In his account of Norse mythology, Snorri Sturluson relates how the hammer was made by the dwarven brothers Eitri and Brokkr, and how its characteristically short handle was due to a mishap during its manufacture. Similar hammers (Ukonvasara) were a common symbol of the god of thunder in other North European mythologies.\\nOld Norse \\\"Mjǫllnir\\\" /ˈmjɔlːnir/ regularly becomes \\\"Mjøllnir\\\" /ˈmjœlːnir/ in Old Icelandic by the 13th century.\\nThe modern Icelandic form is \\\"Mjölnir\\\", Norwegian and Danish \\\"Mjølner\\\", Swedish \\\"Mjölner\\\".\\nThe name is derived from a Proto-Germanic form \\\"*meldunjaz\\\", from the Germanic root of \\\"*malanan\\\" \\\"to grind\\\" (\\\"*melwan\\\", Old Icelandic \\\"meldr, mjǫll, mjǫl\\\" \\\"meal, flour\\\"), yielding an interpretation of \\\"the grinder; crusher\\\".\\nAdditionally, there is a suggestion that the mythological \\\"thunder weapon\\\" being named after the word for \\\"grindstone\\\" is of considerable, Proto-Indo-European (if not Indo-Hittite) age;\\naccording to this suggestion, the divine thunder weapon (identified with lightning) of the storm god was imagined as a grindstone (Russian \\\"molot\\\" and possibly Hittite \\\"malatt-\\\" \\\"sledgehammer, bludgeon\\\"), reflected in Russian молния (\\\"molniya\\\") and Welsh \\\"mellt\\\" \\\"lightning\\\" (possibly cognate with Old Norse \\\"mjuln\\\" \\\"fire\\\").\\nIn the Old Norse texts, Mjölnir is identified as \\\"hamarr\\\" \\\"a hammer\\\", a word that in Old Norse and some modern Norwegian dialects can mean \\\"hammer\\\" as well as \\\"stone, rock, cliff\\\", ultimately derived from an Indo-European word for \\\"stone, stone tool\\\", \\\"h₂éḱmō\\\"; as such it is cognate with Sanskrit \\\"aśman\\\", meaning \\\"stone, rock, stone tool; hammer\\\" as well as \\\"thunderbolt\\\".\\nAn account of the origin of Mjölnir is found in \\\"Skáldskaparmál\\\" from Snorri's Edda:\\nIn this story, Loki bets his head with Sindri (or Eitri) and his brother Brokkr that they could never succeed in making items more beautiful than those of the Sons of Ivaldi (the dwarves who created other precious items for the gods: Odin's spear Gungnir, and Freyr's foldable boat Skíðblaðnir).\\nSindri and Brokkr accept Loki's bet and the two brothers begin working. They begin to work in their workshop and Sindri puts a pig's skin in the forge and tells his brother (Brokkr) never to stop working the bellows until he comes and takes out what he put in.\\nLoki, in disguise as a fly, comes and bites Brokkr on the arm. Nevertheless, he continues to pump the bellows.\\nThen, Sindri takes out Gullinbursti, Freyr's boar with shining bristles. Next, Sindri puts some gold in the forge and gives Brokkr the same order. Again, Loki, still in the guise of a fly comes and, again, bites Brokkr's neck twice as hard as he had bitten his arm. Just as before, Brokkr continues to work the bellows despite the pain. When Sindri returns, he takes out Draupnir, Odin's ring, which drops eight duplicates of itself every ninth night.\\nFinally, Sindri puts some iron in the forge and tells Brokkr not to stop pumping the bellows. Loki comes a third time and this time bites Brokkr on the eyelid even harder. The bite is so deep that it draws blood. The blood runs into Brokkr's eyes and forces him stop working the bellows just long enough to wipe his eyes. This time, when Sindri returns, he takes Mjölnir out of the forge. The handle is shorter than Sindri had planned and so the hammer can only be wielded with one hand.\\nDespite the flaw in the handle, Sindri and Brokkr win the bet and go to take Loki's head. However, Loki worms his way out of the bet by pointing out that the dwarves would need to cut his neck to remove his head, but Loki's neck was not part of the deal. As a consolation prize, Brokkr sews Loki's mouth shut to teach him a lesson.\\nThe final product is then presented to Thor, and its properties are described, as follows,\\nThen he gave the hammer to Thor, and said that Thor might smite as hard as he desired, whatsoever might be before him, and the hammer would not fail; and if he threw it at anything, it would never miss, and never fly so far as not to return to his hand; and if be desired, he might keep it in his sark, it was so small; but indeed it was a flaw in the hammer that the fore-haft was somewhat short. \\\"(Original: Þá gaf hann Þór hamarinn ok sagði, at hann myndi mega ljósta svá stórt sem hann vildi, hvat sem fyrir væri, at eigi myndi hamarrinn bila, ok ef hann yrpi honum til, þá myndi hann aldri missa ok aldri fljúga svá langt, at eigi myndi hann sækja heim hönd, ok ef þat vildi, þá var hann svá lítill, at hafa mátti serk sér. En þat var lýi á, ar forskeftit var heldr skammt.)\\\"\\nThor possessed a formidable chariot, which is drawn by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr. A belt, Megingjörð, and iron gloves, Járngreipr, were used to lift Mjölnir. Mjölnir is the focal point of some of Thor's adventures.\\nThis is clearly illustrated in a poem found in the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\" titled \\\"Þrymskviða\\\". The myth relates that the giant, Þrymr, steals Mjölnir from Thor and then demands the goddess Freyja in exchange. Loki, the god notorious for his duplicity, conspires with the other Æsir to recover Mjölnir by disguising Thor as Freyja and presenting him as the \\\"goddess\\\" to Þrymr.\\nAt a banquet Þrymr holds in honor of the impending union, Þrymr takes the bait. Unable to contain his passion for his new maiden with long, blond locks (and broad shoulders), as Þrymr approaches the bride by placing Mjölnir on \\\"her\\\" lap, Thor rips off his disguise and destroys Þrymr and his giant cohorts.\\nA precedent of these Viking Age Thor's hammer amulets are recorded for the migration period Alemanni, who took to wearing Roman \\\"Hercules' Clubs\\\" as symbols of Donar. A possible remnant of these Donar amulets was recorded in 1897, as a custom of Unterinn (South Tyrolian Alps) of incising a T-shape above front doors for protection against evils of all kinds, especially storms.\\nAbout 50 specimens of Mjölnir amulets have been found widely dispersed throughout Scandinavia, dating from the 9th to 11th centuries, most commonly discovered in areas with a strong Christian influence including southern Norway, south-eastern Sweden, and Denmark. Due to the similarity of equal-armed, square crosses featuring figures of Christ on them at around the same time, the wearing of Thor's hammers as pendants may have come into fashion in defiance of the square amulets worn by newly converted Christians in the regions.\\nAn iron Thor's hammer pendant excavated in Yorkshire, dating to ca. AD 1000 bears an uncial inscription preceded and followed by a cross, interpreted as indicating a Christian owner synchronising pagan and Christian symbolism.\\nA 10th-century soapstone mold found at Trendgården, Jutland, Denmark is notable for allowing the casting of both crucifix and Thor's hammer pendants. A silver specimen found near Fossi, Iceland (now in the National Museum of Iceland) can be interpreted as either a Christian cross or a Thor's hammer. Unusually, the elongated limb of the cross ends in a beast's (perhaps a wolf's) head.\\nThe Købelev Runic-Thor’s Hammer, found at the Danish island of Lolland in 2014, is so far the only one bearing an inscription, proving that this kind of pendant is meant to be a hammer. The inscription reads \\\"Hmar x is,\\\" which translates to \\\"This is a hammer.\\\" However, the proper spelling is \\\"hamar,\\\" indicating the creator was not a fully literate individual.\\nSome image stones and runestones found in Denmark and southern Sweden bear an inscription of a hammer. Runestones depicting Thor's hammer include runestones U 1161 in Altuna, Sö 86 in Åby, Sö 111 in Stenkvista, Sö 140 in Jursta, Vg 113 in Lärkegapet, Öl 1 in Karlevi, DR 26 in Laeborg, DR 48 in Hanning, DR 120 in Spentrup, and DR 331 in Gårdstånga. Other runestones included an inscription calling for Thor to safeguard the stone. For example, the stone of Virring in Denmark had the inscription \\\"þur uiki þisi kuml\\\", which translates into English as \\\"May Thor hallow this memorial.\\\" There are several examples of a similar inscription, each one asking for Thor to \\\"hallow\\\" or protect the specific artifact. Such inscriptions may have been in response to the Christians, who would ask for God's protection over their dead.\\nAccording to some scholars, the swastika shape may have been a variant popular in Anglo-Saxon England prior to Christianization, especially in East Anglia and Kent. Wilson (1894) points out that while the swastika had been \\\"vulgarly called in Scandinavia the hammer of Thor\\\" (in Icelandic: \\\"Thorshamarmerki\\\", mark of Thor's hammer), the symbol properly so called had a Y or T shape.\\nMost practitioners of Germanic Neopagan faiths wear Mjölnir pendants as a symbol of that faith worldwide. Renditions of Mjölnir are designed, crafted and sold by some Germanic Neopagan groups and individuals.\\nSome controversy has occurred concerning the potential recognition of the symbol as a religious symbol by the United States government. In May 2013 the \\\"Hammer of Thor\\\" was added to the list of United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers.\\n\\n\",\n \"Elizabeth H. Boyer\\nElizabeth Hall Boyer (born 1952) is an American fantasy author who produced a number of books in the 1980s and early 1990s. Her stories were deeply influenced by Norse mythology, and are set in a fantasy world whose climate and geography resembles that of the Scandinavia of Norse myths. While Norse mythology has been an influence on the fantasy genre, and many authors such as Tolkien and Lewis were influenced by these myths, Boyer's books followed them much more closely. Her stories are characterized by light and dark elves, dwarves, trolls, sorcerers, ley lines, burial mounds, wizards, and so forth. Boyer tended to follow the Norse versions of these story elements closely without much deviation. Boyer's early books are dominated by the theme of the heroic quest.\\nBoyer attended Brigham Young University where she studied English literature and Scandinavian mythology. She was last reported living near Atlanta on a farm, and no longer writing.\\nHer works have maintained a level of popularity through the years since their publication, however critics have described her later works to have been inferior efforts compared to the original \\\"Alfar\\\" series. The \\\"Skyla\\\" series in particular was noted as \\\"less ambitious\\\" and darker yet slow-paced, patchy, and tentative. Other critics attribute her lack of popular appeal (compared to contemporaries like Tolkien and Lewis) to a narrower thematic subtext. As an early contributor to the mass-market fantasy genre, Boyer's fate is described as similar to her contemporary Niel Hancock in that her books required the reader to be interested in a specialized area of study, in this case, Norse mythology, in order to fully appreciate the books, and thus she did not find the sort of wide acceptance which would have given her a more prominent place as a pioneer in the genre.\\nBoyer also contributed the short story, \\\"The Last Gift,\\\" to the anthology \\\"Catfantastic II\\\" in 1990.\",\n \"Norse mythology in popular culture\\nThe Norse mythology, preserved in such ancient Icelandic texts as the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, and other lays and sagas, was little known outside Scandinavia until the 19th century. With the widespread publication of Norse myths and legends at this time, references to the Norse gods and heroes spread into European literary culture, especially in Scandinavia, Germany, and Britain. In the later 20th century, references to Norse mythology became common in science fiction and fantasy literature, role-playing games, and eventually other cultural products such as Japanese animation.\\nAntiquaries of the 19th century such as George Webbe Dasent brought the mythology of Scandinavia back to the popular notice of many people in Germany and England; in both cases, Norse mythology was recognized as the latest surviving form of Germanic paganism. Germany and England were Christianized far earlier than the Scandinavian countries and much of their own traditions were lost.\\nIn Britain, William Morris composed poetry such as \\\"Sigurd the Volsung\\\" on Norse legendary subjects as well as translating Icelandic sagas into English. In Germany, Richard Wagner borrowed characters and themes from Norse mythology to compose the four operas that make up \\\"Der Ring des Nibelungen\\\" (\\\"The Ring of the Nibelung\\\"), though he also utilized medieval German sources and Germanized the names of the Norse gods.\\nNorse mythology influenced Richard Wagner's use of literary themes from it to compose the four operas that make up \\\"Der Ring des Nibelungen\\\" (\\\"The Ring of the Nibelung\\\").\",\n \"Harley-Davidson Shovelhead engine\\nThe Shovelhead engine is a motorcycle engine that was produced by Harley-Davidson from 1966 to 1984, built as a successor to the previous Panhead engine. When the engine was first produced, the Shovelhead had a shallower combustion chamber, larger valve drop for both intake and exhaust, better porting, and stronger valves and pistons. This gave the new engine an extra 10 horsepower, along with a different appearance. The engine gained the nickname “Shovelhead” due to the look of the rocker heads having the appearance of an old coal shovel that was flipped upside down, giving the appearance of a shovel. While the engine did have problems earlier in its timeline, the new and improved motor gave Harley-Davidson a 26% sales increase.\\nThe Shovelhead engine was created due to the previous Panhead engine starting to become obsolete, with many Harley-Davidson owners demanding more power to compete with the more modern motorcycles. Throughout the Shovelhead’s run, the engine had many different changes made to it to improve power, cooling and oil consumption. The engines had only 10 fins for cooling, which caused them to run hot. Another problem was that oil would pool in the cylinder heads, causing it to leak into the valves and burn oil. Another problem was that oil would pool in the crankcase rather than being pumped, causing the engine to overheat and seriously harm performance. Oil leakage and consumption became such a problem with the bikes, many owners reported losing as much as a quart of oil every 500 miles. The excessive overheating in the motors also caused serious problems, which frequently led to failure. With a lack of oil and excessive heat, the valves were prone to sticking and destroying the top end. Numerous Harley technicians even stated that without necessary top-end modifications, the motors would often last only between 500 and 5,000 miles. With Harley-Davidson trying to fix the engine rather than research and develop, they fell far behind the competition of the cheaper and more reliable Japanese bikes taking control over the market.\\nAs a way to try to combat their financial struggles, the company merged with the American Machine and Foundry (known as AMF) hoping to gain help from their struggles. After AMF took control, the merged company started to make attempts at improving the engine with their own funds. In 1970, the alternator was redesigned for less strain, hidden behind a new and redesigned side case. The carburetors were changed to Zenith-Bendix, improving flow and power that started to gain a better image for the engine. However, in 1974, the engine started to show many more problems. With the United States involved in the 1973 oil crisis, gasoline had a much lower octane and consistency that severely hurt the engine’s performance. Engine knock became a large problem; causing overheating that led to blown gaskets and damaged head bolts. AMF tried to combat this by producing more units in 1976 despite the engine’s problems, which ended up leading to a damaged employee reputation, along with seriously declined quality in their units. After realizing they would need some serious improvement to fix their current situation, they produced some updates in 1978 to the engine that consisted of a larger displacement, and steel struts cast into the pistons to prevent them from expanding from the heat. However, the changes were not enough for the declining quality of American fuel at the time. Valves and guides were prone to problems, along with more overheating, detonation, and oil consumption.\\nAnother problem that arose in 1979 was that the motors were fitted with electronic ignition units, which were prone to failure. Many owners would swap the units for an older point-ignition system for reliability. The larger compression ratio on the newer engines was still a serious problem, due to the low fuel quality and octane. With many Shovelhead owners having to turn towards aftermarket parts to keep the bike running properly, Harley-Davidson realized they would have to start developing a new engine. Towards the end of the Shovelhead's production, Harley-Davidson made numerous modifications in an attempt to keep the engine usable for production. Belt drive was added to their motorcycles in 1980 to prevent the oil leakage from the enclosed chain, along with a 5-speed transmission and rubber motor mounts to help reduce vibration. In 1981, Harley Davidson purchased AMF's share of the company back, adding a new oil pump, improved valve guides, and lowering the compression to help the engines run on the lower quality gasoline in the United States. The engine was produced until 1984, where the Evolution engine, which had aluminum heads and barrels, began to take over on most models. The engine could still be found in certain models such as the FLH in 1985, but was shortly replaced by the succeeding Evolution engine.\\nThe Shovelhead engine was ultimately fitted to all of Harley-Davidson's big twin motorcycles throughout its production. The motors were first met with controversy due to the Shovelhead's weight and ground clearance. Because of this steering and weaving became a new issue that arose with motorcycles fitted with the engine. To bring more models into production, the FX Super Glide was released in 1971 with a \\\"chopper\\\" look that was ultimately an FLH with a Sportster front. This brought the motorcycle scene at the time to a broader audience and improved sales for the company. The FLH was also available with an Electra-glide package, which was used as a police engine for the motorcycles. It allowed the engines to turn over for a longer period while idling, along with having an electric start. Because of the added weight of the larger engine on motorcycles with the Electra-glide package, the bikes were faster and more powerful at the trade off of being much harder to maneuver. Due to the police package being a rarity, it is highly sought after by collectors. Today, the engines are commonly used by classic motorcycle enthusiasts for restoration projects due to the engine's simple transmission, high torque, and smooth powerband.\",\n \"ANA (motorcycle)\\nThe ANA motorcycle was manufactured by Martin J Shelley at the ANA Cycle Works in Rathdowne Street, North Carlton, Victoria between 1910 and 1919. The ANA used a wide variety of different engines: Fafnir, JAP Precision, Abingdon King Dick, as well as Sturmey-Archer gearboxes.\\n\",\n \"Big-bang firing order\\nA big bang engine is an unconventional motorcycle engine designed so that most of the power strokes occur simultaneously or in close succession. This is achieved by changing the ignition timing, changing or re-timing the camshaft, and sometimes in combination with a change in crankpin angle. The goal is to change the power delivery characteristics of the engine. A regular firing multi-cylinder engine fires at approximately even intervals, giving a smooth-running engine. Because of a big bang engine's power delivery imbalance, there exists more vibration and stress in the engine. Thus, the power peaks are very strong and can overwhelm the rear tire (if used in a motorcycle), but when the rear tire does slide, the temporary lull in power between power strokes generally makes the slide easier to catch.\\nThe classic British parallel-twins (BSA, Triumph, Norton, AJS & Matchless) all had 360° crankshafts that, compared to a single, gave twice as many ignition pulses which were evenly spaced. However, the 360 twin had a mechanical primary engine balance that was no better than a single.\\nBy contrast, Japanese parallel twins of the 1960s (such as the 1966 Honda “Black Bomber” and the Yamaha TX500) adopted a 180° crank that afforded perfect mechanical primary engine balance. However, the 180° crank yielded some \\\"tingling\\\" secondary vibration (which could be minimised with a balance shaft), and an uneven firing order.\\nThe Yamaha TRX850 pioneered the use of a 270° crank. This configuration allowed a firing pattern more regular than a 180° crank, and less regular than a 360° crank. A 270° crank gives the best possible secondary engine balance for a parallel twin, and its exhaust note and power delivery resembles those of a 90° V-twin.\\nA twingle is a four-stroke twin-cylinder engine with an altered firing order designed to give power pulses similar to a single-cylinder four-stroke engine.\\nInline twins with a 360° crankpin offset or flat-twins can be easily converted into twingles by firing both of the cylinders at the same time and installing a camshaft or camshafts that operate both cylinders' valves in parallel. Because many such engines already employ the wasted spark principle, only the camshaft modification is necessary. The Vintage Dirt Track Racing Association (VDTRA) 2010 Rules have banned vintage motorcycles from being set up as a twingle.\\nA narrow angle V-twin such as the 45° Harley-Davidson naturally has slightly unevenly spaced power strokes. By changing the ignition timing on one of the cylinders by 360° the power strokes are very closely spaced. This will cause uneven fuel distribution in an engine with a single carburettor. The Harley-Davidson XR-750 with twin carburettors was a popular bike to twingle. It had great success in flattrack racing.\\nNote that typical 2-stroke V4s have four crank throws or pins (see below) so it is important to stipulate all four crank pin phases with the two-stroke engines. The \\\"split\\\" in this case is referring to the difference in phase between piston pairs in \\\"opposite\\\" banks that would normally share a crank pin in a four-stroke engine.\\nThe Ford V4s use split-pin crankshafts, like many 60° V6s. Just as with a boxer-four, piston pairs from opposite banks reach top-dead-centre at the same time, but with a crankpin split of only 60° instead of 180°, potentially giving a shorter and stronger or stiffer crankshaft. For 60° V6s, the crankpins are usually split the other way causing the paired pistons to reach top-dead-centre 120° apart.\\nA four-cylinder engine with a regular firing interval is sometimes referred to as a screamer. A long bang fires both pairs of cylinders in quick succession; the power delivery is identical to a parallel twin with a 180° crank and similar to a V-twin. In 2005 Kawasaki experimented with this configuration on the ZX-RR MotoGP bike.\\nThe 2009 Yamaha YZF-R1 was the first production sportbike to use a crossplane crankshaft and big-bang firing order. The power delivery is the same as a 90° V4 with a 180° crank, such as the Honda VFR800 and very similar to the Yamaha V-Max which has been lauded for its exhaust sound.\\n\\n\\nTypical two-stroke V4s have four crank throws, or crank pins, instead of the two that most four-stroke V4s have (two connecting rods sharing each pin). This is primarily because each piston needed its own sealed crankcase volume for the purposes of efficient induction, where in some cases separate crankshafts served each bank in order to achieve this.\\nThe Honda NSR500 began and ended its life as a 'screamer', where the pistons were phased similarly to a four-stroke V-four with a 180° crank. However, in 1990 Honda set the crankpin phases of each pair of pistons within each bank to be the same (like a four-stroke 'droner': 360° crank), but with each bank's crankpins offset by 180° to each other (effectively \\\"splitting\\\" the pins and changing the V-angle, in terms of ignition timing). This was called a 'big bang' engine.\\nYamaha created a big bang YZR500 in 1992. The YZR500 had two crankshafts like a U engine and the angle between each pair of cylinders was 90°, like a V4.\\nIn 1997 Mick Doohan wanted to run a 180° screamer engine. HRC crew chief Jerry Burgess explains why: \\\"The 180 got back a direct relationship between the throttle and the rear wheel, When the tire spun I could roll off without losing drive. The big bang has a lot of engine braking, so it upsets the bike into corners, then when you open the throttle you get this sudden pulse of power, which again upsets the suspension. Mick's secret is corner speed, so he needs the bike to be smooth and the 180 is much smoother.\\\"\",\n \"Norse cosmology\\nThe cosmology of Norse mythology has \\\"<a href=\\\"Numbers%20in%20Norse%20mythology\\\">nine</a> homeworlds\\\" or \\\"nine realms\\\", unified by the <a href=\\\"world%20tree\\\">world tree</a> <a href=\\\"Yggdrasil\\\">Yggdrasil</a>. Mapping the nine worlds escapes precision because the \\\"<a href=\\\"Poetic%20Edda\\\">Poetic Edda</a>\\\" often alludes vaguely. The Norse creation myth tells how everything came into existence in the gap between fire and ice, and how the gods shaped the homeworld of humans.\\nA cosmic <a href=\\\"fraxinus\\\">ash tree</a>, <a href=\\\"Yggdrasil\\\">Yggdrasil</a>, lies at the center of the Norse cosmos. Three roots drink the waters of the homeworlds, one in the homeworld of the gods, the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a>, Asgard, one in the homeworld of the humans, Midgard, and one in the homeworld of the dead, Helheim. Beneath the root in the world of the frost giants is the spring of <a href=\\\"M%C3%ADmir\\\">Mímir</a>, whose waters contain wisdom and understanding.\\nThe root in the Æsir homeworld taps the sacred wellspring of fate, the Well of <a href=\\\"Ur%C3%B0r\\\">Urðr</a>. The tree is tended by the <a href=\\\"Norns\\\">Norns</a>, who live near it. Each day, they water it with pure water and whiten it with clay from the spring to preserve it. The water falls down to the earth as dew.\\nAnimals continually feed on the tree, threatening it, but its vitality persists evergreen as it heals and nourishes the vibrant aggression of life. On the topmost branch of the tree sits an eagle. The beating of its wings cause the winds in the world of men. At the root of the tree lies a great dragon, <a href=\\\"N%C3%AD%C3%B0h%C3%B6ggr\\\">Niðhǫggr</a>, gnawing at it continuously, together with other unnamed serpents. The squirrel <a href=\\\"Ratatoskr\\\">Ratatoskr</a> carries insults from one to the other. Harts and goats devour the branches and tender shoots.\\nIn the beginning, there were two regions: <a href=\\\"Muspelheim\\\">Muspelheim</a> in the south, full of fire, light and heat; and <a href=\\\"Niflheim\\\">Niflheim</a> in the north, full of arctic waters, mists, and cold. Between them stretched the yawning emptiness of <a href=\\\"Ginnungagap\\\">Ginnungagap</a>, and into it poured sparks and smoke from the south and layers of <a href=\\\"hard%20rime\\\">rime</a> and glacial rivers from the north. As heat and cold met in Ginnungagap, a living <a href=\\\"j%C3%B6tunn\\\">jǫtunn</a>, <a href=\\\"Ymir\\\">Ymir</a>, appeared in the melting ice. From his left armpit, the first man and woman were born. From his legs, the frost jötnar were born, making Ymir the progenitor of the jǫtnar. Most sources identify Ymir's oldest son as <a href=\\\"%C3%9Er%C3%BA%C3%B0gelmir\\\">Þrúðgelmir</a>, who bore Ymir's grandson, <a href=\\\"Bergelmir\\\">Bergelmir</a>. The other jǫtnar are usually unnamed. Ymir fed on the milk of the cow <a href=\\\"Au%C3%B0umbla\\\">Auðumbla</a>. She licked the blocks of salty ice, releasing <a href=\\\"B%C3%BAri\\\">Búri</a>.\\nBúri's son <a href=\\\"Borr\\\">Borr</a> had three sons, the gods <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a>, <a href=\\\"Vili%20and%20V%C3%A9\\\">Vili and Vé</a>. The three slew Ymir, and all of the jötnar (giants) except for Bergelmir and his wife, who were drowned in the blood of the others. From Ymir's body, they made the world of humans: his blood the seas and lakes, his flesh the earth, his bones the mountains and his teeth the rocks. From his skull they made the dome of the sky, setting a dwarf at each of the four corners to hold it high above the earth. They protected it from the jötnar with a wall made from Ymir's eyebrows. Next they caused time to exist, and placed the orbs of the sun and moon in chariots which were to circle around the sky.\\nOdin, passing through the world of the jötnar, found two beautiful young giants named <a href=\\\"S%C3%B3l%20%28sun%29\\\">Sól</a> and <a href=\\\"M%C3%A1ni\\\">Máni</a>, sun and moon. They were brother and sister, and their father had named them after the beautiful lights in the sky. Odin decreed that Sól and Mani should drive the chariots of the sun and the moon across the sky, and to ensure that their journey was always constant and never slowed, he created two great wolves. These wolves were called <a href=\\\"Hati%20Hr%C3%B3%C3%B0vitnisson\\\">Hati</a> and <a href=\\\"Sk%C3%B6ll\\\">Sköll</a>, and they were placed in the sky to pursue the chariots and devour them if they caught them.\\nThe realm of the Norse gods, the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a>, is called <a href=\\\"Asgard\\\">Asgard</a> or the \\\"Court of the Ás\\\". The Æsir built it after the homeworld of humans, and it contains many halls. <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a>'s hall, Válaskjálf, is roofed in silver. He can sit within it and view all the worlds at once. <a href=\\\"Giml%C3%A9\\\">Gimli</a>, a hall roofed in gold, to which righteous men are said to go after death, also lies somewhere in Asgard. <a href=\\\"Valhalla\\\">Valhalla</a>, the hall of the slain, is the feast hall of Odin. Those who died in battle are then raised in the evening to feast in Valhalla. Two important gods, the brother and sister, <a href=\\\"Freyr\\\">Freyr</a> and <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a>, are citizens of Asgard but actually exchange-hostages from Vanaheimr. <a href=\\\"Heimdallr\\\">Heimdallr</a>, the gods' warden, dwells beside <a href=\\\"Bifr%C3%B6st\\\">Bifröst</a>, the rainbow bridge. Each day, the gods ride over Bifröst to their meeting place at the <a href=\\\"Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr\\\">Urðarbrunnr</a>.\\nThe phrase \\\"nine homeworlds\\\" is \\\"Níu Heimar\\\" in Old Norse. Relating to another term \\\"heima\\\" meaning \\\"home\\\" or \\\"homestead\\\", the term \\\"heimr\\\" means a \\\"place of abode\\\" in the sense of a homeland or region, or in a larger sense a world.\\nThe nine homeworlds are not listed in surviving texts, though based on places mentioned in the myths, the most common listing in modern recreations are:\\nIn the Poetic Edda, the phrase \\\"Níu Heimar\\\" occurs in the following Old Norse texts.\\nIn the Prose Edda, the phrase occurs here.\\nIn the \\\"<a href=\\\"Poetic%20Edda\\\">Poetic Edda</a>\\\", the poem Alvíssmál has a stanza that lists six worlds, clarifying each \\\"homeworld\\\" (heimr) is the realm of a different family of beings. Þórr asks: What is the wind named \\\"in every world\\\" (\\\"heimi hverjum í\\\")? Álvíss answers:\\nThus there are at least six worlds, each being the homeworld of a particular family of beings. They can be inferred to correspond to the following place names mentioned elsewhere in the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda.\\nThe homeworld of the <a href=\\\"Dvergar\\\">Dvergar</a> is missing from the above list. Elsewhere, the poem mentions the Dvergar separately from the other families of beings. For example, Alvíssmál 14 lists the Dvergar as distinct from the Álfar. Moreover the two place names, Álfheimr and <a href=\\\"Svart%C3%A1lfaheimr\\\">Svartálfaheimr</a>, confirm there are two separate heimar or \\\"homeworlds\\\", one for each family. The byname <a href=\\\"Svart%C3%A1lfar\\\">Svartálfar</a> or \\\"Black Elves\\\" refers to the Dvergar, and likewise Svartálfaheimr or the \\\"Homeworld of the Black Elves\\\" is the home of the dwarf <a href=\\\"Brokkr\\\">Brokkr</a> (Skáldskaparmál 46). Alternatively, the home of the Dvergar is called <a href=\\\"Ni%C3%B0avellir\\\">Niðavellir</a> or the \\\"Downward Fields\\\" (Völuspá 37). Thus, these families of beings mentioned in the poem Alvíssmál are identified with seven of the nine homeworlds.\\nSeven homeworlds for seven families of beings. The last two of the homeworlds are less certain. Usually, the list adds the primordial realms of the elements of ice and fire, counting them as \\\"homeworlds\\\". The place name of the element of ice, Niflheimr, means the arctic \\\"Mist Homeworld\\\", suggesting it is one of the \\\"Nine Homeworlds\\\".\\nThe above identities for the Nine Homeworlds are common. However the relationships between these and other significant realms have resulted in confusion. Precise mapping remains uncertain. For example, Hel is said to be located in Niflheim:\\n<a href=\\\"Hel%20%28location%29\\\">Hel</a>, or at least Niflhel, may be identical with Niflheimr. According to one interpretation of the Prose Edda (Gylfaginning), Niflhel is the lowest level of Hel where the evil dead suffer torment, whereas Niflheimr is the primordial realm of icy mist, yet some early manuscripts consistently confuse these two names.\\nThe primordial Niflheimr and the punishing Niflhel are \\\"equally dreadful\\\" places; it is not clear whether they are identical or distinct.\",\n \"Gylfaginning\\nGylfaginning ( [ˈgʏlvaˌgɪnːɪŋg]; ] ; either \\\"Tricking of <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gylfi</a>\\\" or \\\"Gylfi's empowerment\\\"; c. 20,000 words), is the first part of <a href=\\\"Snorri%20Sturluson\\\">Snorri Sturluson</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Prose%20Edda\\\">Prose Edda</a>\\\" after <a href=\\\"Prologue%20%28Prose%20Edda%29\\\">Prologue</a>. The \\\"Gylfaginning\\\" deals with the creation and destruction of the world of the <a href=\\\"Norse%20gods\\\">Norse gods</a>, and many other aspects of <a href=\\\"Norse%20mythology\\\">Norse mythology</a>. The second part of the Prose Edda is called the \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\\\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\\\" and the third \\\"<a href=\\\"H%C3%A1ttatal\\\">Háttatal</a>\\\".\\nThe \\\"Gylfaginning\\\" tells the story of Gylfi, a king of \\\"the land that men now call Sweden\\\", who after being tricked by one of the goddesses of the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a>, wonders if all <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a> use magic and tricks for their will to be done. This is why he journeys to <a href=\\\"Asgard\\\">Asgard</a>, but on the way he is tricked by the gods and arrives in some other place, where he finds a great palace. Inside the palace he encounters a man who asks Gylfi's name and so king Gylfi introduces himself as Gangleri. Gangleri then is taken to the king of the palace and comes upon three men; <a href=\\\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\\\">High, Just-As-High, and Third</a>.\\nGangleri is then challenged to show his wisdom by asking questions, as is the custom in many <a href=\\\"Norse%20sagas\\\">Norse sagas</a>. Each question made to High, Just-As-High, and Third is about an aspect of the Norse mythology or its gods, and also about the creation and destruction of the world (<a href=\\\"Ragnar%C3%B6k\\\">Ragnarök</a>). In the end all the palace and its people just vanish and Gylfi is left standing on empty ground. It is then implied that as Gylfi returns to his nation, he retells the tales he was told. It can be argued that Snorri used this narrative device as a means of being able to safely document a vanishing and largely oral tradition within a <a href=\\\"Christian\\\">Christian</a> context.\\n\\n\",\n \"Rumor\\nA rumor (<a href=\\\"American%20English\\\">American English</a>) or rumour (<a href=\\\"British%20English\\\">British English</a>; <a href=\\\"American%20and%20British%20English%20spelling%20differences%23-our%2C%20-or\\\">see spelling differences</a>) is \\\"a tall tale of explanations of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern.\\\"\\nIn the <a href=\\\"social%20sciences\\\">social sciences</a>, a rumor involves some kind of a statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed. In addition, some scholars have identified rumor as a subset of <a href=\\\"propaganda\\\">propaganda</a>. <a href=\\\"Sociology\\\">Sociology</a>, <a href=\\\"psychology\\\">psychology</a>, and communication studies have widely varying definitions of rumor.\\nRumors are also often discussed with regard to \\\"misinformation\\\" and \\\"disinformation\\\" (the former often seen as simply false and the latter seen as deliberately false, though usually from a government source given to the media or a foreign government). Rumors thus have often been viewed as particular forms of other communication concepts.\\nFrench and German social science research on rumor locates the modern scholarly definition of it to the pioneering work of the German <a href=\\\"Louis%20William%20Stern\\\">William Stern</a> in 1902. Stern experimented on rumor involving a \\\"chain of subjects\\\" who passed a story from \\\"mouth to ear\\\" without the right to repeat or explain it. He found that the story was shortened and changed by the time it reached the end of the chain. His student was another pioneer in the field, <a href=\\\"Gordon%20Allport\\\">Gordon Allport</a>.\\nThe experiment is similar to the children's game <a href=\\\"Chinese%20whispers\\\">Chinese whispers</a>.\\n\\\"A Psychology of Rumor\\\" was published by in 1944, in which he reports on his analysis of over one thousand rumors during World War II that were printed in the <a href=\\\"Boston%20Herald\\\">\\\"Boston Herald\\\"</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Boston%20Herald%20Rumor%20Clinic\\\">Rumor Clinic</a>\\\" Column. He defines rumor as\\na proposition for belief of topical reference disseminated without official verification\\\". So formidably defined, rumor is but a special case of informal social communications, including myth, legend, and current humor. From myth and legend it is distinguished by its emphasis on the topical. Where humor is designed to provoke laughter, rumor begs for belief.\\nKnapp identified three basic characteristics that apply to rumor:\\nCrucial to this definition and its characteristics is the emphasis on transmission (word of mouth, which then was heard and reported in the newspaper); on content (\\\"topical\\\" means that it can somehow be distinguished from trivial and private subjects—its domain is public issues); and on reception (\\\"emotional needs of the community\\\" suggests that though it is received by an individual from an individual, it is not comprehended in individual but community or social terms).\\nBased on his study of the newspaper column, Knapp divided those rumors into three types:\\nKnapp also found that negative rumors were more likely to be disseminated than positive rumors. These types also differentiate between positive (pipe dream) and negative (bogie and wedge-driving) rumors.\\nIn the 1947 study, \\\"Psychology of Rumor\\\", Gordon Allport and concluded that, \\\"as rumor travels it [...] grows shorter, more concise, more easily grasped and told.\\\" This conclusion was based on a test of message diffusion between persons, which found that about 70% of details in a message were lost in the first 5-6 mouth-to-mouth transmissions.\\nIn the experiment, a test subject was shown an illustration and given time to look it over. They were then asked to describe the scene from memory to a second test subject. This second test subject was then asked to describe the scene to a third, and so forth and so on. Each person’s reproduction was recorded. This process was repeated with different illustrations with very different settings and contents.\\nAllport and Postman used three terms to describe the movement of rumor. They are: \\\"leveling\\\", \\\"sharpening\\\", and \\\"assimilation\\\". Leveling refers to the loss of detail during the transmission process; sharpening to the selection of certain details of which to transmit; and assimilation to a distortion in the transmission of information as a result of <a href=\\\"subconscious\\\">subconscious</a> motivations.\\nAssimilation was observed when test subjects described the illustrations as they ought to be but not as they actually were. For example, in an illustration depicting a battle-scene, test subjects often incorrectly reported an ambulance truck in the background of the illustration as carrying “medical supplies,” when, in fact, it was clearly carrying boxes marked “TNT (102).”\\nIn 2004, Prashant Bordia and Nicholas DiFonzo published their \\\"Problem Solving in Social Interactions on the Internet: Rumor As Social Cognition\\\" and found that rumor transmission is probably reflective of a \\\"collective explanation process.\\\" This conclusion was based on an analysis of archived message board discussions in which the statements were coded and analyzed. It was found that 29% (the majority) of statements within these discussions could be coded as “sensemaking” statements, which involved, “[...] attempts at solving a problem.”\\nIt was noted that the rest of the discussion was constructed around these statements, further reinforcing the idea of collective problem solving. The researchers also found that each rumor went through a four-stage pattern of development in which a rumor was introduced for discussion, information was volunteered and discussed, and finally a resolution was drawn or interest was lost.\\nFor the study, archived discussions concerning rumors on the internet and other computer networks such as BITnet were retrieved. As a rule, each discussion had a minimum of five statements posted over a period of at least two days. The statements were then coded as being one of the following: \\\"prudent\\\", \\\"apprehensive\\\", \\\"authenticating\\\", \\\"interrogatory\\\", \\\"providing information\\\", \\\"belief\\\", \\\"disbelief\\\", \\\"sensemaking\\\", \\\"digressive\\\", or \\\"uncodable\\\". Each rumor discussion was then analyzed based on this coding system. A similar coding system based on statistical analysis was applied to each discussion as a whole, and the aforementioned four-stage pattern of rumor discussion emerged.\\nRumor has always played a major role in politics, with negative rumors about an opponent typically more effective than positive rumors about one's own side.\\nIn the past, much research on rumor came from psychological approaches (as the discussion of Allport and DiFonzio demonstrates above). The focus was especially on how statements of questionable veracity (absolutely false to the ears of some listeners) circulated orally from person to person. Scholarly attention to political rumors is at least as old as Aristotle's \\\"Rhetoric\\\"; however, not until recently has any sustained attention and conceptual development been directed at political uses of rumor, outside of its role in war situations. Almost no work had been done until recently on how different forms of media and particular cultural-historical conditions may facilitate a rumor's diffusion.\\nThe Internet's recent appearance as a new media technology has shown ever new possibilities for the fast diffusion of rumor, as the debunking sites such as snopes.com, urbanlegend.com, and factcheck.org demonstrate. Nor had previous research taken into consideration the particular form or style of deliberately chosen rumors for political purposes in particular circumstances (even though significant attention to the power of rumor for mass-media-diffused war propaganda has been in vogue since World War I; see Lasswell 1927). In the early part of the 21st century, some legal scholars have attended to political uses of rumor, though their conceptualization of it remains social psychological and their solutions to it as public problem are from a legal scholarly perspective, largely having to do with libel and privacy laws and the damage to personal reputations.\\nWorking within political communication studies, in 2006, Jayson Harsin introduced the concept of the \\\"rumor bomb\\\" as a response to the widespread empirical phenomenon of rumoresque communication in contemporary relations between <a href=\\\"media%20and%20politics\\\">media and politics</a>, especially within the complex convergence of multiple forms of media, from cell phones and internet, to radio, TV, and print. Harsin starts with the widespread definition of rumor as a claim whose truthfulness is in doubt and which often has no clear source even if its ideological or partisan origins and intents are clear. He then treats it as a particular rhetorical strategy in current contexts of media and politics in many societies. For Harsin a \\\"rumor bomb\\\" extends the definition of rumor into a political communication concept with the following features:\\nIn addition, Harsin locates the \\\"rumor bomb\\\" within other communication genres, such as disinformation (intentional false information) and propaganda,as rumor has been viewed by others. However, he distinguishes it from these concepts as well, since disinformation is often too associated with government, and propaganda is a widely varying concept used to describe attempts to control opinion without regard for ethics and accuracy of statement. Similarly, \\\"<a href=\\\"Spin%20%28public%20relations%29\\\">spin</a>\\\" is a generic term for strategic political communication that attempts to frame or re-frame an event or a statement in a way that is politically profitable for one side and detrimental to another, though at its core it may simply be a red herring (Bennett 2003, p. 130).\\nIn addition, a \\\"<a href=\\\"smear%20campaign\\\">smear campaign</a>\\\" is a term that loosely means a coordinated effort to attack a person's character. Unlike a \\\"smear campaign,\\\" rumor bombs need not be about discrediting a person (as is the case, for example, in claims about Iraq and 9/11 or weapons of mass destruction moved to Syria). “Spin” also specifically refers to an event and its re-framing. Rumor bombs may seek to produce events themselves.\\nA rumor bomb can be seen as having some characteristics of these general concepts, but rumor bombs happen in very particular cultural and historical conditions. They are not about mouth-to-ear interpersonal rumors as much rumor research has been interested in. They begin in a rapport between deliberate \\\"disinformers\\\" and \\\"media\\\", whether TV news, talk shows, newspapers, radio, or websites. They then circulate across these media, perhaps but not necessarily resulting in interpersonal mouth-to-ear rumor diffusion.\\nHarsin distinguishes the rumor bomb from other more general concepts of rumor by \\\"emphasizing changes in politics, media technology, and culture\\\". According to Harsin, rumor in politics has always existed, but recent changes have created an environment ripe for a new kind of political rumor: a new media \\\"convergence culture\\\" where information produced on the internet can influence the production of media content in other forms;new media technologies and business values that emphasize speed and circulation that combine with entertainment values in news, political marketing, and public craving of tabloid news that mirrors other entertainment genres.\\nRumors of affairs, of \\\"weapons of mass destruction\\\" and their alleged removal to other countries\\\"John Kerry is French,\\\" Obama is a Muslim, John McCain had an illegitimate black child—all of these involve statements whose veracity is in question or that are simply false. Other statements may have an ambiguous nature that makes them potentially appealing to different audiences who may interpret them in particular ways and circulate them. Harsin builds on rumor research that has emphasized social cognition and diffusion of propaganda. He extends Prashant and Difonzio's work in particular, since they attempt to distinguish rumor from <a href=\\\"gossip\\\">gossip</a>, in that rumor is supposedly about public issues and gossip is about private, trivial things. The emergence of infotainment and tabloidization in especially American and British news has broken that distinction, since politics is now just as much about bringing the private into the public view, as was clear with the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal.\\nSimilar to their appearance and function in political communication, wherein rumors can be deployed for specific deleterious effect (rumor bomb) or can otherwise plague a candidate for office, rumors also play an important role in <a href=\\\"strategic%20communication\\\">strategic communication</a>. Strategic communication is the process of crafting messages in support of specific organizational goals, and is usually concerned with governments, militaries and Non-Governmental Organizations (<a href=\\\"NGO\\\">NGO</a>s). Adroit strategic communication requires an understanding of stories, trends and memes circulating within a culture.\\nRumors can be viewed as stories that seem rational but that are steeped into speculation, in connection with a certain narrative landscape (the vast array of cultural expression circulating within a community or region). In their book, <a href=\\\"http%3A//rutgerspress.rutgers.edu/acatalog/narrative_landmines.html\\\">\\\"Narrative Landmines: Rumors, Islamist Extremism and the Struggle for Strategic Influence\\\"</a>, co-authors Daniel Bernardi, Pauline Hope Cheong, Chris Lundry and Scott W. Ruston coin the term <a href=\\\"narrative%20IED\\\">narrative IED</a> to help explain the function and danger of rumors in a strategic communication context. Rumors, as narrative IEDs, are low-cost, low-tech communication weapons that can be used by anyone to disrupt the efforts of communication, civil affairs or outreach campaigns such as those undertaken by governments in crisis response situations or militaries in insurgencies. As Bernardi notes, “\\\"Like their explosive cousins, rumors can be created and planted by nearly anybody, require limited resources to utilize, can be deadly for those in its direct path, and can instill fear”.\\n\",\n \"Hoof\\nA hoof ( or ), plural \\\"hooves\\\" ( or ) or \\\"hoofs\\\" , is the tip of a <a href=\\\"toe\\\">toe</a> of an <a href=\\\"ungulate\\\">ungulate</a> <a href=\\\"mammal\\\">mammal</a>, strengthened by a thick, horny, <a href=\\\"keratin\\\">keratin</a> covering.\\n<a href=\\\"Artiodactyl\\\">Artiodactyl</a>s are even-toed ungulates, meaning that these species have an even number of digits on each foot. Ruminants, with two main digits, are the largest group. Examples include deer, bison, cattle, goats and sheep. <a href=\\\"Perissodactyl\\\">Perissodactyl</a>s have an odd number of toes. Examples of perissodactyl mammals are horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs.\\nHooves are generally cited as limb structures restricted to <a href=\\\"placental\\\">placental</a> mammals, which unlike other mammal groups undergo prolonged pregnancies. However, the <a href=\\\"marsupial\\\">marsupial</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Chaeropus\\\">Chaeropus</a>\\\" had hooves.\\nThe hoof surrounds the distal end of the <a href=\\\"Phalanx%20bone\\\">second phalanx</a>, the <a href=\\\"distal%20phalanx\\\">distal phalanx</a>, and the <a href=\\\"navicular%20bone\\\">navicular bone</a>. The hoof consists of the <a href=\\\"Nail%20%28anatomy%29\\\">hoof wall</a>, the bars of the hoof, the sole and <a href=\\\"frog%20%28horse%20anatomy%29\\\">frog</a> and soft tissue shock absorption structures. The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall. Hooves perform many functions, including supporting the weight of the animal, dissipating the energy impact as the hooves strike the ground or surface, protecting the tissues and bone within the hoof capsule, and providing traction for the animal. Numerous factors can affect hoof structure and health, including genetics, hoof conformation, environmental influences, and athletic performance of the animal. The ideal hoof has a parallel hoof-pastern axis, a thick hoof wall, adequate sole depth, a solid heel base and growth rings of equal size under the coronary band.\\nThere are four layers within the exterior wall of the hoof. From the outside, a hoof is made up of the stratum externum, the stratum medium, the stratum internum and the dermis parietis. The stratum externum and the stratum medium are difficult to distinguish, the stratum externum is thin and the stratum medium is what makes up the bulk of the hoof wall. Inside the hoof wall is a <a href=\\\"laminae%20%28horse%20hoof%29\\\">laminar junction</a>, a soft tissue structure that allows the hoof to withstand the demands of force transmission it undergoes. This tissue structure binds the inner surface of the hoof wall, the dermis parietis and the outer surface of the third phalanx.\\nMost <a href=\\\"even-toed%20ungulate\\\">even-toed ungulate</a>s (such as <a href=\\\"sheep\\\">sheep</a>, <a href=\\\"goat\\\">goat</a>s, <a href=\\\"deer\\\">deer</a>, <a href=\\\"cattle\\\">cattle</a>, <a href=\\\"bison\\\">bison</a> and <a href=\\\"pig\\\">pig</a>s) have two main hooves on each foot, together called a <a href=\\\"cloven%20hoof\\\">cloven hoof</a>. Most of these cloven-hooved animals also have two smaller hooves called \\\"<a href=\\\"dewclaw\\\">dewclaw</a>s\\\" a little further up the leg – these are not normally used for walking, but in some species with larger dewclaws (such as deer and pigs) they may touch the ground when running or jumping, or if the ground is soft. In the mountain goat, the dewclaw serves to provide extra traction when descending rocky slopes as well as additional drag on loose or slippery surfaces made of ice, dirt, or snow. Other cloven-hooved animals (such as <a href=\\\"giraffe\\\">giraffe</a>s and <a href=\\\"pronghorn\\\">pronghorn</a>s) have no dewclaws.\\nIn some so-called \\\"cloven-hooved\\\" animals, such as <a href=\\\"camel\\\">camel</a>s, the \\\"hoof\\\" is not properly a hoof – it is not a hard or rubbery sole with a hard wall formed by a thick nail – instead it is a soft toe with little more than a nail merely having an appearance of a hoof.\\nSome <a href=\\\"odd-toed%20ungulate\\\">odd-toed ungulate</a>s (<a href=\\\"Equidae\\\">equid</a>s) have one hoof on each foot; others have (or had) three distinct hooved or heavily nailed toes, or one hoof and two dewclaws. The <a href=\\\"tapir\\\">tapir</a> is a special case, having three toes on each hind foot and four toes on each front foot.\\nHooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down by use, such as in systems like the dairy, ovine and equine industries, hooves may need to be trimmed by a <a href=\\\"farrier\\\">farrier</a>. Appropriate hoof trimming is essential to prevent lameness. Within the equine world, the expression, \\\"no foot, no horse\\\" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and <a href=\\\"mastitis\\\">mastitis</a>, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer.\\nHoof care and trimming is most well known with the <a href=\\\"equine%20industry\\\">equine industry</a>. Problems that can arise with poor <a href=\\\"horse%20hoof\\\">horse hoof</a> care include hoof cracks, thrush, abcesses and <a href=\\\"laminitis\\\">laminitis</a>.\\nHooves have historical significance in ceremonies and games. They have been used in burial ceremonies.\",\n \"Frigg\\nIn <a href=\\\"Germanic%20mythology\\\">Germanic mythology</a>, Frigg (<a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a>), Frija (<a href=\\\"Old%20High%20German\\\">Old High German</a>), Frea (<a href=\\\"Langobardic%20language\\\">Langobardic</a>), and Frige (<a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a>) is a goddess. In nearly all sources, she is described as the wife of the god <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a>. In Old High German and Old Norse sources, she is also connected with the goddess <a href=\\\"Fulla\\\">Fulla</a>. The English weekday name <a href=\\\"Friday\\\">Friday</a> (<a href=\\\"etymology\\\">etymologically</a> Old English \\\"Frīge's day\\\") bears her name.\\nFrigg is described as a goddess associated with foreknowledge and wisdom in <a href=\\\"Norse%20mythology\\\">Norse mythology</a>, the northernmost branch of Germanic mythology and most extensively attested. Frigg is the wife of the major god <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a> and dwells in the wetland halls of <a href=\\\"Fensalir\\\">Fensalir</a>, is famous for her <a href=\\\"Precognition\\\">foreknowledge</a>, is associated with the goddesses Fulla, <a href=\\\"Lofn\\\">Lofn</a>, <a href=\\\"Hl%C3%ADn\\\">Hlín</a>, and <a href=\\\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\\\">Gná</a>, and is ambiguously associated with the Earth, otherwise personified as an apparently separate entity <a href=\\\"J%C3%B6r%C3%B0\\\">Jörð</a> (Old Norse \\\"Earth\\\"). The children of Frigg and Odin include the gleaming god <a href=\\\"Baldr\\\">Baldr</a>. Due to significant thematic overlap, scholars have proposed a particular connection to the goddess <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a>.\\nAfter <a href=\\\"Christianization\\\">Christianization</a>, mention of Frigg continued to occur in <a href=\\\"Scandinavian%20folklore\\\">Scandinavian folklore</a>. In modern times, Frigg has appeared in modern popular culture, has been the subject of art, and receives modern veneration in <a href=\\\"Germanic%20Neopaganism\\\">Germanic Neopaganism</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"theonym\\\">theonym</a>s \\\"Frigg\\\" (Old Norse) and \\\"Frija\\\" (Old High German) are <a href=\\\"cognate\\\">cognate</a> forms—linguistic siblings of the same origin—that descend from a substantivized feminine of <a href=\\\"Proto-Germanic\\\">Proto-Germanic</a> <a href=\\\"Asterisk%23Historical%20linguistics\\\">*</a>\\\"frijaz\\\" (via <a href=\\\"Holtzmann%27s%20law\\\">Holtzmann's law</a>). *\\\"frijaz\\\" descends from the same source (<a href=\\\"Proto-Indo-European\\\">Proto-Indo-European</a>) as the feminine <a href=\\\"Sanskrit\\\">Sanskrit</a> noun \\\"priyā\\\" and the feminine <a href=\\\"Avestan\\\">Avestan</a> noun \\\"fryā\\\" (both meaning \\\"own, dear, beloved\\\"). In the modern period, an <a href=\\\"Latin%20declension%23First%20declension%20%28a%29\\\">-a suffix</a> is sometimes applied to denote femininity, resulting in the form \\\"Frigga\\\". This spelling also serves the purpose of distancing the goddess from the English word \\\"<a href=\\\"Frig%20%28interjection%29\\\">frig</a>\\\".\\nThe connection with and possible earlier identification of the goddess <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a> with Frigg in the <a href=\\\"Common%20Germanic%20deities\\\">Proto-Germanic</a> period (<a href=\\\"Frigg%20and%20Freyja%20origin%20hypothesis\\\">Frigg and Freyja origin hypothesis</a>) is a matter of scholarly debate. The name \\\"Freyja\\\" is not attested outside of <a href=\\\"Scandinavia\\\">Scandinavia</a>, like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the <a href=\\\"Vanir\\\">Vanir</a>. This is in contrast to the name of the goddess \\\"Frigg\\\", who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as <a href=\\\"Proto-Germanic\\\">Proto-Germanic</a> *\\\"<a href=\\\"Frijj%C5%8D\\\">Frijjō</a>\\\". Evidence does not exist for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Old Norse \\\"Freyja\\\" descends, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of surviving sources.\\nRegarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar <a href=\\\"Stephan%20Grundy\\\">Stephan Grundy</a> comments that \\\"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-<a href=\\\"Viking%20Age\\\">Viking Age</a> references to <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Germanic%20deities%20and%20heroes\\\">Germanic goddesses</a>, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.\\\"\\nThe English <a href=\\\"weekday\\\">weekday</a> name \\\"Friday\\\" comes from Old English \\\"Frīge's Day\\\" and is cognate with <a href=\\\"Old%20High%20German\\\">Old High German</a> \\\"frîatac\\\". Both weekday names are result of \\\"<a href=\\\"interpretatio%20germanica\\\">interpretatio germanica</a>\\\" that occurred at or before the 3rd or 4th century CE, glossing the <a href=\\\"Latin\\\">Latin</a> weekday name \\\"dies Veneris\\\" 'Day of <a href=\\\"Venus%20%28mythology%29\\\">Venus</a>'. Several <a href=\\\"toponymy\\\">place names</a> refer to Frigg in what are now Norway and Sweden, although her name is altogether absent in recorded place names in Denmark.\\nThe 7th-century \\\"<a href=\\\"Origo%20Gentis%20Langobardorum\\\">Origo Gentis Langobardorum</a>\\\", and <a href=\\\"Paul%20the%20Deacon\\\">Paul the Deacon</a>'s 8th-century \\\"<a href=\\\"Historia%20Langobardorum\\\">Historia Langobardorum</a>\\\" derived from it, recount a founding myth of the <a href=\\\"Langobards\\\">Langobards</a>, a Germanic people who ruled a region of what is now Italy (see <a href=\\\"Lombardy\\\">Lombardy</a>). According to this legend, a \\\"small people\\\" known as the \\\"<a href=\\\"Winnili\\\">Winnili</a>\\\" were ruled by a woman named <a href=\\\"Gambara\\\">Gambara</a> who had two sons, <a href=\\\"Ybor%20and%20Agio\\\">Ybor and Agio</a>. The <a href=\\\"Vandals\\\">Vandals</a>, ruled by <a href=\\\"Ambri%20and%20Assi\\\">Ambri and Assi</a>, came to the Winnili with their army and demanded that they pay them tribute or prepare for war. Ybor, Agio, and their mother Gambara rejected their demands for tribute. Ambra and Assi then asked the god Godan for victory over the Winnili, to which Godan responded (in the longer version in the \\\"Origo\\\"): \\\"Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them will I give the victory.\\\"\\nMeanwhile, Ybor and Agio called upon Frea, Godan's wife. Frea counseled them that \\\"at sunrise the Winnil[i] should come, and that their women, with their hair let down around the face in the likeness of a beard should also come with their husbands\\\". At sunrise, Frea turned Godan's bed around to face east and woke him. Godan saw the Winnili, including their whiskered women, and asked \\\"who are those Long-beards?\\\" Frea responded to Godan, \\\"As you have given them a name, give them also the victory\\\". Godan did so, \\\"so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory\\\". Thenceforth the Winnili were known as the \\\"Langobards\\\" (<a href=\\\"Lombardic%20language\\\">Langobardic</a> \\\"long-beards\\\").\\nA 10th-century manuscript found in what is now <a href=\\\"Merseburg\\\">Merseburg</a>, Germany, features a heathen invocation known as the <a href=\\\"Merseburg%20Incantations\\\">Second Merseburg Incantation</a>. The incantation calls upon various continental Germanic gods, including Old High German Frija and a goddess associated with her—<a href=\\\"Fulla\\\">Volla</a>, to assist in healing a horse:\\nIn the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional material, Frigg is mentioned in the poems \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1\\\">Völuspá</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nism%C3%A1l\\\">Vafþrúðnismál</a>\\\", the prose of \\\"<a href=\\\"Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l\\\">Grímnismál</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Lokasenna\\\">Lokasenna</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Oddr%C3%BAnargr%C3%A1tr\\\">Oddrúnargrátr</a>\\\".\\nFrigg receives three mentions in the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\" poem \\\"Völuspá\\\". In the first mention, the poem recounts that Frigg wept for the death of her son <a href=\\\"Baldr\\\">Baldr</a> in <a href=\\\"Fensalir\\\">Fensalir</a>. Later in the poem, when the future death of Odin is foretold, Odin himself is referred to as the \\\"beloved of Frigg\\\" and his future death is referred to as the \\\"second grief of Frigg\\\". Like the reference to Frigg weeping in Fensalir earlier in the poem, the implied \\\"first grief\\\" is a reference to the grief she felt upon the death of her son, <a href=\\\"Baldr\\\">Baldr</a>.\\nIn the prose introduction to the poem \\\"<a href=\\\"Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l\\\">Grímnismál</a>\\\", Frigg plays a prominent role. The prose introduction recounts that two sons of king <a href=\\\"Hrau%C3%B0ungr\\\">Hrauðungr</a>, Agnar (age 10) and Geirröðr (age 8), once sailed out with a trailing line to catch small fish. However, wind drove them out into the ocean and, during the darkness of night, their boat wrecked. The brothers went ashore and there they met a <a href=\\\"Croft%20%28land%29\\\">crofter</a>. They stayed on the croft for one winter. During that winter, the couple separately fostered the two children: the old woman fostered Agnar and the old man fostered Geirröðr. Upon the arrival of spring, the old man brought them a ship. The old couple took the boys to the shore, and the old man took Geirröðr aside and spoke to him. The boys entered the boat and a breeze came.\\nThe boat returned to the harbor of their father. Geirröðr, forward in the ship, jumped to shore and pushed the boat, containing his brother, out and said \\\"go where an evil spirit may get thee.\\\" Away went the ship and Geirröðr walked to a house, where he was greeted with joy; while the boys were gone, their father had died, and now Geirröðr was king. He \\\"became a splendid man\\\". The scene switches to Odin and Frigg sitting in <a href=\\\"Hli%C3%B0skj%C3%A1lf\\\">Hliðskjálf</a>, \\\"look[ing] into <a href=\\\"Norse%20cosmology\\\">all the worlds</a>\\\". Odin says: \\\"'Seest thou Agnar, thy foster-son, where he is getting children a giantess [Old Norse \\\"<a href=\\\"g%C8%B3gi\\\">gȳgi</a>\\\"] in a cave? while Geirröd, my foster son, is a king residing in his country.' Frigg answered, 'He is so inhospitable that he tortures his guests, if he thinks that too many come.'\\\"\\nOdin replied that this was a great untruth and so the two made a wager. Frigg sent her \\\"waiting-maid\\\" <a href=\\\"Fulla\\\">Fulla</a> to warn Geirröðr to be wary, lest a wizard who seeks him should harm him, and that he would know this wizard by the refusal of dogs, no matter how ferocious, to attack the stranger. While it was not true that Geirröðr was inhospitable with his guests, Geirröðr did as instructed and had the wizard arrested. Upon being questioned, the wizard, wearing a blue cloak, said no more than that his name is \\\"<a href=\\\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\\\">Grímnir</a>\\\". Geirröðr has Grímnir tortured and sits him between two fires for 8 nights. Upon the 9th night, Grímnir is brought a full <a href=\\\"drinking%20horn\\\">drinking horn</a> by Geirröðr's son, Agnar (so named after Geirröðr's brother), and the poem continues without further mention or involvement of Frigg.\\nIn the poem \\\"<a href=\\\"Lokasenna\\\">Lokasenna</a>\\\", where <a href=\\\"Loki\\\">Loki</a> accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity and/or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between the god Loki and the goddess Frigg (and thereafter between Loki and the goddess Freyja about Frigg). A prose introduction to the poem describes that numerous gods and goddesses attended a banquet held by <a href=\\\"%C3%86gir\\\">Ægir</a>. These gods and goddesses include Odin and, \\\"his wife\\\", Frigg.\\nFrigg is mentioned throughout the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\", compiled in the 13th century by <a href=\\\"Snorri%20Sturluson\\\">Snorri Sturluson</a>. Frigg is first mentioned in the \\\"Prose Edda\\\" <a href=\\\"Prologue%20%28Prose%20Edda%29\\\">Prologue (Prose Edda)</a>, wherein a <a href=\\\"Euhemerus\\\">euhemerized</a> account of the Norse gods is provided. The author describes Frigg as the wife of Odin, and, in a case of <a href=\\\"folk%20etymology\\\">folk etymology</a>, the author attempts to associate the name \\\"Frigg\\\" with the Latin-influenced form \\\"Frigida\\\". The Prologue adds that both Frigg and Odin \\\"had the gift of prophecy\\\".\\nIn the next section of the \\\"Prose Edda\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Gylfaginning\\\">Gylfaginning</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"High%2C%20Just-as-High%2C%20and%20Third\\\">High</a> tells <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gangleri</a> (the king <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gylfi</a> in disguise) that Frigg, daughter of <a href=\\\"Fj%C3%B6rgynn\\\">Fjörgynn</a> (Old Norse \\\"Fjörgynsdóttir\\\") is married to Odin and that the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a> are descended from the couple, and adds that \\\"the earth [\\\"<a href=\\\"J%C3%B6r%C3%B0\\\">Jörð</a>in\\\"] was [Odin's] daughter and his wife\\\". According to High, the two had many sons, the first of which was the mighty god <a href=\\\"Thor\\\">Thor</a>.\\nLater in \\\"<a href=\\\"Gylfaginning\\\">Gylfaginning</a>\\\", Gangleri asks about the \\\"<a href=\\\"%C3%A1synjur\\\">ásynjur</a>\\\", a term for Norse goddesses. High says that \\\"highest\\\" among them is Frigg and that only <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a> \\\"is highest in rank next to her\\\". Frigg dwells in <a href=\\\"Fensalir\\\">Fensalir</a> \\\"and it is very splendid\\\". In this section of \\\"Gylfaginning\\\", Frigg is also mentioned in connection to other \\\"ásynjur\\\": <a href=\\\"Fulla\\\">Fulla</a> carries Frigg's ashen box, \\\"looks after her footwear and shares her secrets\\\"; <a href=\\\"Lofn\\\">Lofn</a> is given special permission by Frigg and Odin to \\\"arrange unions\\\" among men and women; <a href=\\\"Hl%C3%ADn\\\">Hlín</a> is charged by Frigg to protect those that Frigg deems worthy of keeping from danger; and <a href=\\\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\\\">Gná</a> is sent by Frigg \\\"into various worlds to carry out her business\\\".\\nIn section 49 of \\\"Gylfaginning\\\", a narrative about the fate of Frigg's son Baldr is told. According to High, Baldr once started to have dreams indicating that his life was in danger. When Baldr told his fellow Æsir about his dreams, the gods met together for a <a href=\\\"thing%20%28assembly%29\\\">thing</a> and decided that they should \\\"request immunity for Baldr from all kinds of danger\\\". Frigg subsequently receives promises from the elements, the environment, diseases, animals, and stones, amongst other things. The request successful, the Æsir make sport of Baldr's newfound invincibility; shot or struck, Baldr remained unharmed. However, <a href=\\\"Loki\\\">Loki</a> discovers this and is not pleased by this turn of events, so, in the form of a woman, he goes to Frigg in Fensalir.\\nThere, Frigg asks this female visitor what the Æsir are up to assembled at the <a href=\\\"Thing%20%28assembly%29\\\">thing</a>. The woman says that all of the Æsir are shooting at Baldr and yet he remains unharmed. Frigg explains that \\\"Weapons and wood will not hurt Baldr. I have received oaths from them all.\\\" The woman asks Frigg if all things have sworn not to hurt Baldr, to which Frigg notes one exception; \\\"there grows a shoot of a tree to the west of <a href=\\\"Valhalla\\\">Val-hall</a>. It is called <a href=\\\"mistletoe\\\">mistletoe</a>. It seemed young to me to demand the oath from.\\\" Loki immediately disappears.\\nNow armed with mistletoe, Loki arrives at the thing where the Æsir are assembled and tricks the blind <a href=\\\"H%C3%B6%C3%B0r\\\">Höðr</a>, Baldr's brother, into shooting Baldr with a mistletoe projectile. To the horror of the assembled gods, the mistletoe goes directly through Baldr, killing him. Standing in horror and shock, the gods are initially only able to weep due to their grief. Frigg speaks up and asks \\\"who there was among the Æsir who wished to earn all her love and favour and was willing to ride the road to <a href=\\\"Hel%20%28location%29\\\">Hel</a> and try if he could find Baldr, and offer <a href=\\\"Hel%20%28being%29\\\">Hel</a> a ransom if she would let Baldr go back to Asgard\\\".\\n<a href=\\\"Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0r\\\">Hermóðr</a>, Baldr's brother, accepts Freyja's request and rides to Hel. Meanwhile, Baldr is given a grand funeral attended by many beings—foremost mentioned of which are his mother and father, Frigg and Odin. During the funeral, <a href=\\\"Nanna%20%28Norse%20deity%29\\\">Nanna</a> dies of grief and is placed in the funeral pyre with Baldr, her dead husband. Hermóðr locates Baldr and Nanna in Hel. Hermodr secures an agreement for the return of Baldr and with Hermóðr Nanna sends gifts to Frigg (a linen robe) and Fulla (a finger-ring). Hermóðr rides back to the Æsir and tells them what has happened. However, the agreement fails due to the sabotage of a jötunn in a cave named <a href=\\\"%C3%9E%C3%B6kk\\\">Þökk</a> (Old Norse 'thanks'), described perhaps Loki in disguise.\\nFrigg is mentioned several times in the \\\"Prose Edda\\\" section \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\\\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\\\". The first mention occurs at the beginning of the section, where the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a> and Ásynjur are said to have once held a banquet in a hall in a land of gods, <a href=\\\"Asgard\\\">Asgard</a>. Frigg is one of the twelve ásynjur in attendance.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Ynglinga%20saga\\\">Ynglinga saga</a>\\\", the first book of \\\"<a href=\\\"Heimskringla\\\">Heimskringla</a>\\\", an <a href=\\\"Euhemerized\\\">Euhemerized</a> account of the origin of the gods is provided. Frigg is mentioned once. According to the saga, while Odin was away, Odin's brothers <a href=\\\"Vili%20and%20V%C3%A9\\\">Vili and Vé</a> oversaw Odin's holdings. Once, while Odin was gone for an extended period, the Æsir concluded that he was not coming back. His brothers started to divvy up Odin's inheritance, \\\"but his wife Frigg they shared between them. However, a short while afterwards, [Odin] returned and took possession of his wife again.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lsunga%20saga\\\">Völsunga saga</a>\\\", the great king <a href=\\\"Rerir\\\">Rerir</a> and his wife (unnamed) are unable to conceive a child; \\\"that lack displeased them both, and they fervently implored the gods that they might have a child. It is said that Frigg heard their prayers and told Odin what they asked\\\".\\nA 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the <a href=\\\"Schleswig%20Cathedral\\\">Schleswig Cathedral</a> in <a href=\\\"Schleswig-Holstein\\\">Schleswig-Holstein</a>, <a href=\\\"Northern%20Germany\\\">Northern Germany</a>. Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a <a href=\\\"distaff\\\">distaff</a>. Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively.\\nFrigg is referenced in art and literature into the modern period. In the 18th century, <a href=\\\"Gustav%20III%20of%20Sweden\\\">Gustav III of Sweden</a>, king of Sweden, composed \\\"Friggja\\\", a play, so named after the goddess, and H. F. Block and <a href=\\\"Hans%20Friedrich%20Blunck\\\">Hans Friedrich Blunck</a>'s \\\"Frau Frigg und Doktor Faust\\\" in 1937. Other examples include fine art works by K. Ehrenberg (\\\"Frigg, Freyja\\\", drawing, 1883), <a href=\\\"John%20Charles%20Dollman\\\">John Charles Dollman</a> (\\\"Frigga Spinning the Clouds\\\", painting, c. 1900), <a href=\\\"Emil%20Doepler\\\">Emil Doepler</a> (\\\"Wodan und Frea am Himmelsfenster\\\", painting, 1901), and H. Thoma (\\\"Fricka\\\", drawing, date not provided).\\nThe name has been taken by the 21st-century Finnish folk band <a href=\\\"Frigg%20%28band%29\\\">Frigg</a>.\",\n \"High, Just-as-High, and Third\\nHigh, Just-As-High, and Third (<a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a> \\\"Hár\\\", \\\"Jafnhár\\\", and \\\"Þriði\\\", respectively) are <a href=\\\"Numbers%20in%20Germanic%20paganism\\\">three</a> men that respond to questions posed by <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gangleri</a> (described as king <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gylfi</a> in disguise) in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Prose%20Edda\\\">Prose Edda</a>\\\" book \\\"<a href=\\\"Gylfaginning\\\">Gylfaginning</a>\\\". The three figures sit upon thrones; High upon the lowest, Just-As-High on the mid-highest, and Third on the highest of the thrones.\\nIt is stated in Chapter 20 of \\\"Gylfaginning\\\" (translation by <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Faulkes\\\">Anthony Faulkes</a>) that these names are <a href=\\\"pseudonym\\\">pseudonym</a>s employed by <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a>:\\n[Odin] called himself various other names on his visit to King Geirrod:\\n\",\n \"Vanir\\nIn <a href=\\\"Norse%20mythology\\\">Norse Religion</a>, the Vanir ( ; singular Vanr) are a group of gods associated with fertility, wisdom, nature, magic, and the ability to see the future. The Vanir are one of two groups of gods (the other being the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a>) and are the namesake of the location <a href=\\\"Vanaheimr\\\">Vanaheimr</a> (<a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a> \\\"Home of the Vanir\\\"). After the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\\\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>, the Vanir became a subgroup of the Æsir. Subsequently, members of the Vanir are sometimes also referred to as members of the Æsir.\\nThe Vanir are attested in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Poetic%20Edda\\\">Poetic Edda</a>\\\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the \\\"<a href=\\\"Prose%20Edda\\\">Prose Edda</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Heimskringla\\\">Heimskringla</a>\\\", both written in the 13th century by <a href=\\\"Snorri%20Sturluson\\\">Snorri Sturluson</a>; and in the poetry of <a href=\\\"skald\\\">skald</a>s. The Vanir are only attested in these <a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a> sources. \\\"Vanir\\\" is sometimes anglicized to Wanes (singular Wane).\\nAll sources describe the deities <a href=\\\"Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\\\">Njörðr</a>, <a href=\\\"Freyr\\\">Freyr</a> and <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a> as members of the Vanir. A <a href=\\\"euhemerism\\\">euhemerized</a> prose account in \\\"Heimskringla\\\" adds that <a href=\\\"Sister-wife%20of%20Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\\\">Njörðr's sister</a>—whose name is not provided—and <a href=\\\"Kvasir\\\">Kvasir</a> were Vanir. In addition, \\\"Heimskringla\\\" reports a tale involving king <a href=\\\"Sveig%C3%B0ir\\\">Sveigðir</a>'s visit to Vanaheimr, where he meets a woman by the name of Vana and the two produce a child named <a href=\\\"Vanlandi\\\">Vanlandi</a> (whose name means \\\"Man from the Land of the Vanir\\\").\\nWhile not attested as Vanir, the gods <a href=\\\"Heimdallr\\\">Heimdallr</a> and <a href=\\\"Ullr\\\">Ullr</a> have been theorized as potential members of the group. In the \\\"Prose Edda\\\", a name listed for <a href=\\\"wild%20boar\\\">boar</a>s is \\\"Van-child\\\". Scholars have theorized that the Vanir may be connected to <a href=\\\"gullgubber\\\">small pieces of gold foil</a> found in Scandinavia at some building sites from the <a href=\\\"Migration%20Period\\\">Migration Period</a> to the <a href=\\\"Viking%20Age\\\">Viking Age</a> and occasionally in graves. They have speculated whether the Vanir originally represented <a href=\\\"Neolithic%20Europe\\\">pre-Indo-European deities</a> or <a href=\\\"Proto-Indo-European%20religion\\\">Indo-European fertility gods</a>, and have theorized a form of the gods as venerated by the <a href=\\\"Anglo-Saxon%20paganism\\\">pagan Anglo-Saxon</a>s.\\nNumerous theories have been proposed for the etymology of \\\"Vanir\\\". Scholar <a href=\\\"R.%20I.%20Page\\\">R. I. Page</a> says that, while there are no shortages of etymologies for the word, it is tempting to link the word with \\\"Old Norse \\\"vinr\\\", 'friend', and Latin \\\"<a href=\\\"Venus%20%28mythology%29\\\">Venus</a>\\\", 'goddess of physical love.'\\\"\\nIn the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\", the Vanir, as a group, are specifically referenced in the poems \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1\\\">Völuspá</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nism%C3%A1l\\\">Vafþrúðnismál</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%ADrnism%C3%A1l\\\">Skírnismál</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"%C3%9Erymskvi%C3%B0a\\\">Þrymskviða</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Alv%C3%ADssm%C3%A1l\\\">Alvíssmál</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l\\\">Sigrdrífumál</a>\\\". In \\\"Völuspá\\\", a stanza describes the events of the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\\\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>, noting that during the war the Vanir broke the walls of the stronghold of the Æsir, and that the Vanir were \\\"indomitable, trampling the plain.\\\"\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nism%C3%A1l\\\">Vafþrúðnismál</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\\\">Gagnráðr</a> (the god <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a> in disguise) engages in a game of wits with the <a href=\\\"j%C3%B6tunn\\\">jötunn</a> <a href=\\\"Vaf%C3%BEr%C3%BA%C3%B0nir\\\">Vafþrúðnir</a>. Gagnráðr asks Vafþrúðnir where the Van god <a href=\\\"Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\\\">Njörðr</a> came from, for though he rules over many <a href=\\\"Heathen%20hofs\\\">hofs</a> and <a href=\\\"h%C3%B6rgr\\\">hörgr</a>s, Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir. Vafþrúðnir responds that Njörðr was created in <a href=\\\"Vanaheimr\\\">Vanaheimr</a> (\\\"home of the Vanir\\\") by \\\"wise powers\\\" and details that during the Æsir–Vanir War, Njörðr was exchanged as a hostage. In addition, when the world ends (<a href=\\\"Ragnar%C3%B6k\\\">Ragnarök</a>), Njörðr \\\"will return to the wise Vanir.\\\"\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Alv%C3%ADssm%C3%A1l\\\">Alvíssmál</a>\\\" consists of question and answer exchanges between the dwarf <a href=\\\"Alv%C3%ADss\\\">Alvíss</a> and the god <a href=\\\"Thor\\\">Thor</a>. In the poem, Alvíss supplies terms that various groups, including the Vanir, use to refer to various subjects. Alvíss attributes nine terms to the Vanir; one for Earth (\\\"The Ways\\\"), Heaven (\\\"The Weaver of Winds\\\"), clouds (\\\"Kites of the Wind\\\"), calm (\\\"The Hush of the Winds\\\"), the sea (\\\"The Wave\\\"), fire (\\\"Wildfire\\\"), wood (\\\"The Wand\\\"), seed (\\\"growth\\\"), and ale (\\\"The Foaming\\\").\\nThe poem \\\"<a href=\\\"%C3%9Erymskvi%C3%B0a\\\">Þrymskviða</a>\\\" states that the god Heimdallr possesses foreknowledge, \\\"as the Vanir also can.\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l\\\">Sigrdrífumál</a>\\\" records that the Vanir are in possession of a \\\"sacred <a href=\\\"mead\\\">mead</a>\\\". In the poem, the <a href=\\\"valkyrie\\\">valkyrie</a> <a href=\\\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfa\\\">Sigrdrífa</a> provides mystical lore about <a href=\\\"runes\\\">runes</a> to the hero Sigurd. Sigrdrífa notes that runes were once carved on to various creatures, deities and other figures, and then shaved off and mixed with a \\\"sacred <a href=\\\"mead\\\">mead</a>.\\\" This mead is possessed by the Æsir, the elves, mankind, and the Vanir.\\nIn \\\"Skírnismál\\\", the beautiful <a href=\\\"j%C3%B6tunn\\\">jötunn</a> <a href=\\\"Ger%C3%B0r\\\">Gerðr</a> first encounters the god <a href=\\\"Freyr\\\">Freyr</a>'s messenger <a href=\\\"Sk%C3%ADrnir\\\">Skírnir</a>, and asks him if he is of the elves, of the Æsir, or of the \\\"wise Vanir.\\\" Skírnir responds that he is not of any of the three groups. Later in the poem, Skírnir is successful in his threats against Gerðr (to have Gerðr accept Freyr's affections), and Gerðr offers Skírnir a crystal cup full of mead, noting that she never thought that she would love one of the Vanir.\\nThe Vanir are mentioned in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Prose%20Edda\\\">Prose Edda</a>\\\" books \\\"<a href=\\\"Gylfaginning\\\">Gylfaginning</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\\\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\\\". In chapter 23 of \\\"Gylfaginning\\\", the enthroned figure of <a href=\\\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\\\">High</a> relates that Njörðr was raised in <a href=\\\"Vanaheimr\\\">Vanaheimr</a>. High says that during the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\\\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>, the Vanir sent Njörðr as a hostage to the Æsir, and the Æsir sent to the Vanir the god <a href=\\\"H%C5%93nir\\\">Hœnir</a>. The sending of Njörðr as a hostage resulted in a peace agreement between the Æsir and the Vanir.\\nChapter 35 provides information regarding the goddess <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a>, including that one of her names is \\\"<a href=\\\"D%C3%ADs\\\">Dis</a> of the Vanir.\\\" In the same chapter, High tells that the goddess <a href=\\\"Gn%C3%A1\\\">Gná</a> rides the horse <a href=\\\"H%C3%B3fvarpnir\\\">Hófvarpnir</a>, and that this horse has the ability to ride through the air and atop the sea. High continues that \\\"once some Vanir saw her path as she rode through the air\\\" and that an unnamed one of these Vanir says, in verse (for which no source is provided):\\nGná responds:\\nIn chapter 57 of \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\\\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\\\", the god <a href=\\\"Bragi\\\">Bragi</a> explains the origin of poetry. Bragi says the origin of poetry lies in the Æsir-Vanir War. During the peace conference held to end the war both the Æsir and the Vanir formed a truce by spitting into a vat. When they left, the gods decided that it shouldn't be poured out, but rather kept as a symbol of their peace, and so from the contents they made a man; Kvasir. Kvasir is later murdered by <a href=\\\"Norse%20dwarves\\\">dwarves</a>, and from his blood the <a href=\\\"Mead%20of%20Poetry\\\">Mead of Poetry</a> is made.\\nIn chapter 6, poetic names for Njörðr are provided, including \\\"descendant of Vanir or a Van\\\". As reference, a poem by the 11th century <a href=\\\"skald\\\">skald</a> <a href=\\\"%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B0r%20Sj%C3%A1reksson\\\">Þórðr Sjáreksson</a> is provided where Njörðr is described as a Vanr. In chapter 7, poetic names for Freyr are listed, including names that reference his association with the Vanir; \\\"Vanir god,\\\" \\\"descendant of Vanir,\\\" and \\\"a Van.\\\" Freyja is also repeatedly cited as a Vanr. In chapter 20, some of Freyja's names are listed and include \\\"Van-deity\\\" and\\\"Van-lady,\\\" and chapter 37 provides skaldic verse referring to Freyja as \\\"Van-bride.\\\" In chapter 75, names for <a href=\\\"pig\\\">pig</a>s are provided, including \\\"Van-child.\\\"\\nThe \\\"<a href=\\\"Heimskringla\\\">Heimskringla</a>\\\" book \\\"<a href=\\\"Ynglinga%20saga\\\">Ynglinga saga</a>\\\" (chapter 4) provides an <a href=\\\"euhemerism\\\">euhemerized</a> account of the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir%20War\\\">Æsir–Vanir War</a>. As a peace agreement, the two sides agreed to trade hostages. The Vanir sent Njörðr and Freyr to the Æsir, and in turn the Æsir sent to the Vanir <a href=\\\"H%C5%93nir\\\">Hœnir</a> and <a href=\\\"M%C3%ADmir\\\">Mímir</a>. Upon receiving <a href=\\\"M%C3%ADmir\\\">Mímir</a>, the Vanir sent the \\\"cleverest amongst them,\\\" <a href=\\\"Kvasir\\\">Kvasir</a>. In Vanaheimr, the Vanir made Hœnir a chieftain. However, whenever Hœnir appeared at assemblies or meetings where the Vanir asked him his opinion on difficult issues, his response was \\\"let others decide.\\\" The Vanir suspected that they had been cheated by the Æsir in the hostage exchange, and so grabbed hold of Mímir, cut off Mímir's head, and sent it to the Æsir.\\nThe same chapter describes that while Njörðr lived among the Vanir, his wife (unnamed) was his sister, and the couple had two children; Freyr and Freyja. However, \\\"among the Æsir it was forbidden to marry so near a kin.\\\" By Odin's appointment, Njörðr and Freyr became <a href=\\\"gothi\\\">priests</a> over <a href=\\\"Bl%C3%B3t\\\">offerings of sacrifice</a>, and they were recognized as gods among the Æsir. Freyja was priestess at the sacrifices, and \\\"it was she who first taught the Æsir magic as was practiced among the Vanir.\\\"\\nIn chapter 15, the king <a href=\\\"Sveig%C3%B0ir\\\">Sveigðir</a> is recorded as having married a woman named Vana in \\\"Vanaland\\\", located in <a href=\\\"Sweden\\\">Sweden</a>. The two produced a child, who they named <a href=\\\"Vanlandi\\\">Vanlandi</a> (Old Norse \\\"Man from the Land of the Vanir\\\").\\nSmall pieces of gold foil decorated with pictures of figures dating from the <a href=\\\"Migration%20Period\\\">Migration Period</a> into the early <a href=\\\"Viking%20Age\\\">Viking Age</a> (known as \\\"<a href=\\\"gullgubber\\\">gullgubber</a>\\\") have been discovered in various locations in <a href=\\\"Scandinavia\\\">Scandinavia</a>, in one case almost 2,500. The foil pieces have been found largely at sites of buildings, only rarely in graves. The figures are sometimes single, occasionally an animal, sometimes a man and a woman with a leafy bough between them, facing or embracing one another. The human figures are almost always clothed and are sometimes depicted with their knees bent. Scholar <a href=\\\"Hilda%20Ellis%20Davidson\\\">Hilda Ellis Davidson</a> says that it has been suggested that the figures are partaking in a dance, and that they may have been connected with weddings and linked to the Vanir, representing the notion of a divine marriage, such as in the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\" poem \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%ADrnism%C3%A1l\\\">Skírnismál</a>\\\"; the coming together of the Vanir god Freyr and his love, Gerðr.\\nLike the Vanr goddess Freyja, the Vanir as a group are not attested outside Scandinavia. Traditionally, following \\\"Völuspá\\\" and Snorri Sturluson's account in the \\\"Prose Edda\\\", scholarship on the Vanir has focused on the Æsir–Vanir War, its possible basis in a war between tribes, and whether the Vanir originated as the deities of a distinct people. Some scholars have doubted that they were known outside Scandinavia; however, there is evidence that the god Freyr is the same god as the Germanic deity <a href=\\\"Yngvi\\\">Ing</a> (reconstructed as <a href=\\\"Proto-Germanic\\\">Proto-Germanic</a> \\\"*Ingwaz\\\"), and that, if so, he is attested as having been known among the <a href=\\\"Goths\\\">Goths</a>. More recently, the view put forward by <a href=\\\"Georges%20Dum%C3%A9zil\\\">Georges Dumézil</a> based on Indo-European parallels has dominated, wherein the Vanir, like the Æsir, derive from the <a href=\\\"Proto-Indo-European%20religion\\\">pre-Germanic heritage</a> of Germanic religion and embody the third of the three \\\"functions\\\" in his <a href=\\\"trifunctional%20hypothesis\\\">trifunctional hypothesis</a>: <a href=\\\"chthonic\\\">chthonic</a> and fertility deities.\\nHilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that all of the wives of the gods may have originally been members of the Vanir, noting that many of them appear to have originally been children of <a href=\\\"j%C3%B6tunn\\\">jötnar</a>. Davidson additionally notes that \\\"it is the Vanir and Odin who seem to receive the most hostile treatment in Christian stories about mythological personages.\\\" Alaric Hall has equated the Vanir with the <a href=\\\"Elf\\\">elves</a>, and Joseph S. Hopkins and Haukur Þorgeirsson, building on suggestions by archaeologist <a href=\\\"Ole%20Crumlin-Pedersen\\\">Ole Crumlin-Pedersen</a> and others, link the Vanir to <a href=\\\"ship%20burial\\\">ship burial</a> customs among the North Germanic peoples, proposing an early Germanic model of a ship in a \\\"field of the dead\\\" that may be represented both by Freyja's afterlife field <a href=\\\"F%C3%B3lkvangr\\\">Fólkvangr</a> and by the Old English <a href=\\\"Neorxnawang\\\">Neorxnawang</a> (the mysterious first element of which may be linked to the name of Freyja's father, Njörðr).\\n<a href=\\\"Richard%20North%20%28academic%29\\\">Richard North</a> theorizes that glossing Latin \\\"vanitates\\\" (\\\"vanities\\\", \\\"idols\\\") for \\\"gods\\\" in <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a> sources implies the existence of \\\"*uuani\\\" (a <a href=\\\"Linguistic%20reconstruction\\\">reconstructed</a> cognate to Old Norse \\\"Vanir\\\") in <a href=\\\"Deira\\\">Deira</a>n dialect and hence that the gods that <a href=\\\"Edwin%20of%20Northumbria\\\">Edwin of Northumbria</a> and the northern Angles worshiped in pre-Christian <a href=\\\"Anglo-Saxon%20England\\\">Anglo-Saxon England</a> were likely to have been the *\\\"uuani\\\". He comments that they likely \\\"shared not only the name but also the orgiastic character of the [Old Icelandic] \\\"Vanir\\\".\\\"\\nIn 2010 <a href=\\\"Rudolf%20Simek\\\">Rudolf Simek</a>, building on an analysis by <a href=\\\"Lotte%20Motz\\\">Lotte Motz</a>, argued that \\\"vanir\\\" was originally nothing more than a general term for deities like \\\"æsir\\\", and that its employment as a distinct group of deities was Snorri's invention, and the Vanir are therefore \\\"a figment of imagination from the 13th to 20th centuries\\\". Simek's argument is supported by a statistical analysis (published in the same journal issue) of the small corpus of poetic usages, which suggests that the term \\\"vanir\\\" was a \\\"suspended archaism\\\" used as a metrical alternative to \\\"Æsir\\\".\\nIn contrast, in a concurrently published response, Clive Tolley argues that the term must have originated in historical usage, and as such \\\"it is something of a misrepresentation of the evidence to suggest that Snorri is the main source for the \\\"vanir\\\".\\\" Returning to the Indo-European origins theory, he argues that the Vanir strengthen the Æsir by contributing their relationality, their ability to absorb the other and their receptivity to sacrifice. In contrast, continuing the same journal thread, Leszek P. Słupecki argues that the Vanir remained distinct from the Æsir—except for Freyja and Freyr, whom he follows Snorri in seeing as having been born after Njörðr became a hostage among the Æsir, and thus regards as Æsir—and therefore that <a href=\\\"Ragnar%C3%B6k\\\">Ragnarök</a> \\\"[has] no importance for their world\\\".\\nThe Vanir are featured in the poem \\\"Om vanerne\\\" in \\\"Nordens Guder\\\" (1819) by <a href=\\\"Adam%20Gottlob%20Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger\\\">Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger</a>. Some <a href=\\\"Germanic%20Neopaganism\\\">Germanic Neopagans</a> refer to their beliefs as \\\"Vanatrú\\\" (meaning \\\"those who honor the Vanir\\\").\\n\",\n \"Hamskerpir and Garðrofa\\nIn <a href=\\\"Norse%20mythology\\\">Norse mythology</a>, Hamskerpir and Garðrofa are a pair of <a href=\\\"horse\\\">horse</a>s who sired <a href=\\\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\\\">Hófvarpnir</a>, the horse ridden by the <a href=\\\"%C3%81ss\\\">goddess</a> <a href=\\\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\\\">Gná</a>. Hamskerpir and Garðrofa are attested in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Prose%20Edda\\\">Prose Edda</a>\\\", written in the 13th century by <a href=\\\"Snorri%20Sturluson\\\">Snorri Sturluson</a>.\\nIn chapter 35 of the \\\"Prose Edda\\\" book \\\"<a href=\\\"Gylfaginning\\\">Gylfaginning</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\\\">High</a> provides brief descriptions of 16 <a href=\\\"%C3%A1synjur\\\">ásynjur</a>. High lists Gná thirteenth, and in his description provides a stanza that gives Gná's horse Hófvarpnir's parents as Hamskerðir and Garðrofa:\\n<a href=\\\"John%20Lindow\\\">John Lindow</a> says that the name \\\"Hamskerpir\\\" does not have an obvious meaning, but that \\\"Garðrofa\\\" may mean \\\"fence breaker.\\\" Lindow adds that two horses are otherwise unknown from any other source, and that the myths surrounding them have not survived.\",\n \"John Lindow\\nJohn Lindow (born 1946) is a professor emeritus (<a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley\\\">University of California, Berkeley</a>) specializing in <a href=\\\"Scandinavia\\\">Scandinavia</a>n <a href=\\\"medieval%20studies\\\">medieval studies</a> and <a href=\\\"folklore\\\">folklore</a>. Lindow's works include \\\"Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Rituals, and Beliefs\\\", a handbook for <a href=\\\"Norse%20mythology\\\">Norse mythology</a>. He received his Ph.D. in Germanic languages and literature from <a href=\\\"Harvard%20University\\\">Harvard University</a> in 1972 and began teaching at Berkeley in 1978. In 1977 he was elected as a corresponding member of the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Gustavus%20Adolphus%20Academy\\\">Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy</a>.\\n\",\n \"Rudolf Simek\\nRudolf Simek (born 21 February 1954 in <a href=\\\"Eisenstadt\\\">Eisenstadt</a>, <a href=\\\"Burgenland\\\">Burgenland</a>) is an <a href=\\\"Austria\\\">Austria</a>n <a href=\\\"German%20studies\\\">Germanist</a> and <a href=\\\"philologist\\\">philologist</a>.\\nSimek studied <a href=\\\"German%20literature\\\">German literature</a>, <a href=\\\"philosophy\\\">philosophy</a> and <a href=\\\"Catholic%20theology\\\">Catholic theology</a> in the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Vienna\\\">University of Vienna</a>, before becoming a librarian and a <a href=\\\"docent\\\">docent</a> at the institution. He taught among others in the universities of <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">Edinburgh</a>, <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Troms%C3%B8\\\">Tromsø</a> and <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Sydney\\\">Sydney</a>. Since 1995 he has been a <a href=\\\"Professor\\\">Professor</a> of <a href=\\\"German%20studies\\\">German studies</a> at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Bonn\\\">University of Bonn</a>. Rudolf Simek is the editor-in-chief of \\\"Studia Medievalia Septentrionalia\\\".\\nOn 8 October 2013 Rudolf Simek received an Honorary degree at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Rzesz%C3%B3w\\\">University of Rzeszów</a>.\\nRudolf Simek has translated into <a href=\\\"German%20language\\\">German</a> 5 volumes of <a href=\\\"Norse%20sagas\\\">Norse sagas</a>. He has also written numerous articles for journals and a number of books on the history of <a href=\\\"Germanic%20peoples\\\">Germanic peoples</a>, the <a href=\\\"Viking%20Age\\\">Viking Age</a> and <a href=\\\"Germanic%20mythology\\\">Germanic mythology</a>. The most important of them are:\\n\",\n \"Sleipnir\\nIn <a href=\\\"Norse%20mythology\\\">Norse mythology</a>, Sleipnir (<a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a> \\\"slippy\\\" or \\\"the slipper\\\") is an eight-legged <a href=\\\"horse\\\">horse</a>. Sleipnir is attested in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Poetic%20Edda\\\">Poetic Edda</a>\\\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Prose%20Edda\\\">Prose Edda</a>\\\", written in the 13th century by <a href=\\\"Snorri%20Sturluson\\\">Snorri Sturluson</a>. In both sources, Sleipnir is <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a>'s steed, is the child of <a href=\\\"Loki\\\">Loki</a> and <a href=\\\"Sva%C3%B0ilfari\\\">Svaðilfari</a>, is described as the best of all horses, and is sometimes ridden to the location of <a href=\\\"Hel%20%28location%29\\\">Hel</a>. The \\\"Prose Edda\\\" contains extended information regarding the circumstances of Sleipnir's birth, and details that he is grey in color.\\nAdditionally, Sleipnir is mentioned in a riddle found in the 13th century <a href=\\\"legendary%20saga\\\">legendary saga</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Hervarar%20saga%20ok%20Hei%C3%B0reks\\\">Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks</a>\\\", in the 13th century legendary saga \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lsunga%20saga\\\">Völsunga saga</a>\\\" as the ancestor of the horse <a href=\\\"Grani\\\">Grani</a>, and book I of \\\"<a href=\\\"Gesta%20Danorum\\\">Gesta Danorum</a>\\\", written in the 12th century by <a href=\\\"Saxo%20Grammaticus\\\">Saxo Grammaticus</a>, contains an episode considered by many scholars to involve Sleipnir. Sleipnir is generally accepted as depicted on two 8th century <a href=\\\"Gotland\\\">Gotland</a>ic <a href=\\\"image%20stones\\\">image stones</a>: the <a href=\\\"Tj%C3%A4ngvide%20image%20stone\\\">Tjängvide image stone</a> and the <a href=\\\"Ardre%20image%20stones\\\">Ardre VIII image stone</a>.\\nScholarly theories have been proposed regarding Sleipnir's potential connection to <a href=\\\"shamanism\\\">shamanic</a> practices among the <a href=\\\"Norse%20paganism\\\">Norse pagans</a>. In modern times, Sleipnir appears in <a href=\\\"Scandinavian%20folklore\\\">Icelandic folklore</a> as the creator of <a href=\\\"%C3%81sbyrgi\\\">Ásbyrgi</a>, in works of art, literature, software, and in the names of ships.\\nIn the \\\"Poetic Edda\\\", Sleipnir appears or is mentioned in the poems \\\"<a href=\\\"Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l\\\">Grímnismál</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l\\\">Sigrdrífumál</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Baldrs%20draumar\\\">Baldrs draumar</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Hyndlulj%C3%B3%C3%B0\\\">Hyndluljóð</a>\\\". In \\\"Grímnismál\\\", <a href=\\\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\\\">Grimnir</a> (Odin in disguise and not yet having revealed his identity) tells the boy Agnar in verse that Sleipnir is the best of horses (\\\"Odin is the best of the <a href=\\\"%C3%86sir\\\">Æsir</a>, Sleipnir of horses\\\"). In \\\"Sigrdrífumál\\\", the <a href=\\\"valkyrie\\\">valkyrie</a> <a href=\\\"Sigrdr%C3%ADfa\\\">Sigrdrífa</a> tells the hero <a href=\\\"Sigurd\\\">Sigurðr</a> that <a href=\\\"runic%20alphabet\\\">runes</a> should be cut \\\"on Sleipnir's teeth and on the sledge's strap-bands.\\\" In \\\"<a href=\\\"Baldrs%20draumar\\\">Baldrs draumar</a>\\\", after the Æsir convene about the god <a href=\\\"Baldr\\\">Baldr</a>'s bad dreams, Odin places a <a href=\\\"saddle\\\">saddle</a> on Sleipnir and the two ride to the location of <a href=\\\"Hel%20%28location%29\\\">Hel</a>. The \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1%20hin%20skamma\\\">Völuspá hin skamma</a>\\\" section of \\\"Hyndluljóð\\\" says that Loki produced \\\"<a href=\\\"Fenrir\\\">the wolf</a>\\\" with <a href=\\\"Angrbo%C3%B0a\\\">Angrboða</a>, produced Sleipnir with <a href=\\\"Sva%C3%B0ilfari\\\">Svaðilfari</a>, and thirdly \\\"one monster that was thought the most baleful, who was descended from <a href=\\\"B%C3%BDleistr\\\">Býleistr</a>'s brother.\\\"\\nIn the \\\"Prose Edda\\\" book \\\"<a href=\\\"Gylfaginning\\\">Gylfaginning</a>\\\", Sleipnir is first mentioned in chapter 15 where the enthroned figure of <a href=\\\"High%2C%20Just-As-High%2C%20and%20Third\\\">High</a> says that every day the Æsir ride across the bridge <a href=\\\"Bifr%C3%B6st\\\">Bifröst</a>, and provides a list of the Æsir's horses. The list begins with Sleipnir: \\\"best is Sleipnir, he is Odin's, he has eight legs.\\\" In chapter 41, High quotes the \\\"Grímnismál\\\" stanza that mentions Sleipnir.\\nIn chapter 42, Sleipnir's origins are described. <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gangleri</a> (described earlier in the book as King <a href=\\\"Gylfi\\\">Gylfi</a> in disguise) asks High who the horse Sleipnir belongs to and what there is to tell about it. High expresses surprise in Gangleri's lack of knowledge about Sleipnir and its origin. High tells a story set \\\"right at the beginning of the gods' settlement, when the gods established <a href=\\\"Midgard\\\">Midgard</a> and built <a href=\\\"Valhalla\\\">Val-Hall</a>\\\" about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods in three seasons that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a>, the <a href=\\\"S%C3%B3l%20%28Sun%29\\\">sun</a>, and the <a href=\\\"M%C3%A1ni\\\">moon</a>. After some debate, the gods agree to this, but place a number of restrictions on the builder, including that he must complete the work within three seasons with the help of no man. The builder makes a single request; that he may have help from his stallion <a href=\\\"Sva%C3%B0ilfari\\\">Svaðilfari</a>, and due to Loki's influence, this is allowed. The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder, and hauls enormous rocks to the surprise of the gods. The builder, with Svaðilfari, makes fast progress on the wall, and three days before the deadline of summer, the builder was nearly at the entrance to the fortification. The gods convene, and figured out who was responsible, resulting in a unanimous agreement that, along with most trouble, Loki was to blame.\\nThe gods declare that Loki would deserve a horrible death if he could not find a scheme that would cause the builder to forfeit his payment, and threatened to attack him. Loki, afraid, swore oaths that he would devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment, whatever it would cost himself. That night, the builder drove out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari, and out from a wood ran a mare. The mare neighed at Svaðilfari, and \\\"realizing what kind of horse it was,\\\" Svaðilfari became frantic, neighed, tore apart his tackle, and ran towards the mare. The mare ran to the wood, Svaðilfari followed, and the builder chased after. The two horses ran around all night, causing the building work to be held up for the night, and the previous momentum of building work that the builder had been able to maintain was not continued.\\nWhen the Æsir realize that the builder is a <a href=\\\"hrimthurs\\\">hrimthurs</a>, they disregard their previous oaths with the builder, and call for Thor. Thor arrives, and kills the builder by smashing the builder's skull into shards with the hammer <a href=\\\"Mj%C3%B6llnir\\\">Mjöllnir</a>. However, Loki had \\\"such dealings\\\" with Svaðilfari that \\\"somewhat later\\\" Loki gave birth to a grey <a href=\\\"foal\\\">foal</a> with eight legs; the horse Sleipnir, \\\"the best horse among gods and men.\\\"\\nIn chapter 49, High describes the death of the god <a href=\\\"Baldr\\\">Baldr</a>. <a href=\\\"Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0r\\\">Hermóðr</a> agrees to ride to Hel to offer a ransom for Baldr's return, and so \\\"then Odin's horse Sleipnir was fetched and led forward.\\\" Hermóðr mounts Sleipnir and rides away. Hermóðr rides for <a href=\\\"Numbers%20in%20Germanic%20paganism\\\">nine nights</a> in deep, dark valleys where Hermóðr can see nothing. The two arrive at the river <a href=\\\"Gj%C3%B6ll\\\">Gjöll</a> and then continue to Gjöll bridge, encountering a maiden guarding the bridge named <a href=\\\"M%C3%B3%C3%B0gu%C3%B0r\\\">Móðguðr</a>. Some dialogue occurs between Hermóðr and Móðguðr, including that Móðguðr notes that recently there had ridden five battalions of dead men across the bridge that made less sound than he. Sleipnir and Hermóðr continue \\\"downwards and northwards\\\" on the road to Hel, until the two arrive at Hel's gates. Hermóðr dismounts from Sleipnir, tightens Sleipnir's <a href=\\\"Girth%20%28tack%29\\\">girth</a>, mounts him, and spurs Sleipnir on. Sleipnir \\\"jumped so hard and over the gate that it came nowhere near.\\\" Hermóðr rides up to the hall, and dismounts from Sleipnir. After Hermóðr's pleas to <a href=\\\"Hel%20%28being%29\\\">Hel</a> to return Baldr are accepted under a condition, Hermóðr and Baldr retrace their path backward and return to <a href=\\\"Asgard\\\">Asgard</a>.\\nIn chapter 16 of the book \\\"<a href=\\\"Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l\\\">Skáldskaparmál</a>\\\", a <a href=\\\"kenning\\\">kenning</a> given for Loki is \\\"relative of Sleipnir.\\\" In chapter 17, a story is provided in which Odin rides Sleipnir into the land of <a href=\\\"J%C3%B6tunheimr\\\">Jötunheimr</a> and arrives at the residence of the <a href=\\\"j%C3%B6tunn\\\">jötunn</a> <a href=\\\"Hrungnir\\\">Hrungnir</a>. Hrungnir asks \\\"what sort of person this was\\\" wearing a golden helmet, \\\"riding sky and sea,\\\" and says that the stranger \\\"has a marvellously good horse.\\\" Odin wagers his head that no horse as good could be found in all of Jötunheimr. Hrungnir admitted that it was a fine horse, yet states that he owns a much longer-paced horse; <a href=\\\"Gullfaxi\\\">Gullfaxi</a>. Incensed, Hrungnir leaps atop Gullfaxi, intending to attack Odin for Odin's boasting. Odin gallops hard ahead of Hrungnir, and, in his, fury, Hrungnir finds himself having rushed into the gates of Asgard. In chapter 58, Sleipnir is mentioned among a list of horses in \\\"<a href=\\\"%C3%9Eorgr%C3%ADms%C3%BEula\\\">Þorgrímsþula</a>\\\": \\\"Hrafn and Sleipnir, splendid horses [...]\\\". In addition, Sleipnir occurs twice in kennings for \\\"<a href=\\\"ship\\\">ship</a>\\\" (once appearing in chapter 25 in a work by the <a href=\\\"skald\\\">skald</a> Refr, and \\\"sea-Sleipnir\\\" appearing in chapter 49 in \\\"<a href=\\\"H%C3%BAsdr%C3%A1pa\\\">Húsdrápa</a>\\\", a work by the 10th century skald <a href=\\\"%C3%9Alfr%20Uggason\\\">Úlfr Uggason</a>).\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Hervarar%20saga%20ok%20Hei%C3%B0reks\\\">Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks</a>\\\", the poem \\\"<a href=\\\"Hei%C3%B0reks%20g%C3%A1tur\\\">Heiðreks gátur</a>\\\" contains a riddle that mentions Sleipnir and Odin:\\nIn chapter 13 of \\\"<a href=\\\"V%C3%B6lsunga%20saga\\\">Völsunga saga</a>\\\", the hero <a href=\\\"Sigurd\\\">Sigurðr</a> is on his way to a wood and he meets a <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">long-bearded old man</a> he had never seen before. Sigurd tells the old man that he is going to choose a horse, and asks the old man to come with him to help him decide. The old man says that they should drive the horses down to the river Busiltjörn. The two drive the horses down into the deeps of Busiltjörn, and all of the horses swim back to land but a large, young, and handsome grey horse that no one had ever mounted. The grey-bearded old man says that the horse is from \\\"Sleipnir's kin\\\" and that \\\"he must be raised carefully, because he will become better than any other horse.\\\" The old man vanishes. Sigurd names the horse <a href=\\\"Grani\\\">Grani</a>, and the narrative adds that the old man was none other than (the god) <a href=\\\"Odin\\\">Odin</a>.\\nSleipnir is generally considered as appearing in a sequence of events described in book I of \\\"<a href=\\\"Gesta%20Danorum\\\">Gesta Danorum</a>\\\". In book I, the young <a href=\\\"Hadingus\\\">Hadingus</a> encounters \\\"a certain man of great age who had lost an eye\\\" who allies him with Liserus. Hadingus and Liserus set out to wage war on Lokerus, ruler of <a href=\\\"Courland\\\">Kurland</a>. Meeting defeat, the old man takes Hadingus with him onto his horse as they flee to the old man's house, and the two drink an invigorating drought. The old man sings a prophecy, and takes Hadingus back to where he found him on his horse. During the ride back, Hadingus trembles beneath the old man's <a href=\\\"Mantle%20%28vesture%29\\\">mantle</a>, and peers out of its holes. Hadingus realizes that he is flying through the air: \\\"and he saw that before the steps of the horse lay the sea; but was told not to steal a glimpse of the forbidden thing, and therefore turned his amazed eyes from the dread spectacle of the roads that he journeyed.\\\" Additionally, in book II, <a href=\\\"B%C3%B6dvar%20Bjarki\\\">Biarco</a> mentions Odin and Sleipnir: \\\"If I may look on the awful husband of <a href=\\\"Frigg\\\">Frigg</a>, howsoever he be covered in his white shield, and guide his tall steed, he shall in no way go safe out of <a href=\\\"Lejre\\\">Leire</a>; it is lawful to lay low in war the war-waging god.\\\"\\nTwo of the 8th century <a href=\\\"picture%20stone\\\">picture stone</a>s from the island of <a href=\\\"Gotland\\\">Gotland</a>, <a href=\\\"Sweden\\\">Sweden</a> depict eight-legged horses, which are thought by most scholars to depict Sleipnir: the <a href=\\\"Tj%C3%A4ngvide%20image%20stone\\\">Tjängvide image stone</a> and the <a href=\\\"Ardre%20image%20stones\\\">Ardre VIII image stone</a>. Both stones feature a rider sitting atop an eight-legged horse, which some scholars view as Odin. Above the rider on the Tjängvide image stone is a horizontal figure holding a spear, which may be a <a href=\\\"valkyrie\\\">valkyrie</a>, and a female figure greets the rider with a cup. The scene has been interpreted as a rider arriving at the world of the dead. The mid-7th century <a href=\\\"Eggja%20stone\\\">Eggja stone</a> bearing the <a href=\\\"List%20of%20names%20of%20Odin\\\">Odinic name</a> \\\"haras\\\" (<a href=\\\"Old%20Norse\\\">Old Norse</a> 'army god') may be interpreted as depicting Sleipnir.\\n<a href=\\\"John%20Lindow\\\">John Lindow</a> theorizes that Sleipnir's \\\"connection to the world of the dead grants a special poignancy to one of the kennings in which Sleipnir turns up as a horse word,\\\" referring to the skald Úlfr Uggason's usage of \\\"sea-Sleipnir\\\" in his \\\"Húsdrápa\\\", which describes the funeral of Baldr. Lindow continues that \\\"his use of Sleipnir in the kenning may show that Sleipnir's role in the failed recovery of Baldr was known at that time and place in Iceland; it certainly indicates that Sleipnir was an active participant in the mythology of the last decades of paganism.\\\" Lindow adds that the eight legs of Sleipnir \\\"have been interpreted as an indication of great speed or as being connected in some unclear way with cult activity.\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Hilda%20Ellis%20Davidson\\\">Hilda Ellis Davidson</a> says that \\\"the eight-legged horse of Odin is the typical steed of the shaman\\\" and that in the shaman's journeys to the heavens or the underworld, a shaman \\\"is usually represented as riding on some bird or animal.\\\" Davidson says that while the creature may vary, the horse is fairly common \\\"in the lands where horses are in general use, and Sleipnir's ability to bear the god through the air is typical of the shaman's steed\\\" and cites an example from a study of shamanism by <a href=\\\"Mircea%20Eliade\\\">Mircea Eliade</a> of an eight-legged foal from a story of a <a href=\\\"Buryats\\\">Buryat</a> shaman. Davidson says that while attempts have been made to connect Sleipnir with <a href=\\\"hobby%20horse\\\">hobby horse</a>s and steeds with more than four feet that appear in carnivals and processions, but that \\\"a more fruitful resemblance seems to be on the <a href=\\\"bier\\\">bier</a> on which a dead man is carried in the funeral procession by four bearers; borne along thus, he may be described as riding on a steed with eight legs.\\\" As an example, Davidson cites a funeral <a href=\\\"dirge\\\">dirge</a> from the <a href=\\\"Gondi%20people\\\">Gondi people</a> in <a href=\\\"India\\\">India</a> as recorded by <a href=\\\"Verrier%20Elwin\\\">Verrier Elwin</a>, stating that \\\"it contains references to <a href=\\\"Bagri%20Maro\\\">Bagri Maro</a>, the horse with eight legs, and it is clear from the song that it is the dead man's bier.\\\" Davidson says that the song is sung when a distinguished <a href=\\\"Muria%20people\\\">Muria</a> dies, and provides a verse:\\nDavidson adds that the representation of Odin's steed as eight-legged could arise naturally out of such an image, and that \\\"this is in accordance with the picture of Sleipnir as a horse that could bear its rider to the land of the dead.\\\"\\nUlla Loumand cites Sleipnir and the flying horse <a href=\\\"Gn%C3%A1%20and%20H%C3%B3fvarpnir\\\">Hófvarpnir</a> as \\\"prime examples\\\" of horses in Norse mythology as being able to \\\"mediate between earth and sky, between <a href=\\\"%C3%81sgar%C3%B0r\\\">Ásgarðr</a>, <a href=\\\"Mi%C3%B0gar%C3%B0r\\\">Miðgarðr</a> and <a href=\\\"%C3%9Atgar%C3%B0r\\\">Útgarðr</a> and between the world of mortal men and the underworld.\\\"\\nThe \\\"<a href=\\\"Encyclopedia%20of%20Indo-European%20Culture\\\">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a>\\\" theorizes that Sleipnir's eight legs may be the remnants of horse-associated <a href=\\\"divine%20twins\\\">divine twins</a> found in <a href=\\\"Proto-Indo-Europeans\\\">Indo-European</a> cultures and ultimately stemming from <a href=\\\"Proto-Indo-European%20religion\\\">Proto-Indo-European religion</a>. The encyclopedia states that \\\"[...] Sleipnir is born with an extra set of legs, thus representing an original pair of horses. Like <a href=\\\"Freyr\\\">Freyr</a> and <a href=\\\"Nj%C3%B6r%C3%B0r\\\">Njörðr</a>, Sleipnir is responsible for carrying the dead to the otherworld.\\\" The encyclopedia cites parallels between the birth of Sleipnir and myths originally pointing to a <a href=\\\"Celtic%20polytheism\\\">Celtic</a> goddess who gave birth to the Divine horse twins. These elements include a demand for a goddess by an unwanted suitor (the <a href=\\\"hrimthurs\\\">hrimthurs</a> demanding the goddess <a href=\\\"Freyja\\\">Freyja</a>) and the seduction of builders.\\nAccording to Icelandic folklore, the <a href=\\\"horseshoe\\\">horseshoe</a>-shaped canyon <a href=\\\"%C3%81sbyrgi\\\">Ásbyrgi</a> located in <a href=\\\"J%C3%B6kuls%C3%A1rglj%C3%BAfur%20National%20Park\\\">Jökulsárgljúfur National Park</a>, northern <a href=\\\"Iceland\\\">Iceland</a> was formed by Sleipnir's hoof. Sleipnir is depicted with Odin on <a href=\\\"Dagfin%20Werenskiold\\\">Dagfin Werenskiold</a>'s wooden relief \\\"Odin på Sleipnir\\\" (1945–1950) on the exterior of the <a href=\\\"Oslo%20City%20Hall\\\">Oslo City Hall</a> in <a href=\\\"Oslo\\\">Oslo</a>, <a href=\\\"Norway\\\">Norway</a>. Sleipnir has been and remains a popular name for ships in northern Europe, and <a href=\\\"Rudyard%20Kipling\\\">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s short story entitled \\\"Sleipnir, late Thurinda\\\" (1888) features a horse named Sleipnir. A statue of Sleipnir (1998) stands in <a href=\\\"Wednesbury\\\">Wednesbury</a>, <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a>, a town which takes its name from the <a href=\\\"Anglo-Saxon%20paganism\\\">Anglo-Saxon</a> version of Odin, <a href=\\\"W%C5%8Dden\\\">Wōden</a>.\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["In Norse mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse and Icelandic) or Frænir is a son of the dwarf king Hreidmar and brother of Regin, Ótr, Lyngheiðr and Lofnheiðr. After being affected by the curse of Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir became a dragon and was slain by Sigurd.","The ANA motorcycle was manufactured by Martin J Shelley at the ANA Cycle Works in Rathdowne Street, North Carlton, Victoria between 1910 and 1919. The ANA used a wide variety of different engines: Fafnir, JAP Precision, Abingdon King Dick, as well as Sturmey-Archer gearboxes."],"string":"[\n \"In Norse mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse and Icelandic) or Frænir is a son of the dwarf king Hreidmar and brother of Regin, Ótr, Lyngheiðr and Lofnheiðr. After being affected by the curse of Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir became a dragon and was slain by Sigurd.\",\n \"The ANA motorcycle was manufactured by Martin J Shelley at the ANA Cycle Works in Rathdowne Street, North Carlton, Victoria between 1910 and 1919. The ANA used a wide variety of different engines: Fafnir, JAP Precision, Abingdon King Dick, as well as Sturmey-Archer gearboxes.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":71,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"A Simple Plan was a thriller novel that led to a film starring whom?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Bill Paxton, Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Scott Smith (author)\nScott Bechtel Smith (born July 13, 1965) is an American author and screenwriter, who has published two novels, \"A Simple Plan\" and \"The Ruins\". His screen adaptation of \"A Simple Plan\" earned him an Academy Award nomination. The screenplay won a Broadcast Film Critics Association Award and a National Board of Review Award.\nSmith was born in Summit, New Jersey in 1965 and moved to Toledo, Ohio as a child. After graduating from Dartmouth College and from Columbia University with a Master of Fine Arts degree in Writing, he took up writing full-time.\nHis second novel, \"The Ruins\", was also adapted into a film, released on April 4, 2008. Stephen King called it \"[t]he best horror novel of the new century.\" King had also called \"A Simple Plan\" \"simply the best suspense novel of the year.\"\nIn 2016 it was announced that TNT had greenlit a pilot for \"Civil\", a new TV series created by Smith about a second American Civil War following a hotly contested presidential election.\nSmith is the son of Linda and Doug Smith. He told The \"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\" reviewer Regis Behe that, as a child, he read his father's \"castoffs,\" the novels of Clive Cussler and Jack Higgins. \"Growing up, I also read Ray Bradbury and Stephen King,\" he said. \"I just had a sense of how to create these places that aren't real world places, but just with this provisional attachment to the real world. It is very much of your imagination, and I felt very much I could do that.\"\n","The Morgan Waters Show\nThe Morgan Waters Show is a six-minute sketch comedy show starring Morgan Waters, made by CBC Television for its afternoon youth programming lineup, next to the 3 minute \"Mr. Meaty\" and \"Yam Roll\". Morgan goes through a variety of situations with most characters being played by himself, including the badminton-loving Goth Trent, Phillip the Nerd, and the lovable CBC Executive, Boss Boss. Guests appearing on the show include \"Canadian Idol\" hosts Ben Mulroney and Jon Dore, Rick Mercer, the cast of \"\", Ashlee Simpson, Simple Plan, OK GO, Alexz Johnson, Ed the Sock, and Tyler Kyte among others.\nThe Morgan Waters Show has been critically acclaimed by \"TV Guide\", and won a Gemini for \"Best Children's or Youth Non-Fiction Program or Series\".","The Real Cancun (original soundtrack)\nThe Real Cancun is an original soundtrack for 2003 American reality film \"The Real Cancun\", released by Thrive on May 13, 2003. The album consists of such popular names as Simple Plan, Trick Daddy and the Kottonmouth Kings among others.","Don't Wanna Think About You\n\"Don't Wanna Think About You\" is a song by Canadian rock band Simple Plan. \"Don't Wanna Think About You\" was released to radio on March 2, 2004. It appeared on the to the film \"\", serving as the film's theme song. The song was released to iTunes through Warner Bros. Records on March 2, 2004 in promotion of the film.\nThe music video for \"Don't Wanna Think About You\" was directed by Smith n' Borin and premiered February 27, 2004. An edited version was made available for purchase on iTunes on January 11, 2006. The video is also included in the special features on the DVD for \"Scooby Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed\".\nThe story for the video revolves around the band members racing through the city trying to reach the premiere of \"Scooby Doo 2\" on time. To give their trek a sense of urgency, the video uses the on-screen digital clock concept of the show \"24\", although compressed for the duration of the song. The Mystery Machine and the cast of the film are featured briefly as the band arrives at the theatre.\nTwo versions of the music video exist: One version of the video shows that the time frame of the video is 5:00 pm to 6:00 pm. Another version formerly embedded on Bouvier's official Myspace page has the time frame of the video as 4:00 pm to 5:00 pm, and used official sounds from the \"24\" TV series.","A Simple Plan (film)\nA Simple Plan is a 1998 American neo-noir crime thriller film adapted by Scott B. Smith from his 1993 novel of the same name. Directed by Sam Raimi, it stars Bill Paxton, Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda. Set in rural Minnesota, \"A Simple Plan\" follows brothers Hank (Paxton) and Jacob Mitchell (Thornton), who, along with Jacob's friend Lou (Brent Briscoe), discover a crashed plane containing $4.4 million in cash. The three men go to great lengths to keep the money a secret but begin to doubt each other's trust, resulting in lies, deceit and murder.\nDevelopment of the film began in 1993 before the novel was published. Mike Nichols purchased the film rights, and the project was picked up by Savoy Pictures. After Nichols stepped down, the film adaptation became mired in development hell; during the troubled pre-production, Ben Stiller and John Dahl turned down opportunities to direct the film. After Savoy closed in November 1995, the project was sold to Paramount Pictures, and financed by Mutual Film Company, which provided a budget of $17 million. John Boorman was hired to direct, but scheduling conflicts led to his replacement by Raimi. Principal photography began in January 1998 and concluded in March after 55 days; filming took place in Wisconsin and Minnesota. The score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman.\n\"A Simple Plan\" premiered at the 1998 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was met with critical acclaim. The film's appearance at the festival preceded a limited release in the United States on December 11, 1998, followed by a general release in North America on January 22, 1999. It underperformed at the North American box office, grossing $16.3 million. Reviewers praised various aspects of the film's production, including the storytelling, performances and Raimi's direction. \"A Simple Plan\" earned multiple awards and nominations, among them two Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor (Thornton) and Best Adapted Screenplay (Smith).\nHank Mitchell and his wife Sarah live in rural Minnesota. One of the town's few college graduates, Hank works in a feed mill, while his wife is a librarian. When Hank, his older, socially challenged brother Jacob and Jacob's friend Lou chase a fox into the woods, they stumble upon a crashed airplane. Hank decides to look inside the plane where he discovers a dead pilot and a bag containing $4.4 million in $100 bills. He suggests turning the money in but is persuaded not to by Jacob and Lou. Hank then proposes that he keep the money safe at his house until the end of winter. Sheriff Carl Jenkins drives by the area and notices the three men after they hide the money in Jacob's pick-up truck. Jacob mentions hearing a plane in the area to avoid suspicion. After Carl leaves, the three men decide to keep the money a secret, but Hank breaks the pact when he reveals the discovery to Sarah.\nSarah suggests that Hank and Jacob return a paltry sum of the money to the plane to avoid suspicion from local authorities. While travelling on foot to the woods, the brothers come across an old man on a snowmobile. Jacob, thinking that their cover is blown, bludgeons him. When the man regains consciousness, Hank suffocates him, then uses the snowmobile to drive his body off a bridge, making the murder look like an accidental death. The following night, Lou drunkenly demands some of the money from Hank, because he has spent recklessly since the discovery. When Hank refuses, Lou threatens to go to the authorities, having learned from Jacob about the old man's murder.\nSarah advises that Hank and Jacob team up to plot against Lou. Much to Jacob's dismay, the two brothers visit Lou at his home where Jacob has him drunkenly confess to the old man's murder. Hank records the false confession with a tape recorder. Lou grows enraged when he realizes that the two have conspired against him and pulls a gun on them. Jacob grabs a rifle from his truck and kills Lou to save his brother. Hank then kills Lou's wife with Lou's shotgun when she appears with another gun. The two brothers avoid arrest after Hank concocts a rehearsed speech for himself and Jacob to tell the police.\nBecause Jacob mentioned hearing a plane in the woods, Carl asks the brothers to assist an FBI agent, Neil Baxter, in a search for the missing aircraft. Hank and Jacob meet with Baxter and Carl at the police station. Sarah grows skeptical of Baxter, whom she later discovers to be an impostor; she contacts and warns Hank, who steals a handgun from Carl's office. The four men head into the woods and split up. When he finds the plane, Baxter kills Carl, and engages in a gunfight with Hank. Hank manages to kill Baxter with the gun he had stolen. Hank starts to concoct another story to tell the authorities. Jacob however announces that he does not want to live with these bad memories; he threatens to shoot himself to end it. He then encourages Hank to kill him instead and frame Baxter for the crime. After grappling with the decision, Hank kills Jacob.\nAt the police station, Hank tells his rehearsed story to real FBI agents. As Sarah predicted, the agents do not believe that Hank, an upstanding member of the community, would be capable of such wrongdoing. Although he is ruled out as a suspect, Hank is told that the money was part of a ransom and that many of the bills' serial numbers were written down to track the cash. Hank realizes he cannot use the money without being caught; he goes home and burns it all. In a closing narration, Hank reflects on his losses; as he tries to move on with his life, the murderous events constantly haunt him.\nAfter Scott B. Smith had published a short story for \"The New Yorker\", the magazine's fiction editor learned of his then-unpublished novel \"A Simple Plan\" before reading it and forwarding it to an agent. Shortly thereafter, Smith learned that Mike Nichols was interested in purchasing the film rights to his novel. Nichols spent a weekend reading the book, before contacting Smith's agent, and finalizing a deal the following Monday morning. Nichols purchased the rights for his production company Icarus Productions for $250,000, with an additional $750,000 to come later from a studio interested in pursuing the project. Smith’s manuscript of \"A Simple Plan\" was optioned for development at an independent film studio, Savoy Pictures. However, due to scheduling conflicts with a planned film adaptation of \"All the Pretty Horses\", Nichols stepped down from the project.\nAfter learning of the film adaptation from Nichols, Ben Stiller joined the project and signed a two-picture directing deal with Savoy. He spent nine months working on the script with Smith. During preproduction, however, Stiller had a falling out with Savoy over budget disputes—among them was how the studio's reported $4 million offer to Nicolas Cage would affect the film’s budget. Unable to secure financing from another studio, Stiller left the production.\nIn January 1995, John Dahl was announced to helm the film, with Cage set to appear in a starring role, and filming likely to start during the following summer in the southern hemisphere or in Canada during the following winter. In November 1995, following a series of box office failures, Savoy announced that it was retreating from the film industry. The studio was later acquired by Silver King Broadcasting/Home Shopping Network, whose chairman, Barry Diller, put \"A Simple Plan\" up for sale. This resulted in both Dahl and Cage leaving the project.\nThe project was purchased by Paramount Pictures, where producer Scott Rudin hired John Boorman to direct the film. Boorman took part in location scouting, and filming was set to begin during the first week of January 1998. When a second investor left the project, Paramount refused to fully finance the $17 million production itself. Although Boorman was able to secure financing, the studio feared that filming would not be finished before the end of winter. Boorman ran into scheduling conflicts, which resulted in him leaving the production. Paramount then hired Sam Raimi to direct the film. Raimi saw \"A Simple Plan\" as an opportunity to direct a character-driven story that differed from his earlier works, which were highly stylized or dependent on intricate camera movements. Raimi did not have time to scout locations due to studio constraints; he relied on the previous locations visited during Boorman's involvement.\n\"A Simple Plan\" was a co-production between Paramount and Mutual Film Company. The film was co-financed by Mutual and Newmarket Capital Group as part of a joint venture that was formed by the two companies. Mutual's international partners—the United Kingdom's BBC, Germany's Tele-München, Japan's Toho-Towa/Marubeni and France’s UGC-PH—also co-financed the film in exchange for distribution rights in their respective territories and equity stakes on the film on a worldwide basis. Paramount acquired the North American distribution rights.\nThe original script that Smith had written for Nichols was 256 pages long—the equivalent of a four-and-a-half hour film. Smith kept Nichols's suggestion of having the story take place in Minnesota, rather than in Ohio, where the book is set. After Nichols suggested that the story be set in the state, the Minnesota Film Board joined the project and remained involved throughout principal photography. Following publication of the novel, Nichols eventually turned down the project during the script's early draft stages. When Stiller became involved, he and Smith spent nine months rewriting the script.\nFor the adaptation, certain visual changes were made from the novel. Smith explained that one change involved the discovery of the crashed plane; his script had the character Lou Chambers \"throwing [a] snowball to uncover the plane ... In the book, they're just walking and they find it.\" Rudin wanted to change the focus of the story to Hank and Jacob, and ordered Smith to shorten the screenplay to 120 pages. Smith explained, \"I had to work to make Hank a more rational character, less evil.\" The shortening of the script also resulted in the character of Sarah having a smaller role, and Jacob having a larger role than in the book. After the role of Jacob was secured by Billy Bob Thornton, Smith omitted the character's overweight appearance from the novel. Smith described the film adaptation as being less violent than the book, explaining that it was Raimi's decision \"to be more restrained [and] bring out the characters.\"\nDuring the film's pre-production at Paramount, Boorman cast Bill Paxton and Billy Bob Thornton in the lead roles of Hank and Jacob Mitchell, respectively. \"A Simple Plan\" marked the second on-screen collaboration between Paxton and Thornton after \"One False Move\" (1992). Thornton recalled, \"I got a call from one of my agents who said, 'John Boorman wants you to do a script that I sent you a year ago and you never read,' I said, 'Send it to me again, and this time I'll really read it.' Within the first two pages, I knew I wanted to do it.\"\nPaxton learned of the novel \"A Simple Plan\" from his father five years before securing the role of Hank. He stated, \" ... for five years, there was a whole list of actors and directors who kind of marched through it. Billy Bob and I were set to do these roles in 1997, and then it fell apart. That was the cruelest twist for an actor, to get a part you dreamed you'd get and then they decide to scrap the whole thing.\" Rudin considered casting Anne Heche as Hank's wife Sarah Mitchell. In December 1997, Bridget Fonda, who had previously collaborated with Raimi on \"Army of Darkness\" (1992), was cast as Sarah Mitchell.\nPrincipal photography began on January 5, 1998. Filming was scheduled to begin in Delano, Minnesota, but due to climatic changes as the result of El Niño, the production was forced to temporarily relocate to northern Wisconsin to find the snow levels described in the script. The production began shooting in Ashland and Saxon, Wisconsin, where most of the film's exterior shots, and the road and woods near where the characters find the plane, were filmed. An actual plane, with one side cut open, was one of two planes used to depict the crashed aircraft. Patrizia Von Brandenstein was the film's production designer, marking her second collaboration with Raimi, after \"The Quick and the Dead\" (1995). Brandenstein found the weather conditions difficult during production, as she had to await good weather to complete the necessary exterior work. Describing the overall look of the film, she said, \"We created a muted black-and-white color scheme to suggest a morality tale, the choices given between right and wrong.\"\nThe production team returned to Minnesota, where it was plagued by a lack of snow. To solve this problem, the production put together an effects team whose sole responsibility was dealing with snow. This snow effects team created a combination of real snow and fake synthetic snow that was made from shaved ice. The home of Lou Chambers and his wife Nancy was filmed in an abandoned house in Delano, which cinematographer Alar Kivilo described as \"a very difficult [filming] location with very low ceilings and no heating\". Brandenstein and the art department were tasked with designing the set inside the home.\nThe interior of the crashed plane, in which Hank discovers a dead pilot and the $4.4 million in cash, was filmed on a soundstage. A second plane, designed to have frosted windows, was attached to a gimbal, about five feet off the ground. To match the interior with footage shot in Wisconsin, the art department built a set with real trees and a painted backdrop. To depict Hank being attacked by a flock of crows inside the plane, puppets were used to attack Paxton as he appeared on screen, while two live crows were used to attack an animatronic replica of the actor. A separate soundstage was used to create two sets depicting the interiors of the Mitchell home, where Hank and his wife Sarah (Fonda) reside. The first set was the main floor an exterior entrance way, and the second was created for the upstairs bedrooms. Principal photography concluded on March 13, 1998, after 55 days of filming.\nUpon reading the script, director of photography Alar Kivilo stated that his first approach to making the film \"was to make the look simple, allowing the characters to tell the story.\" For the film's visual style, Kivilo was influenced by the visual imagery in the 1967 film \"In Cold Blood\", the work of photographer Robert Frank. and photographs taken during location scouting in Delano, Minnesota. Kivilo originally wanted to shoot the film in widescreen, using the anamorphic format but decided against it due to the lack of lenses available and the film's restricted budget. He shot \"A Simple Plan\" using Panavision Platinum cameras with the company's Primo series of prime lenses. He used Eastman Kodak 5246 250ASA Vision film stock for all of the daylight scenes and tungsten-balanced 5279 Vision 500T film stock for the night scenes.\n\"In most of my films, I’ve tended to find a progression of visuals to emphasize the story. They will often start one way and end another. The lighting and the camera will build with the story. But here, because the characters were going through such extreme psychological changes, we decided to keep the photography on an even keel.\"\nDespite the intense weather conditions, Kivilo believed that the overcast skies created a \"gray, somber, stark look.\" Kivilo also chose not to use any lighting for daytime exterior scenes. For exterior scenes shot during sunnier filming days, computer-generated imagery (CGI) was used to re-create the overcast skies and counter any inconsistencies caused by the falling snow. In depicting the shootout in Lou's home, Kivilo's intent was to \"keep things quite sketchy in the lighting and not be clear about exactly what was happening.\" The camera department lit a China ball from the ceiling to depict a dimly lit kitchen light that would reveal Nancy holding a shotgun. Flash photography guns were used to depict the muzzle flashes during the shootouts.\n\"A Simple Plan\"' s film score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman, who was drawn to the project after learning that Raimi would be directing the film; the film marked his third collaboration with Raimi. The instruments included alto and bass flutes, re-tuned pianos and banjos, zithers, and hand drums. The soundtrack album, titled \"A Simple Plan: Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack\", was released on January 26, 1999.\n\"A Simple Plan\" premiered at the 23rd Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 1998. On December 11, 1998, the film opened in limited release at 31 theaters, and grossed $390,563 in its first week, with an average of $12,598 per theater. More theaters were added during the limited run, and on January 22, 1999, the film officially entered wide release by screening in 660 theaters across North America. The film ended its North American theatrical run on May 14, 1999, having grossed $16,316,273, below its estimated production budget of $17 million.\nIn North America, \"A Simple Plan\" was released on VHS and DVD formats on June 22, 1999. These home video releases were undertaken by Paramount Home Entertainment.\n\"A Simple Plan\" received critical acclaim from mainstream film critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 67 reviews, and gave the film a \"Certified Fresh\" score of 90%, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10. The website's consensus calls the film \"A riveting crime thriller full of emotional tension.\" Another review aggregator, Metacritic, assigned the film a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 28 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".\nReviewing the film during the Toronto International Film Festival, Glen Lovell of \"Variety\", compared it to Joel and Ethan Coen's earlier film \"Fargo\" (1996): \"Both [films] are slices of life about outlandish crimes and Average Joe felons in over their heads, and both blend Grand Guignol and beautiful but foreboding snowscapes...The key differences are in emphasis and tone: \"Fargo\" is deadpan noir; \"A Simple Plan\"...is a more robust Midwestern Gothic that owes as much to Poe as Chandler.\"\nIn an \"early review\" of the film prior to its limited release, Roger Ebert and his colleague, Gene Siskel, gave the film a \"Two Thumbs Up\" rating on their syndicated television program \"Siskel and Ebert and the Movies\". In a later episode, Ebert ranked \"A Simple Plan\" at number four on his list of the \"Best Films of 1998\". Online film critic James Berardinelli praised Billy Bob Thornton's performance as being \"the most striking that \"A Simple Plan\" has to offer.\" He also praised the other performers, writing \"Paxton's part is deceptively complex in the way he shows how paranoia, greed, and deception can erode the conscience of even the best-intentioned of men. Brent Briscoe plays Lou as the most untrustworthy and avaricious of souls. And Bridget Fonda offers solid support as a woman who stands by her man – when she's not taking control of his life, that is.\" After Paxton's death in February 2017, Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com cited his performance as Hank Mitchell to be Paxton's career best, stating that \"The film might constitute Paxton’s most sorrowful performance as well as his most frightening... an outwardly ordinary man who has no idea what kind of evil he’s capable of\".\nSam Raimi was repeatedly praised for his direction. Owen Gleiberman of \"Entertainment Weekly\" wrote that the film was \"lean, elegant, and emotionally complex – a marvel of backwoods classicism\" and that it was \"proof that Raimi, after the splatterific \"Evil Dead\" series and the lushly operatic \"Darkman\", has now grown into a filmmaker of ravishing maturity and skill.\" Siskel, writing for the \"Chicago Tribune\", said that the film was \"an exceedingly well-directed genre picture by [Raimi] ... [who] does an excellent job of presaging the lethal violence that follows. From his very first images we know that bodies are going to start to pile up.\" Janet Maslin of \"The New York Times\" called the film a \"quietly devastating thriller directed by [Raimi]...who makes a flawless segue into mainstream storytelling.\" Edward Guthmann of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" wrote, \" ... for Raimi, whose mastery of visual effects has driven all of his previous films, \"A Simple Plan\" marks a tremendously successful break from the past. He's drawn lovely, complex performances from Paxton and Thornton and proven that he can work effectively – and movingly – in a minor emotional key.\"\nWhile reviews of the film were mostly positive, \"A Simple Plan\" was not without its detractors. Regarding the plot and characters, Richard Schickel of \"Time\" wrote, \"There's neither intricacy nor surprise in the narrative, and these dopes are tedious, witless company.\" Schlomo Schwartzberg of \"Boxoffice\" wrote, \" ... \"A Simple Plan\" clutters up the story with unnecessary acts of violence and murder, and mainly stays on the surface, offering little more than cheap jolts of melodrama.\"\n\"A Simple Plan\" garnered awards and nominations in a variety of categories with particular praise for its screenplay by Scott B. Smith and Billy Bob Thornton's performance. At the 56th Golden Globe Awards, Thornton received a Best Supporting Actor nomination, but lost against Ed Harris, who received the award for his performance in \"The Truman Show\". At the 71st Academy Awards, Thornton received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor, but lost against James Coburn, who won the award for his performance in \"Affliction\". Smith received an Oscar nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay, but lost to Bill Condon, who won for \"Gods and Monsters\". In addition to receiving various awards and nominations, \"A Simple Plan\" was named one of the \"\" by the National Board of Review.\n</div>","The Ruins (novel)\nThe Ruins is the second novel by American author Scott Smith, whose first novel was \"A Simple Plan\". \"The Ruins\" is a horror story set on Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. It was released on July 18, 2006 (ISBN ).\nA film adaptation of the novel was released in the United States and Canada on April 4, 2008.\nFour American tourists — Eric, his girlfriend Stacy, her best friend Amy, and Amy's boyfriend Jeff, a medical student — are vacationing in Mexico. They befriend a German tourist named Mathias and a trio of hard-drinking Greeks who go by the Spanish nicknames Pablo, Juan, and Don Quixote. Mathias convinces \"Pablo\" (his name is actually Demetris Lambrakis) and the Americans to accompany him as he joins up with his brother Heinrich who had followed a girl he'd met to an archeological dig. The six of them head down to the rural Yucatan in search of Heinrich. The driver of the pick up truck who takes them to the outskirts tells one of the girls that the place to which they are going is 'not good'; the girl doesn't quite get the message and leaves anyway, despite the driver's offer to take them to a different and new place. Near a Mayan village, they discover a disguised trail which leads to a large hill covered in vines and surrounded by bare earth. The group approach the hill, ignoring the warnings of a young boy who had followed them to the village. The boy soon returns with armed adults who force the group to stay on the vine-covered hill. Among the underbrush, they discover the body of Heinrich, already overgrown with vines.\nThey realize that the vines contain an acidic sap that burns their hands after they pulled the vines away from Heinrich's body. At the top of the hill is a camp with tents, a campfire and windlass and rope that leads down a mine shaft. Much of the camp is overgrown with the same acidic vines. Hearing the ring of a cell phone from the bottom of the shaft, they use the rope to lower Pablo down in an attempt to retrieve it. However, the acid from the vines has weakened the rope, which snaps, sending Pablo falling down the shaft. His back is broken and the group raises him on a makeshift backboard.\nJeff, who quickly emerges as the most level-headed and action-oriented of the group, explores the hill and discovers that the Mayans have formed a perimeter around the entire hill, not approaching, but always watching him and ready to shoot them dead with bow and arrow. He also discovers a warning sign made by someone else, which has been pulled into the underbrush of vines.\nThat night, Eric, who had received a wound on his leg while rescuing Pablo, awakes to find one of the vines curled around his leg and inserting itself in his wound.\nJeff surmises that the Mayans are afraid of the vines. They salted the earth around the hill to prevent their spread and are now intent on killing anyone who strays onto the hill. Already, spores from the vines have embedded themselves in the group's clothes. He also realizes that they will die soon without any food or water.\nJeff and Amy return to the mine shaft to find the cell phone. After almost falling into a pit, Jeff realizes that the cell phone noise is being made by the vines. The plants can imitate sounds made on the hill. As they climb back up, they hear the plants laughing at them.\nEric becomes convinced that the vines have infested his body and attempts to cut himself to get them out. That night, he, Amy, and Stacy get drunk and nastily criticize everyone. Later, the vines repeat their criticisms, especially those of Jeff. Amy and Jeff fight and Amy leaves the tent drunk. Jeff ignores the sound of her vomiting and calling his name. The next morning they discover that Amy is dead; the sounds they heard were of the vines suffocating her. They seal Amy's body in a sleeping bag, intending to bury her, but that night they hear her calling Jeff's name. Seeing the bag moving, they open it to discover it full of writhing vines which have eaten Amy's body.\nJeff, taking advantage of a torrential rainstorm, heads down the hill and attempts to escape but is shot by the Mayans. The vines pull his body back into the underbrush.\nThe next morning, Stacy and Mathias go to check on Jeff. Increasingly disturbed, Eric begins cutting himself in an effort to remove the vines, which he believes have infested his body. Hearing the vines telling them that Eric is dead, Mathias and Stacey run back up the hill to find him bloody, but alive. Eric angrily confronts Mathias, and accidentally stabs the other man with his knife. He asks Stacy to kill him, which, after much pleading, she does.\nAlone, Stacy heads to the bottom of the hill and seats herself on the path leading to the top. She calmly slits her wrists and waits to die so that her body will be a warning to anyone else who comes. As she loses consciousness, the vines reach out and pull her off the path into the underbrush.\nA few days later, the other two Greeks, with some Brazilian tourists in tow, find the trail. A little girl, who's acting as a sentinel, as the little boy on the bike was, runs back to the village, but the new tourists are already halfway up the hill, calling for Pablo, before the men on horseback arrive.\nAccording to an interview with the \"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\", the book started as a trial run after a period when the novelist had concentrated on writing the screenplay for \"A Simple Plan\". \"It went in stops and starts,\" Smith told journalist Regis Behe. \"I would give up on it, thinking it wouldn't work...With \"The Ruins\" I really just started writing. I had a general sense of the story. I knew how I wanted it to end, but all the steps to get there... I just wrote it. I didn't plan it, and, obviously, that had major repercussions that carried through the story.\" Smith added that he never traveled to Mexico, where the book is set; he merely read a few travel books and did some Internet research.\n\"Entertainment Weekly\" reviewer Gillian Flynn gave \"The Ruins\" an A−, calling it \"Thomas Harris meets Poe in a decidedly timely story,\" continuing, \"Smith has tapped into our anxieties about global warming, lethal weather, supergerms—our collective fear that nature is finally fighting back—and given us a decidedly organic nightmare.\"\nMichiko Kakutani, writing for \"The New York Times\", said, \"As in his debut novel, \"A Simple Plan\" (Knopf, 1993), Mr. Smith is concerned with what happens to a group of ordinary people when they are suddenly placed in a decidedly extraordinary situation. In that earlier book, evil turns out to be something that lurks deep within his heroes' greedy hearts. In \"The Ruins,\" evil is something randomly stumbled upon in the jungle.\" Kakutani was unimpressed, comparing the novel unfavorably with \"Little Shop of Horrors\" and saying, \"\"The Ruins\", however, isn't a comedy or a musical. It seems meant to be a straight-ahead thriller, with some bloody set pieces lifted from the horror genre thrown in for extra chills: you know, grisly, up-close shots of people having their legs chewed up or being choked to death by demonic forces. Whatever humor is produced by the story's Cruel Talking Plants appears to be entirely inadvertent.\"\nIn \"Salon\", Laura Miller warned, \"Don't start this book if you're especially weak of stomach or nerves, and above all don't pick it up if you're not willing to tolerate some deviation from the usual conventions of thrillers and horror stories. Not everything will be explained to you, and not everything will turn out in the tidy, reassuring ways to which we've all become accustomed. \"The Ruins\" is like all great genre fiction in its irresistible storytelling momentum, but in its lack of mercy, it's more like real life.\"\nReviewer Tony Buchsbaum found himself \"blown away by the author's crisp, clearly-focused way with a scene. He paints each one like a great artist, yet also holds back, sharing only the bits and pieces of detail that you need to make the scene your own.\" He adds,\nThe rest, as it turns out, is pretty fantastic. If you don't want to take my word for it, ask author Stephen King, who has called \"The Ruins\" the book of the summer... Stephen King nailed it. \"The Ruins\" really is the book of the summer. But not because it'll scare the bejesus out of you—it will—and not because it's crafted so perfectly—it is—and not even because it'll draw you in, page by page, closing tighter and tighter around you, until your mouth and eyes are all O-shaped and your mind is just about unable to conceive of the fact that you've made it out alive. \"The Ruins\" is the book of the summer because, put simply, it's so good that it'll ruin every other book's chances.\nStephen King made the comment in a column for \"Entertainment Weekly\", writing, \"The Book of the Summer: That would be \"The Ruins\", by Scott Smith, last heard from in 1993 (\"A Simple Plan\", later filmed by Sam Raimi from Smith's script). No quietly building, Ruth Rendell-style suspense here; Smith intends to scare the bejabbers out of you, and succeeds. There are no chapters and no cutaways—\"The Ruins\" is your basic long scream of horror. It does for Mexican vacations what \"Jaws\" did for New England beaches in 1975.\"\nThe \"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\" said that the novel \"is, superficially, the perfect summertime beach read. Between the lines of \"The Ruins\", however, is a dark, sometimes scathing, social commentary.\" The reviewer added that it \"has a strange duality in that it directly pays homage to Rod Serling's \"Twilight Zone\", and indirectly to \"The Corrections\" by Jonathan Franzen. The story of four young Americans caught in a deadly situation on a trip to Mayan ruins in Mexico, it builds a tension that Serling excelled at, created from knowing that a situation is spinning out of control in ways beyond the characters' comprehension.\"","Paula Hawkins (author)\nPaula Hawkins (born 26 August 1972) is a Zimbabwe-born British author, best known for her best-selling psychological thriller novel \"The Girl on the Train\" (2015), which deals with themes of domestic violence, alcohol, and drug abuse. The novel was adapted into a film starring Emily Blunt in 2016. Hawkins' second novel, \"Into the Water\", was released in 2017.\nHawkins was born and raised in Salisbury, Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe). Her father was an economics professor and financial journalist. Before moving to London in 1989 at the age of 17, Hawkins attended Arundel School, Harare, Zimbabwe then studied for her A-Levels at Collingham College, an independent college in Kensington, West London. Hawkins read philosophy, politics and economics at Keble College, University of Oxford. She worked as a journalist for \"The Times\", reporting on business. She then worked for a number of publications on a freelance basis, and wrote a financial advice book for women, \"The Money Goddess\".\nAround 2009, Hawkins began to write romantic comedy fiction under the name \"Amy Silver\", writing four novels including \"Confessions of a Reluctant Recessionista\". She did not achieve any commercial breakthrough until she challenged herself to write a darker, more serious story. Her best-selling novel \"The Girl on the Train\" (2015), was a complex thriller, with themes of domestic violence, alcohol, and drug abuse. The novel took her six months, writing full-time, to complete, at a time when she was in a difficult financial situation and had to borrow from her father to be able to complete it. The novel was adapted into a film in 2016. She lives in South London.","A Simple Plan (novel)\nA Simple Plan is a 1993 thriller novel by Scott Smith. \"The New York Times\" review said the book had \"emotional accuracy with an exceptionally skilled plot.\" A film adaptation, directed by Sam Raimi, was released in 1998; according to the \"Times\" review, the novel is so dark that the story was adjusted to soften the ending.\nThree men find an airplane crashed in a rural Northern Ohio forest. The pilot is dead and the cockpit contains a gym bag with $4.4 million in one-hundred-dollar notes. They decide to keep the money, dividing it equally, but their plans go wrong when others come close to discovering their secret, resulting in multiple murders.","Can't Keep My Hands off You\n\"Can't Keep My Hands Off You\" is a promotional single (and in some countries released as the first single) from Simple Plan's fourth studio album, \"Get Your Heart On!\". The song features Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo as a guest vocalist, and was released as a radio single on March 31, 2011, and an iTunes single on April 19, 2011. A music video was released on April 20, 2011. It was the band's first single in three years since their last single, \"Save You\", was released in 2008. An alternate version without Cuomo can be found on the soundtrack to the 2011 film \"Prom\". The song was released as the second single in Australia in August 2011 and received frequent airplay.\nThe band performed the song on the Australian version of \"The X Factor\" on 4 October 2011.\nThe song debuted and peaked at 45 on the Australian ARIA charts on the 24 October 2011.\nA music video was shot in early April and released on April 20, 2011. The video features the band taking over a high school prom and playing outside the high school while all the students dance and cheer them. Rivers Cuomo of Weezer, who provides guest vocals on the song, is not featured in the video.\n","Jack Higgins\nHenry Patterson (born 27 July 1929), known by his pen name Jack Higgins, is a British writer and novelist. He is one of the best-selling authors of popular <a href=\"Thriller%20%28genre%29\">thrillers</a> and <a href=\"Spy%20fiction\">espionage</a> novels. His breakthrough novel \"<a href=\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Landed%20%28novel%29\">The Eagle Has Landed</a>\" (1975) sold over 50 million copies and was adapted into a successful film <a href=\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Landed%20%28film%29\">by the same title</a>.\nSome of his other notable books are \"<a href=\"A%20Prayer%20for%20the%20Dying\">A Prayer for the Dying</a>\" (1987), \"<a href=\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Flown\">The Eagle Has Flown</a>\" (1991), \"<a href=\"Thunder%20Point\">Thunder Point</a>\" (1993), \"<a href=\"Angel%20of%20Death%20%28novel%29\">Angel of Death</a>\" (1995), \"<a href=\"Flight%20of%20Eagles\">Flight of Eagles</a>\" (1998), and \"<a href=\"Day%20of%20Reckoning%20%28novel%29\">Day of Reckoning</a>\" (2000). His 84 novels in total have sold over 150 million copies and have been translated into 55 languages.\nJack Higgins was born Henry Patterson on 27 July 1929 in <a href=\"Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne\">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, England. When his father abandoned them soon after, his Irish mother returned with him to her home town of <a href=\"Belfast\">Belfast</a>, <a href=\"Northern%20Ireland\">Northern Ireland</a>, to live with her mother and her grandfather on Shankill Road. Raised amid the religious and political violence of Belfast, Patterson learned to read at the age of three, when he was tasked with reading \"The Christian Herald\" to his bed-ridden grandfather. At night, he would crouch beneath a window and read by the light of the street lamps.\nWhen his mother remarried, the family moved to <a href=\"Leeds\">Leeds</a>, <a href=\"West%20Yorkshire\">West Yorkshire</a>, England, where Patterson attended the <a href=\"Roundhay%20School\">Roundhay Grammar School for Boys</a>. He proved to be an indifferent student and left school with few formal qualifications. In 1947 he began two years of <a href=\"Conscription%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\">National Service</a>, at first with the <a href=\"East%20Yorkshire%20Regiment\">East Yorkshire Regiment</a>, and later as a <a href=\"non-commissioned%20officer\">non-commissioned officer</a> in the <a href=\"Blues%20and%20Royals\">Royal Horse Guards Regiment</a> of the <a href=\"Household%20Cavalry\">Household Cavalry</a> doing security work on the <a href=\"East%20Germany\">East German</a> border.\nAfter leaving the army, he returned to London to study <a href=\"Sociology\">Sociology</a> at <a href=\"London%20School%20of%20Economics\">London School of Economics</a> while supporting himself as a driver and labourer at night. He chose the school for its \"history of nonconformism\". He received his third-class degree after three years of study. After getting a teaching qualification, he took a job lecturing in Social Psychology and Criminology at Allerton Grange Secondary School Leeds. He taught Liberal Studies at <a href=\"Leeds%20Beckett%20University\">Leeds Polytechnic</a> and Education at James Graham College, which became part of Leeds Polytechnic in 1976.\nIn 1959, Higgins began writing novels. One of his aliases was James Graham. The growing success of his early work allowed him to take time off from his teaching, and he eventually left the classroom to become a full-time novelist.\nPatterson's early novels, written under his own name as well as under the pseudonyms James Graham, Martin Fallon, and Hugh Marlowe, are thrillers that typically feature hardened, cynical heroes, ruthless villains, and dangerous locales. Patterson published thirty-five such novels (sometimes three or four a year) between 1959 and 1974, learning his craft. \"<a href=\"East%20of%20Desolation\">East of Desolation</a>\" (1968), \"<a href=\"A%20Game%20for%20Heroes\">A Game for Heroes</a>\" (1970) and \"<a href=\"The%20Savage%20Day\">The Savage Day</a>\" (1972) stand out among his early work for their vividly drawn settings (<a href=\"Greenland\">Greenland</a>, the Channel Islands, and Belfast, respectively) and offbeat plots.\nPatterson began using the pseudonym Jack Higgins in the late 1960s; his first minor bestsellers appeared in the early 1970s, two contemporary thrillers \"<a href=\"The%20Savage%20Day\">The Savage Day</a>\" and \"<a href=\"A%20Prayer%20for%20the%20Dying\">A Prayer for the Dying</a>\" but it was the publication of his thirty sixth book, \"<a href=\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Landed%20%28novel%29\">The Eagle Has Landed</a>,\" in 1975, that made Higgins' reputation. \"The Eagle Has Landed\" represented a step forward in the length and depth of Patterson's work. Its plot concerns with a German commando unit sent into England to kidnap <a href=\"Winston%20Churchill\">Winston Churchill</a>, and is reminiscent of <a href=\"Alberto%20Cavalcanti\">Alberto Cavalcanti</a>'s wartime film \"<a href=\"Went%20the%20Day%20Well%3F\">Went the Day Well?</a>\", which itself was directly based on the 1942 <a href=\"Graham%20Greene\">Graham Greene</a> short story \"The Lieutenant Died Last\". The main character is Irish gunman, poet, and philosopher <a href=\"Liam%20Devlin\">Liam Devlin</a>. Higgins followed \"The Eagle Has Landed\" with a series of thrillers, including several (\"<a href=\"Touch%20the%20Devil\">Touch the Devil</a>\", \"<a href=\"Confessional%20%28novel%29\">Confessional</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Flown\">The Eagle Has Flown</a>\") featuring return appearances by Devlin.\nThe third phase of Patterson's career began with the publication of \"<a href=\"Eye%20of%20the%20Storm%20%28Higgins%20novel%29\">Eye of the Storm</a>\" in 1992, a fictionalised retelling of an unsuccessful mortar attack on Prime Minister <a href=\"John%20Major\">John Major</a> by a ruthless young Irish gunman-philosopher named <a href=\"Sean%20Dillon%20%28Jack%20Higgins%20character%29\">Sean Dillon</a>, hired by an <a href=\"Iraq\">Iraq</a>i millionaire. Cast as the central character over the next series of novels, it is apparent that Dillon is in many ways an amalgamation of Patterson's previous heroes — Chavasse with his flair for languages, Nick Miller's familiarity with martial arts and jazz keyboard skills, Simon Vaughan's Irish roots, facility with firearms and the cynicism that comes with assuming the responsibility of administering a justice unavailable through a civilized legal system.\nHiggins met Amy Hewett while both were studying at the London School of Economics. They were married in 1958, shortly after receiving a £75 ($210) advance for his first novel—\"the biggest wedding present we could have had.\" They have four children: Sarah (born 1960), Ruth (born 1962), Sean (born 1965), and Hannah (born 1974). Their daughter Sarah Patterson penned the novel \"The Distant Summer\" (1976). Higgins lives on <a href=\"Jersey\">Jersey</a>, in the <a href=\"Channel%20Islands\">Channel Islands</a>, with his second wife, Denise.","Clive Cussler\nClive Eric Cussler (born July 15, 1931) is an American <a href=\"adventure%20novel\">adventure novel</a>ist and underwater explorer. His <a href=\"Thriller%20%28genre%29\">thriller</a> novels, many featuring the character <a href=\"Dirk%20Pitt\">Dirk Pitt</a>, have reached \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\" fiction best-seller list more than 20 times. Cussler is the founder and chairman of the real-life <a href=\"National%20Underwater%20and%20Marine%20Agency\">National Underwater and Marine Agency</a> (NUMA), which has discovered more than 60 <a href=\"shipwreck\">shipwreck</a> sites and numerous other notable underwater wrecks. He is the sole author or lead author of more than 70 books.\nClive Cussler was born in <a href=\"Aurora%2C%20Illinois\">Aurora</a>, <a href=\"Illinois\">Illinois</a>, and grew up in <a href=\"Alhambra%2C%20California\">Alhambra, California</a>. His mother Amy's ancestors were from <a href=\"England\">England</a> and his father Eric was from <a href=\"Germany\">Germany</a>. He was awarded the rank of <a href=\"Eagle%20Scout%20%28Boy%20Scouts%20of%20America%29\">Eagle Scout</a> when he was 14. He attended <a href=\"Pasadena%20City%20College\">Pasadena City College</a> for two years and then enlisted in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Air%20Force\">United States Air Force</a> during the <a href=\"Korean%20War\">Korean War</a>. During his service in the Air Force, he was promoted to Sergeant and worked as an aircraft mechanic and flight engineer for the <a href=\"Military%20Air%20Transport%20Service\">Military Air Transport Service</a> (MATS).\nAfter his discharge from the military, Cussler went to work in the advertising industry, first as a copywriter and later as a creative director for two of the nation's most successful advertising agencies. As part of his duties Cussler produced radio and television commercials, many of which won international awards including an award at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival.\nFollowing the publication in 1996 of Cussler's first nonfiction work, \"\", he was awarded a <a href=\"Doctor%20of%20Letters\">Doctor of Letters</a> degree in 1997 by the Board of Governors of the <a href=\"State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20Maritime%20College\">State University of New York Maritime College</a> who accepted the work <a href=\"in%20lieu\">in lieu</a> of a Ph.D. thesis. This was the first time in the college's 123-year history that such a degree had been awarded.\nIn 2002 Cussler was awarded the Naval Heritage Award from the U S Navy Memorial Foundation for his efforts in the area of marine exploration.\nCussler is a fellow of the <a href=\"Explorers%20Club\">Explorers Club of New York</a>, the <a href=\"Royal%20Geographic%20Society\">Royal Geographic Society</a> in London, and the American Society of <a href=\"Oceanographer\">Oceanographer</a>s.\nClive Cussler began writing in 1965 when his wife took a job working nights for the local police department where they lived in <a href=\"California\">California</a>. After making dinner for the children and putting them to bed, he had no one to talk to and nothing to do, so he decided to start writing. His most famous creation is marine engineer, government agent and adventurer <a href=\"Dirk%20Pitt\">Dirk Pitt</a>. The Dirk Pitt novels frequently take on an alternative history perspective, such as \"what if Atlantis were real?\" or \"what if Abraham Lincoln wasn't assassinated, but was kidnapped?\"\nThe first two Pitt novels, \"<a href=\"The%20Mediterranean%20Caper\">The Mediterranean Caper</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Iceberg%20%28Cussler%20novel%29\">Iceberg</a>\", were relatively conventional maritime thrillers. The third, \"<a href=\"Raise%20the%20Titanic%21\">Raise the Titanic!</a>\", made Cussler's reputation and established the pattern that subsequent Pitt novels would follow: a blend of high adventure and high technology, generally involving <a href=\"megalomania\">megalomania</a>cal villains, lost ships, beautiful women, and sunken treasure.\nCussler's novels almost always begin with a chapter taking place in the past. These contain none of the novel's main characters and often seem disconnected from the plot until the main characters discover a mystery or secret connecting the events in the first chapter to the rest of the story. This almost always comes in the form of a long-lost artifact which holds the key to the villain's or hero's objectives. Often in the first chapter, a ship or plane carrying a top-secret, important, or dangerous cargo is lost and never found, until it is recovered by a modern character later in the book.\nCussler's novels, like those of <a href=\"Michael%20Crichton\">Michael Crichton</a>, are examples of <a href=\"techno-thriller\">techno-thriller</a>s that do not use military plots and settings. Where Crichton strove for scrupulous realism, however, Cussler prefers fantastic spectacles and outlandish plot devices. The Pitt novels, in particular, have the anything-goes quality of the <a href=\"James%20Bond\">James Bond</a> or <a href=\"Indiana%20Jones\">Indiana Jones</a> movies, while also sometimes borrowing from <a href=\"Alistair%20MacLean\">Alistair MacLean</a>'s novels. Pitt himself is a larger-than-life hero reminiscent of <a href=\"Doc%20Savage\">Doc Savage</a> and other characters from <a href=\"pulp%20magazines\">pulp magazines</a>.\nCussler has had more than seventeen consecutive titles reach \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\" fiction <a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times%20Best%20Seller%20list\">best-seller list</a>.\nAs an underwater <a href=\"List%20of%20explorers\">explorer</a>, Cussler has discovered more than sixty <a href=\"shipwreck\">shipwreck</a> sites and has written non-fiction books about his findings. He is also the founder of the <a href=\"National%20Underwater%20and%20Marine%20Agency\">National Underwater and Marine Agency</a> (NUMA), a non-profit organization with the same name as the fictional government agency that employs Dirk Pitt. Cussler owns a large collection of classic <a href=\"Automobile\">cars</a>, several of which (driven by Pitt) appear in his novels.\nImportant finds by Cussler's N.U.M.A. include\nA visual and interactive depiction of Cussler's NUMA Foundation Expeditions has been made available as an extension of NUMA's original website.\nIn what started as a joke in the novel \"Dragon\" that Cussler expected his editor to remove, he now often writes himself into his books. At first he wrote himself simple cameos, but later as something of a <a href=\"deus%20ex%20machina\">deus ex machina</a>, providing the novel's protagonists with an essential bit of assistance or information. Often, the character is given an alias and not revealed as Cussler until his exit with the characters remarking on his odd name. The cameos include the Pitt adventures, as well as the Fargo Files books \"Lost Empire\", \"Spartan Gold\", \"Kingdom\", and \"The Tombs\" had Cussler making an appearance. \"The Tombs\" also includes his wife, Janet.\nThere are at least two other types of recurring in-jokes that are less obvious to a casual reader. One is the frequent reuse of the name Leigh Hunt for different characters in different novels. Seventeen books have had a character with this name, frequently in the opening prologues, frequently a sailor, usually dying; a notable exception is the first (in chronological order) Dirk Pitt adventure, \"Pacific Vortex\", in which Admiral Leigh Hunter is a major character, commander of the 101st Recovery Fleet in Hawaii. In the introduction to \"Arctic Drift\", Cussler says there was a real Leigh Hunt who died in 2007 and the novel is dedicated to him. Another is that significant events in several novels occur on July 15 (Cussler's birthday). He also uses the name \"Periwinkle\" in his works. In \"The Adventures of Vin Fiz\" (and in other works as well) there appears a donkey named Periwinkle. In \"Valhalla Rising\", \"Periwinkle\" is the name of a catamaran in which Pitt, Giordino, and Misty Graham are rescued by none other than Mr. Cussler himself. Cussler's friend <a href=\"Craig%20Dirgo\">Craig Dirgo</a> is mentioned in several books.\nClive Cussler married Barbara Knight in 1955, and they remained married for nearly fifty years until her death in 2003. Together they had three children — Teri, <a href=\"Dirk%20Cussler\">Dirk</a>, and <a href=\"Dayna%20Cussler\">Dayna</a> — who have given him four grandchildren. Cussler's daughter Teri is the creator and manager of the Cussler Museum in <a href=\"Arvada%2C%20Colorado\">Arvada</a>, Colorado, which display's Cussler's collection of classic automobiles.\nThis series of books focuses on <a href=\"Kurt%20Austin\">Kurt Austin</a>, Team Leader of NUMA's Special Assignments division and his adventures. Some characters from the Pitt novels appear such as Sandecker, Rudi Gunn, Hiram Yaeger and St. Julien Perlmutter. Pitt makes brief appearances in the books \"Serpent\", \"White Death\", \"Polar Shift\", \"Devil's Gate\", \"The Storm\", \"Zero Hour\", and \"Ghost Ship\" and is mentioned in \"Lost City\".\n\"<a href=\"Oregon%20Files\">The Oregon Files</a>\" features a ship named the \"Oregon\" which Cussler introduced in the Dirk Pitt Adventure \"Flood Tide\" (1997). While appearing to be a decrepit freighter, it's actually a high-tech advanced ship used by an unnamed and mysterious \"Corporation\" under the leadership of <a href=\"Juan%20Cabrillo%20%28character%29\">Juan Cabrillo</a>. The ship is run like a business, with its crew being shareholders, taking jobs for the CIA and other agencies to help stop crime and terrorism. The crew is adept at disguises, combat, computer hacking, and more, to aid their missions. Kurt Austin, Joe Zavala, and Dirk Pitt all make cameo appearances in the fourth volume, \"Skeleton Coast\" (Cabrillo speaks to Pitt on the telephone; and Austin and Zavala appear at the end).\nThese books are set mostly in the U.S. in the early part of the 20th century. They center around <a href=\"Isaac%20Bell\">Isaac Bell</a>, a brilliant investigator for the Van Dorn Detective agency, which appears to be modeled after the real-life <a href=\"Pinkerton%20National%20Detective%20Agency\">Pinkerton</a> Agency. Like Pitt, Bell has an affinity for automobiles and is a crack shot. The first book reveals that Bell survives into 1950 with a wife and grown children. Though the setting is a century ago, the books still qualify as techno-thrillers, since they feature the advanced technology of that time such as private express trains, telegraphs, telephones, dreadnought battleships and early airplanes.\nThe series focuses on Sam and Remi Fargo, a couple who are professional treasure hunters.\n! Name\n! Information\nCussler has co-authored books with other writers, such as Russell Blake.\n","Summit, New Jersey\nSummit is a <a href=\"City%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">city</a> in <a href=\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Union County</a>, <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a>, United States. At the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a>, the city's population was 21,457, reflecting an increase of 326 (+1.5%) from the 21,131 counted in the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 Census</a>, which had in turn increased by 1,374 (+7.0%) from the 19,757 counted in the <a href=\"1990%20United%20States%20Census\">1990 Census</a>. Summit had the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20locations%20by%20per%20capita%20income\">16th-highest per capita income</a> in the state as of the 2000 Census.\nOriginally incorporated as Summit Township by an act of the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\">New Jersey Legislature</a> on March 23, 1869, from portions of New Providence Township (now <a href=\"Berkeley%20Heights%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Berkeley Heights</a>) and <a href=\"Springfield%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Springfield Township</a>, Summit was reincorporated as a city on March 8, 1899.\nPossible derivations of Summit's name include its location atop the <a href=\"Watchung%20Mountains\">Second Watchung Mountain</a>; the Summit Lodge, the house to which jurist <a href=\"James%20Kent\">James Kent</a> moved in 1837 and which stands today at 50 Kent Place Boulevard; and to a local sawmill owner who granted passage to the <a href=\"Morris%20and%20Essex%20Railroad\">Morris and Essex Railroad</a> for a route to \"the summit of the Short Hills\".\nThe region in which Summit is located was purchased from <a href=\"Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States\">Native Americans</a> on October 28, 1664. Summit's earliest European settlers came to the area around the year 1710. The original name of Summit was \"Turkey Hill\" to distinguish it from the area then known as \"Turkey\" (New Providence's original name until 1759). During the <a href=\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\">American Revolutionary War</a>, Summit was known as \"Beacon Hill\", because bonfire beacons were lit on an eastern ridge in Summit to warn the New Jersey militiamen of approaching British troops.\nSummit was called the \"Heights over Springfield\" during the late 18th century and most of the 19th century, and was considered a part of <a href=\"New%20Providence%2C%20New%20Jersey\">New Providence</a>. During this period, Summit was part of Springfield Township, which eventually broke up into separate municipalities. Eventually, only Summit and New Providence remained joined.\nLord Chancellor <a href=\"James%20Kent\">James Kent</a>, a <a href=\"New%20York%20Court%20of%20Chancery\">Chancellor of New York State</a> and author of \"Commentaries on American Law\", retired to this area in 1837 in a house he called \"Summit Lodge\" (perhaps a namesake of the town) on what is now called Kent Place Boulevard. He lived there until 1847. Today, the lodge is part of a large mansion, at 50 Kent Place Boulevard, opposite <a href=\"Kent%20Place%20School\">Kent Place School</a>.\nIn 1837, the <a href=\"Morris%20and%20Essex%20Railroad\">Morris and Essex Railroad</a>, which became the <a href=\"Delaware%20Lackawanna%20and%20Western%20Railroad\">Delaware Lackawanna and Western Railroad</a> and is now <a href=\"NJ%20Transit\">NJ Transit</a>'s <a href=\"Morris%20and%20Essex%20Lines\">Morris and Essex Lines</a>, was built over what was then called \"The Summit\" hill, a name later shortened to Summit. The railroad allowed Summit to outgrow neighboring New Providence, which didn't have a train station. In 1868, a hotel named \"The Summit House\" burned beside the railroad. In 1869, Summit and New Providence separated and the Summit area was incorporated as the \"Township of Summit\". In the late 19th century, the area began shifting from farmland to wealthy estates; in 1892, renowned architect C. Abbott French cleared away a crest of a \"summit ridge\", removing \"an impenetrable tangle of wild vines ... and myriads of rattlesnakes,\" to build a house with a view of New York City, The Times Building, and the <a href=\"Brooklyn%20Bridge\">Brooklyn Bridge</a>. The present-day incarnation of Summit, known formally as the City of Summit, was incorporated on April 11, 1899.\nDuring this time, Summit was the home of America's \"antivice crusader\", <a href=\"Anthony%20Comstock\">Anthony Comstock</a>, who moved there about 1880 and built a house in 1892 at 35 Beekman Road, where he died in 1915.\nIn the 19th century, Summit served as a nearby getaway spot for wealthy residents of <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> in search of fresh air. Weekenders or summer vacationers would reach Summit by train and relax at large hotels and smaller inns and guest houses. Calvary Episcopal Church was built in 1894-95; the New York Times called it a \"handsome new house of worship\".\nSilk weaving, which had thrived as an industry in the late 19th century, declined in the early decades of the 20th. In 1915, there was a strike at the Summit Silk Company on Weaver Street. In the early 20th century, there was much building; in 1909, one report suggested at least 40 residences were being built (some with stables) with costs varying from $4,500 to $45,000, making it \"one of the greatest periods of building activity this place, the \"Hill City\", has known.\"\nA new railway was constructed from what was then-called \"New Orange\". The <a href=\"Rahway%20Valley%20Railroad\">Rahway Valley Railroad</a> connected Summit with the <a href=\"Delaware%2C%20Lackawanna%20and%20Western%20Railroad\">Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad</a> (DL&W). In the early 20th century, both freight and passenger service were offered by this line. (Although in 2009, <a href=\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Union County</a> was exploring the possibility of reactivating the long-dormant line for freight traffic.) A <a href=\"tram\">trolley</a> line called the <a href=\"Morris%20County%20Traction%20Company\">Morris County Traction Company</a>, once ran a passenger trolley through Summit to/from <a href=\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Newark</a> and <a href=\"Morris%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Morris County</a>, in the early part of the 20th century. Broad Street in Summit was designed and built for the trolley, which is why it is wider and straighter than most streets in the city. Portions of the rails could still be seen on it as late as the 1980s.\nRelations between city authorities and businesses have not always been smooth; in 1898, city authorities and the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company had disputes about wires and telephone poles; the city acted and \"wires and cables of the company were cut from the poles.\" There were disputes between Summit's commuters and the Lackawanna railroad about walkways; in one incident in 1905, \"a number of passengers seeking to board the 6:35 train found their way barred. They made a united rush, and when the dust cleared away, the door wasn't there. It is said the company will put the door back. The commuters say they will remove it as often as it is replaced.\"\nFollowing <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, the city experienced a great building boom, as living outside <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> and commuting to work became more common and the population of <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a> grew. At this point, Summit took on its suburban character of tree lined streets and architect-designed houses that it is known for today.\nIn the late 1970s, Summit had a <a href=\"mini-bus\">mini-bus</a> system, with three long circular routes through most parts of Summit that were primarily designed to bring commuters to the railroad station downtown. <a href=\"The%20Velvet%20Underground\">The Velvet Underground</a> played their first paid concert at a <a href=\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Summit High School</a> prom.\nMore than a dozen Summit residents died in the <a href=\"September%2011%20terrorist%20attacks\">September 11 terrorist attacks</a>. Many worked in the <a href=\"World%20Trade%20Center%20%281973%E2%80%932001%29\">World Trade Center</a>, and commuted by rail to Hoboken. A few days after the attacks, townspeople assembled on the town green while a minister \"called out the names of a dozen residents still unaccounted for after Tuesday's attack on the World Trade Center. Others in the crowd of nearly 2,000 called out names he had left out.\" A few World Trade Center firms moved to Summit.\nIn 2005, star baseball athlete <a href=\"Willie%20Wilson%20%28baseball%29\">Willie Wilson</a> and former Summit graduate returned to <a href=\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Summit High School</a>. Wilson said: \"To me, Summit is a special place ... It's where it all began and I have great memories. This is where I want to help kids and youth baseball, and I want my own son and daughter to come and help me create something here.\" During the economic downturn of 2008-2009, Summit was listed as #6 on a list of American communities \"likely to be pummeled by the economic crisis.\" Crime is generally not bad in the city; the summer 2010 murder of Abelino Mazariego-Torres during a robbery attempt gone awry shocked residents in what one person described as a \"very small and very peaceful town.\" Several youths were charged in the murder.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city had a total area of 6.046 square miles (15.661 km), including 5.995 square miles (15.528 km) of land and 0.051 square miles (0.133 km) of water (0.85%). It is about 20 mi from Manhattan.\nSpringfield Avenue is the town's main street.\n<a href=\"Local%20government%20in%20New%20Jersey%23Unincorporated%20communities\">Unincorporated communities</a>, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Brantwood Park and Tall Oaks.\nIt is bordered to the northeast by <a href=\"Millburn%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Millburn</a> in <a href=\"Essex%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Essex County</a>, to the northwest by <a href=\"Chatham%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Chatham</a> and <a href=\"Chatham%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Chatham Township</a>, both in <a href=\"Morris%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Morris County</a>, to the west by <a href=\"New%20Providence%2C%20New%20Jersey\">New Providence</a>, to the southwest by <a href=\"Berkeley%20Heights%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Berkeley Heights</a>, to the south by <a href=\"Mountainside%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Mountainside</a> and to the southeast by <a href=\"Springfield%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Springfield Township</a>.\nOne report was that Manhattan's financial elite prefers living in Summit because of big houses, good schools and <a href=\"NJ%20Transit\">NJ Transit</a>'s rail link to <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">Manhattan</a>'s financial district. Others suggested that the city has long been popular with traders, investment bankers, and money managers, with nearly 20% of Summit's residents working in finance and real estate.\nAs of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were people, households, and families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 3578.9 /sqmi . There were housing units at an average density of 1366.0 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was % () <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, % () <a href=\"Black%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Black or African American</a>, % () <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, % () <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, % () <a href=\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, % () from <a href=\"Race%20and%20ethnicity%20in%20the%20United%20States%20Census%23Race\">other races</a>, and % () from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic or Latino</a> of any race were % () of the population.\nThere were households out of which 39.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.4% were non-families. 23.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.29.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 29.0% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 28.6% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.7 years. For every 100 females there were 96.8 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 92.0 males.\nThe Census Bureau's 2006-2010 <a href=\"American%20Community%20Survey\">American Community Survey</a> showed that (in 2010 <a href=\"inflation%20adjustment\">inflation-adjusted</a> dollars) <a href=\"median%20household%20income\">median household income</a> was $109,602 and the median family income was $145,083. Males had a median income of $109,608 (+/- $15,245) versus $61,368 (+/- $8,854) for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $70,574. About 4.4% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 7.4% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over.\nAt the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 United States Census</a> there were 21,131 people, 7,897 households and 5,606 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 3,490.7 per square mile (1,348.5/km). There were 8,146 housing units at an average density of 1,345.7 per square mile (519.9/km). The racial makeup of the city was 87.77% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 4.33% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.09% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 4.45% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.01% <a href=\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.70% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.65% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 10.17% of the population.\nThere were 7,897 households of which 35.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.1% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.18.\nAge distribution was 27.0% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.1 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $92,964, and the median income for a family was $117,053. Males had a median income of $85,625 versus $46,811 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $62,598. About 2.5% of families and 4.2% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over.\nCorporate residents of Summit include:\nThe Summit Opera House was originally built in the 1890s by the <a href=\"Woman%27s%20Christian%20Temperance%20Union\">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a> as a dry entertainment hall and local W.C.T.U. meeting place. It currently houses Winberie's restaurant on the ground floor, and a church, office space, and apartments on the upper floors. It is located at Springfield Avenue and Kent Place Boulevard in downtown Summit.\nThe <a href=\"Summit%20Playhouse\">Summit Playhouse</a> features live dramatic performances.\nThe Visual Arts Center of New Jersey on Elm Street diagonally across from the Summit Middle School is a professionally recognized regional art center with an art school and an exhibition program.\nHorseback riding is available at the Watchung stables, located in the <a href=\"Watchung%20Reservation\">Watchung Reservation</a> since the 1930s.\nA <a href=\"rail%20trail\">rail trail</a> is a walking and/or biking trail that makes use of old railroad tracks. Two abandoned rail lines exist in Union County.\nThe City of Summit and the nonprofit Summit Park Line Foundation are working on turning the line from Morris Avenue to Briant Park in Summit into a <a href=\"http%3A//www.nj.com/independentpress/index.ssf/2015/01/summits_own_highline_would_be.html\">rail trail</a> that will be approximately one mile long. This rail trail, potentially called the Summit Park Line, could provide a greenway to connect several county parks, akin to a Summit High Line. A path could run directly from Summit to the <a href=\"Arthur%20Kill\">Arthur Kill</a> in <a href=\"Linden%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Linden, New Jersey</a> on the <a href=\"Rahway%20Valley%20Railroad\">Rahway Valley Railroad</a> and the <a href=\"Staten%20Island%20Rapid%20Transit\">Staten Island Rapid Transit</a> line.\nThe Summit city council applied for a $1 million grant toward the Summit Park Line project in November 2016. \"If Summit is able to complete the project, it might help other parts of the greenway come through,\" said Union County Public Relations Coordinator, Sebastian Delia.\nOn April 11, 1899, Summit voters adopted as the Charter of the City of Summit the Statute of 1899 applicable to cities of less than 12,000 population. On December 15, 1987, the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\">New Jersey Legislature</a> enacted a law that repealed all of the remaining provisions of Summit's original Charter and replaced and retained sections not covered by general law and specific to Summit's original Charter. Summit's Charter now allows that \"1: The council may, by referendum, change the term of the councilman at large from a two year term to a four year term. 2: Resolutions adopted by the council do not have to be approved by the mayor. 3: The council pro tempore shall be the acting mayor in the mayor's absence due to sickness or other cause. 4: The municipality may appoint an administrator in accordance with the provisions of N.J.S. 40A:9-136. 5: The municipality may adopt an administrative code.\"\nThe <a href=\"mayor\">mayor</a> is elected by the city for a four-year term and is the city's official spokesman and chief elected official. The mayor can appoint various officials, including the <a href=\"chief%20of%20police\">chief of police</a> and the <a href=\"board%20of%20education\">board of education</a>. The mayor serves as the chairman of the Board of School Estimate and on various committees, and has the right to speak at common council meetings, but can only vote to break ties in the council. This bully pulpit role is considered the mayor's strongest power.\nThe common council has the chief policy making and administrative oversight role in city government. The council approves all laws and adopts the city budget. The council also oversees the work of city department heads. The council consists of three members from Ward I, three members from Ward II and one member elected at-large. The at-large member serves a two-year term of office, while the six ward members serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with one seat in each ward up for election each year. The council elects from its membership a president and a president pro tem, each serving a one-year term. The president presides at all council meetings, and the president pro tem presides in the president's absence. The president pro tem also serves as acting mayor in the absence of the mayor.\ns of 2016 , the mayor of Summit is <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrat</a> Nora G. Radest, whose term of office ends December 31, 2019. Members of the common council are Council President Michael T. McTernan (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>, 2016; First Ward), President Pro Tem Sandra R. Lizza (R, 2016; Second Ward), Patrick J. Hurley (R, 2017; Second Ward), B. David Naidu (D, 2018; First Ward), Mary G. Ogden (R, 2018; Second Ward), Dr. Robert J. Rubino (First Ward; R, 2017) and Richard Sun (D, 2018; At Large).\nMichael F. Rogers is the <a href=\"city%20manager\">city administrator</a> of Summit. In this role, he directs day-to-day operations of city government and the city departments.\nSummit has been a stronghold for the <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican Party</a> for years. From 1921 to 2001 no <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrats</a> served in elective office and very few ran for office. The real elections occurred in the Republican primary. In 2001, Democratic candidates Michel Bitritto won a council seat in Ward I and Jordan Glatt won the at-large council seat. Summit had never elected a Democrat as mayor until 2003, when Jordan Glatt was elected.\nIn November 2011, Republicans swept all the open seats, with Ellen Dickson elected mayor and Gregory Drummond, Patrick Hurley and Robert Rubino sweeping the three council seats, giving full control of city government back to the Republican party.\nThe Department of Community Services is responsible for engineering, public works, and code administration. The engineering division manages city infrastructure such as roads, curbs, sewers, and provide support to the planning and zoning boards. Public works maintains streets, trees, traffic signs, public parks, traffic islands, playgrounds, public buildings, support vehicles, equipment, and has other responsibilities. The city runs a municipal disposal area or solid waste transfer station where recyclables are collected, including bulky trash; residents must have a town-generated sticker on their cars to use this facility. Trash is picked up from garbage cans once a week for most residents, and recycling materials are picked up every two weeks. Certain trees need permits before being removed. Summit plows 66 mi of roads, covering all city streets, except for county roads. Residents are asked to put leaves in biodegradable bags for pickup on selected times during autumn and spring. Recently the city has embarked on a program of \"Bringing Art to Public Spaces in Summit\"; this program, established in 2002, has placed sculptures at different venues around the town and is supported by private donations. The Summit Chamber of Commerce advertises the town on cable television.\nSummit is located in the 7th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 21st state legislative district.\n<a href=\"New%20Jersey%27s%207th%20congressional%20district\">New Jersey's Seventh Congressional District</a> is represented by <a href=\"Leonard%20Lance\">Leonard Lance</a> (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>, <a href=\"Clinton%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Clinton Township</a>). New Jersey is represented in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate\">United States Senate</a> by Democrats <a href=\"Cory%20Booker\">Cory Booker</a> (<a href=\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Newark</a>, term ends 2021) and <a href=\"Bob%20Menendez\">Bob Menendez</a> (<a href=\"Paramus%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Paramus</a>, 2019).\nFor the 2016–2017 session (<a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Senate%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\">Senate</a>, <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\">General Assembly</a>), the <a href=\"21st%20Legislative%20District%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">21st Legislative District</a> of the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\">New Jersey Legislature</a> is represented in the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Senate\">State Senate</a> by <a href=\"Thomas%20Kean%20Jr.\">Thomas Kean Jr.</a> (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>, <a href=\"Westfield%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Westfield</a>) and in the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly\">General Assembly</a> by <a href=\"Jon%20Bramnick\">Jon Bramnick</a> (R, Westfield) and <a href=\"Nancy%20Munoz\">Nancy Munoz</a> (R, <a href=\"Summit%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Summit</a>). The <a href=\"Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\">Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\"Chris%20Christie\">Chris Christie</a> (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>, <a href=\"Mendham%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Mendham Township</a>). The <a href=\"Lieutenant%20Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\">Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\"Kim%20Guadagno\">Kim Guadagno</a> (R, <a href=\"Monmouth%20Beach%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Monmouth Beach</a>).\n<a href=\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Union County</a> is governed by a <a href=\"Board%20of%20Chosen%20Freeholders\">Board of Chosen Freeholders</a>, whose nine members are elected <a href=\"at-large\">at-large</a> to three-year terms of office on a staggered basis with three seats coming up for election each year, with an appointed County Manager overseeing the day-to-day operations of the county. At an annual reorganization meeting held in the beginning of January, the board selects a Chairman and Vice Chairman from among its members. s of 2014 , Union County's Freeholders are\nChairman Christopher Hudak (<a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">D</a>, <a href=\"Linden%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Linden</a>, term ends December 31, 2014),\nVice Chairman Mohamed S. Jalloh (D, <a href=\"Roselle%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Roselle</a>, 2015),\nBruce Bergen (D, <a href=\"Springfield%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Springfield Township</a>, 2015),\nLinda Carter (D, <a href=\"Plainfield%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Plainfield</a>, 2016),\nAngel G. Estrada (D, <a href=\"Elizabeth%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Elizabeth</a>, 2014),\nSergio Granados (D, Elizabeth, 2016)\nBette Jane Kowalski (D, <a href=\"Cranford%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Cranford</a>, 2016),\nAlexander Mirabella (D, <a href=\"Fanwood%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Fanwood</a>, 2015) and\nVernell Wright (D, <a href=\"Union%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Union</a>, 2014). Constitutional officers elected on a countywide basis are\nCounty Clerk Joanne Rajoppi (D, Union, 2015),\nSheriff Ralph Froehlich (D, Union, 2016) and\nSurrogate James S. LaCorte (D, Springfield Township, 2014). The County Manager is Alfred Faella.\nAs of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 13,358 registered voters in Summit, of which 3,842 (28.8% vs. 41.8% countywide) were registered as <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrats</a>, 3,703 (27.7% vs. 15.3%) were registered as <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republicans</a> and 5,808 (43.5% vs. 42.9%) were registered as <a href=\"Unaffiliated%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Unaffiliated</a>. There were 5 voters registered to other parties. Among the city's 2010 Census population, 62.3% (vs. 53.3% in Union County) were registered to vote, including 87.7% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 70.6% countywide).\nIn the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202012\">2012 presidential election</a>, Democrat <a href=\"Barack%20Obama\">Barack Obama</a> received 4,895 votes (49.4% vs. 66.0% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\"Mitt%20Romney\">Mitt Romney</a> with 4,859 votes (49.1% vs. 32.3%) and other candidates with 109 votes (1.1% vs. 0.8%), among the 9,899 ballots cast by the city's 14,330 registered voters, for a turnout of 69.1% (vs. 68.8% in Union County). In the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202008\">2008 presidential election</a>, Democrat Barack Obama received 5,820 votes (54.5% vs. 63.1% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\"John%20McCain\">John McCain</a> with 4,700 votes (44.0% vs. 35.2%) and other candidates with 88 votes (0.8% vs. 0.9%), among the 10,677 ballots cast by the city's 13,690 registered voters, for a turnout of 78.0% (vs. 74.7% in Union County). In the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202004\">2004 presidential election</a>, Republican <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a> received 5,183 votes (50.0% vs. 40.3% countywide), ahead of Democrat <a href=\"John%20Kerry\">John Kerry</a> with 5,068 votes (48.9% vs. 58.3%) and other candidates with 75 votes (0.7% vs. 0.7%), among the 10,360 ballots cast by the city's 13,159 registered voters, for a turnout of 78.7% (vs. 72.3% in the whole county).\nIn the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202013\">2013 gubernatorial election</a>, Republican <a href=\"Chris%20Christie\">Chris Christie</a> received 68.1% of the vote (3,971 cast), ahead of Democrat <a href=\"Barbara%20Buono\">Barbara Buono</a> with 30.6% (1,785 votes), and other candidates with 1.3% (76 votes), among the 5,928 ballots cast by the city's 14,076 registered voters (96 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 42.1%. In the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202009\">2009 gubernatorial election</a>, Democrat <a href=\"Jon%20Corzine\">Jon Corzine</a> was defeated in his hometown when Republican <a href=\"Chris%20Christie\">Chris Christie</a> received 3,682 votes (50.3% vs. 41.7% countywide), ahead his 3,014 votes (41.2% vs. 50.6%), Independent <a href=\"Chris%20Daggett\">Chris Daggett</a> with 543 votes (7.4% vs. 5.9%) and other candidates with 43 votes (0.6% vs. 0.8%), among the 7,323 ballots cast by the city's 13,435 registered voters, yielding a 54.5% turnout (vs. 46.5% in the county).\nStudents in <a href=\"pre-kindergarten\">pre-kindergarten</a> through <a href=\"twelfth%20grade\">twelfth grade</a> are educated by the <a href=\"Summit%20Public%20Schools\">Summit Public Schools</a>. As of the 2012-13 school year, the district's nine schools had an enrollment of 4,121 students and 335.0 classroom teachers (on an <a href=\"full-time%20equivalent\">FTE</a> basis), for a <a href=\"student%E2%80%93teacher%20ratio\">student–teacher ratio</a> of 12.30:1. Schools in the district (with 2012-13 enrollment data from the <a href=\"National%20Center%20for%20Education%20Statistics\">National Center for Education Statistics</a>) are\nJefferson Primary School (grades PreK-K; 165 students),\nWilson Primary School (PK-K; 172),\nBrayton School (1-5; 361),\nFranklin School (1-5; 381),\nJefferson School (1-5; 234),\nLincoln-Hubbard School (1-5; 332),\nWashington School (1-5; 317),\nLawton C. Johnson Summit Middle School (6-8; 1,041) and\n<a href=\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Summit High School</a> (9-12; 1,118).\nSummit has sports programs for youth including basketball, baseball, soccer and football leagues through the Recreation Center. In addition, the YMCA organizes sports clinics and teams including the Summit Swim Team. At age eight, children can try out for a traveling soccer program called the Summit Soccer Club, a nonprofit dedicated to the development of youth soccer in the city. Travel soccer runs for both the fall and spring seasons. <a href=\"Lacrosse\">Lacrosse</a> is a popular sport with high school teams achieving distinction at county and state levels. <a href=\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Summit High School</a> boys' team won the state's Tournament of Champions in 2010 and 2009 and lost by one goal in the 2011 final. Summit holds the New Jersey state (and possibly national) high school record with 68 consecutive victories during 2009 to 2011. The 2012 team was ranked second in New Jersey in May 2012 and in the top 20 nationally. Beginning in first grade, boys and girls can learn to play lacrosse in clinics and teams organized by the Summit Lacrosse Club.\nSummit residential real estate is expensive. In October 2009, the median house price was $655,500. Real estate taxes vary; an $800,000 four-bedroom, 2-full-bath, 2-partial-bath single-family home built in 1939 had taxes of $16,000 in 2009. Summit, along with many suburban communities in the United States, adopted a policy of zoning ordinances requiring a single-family house on a large lot and could thereby \"exclude any undesirable influences that might erode property values\", a requirement that effectively excluded apartment buildings and multi-family dwellings, and tended to raise the price of houses. One study found that since 1945, the single-family house on a large lot zoning mechanism \"has been increasingly used in suburban and rural areas to safeguard particular vested interests.\" A reporter from \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\" who is a Summit resident criticized the city for being an \"economically, racially and ideologically homogenized populace\" with \"a growing divide between Summit's haves and have-nots.\" He elaborated in 2006: \"there's an ever-diminishing corner of the city akin to the so-called slums of <a href=\"Beverly%20Hills\">Beverly Hills</a>, where middle-income homeowners like me can take advantage of the schools and services of Summit without the million-dollar price tags so ubiquitous on the other side of the Midtown Direct tracks.\" But he preferred the city as a place to raise and educate his children. One developer sued the city in 2005 to comply with <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a>'s <a href=\"Fair%20Housing%20Act\">Fair Housing Act</a> to provide more affordable housing units. The city is working on a \"housing master plan\" to avoid future lawsuits from developers. In 2011, volunteers with <a href=\"Habitat%20for%20Humanity\">Habitat for Humanity</a>, in conjunction with church groups including St. Teresa of Avila and the <a href=\"Unitarian%20Church%20in%20Summit\">Unitarian Church</a> led by <a href=\"Vanessa%20Southern\">Vanessa Southern</a>, constructed affordable housing on Morris Avenue.\n<a href=\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Union County</a>, which includes Summit, had the 10th highest property taxes in the nation as of 2010, based on data gathered by the <a href=\"National%20Taxpayers%20Union\">National Taxpayers Union</a>.\ns of 2010 , the city had a total of 84.80 mi of roadways, of which 66.94 mi were maintained by the municipality, 14.72 mi by Union County and 3.14 mi by the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Department%20of%20Transportation\">New Jersey Department of Transportation</a>.\n<a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Route%2024\">Route 24</a> and <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Route%20124\">Route 124</a> run along the eastern boundary of Summit, and <a href=\"Interstate%2078\">Interstate 78</a> runs along the southern boundary. County Routes <a href=\"County%20Route%20512%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">512</a>, <a href=\"County%20Route%20527%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">527</a> and <a href=\"County%20Route%20649%20%28Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey%29\">649</a> also pass through the city.\nParking is an ongoing issue. There are several free two-hour-limit parking lots for shoppers, as well as metered parking on main streets. The city council has conducted studies to explore further parking options.\n<a href=\"NJ%20Transit\">NJ Transit</a>'s <a href=\"Morristown%20Line\">Morristown Line</a> and <a href=\"Gladstone%20Branch\">Gladstone Branch</a> merge at <a href=\"Summit%20station%20%28NJT%29\">Summit station</a>, providing frequent passenger service to <a href=\"Hoboken%20Terminal\">Hoboken Terminal</a> or New York's <a href=\"Pennsylvania%20Station%20%28New%20York%20City%29\">Penn Station</a>. The train ride from Summit to New York is about 50 minutes (local) or 35 minutes (express). One reporter wrote: \"The train line dominates Summit, bisecting its handsome commercial district from the town green on a sunken track, like a Dutch canal.\"\nNJ Transit offers bus service to and from Newark on the <a href=\"70%20%28New%20Jersey%20bus%29\">70</a> route with local Wheels service on the <a href=\"986%20%28New%20Jersey%20bus%29\">986</a> route.\n<a href=\"Lakeland%20Bus%20Lines\">Lakeland Bus Lines</a> (Route 78) provides service to and from Manhattan during peak commuting hours.\n<a href=\"Newark%20Liberty%20International%20Airport\">Newark Liberty International Airport</a> in Newark / <a href=\"Elizabeth%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Elizabeth</a> is approximately 15 minutes away via Interstate 78.\nDue to its proximity to New York City and Newark, daily newspapers serving the community are \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Wall%20Street%20Journal\">The Wall Street Journal</a>\", and \"<a href=\"The%20Star-Ledger\">The Star-Ledger</a>\".\nLocally, Summit is served by the \"Summit Herald-Dispatch\" and the \"Independent Press\", the latter of which is based in <a href=\"New%20Providence%2C%20New%20Jersey\">New Providence</a> and serves the City of Summit and several surrounding communities. Both newspapers are published on a weekly basis. Summit is also served by the online news source, \"The Alternative Press\"\nSummit is home to HomeTowne Television (HTTV), a cable television station providing <a href=\"public%2C%20educational%2C%20and%20government%20access\">public, educational, and government access</a> (PEG) <a href=\"cable%20TV\">cable TV</a> programming. HTTV's signal reaches municipalities in <a href=\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Union</a>, <a href=\"Essex%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Essex</a> and <a href=\"Morris%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Morris</a> counties via Verizon channel 33 and Comcast channel 36. The station produces original content weekly and provides live streaming from hometownetv.org. The station is run by station manager, Amanda Olsen.\nIn \"<a href=\"Mr.%20Monk%20and%20the%20End\">Mr. Monk and the End</a>\", the series finale of the popular cable TV show \"<a href=\"Monk%20%28TV%20series%29\">Monk</a>\", the fictional character of <a href=\"Randy%20Disher\">Randy Disher</a> reveals he is leaving <a href=\"San%20Francisco\">San Francisco</a> because he has been offered the job as the chief of police of Summit, New Jersey. Additionally, he is also going there to marry his longtime crush, <a href=\"Sharona%20Fleming\">Sharona Fleming</a>. Following this up, in the 2012 novel \"<a href=\"Mr.%20Monk%20on%20Patrol\">Mr. Monk on Patrol</a>\", Randy has to bring Monk in after a corruption scandal sweeps the Summit government, leading to Randy becoming acting mayor.\nPeople who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Summit include:","Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\nThe Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, also known as \"the Trib,\" was the second largest daily printed <a href=\"newspaper\">newspaper</a> serving <a href=\"Pittsburgh%20metropolitan%20area\">metropolitan</a> <a href=\"Pittsburgh\">Pittsburgh</a>, <a href=\"Pennsylvania\">Pennsylvania</a>, in the United States until it transitioned to an all-digital format on December 1, 2016. Founded on August 22, 1811, as the Greensburg Gazette and in 1889 consolidated with several papers into the Greensburg Tribune-Review, the paper circulated only in the eastern suburban counties of <a href=\"Westmoreland%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Westmoreland</a> and parts of <a href=\"Indiana%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Indiana</a> and <a href=\"Fayette%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Fayette</a> until May 1992, when it began serving all of the <a href=\"Pittsburgh%20metropolitan%20area\">Pittsburgh metropolitan area</a> after a strike at the two Pittsburgh dailies, the \"<a href=\"Pittsburgh%20Post-Gazette\">Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Pittsburgh%20Press\">Pittsburgh Press</a>\", deprived the city of a newspaper for several months.\nThe Tribune-Review Publishing Company was owned by <a href=\"Richard%20Mellon%20Scaife\">Richard Mellon Scaife</a>, an heir to the <a href=\"Mellon%20family\">Mellon</a> banking, oil, and aluminum fortune, until his death in July 2014. Scaife was a major funder of conservative organizations, including the <a href=\"Arkansas%20Project\">Arkansas Project</a>. Accordingly, the \"Tribune-Review\" has maintained a conservative editorial stance, contrasting with the more liberal \"Post-Gazette.\" In addition to its flagship paper, the company publishes 17 weekly community newspapers, the \"Pittsburgh Pennysaver\", as well as TribLive.com and TribTotalMedia.com.\nThe paper first began as the \"Gazette\" on August 22, 1811. After a series of name changes and mergers it became the \"Greensburg Daily Tribune\" in 1889. In 1924, it and the \"Greensburg Morning Review\", launched by <a href=\"Dave%20Berry%20%28American%20football%29\">David J. Berry</a> in 1903, consolidated their interests under a single ownership. Both papers continued separate publication until 1955, when they merged to form the \"Greensburg Tribune-Review\". Scaife bought the \"Tribune-Review\" in 1970. Scaife was a decade early in trying to unarm the \"Post-Gazette\". In 1981–82, he started a short-lived eastern suburbs paper, \"The Daily-Sunday Tribune\".\nThe Tribune-Review owns several \"satellite\" papers that insert or surround the regional publication with neighborhood specific stories. The \"Valley News Dispatch\", of Pittsburgh suburbs <a href=\"Tarentum%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Tarentum</a> and <a href=\"New%20Kensington%2C%20Pennsylvania\">New Kensington</a> is one such satellite. Local journalism student <a href=\"John%20Filo\">John Filo</a> worked for the publication while attending nearby <a href=\"Kent%20State%20University\">Kent State University</a> and served as the Valley News Dispatch's correspondent of the <a href=\"Kent%20State%20shootings\">Kent State shootings</a>. His photography that day has ascended to iconic status and won the paper its only <a href=\"Pulitzer%20Prize\">Pulitzer Prize</a>.\nDuring a newspaper strike that temporarily shut down the \"Post-Gazette\" and ultimately closed the \"Pittsburgh Press\", Scaife launched the \"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\", an edition of the Greensburg-based \"Tribune-Review\" covering <a href=\"Allegheny%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Allegheny County</a> and Pittsburgh. Over time, it became a stand-alone newspaper headquartered on Pittsburgh's North Side. In 1997, Scaife added to his small collection of newspapers by purchasing \"The Daily Courier\" of <a href=\"Connellsville%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Connellsville</a>, the \"Leader Times\" of <a href=\"Kittanning%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Kittanning</a> and \"The Valley Independent\" of <a href=\"Monessen%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Monessen</a> from <a href=\"Thomson%20Newspapers\">Thomson Newspapers</a>.\nIn late 1997, Scaife's NewsWorks facility opened in the <a href=\"North%20Hills%20%28Pennsylvania%29\">North Hills</a>. In December 1997, the Tribune-Review company purchased the \"North Hills News Record\", even though four months earlier, then-Trib president Ed Harrell told the \"Pittsburgh Business Times\" that the company was not interested in the \"News Record\". Nine months after purchasing the \"North Hills News Record\" from <a href=\"Gannett%20Company\">Gannett Company</a>, Tribune-Review Publishing Co. announced the paper would be merged with the \"Pittsburgh Trib\". \"The News Record\" was most successful during the newspaper strike of the early 1990s. At its demise, the \"North Hills News Record\" had a daily circulation of more than 16,000, nearly 1,000 less than its circulation before the Trib bought it. In early 2000, the Trib announced the \"News Record\" name would retire after more than two years of a combined \"Tribune-Review/North Hills News Record\" banner. North Hills coverage would be wrapped into the Trib's neighborhoods section.\nIn 2000, the Trib announced it would stop producing the twice-weekly <a href=\"Irwin%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Irwin</a>-based paper, \"Standard Observer\". Citing a \"sagging economy\", the Trib laid off more than four percent of its workforce in 2003, including <a href=\"freelance%20writer\">freelance writer</a>s. More shakeups continued in 2005 as circulation numbers dropped and a top official left. An online message board featured back and forth fights between Pittsburgh and Greensburg employees.\nEdward Harrell, then-president of the Tribune Review Publishing Company, announced in January 2005 that most of the regional editions of the paper would have their newsroom, management and circulation departments merged and staff reductions would follow. The merged papers include the \"Tribune-Review\" of Greensburg, the \"Valley News Dispatch\" of <a href=\"Tarentum%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Tarentum</a>, \"The Leader-Times\" of <a href=\"Kittanning%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Kittanning</a>, \"The Daily Courier\" of Connellsville and the \"Blairsville Dispatch\". \"The Valley Independent\", the only paper with a unionized newsroom and contract, was not affected.\nThe company incorporated as Trib Total Media in the summer of 2005, and purchased Gateway Newspapers, a community publication group servicing approximately 22 communities, at the time, in and around Pittsburgh's Allegheny County. Two managers were immediately laid off. The exact number of proposed redundancies was not announced. In September 2005, Harrell announced his retirement as president of Tribune-Review Publishing Company, effective December 31, 2005. He had served as president since 1989. Several staff writers were laid off in December 2005 as two of Gateway's newspapers were discontinued.\nIn May 2008, the \"Post-Gazette\" and the Trib reached a deal for one company to deliver both papers. The Post-Gazette would begin delivering the Trib to most of the area with some exceptions. Terms of the deal were not disclosed. On June 20, 2008, Trib Total Media publicly announced it was closing several weekly newspapers in the Gateway Newspapers chain. The papers affected include: \"Bridgeville Area News\", \"North Journal\", \"McKnight Journal\", \"Woodland Progress\", \"Penn Hills Progress\", \"Coraopolis-Moon Record\" and the \"Advance Leader\". Many of those papers were several decades old. The company also announced major changes to the remaining Gateway publications including a revamp of the Pennysaver in the communities that have Gateway newspapers. Several published reports say the remaining community newspapers would expand coverage to include areas no longer serviced by Gateway publications. The communities served by those titles will now be served by other Gateway newspapers.\nIn November, 2015, Trib Total Media announced that they would be cutting back on home delivery of printed newspapers and emphasize digital delivery. The restructuring included the sale of two dailies and six weeklies to West Penn Media. Two papers were closed, The Daily News in McKeesport, and The Valley Independent in Monessen.\nThe remaining papers, in Pittsburgh, Greensburg and Tarentum, were consolidated into a single paper called the Tribune-Review. Home delivery was reduced in some parts of Allegheny and Westmoreland counties. Trib Total Media laid off 153 full and part-time workers from its staff of approximately 1,100, another 68 had accepted buyouts in October.\nThe Tribune-Review went \"all-digital\" after it published its last print edition on November 30, 2016.\n<a href=\"Carl%20Prine\">Carl Prine</a>, an investigative reporter for the newspaper, conducted a probe with the <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> news magazine \"<a href=\"60%20Minutes\">60 Minutes</a>\" that highlighted the lack of security at the nation's most dangerous chemical plants following the <a href=\"September%2011%2C%202001%20attacks\">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>.\nThe reporters, and a CBS camera operator, were charged with trespassing at a Neville Island plant during their investigation. They were later acquitted when the judge accepted that the story had been in the public interest.\nIn 2007, Prine's further investigation into the subject was featured in the PBS documentary series , in a two-part episode titled \"Think Like A Terrorist.\"\nOne Tribune-Review flap went national when <a href=\"Colin%20McNickle\">Colin McNickle</a>, then editor of the newspaper's editorial page, attended a July 26, 2004 speech at the <a href=\"Massachusetts\">Massachusetts</a> State House given by <a href=\"Teresa%20Heinz%20Kerry\">Teresa Heinz Kerry</a>, who had been the subject of two negative articles in the Tribune-Review's opinion pages. After the speech, there was a dispute between McNickle and Heinz Kerry over her use of the term \"un-American activity.\"\nThe daily Tribune-Review is published in three geographic editions: Pittsburgh, Westmoreland and Valley News Dispatch.\nThe Tribune-Review claimed to show the highest gains in readership over the past five years of any newspaper in America's top 48 markets, which were dominated by sinking readership.\nAccording to surveys by International Demographics Inc., an independent media research firm in Houston, the number of Tribune-Review readers jumped 17.8 percent from 2007 to 2012.\nAs part of the \"Trib Total Media\" conglomerate, the Tribune-Review has a news exchange partnerships with WPXI, Pittsburgh's NBC affiliate and until 2013, it was a sister publication to Pittsburgh's second-largest news radio station, <a href=\"KQV\">KQV</a>. Trib Total Media is the Official Newspaper of the <a href=\"Pittsburgh%20Pirates\">Pittsburgh Pirates</a> and the <a href=\"Pittsburgh%20Penguins\">Pittsburgh Penguins</a> (the latter of which Scaife was a co-founder in <a href=\"1967%20NHL%20expansion\">1967</a>) and has strong partnerships with many nonprofit and community businesses and organizations throughout Western Pennsylvania.\n","Morgan Waters\nMorgan Waters (born August 25, 1981) is a <a href=\"Canada\">Canadian</a> actor, comedian and musician.\nWaters was first seen on the <a href=\"Canadian%20Broadcasting%20Corporation\">CBC</a>'s children's program \"<a href=\"The%20X%20%28CBC%29\">The X</a>\", which was canceled in 2003. Born in <a href=\"Victoria%2C%20British%20Columbia\">Victoria</a>, <a href=\"British%20Columbia\">British Columbia</a>, Waters moved to <a href=\"Toronto\">Toronto</a>, <a href=\"Ontario\">Ontario</a> to host \"<a href=\"The%20Morgan%20Waters%20Show\">The Morgan Waters Show</a>\", which aired on <a href=\"CBC%20Television\">CBC Television</a> in 2006. Waters competed in the 2000 Much VJ search but lost to Bradford Howe. He later worked for the <a href=\"Muchmusic\">Muchmusic</a> show \"<a href=\"Screwed%20Over\">Screwed Over</a>\" in October 2006.\nHe created and appeared on the show \"<a href=\"Cock%27d%20Gunns\">Cock'd Gunns</a>\", which aired in 2007-2008 on the <a href=\"Independent%20Film%20Channel%20%28Canada%29\">IFC</a>.\nHe has been writing, directing and starring in the comedy web series \"<a href=\"The%20Amazing%20Gayl%20Pile\">The Amazing Gayl Pile</a>\" since it premiered on JASH in 2014. It is now on <a href=\"NBC\">NBC's</a> digital channel <a href=\"Seeso\">Seeso</a>.\nWaters formerly played bass guitar for the Toronto-based <a href=\"Sweet%20Thing%20%28band%29\">Sweet Thing</a>. He now plays in Toronto-based band <a href=\"Weaves%20%28band%29\">Weaves</a>, formed in 2013."],"string":"[\n \"Scott Smith (author)\\nScott Bechtel Smith (born July 13, 1965) is an American author and screenwriter, who has published two novels, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" and \\\"The Ruins\\\". His screen adaptation of \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" earned him an Academy Award nomination. The screenplay won a Broadcast Film Critics Association Award and a National Board of Review Award.\\nSmith was born in Summit, New Jersey in 1965 and moved to Toledo, Ohio as a child. After graduating from Dartmouth College and from Columbia University with a Master of Fine Arts degree in Writing, he took up writing full-time.\\nHis second novel, \\\"The Ruins\\\", was also adapted into a film, released on April 4, 2008. Stephen King called it \\\"[t]he best horror novel of the new century.\\\" King had also called \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" \\\"simply the best suspense novel of the year.\\\"\\nIn 2016 it was announced that TNT had greenlit a pilot for \\\"Civil\\\", a new TV series created by Smith about a second American Civil War following a hotly contested presidential election.\\nSmith is the son of Linda and Doug Smith. He told The \\\"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\\\" reviewer Regis Behe that, as a child, he read his father's \\\"castoffs,\\\" the novels of Clive Cussler and Jack Higgins. \\\"Growing up, I also read Ray Bradbury and Stephen King,\\\" he said. \\\"I just had a sense of how to create these places that aren't real world places, but just with this provisional attachment to the real world. It is very much of your imagination, and I felt very much I could do that.\\\"\\n\",\n \"The Morgan Waters Show\\nThe Morgan Waters Show is a six-minute sketch comedy show starring Morgan Waters, made by CBC Television for its afternoon youth programming lineup, next to the 3 minute \\\"Mr. Meaty\\\" and \\\"Yam Roll\\\". Morgan goes through a variety of situations with most characters being played by himself, including the badminton-loving Goth Trent, Phillip the Nerd, and the lovable CBC Executive, Boss Boss. Guests appearing on the show include \\\"Canadian Idol\\\" hosts Ben Mulroney and Jon Dore, Rick Mercer, the cast of \\\"\\\", Ashlee Simpson, Simple Plan, OK GO, Alexz Johnson, Ed the Sock, and Tyler Kyte among others.\\nThe Morgan Waters Show has been critically acclaimed by \\\"TV Guide\\\", and won a Gemini for \\\"Best Children's or Youth Non-Fiction Program or Series\\\".\",\n \"The Real Cancun (original soundtrack)\\nThe Real Cancun is an original soundtrack for 2003 American reality film \\\"The Real Cancun\\\", released by Thrive on May 13, 2003. The album consists of such popular names as Simple Plan, Trick Daddy and the Kottonmouth Kings among others.\",\n \"Don't Wanna Think About You\\n\\\"Don't Wanna Think About You\\\" is a song by Canadian rock band Simple Plan. \\\"Don't Wanna Think About You\\\" was released to radio on March 2, 2004. It appeared on the to the film \\\"\\\", serving as the film's theme song. The song was released to iTunes through Warner Bros. Records on March 2, 2004 in promotion of the film.\\nThe music video for \\\"Don't Wanna Think About You\\\" was directed by Smith n' Borin and premiered February 27, 2004. An edited version was made available for purchase on iTunes on January 11, 2006. The video is also included in the special features on the DVD for \\\"Scooby Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed\\\".\\nThe story for the video revolves around the band members racing through the city trying to reach the premiere of \\\"Scooby Doo 2\\\" on time. To give their trek a sense of urgency, the video uses the on-screen digital clock concept of the show \\\"24\\\", although compressed for the duration of the song. The Mystery Machine and the cast of the film are featured briefly as the band arrives at the theatre.\\nTwo versions of the music video exist: One version of the video shows that the time frame of the video is 5:00 pm to 6:00 pm. Another version formerly embedded on Bouvier's official Myspace page has the time frame of the video as 4:00 pm to 5:00 pm, and used official sounds from the \\\"24\\\" TV series.\",\n \"A Simple Plan (film)\\nA Simple Plan is a 1998 American neo-noir crime thriller film adapted by Scott B. Smith from his 1993 novel of the same name. Directed by Sam Raimi, it stars Bill Paxton, Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda. Set in rural Minnesota, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" follows brothers Hank (Paxton) and Jacob Mitchell (Thornton), who, along with Jacob's friend Lou (Brent Briscoe), discover a crashed plane containing $4.4 million in cash. The three men go to great lengths to keep the money a secret but begin to doubt each other's trust, resulting in lies, deceit and murder.\\nDevelopment of the film began in 1993 before the novel was published. Mike Nichols purchased the film rights, and the project was picked up by Savoy Pictures. After Nichols stepped down, the film adaptation became mired in development hell; during the troubled pre-production, Ben Stiller and John Dahl turned down opportunities to direct the film. After Savoy closed in November 1995, the project was sold to Paramount Pictures, and financed by Mutual Film Company, which provided a budget of $17 million. John Boorman was hired to direct, but scheduling conflicts led to his replacement by Raimi. Principal photography began in January 1998 and concluded in March after 55 days; filming took place in Wisconsin and Minnesota. The score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman.\\n\\\"A Simple Plan\\\" premiered at the 1998 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was met with critical acclaim. The film's appearance at the festival preceded a limited release in the United States on December 11, 1998, followed by a general release in North America on January 22, 1999. It underperformed at the North American box office, grossing $16.3 million. Reviewers praised various aspects of the film's production, including the storytelling, performances and Raimi's direction. \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" earned multiple awards and nominations, among them two Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor (Thornton) and Best Adapted Screenplay (Smith).\\nHank Mitchell and his wife Sarah live in rural Minnesota. One of the town's few college graduates, Hank works in a feed mill, while his wife is a librarian. When Hank, his older, socially challenged brother Jacob and Jacob's friend Lou chase a fox into the woods, they stumble upon a crashed airplane. Hank decides to look inside the plane where he discovers a dead pilot and a bag containing $4.4 million in $100 bills. He suggests turning the money in but is persuaded not to by Jacob and Lou. Hank then proposes that he keep the money safe at his house until the end of winter. Sheriff Carl Jenkins drives by the area and notices the three men after they hide the money in Jacob's pick-up truck. Jacob mentions hearing a plane in the area to avoid suspicion. After Carl leaves, the three men decide to keep the money a secret, but Hank breaks the pact when he reveals the discovery to Sarah.\\nSarah suggests that Hank and Jacob return a paltry sum of the money to the plane to avoid suspicion from local authorities. While travelling on foot to the woods, the brothers come across an old man on a snowmobile. Jacob, thinking that their cover is blown, bludgeons him. When the man regains consciousness, Hank suffocates him, then uses the snowmobile to drive his body off a bridge, making the murder look like an accidental death. The following night, Lou drunkenly demands some of the money from Hank, because he has spent recklessly since the discovery. When Hank refuses, Lou threatens to go to the authorities, having learned from Jacob about the old man's murder.\\nSarah advises that Hank and Jacob team up to plot against Lou. Much to Jacob's dismay, the two brothers visit Lou at his home where Jacob has him drunkenly confess to the old man's murder. Hank records the false confession with a tape recorder. Lou grows enraged when he realizes that the two have conspired against him and pulls a gun on them. Jacob grabs a rifle from his truck and kills Lou to save his brother. Hank then kills Lou's wife with Lou's shotgun when she appears with another gun. The two brothers avoid arrest after Hank concocts a rehearsed speech for himself and Jacob to tell the police.\\nBecause Jacob mentioned hearing a plane in the woods, Carl asks the brothers to assist an FBI agent, Neil Baxter, in a search for the missing aircraft. Hank and Jacob meet with Baxter and Carl at the police station. Sarah grows skeptical of Baxter, whom she later discovers to be an impostor; she contacts and warns Hank, who steals a handgun from Carl's office. The four men head into the woods and split up. When he finds the plane, Baxter kills Carl, and engages in a gunfight with Hank. Hank manages to kill Baxter with the gun he had stolen. Hank starts to concoct another story to tell the authorities. Jacob however announces that he does not want to live with these bad memories; he threatens to shoot himself to end it. He then encourages Hank to kill him instead and frame Baxter for the crime. After grappling with the decision, Hank kills Jacob.\\nAt the police station, Hank tells his rehearsed story to real FBI agents. As Sarah predicted, the agents do not believe that Hank, an upstanding member of the community, would be capable of such wrongdoing. Although he is ruled out as a suspect, Hank is told that the money was part of a ransom and that many of the bills' serial numbers were written down to track the cash. Hank realizes he cannot use the money without being caught; he goes home and burns it all. In a closing narration, Hank reflects on his losses; as he tries to move on with his life, the murderous events constantly haunt him.\\nAfter Scott B. Smith had published a short story for \\\"The New Yorker\\\", the magazine's fiction editor learned of his then-unpublished novel \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" before reading it and forwarding it to an agent. Shortly thereafter, Smith learned that Mike Nichols was interested in purchasing the film rights to his novel. Nichols spent a weekend reading the book, before contacting Smith's agent, and finalizing a deal the following Monday morning. Nichols purchased the rights for his production company Icarus Productions for $250,000, with an additional $750,000 to come later from a studio interested in pursuing the project. Smith’s manuscript of \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" was optioned for development at an independent film studio, Savoy Pictures. However, due to scheduling conflicts with a planned film adaptation of \\\"All the Pretty Horses\\\", Nichols stepped down from the project.\\nAfter learning of the film adaptation from Nichols, Ben Stiller joined the project and signed a two-picture directing deal with Savoy. He spent nine months working on the script with Smith. During preproduction, however, Stiller had a falling out with Savoy over budget disputes—among them was how the studio's reported $4 million offer to Nicolas Cage would affect the film’s budget. Unable to secure financing from another studio, Stiller left the production.\\nIn January 1995, John Dahl was announced to helm the film, with Cage set to appear in a starring role, and filming likely to start during the following summer in the southern hemisphere or in Canada during the following winter. In November 1995, following a series of box office failures, Savoy announced that it was retreating from the film industry. The studio was later acquired by Silver King Broadcasting/Home Shopping Network, whose chairman, Barry Diller, put \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" up for sale. This resulted in both Dahl and Cage leaving the project.\\nThe project was purchased by Paramount Pictures, where producer Scott Rudin hired John Boorman to direct the film. Boorman took part in location scouting, and filming was set to begin during the first week of January 1998. When a second investor left the project, Paramount refused to fully finance the $17 million production itself. Although Boorman was able to secure financing, the studio feared that filming would not be finished before the end of winter. Boorman ran into scheduling conflicts, which resulted in him leaving the production. Paramount then hired Sam Raimi to direct the film. Raimi saw \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" as an opportunity to direct a character-driven story that differed from his earlier works, which were highly stylized or dependent on intricate camera movements. Raimi did not have time to scout locations due to studio constraints; he relied on the previous locations visited during Boorman's involvement.\\n\\\"A Simple Plan\\\" was a co-production between Paramount and Mutual Film Company. The film was co-financed by Mutual and Newmarket Capital Group as part of a joint venture that was formed by the two companies. Mutual's international partners—the United Kingdom's BBC, Germany's Tele-München, Japan's Toho-Towa/Marubeni and France’s UGC-PH—also co-financed the film in exchange for distribution rights in their respective territories and equity stakes on the film on a worldwide basis. Paramount acquired the North American distribution rights.\\nThe original script that Smith had written for Nichols was 256 pages long—the equivalent of a four-and-a-half hour film. Smith kept Nichols's suggestion of having the story take place in Minnesota, rather than in Ohio, where the book is set. After Nichols suggested that the story be set in the state, the Minnesota Film Board joined the project and remained involved throughout principal photography. Following publication of the novel, Nichols eventually turned down the project during the script's early draft stages. When Stiller became involved, he and Smith spent nine months rewriting the script.\\nFor the adaptation, certain visual changes were made from the novel. Smith explained that one change involved the discovery of the crashed plane; his script had the character Lou Chambers \\\"throwing [a] snowball to uncover the plane ... In the book, they're just walking and they find it.\\\" Rudin wanted to change the focus of the story to Hank and Jacob, and ordered Smith to shorten the screenplay to 120 pages. Smith explained, \\\"I had to work to make Hank a more rational character, less evil.\\\" The shortening of the script also resulted in the character of Sarah having a smaller role, and Jacob having a larger role than in the book. After the role of Jacob was secured by Billy Bob Thornton, Smith omitted the character's overweight appearance from the novel. Smith described the film adaptation as being less violent than the book, explaining that it was Raimi's decision \\\"to be more restrained [and] bring out the characters.\\\"\\nDuring the film's pre-production at Paramount, Boorman cast Bill Paxton and Billy Bob Thornton in the lead roles of Hank and Jacob Mitchell, respectively. \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" marked the second on-screen collaboration between Paxton and Thornton after \\\"One False Move\\\" (1992). Thornton recalled, \\\"I got a call from one of my agents who said, 'John Boorman wants you to do a script that I sent you a year ago and you never read,' I said, 'Send it to me again, and this time I'll really read it.' Within the first two pages, I knew I wanted to do it.\\\"\\nPaxton learned of the novel \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" from his father five years before securing the role of Hank. He stated, \\\" ... for five years, there was a whole list of actors and directors who kind of marched through it. Billy Bob and I were set to do these roles in 1997, and then it fell apart. That was the cruelest twist for an actor, to get a part you dreamed you'd get and then they decide to scrap the whole thing.\\\" Rudin considered casting Anne Heche as Hank's wife Sarah Mitchell. In December 1997, Bridget Fonda, who had previously collaborated with Raimi on \\\"Army of Darkness\\\" (1992), was cast as Sarah Mitchell.\\nPrincipal photography began on January 5, 1998. Filming was scheduled to begin in Delano, Minnesota, but due to climatic changes as the result of El Niño, the production was forced to temporarily relocate to northern Wisconsin to find the snow levels described in the script. The production began shooting in Ashland and Saxon, Wisconsin, where most of the film's exterior shots, and the road and woods near where the characters find the plane, were filmed. An actual plane, with one side cut open, was one of two planes used to depict the crashed aircraft. Patrizia Von Brandenstein was the film's production designer, marking her second collaboration with Raimi, after \\\"The Quick and the Dead\\\" (1995). Brandenstein found the weather conditions difficult during production, as she had to await good weather to complete the necessary exterior work. Describing the overall look of the film, she said, \\\"We created a muted black-and-white color scheme to suggest a morality tale, the choices given between right and wrong.\\\"\\nThe production team returned to Minnesota, where it was plagued by a lack of snow. To solve this problem, the production put together an effects team whose sole responsibility was dealing with snow. This snow effects team created a combination of real snow and fake synthetic snow that was made from shaved ice. The home of Lou Chambers and his wife Nancy was filmed in an abandoned house in Delano, which cinematographer Alar Kivilo described as \\\"a very difficult [filming] location with very low ceilings and no heating\\\". Brandenstein and the art department were tasked with designing the set inside the home.\\nThe interior of the crashed plane, in which Hank discovers a dead pilot and the $4.4 million in cash, was filmed on a soundstage. A second plane, designed to have frosted windows, was attached to a gimbal, about five feet off the ground. To match the interior with footage shot in Wisconsin, the art department built a set with real trees and a painted backdrop. To depict Hank being attacked by a flock of crows inside the plane, puppets were used to attack Paxton as he appeared on screen, while two live crows were used to attack an animatronic replica of the actor. A separate soundstage was used to create two sets depicting the interiors of the Mitchell home, where Hank and his wife Sarah (Fonda) reside. The first set was the main floor an exterior entrance way, and the second was created for the upstairs bedrooms. Principal photography concluded on March 13, 1998, after 55 days of filming.\\nUpon reading the script, director of photography Alar Kivilo stated that his first approach to making the film \\\"was to make the look simple, allowing the characters to tell the story.\\\" For the film's visual style, Kivilo was influenced by the visual imagery in the 1967 film \\\"In Cold Blood\\\", the work of photographer Robert Frank. and photographs taken during location scouting in Delano, Minnesota. Kivilo originally wanted to shoot the film in widescreen, using the anamorphic format but decided against it due to the lack of lenses available and the film's restricted budget. He shot \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" using Panavision Platinum cameras with the company's Primo series of prime lenses. He used Eastman Kodak 5246 250ASA Vision film stock for all of the daylight scenes and tungsten-balanced 5279 Vision 500T film stock for the night scenes.\\n\\\"In most of my films, I’ve tended to find a progression of visuals to emphasize the story. They will often start one way and end another. The lighting and the camera will build with the story. But here, because the characters were going through such extreme psychological changes, we decided to keep the photography on an even keel.\\\"\\nDespite the intense weather conditions, Kivilo believed that the overcast skies created a \\\"gray, somber, stark look.\\\" Kivilo also chose not to use any lighting for daytime exterior scenes. For exterior scenes shot during sunnier filming days, computer-generated imagery (CGI) was used to re-create the overcast skies and counter any inconsistencies caused by the falling snow. In depicting the shootout in Lou's home, Kivilo's intent was to \\\"keep things quite sketchy in the lighting and not be clear about exactly what was happening.\\\" The camera department lit a China ball from the ceiling to depict a dimly lit kitchen light that would reveal Nancy holding a shotgun. Flash photography guns were used to depict the muzzle flashes during the shootouts.\\n\\\"A Simple Plan\\\"' s film score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman, who was drawn to the project after learning that Raimi would be directing the film; the film marked his third collaboration with Raimi. The instruments included alto and bass flutes, re-tuned pianos and banjos, zithers, and hand drums. The soundtrack album, titled \\\"A Simple Plan: Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack\\\", was released on January 26, 1999.\\n\\\"A Simple Plan\\\" premiered at the 23rd Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 1998. On December 11, 1998, the film opened in limited release at 31 theaters, and grossed $390,563 in its first week, with an average of $12,598 per theater. More theaters were added during the limited run, and on January 22, 1999, the film officially entered wide release by screening in 660 theaters across North America. The film ended its North American theatrical run on May 14, 1999, having grossed $16,316,273, below its estimated production budget of $17 million.\\nIn North America, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" was released on VHS and DVD formats on June 22, 1999. These home video releases were undertaken by Paramount Home Entertainment.\\n\\\"A Simple Plan\\\" received critical acclaim from mainstream film critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 67 reviews, and gave the film a \\\"Certified Fresh\\\" score of 90%, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10. The website's consensus calls the film \\\"A riveting crime thriller full of emotional tension.\\\" Another review aggregator, Metacritic, assigned the film a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 28 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\".\\nReviewing the film during the Toronto International Film Festival, Glen Lovell of \\\"Variety\\\", compared it to Joel and Ethan Coen's earlier film \\\"Fargo\\\" (1996): \\\"Both [films] are slices of life about outlandish crimes and Average Joe felons in over their heads, and both blend Grand Guignol and beautiful but foreboding snowscapes...The key differences are in emphasis and tone: \\\"Fargo\\\" is deadpan noir; \\\"A Simple Plan\\\"...is a more robust Midwestern Gothic that owes as much to Poe as Chandler.\\\"\\nIn an \\\"early review\\\" of the film prior to its limited release, Roger Ebert and his colleague, Gene Siskel, gave the film a \\\"Two Thumbs Up\\\" rating on their syndicated television program \\\"Siskel and Ebert and the Movies\\\". In a later episode, Ebert ranked \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" at number four on his list of the \\\"Best Films of 1998\\\". Online film critic James Berardinelli praised Billy Bob Thornton's performance as being \\\"the most striking that \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" has to offer.\\\" He also praised the other performers, writing \\\"Paxton's part is deceptively complex in the way he shows how paranoia, greed, and deception can erode the conscience of even the best-intentioned of men. Brent Briscoe plays Lou as the most untrustworthy and avaricious of souls. And Bridget Fonda offers solid support as a woman who stands by her man – when she's not taking control of his life, that is.\\\" After Paxton's death in February 2017, Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com cited his performance as Hank Mitchell to be Paxton's career best, stating that \\\"The film might constitute Paxton’s most sorrowful performance as well as his most frightening... an outwardly ordinary man who has no idea what kind of evil he’s capable of\\\".\\nSam Raimi was repeatedly praised for his direction. Owen Gleiberman of \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" wrote that the film was \\\"lean, elegant, and emotionally complex – a marvel of backwoods classicism\\\" and that it was \\\"proof that Raimi, after the splatterific \\\"Evil Dead\\\" series and the lushly operatic \\\"Darkman\\\", has now grown into a filmmaker of ravishing maturity and skill.\\\" Siskel, writing for the \\\"Chicago Tribune\\\", said that the film was \\\"an exceedingly well-directed genre picture by [Raimi] ... [who] does an excellent job of presaging the lethal violence that follows. From his very first images we know that bodies are going to start to pile up.\\\" Janet Maslin of \\\"The New York Times\\\" called the film a \\\"quietly devastating thriller directed by [Raimi]...who makes a flawless segue into mainstream storytelling.\\\" Edward Guthmann of the \\\"San Francisco Chronicle\\\" wrote, \\\" ... for Raimi, whose mastery of visual effects has driven all of his previous films, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" marks a tremendously successful break from the past. He's drawn lovely, complex performances from Paxton and Thornton and proven that he can work effectively – and movingly – in a minor emotional key.\\\"\\nWhile reviews of the film were mostly positive, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" was not without its detractors. Regarding the plot and characters, Richard Schickel of \\\"Time\\\" wrote, \\\"There's neither intricacy nor surprise in the narrative, and these dopes are tedious, witless company.\\\" Schlomo Schwartzberg of \\\"Boxoffice\\\" wrote, \\\" ... \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" clutters up the story with unnecessary acts of violence and murder, and mainly stays on the surface, offering little more than cheap jolts of melodrama.\\\"\\n\\\"A Simple Plan\\\" garnered awards and nominations in a variety of categories with particular praise for its screenplay by Scott B. Smith and Billy Bob Thornton's performance. At the 56th Golden Globe Awards, Thornton received a Best Supporting Actor nomination, but lost against Ed Harris, who received the award for his performance in \\\"The Truman Show\\\". At the 71st Academy Awards, Thornton received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor, but lost against James Coburn, who won the award for his performance in \\\"Affliction\\\". Smith received an Oscar nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay, but lost to Bill Condon, who won for \\\"Gods and Monsters\\\". In addition to receiving various awards and nominations, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" was named one of the \\\"\\\" by the National Board of Review.\\n</div>\",\n \"The Ruins (novel)\\nThe Ruins is the second novel by American author Scott Smith, whose first novel was \\\"A Simple Plan\\\". \\\"The Ruins\\\" is a horror story set on Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. It was released on July 18, 2006 (ISBN ).\\nA film adaptation of the novel was released in the United States and Canada on April 4, 2008.\\nFour American tourists — Eric, his girlfriend Stacy, her best friend Amy, and Amy's boyfriend Jeff, a medical student — are vacationing in Mexico. They befriend a German tourist named Mathias and a trio of hard-drinking Greeks who go by the Spanish nicknames Pablo, Juan, and Don Quixote. Mathias convinces \\\"Pablo\\\" (his name is actually Demetris Lambrakis) and the Americans to accompany him as he joins up with his brother Heinrich who had followed a girl he'd met to an archeological dig. The six of them head down to the rural Yucatan in search of Heinrich. The driver of the pick up truck who takes them to the outskirts tells one of the girls that the place to which they are going is 'not good'; the girl doesn't quite get the message and leaves anyway, despite the driver's offer to take them to a different and new place. Near a Mayan village, they discover a disguised trail which leads to a large hill covered in vines and surrounded by bare earth. The group approach the hill, ignoring the warnings of a young boy who had followed them to the village. The boy soon returns with armed adults who force the group to stay on the vine-covered hill. Among the underbrush, they discover the body of Heinrich, already overgrown with vines.\\nThey realize that the vines contain an acidic sap that burns their hands after they pulled the vines away from Heinrich's body. At the top of the hill is a camp with tents, a campfire and windlass and rope that leads down a mine shaft. Much of the camp is overgrown with the same acidic vines. Hearing the ring of a cell phone from the bottom of the shaft, they use the rope to lower Pablo down in an attempt to retrieve it. However, the acid from the vines has weakened the rope, which snaps, sending Pablo falling down the shaft. His back is broken and the group raises him on a makeshift backboard.\\nJeff, who quickly emerges as the most level-headed and action-oriented of the group, explores the hill and discovers that the Mayans have formed a perimeter around the entire hill, not approaching, but always watching him and ready to shoot them dead with bow and arrow. He also discovers a warning sign made by someone else, which has been pulled into the underbrush of vines.\\nThat night, Eric, who had received a wound on his leg while rescuing Pablo, awakes to find one of the vines curled around his leg and inserting itself in his wound.\\nJeff surmises that the Mayans are afraid of the vines. They salted the earth around the hill to prevent their spread and are now intent on killing anyone who strays onto the hill. Already, spores from the vines have embedded themselves in the group's clothes. He also realizes that they will die soon without any food or water.\\nJeff and Amy return to the mine shaft to find the cell phone. After almost falling into a pit, Jeff realizes that the cell phone noise is being made by the vines. The plants can imitate sounds made on the hill. As they climb back up, they hear the plants laughing at them.\\nEric becomes convinced that the vines have infested his body and attempts to cut himself to get them out. That night, he, Amy, and Stacy get drunk and nastily criticize everyone. Later, the vines repeat their criticisms, especially those of Jeff. Amy and Jeff fight and Amy leaves the tent drunk. Jeff ignores the sound of her vomiting and calling his name. The next morning they discover that Amy is dead; the sounds they heard were of the vines suffocating her. They seal Amy's body in a sleeping bag, intending to bury her, but that night they hear her calling Jeff's name. Seeing the bag moving, they open it to discover it full of writhing vines which have eaten Amy's body.\\nJeff, taking advantage of a torrential rainstorm, heads down the hill and attempts to escape but is shot by the Mayans. The vines pull his body back into the underbrush.\\nThe next morning, Stacy and Mathias go to check on Jeff. Increasingly disturbed, Eric begins cutting himself in an effort to remove the vines, which he believes have infested his body. Hearing the vines telling them that Eric is dead, Mathias and Stacey run back up the hill to find him bloody, but alive. Eric angrily confronts Mathias, and accidentally stabs the other man with his knife. He asks Stacy to kill him, which, after much pleading, she does.\\nAlone, Stacy heads to the bottom of the hill and seats herself on the path leading to the top. She calmly slits her wrists and waits to die so that her body will be a warning to anyone else who comes. As she loses consciousness, the vines reach out and pull her off the path into the underbrush.\\nA few days later, the other two Greeks, with some Brazilian tourists in tow, find the trail. A little girl, who's acting as a sentinel, as the little boy on the bike was, runs back to the village, but the new tourists are already halfway up the hill, calling for Pablo, before the men on horseback arrive.\\nAccording to an interview with the \\\"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\\\", the book started as a trial run after a period when the novelist had concentrated on writing the screenplay for \\\"A Simple Plan\\\". \\\"It went in stops and starts,\\\" Smith told journalist Regis Behe. \\\"I would give up on it, thinking it wouldn't work...With \\\"The Ruins\\\" I really just started writing. I had a general sense of the story. I knew how I wanted it to end, but all the steps to get there... I just wrote it. I didn't plan it, and, obviously, that had major repercussions that carried through the story.\\\" Smith added that he never traveled to Mexico, where the book is set; he merely read a few travel books and did some Internet research.\\n\\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\" reviewer Gillian Flynn gave \\\"The Ruins\\\" an A−, calling it \\\"Thomas Harris meets Poe in a decidedly timely story,\\\" continuing, \\\"Smith has tapped into our anxieties about global warming, lethal weather, supergerms—our collective fear that nature is finally fighting back—and given us a decidedly organic nightmare.\\\"\\nMichiko Kakutani, writing for \\\"The New York Times\\\", said, \\\"As in his debut novel, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" (Knopf, 1993), Mr. Smith is concerned with what happens to a group of ordinary people when they are suddenly placed in a decidedly extraordinary situation. In that earlier book, evil turns out to be something that lurks deep within his heroes' greedy hearts. In \\\"The Ruins,\\\" evil is something randomly stumbled upon in the jungle.\\\" Kakutani was unimpressed, comparing the novel unfavorably with \\\"Little Shop of Horrors\\\" and saying, \\\"\\\"The Ruins\\\", however, isn't a comedy or a musical. It seems meant to be a straight-ahead thriller, with some bloody set pieces lifted from the horror genre thrown in for extra chills: you know, grisly, up-close shots of people having their legs chewed up or being choked to death by demonic forces. Whatever humor is produced by the story's Cruel Talking Plants appears to be entirely inadvertent.\\\"\\nIn \\\"Salon\\\", Laura Miller warned, \\\"Don't start this book if you're especially weak of stomach or nerves, and above all don't pick it up if you're not willing to tolerate some deviation from the usual conventions of thrillers and horror stories. Not everything will be explained to you, and not everything will turn out in the tidy, reassuring ways to which we've all become accustomed. \\\"The Ruins\\\" is like all great genre fiction in its irresistible storytelling momentum, but in its lack of mercy, it's more like real life.\\\"\\nReviewer Tony Buchsbaum found himself \\\"blown away by the author's crisp, clearly-focused way with a scene. He paints each one like a great artist, yet also holds back, sharing only the bits and pieces of detail that you need to make the scene your own.\\\" He adds,\\nThe rest, as it turns out, is pretty fantastic. If you don't want to take my word for it, ask author Stephen King, who has called \\\"The Ruins\\\" the book of the summer... Stephen King nailed it. \\\"The Ruins\\\" really is the book of the summer. But not because it'll scare the bejesus out of you—it will—and not because it's crafted so perfectly—it is—and not even because it'll draw you in, page by page, closing tighter and tighter around you, until your mouth and eyes are all O-shaped and your mind is just about unable to conceive of the fact that you've made it out alive. \\\"The Ruins\\\" is the book of the summer because, put simply, it's so good that it'll ruin every other book's chances.\\nStephen King made the comment in a column for \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\", writing, \\\"The Book of the Summer: That would be \\\"The Ruins\\\", by Scott Smith, last heard from in 1993 (\\\"A Simple Plan\\\", later filmed by Sam Raimi from Smith's script). No quietly building, Ruth Rendell-style suspense here; Smith intends to scare the bejabbers out of you, and succeeds. There are no chapters and no cutaways—\\\"The Ruins\\\" is your basic long scream of horror. It does for Mexican vacations what \\\"Jaws\\\" did for New England beaches in 1975.\\\"\\nThe \\\"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\\\" said that the novel \\\"is, superficially, the perfect summertime beach read. Between the lines of \\\"The Ruins\\\", however, is a dark, sometimes scathing, social commentary.\\\" The reviewer added that it \\\"has a strange duality in that it directly pays homage to Rod Serling's \\\"Twilight Zone\\\", and indirectly to \\\"The Corrections\\\" by Jonathan Franzen. The story of four young Americans caught in a deadly situation on a trip to Mayan ruins in Mexico, it builds a tension that Serling excelled at, created from knowing that a situation is spinning out of control in ways beyond the characters' comprehension.\\\"\",\n \"Paula Hawkins (author)\\nPaula Hawkins (born 26 August 1972) is a Zimbabwe-born British author, best known for her best-selling psychological thriller novel \\\"The Girl on the Train\\\" (2015), which deals with themes of domestic violence, alcohol, and drug abuse. The novel was adapted into a film starring Emily Blunt in 2016. Hawkins' second novel, \\\"Into the Water\\\", was released in 2017.\\nHawkins was born and raised in Salisbury, Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe). Her father was an economics professor and financial journalist. Before moving to London in 1989 at the age of 17, Hawkins attended Arundel School, Harare, Zimbabwe then studied for her A-Levels at Collingham College, an independent college in Kensington, West London. Hawkins read philosophy, politics and economics at Keble College, University of Oxford. She worked as a journalist for \\\"The Times\\\", reporting on business. She then worked for a number of publications on a freelance basis, and wrote a financial advice book for women, \\\"The Money Goddess\\\".\\nAround 2009, Hawkins began to write romantic comedy fiction under the name \\\"Amy Silver\\\", writing four novels including \\\"Confessions of a Reluctant Recessionista\\\". She did not achieve any commercial breakthrough until she challenged herself to write a darker, more serious story. Her best-selling novel \\\"The Girl on the Train\\\" (2015), was a complex thriller, with themes of domestic violence, alcohol, and drug abuse. The novel took her six months, writing full-time, to complete, at a time when she was in a difficult financial situation and had to borrow from her father to be able to complete it. The novel was adapted into a film in 2016. She lives in South London.\",\n \"A Simple Plan (novel)\\nA Simple Plan is a 1993 thriller novel by Scott Smith. \\\"The New York Times\\\" review said the book had \\\"emotional accuracy with an exceptionally skilled plot.\\\" A film adaptation, directed by Sam Raimi, was released in 1998; according to the \\\"Times\\\" review, the novel is so dark that the story was adjusted to soften the ending.\\nThree men find an airplane crashed in a rural Northern Ohio forest. The pilot is dead and the cockpit contains a gym bag with $4.4 million in one-hundred-dollar notes. They decide to keep the money, dividing it equally, but their plans go wrong when others come close to discovering their secret, resulting in multiple murders.\",\n \"Can't Keep My Hands off You\\n\\\"Can't Keep My Hands Off You\\\" is a promotional single (and in some countries released as the first single) from Simple Plan's fourth studio album, \\\"Get Your Heart On!\\\". The song features Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo as a guest vocalist, and was released as a radio single on March 31, 2011, and an iTunes single on April 19, 2011. A music video was released on April 20, 2011. It was the band's first single in three years since their last single, \\\"Save You\\\", was released in 2008. An alternate version without Cuomo can be found on the soundtrack to the 2011 film \\\"Prom\\\". The song was released as the second single in Australia in August 2011 and received frequent airplay.\\nThe band performed the song on the Australian version of \\\"The X Factor\\\" on 4 October 2011.\\nThe song debuted and peaked at 45 on the Australian ARIA charts on the 24 October 2011.\\nA music video was shot in early April and released on April 20, 2011. The video features the band taking over a high school prom and playing outside the high school while all the students dance and cheer them. Rivers Cuomo of Weezer, who provides guest vocals on the song, is not featured in the video.\\n\",\n \"Jack Higgins\\nHenry Patterson (born 27 July 1929), known by his pen name Jack Higgins, is a British writer and novelist. He is one of the best-selling authors of popular <a href=\\\"Thriller%20%28genre%29\\\">thrillers</a> and <a href=\\\"Spy%20fiction\\\">espionage</a> novels. His breakthrough novel \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Landed%20%28novel%29\\\">The Eagle Has Landed</a>\\\" (1975) sold over 50 million copies and was adapted into a successful film <a href=\\\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Landed%20%28film%29\\\">by the same title</a>.\\nSome of his other notable books are \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Prayer%20for%20the%20Dying\\\">A Prayer for the Dying</a>\\\" (1987), \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Flown\\\">The Eagle Has Flown</a>\\\" (1991), \\\"<a href=\\\"Thunder%20Point\\\">Thunder Point</a>\\\" (1993), \\\"<a href=\\\"Angel%20of%20Death%20%28novel%29\\\">Angel of Death</a>\\\" (1995), \\\"<a href=\\\"Flight%20of%20Eagles\\\">Flight of Eagles</a>\\\" (1998), and \\\"<a href=\\\"Day%20of%20Reckoning%20%28novel%29\\\">Day of Reckoning</a>\\\" (2000). His 84 novels in total have sold over 150 million copies and have been translated into 55 languages.\\nJack Higgins was born Henry Patterson on 27 July 1929 in <a href=\\\"Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne\\\">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, England. When his father abandoned them soon after, his Irish mother returned with him to her home town of <a href=\\\"Belfast\\\">Belfast</a>, <a href=\\\"Northern%20Ireland\\\">Northern Ireland</a>, to live with her mother and her grandfather on Shankill Road. Raised amid the religious and political violence of Belfast, Patterson learned to read at the age of three, when he was tasked with reading \\\"The Christian Herald\\\" to his bed-ridden grandfather. At night, he would crouch beneath a window and read by the light of the street lamps.\\nWhen his mother remarried, the family moved to <a href=\\\"Leeds\\\">Leeds</a>, <a href=\\\"West%20Yorkshire\\\">West Yorkshire</a>, England, where Patterson attended the <a href=\\\"Roundhay%20School\\\">Roundhay Grammar School for Boys</a>. He proved to be an indifferent student and left school with few formal qualifications. In 1947 he began two years of <a href=\\\"Conscription%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom\\\">National Service</a>, at first with the <a href=\\\"East%20Yorkshire%20Regiment\\\">East Yorkshire Regiment</a>, and later as a <a href=\\\"non-commissioned%20officer\\\">non-commissioned officer</a> in the <a href=\\\"Blues%20and%20Royals\\\">Royal Horse Guards Regiment</a> of the <a href=\\\"Household%20Cavalry\\\">Household Cavalry</a> doing security work on the <a href=\\\"East%20Germany\\\">East German</a> border.\\nAfter leaving the army, he returned to London to study <a href=\\\"Sociology\\\">Sociology</a> at <a href=\\\"London%20School%20of%20Economics\\\">London School of Economics</a> while supporting himself as a driver and labourer at night. He chose the school for its \\\"history of nonconformism\\\". He received his third-class degree after three years of study. After getting a teaching qualification, he took a job lecturing in Social Psychology and Criminology at Allerton Grange Secondary School Leeds. He taught Liberal Studies at <a href=\\\"Leeds%20Beckett%20University\\\">Leeds Polytechnic</a> and Education at James Graham College, which became part of Leeds Polytechnic in 1976.\\nIn 1959, Higgins began writing novels. One of his aliases was James Graham. The growing success of his early work allowed him to take time off from his teaching, and he eventually left the classroom to become a full-time novelist.\\nPatterson's early novels, written under his own name as well as under the pseudonyms James Graham, Martin Fallon, and Hugh Marlowe, are thrillers that typically feature hardened, cynical heroes, ruthless villains, and dangerous locales. Patterson published thirty-five such novels (sometimes three or four a year) between 1959 and 1974, learning his craft. \\\"<a href=\\\"East%20of%20Desolation\\\">East of Desolation</a>\\\" (1968), \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Game%20for%20Heroes\\\">A Game for Heroes</a>\\\" (1970) and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Savage%20Day\\\">The Savage Day</a>\\\" (1972) stand out among his early work for their vividly drawn settings (<a href=\\\"Greenland\\\">Greenland</a>, the Channel Islands, and Belfast, respectively) and offbeat plots.\\nPatterson began using the pseudonym Jack Higgins in the late 1960s; his first minor bestsellers appeared in the early 1970s, two contemporary thrillers \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Savage%20Day\\\">The Savage Day</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Prayer%20for%20the%20Dying\\\">A Prayer for the Dying</a>\\\" but it was the publication of his thirty sixth book, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Landed%20%28novel%29\\\">The Eagle Has Landed</a>,\\\" in 1975, that made Higgins' reputation. \\\"The Eagle Has Landed\\\" represented a step forward in the length and depth of Patterson's work. Its plot concerns with a German commando unit sent into England to kidnap <a href=\\\"Winston%20Churchill\\\">Winston Churchill</a>, and is reminiscent of <a href=\\\"Alberto%20Cavalcanti\\\">Alberto Cavalcanti</a>'s wartime film \\\"<a href=\\\"Went%20the%20Day%20Well%3F\\\">Went the Day Well?</a>\\\", which itself was directly based on the 1942 <a href=\\\"Graham%20Greene\\\">Graham Greene</a> short story \\\"The Lieutenant Died Last\\\". The main character is Irish gunman, poet, and philosopher <a href=\\\"Liam%20Devlin\\\">Liam Devlin</a>. Higgins followed \\\"The Eagle Has Landed\\\" with a series of thrillers, including several (\\\"<a href=\\\"Touch%20the%20Devil\\\">Touch the Devil</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Confessional%20%28novel%29\\\">Confessional</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Eagle%20Has%20Flown\\\">The Eagle Has Flown</a>\\\") featuring return appearances by Devlin.\\nThe third phase of Patterson's career began with the publication of \\\"<a href=\\\"Eye%20of%20the%20Storm%20%28Higgins%20novel%29\\\">Eye of the Storm</a>\\\" in 1992, a fictionalised retelling of an unsuccessful mortar attack on Prime Minister <a href=\\\"John%20Major\\\">John Major</a> by a ruthless young Irish gunman-philosopher named <a href=\\\"Sean%20Dillon%20%28Jack%20Higgins%20character%29\\\">Sean Dillon</a>, hired by an <a href=\\\"Iraq\\\">Iraq</a>i millionaire. Cast as the central character over the next series of novels, it is apparent that Dillon is in many ways an amalgamation of Patterson's previous heroes — Chavasse with his flair for languages, Nick Miller's familiarity with martial arts and jazz keyboard skills, Simon Vaughan's Irish roots, facility with firearms and the cynicism that comes with assuming the responsibility of administering a justice unavailable through a civilized legal system.\\nHiggins met Amy Hewett while both were studying at the London School of Economics. They were married in 1958, shortly after receiving a £75 ($210) advance for his first novel—\\\"the biggest wedding present we could have had.\\\" They have four children: Sarah (born 1960), Ruth (born 1962), Sean (born 1965), and Hannah (born 1974). Their daughter Sarah Patterson penned the novel \\\"The Distant Summer\\\" (1976). Higgins lives on <a href=\\\"Jersey\\\">Jersey</a>, in the <a href=\\\"Channel%20Islands\\\">Channel Islands</a>, with his second wife, Denise.\",\n \"Clive Cussler\\nClive Eric Cussler (born July 15, 1931) is an American <a href=\\\"adventure%20novel\\\">adventure novel</a>ist and underwater explorer. His <a href=\\\"Thriller%20%28genre%29\\\">thriller</a> novels, many featuring the character <a href=\\\"Dirk%20Pitt\\\">Dirk Pitt</a>, have reached \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\" fiction best-seller list more than 20 times. Cussler is the founder and chairman of the real-life <a href=\\\"National%20Underwater%20and%20Marine%20Agency\\\">National Underwater and Marine Agency</a> (NUMA), which has discovered more than 60 <a href=\\\"shipwreck\\\">shipwreck</a> sites and numerous other notable underwater wrecks. He is the sole author or lead author of more than 70 books.\\nClive Cussler was born in <a href=\\\"Aurora%2C%20Illinois\\\">Aurora</a>, <a href=\\\"Illinois\\\">Illinois</a>, and grew up in <a href=\\\"Alhambra%2C%20California\\\">Alhambra, California</a>. His mother Amy's ancestors were from <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a> and his father Eric was from <a href=\\\"Germany\\\">Germany</a>. He was awarded the rank of <a href=\\\"Eagle%20Scout%20%28Boy%20Scouts%20of%20America%29\\\">Eagle Scout</a> when he was 14. He attended <a href=\\\"Pasadena%20City%20College\\\">Pasadena City College</a> for two years and then enlisted in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Air%20Force\\\">United States Air Force</a> during the <a href=\\\"Korean%20War\\\">Korean War</a>. During his service in the Air Force, he was promoted to Sergeant and worked as an aircraft mechanic and flight engineer for the <a href=\\\"Military%20Air%20Transport%20Service\\\">Military Air Transport Service</a> (MATS).\\nAfter his discharge from the military, Cussler went to work in the advertising industry, first as a copywriter and later as a creative director for two of the nation's most successful advertising agencies. As part of his duties Cussler produced radio and television commercials, many of which won international awards including an award at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival.\\nFollowing the publication in 1996 of Cussler's first nonfiction work, \\\"\\\", he was awarded a <a href=\\\"Doctor%20of%20Letters\\\">Doctor of Letters</a> degree in 1997 by the Board of Governors of the <a href=\\\"State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20Maritime%20College\\\">State University of New York Maritime College</a> who accepted the work <a href=\\\"in%20lieu\\\">in lieu</a> of a Ph.D. thesis. This was the first time in the college's 123-year history that such a degree had been awarded.\\nIn 2002 Cussler was awarded the Naval Heritage Award from the U S Navy Memorial Foundation for his efforts in the area of marine exploration.\\nCussler is a fellow of the <a href=\\\"Explorers%20Club\\\">Explorers Club of New York</a>, the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Geographic%20Society\\\">Royal Geographic Society</a> in London, and the American Society of <a href=\\\"Oceanographer\\\">Oceanographer</a>s.\\nClive Cussler began writing in 1965 when his wife took a job working nights for the local police department where they lived in <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>. After making dinner for the children and putting them to bed, he had no one to talk to and nothing to do, so he decided to start writing. His most famous creation is marine engineer, government agent and adventurer <a href=\\\"Dirk%20Pitt\\\">Dirk Pitt</a>. The Dirk Pitt novels frequently take on an alternative history perspective, such as \\\"what if Atlantis were real?\\\" or \\\"what if Abraham Lincoln wasn't assassinated, but was kidnapped?\\\"\\nThe first two Pitt novels, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Mediterranean%20Caper\\\">The Mediterranean Caper</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Iceberg%20%28Cussler%20novel%29\\\">Iceberg</a>\\\", were relatively conventional maritime thrillers. The third, \\\"<a href=\\\"Raise%20the%20Titanic%21\\\">Raise the Titanic!</a>\\\", made Cussler's reputation and established the pattern that subsequent Pitt novels would follow: a blend of high adventure and high technology, generally involving <a href=\\\"megalomania\\\">megalomania</a>cal villains, lost ships, beautiful women, and sunken treasure.\\nCussler's novels almost always begin with a chapter taking place in the past. These contain none of the novel's main characters and often seem disconnected from the plot until the main characters discover a mystery or secret connecting the events in the first chapter to the rest of the story. This almost always comes in the form of a long-lost artifact which holds the key to the villain's or hero's objectives. Often in the first chapter, a ship or plane carrying a top-secret, important, or dangerous cargo is lost and never found, until it is recovered by a modern character later in the book.\\nCussler's novels, like those of <a href=\\\"Michael%20Crichton\\\">Michael Crichton</a>, are examples of <a href=\\\"techno-thriller\\\">techno-thriller</a>s that do not use military plots and settings. Where Crichton strove for scrupulous realism, however, Cussler prefers fantastic spectacles and outlandish plot devices. The Pitt novels, in particular, have the anything-goes quality of the <a href=\\\"James%20Bond\\\">James Bond</a> or <a href=\\\"Indiana%20Jones\\\">Indiana Jones</a> movies, while also sometimes borrowing from <a href=\\\"Alistair%20MacLean\\\">Alistair MacLean</a>'s novels. Pitt himself is a larger-than-life hero reminiscent of <a href=\\\"Doc%20Savage\\\">Doc Savage</a> and other characters from <a href=\\\"pulp%20magazines\\\">pulp magazines</a>.\\nCussler has had more than seventeen consecutive titles reach \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\" fiction <a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times%20Best%20Seller%20list\\\">best-seller list</a>.\\nAs an underwater <a href=\\\"List%20of%20explorers\\\">explorer</a>, Cussler has discovered more than sixty <a href=\\\"shipwreck\\\">shipwreck</a> sites and has written non-fiction books about his findings. He is also the founder of the <a href=\\\"National%20Underwater%20and%20Marine%20Agency\\\">National Underwater and Marine Agency</a> (NUMA), a non-profit organization with the same name as the fictional government agency that employs Dirk Pitt. Cussler owns a large collection of classic <a href=\\\"Automobile\\\">cars</a>, several of which (driven by Pitt) appear in his novels.\\nImportant finds by Cussler's N.U.M.A. include\\nA visual and interactive depiction of Cussler's NUMA Foundation Expeditions has been made available as an extension of NUMA's original website.\\nIn what started as a joke in the novel \\\"Dragon\\\" that Cussler expected his editor to remove, he now often writes himself into his books. At first he wrote himself simple cameos, but later as something of a <a href=\\\"deus%20ex%20machina\\\">deus ex machina</a>, providing the novel's protagonists with an essential bit of assistance or information. Often, the character is given an alias and not revealed as Cussler until his exit with the characters remarking on his odd name. The cameos include the Pitt adventures, as well as the Fargo Files books \\\"Lost Empire\\\", \\\"Spartan Gold\\\", \\\"Kingdom\\\", and \\\"The Tombs\\\" had Cussler making an appearance. \\\"The Tombs\\\" also includes his wife, Janet.\\nThere are at least two other types of recurring in-jokes that are less obvious to a casual reader. One is the frequent reuse of the name Leigh Hunt for different characters in different novels. Seventeen books have had a character with this name, frequently in the opening prologues, frequently a sailor, usually dying; a notable exception is the first (in chronological order) Dirk Pitt adventure, \\\"Pacific Vortex\\\", in which Admiral Leigh Hunter is a major character, commander of the 101st Recovery Fleet in Hawaii. In the introduction to \\\"Arctic Drift\\\", Cussler says there was a real Leigh Hunt who died in 2007 and the novel is dedicated to him. Another is that significant events in several novels occur on July 15 (Cussler's birthday). He also uses the name \\\"Periwinkle\\\" in his works. In \\\"The Adventures of Vin Fiz\\\" (and in other works as well) there appears a donkey named Periwinkle. In \\\"Valhalla Rising\\\", \\\"Periwinkle\\\" is the name of a catamaran in which Pitt, Giordino, and Misty Graham are rescued by none other than Mr. Cussler himself. Cussler's friend <a href=\\\"Craig%20Dirgo\\\">Craig Dirgo</a> is mentioned in several books.\\nClive Cussler married Barbara Knight in 1955, and they remained married for nearly fifty years until her death in 2003. Together they had three children — Teri, <a href=\\\"Dirk%20Cussler\\\">Dirk</a>, and <a href=\\\"Dayna%20Cussler\\\">Dayna</a> — who have given him four grandchildren. Cussler's daughter Teri is the creator and manager of the Cussler Museum in <a href=\\\"Arvada%2C%20Colorado\\\">Arvada</a>, Colorado, which display's Cussler's collection of classic automobiles.\\nThis series of books focuses on <a href=\\\"Kurt%20Austin\\\">Kurt Austin</a>, Team Leader of NUMA's Special Assignments division and his adventures. Some characters from the Pitt novels appear such as Sandecker, Rudi Gunn, Hiram Yaeger and St. Julien Perlmutter. Pitt makes brief appearances in the books \\\"Serpent\\\", \\\"White Death\\\", \\\"Polar Shift\\\", \\\"Devil's Gate\\\", \\\"The Storm\\\", \\\"Zero Hour\\\", and \\\"Ghost Ship\\\" and is mentioned in \\\"Lost City\\\".\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Oregon%20Files\\\">The Oregon Files</a>\\\" features a ship named the \\\"Oregon\\\" which Cussler introduced in the Dirk Pitt Adventure \\\"Flood Tide\\\" (1997). While appearing to be a decrepit freighter, it's actually a high-tech advanced ship used by an unnamed and mysterious \\\"Corporation\\\" under the leadership of <a href=\\\"Juan%20Cabrillo%20%28character%29\\\">Juan Cabrillo</a>. The ship is run like a business, with its crew being shareholders, taking jobs for the CIA and other agencies to help stop crime and terrorism. The crew is adept at disguises, combat, computer hacking, and more, to aid their missions. Kurt Austin, Joe Zavala, and Dirk Pitt all make cameo appearances in the fourth volume, \\\"Skeleton Coast\\\" (Cabrillo speaks to Pitt on the telephone; and Austin and Zavala appear at the end).\\nThese books are set mostly in the U.S. in the early part of the 20th century. They center around <a href=\\\"Isaac%20Bell\\\">Isaac Bell</a>, a brilliant investigator for the Van Dorn Detective agency, which appears to be modeled after the real-life <a href=\\\"Pinkerton%20National%20Detective%20Agency\\\">Pinkerton</a> Agency. Like Pitt, Bell has an affinity for automobiles and is a crack shot. The first book reveals that Bell survives into 1950 with a wife and grown children. Though the setting is a century ago, the books still qualify as techno-thrillers, since they feature the advanced technology of that time such as private express trains, telegraphs, telephones, dreadnought battleships and early airplanes.\\nThe series focuses on Sam and Remi Fargo, a couple who are professional treasure hunters.\\n! Name\\n! Information\\nCussler has co-authored books with other writers, such as Russell Blake.\\n\",\n \"Summit, New Jersey\\nSummit is a <a href=\\\"City%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">city</a> in <a href=\\\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Union County</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a>, United States. At the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a>, the city's population was 21,457, reflecting an increase of 326 (+1.5%) from the 21,131 counted in the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 Census</a>, which had in turn increased by 1,374 (+7.0%) from the 19,757 counted in the <a href=\\\"1990%20United%20States%20Census\\\">1990 Census</a>. Summit had the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20locations%20by%20per%20capita%20income\\\">16th-highest per capita income</a> in the state as of the 2000 Census.\\nOriginally incorporated as Summit Township by an act of the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\\\">New Jersey Legislature</a> on March 23, 1869, from portions of New Providence Township (now <a href=\\\"Berkeley%20Heights%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Berkeley Heights</a>) and <a href=\\\"Springfield%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Springfield Township</a>, Summit was reincorporated as a city on March 8, 1899.\\nPossible derivations of Summit's name include its location atop the <a href=\\\"Watchung%20Mountains\\\">Second Watchung Mountain</a>; the Summit Lodge, the house to which jurist <a href=\\\"James%20Kent\\\">James Kent</a> moved in 1837 and which stands today at 50 Kent Place Boulevard; and to a local sawmill owner who granted passage to the <a href=\\\"Morris%20and%20Essex%20Railroad\\\">Morris and Essex Railroad</a> for a route to \\\"the summit of the Short Hills\\\".\\nThe region in which Summit is located was purchased from <a href=\\\"Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">Native Americans</a> on October 28, 1664. Summit's earliest European settlers came to the area around the year 1710. The original name of Summit was \\\"Turkey Hill\\\" to distinguish it from the area then known as \\\"Turkey\\\" (New Providence's original name until 1759). During the <a href=\\\"American%20Revolutionary%20War\\\">American Revolutionary War</a>, Summit was known as \\\"Beacon Hill\\\", because bonfire beacons were lit on an eastern ridge in Summit to warn the New Jersey militiamen of approaching British troops.\\nSummit was called the \\\"Heights over Springfield\\\" during the late 18th century and most of the 19th century, and was considered a part of <a href=\\\"New%20Providence%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">New Providence</a>. During this period, Summit was part of Springfield Township, which eventually broke up into separate municipalities. Eventually, only Summit and New Providence remained joined.\\nLord Chancellor <a href=\\\"James%20Kent\\\">James Kent</a>, a <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Court%20of%20Chancery\\\">Chancellor of New York State</a> and author of \\\"Commentaries on American Law\\\", retired to this area in 1837 in a house he called \\\"Summit Lodge\\\" (perhaps a namesake of the town) on what is now called Kent Place Boulevard. He lived there until 1847. Today, the lodge is part of a large mansion, at 50 Kent Place Boulevard, opposite <a href=\\\"Kent%20Place%20School\\\">Kent Place School</a>.\\nIn 1837, the <a href=\\\"Morris%20and%20Essex%20Railroad\\\">Morris and Essex Railroad</a>, which became the <a href=\\\"Delaware%20Lackawanna%20and%20Western%20Railroad\\\">Delaware Lackawanna and Western Railroad</a> and is now <a href=\\\"NJ%20Transit\\\">NJ Transit</a>'s <a href=\\\"Morris%20and%20Essex%20Lines\\\">Morris and Essex Lines</a>, was built over what was then called \\\"The Summit\\\" hill, a name later shortened to Summit. The railroad allowed Summit to outgrow neighboring New Providence, which didn't have a train station. In 1868, a hotel named \\\"The Summit House\\\" burned beside the railroad. In 1869, Summit and New Providence separated and the Summit area was incorporated as the \\\"Township of Summit\\\". In the late 19th century, the area began shifting from farmland to wealthy estates; in 1892, renowned architect C. Abbott French cleared away a crest of a \\\"summit ridge\\\", removing \\\"an impenetrable tangle of wild vines ... and myriads of rattlesnakes,\\\" to build a house with a view of New York City, The Times Building, and the <a href=\\\"Brooklyn%20Bridge\\\">Brooklyn Bridge</a>. The present-day incarnation of Summit, known formally as the City of Summit, was incorporated on April 11, 1899.\\nDuring this time, Summit was the home of America's \\\"antivice crusader\\\", <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Comstock\\\">Anthony Comstock</a>, who moved there about 1880 and built a house in 1892 at 35 Beekman Road, where he died in 1915.\\nIn the 19th century, Summit served as a nearby getaway spot for wealthy residents of <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> in search of fresh air. Weekenders or summer vacationers would reach Summit by train and relax at large hotels and smaller inns and guest houses. Calvary Episcopal Church was built in 1894-95; the New York Times called it a \\\"handsome new house of worship\\\".\\nSilk weaving, which had thrived as an industry in the late 19th century, declined in the early decades of the 20th. In 1915, there was a strike at the Summit Silk Company on Weaver Street. In the early 20th century, there was much building; in 1909, one report suggested at least 40 residences were being built (some with stables) with costs varying from $4,500 to $45,000, making it \\\"one of the greatest periods of building activity this place, the \\\"Hill City\\\", has known.\\\"\\nA new railway was constructed from what was then-called \\\"New Orange\\\". The <a href=\\\"Rahway%20Valley%20Railroad\\\">Rahway Valley Railroad</a> connected Summit with the <a href=\\\"Delaware%2C%20Lackawanna%20and%20Western%20Railroad\\\">Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad</a> (DL&W). In the early 20th century, both freight and passenger service were offered by this line. (Although in 2009, <a href=\\\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Union County</a> was exploring the possibility of reactivating the long-dormant line for freight traffic.) A <a href=\\\"tram\\\">trolley</a> line called the <a href=\\\"Morris%20County%20Traction%20Company\\\">Morris County Traction Company</a>, once ran a passenger trolley through Summit to/from <a href=\\\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Newark</a> and <a href=\\\"Morris%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Morris County</a>, in the early part of the 20th century. Broad Street in Summit was designed and built for the trolley, which is why it is wider and straighter than most streets in the city. Portions of the rails could still be seen on it as late as the 1980s.\\nRelations between city authorities and businesses have not always been smooth; in 1898, city authorities and the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company had disputes about wires and telephone poles; the city acted and \\\"wires and cables of the company were cut from the poles.\\\" There were disputes between Summit's commuters and the Lackawanna railroad about walkways; in one incident in 1905, \\\"a number of passengers seeking to board the 6:35 train found their way barred. They made a united rush, and when the dust cleared away, the door wasn't there. It is said the company will put the door back. The commuters say they will remove it as often as it is replaced.\\\"\\nFollowing <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, the city experienced a great building boom, as living outside <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> and commuting to work became more common and the population of <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a> grew. At this point, Summit took on its suburban character of tree lined streets and architect-designed houses that it is known for today.\\nIn the late 1970s, Summit had a <a href=\\\"mini-bus\\\">mini-bus</a> system, with three long circular routes through most parts of Summit that were primarily designed to bring commuters to the railroad station downtown. <a href=\\\"The%20Velvet%20Underground\\\">The Velvet Underground</a> played their first paid concert at a <a href=\\\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Summit High School</a> prom.\\nMore than a dozen Summit residents died in the <a href=\\\"September%2011%20terrorist%20attacks\\\">September 11 terrorist attacks</a>. Many worked in the <a href=\\\"World%20Trade%20Center%20%281973%E2%80%932001%29\\\">World Trade Center</a>, and commuted by rail to Hoboken. A few days after the attacks, townspeople assembled on the town green while a minister \\\"called out the names of a dozen residents still unaccounted for after Tuesday's attack on the World Trade Center. Others in the crowd of nearly 2,000 called out names he had left out.\\\" A few World Trade Center firms moved to Summit.\\nIn 2005, star baseball athlete <a href=\\\"Willie%20Wilson%20%28baseball%29\\\">Willie Wilson</a> and former Summit graduate returned to <a href=\\\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Summit High School</a>. Wilson said: \\\"To me, Summit is a special place ... It's where it all began and I have great memories. This is where I want to help kids and youth baseball, and I want my own son and daughter to come and help me create something here.\\\" During the economic downturn of 2008-2009, Summit was listed as #6 on a list of American communities \\\"likely to be pummeled by the economic crisis.\\\" Crime is generally not bad in the city; the summer 2010 murder of Abelino Mazariego-Torres during a robbery attempt gone awry shocked residents in what one person described as a \\\"very small and very peaceful town.\\\" Several youths were charged in the murder.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city had a total area of 6.046 square miles (15.661 km), including 5.995 square miles (15.528 km) of land and 0.051 square miles (0.133 km) of water (0.85%). It is about 20 mi from Manhattan.\\nSpringfield Avenue is the town's main street.\\n<a href=\\\"Local%20government%20in%20New%20Jersey%23Unincorporated%20communities\\\">Unincorporated communities</a>, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Brantwood Park and Tall Oaks.\\nIt is bordered to the northeast by <a href=\\\"Millburn%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Millburn</a> in <a href=\\\"Essex%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Essex County</a>, to the northwest by <a href=\\\"Chatham%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Chatham</a> and <a href=\\\"Chatham%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Chatham Township</a>, both in <a href=\\\"Morris%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Morris County</a>, to the west by <a href=\\\"New%20Providence%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">New Providence</a>, to the southwest by <a href=\\\"Berkeley%20Heights%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Berkeley Heights</a>, to the south by <a href=\\\"Mountainside%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Mountainside</a> and to the southeast by <a href=\\\"Springfield%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Springfield Township</a>.\\nOne report was that Manhattan's financial elite prefers living in Summit because of big houses, good schools and <a href=\\\"NJ%20Transit\\\">NJ Transit</a>'s rail link to <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">Manhattan</a>'s financial district. Others suggested that the city has long been popular with traders, investment bankers, and money managers, with nearly 20% of Summit's residents working in finance and real estate.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were people, households, and families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 3578.9 /sqmi . There were housing units at an average density of 1366.0 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was % () <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Black%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Black or African American</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, % () from <a href=\\\"Race%20and%20ethnicity%20in%20the%20United%20States%20Census%23Race\\\">other races</a>, and % () from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic or Latino</a> of any race were % () of the population.\\nThere were households out of which 39.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.4% were non-families. 23.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.29.\\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 29.0% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 28.6% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.7 years. For every 100 females there were 96.8 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 92.0 males.\\nThe Census Bureau's 2006-2010 <a href=\\\"American%20Community%20Survey\\\">American Community Survey</a> showed that (in 2010 <a href=\\\"inflation%20adjustment\\\">inflation-adjusted</a> dollars) <a href=\\\"median%20household%20income\\\">median household income</a> was $109,602 and the median family income was $145,083. Males had a median income of $109,608 (+/- $15,245) versus $61,368 (+/- $8,854) for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $70,574. About 4.4% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 7.4% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over.\\nAt the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 United States Census</a> there were 21,131 people, 7,897 households and 5,606 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 3,490.7 per square mile (1,348.5/km). There were 8,146 housing units at an average density of 1,345.7 per square mile (519.9/km). The racial makeup of the city was 87.77% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 4.33% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.09% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 4.45% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.01% <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.70% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.65% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 10.17% of the population.\\nThere were 7,897 households of which 35.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.1% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.18.\\nAge distribution was 27.0% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.1 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $92,964, and the median income for a family was $117,053. Males had a median income of $85,625 versus $46,811 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $62,598. About 2.5% of families and 4.2% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over.\\nCorporate residents of Summit include:\\nThe Summit Opera House was originally built in the 1890s by the <a href=\\\"Woman%27s%20Christian%20Temperance%20Union\\\">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a> as a dry entertainment hall and local W.C.T.U. meeting place. It currently houses Winberie's restaurant on the ground floor, and a church, office space, and apartments on the upper floors. It is located at Springfield Avenue and Kent Place Boulevard in downtown Summit.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Summit%20Playhouse\\\">Summit Playhouse</a> features live dramatic performances.\\nThe Visual Arts Center of New Jersey on Elm Street diagonally across from the Summit Middle School is a professionally recognized regional art center with an art school and an exhibition program.\\nHorseback riding is available at the Watchung stables, located in the <a href=\\\"Watchung%20Reservation\\\">Watchung Reservation</a> since the 1930s.\\nA <a href=\\\"rail%20trail\\\">rail trail</a> is a walking and/or biking trail that makes use of old railroad tracks. Two abandoned rail lines exist in Union County.\\nThe City of Summit and the nonprofit Summit Park Line Foundation are working on turning the line from Morris Avenue to Briant Park in Summit into a <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.nj.com/independentpress/index.ssf/2015/01/summits_own_highline_would_be.html\\\">rail trail</a> that will be approximately one mile long. This rail trail, potentially called the Summit Park Line, could provide a greenway to connect several county parks, akin to a Summit High Line. A path could run directly from Summit to the <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Kill\\\">Arthur Kill</a> in <a href=\\\"Linden%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Linden, New Jersey</a> on the <a href=\\\"Rahway%20Valley%20Railroad\\\">Rahway Valley Railroad</a> and the <a href=\\\"Staten%20Island%20Rapid%20Transit\\\">Staten Island Rapid Transit</a> line.\\nThe Summit city council applied for a $1 million grant toward the Summit Park Line project in November 2016. \\\"If Summit is able to complete the project, it might help other parts of the greenway come through,\\\" said Union County Public Relations Coordinator, Sebastian Delia.\\nOn April 11, 1899, Summit voters adopted as the Charter of the City of Summit the Statute of 1899 applicable to cities of less than 12,000 population. On December 15, 1987, the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\\\">New Jersey Legislature</a> enacted a law that repealed all of the remaining provisions of Summit's original Charter and replaced and retained sections not covered by general law and specific to Summit's original Charter. Summit's Charter now allows that \\\"1: The council may, by referendum, change the term of the councilman at large from a two year term to a four year term. 2: Resolutions adopted by the council do not have to be approved by the mayor. 3: The council pro tempore shall be the acting mayor in the mayor's absence due to sickness or other cause. 4: The municipality may appoint an administrator in accordance with the provisions of N.J.S. 40A:9-136. 5: The municipality may adopt an administrative code.\\\"\\nThe <a href=\\\"mayor\\\">mayor</a> is elected by the city for a four-year term and is the city's official spokesman and chief elected official. The mayor can appoint various officials, including the <a href=\\\"chief%20of%20police\\\">chief of police</a> and the <a href=\\\"board%20of%20education\\\">board of education</a>. The mayor serves as the chairman of the Board of School Estimate and on various committees, and has the right to speak at common council meetings, but can only vote to break ties in the council. This bully pulpit role is considered the mayor's strongest power.\\nThe common council has the chief policy making and administrative oversight role in city government. The council approves all laws and adopts the city budget. The council also oversees the work of city department heads. The council consists of three members from Ward I, three members from Ward II and one member elected at-large. The at-large member serves a two-year term of office, while the six ward members serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with one seat in each ward up for election each year. The council elects from its membership a president and a president pro tem, each serving a one-year term. The president presides at all council meetings, and the president pro tem presides in the president's absence. The president pro tem also serves as acting mayor in the absence of the mayor.\\ns of 2016 , the mayor of Summit is <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrat</a> Nora G. Radest, whose term of office ends December 31, 2019. Members of the common council are Council President Michael T. McTernan (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>, 2016; First Ward), President Pro Tem Sandra R. Lizza (R, 2016; Second Ward), Patrick J. Hurley (R, 2017; Second Ward), B. David Naidu (D, 2018; First Ward), Mary G. Ogden (R, 2018; Second Ward), Dr. Robert J. Rubino (First Ward; R, 2017) and Richard Sun (D, 2018; At Large).\\nMichael F. Rogers is the <a href=\\\"city%20manager\\\">city administrator</a> of Summit. In this role, he directs day-to-day operations of city government and the city departments.\\nSummit has been a stronghold for the <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican Party</a> for years. From 1921 to 2001 no <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrats</a> served in elective office and very few ran for office. The real elections occurred in the Republican primary. In 2001, Democratic candidates Michel Bitritto won a council seat in Ward I and Jordan Glatt won the at-large council seat. Summit had never elected a Democrat as mayor until 2003, when Jordan Glatt was elected.\\nIn November 2011, Republicans swept all the open seats, with Ellen Dickson elected mayor and Gregory Drummond, Patrick Hurley and Robert Rubino sweeping the three council seats, giving full control of city government back to the Republican party.\\nThe Department of Community Services is responsible for engineering, public works, and code administration. The engineering division manages city infrastructure such as roads, curbs, sewers, and provide support to the planning and zoning boards. Public works maintains streets, trees, traffic signs, public parks, traffic islands, playgrounds, public buildings, support vehicles, equipment, and has other responsibilities. The city runs a municipal disposal area or solid waste transfer station where recyclables are collected, including bulky trash; residents must have a town-generated sticker on their cars to use this facility. Trash is picked up from garbage cans once a week for most residents, and recycling materials are picked up every two weeks. Certain trees need permits before being removed. Summit plows 66 mi of roads, covering all city streets, except for county roads. Residents are asked to put leaves in biodegradable bags for pickup on selected times during autumn and spring. Recently the city has embarked on a program of \\\"Bringing Art to Public Spaces in Summit\\\"; this program, established in 2002, has placed sculptures at different venues around the town and is supported by private donations. The Summit Chamber of Commerce advertises the town on cable television.\\nSummit is located in the 7th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 21st state legislative district.\\n<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%27s%207th%20congressional%20district\\\">New Jersey's Seventh Congressional District</a> is represented by <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Lance\\\">Leonard Lance</a> (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>, <a href=\\\"Clinton%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Clinton Township</a>). New Jersey is represented in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate\\\">United States Senate</a> by Democrats <a href=\\\"Cory%20Booker\\\">Cory Booker</a> (<a href=\\\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Newark</a>, term ends 2021) and <a href=\\\"Bob%20Menendez\\\">Bob Menendez</a> (<a href=\\\"Paramus%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Paramus</a>, 2019).\\nFor the 2016–2017 session (<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Senate%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\\\">Senate</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\\\">General Assembly</a>), the <a href=\\\"21st%20Legislative%20District%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">21st Legislative District</a> of the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\\\">New Jersey Legislature</a> is represented in the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Senate\\\">State Senate</a> by <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Kean%20Jr.\\\">Thomas Kean Jr.</a> (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>, <a href=\\\"Westfield%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Westfield</a>) and in the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly\\\">General Assembly</a> by <a href=\\\"Jon%20Bramnick\\\">Jon Bramnick</a> (R, Westfield) and <a href=\\\"Nancy%20Munoz\\\">Nancy Munoz</a> (R, <a href=\\\"Summit%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Summit</a>). The <a href=\\\"Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\\\">Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\\\"Chris%20Christie\\\">Chris Christie</a> (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>, <a href=\\\"Mendham%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Mendham Township</a>). The <a href=\\\"Lieutenant%20Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\\\">Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\\\"Kim%20Guadagno\\\">Kim Guadagno</a> (R, <a href=\\\"Monmouth%20Beach%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Monmouth Beach</a>).\\n<a href=\\\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Union County</a> is governed by a <a href=\\\"Board%20of%20Chosen%20Freeholders\\\">Board of Chosen Freeholders</a>, whose nine members are elected <a href=\\\"at-large\\\">at-large</a> to three-year terms of office on a staggered basis with three seats coming up for election each year, with an appointed County Manager overseeing the day-to-day operations of the county. At an annual reorganization meeting held in the beginning of January, the board selects a Chairman and Vice Chairman from among its members. s of 2014 , Union County's Freeholders are\\nChairman Christopher Hudak (<a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">D</a>, <a href=\\\"Linden%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Linden</a>, term ends December 31, 2014),\\nVice Chairman Mohamed S. Jalloh (D, <a href=\\\"Roselle%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Roselle</a>, 2015),\\nBruce Bergen (D, <a href=\\\"Springfield%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Springfield Township</a>, 2015),\\nLinda Carter (D, <a href=\\\"Plainfield%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Plainfield</a>, 2016),\\nAngel G. Estrada (D, <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Elizabeth</a>, 2014),\\nSergio Granados (D, Elizabeth, 2016)\\nBette Jane Kowalski (D, <a href=\\\"Cranford%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Cranford</a>, 2016),\\nAlexander Mirabella (D, <a href=\\\"Fanwood%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Fanwood</a>, 2015) and\\nVernell Wright (D, <a href=\\\"Union%20Township%2C%20Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Union</a>, 2014). Constitutional officers elected on a countywide basis are\\nCounty Clerk Joanne Rajoppi (D, Union, 2015),\\nSheriff Ralph Froehlich (D, Union, 2016) and\\nSurrogate James S. LaCorte (D, Springfield Township, 2014). The County Manager is Alfred Faella.\\nAs of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 13,358 registered voters in Summit, of which 3,842 (28.8% vs. 41.8% countywide) were registered as <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrats</a>, 3,703 (27.7% vs. 15.3%) were registered as <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republicans</a> and 5,808 (43.5% vs. 42.9%) were registered as <a href=\\\"Unaffiliated%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Unaffiliated</a>. There were 5 voters registered to other parties. Among the city's 2010 Census population, 62.3% (vs. 53.3% in Union County) were registered to vote, including 87.7% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 70.6% countywide).\\nIn the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202012\\\">2012 presidential election</a>, Democrat <a href=\\\"Barack%20Obama\\\">Barack Obama</a> received 4,895 votes (49.4% vs. 66.0% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\\\"Mitt%20Romney\\\">Mitt Romney</a> with 4,859 votes (49.1% vs. 32.3%) and other candidates with 109 votes (1.1% vs. 0.8%), among the 9,899 ballots cast by the city's 14,330 registered voters, for a turnout of 69.1% (vs. 68.8% in Union County). In the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202008\\\">2008 presidential election</a>, Democrat Barack Obama received 5,820 votes (54.5% vs. 63.1% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\\\"John%20McCain\\\">John McCain</a> with 4,700 votes (44.0% vs. 35.2%) and other candidates with 88 votes (0.8% vs. 0.9%), among the 10,677 ballots cast by the city's 13,690 registered voters, for a turnout of 78.0% (vs. 74.7% in Union County). In the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202004\\\">2004 presidential election</a>, Republican <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a> received 5,183 votes (50.0% vs. 40.3% countywide), ahead of Democrat <a href=\\\"John%20Kerry\\\">John Kerry</a> with 5,068 votes (48.9% vs. 58.3%) and other candidates with 75 votes (0.7% vs. 0.7%), among the 10,360 ballots cast by the city's 13,159 registered voters, for a turnout of 78.7% (vs. 72.3% in the whole county).\\nIn the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202013\\\">2013 gubernatorial election</a>, Republican <a href=\\\"Chris%20Christie\\\">Chris Christie</a> received 68.1% of the vote (3,971 cast), ahead of Democrat <a href=\\\"Barbara%20Buono\\\">Barbara Buono</a> with 30.6% (1,785 votes), and other candidates with 1.3% (76 votes), among the 5,928 ballots cast by the city's 14,076 registered voters (96 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 42.1%. In the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202009\\\">2009 gubernatorial election</a>, Democrat <a href=\\\"Jon%20Corzine\\\">Jon Corzine</a> was defeated in his hometown when Republican <a href=\\\"Chris%20Christie\\\">Chris Christie</a> received 3,682 votes (50.3% vs. 41.7% countywide), ahead his 3,014 votes (41.2% vs. 50.6%), Independent <a href=\\\"Chris%20Daggett\\\">Chris Daggett</a> with 543 votes (7.4% vs. 5.9%) and other candidates with 43 votes (0.6% vs. 0.8%), among the 7,323 ballots cast by the city's 13,435 registered voters, yielding a 54.5% turnout (vs. 46.5% in the county).\\nStudents in <a href=\\\"pre-kindergarten\\\">pre-kindergarten</a> through <a href=\\\"twelfth%20grade\\\">twelfth grade</a> are educated by the <a href=\\\"Summit%20Public%20Schools\\\">Summit Public Schools</a>. As of the 2012-13 school year, the district's nine schools had an enrollment of 4,121 students and 335.0 classroom teachers (on an <a href=\\\"full-time%20equivalent\\\">FTE</a> basis), for a <a href=\\\"student%E2%80%93teacher%20ratio\\\">student–teacher ratio</a> of 12.30:1. Schools in the district (with 2012-13 enrollment data from the <a href=\\\"National%20Center%20for%20Education%20Statistics\\\">National Center for Education Statistics</a>) are\\nJefferson Primary School (grades PreK-K; 165 students),\\nWilson Primary School (PK-K; 172),\\nBrayton School (1-5; 361),\\nFranklin School (1-5; 381),\\nJefferson School (1-5; 234),\\nLincoln-Hubbard School (1-5; 332),\\nWashington School (1-5; 317),\\nLawton C. Johnson Summit Middle School (6-8; 1,041) and\\n<a href=\\\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Summit High School</a> (9-12; 1,118).\\nSummit has sports programs for youth including basketball, baseball, soccer and football leagues through the Recreation Center. In addition, the YMCA organizes sports clinics and teams including the Summit Swim Team. At age eight, children can try out for a traveling soccer program called the Summit Soccer Club, a nonprofit dedicated to the development of youth soccer in the city. Travel soccer runs for both the fall and spring seasons. <a href=\\\"Lacrosse\\\">Lacrosse</a> is a popular sport with high school teams achieving distinction at county and state levels. <a href=\\\"Summit%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Summit High School</a> boys' team won the state's Tournament of Champions in 2010 and 2009 and lost by one goal in the 2011 final. Summit holds the New Jersey state (and possibly national) high school record with 68 consecutive victories during 2009 to 2011. The 2012 team was ranked second in New Jersey in May 2012 and in the top 20 nationally. Beginning in first grade, boys and girls can learn to play lacrosse in clinics and teams organized by the Summit Lacrosse Club.\\nSummit residential real estate is expensive. In October 2009, the median house price was $655,500. Real estate taxes vary; an $800,000 four-bedroom, 2-full-bath, 2-partial-bath single-family home built in 1939 had taxes of $16,000 in 2009. Summit, along with many suburban communities in the United States, adopted a policy of zoning ordinances requiring a single-family house on a large lot and could thereby \\\"exclude any undesirable influences that might erode property values\\\", a requirement that effectively excluded apartment buildings and multi-family dwellings, and tended to raise the price of houses. One study found that since 1945, the single-family house on a large lot zoning mechanism \\\"has been increasingly used in suburban and rural areas to safeguard particular vested interests.\\\" A reporter from \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\" who is a Summit resident criticized the city for being an \\\"economically, racially and ideologically homogenized populace\\\" with \\\"a growing divide between Summit's haves and have-nots.\\\" He elaborated in 2006: \\\"there's an ever-diminishing corner of the city akin to the so-called slums of <a href=\\\"Beverly%20Hills\\\">Beverly Hills</a>, where middle-income homeowners like me can take advantage of the schools and services of Summit without the million-dollar price tags so ubiquitous on the other side of the Midtown Direct tracks.\\\" But he preferred the city as a place to raise and educate his children. One developer sued the city in 2005 to comply with <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a>'s <a href=\\\"Fair%20Housing%20Act\\\">Fair Housing Act</a> to provide more affordable housing units. The city is working on a \\\"housing master plan\\\" to avoid future lawsuits from developers. In 2011, volunteers with <a href=\\\"Habitat%20for%20Humanity\\\">Habitat for Humanity</a>, in conjunction with church groups including St. Teresa of Avila and the <a href=\\\"Unitarian%20Church%20in%20Summit\\\">Unitarian Church</a> led by <a href=\\\"Vanessa%20Southern\\\">Vanessa Southern</a>, constructed affordable housing on Morris Avenue.\\n<a href=\\\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Union County</a>, which includes Summit, had the 10th highest property taxes in the nation as of 2010, based on data gathered by the <a href=\\\"National%20Taxpayers%20Union\\\">National Taxpayers Union</a>.\\ns of 2010 , the city had a total of 84.80 mi of roadways, of which 66.94 mi were maintained by the municipality, 14.72 mi by Union County and 3.14 mi by the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Department%20of%20Transportation\\\">New Jersey Department of Transportation</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Route%2024\\\">Route 24</a> and <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Route%20124\\\">Route 124</a> run along the eastern boundary of Summit, and <a href=\\\"Interstate%2078\\\">Interstate 78</a> runs along the southern boundary. County Routes <a href=\\\"County%20Route%20512%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">512</a>, <a href=\\\"County%20Route%20527%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">527</a> and <a href=\\\"County%20Route%20649%20%28Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey%29\\\">649</a> also pass through the city.\\nParking is an ongoing issue. There are several free two-hour-limit parking lots for shoppers, as well as metered parking on main streets. The city council has conducted studies to explore further parking options.\\n<a href=\\\"NJ%20Transit\\\">NJ Transit</a>'s <a href=\\\"Morristown%20Line\\\">Morristown Line</a> and <a href=\\\"Gladstone%20Branch\\\">Gladstone Branch</a> merge at <a href=\\\"Summit%20station%20%28NJT%29\\\">Summit station</a>, providing frequent passenger service to <a href=\\\"Hoboken%20Terminal\\\">Hoboken Terminal</a> or New York's <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania%20Station%20%28New%20York%20City%29\\\">Penn Station</a>. The train ride from Summit to New York is about 50 minutes (local) or 35 minutes (express). One reporter wrote: \\\"The train line dominates Summit, bisecting its handsome commercial district from the town green on a sunken track, like a Dutch canal.\\\"\\nNJ Transit offers bus service to and from Newark on the <a href=\\\"70%20%28New%20Jersey%20bus%29\\\">70</a> route with local Wheels service on the <a href=\\\"986%20%28New%20Jersey%20bus%29\\\">986</a> route.\\n<a href=\\\"Lakeland%20Bus%20Lines\\\">Lakeland Bus Lines</a> (Route 78) provides service to and from Manhattan during peak commuting hours.\\n<a href=\\\"Newark%20Liberty%20International%20Airport\\\">Newark Liberty International Airport</a> in Newark / <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Elizabeth</a> is approximately 15 minutes away via Interstate 78.\\nDue to its proximity to New York City and Newark, daily newspapers serving the community are \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Wall%20Street%20Journal\\\">The Wall Street Journal</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Star-Ledger\\\">The Star-Ledger</a>\\\".\\nLocally, Summit is served by the \\\"Summit Herald-Dispatch\\\" and the \\\"Independent Press\\\", the latter of which is based in <a href=\\\"New%20Providence%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">New Providence</a> and serves the City of Summit and several surrounding communities. Both newspapers are published on a weekly basis. Summit is also served by the online news source, \\\"The Alternative Press\\\"\\nSummit is home to HomeTowne Television (HTTV), a cable television station providing <a href=\\\"public%2C%20educational%2C%20and%20government%20access\\\">public, educational, and government access</a> (PEG) <a href=\\\"cable%20TV\\\">cable TV</a> programming. HTTV's signal reaches municipalities in <a href=\\\"Union%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Union</a>, <a href=\\\"Essex%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Essex</a> and <a href=\\\"Morris%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Morris</a> counties via Verizon channel 33 and Comcast channel 36. The station produces original content weekly and provides live streaming from hometownetv.org. The station is run by station manager, Amanda Olsen.\\nIn \\\"<a href=\\\"Mr.%20Monk%20and%20the%20End\\\">Mr. Monk and the End</a>\\\", the series finale of the popular cable TV show \\\"<a href=\\\"Monk%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Monk</a>\\\", the fictional character of <a href=\\\"Randy%20Disher\\\">Randy Disher</a> reveals he is leaving <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco\\\">San Francisco</a> because he has been offered the job as the chief of police of Summit, New Jersey. Additionally, he is also going there to marry his longtime crush, <a href=\\\"Sharona%20Fleming\\\">Sharona Fleming</a>. Following this up, in the 2012 novel \\\"<a href=\\\"Mr.%20Monk%20on%20Patrol\\\">Mr. Monk on Patrol</a>\\\", Randy has to bring Monk in after a corruption scandal sweeps the Summit government, leading to Randy becoming acting mayor.\\nPeople who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Summit include:\",\n \"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\\nThe Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, also known as \\\"the Trib,\\\" was the second largest daily printed <a href=\\\"newspaper\\\">newspaper</a> serving <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20metropolitan%20area\\\">metropolitan</a> <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh\\\">Pittsburgh</a>, <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">Pennsylvania</a>, in the United States until it transitioned to an all-digital format on December 1, 2016. Founded on August 22, 1811, as the Greensburg Gazette and in 1889 consolidated with several papers into the Greensburg Tribune-Review, the paper circulated only in the eastern suburban counties of <a href=\\\"Westmoreland%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Westmoreland</a> and parts of <a href=\\\"Indiana%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Indiana</a> and <a href=\\\"Fayette%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Fayette</a> until May 1992, when it began serving all of the <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20metropolitan%20area\\\">Pittsburgh metropolitan area</a> after a strike at the two Pittsburgh dailies, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20Post-Gazette\\\">Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20Press\\\">Pittsburgh Press</a>\\\", deprived the city of a newspaper for several months.\\nThe Tribune-Review Publishing Company was owned by <a href=\\\"Richard%20Mellon%20Scaife\\\">Richard Mellon Scaife</a>, an heir to the <a href=\\\"Mellon%20family\\\">Mellon</a> banking, oil, and aluminum fortune, until his death in July 2014. Scaife was a major funder of conservative organizations, including the <a href=\\\"Arkansas%20Project\\\">Arkansas Project</a>. Accordingly, the \\\"Tribune-Review\\\" has maintained a conservative editorial stance, contrasting with the more liberal \\\"Post-Gazette.\\\" In addition to its flagship paper, the company publishes 17 weekly community newspapers, the \\\"Pittsburgh Pennysaver\\\", as well as TribLive.com and TribTotalMedia.com.\\nThe paper first began as the \\\"Gazette\\\" on August 22, 1811. After a series of name changes and mergers it became the \\\"Greensburg Daily Tribune\\\" in 1889. In 1924, it and the \\\"Greensburg Morning Review\\\", launched by <a href=\\\"Dave%20Berry%20%28American%20football%29\\\">David J. Berry</a> in 1903, consolidated their interests under a single ownership. Both papers continued separate publication until 1955, when they merged to form the \\\"Greensburg Tribune-Review\\\". Scaife bought the \\\"Tribune-Review\\\" in 1970. Scaife was a decade early in trying to unarm the \\\"Post-Gazette\\\". In 1981–82, he started a short-lived eastern suburbs paper, \\\"The Daily-Sunday Tribune\\\".\\nThe Tribune-Review owns several \\\"satellite\\\" papers that insert or surround the regional publication with neighborhood specific stories. The \\\"Valley News Dispatch\\\", of Pittsburgh suburbs <a href=\\\"Tarentum%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Tarentum</a> and <a href=\\\"New%20Kensington%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">New Kensington</a> is one such satellite. Local journalism student <a href=\\\"John%20Filo\\\">John Filo</a> worked for the publication while attending nearby <a href=\\\"Kent%20State%20University\\\">Kent State University</a> and served as the Valley News Dispatch's correspondent of the <a href=\\\"Kent%20State%20shootings\\\">Kent State shootings</a>. His photography that day has ascended to iconic status and won the paper its only <a href=\\\"Pulitzer%20Prize\\\">Pulitzer Prize</a>.\\nDuring a newspaper strike that temporarily shut down the \\\"Post-Gazette\\\" and ultimately closed the \\\"Pittsburgh Press\\\", Scaife launched the \\\"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review\\\", an edition of the Greensburg-based \\\"Tribune-Review\\\" covering <a href=\\\"Allegheny%20County%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Allegheny County</a> and Pittsburgh. Over time, it became a stand-alone newspaper headquartered on Pittsburgh's North Side. In 1997, Scaife added to his small collection of newspapers by purchasing \\\"The Daily Courier\\\" of <a href=\\\"Connellsville%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Connellsville</a>, the \\\"Leader Times\\\" of <a href=\\\"Kittanning%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Kittanning</a> and \\\"The Valley Independent\\\" of <a href=\\\"Monessen%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Monessen</a> from <a href=\\\"Thomson%20Newspapers\\\">Thomson Newspapers</a>.\\nIn late 1997, Scaife's NewsWorks facility opened in the <a href=\\\"North%20Hills%20%28Pennsylvania%29\\\">North Hills</a>. In December 1997, the Tribune-Review company purchased the \\\"North Hills News Record\\\", even though four months earlier, then-Trib president Ed Harrell told the \\\"Pittsburgh Business Times\\\" that the company was not interested in the \\\"News Record\\\". Nine months after purchasing the \\\"North Hills News Record\\\" from <a href=\\\"Gannett%20Company\\\">Gannett Company</a>, Tribune-Review Publishing Co. announced the paper would be merged with the \\\"Pittsburgh Trib\\\". \\\"The News Record\\\" was most successful during the newspaper strike of the early 1990s. At its demise, the \\\"North Hills News Record\\\" had a daily circulation of more than 16,000, nearly 1,000 less than its circulation before the Trib bought it. In early 2000, the Trib announced the \\\"News Record\\\" name would retire after more than two years of a combined \\\"Tribune-Review/North Hills News Record\\\" banner. North Hills coverage would be wrapped into the Trib's neighborhoods section.\\nIn 2000, the Trib announced it would stop producing the twice-weekly <a href=\\\"Irwin%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Irwin</a>-based paper, \\\"Standard Observer\\\". Citing a \\\"sagging economy\\\", the Trib laid off more than four percent of its workforce in 2003, including <a href=\\\"freelance%20writer\\\">freelance writer</a>s. More shakeups continued in 2005 as circulation numbers dropped and a top official left. An online message board featured back and forth fights between Pittsburgh and Greensburg employees.\\nEdward Harrell, then-president of the Tribune Review Publishing Company, announced in January 2005 that most of the regional editions of the paper would have their newsroom, management and circulation departments merged and staff reductions would follow. The merged papers include the \\\"Tribune-Review\\\" of Greensburg, the \\\"Valley News Dispatch\\\" of <a href=\\\"Tarentum%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Tarentum</a>, \\\"The Leader-Times\\\" of <a href=\\\"Kittanning%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Kittanning</a>, \\\"The Daily Courier\\\" of Connellsville and the \\\"Blairsville Dispatch\\\". \\\"The Valley Independent\\\", the only paper with a unionized newsroom and contract, was not affected.\\nThe company incorporated as Trib Total Media in the summer of 2005, and purchased Gateway Newspapers, a community publication group servicing approximately 22 communities, at the time, in and around Pittsburgh's Allegheny County. Two managers were immediately laid off. The exact number of proposed redundancies was not announced. In September 2005, Harrell announced his retirement as president of Tribune-Review Publishing Company, effective December 31, 2005. He had served as president since 1989. Several staff writers were laid off in December 2005 as two of Gateway's newspapers were discontinued.\\nIn May 2008, the \\\"Post-Gazette\\\" and the Trib reached a deal for one company to deliver both papers. The Post-Gazette would begin delivering the Trib to most of the area with some exceptions. Terms of the deal were not disclosed. On June 20, 2008, Trib Total Media publicly announced it was closing several weekly newspapers in the Gateway Newspapers chain. The papers affected include: \\\"Bridgeville Area News\\\", \\\"North Journal\\\", \\\"McKnight Journal\\\", \\\"Woodland Progress\\\", \\\"Penn Hills Progress\\\", \\\"Coraopolis-Moon Record\\\" and the \\\"Advance Leader\\\". Many of those papers were several decades old. The company also announced major changes to the remaining Gateway publications including a revamp of the Pennysaver in the communities that have Gateway newspapers. Several published reports say the remaining community newspapers would expand coverage to include areas no longer serviced by Gateway publications. The communities served by those titles will now be served by other Gateway newspapers.\\nIn November, 2015, Trib Total Media announced that they would be cutting back on home delivery of printed newspapers and emphasize digital delivery. The restructuring included the sale of two dailies and six weeklies to West Penn Media. Two papers were closed, The Daily News in McKeesport, and The Valley Independent in Monessen.\\nThe remaining papers, in Pittsburgh, Greensburg and Tarentum, were consolidated into a single paper called the Tribune-Review. Home delivery was reduced in some parts of Allegheny and Westmoreland counties. Trib Total Media laid off 153 full and part-time workers from its staff of approximately 1,100, another 68 had accepted buyouts in October.\\nThe Tribune-Review went \\\"all-digital\\\" after it published its last print edition on November 30, 2016.\\n<a href=\\\"Carl%20Prine\\\">Carl Prine</a>, an investigative reporter for the newspaper, conducted a probe with the <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> news magazine \\\"<a href=\\\"60%20Minutes\\\">60 Minutes</a>\\\" that highlighted the lack of security at the nation's most dangerous chemical plants following the <a href=\\\"September%2011%2C%202001%20attacks\\\">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>.\\nThe reporters, and a CBS camera operator, were charged with trespassing at a Neville Island plant during their investigation. They were later acquitted when the judge accepted that the story had been in the public interest.\\nIn 2007, Prine's further investigation into the subject was featured in the PBS documentary series , in a two-part episode titled \\\"Think Like A Terrorist.\\\"\\nOne Tribune-Review flap went national when <a href=\\\"Colin%20McNickle\\\">Colin McNickle</a>, then editor of the newspaper's editorial page, attended a July 26, 2004 speech at the <a href=\\\"Massachusetts\\\">Massachusetts</a> State House given by <a href=\\\"Teresa%20Heinz%20Kerry\\\">Teresa Heinz Kerry</a>, who had been the subject of two negative articles in the Tribune-Review's opinion pages. After the speech, there was a dispute between McNickle and Heinz Kerry over her use of the term \\\"un-American activity.\\\"\\nThe daily Tribune-Review is published in three geographic editions: Pittsburgh, Westmoreland and Valley News Dispatch.\\nThe Tribune-Review claimed to show the highest gains in readership over the past five years of any newspaper in America's top 48 markets, which were dominated by sinking readership.\\nAccording to surveys by International Demographics Inc., an independent media research firm in Houston, the number of Tribune-Review readers jumped 17.8 percent from 2007 to 2012.\\nAs part of the \\\"Trib Total Media\\\" conglomerate, the Tribune-Review has a news exchange partnerships with WPXI, Pittsburgh's NBC affiliate and until 2013, it was a sister publication to Pittsburgh's second-largest news radio station, <a href=\\\"KQV\\\">KQV</a>. Trib Total Media is the Official Newspaper of the <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20Pirates\\\">Pittsburgh Pirates</a> and the <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20Penguins\\\">Pittsburgh Penguins</a> (the latter of which Scaife was a co-founder in <a href=\\\"1967%20NHL%20expansion\\\">1967</a>) and has strong partnerships with many nonprofit and community businesses and organizations throughout Western Pennsylvania.\\n\",\n \"Morgan Waters\\nMorgan Waters (born August 25, 1981) is a <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canadian</a> actor, comedian and musician.\\nWaters was first seen on the <a href=\\\"Canadian%20Broadcasting%20Corporation\\\">CBC</a>'s children's program \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20%28CBC%29\\\">The X</a>\\\", which was canceled in 2003. Born in <a href=\\\"Victoria%2C%20British%20Columbia\\\">Victoria</a>, <a href=\\\"British%20Columbia\\\">British Columbia</a>, Waters moved to <a href=\\\"Toronto\\\">Toronto</a>, <a href=\\\"Ontario\\\">Ontario</a> to host \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Morgan%20Waters%20Show\\\">The Morgan Waters Show</a>\\\", which aired on <a href=\\\"CBC%20Television\\\">CBC Television</a> in 2006. Waters competed in the 2000 Much VJ search but lost to Bradford Howe. He later worked for the <a href=\\\"Muchmusic\\\">Muchmusic</a> show \\\"<a href=\\\"Screwed%20Over\\\">Screwed Over</a>\\\" in October 2006.\\nHe created and appeared on the show \\\"<a href=\\\"Cock%27d%20Gunns\\\">Cock'd Gunns</a>\\\", which aired in 2007-2008 on the <a href=\\\"Independent%20Film%20Channel%20%28Canada%29\\\">IFC</a>.\\nHe has been writing, directing and starring in the comedy web series \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Amazing%20Gayl%20Pile\\\">The Amazing Gayl Pile</a>\\\" since it premiered on JASH in 2014. It is now on <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC's</a> digital channel <a href=\\\"Seeso\\\">Seeso</a>.\\nWaters formerly played bass guitar for the Toronto-based <a href=\\\"Sweet%20Thing%20%28band%29\\\">Sweet Thing</a>. He now plays in Toronto-based band <a href=\\\"Weaves%20%28band%29\\\">Weaves</a>, formed in 2013.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["A Simple Plan is a 1998 American neo-noir crime thriller film adapted by Scott B. Smith from his 1993 novel of the same name. Directed by Sam Raimi, it stars Bill Paxton, Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda. Set in rural Minnesota, \"A Simple Plan\" follows brothers Hank (Paxton) and Jacob Mitchell (Thornton), who, along with Jacob's friend Lou (Brent Briscoe), discover a crashed plane containing $4.4 million in cash. The three men go to great lengths to keep the money a secret but begin to doubt each other's trust, resulting in lies, deceit and murder.","A Simple Plan is a 1993 thriller novel by Scott Smith. \" The New York Times\" review said the book had \"emotional accuracy with an exceptionally skilled plot.\" A film adaptation, directed by Sam Raimi, was released in 1998; according to the \"Times\" review, the novel is so dark that the story was adjusted to soften the ending."],"string":"[\n \"A Simple Plan is a 1998 American neo-noir crime thriller film adapted by Scott B. Smith from his 1993 novel of the same name. Directed by Sam Raimi, it stars Bill Paxton, Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda. Set in rural Minnesota, \\\"A Simple Plan\\\" follows brothers Hank (Paxton) and Jacob Mitchell (Thornton), who, along with Jacob's friend Lou (Brent Briscoe), discover a crashed plane containing $4.4 million in cash. The three men go to great lengths to keep the money a secret but begin to doubt each other's trust, resulting in lies, deceit and murder.\",\n \"A Simple Plan is a 1993 thriller novel by Scott Smith. \\\" The New York Times\\\" review said the book had \\\"emotional accuracy with an exceptionally skilled plot.\\\" A film adaptation, directed by Sam Raimi, was released in 1998; according to the \\\"Times\\\" review, the novel is so dark that the story was adjusted to soften the ending.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":72,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What movie was directed by an Italian director, former senator and distant relative of Leonardo da Vinci?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"La Bisbetica domata"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Leonardeschi\nThe Leonardeschi is the large group of artists who worked in the studio of or under the influence of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1472 da Vinci joined the Guild of St Luke and at the end of 1477 he left the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio as an independent artist. In 1482 Leonardo came to Milan where he stayed with Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis, Evangelista de Predis and their four brothers, who all were artists of different kinds. Both Predis brothers are known for having collaborated with Leonardo da Vinci in the painting of the \"Virgin of the Rocks\" for the altarpiece in the chapel of the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception at the Church of San Francesco Grande, Milan. In 1490 Leonardo earned recognition and a breakthrough at the court of Ludovico Sforza and because of the scale of works commissioned he was permitted to have assistants and pupils in his own studio.\nAmong Leonardo’s pupils at this time were Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, Ambrogio de Predis, Bernardino de' Conti, Francesco Napoletano, Andrea Solario, Marco d'Oggiono, and Salaì (known as Giacomo Caprotti or Andrea Salaino). In a letter to Ludovico in 1496 Leonardo claims he was having to maintain 6 people at the time. Along with these original pupils of Leonardo, during his second stay in Milan in 1508 Leonardo had relationships with other Milanese artists, such as Il Sodoma (Giovanni Antonio Bazzi) and Giovanni Francesco Rustici and young Francesco Melzi, whose parents had a manor house at Vaprio, Milan. Such artists as Giampietrino, Bernardino Lanino, Cesare da Sesto, Cesare Magni, Martino Piazza da Lodi and Bernardino Luini are also regarded as members of the circle of Leonardo, while Giampietrino and Cesare da Sesto are represented as pupils in monument to Leonardo at Milan.\nDuring the first decades of the 16th century a number of Spanish painters visited Florence. Fernando Yanez de la Almedina and Hernando de los Llanos are documented as collaborators with Leonardo on the Battle of Anghiari. Both artists continued their artistic association on returning home to Spain.\nIn 1494 - 95 and again in 1505 - 1507 the German artist Albrecht Dürer traveled to Venice, Italy. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo's. Several Dürer engravings show a clear interest in the works of Leonardo, for example \"The Small Horse\" is based upon the \"Sforza Horse\" by da Vinci.\nDuring the second stay in Venice Dürer was influenced by Leonardo's cartoon of \"Christ among the Doctors\", which was commissioned by Isabella d'Este, while Dürer made a version of the subject, now in the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. This is the only painting of Dürer directly influenced by Leonardo, however, Dürer introduced new subjects developed by Leonardo in his art (e.g. the figure of young St. John the Baptist into his composition of \"Madonna with the Siskin\" in 1506, which was not familiar to Venetian art at the time). Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and — mainly through Lorenzo di Credi — Leonardo da Vinci.\nIt is also believed that Quentin Matsys had known the work of Leonardo da Vinci in the form of prints made and circulated among northern artists (his \"Madonna and Child with the Lamb\", inspired by The \"Virgin and Child with St. Anne\", and also \"A Grotesque Old Woman\" (or \"The Ugly Duchess\") which reflects da Vinci's influences). This is regarded as evidence that Matsys was greatly influenced by Italian Renaissance artists and that he most likely travelled to Italy for at least a brief period.\nIn 1516 or 1517 Leonardo da Vinci joined the court of Francis I of France. Coincidentally, a Flemish portrait painter Joos van Cleve was also summoned to the French court, where he painted the king, queen, and other courtiers. It is thought that Joos van Cleve also spent some time in Italy as well as France on this trip. Like Quentin Massys, a fellow artist of Antwerp, Joos van Cleve appropriated some themes and techniques of Leonardo da Vinci. Joos van Cleve is often called \"Leonardo of the North\", and paintings by the Italian Renaissance artists Giampietrino (Madonna of the Cherries) and Marco d’Oggiono (\"The Infants Christ and John the Baptist Embracing\", known as \"The Holy Infants Embracing\"), both assistants in the workshop of Leonardo da Vinci, were a major influence on the Antwerp master. Joos van Cleve produced numerous versions of his own paintings after these models, adapting them to his own style and so creating some of the most successful compositions of the time in northern Europe. His son Cornelis van Cleve continued an artistic interest in Leonardo, producing several copies of his father's work and the \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\" himself.","Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood\nLeonardo da Vinci and A Memory of His Childhood (German: \"Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci\" ) is a 1910 essay by Sigmund Freud about Leonardo da Vinci's childhood. It consists of a psychoanalytic study of Leonardo's life based on his paintings.\nFreud provides a psychoanalytical interpretation of Leonardo's \"The Virgin and Child with St. Anne\". According to Oskar Pfister, the Virgin's garment reveals a vulture when viewed sideways. Freud accepted this interpretation (in spite of the outlines resembling rather a duck than a vulture) as a supportive interpretation of his view of a \"passive homosexual\" childhood fantasy Leonardo wrote about in the Codex Atlanticus. Here, Leonardo recounts being attacked as an infant in his crib by the tail of a vulture. Freud translated the passage thus:\n“It seems that it had been destined before that I should occupy myself so thoroughly with the vulture, for it comes to my mind as a very early memory, when I was still in the cradle, a vulture came down to me, he opened my mouth with his tail and struck me a few times with his tail against my lips.”\nAccording to Freud, this fantasy was based on the memory of sucking his mother's nipple. He backed up his claim with the fact that Egyptian hieroglyphs represent the mother as a vulture, because the Egyptians believed that there are no male vultures and that the females of the species are impregnated by the wind.\nUnfortunately, the translation \"Geier\" (vulture), which Maria Herzfeld had used for \"nibio\" in 1904 in the first edition of her book \"Leonardo da Vinci, der Denker, Forscher und Poet\", was not exactly the kite Leonardo da Vinci had meant: a small hawk-like bird of prey, common in the Vinci area, which is occasionally a scavenger. This disappointed Freud because, as he confessed to Lou Andreas-Salomé in a letter of 9 February 1919, he regarded the Leonardo essay as \"the only beautiful thing I have ever written\". Some Freudian scholars, such as Erich Neumann in his book \"Art and the Creative Unconscious\", have, however, made attempts to repair the theory by incorporating the kite.\nAnother theory proposed by Freud attempts to explain Leonardo's fondness of depicting the Virgin Mary with St. Anne. Leonardo, who was illegitimate, was raised by his blood mother initially before being \"adopted\" by the wife of his father Ser Piero. The idea of depicting the Mother of God with her own mother was therefore particularly close to Leonardo's heart, because he, in a sense, had 'two mothers' himself. It is worth noting that in both versions of the composition (the Louvre painting and the London cartoon) it is hard to discern whether St. Anne is a full generation older than Mary.\n","The Life of Leonardo da Vinci\nLa Vita di Leonardo Da Vinci — in English, The Life of Leonardo da Vinci — is a 1971 Italian television miniseries dramatizing the life of the Italian Renaissance genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519).\nThe Golden Globe-winning miniseries was directed by Renato Castellani, and produced by RAI (the Italian national television) and distributed in the United States by CBS, which aired it from August 13, 1972 to September 10, 1972. Castellani wrote the screenplay. It was filmed entirely on location in Italy and France. The total runtime of the five episodes is nearly five hours.\n","The Taming of the Shrew (1967 film)\nThe Taming of the Shrew (Italian: \"La Bisbetica domata\" ) is a 1967 film based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare about a courtship between two strong-willed people. The film was directed by Franco Zeffirelli and stars Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton as Shakespeare's Kate and Petruchio.\nBaptista Minola (Michael Hordern) is attempting to marry off his two daughters; however, he will marry off his youngest, Bianca (Natasha Pyne) only if someone will marry his eldest, Katharina (Elizabeth Taylor). Katharina is an ill-tempered shrewish woman but a lusty young nobleman, Petruchio (Richard Burton), takes on the challenge of taming and marrying her. A subplot involves the wooing of Bianca by several suitors including handsome Lucentio (Michael York), foppish Hortensio (Victor Spinetti), and elderly Gremio (Alan Webb).\nThe film, made in English but shot in Italy, cuts much of the original dialogue, including much of the subplot of Lucentio and Bianca, and all of the Christopher Sly framing device.\nTaylor plays Kate’s final, controversial speech without any obvious irony (such as Mary Pickford’s wink in the 1929 film); however, her taming is apparently undercut by her quick exit from the banquet, which forces Burton’s Petruchio to chase after her amid jeers from the other men. According to Harold Bloom’s take on the play, Katherina is “advising women how to rule absolutely, while feigning obedience”.\nThe film was originally intended to be a vehicle for Sophia Loren and Marcello Mastroianni. Taylor and Burton put over a million dollars into the production and, instead of a salary, took a percentage of profits. The film made $12 million worldwide and was generally liked by the critics.\nThe film received two Academy Award nominations, for Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati), and Best Art Direction (Lorenzo Mongiardino, John DeCuir, Elven Webb, Giuseppe Mariani, Dario Simoni and Luigi Gervasi).\n\"The Taming of the Shrew\" grossed $8 million in North America, earning $3,540,000 in theatrical rentals during 1967, making it the 25th highest grossing picture of 1967. The film grossed $12 million worldwide.\nThe film received positive reviews from modern critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85% of professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.5 out of 10 and the site's consensus stating: \"It may not be reverent enough for purists, but this \"Taming of the Shrew\" is too funny – and fun – for the rest of us to resist.\"\n","Istituto Leonardo da Vinci\nIstituto Leonardo da Vinci or Istituto di Istruzione Superiore Leonardo da Vinci (IIS Leonardo da Vinci) may refer to:\nSchools in Italy:\nSchools outside of Italy:","Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci\nThe Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci is a late 15th or early 16th century portrait of a man that was recently discovered in a cupboard of a private house in Italy. It strongly resembles a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci held by the Uffizi Gallery and regarded by experts as a forgery. The painting was previously thought by its owners to represent Galileo but on its discovery in 2008 a claim was made that it is a self-portrait by Leonardo da Vinci. Alessandro Vezzosi, director of the Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci at Vinci said in 2011 that he had excluded the possibility that it was a self-portrait, but that the painting \"remains intriguing because it adds a new element to the Leonardo puzzle\".\nPainted in tempera grassa on panel, 60 x it depicts a man in three-quarter view, with a long beard and wearing a dark hat. It is currently exhibited in the Museo delle Antiche Genti di Lucania (Museum of the Ancient People of Lucania) in Vaglio Basilicata, a region of Southern Italy.\nIn 2008 Nicola Barbatelli, Director of the Museo, discovered the painting, attributed it to Leonardo, and gave it the name \"Lucan portrait\", from Lucania, the ancient name of Basilicata. In 2010 a conference was held at which a team comprising David Bershad, Professor at University of Calgary (Canada), Peter Hohenstatt, Professor at the University of Parma, Felice Festa, Professor of Orthodontics and Gnathology at the University of Chieti, and Nicola Barbatelli, presented the findings in support of Barbatelli's attribution. No results of detailed stylistic analysis of the painting, or stylistic comparison with known works by Leonardo da Vinci or other possible authors are available, and it is unknown if such studies have taken place.\nThe painting was found in 2008 by Nicola Barbatelli, director of the Museo delle Antiche Genti di Lucania, in the private collection of an aristocratic family at Acerenza (population 3,000), a village on the river Bradano near Potenza in Basilicata. The family, who have asked to remain anonymous, believed it to be a portrait of Galileo. According to Professor Peter Hohenstatt of the University of Parma, the portrait is listed on page 116 of \"Napoli Antica e Moderna\", (1815) edited by Abate Domenico Romanelli, as being the work of Leonardo da Vinci and located in the Palazzo Baranello nella strada Cedronia of the Duke of Baranello, of the noble family Russo.\nThe painting, in tempera grassa on a wooden panel made of poplar 60 x is of a man dressed in a dark garment, wearing a black hat with a small upturned brim. The man's skin is pale, his eyes blue and his hair and beard greying. The figure is set against a dark greyish monochrome background and is brightly lit from the left of the picture, illuminating the right-hand side of the sitters face, and casting a shadow across the left-hand side. The gaze of the figure is turned towards the viewer.\nThe identification of this portrait as Leonardo da Vinci is based upon comparison with several representations of the artist including a very similar portrait in the Uffizi, the red chalk portrait in Turin and the red chalk portrait by Francesco Melzi in Windsor and others.\nThe panel is constructed of two main vertical sections of wood of irregular width and joined with two inset butterfly joints. There are narrow horizontal sections of timber at the top and bottom of the panel. These sections have half-lapped mitre joints to the verticals, visible at the front of the panel. The rear of the panel has the words \"PINXIT MEA\" painted on it. It is written in Roman capital letters, in \"mirror writing\" so that the whole inscription is reversed and reads from left to right. The inscription runs down the left side of the reverse of the painting, rather than across it.\nThe image on the panel is painted using a mixture of egg and oil as a medium over a ground of white gesso which is visible in damaged areas and on parts of the back of the panel. The surface of the paint has cracked down the main joint, and separated in several other places. There are several areas of abrasion to the surface of the painting, the most serious damage being two scrapes across the face, one of which extends from the nostril across the corner of the eye to the brim of his hat, and another which extends from nostril to pupil.\nIt is apparent that there is some overpainting to the subject's left eye and cheek, and probably the mouth. There is a small curling white feather adorning the hat which is an apparent addition.\nUpon its discovery by Nicola Barbatelli, the painting was subjected to an initial examination by Alessandro Vezzosi, director of the Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci at Vinci, who confirmed that the painting appeared to be from the Renaissance period. Vezzosi was reported, in February 2009, as investigating whether the painting was the work of a minor 16th-century artist Cristofano dell'Altissimo. Altissimo executed numerous portraits of famous men for Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, some of them after the Giovio Series, including a profile of Leonardo based on the red chalk profile drawing in the Royal Collection attributed to Leonardo's companion Francesco Melzi. Vezzosi later dismissed the early conjecture that it was by dell'Altisimo.\nIn February 2009, two months after the painting's discovery, Vezzosi had been erroneously quoted by the Times as saying he had excluded the possibility that the work was \"a self-portrait painted by Leonardo himself\" and that examination of the inscription \"\"pinxit mea\"\" on the reverse of the panel indicated that it was \"a later addition\". Vezzosi was later to say \"We need to find out the exact dating of this portrait. I have excluded the possibility that we are dealing with a self-portrait painted by Leonardo himself. Nevertheless, the Acerenza portrait is intriguing because it adds a new element to the Leonardo's puzzle. Here we have Leonardo depicted as a middle-aged, blue-eyed man.\"\nSince that time the focus of attention and research has been directed at proving the painting to be the work of Leonardo da Vinci. The Vaglia Basilicata City Council then funded an investigation by a team of scientists, many of whom were from non-art related disciplines, to report upon anything which could be tested to either support or deny the attribution to Leonardo.\nA preliminary cleaning of the painting was carried out, by Professor Giancarlo Napoli of the Suor Orsola Benincasa University in Naples, and revealed micro-cracking (craquelet) of the paint surface which cannot be reproduced artificially and supported a Renaissance date. Further investigation was carried out by a body of specialists in different fields including INNOVA, CIRCE, University of Naples, Cybernetics - National Research Council, and University Suor Orsola Benincasa.\nThe INNOVA centre of the Federico II University of Naples, headed by Prof. Terrasi, researched the physical properties of the painting including the ground, medium and pigments, and identifying restored areas. Gaetano Di Pasquale of the University of Naples confirmed the wood of the panel to be \"Populus\", common throughout Italy. Carbon 14 dating gave 64% chance the wood of the panel dated between 1459 and 1523, making it contemporary with Leonardo, who was born in 1452 and died in 1519. The pigments were investigated using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis (ED-XRF) and were shown, in the unrestored areas, to be compatible in age with the panel and showed no trace of modern pigments in the unrestored areas, however the feather was revealed to have been painted in a \"modern\" titanium-based pigment not used in other parts of the painting.\nThe painting was examined with a Scanning Magnetic Microscope at a 100 μm resolution by Dr Hector Sarno of INNOVA to compose a magnetic map of the painting and to check for illegible letters. Cleaning of the back of the board revealed the reversed inscription \"PINXIT MEA\" written in iron gall, an ink commonly used by Leonardo. An analysis of the handwriting by graphologist Silvana Iuliano, revealed compatibility with script used by Leonardo in the Atlantic Codex.\nAn analysis of the soft tissue of the face, applying methods used in facial surgery, was made by Prof. Felice Festa of the University of Chieti. The painted image was subject to detailed computer analysis and 3D imaging by Prof. Orest Kormashov, University of Tallinn, Estonia; Gianni Glinni, an engineer for the Museum of Antiche Genti di Lucania, and Helen Kokk, an expert in 3D graphic design. The recreated three-dimensional image was compared with other images believed to represent Leonardo da Vinci, including the iconic red chalk in Turin, the profile drawing believed to be by Leonardo's pupil Francesco Melzi, the painted portrait in the Uffizi and the recently discovered image in the \"Codex on the Flight of Birds\". A conclusion was that all the images, but one, reveal a face that is elongated in the lower two thirds. The image that did not comply was the red chalk so-called self-portrait in Turin, considered by some to be of Leonardo in old age.\nLuigi Capasso, of the University of Chieti, and Col. Gianfranco De Fulvio, RIS-Ra.C.I.S. Command of the Carabinieri led an investigation into three fingerprints they found in the paint of the Lucan painting and found one of them to be \"unambiguous\" with the left index fingerprint on the ebony beads of Leonardo's \"Lady with an Ermine\".\nIt is attributed to Leonardo by a number of historians of Art: Prof. Hoehnsttatt Peter (University of Parma), Alessandro Tomei (University of Chieti-Pescara), Maria Cristina Paoluzzi (University of Chieti and Milan), Jan Royt (University of Prague), , David Bershad (University of Calgary) and Orest Kormashov (University of Tallinn). .","Leonardo da Vinci International Art Award\nThe Leonardo da Vinci Award was established in 1975 by the Rotary Club of Florence as an annual international prize named after Leonardo da Vinci, to be presented to young people involved in the study of the sciences, technology, literature and the arts. Among the disciplines recognised and rewarded so far have been painting, sculpture, music, geology, architecture, medicine and nuclear physics. The 21st Leonardo da Vinci Prize was recently presented to the brilliant young pianist Johan Schmidt. The prize giving event has been hosted by other European Rotary Clubs in cities such as Tours, Vienna, Athens, Madrid, Würzburg, Brussels and Amsterdam. This event was last held in London in 1987, when the prize was awarded to the internationally recognised percussionist Evelyn Glennie. In 1996 1/2 the Rotary Club of London will again be responsible for hosting the prize-giving ceremony.\n","Da Vinci Surgical System\nThe da Vinci Surgical System is a robotic surgical system made by the American company Intuitive Surgical. Approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2000, it is designed to facilitate complex surgery using a minimally invasive approach, and is controlled by a surgeon from a console. The system is commonly used for prostatectomies, and increasingly for cardiac valve repair and gynecologic surgical procedures. According to the manufacturer, the da Vinci System is called \"da Vinci\" in part because Leonardo da Vinci's \"study of human anatomy eventually led to the design of the first known robot in history.\"\nDa Vinci Surgical Systems operate in hospitals worldwide, with an estimated 200,000 surgeries conducted in 2012, most commonly for hysterectomies and prostate removals. As of September 30, 2016, there was an installed base of 3,803 units worldwide – 2,501 in the United States, 644 in Europe, 476 in Asia, and 182 in the rest of the world. The \"Si\" version of the system costs on average slightly under US$2 million, in addition to several hundred thousand dollars of annual maintenance fees. The da Vinci system has been criticised for its cost and for a number of issues with its surgical performance.\nThe da Vinci System consists of a surgeon's console that is typically in the same room as the patient, and a patient-side cart with four interactive robotic arms controlled from the console. Three of the arms are for tools that hold objects, and can also act as scalpels, scissors, bovies, or unipolar or hi. The surgeon uses the console's master controls to maneuver the patient-side cart's three or four robotic arms (depending on the model). The instruments’ jointed-wrist design exceeds the natural range of motion of the human hand; motion scaling and tremor reduction further interpret and refine the surgeon's hand movements. The da Vinci System always requires a human operator, and incorporates multiple redundant safety features designed to minimize opportunities for human error when compared with traditional approaches.\nThe da Vinci System has been designed to improve upon conventional laparoscopy, in which the surgeon operates while standing, using hand-held, long-shafted instruments, which have no wrists. With conventional laparoscopy, the surgeon must look up and away from the instruments, to a nearby 2D video monitor to see an image of the target anatomy. The surgeon must also rely on a patient-side assistant to position the camera correctly. In contrast, the da Vinci System's design allows the surgeon to operate from a seated position at the console, with eyes and hands positioned in line with the instruments and using controls at the console to move the instruments and camera.\nBy providing surgeons with superior visualization, enhanced dexterity, greater precision and ergonomic comfort, the da Vinci Surgical System makes it possible for more surgeons to perform minimally invasive procedures involving complex dissection or reconstruction. For the patient, a da Vinci procedure can offer all the potential benefits of a minimally invasive procedure, including less pain, less blood loss and less need for blood transfusions. Moreover, the da Vinci System can enable a shorter hospital stay, a quicker recovery and faster return to normal daily activities.\nThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared the da Vinci Surgical System in 2000 for adult and pediatric use in urologic surgical procedures, general laparoscopic surgical procedures, gynecologic laparoscopic surgical procedures, general non-cardiovascular thoracoscopic surgical procedures and thoracoscopically assisted cardiotomy procedures. The FDA also cleared the da Vinci System to be employed with adjunctive mediastinotomy to perform coronary anastomosis during cardiac revascularization.\nThe da Vinci System has been successfully used in the following procedures:\nAlthough the general term \"robotic surgery\" is often used to refer to the technology, this term can give the impression that the da Vinci System is performing the surgery autonomously. In contrast, the current da Vinci Surgical System cannot – in any manner – function on its own, as it was not designed as an autonomous system and lacks decision making software. Instead, it relies on a human operator for all input; however, all operations – including vision and motor functions - are performed through remote human-computer interaction, and thus with the appropriate weak AI software, the system could in principle perform partially or completely autonomously. The difficulty with creating an autonomous system of this kind is not trivial; a major obstacle is that surgery \"per se\" is not an engineered process – a requirement for weak AI. The current system is designed merely to replicate seamlessly the movement of the surgeon's hands with the tips of micro-instruments, not to make decisions or move without the surgeon's direct input.\nThe possibility of long-distance operations depends on the patient having access to a da Vinci System, but technically the system could allow a doctor to perform telesurgery on a patient in another country. In 2001, Dr. Marescaux and a team from IRCAD used a combination of high-speed fiber-optic connection with an average delay of 155 ms with advanced asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and a Zeus telemanipulator to successfully perform the first transatlantic surgical procedure, covering the distance between New York and Strasbourg. The event was considered a milestone of global telesurgery, and was dubbed \"Operation Lindbergh\".\nCritics of robotic surgery assert that it is difficult for users to learn and that it has not been shown to be more effective than traditional laparoscopic surgery. The da Vinci system uses proprietary software, which cannot be modified by physicians, thereby limiting the freedom to modify the operation system. Furthermore, its $2 million cost places it beyond the reach of many institutions.\nThe manufacturer of the system, Intuitive Surgical, has been criticized for short-cutting FDA approval by a process known as \"premarket notification,\" which claims the product is similar to already-approved products. Intuitive has also been accused of providing inadequate training, and encouraging health care providers to reduce the number of supervised procedures required before a doctor is allowed to use the system without supervision. There have also been claims of patient injuries caused by stray electrical currents released from inappropriate parts of the surgical tips used by the system. Intuitive counters that the same type of stray currents can occur in non-robotic laparoscopic procedures. A study published in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" found that side effects and blood loss in robotically-performed hysterectomies are no better than those performed by traditional surgery, despite the significantly greater cost of the system. As of 2013, the FDA is investigating problems with the da Vinci robot, including deaths during surgeries that used the device; a number of related lawsuits are also underway.\nFrom a social analysis, a disadvantage is the potential for this technology to dissolve the creative freedoms of the surgeon, once hailed by scholar Timothy Lenoir as one of the most professional individual autonomous occupations to exist. Lenoir claims that in the \"heroic age of medicine,\" the surgeon was hailed as a hero for his intuitive knowledge of human anatomy and his well-crafted techniques in repairing vital body systems. Lenoir argues that the da Vinci's 3D console and robotic arms create a mediating form of action called medialization, in which internal knowledge of images and routes within the body become external knowledge mapped into simplistic computer coding.","Da Vinci Medallion\nThe Leonardo da Vinci Society for the Study of Thinking and the Da Vinci Medallion were created to award scholarship in the realm of human thinking. The name was chosen to honor Leonardo da Vinci, the archetypal Renaissance man.\nIn 2005, the inaugural chair was awarded to Professor Edward de Bono, for his work in the field of creative thinking and in the direct teaching of thinking as a skill. Dr. Margaret J. Wheatley, credited with establishing new approaches to thinking about organizations, accepted the award in 2006. In the fall of 2006, the society announced that Fritjof Capra would receive the 2007 award in recognition for his work in systems thinking.\nAward recipients include:","Francesco Melzi\nFrancesco Melzi, or Francesco de Melzi, (<a href=\"circa\">circa</a> 1491 – 1568/70) was an Italian painter born into a family of the <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a>ese nobility in <a href=\"Lombardy\">Lombardy</a>.\nFrancesco's father, Gerolamo Melzi, was an engineer for <a href=\"Francesco%20II%20Sforza\">Francesco II Sforza</a>'s military and a captain in the militia in Milan under <a href=\"Louis%20XII%20of%20France\">Louis XII</a>. Francesco lived with his family lived in the in <a href=\"Vaprio%20d%27Adda\">Vaprio d'Adda</a> (not to be confused with the <a href=\"Bellagio%2C%20Lombardy\">Villa Melzi d'Eril in Bellagio, Lombardy</a>), which today is still under the ownership of the Dukes <a href=\"Francesco%20Melzi%20d%27Eril\">Melzi d'Eril</a>. Francesco grew up in the Milanese court, and was raised with proper manners and was granted a good education, which included training in the arts. He was reasonably talented in the arts and worked very hard. As a member of a prominent family of the Milanese court, however, Francesco would have had political and social responsibilities as he got older that would have caused him to discontinue his studies in art had it not been for <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. Leonardo returned to Milan for some time around 1505 and stayed with the Melzi family. It was there that he met Francesco for the first time, enticed by his good nature and handsomeness. In a biography of Leonardo da Vinci, it is argued that he felt compelled to stay in Milan longer than he had intended after meeting with the young Francesco. Francesco is described in literature as charming and graceful, an adolescent without the awkwardness or lack of manners typical of boys around this age. Francesco and another pupil of Leonardo's, Boltraffo, stood out from the other students as they were capable painters, very bright, and well-learned. Because of his upbringing in the high court, Francesco was gracious and dignified, and had a very good education. Shortly after they met, Francesco began studying and working at Leonardo's workshop and quickly became his master's favorite pupil, and the most devoted as well. Despite this, fairly little is written about the apprentice painter, and what is known about him is almost exclusively within the context of Leonardo. In fact, other than Francesco, none of Leonardo's pupils went on to become respected artists. And although he is not well-known, Francesco is referred to as being the first person responsible for collecting, organizing, and preserving Leonardo da Vinci's notes on painting, and transforming it into a manuscript copy known as the <a href=\"Codex%20Urbinas\">Codex Urbinas</a>. After Leonardo's death in 1519, Francesco returned to Italy and married Angiola di Landriani, with him he fathered eight children. One of his children, Orazio, would inherit Leonardo's manuscripts after Francesco's death in 1569/70.\nFrancesco Melzi's career is inextricably linked to Leonardo da Vinci, and this could be a reason why he is not well-known—because his master overshadowed him. <a href=\"Sigmund%20Freud\">Sigmund Freud</a> attributed the lack of success of Leonardo's pupils, including the talented Francesco, to their inability to distinguish themselves as separate from their master, and thus their careers were unable to flourish after his death. Before Leonardo's death in 1519, Francesco's career consisted largely of being an assistant to, and an executor for, Leonardo. Because of their close relationship, more like father-son rather than master-apprentice, he was content with aiding and caring for Leonardo, a companion/secretary. One of his main tasks was to scribe his master's <a href=\"Codex%20Trivulzianus\">Codex Trivulzianus</a>, a manuscript of learned words and ideas, which is presumed to have been written entirely in Milan because Francesco (or Leonardo) scribed \"Milan\" on the last page.\nFrancesco was Leonardo's only pupil who stayed with him until his death, traveling and working with him in Milan, Rome, and France. He accompanied the master painter to Milan, where the French governor of Milan <a href=\"Charles%20II%20d%27Amboise\">Charles d'Amboise</a> was Leonardo's patron, and went to Rome with him in 1513. In his notebook Leonardo wrote, \"I left Milan for Rome on the 24th day of September 1513, with <a href=\"Giovanni%20Antonio%20Boltraffio\">Giovanni Boltraffio</a>, Francesco de' Melzi, <a href=\"Lorenzo%20di%20Credi\">Lorenzo di Credi</a>, and il Fanfoia.\" After three years in Rome, Francesco accompanied Leonardo to France in 1516 where they stayed in the <a href=\"Clos%20Luc%C3%A9\">Chateau de Cloux</a> in <a href=\"Amboise\">Amboise</a>. During this time, <a href=\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\">Francis I of France</a> was Leonardo's patron, and the French court account books logged Leonardo's annual payment was 1000 gold crowns (écus de soleil), while Francesco Melzi received 400.\nDuring this time in France, <a href=\"Sala%C3%AC\">Andrea Salaí</a>, another pupil, left Leonardo and built a house on his (Leonardo's) estate in Italy, and so Francesco was the last pupil who continued to work for his master until his death. He was the executor and heir of Leonardo's will. Although Francesco was Leonardo's official heir and was bequeathed with his master's manuscripts, drawings, workshop materials and machinery, <a href=\"Sala%C3%AC\">Andrea Salaino</a> (Andrea Salaí) received Leonardo's paintings in 1524 in France and brought them back to Milan. Francesco's responsibility attaching him to Leonardo da Vinci was to care for his late master's works after he passed. Leonardo wanted his works to be shared with the world and read by others after his death, however Francesco never fully accomplished this. The works would eventually be compiled, and published as the <a href=\"Codex%20Urbinas\">Codex Urbinas</a>. In addition to this, Melzi actually executed and completed a number of plans for paintings, and paintings themselves, that were left unfinished after Leonardo's passing.\nFrancesco Melzi is known for creating the <a href=\"Codex%20Urbinas\">Codex Urbinas</a>, which is a selection and careful compilation of Leonardo's thousands of pages of notes and sketches under the title \"On Painting\", and was later known as the \"Tratatto della Pittura\" (Treatise on Painting). Although today we would not have the many manuscript copies and versions of Leonardo's notes and sketches if it weren't for Francesco's initial efforts, we can also attribute the loss of much of Leonardo's genius to Francesco. Once he inherited Leonardo's manuscripts, he extensively catalogued them and most likely had the intention to publish them. However the reality is that Leonardo's works were not seen for the larger part of the 16th century. After Francesco's death in ca. 1570 the manuscripts were not properly cared for. His son Orazio Melzi, who was a lawyer, inherited the manuscripts. He knew very little of Leonardo da Vinci and the manuscripts his father kept and therefore did not understand their value, so they laid neglected in his attic for years. When Orazio died on his estate in <a href=\"Vaprio%20d%27Adda\">Vaprio d'Adda</a>, his heirs sold the collection of Leonardo's works, and thus began their dispersal.\nDespite his failure to publish them, Francesco did in fact ensure the future preservation of his late master's works that he treasured so greatly. He gathered 944 short chapters from Leonardo's scattered notes, but had difficulty organizing and arranging the material and even left some pages blank. Being a Milanese noble, he must have employed helpers to sort through the thousands of pages of notes, but he was the only one who could decipher Leonardo's unique left-handed mirror-like writing style and enigmatic abbreviations and spellings. However, this was just the beginning. Before the manuscript was published at least five copies were hand scribed by students after Francesco's original copy, some of which reside today in The <a href=\"Elmer%20Belt\">Elmer Belt</a> Library of Vinciana at the <a href=\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Los%20Angeles%20Library\">University of California, Los Angeles Library</a>. We can see each of these efforts, starting with Francesco's, as steps leading up to the final production and printing of the manuscript. In addition, he made Leonardo's works accessible to scholars at the time such as Vasari, Lomazzo, <a href=\"Antonio%20Gaddiano\">Antonio Gaddiano</a>, Cardano, among others, whose names are listed in numerous manuscript copies.\nIn addition to preserving Leonardo's manuscripts, Francesco Melzi also is said to have contributed greatly towards the legacy of Leonardo in future generations. Because he owned his master's manuscripts, notes, and works, after his death, he was able to share with the next generation of artists Leonardo's genius, techniques, and oeuvre. This \"Leonardismo,\" the continued influence that Leonardo's legacy had on future painters' style and thought, continued throughout the 1500s. For example Francesco's pupil, Girolamo Figino, was described by the Italian scholar Francesco Albuzio in his \"Memorie per servire alla storia de'pittori, scultori e architect milanesi\" (1776) as \"illuminator and disciple of Francesco Melzi.\" Girolamo created two paintings which are references to his predecessors; his \"Madonna and Saints\" is thought to be inspired by Melzi's \"Vertumnus and Pomona\", and his \"Portrait of Margherita Colleoni\" references Leonardo's \"<a href=\"Mona%20Lisa\">Mona Lisa</a>,\" which is a testimony to the continuation of Leonardo's teachings after his death.\nFrom the time Francesco Melzi became an apprentice at Leonardo da Vinci's workshop, his life largely revolved around his master's. Leonardo took an immediate liking to Francesco when he met him as an adolescent at his house in Milan and took him under his wing as an apprentice. Francesco became like a son to his master, and Leonardo like a father, and followed him up until his death in 1519. Francesco quickly became aware of his master's loneliness, seeing past his legendary fame and genius, and felt impelled to care for him, essentially devoting his whole life to him. Leonardo's second Milanese period, when he resided with the Melzi family, is by some considered his most creative years in art and canal engineering. This is the time when he created the engineering plans for the Martesana Canal, which was completed and still regulates the Arno river in Milan today. (The Arno runs through Florence)\nBecause the two were so close, lived together, and cared for each other so deeply, there have been theories that Leonardo and Francesco engaged in romantic, homosexual relations. However, these theories have no hard evidence and have been largely refuted, stating their relationship never extended past platonic or familial affection. It does, however, seem plausible based on Leonardo's past. There have been no accounts of Leonardo having sexual or romantic relations of any kind with a woman, and he was also charged with homosexual acts that were at the time forbidden during his apprenticeship with <a href=\"Andrea%20del%20Verrocchio\">Verrocchio</a>, however was acquitted.\nFrancesco also influenced his master's religious beliefs. As a man of science, Leonardo was not particularly religious. In <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari's</a> first edition of \"<a href=\"Lives%20of%20the%20Most%20Excellent%20Painters%2C%20Sculptors%2C%20and%20Architects\">Lives of the Artists</a>\" he accused the polymath of having heretical beliefs, however in his second edition revised this statement and states that he \"earnestly resolved to learn about the doctrines of the Catholic faith and the good and holy Christian religion.\" Although he may have overstated his master's devotion to Christianity, it is true that he was a firm believer towards the end of his life, and that his apprentice influenced him greatly—Francesco was a very devoted Christian and they spent much time together. In fact, the only people at Leonardo's deathbed were Francesco and members of the clergy—the vicar of the church of St. Denis at Amboise, two Franciscan friars, and two priests. Because Francesco was the only person resembling family at Leonardo's deathbed, it was he who notified the master's brothers of his death. He described in his letter Leonardo's love for his pupils as \"sviscerato e ardentissimo amore\", meaning \"but like a son for a father.\"\nLeonardo da Vinci chose only very handsome boys, as was Francesco, to be his pupils and cared for them considerably as if they were family. In addition to Francesco Melzi, some of his pupils were <a href=\"Cesare%20da%20Sesto\">Cesare da Sesto</a>, <a href=\"Giovanni%20Antonio%20Boltraffio\">Boltraffio</a> and <a href=\"Sala%C3%AC\">Andrea Salaí</a>. However, as they were chosen based on attractiveness rather than talent, they were not very skilled painters, and therefore it is easy to identify paintings they worked on based on their lower quality. Because of the general workshop practice where multiple artists work on one painting, it has become common practice to ascribe Leonardo's pupils to his less known (or lower quality) works. These might be referenced to as paintings done by his pupils that Leonardo touched up as opposed to the inverse.\nFrancesco Melzi, in contrast to his peers, actually does have a handful of completed, high quality paintings attributed to him, as well as drawings and studies. He is responsible for the infamous red chalk portrait, from approximately 1515, of da Vinci's profile which depicts him as very classically handsome and regal. This is most likely the portrait to which Vasari and , as well as other later writers, refer to in describing Leonardo as having such \"grace and beauty.\"\nThere are several other drawings attributed to him in the <a href=\"Biblioteca%20Ambrosiana\">Biblioteca Ambrosiana</a> in Milan. This includes \"Head of an Old Man\" which he signed himself saying \"1510 a dí 14 Augusto p.a caveat de relic Franchesco de Melzo de anti 17\" which means \"on the day 14 August taken from a relief by Francesco Melzi 17 years of age.\" There is a note on the back sheet that identifies the man in this drawing as Artus Boysi. This drawing is red chalk on paper, and although it highlights the artist's keen ability to render from observation, Francesco's note at the bottom leads us to believe that it was based on a relief, most likely by Leonardo. It is also conjectured that he uses this same head in his \"Vertumnus and Pomona\". He also created the chalk drawing \"Five Grotesque Heads\", in addition to \"Seven Caricatures\" and \"Two Grotesque Heads\", all in similar style. There are many drawings attributed to Francesco, however it is often difficult to know definitively if they are his because his style is so influenced by, and therefore similar to, Leonardo's.\nHe is also responsible for some paintings, some of which are relatively well-known. His \"<a href=\"http%3A//www.wga.hu/html_m/m/melzi/pomona.html\">Vertumnus and Pomona</a>\" is in the Berlin Museum displayed in the altarpiece, and his \"Columbina\" (sometimes known as \"Flora\"), which was attributed to Leonardo until the mid 19th century, hangs in the <a href=\"Hermitage%20Museum\">Leningrad Hermitage</a>, and has recently been argued again to be Leonardo's work. \"<a href=\"La%20belle%20ferronni%C3%A8re\">La Belle Ferronniére</a>\" is a painting of an unidentified woman whose author is not certain. In the <a href=\"Louvre\">Louvre</a> it is attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, but is sometimes attributed to Francesco Melzi, and even other times to Leonardo's Workshop. Other paintings by or attributed to Francesco are \"Nymph at the Spring\" (Washington Gallery of Art), \"Portrait of a Young Man with a Parrot\" (Milan, private collection), and \"Saint Anne with the Virgin and the Child Embracing a Lamb\" (Gallery degli Uffizi).\nFrancesco's \"Columbina\" appears on the album cover of <a href=\"Mango%20%28singer%29\">Mango</a>'s \"<a href=\"Gli%20amori%20son%20finestre\">Gli amori son finestre</a>\".","The Holy Infants Embracing\nThe Holy Infants Embracing is a lost painting attributed to <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. It represents the infant Christ embracing his cousin <a href=\"John%20the%20Baptist\">John the Baptist</a>. The subject matter relates to the two paintings of the \"<a href=\"Virgin%20of%20the%20Rocks\">Virgin of the Rocks</a>\" by Leonardo and numerous other Renaissance works by <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a> and others of the meeting of the two children on the road to Egypt while escaping the <a href=\"Massacre%20of%20the%20Innocents\">Massacre of the Innocents</a>.\nThe subject of two Infants kissing was an inspirational source of quite a few (about thirty) copies of pupils and followers of Leonardo da Vinci. An early sketch of the subject by da Vinci himself is held at Windsor in the Royal collection. The sheet shows various studies of Madonna and Baby playing with the cat, while at the very bottom we see two infants kissing and embracing each other. The sketch is quite different from the version presented at numerous compositions, while the baby on the right is shown in a very same pose as Jesus in \"Virgin of the Rocks\".\nThe connection between those paintings is evident in two copies made by Marco d'Oggiono (one of them - the Thuelin Madonna)and copy made by Bernardino dei Conti (lost during World War II). Madonna, very much like as the one depicted in \"Virgin of the Rocks\" is seen blessing two kissing children, representing Jesus and St John the Baptist.\nOther copies show half-length figure of Madonna leaning other the table with figures of embracing children (like copy by school of Leonardo da Vinci held at Burchill Collection, Milan, and a copy ascribed either to Marco d'Oggiono or Giampietrino). The painting of Holy Family (including holy infants embracing) by Bernardino Luini held at Prado, Madrid shows a similar representation.\nMost of the copies show only the group of two children in a quite different background. These include copies by Marco d'Oggiono, depicting holy children in a background of castle (Milan), grotto, rocky landscape (Windsor collection). The subject of two children kissing was repeated many times by another Leonardo follower, <a href=\"Joos%20van%20Cleve\">Joos van Cleve</a>, who was called \"Leonardo des Nordens\" or \"Leonardo of the North\":\nHe often produced almost identical paintings of the subject: like three paintings held respectively at Museo Musei vicino Matteo Lampertico Arte antica e moderna, Milan; private collection, Switzerland and private collection in USA (showing a very similar background to the Windsor version; also in Royal collection, Brussels, The Art Institute of Chicago and Mauritshuis collection, Hague. Other copies by artist are held also at Naples and Vienna, sold at various auction houses recently. Joos van Cleve is responsible for introducing the composition among artists of Northern Europe, while numerous copies today are ascribed to the followers of Joos van Cleve.\n","Il Sodoma\nIl Sodoma (1477 – February 14, 1549) was the name given to the <a href=\"Italy\">Italian</a> <a href=\"Renaissance\">Renaissance</a> <a href=\"Painting\">painter</a> Giovanni Antonio Bazzi. Il Sodoma painted in a manner that superimposed the <a href=\"High%20Renaissance\">High Renaissance</a> style of early 16th-century Rome onto the traditions of the provincial <a href=\"Sienese%20School\">Sienese school</a>; he spent the bulk of his professional life in Siena, with two periods in Rome.\nGiovanni Bazzi was born in <a href=\"Vercelli\">Vercelli</a>, <a href=\"Piedmont\">Piedmont</a> in 1477. His first master was the \"archaic\" <a href=\"Martino%20Spanzotti\">Martino Spanzotti</a>; he also appears to have been a student of the painter <a href=\"Gerolamo%20Giovenone\">Giovenone</a>. After acquiring the strong coloring and other distinctive stylistic features of the <a href=\"Lombard%20school\">Lombard school</a> and— though he is not known to have travelled to Milan— somehow absorbing the superficial mannerisms of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo</a> (Freedberg 1993:117), he traveled to <a href=\"Siena\">Siena</a> before 1503, perhaps at the behest of agents of the Spannocchi family, and began with fresco cycles for <a href=\"Olivetan\">Olivetan</a> monks and a series of small Ovidian ceiling panels and a frieze depicting the career of Julius Caesar for Sigismondo Chigi at Palazzo Chigi.\nAlong with <a href=\"Pinturicchio\">Pinturicchio</a>, Sodoma was one of the first to practice in Siena the style of the <a href=\"High%20Renaissance\">High Renaissance</a>. His first important works were seventeen frescoes in the <a href=\"Benedictine\">Benedictine</a> monastery of <a href=\"Monte%20Oliveto%20Maggiore\">Monte Oliveto Maggiore</a>, on the road from Siena to Rome, illustrating the life of <a href=\"St%20Benedict\">St Benedict</a> in continuation of the series that <a href=\"Luca%20Signorelli\">Luca Signorelli</a> had begun in 1498. Gaining fluency in the prevailing popular style of Pinturicchio, Sodoma completed the set in 1502 and included a self-portrait with badgers.\nSodoma was invited to Rome in 1508 by the celebrated Sienese merchant <a href=\"Agostino%20Chigi\">Agostino Chigi</a> and was employed there by <a href=\"Pope%20Julius%20II\">Pope Julius II</a> in the <a href=\"Stanza%20della%20Segnatura\">Stanza della Segnatura</a> in the <a href=\"Apostolic%20Palace\">Vatican</a>. He executed two great compositions and various ornaments and grotesques in vaulted ceilings divided in feigned compartments in the antique manner that Pinturicchio had recently revived, working at the same time as <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a>. <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Vasari</a>'s rhetorical story that Sodoma's larger works did not satisfy the pope, who engaged <a href=\"Raffaello%20Santi\">Raphael</a> to substitute a program of \"Justice, Poetry, and Theology\" is not borne out by the documents.\nBefore October 1510 he was in Siena, where he painted the exterior of Palazzo Chigi in monochrome <a href=\"chiaroscuro\">chiaroscuro</a> with scenes from the Bible and from Antiquity, the first such work seen in Siena (Bartalini 2001:553). His painting at this time began to show distinct Florentine influences, especially of <a href=\"Fra%20Bartolommeo\">Fra Bartolommeo</a>.\nCalled again to Rome by Chigi, in the Villa Chigi (now the <a href=\"Villa%20Farnesina\">Villa Farnesina</a>), working alongside <a href=\"Baldassarre%20Peruzzi\">Baldassarre Peruzzi</a>, Sodoma painted subjects from the life of <a href=\"Alexander%20the%20Great\">Alexander the Great</a>: \"<a href=\"Alexander%20in%20the%20Tent%20of%20Darius\">Alexander in the Tent of Darius</a>\" and the \"<a href=\"Nuptials%20of%20the%20Conqueror%20with%20Roxanne\">Nuptials of the Conqueror with Roxanne</a>\", which some people consider his masterpiece. When <a href=\"Pope%20Leo%20X\">Leo X</a> became pope (1513), Sodoma presented him with a picture of the \"Death of Lucretia\" (or of <a href=\"Cleopatra%20VII%20of%20Egypt\">Cleopatra</a>, according to some accounts). Leo gave him a large sum of money as a reward and created him a \"<a href=\"cavaliere\">cavaliere</a>\".\nSodoma returned to Siena and, at a later date, sought work in <a href=\"Pisa\">Pisa</a>, <a href=\"Volterra\">Volterra</a>, and <a href=\"Lucca\">Lucca</a>. From Lucca he returned to Siena not long before his death on 14 February 1549 (older narratives say 1554). He had supposedly squandered his property and is said, without documentary support, to have died in penury in the great hospital of Siena. One of his pupils was <a href=\"Giomo%20del%20Sodoma\">Giomo del Sodoma</a>.\nIn his youth, Sodoma had married, but he and his wife soon separated. A daughter married <a href=\"Bartolomeo%20Neroni\">Bartolomeo Neroni</a>, called also \"Riccio Sanese\" or \"Maestro Riccio\", one of Sodoma's principal pupils. Instead, he was considered by contemporaries to have been <a href=\"homosexual\">homosexual</a>, and was known from 1512 on as \"Il Sodoma\" (or \"the <a href=\"Sodomy\">Sodomite</a>\"). <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a>, in particular, stressed this aspect. Perhaps it was a nickname that resulted from a joke; but Bazzi seems to have used the name with pride.\nSome critics see in Sodoma's \"Madonna\" in the <a href=\"Pinacoteca%20di%20Brera\">Pinacoteca di Brera</a> (if it really is by him) the direct influence of this master. Modern criticism tends not to follow <a href=\"Giovanni%20Morelli\">Morelli</a> in supposing that <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a> painted Sodoma's portrait next to himself in \"<a href=\"The%20School%20of%20Athens\">The School of Athens</a>\", while a drawing at Christ Church is supposed to be a portrait of Raphael by Sodoma.\nAmong his masterpieces are the frescoes, completed in 1526, in the chapel of <a href=\"St.%20Catherine%20of%20Siena\">St. Catherine of Siena</a> painted for the church of <a href=\"San%20Domenico%20%28Siena%29\">San Domenico (Siena)</a>, depicting the saint in ecstasy, fainting as she receives the <a href=\"Eucharist\">Eucharist</a> from an angel. In the <a href=\"Oratory%20of%20San%20Bernardino%2C%20Siena\">Oratory of San Bernardino</a>, are scenes from the history of the <a href=\"Virgin\">Virgin</a>, painted in conjunction with <a href=\"Girolamo%20del%20Pacchia\">Pacchia</a> and <a href=\"Domenico%20di%20Pace%20Beccafumi\">Beccafumi</a> (1536–1538). These frescoes depict the \"<a href=\"Visitation%20%28Christianity%29\">Visitation</a> \"and the \"<a href=\"Assumption%20of%20Mary\">Assumption</a>\". In <a href=\"San%20Francesco%2C%20Siena\">San Francesco</a> are the \"Deposition from the Cross\" (1513) and \"Christ Scourged\". Many critics regard one or the other of these paintings as Sodoma's masterpiece. In the choir of the <a href=\"Pisa%20Cathedral\">Pisa Cathedral</a> is the \"Sacrifice of Abraham\", and in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence a \"St. Sebastian\".\nSome of his works, including the \"Holy Family\" now in the Pinacoteca, Siena have been mistaken for works of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. His easel pictures are rare; there are two in the <a href=\"National%20Gallery%2C%20London\">National Gallery, London</a>.\nIt is said that Sodoma jeered at <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a>'s \"<a href=\"Lives%20of%20the%20Artists\">Lives of the Artists</a>\" and that Vasari repaid him by presenting a negative account of Sodoma's morals and demeanour and withholding praise of his work. According to Vasari, the name by which Bazzi was known was \"Il Mattaccio\" (the Madcap, the Maniac), this epithet having been bestowed upon him by the monks of Monte Oliveto. He dressed gaudily, like a mountebank, and his house was a <a href=\"Noah%27s%20ark\">Noah's ark</a>, owing to the strange miscellany of animals he kept there. He was a cracker of jokes, fond of music, and he sang poems composed by himself on indecorous subjects.\nVasari alleges that Sodoma was always a negligent artist, his early success in Siena, where he painted many portraits, being partly due to lack of competition, a judgment in which Sidney Freedberg concurs. Vasari asserts that as he aged, he became too \"lazy\" to make cartoons for his frescoes but daubed them straight onto the wall. Vasari nevertheless admits that Sodoma produced some works of very fine quality and that during his lifetime his reputation was high.","Madonna of the Yarnwinder\nThe Madonna of the Yarnwinder (<a href=\"Italian%20language\">Italian</a>: \"Madonna dei Fusi\" , “Madonna of the Spindles”) is a subject depicted by <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a> in at least one, and perhaps two paintings begun in 1499 or later. Leonardo was recorded as being at work on one such picture in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a> in 1501 for Florimond Robertet, a secretary to King <a href=\"Louis%20XII%20of%20France\">Louis XII of France</a>. This may have been delivered to the French court in 1507, though scholars are divided on this point. The subject is known today from several versions of which two, called the Buccleuch Madonna and the Lansdowne Madonna, are thought to be partly by Leonardo’s hand. The <a href=\"underdrawing\">underdrawing</a>s of both paintings show similar experimental changes made to the composition (or \"<a href=\"pentimento\">pentimenti</a>\"), suggesting that both evolved concurrently in Leonardo’s workshop.\nThe composition shows the <a href=\"Mary%2C%20the%20mother%20of%20Jesus\">Virgin Mary</a> seated in a landscape with the <a href=\"Child%20Jesus\">Christ child</a>, who gazes at a <a href=\"niddy%20noddy\">yarnwinder</a> used to collect spun <a href=\"yarn\">yarn</a>. The yarnwinder serves both as a symbol of Mary's domesticity and as a foreshadowing of the <a href=\"True%20Cross\">Cross</a> on which Christ was crucified. The painting's dynamic composition and implied narrative was highly influential on later <a href=\"High%20Renaissance\">High Renaissance</a> depictions of the <a href=\"Madonna%20and%20Child\">Madonna and Child</a> by artists such as <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a> and <a href=\"Andrea%20del%20Sarto\">Andrea del Sarto</a>.\nThe earliest reference to a painting of this subject by Leonardo is in a letter of 14 April 1501 by Fra Pietro da Novellara, the head of the <a href=\"Carmelites\">Carmelites</a> in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a>, to <a href=\"Isabella%20d%27Este\">Isabella d'Este</a>, Marchioness of <a href=\"Mantua\">Mantua</a>. Leonardo had recently returned to his native city following the French invasion of Milan in 1499; the intervening years he had spent first in Isabella’s court, during which brief stay he produced a <a href=\"cartoon\">cartoon</a> (now in the <a href=\"Mus%C3%A9e%20du%20Louvre\">Louvre</a>) for a portrait of her, and then in Venice. Isabella was determined to get a finished painting by Leonardo for her collection, and to that end she instructed Fra Pietro, her contact in Florence, to press Leonardo into agreeing to a commission. Two letters of reply by the friar survive. In the second, written after he had succeeded in meeting with the artist, he writes that Leonardo has become distracted by his mathematical pursuits and is busy working on a small painting for Florimond Robertet, which he goes on to describe:\nThe passage is valuable for being one of the few descriptions by a contemporary viewer of a work by Leonardo; it matches the composition of the Buccleuch and Lansdowne \"Madonnas\" in all respects except that there is no basket in either painting. Robertet’s painting was probably commissioned late in 1499 just before Leonardo left Milan, and was possibly begun there.\nScholars disagree on whether Robertet received his painting or not. In January 1507 Francesco Pandolfini, the Florentine ambassador to the French court in <a href=\"Blois\">Blois</a>, reported that “a little picture by [Leonardo’s] hand has recently been brought here and is held to be an excellent thing”. The \"Madonna\" does not, however, appear in a posthumous inventory of Robertet’s collection made in 1532 (though the authenticity of the inventory has been called into question). One hypothesis holds that it passed from Robertet’s collection into that of the French king, thus explaining its absence from the inventory. It is unclear, however, why it would have left the royal collection.\nIn 1525 two inventories were drawn up of the possessions of Leonardo’s assistant and heir <a href=\"Sala%C3%AC\">Salaì</a>, who died the preceding year. These mention a “Madonna with a Child in her Arms”. This is thought to be evidence that one of the <a href=\"prime%20version\">prime version</a>s of the \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\" remained in Leonardo’s possession while the other was sent to Robertet.\nNeither of the paintings accepted as prime versions has a provenance that can be traced back to Robertet or Salaì, or further back than the 18th century, though the \"Buccleuch Madonna\" was in France at that time. However, the \"Lansdowne Madonna\" could easily have been bought by its earliest known owners from a French collection in the period following the <a href=\"French%20Revolution\">French Revolution</a>, when many works with a French aristocratic provenance were bought by British collectors.\nThe composition of the \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\" shows the Christ child twisting his body away from his mother’s embrace, his eye caught by her yarnwinder whose spokes give it the shape of a cross; he precociously recognises it as a symbol of his destiny. The Virgin’s reaction is ambiguous, a mixture of alarm at the harm her son will come to and resigned acceptance of it. The gesture of suspense made with her right hand is repeated from Leonardo’s Milanese altarpiece \"<a href=\"Virgin%20of%20the%20Rocks\">The Virgin of the Rocks</a>\". The use of a symbol of the <a href=\"Passion%20%28Christianity%29\">Passion</a> as an object of childish play recurs throughout Leonardo’s painted \"oeuvre\", appearing for instance in the \"<a href=\"Benois%20Madonna\">Benois Madonna</a>\" and the \"<a href=\"The%20Virgin%20and%20Child%20with%20St.%20Anne%20%28Leonardo%29\">Virgin and Child with St Anne</a>\". As with later works by Leonardo, the figures appear in a vast unpopulated landscape. The rocky outcrop in the foreground of the \"Buccleuch Madonna\" is painted with a minute attention to geological detail.\nA major difference between the Buccleuch and Lansdowne \"Madonnas\" is in their background landscapes. Whereas the background of the Buccleuch version is a watery landscape indifferently painted, that of the \"Lansdowne Madonna\" has a dramatic mountain range far more typical of Leonardo. It has been proposed that this is a specific location in the valley of the river <a href=\"Adda%20%28river%29\">Adda</a>, as it runs from <a href=\"Lecco\">Lecco</a> to <a href=\"Vaprio%20d%27Adda\">Vaprio</a>, an area familiar to Leonardo and which he mapped. It is possible that the landscape of the former picture was added by a pupil after Leonardo failed to complete the work. For Martin Kemp the “late” character of the landscape in the \"Lansdowne Madonna\" suggests that it was the later painting to be completed and that the \"Buccleuch Madonna\" was the one sent to Robertet in 1507.\nThe underdrawings of both the Buccleuch and Lansdowne \"Madonnas\" show several features not in the finished works, but present in some copies; it is likely that these were originally copied from the prime versions during an early stage of the composition’s development. One such feature, which appears in both underdrawings, is a group of figures identified as <a href=\"Saint%20Joseph\">St Joseph</a> making a <a href=\"baby%20walker\">baby walker</a> for the Christ child, who appears with his mother and another female figure, probably a midwife. It has also been suggested that the child learning to walk is the infant <a href=\"John%20the%20Baptist\">John the Baptist</a>, appearing with his mother <a href=\"Elizabeth%20%28biblical%20figure%29\">St Elizabeth</a>, as Leonardo would have been unlikely to depict the figures of Mary and Christ twice in the same painting. Leonardo also experimented with including some kind of <a href=\"pack%20animal\">beast of burden</a> – a horse, ass or ox – which appears in different positions in the two underdrawings. Behind these an architectural structure with an arched opening was planned. At a later stage the landscape of the Buccleuch picture seems to have had a bridge like that of the \"Lansdowne Madonna\", which was then painted over.\nThe version of this painting often regarded as the most likely to be by Leonardo is now in the <a href=\"Scottish%20National%20Gallery\">Scottish National Gallery</a> in <a href=\"Edinburgh\">Edinburgh</a>, on loan from the <a href=\"Richard%20Scott%2C%2010th%20Duke%20of%20Buccleuch\">Duke of Buccleuch</a>. It hung in his ancestral home in <a href=\"Drumlanrig%20Castle\">Drumlanrig Castle</a>, <a href=\"Dumfries%20and%20Galloway\">Dumfries and Galloway</a>, Scotland, until it was stolen in 2003. It entered the <a href=\"Duke%20of%20Buccleuch%20collection\">Buccleuch collection</a> in 1767, with the marriage of the <a href=\"Henry%20Scott%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Buccleuch\">3rd Duke</a> to Lady Elizabeth Montagu, the heiress to a substantial collection of works assembled by her parents, the <a href=\"George%20Montagu%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Montagu\">Duke</a> and Duchess of Montagu. This \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\" was bought at auction in Paris in 1756 from a sale of the collection of Marie-Joseph duc d’Hostun et de Tallard, its earliest documented owner.\nIn 2003 the \"Buccleuch Madonna\" was stolen from Drumlanrig Castle by two thieves posing as tourists, who said \"Don't worry love, we're the police. This is just practice\" to two tourists from New Zealand as they exited through a window carrying the Leonardo. In 2007 a chartered loss adjuster acting for the Duke of Buccleuch’s insurers was contacted by an English lawyer, who claimed that he could arrange for the painting’s return within 72 hours. The lawyer, Marshall Ronald of <a href=\"Skelmersdale\">Skelmersdale</a>, Lancashire, was visited by two undercover policemen who posed as an art expert and an agent for the Duke. The painting was then taken to a lawyer’s office in <a href=\"Glasgow\">Glasgow</a>; this was raided by police officers from four anti-crime agencies during a meeting of five people. Four arrests were made, including of two solicitors from different firms. \"<a href=\"The%20Scotsman\">The Scotsman</a>\", describing the Glasgow firm as \"one of the country's most successful and respected law firms\", quoted a source as saying their arrested member \"was not involved in any criminal act, but was acting as a go-between for two parties by scrutinizing a contract which would have allowed an English firm to 'secure legal repatriation' of the painting from an unidentified party.\"\nThe <a href=\"John%20Scott%2C%209th%20Duke%20of%20Buccleuch\">9th Duke of Buccleuch</a> never lived to see the \"Madonna\"'s recovery as he had died unexpectedly only a month beforehand. The painting was lent to the National Gallery of Scotland (now the Scottish National Gallery) in Edinburgh in 2009, and remains on display there as of 2017. In 2010 Ronald was cleared of the charge of holding the Duke to ransom; in 2013 he mounted legal action against the 10th Duke and the Chief Constable of Dumfries and Galloway, demanding a reward of £4.25 million, which he claims he was promised in the meeting with the undercover policemen six years earlier.\nThe painting sometimes considered the second prime version of the \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\" takes its name from the <a href=\"Marquess%20of%20Lansdowne\">Marquesses of Lansdowne</a>, who owned it in the 19th century. John Henry Petty, then Earl Wycombe and later the 2nd Marquess of Lansdowne, bought it some time in or before 1809, possibly from the <a href=\"John%20Bligh%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Darnley\">Earl of Darnley</a>. It is first recorded in a sale of the Dowager Marchioness of Lansdowne’s collection in 1833, from which it was withdrawn. The painting remained in her family until 1879, when her daughter sold it to <a href=\"Cyril%20Flower%2C%201st%20Baron%20Battersea\">Cyril Flower</a>, later Lord Battersea. In 1908 the \"Madonna\" was bought from his widow by the Paris-based art dealers Nathan Wildenstein and <a href=\"Ren%C3%A9%20Gimpel\">René Gimpel</a>. They consulted <a href=\"Bernard%20Berenson\">Bernard Berenson</a>, the leading connoisseur of the day, on the attribution in 1909; he confirmed an earlier attribution to <a href=\"il%20Sodoma\">il Sodoma</a> but thought that Leonardo had been responsible up to the cartoon stage. During restoration work in around 1911 the painting was <a href=\"transfer%20of%20panel%20paintings\">transferred to canvas</a> and several alterations were made, most significantly the removal of a loincloth covering the Child’s genitals and the fingers of the Virgin’s left hand.\nThe painting was bought as a Sodoma in 1928 by <a href=\"Robert%20Wilson%20Reford\">Robert Wilson Reford</a>, a Canadian industrialist and shipping magnate. In the 1930s it underwent X-ray and ultraviolet examination for the first time, led by a team which included the art historian Wilhelm Suida. He concluded that the Christ child and the landscape were by Leonardo and the remainder was by a Milanese pupil. During a loan to the <a href=\"1939%20New%20York%20World%27s%20Fair\">New York World’s Fair</a> in 1939 the painting was damaged and further restoration work had to be undertaken. Reford’s family put it up for auction in 1972, but by then the attribution had reverted to Sodoma, inevitably resulting in a lower price than had it been accepted as a Leonardo. It was bought back by <a href=\"Wildenstein%20%26amp%3B%20Company%20Building\">Wildenstein & Company</a>, who arranged for it to be transferred a second time, this time onto a composite panel, in 1976. They sold the \"Madonna\" (as a Leonardo) to its current owner, an anonymous private collector, in 1999.\nNearly forty versions of the \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\" made by pupils and followers of Leonardo survive today. Many show elements which were discarded as the prime version, or versions, evolved over a long period of time. Some include the figure group in the middle ground visible in the Buccleuch and Lansdowne underdrawings; others show the basket of wool described by Fra Pietro da Novellara, though to Christ’s side rather than beneath his foot. Eight paintings, including the copy in the Louvre, show a different kind of rocky outcrop in the foreground from those in the prime versions; many of these are probably by <a href=\"Lombardy\">Lombard</a> \"<a href=\"Leonardeschi\">Leonardeschi</a>\". Some artists elaborated on Leonardo’s composition with the addition of still lives or extra figures.\nThe \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\"’s composition was especially popular in Spain, where it might have been brought over by <a href=\"Fernando%20Y%C3%A1%C3%B1ez%20de%20la%20Almedina\">Fernando Yáñez de la Almedina</a> or <a href=\"Hernando%20de%20los%20Llanos\">Hernando de los Llanos</a> (whose name also appears as Fernando de Llanos). Both painters were trained in Florence in the first years of the 16th century, and either might be the “\"Ferrando spagnolo\"” mentioned as a pupil of Leonardo when the master was working on the fresco of the \"<a href=\"The%20Battle%20of%20Anghiari%20%28painting%29\">Battle of Anghiari</a>\" in the <a href=\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\">Palazzo della Signoria</a> in 1505.\nCitations\nBibliography\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons","Battle of Anghiari\nThe Battle of Anghiari was fought on 29 June 1440, between the forces of <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a> and those of the <a href=\"Italian%20League\">Italian League</a> led by the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Florence\">Republic of Florence</a> in the course of the <a href=\"Wars%20in%20Lombardy\">Wars in Lombardy</a>. The battle was a victory for the Florentines, securing Florentine domination of central Italy.\nThe battle is well known for its depiction in a now-lost painting by <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. It is also remarkable for the fact that though the battle lasted all day, involving several thousand troops, it was said that only one soldier was killed. According to <a href=\"Niccol%C3%B2%20Machiavelli\">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> after four hours of skirmishing the single death occurred \"when a soldier fell off his horse\".\nThe League's army concentrated on Anghiari, a small centre of <a href=\"Tuscany\">Tuscany</a>, and comprised: 4,000 <a href=\"Papal%20States\">Papal</a> troops, under Cardinal <a href=\"Ludovico%20Trevisan\">Ludovico Trevisan</a>; a Florentine contingent of around the same size, and a company of 300 men-at-arms (knights) from <a href=\"Venice\">Venice</a>, led by <a href=\"Micheletto%20Attendolo\">Micheletto Attendolo</a>. Other men joined for the occasion from Anghiari itself.\nThe numerically superior Milanese force was led by the famous \"<a href=\"condottieri\">condottiero</a>\" <a href=\"Niccol%C3%B2%20Piccinino\">Niccolò Piccinino</a> in the name of Duke <a href=\"Filippo%20Maria%20Visconti\">Filippo Maria Visconti</a> and reached the area on the night of 28 June. Some 2,000 men from the nearby town of <a href=\"Sansepolcro\">Sansepolcro</a> joined the Milanese. Confident in his superior manpower, and on the element of surprise Piccinino ordered an attack in the afternoon of the following day. However, the dust lifted by the Milanese on the Sansepolcro-Anghiari road was noticed by Micheletto and the League's forces were made ready for battle.\nMicheletto's Venetian knights blocked the Milanese vanguard on the only bridge over the channel protecting the League's camp. Micheletto and the Venetians held the bridge allowing the greater part of the League's army to form for battle but were eventually pushed back by Milanese reinforcements led by the two captains <a href=\"Francesco%20Piccinino\">Francesco Piccinino</a> and <a href=\"Astorre%20II%20Manfredi\">Astorre II Manfredi</a>. The Milanese advanced but their right flank was soon ferociously engaged by the Papal troops and were obliged to retreat to the bridge. The battle continued for four hours, until a surrounding manoeuvre managed to cut off a third of the Milanese on the League side of the channel. The battle continued into the night but ended with a victory for the League army.\nThe battle was described in histories written by <a href=\"Leonardo%20Bruni\">Leonardo Bruni</a> (1370–1444) and <a href=\"Flavio%20Biondo\">Flavio Biondo</a> (1392–1463), both of whom concentrate on the actions of individuals, though there is some discussion of equipment and tactics. Machiavelli, in contrast, gives a detailed account of the strategy and tactics used by both sides, but presents the battle as \"a striking example of the wretched state of military discipline in those times\", arguing that the mercenary knights who ran the armies of the day had no motive to fight for victory.\nMachiavelli adds that \"This victory was much more advantageous to the Florentines than injurious to the duke; for, had they been conquered, Tuscany would have been his own; but he, by his defeat, only lost the horses and accoutrements of his army, which could be replaced without any very serious expense\".\nWhether or not the claimed single death is an exaggeration is not known. Hans Delbrück argues that,\nDelbrück says that \"close examination of the contemporary reports has shown that there is not a true word in this entire description\". However, it is true that the warfare of the period was far less brutal than that of the later period in which Machiavelli wrote, as knights could indeed expect to surrender for ransom. While it is possible that only one mounted knight died at Anghiari, foot-soldiers are unlikely to have been as lucky. Frances S. Saunders says that \"as many as 900\" soldiers may in fact have died in the battle.\nAccording to Pia F. Cuneo, \"Anghiari is one of the most frequently represented battles of the era\". The earliest known image, painted within a decade of the battle is a <a href=\"cassone\">cassone</a> panel by an unknown artist known as the Anghiari Master, which emphasises the tournament-like nature of the conflict, with banners and ritual engagements.\nMore than seven decades later, the battle was the subject of a now-lost painting by <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, known through copies of the central scene made by other artists. The known portion of the painting depicted a battle over a standard between knights on opposing sides. The picture was commissioned to occupy one of the walls of the council chamber of the Florentine republic in the <a href=\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\">Palazzo Vecchio</a>. The other wall was to have a painting by <a href=\"Michelangelo\">Michelangelo</a> depicting an earlier Florentine victory at the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Cascina\">Battle of Cascina</a> in 1364.\nA 1687 relief sculpture depicting the battle by Baroque artist <a href=\"Giovanni%20Battista%20Foggini\">Giovanni Battista Foggini</a> in <a href=\"Santa%20Maria%20del%20Carmine%2C%20Florence\">Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence</a> depicts Saint <a href=\"Andrew%20Corsini\">Andrew Corsini</a> guiding the Florentine forces to victory.\n","Joos van Cleve\nJoos van Cleve ( ; also Joos van der Beke; c. 1485 – 1540/1541) was a painter active in Antwerp around 1511 to 1540. He is known for combining traditional Netherlandish painting techniques with influences of more contemporary Renaissance painting styles.\nAn active member and co-deacon of the <a href=\"Guild%20of%20Saint%20Luke\">Guild of Saint Luke</a> of Antwerp, he is known mostly for his religious works and portraits of royalty. As a skilled technician, his art shows sensitivity to color and a unique solidarity of figures. He was one of the first to introduce broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his paintings, which would become a popular technique of sixteenth century <a href=\"northern%20Renaissance\">northern Renaissance</a> paintings.\nHe was the father of Cornelius or Cornelis van Cleve (1520-1567) who was also a painter and is believed to have suffered from a mental illness and was therefore referred to as 'Sotte Cleef' (mad Cleef).\nJoos van Cleve was born around 1485. The birthplace of Joos van Cleve is not precisely known. In various Antwerp legal documents he is referred to as ‘Joos van der Beke alias van Cleve’. It is therefore likely that he came from the <a href=\"Lower%20Rhine\">Lower Rhenish region</a> or city named <a href=\"Kleve\">Kleve</a>, from which his name is derived. It is assumed that he began his artistic training around 1505 in the workshop of Jan Joest, whom he assisted in the panel paintings of the high altar for the Nikolaikirche in <a href=\"Kalkar\">Kalkar</a>, Lower Rhine, Germany.\nJoos van Cleve is believed to have moved to <a href=\"Bruges\">Bruges</a> between 1507 - 1511 since his painting style is similar to that of the painters of Bruges. Later he moved to Antwerp, and in 1511 became a free master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke. He was co-deacon of the guild for several years around 1520, along with presenting pupils between 1516 and 1536. It is possible he spent time in France at the court in 1529 or 1535. He may also have made a trip to Italy around this time and to\nLondon (England) around 1535-1536.\nHe had two children from his first marriage, a daughter and a son. His son Cornelis (1520) became a painter. Although the date of his death is unknown, Joos van Cleve drew up a will and testament on 10 November 1540, and his second wife was listed as a widow in April 1541.\nFrom the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, the name of Joos van Cleve as an artist was lost. The paintings now attributed to Joos van Cleve were, at that time, known as the works of “the Master of the Death of the Virgin,” after the triptych currently in the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum (Cologne). In 1894 it was discovered that the monogram on the back of the triptych was that of Joos van der Beke, an alias of Joos van Cleve.\nThe influence of Kalkar and Bruges are seen in many of Joos van Cleve’s early works, such as \"Adam and Eve\" (1507). The \"Death of the Virgin\" (1520) shows the combined influence of several artists. It has the intense emotionality of <a href=\"Hugo%20van%20der%20Goes\">Hugo van der Goes</a>, and iconographic ideas of <a href=\"Jan%20van%20Eyck\">Jan van Eyck</a> and <a href=\"Robert%20Campin\">Robert Campin</a>. A strong influence of Italian art combined with Joos van Cleve’s own color and light sensitivity make his works especially unique. The “<a href=\"Antwerp%20Mannerism\">Antwerp Mannerist</a>” style is identifiable in the \"Adoration of the Magi\". It is thought that the “Antwerp Mannerists” were in turn influenced by Joos van Cleve.\nLike <a href=\"Quentin%20Matsys\">Quentin Matsys</a>, a fellow artist active in Antwerp, Joos van Cleve appropriated themes and techniques of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. This is apparent in the use of <a href=\"sfumato\">sfumato</a> in the \"Virgin and Child\". Multiple versions of a soft, sentimental \"Madonna and Child and the Holy Family\" were discovered, produced in his workshop.\nJoos van Cleve’s skills as a portrait artist were highly regarded as demonstrated by a summons to the court of <a href=\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\">Francis I of France</a>. There he painted the (<a href=\"Philadelphia%20Museum%20of%20Art\">Philadelphia Museum of Art</a>), the queen (<a href=\"Kunsthistorisches%20Museum\">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a>) and other members of the court. His portrait of of England is of comparable size to that of Francis I (72.1 x 59.2 cm) and the compositions and costumes in both portraits are similar. Some historians have interpreted this as evidence that the portraits were pendants painted to commemorate the meeting of the two kings in Calais and Boulogne on 21 and 29 October 1532. Other historians have proposed the alternative view that van Cleve based the Henry VIII portrait on that of Francis I without meeting the English king. He may have hoped that this gesture might earn him English royal commissions in future.\nJoos van Cleve produced many versions of the \"Virgin and Child\", the \"Holy Family\" and the \"Virgin and Child with St Anne\", which were very popular. In some instances the original has been lost, but the type can be recovered through the numerous replicas produced by his workshop and copyists. There exist very similar versions of the composition of the \"Virgin and Child\", of which one is held at the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts%2C%20Budapest\">Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest</a> and another was sold at Sotheby's on 30 January 2014. It is full of charm and tenderness and was popular in his own time as well as with later collectors. The composition shows the Virgin with a brilliant red cloak, lined with fur and elaborately embroidered with pearls along the outside edge. The Virgin is seated in a loggia-like space with open windows through which a distant mountainous landscape is visible. She has her lips parted in a slight smile while she helps the Christ Child drink from a glass with red wine, a symbol of Christ's future suffering and blood and the <a href=\"Eucharist\">Eucharist</a>. Characteristic of Netherlandish painting of this period are the jewel-like colours and the details of the Virgin’s costume and brocade pillow in the foreground.\nThe pose of the \"Holy Family\" in the <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Museum%20of%20Art\">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (c. 1518–20) is quoted from <a href=\"Jan%20van%20Eyck\">Jan van Eyck</a>'s \"\" of c. 1435 (<a href=\"St%C3%A4del\">Städel</a>, Frankfurt). The scene is placed in a domestic setting and the Virgin is only depicted at half-length. Another change in the composition is the addition of Joseph. The wine and fruits on the foreground are a reference to Christ's incarnation and future sacrifice. They also hint at the emerging genre of still-life painting in Flanders.","Giovanni Bellini\nGiovanni Bellini (c. 1430 – 26 November 1516) was an <a href=\"Italy\">Italian</a> <a href=\"Renaissance\">Renaissance</a> painter, probably the best known of the Bellini family of <a href=\"Venice\">Venetian</a> painters. His father was <a href=\"Jacopo%20Bellini\">Jacopo Bellini</a>, his brother was <a href=\"Gentile%20Bellini\">Gentile Bellini</a> (who, during his lifetime, was more highly regarded than Giovanni, although the reverse is true today), and his brother-in-law was <a href=\"Andrea%20Mantegna\">Andrea Mantegna</a>. He is considered to have revolutionized Venetian painting, moving it towards a more sensuous and colouristic style. Through the use of clear, slow-drying oil paints, Giovanni created deep, rich tints and detailed shadings. His sumptuous coloring and fluent, atmospheric landscapes had a great effect on the Venetian painting school, especially on his pupils <a href=\"Giorgione\">Giorgione</a> and <a href=\"Titian\">Titian</a>.\nGiovanni Bellini was born in <a href=\"Venice\">Venice</a>. He was brought up in his father's house, and always lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with his brother Gentile. Up until the age of nearly thirty we find in his work a depth of religious feeling and human pathos which is his own. His paintings from the early period are all executed in the old <a href=\"tempera\">tempera</a> method; the scene is softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise color (as, for example, in the \"<a href=\"St.%20Jerome%20in%20the%20Desert%20%28Bellini%29\">St. Jerome in the Desert</a>\").\nIn a somewhat changed and more personal manner, with less harshness of contour and a broader treatment of forms and draperies, but not less force of religious feeling, are the \"Dead Christ\" pictures, in these days one of the master's most frequent themes (an example is the \"<a href=\"Piet%C3%A0%20%28Bellini%29\">Dead Christ Supported by the Madonna and St. John</a>\", or \"Pietà\"). Giovanni's early works have often been linked both compositionally and stylistically to those of his brother-in-law, Andrea Mantegna.\nIn 1470 Giovanni received his first appointment to work along with his brother and other artists in the <a href=\"Scuola%20di%20San%20Marco\">Scuola di San Marco</a>, where among other subjects he was commissioned to paint a \"Deluge with Noah's Ark\". None of the master's works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived.\nTo the decade following 1470 must probably be assigned the \"<a href=\"Transfiguration%20of%20Christ%20%28Bellini%29\">Transfiguration</a>\" now in the <a href=\"Capodimonte%20Museum\">Capodimonte Museum</a> of Naples, repeating with greatly ripened powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early effort at Venice.\nAlso the great altar-piece of the \"Coronation of the Virgin\" at <a href=\"Pesaro\">Pesaro</a>, which would seem to be his earliest effort in a form of art previously almost monopolized in Venice by the rival school of the <a href=\"Vivarini\">Vivarini</a>.\nAs is the case with a number of his brother, Gentile's public works of the period, many of Giovanni's great public works are now lost. The still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a chapel in the <a href=\"Santi%20Giovanni%20e%20Paolo%2C%20Venice\">church of S. Giovanni e Paolo</a>, where it perished along with Titian's \"Peter Martyr\" and <a href=\"Tintoretto\">Tintoretto</a>'s \"Crucifixion\" in the disastrous fire of 1867.\nAfter 1479–1480 much of Giovanni's time and energy must also have been taken up by his duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the <a href=\"Doge%27s%20Palace%2C%20Venice\">Doge's Palace</a>. The importance of this commission can be measured by the payment Giovanni received: he was awarded, first the reversion of a broker's place in the <a href=\"Fondaco%20dei%20Tedeschi\">Fondaco dei Tedeschi</a>, and afterwards, as a substitute, a fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors he was commissioned to paint a number of new subjects, six or seven in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the wars of <a href=\"Frederick%20Barbarossa\">Frederick Barbarossa</a> and the pope. These works, executed with much interruption and delay, were the object of universal admiration while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare his manner in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile.\nOf the other, the religious class of his work, including both altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have fortunately been preserved. They show him gradually throwing off the last restraints of the <a href=\"Quattrocento\">Quattrocento</a> manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new <a href=\"oil\">oil</a> medium introduced in Venice by <a href=\"Antonello%20da%20Messina\">Antonello da Messina</a> about 1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets of the perfect fusion of colors and atmospheric gradation of tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity and charm. The enthroned \"Virgin and Child\" (such as the one at left) become tranquil and commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian color invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the landscape and the sky.\nAn interval of some years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the <a href=\"Doge%27s%20Palace%2C%20Venice\">Hall of the Great Council</a>, seems to separate the <a href=\"San%20Giobbe%20Altarpiece\">San Giobbe Altarpiece</a>, and that of the church of <a href=\"San%20Zaccaria%20at%20Venice\">San Zaccaria at Venice</a>. Formally, the works are very similar, so a comparison between serves to illustrate the shift in Bellini's work over the last decade of the 15th century. Both pictures are of the <a href=\"Holy%20Conversation\">Holy Conversation</a> (sacred conversation between the <a href=\"Madonna%20%28art%29\">Madonna</a> and Saints) type. Both show the Madonna seated on a throne (thought to allude to the throne of <a href=\"Solomon\">Solomon</a>), between <a href=\"Classical%20antiquity\">classicizing</a> columns. Both place the holy figures beneath a golden <a href=\"mosaic\">mosaic</a>ked half dome that recalls the <a href=\"Byzantine%20architecture\">Byzantine architecture</a> in the basilica of <a href=\"St.%20Mark%27s%20Basilica\">St. Mark</a>.\nIn the later work Bellini depicts the Virgin surrounded by (from left): <a href=\"St.%20Peter\">St. Peter</a> holding his keys and the <a href=\"Book%20of%20Wisdom\">Book of Wisdom</a>; the virginal <a href=\"Catherine%20of%20Alexandria\">St. Catherine</a> and <a href=\"St.%20Lucy\">St. Lucy</a> closest to the Virgin, each holding a <a href=\"martyr\">martyr</a>'s palm and her implement of torture (Catherine a <a href=\"breaking%20wheel\">breaking wheel</a>, and Lucy a dish with her eyes); <a href=\"St.%20Jerome\">St. Jerome</a>, with a book symbolizing his work on the <a href=\"Vulgate\">Vulgate</a>.\nStylistically, the lighting in the \"San Zaccaria\" piece has become so soft and diffuse that it makes that in the \"San Giobbe\" appear almost raking in contrast. Giovanni's use of the oil medium had matured, and the holy figures seem to be swathed in a still, rarefied air. The \"San Zaccaria\" is considered perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all Giovanni's altarpieces, and is dated 1505, the year following that of Giorgione's \"<a href=\"Madonna%20of%20Castelfranco\">Madonna of Castelfranco</a>\".\nOther late altarpiece with saints include that of the church of <a href=\"San%20Francesco%20della%20Vigna\">San Francesco della Vigna</a> at Venice, 1507; that of La Corona at <a href=\"Vicenza\">Vicenza</a>, a \"Baptism of Christ\" in a landscape, 1510; and that of <a href=\"San%20Giovanni%20Grisostomo%2C%20Venice\">San Giovanni Crisostomo</a> at Venice of 1513.\nOf Giovanni's activity in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and San Zaccaria, there are a few minor works left, though the great mass of his output perished with the fire of the <a href=\"Doge%27s%20Palace%2C%20Venice\">Doge's Palace</a> in 1577. The last ten or twelve years of the master's life saw him besieged with more commissions than he could well complete. Already in the years 1501–1504 the marchioness Isabella <a href=\"House%20of%20Gonzaga\">Gonzaga</a> of <a href=\"Mantua\">Mantua</a> had had great difficulty in obtaining delivery from him of a picture of the Madonna and Saints (now lost) for which part payment had been made in advance.\nIn 1505 she endeavoured through <a href=\"Cardinal%20Bembo\">Cardinal Bembo</a> to obtain from him another picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered, we do not know.\n<a href=\"Albrecht%20D%C3%BCrer\">Albrecht Dürer</a>, visiting Venice for a second time in 1506, describes Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity towards foreign brethren of the brush.\nIn 1507 Bellini's brother Gentile died, and Giovanni completed the picture of the \"Preaching of St. Mark\" which he had left unfinished; a task on the fulfillment of which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger of their father's sketch-book had been made conditional.\nIn 1513 Giovanni's position as sole master (since the death of his brother and of <a href=\"Alvise%20Vivarini\">Alvise Vivarini</a>) in charge of the paintings in the Hall of the Great Council was threatened by one of his former pupils. Young <a href=\"Titian\">Titian</a> desired a share of the same undertaking, to be paid for on the same terms. Titian's application was granted, then after a year rescinded, and then after another year or two granted again; and the aged master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from his sometime pupil's proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook to paint \"<a href=\"The%20Feast%20of%20the%20Gods\">The Feast of the Gods</a>\" for the duke <a href=\"Alfonso%20I%20of%20Ferrara\">Alfonso I of Ferrara</a>, but died in 1516.\nHe was interred in the <a href=\"Santi%20Giovanni%20e%20Paolo%2C%20Venice\">Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo</a>, a traditional burial place of the doges.\nBoth in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of Bellini was, on the whole, very prosperous. His long career began with <a href=\"Quattrocento\">Quattrocento</a> styles but matured into the progressive post-Giorgione Renaissance styles. He lived to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals, the Vivarini of Murano; he embodied, with growing and maturing power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the worldly splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione and Titian, equalled or even surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by five years; Titian, as we have seen, challenged him, claiming an equal place beside his teacher. Other pupils of the Bellini studio included <a href=\"Girolamo%20Galizzi%20da%20Santacroce\">Girolamo Galizzi da Santacroce</a>, <a href=\"Vittore%20Belliniano\">Vittore Belliniano</a>, <a href=\"Rocco%20Marconi\">Rocco Marconi</a>, <a href=\"Andrea%20Previtali\">Andrea Previtali</a> and possibly <a href=\"Bernardino%20Licinio\">Bernardino Licinio</a>.\nIn the historical perspective, Bellini was essential to the development of the Italian Renaissance for his incorporation of aesthetics from Northern Europe. Significantly influenced by <a href=\"Antonello%20da%20Messina\">Antonello da Messina</a>, who had spent time in Flanders, Bellini made prevalent both the use of oil painting, different from the tempera painting being used at the time by most Italian Renaissance painters, and the use of disguised symbolism integral to the <a href=\"Northern%20Renaissance\">Northern Renaissance</a>. As demonstrated in such works as \"<a href=\"St.%20Francis%20in%20Ecstasy%20%28Bellini%29\">St. Francis in Ecstasy</a> \" (c. 1480) and the \"San Giobbe Altarpiece\" (c. 1478), Bellini makes use of religious symbolism through natural elements, such as grapevines and rocks. Yet his most important contribution to art lies in his experimentation with the use of color and atmosphere in oil painting.\nThe <a href=\"Bellini%20%28cocktail%29\">Bellini (cocktail)</a> is named in his honor.\n","The Ugly Duchess\nThe Ugly Duchess (also known as A Grotesque Old Woman) is a satirical portrait painted by the Flemish artist <a href=\"Quentin%20Matsys\">Quentin Matsys</a> around 1513.\nThe painting is in oil on an oak panel, and measures 62.4 by 45.5 cm. It shows a grotesque old woman with wrinkled skin and withered breasts. She wears the aristocratic <a href=\"1400%E2%80%931500%20in%20fashion%23Women%27s%20fashion\">horned headdress</a> of her youth, out of fashion by the time of the painting, and holds in her right hand a red flower, then a symbol of engagement, indicating that she is trying to attract a suitor. However, it has been described as a bud that will 'likely never blossom'. The work is Matsys' best-known painting.\nThe painting was long thought to have been derived from a putative lost work by <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, on the basis of its striking resemblance to two drawings of heads commonly attributed to the Italian artist. However the caricatures are now thought to be based on the work of Matsys, who is known to have exchanged drawings with Leonardo.\nA possible literary influence is <a href=\"Desiderius%20Erasmus\">Erasmus's</a> essay \"<a href=\"In%20Praise%20of%20Folly\">In Praise of Folly</a>\" (1511), which satirizes women who \"still play the coquette\", \"cannot tear themselves away from their mirrors\" and \"do not hesitate to exhibit their repulsive withered breasts\". The woman has been often identified as <a href=\"Margaret%2C%20Countess%20of%20Tyrol\">Margaret, Countess of Tyrol</a>, claimed by her enemies to be ugly; however, she had died 150 years earlier. In 2008 Michael Baum, emeritus professor of surgery at University College London, suggested that the sitter suffered from a rare form of <a href=\"Paget%27s%20disease%20of%20bone\">Paget's disease</a>, in which the victim's bones enlarge and become deformed.\nThe painting is in the collection of the <a href=\"National%20Gallery\">National Gallery</a> in London, to which it was bequeathed by Jenny Louisa Roberta Blaker in 1947. It was originally half of a <a href=\"diptych\">diptych</a>, with a \"Portrait of an Old Man\", in the <a href=\"Mus%C3%A9e%20Jacquemart-Andr%C3%A9\">Musée Jacquemart-André</a>, Paris, which was lent to the National Gallery in 2008 for an exhibition in which the two paintings were hung side by side.\nThe portrait is thought to be a source for <a href=\"John%20Tenniel\">John Tenniel</a>'s 1869 illustrations of <a href=\"Duchess%20%28Alice%27s%20Adventures%20in%20Wonderland%29\">the Duchess</a> in \"<a href=\"Alice%27s%20Adventures%20in%20Wonderland\">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>\".","Quentin Matsys\nQuentin Matsys (<a href=\"Dutch%20language\">Dutch</a>: \"Quinten Matsijs\" ) (1466–1530) was a painter in the <a href=\"Flemish\">Flemish</a> tradition and a founder of the <a href=\"Antwerp%20school\">Antwerp school</a>. He was born at <a href=\"Leuven\">Leuven</a>, where legend states he was trained as an ironsmith before becoming a painter. Matsys was active in Antwerp for over 20 years, creating numerous works with religious roots and satirical tendencies.\nMost early accounts of Matsys' life are composed primarily of legend and very little contemporary accounts exist of the nature of his activities or character. According to J. Molanus' \"Historiae Lovaniensium\" Matsys is known to be a native of Leuven with humble beginnings as an ironsmith. One of four children, Matsys was born to Joost Matsys (d. 1483) and Catherine van Kincken sometime between 4 April and 10 September 1466. Legend states that Matsys abandoned his career as a blacksmith to woo his wife, who found painting to be a more romantic profession, though <a href=\"Karel%20van%20Mander\">Karel van Mander</a> claimed this to be false, and the real reason was a sickness during which he was too weak to work at the smithy and instead decorated prints for the carnival celebrations. Documented donations and possessions of Joost Matsys indicate that the family had a respectable income and that financial need was most likely not the reason Matsys turned to painting. During the period in which Matsys was active in Antwerp he took only four apprentices: Arian van Overbeke (master 1501, inscribed 1495), Willem Muelenbroec (inscribed 1501), Eduart Portugalois (master 1506, inscribed 1504), and Hennen Boeckmakere (inscribed 1510). It is widely believed that <a href=\"Joachim%20Patinir\">Joachim Patinir</a> studied with Matsys at some point during his career and contributed to several of his landscapes. Lack of guild records during this time leaves Matsys' travels to Italy and other parts of the Low Countries as part of his training open to question. For the most part, foreign influences on Matsys are inferred from his paintings and are considered to be a large portion of the artist's training during the 16th century.\nDuring the greater part of the 15th century, the centres in which the painters of the <a href=\"Low%20Countries\">Low Countries</a> most congregated were <a href=\"Tournai\">Tournai</a>, <a href=\"Bruges\">Bruges</a>, <a href=\"Ghent\">Ghent</a> and <a href=\"Brussels\">Brussels</a>. Leuven gained prominence toward the close of this period, employing workmen from all of the crafts including Matsys. Not until the beginning of the 16th century did Antwerp take the lead which it afterward maintained against Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, <a href=\"Mechelen\">Mechelen</a> and Leuven. Because no guild records were kept prior to 1494 in Leuven there is no concrete proof that Matsys attained his master's status there; however, historians generally accept this to be the location of his early training because he had not been previously registered in Antwerp as an apprentice. As a member of Antwerp's <a href=\"Guild%20of%20Saint%20Luke\">Guild of Saint Luke</a>, Matsys is considered to be one of its first notable artists. Existing records of guild laws and regulations from the 16th century indicate that it is highly unlikely that Matsys was self-taught, despite accounts in <a href=\"Carel%20van%20Mander\">Carel van Mander</a>'s \"Schilderboeck\" (1604) stating that Matsys studied under no artist.\nAlthough the roots of Matsys' training are unknown, his style reflects the artistic qualities of <a href=\"Dirk%20Bouts\">Dirk Bouts</a>, who brought to Leuven the influence of <a href=\"Hans%20Memling\">Hans Memling</a> and <a href=\"Rogier%20van%20der%20Weyden\">Rogier Van der Weyden</a>. When Matsys settled at Antwerp at the age of twenty-five, his own style contributed importantly to reviving Flemish art along the lines of <a href=\"Van%20Eyck\">Van Eyck</a> and Van der Weyden. Matsys departed from Leuven in 1491 when he became a master in the <a href=\"guild%20of%20painters\">guild of painters</a> at Antwerp. His most well known satirical works include \"<a href=\"The%20Ugly%20Duchess\">The Ugly Duchess</a>\" (1515), \"A Portrait of an Elderly Man\" (1513), and \"<a href=\"The%20Money%20Changer%20and%20His%20Wife\">The Money Changer and His Wife</a>\" (1514), all of which provide commentary on human feeling and society in general. He also painted religious altarpieces and triptych panels, the most famous of which was built for the Church of Saint Peter in Leuven.\nMatsys work is considered to contain strong religious feeling—characteristic of traditional Flemish works—and is accompanied by a realism that often favored the grotesque. Matsys' firmness of outline, clear modelling and thorough finish of detail stem from Van de Weyden's influence; from the Van Eycks and Memling by way of Dirck Bouts, the glowing richness of transparent pigments. Matsys' works generally reflect earnestness in expression, minutely detailed renderings, and subdued effects in light and shade. Like most Flemish artists of the time he paid a great deal of attention to jewelry, edging of garments, and ornamentation in general.\nMost of the emphasis in his works lies not upon atmosphere, which is in fact given very little attention, but to the literalness of caricature: emphasizing the melancholy refinement of saints, the brutal gestures and grimaces of gaolers and executioners. Strenuous effort is devoted to the expression of individual character. A satirical tendency may be seen in the pictures of merchant bankers (<a href=\"Louvre\">Louvre</a> and <a href=\"Windsor%20Castle\">Windsor</a>), revealing their greed and avarice. His other impulse, dwelling on the feelings of tenderness, may be noted in two replicas of the Virgin and Child at <a href=\"Berlin\">Berlin</a> and <a href=\"Amsterdam\">Amsterdam</a>, where the ecstatic kiss of the mother seems rather awkward. An expression of acute despair may be seen in a \"<a href=\"Lucretia\">Lucretia</a>\" in the museum at <a href=\"Vienna\">Vienna</a>. The remarkable glow of the colour in these works; however, makes the <a href=\"Mannerism\">Mannerist</a> exaggerations palatable.\nMatsys had considerable skill as a portrait painter. His \"Ægidius (Peter Gilles)\" which drew from <a href=\"Thomas%20More\">Thomas More</a> a eulogy in <a href=\"Latin\">Latin</a> verse, is but one of many, to which one may add the portrait of <a href=\"Maximilian%20I%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Maximilian of Austria</a> in the gallery in Amsterdam. In this branch of his practice, Matsys was greatly influenced by his fellow countryman <a href=\"Jan%20Mabuse\">Jan Mabuse</a>. Matsys' portraiture exhibits highly personal and individual emotional characteristics that reflect his adherence to realism as a technique.\nIn comparison to other Northern Renaissance artists such as <a href=\"Hans%20Holbein%20the%20Younger\">Holbein</a> and <a href=\"Albrecht%20D%C3%BCrer\">Dürer</a> Matsys shies away from refined and subtle detailing. Because there are numerous connections between him and these masters, however, it can be concluded that his departure in techniques was deliberate and not an act of ignorance. He most likely met Holbein more than once on his way to England, and Dürer is believed to have visited his house at Antwerp in 1520. Matsys also became the guardian of <a href=\"Joachim%20Patinir\">Joachim Patinir</a>'s children after the death of that painter, who is believed to have worked on some of the landscapes in Matsys' pictures.\nHis \"Virgin and Christ\", \"<a href=\"Ecce%20Homo\">Ecce Homo</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Mater%20Dolorosa\">Mater Dolorosa</a>\" (London and Antwerp) are known for their serene and dignified mastery, gaining in delicacy and nuance in the works of his maturity. It is believed that he had known the work of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a> in the form of prints made and circulated among northern artists (his \"Madonna and Child with the Lamb\", inspired by \"<a href=\"The%20Virgin%20and%20Child%20with%20St.%20Anne%20%28Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%29\">The Virgin and Child with St. Anne</a>\", reflects da Vinci's influences). This is largely regarded as proof that Matsys was greatly influenced by Italian Renaissance artists and that he most likely travelled to Italy for at least a brief period.\nMatsys died at Antwerp in 1529. In spite of his religious devotion, several of his relatives died as a result of their faith. His sister Catherine and her husband suffered at Leuven in 1543 for what was then the capital offence of reading the <a href=\"Bible\">Bible</a>: he being decapitated, she allegedly buried alive in the square before the church. In 1629 the first centennial of Matsys' death was marked by a ceremony and erection of a relief plaque with an accompanying inscription on the facade of the Antwerp Cathedral. Benefactor <a href=\"Cornelius%20van%20der%20Geest\">Cornelius van der Geest</a> is said to be responsible for the wording, stating: \"in his time a smith and afterwards a famous painter\", keeping in accordance with the legends surrounding Matsys' humble beginnings.\nMatsys' works include \"A Portrait of an Elderly Man\" (1513), \"A Grotesque Old Woman\" (c.1513) and \"The Money Changer and His Wife\" (1514).\n\"<a href=\"The%20Ugly%20Duchess\">A Grotesque Old Woman</a>\" (or \"The Ugly Duchess\") is perhaps the best-known of his works. It served as a basis for <a href=\"John%20Tenniel\">John Tenniel</a>'s depiction of the Duchess in \"<a href=\"Alice%27s%20Adventures%20in%20Wonderland\">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>\". It is likely a depiction of a real person with <a href=\"Paget%27s%20disease%20of%20bone\">Paget's disease</a>, though it is sometimes said to be a metaphorical portrait of the <a href=\"Margaret%2C%20Countess%20of%20Tyrol\">Margaret, Countess of Tyrol</a>, who was known as \"Maultasch\", which, though literally translated \"satchel mouth\", was used to mean \"ugly woman\" or \"whore\" (because of her marital scandals). His two large triptych altarpieces \"The Holy Kinship\" or \"Saint Anne Altarpiece\" (1507–1509) and \"The Entombment of the Lord\" (1508–1511) are also highly celebrated. Commissioned for The Church of Saint Peter in Leuven, they reflect strong religious feeling and precise detailing characteristic to the majority of his works.\nQuentin Matsys also painted part of the altarpiece of the \"<a href=\"Igreja%20da%20Madre%20de%20Deus%20%28S%C3%A3o%20Jo%C3%A3o%29\">Convento da Madre de Deus</a>\", in <a href=\"Lisbon\">Lisbon</a>. The altar should be primitive invocation of the \"Seven Sorrows of Mary\", with boards still evocative of \"\"Our Lady of Sorrows\"\",\"\"Jesus among the Doctors\"\", \"\"on the path to Calvary\"\", \"\"Calvary\"\", \"\"Lamentation\"\" (all at the <a href=\"Museu%20Nacional%20de%20Arte%20Antiga\">Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga</a>) and \"\"Flight into Egypt\"\" (<a href=\"Worcester%20Art%20Museum\">Worcester Art Museum</a>). Since the convent was founded by D. Leonor, Queen Dowager of King John II of Portugal and sister of King Manuel of Portugal, in 1509, it appeared that the order of this set has been performed once, with some authors (\"Firedlander\") pointing as the date of making the frames years prior to 1511.\nQuentin's son, <a href=\"Jan%20Matsys\">Jan Matsys</a>, inherited the art but did not seek to expand upon his father's legacy. The earliest of his works, a \"St Jerome\" dated 1537, in the gallery of Vienna, as well as the latest, a \"Healing of Tobias\" of 1564, in the museum of Antwerp, are evidence of his tendency to substitute imitation for originality. Another son, <a href=\"Cornelis%20Matsys\">Cornelis Matsys</a>, was also a painter. Jan's son, <a href=\"Quentin%20Metsys%20the%20Younger\">Quentin Metsys the Younger</a>, was an <a href=\"artist%20of%20the%20Tudor%20court\">artist of the Tudor court</a>, and painted the \"Sieve Portrait\" of <a href=\"Elizabeth%20I%20of%20England\">Elizabeth I of England</a>.\nNear the front of the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp is a wrought-iron well, known as the \"Matsys Well,\" which according to tradition was made by the painter-to-be.\nMatsys was regarded as a cult figure during the 17th century in Antwerp in addition to being one of the founders of the local school of painting (which climaxed with the career of <a href=\"Peter%20Paul%20Rubens\">Peter Paul Rubens</a>).\nA penny serial by the British author <a href=\"Pierce%20Egan%20the%20Younger\">Pierce Egan the Younger</a> entitled \"Quintin Matsys\" was published in 1839.","Giampietrino\nGiampietrino, probably Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli (active 1495–1549), was a north Italian painter of the <a href=\"Lombardy\">Lombard school</a> and <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo</a>'s <a href=\"Leonardeschi\">circle</a>, succinctly characterized by Sidney J. Freedberg as an \"exploiter of Leonardo's repertory.\"\nGiampietrino was a very productive painter of large <a href=\"altarpiece\">altarpiece</a>s, <a href=\"Madonna%20%28art%29\">Madonnas</a>, holy women in half figure, and mythological women. For a long time, the true identity of the artist was unknown; he was only known as a so-called \"Giampietrino\" whose name appeared in lists of the members of Leonardo's studio. In 1929, Wilhelm Suida suggested that he could perhaps be Giovanni Battista Belmonte, since a Madonna signed with this name and dated 1509 had been associated stylistically with Giampietrino. Since then, this assumption is considered outdated, and Giampietrino is identified predominantly with Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli, who is known through documents.\nGiampietrino has been regarded as a talented painter who contributed substantially to the distribution of the late style of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. He copied numerous masterpieces by Leonardo, as well as leaving behind numerous capable original compositions of his own. Many of his works are preserved in multiple versions of the same subject.","Bernardino de' Conti\nBernardino de' Conti, an Italian painter mainly of portraits and to a lesser extent, religious compositions.\nHe is said to have been born at <a href=\"Pavia\">Pavia</a> in the latter part of the 15th century as the son of an obscure painter. He died in 1525. He was a follower of <a href=\"Bernardo%20Zenale\">Zenale</a>, but little is known of his life or works. The following paintings, however, are preserved:\nAttribution:\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons","Salaì\nGian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, better known as Salaì (\"The Devil\", lit. \"The little unclean one\") (1480 – before 10 March 1524), was an <a href=\"Italians\">Italian</a> artist and pupil of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a> from 1490 to 1518. Salaì entered Leonardo's household at the age of ten. He created paintings under the name of Andrea Salai. He was described as one of Leonardo's students and lifelong servant and is thought by some to be the model for Leonardo's \"<a href=\"St.%20John%20the%20Baptist%20%28Leonardo%29\">St. John the Baptist</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Bacchus%20%28Leonardo%29\">Bacchus</a>\".\nSalaì was born in 1480 as son of Pietro di Giovanni, a tenant of Leonardo's vineyard near the Porta Vercellina, <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a>.\nHe joined Leonardo's household at the age of ten as an assistant. Vasari describes Salaì as \"a graceful and beautiful youth with curly hair, in which Leonardo greatly delighted\". Although Leonardo described him as \"a liar, a thief, stubborn and a glutton\" and he stole from Leonardo on at least five occasions, he kept him in his household for more than 25 years, in which he trained as an artist. Salaì became a capable, although not very impressive, painter, who created several works, including the \"<a href=\"Monna%20Vanna\">Monna Vanna</a>\", a nude version of the \"<a href=\"Mona%20Lisa\">Mona Lisa</a>\" which may be based on a charcoal sketch by Leonardo. He is also considered one potential creator of <a href=\"Mona%20Lisa%20%28Prado%27s%20version%29\">the Prado's copy of the \"Mona Lisa\"</a>.\nLeonardo is thought to have used Salaì as the model for several of his works, specifically \"<a href=\"St.%20John%20the%20Baptist%20%28Leonardo%29\">St. John the Baptist</a>\" and <a href=\"Bacchus%20%28Leonardo%29\">\"Bacchus\"</a>. Some researchers also believe that Salaì and not <a href=\"Lisa%20del%20Giocondo\">Lisa del Giocondo</a> was the real model for the <a href=\"Mona%20Lisa\">\"Mona Lisa\"</a> but this claim is disputed by the Louvre.\nDuring Leonardo's second stay in Milan, he took another young pupil, <a href=\"Francesco%20Melzi\">Francesco Melzi</a>. Unlike Salaì, Francesco was a son of a nobleman. When Leonardo traveled to <a href=\"Rome\">Rome</a> in 1513 and to <a href=\"France\">France</a> in 1516, Salaì and Melzi both accompanied him. As an adult, Melzi became secretary and main assistant of Leonardo, and undertook to prepare Leonardo's writings for publication. Vasari says that Melzi \"at the time of Leonardo was a very beautiful and very much loved young man\". In France, Francesco Melzi was greeted as \"Italian gentleman living with master Leonardo\" and granted donation of 400 ecus, while Salaì, already over 40 years old, was described as \"servant\" and granted a one time donation of 100 ecus. Salaì left Leonardo and France in 1518. He later returned to Milan to work on Leonardo's vineyard, previously worked by Salaì's father, half of which was granted to him by Leonardo's will. It is commonly believed that upon Leonardo's death in 1519, Salaì inherited several paintings including the \"<a href=\"Mona%20Lisa\">Mona Lisa</a>\". Through his estate, many of those works, notably the \"Mona Lisa\", passed into the possession of <a href=\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\">Francis I of France</a>. While Leonardo left all personal belongings, paintings, drawings and notes to Francesco Melzi in his will, it's unclear whether this included the \"Mona Lisa\".\nSalaì married Bianca Coldiroli d'Annono on June 14, 1523, at the age of 43. Salaì died in 1524 as a result of a wound received from a crossbow in a duel and was buried in Milan on 10 March 1524.\nA number of drawings among the works of Leonardo and his pupils make reference to Salaì's sexuality. There is a drawing modelled on Leonardo's painting \"John the Baptist\" and called \"The Angel Incarnate\", of a young man nude with an erect phallus, and appearing to represent Salaì. The face of the figure is closer to Salaì's copy of Leonardo's painting, than to the original \"John the Baptist\" in the Louvre. It may have been drawn by Salaì himself. A folio by Leonardo includes a page of drawings by a hand other than Leonardo's, one of which is a crudely drawn sketch depicting an anus, identified as \"Salaì's bum\", pursued by penises on legs.\nA group of Italian researchers has claimed that Salaì was the model for the \"Mona Lisa\", noting the similarity in some of the facial features, particularly the nose and mouth, to those in which Salaì is thought to have been the model. These claims have been disputed by the <a href=\"Louvre\">Louvre</a>.","Bernardino Luini\nBernardino Luini (c. 1480/82 – June 1532) was a North Italian <a href=\"Painting\">painter</a> from <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo's</a> circle. Both Luini and <a href=\"Giovanni%20Antonio%20Boltraffio\">Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio</a> were said to have worked with Leonardo directly; he was described to have taken \"as much from Leonardo as his native roots enabled him to comprehend\". Consequently, many of his works were attributed to Leonardo. He was known especially for his graceful female figures with elongated eyes, called Luinesque by <a href=\"Vladimir%20Nabokov\">Vladimir Nabokov</a>.\nLuini was born as Bernardino de Scapis in Runo, a \"<a href=\"frazione\">frazione</a>\" of <a href=\"Dumenza\">Dumenza</a>, near <a href=\"Lake%20Maggiore\">Lake Maggiore</a>. Details of his life are scant.\nIn 1500 he moved to <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a> with his father. According to Lomazzo, he trained under Giovan Stefano Scotto, although for others he was a pupil of <a href=\"Ambrogio%20Bergognone\">Ambrogio Bergognone</a>. In 1504-1507 he was probably in <a href=\"Treviso\">Treviso</a>, as attested by a \"Madonna with Child\" signed \"Bernardinus Mediolanensis faciebat\" which is however of disputed attribution. His first fresco works are an \"Adoration of the Magi\" in San Pietro of <a href=\"Luino\">Luino</a> (c. 1505) and the attributed fresco in the presbytery of <a href=\"Monza%20Cathedral\">Monza Cathedral</a> with \"St. Gerard of the Painters\".\nLuini returned in Milan in 1509, receiving a commission for a polyptych from which today remains a \"St. Anthony of Padua\" in the <a href=\"Museo%20Poldi%20Pezzoli\">Museo Poldi Pezzoli</a>, influenced by <a href=\"Bernardino%20Zenale\">Bernardino Zenale</a>'s \"Cantù Polyptych\". In the 1510s he painted frescoes in the Oratory of Santa Maria Nuova in Pilastrello, a \"Lamentation of the dead Christ\" in <a href=\"Santa%20Maria%20della%20Passione\">Santa Maria della Passione</a>, a \"Madonna della Buonanotte\" in the <a href=\"Abbey%20of%20Chiaravalle\">Abbey of Chiaravalle</a>, frescoes in <a href=\"San%20Giorgio%20di%20Palazzo\">San Giorgio di Palazzo</a> (1516) and in the <a href=\"Certosa%20di%20Pavia\">Certosa di Pavia</a>, and others.\nFrom 1509 - 1514 Luini completed the frescoes for \"Villa Pelucca\" in <a href=\"Sesto%20San%20Giovanni\">Sesto San Giovanni</a> (now in the <a href=\"Pinacoteca%20di%20Brera\">Pinacoteca di Brera</a>, Milan). One of his best known works, they were commissioned by Girolamo Rabia, for whom he also painted mythological scenes in the Palazzo Rabia (now in the <a href=\"Berlin%20Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie\">Berlin Gemäldegalerie</a> and the <a href=\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Art\">National Gallery of Art</a>, <a href=\"Washington%2C%20D.C.\">Washington, D.C.</a>).\nIn 1521 he travelled to Rome, where he was influenced by <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a>'s style. This is evident in Luini's further frescoes in the Villa La Pelucca executed in 1520-1523, as well as in other works now at Brera. In 1523, Luini painted a polyptych depicting the \"Entrhroned Madonna and Child surrounded by Angels with Musical Instruments\", and surmounted by \"God the Father\", found in the <a href=\"Basilica%20of%20San%20Magno%2C%20Legnano\">Basilica of San Magno, Legnano</a>.\nCirca 1525 he completed a series of frescoes on the <a href=\"life%20of%20the%20Virgin\">life of the Virgin</a> and Christ for the sanctuary of \"Santa Maria dei Miracoli\" in <a href=\"Saronno\">Saronno</a>; to the same year is attributed the fresco in the counterfaçade of Sant'Abbondio in <a href=\"Como\">Como</a>. While at <a href=\"Saronno\">Saronno</a>, he discovered <a href=\"amaretto\">amaretto</a>. Other works from his middle period include a \"Holy Family\" in the <a href=\"Museo%20del%20Prado\">Museo del Prado</a>, two \"Salome\" in the <a href=\"Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts%2C%20Boston\">Museum of Fine Arts</a> in <a href=\"Boston\">Boston</a> and the <a href=\"Uffizi\">Uffizi</a> and a \"Portrait of Lady\" in the National Gallery of Art. From 1526 is a \"Virgin with Child and Saints\" in the Lee Fareham collection of Richmond.\nIn 1529 Luini completed one of his masterworks, the grand \"Passion and Crucifixion\" fresco at Santa Maria degli Angeli in <a href=\"Lugano\">Lugano</a>, paired by other works in the same church. In 1531 he returned to the Saronno sanctuary to add other frescoes. In his later career Luini was increasingly influenced by Leonardo, as showed by the \"St. Anne\" of the <a href=\"Pinacoteca%20Ambrosiana\">Pinacoteca Ambrosiana</a> and the \"St. Catherine\" of the <a href=\"Hermitage%20Museum\">Hermitage</a>.\nHe died in Milan. His son <a href=\"Aurelio%20Luini\">Aurelio</a> was also an accomplished painter.\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"Leonardeschi\\nThe Leonardeschi is the large group of artists who worked in the studio of or under the influence of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1472 da Vinci joined the Guild of St Luke and at the end of 1477 he left the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio as an independent artist. In 1482 Leonardo came to Milan where he stayed with Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis, Evangelista de Predis and their four brothers, who all were artists of different kinds. Both Predis brothers are known for having collaborated with Leonardo da Vinci in the painting of the \\\"Virgin of the Rocks\\\" for the altarpiece in the chapel of the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception at the Church of San Francesco Grande, Milan. In 1490 Leonardo earned recognition and a breakthrough at the court of Ludovico Sforza and because of the scale of works commissioned he was permitted to have assistants and pupils in his own studio.\\nAmong Leonardo’s pupils at this time were Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, Ambrogio de Predis, Bernardino de' Conti, Francesco Napoletano, Andrea Solario, Marco d'Oggiono, and Salaì (known as Giacomo Caprotti or Andrea Salaino). In a letter to Ludovico in 1496 Leonardo claims he was having to maintain 6 people at the time. Along with these original pupils of Leonardo, during his second stay in Milan in 1508 Leonardo had relationships with other Milanese artists, such as Il Sodoma (Giovanni Antonio Bazzi) and Giovanni Francesco Rustici and young Francesco Melzi, whose parents had a manor house at Vaprio, Milan. Such artists as Giampietrino, Bernardino Lanino, Cesare da Sesto, Cesare Magni, Martino Piazza da Lodi and Bernardino Luini are also regarded as members of the circle of Leonardo, while Giampietrino and Cesare da Sesto are represented as pupils in monument to Leonardo at Milan.\\nDuring the first decades of the 16th century a number of Spanish painters visited Florence. Fernando Yanez de la Almedina and Hernando de los Llanos are documented as collaborators with Leonardo on the Battle of Anghiari. Both artists continued their artistic association on returning home to Spain.\\nIn 1494 - 95 and again in 1505 - 1507 the German artist Albrecht Dürer traveled to Venice, Italy. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo's. Several Dürer engravings show a clear interest in the works of Leonardo, for example \\\"The Small Horse\\\" is based upon the \\\"Sforza Horse\\\" by da Vinci.\\nDuring the second stay in Venice Dürer was influenced by Leonardo's cartoon of \\\"Christ among the Doctors\\\", which was commissioned by Isabella d'Este, while Dürer made a version of the subject, now in the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. This is the only painting of Dürer directly influenced by Leonardo, however, Dürer introduced new subjects developed by Leonardo in his art (e.g. the figure of young St. John the Baptist into his composition of \\\"Madonna with the Siskin\\\" in 1506, which was not familiar to Venetian art at the time). Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and — mainly through Lorenzo di Credi — Leonardo da Vinci.\\nIt is also believed that Quentin Matsys had known the work of Leonardo da Vinci in the form of prints made and circulated among northern artists (his \\\"Madonna and Child with the Lamb\\\", inspired by The \\\"Virgin and Child with St. Anne\\\", and also \\\"A Grotesque Old Woman\\\" (or \\\"The Ugly Duchess\\\") which reflects da Vinci's influences). This is regarded as evidence that Matsys was greatly influenced by Italian Renaissance artists and that he most likely travelled to Italy for at least a brief period.\\nIn 1516 or 1517 Leonardo da Vinci joined the court of Francis I of France. Coincidentally, a Flemish portrait painter Joos van Cleve was also summoned to the French court, where he painted the king, queen, and other courtiers. It is thought that Joos van Cleve also spent some time in Italy as well as France on this trip. Like Quentin Massys, a fellow artist of Antwerp, Joos van Cleve appropriated some themes and techniques of Leonardo da Vinci. Joos van Cleve is often called \\\"Leonardo of the North\\\", and paintings by the Italian Renaissance artists Giampietrino (Madonna of the Cherries) and Marco d’Oggiono (\\\"The Infants Christ and John the Baptist Embracing\\\", known as \\\"The Holy Infants Embracing\\\"), both assistants in the workshop of Leonardo da Vinci, were a major influence on the Antwerp master. Joos van Cleve produced numerous versions of his own paintings after these models, adapting them to his own style and so creating some of the most successful compositions of the time in northern Europe. His son Cornelis van Cleve continued an artistic interest in Leonardo, producing several copies of his father's work and the \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\" himself.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood\\nLeonardo da Vinci and A Memory of His Childhood (German: \\\"Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci\\\" ) is a 1910 essay by Sigmund Freud about Leonardo da Vinci's childhood. It consists of a psychoanalytic study of Leonardo's life based on his paintings.\\nFreud provides a psychoanalytical interpretation of Leonardo's \\\"The Virgin and Child with St. Anne\\\". According to Oskar Pfister, the Virgin's garment reveals a vulture when viewed sideways. Freud accepted this interpretation (in spite of the outlines resembling rather a duck than a vulture) as a supportive interpretation of his view of a \\\"passive homosexual\\\" childhood fantasy Leonardo wrote about in the Codex Atlanticus. Here, Leonardo recounts being attacked as an infant in his crib by the tail of a vulture. Freud translated the passage thus:\\n“It seems that it had been destined before that I should occupy myself so thoroughly with the vulture, for it comes to my mind as a very early memory, when I was still in the cradle, a vulture came down to me, he opened my mouth with his tail and struck me a few times with his tail against my lips.”\\nAccording to Freud, this fantasy was based on the memory of sucking his mother's nipple. He backed up his claim with the fact that Egyptian hieroglyphs represent the mother as a vulture, because the Egyptians believed that there are no male vultures and that the females of the species are impregnated by the wind.\\nUnfortunately, the translation \\\"Geier\\\" (vulture), which Maria Herzfeld had used for \\\"nibio\\\" in 1904 in the first edition of her book \\\"Leonardo da Vinci, der Denker, Forscher und Poet\\\", was not exactly the kite Leonardo da Vinci had meant: a small hawk-like bird of prey, common in the Vinci area, which is occasionally a scavenger. This disappointed Freud because, as he confessed to Lou Andreas-Salomé in a letter of 9 February 1919, he regarded the Leonardo essay as \\\"the only beautiful thing I have ever written\\\". Some Freudian scholars, such as Erich Neumann in his book \\\"Art and the Creative Unconscious\\\", have, however, made attempts to repair the theory by incorporating the kite.\\nAnother theory proposed by Freud attempts to explain Leonardo's fondness of depicting the Virgin Mary with St. Anne. Leonardo, who was illegitimate, was raised by his blood mother initially before being \\\"adopted\\\" by the wife of his father Ser Piero. The idea of depicting the Mother of God with her own mother was therefore particularly close to Leonardo's heart, because he, in a sense, had 'two mothers' himself. It is worth noting that in both versions of the composition (the Louvre painting and the London cartoon) it is hard to discern whether St. Anne is a full generation older than Mary.\\n\",\n \"The Life of Leonardo da Vinci\\nLa Vita di Leonardo Da Vinci — in English, The Life of Leonardo da Vinci — is a 1971 Italian television miniseries dramatizing the life of the Italian Renaissance genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519).\\nThe Golden Globe-winning miniseries was directed by Renato Castellani, and produced by RAI (the Italian national television) and distributed in the United States by CBS, which aired it from August 13, 1972 to September 10, 1972. Castellani wrote the screenplay. It was filmed entirely on location in Italy and France. The total runtime of the five episodes is nearly five hours.\\n\",\n \"The Taming of the Shrew (1967 film)\\nThe Taming of the Shrew (Italian: \\\"La Bisbetica domata\\\" ) is a 1967 film based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare about a courtship between two strong-willed people. The film was directed by Franco Zeffirelli and stars Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton as Shakespeare's Kate and Petruchio.\\nBaptista Minola (Michael Hordern) is attempting to marry off his two daughters; however, he will marry off his youngest, Bianca (Natasha Pyne) only if someone will marry his eldest, Katharina (Elizabeth Taylor). Katharina is an ill-tempered shrewish woman but a lusty young nobleman, Petruchio (Richard Burton), takes on the challenge of taming and marrying her. A subplot involves the wooing of Bianca by several suitors including handsome Lucentio (Michael York), foppish Hortensio (Victor Spinetti), and elderly Gremio (Alan Webb).\\nThe film, made in English but shot in Italy, cuts much of the original dialogue, including much of the subplot of Lucentio and Bianca, and all of the Christopher Sly framing device.\\nTaylor plays Kate’s final, controversial speech without any obvious irony (such as Mary Pickford’s wink in the 1929 film); however, her taming is apparently undercut by her quick exit from the banquet, which forces Burton’s Petruchio to chase after her amid jeers from the other men. According to Harold Bloom’s take on the play, Katherina is “advising women how to rule absolutely, while feigning obedience”.\\nThe film was originally intended to be a vehicle for Sophia Loren and Marcello Mastroianni. Taylor and Burton put over a million dollars into the production and, instead of a salary, took a percentage of profits. The film made $12 million worldwide and was generally liked by the critics.\\nThe film received two Academy Award nominations, for Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati), and Best Art Direction (Lorenzo Mongiardino, John DeCuir, Elven Webb, Giuseppe Mariani, Dario Simoni and Luigi Gervasi).\\n\\\"The Taming of the Shrew\\\" grossed $8 million in North America, earning $3,540,000 in theatrical rentals during 1967, making it the 25th highest grossing picture of 1967. The film grossed $12 million worldwide.\\nThe film received positive reviews from modern critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85% of professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.5 out of 10 and the site's consensus stating: \\\"It may not be reverent enough for purists, but this \\\"Taming of the Shrew\\\" is too funny – and fun – for the rest of us to resist.\\\"\\n\",\n \"Istituto Leonardo da Vinci\\nIstituto Leonardo da Vinci or Istituto di Istruzione Superiore Leonardo da Vinci (IIS Leonardo da Vinci) may refer to:\\nSchools in Italy:\\nSchools outside of Italy:\",\n \"Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci\\nThe Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci is a late 15th or early 16th century portrait of a man that was recently discovered in a cupboard of a private house in Italy. It strongly resembles a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci held by the Uffizi Gallery and regarded by experts as a forgery. The painting was previously thought by its owners to represent Galileo but on its discovery in 2008 a claim was made that it is a self-portrait by Leonardo da Vinci. Alessandro Vezzosi, director of the Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci at Vinci said in 2011 that he had excluded the possibility that it was a self-portrait, but that the painting \\\"remains intriguing because it adds a new element to the Leonardo puzzle\\\".\\nPainted in tempera grassa on panel, 60 x it depicts a man in three-quarter view, with a long beard and wearing a dark hat. It is currently exhibited in the Museo delle Antiche Genti di Lucania (Museum of the Ancient People of Lucania) in Vaglio Basilicata, a region of Southern Italy.\\nIn 2008 Nicola Barbatelli, Director of the Museo, discovered the painting, attributed it to Leonardo, and gave it the name \\\"Lucan portrait\\\", from Lucania, the ancient name of Basilicata. In 2010 a conference was held at which a team comprising David Bershad, Professor at University of Calgary (Canada), Peter Hohenstatt, Professor at the University of Parma, Felice Festa, Professor of Orthodontics and Gnathology at the University of Chieti, and Nicola Barbatelli, presented the findings in support of Barbatelli's attribution. No results of detailed stylistic analysis of the painting, or stylistic comparison with known works by Leonardo da Vinci or other possible authors are available, and it is unknown if such studies have taken place.\\nThe painting was found in 2008 by Nicola Barbatelli, director of the Museo delle Antiche Genti di Lucania, in the private collection of an aristocratic family at Acerenza (population 3,000), a village on the river Bradano near Potenza in Basilicata. The family, who have asked to remain anonymous, believed it to be a portrait of Galileo. According to Professor Peter Hohenstatt of the University of Parma, the portrait is listed on page 116 of \\\"Napoli Antica e Moderna\\\", (1815) edited by Abate Domenico Romanelli, as being the work of Leonardo da Vinci and located in the Palazzo Baranello nella strada Cedronia of the Duke of Baranello, of the noble family Russo.\\nThe painting, in tempera grassa on a wooden panel made of poplar 60 x is of a man dressed in a dark garment, wearing a black hat with a small upturned brim. The man's skin is pale, his eyes blue and his hair and beard greying. The figure is set against a dark greyish monochrome background and is brightly lit from the left of the picture, illuminating the right-hand side of the sitters face, and casting a shadow across the left-hand side. The gaze of the figure is turned towards the viewer.\\nThe identification of this portrait as Leonardo da Vinci is based upon comparison with several representations of the artist including a very similar portrait in the Uffizi, the red chalk portrait in Turin and the red chalk portrait by Francesco Melzi in Windsor and others.\\nThe panel is constructed of two main vertical sections of wood of irregular width and joined with two inset butterfly joints. There are narrow horizontal sections of timber at the top and bottom of the panel. These sections have half-lapped mitre joints to the verticals, visible at the front of the panel. The rear of the panel has the words \\\"PINXIT MEA\\\" painted on it. It is written in Roman capital letters, in \\\"mirror writing\\\" so that the whole inscription is reversed and reads from left to right. The inscription runs down the left side of the reverse of the painting, rather than across it.\\nThe image on the panel is painted using a mixture of egg and oil as a medium over a ground of white gesso which is visible in damaged areas and on parts of the back of the panel. The surface of the paint has cracked down the main joint, and separated in several other places. There are several areas of abrasion to the surface of the painting, the most serious damage being two scrapes across the face, one of which extends from the nostril across the corner of the eye to the brim of his hat, and another which extends from nostril to pupil.\\nIt is apparent that there is some overpainting to the subject's left eye and cheek, and probably the mouth. There is a small curling white feather adorning the hat which is an apparent addition.\\nUpon its discovery by Nicola Barbatelli, the painting was subjected to an initial examination by Alessandro Vezzosi, director of the Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci at Vinci, who confirmed that the painting appeared to be from the Renaissance period. Vezzosi was reported, in February 2009, as investigating whether the painting was the work of a minor 16th-century artist Cristofano dell'Altissimo. Altissimo executed numerous portraits of famous men for Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, some of them after the Giovio Series, including a profile of Leonardo based on the red chalk profile drawing in the Royal Collection attributed to Leonardo's companion Francesco Melzi. Vezzosi later dismissed the early conjecture that it was by dell'Altisimo.\\nIn February 2009, two months after the painting's discovery, Vezzosi had been erroneously quoted by the Times as saying he had excluded the possibility that the work was \\\"a self-portrait painted by Leonardo himself\\\" and that examination of the inscription \\\"\\\"pinxit mea\\\"\\\" on the reverse of the panel indicated that it was \\\"a later addition\\\". Vezzosi was later to say \\\"We need to find out the exact dating of this portrait. I have excluded the possibility that we are dealing with a self-portrait painted by Leonardo himself. Nevertheless, the Acerenza portrait is intriguing because it adds a new element to the Leonardo's puzzle. Here we have Leonardo depicted as a middle-aged, blue-eyed man.\\\"\\nSince that time the focus of attention and research has been directed at proving the painting to be the work of Leonardo da Vinci. The Vaglia Basilicata City Council then funded an investigation by a team of scientists, many of whom were from non-art related disciplines, to report upon anything which could be tested to either support or deny the attribution to Leonardo.\\nA preliminary cleaning of the painting was carried out, by Professor Giancarlo Napoli of the Suor Orsola Benincasa University in Naples, and revealed micro-cracking (craquelet) of the paint surface which cannot be reproduced artificially and supported a Renaissance date. Further investigation was carried out by a body of specialists in different fields including INNOVA, CIRCE, University of Naples, Cybernetics - National Research Council, and University Suor Orsola Benincasa.\\nThe INNOVA centre of the Federico II University of Naples, headed by Prof. Terrasi, researched the physical properties of the painting including the ground, medium and pigments, and identifying restored areas. Gaetano Di Pasquale of the University of Naples confirmed the wood of the panel to be \\\"Populus\\\", common throughout Italy. Carbon 14 dating gave 64% chance the wood of the panel dated between 1459 and 1523, making it contemporary with Leonardo, who was born in 1452 and died in 1519. The pigments were investigated using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis (ED-XRF) and were shown, in the unrestored areas, to be compatible in age with the panel and showed no trace of modern pigments in the unrestored areas, however the feather was revealed to have been painted in a \\\"modern\\\" titanium-based pigment not used in other parts of the painting.\\nThe painting was examined with a Scanning Magnetic Microscope at a 100 μm resolution by Dr Hector Sarno of INNOVA to compose a magnetic map of the painting and to check for illegible letters. Cleaning of the back of the board revealed the reversed inscription \\\"PINXIT MEA\\\" written in iron gall, an ink commonly used by Leonardo. An analysis of the handwriting by graphologist Silvana Iuliano, revealed compatibility with script used by Leonardo in the Atlantic Codex.\\nAn analysis of the soft tissue of the face, applying methods used in facial surgery, was made by Prof. Felice Festa of the University of Chieti. The painted image was subject to detailed computer analysis and 3D imaging by Prof. Orest Kormashov, University of Tallinn, Estonia; Gianni Glinni, an engineer for the Museum of Antiche Genti di Lucania, and Helen Kokk, an expert in 3D graphic design. The recreated three-dimensional image was compared with other images believed to represent Leonardo da Vinci, including the iconic red chalk in Turin, the profile drawing believed to be by Leonardo's pupil Francesco Melzi, the painted portrait in the Uffizi and the recently discovered image in the \\\"Codex on the Flight of Birds\\\". A conclusion was that all the images, but one, reveal a face that is elongated in the lower two thirds. The image that did not comply was the red chalk so-called self-portrait in Turin, considered by some to be of Leonardo in old age.\\nLuigi Capasso, of the University of Chieti, and Col. Gianfranco De Fulvio, RIS-Ra.C.I.S. Command of the Carabinieri led an investigation into three fingerprints they found in the paint of the Lucan painting and found one of them to be \\\"unambiguous\\\" with the left index fingerprint on the ebony beads of Leonardo's \\\"Lady with an Ermine\\\".\\nIt is attributed to Leonardo by a number of historians of Art: Prof. Hoehnsttatt Peter (University of Parma), Alessandro Tomei (University of Chieti-Pescara), Maria Cristina Paoluzzi (University of Chieti and Milan), Jan Royt (University of Prague), , David Bershad (University of Calgary) and Orest Kormashov (University of Tallinn). .\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci International Art Award\\nThe Leonardo da Vinci Award was established in 1975 by the Rotary Club of Florence as an annual international prize named after Leonardo da Vinci, to be presented to young people involved in the study of the sciences, technology, literature and the arts. Among the disciplines recognised and rewarded so far have been painting, sculpture, music, geology, architecture, medicine and nuclear physics. The 21st Leonardo da Vinci Prize was recently presented to the brilliant young pianist Johan Schmidt. The prize giving event has been hosted by other European Rotary Clubs in cities such as Tours, Vienna, Athens, Madrid, Würzburg, Brussels and Amsterdam. This event was last held in London in 1987, when the prize was awarded to the internationally recognised percussionist Evelyn Glennie. In 1996 1/2 the Rotary Club of London will again be responsible for hosting the prize-giving ceremony.\\n\",\n \"Da Vinci Surgical System\\nThe da Vinci Surgical System is a robotic surgical system made by the American company Intuitive Surgical. Approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2000, it is designed to facilitate complex surgery using a minimally invasive approach, and is controlled by a surgeon from a console. The system is commonly used for prostatectomies, and increasingly for cardiac valve repair and gynecologic surgical procedures. According to the manufacturer, the da Vinci System is called \\\"da Vinci\\\" in part because Leonardo da Vinci's \\\"study of human anatomy eventually led to the design of the first known robot in history.\\\"\\nDa Vinci Surgical Systems operate in hospitals worldwide, with an estimated 200,000 surgeries conducted in 2012, most commonly for hysterectomies and prostate removals. As of September 30, 2016, there was an installed base of 3,803 units worldwide – 2,501 in the United States, 644 in Europe, 476 in Asia, and 182 in the rest of the world. The \\\"Si\\\" version of the system costs on average slightly under US$2 million, in addition to several hundred thousand dollars of annual maintenance fees. The da Vinci system has been criticised for its cost and for a number of issues with its surgical performance.\\nThe da Vinci System consists of a surgeon's console that is typically in the same room as the patient, and a patient-side cart with four interactive robotic arms controlled from the console. Three of the arms are for tools that hold objects, and can also act as scalpels, scissors, bovies, or unipolar or hi. The surgeon uses the console's master controls to maneuver the patient-side cart's three or four robotic arms (depending on the model). The instruments’ jointed-wrist design exceeds the natural range of motion of the human hand; motion scaling and tremor reduction further interpret and refine the surgeon's hand movements. The da Vinci System always requires a human operator, and incorporates multiple redundant safety features designed to minimize opportunities for human error when compared with traditional approaches.\\nThe da Vinci System has been designed to improve upon conventional laparoscopy, in which the surgeon operates while standing, using hand-held, long-shafted instruments, which have no wrists. With conventional laparoscopy, the surgeon must look up and away from the instruments, to a nearby 2D video monitor to see an image of the target anatomy. The surgeon must also rely on a patient-side assistant to position the camera correctly. In contrast, the da Vinci System's design allows the surgeon to operate from a seated position at the console, with eyes and hands positioned in line with the instruments and using controls at the console to move the instruments and camera.\\nBy providing surgeons with superior visualization, enhanced dexterity, greater precision and ergonomic comfort, the da Vinci Surgical System makes it possible for more surgeons to perform minimally invasive procedures involving complex dissection or reconstruction. For the patient, a da Vinci procedure can offer all the potential benefits of a minimally invasive procedure, including less pain, less blood loss and less need for blood transfusions. Moreover, the da Vinci System can enable a shorter hospital stay, a quicker recovery and faster return to normal daily activities.\\nThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared the da Vinci Surgical System in 2000 for adult and pediatric use in urologic surgical procedures, general laparoscopic surgical procedures, gynecologic laparoscopic surgical procedures, general non-cardiovascular thoracoscopic surgical procedures and thoracoscopically assisted cardiotomy procedures. The FDA also cleared the da Vinci System to be employed with adjunctive mediastinotomy to perform coronary anastomosis during cardiac revascularization.\\nThe da Vinci System has been successfully used in the following procedures:\\nAlthough the general term \\\"robotic surgery\\\" is often used to refer to the technology, this term can give the impression that the da Vinci System is performing the surgery autonomously. In contrast, the current da Vinci Surgical System cannot – in any manner – function on its own, as it was not designed as an autonomous system and lacks decision making software. Instead, it relies on a human operator for all input; however, all operations – including vision and motor functions - are performed through remote human-computer interaction, and thus with the appropriate weak AI software, the system could in principle perform partially or completely autonomously. The difficulty with creating an autonomous system of this kind is not trivial; a major obstacle is that surgery \\\"per se\\\" is not an engineered process – a requirement for weak AI. The current system is designed merely to replicate seamlessly the movement of the surgeon's hands with the tips of micro-instruments, not to make decisions or move without the surgeon's direct input.\\nThe possibility of long-distance operations depends on the patient having access to a da Vinci System, but technically the system could allow a doctor to perform telesurgery on a patient in another country. In 2001, Dr. Marescaux and a team from IRCAD used a combination of high-speed fiber-optic connection with an average delay of 155 ms with advanced asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and a Zeus telemanipulator to successfully perform the first transatlantic surgical procedure, covering the distance between New York and Strasbourg. The event was considered a milestone of global telesurgery, and was dubbed \\\"Operation Lindbergh\\\".\\nCritics of robotic surgery assert that it is difficult for users to learn and that it has not been shown to be more effective than traditional laparoscopic surgery. The da Vinci system uses proprietary software, which cannot be modified by physicians, thereby limiting the freedom to modify the operation system. Furthermore, its $2 million cost places it beyond the reach of many institutions.\\nThe manufacturer of the system, Intuitive Surgical, has been criticized for short-cutting FDA approval by a process known as \\\"premarket notification,\\\" which claims the product is similar to already-approved products. Intuitive has also been accused of providing inadequate training, and encouraging health care providers to reduce the number of supervised procedures required before a doctor is allowed to use the system without supervision. There have also been claims of patient injuries caused by stray electrical currents released from inappropriate parts of the surgical tips used by the system. Intuitive counters that the same type of stray currents can occur in non-robotic laparoscopic procedures. A study published in the \\\"Journal of the American Medical Association\\\" found that side effects and blood loss in robotically-performed hysterectomies are no better than those performed by traditional surgery, despite the significantly greater cost of the system. As of 2013, the FDA is investigating problems with the da Vinci robot, including deaths during surgeries that used the device; a number of related lawsuits are also underway.\\nFrom a social analysis, a disadvantage is the potential for this technology to dissolve the creative freedoms of the surgeon, once hailed by scholar Timothy Lenoir as one of the most professional individual autonomous occupations to exist. Lenoir claims that in the \\\"heroic age of medicine,\\\" the surgeon was hailed as a hero for his intuitive knowledge of human anatomy and his well-crafted techniques in repairing vital body systems. Lenoir argues that the da Vinci's 3D console and robotic arms create a mediating form of action called medialization, in which internal knowledge of images and routes within the body become external knowledge mapped into simplistic computer coding.\",\n \"Da Vinci Medallion\\nThe Leonardo da Vinci Society for the Study of Thinking and the Da Vinci Medallion were created to award scholarship in the realm of human thinking. The name was chosen to honor Leonardo da Vinci, the archetypal Renaissance man.\\nIn 2005, the inaugural chair was awarded to Professor Edward de Bono, for his work in the field of creative thinking and in the direct teaching of thinking as a skill. Dr. Margaret J. Wheatley, credited with establishing new approaches to thinking about organizations, accepted the award in 2006. In the fall of 2006, the society announced that Fritjof Capra would receive the 2007 award in recognition for his work in systems thinking.\\nAward recipients include:\",\n \"Francesco Melzi\\nFrancesco Melzi, or Francesco de Melzi, (<a href=\\\"circa\\\">circa</a> 1491 – 1568/70) was an Italian painter born into a family of the <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a>ese nobility in <a href=\\\"Lombardy\\\">Lombardy</a>.\\nFrancesco's father, Gerolamo Melzi, was an engineer for <a href=\\\"Francesco%20II%20Sforza\\\">Francesco II Sforza</a>'s military and a captain in the militia in Milan under <a href=\\\"Louis%20XII%20of%20France\\\">Louis XII</a>. Francesco lived with his family lived in the in <a href=\\\"Vaprio%20d%27Adda\\\">Vaprio d'Adda</a> (not to be confused with the <a href=\\\"Bellagio%2C%20Lombardy\\\">Villa Melzi d'Eril in Bellagio, Lombardy</a>), which today is still under the ownership of the Dukes <a href=\\\"Francesco%20Melzi%20d%27Eril\\\">Melzi d'Eril</a>. Francesco grew up in the Milanese court, and was raised with proper manners and was granted a good education, which included training in the arts. He was reasonably talented in the arts and worked very hard. As a member of a prominent family of the Milanese court, however, Francesco would have had political and social responsibilities as he got older that would have caused him to discontinue his studies in art had it not been for <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. Leonardo returned to Milan for some time around 1505 and stayed with the Melzi family. It was there that he met Francesco for the first time, enticed by his good nature and handsomeness. In a biography of Leonardo da Vinci, it is argued that he felt compelled to stay in Milan longer than he had intended after meeting with the young Francesco. Francesco is described in literature as charming and graceful, an adolescent without the awkwardness or lack of manners typical of boys around this age. Francesco and another pupil of Leonardo's, Boltraffo, stood out from the other students as they were capable painters, very bright, and well-learned. Because of his upbringing in the high court, Francesco was gracious and dignified, and had a very good education. Shortly after they met, Francesco began studying and working at Leonardo's workshop and quickly became his master's favorite pupil, and the most devoted as well. Despite this, fairly little is written about the apprentice painter, and what is known about him is almost exclusively within the context of Leonardo. In fact, other than Francesco, none of Leonardo's pupils went on to become respected artists. And although he is not well-known, Francesco is referred to as being the first person responsible for collecting, organizing, and preserving Leonardo da Vinci's notes on painting, and transforming it into a manuscript copy known as the <a href=\\\"Codex%20Urbinas\\\">Codex Urbinas</a>. After Leonardo's death in 1519, Francesco returned to Italy and married Angiola di Landriani, with him he fathered eight children. One of his children, Orazio, would inherit Leonardo's manuscripts after Francesco's death in 1569/70.\\nFrancesco Melzi's career is inextricably linked to Leonardo da Vinci, and this could be a reason why he is not well-known—because his master overshadowed him. <a href=\\\"Sigmund%20Freud\\\">Sigmund Freud</a> attributed the lack of success of Leonardo's pupils, including the talented Francesco, to their inability to distinguish themselves as separate from their master, and thus their careers were unable to flourish after his death. Before Leonardo's death in 1519, Francesco's career consisted largely of being an assistant to, and an executor for, Leonardo. Because of their close relationship, more like father-son rather than master-apprentice, he was content with aiding and caring for Leonardo, a companion/secretary. One of his main tasks was to scribe his master's <a href=\\\"Codex%20Trivulzianus\\\">Codex Trivulzianus</a>, a manuscript of learned words and ideas, which is presumed to have been written entirely in Milan because Francesco (or Leonardo) scribed \\\"Milan\\\" on the last page.\\nFrancesco was Leonardo's only pupil who stayed with him until his death, traveling and working with him in Milan, Rome, and France. He accompanied the master painter to Milan, where the French governor of Milan <a href=\\\"Charles%20II%20d%27Amboise\\\">Charles d'Amboise</a> was Leonardo's patron, and went to Rome with him in 1513. In his notebook Leonardo wrote, \\\"I left Milan for Rome on the 24th day of September 1513, with <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Antonio%20Boltraffio\\\">Giovanni Boltraffio</a>, Francesco de' Melzi, <a href=\\\"Lorenzo%20di%20Credi\\\">Lorenzo di Credi</a>, and il Fanfoia.\\\" After three years in Rome, Francesco accompanied Leonardo to France in 1516 where they stayed in the <a href=\\\"Clos%20Luc%C3%A9\\\">Chateau de Cloux</a> in <a href=\\\"Amboise\\\">Amboise</a>. During this time, <a href=\\\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\\\">Francis I of France</a> was Leonardo's patron, and the French court account books logged Leonardo's annual payment was 1000 gold crowns (écus de soleil), while Francesco Melzi received 400.\\nDuring this time in France, <a href=\\\"Sala%C3%AC\\\">Andrea Salaí</a>, another pupil, left Leonardo and built a house on his (Leonardo's) estate in Italy, and so Francesco was the last pupil who continued to work for his master until his death. He was the executor and heir of Leonardo's will. Although Francesco was Leonardo's official heir and was bequeathed with his master's manuscripts, drawings, workshop materials and machinery, <a href=\\\"Sala%C3%AC\\\">Andrea Salaino</a> (Andrea Salaí) received Leonardo's paintings in 1524 in France and brought them back to Milan. Francesco's responsibility attaching him to Leonardo da Vinci was to care for his late master's works after he passed. Leonardo wanted his works to be shared with the world and read by others after his death, however Francesco never fully accomplished this. The works would eventually be compiled, and published as the <a href=\\\"Codex%20Urbinas\\\">Codex Urbinas</a>. In addition to this, Melzi actually executed and completed a number of plans for paintings, and paintings themselves, that were left unfinished after Leonardo's passing.\\nFrancesco Melzi is known for creating the <a href=\\\"Codex%20Urbinas\\\">Codex Urbinas</a>, which is a selection and careful compilation of Leonardo's thousands of pages of notes and sketches under the title \\\"On Painting\\\", and was later known as the \\\"Tratatto della Pittura\\\" (Treatise on Painting). Although today we would not have the many manuscript copies and versions of Leonardo's notes and sketches if it weren't for Francesco's initial efforts, we can also attribute the loss of much of Leonardo's genius to Francesco. Once he inherited Leonardo's manuscripts, he extensively catalogued them and most likely had the intention to publish them. However the reality is that Leonardo's works were not seen for the larger part of the 16th century. After Francesco's death in ca. 1570 the manuscripts were not properly cared for. His son Orazio Melzi, who was a lawyer, inherited the manuscripts. He knew very little of Leonardo da Vinci and the manuscripts his father kept and therefore did not understand their value, so they laid neglected in his attic for years. When Orazio died on his estate in <a href=\\\"Vaprio%20d%27Adda\\\">Vaprio d'Adda</a>, his heirs sold the collection of Leonardo's works, and thus began their dispersal.\\nDespite his failure to publish them, Francesco did in fact ensure the future preservation of his late master's works that he treasured so greatly. He gathered 944 short chapters from Leonardo's scattered notes, but had difficulty organizing and arranging the material and even left some pages blank. Being a Milanese noble, he must have employed helpers to sort through the thousands of pages of notes, but he was the only one who could decipher Leonardo's unique left-handed mirror-like writing style and enigmatic abbreviations and spellings. However, this was just the beginning. Before the manuscript was published at least five copies were hand scribed by students after Francesco's original copy, some of which reside today in The <a href=\\\"Elmer%20Belt\\\">Elmer Belt</a> Library of Vinciana at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Los%20Angeles%20Library\\\">University of California, Los Angeles Library</a>. We can see each of these efforts, starting with Francesco's, as steps leading up to the final production and printing of the manuscript. In addition, he made Leonardo's works accessible to scholars at the time such as Vasari, Lomazzo, <a href=\\\"Antonio%20Gaddiano\\\">Antonio Gaddiano</a>, Cardano, among others, whose names are listed in numerous manuscript copies.\\nIn addition to preserving Leonardo's manuscripts, Francesco Melzi also is said to have contributed greatly towards the legacy of Leonardo in future generations. Because he owned his master's manuscripts, notes, and works, after his death, he was able to share with the next generation of artists Leonardo's genius, techniques, and oeuvre. This \\\"Leonardismo,\\\" the continued influence that Leonardo's legacy had on future painters' style and thought, continued throughout the 1500s. For example Francesco's pupil, Girolamo Figino, was described by the Italian scholar Francesco Albuzio in his \\\"Memorie per servire alla storia de'pittori, scultori e architect milanesi\\\" (1776) as \\\"illuminator and disciple of Francesco Melzi.\\\" Girolamo created two paintings which are references to his predecessors; his \\\"Madonna and Saints\\\" is thought to be inspired by Melzi's \\\"Vertumnus and Pomona\\\", and his \\\"Portrait of Margherita Colleoni\\\" references Leonardo's \\\"<a href=\\\"Mona%20Lisa\\\">Mona Lisa</a>,\\\" which is a testimony to the continuation of Leonardo's teachings after his death.\\nFrom the time Francesco Melzi became an apprentice at Leonardo da Vinci's workshop, his life largely revolved around his master's. Leonardo took an immediate liking to Francesco when he met him as an adolescent at his house in Milan and took him under his wing as an apprentice. Francesco became like a son to his master, and Leonardo like a father, and followed him up until his death in 1519. Francesco quickly became aware of his master's loneliness, seeing past his legendary fame and genius, and felt impelled to care for him, essentially devoting his whole life to him. Leonardo's second Milanese period, when he resided with the Melzi family, is by some considered his most creative years in art and canal engineering. This is the time when he created the engineering plans for the Martesana Canal, which was completed and still regulates the Arno river in Milan today. (The Arno runs through Florence)\\nBecause the two were so close, lived together, and cared for each other so deeply, there have been theories that Leonardo and Francesco engaged in romantic, homosexual relations. However, these theories have no hard evidence and have been largely refuted, stating their relationship never extended past platonic or familial affection. It does, however, seem plausible based on Leonardo's past. There have been no accounts of Leonardo having sexual or romantic relations of any kind with a woman, and he was also charged with homosexual acts that were at the time forbidden during his apprenticeship with <a href=\\\"Andrea%20del%20Verrocchio\\\">Verrocchio</a>, however was acquitted.\\nFrancesco also influenced his master's religious beliefs. As a man of science, Leonardo was not particularly religious. In <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari's</a> first edition of \\\"<a href=\\\"Lives%20of%20the%20Most%20Excellent%20Painters%2C%20Sculptors%2C%20and%20Architects\\\">Lives of the Artists</a>\\\" he accused the polymath of having heretical beliefs, however in his second edition revised this statement and states that he \\\"earnestly resolved to learn about the doctrines of the Catholic faith and the good and holy Christian religion.\\\" Although he may have overstated his master's devotion to Christianity, it is true that he was a firm believer towards the end of his life, and that his apprentice influenced him greatly—Francesco was a very devoted Christian and they spent much time together. In fact, the only people at Leonardo's deathbed were Francesco and members of the clergy—the vicar of the church of St. Denis at Amboise, two Franciscan friars, and two priests. Because Francesco was the only person resembling family at Leonardo's deathbed, it was he who notified the master's brothers of his death. He described in his letter Leonardo's love for his pupils as \\\"sviscerato e ardentissimo amore\\\", meaning \\\"but like a son for a father.\\\"\\nLeonardo da Vinci chose only very handsome boys, as was Francesco, to be his pupils and cared for them considerably as if they were family. In addition to Francesco Melzi, some of his pupils were <a href=\\\"Cesare%20da%20Sesto\\\">Cesare da Sesto</a>, <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Antonio%20Boltraffio\\\">Boltraffio</a> and <a href=\\\"Sala%C3%AC\\\">Andrea Salaí</a>. However, as they were chosen based on attractiveness rather than talent, they were not very skilled painters, and therefore it is easy to identify paintings they worked on based on their lower quality. Because of the general workshop practice where multiple artists work on one painting, it has become common practice to ascribe Leonardo's pupils to his less known (or lower quality) works. These might be referenced to as paintings done by his pupils that Leonardo touched up as opposed to the inverse.\\nFrancesco Melzi, in contrast to his peers, actually does have a handful of completed, high quality paintings attributed to him, as well as drawings and studies. He is responsible for the infamous red chalk portrait, from approximately 1515, of da Vinci's profile which depicts him as very classically handsome and regal. This is most likely the portrait to which Vasari and , as well as other later writers, refer to in describing Leonardo as having such \\\"grace and beauty.\\\"\\nThere are several other drawings attributed to him in the <a href=\\\"Biblioteca%20Ambrosiana\\\">Biblioteca Ambrosiana</a> in Milan. This includes \\\"Head of an Old Man\\\" which he signed himself saying \\\"1510 a dí 14 Augusto p.a caveat de relic Franchesco de Melzo de anti 17\\\" which means \\\"on the day 14 August taken from a relief by Francesco Melzi 17 years of age.\\\" There is a note on the back sheet that identifies the man in this drawing as Artus Boysi. This drawing is red chalk on paper, and although it highlights the artist's keen ability to render from observation, Francesco's note at the bottom leads us to believe that it was based on a relief, most likely by Leonardo. It is also conjectured that he uses this same head in his \\\"Vertumnus and Pomona\\\". He also created the chalk drawing \\\"Five Grotesque Heads\\\", in addition to \\\"Seven Caricatures\\\" and \\\"Two Grotesque Heads\\\", all in similar style. There are many drawings attributed to Francesco, however it is often difficult to know definitively if they are his because his style is so influenced by, and therefore similar to, Leonardo's.\\nHe is also responsible for some paintings, some of which are relatively well-known. His \\\"<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.wga.hu/html_m/m/melzi/pomona.html\\\">Vertumnus and Pomona</a>\\\" is in the Berlin Museum displayed in the altarpiece, and his \\\"Columbina\\\" (sometimes known as \\\"Flora\\\"), which was attributed to Leonardo until the mid 19th century, hangs in the <a href=\\\"Hermitage%20Museum\\\">Leningrad Hermitage</a>, and has recently been argued again to be Leonardo's work. \\\"<a href=\\\"La%20belle%20ferronni%C3%A8re\\\">La Belle Ferronniére</a>\\\" is a painting of an unidentified woman whose author is not certain. In the <a href=\\\"Louvre\\\">Louvre</a> it is attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, but is sometimes attributed to Francesco Melzi, and even other times to Leonardo's Workshop. Other paintings by or attributed to Francesco are \\\"Nymph at the Spring\\\" (Washington Gallery of Art), \\\"Portrait of a Young Man with a Parrot\\\" (Milan, private collection), and \\\"Saint Anne with the Virgin and the Child Embracing a Lamb\\\" (Gallery degli Uffizi).\\nFrancesco's \\\"Columbina\\\" appears on the album cover of <a href=\\\"Mango%20%28singer%29\\\">Mango</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Gli%20amori%20son%20finestre\\\">Gli amori son finestre</a>\\\".\",\n \"The Holy Infants Embracing\\nThe Holy Infants Embracing is a lost painting attributed to <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. It represents the infant Christ embracing his cousin <a href=\\\"John%20the%20Baptist\\\">John the Baptist</a>. The subject matter relates to the two paintings of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Virgin%20of%20the%20Rocks\\\">Virgin of the Rocks</a>\\\" by Leonardo and numerous other Renaissance works by <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a> and others of the meeting of the two children on the road to Egypt while escaping the <a href=\\\"Massacre%20of%20the%20Innocents\\\">Massacre of the Innocents</a>.\\nThe subject of two Infants kissing was an inspirational source of quite a few (about thirty) copies of pupils and followers of Leonardo da Vinci. An early sketch of the subject by da Vinci himself is held at Windsor in the Royal collection. The sheet shows various studies of Madonna and Baby playing with the cat, while at the very bottom we see two infants kissing and embracing each other. The sketch is quite different from the version presented at numerous compositions, while the baby on the right is shown in a very same pose as Jesus in \\\"Virgin of the Rocks\\\".\\nThe connection between those paintings is evident in two copies made by Marco d'Oggiono (one of them - the Thuelin Madonna)and copy made by Bernardino dei Conti (lost during World War II). Madonna, very much like as the one depicted in \\\"Virgin of the Rocks\\\" is seen blessing two kissing children, representing Jesus and St John the Baptist.\\nOther copies show half-length figure of Madonna leaning other the table with figures of embracing children (like copy by school of Leonardo da Vinci held at Burchill Collection, Milan, and a copy ascribed either to Marco d'Oggiono or Giampietrino). The painting of Holy Family (including holy infants embracing) by Bernardino Luini held at Prado, Madrid shows a similar representation.\\nMost of the copies show only the group of two children in a quite different background. These include copies by Marco d'Oggiono, depicting holy children in a background of castle (Milan), grotto, rocky landscape (Windsor collection). The subject of two children kissing was repeated many times by another Leonardo follower, <a href=\\\"Joos%20van%20Cleve\\\">Joos van Cleve</a>, who was called \\\"Leonardo des Nordens\\\" or \\\"Leonardo of the North\\\":\\nHe often produced almost identical paintings of the subject: like three paintings held respectively at Museo Musei vicino Matteo Lampertico Arte antica e moderna, Milan; private collection, Switzerland and private collection in USA (showing a very similar background to the Windsor version; also in Royal collection, Brussels, The Art Institute of Chicago and Mauritshuis collection, Hague. Other copies by artist are held also at Naples and Vienna, sold at various auction houses recently. Joos van Cleve is responsible for introducing the composition among artists of Northern Europe, while numerous copies today are ascribed to the followers of Joos van Cleve.\\n\",\n \"Il Sodoma\\nIl Sodoma (1477 – February 14, 1549) was the name given to the <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italian</a> <a href=\\\"Renaissance\\\">Renaissance</a> <a href=\\\"Painting\\\">painter</a> Giovanni Antonio Bazzi. Il Sodoma painted in a manner that superimposed the <a href=\\\"High%20Renaissance\\\">High Renaissance</a> style of early 16th-century Rome onto the traditions of the provincial <a href=\\\"Sienese%20School\\\">Sienese school</a>; he spent the bulk of his professional life in Siena, with two periods in Rome.\\nGiovanni Bazzi was born in <a href=\\\"Vercelli\\\">Vercelli</a>, <a href=\\\"Piedmont\\\">Piedmont</a> in 1477. His first master was the \\\"archaic\\\" <a href=\\\"Martino%20Spanzotti\\\">Martino Spanzotti</a>; he also appears to have been a student of the painter <a href=\\\"Gerolamo%20Giovenone\\\">Giovenone</a>. After acquiring the strong coloring and other distinctive stylistic features of the <a href=\\\"Lombard%20school\\\">Lombard school</a> and— though he is not known to have travelled to Milan— somehow absorbing the superficial mannerisms of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo</a> (Freedberg 1993:117), he traveled to <a href=\\\"Siena\\\">Siena</a> before 1503, perhaps at the behest of agents of the Spannocchi family, and began with fresco cycles for <a href=\\\"Olivetan\\\">Olivetan</a> monks and a series of small Ovidian ceiling panels and a frieze depicting the career of Julius Caesar for Sigismondo Chigi at Palazzo Chigi.\\nAlong with <a href=\\\"Pinturicchio\\\">Pinturicchio</a>, Sodoma was one of the first to practice in Siena the style of the <a href=\\\"High%20Renaissance\\\">High Renaissance</a>. His first important works were seventeen frescoes in the <a href=\\\"Benedictine\\\">Benedictine</a> monastery of <a href=\\\"Monte%20Oliveto%20Maggiore\\\">Monte Oliveto Maggiore</a>, on the road from Siena to Rome, illustrating the life of <a href=\\\"St%20Benedict\\\">St Benedict</a> in continuation of the series that <a href=\\\"Luca%20Signorelli\\\">Luca Signorelli</a> had begun in 1498. Gaining fluency in the prevailing popular style of Pinturicchio, Sodoma completed the set in 1502 and included a self-portrait with badgers.\\nSodoma was invited to Rome in 1508 by the celebrated Sienese merchant <a href=\\\"Agostino%20Chigi\\\">Agostino Chigi</a> and was employed there by <a href=\\\"Pope%20Julius%20II\\\">Pope Julius II</a> in the <a href=\\\"Stanza%20della%20Segnatura\\\">Stanza della Segnatura</a> in the <a href=\\\"Apostolic%20Palace\\\">Vatican</a>. He executed two great compositions and various ornaments and grotesques in vaulted ceilings divided in feigned compartments in the antique manner that Pinturicchio had recently revived, working at the same time as <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a>. <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Vasari</a>'s rhetorical story that Sodoma's larger works did not satisfy the pope, who engaged <a href=\\\"Raffaello%20Santi\\\">Raphael</a> to substitute a program of \\\"Justice, Poetry, and Theology\\\" is not borne out by the documents.\\nBefore October 1510 he was in Siena, where he painted the exterior of Palazzo Chigi in monochrome <a href=\\\"chiaroscuro\\\">chiaroscuro</a> with scenes from the Bible and from Antiquity, the first such work seen in Siena (Bartalini 2001:553). His painting at this time began to show distinct Florentine influences, especially of <a href=\\\"Fra%20Bartolommeo\\\">Fra Bartolommeo</a>.\\nCalled again to Rome by Chigi, in the Villa Chigi (now the <a href=\\\"Villa%20Farnesina\\\">Villa Farnesina</a>), working alongside <a href=\\\"Baldassarre%20Peruzzi\\\">Baldassarre Peruzzi</a>, Sodoma painted subjects from the life of <a href=\\\"Alexander%20the%20Great\\\">Alexander the Great</a>: \\\"<a href=\\\"Alexander%20in%20the%20Tent%20of%20Darius\\\">Alexander in the Tent of Darius</a>\\\" and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Nuptials%20of%20the%20Conqueror%20with%20Roxanne\\\">Nuptials of the Conqueror with Roxanne</a>\\\", which some people consider his masterpiece. When <a href=\\\"Pope%20Leo%20X\\\">Leo X</a> became pope (1513), Sodoma presented him with a picture of the \\\"Death of Lucretia\\\" (or of <a href=\\\"Cleopatra%20VII%20of%20Egypt\\\">Cleopatra</a>, according to some accounts). Leo gave him a large sum of money as a reward and created him a \\\"<a href=\\\"cavaliere\\\">cavaliere</a>\\\".\\nSodoma returned to Siena and, at a later date, sought work in <a href=\\\"Pisa\\\">Pisa</a>, <a href=\\\"Volterra\\\">Volterra</a>, and <a href=\\\"Lucca\\\">Lucca</a>. From Lucca he returned to Siena not long before his death on 14 February 1549 (older narratives say 1554). He had supposedly squandered his property and is said, without documentary support, to have died in penury in the great hospital of Siena. One of his pupils was <a href=\\\"Giomo%20del%20Sodoma\\\">Giomo del Sodoma</a>.\\nIn his youth, Sodoma had married, but he and his wife soon separated. A daughter married <a href=\\\"Bartolomeo%20Neroni\\\">Bartolomeo Neroni</a>, called also \\\"Riccio Sanese\\\" or \\\"Maestro Riccio\\\", one of Sodoma's principal pupils. Instead, he was considered by contemporaries to have been <a href=\\\"homosexual\\\">homosexual</a>, and was known from 1512 on as \\\"Il Sodoma\\\" (or \\\"the <a href=\\\"Sodomy\\\">Sodomite</a>\\\"). <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a>, in particular, stressed this aspect. Perhaps it was a nickname that resulted from a joke; but Bazzi seems to have used the name with pride.\\nSome critics see in Sodoma's \\\"Madonna\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Pinacoteca%20di%20Brera\\\">Pinacoteca di Brera</a> (if it really is by him) the direct influence of this master. Modern criticism tends not to follow <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Morelli\\\">Morelli</a> in supposing that <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a> painted Sodoma's portrait next to himself in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20School%20of%20Athens\\\">The School of Athens</a>\\\", while a drawing at Christ Church is supposed to be a portrait of Raphael by Sodoma.\\nAmong his masterpieces are the frescoes, completed in 1526, in the chapel of <a href=\\\"St.%20Catherine%20of%20Siena\\\">St. Catherine of Siena</a> painted for the church of <a href=\\\"San%20Domenico%20%28Siena%29\\\">San Domenico (Siena)</a>, depicting the saint in ecstasy, fainting as she receives the <a href=\\\"Eucharist\\\">Eucharist</a> from an angel. In the <a href=\\\"Oratory%20of%20San%20Bernardino%2C%20Siena\\\">Oratory of San Bernardino</a>, are scenes from the history of the <a href=\\\"Virgin\\\">Virgin</a>, painted in conjunction with <a href=\\\"Girolamo%20del%20Pacchia\\\">Pacchia</a> and <a href=\\\"Domenico%20di%20Pace%20Beccafumi\\\">Beccafumi</a> (1536–1538). These frescoes depict the \\\"<a href=\\\"Visitation%20%28Christianity%29\\\">Visitation</a> \\\"and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Assumption%20of%20Mary\\\">Assumption</a>\\\". In <a href=\\\"San%20Francesco%2C%20Siena\\\">San Francesco</a> are the \\\"Deposition from the Cross\\\" (1513) and \\\"Christ Scourged\\\". Many critics regard one or the other of these paintings as Sodoma's masterpiece. In the choir of the <a href=\\\"Pisa%20Cathedral\\\">Pisa Cathedral</a> is the \\\"Sacrifice of Abraham\\\", and in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence a \\\"St. Sebastian\\\".\\nSome of his works, including the \\\"Holy Family\\\" now in the Pinacoteca, Siena have been mistaken for works of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. His easel pictures are rare; there are two in the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%2C%20London\\\">National Gallery, London</a>.\\nIt is said that Sodoma jeered at <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Lives%20of%20the%20Artists\\\">Lives of the Artists</a>\\\" and that Vasari repaid him by presenting a negative account of Sodoma's morals and demeanour and withholding praise of his work. According to Vasari, the name by which Bazzi was known was \\\"Il Mattaccio\\\" (the Madcap, the Maniac), this epithet having been bestowed upon him by the monks of Monte Oliveto. He dressed gaudily, like a mountebank, and his house was a <a href=\\\"Noah%27s%20ark\\\">Noah's ark</a>, owing to the strange miscellany of animals he kept there. He was a cracker of jokes, fond of music, and he sang poems composed by himself on indecorous subjects.\\nVasari alleges that Sodoma was always a negligent artist, his early success in Siena, where he painted many portraits, being partly due to lack of competition, a judgment in which Sidney Freedberg concurs. Vasari asserts that as he aged, he became too \\\"lazy\\\" to make cartoons for his frescoes but daubed them straight onto the wall. Vasari nevertheless admits that Sodoma produced some works of very fine quality and that during his lifetime his reputation was high.\",\n \"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\nThe Madonna of the Yarnwinder (<a href=\\\"Italian%20language\\\">Italian</a>: \\\"Madonna dei Fusi\\\" , “Madonna of the Spindles”) is a subject depicted by <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a> in at least one, and perhaps two paintings begun in 1499 or later. Leonardo was recorded as being at work on one such picture in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a> in 1501 for Florimond Robertet, a secretary to King <a href=\\\"Louis%20XII%20of%20France\\\">Louis XII of France</a>. This may have been delivered to the French court in 1507, though scholars are divided on this point. The subject is known today from several versions of which two, called the Buccleuch Madonna and the Lansdowne Madonna, are thought to be partly by Leonardo’s hand. The <a href=\\\"underdrawing\\\">underdrawing</a>s of both paintings show similar experimental changes made to the composition (or \\\"<a href=\\\"pentimento\\\">pentimenti</a>\\\"), suggesting that both evolved concurrently in Leonardo’s workshop.\\nThe composition shows the <a href=\\\"Mary%2C%20the%20mother%20of%20Jesus\\\">Virgin Mary</a> seated in a landscape with the <a href=\\\"Child%20Jesus\\\">Christ child</a>, who gazes at a <a href=\\\"niddy%20noddy\\\">yarnwinder</a> used to collect spun <a href=\\\"yarn\\\">yarn</a>. The yarnwinder serves both as a symbol of Mary's domesticity and as a foreshadowing of the <a href=\\\"True%20Cross\\\">Cross</a> on which Christ was crucified. The painting's dynamic composition and implied narrative was highly influential on later <a href=\\\"High%20Renaissance\\\">High Renaissance</a> depictions of the <a href=\\\"Madonna%20and%20Child\\\">Madonna and Child</a> by artists such as <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a> and <a href=\\\"Andrea%20del%20Sarto\\\">Andrea del Sarto</a>.\\nThe earliest reference to a painting of this subject by Leonardo is in a letter of 14 April 1501 by Fra Pietro da Novellara, the head of the <a href=\\\"Carmelites\\\">Carmelites</a> in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a>, to <a href=\\\"Isabella%20d%27Este\\\">Isabella d'Este</a>, Marchioness of <a href=\\\"Mantua\\\">Mantua</a>. Leonardo had recently returned to his native city following the French invasion of Milan in 1499; the intervening years he had spent first in Isabella’s court, during which brief stay he produced a <a href=\\\"cartoon\\\">cartoon</a> (now in the <a href=\\\"Mus%C3%A9e%20du%20Louvre\\\">Louvre</a>) for a portrait of her, and then in Venice. Isabella was determined to get a finished painting by Leonardo for her collection, and to that end she instructed Fra Pietro, her contact in Florence, to press Leonardo into agreeing to a commission. Two letters of reply by the friar survive. In the second, written after he had succeeded in meeting with the artist, he writes that Leonardo has become distracted by his mathematical pursuits and is busy working on a small painting for Florimond Robertet, which he goes on to describe:\\nThe passage is valuable for being one of the few descriptions by a contemporary viewer of a work by Leonardo; it matches the composition of the Buccleuch and Lansdowne \\\"Madonnas\\\" in all respects except that there is no basket in either painting. Robertet’s painting was probably commissioned late in 1499 just before Leonardo left Milan, and was possibly begun there.\\nScholars disagree on whether Robertet received his painting or not. In January 1507 Francesco Pandolfini, the Florentine ambassador to the French court in <a href=\\\"Blois\\\">Blois</a>, reported that “a little picture by [Leonardo’s] hand has recently been brought here and is held to be an excellent thing”. The \\\"Madonna\\\" does not, however, appear in a posthumous inventory of Robertet’s collection made in 1532 (though the authenticity of the inventory has been called into question). One hypothesis holds that it passed from Robertet’s collection into that of the French king, thus explaining its absence from the inventory. It is unclear, however, why it would have left the royal collection.\\nIn 1525 two inventories were drawn up of the possessions of Leonardo’s assistant and heir <a href=\\\"Sala%C3%AC\\\">Salaì</a>, who died the preceding year. These mention a “Madonna with a Child in her Arms”. This is thought to be evidence that one of the <a href=\\\"prime%20version\\\">prime version</a>s of the \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\" remained in Leonardo’s possession while the other was sent to Robertet.\\nNeither of the paintings accepted as prime versions has a provenance that can be traced back to Robertet or Salaì, or further back than the 18th century, though the \\\"Buccleuch Madonna\\\" was in France at that time. However, the \\\"Lansdowne Madonna\\\" could easily have been bought by its earliest known owners from a French collection in the period following the <a href=\\\"French%20Revolution\\\">French Revolution</a>, when many works with a French aristocratic provenance were bought by British collectors.\\nThe composition of the \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\" shows the Christ child twisting his body away from his mother’s embrace, his eye caught by her yarnwinder whose spokes give it the shape of a cross; he precociously recognises it as a symbol of his destiny. The Virgin’s reaction is ambiguous, a mixture of alarm at the harm her son will come to and resigned acceptance of it. The gesture of suspense made with her right hand is repeated from Leonardo’s Milanese altarpiece \\\"<a href=\\\"Virgin%20of%20the%20Rocks\\\">The Virgin of the Rocks</a>\\\". The use of a symbol of the <a href=\\\"Passion%20%28Christianity%29\\\">Passion</a> as an object of childish play recurs throughout Leonardo’s painted \\\"oeuvre\\\", appearing for instance in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Benois%20Madonna\\\">Benois Madonna</a>\\\" and the \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Virgin%20and%20Child%20with%20St.%20Anne%20%28Leonardo%29\\\">Virgin and Child with St Anne</a>\\\". As with later works by Leonardo, the figures appear in a vast unpopulated landscape. The rocky outcrop in the foreground of the \\\"Buccleuch Madonna\\\" is painted with a minute attention to geological detail.\\nA major difference between the Buccleuch and Lansdowne \\\"Madonnas\\\" is in their background landscapes. Whereas the background of the Buccleuch version is a watery landscape indifferently painted, that of the \\\"Lansdowne Madonna\\\" has a dramatic mountain range far more typical of Leonardo. It has been proposed that this is a specific location in the valley of the river <a href=\\\"Adda%20%28river%29\\\">Adda</a>, as it runs from <a href=\\\"Lecco\\\">Lecco</a> to <a href=\\\"Vaprio%20d%27Adda\\\">Vaprio</a>, an area familiar to Leonardo and which he mapped. It is possible that the landscape of the former picture was added by a pupil after Leonardo failed to complete the work. For Martin Kemp the “late” character of the landscape in the \\\"Lansdowne Madonna\\\" suggests that it was the later painting to be completed and that the \\\"Buccleuch Madonna\\\" was the one sent to Robertet in 1507.\\nThe underdrawings of both the Buccleuch and Lansdowne \\\"Madonnas\\\" show several features not in the finished works, but present in some copies; it is likely that these were originally copied from the prime versions during an early stage of the composition’s development. One such feature, which appears in both underdrawings, is a group of figures identified as <a href=\\\"Saint%20Joseph\\\">St Joseph</a> making a <a href=\\\"baby%20walker\\\">baby walker</a> for the Christ child, who appears with his mother and another female figure, probably a midwife. It has also been suggested that the child learning to walk is the infant <a href=\\\"John%20the%20Baptist\\\">John the Baptist</a>, appearing with his mother <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20%28biblical%20figure%29\\\">St Elizabeth</a>, as Leonardo would have been unlikely to depict the figures of Mary and Christ twice in the same painting. Leonardo also experimented with including some kind of <a href=\\\"pack%20animal\\\">beast of burden</a> – a horse, ass or ox – which appears in different positions in the two underdrawings. Behind these an architectural structure with an arched opening was planned. At a later stage the landscape of the Buccleuch picture seems to have had a bridge like that of the \\\"Lansdowne Madonna\\\", which was then painted over.\\nThe version of this painting often regarded as the most likely to be by Leonardo is now in the <a href=\\\"Scottish%20National%20Gallery\\\">Scottish National Gallery</a> in <a href=\\\"Edinburgh\\\">Edinburgh</a>, on loan from the <a href=\\\"Richard%20Scott%2C%2010th%20Duke%20of%20Buccleuch\\\">Duke of Buccleuch</a>. It hung in his ancestral home in <a href=\\\"Drumlanrig%20Castle\\\">Drumlanrig Castle</a>, <a href=\\\"Dumfries%20and%20Galloway\\\">Dumfries and Galloway</a>, Scotland, until it was stolen in 2003. It entered the <a href=\\\"Duke%20of%20Buccleuch%20collection\\\">Buccleuch collection</a> in 1767, with the marriage of the <a href=\\\"Henry%20Scott%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Buccleuch\\\">3rd Duke</a> to Lady Elizabeth Montagu, the heiress to a substantial collection of works assembled by her parents, the <a href=\\\"George%20Montagu%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Montagu\\\">Duke</a> and Duchess of Montagu. This \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\" was bought at auction in Paris in 1756 from a sale of the collection of Marie-Joseph duc d’Hostun et de Tallard, its earliest documented owner.\\nIn 2003 the \\\"Buccleuch Madonna\\\" was stolen from Drumlanrig Castle by two thieves posing as tourists, who said \\\"Don't worry love, we're the police. This is just practice\\\" to two tourists from New Zealand as they exited through a window carrying the Leonardo. In 2007 a chartered loss adjuster acting for the Duke of Buccleuch’s insurers was contacted by an English lawyer, who claimed that he could arrange for the painting’s return within 72 hours. The lawyer, Marshall Ronald of <a href=\\\"Skelmersdale\\\">Skelmersdale</a>, Lancashire, was visited by two undercover policemen who posed as an art expert and an agent for the Duke. The painting was then taken to a lawyer’s office in <a href=\\\"Glasgow\\\">Glasgow</a>; this was raided by police officers from four anti-crime agencies during a meeting of five people. Four arrests were made, including of two solicitors from different firms. \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Scotsman\\\">The Scotsman</a>\\\", describing the Glasgow firm as \\\"one of the country's most successful and respected law firms\\\", quoted a source as saying their arrested member \\\"was not involved in any criminal act, but was acting as a go-between for two parties by scrutinizing a contract which would have allowed an English firm to 'secure legal repatriation' of the painting from an unidentified party.\\\"\\nThe <a href=\\\"John%20Scott%2C%209th%20Duke%20of%20Buccleuch\\\">9th Duke of Buccleuch</a> never lived to see the \\\"Madonna\\\"'s recovery as he had died unexpectedly only a month beforehand. The painting was lent to the National Gallery of Scotland (now the Scottish National Gallery) in Edinburgh in 2009, and remains on display there as of 2017. In 2010 Ronald was cleared of the charge of holding the Duke to ransom; in 2013 he mounted legal action against the 10th Duke and the Chief Constable of Dumfries and Galloway, demanding a reward of £4.25 million, which he claims he was promised in the meeting with the undercover policemen six years earlier.\\nThe painting sometimes considered the second prime version of the \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\" takes its name from the <a href=\\\"Marquess%20of%20Lansdowne\\\">Marquesses of Lansdowne</a>, who owned it in the 19th century. John Henry Petty, then Earl Wycombe and later the 2nd Marquess of Lansdowne, bought it some time in or before 1809, possibly from the <a href=\\\"John%20Bligh%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Darnley\\\">Earl of Darnley</a>. It is first recorded in a sale of the Dowager Marchioness of Lansdowne’s collection in 1833, from which it was withdrawn. The painting remained in her family until 1879, when her daughter sold it to <a href=\\\"Cyril%20Flower%2C%201st%20Baron%20Battersea\\\">Cyril Flower</a>, later Lord Battersea. In 1908 the \\\"Madonna\\\" was bought from his widow by the Paris-based art dealers Nathan Wildenstein and <a href=\\\"Ren%C3%A9%20Gimpel\\\">René Gimpel</a>. They consulted <a href=\\\"Bernard%20Berenson\\\">Bernard Berenson</a>, the leading connoisseur of the day, on the attribution in 1909; he confirmed an earlier attribution to <a href=\\\"il%20Sodoma\\\">il Sodoma</a> but thought that Leonardo had been responsible up to the cartoon stage. During restoration work in around 1911 the painting was <a href=\\\"transfer%20of%20panel%20paintings\\\">transferred to canvas</a> and several alterations were made, most significantly the removal of a loincloth covering the Child’s genitals and the fingers of the Virgin’s left hand.\\nThe painting was bought as a Sodoma in 1928 by <a href=\\\"Robert%20Wilson%20Reford\\\">Robert Wilson Reford</a>, a Canadian industrialist and shipping magnate. In the 1930s it underwent X-ray and ultraviolet examination for the first time, led by a team which included the art historian Wilhelm Suida. He concluded that the Christ child and the landscape were by Leonardo and the remainder was by a Milanese pupil. During a loan to the <a href=\\\"1939%20New%20York%20World%27s%20Fair\\\">New York World’s Fair</a> in 1939 the painting was damaged and further restoration work had to be undertaken. Reford’s family put it up for auction in 1972, but by then the attribution had reverted to Sodoma, inevitably resulting in a lower price than had it been accepted as a Leonardo. It was bought back by <a href=\\\"Wildenstein%20%26amp%3B%20Company%20Building\\\">Wildenstein & Company</a>, who arranged for it to be transferred a second time, this time onto a composite panel, in 1976. They sold the \\\"Madonna\\\" (as a Leonardo) to its current owner, an anonymous private collector, in 1999.\\nNearly forty versions of the \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\" made by pupils and followers of Leonardo survive today. Many show elements which were discarded as the prime version, or versions, evolved over a long period of time. Some include the figure group in the middle ground visible in the Buccleuch and Lansdowne underdrawings; others show the basket of wool described by Fra Pietro da Novellara, though to Christ’s side rather than beneath his foot. Eight paintings, including the copy in the Louvre, show a different kind of rocky outcrop in the foreground from those in the prime versions; many of these are probably by <a href=\\\"Lombardy\\\">Lombard</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Leonardeschi\\\">Leonardeschi</a>\\\". Some artists elaborated on Leonardo’s composition with the addition of still lives or extra figures.\\nThe \\\"Madonna of the Yarnwinder\\\"’s composition was especially popular in Spain, where it might have been brought over by <a href=\\\"Fernando%20Y%C3%A1%C3%B1ez%20de%20la%20Almedina\\\">Fernando Yáñez de la Almedina</a> or <a href=\\\"Hernando%20de%20los%20Llanos\\\">Hernando de los Llanos</a> (whose name also appears as Fernando de Llanos). Both painters were trained in Florence in the first years of the 16th century, and either might be the “\\\"Ferrando spagnolo\\\"” mentioned as a pupil of Leonardo when the master was working on the fresco of the \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Battle%20of%20Anghiari%20%28painting%29\\\">Battle of Anghiari</a>\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\\\">Palazzo della Signoria</a> in 1505.\\nCitations\\nBibliography\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Battle of Anghiari\\nThe Battle of Anghiari was fought on 29 June 1440, between the forces of <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a> and those of the <a href=\\\"Italian%20League\\\">Italian League</a> led by the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Florence\\\">Republic of Florence</a> in the course of the <a href=\\\"Wars%20in%20Lombardy\\\">Wars in Lombardy</a>. The battle was a victory for the Florentines, securing Florentine domination of central Italy.\\nThe battle is well known for its depiction in a now-lost painting by <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. It is also remarkable for the fact that though the battle lasted all day, involving several thousand troops, it was said that only one soldier was killed. According to <a href=\\\"Niccol%C3%B2%20Machiavelli\\\">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> after four hours of skirmishing the single death occurred \\\"when a soldier fell off his horse\\\".\\nThe League's army concentrated on Anghiari, a small centre of <a href=\\\"Tuscany\\\">Tuscany</a>, and comprised: 4,000 <a href=\\\"Papal%20States\\\">Papal</a> troops, under Cardinal <a href=\\\"Ludovico%20Trevisan\\\">Ludovico Trevisan</a>; a Florentine contingent of around the same size, and a company of 300 men-at-arms (knights) from <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venice</a>, led by <a href=\\\"Micheletto%20Attendolo\\\">Micheletto Attendolo</a>. Other men joined for the occasion from Anghiari itself.\\nThe numerically superior Milanese force was led by the famous \\\"<a href=\\\"condottieri\\\">condottiero</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Niccol%C3%B2%20Piccinino\\\">Niccolò Piccinino</a> in the name of Duke <a href=\\\"Filippo%20Maria%20Visconti\\\">Filippo Maria Visconti</a> and reached the area on the night of 28 June. Some 2,000 men from the nearby town of <a href=\\\"Sansepolcro\\\">Sansepolcro</a> joined the Milanese. Confident in his superior manpower, and on the element of surprise Piccinino ordered an attack in the afternoon of the following day. However, the dust lifted by the Milanese on the Sansepolcro-Anghiari road was noticed by Micheletto and the League's forces were made ready for battle.\\nMicheletto's Venetian knights blocked the Milanese vanguard on the only bridge over the channel protecting the League's camp. Micheletto and the Venetians held the bridge allowing the greater part of the League's army to form for battle but were eventually pushed back by Milanese reinforcements led by the two captains <a href=\\\"Francesco%20Piccinino\\\">Francesco Piccinino</a> and <a href=\\\"Astorre%20II%20Manfredi\\\">Astorre II Manfredi</a>. The Milanese advanced but their right flank was soon ferociously engaged by the Papal troops and were obliged to retreat to the bridge. The battle continued for four hours, until a surrounding manoeuvre managed to cut off a third of the Milanese on the League side of the channel. The battle continued into the night but ended with a victory for the League army.\\nThe battle was described in histories written by <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20Bruni\\\">Leonardo Bruni</a> (1370–1444) and <a href=\\\"Flavio%20Biondo\\\">Flavio Biondo</a> (1392–1463), both of whom concentrate on the actions of individuals, though there is some discussion of equipment and tactics. Machiavelli, in contrast, gives a detailed account of the strategy and tactics used by both sides, but presents the battle as \\\"a striking example of the wretched state of military discipline in those times\\\", arguing that the mercenary knights who ran the armies of the day had no motive to fight for victory.\\nMachiavelli adds that \\\"This victory was much more advantageous to the Florentines than injurious to the duke; for, had they been conquered, Tuscany would have been his own; but he, by his defeat, only lost the horses and accoutrements of his army, which could be replaced without any very serious expense\\\".\\nWhether or not the claimed single death is an exaggeration is not known. Hans Delbrück argues that,\\nDelbrück says that \\\"close examination of the contemporary reports has shown that there is not a true word in this entire description\\\". However, it is true that the warfare of the period was far less brutal than that of the later period in which Machiavelli wrote, as knights could indeed expect to surrender for ransom. While it is possible that only one mounted knight died at Anghiari, foot-soldiers are unlikely to have been as lucky. Frances S. Saunders says that \\\"as many as 900\\\" soldiers may in fact have died in the battle.\\nAccording to Pia F. Cuneo, \\\"Anghiari is one of the most frequently represented battles of the era\\\". The earliest known image, painted within a decade of the battle is a <a href=\\\"cassone\\\">cassone</a> panel by an unknown artist known as the Anghiari Master, which emphasises the tournament-like nature of the conflict, with banners and ritual engagements.\\nMore than seven decades later, the battle was the subject of a now-lost painting by <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, known through copies of the central scene made by other artists. The known portion of the painting depicted a battle over a standard between knights on opposing sides. The picture was commissioned to occupy one of the walls of the council chamber of the Florentine republic in the <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\\\">Palazzo Vecchio</a>. The other wall was to have a painting by <a href=\\\"Michelangelo\\\">Michelangelo</a> depicting an earlier Florentine victory at the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Cascina\\\">Battle of Cascina</a> in 1364.\\nA 1687 relief sculpture depicting the battle by Baroque artist <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Battista%20Foggini\\\">Giovanni Battista Foggini</a> in <a href=\\\"Santa%20Maria%20del%20Carmine%2C%20Florence\\\">Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence</a> depicts Saint <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Corsini\\\">Andrew Corsini</a> guiding the Florentine forces to victory.\\n\",\n \"Joos van Cleve\\nJoos van Cleve ( ; also Joos van der Beke; c. 1485 – 1540/1541) was a painter active in Antwerp around 1511 to 1540. He is known for combining traditional Netherlandish painting techniques with influences of more contemporary Renaissance painting styles.\\nAn active member and co-deacon of the <a href=\\\"Guild%20of%20Saint%20Luke\\\">Guild of Saint Luke</a> of Antwerp, he is known mostly for his religious works and portraits of royalty. As a skilled technician, his art shows sensitivity to color and a unique solidarity of figures. He was one of the first to introduce broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his paintings, which would become a popular technique of sixteenth century <a href=\\\"northern%20Renaissance\\\">northern Renaissance</a> paintings.\\nHe was the father of Cornelius or Cornelis van Cleve (1520-1567) who was also a painter and is believed to have suffered from a mental illness and was therefore referred to as 'Sotte Cleef' (mad Cleef).\\nJoos van Cleve was born around 1485. The birthplace of Joos van Cleve is not precisely known. In various Antwerp legal documents he is referred to as ‘Joos van der Beke alias van Cleve’. It is therefore likely that he came from the <a href=\\\"Lower%20Rhine\\\">Lower Rhenish region</a> or city named <a href=\\\"Kleve\\\">Kleve</a>, from which his name is derived. It is assumed that he began his artistic training around 1505 in the workshop of Jan Joest, whom he assisted in the panel paintings of the high altar for the Nikolaikirche in <a href=\\\"Kalkar\\\">Kalkar</a>, Lower Rhine, Germany.\\nJoos van Cleve is believed to have moved to <a href=\\\"Bruges\\\">Bruges</a> between 1507 - 1511 since his painting style is similar to that of the painters of Bruges. Later he moved to Antwerp, and in 1511 became a free master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke. He was co-deacon of the guild for several years around 1520, along with presenting pupils between 1516 and 1536. It is possible he spent time in France at the court in 1529 or 1535. He may also have made a trip to Italy around this time and to\\nLondon (England) around 1535-1536.\\nHe had two children from his first marriage, a daughter and a son. His son Cornelis (1520) became a painter. Although the date of his death is unknown, Joos van Cleve drew up a will and testament on 10 November 1540, and his second wife was listed as a widow in April 1541.\\nFrom the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, the name of Joos van Cleve as an artist was lost. The paintings now attributed to Joos van Cleve were, at that time, known as the works of “the Master of the Death of the Virgin,” after the triptych currently in the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum (Cologne). In 1894 it was discovered that the monogram on the back of the triptych was that of Joos van der Beke, an alias of Joos van Cleve.\\nThe influence of Kalkar and Bruges are seen in many of Joos van Cleve’s early works, such as \\\"Adam and Eve\\\" (1507). The \\\"Death of the Virgin\\\" (1520) shows the combined influence of several artists. It has the intense emotionality of <a href=\\\"Hugo%20van%20der%20Goes\\\">Hugo van der Goes</a>, and iconographic ideas of <a href=\\\"Jan%20van%20Eyck\\\">Jan van Eyck</a> and <a href=\\\"Robert%20Campin\\\">Robert Campin</a>. A strong influence of Italian art combined with Joos van Cleve’s own color and light sensitivity make his works especially unique. The “<a href=\\\"Antwerp%20Mannerism\\\">Antwerp Mannerist</a>” style is identifiable in the \\\"Adoration of the Magi\\\". It is thought that the “Antwerp Mannerists” were in turn influenced by Joos van Cleve.\\nLike <a href=\\\"Quentin%20Matsys\\\">Quentin Matsys</a>, a fellow artist active in Antwerp, Joos van Cleve appropriated themes and techniques of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. This is apparent in the use of <a href=\\\"sfumato\\\">sfumato</a> in the \\\"Virgin and Child\\\". Multiple versions of a soft, sentimental \\\"Madonna and Child and the Holy Family\\\" were discovered, produced in his workshop.\\nJoos van Cleve’s skills as a portrait artist were highly regarded as demonstrated by a summons to the court of <a href=\\\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\\\">Francis I of France</a>. There he painted the (<a href=\\\"Philadelphia%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">Philadelphia Museum of Art</a>), the queen (<a href=\\\"Kunsthistorisches%20Museum\\\">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a>) and other members of the court. His portrait of of England is of comparable size to that of Francis I (72.1 x 59.2 cm) and the compositions and costumes in both portraits are similar. Some historians have interpreted this as evidence that the portraits were pendants painted to commemorate the meeting of the two kings in Calais and Boulogne on 21 and 29 October 1532. Other historians have proposed the alternative view that van Cleve based the Henry VIII portrait on that of Francis I without meeting the English king. He may have hoped that this gesture might earn him English royal commissions in future.\\nJoos van Cleve produced many versions of the \\\"Virgin and Child\\\", the \\\"Holy Family\\\" and the \\\"Virgin and Child with St Anne\\\", which were very popular. In some instances the original has been lost, but the type can be recovered through the numerous replicas produced by his workshop and copyists. There exist very similar versions of the composition of the \\\"Virgin and Child\\\", of which one is held at the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts%2C%20Budapest\\\">Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest</a> and another was sold at Sotheby's on 30 January 2014. It is full of charm and tenderness and was popular in his own time as well as with later collectors. The composition shows the Virgin with a brilliant red cloak, lined with fur and elaborately embroidered with pearls along the outside edge. The Virgin is seated in a loggia-like space with open windows through which a distant mountainous landscape is visible. She has her lips parted in a slight smile while she helps the Christ Child drink from a glass with red wine, a symbol of Christ's future suffering and blood and the <a href=\\\"Eucharist\\\">Eucharist</a>. Characteristic of Netherlandish painting of this period are the jewel-like colours and the details of the Virgin’s costume and brocade pillow in the foreground.\\nThe pose of the \\\"Holy Family\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Museum%20of%20Art\\\">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (c. 1518–20) is quoted from <a href=\\\"Jan%20van%20Eyck\\\">Jan van Eyck</a>'s \\\"\\\" of c. 1435 (<a href=\\\"St%C3%A4del\\\">Städel</a>, Frankfurt). The scene is placed in a domestic setting and the Virgin is only depicted at half-length. Another change in the composition is the addition of Joseph. The wine and fruits on the foreground are a reference to Christ's incarnation and future sacrifice. They also hint at the emerging genre of still-life painting in Flanders.\",\n \"Giovanni Bellini\\nGiovanni Bellini (c. 1430 – 26 November 1516) was an <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italian</a> <a href=\\\"Renaissance\\\">Renaissance</a> painter, probably the best known of the Bellini family of <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venetian</a> painters. His father was <a href=\\\"Jacopo%20Bellini\\\">Jacopo Bellini</a>, his brother was <a href=\\\"Gentile%20Bellini\\\">Gentile Bellini</a> (who, during his lifetime, was more highly regarded than Giovanni, although the reverse is true today), and his brother-in-law was <a href=\\\"Andrea%20Mantegna\\\">Andrea Mantegna</a>. He is considered to have revolutionized Venetian painting, moving it towards a more sensuous and colouristic style. Through the use of clear, slow-drying oil paints, Giovanni created deep, rich tints and detailed shadings. His sumptuous coloring and fluent, atmospheric landscapes had a great effect on the Venetian painting school, especially on his pupils <a href=\\\"Giorgione\\\">Giorgione</a> and <a href=\\\"Titian\\\">Titian</a>.\\nGiovanni Bellini was born in <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venice</a>. He was brought up in his father's house, and always lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with his brother Gentile. Up until the age of nearly thirty we find in his work a depth of religious feeling and human pathos which is his own. His paintings from the early period are all executed in the old <a href=\\\"tempera\\\">tempera</a> method; the scene is softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise color (as, for example, in the \\\"<a href=\\\"St.%20Jerome%20in%20the%20Desert%20%28Bellini%29\\\">St. Jerome in the Desert</a>\\\").\\nIn a somewhat changed and more personal manner, with less harshness of contour and a broader treatment of forms and draperies, but not less force of religious feeling, are the \\\"Dead Christ\\\" pictures, in these days one of the master's most frequent themes (an example is the \\\"<a href=\\\"Piet%C3%A0%20%28Bellini%29\\\">Dead Christ Supported by the Madonna and St. John</a>\\\", or \\\"Pietà\\\"). Giovanni's early works have often been linked both compositionally and stylistically to those of his brother-in-law, Andrea Mantegna.\\nIn 1470 Giovanni received his first appointment to work along with his brother and other artists in the <a href=\\\"Scuola%20di%20San%20Marco\\\">Scuola di San Marco</a>, where among other subjects he was commissioned to paint a \\\"Deluge with Noah's Ark\\\". None of the master's works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived.\\nTo the decade following 1470 must probably be assigned the \\\"<a href=\\\"Transfiguration%20of%20Christ%20%28Bellini%29\\\">Transfiguration</a>\\\" now in the <a href=\\\"Capodimonte%20Museum\\\">Capodimonte Museum</a> of Naples, repeating with greatly ripened powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early effort at Venice.\\nAlso the great altar-piece of the \\\"Coronation of the Virgin\\\" at <a href=\\\"Pesaro\\\">Pesaro</a>, which would seem to be his earliest effort in a form of art previously almost monopolized in Venice by the rival school of the <a href=\\\"Vivarini\\\">Vivarini</a>.\\nAs is the case with a number of his brother, Gentile's public works of the period, many of Giovanni's great public works are now lost. The still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a chapel in the <a href=\\\"Santi%20Giovanni%20e%20Paolo%2C%20Venice\\\">church of S. Giovanni e Paolo</a>, where it perished along with Titian's \\\"Peter Martyr\\\" and <a href=\\\"Tintoretto\\\">Tintoretto</a>'s \\\"Crucifixion\\\" in the disastrous fire of 1867.\\nAfter 1479–1480 much of Giovanni's time and energy must also have been taken up by his duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the <a href=\\\"Doge%27s%20Palace%2C%20Venice\\\">Doge's Palace</a>. The importance of this commission can be measured by the payment Giovanni received: he was awarded, first the reversion of a broker's place in the <a href=\\\"Fondaco%20dei%20Tedeschi\\\">Fondaco dei Tedeschi</a>, and afterwards, as a substitute, a fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors he was commissioned to paint a number of new subjects, six or seven in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the wars of <a href=\\\"Frederick%20Barbarossa\\\">Frederick Barbarossa</a> and the pope. These works, executed with much interruption and delay, were the object of universal admiration while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare his manner in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile.\\nOf the other, the religious class of his work, including both altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have fortunately been preserved. They show him gradually throwing off the last restraints of the <a href=\\\"Quattrocento\\\">Quattrocento</a> manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new <a href=\\\"oil\\\">oil</a> medium introduced in Venice by <a href=\\\"Antonello%20da%20Messina\\\">Antonello da Messina</a> about 1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets of the perfect fusion of colors and atmospheric gradation of tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity and charm. The enthroned \\\"Virgin and Child\\\" (such as the one at left) become tranquil and commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian color invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the landscape and the sky.\\nAn interval of some years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the <a href=\\\"Doge%27s%20Palace%2C%20Venice\\\">Hall of the Great Council</a>, seems to separate the <a href=\\\"San%20Giobbe%20Altarpiece\\\">San Giobbe Altarpiece</a>, and that of the church of <a href=\\\"San%20Zaccaria%20at%20Venice\\\">San Zaccaria at Venice</a>. Formally, the works are very similar, so a comparison between serves to illustrate the shift in Bellini's work over the last decade of the 15th century. Both pictures are of the <a href=\\\"Holy%20Conversation\\\">Holy Conversation</a> (sacred conversation between the <a href=\\\"Madonna%20%28art%29\\\">Madonna</a> and Saints) type. Both show the Madonna seated on a throne (thought to allude to the throne of <a href=\\\"Solomon\\\">Solomon</a>), between <a href=\\\"Classical%20antiquity\\\">classicizing</a> columns. Both place the holy figures beneath a golden <a href=\\\"mosaic\\\">mosaic</a>ked half dome that recalls the <a href=\\\"Byzantine%20architecture\\\">Byzantine architecture</a> in the basilica of <a href=\\\"St.%20Mark%27s%20Basilica\\\">St. Mark</a>.\\nIn the later work Bellini depicts the Virgin surrounded by (from left): <a href=\\\"St.%20Peter\\\">St. Peter</a> holding his keys and the <a href=\\\"Book%20of%20Wisdom\\\">Book of Wisdom</a>; the virginal <a href=\\\"Catherine%20of%20Alexandria\\\">St. Catherine</a> and <a href=\\\"St.%20Lucy\\\">St. Lucy</a> closest to the Virgin, each holding a <a href=\\\"martyr\\\">martyr</a>'s palm and her implement of torture (Catherine a <a href=\\\"breaking%20wheel\\\">breaking wheel</a>, and Lucy a dish with her eyes); <a href=\\\"St.%20Jerome\\\">St. Jerome</a>, with a book symbolizing his work on the <a href=\\\"Vulgate\\\">Vulgate</a>.\\nStylistically, the lighting in the \\\"San Zaccaria\\\" piece has become so soft and diffuse that it makes that in the \\\"San Giobbe\\\" appear almost raking in contrast. Giovanni's use of the oil medium had matured, and the holy figures seem to be swathed in a still, rarefied air. The \\\"San Zaccaria\\\" is considered perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all Giovanni's altarpieces, and is dated 1505, the year following that of Giorgione's \\\"<a href=\\\"Madonna%20of%20Castelfranco\\\">Madonna of Castelfranco</a>\\\".\\nOther late altarpiece with saints include that of the church of <a href=\\\"San%20Francesco%20della%20Vigna\\\">San Francesco della Vigna</a> at Venice, 1507; that of La Corona at <a href=\\\"Vicenza\\\">Vicenza</a>, a \\\"Baptism of Christ\\\" in a landscape, 1510; and that of <a href=\\\"San%20Giovanni%20Grisostomo%2C%20Venice\\\">San Giovanni Crisostomo</a> at Venice of 1513.\\nOf Giovanni's activity in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and San Zaccaria, there are a few minor works left, though the great mass of his output perished with the fire of the <a href=\\\"Doge%27s%20Palace%2C%20Venice\\\">Doge's Palace</a> in 1577. The last ten or twelve years of the master's life saw him besieged with more commissions than he could well complete. Already in the years 1501–1504 the marchioness Isabella <a href=\\\"House%20of%20Gonzaga\\\">Gonzaga</a> of <a href=\\\"Mantua\\\">Mantua</a> had had great difficulty in obtaining delivery from him of a picture of the Madonna and Saints (now lost) for which part payment had been made in advance.\\nIn 1505 she endeavoured through <a href=\\\"Cardinal%20Bembo\\\">Cardinal Bembo</a> to obtain from him another picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered, we do not know.\\n<a href=\\\"Albrecht%20D%C3%BCrer\\\">Albrecht Dürer</a>, visiting Venice for a second time in 1506, describes Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity towards foreign brethren of the brush.\\nIn 1507 Bellini's brother Gentile died, and Giovanni completed the picture of the \\\"Preaching of St. Mark\\\" which he had left unfinished; a task on the fulfillment of which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger of their father's sketch-book had been made conditional.\\nIn 1513 Giovanni's position as sole master (since the death of his brother and of <a href=\\\"Alvise%20Vivarini\\\">Alvise Vivarini</a>) in charge of the paintings in the Hall of the Great Council was threatened by one of his former pupils. Young <a href=\\\"Titian\\\">Titian</a> desired a share of the same undertaking, to be paid for on the same terms. Titian's application was granted, then after a year rescinded, and then after another year or two granted again; and the aged master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from his sometime pupil's proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook to paint \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Feast%20of%20the%20Gods\\\">The Feast of the Gods</a>\\\" for the duke <a href=\\\"Alfonso%20I%20of%20Ferrara\\\">Alfonso I of Ferrara</a>, but died in 1516.\\nHe was interred in the <a href=\\\"Santi%20Giovanni%20e%20Paolo%2C%20Venice\\\">Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo</a>, a traditional burial place of the doges.\\nBoth in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of Bellini was, on the whole, very prosperous. His long career began with <a href=\\\"Quattrocento\\\">Quattrocento</a> styles but matured into the progressive post-Giorgione Renaissance styles. He lived to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals, the Vivarini of Murano; he embodied, with growing and maturing power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the worldly splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione and Titian, equalled or even surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by five years; Titian, as we have seen, challenged him, claiming an equal place beside his teacher. Other pupils of the Bellini studio included <a href=\\\"Girolamo%20Galizzi%20da%20Santacroce\\\">Girolamo Galizzi da Santacroce</a>, <a href=\\\"Vittore%20Belliniano\\\">Vittore Belliniano</a>, <a href=\\\"Rocco%20Marconi\\\">Rocco Marconi</a>, <a href=\\\"Andrea%20Previtali\\\">Andrea Previtali</a> and possibly <a href=\\\"Bernardino%20Licinio\\\">Bernardino Licinio</a>.\\nIn the historical perspective, Bellini was essential to the development of the Italian Renaissance for his incorporation of aesthetics from Northern Europe. Significantly influenced by <a href=\\\"Antonello%20da%20Messina\\\">Antonello da Messina</a>, who had spent time in Flanders, Bellini made prevalent both the use of oil painting, different from the tempera painting being used at the time by most Italian Renaissance painters, and the use of disguised symbolism integral to the <a href=\\\"Northern%20Renaissance\\\">Northern Renaissance</a>. As demonstrated in such works as \\\"<a href=\\\"St.%20Francis%20in%20Ecstasy%20%28Bellini%29\\\">St. Francis in Ecstasy</a> \\\" (c. 1480) and the \\\"San Giobbe Altarpiece\\\" (c. 1478), Bellini makes use of religious symbolism through natural elements, such as grapevines and rocks. Yet his most important contribution to art lies in his experimentation with the use of color and atmosphere in oil painting.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Bellini%20%28cocktail%29\\\">Bellini (cocktail)</a> is named in his honor.\\n\",\n \"The Ugly Duchess\\nThe Ugly Duchess (also known as A Grotesque Old Woman) is a satirical portrait painted by the Flemish artist <a href=\\\"Quentin%20Matsys\\\">Quentin Matsys</a> around 1513.\\nThe painting is in oil on an oak panel, and measures 62.4 by 45.5 cm. It shows a grotesque old woman with wrinkled skin and withered breasts. She wears the aristocratic <a href=\\\"1400%E2%80%931500%20in%20fashion%23Women%27s%20fashion\\\">horned headdress</a> of her youth, out of fashion by the time of the painting, and holds in her right hand a red flower, then a symbol of engagement, indicating that she is trying to attract a suitor. However, it has been described as a bud that will 'likely never blossom'. The work is Matsys' best-known painting.\\nThe painting was long thought to have been derived from a putative lost work by <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, on the basis of its striking resemblance to two drawings of heads commonly attributed to the Italian artist. However the caricatures are now thought to be based on the work of Matsys, who is known to have exchanged drawings with Leonardo.\\nA possible literary influence is <a href=\\\"Desiderius%20Erasmus\\\">Erasmus's</a> essay \\\"<a href=\\\"In%20Praise%20of%20Folly\\\">In Praise of Folly</a>\\\" (1511), which satirizes women who \\\"still play the coquette\\\", \\\"cannot tear themselves away from their mirrors\\\" and \\\"do not hesitate to exhibit their repulsive withered breasts\\\". The woman has been often identified as <a href=\\\"Margaret%2C%20Countess%20of%20Tyrol\\\">Margaret, Countess of Tyrol</a>, claimed by her enemies to be ugly; however, she had died 150 years earlier. In 2008 Michael Baum, emeritus professor of surgery at University College London, suggested that the sitter suffered from a rare form of <a href=\\\"Paget%27s%20disease%20of%20bone\\\">Paget's disease</a>, in which the victim's bones enlarge and become deformed.\\nThe painting is in the collection of the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery\\\">National Gallery</a> in London, to which it was bequeathed by Jenny Louisa Roberta Blaker in 1947. It was originally half of a <a href=\\\"diptych\\\">diptych</a>, with a \\\"Portrait of an Old Man\\\", in the <a href=\\\"Mus%C3%A9e%20Jacquemart-Andr%C3%A9\\\">Musée Jacquemart-André</a>, Paris, which was lent to the National Gallery in 2008 for an exhibition in which the two paintings were hung side by side.\\nThe portrait is thought to be a source for <a href=\\\"John%20Tenniel\\\">John Tenniel</a>'s 1869 illustrations of <a href=\\\"Duchess%20%28Alice%27s%20Adventures%20in%20Wonderland%29\\\">the Duchess</a> in \\\"<a href=\\\"Alice%27s%20Adventures%20in%20Wonderland\\\">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>\\\".\",\n \"Quentin Matsys\\nQuentin Matsys (<a href=\\\"Dutch%20language\\\">Dutch</a>: \\\"Quinten Matsijs\\\" ) (1466–1530) was a painter in the <a href=\\\"Flemish\\\">Flemish</a> tradition and a founder of the <a href=\\\"Antwerp%20school\\\">Antwerp school</a>. He was born at <a href=\\\"Leuven\\\">Leuven</a>, where legend states he was trained as an ironsmith before becoming a painter. Matsys was active in Antwerp for over 20 years, creating numerous works with religious roots and satirical tendencies.\\nMost early accounts of Matsys' life are composed primarily of legend and very little contemporary accounts exist of the nature of his activities or character. According to J. Molanus' \\\"Historiae Lovaniensium\\\" Matsys is known to be a native of Leuven with humble beginnings as an ironsmith. One of four children, Matsys was born to Joost Matsys (d. 1483) and Catherine van Kincken sometime between 4 April and 10 September 1466. Legend states that Matsys abandoned his career as a blacksmith to woo his wife, who found painting to be a more romantic profession, though <a href=\\\"Karel%20van%20Mander\\\">Karel van Mander</a> claimed this to be false, and the real reason was a sickness during which he was too weak to work at the smithy and instead decorated prints for the carnival celebrations. Documented donations and possessions of Joost Matsys indicate that the family had a respectable income and that financial need was most likely not the reason Matsys turned to painting. During the period in which Matsys was active in Antwerp he took only four apprentices: Arian van Overbeke (master 1501, inscribed 1495), Willem Muelenbroec (inscribed 1501), Eduart Portugalois (master 1506, inscribed 1504), and Hennen Boeckmakere (inscribed 1510). It is widely believed that <a href=\\\"Joachim%20Patinir\\\">Joachim Patinir</a> studied with Matsys at some point during his career and contributed to several of his landscapes. Lack of guild records during this time leaves Matsys' travels to Italy and other parts of the Low Countries as part of his training open to question. For the most part, foreign influences on Matsys are inferred from his paintings and are considered to be a large portion of the artist's training during the 16th century.\\nDuring the greater part of the 15th century, the centres in which the painters of the <a href=\\\"Low%20Countries\\\">Low Countries</a> most congregated were <a href=\\\"Tournai\\\">Tournai</a>, <a href=\\\"Bruges\\\">Bruges</a>, <a href=\\\"Ghent\\\">Ghent</a> and <a href=\\\"Brussels\\\">Brussels</a>. Leuven gained prominence toward the close of this period, employing workmen from all of the crafts including Matsys. Not until the beginning of the 16th century did Antwerp take the lead which it afterward maintained against Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, <a href=\\\"Mechelen\\\">Mechelen</a> and Leuven. Because no guild records were kept prior to 1494 in Leuven there is no concrete proof that Matsys attained his master's status there; however, historians generally accept this to be the location of his early training because he had not been previously registered in Antwerp as an apprentice. As a member of Antwerp's <a href=\\\"Guild%20of%20Saint%20Luke\\\">Guild of Saint Luke</a>, Matsys is considered to be one of its first notable artists. Existing records of guild laws and regulations from the 16th century indicate that it is highly unlikely that Matsys was self-taught, despite accounts in <a href=\\\"Carel%20van%20Mander\\\">Carel van Mander</a>'s \\\"Schilderboeck\\\" (1604) stating that Matsys studied under no artist.\\nAlthough the roots of Matsys' training are unknown, his style reflects the artistic qualities of <a href=\\\"Dirk%20Bouts\\\">Dirk Bouts</a>, who brought to Leuven the influence of <a href=\\\"Hans%20Memling\\\">Hans Memling</a> and <a href=\\\"Rogier%20van%20der%20Weyden\\\">Rogier Van der Weyden</a>. When Matsys settled at Antwerp at the age of twenty-five, his own style contributed importantly to reviving Flemish art along the lines of <a href=\\\"Van%20Eyck\\\">Van Eyck</a> and Van der Weyden. Matsys departed from Leuven in 1491 when he became a master in the <a href=\\\"guild%20of%20painters\\\">guild of painters</a> at Antwerp. His most well known satirical works include \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ugly%20Duchess\\\">The Ugly Duchess</a>\\\" (1515), \\\"A Portrait of an Elderly Man\\\" (1513), and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Money%20Changer%20and%20His%20Wife\\\">The Money Changer and His Wife</a>\\\" (1514), all of which provide commentary on human feeling and society in general. He also painted religious altarpieces and triptych panels, the most famous of which was built for the Church of Saint Peter in Leuven.\\nMatsys work is considered to contain strong religious feeling—characteristic of traditional Flemish works—and is accompanied by a realism that often favored the grotesque. Matsys' firmness of outline, clear modelling and thorough finish of detail stem from Van de Weyden's influence; from the Van Eycks and Memling by way of Dirck Bouts, the glowing richness of transparent pigments. Matsys' works generally reflect earnestness in expression, minutely detailed renderings, and subdued effects in light and shade. Like most Flemish artists of the time he paid a great deal of attention to jewelry, edging of garments, and ornamentation in general.\\nMost of the emphasis in his works lies not upon atmosphere, which is in fact given very little attention, but to the literalness of caricature: emphasizing the melancholy refinement of saints, the brutal gestures and grimaces of gaolers and executioners. Strenuous effort is devoted to the expression of individual character. A satirical tendency may be seen in the pictures of merchant bankers (<a href=\\\"Louvre\\\">Louvre</a> and <a href=\\\"Windsor%20Castle\\\">Windsor</a>), revealing their greed and avarice. His other impulse, dwelling on the feelings of tenderness, may be noted in two replicas of the Virgin and Child at <a href=\\\"Berlin\\\">Berlin</a> and <a href=\\\"Amsterdam\\\">Amsterdam</a>, where the ecstatic kiss of the mother seems rather awkward. An expression of acute despair may be seen in a \\\"<a href=\\\"Lucretia\\\">Lucretia</a>\\\" in the museum at <a href=\\\"Vienna\\\">Vienna</a>. The remarkable glow of the colour in these works; however, makes the <a href=\\\"Mannerism\\\">Mannerist</a> exaggerations palatable.\\nMatsys had considerable skill as a portrait painter. His \\\"Ægidius (Peter Gilles)\\\" which drew from <a href=\\\"Thomas%20More\\\">Thomas More</a> a eulogy in <a href=\\\"Latin\\\">Latin</a> verse, is but one of many, to which one may add the portrait of <a href=\\\"Maximilian%20I%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Maximilian of Austria</a> in the gallery in Amsterdam. In this branch of his practice, Matsys was greatly influenced by his fellow countryman <a href=\\\"Jan%20Mabuse\\\">Jan Mabuse</a>. Matsys' portraiture exhibits highly personal and individual emotional characteristics that reflect his adherence to realism as a technique.\\nIn comparison to other Northern Renaissance artists such as <a href=\\\"Hans%20Holbein%20the%20Younger\\\">Holbein</a> and <a href=\\\"Albrecht%20D%C3%BCrer\\\">Dürer</a> Matsys shies away from refined and subtle detailing. Because there are numerous connections between him and these masters, however, it can be concluded that his departure in techniques was deliberate and not an act of ignorance. He most likely met Holbein more than once on his way to England, and Dürer is believed to have visited his house at Antwerp in 1520. Matsys also became the guardian of <a href=\\\"Joachim%20Patinir\\\">Joachim Patinir</a>'s children after the death of that painter, who is believed to have worked on some of the landscapes in Matsys' pictures.\\nHis \\\"Virgin and Christ\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Ecce%20Homo\\\">Ecce Homo</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Mater%20Dolorosa\\\">Mater Dolorosa</a>\\\" (London and Antwerp) are known for their serene and dignified mastery, gaining in delicacy and nuance in the works of his maturity. It is believed that he had known the work of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a> in the form of prints made and circulated among northern artists (his \\\"Madonna and Child with the Lamb\\\", inspired by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Virgin%20and%20Child%20with%20St.%20Anne%20%28Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%29\\\">The Virgin and Child with St. Anne</a>\\\", reflects da Vinci's influences). This is largely regarded as proof that Matsys was greatly influenced by Italian Renaissance artists and that he most likely travelled to Italy for at least a brief period.\\nMatsys died at Antwerp in 1529. In spite of his religious devotion, several of his relatives died as a result of their faith. His sister Catherine and her husband suffered at Leuven in 1543 for what was then the capital offence of reading the <a href=\\\"Bible\\\">Bible</a>: he being decapitated, she allegedly buried alive in the square before the church. In 1629 the first centennial of Matsys' death was marked by a ceremony and erection of a relief plaque with an accompanying inscription on the facade of the Antwerp Cathedral. Benefactor <a href=\\\"Cornelius%20van%20der%20Geest\\\">Cornelius van der Geest</a> is said to be responsible for the wording, stating: \\\"in his time a smith and afterwards a famous painter\\\", keeping in accordance with the legends surrounding Matsys' humble beginnings.\\nMatsys' works include \\\"A Portrait of an Elderly Man\\\" (1513), \\\"A Grotesque Old Woman\\\" (c.1513) and \\\"The Money Changer and His Wife\\\" (1514).\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ugly%20Duchess\\\">A Grotesque Old Woman</a>\\\" (or \\\"The Ugly Duchess\\\") is perhaps the best-known of his works. It served as a basis for <a href=\\\"John%20Tenniel\\\">John Tenniel</a>'s depiction of the Duchess in \\\"<a href=\\\"Alice%27s%20Adventures%20in%20Wonderland\\\">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>\\\". It is likely a depiction of a real person with <a href=\\\"Paget%27s%20disease%20of%20bone\\\">Paget's disease</a>, though it is sometimes said to be a metaphorical portrait of the <a href=\\\"Margaret%2C%20Countess%20of%20Tyrol\\\">Margaret, Countess of Tyrol</a>, who was known as \\\"Maultasch\\\", which, though literally translated \\\"satchel mouth\\\", was used to mean \\\"ugly woman\\\" or \\\"whore\\\" (because of her marital scandals). His two large triptych altarpieces \\\"The Holy Kinship\\\" or \\\"Saint Anne Altarpiece\\\" (1507–1509) and \\\"The Entombment of the Lord\\\" (1508–1511) are also highly celebrated. Commissioned for The Church of Saint Peter in Leuven, they reflect strong religious feeling and precise detailing characteristic to the majority of his works.\\nQuentin Matsys also painted part of the altarpiece of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Igreja%20da%20Madre%20de%20Deus%20%28S%C3%A3o%20Jo%C3%A3o%29\\\">Convento da Madre de Deus</a>\\\", in <a href=\\\"Lisbon\\\">Lisbon</a>. The altar should be primitive invocation of the \\\"Seven Sorrows of Mary\\\", with boards still evocative of \\\"\\\"Our Lady of Sorrows\\\"\\\",\\\"\\\"Jesus among the Doctors\\\"\\\", \\\"\\\"on the path to Calvary\\\"\\\", \\\"\\\"Calvary\\\"\\\", \\\"\\\"Lamentation\\\"\\\" (all at the <a href=\\\"Museu%20Nacional%20de%20Arte%20Antiga\\\">Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga</a>) and \\\"\\\"Flight into Egypt\\\"\\\" (<a href=\\\"Worcester%20Art%20Museum\\\">Worcester Art Museum</a>). Since the convent was founded by D. Leonor, Queen Dowager of King John II of Portugal and sister of King Manuel of Portugal, in 1509, it appeared that the order of this set has been performed once, with some authors (\\\"Firedlander\\\") pointing as the date of making the frames years prior to 1511.\\nQuentin's son, <a href=\\\"Jan%20Matsys\\\">Jan Matsys</a>, inherited the art but did not seek to expand upon his father's legacy. The earliest of his works, a \\\"St Jerome\\\" dated 1537, in the gallery of Vienna, as well as the latest, a \\\"Healing of Tobias\\\" of 1564, in the museum of Antwerp, are evidence of his tendency to substitute imitation for originality. Another son, <a href=\\\"Cornelis%20Matsys\\\">Cornelis Matsys</a>, was also a painter. Jan's son, <a href=\\\"Quentin%20Metsys%20the%20Younger\\\">Quentin Metsys the Younger</a>, was an <a href=\\\"artist%20of%20the%20Tudor%20court\\\">artist of the Tudor court</a>, and painted the \\\"Sieve Portrait\\\" of <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20I%20of%20England\\\">Elizabeth I of England</a>.\\nNear the front of the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp is a wrought-iron well, known as the \\\"Matsys Well,\\\" which according to tradition was made by the painter-to-be.\\nMatsys was regarded as a cult figure during the 17th century in Antwerp in addition to being one of the founders of the local school of painting (which climaxed with the career of <a href=\\\"Peter%20Paul%20Rubens\\\">Peter Paul Rubens</a>).\\nA penny serial by the British author <a href=\\\"Pierce%20Egan%20the%20Younger\\\">Pierce Egan the Younger</a> entitled \\\"Quintin Matsys\\\" was published in 1839.\",\n \"Giampietrino\\nGiampietrino, probably Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli (active 1495–1549), was a north Italian painter of the <a href=\\\"Lombardy\\\">Lombard school</a> and <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo</a>'s <a href=\\\"Leonardeschi\\\">circle</a>, succinctly characterized by Sidney J. Freedberg as an \\\"exploiter of Leonardo's repertory.\\\"\\nGiampietrino was a very productive painter of large <a href=\\\"altarpiece\\\">altarpiece</a>s, <a href=\\\"Madonna%20%28art%29\\\">Madonnas</a>, holy women in half figure, and mythological women. For a long time, the true identity of the artist was unknown; he was only known as a so-called \\\"Giampietrino\\\" whose name appeared in lists of the members of Leonardo's studio. In 1929, Wilhelm Suida suggested that he could perhaps be Giovanni Battista Belmonte, since a Madonna signed with this name and dated 1509 had been associated stylistically with Giampietrino. Since then, this assumption is considered outdated, and Giampietrino is identified predominantly with Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli, who is known through documents.\\nGiampietrino has been regarded as a talented painter who contributed substantially to the distribution of the late style of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. He copied numerous masterpieces by Leonardo, as well as leaving behind numerous capable original compositions of his own. Many of his works are preserved in multiple versions of the same subject.\",\n \"Bernardino de' Conti\\nBernardino de' Conti, an Italian painter mainly of portraits and to a lesser extent, religious compositions.\\nHe is said to have been born at <a href=\\\"Pavia\\\">Pavia</a> in the latter part of the 15th century as the son of an obscure painter. He died in 1525. He was a follower of <a href=\\\"Bernardo%20Zenale\\\">Zenale</a>, but little is known of his life or works. The following paintings, however, are preserved:\\nAttribution:\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Salaì\\nGian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, better known as Salaì (\\\"The Devil\\\", lit. \\\"The little unclean one\\\") (1480 – before 10 March 1524), was an <a href=\\\"Italians\\\">Italian</a> artist and pupil of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a> from 1490 to 1518. Salaì entered Leonardo's household at the age of ten. He created paintings under the name of Andrea Salai. He was described as one of Leonardo's students and lifelong servant and is thought by some to be the model for Leonardo's \\\"<a href=\\\"St.%20John%20the%20Baptist%20%28Leonardo%29\\\">St. John the Baptist</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Bacchus%20%28Leonardo%29\\\">Bacchus</a>\\\".\\nSalaì was born in 1480 as son of Pietro di Giovanni, a tenant of Leonardo's vineyard near the Porta Vercellina, <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a>.\\nHe joined Leonardo's household at the age of ten as an assistant. Vasari describes Salaì as \\\"a graceful and beautiful youth with curly hair, in which Leonardo greatly delighted\\\". Although Leonardo described him as \\\"a liar, a thief, stubborn and a glutton\\\" and he stole from Leonardo on at least five occasions, he kept him in his household for more than 25 years, in which he trained as an artist. Salaì became a capable, although not very impressive, painter, who created several works, including the \\\"<a href=\\\"Monna%20Vanna\\\">Monna Vanna</a>\\\", a nude version of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Mona%20Lisa\\\">Mona Lisa</a>\\\" which may be based on a charcoal sketch by Leonardo. He is also considered one potential creator of <a href=\\\"Mona%20Lisa%20%28Prado%27s%20version%29\\\">the Prado's copy of the \\\"Mona Lisa\\\"</a>.\\nLeonardo is thought to have used Salaì as the model for several of his works, specifically \\\"<a href=\\\"St.%20John%20the%20Baptist%20%28Leonardo%29\\\">St. John the Baptist</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"Bacchus%20%28Leonardo%29\\\">\\\"Bacchus\\\"</a>. Some researchers also believe that Salaì and not <a href=\\\"Lisa%20del%20Giocondo\\\">Lisa del Giocondo</a> was the real model for the <a href=\\\"Mona%20Lisa\\\">\\\"Mona Lisa\\\"</a> but this claim is disputed by the Louvre.\\nDuring Leonardo's second stay in Milan, he took another young pupil, <a href=\\\"Francesco%20Melzi\\\">Francesco Melzi</a>. Unlike Salaì, Francesco was a son of a nobleman. When Leonardo traveled to <a href=\\\"Rome\\\">Rome</a> in 1513 and to <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a> in 1516, Salaì and Melzi both accompanied him. As an adult, Melzi became secretary and main assistant of Leonardo, and undertook to prepare Leonardo's writings for publication. Vasari says that Melzi \\\"at the time of Leonardo was a very beautiful and very much loved young man\\\". In France, Francesco Melzi was greeted as \\\"Italian gentleman living with master Leonardo\\\" and granted donation of 400 ecus, while Salaì, already over 40 years old, was described as \\\"servant\\\" and granted a one time donation of 100 ecus. Salaì left Leonardo and France in 1518. He later returned to Milan to work on Leonardo's vineyard, previously worked by Salaì's father, half of which was granted to him by Leonardo's will. It is commonly believed that upon Leonardo's death in 1519, Salaì inherited several paintings including the \\\"<a href=\\\"Mona%20Lisa\\\">Mona Lisa</a>\\\". Through his estate, many of those works, notably the \\\"Mona Lisa\\\", passed into the possession of <a href=\\\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\\\">Francis I of France</a>. While Leonardo left all personal belongings, paintings, drawings and notes to Francesco Melzi in his will, it's unclear whether this included the \\\"Mona Lisa\\\".\\nSalaì married Bianca Coldiroli d'Annono on June 14, 1523, at the age of 43. Salaì died in 1524 as a result of a wound received from a crossbow in a duel and was buried in Milan on 10 March 1524.\\nA number of drawings among the works of Leonardo and his pupils make reference to Salaì's sexuality. There is a drawing modelled on Leonardo's painting \\\"John the Baptist\\\" and called \\\"The Angel Incarnate\\\", of a young man nude with an erect phallus, and appearing to represent Salaì. The face of the figure is closer to Salaì's copy of Leonardo's painting, than to the original \\\"John the Baptist\\\" in the Louvre. It may have been drawn by Salaì himself. A folio by Leonardo includes a page of drawings by a hand other than Leonardo's, one of which is a crudely drawn sketch depicting an anus, identified as \\\"Salaì's bum\\\", pursued by penises on legs.\\nA group of Italian researchers has claimed that Salaì was the model for the \\\"Mona Lisa\\\", noting the similarity in some of the facial features, particularly the nose and mouth, to those in which Salaì is thought to have been the model. These claims have been disputed by the <a href=\\\"Louvre\\\">Louvre</a>.\",\n \"Bernardino Luini\\nBernardino Luini (c. 1480/82 – June 1532) was a North Italian <a href=\\\"Painting\\\">painter</a> from <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo's</a> circle. Both Luini and <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Antonio%20Boltraffio\\\">Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio</a> were said to have worked with Leonardo directly; he was described to have taken \\\"as much from Leonardo as his native roots enabled him to comprehend\\\". Consequently, many of his works were attributed to Leonardo. He was known especially for his graceful female figures with elongated eyes, called Luinesque by <a href=\\\"Vladimir%20Nabokov\\\">Vladimir Nabokov</a>.\\nLuini was born as Bernardino de Scapis in Runo, a \\\"<a href=\\\"frazione\\\">frazione</a>\\\" of <a href=\\\"Dumenza\\\">Dumenza</a>, near <a href=\\\"Lake%20Maggiore\\\">Lake Maggiore</a>. Details of his life are scant.\\nIn 1500 he moved to <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a> with his father. According to Lomazzo, he trained under Giovan Stefano Scotto, although for others he was a pupil of <a href=\\\"Ambrogio%20Bergognone\\\">Ambrogio Bergognone</a>. In 1504-1507 he was probably in <a href=\\\"Treviso\\\">Treviso</a>, as attested by a \\\"Madonna with Child\\\" signed \\\"Bernardinus Mediolanensis faciebat\\\" which is however of disputed attribution. His first fresco works are an \\\"Adoration of the Magi\\\" in San Pietro of <a href=\\\"Luino\\\">Luino</a> (c. 1505) and the attributed fresco in the presbytery of <a href=\\\"Monza%20Cathedral\\\">Monza Cathedral</a> with \\\"St. Gerard of the Painters\\\".\\nLuini returned in Milan in 1509, receiving a commission for a polyptych from which today remains a \\\"St. Anthony of Padua\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Museo%20Poldi%20Pezzoli\\\">Museo Poldi Pezzoli</a>, influenced by <a href=\\\"Bernardino%20Zenale\\\">Bernardino Zenale</a>'s \\\"Cantù Polyptych\\\". In the 1510s he painted frescoes in the Oratory of Santa Maria Nuova in Pilastrello, a \\\"Lamentation of the dead Christ\\\" in <a href=\\\"Santa%20Maria%20della%20Passione\\\">Santa Maria della Passione</a>, a \\\"Madonna della Buonanotte\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Abbey%20of%20Chiaravalle\\\">Abbey of Chiaravalle</a>, frescoes in <a href=\\\"San%20Giorgio%20di%20Palazzo\\\">San Giorgio di Palazzo</a> (1516) and in the <a href=\\\"Certosa%20di%20Pavia\\\">Certosa di Pavia</a>, and others.\\nFrom 1509 - 1514 Luini completed the frescoes for \\\"Villa Pelucca\\\" in <a href=\\\"Sesto%20San%20Giovanni\\\">Sesto San Giovanni</a> (now in the <a href=\\\"Pinacoteca%20di%20Brera\\\">Pinacoteca di Brera</a>, Milan). One of his best known works, they were commissioned by Girolamo Rabia, for whom he also painted mythological scenes in the Palazzo Rabia (now in the <a href=\\\"Berlin%20Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie\\\">Berlin Gemäldegalerie</a> and the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Art\\\">National Gallery of Art</a>, <a href=\\\"Washington%2C%20D.C.\\\">Washington, D.C.</a>).\\nIn 1521 he travelled to Rome, where he was influenced by <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a>'s style. This is evident in Luini's further frescoes in the Villa La Pelucca executed in 1520-1523, as well as in other works now at Brera. In 1523, Luini painted a polyptych depicting the \\\"Entrhroned Madonna and Child surrounded by Angels with Musical Instruments\\\", and surmounted by \\\"God the Father\\\", found in the <a href=\\\"Basilica%20of%20San%20Magno%2C%20Legnano\\\">Basilica of San Magno, Legnano</a>.\\nCirca 1525 he completed a series of frescoes on the <a href=\\\"life%20of%20the%20Virgin\\\">life of the Virgin</a> and Christ for the sanctuary of \\\"Santa Maria dei Miracoli\\\" in <a href=\\\"Saronno\\\">Saronno</a>; to the same year is attributed the fresco in the counterfaçade of Sant'Abbondio in <a href=\\\"Como\\\">Como</a>. While at <a href=\\\"Saronno\\\">Saronno</a>, he discovered <a href=\\\"amaretto\\\">amaretto</a>. Other works from his middle period include a \\\"Holy Family\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Museo%20del%20Prado\\\">Museo del Prado</a>, two \\\"Salome\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts%2C%20Boston\\\">Museum of Fine Arts</a> in <a href=\\\"Boston\\\">Boston</a> and the <a href=\\\"Uffizi\\\">Uffizi</a> and a \\\"Portrait of Lady\\\" in the National Gallery of Art. From 1526 is a \\\"Virgin with Child and Saints\\\" in the Lee Fareham collection of Richmond.\\nIn 1529 Luini completed one of his masterworks, the grand \\\"Passion and Crucifixion\\\" fresco at Santa Maria degli Angeli in <a href=\\\"Lugano\\\">Lugano</a>, paired by other works in the same church. In 1531 he returned to the Saronno sanctuary to add other frescoes. In his later career Luini was increasingly influenced by Leonardo, as showed by the \\\"St. Anne\\\" of the <a href=\\\"Pinacoteca%20Ambrosiana\\\">Pinacoteca Ambrosiana</a> and the \\\"St. Catherine\\\" of the <a href=\\\"Hermitage%20Museum\\\">Hermitage</a>.\\nHe died in Milan. His son <a href=\\\"Aurelio%20Luini\\\">Aurelio</a> was also an accomplished painter.\\nMedia related to at Wikimedia Commons\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Franco Zeffirelli, KBE Grande Ufficiale OMRI (] ; born 12 February 1923) is an Italian director and producer of operas, films and television. He is also a former senator (1994–2001) for the Italian centre-right \"Forza Italia\" party. Recently, Italian researchers have found that he is one of the few distant relatives of Leonardo da Vinci.","The Taming of the Shrew (Italian: \"La Bisbetica domata\" ) is a 1967 film based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare about a courtship between two strong-willed people. The film was directed by Franco Zeffirelli and stars Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton as Shakespeare's Kate and Petruchio."],"string":"[\n \"Franco Zeffirelli, KBE Grande Ufficiale OMRI (] ; born 12 February 1923) is an Italian director and producer of operas, films and television. He is also a former senator (1994–2001) for the Italian centre-right \\\"Forza Italia\\\" party. Recently, Italian researchers have found that he is one of the few distant relatives of Leonardo da Vinci.\",\n \"The Taming of the Shrew (Italian: \\\"La Bisbetica domata\\\" ) is a 1967 film based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare about a courtship between two strong-willed people. The film was directed by Franco Zeffirelli and stars Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton as Shakespeare's Kate and Petruchio.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":73,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What type of weapon did a British Royal Marine help a soldier and firearms expert create?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["41 Commando\n41 Commando or No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando was a unit of the Royal Marines trained as Commandos during the Second World War. They were part of the all Royal Marine 4th Special Service Brigade that took part in the Normandy landings in June 1944 and later that served in World War II, the Korean War, and in Northern Ireland. They were disbanded in 1981.\nThe early British Commando units in the Second World War were all from the British Army but by February 1942, the Royal Marines were asked to organise Commando units of their own, and 6,000 men volunteered.\n'B' (RM) Commando was raised at Pembroke Dock on 7 October 1942, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel P W O'H.Phibbs, from the men of the 8th Royal Marine Battalion. It was the second Royal Marine commando battalion formed after its sister 'A' (RM) Commando. Both commandos were based on the Isle of Wight and soon after the commando was renamed No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando. It fought with the Special Service Brigade in the Allied invasion of Sicily and later during the Salerno landings, where they suffered heavy casualties including two second-in-command's and most of the Troop Commanders. The Unit's Chaplain, the Revd John Wallis RN, was awarded the DSC for \"outstanding courage and devotion to duty shown ... in tending the wounded and bringing in casualties under heavy fire from the Enemy\". The Medical Officer, Surg Lt Ernest Davies was also awarded the DSC for bravery and devotion to the wounded. The Unit returned to the United Kingdom in January 1944, in preparation for the Normandy landings. It was part of the 4th Special Service Brigade and landed at Normandy on 6 June 1944, D-Day, and then took part in the capture of Douvres Radar Station on 17 June. It later took part in the battle of the Scheldt in November 1944. It then served on the Maas River for the remainder of the war and then occupation duties in Germany. On 20 January 1946 the commando was disbanded.\nDuring the Korean War 41 Commando was reconstituted as 41 (Independent) Commando following a request from the United Nations Command for more amphibious raiding forces. The \"Independent\" designation meant that their commander had sole responsibility for their unit and did not have to consult with higher headquarters on operational and logistical matters. On 16 August 1950 219 Royal Marine volunteers were assembled in Bickleigh then the Commando School. They were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Douglas B. Drysdale DSO, MBE an experienced World War II Commando veteran who was the Chief Instructor at the Royal Marines Officer school.\nThe Commandos travelled to Japan in civilian clothes, with most of the civilian clothing issued by the Admiralty. The unit received more volunteers en route from 3 Commando Brigade involved in the Malayan Emergency. Arriving in Japan on 15 September 1950, the Commandos were issued American winter uniforms and weapons but retained their green berets, battle dress and boots. The first mission of the unit was in October where the Commandos embarked on two American high speed transports the USS Horace A. Bass (APD-124) and USS Wantuck (APD-125) supported by the destroyer USS De Haven (DD-727), where they executed a series of raids on the North Korean coast near Wonsan to disrupt North Korean transportation facilities.\nOn 10 November 1950, 41 (Independent) Commando joined the United Nations advance in North Korea where they served with the United States Marine Corps; the second time the two organisations had served together, the first being the Boxer Rebellion. During the Battle of Chosin Reservoir Lt. Col. Drysdale was given command of a 900-man unit of his own Commando, American, and South Korean forces called Task Force Drysdale. Their hard fighting together with the American Marines and Army led to 41 Independent Commando being awarded the American Presidential Unit Citation that the 1st Marine Division earned. However it was not awarded until 1957.\nThe Commando reformed in Japan and in April 1951 were assigned to what eventually became the 1st Commonwealth Division. They raided the North Korean coast with the Republic of Korea Marine Corps until 41 Commando returned to England in December 1951; those who had served less than a year in the commando were drafted into 42 Commando operating in Malaya. They were disbanded on 2 February 1952, the Commando having 31 Marines killed and 17 captured with one Royal Marine choosing to stay in North Korea, who returned to the UK in 1960.\nIn 1960 41 Commando was reformed as part of the United Kingdom's Strategic Reserve. The Commando served in various places throughout the world. These included East Africa in 1964, while in 1969 they were the first R.M.Commando to participate in operations in Northern Ireland.\nIn 1971 they were stationed in Malta, and in 1974 together with 40 Commando they took part in United Nations operation in Cyprus following the Turkish invasion. In 1977 they left Malta and in 1979 carried out public duties in London. In 1981, then based at Deal, Kent they were disbanded again.\nThe following Battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos during the Second World War.\nNotes\nBibliography\n","Eric A. Sykes\nEric Anthony Sykes (5 February 1883–12 May 1945), born Eric Anthony Schwabe in Barton-upon-Irwell, Eccles, Greater Manchester, England, was a soldier and firearms expert. He is most famous for his work with William E. Fairbairn in the development of the eponymous Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife and modern British Close Quarters Battle (CQB) martial arts during World War II. Originally working for an import/export company selling weapons in East Asia, he claimed he volunteered for and served in the British Army as a sharpshooter on the Western Front during World War I. Returning to China in 1917, he joined the volunteer branch of the Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) Specials with the rank of Inspector in 1926.\nSykes was born Eric Anthony Schwabe in Barton on Irwell, the son of Lawrence Schwabe a Manchester born letter press printer and Octavie his German wife from Cologne, Germany. By 1891 the family had moved south to Bromley in Kent near to Sevenoaks where his father worked as a cotton trader. He grew up at No. 40 Marlowes, Hemel Hempstead and by 1901 was working as a clerk for the county council. The reasons for his name change in 1917 were said to be because he found it \"too Germanic\". A shikari hunter, he was an avid rifleman and an expert with the pistol. He first arrived in Shanghai in 1907 while working for Reiss & Co. He met Fairbairn in 1919, then with the Shanghai Municipal Police, beginning their famous professional association. In 1923 Sykes was working for the China & Japan Trading Co, China representative for Remington and Colt. It was not until 1926 that Sykes officially joined the SMP as an unpaid, part-time volunteer officer in the reserve, and in 1929 he joined S.J. David & Co., where he worked until his departure from China in 1940.\nWhile working for S.J. David & Co., his experience in sharpshooting and his personal friendship with Fairbairn led him to form and oversee a team of civilian and police snipers for the SMP. He became the head of this unit in 1937, working part-time in this capacity until he resigned this position in 1939. Also in 1939 he joined the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS - MI6), where he worked with SIS at the Special Training Centre in Lochailort, Scotland. In 1940, Fairbairn resigned from the Shanghai Municipal Police and returned to Britain, with Sykes following. The pair had apparently planned this, since they shipped crates full of illegal weapons from lax Shanghai into Britain on their boat.\nFairbairn and Sykes were both commissioned as second lieutenants on the British Army, General List on 15 July 1940.\nAfter training special forces units throughout 1940, the two were finally commissioned into the British Army on the General List of 1941. Their 1942 book \"Shooting to Live\", published in 1942, is considered by many to be the classic text of pistol combat, and one of the best codifications of the high-stress point shooting method. Nevertheless, this was the last time the pair worked together in any capacity; by mid-1942 the pair's friendship had split, with Sykes claiming that Fairbairn treated him as an inferior. Soon thereafter, Fairbairn travelled to Canada to teach armed and unarmed combat to commandos and covert agents of the Americas at Camp X. Sykes stayed in Great Britain, training Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents at the various Special Training Centres before being assigned to train the joint UK/US Jedburgh teams at Milton Hall.\nRelinquishing his commission in the rank of Captain due to disability on 6 April 1945 he was allowed to retain the honorary rank of Major.\nHe died at Bexhill-on-Sea, England on 12 May 1945.\nWhile teaching at Camp X, Sykes reputedly ended every self-defence lecture with his trademark phrase \"and then, kick him in the testicles\" as this method ensures that regardless of the effectiveness of the given tactic used, the assailant would be at least moderately incapacitated.","Gerald Robert Poole\nLieutenant-General Gerald Robert Poole CB CMG DSO (1868-1937) was a heavy artillery commander during the First World War with the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Garrison Artillery. He was Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marine Artillery in 1921-22, and during this period also served as Marine ADC to King George V.\nGerald Poole was born on 17 January 1868 at Clifton He was educated at Bedford Modern School where his father, Reverend Canon Robert Burton Poole became headmaster. From school he went to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and then proceeded to the Royal Marine Artillery as a probationary Lieutenant.\nPoole served as a gunnery officer on-board a number of Royal Navy ships including; HMS \"Imperious\" (Mediterranean and Vancouver Island 1894-99), HMS \"Irresistible\" (Mediterranean 1902-04), HMS \"Victory\" (Scapa Flow, 1912) and HMS \"Inflexible\" (Mediterranean 1912-14). He was promoted to Captain in 1896 and Major in 1908. From 1906-12 he was seconded to the Canadian Government as a gunnery instructor and commanded No. 3 (Heavy) Battery of the Royal Canadian Artillery.\nIn 1915 Poole was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and appointed Commander of the Royal Marine Howitzer Brigade in France. From May 1916 he took command of the 26th Heavy Artillery Battery of the Royal Garrison Artillery although he maintained administrative command of the Royal Marine Brigade for the duration of the War. On occasions he would incorporate the Marine howitzers within the RGA battery, for example at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917. He was mentioned three times in the Despatches of the Commander in Chief of the BEF during the War and was appointed CMG in 1917 and awarded the DSO in 1918.\nPoole was appointed Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marine Artillery at Eastney in 1921, and ADC to the King in the same year. He was promoted to Major-General in 1922 and also appointed CB. He was made Lieutenant-General in 1924 and retired in 1925\nOn retirement he settled on Vancouver with his Canadian wife Gertrude; they had one son and one daughter. Poole was a keen musician and had served as Superintendent of the Royal Navy School of Music. He was also a fine horseman and became a proficient backwoodsman during his time in Canada. Gerald Poole died on 20 October 1937 in Vancouver.","Julian Hatcher\nJulian Sommerville Hatcher (June 26, 1888 – December 4, 1963), was a U.S. Army major general, noted firearms expert and author of the early twentieth century. He is credited with several technical books and articles relating to military firearms, ballistics, and autoloading weapons. His premier works are \"Hatcher's Notebook\" and \"Book of the Garand\", along with \"Pistols and Revolvers and Their Use\"s and \"Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers\". In the latter work he introduced the Hatcher Scale, probably the first attempt to determine the stopping power of a handgun round by a formula. He was also a pioneer in the forensic identification of firearms and their ammunition. Hatcher retired from the United States Army as a Major General. Afterward, he served as Technical Editor of the National Rifle Association's \"American Rifleman\" magazine.\nHatcher was born in Hayfield, Virginia and graduated with honors from Annapolis in 1909 [he voluntarily transferred from the Navy to the Army's coast artillery]. He married Eleanor Dashiell and together, they had three children. Chief of the Small Arms Division in the Ordnance Department and the Assistant Commandant of the Ordnance School before and at the beginning of World War II, he worked closely with Springfield Armory as an engineering trouble-shooter in resolving early production issues associated with the early iterations of the M1 Garand Rifle.\nIn 1916, the Hotchkiss M1909 Benet-Mercie machine gun was in general use with the U.S. Army and was seeing action during the Punitive Expedition against the bandit Pancho Villa. Reports of its use in Mexico indicated the gun was not functioning properly. Investigation revealed that the chief problems were the 30-round metallic feed strips used in the gun and inexperienced gunners. It was Lieutenant Hatcher who was sent to the border to solve the problems. He found that none of the soldiers had been taught the proper use of the weapon. He set up the Army's first machine gun school and was soon turning out trained crews. Soon, the Benet-Mercie proved to be an effective weapon.\nHatcher was later instrumental in developing a solution to the vexing problem of brittle metal in early M1903 receivers built by Springfield and Rock Island Arsenals. His solution to the \"grenading\" of receivers when shell cases failed catastrophically was to drill a gas vent hole in the left side of the receiver adjacent to the breech. This hole would allow gases escaping from a ruptured case to be exhausted safely and away from the face of the shooter. Dubbed the \"Hatcher Hole\", the modification was typically added to receivers at overhaul.\nReferences are to Ray Riling, \"Guns and Shooting, a Bibliography,\" New York: Greenberg, 1951.","Royal Marine Depot, Deal\nThe Royal Marine Depot, Deal (also called the Royal Marine Depot, Walmer) was a military installation occupied by the Royal Marines and located at in South Deal on the road to Walmer.\nThe South barracks, which opened in 1795 shortly after the outbreak of the French Revolution, originally consisted of the officers' accommodation with clock and cupola flanked by separate infantry barracks and cavalry barracks. The buildings are said to be \"one of the most complete late 18th century barracks in the country\". The 15th Light Dragoons were accommodated there from 1792 to 1815 - a convenient base during the Napoleonic wars. Part of the South barracks was used from 1815 as the quarters for the 'blockade men', drafted against a threat of local smuggling. The South barracks became a coastguard station thereafter, and this duty continued until 1840. Thereafter they accommodated various Line Infantry regiments until 1861 when the Royal Marines arrived. The barracks, which were converted to residential apartments in the early 21st century, are now known as the \"Cavalry Barracks\".\nThe East barracks, which also opened in 1795, was originally a Naval hospital but had to be rebuilt in 1812 after the original structure was destroyed by lightning. The East barracks subsequently accommodated the Royal Marines School of Music which relocated there in 1930. The East barracks were converted into private housing in 1997 and are now known as \"Admiralty Mews\".\nThe North barracks, which opened in 1797, was originally an Army hospital, one of the first military hospitals in the United Kingdom. Little survives today beyond a number of houses built to accommodate officers or surgeons. This area is now known as \"The Churchills\".\nThe Infirmary barracks were built in 1900 on a former drill field; they closed in 1988 and the barracks were demolished to make way for a private housing development now known as \"Marine Mews\".\nOn 29 October 1940, during the Second World War, the Royal Marines Depot was attacked from the air. The Battle of Britain campaign diary records: \"Army Stations 29 October 1940, Deal: At 1640 hours, three HE bombs were dropped in the barracks, the casualties being 1 Officer and 7 other ranks killed, 6 Officers and 6 other ranks wounded.\"\nAt approximately 8:20 am on 22 September 1989, the Royal Marines School of Music was bombed by the IRA, resulting in the deaths of 11 musicians, and injuries to 22 other marines. A memorial garden, built in remembrance of the men that died, is situated in the grounds of the East barracks where the bomb went off.\nThe depot was largely withdrawn from service in 1991 although the Royal Marines School of Music remained on site in the East barracks until 1996. In 2005, the Old Gymnasium in the South barracks was renovated and it won the Building Renovation category in the Kent Design Awards.","Modern technique (shooting)\nThe modern technique (abbreviation of modern technique of the pistol) is a method for using a handgun for self-defense, originated by firearms expert Jeff Cooper. The modern technique uses a two-handed grip on the pistol and brings the weapon to eye level so that the sights may be used to aim at the target. This method was developed by Cooper into a teachable system beginning in the 1950s, based on the techniques of shooters like Jack Weaver and others, after experiments with older techniques such as point shooting. The method was codified in book form in 1991 in \"The Modern Technique of the Pistol\" by Gregory B. Morrison and Cooper.\nIn 1956, following a career in the US Marine Corps where he served in World War II and the Korean War, and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel, Jeff Cooper started holding Leatherslap shooting events and established the Bear Valley Gunslingers at Big Bear Lake, California. The initial events consisted of straight quick-draw matches, determining who could draw and hit a target at seven yards the fastest. They were the first matches of their kind, unrestricted as to technique, weapon, caliber, holster, or profession.\nInitially, competitors primarily used some form of point shooting, a single-handed technique with the pistol fired from the hip, that was popular and believed to be the best-suited to the purpose. However, shooters would often discharge several rounds from the hip in rapid succession, but miss the 18-inch balloons seven yards away. One of the early champions, Jack Weaver, switched to an eye-level, two-handed, aimed technique. In his words, \"a pretty quick hit was better than a lightning-fast miss.\"\nWeaver's string of victories, resulting from his new method, influenced adoption of the technique and abandonment of point shooting. Soon, firearms trainers, most notably Cooper, began refining and codifying the concept; the result became the modern technique.\nOver several years, the Bear Valley Gunslingers evolved into the South Western Combat Pistol League (SWCPL; known officially as the Southwest Pistol League (SWPL) as the word \"combat\" offended then California Secretary of State, Frank M. Jordan). Their objective was to inject realism into pistol-shooting competition, thus developing the best methods of using a pistol for self-defense. The later competitions held at Big Bear were designed to represent actual and projected real-life situations, including shootings that some of the police officers attending the SWCPL had experienced. Six competitors consistently dominated the competitions, and these men became known as the Combat Masters: Jack Weaver, Ray Chapman, Elden Carl, Thell Reed, John Plähn, and Jeff Cooper.\nThe Combat Masters were given this title because, if they all competed, they would take the first six places, and if only one of them competed, ordinarily, he would be the winner. These competitions included highly accomplished world-class point shooters, such as Reed and Bob Munden (later known as the \"world's fastest gun\"), who competed using what would become the modern technique. Weaver is credited with originating the new two-handed Weaver Stance, Carl and Chapman refined it in competition, Plähn codified it, and Cooper publicized the new technique. Plähn, who possessed a PhD in physical education, filmed the Combat Masters in action to analyze what their winning techniques had in common. The most efficient movements were selected and integrated into the modern technique.\nOthers significant in the SWCPL included Leonard Knight (finished second in the first IPSC U.S. National Championship in 1977), Al Nichols, Jim Hoag, Bruce Nelson (designer of the \"Summer Special\" holster and an LEO in Southern California working in narcotics; present at the formation of IPSC and formed the Holster Committee), Michael Harries (former US Marine, who invented the Harries Technique of flashlight manipulation for use with a pistol, as well as becoming an instructor at Gunsite and consultant to police departments and the movie industry.), and Jim Zubiena (appeared in the episode \"Calderone's Return Part 1\" of the TV series, \"Miami Vice\", a good example of the employment of the modern technique and the Mozambique Drill in entertainment).\nCooper recognized several advances in pistolcraft prior to the modern technique:\nThe modern technique comprises four central elements: an appropriately powerful weapon, and an effective way to hold it, aim it, and fire it. Cooper summarized the requirement and intended outcome in three Latin words:\nCooper's personal motto, expressed as \"DVC,\" and the phrase \"front sight/press,\" are the main takeaways for students of the modern technique.\nThe modern technique may be used with any handgun, but the .45 ACP caliber Colt M1911 semi-automatic pistol is universally associated with Jeff Cooper and the technique.\nJeff Cooper specified the use of a large caliber semi-automatic pistol as a component of the modern technique. He chose a large caliber because experience demonstrated that the largest quantity of force, and therefore damage, should be inflicted to maximize the chances of stopping even the most motivated and physically tough assailant.\nThe choice of magazine-fed semi-automatic handgun was because this firearm enabled continuous fire by allowing fresh magazines to be inserted quickly by the shooter. Most revolvers must be reloaded one cartridge at a time, which is a slower process than the replacement of a magazine in a semi-automatic pistol. Furthermore, reloading a revolver in the dark is very difficult, while reloading a semi-automatic pistol is relatively easy. During World War II (prior to developing the modern technique), after taking advice from a distinguished authority on gun fighting, Charles Askins, Jeff Cooper took a Colt Single Action Army revolver into combat in the Pacific theater and subsequently remarked that this advice nearly got him killed.\nBullet wounds vary in how much they incapacitate an assailant. The greater the injury inflicted, the greater the chance of killing one's assailant or wounding him so badly he is no longer able to fight. According to Cooper, larger caliber bullets, being bullets of greater diameter, are more likely to inflict wounds that bleed severely and incapacitate the assailant in a shorter period of time. Jeff Cooper's studies of reports from gun fights pointed to the greater effectiveness of larger diameter bullets in killing or incapacitating an assailant.\nPistols are not practical platforms for the launching of large projectiles because their small size, relative to rifles, decreases their capacity to absorb the force of recoil, increasing the proportion transmitted into the user's body. At calibers larger than .45 or .50, the negative impact on a shooter's control generally outweighs the benefits of a larger projectile. Hence Jeff Cooper's preference for a pistol launching a bullet of .45 diameter, or in the case of a shooter of such slight stature that they are unable to use a .45 caliber pistol, the use of a pistol firing a bullet of as large a diameter as is practical for the shooter to control.\nThe ability of different types and sizes of bullet to damage and incapacitate human beings and other creatures is called \"stopping power.\" Stopping power is a controversial subject because of the absence of data from controlled experiments and therefore a lack of scientific data that would demonstrate the superiority of one particular type of cartridge over another.\nThe Weaver stance consists of two components. The first is gripping the pistol with two hands so that the slight forward pressure on the grip of the hand that drew the pistol is opposed by a rearward pressure on the grip of the second hand. This action aids in controlling the recoil of the pistol to stabilize the pistol for subsequent shots.\nThe second component, and most commonly known, is the positioning of the feet in a walking stance, with the off-side foot ahead of the strong-side foot. A right-handed person will have the right foot angled out to the side and further to the rear. Most of the weight will be on the left foot, with the knee slightly bent. The shoulders will be leaned forward over the left toe. The right foot behind will help catch the force of recoil, as well as allow for rapid changes in position.\nA left-handed person will have the right foot forward.\nThe Flash Sight Picture is a method of allowing the cognitive faculties of the shooter to align the target and the sights without the delay involved in the conscious alignment of sights, as used when slow-firing a rifle at a distant target. In point shooting, by contrast, the pistol is drawn from the holster and fired from the hip, without the sights being aligned at all.\nIn slow-fire rifle shooting, the front sight and rear sight of the rifle are aligned with the distant target with great care, taking at least several seconds.\nThe Flash Sight Picture technique falls between these two methods. During a gunfight, waiting to align the sights is too slow. However, more accuracy than point shooting is required to hit one's assailant reliably. It is physically impossible for the human eye to focus simultaneously on the rear sight (nearest to one's eye), the front sight (farther away from one's eye), and the relatively distant target at the same time. The muscles of the eye adjust to focus sight on one specific distance optimally at any one instant, so 3 different distances mean the shooter's focus must hunt (muscular physical adjustments) between all three points of mental concentration. The greatest adjustment of focus (relatively more ocular muscle contraction) is required to view shorter distances, such as the gun's rear sight. In the modern technique, the shooter is taught to focus on the front sight of the pistol and align it against the target, ignoring the rear sight for quicker aiming and minimal physical requirements. This prevents the focus of the eye from hunting between rear sight, front sight and target, wasting vital time in refocusing.\nThe technique is called 'flash' sight picture because the cognition is best able to perform this function when the target and front sight are presented quickly as a single image, in a 'flash', as if the shooter had just turned around to face a threat appearing from close by. The shooter's vision can \"see\" the rear sight, even if the focus is on the front sight. This is enough for the cognition to make an alignment. With the flash sight picture, the front sight and a rapidly presented image of the target are used to align the pistol. This is faster than slow-fire rifle, and offers more chance of hitting the target than point shooting from the hip.\nThe cognitive functions of the brain align objects in the hand with distant objects at great speed. This ability of human cognition can be used to align the pistol with the target. Colonel Cooper discovered this specific ability and named it the \"Flash Sight Picture\".\nHuman cognition can perceive a \"Flash Sight Picture\" at a speed faster than conscious awareness. This facility was discovered during World War II experiments with rapid recognition of aircraft silhouettes. Experimentation was continued after the war and branched into subliminal advertising in the 1960s, where images were flashed onto cinema screens for a duration too short for the viewer to notice, yet for cognition to have observed the image nonetheless.\nUse of the Flash Sight Picture requires a rapid acquisition of the front sight in order to allow the brain to perform its calculations. This focus on the front sight is one of the main themes Colonel Cooper impressed upon students of the modern technique to clear their minds when shooting during a confrontation. The emphasis for students of the modern technique on the word \"front sight\" was so great, that a shooting school and a shooting magazine were named after this phrase.\nHere the compressed, surprise break of the trigger is used to discharge the firearm.\nIn this technique, one should pull the trigger to have the shot break as if it were a glass rod. When the compression of the trigger by the finger reaches an appropriate point, the 'glass rod' of the trigger will break and discharge the firearm. The 'surprise break' of the 'glass rod' means the pistol remains aligned on the target while the muscles in the shooter's hand adjust from merely gripping the pistol to depressing the trigger at the same time. This disturbance in the muscles of the hand, while it attempts to move the trigger backwards while still holding the pistol steady, can cause the alignment of the firearm to shift, causing the shot to miss the target. The gradual compression of the trigger by the hand muscles means the alignment may be observed by the eye during the process of compression and kept on the target, regardless of slight changes to the alignment introduced by the muscles of the hand starting to squeeze the trigger.\nThis process must take place as fast as possible, yet without disturbing the pistol.\nDuring training in the modern technique Cooper emphasized that readiness was everything.\nCooper asserted that if the individual weren't prepared to encounter danger at all times, the technique used and the pistol selected were of no consequence. To underscore this point and give students a reference with which to evaluate their own behavior, Cooper developed a color code of readiness, consisting of four states of readiness:\nCooper's color code is frequently mistaken as an indicator of danger, rather than an indicator of readiness. The color code was developed as a mental crutch to get over the resistance of using deadly force (it is not a warning system). The student may be in grave danger, but may be asleep and thus his level of readiness is 'Condition White' with readiness being unaware. For most individuals, even those whose occupations take them to dangerous regions, awareness condition Yellow will be the condition they spend 99% of their waking lives within. Specific threats, leading to readiness in Condition Orange (specific alert) would be rare. Condition Red (fight) is even more rare.\nThis color code of readiness has been adopted by third parties, including the US Marine Corps.\nTo promote situational awareness, Cooper endorsed what is known as the \"Dollar Club\" – Gunsite \"family members\" were expected to be members. When two members of the Dollar Club met, the one who saw and recognized the other first could claim a dollar from the less-aware member. Cooper also stated that any family member who got a traffic ticket should pay it, because a properly aware driver should see police cars in time to avoid citation.\nCooper requested his students report back to him if they had been involved in gunfights, so that he might build up a body of reference material against which the modern technique could be evaluated and altered or extended. This body of reference material was built over 50 years, encompassing nearly 40 gunfights. The reports drawn from the experience of those involved in gunfights continued the tradition of reflecting real situations in the courses of competition set up for the South Western Combat Pistol League.\nTo further refine the modern technique and the methods used in its training, Cooper continued to compile reports of gunfights from students of the technique until his death, building the largest collection of data of its kind. As a result of analyzing this body of material, Cooper developed several training drills:\nJeff Cooper described the Mozambique Drill as such in his \"Commentaries\":\nI added The Mozambique Drill to the modern doctrine after hearing of an experience of a student of mine up in Mozambique when that country was abandoned. My friend was involved in the fighting that took place around the airport of Lourenço Marques. At one point, Mike turned a corner and was confronted by a terrorist carrying an AK47. The man was walking toward him at from perhaps 10 paces. Mike, who was a good shot, came up with his P-35 and planted two satisfactory hits, one on each side of the wishbone. He expected his adversary to drop, but nothing happened, and the man continued to close the range. At this point, our boy quite sensibly opted to go for the head and tried to do so, but he was a little bit upset by this time and mashed slightly on the trigger, catching the terrorist precisely between the collar bones and severing his spinal cord. This stopped the fight.\nThe effect of a bullet striking the human body depends greatly on which organ is struck during penetration. In some instances, the assailant might drop quickly; in others, there might be no apparent effect. A bullet striking the brain kills the assailant almost without exception. Recognizing that similar situations would occur, Cooper popularized the term \"Mozambique Drill\" based on the technique improvised by his student there. This drill consists of shooting two rounds to the center of the torso, followed by a pause and assessment of the situation and then a more carefully aimed shot to the head, specifically, in the triangle formed between the eyes and the base of the nose. The \"head shot\" is required to enter this \"fatal triangle\" because any other shot in the head with a handgun runs a higher chance of being non-debilitating because of striking thicker cranial bones or the teeth. Under nearly any condition, engaging an assailant with the Mozambique Drill should offer a high probability that one's assailant will be stopped and likely killed.\n'El Presidente' drill was invented by Cooper while training the protection squad for the president of a South American country. The drill consists of three targets. The shooter starts by facing away from the targets. On the signal to start, the shooter turns and shoots each target twice, before reloading and shooting each target twice again. The shooter's performance is scored by taking account of both the number of hits and the time taken to achieve those hits.\nA further example of the expansion of the modern technique was the invention of the 'Dozier Drill'. This drill was invented by Cooper after the kidnapping of US Army Brigadier General James L. Dozier by Italian Red Brigade terrorists. The terrorists had entered General Dozier's apartment by posing as plumbers. As many as eight completed the gang and four or perhaps five entered the apartment. One of the terrorists removed a submachine gun from his bag of tools while another terrorist read a political statement to General Dozier. At that time, U.S. military personnel were prohibited by Italian law from carrying firearms within their areas of accommodation, which were within the local community and not on U.S. bases. General Dozier was unarmed and unable to defend himself. In response to this incident, Cooper designed the 'Dozier drill':\nThe range is set with five metal silhouette targets hinged at their base (called 'Pepper Poppers') so as to fall backward when struck. A second participant stands far to one side and is tasked with retrieving a pistol and a magazine from a tool bag, which he must assemble and ready for action. This action mimics the terrorist who retrieved his submachine gun from his tool bag and provides a datum against which the shooter must compare his performance. On the signal, the shooter must draw his pistol and engage the five targets representing the terrorists, before the terrorist retrieves his pistol and readies it for use.\nIn May 1976 Jeff Cooper was present at the conference that founded the International Practical Shooting Confederation\n(IPSC) and served as the first IPSC president. According to Jim Wilson and Jeff Cooper, the IPSC initially reflected a practical emphasis on self-defense but in subsequent decades IPSC became more focused on pistol shooting games and lost its original focus.\nJeff Cooper went on to codify and promulgate the modern technique in his work after the Big Bear Leatherslaps. He traveled the world providing training in the technique to security teams protecting heads of state, prominent politicians and wealthy individuals. In 1976 Jeff Cooper founded the American Pistol Institute (API) at Gunsite Ranch just north of Paulden in Yavapai County, Arizona, to provide training in the technique to a larger audience of military personnel, law enforcement officers and citizens. The American Pistol Institute was renamed Gunsite.\nCritics of the modern technique and its components point out that some elements of the technique existed before Jeff Cooper codified them. For example, there are a few photographs of shooters predating World War II showing shooters using the Weaver stance. Jeff Cooper claims that while individual shooters such as these may have used individual components of what would become the modern technique, what did not happen until the advent of the modern technique was the testing of different techniques, the determination of the most advantageous techniques by comparison in realistic simulations, and the codification of the assembled techniques into a doctrine. Contrasting this are texts such as \"Kill or Get Killed\" by Col. Rex Applegate that describe the flash sight picture and Weaver stance (though not using those terms) and the accuracy of the shooters compared to those trained in other methods.\nGradually, some people working with firearms, such as close protection teams and special forces units of Russia and Belarus, moved toward adopting doctrines and formal training regimes. Frequently, the doctrines adopted largely contain elements of the modern technique (such as the Weaver stance) or use the technique in its entirety.","Robert Jobson\nRobert Jobson is a newspaper correspondent, broadcaster and author. He is co-author of \"\" written with Princess Diana’s police protection officer Inspector Ken Wharfe MVO. He is also the co-author of \"Bulletproof\", the life story of Royal Marine and George Cross recipient Matt Croucher GC. He has written several non-fiction books on royalty, including \"The Future Royal Family\" (2015). He has reported on the British Royal Family since 1991 as royal correspondent for UK national newspapers including the \"Daily Express\", \"The Sun\" and \"London Evening Standard\". He was the recipient of the London Press Club \"Scoop of the Year\" award for his world exclusive that Prince Charles and Camilla Parker-Bowles were to wed in 2005. Jobson is Royal Editor for Australia's 7 network top-rated breakfast show Sunrise. He is also royal commentator for US network ABC News. He is Royal Consultant for Mark Schwahn's originally scripted series \"The Royals\" for E! starring British actresses Elizabeth Hurley and Dame Joan Collins and played cameo roles as himself in series 1, 2 and 3.","William E. Fairbairn\nWilliam Ewart Fairbairn ( ; 28 February 1885 – 20 June 1960) was a British Royal Marine and police officer. He developed hand-to-hand combat methods for the Shanghai Police during the interwar period, as well as for the allied special forces during World War II. He created his own fighting system known as Defendu. Notably, this included innovative pistol shooting techniques and the development of the Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife.\nThe television series \"Secrets of War\" suggested him as a possible inspiration for Q branch in James Bond.\nFairbairn served with the Royal Marine Light Infantry starting in 1901, and joined the Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) in 1907. He served in one of the red light districts. During his service with the International Police in Shanghai, Fairbairn reportedly engaged in hundreds of street fights in the course of his duties over a twenty-year career, where he organised and headed a special anti-riot squad. Much of his body, arms, legs, torso, even the palms of his hands, were covered with scars from knife wounds from those fights. Fairbairn later created, organised, and trained a special anti-riot squad for the Shanghai police force. He also developed numerous firearms training courses and police equipment, including a special metal-lined bulletproof vest designed to stop high-velocity bullets from the 7.63x25mm Mauser pistol.\nDuring World War II, he was recruited by the British Secret Service as an Army officer, where he was given the nickname \"Dangerous Dan\". Together with fellow close-combat instructor Eric Sykes, Fairbairn was commissioned on the General List in 1941. Fairbairn and Sykes were both commissioned as second lieutenants on 15 July 1940. He trained British, American and Canadian Commando and No. 2 Dutch Troop 10th Inter-Allied Commando forces, along with Ranger candidates in close-combat, pistol-shooting and knife-fighting techniques. Fairbairn emphasised the necessity of forgetting any idea of gentlemanly conduct or fighting fair: \"Get tough, get down in the gutter, win at all costs... I teach what is called ‘Gutter Fighting.’ There’s no fair play, no rules except one: \"kill or be killed\",” he declared. One of his pupils was Raymond Westerling, who fought behind enemy lines in Burma and Indonesia.\nFor his achievements in training OSS personnel, Fairbairn eventually rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel by the end of the war, and received the U.S. Legion of Merit (Officer grade) at the specific request of OSS-founder \"Wild Bill\" Donovan.\nAfter joining the SMP, he studied boxing, wrestling, savate, Shin no Shinto ryu jujutsu (Yoshin ryu) from Okada-sensei , Kodokan judo in which he gained 2nd degrees black belt, and then Chinese martial arts. He developed his own fighting system—Defendu—and taught it to members of that police force in order to reduce officer fatalities. He described this system as primarily based on his personal experience, which according to police records included some 600 non-training fights, by his retirement at age 55 from the position of Assistant Commissioner in 1940.\nIn 1951, he went to Cyprus to train police and in 1952 (and 1956) Fairbairn provided training to the Singapore Police Force's Riot Squad unit, which is now Police Tactical Unit.\nTogether with Eric A. Sykes, Fairbairn developed innovative pistol shooting techniques and handgun specifications for the SMP which were later disseminated through their book \"Shooting to Live With the One-Hand Gun\" (1942), along with various other police innovations such as riot batons, armoured vests, and other equipment.\nHe is perhaps best known for designing the famous \"Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife\", or 'Commando' knife, a stilletto-style fighting dagger used by British Special Forces in the Second World War, and featured in his textbook \"Scientific Self-Defence\". Fairbairn also designed the lesser known Smatchet, and collaborated on the design of several other combat knife designs.","Jac Weller\nJohn \"Jac\" Weller (January 6, 1913 – August 18, 1994) was an American college football player, firearms expert and military historian. He was a consensus All-American in 1935 at the guard position. He played for Fritz Crisler's Princeton Tigers football team at Princeton University that went 25-1 during Weller's three years on the team. Weller later became known as a firearms expert and published several works on munitions and military history.\nWeller was born in Atlanta, Georgia and raised in Jacksonville, Florida. He attended preparatory school at The Hun School before enrolling at Princeton University. At Princeton, Weller was a star lineman for Fritz Crisler's Princeton Tigers football championship teams of the mid-1930s. Crisler began the practice of having players wear numbers on their jerseys while Weller was a student, and Crisler assigned the number 99 to his best player—Jack Weller. During Weller's three seasons at Princeton, the football team compiled a record of 25 wins against a single loss. The only loss was a 7-0 loss to rival Yale in 1934. In 1935, Princeton had a perfect record of 9-0, and Weller was recognized as a consensus All-American at the guard position. Weller later recalled, \"We had one of the finest bunch of football players ever to come to Princeton...in four years, no major opponent ever scored more than one touchdown on us.\"\nAfter graduating, Weller settled in Princeton, New Jersey, where he operated a real estate and insurance business. Weller maintained a lifelong interest in firearms and was an honorary curator of the West Point Museum in the 1960s. In 1962, he conducted new ballistics tests that established that Italian anarchist Nicola Sacco was guilty, and Bartolomeo Venzetti not guilty of the 1920 murders for which both were convicted. He was also the author of several books on military weapons and tactics. His published works include:\nWeller was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954. Weller was also one of the initial inductees into The Hun School's Athletic Hall of Fame.\nWeller died in 1994 in Princeton at age 81. He left his military books, photograph albums, notes, and offprints to the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University Library.\n\n","Francis Harvey\nMajor Francis John William Harvey, VC (29 April 1873 – 31 May 1916) was an officer of the British Royal Marine Light Infantry during the First World War. Harvey was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to British and Commonwealth forces, for his actions at the height of the Battle of Jutland. A long serving Royal Marine officer descended of a military family, during his career Harvey became a specialist in naval artillery, serving on many large warships as gunnery training officer and gun commander. Specially requested for HMS \"Lion\" , the flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet, Harvey fought at the battles of Heligoland Bight, Dogger Bank and Jutland.\nAt Jutland, Harvey, although mortally wounded by German shellfire, ordered the magazine of Q turret on the battlecruiser \"Lion\" to be flooded. This action prevented the tons of cordite stored there from catastrophically detonating in an explosion that would have destroyed the vessel and all aboard her. Although he succumbed to his injuries seconds later, his dying act may have saved over a thousand lives and prompted Winston Churchill to later comment: \"In the long, rough, glorious history of the Royal Marines there is no name and no deed which in its character and consequences ranks above this\".\nHarvey was born in Upper Sydenham, Kent, the son of Commander John William Francis Harvey, RN and Elizabeth Edwards Lavington Harvey \"née\" Penny. At age 11 in 1884, Harvey moved with his family to Southsea and he attended Portsmouth Grammar School, achieving excellent academic results and showing proficiency in languages and debating. Harvey was descended from a military family; his great-great-grandfather John Harvey had been killed in the Glorious First of June in 1794 and his great-grandfather Admiral Sir Edward Harvey, GCB, RN and grandfather Captain John Harvey of the 9th Regiment of Foot were also prominent military figures.\nAfter leaving school, Harvey chose a military career and was accepted by both the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and the Royal Naval College, Greenwich for officer training. Choosing the latter school as a Royal Marines officer cadet, Harvey graduated in 1892 and the following year was made a full lieutenant, joining HMS \"Wildfire\" for his first seagoing commission. After just a year at sea, Harvey was back on shore attending gunnery courses at HMS \"Excellent\" , qualifying in 1896 as an instructor first class in naval gunnery. Harvey was appointed to the cruiser HMS \"Phaeton\" when she was commissioned at Devonport on 8 June 1897 for service on the Pacific Station. In 1898, whilst on the \"Phaëton\", he was reprimanded by the Admiralty for an unfavourable report he released on San Diego Harbour. Returning home the same year, Harvey was given the position of Assistant Instructor for Gunnery at Plymouth Division. During this period, Harvey married Ethel Edye and had one son, John.\nBetween 1898 and 1904 Harvey spent much of his time attached to the Channel Fleet, aboard HMS \"Edgar\" and HMS \"Diadem\" , practising and instructing in gunnery. On 28 January 1900 he was promoted to captain. In 1903 he was posted aboard HMS \"Royal Sovereign\" , the first of a string of big ship appointments teaching gunnery to the heavy units of the Channel Fleet. By 1909, Harvey had served on HMS \"Duke of Edinburgh\" , HMS \"St George\" and the new battlecruiser HMS \"Inflexible\" . In 1910 Harvey became Instructor of Gunnery at Chatham Dockyard and the following year was promoted to major, a report on the gunnery school commenting \"Degree of efficiency in Gunnery Establishment at Chatham is very high both as regards general training and attention to detail. Great credit is due all concerned particularly to Major F.J.W. Harvey, the I of G\".\nThe strength of this report subsequently gained Harvey a position as senior marine officer aboard HMS \"Lion\" , the 27,000 ton flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet. \"Lion\" had eight 13.5-inch guns and Harvey was stationed in an office under Q turret directing their operation and fire. Under her new commander, Rear-Admiral David Beatty, Harvey served as the senior marine officer on board into the First World War, his first military campaign.\nHarvey did not have to wait long to see action, seeing combat for the first time at the Battle of Heligoland Bight just weeks into the war. On 28 August 1914, \"Lion\" and her squadron of and HMS \"Princess Royal\" , swept into the Heligoland Bight where German and British cruiser forces were already engaged in a bitter struggle. One German cruiser had already been sunk by the time Beatty's force arrived, but the German flagship SMS \"Cöln\" and cruiser were surprised in the fog and destroyed by heavy calibre shells from Beatty's battlecruisers. German Konteradmiral Leberecht Maass and over 1,000 of his sailors were killed, Harvey's guns scoring several hits on the cruisers.\nSix months later, Harvey's guns again caused severe damage to a German force at the Battle of Dogger Bank. Over the previous months, a German battlecruiser squadron under Rear-Admiral Hipper had crossed the North Sea and bombarded British coastal towns on several occasions. On 24 January 1915 another attempt was made, but this time British signals analysts had detected the German movement and using this information the Admiralty dispatched Beatty's force to intercept and destroy them. Beatty and Hipper's squadrons collided at 09:00 and during the engagement that followed, \"Lion\" was left exposed by mis-communication between the ships, which led to HMS \"Tiger\" engaging the wrong ship, leaving uncovered and so able to fire more accurately. The British flagship was hard pressed until one of \"Lion\"' s shots penetrated one of \"Seydlitz\" ' s turrets. A huge explosion destroyed the neighbouring turret as well and killed 160 men, the German flagship only surviving due to the actions of sailor Wilhelm Heidkamp, who wrenched open the water valves to the magazines despite them glowing red hot.\n\"Lion\" was badly damaged in the action by shells from the passing and with her engines failing, dropped back to engage the already sinking . Misread signals resulted in the rest of the British fleet returning to support \"Lion\" in this task, allowing the rest of the battered German fleet to retire as the British destroyed the hapless \"Blücher\" and 792 of her crew. Following the battle, Harvey remained aboard \"Lion\" at Rosyth for the whole of 1915 and the first five months of 1916, continuing his gunnery training and preparations for major fleet action. His preparations came to fruition on the last day of May, when the British fleet sailed to engage the main body of the German High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland.\nJust after Dogger Bank, Harvey had written to a fellow RMLI officer in HMS \"Orion\" describing his experiences:\nBeatty's battlecruisers led the British fleet in its attack, casting south into the North Sea to find the enemy during the afternoon of 31 May 1916. At 14:15, scouting cruisers spotted the German vanguard and Beatty closed to attack the enemy with his main force. Given time to prepare, Hipper was ready for Beatty with his battlecruisers in line to face Beatty's approaching ships with their full broadsides. Hipper was also encouraged by the main German battleship fleet under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer, which was steaming northwards close behind him. At 15:45 Beatty came within range of the German fleet and the vanguards engaged one another with their opening fusillades. As the two squadrons closed, the Germans found the range better and faster than the British, who were silhouetted against the sun. As a result, German shells pounded the British ships while the German ships remained untouched for the first 10 minutes of the engagement. During this stage of the battle \"Lion\" was hit by nine shells from . One shell at 16:00 struck the right upper corner of the left hand gun port at the junction of the face plate and the roof, and punched a piece of the 9-inch face plate into the turret before detonating, blowing off the armoured roof of the turret and starting a fire, which a damage control party working from outside the turret fought to put out.\nThe initial explosion killed or wounded everyone stationed in the gun house itself. Harvey, despite severe wounds and burns, realised that the shell hoist leading to the ship's main forward magazine was jammed open. With the hatch open, the flash fire would rapidly travel down to the main magazine resulting in an explosion that would tear the ship in two and kill everyone on board. Staggering across the wreckage of the turret, Harvey gave orders down the voice pipe for the magazine doors to be closed and the magazine compartments to be flooded, an action which would prevent the cordite in the magazines detonating. Turning to his sergeant, the one man still standing, Harvey instructed him to proceed to the bridge and give a full report to the ship's captain Ernle Chatfield (a standard drill in damage exercises). Seconds later, Harvey collapsed and died from his wounds. The sergeant went immediately to the bridge and notified the captain of Harvey's actions before being taken below to have his wounds dressed.\nAs soon as the turret had been hit the captain had ordered Q magazine doors closed and the magazine flooded, the order passing to the Transmitting Station below the armoured deck where Stoker 1st Class William Yeo was entrusted with passing the order on. The magazine was consequently flooded and locked up within minutes of the hit. However the cordite charges which had fallen down from gun house after the hit were not removed to safety, and there were still ready charges in the working chamber. A large number of crewmen still remained in the shell room, magazine handing room and working chamber. The fire which was thought to have been put out after the hit on the turret gained strength and ignited the remaining cordite charges, setting off a large explosion at 16:28 which killed the turret crewmen, the flame of the explosion reaching as high as the top of the ship's masts. Even with the precautions taken in hand, the magazine doors were later found to be severely buckled – only the seawater in the magazine behind it prevented the blast reaching inside. Other ships of the battlecruiser fleet were less lucky; at about the same time as Harvey's death, HMS \"Indefatigable\" was torn to pieces by a series of magazine explosions that claimed 1,013 lives and just minutes after that HMS \"Queen Mary\" exploded \"like a puffball\" in one huge column of grey smoke, killing 1,275 sailors. Hours later during the main battlefleet engagement, Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's flagship HMS \"Invincible\" was destroyed with 1,032 lives. All three ships were lost as the result of magazine explosions similar to the one narrowly avoided on \"Lion\".\nHarvey's charred corpse was taken from the wreckage of Q turret in the aftermath of battle and buried at sea with full honours alongside the other 98 fatal casualties \"Lion\" had suffered. His bravery in the face of certain death did not go unnoticed; he was mentioned by name in Admiral Jellicoe's post-battle dispatch and he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. Harvey's widow Ethel was presented with the award at Buckingham Palace by King George V on 15 September 1916. His medal group was later loaned to the Royal Marines Museum, Eastney Barracks by his son Lieutenant-Colonel John Malcolm Harvey of the King's Regiment in 1973. Harvey's name is inscribed on the Chatham Naval Memorial to those with no known grave, administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.","Deal, Kent\nDeal is a town in <a href=\"Kent\">Kent</a>, <a href=\"England\">England</a> which lies on the <a href=\"English%20Channel\">English Channel</a>, eight miles north-east of <a href=\"Dover%2C%20England\">Dover</a> and eight miles south of <a href=\"Ramsgate\">Ramsgate</a>. It is a former fishing, mining and garrison town. Close to Deal is <a href=\"Walmer\">Walmer</a>, a possible location for <a href=\"Julius%20Caesar\">Julius Caesar</a>'s <a href=\"Caesar%27s%20invasions%20of%20Britain\">first arrival</a> in <a href=\"Great%20Britain\">Britain</a>.\nDeal became a 'limb port' of the <a href=\"Cinque%20Ports\">Cinque Ports</a> in 1278 and grew into the busiest <a href=\"port\">port</a> in England; today it is a <a href=\"seaside%20resort\">seaside resort</a>, its quaint streets and houses are a reminder of its history along with many ancient buildings and monuments. In 1968, Middle Street was the first <a href=\"Conservation%20Area%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\">Conservation Area</a> in Kent. The coast of <a href=\"France\">France</a> is approximately twenty-five miles from the town and is visible on clear days. The <a href=\"Tudor%20architecture\">Tudor</a> <a href=\"Deal%20Castle\">Deal Castle</a>, commissioned by King <a href=\"Henry%20VIII%20of%20England\">Henry VIII</a>, has a <a href=\"rose\">rose</a> floor plan.\nDeal is first mentioned as a village in the <a href=\"Domesday%20Book\">Domesday Book</a> of 1086, where it appears as \"Addelam\". It is referred to as \"Dela\" in 1158, and \"Dale\" in 1275. The name is the <a href=\"Old%20English\">Old English</a> \"dael\" meaning 'valley', cognate with the modern English 'dale'. Deal developed into a port by the end of the 13th century. <a href=\"Sandown%20Castle%2C%20Kent\">Sandown</a>, <a href=\"Deal%20Castle\">Deal</a> and <a href=\"Walmer%20Castle\">Walmer</a> castles were constructed around the town by <a href=\"Henry%20VIII%20of%20England\">Henry VIII</a> to protect against foreign naval attack. In 1861 a Royal Marines Depot was established in the town.\nThe proximity of Deal's shoreline to the notorious <a href=\"Goodwin%20Sands\">Goodwin Sands</a> has made its coastal waters a source of both shelter and danger through the history of sea travel in British waters. <a href=\"The%20Downs\">The Downs</a>, the water between the town and the sands, provides a naturally sheltered <a href=\"anchor\">anchor</a>age. This meant that, despite the absence of a <a href=\"harbour\">harbour</a>, the town became a significant port (both for merchant ships and for the Royal Navy) with transit of goods and people from ship to shore conducted using smaller <a href=\"Ship%27s%20tender\">tender</a> craft. Deal was, for example, visited by <a href=\"Horatio%20Nelson%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Nelson\">Nelson</a> and was the first English soil on which James Cook set foot in 1771 on returning from his <a href=\"First%20voyage%20of%20James%20Cook\">first voyage to Australia</a>. The anchorage is still used today by international and regional <a href=\"shipping\">shipping</a>, though on a scale far smaller than in former times (some historical accounts report hundreds of ships being visible from the beach).\nIn 1672, a small Naval Yard was established at Deal, providing stores and minor repair facilities. On the site of the yard there is now a building originally used as a <a href=\"Semaphore%20line\">semaphore tower</a> linked to London, and later used as a coastguard house, then as a <a href=\"Deal%20Timeball\">timeball tower</a>, which remains today as a museum of time and communication.\nThe Deal Maritime and Local History Museum is housed in an historic complex of light-industrial buildings in St George's Road, dating from 1803. It contains a series of displays and artefacts, narrating the town's maritime, industrial, domestic and leisure history.\nBy the time Dickens came to Deal it had been largely forgotten how the government of 1784, under Prime Minister <a href=\"William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger\">William Pitt the Younger</a>, ensured that the Deal boats were all set ablaze, suspecting some of the Deal <a href=\"lugger\">lugger</a>s of being engaged in smuggling. Pitt had awaited an opportunity that January, when the boats were all 'hoved up' on the beach on account of bad weather, to send a regiment of soldiers to smash and burn them. A naval <a href=\"Cutter%20%28ship%29\">cutter</a> was positioned offshore to prevent any of the boatmen escaping.\nThe boatmen's ancestors had the right, under charter, freely to import goods in return for their services as <a href=\"Cinque%20Ports\">Cinque Port</a> men in providing what had been long recognised as the sole naval defence of the realm. These men continued to risk their lives and their boats, in saving the lives of shipwreck victims. The irrepressible spirit of the Deal boatmen remained undaunted by these events throughout the <a href=\"Napoleonic%20Wars\">Napoleonic Wars</a>, and they continued to assert their hard-earned right to trade. From these activities news of the events unfolding in France would reach England quickly and regularly, with about 400 men making a living off Deal beach at that time. The war only made the boatmen’s efforts more profitable, so that afterwards the Government immediately turned a part of its naval <a href=\"blockade\">blockade</a> into a coastal blockade, which lasted from 1818 to 1831.\nA Naval storehouse was built in Deal in 1672, providing for ships anchored in the Downs. In time, the establishment grew to cover some five acres of land, to the north of the castle. There was also a <a href=\"Victualling%20Yard\">Victualling Yard</a> on site. In contrast to other <a href=\"Royal%20Navy%20Dockyard\">naval yards</a>, there was no place for ships to dock alongside at Deal, so instead a number of small supply boats were maintained at the yard; these would be launched from the shingle beach, carrying supplies, provisions, personnel or equipment as required. The Yard closed in 1864.\nThe <a href=\"Royal%20Marine%20Depot%2C%20Deal\">Royal Marines Depot, Deal</a> were constructed shortly after the outbreak of the <a href=\"French%20Revolution\">French Revolution</a>. They originally consisted of adjacent cavalry and infantry barracks (later known as South Barracks), alongside which were separate hospitals for the Army and Navy. In due course the hospitals were also turned into barracks (known as North Barracks and East Barracks respectively). From 1861 the complex served as a sizeable Depot for the Royal Marines; latterly it was known in particular for the Royal Marines School of Music, which had moved there in 1930.\nThe seafront at Deal has been adorned with three separate <a href=\"pier\">pier</a>s in the town's history. The first, built in 1838, was designed by <a href=\"John%20Rennie%20%28railway%20engineer%29\">Sir John Rennie</a>. After its wooden structure was destroyed in an 1857 gale, it was replaced by an iron pier in 1864. A popular pleasure pier, it survived until the <a href=\"Second%20World%20War\">Second World War</a>, when it was struck and severely damaged by a mined Dutch ship, the \"Nora\", in January 1940. This was not the first time the pier had been hit by shipping, with previous impacts in 1873 and 1884 necessitating extensive repairs.\nThe present pier, designed by Sir W. Halcrow & Partners, was opened on 19 November 1957 by the <a href=\"Prince%20Philip%2C%20Duke%20of%20Edinburgh\">Duke of Edinburgh</a>. Constructed predominantly from <a href=\"concrete\">concrete</a>-clad <a href=\"steel\">steel</a>, it is 1026 ft (311 m) in length (a notice announces that it is the same length as the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS \"Titanic\"</a>, but that ship was just 882 feet in length), and ends in a three-tiered pier-head, featuring a cafe, bar, lounge, and fishing decks. The lowest of the three tiers is underwater at all but the lowest part of the tidal range, and has become disused. The pier is a popular <a href=\"sport%20fishing\">sport fishing</a> venue.\nDeal's current pier is the last remaining fully intact leisure pier in <a href=\"Kent\">Kent</a> and is a Grade II listed building. Its structure was extensively refurbished and repaired in 1997, with work including the replacement of much of the concrete cladding on the pier's main piles. Work began in April 2008 to construct a new pier-head with a modern restaurant, with the restaurant opened in December 2008.\nDeal has several museums; all are related to Deal's maritime history. Both Deal Castle and <a href=\"Walmer%20Castle\">Walmer Castle</a> are operated by English Heritage - Deal has a display on the events in the reign of Henry VIII that led to the invasion threat which caused its construction, along with some material on its subsequent history, whereas displays at Walmer concentrate on Walmer's post-Tudor role as the Lord Warden's residence. There is also a ruin of the third Tudor castle, <a href=\"Sandown%20Castle%2C%20Kent\">Sandown Castle</a>, in North Deal. The Deal Maritime and Local History Museum has exhibits of boats, smuggler <a href=\"galley\">galley</a>s and <a href=\"model%20ship\">model naval ships</a>. It also contains extensive histories of the lifeboats as well as local parish registers. The <a href=\"Deal%20Timeball\">Timeball Tower Museum</a>, on the other hand, focuses on the importance of timekeeping for ships, and the role the building it occupies played.\nDiarist <a href=\"Samuel%20Pepys\">Samuel Pepys</a> recorded several visits to the town, being moved on 30 April 1660 to describe it as \"pitiful\".\nDeal was notorious in the 17th century as a location for smugglers, and <a href=\"Daniel%20Defoe\">Daniel Defoe</a> wrote of the town:\n<a href=\"William%20Cobbett\">William Cobbett</a> passing through in September 1823 noted in his book <a href=\"Rural%20Rides\">Rural Rides</a>:\nDickens, who had visited the town, had Richard Carstone garrisoned here in \"<a href=\"Bleak%20House\">Bleak House</a>\", so that Woodcourt and Esther's paths can cross when Woodcourt's ship happens to anchor in the Downs at the same time as Esther and Charley are visiting Richard:\nDeal is the setting for local novelist George Chittenden's smuggling saga, which is set in the late 18th century when the town was a haven for criminal gangs smuggling contraband across the English Channel. In Chittenden's debut \"The Boy Who Led Them\" a child rises through the ranks to control the biggest smuggling gang on the Kent coast, fighting wars with rival gangs and revenue men at every turn.\nIn Chittenden's next book \"The Boy Who Felt No Pain\" he takes the reader on a journey back to the dangerous coastal town of Deal, fleshing out the back story of main characters from the first novel whilst also raising some interesting new questions.\nIn <a href=\"Jane%20Austen\">Jane Austen</a>'s \"<a href=\"Persuasion%20%28novel%29\">Persuasion</a>\", the town is mentioned as the only place where Admiral Croft's wife Sophia Croft was ever ill, as it was the only place she was ever separated from him, whilst he was patrolling the <a href=\"North%20Sea\">North Sea</a>.\nDeal has one paid for newspaper, the \"<a href=\"East%20Kent%20Mercury%20and%20Dover%20Mercury\">East Kent Mercury</a>\", published by the <a href=\"KM%20Group\">KM Group</a>.\nThe local radio station for Deal is <a href=\"KMFM%20Shepway%20and%20White%20Cliffs%20Country\">KMFM Shepway and White Cliffs Country</a>. Deal is also served by the county-wide stations <a href=\"Heart%20Kent\">Heart</a>, <a href=\"Gold%20%28radio%29\">Gold</a> and <a href=\"BBC%20Radio%20Kent\">BBC Radio Kent</a>. Deal Community Radio is an online radio station with music, interviews and information on upcoming activities at The Astor Community Theatre along with the latest news from around Kent.\nDeal has a <a href=\"Non-League%20football\">Non-League football</a> club <a href=\"Deal%20Town%20F.C.\">Deal Town F.C.</a>, which plays at The Charles Sports Ground.\nThe Rugby Club, Deal & Betteshanger Lions plays at the old RM Drill Field off Canada Rd.\nThere is a Farmer’s Market on Wednesday which sells local produce, as well as a long-running market on Saturday.\nThe town has an independent retail sector in the North End of Deal High Street, and a number of chains on the High Street, though there are some retail voids.\nThe Astor Theatre in Deal offers musical performances, live theatre, exhibitions, movies, classes and clubs, and more.\nDeal, used to have two cinemas up until 1981, but these finally closed in the 1984 with the closure of the Cannon Classic in Queen Street and although a small cinema re-appeared in the former Cannon Classic Cinema building, that too closed in 2007. Deal's former bingo hall the Regent another art deco cinema building closed in 2008 and has been sold by the local council to reopen as a branch of Silver Screen Cinemas. As of January 2013, the building remains shuttered.\nComedian <a href=\"Norman%20Wisdom\">Norman Wisdom</a>, writers <a href=\"Sean%20Gabb\">Sean Gabb</a>, <a href=\"William%20Horwood%20%28novelist%29\">William Horwood</a> and <a href=\"Simon%20Raven\">Simon Raven</a>, television presenter <a href=\"Karl%20Pilkington\">Karl Pilkington</a> , composer <a href=\"John%20Ireland%20%28composer%29\">John Ireland</a>, jazz musician <a href=\"Dick%20Morrissey\">Dick Morrissey</a>, and actors <a href=\"Charles%20Hawtrey%20%28actor%20born%201914%29\">Charles Hawtrey</a>, <a href=\"Geoff%20Bell%20%28actor%29\">Geoff Bell</a>, <a href=\"Neil%20Stuke\">Neil Stuke</a>, <a href=\"Richard%20Cant\">Richard Cant</a>, <a href=\"Bernard%20Hepton\">Bernard Hepton</a>, and <a href=\"Jack%20Scanlon\">Jack Scanlon</a> all lived or live in Deal. Notable people born in the town include <a href=\"James%20Arbuthnot\">James Arbuthnot</a>, <a href=\"John%20Hulke\">John Hulke</a>, <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Carter\">Elizabeth Carter</a>, <a href=\"John%20Stanton%20Fleming%20Morrison\">John Stanton Fleming Morrison</a>, and <a href=\"Bruce%20Montague\">Bruce Montague</a>, playwright <a href=\"Gregory%20Motton\">Gregory Motton</a>.\nThe nearest UK <a href=\"Met%20Office\">Met Office</a> weather station is in Langdon Bay. Deal has a temperate maritime climate, with comfortable summers and cold winters. The temperature is usually between 3 C and 21.1 C , but the all-time temperature range is between -8 C and 31 C . There is evidence that the sea is coldest in February; the warmest recorded February temperature was only 13 C , compared with 16 C in January.","USS De Haven (DD-727)\nUSS \"De Haven\" (DD-727), an <a href=\"Allen%20M.%20Sumner-class%20destroyer\">\"Allen M. Sumner\"-class</a> <a href=\"destroyer\">destroyer</a> , was the second ship of the <a href=\"United%20States%20Navy\">United States Navy</a> to be named for <a href=\"Lieutenant\">Lieutenant</a> <a href=\"Edwin%20J.%20De%20Haven\">Edwin J. De Haven</a>. De Haven served aboard the <a href=\"USS%26%2332%3BVincennes%26%2332%3B%281826%29\">\"Vincennes\"</a> , flagship of the Wilkes Expedition, officially known as the <a href=\"United%20States%20Exploring%20Expedition%2C%201838-1842\">United States Exploring Expedition</a>, from 1839 to 1842. De Haven also served in the <a href=\"Mexican-American%20War\">Mexican-American War</a>, assisting in the capture of the Mexican schooner \"Creole\". He was placed on the retired list in February 1862. He died in Philadelphia on 1 May 1865.\n\"De Haven\" was <a href=\"Ship%20naming%20and%20launching\">launched</a> on 9 January 1944 by <a href=\"Bath%20Iron%20Works\">Bath Iron Works</a> Corp., <a href=\"Bath%2C%20Maine\">Bath, Maine</a>, sponsored by Miss H. N. De Haven; and <a href=\"Ship%20commissioning\">commissioned</a> on 31 March 1944, <a href=\"Commander\">Commander</a> John B. Dimmick in command.\n\"De Haven\" escorted <a href=\"USS%26%2332%3BRanger%26%2332%3B%28CV-4%29\">\"Ranger\"</a> from Norfolk to <a href=\"Pearl%20Harbor\">Pearl Harbor</a>, arriving on 3 August 1944. She screened a convoy to <a href=\"Eniwetok\">Eniwetok</a> between 16 and 30 August, and returned to Eniwetok on 5 October. A week later, she got underway for <a href=\"Ulithi\">Ulithi</a> to join TF 38. Operating from this base, she screened the fast carriers striking <a href=\"Luzon\">Luzon</a> in support of the invasion of Leyte during November and December. In coordination with the invasion of <a href=\"Lingayen%20Gulf\">Lingayen Gulf</a>, Luzon, the force hit Formosa, Luzon, Camranh Bay, Hong Kong, <a href=\"Hainan\">Hainan</a>, and <a href=\"Okinawa\">Okinawa</a> in a score of strikes extending from 30 December 1944 to 26 January 1945.\nOn 10 February 1945, \"De Haven\" sortied from Ulithi with TF 58, to prepare for the invasion of <a href=\"Iwo%20Jima\">Iwo Jima</a>, striking the Japanese mainland as well as the Nansei Shoto, and then providing fire support for the invading troops. Returning to Ulithi on 4 March, she sailed 10 days later to screen air strikes on Kyushu, Japan, prior to the invasion of Okinawa. Until 13 June, she screened the carriers and gave fire support at Okinawa. On 1 July, she sailed from <a href=\"Leyte%20%28island%29\">Leyte</a> with TF 38 for the final air strikes and bombardments on the Japanese homeland which continued until the end of the war. Present in Tokyo Bay 2 September for the signing of the surrender, \"De Haven\" sailed on 20 September for the States, arriving at San Francisco on 15 October.\nBetween 1 February 1946 and 3 February 1947, \"De Haven\" served in the Western Pacific, joining the <a href=\"United%20States%20Seventh%20Fleet\">7th Fleet</a> in operations off the coast of China, and patrolling off the Japanese coast. She operated along the west coast through 1948 and 1949, and on 1 May 1950 cleared San Diego for another tour of duty in the western Pacific, arriving at <a href=\"United%20States%20Fleet%20Activities%20Yokosuka\">Yokosuka</a> the last day of May.\n<a href=\"North%20Korea\">North Korea</a> invaded <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a> on 25 June 1950, \"De Haven\" was assigned to patrol off the Korean coast. She screened the Norwegian ship \"Reinholt\" evacuating American dependents from <a href=\"Inchon\">Inchon</a> to Yokosuka; patrolled on the blockade; bombarded shore targets; acted as lifeguard and communications linking ship for air strikes against Pyongyang and Haeju; and provided call fire support for <a href=\"United%20Nations\">United Nations</a> troops.\nOn 13 and 14 September, she stood up a treacherous channel to anchor a scant 800 yards from Wolmi-do island and poured fire into the concealed gun emplacements in preparation for the assault on Inchon. \"De Haven\" provided gunfire support for the successful landings the following day, and for her part in this daring action was awarded the <a href=\"Navy%20Unit%20Commendation\">Navy Unit Commendation</a>.\nReturning to blockade duty on 25 September 1950, \"De Haven\" dispersed a North Korean force attempting to ambush a Korean Army unit; aided <a href=\"USS%26%2332%3BBrush%26%2332%3B%28DD-745%29\">\"Brush\"</a> and escorted her to <a href=\"Sasebo%2C%20Nagasaki\">Sasebo</a>; and provided fire support for a British Commando raid on 6 and 7 October. She cleared Yokosuka on 1 November for San Diego, arriving 18 November.\nDuring \"De Haven\"' s second tour of Korean duty from 18 June 1951 to 17 February 1952, she served primarily on blockade patrol. After an overhaul and local operations at San Diego, she sailed from Long Beach 16 September 1952 to serve as flagship for ships on patrol in the <a href=\"Chongjin\">Chongjin</a>-<a href=\"Songjin\">Songjin</a>-Chaho area until 18 November. After patrol duty with TF 77, she returned to Korean waters for duty with TF 95 on patrol off <a href=\"Wonsan\">Wonsan</a> Harbor, supporting the minesweeping operations there from 12 to 18 February. She got underway from Sasebo 22 March for Long Beach, arriving on 9 April.\nAccording to declassified documents obtained by the <a href=\"Associated%20Press\">Associated Press</a>, U.S. commanders repeatedly ordered refugees from <a href=\"South%20Korea\">South Korea</a> shot. While the most famous example of this policy remains the <a href=\"No%20Gun%20Ri%20Massacre\">No Gun Ri Massacre</a>, another incident, on 1 September 1950, has been confirmed by the declassified official diary of De Haven. It states that the Navy destroyer, at Army insistence, fired on a seaside refugee encampment at <a href=\"Pohang\">Pohang</a>, South Korea. Survivors say 100 to 200 people were killed.\n\"De Haven\" continued to alternate duty in the western Pacific with local operations along the west coast, making six voyages to the Far East from 1953 through 1959. \"De Haven\" participated in Operation Hardtack I near Eniwetok Island during the summer of 1958, witnessing approximately 22 nuclear detonations, one from only three nautical miles. She was also one of the US Navy vessels that ran the Chinese naval blockade on Quemoy-Matsu. On 1 February 1960, she began a major overhaul for modernization at San Francisco, completed in September. \"De Haven\" returned to training activities through the remaining months of 1960.\n\"De Haven\" was the namesake of the <a href=\"DESOTO%20patrol\">DESOTO patrol</a>s (DEHAVEN Special Operations off TsingtaO). It conducted the first patrol from 14 April 1962 to 20 April 1962 in the area focused around the <a href=\"Tsingtao\">Tsingtao</a> area of the <a href=\"Yellow%20Sea\">Yellow Sea</a>. The ship was instructed not to approach any Chinese-Communist-held territory, including offshore islands closer than 10 miles.\nThese patrols were a response to Chinese Communist’s unexpected re-definition of their territorial waters to include all waters shoreward from lines drawn tangentially to, and between, twelve mile circles drawn around their offshore islands. Such a declaration represented a huge expansion of their claims. This inhibited the lawful navigation of international waters and increased the likelihood and frequency of formal diplomatic \"serious warnings\" issued by <a href=\"Beijing\">Beijing</a> when any Seventh Fleet units navigated through these areas. This became a situation to which Commander Seventh Fleet felt compelled to respond.\nThere were three components to the purpose of these patrols. First, they would establish and maintain the presence of the <a href=\"U.S.%20Seventh%20Fleet\">U.S. Seventh Fleet</a> in the international waters off the China coast and later the Vietnamese coast. Second, they would serve as a minor Cold War irritant to the Chinese Communists. Third, they would collect as much intelligence as possible during the patrols.\nThis first DESOTO patrol was highly effective in evoking Chinese Communist reaction. For example, \"De Haven\" was shadowed by three or more <a href=\"Chicom\">Chicom</a> vessels at one time, jamming of \"De Haven\"' s communications facilities occurred and the use of deceptive pennant numbers on the shadowing vessels all contributed to the success of the intelligence effort on this mission. Furthermore, the Chicoms issued three \"serious warnings\" to \"De Haven\" for violation of territorial rights during the 7 days the mission was in progress in international waters. The eight subsequent patrols did not collect nearly as much intelligence as the first.\nThese patrols were conducted in later years by other ships. These patrols and other factors eventually led to international incidents with other ships resulting in the <a href=\"Gulf%20of%20Tonkin%20incident\">Gulf of Tonkin incident</a> and the <a href=\"Pueblo%20incident\">Pueblo incident</a>.\n\"De Haven\" was transferred to the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Korea%20Navy\">Republic of Korea Navy</a> on 5 December 1973, and renamed \"Incheon\", after the Korean city of <a href=\"Incheon\">Incheon</a>. It was first designated DD-98, and then DD-918. The ship was stricken and broken up for scrap in 1993.\n\"De Haven\" received five <a href=\"battle%20star\">battle star</a>s for her service in World War II. In Korea, she received another six stars and a Navy Unit Commendation. \"De Haven\" received <a href=\"Armed%20Forces%20Expeditionary%20Medal\">Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal</a>s for service relating to Vietnam in 1962, 1963 and 1964 as well as <a href=\"Vietnam%20Service%20Medal\">Vietnam Service Medal</a>s during every year from 1965 to 1971. <a href=\"Combat%20Action%20Ribbon\">Combat Action Ribbon</a>s were awarded for service 25 August 1967, 6–7 September 1967 and 13 September 1967. A Navy Unit Commendation was awarded to \"De Haven\" and her crew for service 15 June 1966 to 20 August 1968.","Bickleigh, South Hams\nBickleigh is a small village on the southern edge of <a href=\"Dartmoor\">Dartmoor</a> in <a href=\"Devon\">Devon</a>, England. It has a population of about 50 people. It is in the <a href=\"South%20Hams\">South Hams</a> district, and is about 7 mi north of <a href=\"Plymouth\">Plymouth</a> city centre. The village is part of the <a href=\"electoral%20ward\">electoral ward</a> called \"Bickleigh\" and Shaugh. At the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20Census%202011\">2011 census</a> the ward population was 4,723\n<a href=\"42%20Commando\">42 Commando</a> is currently based at <a href=\"Bickleigh%20Barracks\">Bickleigh Barracks</a>.\nThe village church has a tower of the 15th century but the rest of the building is the work of <a href=\"Charles%20Fowler\">Charles Fowler</a>, 1838, and one of the church's two <a href=\"baptismal%20font\">baptismal font</a>s is 15th century. There is a fine monument to Sir <a href=\"Manasseh%20Masseh%20Lopes\">Manasseh Masseh Lopes</a> of <a href=\"Maristow%20House\">Maristow House</a>.\n"],"string":"[\n \"41 Commando\\n41 Commando or No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando was a unit of the Royal Marines trained as Commandos during the Second World War. They were part of the all Royal Marine 4th Special Service Brigade that took part in the Normandy landings in June 1944 and later that served in World War II, the Korean War, and in Northern Ireland. They were disbanded in 1981.\\nThe early British Commando units in the Second World War were all from the British Army but by February 1942, the Royal Marines were asked to organise Commando units of their own, and 6,000 men volunteered.\\n'B' (RM) Commando was raised at Pembroke Dock on 7 October 1942, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel P W O'H.Phibbs, from the men of the 8th Royal Marine Battalion. It was the second Royal Marine commando battalion formed after its sister 'A' (RM) Commando. Both commandos were based on the Isle of Wight and soon after the commando was renamed No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando. It fought with the Special Service Brigade in the Allied invasion of Sicily and later during the Salerno landings, where they suffered heavy casualties including two second-in-command's and most of the Troop Commanders. The Unit's Chaplain, the Revd John Wallis RN, was awarded the DSC for \\\"outstanding courage and devotion to duty shown ... in tending the wounded and bringing in casualties under heavy fire from the Enemy\\\". The Medical Officer, Surg Lt Ernest Davies was also awarded the DSC for bravery and devotion to the wounded. The Unit returned to the United Kingdom in January 1944, in preparation for the Normandy landings. It was part of the 4th Special Service Brigade and landed at Normandy on 6 June 1944, D-Day, and then took part in the capture of Douvres Radar Station on 17 June. It later took part in the battle of the Scheldt in November 1944. It then served on the Maas River for the remainder of the war and then occupation duties in Germany. On 20 January 1946 the commando was disbanded.\\nDuring the Korean War 41 Commando was reconstituted as 41 (Independent) Commando following a request from the United Nations Command for more amphibious raiding forces. The \\\"Independent\\\" designation meant that their commander had sole responsibility for their unit and did not have to consult with higher headquarters on operational and logistical matters. On 16 August 1950 219 Royal Marine volunteers were assembled in Bickleigh then the Commando School. They were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Douglas B. Drysdale DSO, MBE an experienced World War II Commando veteran who was the Chief Instructor at the Royal Marines Officer school.\\nThe Commandos travelled to Japan in civilian clothes, with most of the civilian clothing issued by the Admiralty. The unit received more volunteers en route from 3 Commando Brigade involved in the Malayan Emergency. Arriving in Japan on 15 September 1950, the Commandos were issued American winter uniforms and weapons but retained their green berets, battle dress and boots. The first mission of the unit was in October where the Commandos embarked on two American high speed transports the USS Horace A. Bass (APD-124) and USS Wantuck (APD-125) supported by the destroyer USS De Haven (DD-727), where they executed a series of raids on the North Korean coast near Wonsan to disrupt North Korean transportation facilities.\\nOn 10 November 1950, 41 (Independent) Commando joined the United Nations advance in North Korea where they served with the United States Marine Corps; the second time the two organisations had served together, the first being the Boxer Rebellion. During the Battle of Chosin Reservoir Lt. Col. Drysdale was given command of a 900-man unit of his own Commando, American, and South Korean forces called Task Force Drysdale. Their hard fighting together with the American Marines and Army led to 41 Independent Commando being awarded the American Presidential Unit Citation that the 1st Marine Division earned. However it was not awarded until 1957.\\nThe Commando reformed in Japan and in April 1951 were assigned to what eventually became the 1st Commonwealth Division. They raided the North Korean coast with the Republic of Korea Marine Corps until 41 Commando returned to England in December 1951; those who had served less than a year in the commando were drafted into 42 Commando operating in Malaya. They were disbanded on 2 February 1952, the Commando having 31 Marines killed and 17 captured with one Royal Marine choosing to stay in North Korea, who returned to the UK in 1960.\\nIn 1960 41 Commando was reformed as part of the United Kingdom's Strategic Reserve. The Commando served in various places throughout the world. These included East Africa in 1964, while in 1969 they were the first R.M.Commando to participate in operations in Northern Ireland.\\nIn 1971 they were stationed in Malta, and in 1974 together with 40 Commando they took part in United Nations operation in Cyprus following the Turkish invasion. In 1977 they left Malta and in 1979 carried out public duties in London. In 1981, then based at Deal, Kent they were disbanded again.\\nThe following Battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos during the Second World War.\\nNotes\\nBibliography\\n\",\n \"Eric A. Sykes\\nEric Anthony Sykes (5 February 1883–12 May 1945), born Eric Anthony Schwabe in Barton-upon-Irwell, Eccles, Greater Manchester, England, was a soldier and firearms expert. He is most famous for his work with William E. Fairbairn in the development of the eponymous Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife and modern British Close Quarters Battle (CQB) martial arts during World War II. Originally working for an import/export company selling weapons in East Asia, he claimed he volunteered for and served in the British Army as a sharpshooter on the Western Front during World War I. Returning to China in 1917, he joined the volunteer branch of the Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) Specials with the rank of Inspector in 1926.\\nSykes was born Eric Anthony Schwabe in Barton on Irwell, the son of Lawrence Schwabe a Manchester born letter press printer and Octavie his German wife from Cologne, Germany. By 1891 the family had moved south to Bromley in Kent near to Sevenoaks where his father worked as a cotton trader. He grew up at No. 40 Marlowes, Hemel Hempstead and by 1901 was working as a clerk for the county council. The reasons for his name change in 1917 were said to be because he found it \\\"too Germanic\\\". A shikari hunter, he was an avid rifleman and an expert with the pistol. He first arrived in Shanghai in 1907 while working for Reiss & Co. He met Fairbairn in 1919, then with the Shanghai Municipal Police, beginning their famous professional association. In 1923 Sykes was working for the China & Japan Trading Co, China representative for Remington and Colt. It was not until 1926 that Sykes officially joined the SMP as an unpaid, part-time volunteer officer in the reserve, and in 1929 he joined S.J. David & Co., where he worked until his departure from China in 1940.\\nWhile working for S.J. David & Co., his experience in sharpshooting and his personal friendship with Fairbairn led him to form and oversee a team of civilian and police snipers for the SMP. He became the head of this unit in 1937, working part-time in this capacity until he resigned this position in 1939. Also in 1939 he joined the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS - MI6), where he worked with SIS at the Special Training Centre in Lochailort, Scotland. In 1940, Fairbairn resigned from the Shanghai Municipal Police and returned to Britain, with Sykes following. The pair had apparently planned this, since they shipped crates full of illegal weapons from lax Shanghai into Britain on their boat.\\nFairbairn and Sykes were both commissioned as second lieutenants on the British Army, General List on 15 July 1940.\\nAfter training special forces units throughout 1940, the two were finally commissioned into the British Army on the General List of 1941. Their 1942 book \\\"Shooting to Live\\\", published in 1942, is considered by many to be the classic text of pistol combat, and one of the best codifications of the high-stress point shooting method. Nevertheless, this was the last time the pair worked together in any capacity; by mid-1942 the pair's friendship had split, with Sykes claiming that Fairbairn treated him as an inferior. Soon thereafter, Fairbairn travelled to Canada to teach armed and unarmed combat to commandos and covert agents of the Americas at Camp X. Sykes stayed in Great Britain, training Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents at the various Special Training Centres before being assigned to train the joint UK/US Jedburgh teams at Milton Hall.\\nRelinquishing his commission in the rank of Captain due to disability on 6 April 1945 he was allowed to retain the honorary rank of Major.\\nHe died at Bexhill-on-Sea, England on 12 May 1945.\\nWhile teaching at Camp X, Sykes reputedly ended every self-defence lecture with his trademark phrase \\\"and then, kick him in the testicles\\\" as this method ensures that regardless of the effectiveness of the given tactic used, the assailant would be at least moderately incapacitated.\",\n \"Gerald Robert Poole\\nLieutenant-General Gerald Robert Poole CB CMG DSO (1868-1937) was a heavy artillery commander during the First World War with the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Garrison Artillery. He was Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marine Artillery in 1921-22, and during this period also served as Marine ADC to King George V.\\nGerald Poole was born on 17 January 1868 at Clifton He was educated at Bedford Modern School where his father, Reverend Canon Robert Burton Poole became headmaster. From school he went to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and then proceeded to the Royal Marine Artillery as a probationary Lieutenant.\\nPoole served as a gunnery officer on-board a number of Royal Navy ships including; HMS \\\"Imperious\\\" (Mediterranean and Vancouver Island 1894-99), HMS \\\"Irresistible\\\" (Mediterranean 1902-04), HMS \\\"Victory\\\" (Scapa Flow, 1912) and HMS \\\"Inflexible\\\" (Mediterranean 1912-14). He was promoted to Captain in 1896 and Major in 1908. From 1906-12 he was seconded to the Canadian Government as a gunnery instructor and commanded No. 3 (Heavy) Battery of the Royal Canadian Artillery.\\nIn 1915 Poole was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and appointed Commander of the Royal Marine Howitzer Brigade in France. From May 1916 he took command of the 26th Heavy Artillery Battery of the Royal Garrison Artillery although he maintained administrative command of the Royal Marine Brigade for the duration of the War. On occasions he would incorporate the Marine howitzers within the RGA battery, for example at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917. He was mentioned three times in the Despatches of the Commander in Chief of the BEF during the War and was appointed CMG in 1917 and awarded the DSO in 1918.\\nPoole was appointed Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marine Artillery at Eastney in 1921, and ADC to the King in the same year. He was promoted to Major-General in 1922 and also appointed CB. He was made Lieutenant-General in 1924 and retired in 1925\\nOn retirement he settled on Vancouver with his Canadian wife Gertrude; they had one son and one daughter. Poole was a keen musician and had served as Superintendent of the Royal Navy School of Music. He was also a fine horseman and became a proficient backwoodsman during his time in Canada. Gerald Poole died on 20 October 1937 in Vancouver.\",\n \"Julian Hatcher\\nJulian Sommerville Hatcher (June 26, 1888 – December 4, 1963), was a U.S. Army major general, noted firearms expert and author of the early twentieth century. He is credited with several technical books and articles relating to military firearms, ballistics, and autoloading weapons. His premier works are \\\"Hatcher's Notebook\\\" and \\\"Book of the Garand\\\", along with \\\"Pistols and Revolvers and Their Use\\\"s and \\\"Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers\\\". In the latter work he introduced the Hatcher Scale, probably the first attempt to determine the stopping power of a handgun round by a formula. He was also a pioneer in the forensic identification of firearms and their ammunition. Hatcher retired from the United States Army as a Major General. Afterward, he served as Technical Editor of the National Rifle Association's \\\"American Rifleman\\\" magazine.\\nHatcher was born in Hayfield, Virginia and graduated with honors from Annapolis in 1909 [he voluntarily transferred from the Navy to the Army's coast artillery]. He married Eleanor Dashiell and together, they had three children. Chief of the Small Arms Division in the Ordnance Department and the Assistant Commandant of the Ordnance School before and at the beginning of World War II, he worked closely with Springfield Armory as an engineering trouble-shooter in resolving early production issues associated with the early iterations of the M1 Garand Rifle.\\nIn 1916, the Hotchkiss M1909 Benet-Mercie machine gun was in general use with the U.S. Army and was seeing action during the Punitive Expedition against the bandit Pancho Villa. Reports of its use in Mexico indicated the gun was not functioning properly. Investigation revealed that the chief problems were the 30-round metallic feed strips used in the gun and inexperienced gunners. It was Lieutenant Hatcher who was sent to the border to solve the problems. He found that none of the soldiers had been taught the proper use of the weapon. He set up the Army's first machine gun school and was soon turning out trained crews. Soon, the Benet-Mercie proved to be an effective weapon.\\nHatcher was later instrumental in developing a solution to the vexing problem of brittle metal in early M1903 receivers built by Springfield and Rock Island Arsenals. His solution to the \\\"grenading\\\" of receivers when shell cases failed catastrophically was to drill a gas vent hole in the left side of the receiver adjacent to the breech. This hole would allow gases escaping from a ruptured case to be exhausted safely and away from the face of the shooter. Dubbed the \\\"Hatcher Hole\\\", the modification was typically added to receivers at overhaul.\\nReferences are to Ray Riling, \\\"Guns and Shooting, a Bibliography,\\\" New York: Greenberg, 1951.\",\n \"Royal Marine Depot, Deal\\nThe Royal Marine Depot, Deal (also called the Royal Marine Depot, Walmer) was a military installation occupied by the Royal Marines and located at in South Deal on the road to Walmer.\\nThe South barracks, which opened in 1795 shortly after the outbreak of the French Revolution, originally consisted of the officers' accommodation with clock and cupola flanked by separate infantry barracks and cavalry barracks. The buildings are said to be \\\"one of the most complete late 18th century barracks in the country\\\". The 15th Light Dragoons were accommodated there from 1792 to 1815 - a convenient base during the Napoleonic wars. Part of the South barracks was used from 1815 as the quarters for the 'blockade men', drafted against a threat of local smuggling. The South barracks became a coastguard station thereafter, and this duty continued until 1840. Thereafter they accommodated various Line Infantry regiments until 1861 when the Royal Marines arrived. The barracks, which were converted to residential apartments in the early 21st century, are now known as the \\\"Cavalry Barracks\\\".\\nThe East barracks, which also opened in 1795, was originally a Naval hospital but had to be rebuilt in 1812 after the original structure was destroyed by lightning. The East barracks subsequently accommodated the Royal Marines School of Music which relocated there in 1930. The East barracks were converted into private housing in 1997 and are now known as \\\"Admiralty Mews\\\".\\nThe North barracks, which opened in 1797, was originally an Army hospital, one of the first military hospitals in the United Kingdom. Little survives today beyond a number of houses built to accommodate officers or surgeons. This area is now known as \\\"The Churchills\\\".\\nThe Infirmary barracks were built in 1900 on a former drill field; they closed in 1988 and the barracks were demolished to make way for a private housing development now known as \\\"Marine Mews\\\".\\nOn 29 October 1940, during the Second World War, the Royal Marines Depot was attacked from the air. The Battle of Britain campaign diary records: \\\"Army Stations 29 October 1940, Deal: At 1640 hours, three HE bombs were dropped in the barracks, the casualties being 1 Officer and 7 other ranks killed, 6 Officers and 6 other ranks wounded.\\\"\\nAt approximately 8:20 am on 22 September 1989, the Royal Marines School of Music was bombed by the IRA, resulting in the deaths of 11 musicians, and injuries to 22 other marines. A memorial garden, built in remembrance of the men that died, is situated in the grounds of the East barracks where the bomb went off.\\nThe depot was largely withdrawn from service in 1991 although the Royal Marines School of Music remained on site in the East barracks until 1996. In 2005, the Old Gymnasium in the South barracks was renovated and it won the Building Renovation category in the Kent Design Awards.\",\n \"Modern technique (shooting)\\nThe modern technique (abbreviation of modern technique of the pistol) is a method for using a handgun for self-defense, originated by firearms expert Jeff Cooper. The modern technique uses a two-handed grip on the pistol and brings the weapon to eye level so that the sights may be used to aim at the target. This method was developed by Cooper into a teachable system beginning in the 1950s, based on the techniques of shooters like Jack Weaver and others, after experiments with older techniques such as point shooting. The method was codified in book form in 1991 in \\\"The Modern Technique of the Pistol\\\" by Gregory B. Morrison and Cooper.\\nIn 1956, following a career in the US Marine Corps where he served in World War II and the Korean War, and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel, Jeff Cooper started holding Leatherslap shooting events and established the Bear Valley Gunslingers at Big Bear Lake, California. The initial events consisted of straight quick-draw matches, determining who could draw and hit a target at seven yards the fastest. They were the first matches of their kind, unrestricted as to technique, weapon, caliber, holster, or profession.\\nInitially, competitors primarily used some form of point shooting, a single-handed technique with the pistol fired from the hip, that was popular and believed to be the best-suited to the purpose. However, shooters would often discharge several rounds from the hip in rapid succession, but miss the 18-inch balloons seven yards away. One of the early champions, Jack Weaver, switched to an eye-level, two-handed, aimed technique. In his words, \\\"a pretty quick hit was better than a lightning-fast miss.\\\"\\nWeaver's string of victories, resulting from his new method, influenced adoption of the technique and abandonment of point shooting. Soon, firearms trainers, most notably Cooper, began refining and codifying the concept; the result became the modern technique.\\nOver several years, the Bear Valley Gunslingers evolved into the South Western Combat Pistol League (SWCPL; known officially as the Southwest Pistol League (SWPL) as the word \\\"combat\\\" offended then California Secretary of State, Frank M. Jordan). Their objective was to inject realism into pistol-shooting competition, thus developing the best methods of using a pistol for self-defense. The later competitions held at Big Bear were designed to represent actual and projected real-life situations, including shootings that some of the police officers attending the SWCPL had experienced. Six competitors consistently dominated the competitions, and these men became known as the Combat Masters: Jack Weaver, Ray Chapman, Elden Carl, Thell Reed, John Plähn, and Jeff Cooper.\\nThe Combat Masters were given this title because, if they all competed, they would take the first six places, and if only one of them competed, ordinarily, he would be the winner. These competitions included highly accomplished world-class point shooters, such as Reed and Bob Munden (later known as the \\\"world's fastest gun\\\"), who competed using what would become the modern technique. Weaver is credited with originating the new two-handed Weaver Stance, Carl and Chapman refined it in competition, Plähn codified it, and Cooper publicized the new technique. Plähn, who possessed a PhD in physical education, filmed the Combat Masters in action to analyze what their winning techniques had in common. The most efficient movements were selected and integrated into the modern technique.\\nOthers significant in the SWCPL included Leonard Knight (finished second in the first IPSC U.S. National Championship in 1977), Al Nichols, Jim Hoag, Bruce Nelson (designer of the \\\"Summer Special\\\" holster and an LEO in Southern California working in narcotics; present at the formation of IPSC and formed the Holster Committee), Michael Harries (former US Marine, who invented the Harries Technique of flashlight manipulation for use with a pistol, as well as becoming an instructor at Gunsite and consultant to police departments and the movie industry.), and Jim Zubiena (appeared in the episode \\\"Calderone's Return Part 1\\\" of the TV series, \\\"Miami Vice\\\", a good example of the employment of the modern technique and the Mozambique Drill in entertainment).\\nCooper recognized several advances in pistolcraft prior to the modern technique:\\nThe modern technique comprises four central elements: an appropriately powerful weapon, and an effective way to hold it, aim it, and fire it. Cooper summarized the requirement and intended outcome in three Latin words:\\nCooper's personal motto, expressed as \\\"DVC,\\\" and the phrase \\\"front sight/press,\\\" are the main takeaways for students of the modern technique.\\nThe modern technique may be used with any handgun, but the .45 ACP caliber Colt M1911 semi-automatic pistol is universally associated with Jeff Cooper and the technique.\\nJeff Cooper specified the use of a large caliber semi-automatic pistol as a component of the modern technique. He chose a large caliber because experience demonstrated that the largest quantity of force, and therefore damage, should be inflicted to maximize the chances of stopping even the most motivated and physically tough assailant.\\nThe choice of magazine-fed semi-automatic handgun was because this firearm enabled continuous fire by allowing fresh magazines to be inserted quickly by the shooter. Most revolvers must be reloaded one cartridge at a time, which is a slower process than the replacement of a magazine in a semi-automatic pistol. Furthermore, reloading a revolver in the dark is very difficult, while reloading a semi-automatic pistol is relatively easy. During World War II (prior to developing the modern technique), after taking advice from a distinguished authority on gun fighting, Charles Askins, Jeff Cooper took a Colt Single Action Army revolver into combat in the Pacific theater and subsequently remarked that this advice nearly got him killed.\\nBullet wounds vary in how much they incapacitate an assailant. The greater the injury inflicted, the greater the chance of killing one's assailant or wounding him so badly he is no longer able to fight. According to Cooper, larger caliber bullets, being bullets of greater diameter, are more likely to inflict wounds that bleed severely and incapacitate the assailant in a shorter period of time. Jeff Cooper's studies of reports from gun fights pointed to the greater effectiveness of larger diameter bullets in killing or incapacitating an assailant.\\nPistols are not practical platforms for the launching of large projectiles because their small size, relative to rifles, decreases their capacity to absorb the force of recoil, increasing the proportion transmitted into the user's body. At calibers larger than .45 or .50, the negative impact on a shooter's control generally outweighs the benefits of a larger projectile. Hence Jeff Cooper's preference for a pistol launching a bullet of .45 diameter, or in the case of a shooter of such slight stature that they are unable to use a .45 caliber pistol, the use of a pistol firing a bullet of as large a diameter as is practical for the shooter to control.\\nThe ability of different types and sizes of bullet to damage and incapacitate human beings and other creatures is called \\\"stopping power.\\\" Stopping power is a controversial subject because of the absence of data from controlled experiments and therefore a lack of scientific data that would demonstrate the superiority of one particular type of cartridge over another.\\nThe Weaver stance consists of two components. The first is gripping the pistol with two hands so that the slight forward pressure on the grip of the hand that drew the pistol is opposed by a rearward pressure on the grip of the second hand. This action aids in controlling the recoil of the pistol to stabilize the pistol for subsequent shots.\\nThe second component, and most commonly known, is the positioning of the feet in a walking stance, with the off-side foot ahead of the strong-side foot. A right-handed person will have the right foot angled out to the side and further to the rear. Most of the weight will be on the left foot, with the knee slightly bent. The shoulders will be leaned forward over the left toe. The right foot behind will help catch the force of recoil, as well as allow for rapid changes in position.\\nA left-handed person will have the right foot forward.\\nThe Flash Sight Picture is a method of allowing the cognitive faculties of the shooter to align the target and the sights without the delay involved in the conscious alignment of sights, as used when slow-firing a rifle at a distant target. In point shooting, by contrast, the pistol is drawn from the holster and fired from the hip, without the sights being aligned at all.\\nIn slow-fire rifle shooting, the front sight and rear sight of the rifle are aligned with the distant target with great care, taking at least several seconds.\\nThe Flash Sight Picture technique falls between these two methods. During a gunfight, waiting to align the sights is too slow. However, more accuracy than point shooting is required to hit one's assailant reliably. It is physically impossible for the human eye to focus simultaneously on the rear sight (nearest to one's eye), the front sight (farther away from one's eye), and the relatively distant target at the same time. The muscles of the eye adjust to focus sight on one specific distance optimally at any one instant, so 3 different distances mean the shooter's focus must hunt (muscular physical adjustments) between all three points of mental concentration. The greatest adjustment of focus (relatively more ocular muscle contraction) is required to view shorter distances, such as the gun's rear sight. In the modern technique, the shooter is taught to focus on the front sight of the pistol and align it against the target, ignoring the rear sight for quicker aiming and minimal physical requirements. This prevents the focus of the eye from hunting between rear sight, front sight and target, wasting vital time in refocusing.\\nThe technique is called 'flash' sight picture because the cognition is best able to perform this function when the target and front sight are presented quickly as a single image, in a 'flash', as if the shooter had just turned around to face a threat appearing from close by. The shooter's vision can \\\"see\\\" the rear sight, even if the focus is on the front sight. This is enough for the cognition to make an alignment. With the flash sight picture, the front sight and a rapidly presented image of the target are used to align the pistol. This is faster than slow-fire rifle, and offers more chance of hitting the target than point shooting from the hip.\\nThe cognitive functions of the brain align objects in the hand with distant objects at great speed. This ability of human cognition can be used to align the pistol with the target. Colonel Cooper discovered this specific ability and named it the \\\"Flash Sight Picture\\\".\\nHuman cognition can perceive a \\\"Flash Sight Picture\\\" at a speed faster than conscious awareness. This facility was discovered during World War II experiments with rapid recognition of aircraft silhouettes. Experimentation was continued after the war and branched into subliminal advertising in the 1960s, where images were flashed onto cinema screens for a duration too short for the viewer to notice, yet for cognition to have observed the image nonetheless.\\nUse of the Flash Sight Picture requires a rapid acquisition of the front sight in order to allow the brain to perform its calculations. This focus on the front sight is one of the main themes Colonel Cooper impressed upon students of the modern technique to clear their minds when shooting during a confrontation. The emphasis for students of the modern technique on the word \\\"front sight\\\" was so great, that a shooting school and a shooting magazine were named after this phrase.\\nHere the compressed, surprise break of the trigger is used to discharge the firearm.\\nIn this technique, one should pull the trigger to have the shot break as if it were a glass rod. When the compression of the trigger by the finger reaches an appropriate point, the 'glass rod' of the trigger will break and discharge the firearm. The 'surprise break' of the 'glass rod' means the pistol remains aligned on the target while the muscles in the shooter's hand adjust from merely gripping the pistol to depressing the trigger at the same time. This disturbance in the muscles of the hand, while it attempts to move the trigger backwards while still holding the pistol steady, can cause the alignment of the firearm to shift, causing the shot to miss the target. The gradual compression of the trigger by the hand muscles means the alignment may be observed by the eye during the process of compression and kept on the target, regardless of slight changes to the alignment introduced by the muscles of the hand starting to squeeze the trigger.\\nThis process must take place as fast as possible, yet without disturbing the pistol.\\nDuring training in the modern technique Cooper emphasized that readiness was everything.\\nCooper asserted that if the individual weren't prepared to encounter danger at all times, the technique used and the pistol selected were of no consequence. To underscore this point and give students a reference with which to evaluate their own behavior, Cooper developed a color code of readiness, consisting of four states of readiness:\\nCooper's color code is frequently mistaken as an indicator of danger, rather than an indicator of readiness. The color code was developed as a mental crutch to get over the resistance of using deadly force (it is not a warning system). The student may be in grave danger, but may be asleep and thus his level of readiness is 'Condition White' with readiness being unaware. For most individuals, even those whose occupations take them to dangerous regions, awareness condition Yellow will be the condition they spend 99% of their waking lives within. Specific threats, leading to readiness in Condition Orange (specific alert) would be rare. Condition Red (fight) is even more rare.\\nThis color code of readiness has been adopted by third parties, including the US Marine Corps.\\nTo promote situational awareness, Cooper endorsed what is known as the \\\"Dollar Club\\\" – Gunsite \\\"family members\\\" were expected to be members. When two members of the Dollar Club met, the one who saw and recognized the other first could claim a dollar from the less-aware member. Cooper also stated that any family member who got a traffic ticket should pay it, because a properly aware driver should see police cars in time to avoid citation.\\nCooper requested his students report back to him if they had been involved in gunfights, so that he might build up a body of reference material against which the modern technique could be evaluated and altered or extended. This body of reference material was built over 50 years, encompassing nearly 40 gunfights. The reports drawn from the experience of those involved in gunfights continued the tradition of reflecting real situations in the courses of competition set up for the South Western Combat Pistol League.\\nTo further refine the modern technique and the methods used in its training, Cooper continued to compile reports of gunfights from students of the technique until his death, building the largest collection of data of its kind. As a result of analyzing this body of material, Cooper developed several training drills:\\nJeff Cooper described the Mozambique Drill as such in his \\\"Commentaries\\\":\\nI added The Mozambique Drill to the modern doctrine after hearing of an experience of a student of mine up in Mozambique when that country was abandoned. My friend was involved in the fighting that took place around the airport of Lourenço Marques. At one point, Mike turned a corner and was confronted by a terrorist carrying an AK47. The man was walking toward him at from perhaps 10 paces. Mike, who was a good shot, came up with his P-35 and planted two satisfactory hits, one on each side of the wishbone. He expected his adversary to drop, but nothing happened, and the man continued to close the range. At this point, our boy quite sensibly opted to go for the head and tried to do so, but he was a little bit upset by this time and mashed slightly on the trigger, catching the terrorist precisely between the collar bones and severing his spinal cord. This stopped the fight.\\nThe effect of a bullet striking the human body depends greatly on which organ is struck during penetration. In some instances, the assailant might drop quickly; in others, there might be no apparent effect. A bullet striking the brain kills the assailant almost without exception. Recognizing that similar situations would occur, Cooper popularized the term \\\"Mozambique Drill\\\" based on the technique improvised by his student there. This drill consists of shooting two rounds to the center of the torso, followed by a pause and assessment of the situation and then a more carefully aimed shot to the head, specifically, in the triangle formed between the eyes and the base of the nose. The \\\"head shot\\\" is required to enter this \\\"fatal triangle\\\" because any other shot in the head with a handgun runs a higher chance of being non-debilitating because of striking thicker cranial bones or the teeth. Under nearly any condition, engaging an assailant with the Mozambique Drill should offer a high probability that one's assailant will be stopped and likely killed.\\n'El Presidente' drill was invented by Cooper while training the protection squad for the president of a South American country. The drill consists of three targets. The shooter starts by facing away from the targets. On the signal to start, the shooter turns and shoots each target twice, before reloading and shooting each target twice again. The shooter's performance is scored by taking account of both the number of hits and the time taken to achieve those hits.\\nA further example of the expansion of the modern technique was the invention of the 'Dozier Drill'. This drill was invented by Cooper after the kidnapping of US Army Brigadier General James L. Dozier by Italian Red Brigade terrorists. The terrorists had entered General Dozier's apartment by posing as plumbers. As many as eight completed the gang and four or perhaps five entered the apartment. One of the terrorists removed a submachine gun from his bag of tools while another terrorist read a political statement to General Dozier. At that time, U.S. military personnel were prohibited by Italian law from carrying firearms within their areas of accommodation, which were within the local community and not on U.S. bases. General Dozier was unarmed and unable to defend himself. In response to this incident, Cooper designed the 'Dozier drill':\\nThe range is set with five metal silhouette targets hinged at their base (called 'Pepper Poppers') so as to fall backward when struck. A second participant stands far to one side and is tasked with retrieving a pistol and a magazine from a tool bag, which he must assemble and ready for action. This action mimics the terrorist who retrieved his submachine gun from his tool bag and provides a datum against which the shooter must compare his performance. On the signal, the shooter must draw his pistol and engage the five targets representing the terrorists, before the terrorist retrieves his pistol and readies it for use.\\nIn May 1976 Jeff Cooper was present at the conference that founded the International Practical Shooting Confederation\\n(IPSC) and served as the first IPSC president. According to Jim Wilson and Jeff Cooper, the IPSC initially reflected a practical emphasis on self-defense but in subsequent decades IPSC became more focused on pistol shooting games and lost its original focus.\\nJeff Cooper went on to codify and promulgate the modern technique in his work after the Big Bear Leatherslaps. He traveled the world providing training in the technique to security teams protecting heads of state, prominent politicians and wealthy individuals. In 1976 Jeff Cooper founded the American Pistol Institute (API) at Gunsite Ranch just north of Paulden in Yavapai County, Arizona, to provide training in the technique to a larger audience of military personnel, law enforcement officers and citizens. The American Pistol Institute was renamed Gunsite.\\nCritics of the modern technique and its components point out that some elements of the technique existed before Jeff Cooper codified them. For example, there are a few photographs of shooters predating World War II showing shooters using the Weaver stance. Jeff Cooper claims that while individual shooters such as these may have used individual components of what would become the modern technique, what did not happen until the advent of the modern technique was the testing of different techniques, the determination of the most advantageous techniques by comparison in realistic simulations, and the codification of the assembled techniques into a doctrine. Contrasting this are texts such as \\\"Kill or Get Killed\\\" by Col. Rex Applegate that describe the flash sight picture and Weaver stance (though not using those terms) and the accuracy of the shooters compared to those trained in other methods.\\nGradually, some people working with firearms, such as close protection teams and special forces units of Russia and Belarus, moved toward adopting doctrines and formal training regimes. Frequently, the doctrines adopted largely contain elements of the modern technique (such as the Weaver stance) or use the technique in its entirety.\",\n \"Robert Jobson\\nRobert Jobson is a newspaper correspondent, broadcaster and author. He is co-author of \\\"\\\" written with Princess Diana’s police protection officer Inspector Ken Wharfe MVO. He is also the co-author of \\\"Bulletproof\\\", the life story of Royal Marine and George Cross recipient Matt Croucher GC. He has written several non-fiction books on royalty, including \\\"The Future Royal Family\\\" (2015). He has reported on the British Royal Family since 1991 as royal correspondent for UK national newspapers including the \\\"Daily Express\\\", \\\"The Sun\\\" and \\\"London Evening Standard\\\". He was the recipient of the London Press Club \\\"Scoop of the Year\\\" award for his world exclusive that Prince Charles and Camilla Parker-Bowles were to wed in 2005. Jobson is Royal Editor for Australia's 7 network top-rated breakfast show Sunrise. He is also royal commentator for US network ABC News. He is Royal Consultant for Mark Schwahn's originally scripted series \\\"The Royals\\\" for E! starring British actresses Elizabeth Hurley and Dame Joan Collins and played cameo roles as himself in series 1, 2 and 3.\",\n \"William E. Fairbairn\\nWilliam Ewart Fairbairn ( ; 28 February 1885 – 20 June 1960) was a British Royal Marine and police officer. He developed hand-to-hand combat methods for the Shanghai Police during the interwar period, as well as for the allied special forces during World War II. He created his own fighting system known as Defendu. Notably, this included innovative pistol shooting techniques and the development of the Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife.\\nThe television series \\\"Secrets of War\\\" suggested him as a possible inspiration for Q branch in James Bond.\\nFairbairn served with the Royal Marine Light Infantry starting in 1901, and joined the Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) in 1907. He served in one of the red light districts. During his service with the International Police in Shanghai, Fairbairn reportedly engaged in hundreds of street fights in the course of his duties over a twenty-year career, where he organised and headed a special anti-riot squad. Much of his body, arms, legs, torso, even the palms of his hands, were covered with scars from knife wounds from those fights. Fairbairn later created, organised, and trained a special anti-riot squad for the Shanghai police force. He also developed numerous firearms training courses and police equipment, including a special metal-lined bulletproof vest designed to stop high-velocity bullets from the 7.63x25mm Mauser pistol.\\nDuring World War II, he was recruited by the British Secret Service as an Army officer, where he was given the nickname \\\"Dangerous Dan\\\". Together with fellow close-combat instructor Eric Sykes, Fairbairn was commissioned on the General List in 1941. Fairbairn and Sykes were both commissioned as second lieutenants on 15 July 1940. He trained British, American and Canadian Commando and No. 2 Dutch Troop 10th Inter-Allied Commando forces, along with Ranger candidates in close-combat, pistol-shooting and knife-fighting techniques. Fairbairn emphasised the necessity of forgetting any idea of gentlemanly conduct or fighting fair: \\\"Get tough, get down in the gutter, win at all costs... I teach what is called ‘Gutter Fighting.’ There’s no fair play, no rules except one: \\\"kill or be killed\\\",” he declared. One of his pupils was Raymond Westerling, who fought behind enemy lines in Burma and Indonesia.\\nFor his achievements in training OSS personnel, Fairbairn eventually rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel by the end of the war, and received the U.S. Legion of Merit (Officer grade) at the specific request of OSS-founder \\\"Wild Bill\\\" Donovan.\\nAfter joining the SMP, he studied boxing, wrestling, savate, Shin no Shinto ryu jujutsu (Yoshin ryu) from Okada-sensei , Kodokan judo in which he gained 2nd degrees black belt, and then Chinese martial arts. He developed his own fighting system—Defendu—and taught it to members of that police force in order to reduce officer fatalities. He described this system as primarily based on his personal experience, which according to police records included some 600 non-training fights, by his retirement at age 55 from the position of Assistant Commissioner in 1940.\\nIn 1951, he went to Cyprus to train police and in 1952 (and 1956) Fairbairn provided training to the Singapore Police Force's Riot Squad unit, which is now Police Tactical Unit.\\nTogether with Eric A. Sykes, Fairbairn developed innovative pistol shooting techniques and handgun specifications for the SMP which were later disseminated through their book \\\"Shooting to Live With the One-Hand Gun\\\" (1942), along with various other police innovations such as riot batons, armoured vests, and other equipment.\\nHe is perhaps best known for designing the famous \\\"Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife\\\", or 'Commando' knife, a stilletto-style fighting dagger used by British Special Forces in the Second World War, and featured in his textbook \\\"Scientific Self-Defence\\\". Fairbairn also designed the lesser known Smatchet, and collaborated on the design of several other combat knife designs.\",\n \"Jac Weller\\nJohn \\\"Jac\\\" Weller (January 6, 1913 – August 18, 1994) was an American college football player, firearms expert and military historian. He was a consensus All-American in 1935 at the guard position. He played for Fritz Crisler's Princeton Tigers football team at Princeton University that went 25-1 during Weller's three years on the team. Weller later became known as a firearms expert and published several works on munitions and military history.\\nWeller was born in Atlanta, Georgia and raised in Jacksonville, Florida. He attended preparatory school at The Hun School before enrolling at Princeton University. At Princeton, Weller was a star lineman for Fritz Crisler's Princeton Tigers football championship teams of the mid-1930s. Crisler began the practice of having players wear numbers on their jerseys while Weller was a student, and Crisler assigned the number 99 to his best player—Jack Weller. During Weller's three seasons at Princeton, the football team compiled a record of 25 wins against a single loss. The only loss was a 7-0 loss to rival Yale in 1934. In 1935, Princeton had a perfect record of 9-0, and Weller was recognized as a consensus All-American at the guard position. Weller later recalled, \\\"We had one of the finest bunch of football players ever to come to Princeton...in four years, no major opponent ever scored more than one touchdown on us.\\\"\\nAfter graduating, Weller settled in Princeton, New Jersey, where he operated a real estate and insurance business. Weller maintained a lifelong interest in firearms and was an honorary curator of the West Point Museum in the 1960s. In 1962, he conducted new ballistics tests that established that Italian anarchist Nicola Sacco was guilty, and Bartolomeo Venzetti not guilty of the 1920 murders for which both were convicted. He was also the author of several books on military weapons and tactics. His published works include:\\nWeller was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954. Weller was also one of the initial inductees into The Hun School's Athletic Hall of Fame.\\nWeller died in 1994 in Princeton at age 81. He left his military books, photograph albums, notes, and offprints to the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University Library.\\n\\n\",\n \"Francis Harvey\\nMajor Francis John William Harvey, VC (29 April 1873 – 31 May 1916) was an officer of the British Royal Marine Light Infantry during the First World War. Harvey was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to British and Commonwealth forces, for his actions at the height of the Battle of Jutland. A long serving Royal Marine officer descended of a military family, during his career Harvey became a specialist in naval artillery, serving on many large warships as gunnery training officer and gun commander. Specially requested for HMS \\\"Lion\\\" , the flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet, Harvey fought at the battles of Heligoland Bight, Dogger Bank and Jutland.\\nAt Jutland, Harvey, although mortally wounded by German shellfire, ordered the magazine of Q turret on the battlecruiser \\\"Lion\\\" to be flooded. This action prevented the tons of cordite stored there from catastrophically detonating in an explosion that would have destroyed the vessel and all aboard her. Although he succumbed to his injuries seconds later, his dying act may have saved over a thousand lives and prompted Winston Churchill to later comment: \\\"In the long, rough, glorious history of the Royal Marines there is no name and no deed which in its character and consequences ranks above this\\\".\\nHarvey was born in Upper Sydenham, Kent, the son of Commander John William Francis Harvey, RN and Elizabeth Edwards Lavington Harvey \\\"née\\\" Penny. At age 11 in 1884, Harvey moved with his family to Southsea and he attended Portsmouth Grammar School, achieving excellent academic results and showing proficiency in languages and debating. Harvey was descended from a military family; his great-great-grandfather John Harvey had been killed in the Glorious First of June in 1794 and his great-grandfather Admiral Sir Edward Harvey, GCB, RN and grandfather Captain John Harvey of the 9th Regiment of Foot were also prominent military figures.\\nAfter leaving school, Harvey chose a military career and was accepted by both the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and the Royal Naval College, Greenwich for officer training. Choosing the latter school as a Royal Marines officer cadet, Harvey graduated in 1892 and the following year was made a full lieutenant, joining HMS \\\"Wildfire\\\" for his first seagoing commission. After just a year at sea, Harvey was back on shore attending gunnery courses at HMS \\\"Excellent\\\" , qualifying in 1896 as an instructor first class in naval gunnery. Harvey was appointed to the cruiser HMS \\\"Phaeton\\\" when she was commissioned at Devonport on 8 June 1897 for service on the Pacific Station. In 1898, whilst on the \\\"Phaëton\\\", he was reprimanded by the Admiralty for an unfavourable report he released on San Diego Harbour. Returning home the same year, Harvey was given the position of Assistant Instructor for Gunnery at Plymouth Division. During this period, Harvey married Ethel Edye and had one son, John.\\nBetween 1898 and 1904 Harvey spent much of his time attached to the Channel Fleet, aboard HMS \\\"Edgar\\\" and HMS \\\"Diadem\\\" , practising and instructing in gunnery. On 28 January 1900 he was promoted to captain. In 1903 he was posted aboard HMS \\\"Royal Sovereign\\\" , the first of a string of big ship appointments teaching gunnery to the heavy units of the Channel Fleet. By 1909, Harvey had served on HMS \\\"Duke of Edinburgh\\\" , HMS \\\"St George\\\" and the new battlecruiser HMS \\\"Inflexible\\\" . In 1910 Harvey became Instructor of Gunnery at Chatham Dockyard and the following year was promoted to major, a report on the gunnery school commenting \\\"Degree of efficiency in Gunnery Establishment at Chatham is very high both as regards general training and attention to detail. Great credit is due all concerned particularly to Major F.J.W. Harvey, the I of G\\\".\\nThe strength of this report subsequently gained Harvey a position as senior marine officer aboard HMS \\\"Lion\\\" , the 27,000 ton flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet. \\\"Lion\\\" had eight 13.5-inch guns and Harvey was stationed in an office under Q turret directing their operation and fire. Under her new commander, Rear-Admiral David Beatty, Harvey served as the senior marine officer on board into the First World War, his first military campaign.\\nHarvey did not have to wait long to see action, seeing combat for the first time at the Battle of Heligoland Bight just weeks into the war. On 28 August 1914, \\\"Lion\\\" and her squadron of and HMS \\\"Princess Royal\\\" , swept into the Heligoland Bight where German and British cruiser forces were already engaged in a bitter struggle. One German cruiser had already been sunk by the time Beatty's force arrived, but the German flagship SMS \\\"Cöln\\\" and cruiser were surprised in the fog and destroyed by heavy calibre shells from Beatty's battlecruisers. German Konteradmiral Leberecht Maass and over 1,000 of his sailors were killed, Harvey's guns scoring several hits on the cruisers.\\nSix months later, Harvey's guns again caused severe damage to a German force at the Battle of Dogger Bank. Over the previous months, a German battlecruiser squadron under Rear-Admiral Hipper had crossed the North Sea and bombarded British coastal towns on several occasions. On 24 January 1915 another attempt was made, but this time British signals analysts had detected the German movement and using this information the Admiralty dispatched Beatty's force to intercept and destroy them. Beatty and Hipper's squadrons collided at 09:00 and during the engagement that followed, \\\"Lion\\\" was left exposed by mis-communication between the ships, which led to HMS \\\"Tiger\\\" engaging the wrong ship, leaving uncovered and so able to fire more accurately. The British flagship was hard pressed until one of \\\"Lion\\\"' s shots penetrated one of \\\"Seydlitz\\\" ' s turrets. A huge explosion destroyed the neighbouring turret as well and killed 160 men, the German flagship only surviving due to the actions of sailor Wilhelm Heidkamp, who wrenched open the water valves to the magazines despite them glowing red hot.\\n\\\"Lion\\\" was badly damaged in the action by shells from the passing and with her engines failing, dropped back to engage the already sinking . Misread signals resulted in the rest of the British fleet returning to support \\\"Lion\\\" in this task, allowing the rest of the battered German fleet to retire as the British destroyed the hapless \\\"Blücher\\\" and 792 of her crew. Following the battle, Harvey remained aboard \\\"Lion\\\" at Rosyth for the whole of 1915 and the first five months of 1916, continuing his gunnery training and preparations for major fleet action. His preparations came to fruition on the last day of May, when the British fleet sailed to engage the main body of the German High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland.\\nJust after Dogger Bank, Harvey had written to a fellow RMLI officer in HMS \\\"Orion\\\" describing his experiences:\\nBeatty's battlecruisers led the British fleet in its attack, casting south into the North Sea to find the enemy during the afternoon of 31 May 1916. At 14:15, scouting cruisers spotted the German vanguard and Beatty closed to attack the enemy with his main force. Given time to prepare, Hipper was ready for Beatty with his battlecruisers in line to face Beatty's approaching ships with their full broadsides. Hipper was also encouraged by the main German battleship fleet under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer, which was steaming northwards close behind him. At 15:45 Beatty came within range of the German fleet and the vanguards engaged one another with their opening fusillades. As the two squadrons closed, the Germans found the range better and faster than the British, who were silhouetted against the sun. As a result, German shells pounded the British ships while the German ships remained untouched for the first 10 minutes of the engagement. During this stage of the battle \\\"Lion\\\" was hit by nine shells from . One shell at 16:00 struck the right upper corner of the left hand gun port at the junction of the face plate and the roof, and punched a piece of the 9-inch face plate into the turret before detonating, blowing off the armoured roof of the turret and starting a fire, which a damage control party working from outside the turret fought to put out.\\nThe initial explosion killed or wounded everyone stationed in the gun house itself. Harvey, despite severe wounds and burns, realised that the shell hoist leading to the ship's main forward magazine was jammed open. With the hatch open, the flash fire would rapidly travel down to the main magazine resulting in an explosion that would tear the ship in two and kill everyone on board. Staggering across the wreckage of the turret, Harvey gave orders down the voice pipe for the magazine doors to be closed and the magazine compartments to be flooded, an action which would prevent the cordite in the magazines detonating. Turning to his sergeant, the one man still standing, Harvey instructed him to proceed to the bridge and give a full report to the ship's captain Ernle Chatfield (a standard drill in damage exercises). Seconds later, Harvey collapsed and died from his wounds. The sergeant went immediately to the bridge and notified the captain of Harvey's actions before being taken below to have his wounds dressed.\\nAs soon as the turret had been hit the captain had ordered Q magazine doors closed and the magazine flooded, the order passing to the Transmitting Station below the armoured deck where Stoker 1st Class William Yeo was entrusted with passing the order on. The magazine was consequently flooded and locked up within minutes of the hit. However the cordite charges which had fallen down from gun house after the hit were not removed to safety, and there were still ready charges in the working chamber. A large number of crewmen still remained in the shell room, magazine handing room and working chamber. The fire which was thought to have been put out after the hit on the turret gained strength and ignited the remaining cordite charges, setting off a large explosion at 16:28 which killed the turret crewmen, the flame of the explosion reaching as high as the top of the ship's masts. Even with the precautions taken in hand, the magazine doors were later found to be severely buckled – only the seawater in the magazine behind it prevented the blast reaching inside. Other ships of the battlecruiser fleet were less lucky; at about the same time as Harvey's death, HMS \\\"Indefatigable\\\" was torn to pieces by a series of magazine explosions that claimed 1,013 lives and just minutes after that HMS \\\"Queen Mary\\\" exploded \\\"like a puffball\\\" in one huge column of grey smoke, killing 1,275 sailors. Hours later during the main battlefleet engagement, Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's flagship HMS \\\"Invincible\\\" was destroyed with 1,032 lives. All three ships were lost as the result of magazine explosions similar to the one narrowly avoided on \\\"Lion\\\".\\nHarvey's charred corpse was taken from the wreckage of Q turret in the aftermath of battle and buried at sea with full honours alongside the other 98 fatal casualties \\\"Lion\\\" had suffered. His bravery in the face of certain death did not go unnoticed; he was mentioned by name in Admiral Jellicoe's post-battle dispatch and he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. Harvey's widow Ethel was presented with the award at Buckingham Palace by King George V on 15 September 1916. His medal group was later loaned to the Royal Marines Museum, Eastney Barracks by his son Lieutenant-Colonel John Malcolm Harvey of the King's Regiment in 1973. Harvey's name is inscribed on the Chatham Naval Memorial to those with no known grave, administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.\",\n \"Deal, Kent\\nDeal is a town in <a href=\\\"Kent\\\">Kent</a>, <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a> which lies on the <a href=\\\"English%20Channel\\\">English Channel</a>, eight miles north-east of <a href=\\\"Dover%2C%20England\\\">Dover</a> and eight miles south of <a href=\\\"Ramsgate\\\">Ramsgate</a>. It is a former fishing, mining and garrison town. Close to Deal is <a href=\\\"Walmer\\\">Walmer</a>, a possible location for <a href=\\\"Julius%20Caesar\\\">Julius Caesar</a>'s <a href=\\\"Caesar%27s%20invasions%20of%20Britain\\\">first arrival</a> in <a href=\\\"Great%20Britain\\\">Britain</a>.\\nDeal became a 'limb port' of the <a href=\\\"Cinque%20Ports\\\">Cinque Ports</a> in 1278 and grew into the busiest <a href=\\\"port\\\">port</a> in England; today it is a <a href=\\\"seaside%20resort\\\">seaside resort</a>, its quaint streets and houses are a reminder of its history along with many ancient buildings and monuments. In 1968, Middle Street was the first <a href=\\\"Conservation%20Area%20%28United%20Kingdom%29\\\">Conservation Area</a> in Kent. The coast of <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a> is approximately twenty-five miles from the town and is visible on clear days. The <a href=\\\"Tudor%20architecture\\\">Tudor</a> <a href=\\\"Deal%20Castle\\\">Deal Castle</a>, commissioned by King <a href=\\\"Henry%20VIII%20of%20England\\\">Henry VIII</a>, has a <a href=\\\"rose\\\">rose</a> floor plan.\\nDeal is first mentioned as a village in the <a href=\\\"Domesday%20Book\\\">Domesday Book</a> of 1086, where it appears as \\\"Addelam\\\". It is referred to as \\\"Dela\\\" in 1158, and \\\"Dale\\\" in 1275. The name is the <a href=\\\"Old%20English\\\">Old English</a> \\\"dael\\\" meaning 'valley', cognate with the modern English 'dale'. Deal developed into a port by the end of the 13th century. <a href=\\\"Sandown%20Castle%2C%20Kent\\\">Sandown</a>, <a href=\\\"Deal%20Castle\\\">Deal</a> and <a href=\\\"Walmer%20Castle\\\">Walmer</a> castles were constructed around the town by <a href=\\\"Henry%20VIII%20of%20England\\\">Henry VIII</a> to protect against foreign naval attack. In 1861 a Royal Marines Depot was established in the town.\\nThe proximity of Deal's shoreline to the notorious <a href=\\\"Goodwin%20Sands\\\">Goodwin Sands</a> has made its coastal waters a source of both shelter and danger through the history of sea travel in British waters. <a href=\\\"The%20Downs\\\">The Downs</a>, the water between the town and the sands, provides a naturally sheltered <a href=\\\"anchor\\\">anchor</a>age. This meant that, despite the absence of a <a href=\\\"harbour\\\">harbour</a>, the town became a significant port (both for merchant ships and for the Royal Navy) with transit of goods and people from ship to shore conducted using smaller <a href=\\\"Ship%27s%20tender\\\">tender</a> craft. Deal was, for example, visited by <a href=\\\"Horatio%20Nelson%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Nelson\\\">Nelson</a> and was the first English soil on which James Cook set foot in 1771 on returning from his <a href=\\\"First%20voyage%20of%20James%20Cook\\\">first voyage to Australia</a>. The anchorage is still used today by international and regional <a href=\\\"shipping\\\">shipping</a>, though on a scale far smaller than in former times (some historical accounts report hundreds of ships being visible from the beach).\\nIn 1672, a small Naval Yard was established at Deal, providing stores and minor repair facilities. On the site of the yard there is now a building originally used as a <a href=\\\"Semaphore%20line\\\">semaphore tower</a> linked to London, and later used as a coastguard house, then as a <a href=\\\"Deal%20Timeball\\\">timeball tower</a>, which remains today as a museum of time and communication.\\nThe Deal Maritime and Local History Museum is housed in an historic complex of light-industrial buildings in St George's Road, dating from 1803. It contains a series of displays and artefacts, narrating the town's maritime, industrial, domestic and leisure history.\\nBy the time Dickens came to Deal it had been largely forgotten how the government of 1784, under Prime Minister <a href=\\\"William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger\\\">William Pitt the Younger</a>, ensured that the Deal boats were all set ablaze, suspecting some of the Deal <a href=\\\"lugger\\\">lugger</a>s of being engaged in smuggling. Pitt had awaited an opportunity that January, when the boats were all 'hoved up' on the beach on account of bad weather, to send a regiment of soldiers to smash and burn them. A naval <a href=\\\"Cutter%20%28ship%29\\\">cutter</a> was positioned offshore to prevent any of the boatmen escaping.\\nThe boatmen's ancestors had the right, under charter, freely to import goods in return for their services as <a href=\\\"Cinque%20Ports\\\">Cinque Port</a> men in providing what had been long recognised as the sole naval defence of the realm. These men continued to risk their lives and their boats, in saving the lives of shipwreck victims. The irrepressible spirit of the Deal boatmen remained undaunted by these events throughout the <a href=\\\"Napoleonic%20Wars\\\">Napoleonic Wars</a>, and they continued to assert their hard-earned right to trade. From these activities news of the events unfolding in France would reach England quickly and regularly, with about 400 men making a living off Deal beach at that time. The war only made the boatmen’s efforts more profitable, so that afterwards the Government immediately turned a part of its naval <a href=\\\"blockade\\\">blockade</a> into a coastal blockade, which lasted from 1818 to 1831.\\nA Naval storehouse was built in Deal in 1672, providing for ships anchored in the Downs. In time, the establishment grew to cover some five acres of land, to the north of the castle. There was also a <a href=\\\"Victualling%20Yard\\\">Victualling Yard</a> on site. In contrast to other <a href=\\\"Royal%20Navy%20Dockyard\\\">naval yards</a>, there was no place for ships to dock alongside at Deal, so instead a number of small supply boats were maintained at the yard; these would be launched from the shingle beach, carrying supplies, provisions, personnel or equipment as required. The Yard closed in 1864.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Royal%20Marine%20Depot%2C%20Deal\\\">Royal Marines Depot, Deal</a> were constructed shortly after the outbreak of the <a href=\\\"French%20Revolution\\\">French Revolution</a>. They originally consisted of adjacent cavalry and infantry barracks (later known as South Barracks), alongside which were separate hospitals for the Army and Navy. In due course the hospitals were also turned into barracks (known as North Barracks and East Barracks respectively). From 1861 the complex served as a sizeable Depot for the Royal Marines; latterly it was known in particular for the Royal Marines School of Music, which had moved there in 1930.\\nThe seafront at Deal has been adorned with three separate <a href=\\\"pier\\\">pier</a>s in the town's history. The first, built in 1838, was designed by <a href=\\\"John%20Rennie%20%28railway%20engineer%29\\\">Sir John Rennie</a>. After its wooden structure was destroyed in an 1857 gale, it was replaced by an iron pier in 1864. A popular pleasure pier, it survived until the <a href=\\\"Second%20World%20War\\\">Second World War</a>, when it was struck and severely damaged by a mined Dutch ship, the \\\"Nora\\\", in January 1940. This was not the first time the pier had been hit by shipping, with previous impacts in 1873 and 1884 necessitating extensive repairs.\\nThe present pier, designed by Sir W. Halcrow & Partners, was opened on 19 November 1957 by the <a href=\\\"Prince%20Philip%2C%20Duke%20of%20Edinburgh\\\">Duke of Edinburgh</a>. Constructed predominantly from <a href=\\\"concrete\\\">concrete</a>-clad <a href=\\\"steel\\\">steel</a>, it is 1026 ft (311 m) in length (a notice announces that it is the same length as the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a>, but that ship was just 882 feet in length), and ends in a three-tiered pier-head, featuring a cafe, bar, lounge, and fishing decks. The lowest of the three tiers is underwater at all but the lowest part of the tidal range, and has become disused. The pier is a popular <a href=\\\"sport%20fishing\\\">sport fishing</a> venue.\\nDeal's current pier is the last remaining fully intact leisure pier in <a href=\\\"Kent\\\">Kent</a> and is a Grade II listed building. Its structure was extensively refurbished and repaired in 1997, with work including the replacement of much of the concrete cladding on the pier's main piles. Work began in April 2008 to construct a new pier-head with a modern restaurant, with the restaurant opened in December 2008.\\nDeal has several museums; all are related to Deal's maritime history. Both Deal Castle and <a href=\\\"Walmer%20Castle\\\">Walmer Castle</a> are operated by English Heritage - Deal has a display on the events in the reign of Henry VIII that led to the invasion threat which caused its construction, along with some material on its subsequent history, whereas displays at Walmer concentrate on Walmer's post-Tudor role as the Lord Warden's residence. There is also a ruin of the third Tudor castle, <a href=\\\"Sandown%20Castle%2C%20Kent\\\">Sandown Castle</a>, in North Deal. The Deal Maritime and Local History Museum has exhibits of boats, smuggler <a href=\\\"galley\\\">galley</a>s and <a href=\\\"model%20ship\\\">model naval ships</a>. It also contains extensive histories of the lifeboats as well as local parish registers. The <a href=\\\"Deal%20Timeball\\\">Timeball Tower Museum</a>, on the other hand, focuses on the importance of timekeeping for ships, and the role the building it occupies played.\\nDiarist <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Pepys\\\">Samuel Pepys</a> recorded several visits to the town, being moved on 30 April 1660 to describe it as \\\"pitiful\\\".\\nDeal was notorious in the 17th century as a location for smugglers, and <a href=\\\"Daniel%20Defoe\\\">Daniel Defoe</a> wrote of the town:\\n<a href=\\\"William%20Cobbett\\\">William Cobbett</a> passing through in September 1823 noted in his book <a href=\\\"Rural%20Rides\\\">Rural Rides</a>:\\nDickens, who had visited the town, had Richard Carstone garrisoned here in \\\"<a href=\\\"Bleak%20House\\\">Bleak House</a>\\\", so that Woodcourt and Esther's paths can cross when Woodcourt's ship happens to anchor in the Downs at the same time as Esther and Charley are visiting Richard:\\nDeal is the setting for local novelist George Chittenden's smuggling saga, which is set in the late 18th century when the town was a haven for criminal gangs smuggling contraband across the English Channel. In Chittenden's debut \\\"The Boy Who Led Them\\\" a child rises through the ranks to control the biggest smuggling gang on the Kent coast, fighting wars with rival gangs and revenue men at every turn.\\nIn Chittenden's next book \\\"The Boy Who Felt No Pain\\\" he takes the reader on a journey back to the dangerous coastal town of Deal, fleshing out the back story of main characters from the first novel whilst also raising some interesting new questions.\\nIn <a href=\\\"Jane%20Austen\\\">Jane Austen</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Persuasion%20%28novel%29\\\">Persuasion</a>\\\", the town is mentioned as the only place where Admiral Croft's wife Sophia Croft was ever ill, as it was the only place she was ever separated from him, whilst he was patrolling the <a href=\\\"North%20Sea\\\">North Sea</a>.\\nDeal has one paid for newspaper, the \\\"<a href=\\\"East%20Kent%20Mercury%20and%20Dover%20Mercury\\\">East Kent Mercury</a>\\\", published by the <a href=\\\"KM%20Group\\\">KM Group</a>.\\nThe local radio station for Deal is <a href=\\\"KMFM%20Shepway%20and%20White%20Cliffs%20Country\\\">KMFM Shepway and White Cliffs Country</a>. Deal is also served by the county-wide stations <a href=\\\"Heart%20Kent\\\">Heart</a>, <a href=\\\"Gold%20%28radio%29\\\">Gold</a> and <a href=\\\"BBC%20Radio%20Kent\\\">BBC Radio Kent</a>. Deal Community Radio is an online radio station with music, interviews and information on upcoming activities at The Astor Community Theatre along with the latest news from around Kent.\\nDeal has a <a href=\\\"Non-League%20football\\\">Non-League football</a> club <a href=\\\"Deal%20Town%20F.C.\\\">Deal Town F.C.</a>, which plays at The Charles Sports Ground.\\nThe Rugby Club, Deal & Betteshanger Lions plays at the old RM Drill Field off Canada Rd.\\nThere is a Farmer’s Market on Wednesday which sells local produce, as well as a long-running market on Saturday.\\nThe town has an independent retail sector in the North End of Deal High Street, and a number of chains on the High Street, though there are some retail voids.\\nThe Astor Theatre in Deal offers musical performances, live theatre, exhibitions, movies, classes and clubs, and more.\\nDeal, used to have two cinemas up until 1981, but these finally closed in the 1984 with the closure of the Cannon Classic in Queen Street and although a small cinema re-appeared in the former Cannon Classic Cinema building, that too closed in 2007. Deal's former bingo hall the Regent another art deco cinema building closed in 2008 and has been sold by the local council to reopen as a branch of Silver Screen Cinemas. As of January 2013, the building remains shuttered.\\nComedian <a href=\\\"Norman%20Wisdom\\\">Norman Wisdom</a>, writers <a href=\\\"Sean%20Gabb\\\">Sean Gabb</a>, <a href=\\\"William%20Horwood%20%28novelist%29\\\">William Horwood</a> and <a href=\\\"Simon%20Raven\\\">Simon Raven</a>, television presenter <a href=\\\"Karl%20Pilkington\\\">Karl Pilkington</a> , composer <a href=\\\"John%20Ireland%20%28composer%29\\\">John Ireland</a>, jazz musician <a href=\\\"Dick%20Morrissey\\\">Dick Morrissey</a>, and actors <a href=\\\"Charles%20Hawtrey%20%28actor%20born%201914%29\\\">Charles Hawtrey</a>, <a href=\\\"Geoff%20Bell%20%28actor%29\\\">Geoff Bell</a>, <a href=\\\"Neil%20Stuke\\\">Neil Stuke</a>, <a href=\\\"Richard%20Cant\\\">Richard Cant</a>, <a href=\\\"Bernard%20Hepton\\\">Bernard Hepton</a>, and <a href=\\\"Jack%20Scanlon\\\">Jack Scanlon</a> all lived or live in Deal. Notable people born in the town include <a href=\\\"James%20Arbuthnot\\\">James Arbuthnot</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Hulke\\\">John Hulke</a>, <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Carter\\\">Elizabeth Carter</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Stanton%20Fleming%20Morrison\\\">John Stanton Fleming Morrison</a>, and <a href=\\\"Bruce%20Montague\\\">Bruce Montague</a>, playwright <a href=\\\"Gregory%20Motton\\\">Gregory Motton</a>.\\nThe nearest UK <a href=\\\"Met%20Office\\\">Met Office</a> weather station is in Langdon Bay. Deal has a temperate maritime climate, with comfortable summers and cold winters. The temperature is usually between 3 C and 21.1 C , but the all-time temperature range is between -8 C and 31 C . There is evidence that the sea is coldest in February; the warmest recorded February temperature was only 13 C , compared with 16 C in January.\",\n \"USS De Haven (DD-727)\\nUSS \\\"De Haven\\\" (DD-727), an <a href=\\\"Allen%20M.%20Sumner-class%20destroyer\\\">\\\"Allen M. Sumner\\\"-class</a> <a href=\\\"destroyer\\\">destroyer</a> , was the second ship of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Navy\\\">United States Navy</a> to be named for <a href=\\\"Lieutenant\\\">Lieutenant</a> <a href=\\\"Edwin%20J.%20De%20Haven\\\">Edwin J. De Haven</a>. De Haven served aboard the <a href=\\\"USS%26%2332%3BVincennes%26%2332%3B%281826%29\\\">\\\"Vincennes\\\"</a> , flagship of the Wilkes Expedition, officially known as the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Exploring%20Expedition%2C%201838-1842\\\">United States Exploring Expedition</a>, from 1839 to 1842. De Haven also served in the <a href=\\\"Mexican-American%20War\\\">Mexican-American War</a>, assisting in the capture of the Mexican schooner \\\"Creole\\\". He was placed on the retired list in February 1862. He died in Philadelphia on 1 May 1865.\\n\\\"De Haven\\\" was <a href=\\\"Ship%20naming%20and%20launching\\\">launched</a> on 9 January 1944 by <a href=\\\"Bath%20Iron%20Works\\\">Bath Iron Works</a> Corp., <a href=\\\"Bath%2C%20Maine\\\">Bath, Maine</a>, sponsored by Miss H. N. De Haven; and <a href=\\\"Ship%20commissioning\\\">commissioned</a> on 31 March 1944, <a href=\\\"Commander\\\">Commander</a> John B. Dimmick in command.\\n\\\"De Haven\\\" escorted <a href=\\\"USS%26%2332%3BRanger%26%2332%3B%28CV-4%29\\\">\\\"Ranger\\\"</a> from Norfolk to <a href=\\\"Pearl%20Harbor\\\">Pearl Harbor</a>, arriving on 3 August 1944. She screened a convoy to <a href=\\\"Eniwetok\\\">Eniwetok</a> between 16 and 30 August, and returned to Eniwetok on 5 October. A week later, she got underway for <a href=\\\"Ulithi\\\">Ulithi</a> to join TF 38. Operating from this base, she screened the fast carriers striking <a href=\\\"Luzon\\\">Luzon</a> in support of the invasion of Leyte during November and December. In coordination with the invasion of <a href=\\\"Lingayen%20Gulf\\\">Lingayen Gulf</a>, Luzon, the force hit Formosa, Luzon, Camranh Bay, Hong Kong, <a href=\\\"Hainan\\\">Hainan</a>, and <a href=\\\"Okinawa\\\">Okinawa</a> in a score of strikes extending from 30 December 1944 to 26 January 1945.\\nOn 10 February 1945, \\\"De Haven\\\" sortied from Ulithi with TF 58, to prepare for the invasion of <a href=\\\"Iwo%20Jima\\\">Iwo Jima</a>, striking the Japanese mainland as well as the Nansei Shoto, and then providing fire support for the invading troops. Returning to Ulithi on 4 March, she sailed 10 days later to screen air strikes on Kyushu, Japan, prior to the invasion of Okinawa. Until 13 June, she screened the carriers and gave fire support at Okinawa. On 1 July, she sailed from <a href=\\\"Leyte%20%28island%29\\\">Leyte</a> with TF 38 for the final air strikes and bombardments on the Japanese homeland which continued until the end of the war. Present in Tokyo Bay 2 September for the signing of the surrender, \\\"De Haven\\\" sailed on 20 September for the States, arriving at San Francisco on 15 October.\\nBetween 1 February 1946 and 3 February 1947, \\\"De Haven\\\" served in the Western Pacific, joining the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Seventh%20Fleet\\\">7th Fleet</a> in operations off the coast of China, and patrolling off the Japanese coast. She operated along the west coast through 1948 and 1949, and on 1 May 1950 cleared San Diego for another tour of duty in the western Pacific, arriving at <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Fleet%20Activities%20Yokosuka\\\">Yokosuka</a> the last day of May.\\n<a href=\\\"North%20Korea\\\">North Korea</a> invaded <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a> on 25 June 1950, \\\"De Haven\\\" was assigned to patrol off the Korean coast. She screened the Norwegian ship \\\"Reinholt\\\" evacuating American dependents from <a href=\\\"Inchon\\\">Inchon</a> to Yokosuka; patrolled on the blockade; bombarded shore targets; acted as lifeguard and communications linking ship for air strikes against Pyongyang and Haeju; and provided call fire support for <a href=\\\"United%20Nations\\\">United Nations</a> troops.\\nOn 13 and 14 September, she stood up a treacherous channel to anchor a scant 800 yards from Wolmi-do island and poured fire into the concealed gun emplacements in preparation for the assault on Inchon. \\\"De Haven\\\" provided gunfire support for the successful landings the following day, and for her part in this daring action was awarded the <a href=\\\"Navy%20Unit%20Commendation\\\">Navy Unit Commendation</a>.\\nReturning to blockade duty on 25 September 1950, \\\"De Haven\\\" dispersed a North Korean force attempting to ambush a Korean Army unit; aided <a href=\\\"USS%26%2332%3BBrush%26%2332%3B%28DD-745%29\\\">\\\"Brush\\\"</a> and escorted her to <a href=\\\"Sasebo%2C%20Nagasaki\\\">Sasebo</a>; and provided fire support for a British Commando raid on 6 and 7 October. She cleared Yokosuka on 1 November for San Diego, arriving 18 November.\\nDuring \\\"De Haven\\\"' s second tour of Korean duty from 18 June 1951 to 17 February 1952, she served primarily on blockade patrol. After an overhaul and local operations at San Diego, she sailed from Long Beach 16 September 1952 to serve as flagship for ships on patrol in the <a href=\\\"Chongjin\\\">Chongjin</a>-<a href=\\\"Songjin\\\">Songjin</a>-Chaho area until 18 November. After patrol duty with TF 77, she returned to Korean waters for duty with TF 95 on patrol off <a href=\\\"Wonsan\\\">Wonsan</a> Harbor, supporting the minesweeping operations there from 12 to 18 February. She got underway from Sasebo 22 March for Long Beach, arriving on 9 April.\\nAccording to declassified documents obtained by the <a href=\\\"Associated%20Press\\\">Associated Press</a>, U.S. commanders repeatedly ordered refugees from <a href=\\\"South%20Korea\\\">South Korea</a> shot. While the most famous example of this policy remains the <a href=\\\"No%20Gun%20Ri%20Massacre\\\">No Gun Ri Massacre</a>, another incident, on 1 September 1950, has been confirmed by the declassified official diary of De Haven. It states that the Navy destroyer, at Army insistence, fired on a seaside refugee encampment at <a href=\\\"Pohang\\\">Pohang</a>, South Korea. Survivors say 100 to 200 people were killed.\\n\\\"De Haven\\\" continued to alternate duty in the western Pacific with local operations along the west coast, making six voyages to the Far East from 1953 through 1959. \\\"De Haven\\\" participated in Operation Hardtack I near Eniwetok Island during the summer of 1958, witnessing approximately 22 nuclear detonations, one from only three nautical miles. She was also one of the US Navy vessels that ran the Chinese naval blockade on Quemoy-Matsu. On 1 February 1960, she began a major overhaul for modernization at San Francisco, completed in September. \\\"De Haven\\\" returned to training activities through the remaining months of 1960.\\n\\\"De Haven\\\" was the namesake of the <a href=\\\"DESOTO%20patrol\\\">DESOTO patrol</a>s (DEHAVEN Special Operations off TsingtaO). It conducted the first patrol from 14 April 1962 to 20 April 1962 in the area focused around the <a href=\\\"Tsingtao\\\">Tsingtao</a> area of the <a href=\\\"Yellow%20Sea\\\">Yellow Sea</a>. The ship was instructed not to approach any Chinese-Communist-held territory, including offshore islands closer than 10 miles.\\nThese patrols were a response to Chinese Communist’s unexpected re-definition of their territorial waters to include all waters shoreward from lines drawn tangentially to, and between, twelve mile circles drawn around their offshore islands. Such a declaration represented a huge expansion of their claims. This inhibited the lawful navigation of international waters and increased the likelihood and frequency of formal diplomatic \\\"serious warnings\\\" issued by <a href=\\\"Beijing\\\">Beijing</a> when any Seventh Fleet units navigated through these areas. This became a situation to which Commander Seventh Fleet felt compelled to respond.\\nThere were three components to the purpose of these patrols. First, they would establish and maintain the presence of the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Seventh%20Fleet\\\">U.S. Seventh Fleet</a> in the international waters off the China coast and later the Vietnamese coast. Second, they would serve as a minor Cold War irritant to the Chinese Communists. Third, they would collect as much intelligence as possible during the patrols.\\nThis first DESOTO patrol was highly effective in evoking Chinese Communist reaction. For example, \\\"De Haven\\\" was shadowed by three or more <a href=\\\"Chicom\\\">Chicom</a> vessels at one time, jamming of \\\"De Haven\\\"' s communications facilities occurred and the use of deceptive pennant numbers on the shadowing vessels all contributed to the success of the intelligence effort on this mission. Furthermore, the Chicoms issued three \\\"serious warnings\\\" to \\\"De Haven\\\" for violation of territorial rights during the 7 days the mission was in progress in international waters. The eight subsequent patrols did not collect nearly as much intelligence as the first.\\nThese patrols were conducted in later years by other ships. These patrols and other factors eventually led to international incidents with other ships resulting in the <a href=\\\"Gulf%20of%20Tonkin%20incident\\\">Gulf of Tonkin incident</a> and the <a href=\\\"Pueblo%20incident\\\">Pueblo incident</a>.\\n\\\"De Haven\\\" was transferred to the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Korea%20Navy\\\">Republic of Korea Navy</a> on 5 December 1973, and renamed \\\"Incheon\\\", after the Korean city of <a href=\\\"Incheon\\\">Incheon</a>. It was first designated DD-98, and then DD-918. The ship was stricken and broken up for scrap in 1993.\\n\\\"De Haven\\\" received five <a href=\\\"battle%20star\\\">battle star</a>s for her service in World War II. In Korea, she received another six stars and a Navy Unit Commendation. \\\"De Haven\\\" received <a href=\\\"Armed%20Forces%20Expeditionary%20Medal\\\">Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal</a>s for service relating to Vietnam in 1962, 1963 and 1964 as well as <a href=\\\"Vietnam%20Service%20Medal\\\">Vietnam Service Medal</a>s during every year from 1965 to 1971. <a href=\\\"Combat%20Action%20Ribbon\\\">Combat Action Ribbon</a>s were awarded for service 25 August 1967, 6–7 September 1967 and 13 September 1967. A Navy Unit Commendation was awarded to \\\"De Haven\\\" and her crew for service 15 June 1966 to 20 August 1968.\",\n \"Bickleigh, South Hams\\nBickleigh is a small village on the southern edge of <a href=\\\"Dartmoor\\\">Dartmoor</a> in <a href=\\\"Devon\\\">Devon</a>, England. It has a population of about 50 people. It is in the <a href=\\\"South%20Hams\\\">South Hams</a> district, and is about 7 mi north of <a href=\\\"Plymouth\\\">Plymouth</a> city centre. The village is part of the <a href=\\\"electoral%20ward\\\">electoral ward</a> called \\\"Bickleigh\\\" and Shaugh. At the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20Census%202011\\\">2011 census</a> the ward population was 4,723\\n<a href=\\\"42%20Commando\\\">42 Commando</a> is currently based at <a href=\\\"Bickleigh%20Barracks\\\">Bickleigh Barracks</a>.\\nThe village church has a tower of the 15th century but the rest of the building is the work of <a href=\\\"Charles%20Fowler\\\">Charles Fowler</a>, 1838, and one of the church's two <a href=\\\"baptismal%20font\\\">baptismal font</a>s is 15th century. There is a fine monument to Sir <a href=\\\"Manasseh%20Masseh%20Lopes\\\">Manasseh Masseh Lopes</a> of <a href=\\\"Maristow%20House\\\">Maristow House</a>.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Eric Anthony Sykes (5 February 1883–12 May 1945), born Eric Anthony Schwabe in Barton-upon-Irwell, Eccles, Greater Manchester, England, was a soldier and firearms expert. He is most famous for his work with William E. Fairbairn in the development of the eponymous Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife and modern British Close Quarters Battle (CQB) martial arts during World War II. Originally working for an import/export company selling weapons in East Asia, he claimed he volunteered for and served in the British Army as a sharpshooter on the Western Front during World War I. Returning to China in 1917, he joined the volunteer branch of the Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) Specials with the rank of Inspector in 1926.","William Ewart Fairbairn ( ; 28 February 1885 – 20 June 1960) was a British Royal Marine and police officer. He developed hand-to-hand combat methods for the Shanghai Police during the interwar period, as well as for the allied special forces during World War II. He created his own fighting system known as Defendu. Notably, this included innovative pistol shooting techniques and the development of the Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife."],"string":"[\n \"Eric Anthony Sykes (5 February 1883–12 May 1945), born Eric Anthony Schwabe in Barton-upon-Irwell, Eccles, Greater Manchester, England, was a soldier and firearms expert. He is most famous for his work with William E. Fairbairn in the development of the eponymous Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife and modern British Close Quarters Battle (CQB) martial arts during World War II. Originally working for an import/export company selling weapons in East Asia, he claimed he volunteered for and served in the British Army as a sharpshooter on the Western Front during World War I. Returning to China in 1917, he joined the volunteer branch of the Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) Specials with the rank of Inspector in 1926.\",\n \"William Ewart Fairbairn ( ; 28 February 1885 – 20 June 1960) was a British Royal Marine and police officer. He developed hand-to-hand combat methods for the Shanghai Police during the interwar period, as well as for the allied special forces during World War II. He created his own fighting system known as Defendu. Notably, this included innovative pistol shooting techniques and the development of the Fairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":74,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What single by an Australian rock band was featured in an Australian paranormal television program which premiered on 9 July 2015, on ABC1?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Breakaway"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Haunting: Australia\nHaunting: Australia is an Australian paranormal television series that premiered on 3 February 2014 on Syfy. The series was commissioned by SF in July 2013, with production beginning in August 2013 and set to premiere on the network in 2014. However, following the closure of SF on 31 December 2013 and the launch of Syfy as its replacement, the series instead premiered on the newly launched Syfy channel on 3 February 2014.\nInternational paranormal investigator Robb Demarest selects his paranormal team of ghost hunters, psychics, mediums, and clairvoyants, to investigate Australia's most haunted locations.\n\"Opening introduction\": (narrated by Robb Demarest):\nIn the United States the series airs on Syfy, premiering 24 March 2015.","Ghost Asylum\nGhost Asylum is an American paranormal television series that premiered on September 7, 2014 in the United States on Destination America. The series features a group of professional ghost hunters that try to \"trap ghosts\" in the country's most haunted abandoned asylums, sanitariums, and mental hospitals. The show airs on Sundays at 10 pm EST. The show was renewed for a second season of 14 episodes, which premiered on April 5, 2015. The second season aired in two waves of 8 episodes, with the second wave coming later on in 2015. A third season aired in 2016.\nThe series follows the paranormal team known as the \"Tennessee Wraith Chasers;\" the pilot of the series was originally named Ghostland Tennessee before it was renamed for the \"Destination America\" network.\nThe series features a group of fearless ghost hunters with their paranormal team called the \"Tennessee Wraith Chasers,\" who try to use their Southern charm, back-water ingenuity, and engineering knowledge to create supernatural inventions during their investigations in America's most haunted locations, which just happen to be abandoned asylums. Their specialty is investigating the many decaying and derelict mental institutions littered across the United States.\nOpening introduction:\nThe show starts off with a warning to viewers:\nWARNING: \"Our boys are professional ghost hunters who have permission to enter the most haunted buildings in America. Trespassing on private property is dangerous and illegal. Chasing ghosts without proper training will get you killed. Or, will make you look like moronic lunatics. Either way...\"\nTennessee Wraith Chasers:","The Haunted (TV series)\nThe Haunted is an American paranormal television series that premiered on November 22, 2009 on Animal Planet. Produced by Picture Shack Entertainment, the program features ghost stories and paranormal investigations involving animals. It also incorporates actual footage and photographs from the families and paranormal research teams involved.\nThe series is now repeating on Destination America.\n","Haunted Encounters\nHaunted Encounters (also known as Haunted Encounters: Face to Face) is an American paranormal television series that premiered on December 1, 2012, on the Biography Channel. The program features a paranormal investigation team, the Paranormal Syndicate, that investigates haunted hotspots that are the list of reportedly haunted locations and gather evidence to prove that it is haunted. Current episodes air at 10:00PM EST.\nInvestigation team: Paranormal Syndicate","Ghost Lab\nGhost Lab is a weekly American paranormal television series that premiered on October 6, 2009, on the Discovery Channel. Produced by Paper Route Productions and Go Go Luckey Entertainment, the program is narrated by Mike Rowe. It follows ghost-hunting brothers Brad and Barry Klinge, who founded Everyday Paranormal (EP) in October 2007.\nEveryday Paranormal is a paranormal investigation team whose stated mission is to \"visit the most haunted places in America, find evidence, and test new theories to probe the existence of the afterlife\" using a fringe-scientific approach.\nIn addition to Brad and Barry, the team included members Steve Harris, Hector Cisneros, and Katie Burr. Other members included Jason Worden, Ashlee Lehman (Formerly Ashlee Hillhouse), and Steve Hock. \"Ghost Lab\" remains the name of EP's mobile command center.\nOn October 14, 2009, Brad and Barry Klinge were interviewed on \"The Pat & Brian Show\" about the origins of Everyday Paranormal, current investigations, and equipment use. On October 30, 2009, Larry King interviewed the brothers via satellite on CNN's \"Larry King Live\".\n\"Ghost Lab\" originally aired on the Discovery Channel Thursday nights at 10:00 p.m. until it was moved to Friday late-nights/Saturday early-mornings due to low viewer ratings. Each episode started out with a text stating: \"The Klinge brothers are investigating...\" with Brad and Barry conducting a \"head-cam\" walkthrough around reportedly haunted locations before they continued with the whole team investigation.\nIn 2010, \"Ghost Lab\" was canceled after the conclusion of its second season.\n\"Ghost Lab\" appears on the compilation DVD entitled: Paranormal: Haunts and Horrors. This DVD is produced by the Discovery Channel. The episode is \"If Walls Could Talk\" (S1-E13) where the Kling Brothers investigated the Lemp Mansion; it is the first episode on this DVD.\nDiscovery Channel also released two more DVD titles \"Ghost Lab: Volume 1\" which features the first three episodes of season one (\"Disturbing the Peace\", \"Tombstone\" and \"Smell of Fear\"). And \"Ghost Lab: Pursuit Of The Paranormal\" which features more episodes from season one.\nEveryday Paranormal (E.P.) founders and presidents Brad and Barry Klinge investigated alongside their \"on-air\" \"Ghost Lab\" team which included: Katie Burr (Investigator), Hector Cisneros (Investigator-season 1), Steve Harris (Tech Manager) Steve Hock (\"Ghost Lab\" Ops), and newest member Cory Lamey (Team Trainee).\nOther Everday Paranormal members included: Ashlee Hillhouse (Investigator), Jason Worden (Investigator/Affiliate Ops Director), and Jenn Hitt (Website/PR Events).\nDuring investigations, the team used various investigation equipment, including thermographic cameras, infrared cameras, digital audio recorders, data loggers, EMF meters, laser thermometers, motion detectors, and EVP recorders, as well as a mobile command center called the \"Ghost Lab\", which featured interactive computer monitors, noise filtering audio programs, and various high tech gear. The team also used a variety of paranormal theories to test out some of their techniques during an investigation.\nOn March 25, 2010, the Klinge Brothers announced through a YouTube video that \"Ghost Lab\" will return for a second season consisting of 13 episodes. Season 2 premiered on Tuesday, October 19, 2010.\nSeason two aired on Saturday at 2 a.m. EST on the Discovery Channel. Reruns of both seasons air weekday nights on the Science Channel.","Destination Fear\nDestination Fear is a Canadian paranormal television series that premiered on May 5, 2012 in Canada. The program features wannabe ghost hunters who visit paranormal hotspots that are reported to be haunted, unaware that they've been set up by their loved ones to experience staged frightening encounters. The show's premiere episode aired in the United States on September 30, 2012 on the Travel Channel at 10:00pm EST.\nEvery episode features two unsuspecting ghost hunting enthusiasts who are given the chance by a close friend or relative to investigate or take a tour in haunted locations in Canada and America. These enthusiasts think that they're just traveling to a supposedly haunted hotspot. However, they are actually set up by the show's cast of characters to a staged performance of paranormal activity in the already haunted location, scaring them to the bone. At the end of the episode, the host replays the enthusiasts encounters during their spooky run-through. Then the host lets them in on the joke when their friends or family are exposed and they find out they have selected them for their frightening experiences.\nOpening introduction:","The Code (2014 TV series)\nThe Code is an Australian drama television program created and produced by Shelley Birse. Developed from a partnership between Playmaker Media and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, it premiered on ABC1 in Australia on 21 September 2014. Season 2 of \"The Code\" premiered on 1 September 2016.\nThe first six-part series, set in both outback and metropolitan areas of Australia, interweaves several plot lines. The first follows brothers Ned (Dan Spielman) and Jesse Banks (Ashley Zukerman), who publish a video of a mysterious outback accident, and Hani Parande (Adele Perovic), who becomes involved with them. The second follows the accident, which sees teacher Alex Wisham (Lucy Lawless) and policeman Tim Simons (Aaron Pedersen) becoming involved in the personal affairs of accused teenager Clarence Boyd (Aaron L. McGrath). The third covers Ned's journalism office, managed by Perry Benson (Adam Garcia). The fourth chronicles the intrigues of Deputy Prime Minister Ian Bradley (David Wenham), and political staffers Randall Keats (Aden Young) and Sophie Walsh (Chelsie Preston Crayford) while the after-effects of the accident unfold.\nABC in June 2015 renewed \"The Code\" for a second season, after receiving significant funding from the Australian Capital Territory's film fund, Screen ACT. The new series that commenced screening in 2016, deals with fictional brothers Ned and Jesse Banks facing deportation to the United States of America to face trial in connection with security breaches. Anthony LaPaglia, Sigrid Thornton, Robyn Malcolm, and others joined the cast for the second series.\nSeries 1: A stolen vehicle collides with a transport truck in the middle of the desert. Two Aboriginal teenagers in the car are critically injured but nobody called for help because someone involved works for a major stakeholder in a secret research project. The accident would have remained a mystery if it weren't for Ned Banks, a young internet journalist desperate for a break and his brother Jesse Banks, a hacker on a strict good behaviour bond.\nSeries 2: Two Australians are murdered in West Papua, the only survivor being Jan Roth, the fugitive founder of a \"dark web\" site, who is being chased by both Australian and US authorities. At the same time a young boy is kidnapped in Australia by someone offering to sell him to paedophiles through the same site. The Australian Federal Police contacts the Banks brothers and informs them that the US authorities have demanded their extradition to the US for their previous actions, but if Jesse helps the police find the boy, the government will resist the extradition demands. Jesse agrees, but soon finds that the truth is very different.\nThe fictional town of Lindara was filmed in Broken Hill, Silverton in New South Wales, and Cockburn in South Australia. The main street and post office of Cockburn doubles as the main street and school in Lindara, while the houses of the Lindara families were filmed in Silverton.\nParts of Canberra were used for filming, including the Australian Parliament House, the surrounds of Lake Burley Griffin, and parts of the Australian National University Acton campus, including the John Curtin School of Medical Research and the Shine Dome.\nThe first series was acquired by BBC Four in the United Kingdom in April 2014, and premiered on 11 October 2014, less than three weeks after the Australian premiere. Because it aired as back-to-back episodes over three weeks, the final episode aired first in the UK on 25 October, over twelve hours ahead of its first Australian broadcast 26 October. The first series was also broadcast on DirecTV's Audience Network in the US, and ARTV in Canada.\n","Ghost Mine (TV series)\nGhost Mine is an American paranormal television series that premiered on January 16, 2013, in the United States on the Syfy channel. The series features a group of hard rock miners searching for gold in Oregon's Crescent Mine. Two paranormal investigators accompany them in an attempt to determine if the location is haunted.\nOn April 10, 2013, Syfy renewed the series for a 12-episode second season which premiered September 4, 2013.\nOn December 19, 2013, Paranormal Investigator Patrick Doyle reported via his Facebook page that Syfy had decided not to renew the show for a third season.\nThe series proposes that certain mines are haunted by ghosts of miners from Gold Rush days, or by spirits that superstitious miners call \"Tommy-Knockers\". Paranormal investigators Patrick and Kristen go into the mine first and investigate using equipment they believe can detect supernatural activity. Then it's Mine Foreman Stan's hard rock miner crew's turn to work the mine while the investigators monitor them on their DVR system in an attempt to see if they experience anything supernatural. In the end, the investigators show their evidence to the miners and state their opinions regarding the degree of supernatural activity they believe is present.\nOpening introduction:\nTagline: \"The deeper you go. The darker it gets.\"\nMine Owner:\nHard Rock Miners:\nParanormal Investigators:\nAs of 2013, the Crescent mine has been listed for sale with Cascade Sotheby's realty for an assessed value of $2.5 million. Larry Overman the mine owner finally placed a monument which had been planned for years, the stone was the corner stone to the original miners lodge that used to stand on the property to keep the spirit \"at peace\".","Glitch (TV series)\nGlitch is an Australian paranormal television program which premiered on 9 July 2015, on ABC1. The series, set in the fictional country town of Yoorana, Victoria, is written by Louise Fox, Kris Mrksa, and Giula Sandler, and directed by Emma Freeman. It is produced by Noah Burnett and Noah Fox, with Tony Ayres serving as an Executive Producer.\nThe first season was awarded Australian television's two highest accolades for best drama.\nOn 26 October 2015, ABC TV renewed the show for a second series of six episodes. Series two began shooting in January 2017. The second season was co-produced by Netflix, which will stream the season globally outside of Australia, New Zealand and Africa in 2017. In addition, on 15 October 2016, the first series was made available to stream on Netflix globally. Series 2 premiered on 14 September 2017 in Australia and will premiere on 28 November 2017 internationally on Netflix.\nJames Hayes (Patrick Brammall) is a small town policeman in Yoorana, Victoria. He is called to the local cemetery in the middle of the night after seven people have inexplicably risen from the dead in perfect health. With no memory of their identities, they are determined to discover who they are and what has happened to them. James and one of them recognise each other, and along with local doctor Elishia McKellar (Genevieve O'Reilly), James struggles to keep the case hidden from his colleagues, his family, and the world. The seven people are all linked in some way, and the search begins for someone who knows the truth about how and why they have returned.\nSeries 1 (2015)\nSeries 2\n\"Glitch\" was screened at Roma Fiction Fest in 2015.\n\n","Bonk (album)\nBonk is the debut studio album by Australian rock band Big Pig. It was released in March 1988 on White Label Records. The album went gold, then platinum in Australia with three top-twenty singles (\"Hungry Town\", \"Breakaway\" and \"Big Hotel\"). The album was released in America by A&M Records in 1988, and the music video for \"Breakaway\" was played on MTV. \"Breakaway\" was featured on the \"Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure\" soundtrack and \"Hungry Town\" on the \"Young Einstein\" soundtrack. \"Breakaway\" and \"Money God\" were used in the \"Miami Vice\" TV series in the 1980s. \"Breakaway\" was also featured in Season 1, Episode 4 of \"Glitch (TV series)\".\nIt was re-issued in 1992 by Mushroom Records.\nAll songs written by O. Witer, A. Scaglione, N. Disbray, and S. Abeyratne, except where noted, according to Australasian Performing Rights Association (APRA).\nCredited to:\nBig Pig\n\"Additional musicians\"\nRecording details\nArt work\nNotes","Paranormal television\nParanormal television is a <a href=\"genre\">genre</a> of <a href=\"reality%20television\">reality television</a>. Its scope comprises purportedly <a href=\"factual%20television\">factual</a> investigations of <a href=\"paranormal\">paranormal</a> phenomena, rather than <a href=\"fiction\">fiction</a>al representations found in such shows and movies as \"<a href=\"The%20Ghosts%20of%20Motley%20Hall\">The Ghosts of Motley Hall</a>\", \"<a href=\"Ghostbusters\">Ghostbusters</a>\", \"<a href=\"Scooby-Doo\">Scooby-Doo</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Rentaghost\">Rentaghost</a>\".\nAccounts of supernatural occurrences have always been common in the print media. The 1705 pamphlet \"A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs Veal\" by <a href=\"Daniel%20Defoe\">Daniel Defoe</a> is a well-known example. Local TV news programs in the UK and USA have featured ghost stories since the 1960s. Paranormal television arose from this tradition.\nThe earliest TV show devoted exclusively to the paranormal was \"\" which broadcast 96 episodes on the ABC network from 1959 to 1961. The stories were promoted as being based on actual real-life experiences, including historically well-known events such as <a href=\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\">sinking of RMS \"Titanic\"</a>, the <a href=\"1906%20San%20Francisco%20earthquake\">1906 San Francisco earthquake</a>, and the <a href=\"assassination%20of%20Abraham%20Lincoln\">assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a>.\nIt was followed 15 years later by \"<a href=\"In%20Search%20of...%20%28TV%20series%29\">In Search of...</a>\", hosted by <a href=\"Leonard%20Nimoy\">Leonard Nimoy</a> which ran for six years from 1976. <a href=\"Rod%20Serling\">Rod Serling</a> was originally slated to host the series, but he died in 1975. \"In Search of...\" explored many paranormal topics, including <a href=\"UFOs\">UFOs</a>, <a href=\"cryptozoological\">cryptozoological</a> creatures (cryptids), lost civilizations, and other mysteries. Though the subject matter gradually lost popularity, the show gave way to future TV series following the same genre.\n\"<a href=\"Ghostwatch\">Ghostwatch</a>\", a fictional news broadcast about a haunted house in the UK that aired in 1992, <a href=\"Ghostwatch%23Controversy\">created controversy</a> when a majority of viewers believed the televised show was real.\n<a href=\"Discovery%20Channel\">Discovery Channel</a> started to explore the genre with some success from 1996. The <a href=\"Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company\">Fox Broadcasting Company</a> had a news-style oriented show, <a href=\"Sightings%20%28TV%20series%29\">\"Sightings\"</a>, that was hosted by <a href=\"Tim%20White%20%28newscaster/reporter%29\">Tim White</a> and this show lasted for six years. <a href=\"Fear%20%28TV%20series%29\">MTV's \"Fear\"</a> premiered in 2000, establishing the visual look and editing style followed by most paranormal <a href=\"reality%20television\">reality television</a> show. In 2002, the British satellite channel <a href=\"Sky%20Living\">Living TV</a> launched the <a href=\"ghost-hunting\">ghost-hunting</a> series \"<a href=\"Most%20Haunted\">Most Haunted</a>\". Its success helped spawn other shows on the channel, including \"<a href=\"Dead%20Famous%20%28TV%20series%29\">Dead Famous</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Jane%20Goldman%20Investigates\">Jane Goldman Investigates</a>\", and the channel developed a distinctive identity based on paranormal programming. The production company responsible for these programs, <a href=\"Antix%20Productions\">Antix</a>, also produced two series of \"Spook School\" which followed the investigators of \"<a href=\"Para-Projects\">Para-Projects</a>\" as they teach members of the public how to become paranormal investigators themselves.\nNoting the recent trend in reality shows that take the paranormal at face value, <a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a> Culture editor Mike Hale characterized <a href=\"ghost%20hunting\">ghost hunting</a> shows as \"pure theater\" and compared the genre to <a href=\"professional%20wrestling\">professional wrestling</a> or <a href=\"soft%20core%20pornography\">soft core pornography</a> for its formulaic, teasing approach.\n\"<a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\">Los Angeles Times</a>\" staff writer Ed Stockly wrote that \"the paranormal/supernatural-investigation subgenre that has cropped up on cable television over the last few years, which includes \"Ghost Hunters\", \"Destination Truth\", \"Ghost Adventures\", \"Ghost Hunters International\" and a few others\" promises to \"take a skeptical approach in its investigations and to rely on science to confirm or disprove paranormal claims. So far not one has been able to consistently keep that promise.\"","Syfy (Australia)\nSyfy is an Australian subscription television channel dedicated to science fiction and <a href=\"fantasy\">fantasy</a> television shows and movies. The channel launched on 1 January 2014, replacing the closing channel <a href=\"SF%20%28Australia%29\">SF</a>.\nIn August 2013, it was announced that <a href=\"Foxtel\">Foxtel</a> had failed to complete negotiations with the TV1 General Entertainment Partnership (of which <a href=\"NBCUniversal\">NBCUniversal</a> was a part member) for a new carriage deal for their channel <a href=\"SF%20%28Australia%29\">SF</a> (an Australian science fiction channel), and would ultimately replace it with another science fiction dedicated channel once SF's carriage deal had expired. It was announced in September that Syfy, wholly owned by NBCUniversal, would replace SF in early 2014.\nSyfy is part of the international brand <a href=\"Syfy%20Universal\">Syfy Universal</a> and is wholly owned and operated by <a href=\"Universal%20Networks%20International\">Universal Networks International</a> (a division of NBCUniversal). In contrast, SF was an Australian exclusive brand with only 33.33% owned by NBCUniversal (with the remaining shares equally being held by <a href=\"CBS%20Studios%20International\">CBS Studios International</a> and <a href=\"Sony%20Pictures%20Television\">Sony Pictures Television</a>).\nOn 15 April 2014, Syfy launched on <a href=\"Internet%20television%20in%20Australia\">Australian IPTV</a> provider <a href=\"Fetch%20TV\">Fetch TV</a>.\nOn 17 September 2017, the channel received a new logo alongside refreshed branding as part of an international overhaul of the brand by NBCUniversal.\nProgramming features classic and new science fiction and fantasy television shows and movies.\nSyfy has come under criticism from Foxtel subscribers for a number of programming related issues, specifically regarding the high number of repeats and the low quality of the Syfy programming. Significantly, Syfy Australia does not hold the rights to any of the <a href=\"Star%20Trek\">Star Trek</a> franchise, while its <a href=\"SF%20%28Australia%29\">predecessor</a> did.\nSince then Star Trek is now on SYFY\n","Mediumship\nMediumship is the practice of certain people—known as mediums—to purportedly mediate communication between <a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>s of the dead and living human beings. There are different types of \"mediumship\" including spirit channeling, and <a href=\"ouija\">ouija</a>.\nHumans have been fascinated with contacting the dead since the beginning of human existence. Cave paintings by indigenous Australians date back 28,000 years, some depicting skulls, bones, spirits and the afterlife. Other cave paintings in Indonesia date back a further 10,000 years.\nMediumship gained popularity during the nineteenth century, when <a href=\"Ouija\">ouija boards</a> were used by the upper classes as a source of entertainment. Investigations during this period revealed widespread <a href=\"fraud\">fraud</a>—with some practitioners employing techniques used by stage magicians—and the practice began to lose credibility. Fraud is still rife in the medium/psychic industry, with cases of deception and trickery being discovered to this day.\nScientific researchers have attempted to ascertain the validity of claims of mediumship. An experiment undertaken by the <a href=\"British%20Psychological%20Society\">British Psychological Society</a> led to the conclusion that the test subjects demonstrated no mediumistic ability.\nSeveral different variants of mediumship exist; arguably the best-known forms involve a spirit purportedly taking control of a medium's voice and using it to relay a message, or where the medium simply \"hears\" the message and passes it on. Other forms involve <a href=\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\">materializations</a> of the spirit or the presence of a voice, and <a href=\"psychokinesis\">telekinetic</a> activity.\nThe practice is associated with several <a href=\"religious%20belief\">religious-belief</a> systems such as <a href=\"West%20African%20Vodun\">Vodun</a>, <a href=\"Spiritualism\">Spiritualism</a>, <a href=\"Spiritism\">Spiritism</a>, <a href=\"Candombl%C3%A9\">Candomblé</a>, <a href=\"Haitian%20Vodou\">Voodoo</a>, <a href=\"Umbanda\">Umbanda</a> and some <a href=\"New%20Age\">New Age</a> groups.\nIn <a href=\"Spiritism\">Spiritism</a> and <a href=\"Spiritualism\">Spiritualism</a> the medium has the role of an intermediary between the world of the living and the world of spirit. Mediums claim that they can listen to and relay messages from spirits, or that they can allow a spirit to control their body and speak through it directly or by using <a href=\"automatic%20writing\">automatic writing</a> or <a href=\"automatic%20drawing\">drawing</a>.\nSpiritualists classify types of mediumship into two main categories: \"mental\" and \"physical\":\nDuring seances, mediums are said to go into trances, varying from light to deep, that permit spirits to control their minds.\nChanneling can be seen as the modern form of the old mediumship, where the \"channel\" (or channeller) purportedly receives messages from \"teaching-spirit\", an \"<a href=\"Ascended%20Master\">Ascended Master</a>\", from <a href=\"God\">God</a>, or from an <a href=\"Angel\">angelic entity</a>, but essentially through the filter of his own waking <a href=\"consciousness\">consciousness</a> (or \"<a href=\"Higher%20Self\">Higher Self</a>\").\nAttempts to communicate with the dead and other living human beings, aka spirits, have been documented back to early human history. The story of the <a href=\"Witch%20of%20Endor\">Witch of Endor</a> (In the most recent edition of the <a href=\"NIV\">NIV</a> witch is rendered medium in the passage) tells of one who raised the spirit of the deceased prophet <a href=\"Samuel%20%28Bible%29\">Samuel</a> to allow the Hebrew king <a href=\"Saul\">Saul</a> to question his former mentor about an upcoming battle, as related in the \"<a href=\"books%20of%20Samuel\">First book of Samuel</a>\" in the <a href=\"Jewish\">Jewish</a> <a href=\"Tanakh\">Tanakh</a> (the \"<a href=\"Old%20Testament\">Old Testament</a>\").\nMediumship became quite popular in the 19th-century United States and the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a> after the rise of Spiritualism as a religious movement. <a href=\"Spiritualism%20%28religious%20movement%29\">Modern Spiritualism</a> is said to date from practices and lectures of the <a href=\"Fox%20sisters\">Fox sisters</a> in <a href=\"New%20York%20%28state%29\">New York</a> State in 1848. The trance mediums <a href=\"Paschal%20Beverly%20Randolph\">Paschal Beverly Randolph</a> and <a href=\"Emma%20Hardinge%20Britten\">Emma Hardinge Britten</a> were among the most celebrated lecturers and authors on the subject in the mid-19th century. <a href=\"Allan%20Kardec\">Allan Kardec</a> coined the term <a href=\"Spiritism\">Spiritism</a> around 1860. Kardec claimed that conversations with spirits by selected mediums were the basis of his \"The Spirits' Book\" and later, his five-book collection, \"<a href=\"Spiritist%20Codification\">Spiritist Codification</a>\".\nSome scientists of the period who investigated spiritualism also became converts. They included chemist <a href=\"Robert%20Hare%20%28chemist%29\">Robert Hare</a>, physicist <a href=\"William%20Crookes%23Spiritualism\">William Crookes</a> (1832–1919) and evolutionary biologist <a href=\"Alfred%20Russel%20Wallace%23Spiritualism\">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1823–1913). Nobel laureate <a href=\"Pierre%20Curie\">Pierre Curie</a> took a very serious scientific interest in the work of medium <a href=\"Eusapia%20Palladino\">Eusapia Palladino</a>. Other prominent adherents included journalist and pacifist <a href=\"William%20T.%20Stead%23Spiritualism\">William T. Stead</a> (1849–1912) and physician and author <a href=\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> (1859–1930).\nAfter the exposure of the fraudulent use of <a href=\"magic%20%28illusion%29\">stage magic tricks</a> by physical mediums such as the <a href=\"Davenport%20Brothers\">Davenport Brothers</a> and the <a href=\"Bangs%20Sisters\">Bangs Sisters</a>, mediumship fell into disrepute. However, the religion and its beliefs continue in spite of this, with physical mediumship and seances falling out of practice and platform mediumship coming to the fore.\nIn the late 1920s and early 1930s there were around one quarter of a million practising Spiritualists and some two thousand Spiritualist societies in the UK in addition to flourishing microcultures of platform mediumship and 'home circles'. Spiritualism continues to be practiced, primarily through various denominational spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, over 340 spiritualist churches and centres open their doors to the public and free demonstrations of mediumship are regularly performed.\nIn 1958, the <a href=\"England\">English</a>-born Spiritualist C. Dorreen Phillips wrote of her experiences with a medium at <a href=\"Camp%20Chesterfield\">Camp Chesterfield</a>, <a href=\"Indiana\">Indiana</a>: \"In Rev. James Laughton's séances there are many <a href=\"Indigenous%20peoples%20of%20the%20Americas\">Indians</a>. They are very noisy and appear to have great power. [...] The little guides, or doorkeepers, are usually Indian boys and girls [who act] as messengers who help to locate the spirit friends who wish to speak with you.\"\nA spirit who uses a medium to manipulate psychic \"energy\" or \"energy systems.\"\nIn old-line Spiritualism, a portion of the services, generally toward the end, is given over to demonstrations of mediumship through contact with the spirits of the dead. A typical example of this way of describing a mediumistic church service is found in the 1958 autobiography of C. Dorreen Phillips. She writes of the worship services at the Spiritualist <a href=\"Camp%20Chesterfield\">Camp Chesterfield</a> in <a href=\"Chesterfield%2C%20Indiana\">Chesterfield, Indiana</a>: \"Services are held each afternoon, consisting of hymns, a lecture on philosophy, and demonstrations of mediumship.\"\nToday \"demonstration of mediumship\" is part of the church service at all churches affiliated with the <a href=\"National%20Spiritualist%20Association%20of%20Churches\">National Spiritualist Association of Churches</a> (NSAC) and the <a href=\"Spiritualists%27%20National%20Union\">Spiritualists' National Union</a> (SNU). Demonstration links to NSAC's Declaration of Principal #9. \"We affirm that the precepts of Prophecy and Healing are Divine attributes proven through Mediumship.\"\n\"Mental mediumship\" is communication of spirits with a medium by <a href=\"telepathy\">telepathy</a>. The medium mentally \"hears\" (clairaudience), \"sees\" (clairvoyance), and/or feels (clairsentience) messages from spirits. Directly or with the help of a spirit guide, the medium passes the information on to the message's recipient(s). When a medium is doing a \"reading\" for a particular person, that person is known as the \"sitter\".\n\"Trance mediumship\" is often seen as a form of mental mediumship.\nMost <a href=\"trance\">trance</a> mediums remain conscious during a communication period, wherein a spirit uses the medium's mind to communicate. The spirit or spirits using the medium's mind influences the mind with the thoughts being conveyed. The medium allows the <a href=\"Id%2C%20ego%20and%20super-ego\">ego</a> to step aside for the message to be delivered. At the same time, one has awareness of the thoughts coming through and may even influence the message with one's own bias. Such a trance is not to be confused with <a href=\"sleepwalking\">sleepwalking</a>, as the patterns are entirely different. Castillo (1995) states,\nTrance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain.\nIn the 1860s and 1870s, trance mediums were very popular. Spiritualism generally attracted female adherents, many who had strong interests in social justice. Many trance mediums delivered passionate speeches on <a href=\"Abolitionism%20in%20the%20United%20States\">abolitionism</a>, <a href=\"temperance%20movement\">temperance</a>, and <a href=\"women%27s%20suffrage\">women's suffrage</a>. Scholars have described <a href=\"Leonora%20Piper\">Leonora Piper</a> as one of the most famous trance mediums in the history of Spiritualism.\nIn the typical deep trance, the medium may not have clear recall of all the messages conveyed while in an altered state; such people generally work with an assistant. That person selectively wrote down or otherwise recorded the medium's words. Rarely did the assistant record the responding words of the sitter and other attendants. An example of this kind of relationship can be found in the early 20th century collaboration between the trance medium Mrs. Cecil M. Cook of the <a href=\"William%20T.%20Stead\">William T. Stead</a> Memorial Center in Chicago (a religious body incorporated under the statutes of the State of Illinois) and the journalist <a href=\"Lloyd%20Kenyon%20Jones\">Lloyd Kenyon Jones</a>. The latter was a non-medium Spiritualist who transcribed Cook's messages in <a href=\"shorthand\">shorthand</a>. He <a href=\"edited\">edited</a> them for publication in book and pamphlet form.\nPhysical mediumship is defined as manipulation of energies and energy systems by spirits. This type of mediumship is claimed to involve perceptible manifestations, such as loud raps and noises, voices, materialized objects, apports, materialized spirit bodies, or body parts such as hands, legs and feet. The medium is used as a source of power for such spirit manifestations. By some accounts, this was achieved by using the energy or <a href=\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a> released by a medium, see <a href=\"Spirit%20photography\">Spirit photography</a>. The last physical medium to be tested by a committee from \"<a href=\"Scientific%20American\">Scientific American</a>\" was <a href=\"Mina%20Crandon\">Mina Crandon</a> in 1924.\nMost physical mediumship is presented in a darkened or dimly lit room. Most physical mediums make use of a traditional array of tools and appurtenances, including spirit trumpets, spirit cabinets, and levitation tables.\nDirect voice communication is the claim that spirits speak independently of the medium, who facilitates the phenomenon rather than produces it. The role of the medium is to make the connection between the physical and spirit worlds. Trumpets are often utilised to amplify the signal, and directed voice mediums are sometimes known as \"trumpet mediums\". This form of mediumship also permits the medium to participate in the discourse during séances, since the medium's voice is not required by the spirit to communicate. <a href=\"Leslie%20Flint\">Leslie Flint</a> was one of the best known exponents of this form of mediumship.\nIn the later half of the 20th century, Western mediumship developed in two different ways. One type involved <a href=\"psychic\">psychic</a>s or sensitives who speak to spirits and then relay what they hear to their clients. The other incarnation of non-physical mediumship is a form of channeling in which the channeler goes into a trance, or \"leaves their body\", allowing a spiritual entity to borrow their body, who then talks through them. When in a trance the medium appears to come under the control of the spirit of a departed soul, sometimes entering into a <a href=\"cataleptic\">cataleptic</a> state, although modern channelers may not. Some channelers open the eyes when channeling, and remain able to walk and behave normally. The rhythm and the intonation of the voice may also change completely.\nA widely known channeler of this variety is <a href=\"J.%20Z.%20Knight\">J. Z. Knight</a>, who claims to channel the spirit of <a href=\"Ramtha\">Ramtha</a>, a 30 thousand-year-old man. Others purport to channel spirits from \"future dimensions\", <a href=\"ascended%20masters\">ascended masters</a>, or, in the case of the trance mediums of the <a href=\"Brahma%20Kumaris\">Brahma Kumaris</a>, God. Other notable channels are <a href=\"Jane%20Roberts\">Jane Roberts</a> for <a href=\"Seth%20Material\">Seth</a>, <a href=\"Esther%20Hicks\">Esther Hicks</a> for Abraham, and Carla L. Rueckert for Ra.\nIn spiritualism, psychic senses used by mental mediums are sometimes defined differently from in other paranormal fields. A medium is said to have psychic abilities but not all psychics function as mediums.\n<a href=\"Spiritualists\">Spiritualists</a> believe that phenomena produced by mediums (both mental and physical mediumship) are the result of external <a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a> agencies. The psychical researcher <a href=\"Thomson%20Jay%20Hudson\">Thomson Jay Hudson</a> in \"The Law of Psychic Phenomena\" (1892) and <a href=\"Th%C3%A9odore%20Flournoy\">Théodore Flournoy</a> in his book \"Spiritism and Psychology\" (1911) wrote that all kinds of mediumship could be explained by <a href=\"suggestion\">suggestion</a> and <a href=\"telepathy\">telepathy</a> from the medium and that there was no evidence for the spirit hypothesis. The idea of mediumship being explained by telepathy was later merged into the \"<a href=\"Extrasensory%20perception\">super-ESP</a>\" hypothesis of mediumship which is currently advocated by some <a href=\"Parapsychology\">parapsychologists</a>.\nIn their book \"How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age\", authors <a href=\"Theodore%20Schick\">Theodore Schick</a> and Lewis Vaughn have noted that the spiritualist and ESP hypothesis of mediumship \"has yielded no novel predictions, assumes unknown entities or forces, and conflicts with available scientific evidence.\"\nScientists who study <a href=\"anomalistic%20psychology\">anomalistic psychology</a> consider mediumship to be the result of fraud and psychological factors. Research from psychology for over a hundred years suggests that where there is not fraud, mediumship and Spiritualist practices can be explained by <a href=\"hypnotism\">hypnotism</a>, <a href=\"magical%20thinking\">magical thinking</a> and <a href=\"suggestion\">suggestion</a>. Trance mediumship, which according to Spiritualists is caused by discarnate <a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>s speaking through the medium, can be explained by <a href=\"Dissociative%20identity%20disorder\">Dissociative identity disorder</a>.\nMagicians such as <a href=\"Joseph%20Rinn\">Joseph Rinn</a> have staged 'fake' séances in which the sitters have claimed to have observed genuine supernatural phenomena. <a href=\"Albert%20Moll%20%28German%20psychiatrist%29\">Albert Moll</a> studied the psychology of <a href=\"s%C3%A9ance\">séance</a> sitters. According to (Wolffram, 2012) \"[Moll] argued that the hypnotic atmosphere of the darkened <a href=\"s%C3%A9ance\">séance</a> room and the suggestive effect of the experimenters' social and scientific prestige could be used to explain why seemingly rational people vouchsafed occult phenomena.\" The psychologists <a href=\"Leonard%20Zusne\">Leonard Zusne</a> and Warren Jones in their book \"Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking\" (1989) wrote that spirits controls are the \"products of the medium's own psychological dynamics.\"\nA fraudulent medium may obtain information about their sitters by secretly <a href=\"eavesdropping\">eavesdropping</a> on sitter's conversations or searching telephone directories, the <a href=\"internet\">internet</a> and <a href=\"newspaper\">newspaper</a>s before the sittings. A technique called <a href=\"cold%20reading\">cold reading</a> can also be used to obtain information from the sitter's <a href=\"behavior\">behavior</a>, <a href=\"clothing\">clothing</a>, <a href=\"Human%20positions\">posture</a>, and <a href=\"jewellery\">jewellery</a>.\nThe psychologist <a href=\"Richard%20Wiseman\">Richard Wiseman</a> has written:\nCold reading also explains why psychics have consistently failed scientific tests of their powers. By isolating them from their clients, psychics are unable to pick up information from the way those clients dress or behave. By presenting all of the volunteers involved in the test with all of the readings, they are prevented from attributing meaning to their own reading, and therefore can't identify it from readings made for others. As a result, the type of highly successful hit rate that psychics enjoy on a daily basis comes crashing down and the truth emerges – their success depends on a fascinating application of psychology and not the existence of paranormal abilities.\nIn a series of fake séance experiments (Wiseman \"et al\". 2003) <a href=\"paranormal\">paranormal</a> believers and disbelievers were <a href=\"Suggestion\">suggested</a> by an actor that a table was <a href=\"Levitation%20%28paranormal%29\">levitating</a> when, in fact, it remained stationary. After the seance, approximately one third of the participants incorrectly reported that the table had moved. The results showed a greater percentage of believers reporting that the table had moved. In another experiment the believers had also reported that a handbell had moved when it had remained stationary and expressed their belief that the fake séances contained genuine paranormal phenomena. The experiments strongly supported the notion that in the séance room, believers are more suggestible than disbelievers for suggestions that are <a href=\"confirmation%20bias\">consistent with their belief</a> in paranormal phenomena.\nThere have been many instances of fraud and trickery in mediumship practices from its earliest beginnings to contemporary times. <a href=\"S%C3%A9ance\">Séance</a>s take place in darkness so the poor lighting conditions can become an easy opportunity for fraud. Physical mediumship that has been investigated by scientists has been discovered to be the result of <a href=\"deception\">deception</a> and trickery. <a href=\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">Ectoplasm</a> a supposed paranormal substance was revealed to be made from <a href=\"cheesecloth\">cheesecloth</a>, butter, <a href=\"muslin\">muslin</a> and cloth. Mediums would also stick cut-out faces from <a href=\"magazine\">magazine</a>s and newspapers onto <a href=\"cloth\">cloth</a> or on other props and use plastic <a href=\"doll\">doll</a>s in their séances to pretend to their audiences <a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>s were contacting them. <a href=\"Lewis%20Spence\">Lewis Spence</a> in his book \"An Encyclopaedia of Occultism\" (1960) wrote:\nA very large part is played by fraud in spiritualistic practices, both in the physical and psychical, or automatic, phenomena, but especially in the former. The frequency with which mediums have been convicted of fraud has, indeed, induced many people to abandon the study of psychical research, judging the whole bulk of the phenomena to be fraudulently produced.\nIn Britain, the <a href=\"Society%20for%20Psychical%20Research\">Society for Psychical Research</a> has investigated mediumship phenomena. Critical SPR investigations into purported mediums and the exposure of fake mediums has led to a number of resignations by Spiritualist members. On the subject of fraud in mediumship <a href=\"Paul%20Kurtz\">Paul Kurtz</a> wrote:\nNo doubt a great importance in the paranormal field is the problem of fraud. The field of psychic research and spiritualism has been so notoriously full of charlatans, such as the <a href=\"Fox%20sisters\">Fox sisters</a> and <a href=\"Eusapia%20Palladino\">Eusapia Palladino</a>–individuals who claim to have special power and gifts but who are actually conjurers who have hoodwinked scientists and the public as well–that we have to be especially cautious about claims made on their behalf.\n<a href=\"Magic%20%28illusion%29\">Magicians</a> have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. Early debunkers included <a href=\"Chung%20Ling%20Soo\">Chung Ling Soo</a>, <a href=\"Henry%20R.%20Evans\">Henry Evans</a> and <a href=\"Julien%20Proskauer\">Julien Proskauer</a>. Later magicians to reveal fraud were <a href=\"Joseph%20Dunninger\">Joseph Dunninger</a>, <a href=\"Harry%20Houdini\">Harry Houdini</a> and <a href=\"Joseph%20Rinn\">Joseph Rinn</a>.\nMany 19th century mediums were discovered to be engaged in <a href=\"fraud\">fraud</a>. While advocates of mediumship claim that their experiences are genuine, the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" article on spiritualism notes in reference to a case in the 19th century that \"...one by one, the <a href=\"Spiritualist\">Spiritualist</a> mediums were discovered to be engaged in fraud, sometimes employing the techniques of stage magicians in their attempts to convince people of their clairvoyant powers.\" The article also notes that \"the exposure of widespread fraud within the spiritualist movement severely damaged its reputation and pushed it to the fringes of society in the United States.\"\nAt a <a href=\"s%C3%A9ance\">séance</a> in the house of the solicitor John Snaith Rymer in <a href=\"Ealing\">Ealing</a> in July 1855, a sitter Frederick Merrifield observed that a \"spirit-hand\" was a false limb attached on the end of the medium <a href=\"Daniel%20Dunglas%20Home\">Daniel Dunglas Home</a>'s arm. Merrifield also claimed to have observed Home use his foot in the séance room.\nThe poet <a href=\"Robert%20Browning\">Robert Browning</a> and his wife <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Barrett%20Browning\">Elizabeth</a> attended a séance on 23, July 1855 in Ealing with the Rymers. During the séance a spirit face materialized which Home claimed was the son of Browning who had died in infancy. Browning seized the \"materialization\" and discovered it to be the bare foot of Home. To make the deception worse, Browning had never lost a son in infancy. Browning's son <a href=\"Robert%20Barrett%20Browning\">Robert</a> in a letter to \"<a href=\"The%20Times\">The Times</a>\", December 5, 1902 referred to the incident \"Home was detected in a vulgar fraud.\" The researchers <a href=\"Joseph%20McCabe\">Joseph McCabe</a> and <a href=\"Trevor%20H.%20Hall\">Trevor H. Hall</a> exposed the \"<a href=\"levitation%20%28paranormal%29\">levitation</a>\" of Home as nothing more than his moving across a connecting ledge between two iron balconies.\nThe psychologist and psychical researcher <a href=\"Stanley%20LeFevre%20Krebs\">Stanley LeFevre Krebs</a> had exposed the <a href=\"Bangs%20Sisters\">Bangs Sisters</a> as frauds. During a séance he employed a hidden mirror and caught them tampering with a letter in an envelope and writing a reply in it under the table which they would pretend a spirit had written. The British materialization medium Rosina Mary Showers was caught in many fraudulent séances throughout her career. In 1874 during a séance with <a href=\"Edward%20William%20Cox\">Edward William Cox</a> a sitter looked into the cabinet and seized the spirit, the <a href=\"Headgear\">headdress</a> fell off and was revealed to be Showers.\nIn a series of experiments in <a href=\"London\">London</a> at the house of <a href=\"William%20Crookes\">William Crookes</a> in February 1875, the medium <a href=\"Anna%20Eva%20Fay\">Anna Eva Fay</a> managed to fool Crookes into believing she had genuine <a href=\"psychic\">psychic</a> powers. Fay later confessed to her fraud and revealed the tricks she had used. Frank Herne a British medium who formed a partnership with the medium Charles Williams was repeatedly exposed in fraudulent <a href=\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\">materialization</a> séances. In 1875, he was caught pretending to be a spirit during a séance in Liverpool and was found \"clothed in about two yards of stiffened muslin, wound round his head and hanging down as far as his thigh.\" <a href=\"Florence%20Cook\">Florence Cook</a> had been \"trained in the arts of the séance\" by Herne and was repeatedly exposed as a fraudulent medium.\nThe medium <a href=\"Henry%20Slade\">Henry Slade</a> was caught in fraud many times throughout his career. In a séance in 1876 in London <a href=\"Ray%20Lankester\">Ray Lankester</a> and Bryan Donkin snatched his <a href=\"Slate%20%28writing%29\">slate</a> before the \"<a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>\" message was supposed to be written, and found the writing already there. Slade also played an <a href=\"accordion\">accordion</a> with one hand under the table and claimed spirits would play it. The magician <a href=\"Chung%20Ling%20Soo\">Chung Ling Soo</a> revealed how Slade had performed the trick.\nThe British medium <a href=\"Francis%20Ward%20Monck\">Francis Ward Monck</a> was investigated by psychical researchers and discovered to be a fraud. On November 3, 1876 during the séance a sitter demanded that Monck be searched. Monck ran from the room, locked himself in another room and escaped out of a window. A pair of stuffed gloves was found in his room, as well as cheesecloth, reaching rods and other fraudulent devices in his luggage. After a trial Monck was convicted for his fraudulent mediumship and was sentenced to three months in prison.\nIn 1876, <a href=\"William%20Eglinton\">William Eglinton</a> was exposed as a fraud when the <a href=\"Parapsychology\">psychical researcher</a> Thomas Colley seized a \"spirit\" materialization in his séance and cut off a portion of its cloak. It was discovered that the cut piece matched a <a href=\"cloth\">cloth</a> found in Eglinton's <a href=\"suitcase\">suitcase</a>. Colley also pulled the beard off the materialization and it was revealed to be a fake, the same as another one found in the suitcase of Eglinton. In 1880 in a <a href=\"s%C3%A9ance\">séance</a> a spirit named \"Yohlande\" materialized, a sitter grabbed it and was revealed to be the medium <a href=\"Mme.%20d%27Esperance\">Mme. d'Esperance</a> herself.\nIn September 1878 the British medium Charles Williams and his fellow-medium at the time, A. Rita, were detected in trickery at Amsterdam. During the séance a materialized spirit was seized and found to be Rita and a bottle of phosphorus oil, <a href=\"muslin\">muslin</a> and a false beard were found amongst the two mediums. In 1882 C. E. Wood was exposed in a séance in Peterborough. Her Indian spirit control \"Pocka\" was found to be the medium on her knees, covered in muslin.\nIn 1880 the American stage mentalist <a href=\"Washington%20Irving%20Bishop\">Washington Irving Bishop</a> published a book revealing how mediums would use secret codes as the trick for their <a href=\"Clairvoyance\">clairvoyant</a> readings. The <a href=\"Seybert%20Commission\">Seybert Commission</a> was a group of faculty at the University of Pennsylvania who in 1884–1887 exposed fraudulent mediums such as <a href=\"Pierre%20L.%20O.%20A.%20Keeler\">Pierre L. O. A. Keeler</a> and <a href=\"Henry%20Slade\">Henry Slade</a>. The <a href=\"Fox%20sisters\">Fox sisters</a> confessed to fraud in 1888. Margaret Fox revealed that she and her sister had produced the \"<a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>\" rappings by cracking their toe joints.\nIn 1891 at a public séance with twenty sitters the medium <a href=\"Cecil%20Husk\">Cecil Husk</a> was caught leaning over a table pretending to be a spirit by covering his face with phosphor material. The magician <a href=\"Will%20Goldston\">Will Goldston</a> also exposed the fraud mediumship of Husk. In a séance Goldston attended a pale face materialization appeared in the room. Goldston wrote \"I saw at once that it was a gauze mask, and that the moustache attached to it was loose at one side through lack of gum. I pulled at the mask. It came away, revealing the face of Husk.\" The British materialization medium <a href=\"Annie%20Fairlamb%20Mellon\">Annie Fairlamb Mellon</a> was exposed as a fraud on October 12, 1894. During the séance a sitter seized the materialized spirit, and found it to be the Mellon on her knees with white <a href=\"muslin\">muslin</a> on her head and shoulders.\nThe magician <a href=\"Samri%20Baldwin\">Samri Baldwin</a> exposed the tricks of the <a href=\"Davenport%20brothers\">Davenport brothers</a> in his book \"The Secrets of Mahatma Land Explained\" (1895). The medium <a href=\"Swami%20Laura%20Horos\">Swami Laura Horos</a> was convicted of fraud several times and was tried for <a href=\"rape\">rape</a> and fraud in London in 1901. She was described by the magician <a href=\"Harry%20Houdini\">Harry Houdini</a> as \"one of the most extraordinary fake mediums and mystery swindlers the world has ever known\".\nIn the late 19th century the fraudulent methods of <a href=\"Spirit%20photography\">spirit photographers</a> such as <a href=\"David%20Duguid\">David Duguid</a> and <a href=\"Edward%20Wyllie\">Edward Wyllie</a> were revealed by psychical researchers. <a href=\"Hereward%20Carrington\">Hereward Carrington</a> documented various methods (with diagrams) how the medium would manipulate the <a href=\"Photographic%20plate\">plates</a> before, during, and after the séance to produce spirit forms. The <a href=\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a> materializations of the French medium <a href=\"Eva%20Carri%C3%A8re\">Eva Carrière</a> were exposed as fraudulent. The fake ectoplasm of Carrière was made of cut-out paper faces from newspapers and magazines on which fold marks could sometimes be seen from the photographs. Cut out faces that she used included <a href=\"Woodrow%20Wilson\">Woodrow Wilson</a>, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, French president <a href=\"Raymond%20Poincar%C3%A9\">Raymond Poincaré</a> and the actress Mona Delza.\nThe séance trick of the <a href=\"Eddy%20Brothers\">Eddy Brothers</a> was revealed by the magician <a href=\"Chung%20Ling%20Soo\">Chung Ling Soo</a> in 1898. The brothers utilized a fake hand made of lead, and with their hands free from control would play musical instruments and move objects in the séance room. The physiologist <a href=\"Ivor%20Lloyd%20Tuckett\">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a> examined a case of <a href=\"spirit%20photography\">spirit photography</a> that <a href=\"William%20Thomas%20Stead\">W. T. Stead</a> had claimed was genuine. Stead visited a photographer who had produced a photograph of him with deceased soldier known as \"Piet Botha\". Stead claimed that the photographer could not have come across any information about Piet Botha, however, Tuckett discovered that an article in 1899 had been published on Pietrus Botha in a weekly magazine with a portrait and personal details.\nThe trance medium <a href=\"Leonora%20Piper\">Leonora Piper</a> was investigated by psychical researchers and <a href=\"psychologist\">psychologist</a>s in the late 19th and early 20th century. In an experiment to test if Piper's \"spirit\" controls were purely fictitious the psychologist <a href=\"G.%20Stanley%20Hall\">G. Stanley Hall</a> invented a niece called Bessie Beals and asked Piper's 'control' to get in touch with it. Bessie appeared, answered questions and accepted Dr. Hall as her uncle. The psychologist <a href=\"Joseph%20Jastrow\">Joseph Jastrow</a> wrote that Piper pretended to be controlled by spirits and fell into simple and logical traps from her comments. Science writer <a href=\"Martin%20Gardner\">Martin Gardner</a> concluded Piper was a <a href=\"Cold%20reading\">cold reader</a> that would \"fish\" for information from her séance sitters. The physiologist <a href=\"Ivor%20Lloyd%20Tuckett\">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a> who examined Piper's mediumship in detail wrote it could be explained by \"muscle-reading, fishing, guessing, hints obtained in the sitting, knowledge surreptitiously obtained, knowledge acquired in the interval between sittings and lastly, facts already within Mrs. Piper's knowledge.\"\nIn March 1902 in <a href=\"Berlin\">Berlin</a>, police officers interrupted a séance of the German <a href=\"Apport%20%28paranormal%29\">apport</a> medium Frau Anna Rothe. Her hands were grabbed and she was wrestled to the ground. A female police assistant physically examined Rothe and discovered 157 <a href=\"flower\">flower</a>s as well as <a href=\"Orange%20%28fruit%29\">oranges</a> and lemons hidden in her petticoat. She was arrested and charged with fraud. Another apport medium Hilda Lewis known as the \"flower medium\" confessed to fraud.\nThe psychical researchers <a href=\"W.%20W.%20Baggally\">W. W. Baggally</a> and <a href=\"Everard%20Feilding\">Everard Feilding</a> exposed the British <a href=\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\">materialization</a> medium Christopher Chambers as a fraud in 1905. A false moustache was discovered in the séance room which he used to fabricate the spirit materializations. The British medium Charles Eldred was exposed as a fraud in 1906. Eldred would sit in a chair in a curtained off area in the room known as a \"séance cabinet\". Various spirit figures would emerge from the cabinet and move around the séance room, however, it was discovered that the chair had a secret compartment that contained beards, cloths, <a href=\"mask\">mask</a>s, and wigs that Eldred would dress up in to fake the spirits.\nThe spirit photographer <a href=\"William%20Hope%20%28paranormal%20investigator%29\">William Hope</a> tricked <a href=\"William%20Crookes\">William Crookes</a> with a fake spirit photograph of his wife in 1906. <a href=\"Oliver%20Lodge\">Oliver Lodge</a> revealed there had been obvious signs of double exposure, the picture of Lady Crookes had been copied from a wedding anniversary photograph, however, Crookes was a convinced spiritualist and claimed it was genuine evidence for <a href=\"spirit%20photography\">spirit photography</a>.\nIn 1907, <a href=\"Hereward%20Carrington\">Hereward Carrington</a> exposed the tricks of fraudulent mediums such as those used in slate-writing, <a href=\"table-turning\">table-turning</a>, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading and <a href=\"spirit%20photography\">spirit photography</a>. between 1908 and 1914 the Italian medium Francesco Carancini was investigated by psychical researchers and they discovered that he used <a href=\"phosphorus\">phosphorus</a> <a href=\"match\">match</a>es to produce \"spirit lights\" and with a freed hand would move objects in the séance room.\nIn 1908 at a hotel in <a href=\"Naples\">Naples</a>, the psychical researchers <a href=\"W.%20W.%20Baggally\">W. W. Baggally</a>, Hereward Carrington and <a href=\"Everard%20Feilding\">Everard Feilding</a> attended a series of séances with <a href=\"Eusapia%20Palladino\">Eusapia Palladino</a>. In a report they claimed that genuine supernatural activity had occurred in the séances, this report became known as the Feilding report. In 1910, Feilding returned to Naples, but this time accompanied with the magician <a href=\"William%20S.%20Marriott\">William S. Marriott</a>. Unlike the 1908 sittings, Feilding and Marriott detected her cheating, just as she had done in America. Her deceptions were obvious. Palladino evaded control and was caught moving objects with her foot, shaking the curtain with her hands, moving the cabinet table with her elbow and touching the séance sitters. <a href=\"Milbourne%20Christopher\">Milbourne Christopher</a> wrote regarding the exposure \"when one knows how a feat can be done and what to look for, only the most skillful performer can maintain the illusion in the face of such informed scrutiny.\"\nIn 1910 at a séance in Grenoble, France the <a href=\"Apport%20%28paranormal%29\">apport</a> medium <a href=\"Charles%20Bailey%20%28medium%29\">Charles Bailey</a> produced two live birds in the séance room. Bailey was unaware that the dealer he had bought the birds from was present in the séance and he was exposed as a fraud. The psychical researcher <a href=\"Eric%20Dingwall\">Eric Dingwall</a> observed the medium <a href=\"Bert%20Reese\">Bert Reese</a> in New York and claimed to have discovered his <a href=\"billet%20reading\">billet reading</a> tricks. The most detailed account at exposing his tricks (with diagrams) was by the magician <a href=\"Theodore%20Annemann\">Theodore Annemann</a>.\nThe Polish medium <a href=\"Stanis%C5%82awa%20Tomczyk\">Stanisława Tomczyk</a>'s levitation of a glass beaker was exposed and replicated in 1910 by the magician <a href=\"William%20S.%20Marriott\">William S. Marriott</a> by means of a hidden thread. The Italian medium Lucia Sordi was exposed in 1911, she was bound to a chair by psychical researchers but would free herself during her séances. The tricks of another Italian medium <a href=\"Linda%20Gazzera\">Linda Gazzera</a> were revealed in the same year, she would release her hands and feet from control in her séances and use them. Gazzera would not permit anyone to search her before a séance sitting, as she concealed <a href=\"muslin\">muslin</a> and other objects in her hair.\nIn 1917, <a href=\"Edward%20Clodd\">Edward Clodd</a> analyzed the mediumship of the trance medium <a href=\"Gladys%20Osborne%20Leonard\">Gladys Osborne Leonard</a> and came to the conclusion that Leonard had known her séance sitters before she had held the séances, and could have easily obtained such information by natural means. The British psychiatrist <a href=\"Charles%20Arthur%20Mercier\">Charles Arthur Mercier</a> wrote in his book \"Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge\" (1917) that <a href=\"Oliver%20Lodge\">Oliver Lodge</a> had been duped into believing mediumship by trickery and his spiritualist views were based on assumptions and not scientific evidence.\nIn 1918, <a href=\"Joseph%20Jastrow\">Joseph Jastrow</a> wrote about the tricks of <a href=\"Eusapia%20Palladino\">Eusapia Palladino</a> who was an expert at freeing her hands and feet from the control in the séance room. In the séance room Palladino would move curtains from a distance by releasing a jet of air from a rubber bulb that she had in her hand. According to the psychical researcher <a href=\"Harry%20Price\">Harry Price</a> \"Her tricks were usually childish: long hairs attached to small objects in order to produce 'telekinetic movements'; the gradual substitution of one hand for two when being controlled by sitters; the production of 'phenomena' with a foot which had been surreptitiously removed from its shoe and so on.\"\nIn the 1920s the British medium Charles Albert Beare duped the Spiritualist organization the Temple of Light into believing he had genuine mediumship powers. In 1931 Beare published a confession in the newspaper \"<a href=\"Daily%20Express\">Daily Express</a>\". In the confession he stated \"I have deceived hundreds of people…. I have been guilty of fraud and deception in spiritualistic practices by pretending that I was controlled by a spirit guide…. I am frankly and whole-heartedly sorry that I have allowed myself to deceive people.\" Due to the exposure of <a href=\"William%20Hope%20%28paranormal%20investigator%29\">William Hope</a> and other fraudulent spiritualists, <a href=\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> in the 1920s led a mass resignation of eighty-four members of the <a href=\"Society%20for%20Psychical%20Research\">Society for Psychical Research</a>, as they believed the Society was opposed to spiritualism.\nBetween 8 November and 31 December 1920 <a href=\"Gustav%20Geley\">Gustav Geley</a> of the Institute Metapsychique International attended fourteen séances with the medium <a href=\"Franek%20Kluski\">Franek Kluski</a> in Paris. A bowl of hot paraffin was placed in the room and according to Kluski spirits dipped their limbs into the <a href=\"Paraffin%20wax\">paraffin</a> and then into a bath of water to materialize. Three other series of séances were held in Warsaw in Kluski's own apartment, these took place over a period of three years. Kluski was not searched in any of the séances. Photographs of the molds were obtained during the four series of experiments and were published by Geley in 1924. <a href=\"Harry%20Houdini\">Harry Houdini</a> replicated the Kluski materialization moulds by using his hands and a bowl of hot paraffin.\nThe British direct-voice medium <a href=\"Frederick%20Tansley%20Munnings\">Frederick Tansley Munnings</a> was exposed as a fraud when one of his séance sitters turned the lights on which revealed him to be holding a trumpet by means of a telescopic extension piece and using an angle piece to change the auditory effect of his voice. <a href=\"Richard%20Hodgson%20%28parapsychologist%29\">Richard Hodgson</a> held six sittings with the medium <a href=\"Rosina%20Thompson\">Rosina Thompson</a> and came to the conclusion she was a fraud as he discovered Thompson had access to documents and information about her séance sitters.\nOn 4 February 1922, <a href=\"Harry%20Price\">Harry Price</a> with James Seymour, <a href=\"Eric%20Dingwall\">Eric Dingwall</a> and <a href=\"William%20S.%20Marriott\">William S. Marriott</a> had proven the spirit photographer <a href=\"William%20Hope%20%28paranormal%20investigator%29\">William Hope</a> was a fraud during tests at the British College of Psychic Science. Price wrote in his SPR report \"William Hope has been found guilty of deliberately substituting his own plates for those of a sitter... It implies that the medium brings to the sitting a duplicate slide and faked plates for fraudulent purposes.\" The medium <a href=\"Kathleen%20Goligher\">Kathleen Goligher</a> was investigated by the physicist <a href=\"Edmund%20Edward%20Fournier%20d%27Albe\">Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe</a>. On July 22, 1921 in a séance he observed Goligher holding the table up with her foot. He also discovered that her <a href=\"ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a> was made of muslin. During a séance d'Albe observed white muslin between Goligher's feet.\nThe Danish medium <a href=\"Einer%20Nielsen\">Einer Nielsen</a> was investigated by a committee from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Oslo\">Kristiania University</a> in Norway, 1922 and discovered in a séance that his ectoplasm was fake. In 1923 the Polish medium <a href=\"Jan%20Guzyk\">Jan Guzyk</a> was exposed as a fraud in a series of séances in Sorbonne in <a href=\"Paris\">Paris</a>. Guzyk would use his elbows and legs to move objects around the room and touch the sitters. According to <a href=\"Max%20Dessoir\">Max Dessoir</a> the trick of Guzyk was to use his \"foot for psychic touches and sounds\".\nThe psychical researchers <a href=\"Eric%20Dingwall\">Eric Dingwall</a> and <a href=\"Harry%20Price\">Harry Price</a> re-published an anonymous work written by a former medium entitled \"Revelations of a Spirit Medium\" (1922) which exposed the tricks of mediumship and the fraudulent methods of producing \"spirit hands\". Originally all the copies of the book were bought up by spiritualists and deliberately destroyed. In 1923, the magician <a href=\"Carlos%20Mar%C3%ADa%20de%20Heredia\">Carlos María de Heredia</a> revealed how fake spirit hands could be made by using a rubber glove, paraffin and a jar of cold water.\nThe Hungarian medium <a href=\"Ladislas%20Lasslo\">Ladislas Lasslo</a> confessed that all of his spirit <a href=\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\">materializations</a> were fraudulent in 1924. A séance sitter was also found to be working as a confederate for Lasslo.\nThe Austrian medium <a href=\"Rudi%20Schneider\">Rudi Schneider</a> was investigated in 1924 by the physicists <a href=\"Stefan%20Meyer%20%28physicist%29\">Stefan Meyer</a> and Karl Przibram. They caught Rudi freeing his arm in a series of séances. Rudi claimed he could <a href=\"Levitation%20%28paranormal%29\">levitate</a> objects but according to <a href=\"Harry%20Price\">Harry Price</a> a photograph taken on April 28, 1932 showed that Rudi had managed to free his arm to move a handkerchief from the table. According to Warren Jay Vinton, Schneider was an expert at freeing himself from control in the séance room. <a href=\"Oliver%20Gatty\">Oliver Gatty</a> and <a href=\"Theodore%20Besterman\">Theodore Besterman</a> who tested Schneider concluded that in their tests there was \"no good evidence that Rudi Schneider possesses supernormal powers.\"\nThe spiritualists <a href=\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> and <a href=\"William%20Thomas%20Stead\">W. T. Stead</a> were duped into believing <a href=\"Julius%20and%20Agnes%20Zancig\">Julius and Agnes Zancig</a> had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that the Zancigs performed <a href=\"telepathy\">telepathy</a>. In 1924 Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their <a href=\"Mentalism\">mind reading</a> act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of \"Our Secrets!!\" in a London Newspaper.\nIn 1925, <a href=\"Samuel%20Soal\">Samuel Soal</a> claimed to have taken part in a series of séances with the medium <a href=\"Blanche%20Cooper\">Blanche Cooper</a> who contacted the spirit of a soldier Gordon Davis and revealed the <a href=\"house\">house</a> that he had lived in. Researchers later discovered fraud as the séances had taken place in 1922, not 1925. The magician and paranormal investigator Bob Couttie revealed that Davis was alive, Soal lived close to him and had altered the records of the sittings after checking out the house. Soal's co-workers knew that he had fiddled the results but were kept quiet with threats of libel suits.\n<a href=\"Mina%20Crandon\">Mina Crandon</a> claimed to materialize a \"spirit hand\", but when examined by biologists the hand was discovered to be made from a piece of carved animal liver. The German <a href=\"Apport%20%28paranormal%29\">apport</a> medium <a href=\"Heinrich%20Melzer\">Heinrich Melzer</a> was discovered to be a fraud in 1926. In a séance psychical researchers found that Melzer had small stones attached to the back of his ears by flesh coloured tape. Psychical researchers who investigated the mediumship of <a href=\"Maria%20Silbert\">Maria Silbert</a> revealed that she used her feet and toes to move objects in the séance room.\nIn 1930 the Polish medium <a href=\"Stanis%C5%82awa%20P.\">Stanisława P.</a> was tested at the Institut Metapsychique in <a href=\"Paris\">Paris</a>. French psychical researcher <a href=\"Eug%C3%A9ne%20Osty\">Eugéne Osty</a> suspected in the séance that Stanislawa had freed her hand from control. Secret flashlight photographs that were taken revealed that her hand was free and she had moved objects on the séance table. It was claimed by spiritualists that during a series of séances in 1930 the medium <a href=\"Eileen%20J.%20Garrett\">Eileen J. Garrett</a> channeled secret information from the spirit of the Lieutenant <a href=\"Herbert%20Carmichael%20Irwin\">Herbert Carmichael Irwin</a> who had died in the <a href=\"R101\">R101</a> crash a few days before the séance. Researcher <a href=\"Melvin%20Harris\">Melvin Harris</a> who studied the case wrote that the information described in Garrett's séances were \"either commonplace, easily absorbed bits and pieces, or plain gobblede-gook. The so-called secret information just doesn't exist.\"\nIn the 1930s <a href=\"Harry%20Price\">Harry Price</a> (director of the <a href=\"National%20Laboratory%20of%20Psychical%20Research\">National Laboratory of Psychical Research</a>) had investigated the medium <a href=\"Helen%20Duncan\">Helen Duncan</a> and had her perform a number of test séances. She was suspected of swallowing <a href=\"cheesecloth\">cheesecloth</a> which was then regurgitated as \"<a href=\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a>\". Price had proven through analysis of a sample of ectoplasm produced by Duncan, that it was made of cheesecloth. <a href=\"Helen%20Duncan\">Helen Duncan</a> would also use a doll made of a painted papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet which she pretended to her sitters was a spirit. The photographs taken by <a href=\"Thomas%20Glendenning%20Hamilton\">Thomas Glendenning Hamilton</a> in the 1930s of <a href=\"ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a> reveal the substance to be made of tissue paper and magazine cut-outs of people. The famous photograph taken by Hamilton of the medium Mary Ann Marshall depicts <a href=\"tissue%20paper\">tissue paper</a> with a cut out of <a href=\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>'s head from a newspaper. Skeptics have suspected that Hamilton may have been behind the <a href=\"hoax\">hoax</a>.\nPsychologists and researchers who studied Pearl Curran's <a href=\"automatic%20writing\">automatic writing</a>s in the 1930s came to the conclusion <a href=\"Patience%20Worth\">Patience Worth</a> was a fictitious creation of Curran. In 1931 <a href=\"George%20Valiantine\">George Valiantine</a> was exposed as a fraud in the séance room as it was discovered that he produced fraudulent \"<a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>\" fingerprints in wax. The \"spirit\" thumbprint that Valiantine claimed belonged to <a href=\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> was revealed to be the print of his big toe on his right foot. It was also revealed that Valiantine made some of the prints with his elbow.\nThe medium <a href=\"Frank%20Decker%20%28medium%29\">Frank Decker</a> was exposed as a fraud in 1932. A magician and séance sitter who called himself M. Taylor presented a mail bag and Decker agreed to lock himself inside it. During the séance objects were moved around the room and it was claimed spirits had released Decker from the bag. It was later discovered to have been a trick as Martin Sunshine, a magic dealer admitted that he sold Decker a trick mail bag, such as stage <a href=\"Escapology\">escapologists</a> use, and had acted as the medium's confederate by pretending to be M. Taylor, a magician. The British medium <a href=\"Estelle%20Roberts\">Estelle Roberts</a> claimed to materialize an Indian <a href=\"spirit%20guide\">spirit guide</a> called \"Red Cloud\". Researcher <a href=\"Melvin%20Harris\">Melvin Harris</a> who examined some photographs of Red Cloud wrote the face was the same as Roberts and she had dressed up in a feathered war-bonnet.\nIn 1936, the psychical researcher <a href=\"Nandor%20Fodor\">Nandor Fodor</a> tested the Hungarian apport medium <a href=\"Lajos%20Pap\">Lajos Pap</a> in <a href=\"London\">London</a> and during the séance a dead snake appeared. Pap was searched and was found to be wearing a device under his robe, where he had hidden the snake. A photograph taken at a séance in 1937 in London shows the medium <a href=\"Colin%20Evans%20%28medium%29\">Colin Evans</a> \"levitating\" in mid air. He claimed that spirits had lifted him. Evans was later discovered to be a fraud as a cord leading from a device in his hand has indicated that it was himself who triggered the flash-photograph and that all he had done was jump from his chair into the air and pretend he had levitated.\nAccording to the magician <a href=\"John%20Booth%20%28magician%29\">John Booth</a> the stage mentalist <a href=\"David%20Devant\">David Devant</a> managed to fool a number of people into believing he had genuine <a href=\"psychic\">psychic</a> ability who did not realize that his feats were magic tricks. At <a href=\"St.%20George%27s%20Hall%2C%20London\">St. George's Hall, London</a> he performed a fake \"clairvoyant\" act where he would read a message sealed inside an envelope. The spiritualist <a href=\"Oliver%20Lodge\">Oliver Lodge</a> who was present in the audience was duped by the trick and claimed that Devant had used psychic powers. In 1936 Devant in his book \"Secrets of My Magic\" revealed the trick method he had used.\nThe physicist <a href=\"Kristian%20Birkeland\">Kristian Birkeland</a> exposed the fraud of the direct voice medium <a href=\"Etta%20Wriedt\">Etta Wriedt</a>. Birkeland turned on the lights during a séance, snatched her trumpets and discovered that the \"<a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>\" noises were caused by chemical explosions induced by potassium and water and in other cases by <a href=\"lycopodium\">lycopodium</a> powder. The British medium Isa Northage claimed to materialize the spirit of a <a href=\"surgeon\">surgeon</a> known as Dr. Reynolds. When photographs taken of Reynolds were analyzed by researchers they discovered that Northage looked like Reynolds with a glued stage beard.\nThe magician <a href=\"Julien%20Proskauer\">Julien Proskauer</a> revealed that the levitating trumpet of <a href=\"Jack%20Webber\">Jack Webber</a> was a trick. Close examination of photographs reveal Webber to be holding a telescopic reaching rod attached to the trumpet, and sitters in his séances only believed it to have levitated because the room was so dark they could not see the rod. Webber would cover the rod with crepe paper to disguise its real construction.\nIn 1954, the psychical researcher Rudolf Lambert published a report revealing details about a case of fraud that was covered up by many early members of the <a href=\"Institute%20Metapsychique%20International\">Institute Metapsychique International</a> (IMI). Lambert who had studied <a href=\"Gustav%20Geley\">Gustav Geley</a>'s files on the medium <a href=\"Eva%20Carri%C3%A8re\">Eva Carrière</a> discovered photographs depicting fraudulent <a href=\"ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a> taken by her companion Juliette Bisson. Various \"materializations\" were artificially attached to Eva's hair by wires. The discovery was never published by Geley. <a href=\"Eug%C3%A9ne%20Osty\">Eugéne Osty</a> (the director of the institute) and members Jean Meyer, <a href=\"Albert%20von%20Schrenck-Notzing\">Albert von Schrenck-Notzing</a> and <a href=\"Charles%20Richet\">Charles Richet</a> all knew about the fraudulent photographs but were firm believers in mediumship phenomena so demanded the scandal be kept secret.\nThe fraudulent medium Ronald Edwin confessed he had duped his séance sitters and revealed the fraudulent methods he had used in his book \"Clock Without Hands\" (1955). The psychical researcher <a href=\"Tony%20Cornell\">Tony Cornell</a> investigated the mediumship of <a href=\"Alec%20Harris\">Alec Harris</a> in 1955. During the séance \"<a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>\" materializations emerged from a cabinet and walked around the room. Cornell wrote that a stomach rumble, nicotine smelling breath and a pulse gave it away that all the spirit figures were in fact Harris and that he had dressed up as each one behind the cabinet.\nThe British medium <a href=\"William%20Roy%20%28medium%29\">William Roy</a> earned over £50,000 from his séance sitters. He confessed to fraud in 1958 revealing the microphone and trick-apparatus that he had used. The <a href=\"automatic%20writing\">automatic writing</a>s of the Irish medium <a href=\"Geraldine%20Cummins\">Geraldine Cummins</a> were analyzed by psychical researchers in the 1960s and they revealed that she worked as a cataloguer at the <a href=\"National%20Library%20of%20Ireland\">National Library of Ireland</a> and took information from various books that would appear in her automatic writings about ancient history.\nIn 1960, psychic investigator <a href=\"Andrija%20Puharich\">Andrija Puharich</a> and Tom O'Neill, publisher of the Spiritualist magazine \"Psychic Observer\", arranged to film two seances at <a href=\"Camp%20Chesterfield\">Camp Chesterfield</a>, Indiana using infrared film, intending to procure scientific proof of spirit materializations. The medium was shown the camera beforehand, and was aware that she was being filmed. However, the film revealed obvious fraud on the part of the medium and her cabinet assistant. The expose was published in the 10 July 1960 issue of the \"Psychic Observer\".\nIn 1966 the son of <a href=\"James%20Pike\">Bishop Pike</a> committed suicide. After his death, Pike contacted the British medium <a href=\"Ena%20Twigg\">Ena Twigg</a> for a series of séances and she claimed to have communicated with his son. Although Twigg denied formerly knowing anything about Pike and his son, the magician <a href=\"John%20Booth%20%28magician%29\">John Booth</a> discovered that Twigg had already known information about the Pike family before the séances. Twigg had belonged to the same denomination of Bishop Pike, he had preached at a <a href=\"cathedral\">cathedral</a> in Kent and she had known information about him and his deceased son from newspapers.\nIn 1970 two psychical researchers investigated the direct-voice medium <a href=\"Leslie%20Flint\">Leslie Flint</a> and found that all the \"<a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a>\" voices in his séance sounded exactly like himself and attributed his mediumship to \"second-rate <a href=\"ventriloquism\">ventriloquism</a>\". The medium <a href=\"Arthur%20Ford%20%28psychic%29\">Arthur Ford</a> died leaving specific instructions that all of his files should be burned. In 1971 after his death, psychical researchers discovered his files but instead of burning them they were examined and discovered to be filled with obituaries, <a href=\"newspaper\">newspaper</a> articles and other information, which enabled Ford to research his séance sitters backgrounds.\n<a href=\"Ronald%20Pearsall\">Ronald Pearsall</a> in his book \"Table-rappers: The Victorians and the Occult\" (1972) documented how every Victorian medium investigated had been exposed as using trickery, in the book he revealed how mediums would even use acrobatic techniques during séances to convince audiences of spirit presences.\nIn 1976, <a href=\"M.%20Lamar%20Keene\">M. Lamar Keene</a>, a medium in <a href=\"Florida\">Florida</a> and at the <a href=\"Spiritualist\">Spiritualist</a> <a href=\"Camp%20Chesterfield\">Camp Chesterfield</a> in <a href=\"Indiana\">Indiana</a>, confessed to defrauding the public in his book \"<a href=\"The%20Psychic%20Mafia\">The Psychic Mafia</a>\". <a href=\"M.%20Lamar%20Keene\">Keene</a> detailed a multitude of common stage magic techniques utilized by mediums which are supposed to give an appearance of paranormal powers or supernatural involvement.\nAfter her death in the 1980s the medium <a href=\"Doris%20Stokes\">Doris Stokes</a> was accused of fraud, by author and investigator <a href=\"Ian%20Wilson%20%28author%29\">Ian Wilson</a>. Wilson stated that Mrs Stokes planted specific people in her audience and did prior research into her sitters. <a href=\"Rita%20Goold\">Rita Goold</a> a physical medium during the 1980s was accused of fraud, by the psychical researcher <a href=\"Tony%20Cornell\">Tony Cornell</a>. He claimed she would dress up as the spirits in her séances and would play music during them which provided cover for her to change clothes.\nThe British journalist <a href=\"Ruth%20Brandon\">Ruth Brandon</a> published the book \"The Spiritualists\" (1983) which exposed the fraud of the Victorian mediums. The book received positive reviews and has been influential to skeptics of spiritualism. The British apport medium Paul McElhoney was exposed as a fraud during a séance in Osset, Yorkshire in 1983. The <a href=\"tape%20recorder\">tape recorder</a> that McElhoney took to his séances was investigated and a black tape was discovered bound around the battery compartment and inside <a href=\"Dianthus%20caryophyllus\">carnation</a> flowers were found as well as a key-ring torch and other objects.\nIn 1988, the magician Bob Couttie criticized the paranormal author <a href=\"Brian%20Inglis\">Brian Inglis</a> for deliberately ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. Couttie wrote Inglis had not familiarized himself with magician techniques. In 1990 the researcher <a href=\"Gordon%20Stein\">Gordon Stein</a> discovered that the <a href=\"Levitation%20%28paranormal%29\">levitation</a> photograph of the medium <a href=\"Carmine%20Mirabelli\">Carmine Mirabelli</a> was fraudulent. The photograph was a trick as there were signs of chemical retouching under Mirabelli's feet. The retouching showed that Mirabelli was not levitating but was standing on a ladder which was erased from the photograph.\nIn 1991, <a href=\"Wendy%20M.%20Grossman\">Wendy Grossman</a> in the \"<a href=\"New%20Scientist\">New Scientist</a>\" criticized the parapsychologist <a href=\"Stephen%20E.%20Braude\">Stephen E. Braude</a> for ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. According to Grossman \"[Braude] accuses sceptics of ignoring the evidence he believes is solid, but himself ignores evidence that does not suit him. If a medium was caught cheating on some occasions, he says, the rest of that medium's phenomena were still genuine.\" Grossman came to the conclusion that Braude did not do proper research on the subject and should study \"the art of <a href=\"Magic%20%28illusion%29\">conjuring</a>.\"\nIn 1992, <a href=\"Richard%20Wiseman\">Richard Wiseman</a> analyzed the Feilding report of <a href=\"Eusapia%20Palladino\">Eusapia Palladino</a> and argued that she employed a secret accomplice that could enter the room by a fake door panel positioned near the séance cabinet. Wiseman discovered this trick was already mentioned in a book from 1851, he also visited a carpenter and skilled magician who constructed a door within an hour with a false panel. The accomplice was suspected to be her second husband, who insisted on bringing Palladino to the hotel where the séances took place. <a href=\"Massimo%20Polidoro\">Massimo Polidoro</a> and Gian Marco Rinaldi also analyzed the Feilding report but came to the conclusion no secret accomplice was needed as Palladino during the 1908 Naples séances could have produced the phenomena by using her foot.\n<a href=\"Colin%20Fry\">Colin Fry</a> was exposed in 1992 when during a séance the lights were unexpectedly turned on and he was seen holding a spirit trumpet in the air, which the audience had been led to believe was being levitated by spiritual energy. In 1997, <a href=\"Massimo%20Polidoro\">Massimo Polidoro</a> and Luigi Garlaschelli produced wax-moulds directly from one's hand which were exactly the same copies as Gustav Geley obtained from <a href=\"Franek%20Kluski\">Franek Kluski</a>, which are kept at the Institute Metapsychique International.\nA series of mediumistic séances known as the Scole Experiment took place between 1993 and 1998 in the presence of the researchers <a href=\"David%20Fontana\">David Fontana</a>, Arthur Ellison and Montague Keen. This has produced photographs, audio recordings and physical objects which appeared in the dark séance room (known as apports). A criticism of the experiment was that it was flawed because it did not rule out the possibility of fraud. The skeptical investigator <a href=\"Brian%20Dunning%20%28skeptic%29\">Brian Dunning</a> wrote the Scole experiments fail in many ways. The séances were held in the basement of two of the mediums, only total darkness was allowed with no night vision apparatus as it might \"frighten the spirits away\". The box containing the film was not examined and could easily have been accessible to fraud. And finally, even though many years have passed, there has been no follow-up, no further research by any credible agency or published accounts.\nThe VERITAS Research Program of the Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health in the Department of Psychology at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Arizona\">University of Arizona</a>, run by the parapsychologist <a href=\"Gary%20Schwartz\">Gary Schwartz</a>, was created primarily to test the hypothesis that the consciousness (or identity) of a person survives physical death. Schwartz claimed his experiments were indicative of survival, but do not yet provide conclusive proof. The experiments described by Schwartz have received criticism from the scientific community for being inadequately designed and using poor controls.\n<a href=\"Ray%20Hyman\">Ray Hyman</a> discovered many methodological errors with Schwartz's research including; \"Inappropriate control comparisons\", \"Failure to use double-blind procedures\", \"Creating non-falsifiable outcomes by reinterpreting failures as successes\" and \"Failure to independently check on facts the sitters endorsed as true\". Hyman wrote \"Even if the research program were not compromised by these defects, the claims being made would require replication by independent investigators.\" Hyman criticizes Schwartz's decision to publish his results without gathering \"evidence for their hypothesis that would meet generally accepted scientific criteria... they have lost credibility.\"\nIn 2003, skeptic investigator <a href=\"Massimo%20Polidoro\">Massimo Polidoro</a> in his book \"Secrets of the Psychics\" documented the history of fraud in mediumship and spiritualistic practices as well as the psychology of psychic deception. <a href=\"Terence%20Hines\">Terence Hines</a> in his book \"Pseudoscience and the Paranormal\" (2003) has written:\nModern spiritualists and psychics keep detailed files on their victims. As might be expected, these files can be very valuable and are often passed on from one medium or psychic to another when one retires or dies. Even if a psychic doesn't use a private detective or have immediate access to driver's license records and such, there is still a very powerful technique that will allow the psychic to convince people that the psychic knows all about them, their problems, and their deep personal secrets, fears, and desires. The technique is called cold reading and is probably as old as charlatanism itself... If John Edward (or any of the other self-proclaimed speakers with the dead) really could communicate with the dead, it would be a trivial matter to prove it. All that would be necessary would be for him to contact any of the thousands of missing persons who are presumed dead—famous (e.g., Jimmy Hoffa, Judge Crater) or otherwise—and correctly report where the body is. Of course, this is never done. All we get, instead, are platitudes to the effect that Aunt Millie, who liked green plates, is happy on the other side.\nAn experiment conducted by the <a href=\"British%20Psychological%20Society\">British Psychological Society</a> in 2005 suggests that under the controlled condition of the experiment, people who claimed to be professional mediums do not demonstrate the mediumistic ability. In the experiment, mediums were assigned to work the participants chosen to be \"sitters.\" The mediums claimed to contact the deceased who were related to the sitters. The research gather the numbers of the statements made and have the sitters rate the accuracy of the statements. The readings that were considered to be somewhat accurate by the sitters were very generalized, and the ones that were considered inaccurate were the ones that were very specific.\nOn Fox News on the <a href=\"Geraldo%20at%20Large\">Geraldo at Large</a> show, October 6, 2007, <a href=\"Geraldo%20Rivera\">Geraldo Rivera</a> and other investigators accused Schwartz as a fraud as he had overstepped his position as a university researcher by requesting over three million dollars from a bereaved father who had lost his son. <a href=\"Gary%20Schwartz\">Schwartz</a> claimed to have contacted the <a href=\"spirit\">spirit</a> of a 25-year-old man in the bathroom of his parents house and it is alleged he attempted to charge the family 3.5 million dollars for his mediumship services. Schwartz responded saying that the allegations were set up to destroy his science credibility.\nIn 2013 <a href=\"Rose%20Marks%20and%20family%20psychic%20fraud\">Rose Marks and members of her family</a> were convicted of fraud for a series of crimes spanning 20 years entailing between $20 and $45 million. They told vulnerable clients that to solve their problems they had to give the purported psychics money and valuables. Marks and family promised to return the cash and goods after \"cleansing\" them. Prosecutors established they had no intent to return the property.\nThe exposures of fraudulent activity led to a rapid decline in <a href=\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\">ectoplasm</a> and <a href=\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\">materialization</a> séances. Investigator <a href=\"Joe%20Nickell\">Joe Nickell</a> has written that modern self-proclaimed mediums like <a href=\"John%20Edward\">John Edward</a>, <a href=\"Sylvia%20Browne\">Sylvia Browne</a>, <a href=\"Rosemary%20Altea\">Rosemary Altea</a> and <a href=\"James%20Van%20Praagh\">James Van Praagh</a> are avoiding the Victorian tradition of dark rooms, spirit handwriting and flying tambourines as these methods risk exposure. They instead use \"mental mediumship\" tactics like <a href=\"cold%20reading\">cold reading</a> or gleaning information from sitters before hand (<a href=\"hot%20reading\">hot reading</a>). Group readings also improve hits by making general statements with conviction, which will fit at least one person in the audience. Shows are carefully edited before airing to show only what appears to be hits and removing anything that does not reflect well on the medium.\n<a href=\"Michael%20Shermer\">Michael Shermer</a> criticized mediums in \"<a href=\"Scientific%20American\">Scientific American</a>\", saying, \"mediums are unethical and dangerous: they prey on the emotions of the grieving. As grief counselors know, death is best faced head-on as a part of life.\" Shermer wrote that the human urge to seek connections between events that may form patterns meaningful for survival is a function of natural evolution, and called the alleged ability of mediums to talk to the dead \"a well-known illusion of a meaningful pattern.\"\nAccording to <a href=\"James%20Randi\">James Randi</a>, a skeptic who has debunked many claims of psychic ability and uncovered fraudulent practices, mediums who do <a href=\"cold%20reading\">cold reading</a>s \"fish, suggest possibilities, make educated guesses and give options.\" Randi has a standing offer of <a href=\"One%20Million%20Dollar%20Paranormal%20Challenge\">$1 million US dollars</a> for anyone who can demonstrate psychic ability under controlled conditions. Most prominent psychics and mediums have not taken up his offer.\nThe key role in mediumship of this sort is played by \"effect of subjective confirmation\" (see <a href=\"Barnum%20effect\">Barnum effect</a>) — people are predisposed to consider reliable that information which though is casual coincidence or a guess, however it seems to them personally important and significant and answers their personal belief.\nThe article about this phenomenon in \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" places emphasis that \"… one by one spiritual mediums were convicted of fraud, sometimes using the tricks borrowed from scenic \"magicians\" to convince their paranormal abilities\". In the article it is also noted that \"… the opening of the wide ranging fraud happening on spiritualistic sessions caused serious damage to reputation of the movement of a <a href=\"Spiritualism\">Spiritualism</a> and in the USA pushed it on the public periphery\".","SF (Australia)\nSF (formerly Sci Fi Channel) was an Australian <a href=\"subscription%20television\">subscription</a> channel that aired science fiction, fantasy and related programs. It was available on <a href=\"Foxtel\">Foxtel</a>, <a href=\"Austar\">Austar</a> and <a href=\"Optus%20Television\">Optus Television</a> subscription platforms.\nIn 2012 the channel rebranded from Sci Fi to SF. The channel used a world-exclusive version of the \"Syfy\" branding, SF being a joint venture between <a href=\"NBCUniversal\">NBCUniversal</a>, the owners of the Syfy brand, <a href=\"Sony%20Pictures%20Television\">Sony Pictures Television</a> and <a href=\"CBS%20Studios%20International\">CBS Studios International</a>.\nOn 31 December 2013, SF ceased broadcasting and closed, being replaced by an Australian version of <a href=\"Syfy%20%28Australia%29\">Syfy</a> in 2014.\nSF aired re-runs such as: \"Doctor Who\", Star Trek\", \"<a href=\"Medium%20%28TV%20series%29\">Medium</a>\", \"<a href=\"Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer%20%28TV%20series%29\">Buffy the Vampire Slayer</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Charmed\">Charmed</a>\". It has also had the first Australian run of shows such as \"<a href=\"Defiance%20%28TV%20series%29\">Defiance</a>\", \"<a href=\"Lost%20Girl\">Lost Girl</a>\", \"<a href=\"Continuum%20%28TV%20series%29\">Continuum</a>\", \"<a href=\"Eureka%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">Eureka</a>\", \"<a href=\"Alphas\">Alphas</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Ghost%20Hunters%20International\">Ghost Hunters International</a>\".\nSci Fi went live at 6 am on 1 December 2006. SF originally used the same branding and packaging as the United States Sci Fi channel of the same name but had its own schedule and programming. It aired popular shows such as \"Doctor Who\", \"<a href=\"The%20X-Files\">The X-Files</a>\", \"<a href=\"Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer%20%28TV%20series%29\">Buffy</a>\", \"<a href=\"Charmed\">Charmed</a>\", the original and reimagined \"<a href=\"Battlestar%20Galactica\">Battlestar Galactica</a>\" series, \"<a href=\"Medium%20%28TV%20series%29\">Medium</a>\", and the \"<a href=\"Star%20Trek\">Star Trek</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Stargate\">Stargate</a>\" franchises.\nSci Fi switched broadcasting from to <a href=\"Aspect%20ratio%20%28image%29\">aspect ratio</a> on 1 December 2008. Sci Fi +2 went to air on 15 November 2009.\nOn 18 July 2012, it was announced that as of 23 July 2012 Sci Fi would be rebranded as SF, using a world exclusive branding\nOn 16 August 2013, it was announced that SF's carriage agreement with Foxtel was set to expire in December 2013, and that negotiations had failed to create a new carriage deal. With Foxtel being the sole subscription TV provider in Australia, this meant that it was expected that SF, and its sister channel TV1, would close. Foxtel announced that a science-fiction dedicated channel would replace SF and would continue to offer the main content currently on offer. SF later announced they were exploring options in which they could continue operations, such as launching their service on IPTV, <a href=\"Crackle%20%28company%29\">Crackle</a>, or <a href=\"Apple%20TV\">Apple TV</a> services. On 30 September 2013, it was announced that <a href=\"Syfy%20%28Australia%29\">Syfy (Australia)</a> (a <a href=\"NBCUniversal\">NBCUniversal</a> wholly owned and operated channel) would replace SF on Foxtel as of 1 January 2014. Ultimately, SF closed at midnight on 31 December 2013.\nOn 22 November 2006, the \"<a href=\"Adelaide%20Advertiser\">Adelaide Advertiser</a>\" reported about the demand for a science-fiction–themed TV channel in Australia.\nThe official launch party of the Sci Fi Channel was held on 16 November 2006 at the Australian Museum in Sydney. Guests included <a href=\"Jacqueline%20McKenzie\">Jacqueline McKenzie</a> (from \"<a href=\"The%204400\">The 4400</a>\"), <a href=\"Gigi%20Edgley\">Gigi Edgley</a> and <a href=\"Matthew%20Newton\">Matthew Newton</a> (from \"<a href=\"Farscape\">Farscape</a>\").\nIn addition to subscription television, SF Channel Australia also operated the SF Australia website, where viewers could access television guides as well as video extras, full episodes, and the SF News blog. In 2013 they began producing their own web only pop culture news series Go Pop.\n","Mental Hospital\nMental hospital may refer to:","Ghostland Tennessee\nGhostland Tennessee is an American <a href=\"paranormal%20television\">paranormal</a> <a href=\"television%20series\">television series</a> that piloted on February 24, 2013 on <a href=\"Animal%20Planet\">Animal Planet</a>. The program features Steven McDougal, Chasey Ray McKnight, Scott Porter and brothers Brannon and Chris Smith who are members of a <a href=\"ghost%20hunting\">ghost hunting</a> group called the Tennessee Wraith Chasers. The team is now part of a new paranormal TV series, <a href=\"Ghost%20Asylum\">Ghost Asylum</a>, on <a href=\"Destination%20America\">Destination America</a>.","List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States\nThis is a list of locations in the United States which have been reported to be <a href=\"Haunted%20house\">haunted</a> by <a href=\"ghost\">ghost</a>s or other <a href=\"supernatural\">supernatural</a> beings, including <a href=\"demon\">demon</a>s.\nStates with a great many haunted locations are listed on separate pages, linked from this page.\nCalifornia is the location of many <a href=\"Reportedly%20haunted%20locations%20in%20California\">supposedly haunted locations</a>. Notable locations with reputations for being haunted include <a href=\"Alcatraz\">Alcatraz</a>, <a href=\"El%20Adobe%20de%20Capistrano\">El Adobe de Capistrano</a> in <a href=\"San%20Juan%20Capistrano\">San Juan Capistrano</a>, and the <a href=\"Winchester%20Mystery%20House\">Winchester Mystery House</a>.\nSeveral sites in Washington are reputedly haunted, including the Capitol Building, the White House, and the <a href=\"The%20Octagon%20House%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\">Octagon House</a> (1801).\nThere are several reputedly haunted sites in Indiana, including the <a href=\"Culbertson%20Mansion%20State%20Historic%20Site\">Culbertson Mansion</a> in the former shipbuilding town <a href=\"New%20Albany%2C%20Indiana\">New Albany</a>.\nThere are a number of <a href=\"Reportedly%20haunted%20locations%20in%20Oregon\">Reportedly haunted locations in Oregon</a>. Reported hauntings in the state are linked to such historic places as the <a href=\"Oregon%20Trail\">Oregon Trail</a> and early coastal communities, as well as the history of <a href=\"Portland%2C%20Oregon\">Portland</a>, the state's largest city and <a href=\"metropolitan%20area\">metropolitan area</a>, which was considered one of the most dangerous <a href=\"port\">port</a> cities in the world at the beginning of the 20th century. During 2012, \"<a href=\"USA%20Today\">USA Today</a>\" named Portland among the top ten most haunted cities in the United States.\nAllegedly haunted locales in Portland include the <a href=\"Bagdad%20Theater\">Bagdad Theater</a>, a <a href=\"vaudeville\">vaudeville</a> theater built by <a href=\"Universal%20Studios\">Universal Studios</a> during 1927; <a href=\"Pittock%20Mansion\">Pittock Mansion</a>, a mansion overlooking the city; the <a href=\"Roseland%20Theater\">Roseland Theater</a>, a former church and <a href=\"music%20venue\">music venue</a>; and the city's Portland Underground (or so-called <a href=\"shanghai%20tunnels\">shanghai tunnels</a>), made up of various passages beneath the streets of <a href=\"northwest%20Portland\">northwest Portland</a> that were used to smuggle <a href=\"prostitutes\">prostitutes</a> and sailors onto ships in the port, where they were often sold into slavery or forced labor.\nPennsylvania has many <a href=\"Reportedly%20haunted%20locations%20in%20Pennsylvania\">locations that are reported to be haunted</a>, including\nthe town of <a href=\"Gettysburg%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Gettysburg</a> (site of the <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Gettysburg\">Civil War battle</a> of the same name) and, in the vicinity of Philadelphia, such places as\n<a href=\"Cliveden%20%28Benjamin%20Chew%20House%29\">Cliveden Manor</a>, the <a href=\"First%20Bank%20of%20the%20United%20States\">First Bank of the United States</a>, <a href=\"Fort%20Mifflin\">Fort Mifflin</a>, <a href=\"Library%20Company%20of%20Philadelphia\">Library Hall</a>, <a href=\"Pennsylvania%20Hospital\">Pennsylvania Hospital</a>, and <a href=\"Powel%20House\">Powel House</a>.\nMany areas in South Carolina are reportedly haunted. This stems from the state's historic role in the Revolutionary and Civil wars. Charleston is considered by many to be the most haunted city in the state, and some even venture as far as to say it is the most haunted city in America. <a href=\"http%3A//www.travelchannel.com/destinations/us/sc/charleston/photos/haunted-charleston\"></a>","Animal Planet\nAnimal Planet is an American <a href=\"cable%20television\">basic cable</a> and satellite television <a href=\"television%20channel\">channel</a> owned by <a href=\"Discovery%20Communications\">Discovery Communications</a>. Originally focused on more educationally-based television shows, the network has featured more reality programming since 2008. It is available throughout the United States, as well as in over 70 countries around the world. Country-specific versions of the channel have been created in Canada, India, Japan, <a href=\"Taiwan\">Taiwan</a>, and other countries.\ns of 2015 , approximately 94,288,000 American households (81% of households with television) receive Animal Planet.\nAnimal Planet was launched on October 1, 1996; it was created by <a href=\"Discovery%20Communications\">Discovery Communications</a> in cooperation with the <a href=\"British%20Broadcasting%20Corporation\">British Broadcasting Corporation</a>. On January 1, 1997, Animal Planet's distribution grew as a result of Advance Entertainment Corporation selling the satellite transponder slot belonging to the <a href=\"WWOR%20EMI%20Service\">WWOR EMI Service</a> (a national <a href=\"superstation\">superstation</a> feed of <a href=\"Secaucus%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Secaucus, New Jersey</a>/New York City's <a href=\"WWOR-TV\">WWOR-TV</a>, that was implemented following the 1989 passage of the <a href=\"syndication%20exclusivity\">Syndication Exclusivity Rights Rule</a> by the <a href=\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\">Federal Communications Commission</a>) to Discovery Communications, replacing the feed with Animal Planet outright.\nIn late 2005, as part of a multimillion-dollar expansion, the <a href=\"National%20Aquarium%20in%20Baltimore\">National Aquarium in Baltimore</a> opened an exhibit called \"Animal Planet Australia: Wild Extreme\". Animal Planet and the National Aquarium in Baltimore announced a multi-year partnership the year prior, which produced an original orientation film that gives Aquarium visitors background on the Australian area which inspired the new exhibit and a dedicated area inside the expansion where visitors can learn about Animal Planet's conservation efforts and other programming. The partnership also allowed the possibility of future productions of television programs about the National Aquarium in Baltimore's research and exhibits.\nIn 2006, BBC Worldwide sold its 20% interest in the flagship Animal Planet U.S. network back to Discovery Communications. The BBC maintained its 50% ownership in Animal Planet's European, Asian and Latin American channels, as well as a minority interest in Animal Planet Japan and Animal Planet Canada until November 15, 2010, when BBC Worldwide sold 50% interest in Animal Planet and <a href=\"Liv%20%28Latin%20American%20TV%20channel%29\">Liv</a> to Discovery Communications for $156 million. Animal Planet is additionally an associate member of the Caribbean Cable Cooperative.\nDuring the late 2000s, Genius Products announced a U.S. distribution agreement involving Animal Planet and <a href=\"TLC%20%28TV%20channel%29\">TLC</a>. <a href=\"Jakks%20Pacific\">Jakks Pacific</a> also entered into a licensing agreement to develop Animal Planet-branded pet products.\nOn February 3, 2008, Animal Planet \"relaunched\" itself as part of a new branding campaign that \"sheds its soft and furry side for programming and an image with more bite.\" As part of the relaunch, Animal Planet replaced its elephant and spinning globe logo for a starker text image that allows more flexibility in its usage. Eight new shows and specials were scheduled to debut in February of that year, with the new shows aimed at reaching a more adult audience with programming designed to tap into humans' basic <a href=\"instincts\">instincts</a> with stories that reiterate what makes humans human.\nThe goal is to move from being perceived by viewers as paternalistic, preachy, and observation-based to being seen as active, entertaining and edgy. That means targeting adults 25-49, rather than full families, with less voice-of-God narration and more visceral imagery and sounds. Think of it as swapping a drab narrator saying that a lion is about to kill its prey for the blood-curdling scream of the doomed creature as it meets its demise.\nThis rebranding effort continued in 2010 with a change of the network's slogan, from \"Same Planet, Different World\" to \"Surprisingly Human\" to coincide with their <a href=\"Channel%20drift\">non-animal related programming</a>.\nRecent additions to the channel, such as \"<a href=\"Meerkat%20Manor\">Meerkat Manor</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Orangutan%20Island\">Orangutan Island</a>\", reflect its shift toward \"predation programming\" and more immersive storytelling. Animal Planet intended the new direction to help revitalize stagnating ratings, after primetime viewership of the network dropped by 9% in 2007. Animal Planet added <a href=\"pseudo-scientific\">pseudo-scientific</a> documentary, reality television, and sitcom shows to its line-up.\nAnimal Planet is also well known for its annual <a href=\"Stunting%20%28broadcasting%29\">stunt</a> program, the \"<a href=\"Puppy%20Bowl\">Puppy Bowl</a>\", a yearly special shown during the afternoon leading up to the <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a>'s <a href=\"Super%20Bowl\">Super Bowl</a>, primarily consisting of puppies at play; the original commentator was the sports broadcaster <a href=\"Harry%20Kalas\">Harry Kalas</a>.\nThe <a href=\"1080i\">1080i</a> <a href=\"High-definition%20television\">high definition</a> simulcast of Animal Planet launched on September 1, 2007; it is available on all major cable and satellite providers.\nIt was also launched on February 3, 2009 in Norway for <a href=\"Canal%20Digital\">Canal Digital</a>. Norway is the first country outside the U.S. to receive a high definition feed of Animal Planet.\n<a href=\"D.C.%20Thomson%20%26amp%3B%20Co.\">D.C. Thomson & Co.</a> partnered with <a href=\"Discovery%20Communications\">Discovery Communications</a> to publish \"Animal Planet Magazine\" in the United Kingdom. The magazine's first issue was released on February 16, 2011.\nIn November 2012, Revision3, the Discovery-owned online video network, entered into a partnership with Fishbowl Worldwide Media to distribute and sell advertising for its pets-focused YouTube programming, as well as to fund development of new shows, on its YouTube channel PETSAMI, run by FishBowl Digital Studio senior vice president and general manager <a href=\"David%20Beebe\">David Beebe</a>. The deal also constitutes a first-look deal, giving Revision3 (and its parent company, which owns Animal Planet) first right to distribute all co-developed shows.\nAnimal Planet originally aired \"\" on May 27, 2012, and a sequel called \"Mermaids: The New Evidence\" about a year later. They tell a story of a scientific team's investigative efforts to uncover the source behind mysterious underwater recordings of an unidentified marine body. Included is the generally discredited <a href=\"aquatic%20ape%20hypothesis\">aquatic ape hypothesis</a> as evidence that mermaids exist, along with digitally manufactured video. The program is hosted by several scientists. The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration put up a rebuttal to the program.\nThe channel has also broadcast a pseudo-documentary called Lost Tapes.","List of reportedly haunted locations\nThis is a list of reportedly haunted locations throughout the world, that are said to be haunted by <a href=\"ghost\">ghost</a>s or other <a href=\"supernatural\">supernatural</a> beings, including <a href=\"demon\">demon</a>s. Reports of haunted locations are part of ghostlore, which is a form of <a href=\"folklore\">folklore</a>.\nSeveral sites in Canada are reputedly haunted, including <a href=\"Citadel%20Hill%20%28Fort%20George%29\">Citadel Hill (Fort George)</a> in Halifax.\nSeveral sites in China are reputedly haunted, including <a href=\"Chaonei%20No.%2081\">Chaonei No. 81</a>, an abandoned mansion in Beijing's <a href=\"Chaoyangmen\">Chaoyangmen</a> neighborhood, and the <a href=\"Wukang%20Mansion\">Wukang Mansion</a>, formerly known as the \"Normandie Apartment\", in <a href=\"Shanghai\">Shanghai</a> (named after the <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a> battleship Normandie).\nSeveral sites in France are reputedly haunted, including the <a href=\"Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Brissac\">Château de Brissac</a>, the <a href=\"Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Tr%C3%A9cesson\">Château de Trécesson</a> in Brittany, the <a href=\"Catacombs%20of%20Paris\">Catacombs</a> and <a href=\"P%C3%A8re%20Lachaise%20Cemetery\">Cemetery of Père Lachaise</a> in Paris, <a href=\"Mont%20Saint-Michel\">Mont Saint-Michel</a>, and the <a href=\"Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Ch%C3%A2teaubriant\">Château de Châteaubriant</a> in western <a href=\"France\">France</a>.\nSeveral sites in India are reported to be haunted, including <a href=\"South%20Park%20Street%20Cemetery\">South Park Street Cemetery</a> in West Bengal on <a href=\"Park%20Street%2C%20Kolkata\">Park Street, Kolkata</a>, and <a href=\"Morgan%20House%2C%20Kalimpong\">Morgan House</a>, a colonial-era mansion in <a href=\"Kalimpong\">Kalimpong</a> that is considered to be one of the most haunted locations in <a href=\"India\">India</a>.\nSeveral sites in Mexico are reputedly haunted, including the <a href=\"Palace%20of%20the%20Inquisition\">Palace of the Inquisition</a> and the <a href=\"Plaza%20de%20las%20Tres%20Culturas\">Plaza de las Tres Culturas</a> in the City of Mexico, <a href=\"Hospicio%20Caba%C3%B1as\">Hospicio Cabañas</a> in Guadalajara, <a href=\"Mapim%C3%AD%20Silent%20Zone\">Mapimí Silent Zone</a> in the state of Durango, <a href=\"Chautla%20Hacienda\">Chautla Hacienda</a> in <a href=\"Puebla\">Puebla</a>, and the ancient Mayan city of <a href=\"Chichen%20Itza\">Chichen Itza</a> on the Yucatán Peninsula.\nSeveral sites in the Philippine Islands are reputedly haunted, including historic <a href=\"Fort%20Santiago\">Fort Santiago</a> in Manila.\nSeveral sites in Romania are reputedly haunted, including historic <a href=\"Bon%C8%9Bida%20B%C3%A1nffy%20Castle\">Bánffy Castle</a> in <a href=\"Bon%C8%9Bida\">Bonțida</a> and the <a href=\"Hoia%20Forest\">Hoia Forest</a>.\nMany sites in the UK are reputedly haunted, including the <a href=\"Tower%20of%20London\">Tower of London</a>, <a href=\"50%20Berkeley%20Square\">50 Berkeley Square</a> (London), <a href=\"Belgrave%20Hall\">Belgrave Hall</a>, <a href=\"Arundel%20Castle\">Arundel Castle</a>, and <a href=\"Bruce%20Castle\">Bruce Castle</a> in England, and <a href=\"Ardrossan%20Castle\">Ardrossan Castle</a>, <a href=\"Fyvie%20Castle\">Fyvie Castle</a>, <a href=\"Glamis%20Castle\">Glamis Castle</a>, and <a href=\"Stirling%20Castle\">Stirling Castle</a> in Scotland.\nMany sites in the USA are reputedly haunted, including <a href=\"Dudleytown%20%28Cornwall%29\">Dudleytown</a> in Connecticut, the <a href=\"Cherry%20Hill%20%28Albany%2C%20New%20York%29\">Cherry Hill Estate</a> and <a href=\"112%20Ocean%20Avenue\">112 Ocean Avenue House</a>, (a.k.a. the Amityville Horror House) in New York, <a href=\"Cliveden%20%28Benjamin%20Chew%20House%29\">Cliveden Manor</a>, the <a href=\"First%20Bank%20of%20the%20United%20States\">First Bank of the United States</a>, <a href=\"Fort%20Mifflin\">Fort Mifflin</a>, <a href=\"Library%20Company%20of%20Philadelphia\">Library Hall</a>, <a href=\"Pennsylvania%20Hospital\">Pennsylvania Hospital</a>, and <a href=\"Powel%20House\">Powel House</a> in Pennsylvania, the <a href=\"The%20Octagon%20House%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\">Octagon House</a> (1801) and the <a href=\"White%20House\">White House</a> in the District of Columbia,\nand <a href=\"El%20Adobe%20de%20Capistrano\">El Adobe de Capistrano</a> in California.\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"Haunting: Australia\\nHaunting: Australia is an Australian paranormal television series that premiered on 3 February 2014 on Syfy. The series was commissioned by SF in July 2013, with production beginning in August 2013 and set to premiere on the network in 2014. However, following the closure of SF on 31 December 2013 and the launch of Syfy as its replacement, the series instead premiered on the newly launched Syfy channel on 3 February 2014.\\nInternational paranormal investigator Robb Demarest selects his paranormal team of ghost hunters, psychics, mediums, and clairvoyants, to investigate Australia's most haunted locations.\\n\\\"Opening introduction\\\": (narrated by Robb Demarest):\\nIn the United States the series airs on Syfy, premiering 24 March 2015.\",\n \"Ghost Asylum\\nGhost Asylum is an American paranormal television series that premiered on September 7, 2014 in the United States on Destination America. The series features a group of professional ghost hunters that try to \\\"trap ghosts\\\" in the country's most haunted abandoned asylums, sanitariums, and mental hospitals. The show airs on Sundays at 10 pm EST. The show was renewed for a second season of 14 episodes, which premiered on April 5, 2015. The second season aired in two waves of 8 episodes, with the second wave coming later on in 2015. A third season aired in 2016.\\nThe series follows the paranormal team known as the \\\"Tennessee Wraith Chasers;\\\" the pilot of the series was originally named Ghostland Tennessee before it was renamed for the \\\"Destination America\\\" network.\\nThe series features a group of fearless ghost hunters with their paranormal team called the \\\"Tennessee Wraith Chasers,\\\" who try to use their Southern charm, back-water ingenuity, and engineering knowledge to create supernatural inventions during their investigations in America's most haunted locations, which just happen to be abandoned asylums. Their specialty is investigating the many decaying and derelict mental institutions littered across the United States.\\nOpening introduction:\\nThe show starts off with a warning to viewers:\\nWARNING: \\\"Our boys are professional ghost hunters who have permission to enter the most haunted buildings in America. Trespassing on private property is dangerous and illegal. Chasing ghosts without proper training will get you killed. Or, will make you look like moronic lunatics. Either way...\\\"\\nTennessee Wraith Chasers:\",\n \"The Haunted (TV series)\\nThe Haunted is an American paranormal television series that premiered on November 22, 2009 on Animal Planet. Produced by Picture Shack Entertainment, the program features ghost stories and paranormal investigations involving animals. It also incorporates actual footage and photographs from the families and paranormal research teams involved.\\nThe series is now repeating on Destination America.\\n\",\n \"Haunted Encounters\\nHaunted Encounters (also known as Haunted Encounters: Face to Face) is an American paranormal television series that premiered on December 1, 2012, on the Biography Channel. The program features a paranormal investigation team, the Paranormal Syndicate, that investigates haunted hotspots that are the list of reportedly haunted locations and gather evidence to prove that it is haunted. Current episodes air at 10:00PM EST.\\nInvestigation team: Paranormal Syndicate\",\n \"Ghost Lab\\nGhost Lab is a weekly American paranormal television series that premiered on October 6, 2009, on the Discovery Channel. Produced by Paper Route Productions and Go Go Luckey Entertainment, the program is narrated by Mike Rowe. It follows ghost-hunting brothers Brad and Barry Klinge, who founded Everyday Paranormal (EP) in October 2007.\\nEveryday Paranormal is a paranormal investigation team whose stated mission is to \\\"visit the most haunted places in America, find evidence, and test new theories to probe the existence of the afterlife\\\" using a fringe-scientific approach.\\nIn addition to Brad and Barry, the team included members Steve Harris, Hector Cisneros, and Katie Burr. Other members included Jason Worden, Ashlee Lehman (Formerly Ashlee Hillhouse), and Steve Hock. \\\"Ghost Lab\\\" remains the name of EP's mobile command center.\\nOn October 14, 2009, Brad and Barry Klinge were interviewed on \\\"The Pat & Brian Show\\\" about the origins of Everyday Paranormal, current investigations, and equipment use. On October 30, 2009, Larry King interviewed the brothers via satellite on CNN's \\\"Larry King Live\\\".\\n\\\"Ghost Lab\\\" originally aired on the Discovery Channel Thursday nights at 10:00 p.m. until it was moved to Friday late-nights/Saturday early-mornings due to low viewer ratings. Each episode started out with a text stating: \\\"The Klinge brothers are investigating...\\\" with Brad and Barry conducting a \\\"head-cam\\\" walkthrough around reportedly haunted locations before they continued with the whole team investigation.\\nIn 2010, \\\"Ghost Lab\\\" was canceled after the conclusion of its second season.\\n\\\"Ghost Lab\\\" appears on the compilation DVD entitled: Paranormal: Haunts and Horrors. This DVD is produced by the Discovery Channel. The episode is \\\"If Walls Could Talk\\\" (S1-E13) where the Kling Brothers investigated the Lemp Mansion; it is the first episode on this DVD.\\nDiscovery Channel also released two more DVD titles \\\"Ghost Lab: Volume 1\\\" which features the first three episodes of season one (\\\"Disturbing the Peace\\\", \\\"Tombstone\\\" and \\\"Smell of Fear\\\"). And \\\"Ghost Lab: Pursuit Of The Paranormal\\\" which features more episodes from season one.\\nEveryday Paranormal (E.P.) founders and presidents Brad and Barry Klinge investigated alongside their \\\"on-air\\\" \\\"Ghost Lab\\\" team which included: Katie Burr (Investigator), Hector Cisneros (Investigator-season 1), Steve Harris (Tech Manager) Steve Hock (\\\"Ghost Lab\\\" Ops), and newest member Cory Lamey (Team Trainee).\\nOther Everday Paranormal members included: Ashlee Hillhouse (Investigator), Jason Worden (Investigator/Affiliate Ops Director), and Jenn Hitt (Website/PR Events).\\nDuring investigations, the team used various investigation equipment, including thermographic cameras, infrared cameras, digital audio recorders, data loggers, EMF meters, laser thermometers, motion detectors, and EVP recorders, as well as a mobile command center called the \\\"Ghost Lab\\\", which featured interactive computer monitors, noise filtering audio programs, and various high tech gear. The team also used a variety of paranormal theories to test out some of their techniques during an investigation.\\nOn March 25, 2010, the Klinge Brothers announced through a YouTube video that \\\"Ghost Lab\\\" will return for a second season consisting of 13 episodes. Season 2 premiered on Tuesday, October 19, 2010.\\nSeason two aired on Saturday at 2 a.m. EST on the Discovery Channel. Reruns of both seasons air weekday nights on the Science Channel.\",\n \"Destination Fear\\nDestination Fear is a Canadian paranormal television series that premiered on May 5, 2012 in Canada. The program features wannabe ghost hunters who visit paranormal hotspots that are reported to be haunted, unaware that they've been set up by their loved ones to experience staged frightening encounters. The show's premiere episode aired in the United States on September 30, 2012 on the Travel Channel at 10:00pm EST.\\nEvery episode features two unsuspecting ghost hunting enthusiasts who are given the chance by a close friend or relative to investigate or take a tour in haunted locations in Canada and America. These enthusiasts think that they're just traveling to a supposedly haunted hotspot. However, they are actually set up by the show's cast of characters to a staged performance of paranormal activity in the already haunted location, scaring them to the bone. At the end of the episode, the host replays the enthusiasts encounters during their spooky run-through. Then the host lets them in on the joke when their friends or family are exposed and they find out they have selected them for their frightening experiences.\\nOpening introduction:\",\n \"The Code (2014 TV series)\\nThe Code is an Australian drama television program created and produced by Shelley Birse. Developed from a partnership between Playmaker Media and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, it premiered on ABC1 in Australia on 21 September 2014. Season 2 of \\\"The Code\\\" premiered on 1 September 2016.\\nThe first six-part series, set in both outback and metropolitan areas of Australia, interweaves several plot lines. The first follows brothers Ned (Dan Spielman) and Jesse Banks (Ashley Zukerman), who publish a video of a mysterious outback accident, and Hani Parande (Adele Perovic), who becomes involved with them. The second follows the accident, which sees teacher Alex Wisham (Lucy Lawless) and policeman Tim Simons (Aaron Pedersen) becoming involved in the personal affairs of accused teenager Clarence Boyd (Aaron L. McGrath). The third covers Ned's journalism office, managed by Perry Benson (Adam Garcia). The fourth chronicles the intrigues of Deputy Prime Minister Ian Bradley (David Wenham), and political staffers Randall Keats (Aden Young) and Sophie Walsh (Chelsie Preston Crayford) while the after-effects of the accident unfold.\\nABC in June 2015 renewed \\\"The Code\\\" for a second season, after receiving significant funding from the Australian Capital Territory's film fund, Screen ACT. The new series that commenced screening in 2016, deals with fictional brothers Ned and Jesse Banks facing deportation to the United States of America to face trial in connection with security breaches. Anthony LaPaglia, Sigrid Thornton, Robyn Malcolm, and others joined the cast for the second series.\\nSeries 1: A stolen vehicle collides with a transport truck in the middle of the desert. Two Aboriginal teenagers in the car are critically injured but nobody called for help because someone involved works for a major stakeholder in a secret research project. The accident would have remained a mystery if it weren't for Ned Banks, a young internet journalist desperate for a break and his brother Jesse Banks, a hacker on a strict good behaviour bond.\\nSeries 2: Two Australians are murdered in West Papua, the only survivor being Jan Roth, the fugitive founder of a \\\"dark web\\\" site, who is being chased by both Australian and US authorities. At the same time a young boy is kidnapped in Australia by someone offering to sell him to paedophiles through the same site. The Australian Federal Police contacts the Banks brothers and informs them that the US authorities have demanded their extradition to the US for their previous actions, but if Jesse helps the police find the boy, the government will resist the extradition demands. Jesse agrees, but soon finds that the truth is very different.\\nThe fictional town of Lindara was filmed in Broken Hill, Silverton in New South Wales, and Cockburn in South Australia. The main street and post office of Cockburn doubles as the main street and school in Lindara, while the houses of the Lindara families were filmed in Silverton.\\nParts of Canberra were used for filming, including the Australian Parliament House, the surrounds of Lake Burley Griffin, and parts of the Australian National University Acton campus, including the John Curtin School of Medical Research and the Shine Dome.\\nThe first series was acquired by BBC Four in the United Kingdom in April 2014, and premiered on 11 October 2014, less than three weeks after the Australian premiere. Because it aired as back-to-back episodes over three weeks, the final episode aired first in the UK on 25 October, over twelve hours ahead of its first Australian broadcast 26 October. The first series was also broadcast on DirecTV's Audience Network in the US, and ARTV in Canada.\\n\",\n \"Ghost Mine (TV series)\\nGhost Mine is an American paranormal television series that premiered on January 16, 2013, in the United States on the Syfy channel. The series features a group of hard rock miners searching for gold in Oregon's Crescent Mine. Two paranormal investigators accompany them in an attempt to determine if the location is haunted.\\nOn April 10, 2013, Syfy renewed the series for a 12-episode second season which premiered September 4, 2013.\\nOn December 19, 2013, Paranormal Investigator Patrick Doyle reported via his Facebook page that Syfy had decided not to renew the show for a third season.\\nThe series proposes that certain mines are haunted by ghosts of miners from Gold Rush days, or by spirits that superstitious miners call \\\"Tommy-Knockers\\\". Paranormal investigators Patrick and Kristen go into the mine first and investigate using equipment they believe can detect supernatural activity. Then it's Mine Foreman Stan's hard rock miner crew's turn to work the mine while the investigators monitor them on their DVR system in an attempt to see if they experience anything supernatural. In the end, the investigators show their evidence to the miners and state their opinions regarding the degree of supernatural activity they believe is present.\\nOpening introduction:\\nTagline: \\\"The deeper you go. The darker it gets.\\\"\\nMine Owner:\\nHard Rock Miners:\\nParanormal Investigators:\\nAs of 2013, the Crescent mine has been listed for sale with Cascade Sotheby's realty for an assessed value of $2.5 million. Larry Overman the mine owner finally placed a monument which had been planned for years, the stone was the corner stone to the original miners lodge that used to stand on the property to keep the spirit \\\"at peace\\\".\",\n \"Glitch (TV series)\\nGlitch is an Australian paranormal television program which premiered on 9 July 2015, on ABC1. The series, set in the fictional country town of Yoorana, Victoria, is written by Louise Fox, Kris Mrksa, and Giula Sandler, and directed by Emma Freeman. It is produced by Noah Burnett and Noah Fox, with Tony Ayres serving as an Executive Producer.\\nThe first season was awarded Australian television's two highest accolades for best drama.\\nOn 26 October 2015, ABC TV renewed the show for a second series of six episodes. Series two began shooting in January 2017. The second season was co-produced by Netflix, which will stream the season globally outside of Australia, New Zealand and Africa in 2017. In addition, on 15 October 2016, the first series was made available to stream on Netflix globally. Series 2 premiered on 14 September 2017 in Australia and will premiere on 28 November 2017 internationally on Netflix.\\nJames Hayes (Patrick Brammall) is a small town policeman in Yoorana, Victoria. He is called to the local cemetery in the middle of the night after seven people have inexplicably risen from the dead in perfect health. With no memory of their identities, they are determined to discover who they are and what has happened to them. James and one of them recognise each other, and along with local doctor Elishia McKellar (Genevieve O'Reilly), James struggles to keep the case hidden from his colleagues, his family, and the world. The seven people are all linked in some way, and the search begins for someone who knows the truth about how and why they have returned.\\nSeries 1 (2015)\\nSeries 2\\n\\\"Glitch\\\" was screened at Roma Fiction Fest in 2015.\\n\\n\",\n \"Bonk (album)\\nBonk is the debut studio album by Australian rock band Big Pig. It was released in March 1988 on White Label Records. The album went gold, then platinum in Australia with three top-twenty singles (\\\"Hungry Town\\\", \\\"Breakaway\\\" and \\\"Big Hotel\\\"). The album was released in America by A&M Records in 1988, and the music video for \\\"Breakaway\\\" was played on MTV. \\\"Breakaway\\\" was featured on the \\\"Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure\\\" soundtrack and \\\"Hungry Town\\\" on the \\\"Young Einstein\\\" soundtrack. \\\"Breakaway\\\" and \\\"Money God\\\" were used in the \\\"Miami Vice\\\" TV series in the 1980s. \\\"Breakaway\\\" was also featured in Season 1, Episode 4 of \\\"Glitch (TV series)\\\".\\nIt was re-issued in 1992 by Mushroom Records.\\nAll songs written by O. Witer, A. Scaglione, N. Disbray, and S. Abeyratne, except where noted, according to Australasian Performing Rights Association (APRA).\\nCredited to:\\nBig Pig\\n\\\"Additional musicians\\\"\\nRecording details\\nArt work\\nNotes\",\n \"Paranormal television\\nParanormal television is a <a href=\\\"genre\\\">genre</a> of <a href=\\\"reality%20television\\\">reality television</a>. Its scope comprises purportedly <a href=\\\"factual%20television\\\">factual</a> investigations of <a href=\\\"paranormal\\\">paranormal</a> phenomena, rather than <a href=\\\"fiction\\\">fiction</a>al representations found in such shows and movies as \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ghosts%20of%20Motley%20Hall\\\">The Ghosts of Motley Hall</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Ghostbusters\\\">Ghostbusters</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Scooby-Doo\\\">Scooby-Doo</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Rentaghost\\\">Rentaghost</a>\\\".\\nAccounts of supernatural occurrences have always been common in the print media. The 1705 pamphlet \\\"A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs Veal\\\" by <a href=\\\"Daniel%20Defoe\\\">Daniel Defoe</a> is a well-known example. Local TV news programs in the UK and USA have featured ghost stories since the 1960s. Paranormal television arose from this tradition.\\nThe earliest TV show devoted exclusively to the paranormal was \\\"\\\" which broadcast 96 episodes on the ABC network from 1959 to 1961. The stories were promoted as being based on actual real-life experiences, including historically well-known events such as <a href=\\\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">sinking of RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a>, the <a href=\\\"1906%20San%20Francisco%20earthquake\\\">1906 San Francisco earthquake</a>, and the <a href=\\\"assassination%20of%20Abraham%20Lincoln\\\">assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a>.\\nIt was followed 15 years later by \\\"<a href=\\\"In%20Search%20of...%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">In Search of...</a>\\\", hosted by <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Nimoy\\\">Leonard Nimoy</a> which ran for six years from 1976. <a href=\\\"Rod%20Serling\\\">Rod Serling</a> was originally slated to host the series, but he died in 1975. \\\"In Search of...\\\" explored many paranormal topics, including <a href=\\\"UFOs\\\">UFOs</a>, <a href=\\\"cryptozoological\\\">cryptozoological</a> creatures (cryptids), lost civilizations, and other mysteries. Though the subject matter gradually lost popularity, the show gave way to future TV series following the same genre.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Ghostwatch\\\">Ghostwatch</a>\\\", a fictional news broadcast about a haunted house in the UK that aired in 1992, <a href=\\\"Ghostwatch%23Controversy\\\">created controversy</a> when a majority of viewers believed the televised show was real.\\n<a href=\\\"Discovery%20Channel\\\">Discovery Channel</a> started to explore the genre with some success from 1996. The <a href=\\\"Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">Fox Broadcasting Company</a> had a news-style oriented show, <a href=\\\"Sightings%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">\\\"Sightings\\\"</a>, that was hosted by <a href=\\\"Tim%20White%20%28newscaster/reporter%29\\\">Tim White</a> and this show lasted for six years. <a href=\\\"Fear%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">MTV's \\\"Fear\\\"</a> premiered in 2000, establishing the visual look and editing style followed by most paranormal <a href=\\\"reality%20television\\\">reality television</a> show. In 2002, the British satellite channel <a href=\\\"Sky%20Living\\\">Living TV</a> launched the <a href=\\\"ghost-hunting\\\">ghost-hunting</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Most%20Haunted\\\">Most Haunted</a>\\\". Its success helped spawn other shows on the channel, including \\\"<a href=\\\"Dead%20Famous%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Dead Famous</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Jane%20Goldman%20Investigates\\\">Jane Goldman Investigates</a>\\\", and the channel developed a distinctive identity based on paranormal programming. The production company responsible for these programs, <a href=\\\"Antix%20Productions\\\">Antix</a>, also produced two series of \\\"Spook School\\\" which followed the investigators of \\\"<a href=\\\"Para-Projects\\\">Para-Projects</a>\\\" as they teach members of the public how to become paranormal investigators themselves.\\nNoting the recent trend in reality shows that take the paranormal at face value, <a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a> Culture editor Mike Hale characterized <a href=\\\"ghost%20hunting\\\">ghost hunting</a> shows as \\\"pure theater\\\" and compared the genre to <a href=\\\"professional%20wrestling\\\">professional wrestling</a> or <a href=\\\"soft%20core%20pornography\\\">soft core pornography</a> for its formulaic, teasing approach.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\\\">Los Angeles Times</a>\\\" staff writer Ed Stockly wrote that \\\"the paranormal/supernatural-investigation subgenre that has cropped up on cable television over the last few years, which includes \\\"Ghost Hunters\\\", \\\"Destination Truth\\\", \\\"Ghost Adventures\\\", \\\"Ghost Hunters International\\\" and a few others\\\" promises to \\\"take a skeptical approach in its investigations and to rely on science to confirm or disprove paranormal claims. So far not one has been able to consistently keep that promise.\\\"\",\n \"Syfy (Australia)\\nSyfy is an Australian subscription television channel dedicated to science fiction and <a href=\\\"fantasy\\\">fantasy</a> television shows and movies. The channel launched on 1 January 2014, replacing the closing channel <a href=\\\"SF%20%28Australia%29\\\">SF</a>.\\nIn August 2013, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Foxtel\\\">Foxtel</a> had failed to complete negotiations with the TV1 General Entertainment Partnership (of which <a href=\\\"NBCUniversal\\\">NBCUniversal</a> was a part member) for a new carriage deal for their channel <a href=\\\"SF%20%28Australia%29\\\">SF</a> (an Australian science fiction channel), and would ultimately replace it with another science fiction dedicated channel once SF's carriage deal had expired. It was announced in September that Syfy, wholly owned by NBCUniversal, would replace SF in early 2014.\\nSyfy is part of the international brand <a href=\\\"Syfy%20Universal\\\">Syfy Universal</a> and is wholly owned and operated by <a href=\\\"Universal%20Networks%20International\\\">Universal Networks International</a> (a division of NBCUniversal). In contrast, SF was an Australian exclusive brand with only 33.33% owned by NBCUniversal (with the remaining shares equally being held by <a href=\\\"CBS%20Studios%20International\\\">CBS Studios International</a> and <a href=\\\"Sony%20Pictures%20Television\\\">Sony Pictures Television</a>).\\nOn 15 April 2014, Syfy launched on <a href=\\\"Internet%20television%20in%20Australia\\\">Australian IPTV</a> provider <a href=\\\"Fetch%20TV\\\">Fetch TV</a>.\\nOn 17 September 2017, the channel received a new logo alongside refreshed branding as part of an international overhaul of the brand by NBCUniversal.\\nProgramming features classic and new science fiction and fantasy television shows and movies.\\nSyfy has come under criticism from Foxtel subscribers for a number of programming related issues, specifically regarding the high number of repeats and the low quality of the Syfy programming. Significantly, Syfy Australia does not hold the rights to any of the <a href=\\\"Star%20Trek\\\">Star Trek</a> franchise, while its <a href=\\\"SF%20%28Australia%29\\\">predecessor</a> did.\\nSince then Star Trek is now on SYFY\\n\",\n \"Mediumship\\nMediumship is the practice of certain people—known as mediums—to purportedly mediate communication between <a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>s of the dead and living human beings. There are different types of \\\"mediumship\\\" including spirit channeling, and <a href=\\\"ouija\\\">ouija</a>.\\nHumans have been fascinated with contacting the dead since the beginning of human existence. Cave paintings by indigenous Australians date back 28,000 years, some depicting skulls, bones, spirits and the afterlife. Other cave paintings in Indonesia date back a further 10,000 years.\\nMediumship gained popularity during the nineteenth century, when <a href=\\\"Ouija\\\">ouija boards</a> were used by the upper classes as a source of entertainment. Investigations during this period revealed widespread <a href=\\\"fraud\\\">fraud</a>—with some practitioners employing techniques used by stage magicians—and the practice began to lose credibility. Fraud is still rife in the medium/psychic industry, with cases of deception and trickery being discovered to this day.\\nScientific researchers have attempted to ascertain the validity of claims of mediumship. An experiment undertaken by the <a href=\\\"British%20Psychological%20Society\\\">British Psychological Society</a> led to the conclusion that the test subjects demonstrated no mediumistic ability.\\nSeveral different variants of mediumship exist; arguably the best-known forms involve a spirit purportedly taking control of a medium's voice and using it to relay a message, or where the medium simply \\\"hears\\\" the message and passes it on. Other forms involve <a href=\\\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\\\">materializations</a> of the spirit or the presence of a voice, and <a href=\\\"psychokinesis\\\">telekinetic</a> activity.\\nThe practice is associated with several <a href=\\\"religious%20belief\\\">religious-belief</a> systems such as <a href=\\\"West%20African%20Vodun\\\">Vodun</a>, <a href=\\\"Spiritualism\\\">Spiritualism</a>, <a href=\\\"Spiritism\\\">Spiritism</a>, <a href=\\\"Candombl%C3%A9\\\">Candomblé</a>, <a href=\\\"Haitian%20Vodou\\\">Voodoo</a>, <a href=\\\"Umbanda\\\">Umbanda</a> and some <a href=\\\"New%20Age\\\">New Age</a> groups.\\nIn <a href=\\\"Spiritism\\\">Spiritism</a> and <a href=\\\"Spiritualism\\\">Spiritualism</a> the medium has the role of an intermediary between the world of the living and the world of spirit. Mediums claim that they can listen to and relay messages from spirits, or that they can allow a spirit to control their body and speak through it directly or by using <a href=\\\"automatic%20writing\\\">automatic writing</a> or <a href=\\\"automatic%20drawing\\\">drawing</a>.\\nSpiritualists classify types of mediumship into two main categories: \\\"mental\\\" and \\\"physical\\\":\\nDuring seances, mediums are said to go into trances, varying from light to deep, that permit spirits to control their minds.\\nChanneling can be seen as the modern form of the old mediumship, where the \\\"channel\\\" (or channeller) purportedly receives messages from \\\"teaching-spirit\\\", an \\\"<a href=\\\"Ascended%20Master\\\">Ascended Master</a>\\\", from <a href=\\\"God\\\">God</a>, or from an <a href=\\\"Angel\\\">angelic entity</a>, but essentially through the filter of his own waking <a href=\\\"consciousness\\\">consciousness</a> (or \\\"<a href=\\\"Higher%20Self\\\">Higher Self</a>\\\").\\nAttempts to communicate with the dead and other living human beings, aka spirits, have been documented back to early human history. The story of the <a href=\\\"Witch%20of%20Endor\\\">Witch of Endor</a> (In the most recent edition of the <a href=\\\"NIV\\\">NIV</a> witch is rendered medium in the passage) tells of one who raised the spirit of the deceased prophet <a href=\\\"Samuel%20%28Bible%29\\\">Samuel</a> to allow the Hebrew king <a href=\\\"Saul\\\">Saul</a> to question his former mentor about an upcoming battle, as related in the \\\"<a href=\\\"books%20of%20Samuel\\\">First book of Samuel</a>\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Jewish\\\">Jewish</a> <a href=\\\"Tanakh\\\">Tanakh</a> (the \\\"<a href=\\\"Old%20Testament\\\">Old Testament</a>\\\").\\nMediumship became quite popular in the 19th-century United States and the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a> after the rise of Spiritualism as a religious movement. <a href=\\\"Spiritualism%20%28religious%20movement%29\\\">Modern Spiritualism</a> is said to date from practices and lectures of the <a href=\\\"Fox%20sisters\\\">Fox sisters</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20%28state%29\\\">New York</a> State in 1848. The trance mediums <a href=\\\"Paschal%20Beverly%20Randolph\\\">Paschal Beverly Randolph</a> and <a href=\\\"Emma%20Hardinge%20Britten\\\">Emma Hardinge Britten</a> were among the most celebrated lecturers and authors on the subject in the mid-19th century. <a href=\\\"Allan%20Kardec\\\">Allan Kardec</a> coined the term <a href=\\\"Spiritism\\\">Spiritism</a> around 1860. Kardec claimed that conversations with spirits by selected mediums were the basis of his \\\"The Spirits' Book\\\" and later, his five-book collection, \\\"<a href=\\\"Spiritist%20Codification\\\">Spiritist Codification</a>\\\".\\nSome scientists of the period who investigated spiritualism also became converts. They included chemist <a href=\\\"Robert%20Hare%20%28chemist%29\\\">Robert Hare</a>, physicist <a href=\\\"William%20Crookes%23Spiritualism\\\">William Crookes</a> (1832–1919) and evolutionary biologist <a href=\\\"Alfred%20Russel%20Wallace%23Spiritualism\\\">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1823–1913). Nobel laureate <a href=\\\"Pierre%20Curie\\\">Pierre Curie</a> took a very serious scientific interest in the work of medium <a href=\\\"Eusapia%20Palladino\\\">Eusapia Palladino</a>. Other prominent adherents included journalist and pacifist <a href=\\\"William%20T.%20Stead%23Spiritualism\\\">William T. Stead</a> (1849–1912) and physician and author <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\\\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> (1859–1930).\\nAfter the exposure of the fraudulent use of <a href=\\\"magic%20%28illusion%29\\\">stage magic tricks</a> by physical mediums such as the <a href=\\\"Davenport%20Brothers\\\">Davenport Brothers</a> and the <a href=\\\"Bangs%20Sisters\\\">Bangs Sisters</a>, mediumship fell into disrepute. However, the religion and its beliefs continue in spite of this, with physical mediumship and seances falling out of practice and platform mediumship coming to the fore.\\nIn the late 1920s and early 1930s there were around one quarter of a million practising Spiritualists and some two thousand Spiritualist societies in the UK in addition to flourishing microcultures of platform mediumship and 'home circles'. Spiritualism continues to be practiced, primarily through various denominational spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, over 340 spiritualist churches and centres open their doors to the public and free demonstrations of mediumship are regularly performed.\\nIn 1958, the <a href=\\\"England\\\">English</a>-born Spiritualist C. Dorreen Phillips wrote of her experiences with a medium at <a href=\\\"Camp%20Chesterfield\\\">Camp Chesterfield</a>, <a href=\\\"Indiana\\\">Indiana</a>: \\\"In Rev. James Laughton's séances there are many <a href=\\\"Indigenous%20peoples%20of%20the%20Americas\\\">Indians</a>. They are very noisy and appear to have great power. [...] The little guides, or doorkeepers, are usually Indian boys and girls [who act] as messengers who help to locate the spirit friends who wish to speak with you.\\\"\\nA spirit who uses a medium to manipulate psychic \\\"energy\\\" or \\\"energy systems.\\\"\\nIn old-line Spiritualism, a portion of the services, generally toward the end, is given over to demonstrations of mediumship through contact with the spirits of the dead. A typical example of this way of describing a mediumistic church service is found in the 1958 autobiography of C. Dorreen Phillips. She writes of the worship services at the Spiritualist <a href=\\\"Camp%20Chesterfield\\\">Camp Chesterfield</a> in <a href=\\\"Chesterfield%2C%20Indiana\\\">Chesterfield, Indiana</a>: \\\"Services are held each afternoon, consisting of hymns, a lecture on philosophy, and demonstrations of mediumship.\\\"\\nToday \\\"demonstration of mediumship\\\" is part of the church service at all churches affiliated with the <a href=\\\"National%20Spiritualist%20Association%20of%20Churches\\\">National Spiritualist Association of Churches</a> (NSAC) and the <a href=\\\"Spiritualists%27%20National%20Union\\\">Spiritualists' National Union</a> (SNU). Demonstration links to NSAC's Declaration of Principal #9. \\\"We affirm that the precepts of Prophecy and Healing are Divine attributes proven through Mediumship.\\\"\\n\\\"Mental mediumship\\\" is communication of spirits with a medium by <a href=\\\"telepathy\\\">telepathy</a>. The medium mentally \\\"hears\\\" (clairaudience), \\\"sees\\\" (clairvoyance), and/or feels (clairsentience) messages from spirits. Directly or with the help of a spirit guide, the medium passes the information on to the message's recipient(s). When a medium is doing a \\\"reading\\\" for a particular person, that person is known as the \\\"sitter\\\".\\n\\\"Trance mediumship\\\" is often seen as a form of mental mediumship.\\nMost <a href=\\\"trance\\\">trance</a> mediums remain conscious during a communication period, wherein a spirit uses the medium's mind to communicate. The spirit or spirits using the medium's mind influences the mind with the thoughts being conveyed. The medium allows the <a href=\\\"Id%2C%20ego%20and%20super-ego\\\">ego</a> to step aside for the message to be delivered. At the same time, one has awareness of the thoughts coming through and may even influence the message with one's own bias. Such a trance is not to be confused with <a href=\\\"sleepwalking\\\">sleepwalking</a>, as the patterns are entirely different. Castillo (1995) states,\\nTrance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain.\\nIn the 1860s and 1870s, trance mediums were very popular. Spiritualism generally attracted female adherents, many who had strong interests in social justice. Many trance mediums delivered passionate speeches on <a href=\\\"Abolitionism%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">abolitionism</a>, <a href=\\\"temperance%20movement\\\">temperance</a>, and <a href=\\\"women%27s%20suffrage\\\">women's suffrage</a>. Scholars have described <a href=\\\"Leonora%20Piper\\\">Leonora Piper</a> as one of the most famous trance mediums in the history of Spiritualism.\\nIn the typical deep trance, the medium may not have clear recall of all the messages conveyed while in an altered state; such people generally work with an assistant. That person selectively wrote down or otherwise recorded the medium's words. Rarely did the assistant record the responding words of the sitter and other attendants. An example of this kind of relationship can be found in the early 20th century collaboration between the trance medium Mrs. Cecil M. Cook of the <a href=\\\"William%20T.%20Stead\\\">William T. Stead</a> Memorial Center in Chicago (a religious body incorporated under the statutes of the State of Illinois) and the journalist <a href=\\\"Lloyd%20Kenyon%20Jones\\\">Lloyd Kenyon Jones</a>. The latter was a non-medium Spiritualist who transcribed Cook's messages in <a href=\\\"shorthand\\\">shorthand</a>. He <a href=\\\"edited\\\">edited</a> them for publication in book and pamphlet form.\\nPhysical mediumship is defined as manipulation of energies and energy systems by spirits. This type of mediumship is claimed to involve perceptible manifestations, such as loud raps and noises, voices, materialized objects, apports, materialized spirit bodies, or body parts such as hands, legs and feet. The medium is used as a source of power for such spirit manifestations. By some accounts, this was achieved by using the energy or <a href=\\\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a> released by a medium, see <a href=\\\"Spirit%20photography\\\">Spirit photography</a>. The last physical medium to be tested by a committee from \\\"<a href=\\\"Scientific%20American\\\">Scientific American</a>\\\" was <a href=\\\"Mina%20Crandon\\\">Mina Crandon</a> in 1924.\\nMost physical mediumship is presented in a darkened or dimly lit room. Most physical mediums make use of a traditional array of tools and appurtenances, including spirit trumpets, spirit cabinets, and levitation tables.\\nDirect voice communication is the claim that spirits speak independently of the medium, who facilitates the phenomenon rather than produces it. The role of the medium is to make the connection between the physical and spirit worlds. Trumpets are often utilised to amplify the signal, and directed voice mediums are sometimes known as \\\"trumpet mediums\\\". This form of mediumship also permits the medium to participate in the discourse during séances, since the medium's voice is not required by the spirit to communicate. <a href=\\\"Leslie%20Flint\\\">Leslie Flint</a> was one of the best known exponents of this form of mediumship.\\nIn the later half of the 20th century, Western mediumship developed in two different ways. One type involved <a href=\\\"psychic\\\">psychic</a>s or sensitives who speak to spirits and then relay what they hear to their clients. The other incarnation of non-physical mediumship is a form of channeling in which the channeler goes into a trance, or \\\"leaves their body\\\", allowing a spiritual entity to borrow their body, who then talks through them. When in a trance the medium appears to come under the control of the spirit of a departed soul, sometimes entering into a <a href=\\\"cataleptic\\\">cataleptic</a> state, although modern channelers may not. Some channelers open the eyes when channeling, and remain able to walk and behave normally. The rhythm and the intonation of the voice may also change completely.\\nA widely known channeler of this variety is <a href=\\\"J.%20Z.%20Knight\\\">J. Z. Knight</a>, who claims to channel the spirit of <a href=\\\"Ramtha\\\">Ramtha</a>, a 30 thousand-year-old man. Others purport to channel spirits from \\\"future dimensions\\\", <a href=\\\"ascended%20masters\\\">ascended masters</a>, or, in the case of the trance mediums of the <a href=\\\"Brahma%20Kumaris\\\">Brahma Kumaris</a>, God. Other notable channels are <a href=\\\"Jane%20Roberts\\\">Jane Roberts</a> for <a href=\\\"Seth%20Material\\\">Seth</a>, <a href=\\\"Esther%20Hicks\\\">Esther Hicks</a> for Abraham, and Carla L. Rueckert for Ra.\\nIn spiritualism, psychic senses used by mental mediums are sometimes defined differently from in other paranormal fields. A medium is said to have psychic abilities but not all psychics function as mediums.\\n<a href=\\\"Spiritualists\\\">Spiritualists</a> believe that phenomena produced by mediums (both mental and physical mediumship) are the result of external <a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a> agencies. The psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Thomson%20Jay%20Hudson\\\">Thomson Jay Hudson</a> in \\\"The Law of Psychic Phenomena\\\" (1892) and <a href=\\\"Th%C3%A9odore%20Flournoy\\\">Théodore Flournoy</a> in his book \\\"Spiritism and Psychology\\\" (1911) wrote that all kinds of mediumship could be explained by <a href=\\\"suggestion\\\">suggestion</a> and <a href=\\\"telepathy\\\">telepathy</a> from the medium and that there was no evidence for the spirit hypothesis. The idea of mediumship being explained by telepathy was later merged into the \\\"<a href=\\\"Extrasensory%20perception\\\">super-ESP</a>\\\" hypothesis of mediumship which is currently advocated by some <a href=\\\"Parapsychology\\\">parapsychologists</a>.\\nIn their book \\\"How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age\\\", authors <a href=\\\"Theodore%20Schick\\\">Theodore Schick</a> and Lewis Vaughn have noted that the spiritualist and ESP hypothesis of mediumship \\\"has yielded no novel predictions, assumes unknown entities or forces, and conflicts with available scientific evidence.\\\"\\nScientists who study <a href=\\\"anomalistic%20psychology\\\">anomalistic psychology</a> consider mediumship to be the result of fraud and psychological factors. Research from psychology for over a hundred years suggests that where there is not fraud, mediumship and Spiritualist practices can be explained by <a href=\\\"hypnotism\\\">hypnotism</a>, <a href=\\\"magical%20thinking\\\">magical thinking</a> and <a href=\\\"suggestion\\\">suggestion</a>. Trance mediumship, which according to Spiritualists is caused by discarnate <a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>s speaking through the medium, can be explained by <a href=\\\"Dissociative%20identity%20disorder\\\">Dissociative identity disorder</a>.\\nMagicians such as <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Rinn\\\">Joseph Rinn</a> have staged 'fake' séances in which the sitters have claimed to have observed genuine supernatural phenomena. <a href=\\\"Albert%20Moll%20%28German%20psychiatrist%29\\\">Albert Moll</a> studied the psychology of <a href=\\\"s%C3%A9ance\\\">séance</a> sitters. According to (Wolffram, 2012) \\\"[Moll] argued that the hypnotic atmosphere of the darkened <a href=\\\"s%C3%A9ance\\\">séance</a> room and the suggestive effect of the experimenters' social and scientific prestige could be used to explain why seemingly rational people vouchsafed occult phenomena.\\\" The psychologists <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Zusne\\\">Leonard Zusne</a> and Warren Jones in their book \\\"Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking\\\" (1989) wrote that spirits controls are the \\\"products of the medium's own psychological dynamics.\\\"\\nA fraudulent medium may obtain information about their sitters by secretly <a href=\\\"eavesdropping\\\">eavesdropping</a> on sitter's conversations or searching telephone directories, the <a href=\\\"internet\\\">internet</a> and <a href=\\\"newspaper\\\">newspaper</a>s before the sittings. A technique called <a href=\\\"cold%20reading\\\">cold reading</a> can also be used to obtain information from the sitter's <a href=\\\"behavior\\\">behavior</a>, <a href=\\\"clothing\\\">clothing</a>, <a href=\\\"Human%20positions\\\">posture</a>, and <a href=\\\"jewellery\\\">jewellery</a>.\\nThe psychologist <a href=\\\"Richard%20Wiseman\\\">Richard Wiseman</a> has written:\\nCold reading also explains why psychics have consistently failed scientific tests of their powers. By isolating them from their clients, psychics are unable to pick up information from the way those clients dress or behave. By presenting all of the volunteers involved in the test with all of the readings, they are prevented from attributing meaning to their own reading, and therefore can't identify it from readings made for others. As a result, the type of highly successful hit rate that psychics enjoy on a daily basis comes crashing down and the truth emerges – their success depends on a fascinating application of psychology and not the existence of paranormal abilities.\\nIn a series of fake séance experiments (Wiseman \\\"et al\\\". 2003) <a href=\\\"paranormal\\\">paranormal</a> believers and disbelievers were <a href=\\\"Suggestion\\\">suggested</a> by an actor that a table was <a href=\\\"Levitation%20%28paranormal%29\\\">levitating</a> when, in fact, it remained stationary. After the seance, approximately one third of the participants incorrectly reported that the table had moved. The results showed a greater percentage of believers reporting that the table had moved. In another experiment the believers had also reported that a handbell had moved when it had remained stationary and expressed their belief that the fake séances contained genuine paranormal phenomena. The experiments strongly supported the notion that in the séance room, believers are more suggestible than disbelievers for suggestions that are <a href=\\\"confirmation%20bias\\\">consistent with their belief</a> in paranormal phenomena.\\nThere have been many instances of fraud and trickery in mediumship practices from its earliest beginnings to contemporary times. <a href=\\\"S%C3%A9ance\\\">Séance</a>s take place in darkness so the poor lighting conditions can become an easy opportunity for fraud. Physical mediumship that has been investigated by scientists has been discovered to be the result of <a href=\\\"deception\\\">deception</a> and trickery. <a href=\\\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">Ectoplasm</a> a supposed paranormal substance was revealed to be made from <a href=\\\"cheesecloth\\\">cheesecloth</a>, butter, <a href=\\\"muslin\\\">muslin</a> and cloth. Mediums would also stick cut-out faces from <a href=\\\"magazine\\\">magazine</a>s and newspapers onto <a href=\\\"cloth\\\">cloth</a> or on other props and use plastic <a href=\\\"doll\\\">doll</a>s in their séances to pretend to their audiences <a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>s were contacting them. <a href=\\\"Lewis%20Spence\\\">Lewis Spence</a> in his book \\\"An Encyclopaedia of Occultism\\\" (1960) wrote:\\nA very large part is played by fraud in spiritualistic practices, both in the physical and psychical, or automatic, phenomena, but especially in the former. The frequency with which mediums have been convicted of fraud has, indeed, induced many people to abandon the study of psychical research, judging the whole bulk of the phenomena to be fraudulently produced.\\nIn Britain, the <a href=\\\"Society%20for%20Psychical%20Research\\\">Society for Psychical Research</a> has investigated mediumship phenomena. Critical SPR investigations into purported mediums and the exposure of fake mediums has led to a number of resignations by Spiritualist members. On the subject of fraud in mediumship <a href=\\\"Paul%20Kurtz\\\">Paul Kurtz</a> wrote:\\nNo doubt a great importance in the paranormal field is the problem of fraud. The field of psychic research and spiritualism has been so notoriously full of charlatans, such as the <a href=\\\"Fox%20sisters\\\">Fox sisters</a> and <a href=\\\"Eusapia%20Palladino\\\">Eusapia Palladino</a>–individuals who claim to have special power and gifts but who are actually conjurers who have hoodwinked scientists and the public as well–that we have to be especially cautious about claims made on their behalf.\\n<a href=\\\"Magic%20%28illusion%29\\\">Magicians</a> have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. Early debunkers included <a href=\\\"Chung%20Ling%20Soo\\\">Chung Ling Soo</a>, <a href=\\\"Henry%20R.%20Evans\\\">Henry Evans</a> and <a href=\\\"Julien%20Proskauer\\\">Julien Proskauer</a>. Later magicians to reveal fraud were <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Dunninger\\\">Joseph Dunninger</a>, <a href=\\\"Harry%20Houdini\\\">Harry Houdini</a> and <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Rinn\\\">Joseph Rinn</a>.\\nMany 19th century mediums were discovered to be engaged in <a href=\\\"fraud\\\">fraud</a>. While advocates of mediumship claim that their experiences are genuine, the \\\"Encyclopædia Britannica\\\" article on spiritualism notes in reference to a case in the 19th century that \\\"...one by one, the <a href=\\\"Spiritualist\\\">Spiritualist</a> mediums were discovered to be engaged in fraud, sometimes employing the techniques of stage magicians in their attempts to convince people of their clairvoyant powers.\\\" The article also notes that \\\"the exposure of widespread fraud within the spiritualist movement severely damaged its reputation and pushed it to the fringes of society in the United States.\\\"\\nAt a <a href=\\\"s%C3%A9ance\\\">séance</a> in the house of the solicitor John Snaith Rymer in <a href=\\\"Ealing\\\">Ealing</a> in July 1855, a sitter Frederick Merrifield observed that a \\\"spirit-hand\\\" was a false limb attached on the end of the medium <a href=\\\"Daniel%20Dunglas%20Home\\\">Daniel Dunglas Home</a>'s arm. Merrifield also claimed to have observed Home use his foot in the séance room.\\nThe poet <a href=\\\"Robert%20Browning\\\">Robert Browning</a> and his wife <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Barrett%20Browning\\\">Elizabeth</a> attended a séance on 23, July 1855 in Ealing with the Rymers. During the séance a spirit face materialized which Home claimed was the son of Browning who had died in infancy. Browning seized the \\\"materialization\\\" and discovered it to be the bare foot of Home. To make the deception worse, Browning had never lost a son in infancy. Browning's son <a href=\\\"Robert%20Barrett%20Browning\\\">Robert</a> in a letter to \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Times\\\">The Times</a>\\\", December 5, 1902 referred to the incident \\\"Home was detected in a vulgar fraud.\\\" The researchers <a href=\\\"Joseph%20McCabe\\\">Joseph McCabe</a> and <a href=\\\"Trevor%20H.%20Hall\\\">Trevor H. Hall</a> exposed the \\\"<a href=\\\"levitation%20%28paranormal%29\\\">levitation</a>\\\" of Home as nothing more than his moving across a connecting ledge between two iron balconies.\\nThe psychologist and psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Stanley%20LeFevre%20Krebs\\\">Stanley LeFevre Krebs</a> had exposed the <a href=\\\"Bangs%20Sisters\\\">Bangs Sisters</a> as frauds. During a séance he employed a hidden mirror and caught them tampering with a letter in an envelope and writing a reply in it under the table which they would pretend a spirit had written. The British materialization medium Rosina Mary Showers was caught in many fraudulent séances throughout her career. In 1874 during a séance with <a href=\\\"Edward%20William%20Cox\\\">Edward William Cox</a> a sitter looked into the cabinet and seized the spirit, the <a href=\\\"Headgear\\\">headdress</a> fell off and was revealed to be Showers.\\nIn a series of experiments in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a> at the house of <a href=\\\"William%20Crookes\\\">William Crookes</a> in February 1875, the medium <a href=\\\"Anna%20Eva%20Fay\\\">Anna Eva Fay</a> managed to fool Crookes into believing she had genuine <a href=\\\"psychic\\\">psychic</a> powers. Fay later confessed to her fraud and revealed the tricks she had used. Frank Herne a British medium who formed a partnership with the medium Charles Williams was repeatedly exposed in fraudulent <a href=\\\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\\\">materialization</a> séances. In 1875, he was caught pretending to be a spirit during a séance in Liverpool and was found \\\"clothed in about two yards of stiffened muslin, wound round his head and hanging down as far as his thigh.\\\" <a href=\\\"Florence%20Cook\\\">Florence Cook</a> had been \\\"trained in the arts of the séance\\\" by Herne and was repeatedly exposed as a fraudulent medium.\\nThe medium <a href=\\\"Henry%20Slade\\\">Henry Slade</a> was caught in fraud many times throughout his career. In a séance in 1876 in London <a href=\\\"Ray%20Lankester\\\">Ray Lankester</a> and Bryan Donkin snatched his <a href=\\\"Slate%20%28writing%29\\\">slate</a> before the \\\"<a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>\\\" message was supposed to be written, and found the writing already there. Slade also played an <a href=\\\"accordion\\\">accordion</a> with one hand under the table and claimed spirits would play it. The magician <a href=\\\"Chung%20Ling%20Soo\\\">Chung Ling Soo</a> revealed how Slade had performed the trick.\\nThe British medium <a href=\\\"Francis%20Ward%20Monck\\\">Francis Ward Monck</a> was investigated by psychical researchers and discovered to be a fraud. On November 3, 1876 during the séance a sitter demanded that Monck be searched. Monck ran from the room, locked himself in another room and escaped out of a window. A pair of stuffed gloves was found in his room, as well as cheesecloth, reaching rods and other fraudulent devices in his luggage. After a trial Monck was convicted for his fraudulent mediumship and was sentenced to three months in prison.\\nIn 1876, <a href=\\\"William%20Eglinton\\\">William Eglinton</a> was exposed as a fraud when the <a href=\\\"Parapsychology\\\">psychical researcher</a> Thomas Colley seized a \\\"spirit\\\" materialization in his séance and cut off a portion of its cloak. It was discovered that the cut piece matched a <a href=\\\"cloth\\\">cloth</a> found in Eglinton's <a href=\\\"suitcase\\\">suitcase</a>. Colley also pulled the beard off the materialization and it was revealed to be a fake, the same as another one found in the suitcase of Eglinton. In 1880 in a <a href=\\\"s%C3%A9ance\\\">séance</a> a spirit named \\\"Yohlande\\\" materialized, a sitter grabbed it and was revealed to be the medium <a href=\\\"Mme.%20d%27Esperance\\\">Mme. d'Esperance</a> herself.\\nIn September 1878 the British medium Charles Williams and his fellow-medium at the time, A. Rita, were detected in trickery at Amsterdam. During the séance a materialized spirit was seized and found to be Rita and a bottle of phosphorus oil, <a href=\\\"muslin\\\">muslin</a> and a false beard were found amongst the two mediums. In 1882 C. E. Wood was exposed in a séance in Peterborough. Her Indian spirit control \\\"Pocka\\\" was found to be the medium on her knees, covered in muslin.\\nIn 1880 the American stage mentalist <a href=\\\"Washington%20Irving%20Bishop\\\">Washington Irving Bishop</a> published a book revealing how mediums would use secret codes as the trick for their <a href=\\\"Clairvoyance\\\">clairvoyant</a> readings. The <a href=\\\"Seybert%20Commission\\\">Seybert Commission</a> was a group of faculty at the University of Pennsylvania who in 1884–1887 exposed fraudulent mediums such as <a href=\\\"Pierre%20L.%20O.%20A.%20Keeler\\\">Pierre L. O. A. Keeler</a> and <a href=\\\"Henry%20Slade\\\">Henry Slade</a>. The <a href=\\\"Fox%20sisters\\\">Fox sisters</a> confessed to fraud in 1888. Margaret Fox revealed that she and her sister had produced the \\\"<a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>\\\" rappings by cracking their toe joints.\\nIn 1891 at a public séance with twenty sitters the medium <a href=\\\"Cecil%20Husk\\\">Cecil Husk</a> was caught leaning over a table pretending to be a spirit by covering his face with phosphor material. The magician <a href=\\\"Will%20Goldston\\\">Will Goldston</a> also exposed the fraud mediumship of Husk. In a séance Goldston attended a pale face materialization appeared in the room. Goldston wrote \\\"I saw at once that it was a gauze mask, and that the moustache attached to it was loose at one side through lack of gum. I pulled at the mask. It came away, revealing the face of Husk.\\\" The British materialization medium <a href=\\\"Annie%20Fairlamb%20Mellon\\\">Annie Fairlamb Mellon</a> was exposed as a fraud on October 12, 1894. During the séance a sitter seized the materialized spirit, and found it to be the Mellon on her knees with white <a href=\\\"muslin\\\">muslin</a> on her head and shoulders.\\nThe magician <a href=\\\"Samri%20Baldwin\\\">Samri Baldwin</a> exposed the tricks of the <a href=\\\"Davenport%20brothers\\\">Davenport brothers</a> in his book \\\"The Secrets of Mahatma Land Explained\\\" (1895). The medium <a href=\\\"Swami%20Laura%20Horos\\\">Swami Laura Horos</a> was convicted of fraud several times and was tried for <a href=\\\"rape\\\">rape</a> and fraud in London in 1901. She was described by the magician <a href=\\\"Harry%20Houdini\\\">Harry Houdini</a> as \\\"one of the most extraordinary fake mediums and mystery swindlers the world has ever known\\\".\\nIn the late 19th century the fraudulent methods of <a href=\\\"Spirit%20photography\\\">spirit photographers</a> such as <a href=\\\"David%20Duguid\\\">David Duguid</a> and <a href=\\\"Edward%20Wyllie\\\">Edward Wyllie</a> were revealed by psychical researchers. <a href=\\\"Hereward%20Carrington\\\">Hereward Carrington</a> documented various methods (with diagrams) how the medium would manipulate the <a href=\\\"Photographic%20plate\\\">plates</a> before, during, and after the séance to produce spirit forms. The <a href=\\\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a> materializations of the French medium <a href=\\\"Eva%20Carri%C3%A8re\\\">Eva Carrière</a> were exposed as fraudulent. The fake ectoplasm of Carrière was made of cut-out paper faces from newspapers and magazines on which fold marks could sometimes be seen from the photographs. Cut out faces that she used included <a href=\\\"Woodrow%20Wilson\\\">Woodrow Wilson</a>, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, French president <a href=\\\"Raymond%20Poincar%C3%A9\\\">Raymond Poincaré</a> and the actress Mona Delza.\\nThe séance trick of the <a href=\\\"Eddy%20Brothers\\\">Eddy Brothers</a> was revealed by the magician <a href=\\\"Chung%20Ling%20Soo\\\">Chung Ling Soo</a> in 1898. The brothers utilized a fake hand made of lead, and with their hands free from control would play musical instruments and move objects in the séance room. The physiologist <a href=\\\"Ivor%20Lloyd%20Tuckett\\\">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a> examined a case of <a href=\\\"spirit%20photography\\\">spirit photography</a> that <a href=\\\"William%20Thomas%20Stead\\\">W. T. Stead</a> had claimed was genuine. Stead visited a photographer who had produced a photograph of him with deceased soldier known as \\\"Piet Botha\\\". Stead claimed that the photographer could not have come across any information about Piet Botha, however, Tuckett discovered that an article in 1899 had been published on Pietrus Botha in a weekly magazine with a portrait and personal details.\\nThe trance medium <a href=\\\"Leonora%20Piper\\\">Leonora Piper</a> was investigated by psychical researchers and <a href=\\\"psychologist\\\">psychologist</a>s in the late 19th and early 20th century. In an experiment to test if Piper's \\\"spirit\\\" controls were purely fictitious the psychologist <a href=\\\"G.%20Stanley%20Hall\\\">G. Stanley Hall</a> invented a niece called Bessie Beals and asked Piper's 'control' to get in touch with it. Bessie appeared, answered questions and accepted Dr. Hall as her uncle. The psychologist <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Jastrow\\\">Joseph Jastrow</a> wrote that Piper pretended to be controlled by spirits and fell into simple and logical traps from her comments. Science writer <a href=\\\"Martin%20Gardner\\\">Martin Gardner</a> concluded Piper was a <a href=\\\"Cold%20reading\\\">cold reader</a> that would \\\"fish\\\" for information from her séance sitters. The physiologist <a href=\\\"Ivor%20Lloyd%20Tuckett\\\">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a> who examined Piper's mediumship in detail wrote it could be explained by \\\"muscle-reading, fishing, guessing, hints obtained in the sitting, knowledge surreptitiously obtained, knowledge acquired in the interval between sittings and lastly, facts already within Mrs. Piper's knowledge.\\\"\\nIn March 1902 in <a href=\\\"Berlin\\\">Berlin</a>, police officers interrupted a séance of the German <a href=\\\"Apport%20%28paranormal%29\\\">apport</a> medium Frau Anna Rothe. Her hands were grabbed and she was wrestled to the ground. A female police assistant physically examined Rothe and discovered 157 <a href=\\\"flower\\\">flower</a>s as well as <a href=\\\"Orange%20%28fruit%29\\\">oranges</a> and lemons hidden in her petticoat. She was arrested and charged with fraud. Another apport medium Hilda Lewis known as the \\\"flower medium\\\" confessed to fraud.\\nThe psychical researchers <a href=\\\"W.%20W.%20Baggally\\\">W. W. Baggally</a> and <a href=\\\"Everard%20Feilding\\\">Everard Feilding</a> exposed the British <a href=\\\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\\\">materialization</a> medium Christopher Chambers as a fraud in 1905. A false moustache was discovered in the séance room which he used to fabricate the spirit materializations. The British medium Charles Eldred was exposed as a fraud in 1906. Eldred would sit in a chair in a curtained off area in the room known as a \\\"séance cabinet\\\". Various spirit figures would emerge from the cabinet and move around the séance room, however, it was discovered that the chair had a secret compartment that contained beards, cloths, <a href=\\\"mask\\\">mask</a>s, and wigs that Eldred would dress up in to fake the spirits.\\nThe spirit photographer <a href=\\\"William%20Hope%20%28paranormal%20investigator%29\\\">William Hope</a> tricked <a href=\\\"William%20Crookes\\\">William Crookes</a> with a fake spirit photograph of his wife in 1906. <a href=\\\"Oliver%20Lodge\\\">Oliver Lodge</a> revealed there had been obvious signs of double exposure, the picture of Lady Crookes had been copied from a wedding anniversary photograph, however, Crookes was a convinced spiritualist and claimed it was genuine evidence for <a href=\\\"spirit%20photography\\\">spirit photography</a>.\\nIn 1907, <a href=\\\"Hereward%20Carrington\\\">Hereward Carrington</a> exposed the tricks of fraudulent mediums such as those used in slate-writing, <a href=\\\"table-turning\\\">table-turning</a>, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading and <a href=\\\"spirit%20photography\\\">spirit photography</a>. between 1908 and 1914 the Italian medium Francesco Carancini was investigated by psychical researchers and they discovered that he used <a href=\\\"phosphorus\\\">phosphorus</a> <a href=\\\"match\\\">match</a>es to produce \\\"spirit lights\\\" and with a freed hand would move objects in the séance room.\\nIn 1908 at a hotel in <a href=\\\"Naples\\\">Naples</a>, the psychical researchers <a href=\\\"W.%20W.%20Baggally\\\">W. W. Baggally</a>, Hereward Carrington and <a href=\\\"Everard%20Feilding\\\">Everard Feilding</a> attended a series of séances with <a href=\\\"Eusapia%20Palladino\\\">Eusapia Palladino</a>. In a report they claimed that genuine supernatural activity had occurred in the séances, this report became known as the Feilding report. In 1910, Feilding returned to Naples, but this time accompanied with the magician <a href=\\\"William%20S.%20Marriott\\\">William S. Marriott</a>. Unlike the 1908 sittings, Feilding and Marriott detected her cheating, just as she had done in America. Her deceptions were obvious. Palladino evaded control and was caught moving objects with her foot, shaking the curtain with her hands, moving the cabinet table with her elbow and touching the séance sitters. <a href=\\\"Milbourne%20Christopher\\\">Milbourne Christopher</a> wrote regarding the exposure \\\"when one knows how a feat can be done and what to look for, only the most skillful performer can maintain the illusion in the face of such informed scrutiny.\\\"\\nIn 1910 at a séance in Grenoble, France the <a href=\\\"Apport%20%28paranormal%29\\\">apport</a> medium <a href=\\\"Charles%20Bailey%20%28medium%29\\\">Charles Bailey</a> produced two live birds in the séance room. Bailey was unaware that the dealer he had bought the birds from was present in the séance and he was exposed as a fraud. The psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Eric%20Dingwall\\\">Eric Dingwall</a> observed the medium <a href=\\\"Bert%20Reese\\\">Bert Reese</a> in New York and claimed to have discovered his <a href=\\\"billet%20reading\\\">billet reading</a> tricks. The most detailed account at exposing his tricks (with diagrams) was by the magician <a href=\\\"Theodore%20Annemann\\\">Theodore Annemann</a>.\\nThe Polish medium <a href=\\\"Stanis%C5%82awa%20Tomczyk\\\">Stanisława Tomczyk</a>'s levitation of a glass beaker was exposed and replicated in 1910 by the magician <a href=\\\"William%20S.%20Marriott\\\">William S. Marriott</a> by means of a hidden thread. The Italian medium Lucia Sordi was exposed in 1911, she was bound to a chair by psychical researchers but would free herself during her séances. The tricks of another Italian medium <a href=\\\"Linda%20Gazzera\\\">Linda Gazzera</a> were revealed in the same year, she would release her hands and feet from control in her séances and use them. Gazzera would not permit anyone to search her before a séance sitting, as she concealed <a href=\\\"muslin\\\">muslin</a> and other objects in her hair.\\nIn 1917, <a href=\\\"Edward%20Clodd\\\">Edward Clodd</a> analyzed the mediumship of the trance medium <a href=\\\"Gladys%20Osborne%20Leonard\\\">Gladys Osborne Leonard</a> and came to the conclusion that Leonard had known her séance sitters before she had held the séances, and could have easily obtained such information by natural means. The British psychiatrist <a href=\\\"Charles%20Arthur%20Mercier\\\">Charles Arthur Mercier</a> wrote in his book \\\"Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge\\\" (1917) that <a href=\\\"Oliver%20Lodge\\\">Oliver Lodge</a> had been duped into believing mediumship by trickery and his spiritualist views were based on assumptions and not scientific evidence.\\nIn 1918, <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Jastrow\\\">Joseph Jastrow</a> wrote about the tricks of <a href=\\\"Eusapia%20Palladino\\\">Eusapia Palladino</a> who was an expert at freeing her hands and feet from the control in the séance room. In the séance room Palladino would move curtains from a distance by releasing a jet of air from a rubber bulb that she had in her hand. According to the psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Harry%20Price\\\">Harry Price</a> \\\"Her tricks were usually childish: long hairs attached to small objects in order to produce 'telekinetic movements'; the gradual substitution of one hand for two when being controlled by sitters; the production of 'phenomena' with a foot which had been surreptitiously removed from its shoe and so on.\\\"\\nIn the 1920s the British medium Charles Albert Beare duped the Spiritualist organization the Temple of Light into believing he had genuine mediumship powers. In 1931 Beare published a confession in the newspaper \\\"<a href=\\\"Daily%20Express\\\">Daily Express</a>\\\". In the confession he stated \\\"I have deceived hundreds of people…. I have been guilty of fraud and deception in spiritualistic practices by pretending that I was controlled by a spirit guide…. I am frankly and whole-heartedly sorry that I have allowed myself to deceive people.\\\" Due to the exposure of <a href=\\\"William%20Hope%20%28paranormal%20investigator%29\\\">William Hope</a> and other fraudulent spiritualists, <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\\\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> in the 1920s led a mass resignation of eighty-four members of the <a href=\\\"Society%20for%20Psychical%20Research\\\">Society for Psychical Research</a>, as they believed the Society was opposed to spiritualism.\\nBetween 8 November and 31 December 1920 <a href=\\\"Gustav%20Geley\\\">Gustav Geley</a> of the Institute Metapsychique International attended fourteen séances with the medium <a href=\\\"Franek%20Kluski\\\">Franek Kluski</a> in Paris. A bowl of hot paraffin was placed in the room and according to Kluski spirits dipped their limbs into the <a href=\\\"Paraffin%20wax\\\">paraffin</a> and then into a bath of water to materialize. Three other series of séances were held in Warsaw in Kluski's own apartment, these took place over a period of three years. Kluski was not searched in any of the séances. Photographs of the molds were obtained during the four series of experiments and were published by Geley in 1924. <a href=\\\"Harry%20Houdini\\\">Harry Houdini</a> replicated the Kluski materialization moulds by using his hands and a bowl of hot paraffin.\\nThe British direct-voice medium <a href=\\\"Frederick%20Tansley%20Munnings\\\">Frederick Tansley Munnings</a> was exposed as a fraud when one of his séance sitters turned the lights on which revealed him to be holding a trumpet by means of a telescopic extension piece and using an angle piece to change the auditory effect of his voice. <a href=\\\"Richard%20Hodgson%20%28parapsychologist%29\\\">Richard Hodgson</a> held six sittings with the medium <a href=\\\"Rosina%20Thompson\\\">Rosina Thompson</a> and came to the conclusion she was a fraud as he discovered Thompson had access to documents and information about her séance sitters.\\nOn 4 February 1922, <a href=\\\"Harry%20Price\\\">Harry Price</a> with James Seymour, <a href=\\\"Eric%20Dingwall\\\">Eric Dingwall</a> and <a href=\\\"William%20S.%20Marriott\\\">William S. Marriott</a> had proven the spirit photographer <a href=\\\"William%20Hope%20%28paranormal%20investigator%29\\\">William Hope</a> was a fraud during tests at the British College of Psychic Science. Price wrote in his SPR report \\\"William Hope has been found guilty of deliberately substituting his own plates for those of a sitter... It implies that the medium brings to the sitting a duplicate slide and faked plates for fraudulent purposes.\\\" The medium <a href=\\\"Kathleen%20Goligher\\\">Kathleen Goligher</a> was investigated by the physicist <a href=\\\"Edmund%20Edward%20Fournier%20d%27Albe\\\">Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe</a>. On July 22, 1921 in a séance he observed Goligher holding the table up with her foot. He also discovered that her <a href=\\\"ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a> was made of muslin. During a séance d'Albe observed white muslin between Goligher's feet.\\nThe Danish medium <a href=\\\"Einer%20Nielsen\\\">Einer Nielsen</a> was investigated by a committee from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Oslo\\\">Kristiania University</a> in Norway, 1922 and discovered in a séance that his ectoplasm was fake. In 1923 the Polish medium <a href=\\\"Jan%20Guzyk\\\">Jan Guzyk</a> was exposed as a fraud in a series of séances in Sorbonne in <a href=\\\"Paris\\\">Paris</a>. Guzyk would use his elbows and legs to move objects around the room and touch the sitters. According to <a href=\\\"Max%20Dessoir\\\">Max Dessoir</a> the trick of Guzyk was to use his \\\"foot for psychic touches and sounds\\\".\\nThe psychical researchers <a href=\\\"Eric%20Dingwall\\\">Eric Dingwall</a> and <a href=\\\"Harry%20Price\\\">Harry Price</a> re-published an anonymous work written by a former medium entitled \\\"Revelations of a Spirit Medium\\\" (1922) which exposed the tricks of mediumship and the fraudulent methods of producing \\\"spirit hands\\\". Originally all the copies of the book were bought up by spiritualists and deliberately destroyed. In 1923, the magician <a href=\\\"Carlos%20Mar%C3%ADa%20de%20Heredia\\\">Carlos María de Heredia</a> revealed how fake spirit hands could be made by using a rubber glove, paraffin and a jar of cold water.\\nThe Hungarian medium <a href=\\\"Ladislas%20Lasslo\\\">Ladislas Lasslo</a> confessed that all of his spirit <a href=\\\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\\\">materializations</a> were fraudulent in 1924. A séance sitter was also found to be working as a confederate for Lasslo.\\nThe Austrian medium <a href=\\\"Rudi%20Schneider\\\">Rudi Schneider</a> was investigated in 1924 by the physicists <a href=\\\"Stefan%20Meyer%20%28physicist%29\\\">Stefan Meyer</a> and Karl Przibram. They caught Rudi freeing his arm in a series of séances. Rudi claimed he could <a href=\\\"Levitation%20%28paranormal%29\\\">levitate</a> objects but according to <a href=\\\"Harry%20Price\\\">Harry Price</a> a photograph taken on April 28, 1932 showed that Rudi had managed to free his arm to move a handkerchief from the table. According to Warren Jay Vinton, Schneider was an expert at freeing himself from control in the séance room. <a href=\\\"Oliver%20Gatty\\\">Oliver Gatty</a> and <a href=\\\"Theodore%20Besterman\\\">Theodore Besterman</a> who tested Schneider concluded that in their tests there was \\\"no good evidence that Rudi Schneider possesses supernormal powers.\\\"\\nThe spiritualists <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\\\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> and <a href=\\\"William%20Thomas%20Stead\\\">W. T. Stead</a> were duped into believing <a href=\\\"Julius%20and%20Agnes%20Zancig\\\">Julius and Agnes Zancig</a> had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that the Zancigs performed <a href=\\\"telepathy\\\">telepathy</a>. In 1924 Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their <a href=\\\"Mentalism\\\">mind reading</a> act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of \\\"Our Secrets!!\\\" in a London Newspaper.\\nIn 1925, <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Soal\\\">Samuel Soal</a> claimed to have taken part in a series of séances with the medium <a href=\\\"Blanche%20Cooper\\\">Blanche Cooper</a> who contacted the spirit of a soldier Gordon Davis and revealed the <a href=\\\"house\\\">house</a> that he had lived in. Researchers later discovered fraud as the séances had taken place in 1922, not 1925. The magician and paranormal investigator Bob Couttie revealed that Davis was alive, Soal lived close to him and had altered the records of the sittings after checking out the house. Soal's co-workers knew that he had fiddled the results but were kept quiet with threats of libel suits.\\n<a href=\\\"Mina%20Crandon\\\">Mina Crandon</a> claimed to materialize a \\\"spirit hand\\\", but when examined by biologists the hand was discovered to be made from a piece of carved animal liver. The German <a href=\\\"Apport%20%28paranormal%29\\\">apport</a> medium <a href=\\\"Heinrich%20Melzer\\\">Heinrich Melzer</a> was discovered to be a fraud in 1926. In a séance psychical researchers found that Melzer had small stones attached to the back of his ears by flesh coloured tape. Psychical researchers who investigated the mediumship of <a href=\\\"Maria%20Silbert\\\">Maria Silbert</a> revealed that she used her feet and toes to move objects in the séance room.\\nIn 1930 the Polish medium <a href=\\\"Stanis%C5%82awa%20P.\\\">Stanisława P.</a> was tested at the Institut Metapsychique in <a href=\\\"Paris\\\">Paris</a>. French psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Eug%C3%A9ne%20Osty\\\">Eugéne Osty</a> suspected in the séance that Stanislawa had freed her hand from control. Secret flashlight photographs that were taken revealed that her hand was free and she had moved objects on the séance table. It was claimed by spiritualists that during a series of séances in 1930 the medium <a href=\\\"Eileen%20J.%20Garrett\\\">Eileen J. Garrett</a> channeled secret information from the spirit of the Lieutenant <a href=\\\"Herbert%20Carmichael%20Irwin\\\">Herbert Carmichael Irwin</a> who had died in the <a href=\\\"R101\\\">R101</a> crash a few days before the séance. Researcher <a href=\\\"Melvin%20Harris\\\">Melvin Harris</a> who studied the case wrote that the information described in Garrett's séances were \\\"either commonplace, easily absorbed bits and pieces, or plain gobblede-gook. The so-called secret information just doesn't exist.\\\"\\nIn the 1930s <a href=\\\"Harry%20Price\\\">Harry Price</a> (director of the <a href=\\\"National%20Laboratory%20of%20Psychical%20Research\\\">National Laboratory of Psychical Research</a>) had investigated the medium <a href=\\\"Helen%20Duncan\\\">Helen Duncan</a> and had her perform a number of test séances. She was suspected of swallowing <a href=\\\"cheesecloth\\\">cheesecloth</a> which was then regurgitated as \\\"<a href=\\\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a>\\\". Price had proven through analysis of a sample of ectoplasm produced by Duncan, that it was made of cheesecloth. <a href=\\\"Helen%20Duncan\\\">Helen Duncan</a> would also use a doll made of a painted papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet which she pretended to her sitters was a spirit. The photographs taken by <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Glendenning%20Hamilton\\\">Thomas Glendenning Hamilton</a> in the 1930s of <a href=\\\"ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a> reveal the substance to be made of tissue paper and magazine cut-outs of people. The famous photograph taken by Hamilton of the medium Mary Ann Marshall depicts <a href=\\\"tissue%20paper\\\">tissue paper</a> with a cut out of <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\\\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>'s head from a newspaper. Skeptics have suspected that Hamilton may have been behind the <a href=\\\"hoax\\\">hoax</a>.\\nPsychologists and researchers who studied Pearl Curran's <a href=\\\"automatic%20writing\\\">automatic writing</a>s in the 1930s came to the conclusion <a href=\\\"Patience%20Worth\\\">Patience Worth</a> was a fictitious creation of Curran. In 1931 <a href=\\\"George%20Valiantine\\\">George Valiantine</a> was exposed as a fraud in the séance room as it was discovered that he produced fraudulent \\\"<a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>\\\" fingerprints in wax. The \\\"spirit\\\" thumbprint that Valiantine claimed belonged to <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Conan%20Doyle\\\">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> was revealed to be the print of his big toe on his right foot. It was also revealed that Valiantine made some of the prints with his elbow.\\nThe medium <a href=\\\"Frank%20Decker%20%28medium%29\\\">Frank Decker</a> was exposed as a fraud in 1932. A magician and séance sitter who called himself M. Taylor presented a mail bag and Decker agreed to lock himself inside it. During the séance objects were moved around the room and it was claimed spirits had released Decker from the bag. It was later discovered to have been a trick as Martin Sunshine, a magic dealer admitted that he sold Decker a trick mail bag, such as stage <a href=\\\"Escapology\\\">escapologists</a> use, and had acted as the medium's confederate by pretending to be M. Taylor, a magician. The British medium <a href=\\\"Estelle%20Roberts\\\">Estelle Roberts</a> claimed to materialize an Indian <a href=\\\"spirit%20guide\\\">spirit guide</a> called \\\"Red Cloud\\\". Researcher <a href=\\\"Melvin%20Harris\\\">Melvin Harris</a> who examined some photographs of Red Cloud wrote the face was the same as Roberts and she had dressed up in a feathered war-bonnet.\\nIn 1936, the psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Nandor%20Fodor\\\">Nandor Fodor</a> tested the Hungarian apport medium <a href=\\\"Lajos%20Pap\\\">Lajos Pap</a> in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a> and during the séance a dead snake appeared. Pap was searched and was found to be wearing a device under his robe, where he had hidden the snake. A photograph taken at a séance in 1937 in London shows the medium <a href=\\\"Colin%20Evans%20%28medium%29\\\">Colin Evans</a> \\\"levitating\\\" in mid air. He claimed that spirits had lifted him. Evans was later discovered to be a fraud as a cord leading from a device in his hand has indicated that it was himself who triggered the flash-photograph and that all he had done was jump from his chair into the air and pretend he had levitated.\\nAccording to the magician <a href=\\\"John%20Booth%20%28magician%29\\\">John Booth</a> the stage mentalist <a href=\\\"David%20Devant\\\">David Devant</a> managed to fool a number of people into believing he had genuine <a href=\\\"psychic\\\">psychic</a> ability who did not realize that his feats were magic tricks. At <a href=\\\"St.%20George%27s%20Hall%2C%20London\\\">St. George's Hall, London</a> he performed a fake \\\"clairvoyant\\\" act where he would read a message sealed inside an envelope. The spiritualist <a href=\\\"Oliver%20Lodge\\\">Oliver Lodge</a> who was present in the audience was duped by the trick and claimed that Devant had used psychic powers. In 1936 Devant in his book \\\"Secrets of My Magic\\\" revealed the trick method he had used.\\nThe physicist <a href=\\\"Kristian%20Birkeland\\\">Kristian Birkeland</a> exposed the fraud of the direct voice medium <a href=\\\"Etta%20Wriedt\\\">Etta Wriedt</a>. Birkeland turned on the lights during a séance, snatched her trumpets and discovered that the \\\"<a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>\\\" noises were caused by chemical explosions induced by potassium and water and in other cases by <a href=\\\"lycopodium\\\">lycopodium</a> powder. The British medium Isa Northage claimed to materialize the spirit of a <a href=\\\"surgeon\\\">surgeon</a> known as Dr. Reynolds. When photographs taken of Reynolds were analyzed by researchers they discovered that Northage looked like Reynolds with a glued stage beard.\\nThe magician <a href=\\\"Julien%20Proskauer\\\">Julien Proskauer</a> revealed that the levitating trumpet of <a href=\\\"Jack%20Webber\\\">Jack Webber</a> was a trick. Close examination of photographs reveal Webber to be holding a telescopic reaching rod attached to the trumpet, and sitters in his séances only believed it to have levitated because the room was so dark they could not see the rod. Webber would cover the rod with crepe paper to disguise its real construction.\\nIn 1954, the psychical researcher Rudolf Lambert published a report revealing details about a case of fraud that was covered up by many early members of the <a href=\\\"Institute%20Metapsychique%20International\\\">Institute Metapsychique International</a> (IMI). Lambert who had studied <a href=\\\"Gustav%20Geley\\\">Gustav Geley</a>'s files on the medium <a href=\\\"Eva%20Carri%C3%A8re\\\">Eva Carrière</a> discovered photographs depicting fraudulent <a href=\\\"ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a> taken by her companion Juliette Bisson. Various \\\"materializations\\\" were artificially attached to Eva's hair by wires. The discovery was never published by Geley. <a href=\\\"Eug%C3%A9ne%20Osty\\\">Eugéne Osty</a> (the director of the institute) and members Jean Meyer, <a href=\\\"Albert%20von%20Schrenck-Notzing\\\">Albert von Schrenck-Notzing</a> and <a href=\\\"Charles%20Richet\\\">Charles Richet</a> all knew about the fraudulent photographs but were firm believers in mediumship phenomena so demanded the scandal be kept secret.\\nThe fraudulent medium Ronald Edwin confessed he had duped his séance sitters and revealed the fraudulent methods he had used in his book \\\"Clock Without Hands\\\" (1955). The psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Tony%20Cornell\\\">Tony Cornell</a> investigated the mediumship of <a href=\\\"Alec%20Harris\\\">Alec Harris</a> in 1955. During the séance \\\"<a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>\\\" materializations emerged from a cabinet and walked around the room. Cornell wrote that a stomach rumble, nicotine smelling breath and a pulse gave it away that all the spirit figures were in fact Harris and that he had dressed up as each one behind the cabinet.\\nThe British medium <a href=\\\"William%20Roy%20%28medium%29\\\">William Roy</a> earned over £50,000 from his séance sitters. He confessed to fraud in 1958 revealing the microphone and trick-apparatus that he had used. The <a href=\\\"automatic%20writing\\\">automatic writing</a>s of the Irish medium <a href=\\\"Geraldine%20Cummins\\\">Geraldine Cummins</a> were analyzed by psychical researchers in the 1960s and they revealed that she worked as a cataloguer at the <a href=\\\"National%20Library%20of%20Ireland\\\">National Library of Ireland</a> and took information from various books that would appear in her automatic writings about ancient history.\\nIn 1960, psychic investigator <a href=\\\"Andrija%20Puharich\\\">Andrija Puharich</a> and Tom O'Neill, publisher of the Spiritualist magazine \\\"Psychic Observer\\\", arranged to film two seances at <a href=\\\"Camp%20Chesterfield\\\">Camp Chesterfield</a>, Indiana using infrared film, intending to procure scientific proof of spirit materializations. The medium was shown the camera beforehand, and was aware that she was being filmed. However, the film revealed obvious fraud on the part of the medium and her cabinet assistant. The expose was published in the 10 July 1960 issue of the \\\"Psychic Observer\\\".\\nIn 1966 the son of <a href=\\\"James%20Pike\\\">Bishop Pike</a> committed suicide. After his death, Pike contacted the British medium <a href=\\\"Ena%20Twigg\\\">Ena Twigg</a> for a series of séances and she claimed to have communicated with his son. Although Twigg denied formerly knowing anything about Pike and his son, the magician <a href=\\\"John%20Booth%20%28magician%29\\\">John Booth</a> discovered that Twigg had already known information about the Pike family before the séances. Twigg had belonged to the same denomination of Bishop Pike, he had preached at a <a href=\\\"cathedral\\\">cathedral</a> in Kent and she had known information about him and his deceased son from newspapers.\\nIn 1970 two psychical researchers investigated the direct-voice medium <a href=\\\"Leslie%20Flint\\\">Leslie Flint</a> and found that all the \\\"<a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a>\\\" voices in his séance sounded exactly like himself and attributed his mediumship to \\\"second-rate <a href=\\\"ventriloquism\\\">ventriloquism</a>\\\". The medium <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Ford%20%28psychic%29\\\">Arthur Ford</a> died leaving specific instructions that all of his files should be burned. In 1971 after his death, psychical researchers discovered his files but instead of burning them they were examined and discovered to be filled with obituaries, <a href=\\\"newspaper\\\">newspaper</a> articles and other information, which enabled Ford to research his séance sitters backgrounds.\\n<a href=\\\"Ronald%20Pearsall\\\">Ronald Pearsall</a> in his book \\\"Table-rappers: The Victorians and the Occult\\\" (1972) documented how every Victorian medium investigated had been exposed as using trickery, in the book he revealed how mediums would even use acrobatic techniques during séances to convince audiences of spirit presences.\\nIn 1976, <a href=\\\"M.%20Lamar%20Keene\\\">M. Lamar Keene</a>, a medium in <a href=\\\"Florida\\\">Florida</a> and at the <a href=\\\"Spiritualist\\\">Spiritualist</a> <a href=\\\"Camp%20Chesterfield\\\">Camp Chesterfield</a> in <a href=\\\"Indiana\\\">Indiana</a>, confessed to defrauding the public in his book \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Psychic%20Mafia\\\">The Psychic Mafia</a>\\\". <a href=\\\"M.%20Lamar%20Keene\\\">Keene</a> detailed a multitude of common stage magic techniques utilized by mediums which are supposed to give an appearance of paranormal powers or supernatural involvement.\\nAfter her death in the 1980s the medium <a href=\\\"Doris%20Stokes\\\">Doris Stokes</a> was accused of fraud, by author and investigator <a href=\\\"Ian%20Wilson%20%28author%29\\\">Ian Wilson</a>. Wilson stated that Mrs Stokes planted specific people in her audience and did prior research into her sitters. <a href=\\\"Rita%20Goold\\\">Rita Goold</a> a physical medium during the 1980s was accused of fraud, by the psychical researcher <a href=\\\"Tony%20Cornell\\\">Tony Cornell</a>. He claimed she would dress up as the spirits in her séances and would play music during them which provided cover for her to change clothes.\\nThe British journalist <a href=\\\"Ruth%20Brandon\\\">Ruth Brandon</a> published the book \\\"The Spiritualists\\\" (1983) which exposed the fraud of the Victorian mediums. The book received positive reviews and has been influential to skeptics of spiritualism. The British apport medium Paul McElhoney was exposed as a fraud during a séance in Osset, Yorkshire in 1983. The <a href=\\\"tape%20recorder\\\">tape recorder</a> that McElhoney took to his séances was investigated and a black tape was discovered bound around the battery compartment and inside <a href=\\\"Dianthus%20caryophyllus\\\">carnation</a> flowers were found as well as a key-ring torch and other objects.\\nIn 1988, the magician Bob Couttie criticized the paranormal author <a href=\\\"Brian%20Inglis\\\">Brian Inglis</a> for deliberately ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. Couttie wrote Inglis had not familiarized himself with magician techniques. In 1990 the researcher <a href=\\\"Gordon%20Stein\\\">Gordon Stein</a> discovered that the <a href=\\\"Levitation%20%28paranormal%29\\\">levitation</a> photograph of the medium <a href=\\\"Carmine%20Mirabelli\\\">Carmine Mirabelli</a> was fraudulent. The photograph was a trick as there were signs of chemical retouching under Mirabelli's feet. The retouching showed that Mirabelli was not levitating but was standing on a ladder which was erased from the photograph.\\nIn 1991, <a href=\\\"Wendy%20M.%20Grossman\\\">Wendy Grossman</a> in the \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20Scientist\\\">New Scientist</a>\\\" criticized the parapsychologist <a href=\\\"Stephen%20E.%20Braude\\\">Stephen E. Braude</a> for ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. According to Grossman \\\"[Braude] accuses sceptics of ignoring the evidence he believes is solid, but himself ignores evidence that does not suit him. If a medium was caught cheating on some occasions, he says, the rest of that medium's phenomena were still genuine.\\\" Grossman came to the conclusion that Braude did not do proper research on the subject and should study \\\"the art of <a href=\\\"Magic%20%28illusion%29\\\">conjuring</a>.\\\"\\nIn 1992, <a href=\\\"Richard%20Wiseman\\\">Richard Wiseman</a> analyzed the Feilding report of <a href=\\\"Eusapia%20Palladino\\\">Eusapia Palladino</a> and argued that she employed a secret accomplice that could enter the room by a fake door panel positioned near the séance cabinet. Wiseman discovered this trick was already mentioned in a book from 1851, he also visited a carpenter and skilled magician who constructed a door within an hour with a false panel. The accomplice was suspected to be her second husband, who insisted on bringing Palladino to the hotel where the séances took place. <a href=\\\"Massimo%20Polidoro\\\">Massimo Polidoro</a> and Gian Marco Rinaldi also analyzed the Feilding report but came to the conclusion no secret accomplice was needed as Palladino during the 1908 Naples séances could have produced the phenomena by using her foot.\\n<a href=\\\"Colin%20Fry\\\">Colin Fry</a> was exposed in 1992 when during a séance the lights were unexpectedly turned on and he was seen holding a spirit trumpet in the air, which the audience had been led to believe was being levitated by spiritual energy. In 1997, <a href=\\\"Massimo%20Polidoro\\\">Massimo Polidoro</a> and Luigi Garlaschelli produced wax-moulds directly from one's hand which were exactly the same copies as Gustav Geley obtained from <a href=\\\"Franek%20Kluski\\\">Franek Kluski</a>, which are kept at the Institute Metapsychique International.\\nA series of mediumistic séances known as the Scole Experiment took place between 1993 and 1998 in the presence of the researchers <a href=\\\"David%20Fontana\\\">David Fontana</a>, Arthur Ellison and Montague Keen. This has produced photographs, audio recordings and physical objects which appeared in the dark séance room (known as apports). A criticism of the experiment was that it was flawed because it did not rule out the possibility of fraud. The skeptical investigator <a href=\\\"Brian%20Dunning%20%28skeptic%29\\\">Brian Dunning</a> wrote the Scole experiments fail in many ways. The séances were held in the basement of two of the mediums, only total darkness was allowed with no night vision apparatus as it might \\\"frighten the spirits away\\\". The box containing the film was not examined and could easily have been accessible to fraud. And finally, even though many years have passed, there has been no follow-up, no further research by any credible agency or published accounts.\\nThe VERITAS Research Program of the Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health in the Department of Psychology at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Arizona\\\">University of Arizona</a>, run by the parapsychologist <a href=\\\"Gary%20Schwartz\\\">Gary Schwartz</a>, was created primarily to test the hypothesis that the consciousness (or identity) of a person survives physical death. Schwartz claimed his experiments were indicative of survival, but do not yet provide conclusive proof. The experiments described by Schwartz have received criticism from the scientific community for being inadequately designed and using poor controls.\\n<a href=\\\"Ray%20Hyman\\\">Ray Hyman</a> discovered many methodological errors with Schwartz's research including; \\\"Inappropriate control comparisons\\\", \\\"Failure to use double-blind procedures\\\", \\\"Creating non-falsifiable outcomes by reinterpreting failures as successes\\\" and \\\"Failure to independently check on facts the sitters endorsed as true\\\". Hyman wrote \\\"Even if the research program were not compromised by these defects, the claims being made would require replication by independent investigators.\\\" Hyman criticizes Schwartz's decision to publish his results without gathering \\\"evidence for their hypothesis that would meet generally accepted scientific criteria... they have lost credibility.\\\"\\nIn 2003, skeptic investigator <a href=\\\"Massimo%20Polidoro\\\">Massimo Polidoro</a> in his book \\\"Secrets of the Psychics\\\" documented the history of fraud in mediumship and spiritualistic practices as well as the psychology of psychic deception. <a href=\\\"Terence%20Hines\\\">Terence Hines</a> in his book \\\"Pseudoscience and the Paranormal\\\" (2003) has written:\\nModern spiritualists and psychics keep detailed files on their victims. As might be expected, these files can be very valuable and are often passed on from one medium or psychic to another when one retires or dies. Even if a psychic doesn't use a private detective or have immediate access to driver's license records and such, there is still a very powerful technique that will allow the psychic to convince people that the psychic knows all about them, their problems, and their deep personal secrets, fears, and desires. The technique is called cold reading and is probably as old as charlatanism itself... If John Edward (or any of the other self-proclaimed speakers with the dead) really could communicate with the dead, it would be a trivial matter to prove it. All that would be necessary would be for him to contact any of the thousands of missing persons who are presumed dead—famous (e.g., Jimmy Hoffa, Judge Crater) or otherwise—and correctly report where the body is. Of course, this is never done. All we get, instead, are platitudes to the effect that Aunt Millie, who liked green plates, is happy on the other side.\\nAn experiment conducted by the <a href=\\\"British%20Psychological%20Society\\\">British Psychological Society</a> in 2005 suggests that under the controlled condition of the experiment, people who claimed to be professional mediums do not demonstrate the mediumistic ability. In the experiment, mediums were assigned to work the participants chosen to be \\\"sitters.\\\" The mediums claimed to contact the deceased who were related to the sitters. The research gather the numbers of the statements made and have the sitters rate the accuracy of the statements. The readings that were considered to be somewhat accurate by the sitters were very generalized, and the ones that were considered inaccurate were the ones that were very specific.\\nOn Fox News on the <a href=\\\"Geraldo%20at%20Large\\\">Geraldo at Large</a> show, October 6, 2007, <a href=\\\"Geraldo%20Rivera\\\">Geraldo Rivera</a> and other investigators accused Schwartz as a fraud as he had overstepped his position as a university researcher by requesting over three million dollars from a bereaved father who had lost his son. <a href=\\\"Gary%20Schwartz\\\">Schwartz</a> claimed to have contacted the <a href=\\\"spirit\\\">spirit</a> of a 25-year-old man in the bathroom of his parents house and it is alleged he attempted to charge the family 3.5 million dollars for his mediumship services. Schwartz responded saying that the allegations were set up to destroy his science credibility.\\nIn 2013 <a href=\\\"Rose%20Marks%20and%20family%20psychic%20fraud\\\">Rose Marks and members of her family</a> were convicted of fraud for a series of crimes spanning 20 years entailing between $20 and $45 million. They told vulnerable clients that to solve their problems they had to give the purported psychics money and valuables. Marks and family promised to return the cash and goods after \\\"cleansing\\\" them. Prosecutors established they had no intent to return the property.\\nThe exposures of fraudulent activity led to a rapid decline in <a href=\\\"Ectoplasm%20%28paranormal%29\\\">ectoplasm</a> and <a href=\\\"Materialization%20%28paranormal%29\\\">materialization</a> séances. Investigator <a href=\\\"Joe%20Nickell\\\">Joe Nickell</a> has written that modern self-proclaimed mediums like <a href=\\\"John%20Edward\\\">John Edward</a>, <a href=\\\"Sylvia%20Browne\\\">Sylvia Browne</a>, <a href=\\\"Rosemary%20Altea\\\">Rosemary Altea</a> and <a href=\\\"James%20Van%20Praagh\\\">James Van Praagh</a> are avoiding the Victorian tradition of dark rooms, spirit handwriting and flying tambourines as these methods risk exposure. They instead use \\\"mental mediumship\\\" tactics like <a href=\\\"cold%20reading\\\">cold reading</a> or gleaning information from sitters before hand (<a href=\\\"hot%20reading\\\">hot reading</a>). Group readings also improve hits by making general statements with conviction, which will fit at least one person in the audience. Shows are carefully edited before airing to show only what appears to be hits and removing anything that does not reflect well on the medium.\\n<a href=\\\"Michael%20Shermer\\\">Michael Shermer</a> criticized mediums in \\\"<a href=\\\"Scientific%20American\\\">Scientific American</a>\\\", saying, \\\"mediums are unethical and dangerous: they prey on the emotions of the grieving. As grief counselors know, death is best faced head-on as a part of life.\\\" Shermer wrote that the human urge to seek connections between events that may form patterns meaningful for survival is a function of natural evolution, and called the alleged ability of mediums to talk to the dead \\\"a well-known illusion of a meaningful pattern.\\\"\\nAccording to <a href=\\\"James%20Randi\\\">James Randi</a>, a skeptic who has debunked many claims of psychic ability and uncovered fraudulent practices, mediums who do <a href=\\\"cold%20reading\\\">cold reading</a>s \\\"fish, suggest possibilities, make educated guesses and give options.\\\" Randi has a standing offer of <a href=\\\"One%20Million%20Dollar%20Paranormal%20Challenge\\\">$1 million US dollars</a> for anyone who can demonstrate psychic ability under controlled conditions. Most prominent psychics and mediums have not taken up his offer.\\nThe key role in mediumship of this sort is played by \\\"effect of subjective confirmation\\\" (see <a href=\\\"Barnum%20effect\\\">Barnum effect</a>) — people are predisposed to consider reliable that information which though is casual coincidence or a guess, however it seems to them personally important and significant and answers their personal belief.\\nThe article about this phenomenon in \\\"Encyclopædia Britannica\\\" places emphasis that \\\"… one by one spiritual mediums were convicted of fraud, sometimes using the tricks borrowed from scenic \\\"magicians\\\" to convince their paranormal abilities\\\". In the article it is also noted that \\\"… the opening of the wide ranging fraud happening on spiritualistic sessions caused serious damage to reputation of the movement of a <a href=\\\"Spiritualism\\\">Spiritualism</a> and in the USA pushed it on the public periphery\\\".\",\n \"SF (Australia)\\nSF (formerly Sci Fi Channel) was an Australian <a href=\\\"subscription%20television\\\">subscription</a> channel that aired science fiction, fantasy and related programs. It was available on <a href=\\\"Foxtel\\\">Foxtel</a>, <a href=\\\"Austar\\\">Austar</a> and <a href=\\\"Optus%20Television\\\">Optus Television</a> subscription platforms.\\nIn 2012 the channel rebranded from Sci Fi to SF. The channel used a world-exclusive version of the \\\"Syfy\\\" branding, SF being a joint venture between <a href=\\\"NBCUniversal\\\">NBCUniversal</a>, the owners of the Syfy brand, <a href=\\\"Sony%20Pictures%20Television\\\">Sony Pictures Television</a> and <a href=\\\"CBS%20Studios%20International\\\">CBS Studios International</a>.\\nOn 31 December 2013, SF ceased broadcasting and closed, being replaced by an Australian version of <a href=\\\"Syfy%20%28Australia%29\\\">Syfy</a> in 2014.\\nSF aired re-runs such as: \\\"Doctor Who\\\", Star Trek\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Medium%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Medium</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Buffy the Vampire Slayer</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Charmed\\\">Charmed</a>\\\". It has also had the first Australian run of shows such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Defiance%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Defiance</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Lost%20Girl\\\">Lost Girl</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Continuum%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Continuum</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Eureka%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">Eureka</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Alphas\\\">Alphas</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Ghost%20Hunters%20International\\\">Ghost Hunters International</a>\\\".\\nSci Fi went live at 6 am on 1 December 2006. SF originally used the same branding and packaging as the United States Sci Fi channel of the same name but had its own schedule and programming. It aired popular shows such as \\\"Doctor Who\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X-Files\\\">The X-Files</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Buffy</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Charmed\\\">Charmed</a>\\\", the original and reimagined \\\"<a href=\\\"Battlestar%20Galactica\\\">Battlestar Galactica</a>\\\" series, \\\"<a href=\\\"Medium%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Medium</a>\\\", and the \\\"<a href=\\\"Star%20Trek\\\">Star Trek</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Stargate\\\">Stargate</a>\\\" franchises.\\nSci Fi switched broadcasting from to <a href=\\\"Aspect%20ratio%20%28image%29\\\">aspect ratio</a> on 1 December 2008. Sci Fi +2 went to air on 15 November 2009.\\nOn 18 July 2012, it was announced that as of 23 July 2012 Sci Fi would be rebranded as SF, using a world exclusive branding\\nOn 16 August 2013, it was announced that SF's carriage agreement with Foxtel was set to expire in December 2013, and that negotiations had failed to create a new carriage deal. With Foxtel being the sole subscription TV provider in Australia, this meant that it was expected that SF, and its sister channel TV1, would close. Foxtel announced that a science-fiction dedicated channel would replace SF and would continue to offer the main content currently on offer. SF later announced they were exploring options in which they could continue operations, such as launching their service on IPTV, <a href=\\\"Crackle%20%28company%29\\\">Crackle</a>, or <a href=\\\"Apple%20TV\\\">Apple TV</a> services. On 30 September 2013, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Syfy%20%28Australia%29\\\">Syfy (Australia)</a> (a <a href=\\\"NBCUniversal\\\">NBCUniversal</a> wholly owned and operated channel) would replace SF on Foxtel as of 1 January 2014. Ultimately, SF closed at midnight on 31 December 2013.\\nOn 22 November 2006, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Adelaide%20Advertiser\\\">Adelaide Advertiser</a>\\\" reported about the demand for a science-fiction–themed TV channel in Australia.\\nThe official launch party of the Sci Fi Channel was held on 16 November 2006 at the Australian Museum in Sydney. Guests included <a href=\\\"Jacqueline%20McKenzie\\\">Jacqueline McKenzie</a> (from \\\"<a href=\\\"The%204400\\\">The 4400</a>\\\"), <a href=\\\"Gigi%20Edgley\\\">Gigi Edgley</a> and <a href=\\\"Matthew%20Newton\\\">Matthew Newton</a> (from \\\"<a href=\\\"Farscape\\\">Farscape</a>\\\").\\nIn addition to subscription television, SF Channel Australia also operated the SF Australia website, where viewers could access television guides as well as video extras, full episodes, and the SF News blog. In 2013 they began producing their own web only pop culture news series Go Pop.\\n\",\n \"Mental Hospital\\nMental hospital may refer to:\",\n \"Ghostland Tennessee\\nGhostland Tennessee is an American <a href=\\\"paranormal%20television\\\">paranormal</a> <a href=\\\"television%20series\\\">television series</a> that piloted on February 24, 2013 on <a href=\\\"Animal%20Planet\\\">Animal Planet</a>. The program features Steven McDougal, Chasey Ray McKnight, Scott Porter and brothers Brannon and Chris Smith who are members of a <a href=\\\"ghost%20hunting\\\">ghost hunting</a> group called the Tennessee Wraith Chasers. The team is now part of a new paranormal TV series, <a href=\\\"Ghost%20Asylum\\\">Ghost Asylum</a>, on <a href=\\\"Destination%20America\\\">Destination America</a>.\",\n \"List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States\\nThis is a list of locations in the United States which have been reported to be <a href=\\\"Haunted%20house\\\">haunted</a> by <a href=\\\"ghost\\\">ghost</a>s or other <a href=\\\"supernatural\\\">supernatural</a> beings, including <a href=\\\"demon\\\">demon</a>s.\\nStates with a great many haunted locations are listed on separate pages, linked from this page.\\nCalifornia is the location of many <a href=\\\"Reportedly%20haunted%20locations%20in%20California\\\">supposedly haunted locations</a>. Notable locations with reputations for being haunted include <a href=\\\"Alcatraz\\\">Alcatraz</a>, <a href=\\\"El%20Adobe%20de%20Capistrano\\\">El Adobe de Capistrano</a> in <a href=\\\"San%20Juan%20Capistrano\\\">San Juan Capistrano</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Winchester%20Mystery%20House\\\">Winchester Mystery House</a>.\\nSeveral sites in Washington are reputedly haunted, including the Capitol Building, the White House, and the <a href=\\\"The%20Octagon%20House%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\\\">Octagon House</a> (1801).\\nThere are several reputedly haunted sites in Indiana, including the <a href=\\\"Culbertson%20Mansion%20State%20Historic%20Site\\\">Culbertson Mansion</a> in the former shipbuilding town <a href=\\\"New%20Albany%2C%20Indiana\\\">New Albany</a>.\\nThere are a number of <a href=\\\"Reportedly%20haunted%20locations%20in%20Oregon\\\">Reportedly haunted locations in Oregon</a>. Reported hauntings in the state are linked to such historic places as the <a href=\\\"Oregon%20Trail\\\">Oregon Trail</a> and early coastal communities, as well as the history of <a href=\\\"Portland%2C%20Oregon\\\">Portland</a>, the state's largest city and <a href=\\\"metropolitan%20area\\\">metropolitan area</a>, which was considered one of the most dangerous <a href=\\\"port\\\">port</a> cities in the world at the beginning of the 20th century. During 2012, \\\"<a href=\\\"USA%20Today\\\">USA Today</a>\\\" named Portland among the top ten most haunted cities in the United States.\\nAllegedly haunted locales in Portland include the <a href=\\\"Bagdad%20Theater\\\">Bagdad Theater</a>, a <a href=\\\"vaudeville\\\">vaudeville</a> theater built by <a href=\\\"Universal%20Studios\\\">Universal Studios</a> during 1927; <a href=\\\"Pittock%20Mansion\\\">Pittock Mansion</a>, a mansion overlooking the city; the <a href=\\\"Roseland%20Theater\\\">Roseland Theater</a>, a former church and <a href=\\\"music%20venue\\\">music venue</a>; and the city's Portland Underground (or so-called <a href=\\\"shanghai%20tunnels\\\">shanghai tunnels</a>), made up of various passages beneath the streets of <a href=\\\"northwest%20Portland\\\">northwest Portland</a> that were used to smuggle <a href=\\\"prostitutes\\\">prostitutes</a> and sailors onto ships in the port, where they were often sold into slavery or forced labor.\\nPennsylvania has many <a href=\\\"Reportedly%20haunted%20locations%20in%20Pennsylvania\\\">locations that are reported to be haunted</a>, including\\nthe town of <a href=\\\"Gettysburg%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Gettysburg</a> (site of the <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Gettysburg\\\">Civil War battle</a> of the same name) and, in the vicinity of Philadelphia, such places as\\n<a href=\\\"Cliveden%20%28Benjamin%20Chew%20House%29\\\">Cliveden Manor</a>, the <a href=\\\"First%20Bank%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">First Bank of the United States</a>, <a href=\\\"Fort%20Mifflin\\\">Fort Mifflin</a>, <a href=\\\"Library%20Company%20of%20Philadelphia\\\">Library Hall</a>, <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania%20Hospital\\\">Pennsylvania Hospital</a>, and <a href=\\\"Powel%20House\\\">Powel House</a>.\\nMany areas in South Carolina are reportedly haunted. This stems from the state's historic role in the Revolutionary and Civil wars. Charleston is considered by many to be the most haunted city in the state, and some even venture as far as to say it is the most haunted city in America. <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.travelchannel.com/destinations/us/sc/charleston/photos/haunted-charleston\\\"></a>\",\n \"Animal Planet\\nAnimal Planet is an American <a href=\\\"cable%20television\\\">basic cable</a> and satellite television <a href=\\\"television%20channel\\\">channel</a> owned by <a href=\\\"Discovery%20Communications\\\">Discovery Communications</a>. Originally focused on more educationally-based television shows, the network has featured more reality programming since 2008. It is available throughout the United States, as well as in over 70 countries around the world. Country-specific versions of the channel have been created in Canada, India, Japan, <a href=\\\"Taiwan\\\">Taiwan</a>, and other countries.\\ns of 2015 , approximately 94,288,000 American households (81% of households with television) receive Animal Planet.\\nAnimal Planet was launched on October 1, 1996; it was created by <a href=\\\"Discovery%20Communications\\\">Discovery Communications</a> in cooperation with the <a href=\\\"British%20Broadcasting%20Corporation\\\">British Broadcasting Corporation</a>. On January 1, 1997, Animal Planet's distribution grew as a result of Advance Entertainment Corporation selling the satellite transponder slot belonging to the <a href=\\\"WWOR%20EMI%20Service\\\">WWOR EMI Service</a> (a national <a href=\\\"superstation\\\">superstation</a> feed of <a href=\\\"Secaucus%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Secaucus, New Jersey</a>/New York City's <a href=\\\"WWOR-TV\\\">WWOR-TV</a>, that was implemented following the 1989 passage of the <a href=\\\"syndication%20exclusivity\\\">Syndication Exclusivity Rights Rule</a> by the <a href=\\\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\\\">Federal Communications Commission</a>) to Discovery Communications, replacing the feed with Animal Planet outright.\\nIn late 2005, as part of a multimillion-dollar expansion, the <a href=\\\"National%20Aquarium%20in%20Baltimore\\\">National Aquarium in Baltimore</a> opened an exhibit called \\\"Animal Planet Australia: Wild Extreme\\\". Animal Planet and the National Aquarium in Baltimore announced a multi-year partnership the year prior, which produced an original orientation film that gives Aquarium visitors background on the Australian area which inspired the new exhibit and a dedicated area inside the expansion where visitors can learn about Animal Planet's conservation efforts and other programming. The partnership also allowed the possibility of future productions of television programs about the National Aquarium in Baltimore's research and exhibits.\\nIn 2006, BBC Worldwide sold its 20% interest in the flagship Animal Planet U.S. network back to Discovery Communications. The BBC maintained its 50% ownership in Animal Planet's European, Asian and Latin American channels, as well as a minority interest in Animal Planet Japan and Animal Planet Canada until November 15, 2010, when BBC Worldwide sold 50% interest in Animal Planet and <a href=\\\"Liv%20%28Latin%20American%20TV%20channel%29\\\">Liv</a> to Discovery Communications for $156 million. Animal Planet is additionally an associate member of the Caribbean Cable Cooperative.\\nDuring the late 2000s, Genius Products announced a U.S. distribution agreement involving Animal Planet and <a href=\\\"TLC%20%28TV%20channel%29\\\">TLC</a>. <a href=\\\"Jakks%20Pacific\\\">Jakks Pacific</a> also entered into a licensing agreement to develop Animal Planet-branded pet products.\\nOn February 3, 2008, Animal Planet \\\"relaunched\\\" itself as part of a new branding campaign that \\\"sheds its soft and furry side for programming and an image with more bite.\\\" As part of the relaunch, Animal Planet replaced its elephant and spinning globe logo for a starker text image that allows more flexibility in its usage. Eight new shows and specials were scheduled to debut in February of that year, with the new shows aimed at reaching a more adult audience with programming designed to tap into humans' basic <a href=\\\"instincts\\\">instincts</a> with stories that reiterate what makes humans human.\\nThe goal is to move from being perceived by viewers as paternalistic, preachy, and observation-based to being seen as active, entertaining and edgy. That means targeting adults 25-49, rather than full families, with less voice-of-God narration and more visceral imagery and sounds. Think of it as swapping a drab narrator saying that a lion is about to kill its prey for the blood-curdling scream of the doomed creature as it meets its demise.\\nThis rebranding effort continued in 2010 with a change of the network's slogan, from \\\"Same Planet, Different World\\\" to \\\"Surprisingly Human\\\" to coincide with their <a href=\\\"Channel%20drift\\\">non-animal related programming</a>.\\nRecent additions to the channel, such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Meerkat%20Manor\\\">Meerkat Manor</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Orangutan%20Island\\\">Orangutan Island</a>\\\", reflect its shift toward \\\"predation programming\\\" and more immersive storytelling. Animal Planet intended the new direction to help revitalize stagnating ratings, after primetime viewership of the network dropped by 9% in 2007. Animal Planet added <a href=\\\"pseudo-scientific\\\">pseudo-scientific</a> documentary, reality television, and sitcom shows to its line-up.\\nAnimal Planet is also well known for its annual <a href=\\\"Stunting%20%28broadcasting%29\\\">stunt</a> program, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Puppy%20Bowl\\\">Puppy Bowl</a>\\\", a yearly special shown during the afternoon leading up to the <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a>'s <a href=\\\"Super%20Bowl\\\">Super Bowl</a>, primarily consisting of puppies at play; the original commentator was the sports broadcaster <a href=\\\"Harry%20Kalas\\\">Harry Kalas</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"1080i\\\">1080i</a> <a href=\\\"High-definition%20television\\\">high definition</a> simulcast of Animal Planet launched on September 1, 2007; it is available on all major cable and satellite providers.\\nIt was also launched on February 3, 2009 in Norway for <a href=\\\"Canal%20Digital\\\">Canal Digital</a>. Norway is the first country outside the U.S. to receive a high definition feed of Animal Planet.\\n<a href=\\\"D.C.%20Thomson%20%26amp%3B%20Co.\\\">D.C. Thomson & Co.</a> partnered with <a href=\\\"Discovery%20Communications\\\">Discovery Communications</a> to publish \\\"Animal Planet Magazine\\\" in the United Kingdom. The magazine's first issue was released on February 16, 2011.\\nIn November 2012, Revision3, the Discovery-owned online video network, entered into a partnership with Fishbowl Worldwide Media to distribute and sell advertising for its pets-focused YouTube programming, as well as to fund development of new shows, on its YouTube channel PETSAMI, run by FishBowl Digital Studio senior vice president and general manager <a href=\\\"David%20Beebe\\\">David Beebe</a>. The deal also constitutes a first-look deal, giving Revision3 (and its parent company, which owns Animal Planet) first right to distribute all co-developed shows.\\nAnimal Planet originally aired \\\"\\\" on May 27, 2012, and a sequel called \\\"Mermaids: The New Evidence\\\" about a year later. They tell a story of a scientific team's investigative efforts to uncover the source behind mysterious underwater recordings of an unidentified marine body. Included is the generally discredited <a href=\\\"aquatic%20ape%20hypothesis\\\">aquatic ape hypothesis</a> as evidence that mermaids exist, along with digitally manufactured video. The program is hosted by several scientists. The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration put up a rebuttal to the program.\\nThe channel has also broadcast a pseudo-documentary called Lost Tapes.\",\n \"List of reportedly haunted locations\\nThis is a list of reportedly haunted locations throughout the world, that are said to be haunted by <a href=\\\"ghost\\\">ghost</a>s or other <a href=\\\"supernatural\\\">supernatural</a> beings, including <a href=\\\"demon\\\">demon</a>s. Reports of haunted locations are part of ghostlore, which is a form of <a href=\\\"folklore\\\">folklore</a>.\\nSeveral sites in Canada are reputedly haunted, including <a href=\\\"Citadel%20Hill%20%28Fort%20George%29\\\">Citadel Hill (Fort George)</a> in Halifax.\\nSeveral sites in China are reputedly haunted, including <a href=\\\"Chaonei%20No.%2081\\\">Chaonei No. 81</a>, an abandoned mansion in Beijing's <a href=\\\"Chaoyangmen\\\">Chaoyangmen</a> neighborhood, and the <a href=\\\"Wukang%20Mansion\\\">Wukang Mansion</a>, formerly known as the \\\"Normandie Apartment\\\", in <a href=\\\"Shanghai\\\">Shanghai</a> (named after the <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a> battleship Normandie).\\nSeveral sites in France are reputedly haunted, including the <a href=\\\"Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Brissac\\\">Château de Brissac</a>, the <a href=\\\"Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Tr%C3%A9cesson\\\">Château de Trécesson</a> in Brittany, the <a href=\\\"Catacombs%20of%20Paris\\\">Catacombs</a> and <a href=\\\"P%C3%A8re%20Lachaise%20Cemetery\\\">Cemetery of Père Lachaise</a> in Paris, <a href=\\\"Mont%20Saint-Michel\\\">Mont Saint-Michel</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Ch%C3%A2teaubriant\\\">Château de Châteaubriant</a> in western <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>.\\nSeveral sites in India are reported to be haunted, including <a href=\\\"South%20Park%20Street%20Cemetery\\\">South Park Street Cemetery</a> in West Bengal on <a href=\\\"Park%20Street%2C%20Kolkata\\\">Park Street, Kolkata</a>, and <a href=\\\"Morgan%20House%2C%20Kalimpong\\\">Morgan House</a>, a colonial-era mansion in <a href=\\\"Kalimpong\\\">Kalimpong</a> that is considered to be one of the most haunted locations in <a href=\\\"India\\\">India</a>.\\nSeveral sites in Mexico are reputedly haunted, including the <a href=\\\"Palace%20of%20the%20Inquisition\\\">Palace of the Inquisition</a> and the <a href=\\\"Plaza%20de%20las%20Tres%20Culturas\\\">Plaza de las Tres Culturas</a> in the City of Mexico, <a href=\\\"Hospicio%20Caba%C3%B1as\\\">Hospicio Cabañas</a> in Guadalajara, <a href=\\\"Mapim%C3%AD%20Silent%20Zone\\\">Mapimí Silent Zone</a> in the state of Durango, <a href=\\\"Chautla%20Hacienda\\\">Chautla Hacienda</a> in <a href=\\\"Puebla\\\">Puebla</a>, and the ancient Mayan city of <a href=\\\"Chichen%20Itza\\\">Chichen Itza</a> on the Yucatán Peninsula.\\nSeveral sites in the Philippine Islands are reputedly haunted, including historic <a href=\\\"Fort%20Santiago\\\">Fort Santiago</a> in Manila.\\nSeveral sites in Romania are reputedly haunted, including historic <a href=\\\"Bon%C8%9Bida%20B%C3%A1nffy%20Castle\\\">Bánffy Castle</a> in <a href=\\\"Bon%C8%9Bida\\\">Bonțida</a> and the <a href=\\\"Hoia%20Forest\\\">Hoia Forest</a>.\\nMany sites in the UK are reputedly haunted, including the <a href=\\\"Tower%20of%20London\\\">Tower of London</a>, <a href=\\\"50%20Berkeley%20Square\\\">50 Berkeley Square</a> (London), <a href=\\\"Belgrave%20Hall\\\">Belgrave Hall</a>, <a href=\\\"Arundel%20Castle\\\">Arundel Castle</a>, and <a href=\\\"Bruce%20Castle\\\">Bruce Castle</a> in England, and <a href=\\\"Ardrossan%20Castle\\\">Ardrossan Castle</a>, <a href=\\\"Fyvie%20Castle\\\">Fyvie Castle</a>, <a href=\\\"Glamis%20Castle\\\">Glamis Castle</a>, and <a href=\\\"Stirling%20Castle\\\">Stirling Castle</a> in Scotland.\\nMany sites in the USA are reputedly haunted, including <a href=\\\"Dudleytown%20%28Cornwall%29\\\">Dudleytown</a> in Connecticut, the <a href=\\\"Cherry%20Hill%20%28Albany%2C%20New%20York%29\\\">Cherry Hill Estate</a> and <a href=\\\"112%20Ocean%20Avenue\\\">112 Ocean Avenue House</a>, (a.k.a. the Amityville Horror House) in New York, <a href=\\\"Cliveden%20%28Benjamin%20Chew%20House%29\\\">Cliveden Manor</a>, the <a href=\\\"First%20Bank%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">First Bank of the United States</a>, <a href=\\\"Fort%20Mifflin\\\">Fort Mifflin</a>, <a href=\\\"Library%20Company%20of%20Philadelphia\\\">Library Hall</a>, <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania%20Hospital\\\">Pennsylvania Hospital</a>, and <a href=\\\"Powel%20House\\\">Powel House</a> in Pennsylvania, the <a href=\\\"The%20Octagon%20House%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\\\">Octagon House</a> (1801) and the <a href=\\\"White%20House\\\">White House</a> in the District of Columbia,\\nand <a href=\\\"El%20Adobe%20de%20Capistrano\\\">El Adobe de Capistrano</a> in California.\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Glitch is an Australian paranormal television program which premiered on 9 July 2015, on ABC1. The series, set in the fictional country town of Yoorana, Victoria, is written by Louise Fox, Kris Mrksa, and Giula Sandler, and directed by Emma Freeman. It is produced by Noah Burnett and Noah Fox, with Tony Ayres serving as an Executive Producer.","Bonk is the debut studio album by Australian rock band Big Pig. It was released in March 1988 on White Label Records. The album went gold, then platinum in Australia with three top-twenty singles (\"Hungry Town\", \"Breakaway\" and \"Big Hotel\"). The album was released in America by A&M Records in 1988, and the music video for \"Breakaway\" was played on MTV. \"Breakaway\" was featured on the \"Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure\" soundtrack and \"Hungry Town\" on the \"Young Einstein\" soundtrack. \"Breakaway\" and \"Money God\" were used in the \"Miami Vice\" TV series in the 1980s. \"Breakaway\" was also featured in Season 1, Episode 4 of \"Glitch (TV series)\"."],"string":"[\n \"Glitch is an Australian paranormal television program which premiered on 9 July 2015, on ABC1. The series, set in the fictional country town of Yoorana, Victoria, is written by Louise Fox, Kris Mrksa, and Giula Sandler, and directed by Emma Freeman. It is produced by Noah Burnett and Noah Fox, with Tony Ayres serving as an Executive Producer.\",\n \"Bonk is the debut studio album by Australian rock band Big Pig. It was released in March 1988 on White Label Records. The album went gold, then platinum in Australia with three top-twenty singles (\\\"Hungry Town\\\", \\\"Breakaway\\\" and \\\"Big Hotel\\\"). The album was released in America by A&M Records in 1988, and the music video for \\\"Breakaway\\\" was played on MTV. \\\"Breakaway\\\" was featured on the \\\"Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure\\\" soundtrack and \\\"Hungry Town\\\" on the \\\"Young Einstein\\\" soundtrack. \\\"Breakaway\\\" and \\\"Money God\\\" were used in the \\\"Miami Vice\\\" TV series in the 1980s. \\\"Breakaway\\\" was also featured in Season 1, Episode 4 of \\\"Glitch (TV series)\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":75,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What compounds also known as ferric oxide is used in ceramic colorants?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"iron oxide"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Iron(III) oxide\nIron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(II,III) oxide (FeO), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, FeO is the main source of iron for the steel industry. FeO is ferromagnetic , dark red, and readily attacked by acids. Iron(III) oxide is often called rust, and to some extent this label is useful, because rust shares several properties and has a similar composition. To a chemist, rust is considered an ill-defined material, described as \"hydrated\" ferric oxide.\nFeO can be obtained in various polymorphs. In the main ones, α and γ, iron adopts octahedral coordination geometry. That is, each Fe center is bound to six oxygen ligands.\nα-FeO has the rhombohedral, corundum (α-AlO) structure and is the most common form. It occurs naturally as the mineral hematite which is mined as the main ore of iron. It is antiferromagnetic below ~260 K (Morin transition temperature), and exhibits weak ferromagnetism between 260 K and the Néel temperature, 950 K. It is easy to prepare using both thermal decomposition and precipitation in the liquid phase. Its magnetic properties are dependent on many factors, e.g. pressure, particle size, and magnetic field intensity.\nγ-FeO has a cubic structure. It is metastable and converted from the alpha phase at high temperatures. It occurs naturally as the mineral maghemite. It is ferromagnetic and finds application in recording tapes, although ultrafine particles smaller than 10 nanometers are superparamagnetic. It can be prepared by thermal dehydratation of gamma iron(III) oxide-hydroxide, careful oxidation of iron(II,III) oxide. Another method involves the careful oxidation of FeO. The ultrafine particles can be prepared by thermal decomposition of iron(III) oxalate.\nSeveral other phases have been identified or claimed. The β-phase is cubic body-centered (space group Ia3), metastable, and at temperatures above 500 °C converts to alpha phase. It can be prepared by reduction of hematite by carbon, pyrolysis of iron(III) chloride solution, or thermal decomposition of iron(III) sulfate. The epsilon phase is rhombic, and shows properties intermediate between alpha and gamma, and may have useful magnetic properties. Preparation of the pure epsilon phase has proven very challenging due to contamination with alpha and gamma phases. Material with a high proportion of epsilon phase can be prepared by thermal transformation of the gamma phase. This phase is also metastable, transforming to the alpha phase at between 500 and . Can also be prepared by oxidation of iron in an electric arc or by sol-gel precipitation from iron(III) nitrate. Additionally at high pressure an amorphous form is claimed. Recent research has revealed epsilon iron(III) oxide in ancient Chinese Jian ceramic glazes, which may provide insight into ways to produce that form in the lab.\nSeveral hydrates of Iron(III) oxide exists.\nWhen alkali is added to solutions of soluble Fe(III) salts, a red-brown gelatinous precipitate forms. This is \"not\" Fe(OH), but FeO·HO (also written as Fe(O)OH).\nSeveral forms of the hydrated oxide of Fe(III) exist as well. The red \"lepidocrocite\" γ-Fe(O)OH, occurs on the outside of rusticles, and the orange \"goethite\", which occurs internally in rusticles.\nWhen FeO·HO is heated, it loses its water of hydration. Further heating at 1670 K converts FeO to black FeO (FeFeO), which is known as the mineral \"magnetite\".\nFe(O)OH is soluble in acids, giving [Fe(OH)]. In concentrated aqueous alkali, FeO gives [Fe(OH)].\nThe most important reaction is its carbothermal reduction, which gives iron used in steel-making:\nAnother redox reaction is the extremely exothermic thermite reaction with aluminium.\nThis process is used to weld thick metals such as rails of train tracks by using a ceramic container to funnel the molten iron in between two sections of rail. Thermite is also used in weapons and making small-scale cast-iron sculptures and tools.\nPartial reduction with hydrogen at about 400 °C produces magnetite, a black magnetic material that contains both Fe(III) and Fe(II):\nIron(III) oxide is insoluble in water but dissolves readily in strong acid, e.g. hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. It also dissolves well in solutions of chelating agents such as EDTA and oxalic acid.\nHeating iron(III) oxides with other metal oxides or carbonates yields materials known as ferrates:\nIron(III) oxide is a product of the oxidation of iron. It can be prepared in the laboratory by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate, an inert electrolyte, with an iron anode:\nThe resulting hydrated iron(III) oxide, written here as Fe(O)OH, dehydrates around 200 °C.\nIt can also be prepared by the thermal decomposition of iron(III) hydroxide under temperature above 200 °C.\nThe overwhelming application of iron(III) oxide is as the feedstock of the steel and iron industries, e.g. the production of iron, steel, and many alloys.\nA very fine powder of ferric oxide is known as \"jeweler's rouge\", \"red rouge\", or simply rouge. It is used to put the final polish on metallic jewelry and lenses, and historically as a cosmetic. Rouge cuts more slowly than some modern polishes, such as cerium(IV) oxide, but is still used in optics fabrication and by jewelers for the superior finish it can produce. When polishing gold, the rouge slightly stains the gold, which contributes to the appearance of the finished piece. Rouge is sold as a powder, paste, laced on polishing cloths, or solid bar (with a wax or grease binder). Other polishing compounds are also often called \"rouge\", even when they do not contain iron oxide. Jewelers remove the residual rouge on jewelry by use of ultrasonic cleaning. Products sold as \"stropping compound\" are often applied to a leather strop to assist in getting a razor edge on knives, straight razors, or any other edged tool.\nIron(III) oxide is also used as a pigment, under names \"Pigment Brown 6\", \"Pigment Brown 7\", and \"Pigment Red 101\". Some of them, e.g. Pigment Red 101 and Pigment Brown 6, are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in cosmetics. Iron oxides are used as pigments in dental composites alongside titanium oxides.\nHematite is the characteristic component of the Swedish paint color Falu red.\nIron(III) oxide was the most common magnetic particle used in all types of magnetic storage and recording media, including magnetic disks (for data storage) and magnetic tape (used in audio and video recording as well as data storage). Its use in computer disks was superseded by cobalt alloy, enabling thinner magnetic films with higher storage density.\nBecause its bandgap (1.9-2.2 eV) lies in an intense region of the solar spectrum, α-FeO has been studied as a photoanode for solar water oxidation. However, its efficacy is limited by a short diffusion length (2-4 nm) of photo-excited charge carriers and subsequent fast recombination, requiring a large overpotential to drive the reaction. Research has been focused on improving the water oxidation performance of FeO using nanostructuring, surface functionalization, or by employing alternate crystal phases such as β-FeO.\nA mixture of zinc oxide with about 0.5% iron(III) oxide is called calamine, which is the active ingredient of calamine lotion.\n","Ferric subsulfate solution\nFerric subsulfate solution is a styptic or hemostatic agent used after superficial skin biopsies. Ferric subsulfate solution is also known as basic ferric sulfate solution or Monsel's solution. It has a recognised formula published in United States Pharmacopeia 29.\nFerric subsulfate solution is prepared from ferrous sulfate, sulfuric acid and nitric acid.\nIt contains, per 100 mL, basic ferric sulfate equivalent to not less than 20g and not more than 22g of iron.\nFerric subsulfate solution should be stored in airtight containers at a temperature above 22 degrees Celsius. Crystallization may occur at temperatures below 22 degrees. Warming the solution may redissolve the crystals. The solution should be protected from light.\nFerric subsulfate (also known as Monsell's Solution) is often used by Jewish burial societies (chevra kadisha) to stop post-mortem bleeding. Since Jewish burial does not allow any external skin adhesives such as bandages, tape, glue or resin, ferric subsulfate is an effective way to stop post-mortem bleeding. Most post-mortem bleeding stems from surgery, emergency room situations, autopsies or blood which may result when removing IV lines during Jewish burial preparation. A piece of cotton, or Q-tip, soaked with this solution is pressed against the open wound and held for a few seconds. This is usually enough time for the seal to take effect. For more severe cases, such as arterial lines, if the line is still inside, the solution can be inserted directly into the IV line.\nAstrinGyn by CooperSurgical is a thickened and specially modified gel formulation.\nIt was invented in the late 1840s by Leon Monsel (March 13, 1816 – April 15, 1878), a French Military Pharmacist. His invention soon became a standard in the French Corps which saved many lives during battles of the French Army.","Mars Black (pigment)\nMars Black is an iron oxide pigment developed in the 20th century. Also known under the names of black iron oxide, magnetic oxide, Pigment Black 11, and ferrous ferric oxide (FeO), it has no known health hazards and is considered non-toxic, with an ASTM lightfastness rating of I. It is more opaque and less toxic than other black pigments. Artists' paint manufacturers have rated it one of the most satisfactory black pigments for acrylic paints with regard to opacity, lightfastness, and permanence. It takes its name from Mars, the god of war and patron of iron.\n\n","Narrow-range ethoxylate\nFatty alcohol polyglycol ethers with a narrow homolog distribution, which are also known as narrow-range ethoxylates (NRE), are known nonionic surfactants, which are industrially produced, for example, by addition of ethylene oxide onto fatty alcohols in the presence of suitable catalysts (layer compounds which have been calcined or hydrophobized with fatty acids). This process can also be carried out on a variety of other hydrophobes and using different alkoxylating compounds (e.g., propylene oxide and butylene oxide) by modifying the catalyst properties.\nAn ethoxylation reaction proceeds under an inert atmosphere with an amount of heat depending on the starting material. The reaction proceeds via the epoxide (in this case ethylene oxide) ring opening and activation of the nucleophile, ring, or combination thereof via the catalyst.\nWith conventional catalysts (i.e. potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, etc.) one obtains a distribution of ethoxymers. If one targets a 12 mole ethoxylate with a conventional alkaline earth hydroxide, one could expect to get a broad range of ethoxylates with n being anywhere from 3 to 30 moles of EO. With narrow-range catalysts a much tighter distribution can be obtained.\nNarrow-range surfactants like alcohol ethoxylates and propoxylates can be incorporated into alkyl ether sulfates or mixed with other anionic surfactants and exhibit beneficial properties such as reduced irritation to skin/eyes and lower free alcohol content.","Compounds of berkelium\nBerkelium forms a number of chemical compounds, where it normally exists in an oxidation state of +3 or +4, and behaves similarly to its lanthanide analogue, terbium. Like all actinides, berkelium easily dissolves in various aqueous inorganic acids, liberating gaseous hydrogen and converting into the trivalent oxidation state. This trivalent state is the most stable, especially in aqueous solutions, but tetravalent berkelium compounds are also known. The existence of divalent berkelium salts is uncertain and has only been reported in mixed lanthanum chloride-strontium chloride melts. Aqueous solutions of Bk ions are green in most acids. The color of the Bk ions is yellow in hydrochloric acid and orange-yellow in sulfuric acid. Berkelium does not react rapidly with oxygen at room temperature, possibly due to the formation of a protective oxide surface layer; however, it reacts with molten metals, hydrogen, halogens, chalcogens and pnictogens to form various binary compounds. Berkelium can also form several organometallic compounds.\nTwo oxides of berkelium are known, with berkelium in the +3 (BkO) and +4 (BkO) oxidation states. Berkelium(IV) oxide is a brown solid that crystallizes in a cubic (fluorite) crystal structure with the space group \"Fm3 m\" and the coordination numbers of Bk[8] and O[4]. The lattice parameter is 533.4 ± 0.5 pm.\nBerkelium(III) oxide, a yellow-green solid, is formed from BkO by reduction with hydrogen:\nThe compound has a melting point of 1920 °C, body-centered cubic crystal lattice and a lattice constant \"a\" = 1088.0 ± 0.5 pm. Upon heating to 1200 °C, the cubic BkO transforms to a monoclinic structure, which further converts to a hexagonal phase at 1750 °C; the latter transition is reversible. Such three-phase behavior is typical for the actinide sesquioxides.\nA divalent oxide BkO has been reported as a brittle gray solid with a face centered cubic (\"fcc\") structure and a lattice constant \"a\" = 496.4 pm, but its exact chemical composition is uncertain.\nIn halides, berkelium assumes the oxidation states +3 and +4. The +3 state is most stable, especially in solutions, and the tetravalent halides BkF and CsBkCl are only known in the solid phase. The coordination of the berkelium atom in its trivalent fluoride and chloride is tricapped trigonal prismatic, with a coordination number of 9. In the trivalent bromide, it is bicapped trigonal prismatic (coordination 8) or octahedral (coordination 6), and in the iodide it is octahedral.\nBerkelium(IV) fluoride (BkF) is a yellow-green ionic solid which crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system (Pearson symbol mS60, space group C2/c No. 15, lattice constants \"a\" = 1247 pm, \"b\" = 1058 pm, \"c\" = 817 pm) and is isotypic with uranium tetrafluoride or zirconium(IV) fluoride.\nBerkelium(III) fluoride (BkF) is also a yellow-green solid, but it has two crystalline structures. The most stable phase at low temperatures has an orthorhombic symmetry, isotypic with yttrium(III) fluoride (Pearson symbol oP16, space group Pnma, No. 62, \"a\" = 670 pm, \"b\" = 709 pm, \"c\" = 441 pm). Upon heating to 350 to 600 °C, it transforms to a trigonal structure found in lanthanum(III) fluoride (Pearson symbol hP24, space group P3 c1, No. 165, \"a\" = 697 pm, \"c\" = 714 pm).\nVisible amounts of berkelium(III) chloride (BkCl) were first isolated and characterized in 1962, and weighed only 3 billionths of a gram. It can be prepared by introducing hydrogen chloride vapors into an evacuated quartz tube containing berkelium oxide at a temperature of about 500 °C. This green solid has a melting point of 603 °C and crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system isotypic with uranium(III) chloride (Pearson symbol hP8, space group P6/m, No. 176). Upon heating to just below its melting point, BkCl converts into an orthorhombic phase. The hexahydrate BkCl·6HO (berkelium trichloride hexahydrate) has a monoclinic structure with the lattice constants \"a\" = 966 pm, \"b\" = 654 pm and \"c\" = 797 pm. Another berkelium(III) chloride, CsNaBkCl can be crystallized from a chilled aqueous solution containing berkelium(III) hydroxide, hydrochloric acid and caesium chloride. It has a face-centered cubic structure where Bk(III) ions are surrounded by chloride ions in an octahedral configuration.\nThe ternary berkelium(IV) chloride CsBkCl is obtained by dissolving berkelium(IV) hydroxide in a chilled solution of caesium chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It forms orange hexagonal crystals with the lattice constants \"a\" = 745.1 pm and \"c\" = 1209.7 pm. The average radius of the BkCl ion in this compound is estimated as 270 pm.\nTwo forms of berkelium(III) bromide are known, a monoclinic with berkelium coordination 6 and orthorhombic with coordination 8; the latter is less stable and transforms to the former phase upon heating to about 350 °C. An important phenomenon for radioactive solids has been studied for these two crystal forms: the structures of fresh and aged BkBr samples were studied using X-ray diffraction over a period longer than 3 years, so that various fractions of Bk had beta decayed to Cf. No change in structure was observed upon the BkBr—CfBr transformation, even though the orthorhombic bromide was previously unknown for californium. However, other differences were noted for BkBr and CfBr. For example, the latter could be reduced with hydrogen toCfBr, but the former could be not – this result was reproduced on individual BkBr and CfBr samples, as well on the samples containing both bromides. The intergrowth of californium in berkelium occurs at a rate of 0.22% per day and is an intrinsic obstacle in studying berkelium properties. Besides a chemical contamination, Cf, as an alpha emitter brings undesirable self-damage of the crystal lattice due to the resulting self-heating. This can be avoided by performing measurements as a function of time and extrapolating the obtained results.\nBerkelium(III) iodide forms hexagonal crystals with the lattice constants \"a\" = 758.4 pm and \"c\" = 2087 pm. The known oxyhalides of berkelium include BkOCl, BkOBr and BkOI; they all crystallize in a tetragonal lattice.\nThe monopnictides of berkelium-249 are known for the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony. They are prepared by the reaction of either berkelium(III) hydride (BkH) or metallic berkelium with these elements at elevated temperatures (about 600 °C) under high vacuum in quartz ampoules. They crystallize in the cubic crystal system with the lattice constant of 495.1 pm for BkN, 566.9 pm for BkP, 582.9 for BkAs and 619.1 pm for BkSb. These lattice constant values are smaller than those in curium pnictides, but are comparable to those of terbium pnictides.\nBerkelium(III) sulfide, BkS, has been prepared by either treating berkelium oxide with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfidevapors at 1130 °C, or by directly reacting metallic berkelium with sulfur. These procedures yield brownish-black crystals with a cubic symmetry and lattice constant \"a\" = 844 pm.\nBerkelium(III) and berkelium(IV) hydroxides are both stable in 1 M sodium hydroxide solutions. Berkelium(III) phosphate (BkPO) has been prepared as a solid, which shows strong fluorescence under argon laser (514.5 nm line) excitation. Berkelium hydrides are produced by reacting metal with hydrogen gas at temperatures about 250 °C. They are non-stoichiometric with the nominal formula BkH (0 < x < 1). Whereas the trihydride has a hexagonal symmetry, the dihydride crystallizes in an \"fcc\" structure with the lattice constant \"a\" = 523 pm. Several other salts of berkelium are known, including BkOS, (BkNO)·4HO, BkCl·6HO, Bk(SO)·12HO and Bk(CO)·4HO. Thermal decomposition at about 600 °C in an argon atmosphere (to avoid oxidation to BkO) of Bk(SO)·12HO yields the body-centered orthorhombic crystals of berkelium(IV) oxysulfate (BkOSO). This compound is thermally stable to at least 1000 °C in an inert atmosphere.\nBerkelium forms a trigonal (η–CH)Bk complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings, which can be synthesized by reacting berkelium(III) chloride with the molten beryllocene Be(CH) at about 70 °C. It has an amber color and orthorhombic symmetry, with the lattice constants of \"a\" = 1411 pm, \"b\" = 1755 pm and \"c\" = 963 pm and the calculated density of 2.47 g/cm. The complex is stable to heating to at least 250 °C, and sublimates without melting at about 350 °C. The high radioactivity of berkelium gradually destroys the compound within a period of weeks. One CH ring in (η–CH)Bk can be substituted by chlorine to yield [Bk(CH)Cl]. The optical absorption spectra of this compound are very similar to those of (η–CH)Bk.\n","Ceramic colorants\nCeramic colorants are added to a glaze or a clay to create color. Carbonates and oxides of certain metals, characterize most colorants including the commonly used cobalt carbonate, cobalt oxide, chrome oxide, red iron oxide, and copper carbonate. These colorants can create a multitude of colors depending on other materials they interact with and to which temperature and in which atmosphere they are fired.\nCobalt is commonly used in either its carbonate (CoCO) or its oxide (CoO) forms. In the presence of most fluxes, it yields blue colors ranging from low saturation pastels to high saturation midnight blues in both oxidation and reduction atmospheres. However, in the presence of magnesium, cobalt can become purple, pink or reddish blue depending on whether it was fired in oxidation (yields purple) or reduction. Cobalt is also commonly used in black glazes and in washes as decorative medium. Common saturation percentages for low saturation range from (.25 to .5%) and in high saturation from (1 to 2%).\n\"Chrome is a rather versatile and fickle colorant,\" (Chappell). Chrome oxide (CrO) is commonly used for achieving greens. However, in the presence of zinc, chrome can produce brown. Glazes with tin oxide present will often blush to pink if fumed with chrome or if chrome is present in the glaze with the tin, often intense pinks occur. If fired above cone 6, chrome will fume and become a gas in the kiln. Common saturation percentages for chrome at low saturation range from (.25 to .5%) and at higher percentages from (1 to 2%). Chrome is a refractory.\nIron is commonly used as a colorant in its red iron oxide form as (FeO). Red iron oxide is commonly used to produce earthy reds and browns. It is the metal responsible for making earthenwares red. Iron is also another tricky colorant because of its ability to yield different colors under different circumstances. At low percentages (.5-1%) and in the presence of potassium, iron will become light blue or light blue-green in reduction (as is seen in traditional celadons). In the presence of barium, iron may become yellow green. When used in combination with calcium, red iron oxide can become pale yellow or amber in oxidation or green in reduction. Common percentages for red iron oxide range from (4 up to 10%).\nCopper's carbonate form (CuCO) is commonly used to produce greens, turquoise, and copper reds. If need be, copper oxide (CuO) can be substituted but has a larger particle size and glazes should be adjusted to generally half the amount called for. In barium based glazes greenish blues often result from copper. Alkaline feldspar glazes with copper fired in reduction atmospheres will often yield ox blood or copper red glazes discovered by the Chinese. When fired above cone 8 copper can become unstable and will often fume off of a glaze in vapor form.","Uranium dioxide\nUranium dioxide or uranium(IV) oxide (U O ), also known as urania or uranous oxide, is an oxide of uranium, and is a black, radioactive, crystalline powder that naturally occurs in the mineral uraninite. It is used in nuclear fuel rods in nuclear reactors. A mixture of uranium and plutonium dioxides is used as MOX fuel. Prior to 1960, it was used as yellow and black color in ceramic glazes and glass.\nUranium dioxide is produced by reducing uranium trioxide with hydrogen.\nThis reaction plays an important part in the creation of nuclear fuel through nuclear reprocessing and uranium enrichment.\nThe solid is isostructural with (has the same structure as) fluorite (calcium fluoride), where each U is surrounded by eight O nearest neighbors in a cubic arrangement. In addition, the dioxides of cerium, plutonium and neptunium have the same structures. No other elemental dioxides have the fluorite structure. Upon melting, the measured average U-O coordination reduces from 8 in the crystalline solid (UO cubes), down to 6.7±0.5 (at 3270 K) in the melt. Models consistent with these measurements show the melt to consist mainly of UO and UO polyhedral units, where roughly 2/3 of the connections between polyhedra are corner sharing and 1/3 are edge sharing.\nUranium dioxide is oxidized in contact with oxygen to the triuranium octaoxide.\nThe electrochemistry of uranium dioxide has been investigated in detail as the galvanic corrosion of uranium dioxide controls the rate at which used nuclear fuel dissolves. See the spent nuclear fuel page for further details. Water increases the oxidation rate of plutonium and uranium metals.\nUranium dioxide is carbonized in contact with carbon, forming uranium carbide and carbon monoxide.\nUO + 4 C → UC + 2 CO\nThis process must be done under an inert gas as uranium carbide is easily oxidized back into uranium oxide.\nUO is used mainly as nuclear fuel, specifically as UO or as a mixture of UO and PuO (plutonium dioxide) called a mixed oxide (MOX fuel), in the form of fuel rods in nuclear reactors.\nNote that the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide is very low when compared with uranium, uranium nitride, uranium carbide and zirconium cladding material. This low thermal conductivity can result in localised overheating in the centres of fuel pellets. The graph below shows the different temperature gradients in different fuel compounds. For these fuels the thermal power density is the same and the diameter of all the pellets are the same.\nUranium oxide (urania) was used to color glass and ceramics prior to World War II, and until the applications of radioactivity were discovered this was its main use. In 1958 the military in both the USA and Europe allowed its commercial use again as depleted uranium, and its use began again on a more limited scale. Urania-based ceramic glazes are dark green or black when fired in a reduction or when UO is used; more commonly it is used in oxidation to produce bright yellow, orange and red glazes. Orange-colored Fiestaware is a well-known example of a product with a urania-colored glaze. Uranium glass is pale green to yellow, and often has strong fluorescent properties. Urania has also been used in formulations of enamel and porcelain. It is possible to determine with a Geiger counter if a glaze or glass produced before 1958 contains urania.\nPrior to the realisation of the harmfulness of radiation, uranium was included in false teeth and dentures, as its slight fluorescence made the dentures appear more like real teeth in a variety of lighting conditions.\nDepleted UO (DUO) can be used as a material for radiation shielding. For example, DUCRETE is a \"heavy concrete\" material where gravel is replaced with uranium dioxide aggregate; this material is investigated for use for casks for radioactive waste. Casks can be also made of DUO-steel cermet, a composite material made of an aggregate of uranium dioxide serving as radiation shielding, graphite and/or silicon carbide serving as neutron radiation absorber and moderator, and steel as the matrix, whose high thermal conductivity allows easy removal of decay heat.\nDepleted uranium dioxide can be also used as a catalyst, e.g. for degradation of volatile organic compounds in gaseous phase, oxidation of methane to methanol, and removal of sulfur from petroleum. It has high efficiency and long-term stability when used to destroy VOCs when compared with some of the commercial catalysts, such as precious metals, TiO, and CoO catalysts. Much research is being done in this area, DU being favoured for the uranium component due to its low radioactivity.\nThe use of uranium dioxide as a material for rechargeable batteries is being investigated. The batteries could have high power density and potential of 4.7 V per cell. Another investigated application is in photoelectrochemical cells for solar-assisted hydrogen production where UO is used as a photoanode. In earlier times, uranium dioxide was also used as heat conductor for current limitation (URDOX-resistor), which was the first use of its semiconductor properties.\nUranium dioxide is also the strongest known piezomagnet in the antiferromagnetic state observed at cryogenic temperatures below 30 degrees Kelvin. UO displays a linear magnetostriction that changes sign with the sign of the applied magnetic field, and magnetoelastic memory switching at magnetic fields near 180,000 Oe.\nThe band gap of uranium dioxide is comparable to these of silicon and gallium arsenide, near the optimum for efficiency vs band gap curve for absorption of solar radiation, suggesting its possible use for very efficient solar cells based on Schottky diode structure; it also absorbs at five different wavelengths, including infrared, further enhancing its efficiency. Its intrinsic conductivity at room temperature is about the same as of single crystal silicon.\nThe dielectric constant of uranium dioxide is about 22, which is almost twice as high as of silicon (11.2) and GaAs (14.1). This is an advantage over Si and GaAs in construction of integrated circuits, as it may allow higher density integration with higher breakdown voltages and with lower susceptibility to the CMOS tunneling breakdown.\nThe Seebeck coefficient of uranium dioxide at room temperature is about 750 µV/K, a value significantly higher than the 270 µV/K of thallium tin telluride (TlSnTe) and thallium germanium telluride (TlGeTe) and of bismuth-tellurium alloys, other materials promising for thermoelectric power generation applications and Peltier elements.\nThe radioactive decay impact of theU andU on its semiconducting properties was not measured as of 2005 . Due to the slow decay rate of these isotopes, it should not meaningfully influence the properties of uranium dioxide solar cells and thermoelectric devices, but it may become an important factor for VLSI chips. Use of depleted uranium oxide is necessary for this reason. The capture of alpha particles emitted during radioactive decay as helium atoms in the crystal lattice may also cause gradual long-term changes in its properties.\nThe stoichiometry of the material dramatically influences its electrical properties. For example, the electrical conductivity of UO is orders of magnitude lower at higher temperatures than the conductivity of UO.\nUranium dioxide, like UO, is a ceramic material capable of withstanding high temperatures (about 2300 °C, in comparison with at most 200 °C for silicon or GaAs), making it suitable for high-temperature applications like thermophotovoltaic devices.\nUranium dioxide is also resistant to radiation damage, making it useful for rad-hard devices for special military and aerospace applications.\nA Schottky diode of UO and a p-n-p transistor of UO were successfully manufactured in a laboratory.\nUranium dioxide is known to be absorbed by phagocytosis in the lungs.\n","Deoxyepinephrine\nDeoxyepinephrine, also known by the common names N-methyldopamine and epinine, is an organic compound and natural product that is structurally related to the important neurotransmitters dopamine and epinephrine. All three of these compounds also belong to the catecholamine family. The pharmacology of epinine largely resembles that of its \"parent\", dopamine. Epinine has been found in plants, insects and animals. It is also of significance as the active metabolic breakdown product of the prodrug ibopamine, which has been used to treat congestive heart failure.\nEpinine does not seem to occur widely, but it is present as a minor alkaloid in some plants, such as the peyote cactus, \"Lophophora williamsii\", and a species of \"Acacia\", as well as in Scotch Broom, \"Cytisus scoparius\". This compound has also been isolated from the adrenal medulla of pigs and cows, and from the toad, \"Bufo marinus\". It has also been detected in the locust, \"Locusta migratoria\".\nThe first total synthesis of epinine was reported by Buck, who prepared it from 3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine (\"homoveratrylamine\") by first converting the latter to its Schiff base with benzaldehyde, then N-methylating this with methyl iodide; hydrolysis of the resulting product was followed by cleavage of the methyl ethers using hydriodic acid to furnish epinine. A very similar synthesis, differing only in the use of dimethyl sulfate for the N-methylation, and HBr for the O-demethylation, but providing more extensive experimental details, was published by Borgman in 1973.\nAn earlier semi-synthesis (so-called because it began with the natural product laudanosine) due to Pyman is incorrectly cited by Buck, and the error carried over to the entry for epinine (under the name deoxyepinephrine) in the Merck Index.\nCommon salts of epinine are: hydrochloride, CHNO.HCl, m.p. 179-180 °C; sulfate, (CHNO).HSO, m.p. 289-290 °C; hydrobromide, CHNO.HBr, m.p. 165-166 °C.\nThe X-ray structure of epinine hydrobromide has been reported.\nOne of the most prominent pharmacological characteristics of epinine, its ability to raise blood pressure, was noted as early as 1910, by Barger and Dale, who reported that \"methylamino-ethyl-catechol\", as they called it, had about 1/7 x the pressor potency of epinephrine, but about 5 x the potency of dopamine (\"amino-ethyl-catechol\") in cat preparations. The Buroughs Wellcome Co., for which Barger, Dale and Pyman (see \"Chemistry\" section) worked, subsequently marketed the hydrochloride salt of \"methylamino-ethyl-catechol\", under the name \"epinine\", as a substitute for epinephrine. Tainter further quantified the pressor activity of epinine in atropine-treated and anesthetized intact cats, showing that doses of 0.02-0.2 mg, given i.v., were about 1/12 as active as l-epinephrine, but that the effect lasted about twice as long (~ 3 minutes), and was accompanied by an increase in pulse rate.\nEventually, epinine was determined to be a non-selective stimulant of dopamine (DA) receptors, α-, and β-adrenoceptors, with the stimulation of D receptors leading to inhibition of noradrenergic and ganglionic neurotransmission. These studies, conducted using anesthetized animals, were amplified by van Woerkens and co-workers, who compared the effects of epinine and dopamine in unanesthetized pigs, so as to avoid any possible influences of an anesthetic. Drug doses were in the range of 1-10 μg/kg/min, administered by i.v. infusion over a period of 10 minutes. The results of these experiments showed that, in pigs, over the dose-range employed, epinine was more potent than dopamine as an agonist on D, α-, and β-receptors, but was weaker than dopamine as a D-agonist. The β-agonist effect of both compounds was weak or non-existent.\nComparable studies, in which blood pressure, heart rate and serum prolactin levels were measured after the administration of 0.5-4 μg/kg/min of epinine by i.v. infusion over a 15-minute period to healthy humans, were reported subsequently by Daul and co-workers. These investigators found that at lower doses (0.5 or 1.0 μg/kg/min), which produced plasma concentrations of 20-80 nM/L, epinine, in common with dopamine, caused a fall in prolactin level, but did not affect blood pressure or heart rate. At higher doses (2.0 or 4.0 μg/kg/min), epinine significantly increased both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as well as heart rate. In contrast, dopamine caused an increase in systolic blood pressure and heart rate only.\nBoth drugs increased diuresis and natriuresis - effects that are thought to be due to the activation of renal D receptors.\nIt was concluded that at the lower doses, epinine and dopamine exerted their effects only at DA (D) receptors, but did not activate α- or β-adrenoceptors. At the higher doses, epinine activated α-, β- and β-receptors to about the same extent, whereas dopamine showed only a mild stimulation of β-receptors, without any effects on α- or β-receptors. Additionally, it was observed that the effects of epinine were largely due to its direct action on receptors, while dopamine also produced some of its effects indirectly, by stimulating norepinephrine release.\nLD for HCl salt: 212 mg/kg (mouse; i.p.). For comparison, it might be noted that dopamine has a LD of 1978 mg/kg under the same conditions.\n","Ferrite (magnet)\nA ferrite is a type of ceramic compound composed of iron(III) oxide (FeO) combined chemically with one or more additional metallic elements. They are both electrically nonconductive and ferrimagnetic, meaning they can be magnetized or attracted to a magnet. Ferrites can be divided into two families based on their magnetic coercivity, their resistance to being demagnetized. \"Hard ferrites\" have high coercivity, hence they are difficult to demagnetize. They are used to make magnets, for devices such as refrigerator magnets, loudspeakers and small electric motors. \"Soft ferrites\" have low coercivity. They are used in the electronics industry to make ferrite cores for inductors and transformers, and in various microwave components. Ferrite compounds have extremely low cost, being made of iron oxide (i.e. rusted iron), and also have excellent corrosion resistance. They are very stable and difficult to demagnetize, and can be made with both high and low coercive forces. Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930.\nFerrites are usually non-conductive ferrimagnetic ceramic compounds derived from iron oxides such as hematite (FeO) or magnetite (FeO) as well as oxides of other metals. Ferrites are, like most of the other ceramics, hard and brittle.\nMany ferrites are spinels with the formula ABO, where A and B represent various metal cations, usually including iron Fe. Spinel ferrites usually adopt a crystal motif consisting of cubic close-packed (fcc) oxides (O) with A cations occupying one eighth of the tetrahedral holes and B cations occupying half of the octahedral holes. If one eighth of the tetrahedral holes are taken by B cation, then one fourth of the octahedral sites are occupied by A cation and the other one fourth by B cation and it is called the inverse spinel structure. It is also possible to have mixed structure spinel ferrites with formula [MFe][MFe]O where δ is the degree of inversion.\nThe magnetic material known as \"ZnFe\" has the formula ZnFeO, with Fe occupying the octahedral sites and Zn occupy the tetrahedral sites, it is an example of normal structure spinel ferrite.\nSome ferrites have hexagonal crystal structure, like barium and strontium ferrites BaFeO (BaO:6FeO) and SrFeO (SrO:6FeO).\nIn terms of their magnetic properties, the different ferrites are often classified as \"soft\" or \"hard\", which refers to their low or high magnetic coercivity, as follows.\nFerrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain nickel, zinc, and/or manganese compounds. They have a low coercivity and are called soft ferrites. The low coercivity means the material's magnetization can easily reverse direction without dissipating much energy (hysteresis losses), while the material's high resistivity prevents eddy currents in the core, another source of energy loss. Because of their comparatively low losses at high frequencies, they are extensively used in the cores of RF transformers and inductors in applications such as switched-mode power supplies and loopstick antennas used in AM radios.\nThe most common soft ferrites are:\nFor applications below 5 MHz, MnZn ferrites are used; above that, NiZn is the usual choice. The exception is with common mode inductors, where the threshold of choice is at 70 MHz.\nIn contrast, permanent ferrite magnets are made of hard ferrites, which have a high coercivity and high remanence after magnetization. Iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate are used in manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets. The high coercivity means the materials are very resistant to becoming demagnetized, an essential characteristic for a permanent magnet. They also have high magnetic permeability. These so-called \"ceramic magnets\" are cheap, and are widely used in household products such as refrigerator magnets. The maximum magnetic field \"B\" is about 0.35 tesla and the magnetic field strength \"H\" is about 30 to 160 kiloampere turns per meter (400 to 2000 oersteds). The density of ferrite magnets is about 5 g/cm.\nThe most common hard ferrites are:\nFerrites are produced by heating a mixture of finely-powdered precursors pressed into a mold. During the heating process, calcination of carbonates occurs:\nThe oxides of barium and strontium are typically supplied as their carbonates, BaCO or SrCO.\nThe resulting mixture of oxides undergoes sintering. Sintering is a high temperature process similar to the firing of ceramic ware.\nAfterwards, the cooled product is milled to particles smaller than 2 µm, small enough that each particle consists of a single magnetic domain. Next the powder is pressed into a shape, dried, and re-sintered. The shaping may be performed in an external magnetic field, in order to achieve a preferred orientation of the particles (anisotropy).\nSmall and geometrically easy shapes may be produced with dry pressing. However, in such a process small particles may agglomerate and lead to poorer magnetic properties compared to the wet pressing process. Direct calcination and sintering without re-milling is possible as well but leads to poor magnetic properties.\nElectromagnets are pre-sintered as well (pre-reaction), milled and pressed. However, the sintering takes place in a specific atmosphere, for instance one with an oxygen shortage. The chemical composition and especially the structure vary strongly between the precursor and the sintered product.\nTo allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.\nFerrite cores are used in electronic inductors, transformers, and electromagnets where the high electrical resistance of the ferrite leads to very low eddy current losses. They are commonly seen as a lump in a computer cable, called a ferrite bead, which helps to prevent high frequency electrical noise (radio frequency interference) from exiting or entering the equipment.\nEarly computer memories stored data in the residual magnetic fields of hard ferrite cores, which were assembled into arrays of \"core memory\". Ferrite powders are used in the coatings of magnetic recording tapes. One such type of material is iron (III) oxide.\nFerrite particles are also used as a component of radar-absorbing materials or coatings used in stealth aircraft and in the absorption tiles lining the rooms used for electromagnetic compatibility measurements.\nMost common radio magnets, including those used in loudspeakers, are ferrite magnets. Ferrite magnets have largely displaced Alnico magnets in these applications.\nIt is a common magnetic material for electromagnetic instrument pickups.\nFerrite nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic properties.\nYogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930. This led to the founding of TDK Corporation in 1935, to manufacture the material.\nBarium hexaferrite (BaFeO) was discovered in 1950 at the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium (\"Philips Physics Laboratory\"). The discovery was somewhat accidental—due to a mistake by an assistant who was supposed to be preparing a sample of hexagonal lanthanum ferrite for a team investigating its use as a semiconductor material. On discovering that it was actually a magnetic material, and confirming its structure by X-ray crystallography, they passed it on to the magnetic research group. Barium hexaferrite has both high coercivity (170 kA/m) and low raw material costs. It was developed as a product by Philips Industries (Netherlands) and from 1952 was marketed under the trade name \"Ferroxdure\". The low price and good performance led to a rapid increase in the use permanent magnets.\nIn the 1960s Philips developed strontium hexaferrite (SrFeO), with better properties than barium hexaferrite. Barium and strontium hexaferrite dominate the market due to their low costs. However other materials have been found with improved properties. BaFeFeO came in 1980. and BaZnFeO came in 1991.","Iron(II) oxide\nIron(II) oxide or ferrous oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. Its mineral form is known as wüstite. One of several iron oxides, it is a black-colored powder that is sometimes confused with rust, the latter of which consists of hydrated iron(III) oxide (ferric oxide). Iron(II) oxide also refers to a family of related non-stoichiometric compounds, which are typically iron deficient with compositions ranging from FeO to FeO.\nFeO can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of iron(II) oxalate.\nThe procedure is conducted under an inert atmosphere to avoid the formation of ferric oxide. A similar procedure can also be used for the synthesis of manganous oxide and stannous oxide.\nStoichiometric FeO can be prepared by heating FeO with metallic iron at 770 °C and 36 kbar.\nFeO is thermodynamically unstable below 575 °C, tending to disproportionate to metal and FeO:\nIron(II) oxide adopts the cubic, rock salt structure, where iron atoms are octahedrally coordinated by oxygen atoms and the oxygen atoms octahedrally coordinated by iron atoms. The non-stoichiometry occurs because of the ease of oxidation of Fe to Fe effectively replacing a small portion of Fe with two thirds their number of Fe, which take up tetrahedral positions in the close packed oxide lattice.\nBelow 200 K there is a minor change to the structure which changes the symmetry to rhombohedral and samples become antiferromagnetic.\nIron(II) oxide makes up approximately 9% of the Earth's mantle. Within the mantle, it may be electrically conductive, which is a possible explanation for perturbations in Earth's rotation not accounted for by accepted models of the mantle's properties.\nIron(II) oxide is used as a pigment. It is FDA-approved for use in cosmetics and it is used in some tattoo inks. It can also be used as a phosphate remover from home aquaria.\n\n","Ferromagnetism\nFerromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as <a href=\"iron\">iron</a>) form <a href=\"permanent%20magnet\">permanent magnet</a>s, or are attracted to <a href=\"magnet\">magnet</a>s. In <a href=\"physics\">physics</a>, several different types of <a href=\"magnetism\">magnetism</a> are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including <a href=\"ferrimagnetism\">ferrimagnetism</a>) is the strongest type: it is the only one that typically creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism in <a href=\"Magnet%23Common%20uses\">magnets encountered in everyday life</a>. Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of magnetism, <a href=\"paramagnetism\">paramagnetism</a>, <a href=\"diamagnetism\">diamagnetism</a>, and <a href=\"antiferromagnetism\">antiferromagnetism</a>, but the forces are usually so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is a <a href=\"refrigerator%20magnet\">refrigerator magnet</a> used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is \"the quality of magnetism first apparent to the ancient world, and to us today\".\nPermanent magnets (materials that can be <a href=\"Magnetization\">magnetized</a> by an external <a href=\"magnetic%20field\">magnetic field</a> and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the materials that are noticeably attracted to them. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic. The common ones are <a href=\"iron\">iron</a>, <a href=\"nickel\">nickel</a>, <a href=\"cobalt\">cobalt</a> and most of their alloys, and some compounds of <a href=\"Rare-earth%20magnet\">rare earth metals</a>.\nFerromagnetism is very important in industry and modern technology, and is the basis for many electrical and electromechanical devices such as <a href=\"electromagnet\">electromagnet</a>s, <a href=\"electric%20motor\">electric motor</a>s, <a href=\"Electric%20generator\">generators</a>, <a href=\"transformer\">transformer</a>s, and <a href=\"magnetic%20storage\">magnetic storage</a> such as <a href=\"tape%20recorder\">tape recorder</a>s, and <a href=\"hard%20disk\">hard disk</a>s, and <a href=\"nondestructive%20testing\">nondestructive testing</a> of ferrous materials.\nHistorically, the term \"ferromagnetism\" was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field. This general definition is still in common use. More recently, however, different classes of spontaneous magnetization have been identified when there is more than one magnetic ion per <a href=\"primitive%20cell\">primitive cell</a> of the material, leading to a stricter definition of \"ferromagnetism\" that is often used to distinguish it from ferrimagnetism. In particular,\nThese alignment effects only occur at <a href=\"temperature\">temperature</a>s below a certain critical temperature, called the <a href=\"Curie%20temperature\">Curie temperature</a> (for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets) or the <a href=\"N%C3%A9el%20temperature\">Néel temperature</a> (for antiferromagnets).\nThe table on the right lists a selection of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic compounds, along with the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see <a href=\"Curie%20temperature\">Curie temperature</a>).\nFerromagnetism is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a material, but of its crystalline structure and microstructure. There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic, called <a href=\"Heusler%20alloy\">Heusler alloy</a>s, named after <a href=\"Fritz%20Heusler\">Fritz Heusler</a>. Conversely there are non-magnetic alloys, such as types of <a href=\"stainless%20steel\">stainless steel</a>, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals.\nAmorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys can be made by very rapid <a href=\"quenching\">quenching</a> (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low <a href=\"coercivity\">coercivity</a>, low <a href=\"hysteresis\">hysteresis</a> loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. One such typical material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component (<a href=\"Boron\">B</a>, <a href=\"Carbon\">C</a>, <a href=\"Silicon\">Si</a>, <a href=\"Phosphorus\">P</a>, or <a href=\"Aluminium\">Al</a>) that lowers the melting point.\nA relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the <a href=\"rare-earth%20magnet\">rare-earth magnet</a>s. They contain <a href=\"lanthanide\">lanthanide</a> elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals.\nA number of <a href=\"actinide\">actinide</a> compounds are ferromagnets at room temperature or exhibit ferromagnetism upon cooling. <a href=\"Plutonium\">Pu</a><a href=\"Phosphorus\">P</a> is a paramagnet with <a href=\"Cubic%20crystal%20system\">cubic symmetry</a> at <a href=\"room%20temperature\">room temperature</a>, but which undergoes a structural transition into a <a href=\"Tetragonal%20crystal%20system\">tetragonal</a> state with ferromagnetic order when cooled below its T = 125 K. In its ferromagnetic state, PuP's <a href=\"easy%20axis\">easy axis</a> is in the <100> direction.\nIn <a href=\"Neptunium\">Np</a>Fe the easy axis is <111>. Above \"T\" ≈ 500 K NpFe is also paramagnetic and cubic. Cooling below the Curie temperature produces a rhombohedral distortion wherein the rhombohedral angle changes from 60° (cubic phase) to 60.53°. An alternate description of this distortion is to consider the length \"c\" along the unique trigonal axis (after the distortion has begun) and \"a\" as the distance in the plane perpendicular to \"c\". In the cubic phase this reduces to \" \" = 1.00. Below the <a href=\"Curie%20temperature\">Curie temperature</a>\nwhich is the largest strain in any <a href=\"actinide\">actinide</a> compound. NpNi undergoes a similar lattice distortion below \"T\" = 32 K, with a strain of (43 ± 5) × 10. NpCo is a ferrimagnet below 15 K.\nIn 2009, a team of <a href=\"MIT\">MIT</a> physicists demonstrated that a lithium gas cooled to less than one kelvin can exhibit ferromagnetism. The team cooled <a href=\"fermion\">fermion</a>ic lithium-6 to less than 150 nK (150 billionths of one kelvin) using infrared <a href=\"laser%20cooling\">laser cooling</a>. This demonstration is the first time that ferromagnetism has been demonstrated in a gas.\nThe <a href=\"Bohr%E2%80%93van%20Leeuwen%20theorem\">Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem</a>, discovered in the 1910s, showed that <a href=\"classical%20physics\">classical physics</a> theories are unable to account for any form of magnetism, including ferromagnetism. Magnetism is now regarded as a purely <a href=\"quantum%20mechanical\">quantum mechanical</a> effect. Ferromagnetism arises due to two effects from quantum mechanics: <a href=\"spin%20%28physics%29\">spin</a> and the <a href=\"Pauli%20exclusion%20principle\">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.\nOne of the fundamental properties of an <a href=\"electron\">electron</a> (besides that it carries charge) is that it has a <a href=\"Electron%20magnetic%20moment\">magnetic dipole moment</a>, i.e., it behaves like a tiny magnet, producing a <a href=\"magnetic%20field\">magnetic field</a>. This dipole moment comes from the more fundamental property of the electron that it has quantum mechanical <a href=\"Spin%20%28physics%29\">spin</a>. Due to its quantum nature, the spin of the electron can be in one of only two states; with the magnetic field either pointing \"up\" or \"down\" (for any choice of up and down). The spin of the electrons in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the <a href=\"Atomic%20orbital\">orbital</a> <a href=\"angular%20momentum\">angular momentum</a> of the electron about the <a href=\"Atomic%20nucleus\">nucleus</a>. When these magnetic dipoles in a piece of matter are aligned, (point in the same direction) their individually tiny magnetic fields add together to create a much larger macroscopic field.\nHowever, materials made of atoms with filled <a href=\"electron%20shell\">electron shell</a>s have a total dipole moment of zero, because the electrons all exist in pairs with opposite spin, every electron's magnetic moment is cancelled by the opposite moment of the second <a href=\"Electron%20pair\">electron in the pair</a>. Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can have a net magnetic moment, so ferromagnetism only occurs in materials with partially filled shells. Because of <a href=\"Hund%27s%20rules\">Hund's rules</a>, the first few electrons in a shell tend to have the same spin, thereby increasing the total dipole moment.\nThese unpaired dipoles (often called simply \"spins\" even though they also generally include angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called <a href=\"paramagnetism\">paramagnetism</a>. Ferromagnetism involves an additional phenomenon, however: in a few substances the dipoles tend to align spontaneously, giving rise to a <a href=\"spontaneous%20magnetization\">spontaneous magnetization</a>, even when there is no applied field.\nWhen two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the <a href=\"Quantum%20mechanics\">quantum mechanical</a> effect called the <a href=\"exchange%20interaction\">exchange interaction</a>. This in turn affects the electron location and the <a href=\"Coulomb%20force\">Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction</a> and thus the energy difference between these states.\nThe exchange interaction is related to the <a href=\"Pauli%20exclusion%20principle\">Pauli exclusion principle</a>, which says that two electrons with the same spin cannot also have the same \"position\". Therefore, under certain conditions, when the <a href=\"atomic%20orbital\">orbitals</a> of the unpaired outer <a href=\"valence%20electron\">valence electron</a>s from adjacent atoms overlap, the distributions of their electric charge in space are farther apart when the electrons have parallel spins than when they have opposite spins. This reduces the <a href=\"electrostatic%20energy\">electrostatic energy</a> of the electrons when their spins are parallel compared to their energy when the spins are anti-parallel, so the parallel-spin state is more stable. In simple terms, the electrons, which repel one another, can move \"further apart\" by aligning their spins, so the spins of these electrons tend to line up. This difference in energy is called the <a href=\"exchange%20energy\">exchange energy</a>.\nThis energy difference can be orders of magnitude larger than the energy differences associated with the <a href=\"magnetic%20dipole-dipole%20interaction\">magnetic dipole-dipole interaction</a> due to dipole orientation, which tends to align the dipoles antiparallel. In certain doped semiconductor oxides <a href=\"RKKY%20interaction\">RKKY interaction</a>s have been shown to bring about periodic longer-range magnetic interactions, a phenomenon of significance in the study of <a href=\"Spintronics\">spintronic materials</a>.\nThe materials in which the exchange interaction is much stronger than the competing dipole-dipole interaction are frequently called \"magnetic materials\". For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange force is about 1000 times stronger than the dipole interaction. Therefore, below the Curie temperature virtually all of the dipoles in a ferromagnetic material will be aligned. In addition to ferromagnetism, the exchange interaction is also responsible for the other types of spontaneous ordering of atomic magnetic moments occurring in magnetic solids, <a href=\"antiferromagnetism\">antiferromagnetism</a> and <a href=\"ferrimagnetism\">ferrimagnetism</a>.\nThere are different exchange interaction mechanisms which create the magnetism in different ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and antiferromagnetic substances. These mechanisms include <a href=\"Exchange%20interaction%23Direct%20exchange%20interactions%20in%20solids\">direct exchange</a>, <a href=\"RKKY%20interaction\">RKKY exchange</a>, <a href=\"double%20exchange\">double exchange</a>, and <a href=\"superexchange\">superexchange</a>.\nAlthough the exchange interaction keeps spins aligned, it does not align them in a particular direction. Without <a href=\"magnetic%20anisotropy\">magnetic anisotropy</a>, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to <a href=\"thermal%20fluctuations\">thermal fluctuations</a> and the magnet is <a href=\"superparamagnetic\">superparamagnetic</a>. There are several kinds of magnetic anisotropy, the most common of which is <a href=\"magnetocrystalline%20anisotropy\">magnetocrystalline anisotropy</a>. This is a dependence of the energy on the direction of magnetization relative to the <a href=\"crystallographic%20lattice\">crystallographic lattice</a>. Another common source of anisotropy, <a href=\"inverse%20magnetostriction\">inverse magnetostriction</a>, is induced by internal <a href=\"deformation%20%28mechanics%29\">strains</a>. <a href=\"Single-domain%20%28magnetic%29\">Single-domain magnets</a> also can have a \"shape anisotropy\" due to the magnetostatic effects of the particle shape. As the temperature of a magnet increases, the anisotropy tends to decrease, and there is often a <a href=\"superparamagnetism%23Blocking%20temperature\">blocking temperature</a> at which a transition to superparamagnetism occurs.\n\nThe above would seem to suggest that every piece of ferromagnetic material should have a strong magnetic field, since all the spins are aligned, yet iron and other ferromagnets are often found in an \"unmagnetized\" state. The reason for this is that a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material is divided into tiny regions called \"<a href=\"magnetic%20domain\">magnetic domain</a>s\" (also known as \"Weiss domains\"). Within each domain, the spins are aligned, but (if the bulk material is in its lowest energy configuration, i.e. \"unmagnetized\"), the spins of separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields cancel out, so the object has no net large scale magnetic field.\nFerromagnetic materials spontaneously divide into magnetic domains because the \"<a href=\"exchange%20interaction\">exchange interaction</a>\" is a short-range force, so over long distances of many atoms the tendency of the magnetic dipoles to reduce their energy by orienting in opposite directions wins out. If all the dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are aligned parallel, it creates a large magnetic field extending into the space around it. This contains a lot of <a href=\"magnetostatics\">magnetostatic</a> energy. The material can reduce this energy by splitting into many domains pointing in different directions, so the magnetic field is confined to small local fields in the material, reducing the volume of the field. The domains are separated by thin <a href=\"Domain%20wall%20%28magnetism%29\">domain wall</a>s a number of molecules thick, in which the direction of magnetization of the dipoles rotates smoothly from one domain's direction to the other.\nThus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state (\"unmagnetized\") generally has little or no net magnetic field. However, the magnetic domains in a material are not fixed in place; they are simply regions where the spins of the electrons have aligned spontaneously due to their magnetic fields, and thus can be altered by an external magnetic field. If a strong enough external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domain walls will move by the process of the spins of the electrons in atoms near the wall in one domain turning under the influence of the external field to face in the same direction as the electrons in the other domain, thus reorienting the domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field. The domains will remain aligned when the external field is removed, creating a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus creating a \"permanent\" magnet. The domains do not go back to their original minimum energy configuration when the field is removed because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice, preserving their parallel orientation. This is shown by the <a href=\"Barkhausen%20effect\">Barkhausen effect</a>: as the magnetizing field is changed, the magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as the domain walls suddenly \"snap\" past defects.\nThis magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a <a href=\"Hysteresis%20loop\">hysteresis curve</a>. Although this state of aligned domains found in a piece of magnetized ferromagnetic material is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is <a href=\"metastable\">metastable</a>, and can persist for long periods, as shown by samples of <a href=\"magnetite\">magnetite</a> from the sea floor which have maintained their magnetization for millions of years.\nHeating and then cooling (<a href=\"Annealing%20%28metallurgy%29\">annealing</a>) a magnetized material, subjecting it to vibration by hammering it, or applying a rapidly oscillating magnetic field from a <a href=\"degaussing\">degaussing coil</a> tends to release the domain walls from their pinned state, and the domain boundaries tend to move back to a lower energy configuration with less external magnetic field, thus \"<a href=\"demagnetization\">demagnetizing</a>\" the material.\nCommercial <a href=\"magnet\">magnet</a>s are made of \"hard\" ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materials with very large <a href=\"magnetic%20anisotropy\">magnetic anisotropy</a> such as <a href=\"alnico\">alnico</a> and <a href=\"ferrite%20%28magnet%29\">ferrites</a>, which have a very strong tendency for the magnetization to be pointed along one axis of the crystal, the \"easy axis\". During manufacture the materials are subjected to various metallurgical processes in a powerful magnetic field, which aligns the crystal grains so their \"easy\" axes of magnetization all point in the same direction. Thus the magnetization, and the resulting magnetic field, is \"built in\" to the crystal structure of the material, making it very difficult to demagnetize.\nAs the temperature increases, thermal motion, or <a href=\"entropy\">entropy</a>, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the <a href=\"Curie%20temperature\">Curie temperature</a>, there is a second-order <a href=\"phase%20transition\">phase transition</a> and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, so its ability to be magnetized or attracted to a magnet disappears, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a <a href=\"spontaneous%20symmetry%20breaking\">spontaneous symmetry breaking</a> and magnetic moments become aligned with their neighbors. The Curie temperature itself is a <a href=\"critical%20point%20%28thermodynamics%29\">critical point</a>, where the <a href=\"magnetic%20susceptibility\">magnetic susceptibility</a> is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales.\nThe study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified <a href=\"Ising%20model\">Ising</a> spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that <a href=\"mean%20field%20theory\">mean field theory</a> approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a \"universality class\" that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by <a href=\"renormalization%20group\">renormalization group</a> theory.","Thermal decomposition\nThermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a <a href=\"chemical%20decomposition\">chemical decomposition</a> caused by heat. The decomposition temperature of a substance is the <a href=\"temperature\">temperature</a> at which the substance chemically decomposes.\nThe reaction is usually <a href=\"Endothermic%20process\">endothermic</a> as heat is required to break <a href=\"chemical%20bond\">chemical bond</a>s in the compound undergoing decomposition. If decomposition is sufficiently <a href=\"Exothermic%20process\">exothermic</a>, a <a href=\"positive%20feedback%20loop\">positive feedback loop</a> is created producing <a href=\"thermal%20runaway\">thermal runaway</a> and possibly an explosion.\nWhen metals are near the bottom of the <a href=\"reactivity%20series\">reactivity series</a>, their <a href=\"Chemical%20compound\">compounds</a> generally decompose easily at high temperatures. This is because stronger <a href=\"Chemical%20bond\">bonds</a> form between <a href=\"atom\">atom</a>s towards the top of the reactivity series, and strong bonds break less easily. For example, <a href=\"copper\">copper</a> is near the bottom of the reactivity series, and <a href=\"copper%20sulfate\">copper sulfate</a> (CuSO), begins to decompose at about 200 °C, increasing rapidly at higher temperatures to about 560 °C. In contrast <a href=\"potassium\">potassium</a> is near the top of the reactivity series, and <a href=\"potassium%20sulfate\">potassium sulfate</a> (KSO) does not decompose at its melting point of about 1069 °C, nor even at its boiling point.","Oxide\nAn oxide is a <a href=\"chemical%20compound\">chemical compound</a> that contains at least one <a href=\"oxygen\">oxygen</a> atom and one other element in its <a href=\"chemical%20formula\">chemical formula</a>. \"Oxide\" itself is the <a href=\"dianion\">dianion</a> of oxygen, an O atom. <a href=\"Metal\">Metal</a> oxides thus typically contain an <a href=\"anion\">anion</a> of <a href=\"oxygen\">oxygen</a> in the <a href=\"oxidation%20state\">oxidation state</a> of −2. Most of the <a href=\"Earth%27s%20crust\">Earth's crust</a> consists of solid oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. <a href=\"Hydrocarbon\">Hydrocarbon</a> combustion affords the two principal <a href=\"carbon\">carbon</a> oxides: <a href=\"carbon%20monoxide\">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href=\"carbon%20dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a>. Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, <a href=\"aluminium%20foil\">aluminium foil</a> develops a thin skin of <a href=\"alumina\">AlO</a> (called a <a href=\"Passivation%20%28chemistry%29\">passivation layer</a>) that protects the foil from further <a href=\"corrosion\">corrosion</a>. Individual elements can often form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen. In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and in other cases by specifying the element's <a href=\"oxidation%20number\">oxidation number</a>, as in <a href=\"iron%28II%29%20oxide\">iron(II) oxide</a> and <a href=\"iron%28III%29%20oxide\">iron(III) oxide</a>. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such <a href=\"Nitrogen%20oxide\">those of nitrogen</a>.\nDue to its <a href=\"electronegativity\">electronegativity</a>, oxygen forms stable <a href=\"chemical%20bond\">chemical bond</a>s with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. <a href=\"Noble%20metal\">Noble metal</a>s (such as <a href=\"gold\">gold</a> or <a href=\"platinum\">platinum</a>) are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, and substances like <a href=\"gold%28III%29%20oxide\">gold(III) oxide</a> must be generated by indirect routes.\nTwo independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive. Virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen (or simply air), some elements— <a href=\"sodium\">sodium</a>—react rapidly, even dangerously, to give the hydroxides. In part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i.e., native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a <a href=\"getter\">getter</a> in <a href=\"vacuum%20tube\">vacuum tube</a>s, and solutions of potassium and sodium, so-called <a href=\"NaK\">NaK</a> are used to deoxygenate and dehydrate some organic solvents. The surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is <a href=\"aluminium%20foil\">aluminium foil</a>, which is coated with a thin film of <a href=\"aluminium%20oxide\">aluminium oxide</a> that <a href=\"Passivation%20%28chemistry%29\">passivates</a> the metal, slowing further <a href=\"corrosion\">corrosion</a>. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of <a href=\"electrolysis\">electrolytic</a> <a href=\"anodising\">anodising</a>. Though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at <a href=\"Standard%20conditions%20for%20temperature%20and%20pressure\">STP</a>—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be dangerously explosive in air. Consequently, they are often used in <a href=\"Solid-fuel%20rocket\">Solid-fuel rocket</a>s.\nIn dry oxygen, <a href=\"iron\">iron</a> readily forms <a href=\"iron%28II%29%20oxide\">iron(II) oxide</a>, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, FeO(OH), that mainly comprise rust, typically requires oxygen \"and\" water. Free oxygen production by <a href=\"photosynthesis\">photosynthetic</a> <a href=\"bacteria\">bacteria</a> some 3.5 billion years ago <a href=\"precipitate\">precipitate</a>d iron out of solution in the oceans as FeO in the economically important <a href=\"banded%20iron%20formations\">iron ore</a> <a href=\"hematite\">hematite</a>.\nOxides have a range of different structures, from individual molecules to polymeric and crystalline structures. At standard conditions, oxides may range from solids to gases.\nOxides of most metals adopt polymeric structures. The oxide typically links three metals (e.g., rutile structure) or six metals (<a href=\"carborundum\">carborundum</a> or <a href=\"rock%20salt\">rock salt</a> structures) Because the M-O bonds are strong, the solids tend to be insoluble in solvents, though they are attacked by acids and bases. The formulas are often deceptively simple. Many are <a href=\"nonstoichiometric%20compound\">nonstoichiometric compound</a>s.\nAlthough most metal oxides are polymeric, some oxides are molecules. Examples of molecular oxides are <a href=\"carbon%20dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href=\"carbon%20monoxide\">carbon monoxide</a>. All simple oxides of nitrogen are molecular, e.g., NO, NO, NO and NO. <a href=\"Phosphorus%20pentoxide\">Phosphorus pentoxide</a> is a more complex molecular oxide with a deceptive name, the real formula being PO. Some polymeric oxides <a href=\"Cracking%20%28chemistry%29\">depolymerize</a> when heated to give molecules, examples being <a href=\"selenium%20dioxide\">selenium dioxide</a> and <a href=\"sulfur%20trioxide\">sulfur trioxide</a>. Tetroxides are rare. The more common examples: <a href=\"ruthenium%20tetroxide\">ruthenium tetroxide</a>, <a href=\"osmium%20tetroxide\">osmium tetroxide</a>, and <a href=\"xenon%20tetroxide\">xenon tetroxide</a>.\nMany oxyanions are known, such as <a href=\"polyphosphate\">polyphosphate</a>s and <a href=\"polyoxometalate\">polyoxometalate</a>s. Oxycations are rarer, some examples being <a href=\"nitrosonium\">nitrosonium</a> (NO), <a href=\"vanadyl\">vanadyl</a> (VO), and <a href=\"uranyl\">uranyl</a> (UO22+ ). Of course many compounds are known with both oxides and other groups. In <a href=\"organic%20chemistry\">organic chemistry</a>, these include <a href=\"ketone\">ketone</a>s and many related <a href=\"carbonyl\">carbonyl</a> compounds. For the transition metals, many <a href=\"Oxo%20ligand\">oxo complex</a>es are known as well as <a href=\"oxyhalide\">oxyhalide</a>s.\nOxides can be reacted by <a href=\"acid\">acid</a>s or <a href=\"Base%20%28chemistry%29\">bases</a>. Those reacted only by acids are basic oxides; those reacted only by bases are acidic oxides. Oxides that react with both acids and bases are <a href=\"amphoteric\">amphoteric</a>. Metals tend to form basic oxides, non-metals tend to form acidic oxides, and amphoteric oxides are formed by elements near the boundary between metals and non-metals (<a href=\"metalloid\">metalloid</a>s).\nThis reactivity is the basis of many practical processes such, as the extraction of some metals from their ores in the process called <a href=\"hydrometallurgy\">hydrometallurgy</a>.\nConverting the metal oxide back to the pure metal is called reduction. There are many ways of reduction.\nMetals are \"won\" from their oxides by chemical reduction. A common and cheap reducing agent is carbon in the form of <a href=\"coke%20%28fuel%29\">coke</a>. The most prominent example is that of <a href=\"Iron%23Industrial%20production\">iron ore smelting</a>. Many reactions are involved, but the simplified equation is usually shown as:\nMetal oxides can be reduced by organic compounds. This redox process is the basis for many important transformations in chemistry, such as the detoxification of drugs by the <a href=\"P450\">P450</a> enzymes and the production of <a href=\"ethylene%20oxide\">ethylene oxide</a>, which is converted to antifreeze. In such systems the metal centre transfers an oxide ligand to the organic compound followed by regeneration of the metal oxide, often by oxygen in air.\nMetals that are lower in the <a href=\"reactivity%20series\">reactivity series</a> can be reduced by heating alone. For example, <a href=\"silver%20oxide\">silver oxide</a> decomposes at 200 °C:\nMetals that are more <a href=\"reactivity%20series\">reactive</a> displace the oxide of the metals that are less reactive. For example, <a href=\"zinc\">zinc</a> is more reactive than <a href=\"copper\">copper</a>, so it displaces <a href=\"copper%20%28II%29%20oxide\">copper (II) oxide</a> to form <a href=\"zinc%20oxide\">zinc oxide</a>:\nApart from metals, hydrogen can also displace metal oxides to form <a href=\"hydrogen%20oxide\">hydrogen oxide</a>, also known as water:\nSince metals that are reactive form oxides that are stable, some metal oxides must be electrolyzed to be reduced. This includes <a href=\"sodium%20oxide\">sodium oxide</a>, <a href=\"potassium%20oxide\">potassium oxide</a>, <a href=\"calcium%20oxide\">calcium oxide</a>, <a href=\"magnesium%20oxide\">magnesium oxide</a>, and <a href=\"aluminium%20oxide\">aluminium oxide</a>. The oxides must be molten before immersing graphite electrodes in it:\nOxides of more <a href=\"electropositive\">electropositive</a> elements tend to be basic. They are called \"basic anhydrides\". Exposed to water, they may form basic <a href=\"hydroxide\">hydroxide</a>s. For example, <a href=\"sodium%20oxide\">sodium oxide</a> is basic—when hydrated, it forms <a href=\"sodium%20hydroxide\">sodium hydroxide</a>. Oxides of more <a href=\"electronegative\">electronegative</a> elements tend to be acidic. They are called \"acid anhydrides\"; adding water, they form <a href=\"oxoacid\">oxoacid</a>s. For example, <a href=\"dichlorine%20heptoxide\">dichlorine heptoxide</a> is an acid anhydride; <a href=\"perchloric%20acid\">perchloric acid</a> is its fully hydrated form. Some oxides can act as both acid and base. They are <a href=\"amphoteric\">amphoteric</a>. An example is <a href=\"aluminium%20oxide\">aluminium oxide</a>. Some oxides do not show behavior as either acid or base.\nThe oxide <a href=\"ion\">ion</a> has the formula O. It is the <a href=\"conjugate%20acid\">conjugate base</a> of the <a href=\"hydroxide\">hydroxide</a> ion, OH, and is encountered in <a href=\"ionic%20compound\">ionic</a> solid such as <a href=\"calcium%20oxide\">calcium oxide</a>. O is unstable in <a href=\"water\">aqueous</a> <a href=\"solution\">solution</a> − its affinity for H is so great (p\"K\" ~ −38) that it abstracts a <a href=\"proton\">proton</a> from a solvent HO molecule:\nThe equilibrium constant of aforesaid reactions is pK ~ −22\nIn the 18th century, oxides were named calxes or calces after the <a href=\"calcination\">calcination</a> process used to produce oxides. \"Calx\" was later replaced by \"oxyd.\"\nSometimes, metal-oxygen ratios are used to name oxides. Thus, NbO would be called niobium monoxide and TiO is titanium dioxide. This naming follows the <a href=\"Greek%20language\">Greek</a> <a href=\"numerical%20prefix\">numerical prefix</a>es. In the older literature and continuing in industry, oxides are named by adding the suffix \"<a href=\"%3Awikt%3A-a%23Etymology_4\">-a</a>\" to the element's name. Hence alumina, magnesia and chromia, are, respectively, AlO, MgO and CrO.\nSpecial types of oxides are <a href=\"peroxide\">peroxide</a>, O, and <a href=\"superoxide\">superoxide</a>, O. In such species, oxygen is assigned higher <a href=\"oxidation%20state\">oxidation state</a>s than oxide.\nThe <a href=\"chemical%20formula\">chemical formula</a>s of the oxides of the <a href=\"chemical%20element\">chemical element</a>s in their highest <a href=\"oxidation%20state\">oxidation state</a> are predictable and are derived from the number of <a href=\"valence%20electron\">valence electron</a>s for that element. Even the chemical formula of O, <a href=\"tetraoxygen\">tetraoxygen</a>, is predictable as a <a href=\"group%2016%20element\">group 16 element</a>. One exception is <a href=\"copper\">copper</a>, for which the highest oxidation state oxide is <a href=\"copper%28II%29%20oxide\">copper(II) oxide</a> and not <a href=\"copper%28I%29%20oxide\">copper(I) oxide</a>. Another exception is <a href=\"fluoride\">fluoride</a>, which does not exist as one might expect—as FO—but as <a href=\"oxygen%20difluoride\">OF</a>.\nSince fluorine is more <a href=\"Electronegativity\">electronegative</a> than oxygen, <a href=\"oxygen%20difluoride\">oxygen difluoride</a> (OF) does not represent an oxide of fluorine, but instead represents a <a href=\"fluoride\">fluoride</a> of oxygen.\nThe following table gives examples of commonly encountered oxides. Only a few representatives are given, as the number of polyatomic ions encountered in practice is very large.","Overpotential\nIn <a href=\"electrochemistry\">electrochemistry</a>, overpotential is the <a href=\"electric%20potential\">potential</a> difference (<a href=\"voltage\">voltage</a>) between a <a href=\"half-reaction\">half-reaction</a>'s thermodynamically determined <a href=\"reduction%20potential\">reduction potential</a> and the potential at which the <a href=\"redox\">redox</a> event is experimentally observed. The term is directly related to a cell's \"voltage efficiency\". In an <a href=\"electrolytic%20cell\">electrolytic cell</a> the existence of overpotential implies the cell requires more energy than thermodynamically expected to drive a reaction. In a <a href=\"galvanic%20cell\">galvanic cell</a> the existence of overpotential means less energy is recovered than <a href=\"thermodynamics\">thermodynamics</a> predicts. In each case the extra/missing energy is lost as <a href=\"heat\">heat</a>. The quantity of overpotential is specific to each cell design and varies across cells and operational conditions, even for the same reaction. Overpotential is experimentally determined by measuring the potential at which a given <a href=\"current%20density\">current density</a> (typically small) is achieved.\nThe four possible polarities of overpotentials are listed below.\nThe overpotential increases with growing <a href=\"current%20density\">current density</a> (or rate), as described by the <a href=\"Tafel%20equation\">Tafel equation</a>. An electrochemical reaction is a combination of two half-cells and multiple elementary steps. Each <a href=\"Electrochemical%20reaction%20mechanism\">step</a> is associated with multiple forms of overpotential. The overall overpotential is the summation of many individual losses.\n\"Voltage efficiency\" describes the fraction of energy lost through overpotential. For an \"electrolytic\" cell this is the ratio of a cell's thermodynamic potential divided by the cell's experimental potential converted to a percentile. For a \"galvanic\" cell it is the ratio of a cell's experimental potential divided by the cell's thermodynamic potential converted to a percentile. Voltage efficiency should not be confused with <a href=\"Faraday%20efficiency\">Faraday efficiency</a>. Both terms refer to a mode through which electrochemical systems can lose energy. Energy can be expressed as the product of potential, current and time (<a href=\"joule\">joule</a>s = <a href=\"volt\">volt</a>s × <a href=\"Ampere\">amps</a> × <a href=\"second\">second</a>s). Losses in the potential term through overpotentials are described by voltage efficiency. Losses in the current term through misdirected electrons are described by Faraday efficiency.\nOverpotential can be divided into many different subcategories that are not all well defined. For example, \"polarization overpotential\" can refer to the electrode polarization and the <a href=\"hysteresis\">hysteresis</a> found in forward and reverse peaks of <a href=\"cyclic%20voltammetry\">cyclic voltammetry</a>. A likely reason for the lack of strict definitions is that it is difficult to determine how much of a measured overpotential is derived from a specific source. Overpotentials can be grouped into three categories: activation, concentration, and resistance.\nThe activation overpotential is the potential difference above the equilibrium value required to produce a current that depends on the <a href=\"activation%20energy\">activation energy</a> of the redox event. While ambiguous, \"activation overpotential\" often refers exclusively to the activation energy necessary to transfer an electron from an electrode to an <a href=\"anolyte\">anolyte</a>. This sort of overpotential can also be called \"electron transfer overpotential\" and is a component of \"polarization overpotential\", a phenomenon observed in <a href=\"cyclic%20voltammetry\">cyclic voltammetry</a> and partially described by the <a href=\"Cottrell%20equation\">Cottrell equation</a>.\nReaction overpotential is an activation overpotential that specifically relates to <a href=\"Electrochemical%20reaction%20mechanism\">chemical reactions</a> that precede electron transfer. Reaction overpotential can be reduced or eliminated with the use of <a href=\"electrocatalyst\">electrocatalyst</a>s. The electrochemical reaction rate and related <a href=\"current%20density\">current density</a> is dictated by the kinetics of the electrocatalyst and <a href=\"substrate%20%28chemistry%29\">substrate</a> concentration.\nThe <a href=\"platinum\">platinum</a> electrode common to much of <a href=\"electrochemistry\">electrochemistry</a> is electrocatalytically involved in many reactions. For example, <a href=\"hydrogen\">hydrogen</a> is oxidized and protons are reduced readily at the platinum surface of a <a href=\"standard%20hydrogen%20electrode\">standard hydrogen electrode</a> in <a href=\"aqueous%20solution\">aqueous solution</a>. Substituting an electrocatalytically inert <a href=\"glassy%20carbon\">glassy carbon</a> electrode for the platinum electrode produces irreversible reduction and oxidation peaks with large overpotentials.\nConcentration overpotential spans a variety of phenomena that involve the depletion of charge-carriers at the electrode surface. Bubble overpotential is a specific form of concentration overpotential in which the concentration of charge-carriers is depleted by the formation of a physical bubble. The \"diffusion overpotential\" can refer to a concentration overpotential created by slow diffusion rates as well as \"polarization overpotential\", whose overpotential is derived mostly from activation overpotential but whose peak current is limited by diffusion of analyte.\nThe potential difference is caused by differences in the concentration of charge-carriers between bulk solution and the electrode surface. It occurs when electrochemical reaction is sufficiently rapid to lower the surface concentration of the charge-carriers below that of bulk solution. The rate of reaction is then dependent on the ability of the charge-carriers to reach the electrode surface.\nBubble overpotential is a specific form of concentration overpotential and is due to the evolution of gas at either the anode or cathode. This reduces the effective area for current and increases the local current density. An example is the electrolysis of an aqueous <a href=\"sodium%20chloride\">sodium chloride</a> solution—although <a href=\"oxygen\">oxygen</a> should be produced at the anode based on its potential, bubble overpotential causes <a href=\"chlorine\">chlorine</a> to be produced instead, which allows the easy industrial production of chlorine and <a href=\"sodium%20hydroxide\">sodium hydroxide</a> by electrolysis.\nResistance overpotentials are those tied to a cell design. These include \"junction overpotentials\" that occur at electrode surfaces and interfaces like electrolyte membranes. They can also include aspects of electrolyte diffusion, surface polarization (<a href=\"capacitance\">capacitance</a>) and other sources of counter <a href=\"electromotive%20force\">electromotive force</a>s.","Néel temperature\nThe Néel temperature or magnetic ordering temperature, \"T\", is the <a href=\"temperature\">temperature</a> above which an <a href=\"antiferromagnetic\">antiferromagnetic</a> material becomes <a href=\"paramagnetic\">paramagnetic</a>—that is, the thermal energy becomes large enough to destroy the microscopic <a href=\"magnetic\">magnetic</a> ordering within the material.\nThe Néel temperature is analogous to the <a href=\"Curie%20temperature\">Curie temperature</a>, \"T\", for <a href=\"ferromagnetic\">ferromagnetic</a> materials. It is named after <a href=\"Louis%20N%C3%A9el\">Louis Néel</a> (1904–2000), who received the 1970 <a href=\"Nobel%20prize\">Nobel prize</a> in <a href=\"physics\">physics</a> for his work in the area.\nListed below are the Néel temperatures of several materials:\n","Cubic crystal system\nIn <a href=\"crystallography\">crystallography</a>, the cubic (or isometric) crystal system is a <a href=\"crystal%20system\">crystal system</a> where the <a href=\"Crystal_structure%23Unit_cell\">unit cell</a> is in the shape of a <a href=\"cube\">cube</a>. This is one of the most common and simplest shapes found in <a href=\"crystal\">crystal</a>s and <a href=\"mineral\">mineral</a>s.\nThere are three main varieties of these crystals:\nEach is subdivided into other variants listed below. Note that although the \"unit cell\" in these crystals is conventionally taken to be a cube, the <a href=\"primitive_cell\">\"primitive\" unit cell</a> often is not. This is related to the fact that in most cubic crystal systems, there is more than one atom per cubic unit cell.\nA classic isometric crystal has square or <a href=\"Pentagon\">pentagonal</a> <a href=\"Face%20%28geometry%29\">faces</a>.\nThe three <a href=\"Bravais%20lattice\">Bravais lattice</a>s in the cubic crystal system are:\nThe primitive cubic system (cP) consists of one <a href=\"Lattice_%28group%29\">lattice</a> point on each corner of the cube. Each atom at a lattice point is then shared equally between eight adjacent cubes, and the unit cell therefore contains in total one atom (⁄ × 8).The body-centered cubic system (cI) has one lattice point in the center of the unit cell in addition to the eight corner points. It has a net total of 2 lattice points per unit cell (⁄ × 8 + 1).The face-centered cubic system (cF) has lattice points on the faces of the cube, that each gives exactly one half contribution, in addition to the corner lattice points, giving a total of 4 lattice points per unit cell (⁄ × 8 from the corners plus ⁄ × 6 from the faces). Each sphere in a cF lattice has <a href=\"coordination%20number\">coordination number</a> 12. Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of a central atom in the structure.\nThe face-centered cubic system is closely related to the <a href=\"Hexagonal_crystal_system\">hexagonal close packed (HCP) system</a>, and the two systems differ only in the relative placements of their hexagonal layers. The <a href=\"Miller_index\">[111</a>] plane of a face-centered cubic system is a hexagonal grid.\nAttempting to create a C-centered cubic crystal system (i.e., putting an extra lattice point in the center of each horizontal face) would result in a simple <a href=\"Tetragonal_crystal_system\">tetragonal</a> <a href=\"Bravais%20lattice\">Bravais lattice</a>.\nThe \"isometric crystal system\" class names, examples, <a href=\"Schoenflies_notation\">Schönflies notation</a>, <a href=\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>, <a href=\"crystallographic_point_group\">point groups</a>, International Tables for Crystallography space group number, <a href=\"orbifold\">orbifold</a>, type, and <a href=\"space%20group\">space group</a>s are listed in the table below. There are a total 36 cubic space groups.\nOther terms for hexoctahedral are: normal class, <a href=\"wiktionary%3Aholohedral\">holohedral</a>, ditesseral central class, <a href=\"galena\">galena</a> type.\nA simple cubic unit cell has a single cubic void in the center.\nA body-centered <a href=\"cube\">cubic</a> unit cell has six <a href=\"octahedron\">octahedral</a> voids located at the center of each face of the unit cell, and twelve further ones located at the midpoint of each edge of the same cell, for a total of six net octahedral voids. Additionally, there are 24 <a href=\"tetrahedron\">tetrahedral</a> voids located in a square spacing around each octahedral void, for a total of twelve net tetrahedral voids. These tetrahedral voids are not local maxima and are not technically voids, but they do occasionally appear in multi-atom unit cells.\nA face-centered cubic unit cell has eight tetrahedral voids located midway between each corner and the center of the unit cell, for a total of eight net tetrahedral voids. Additionally, there are twelve octahedral voids located at the midpoints of the edges of the unit cell as well as one octahedral hole in the very center of the cell, for a total of four net octahedral voids.\nOne important characteristic of a crystalline structure is its <a href=\"atomic%20packing%20factor\">atomic packing factor</a>. This is calculated by assuming that all the atoms are identical spheres, with a radius large enough that each sphere abuts on the next. The atomic packing factor is the proportion of space filled by these spheres.\nAssuming one atom per lattice point, in a primitive cubic lattice with cube side length \"a\", the sphere radius would be ⁄ and the atomic packing factor turns out to be about 0.524 (which is quite low). Similarly, in a \"bcc\" lattice, the atomic packing factor is 0.680, and in \"fcc\" it is 0.740. The \"fcc\" value is the <a href=\"Close-packing_of_equal_spheres\">highest theoretically possible value</a> for any lattice, although there are other lattices which also achieve the same value, such as hexagonal close packed and one version of tetrahedral bcc.\nAs a rule, since atoms in a solid attract each other, the more tightly packed arrangements of atoms tend to be more common. (Loosely packed arrangements do occur, though, for example if the <a href=\"Orbital_hybridisation\">orbital hybridization</a> demands certain <a href=\"Molecular_geometry\">bond angles</a>.) Accordingly, the primitive-cubic structure, with especially low atomic packing factor, is rare in nature, but is found in <a href=\"polonium\">polonium</a>. The \"bcc\" and fcc, with their higher densities, are both quite common in nature. Examples of \"bcc\" include <a href=\"iron\">iron</a>, <a href=\"chromium\">chromium</a>, <a href=\"tungsten\">tungsten</a>, and <a href=\"niobium\">niobium</a>. Examples of \"fcc\" include <a href=\"aluminium\">aluminium</a>, <a href=\"copper\">copper</a>, <a href=\"gold\">gold</a> and <a href=\"silver\">silver</a>.\nCompounds that consist of more than one element (e.g. <a href=\"binary%20compound\">binary compound</a>s) often have crystal structures based on a cubic crystal system. Some of the more common ones are listed here.\nThe <a href=\"space%20group\">space group</a> of the <a href=\"caesium%20chloride\">caesium chloride</a> (CsCl) structure is called Pm3 m (in <a href=\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>), or \"221\" (in the International Tables for Crystallography). The is \"B2\".\nOne structure is the \"interpenetrating primitive cubic\" structure, also called the \"caesium chloride\" structure. Each of the two atom types forms a separate primitive cubic lattice, with an atom of one type at the center of each cube of the other type. Altogether, the arrangement of atoms is the same as body-centered cubic, but with alternating types of atoms at the different lattice sites. (See picture <a href=\"http%3A//www.ilpi.com/inorganic/structures/cscl/index.html\">here</a>.) Alternately, one could view this lattice as a simple cubic structure with a secondary atom in its cubic void.\nIn addition to caesium chloride itself, the structure also appears in certain other <a href=\"Alkali_metal_halide\">alkali halides</a> when prepared at low temperatures or high pressures. Generally, this structure is more likely to be formed from two elements whose ions are of roughly the same size (for example, ionic radius of Cs = 181 pm, and Cl = 167 pm).\nThe <a href=\"coordination%20number\">coordination number</a> of each atom in the structure is 8: the central cation is coordinated to 8 anions on the corners of a cube as shown, and similarly, the central anion is coordinated to 8 cations on the corners of a cube.\nOther compounds showing caesium chloride like structure are CsBr, CsI, high-temp RbCl, AlCo, AgZn, BeCu, MgCe, RuAl and SrTl.\nThe <a href=\"space%20group\">space group</a> of the rock-salt (NaCl) structure is called Fm3 m (in <a href=\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>), or \"225\" (in the International Tables for Crystallography). The Strukturbericht designation is \"B1\".\nIn the rock-salt or <a href=\"sodium%20chloride\">sodium chloride</a> (<a href=\"halite\">halite</a>) structure, each of the two atom types forms a separate face-centered cubic lattice, with the two lattices interpenetrating so as to form a 3D checkerboard pattern. Alternately, one could view this structure as a face-centered cubic structure with secondary atoms in its octahedral holes.\nExamples of compounds with this structure include sodium chloride itself, along with almost all other alkali halides, and \"many divalent metal oxides, sulfides, selenides, and tellurides\". More generally, this structure is more likely to be formed if the cation is somewhat smaller than the anion (a cation/anion radius ratio of 0.414 to 0.732).\nThe coordination number of each atom in this structure is 6: each cation is coordinated to 6 anions at the vertices of an <a href=\"octahedron\">octahedron</a>, and similarly, each anion is coordinated to 6 cations at the vertices of an octahedron.\nThe interatomic distance (distance between cation and anion, or half the unit cell length \"a\") in some rock-salt-structure crystals are: 2.3 Å (2.3 × 10 m) for NaF, 2.8 Å for NaCl, and 3.2 Å for SnTe.\nOther compounds showing rock salt like structure are LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, NaF, NaBr, NaI, KF, KCl, KBr, KI, RbF, RbCl, RbBr, RbI, CsF, MgO, PbS, AgF, AgCl, AgBr and ScN.\nThe <a href=\"space%20group\">space group</a> of the Zincblende structure is called F4 3m (in <a href=\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>), or 216. The Strukturbericht designation is \"B3\".\nThe Zincblende structure (also written \"zinc blende\") is named after the mineral zincblende (<a href=\"sphalerite\">sphalerite</a>), one form of <a href=\"zinc%20sulfide\">zinc sulfide</a> (β-ZnS). As in the rock-salt structure, the two atom types form two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices. However, it differs from rock-salt structure in how the two lattices are positioned relative to one another. The zincblende structure has <a href=\"tetrahedron\">tetrahedral</a> <a href=\"coordination_number\">coordination</a>: Each atom's nearest neighbors consist of four atoms of the opposite type, positioned like the four vertices of a <a href=\"Tetrahedron%23Regular_tetrahedron\">regular tetrahedron</a>. Altogether, the arrangement of atoms in zincblende structure is the same as <a href=\"diamond%20cubic\">diamond cubic</a> structure, but with alternating types of atoms at the different lattice sites.\nExamples of compounds with this structure include zincblende itself, <a href=\"lead%28II%29%20nitrate\">lead(II) nitrate</a>, many compound semiconductors (such as <a href=\"gallium%20arsenide\">gallium arsenide</a> and <a href=\"cadmium%20telluride\">cadmium telluride</a>), and a wide array of other binary compounds.\nOther compounds showing zinc blende-like structure are α-AgI, β-BN, <a href=\"diamond\">diamond</a>, CuBr, β-CdS, BP and BAs.\nThe <a href=\"Weaire%E2%80%93Phelan%20structure\">Weaire–Phelan structure</a> has Pm3n (223) symmetry.\nIt has 3 orientations of stacked <a href=\"tetradecahedron\">tetradecahedron</a>s with <a href=\"Dodecahedron%23Pyritohedron\">pyritohedral</a> cells in the gaps. It is found as a <a href=\"crystal%20structure\">crystal structure</a> in <a href=\"chemistry\">chemistry</a> where it is usually known as the \"Type I <a href=\"Clathrate_compound\">clathrate</a> structure\". <a href=\"Clathrate_hydrate\">Gas hydrates</a> formed by methane, propane, and carbon dioxide at low temperatures have a structure in which <a href=\"water\">water</a> molecules lie at the nodes of the Weaire–Phelan structure and are <a href=\"hydrogen%20bond\">hydrogen bond</a>ed together, and the larger gas molecules are trapped in the polyhedral cages.\n","Cerium(IV) oxide\nCerium(IV) oxide, also known as ceric oxide, ceric dioxide, ceria, cerium oxide or cerium dioxide, is an <a href=\"oxide\">oxide</a> of the <a href=\"rare-earth%20metal\">rare-earth metal</a> <a href=\"cerium\">cerium</a>. It is a pale yellow-white powder with the chemical formula CeO. It is an important commercial product and an intermediate in the purification of the element from the ores. The distinctive property of this material is its reversible conversion to a <a href=\"nonstoichiometric%20oxide\">nonstoichiometric oxide</a>.\nCerium occurs naturally as a mixture with other rare-earth elements in its principal ores <a href=\"bastnaesite\">bastnaesite</a> and <a href=\"monazite\">monazite</a>. After extraction of the metal ions into aqueous base, Ce is separated from that mixture by addition of an oxidant followed by adjustment of the pH. This step exploits the low solubility of CeO and the fact that other rare-earth elements resist oxidation.\nCerium(IV) oxide is formed by the <a href=\"calcination\">calcination</a> of <a href=\"cerium%20oxalate\">cerium oxalate</a> or <a href=\"cerium%20hydroxide\">cerium hydroxide</a>.\nCerium also forms <a href=\"cerium%28III%29%20oxide\">cerium(III) oxide</a>, Ce2O3 , which is unstable and will oxidize to cerium(IV) oxide.\nCerium oxide adopts the <a href=\"fluorite\">fluorite</a> structure, space group Fm3m, #225 containing 8-coordinate Ce and 4-coordinate O. At high temperatures it releases oxygen to give a <a href=\"nonstoichiometric%20compound\">non-stoichiometric, anion deficient form</a> that retains the fluorite lattice. This material has the formula CeO, where 0 < \"x\" < 0.28. The value of \"x\" depends on both the temperature and the oxygen partial pressure. The equation\nhas been shown to predict the equilibrium non stoichiometry \"x\" over a wide range of oxygen partial pressures (10–10 Pa) and temperatures (1000–1900 °C).\nThe non stoichiometric form has a blue to black color, and exhibits both ionic and electronic conduction with ionic being the most significant at temperatures > 500 °C.\nThe number of oxygen vacancies is frequently measured by using <a href=\"X-ray%20photoelectron%20spectroscopy\">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a> to compare the ratios of Ce3+ to Ce4+ .\nIn the most stable <a href=\"fluorite\">fluorite</a> phase of ceria, it exhibits several defects depending on partial pressure of oxygen or stress state of the material.\nThe primary defects of concern are oxygen vacancies and small polarons (electrons localized on cerium cations). Increases in the number of oxygen defects increases the diffusion rate of oxide in the lattice as reflected in an increase in <a href=\"Ionic%20conductivity%20%28solid%20state%29\">ionic conductivity</a>. These factors recommend ceria as a solid electrolyte in <a href=\"solid-oxide%20fuel%20cell\">solid-oxide fuel cell</a>s. Undoped and doped ceria also exhibit high electronic conductivity at low partial pressures of oxygen due to reduction of the cerium ion leading to the formation of small <a href=\"polaron\">polaron</a>s. Since the oxygen atoms in a ceria crystal occur in planes, diffusion of these anions is facile. The diffusion rate increases as the defect concentration increases.\nThe principal application of ceria is for polishing, especially <a href=\"chemical-mechanical%20planarization\">chemical-mechanical planarization</a> (CMP). For this purpose, it has displaced many other oxides that were previously used, such as <a href=\"iron%20oxide\">iron oxide</a> and <a href=\"zirconia\">zirconia</a>. For hobbyists, it is also known as \"opticians' rouge\".\nCeO is used to decolorize glass by converting green-tinted ferrous impurities to nearly colorless ferric oxides.\nCerium oxide has found use in <a href=\"Infrared\">infrared filters</a>, as an oxidizing species in <a href=\"catalytic%20converter\">catalytic converter</a>s and as a replacement for <a href=\"thorium%20dioxide\">thorium dioxide</a> in <a href=\"Gas%20mantle\">incandescent mantles</a>\nThe interconvertibility of CeOx materials is the basis of the use of ceria for an oxidation catalyst. One small but illustrative use is its use in the walls of <a href=\"self-cleaning%20ovens\">self-cleaning ovens</a> as a hydrocarbon oxidation catalyst during the high-temperature cleaning process. Another small scale but famous example is its role in oxidation of natural gas in <a href=\"gas%20mantle\">gas mantle</a>s.\nCeria has been used as a sensor in <a href=\"catalytic%20converter\">catalytic converter</a>s in automotive applications, controlling the air-exhaust ratio to reduce <a href=\"Nitrogen%20oxide\">NO</a> and <a href=\"carbon%20monoxide\">carbon monoxide</a>.\nDue to the significant <a href=\"Ionic%20compound\">ionic</a> and <a href=\"electron\">electron</a>ic <a href=\"Electrical%20conductor\">conduction</a> of cerium oxide, it is well suited to be used as a <a href=\"mixed%20conductor\">mixed conductor</a>.\nCeria is of interest as a material for <a href=\"solid%20oxide%20fuel%20cell\">solid oxide fuel cell</a>s (SOFCs) because of its relatively high oxygen <a href=\"Fast%20ion%20conductor\">ion conductivity</a> (i.e. oxygen atoms readily move through it) at intermediate temperatures (500–650 °C) and lower association enthalpy compared to Zirconia system.\nThe <a href=\"cerium%28IV%29%20oxide%E2%80%93cerium%28III%29%20oxide%20cycle\">cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle</a> or CeO/CeO cycle is a two step <a href=\"Thermochemistry\">thermochemical</a> <a href=\"water%20splitting\">water splitting</a> process based on cerium(IV) oxide and <a href=\"cerium%28III%29%20oxide\">cerium(III) oxide</a> for <a href=\"hydrogen%20production\">hydrogen production</a>.\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"Iron(III) oxide\\nIron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(II,III) oxide (FeO), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, FeO is the main source of iron for the steel industry. FeO is ferromagnetic , dark red, and readily attacked by acids. Iron(III) oxide is often called rust, and to some extent this label is useful, because rust shares several properties and has a similar composition. To a chemist, rust is considered an ill-defined material, described as \\\"hydrated\\\" ferric oxide.\\nFeO can be obtained in various polymorphs. In the main ones, α and γ, iron adopts octahedral coordination geometry. That is, each Fe center is bound to six oxygen ligands.\\nα-FeO has the rhombohedral, corundum (α-AlO) structure and is the most common form. It occurs naturally as the mineral hematite which is mined as the main ore of iron. It is antiferromagnetic below ~260 K (Morin transition temperature), and exhibits weak ferromagnetism between 260 K and the Néel temperature, 950 K. It is easy to prepare using both thermal decomposition and precipitation in the liquid phase. Its magnetic properties are dependent on many factors, e.g. pressure, particle size, and magnetic field intensity.\\nγ-FeO has a cubic structure. It is metastable and converted from the alpha phase at high temperatures. It occurs naturally as the mineral maghemite. It is ferromagnetic and finds application in recording tapes, although ultrafine particles smaller than 10 nanometers are superparamagnetic. It can be prepared by thermal dehydratation of gamma iron(III) oxide-hydroxide, careful oxidation of iron(II,III) oxide. Another method involves the careful oxidation of FeO. The ultrafine particles can be prepared by thermal decomposition of iron(III) oxalate.\\nSeveral other phases have been identified or claimed. The β-phase is cubic body-centered (space group Ia3), metastable, and at temperatures above 500 °C converts to alpha phase. It can be prepared by reduction of hematite by carbon, pyrolysis of iron(III) chloride solution, or thermal decomposition of iron(III) sulfate. The epsilon phase is rhombic, and shows properties intermediate between alpha and gamma, and may have useful magnetic properties. Preparation of the pure epsilon phase has proven very challenging due to contamination with alpha and gamma phases. Material with a high proportion of epsilon phase can be prepared by thermal transformation of the gamma phase. This phase is also metastable, transforming to the alpha phase at between 500 and . Can also be prepared by oxidation of iron in an electric arc or by sol-gel precipitation from iron(III) nitrate. Additionally at high pressure an amorphous form is claimed. Recent research has revealed epsilon iron(III) oxide in ancient Chinese Jian ceramic glazes, which may provide insight into ways to produce that form in the lab.\\nSeveral hydrates of Iron(III) oxide exists.\\nWhen alkali is added to solutions of soluble Fe(III) salts, a red-brown gelatinous precipitate forms. This is \\\"not\\\" Fe(OH), but FeO·HO (also written as Fe(O)OH).\\nSeveral forms of the hydrated oxide of Fe(III) exist as well. The red \\\"lepidocrocite\\\" γ-Fe(O)OH, occurs on the outside of rusticles, and the orange \\\"goethite\\\", which occurs internally in rusticles.\\nWhen FeO·HO is heated, it loses its water of hydration. Further heating at 1670 K converts FeO to black FeO (FeFeO), which is known as the mineral \\\"magnetite\\\".\\nFe(O)OH is soluble in acids, giving [Fe(OH)]. In concentrated aqueous alkali, FeO gives [Fe(OH)].\\nThe most important reaction is its carbothermal reduction, which gives iron used in steel-making:\\nAnother redox reaction is the extremely exothermic thermite reaction with aluminium.\\nThis process is used to weld thick metals such as rails of train tracks by using a ceramic container to funnel the molten iron in between two sections of rail. Thermite is also used in weapons and making small-scale cast-iron sculptures and tools.\\nPartial reduction with hydrogen at about 400 °C produces magnetite, a black magnetic material that contains both Fe(III) and Fe(II):\\nIron(III) oxide is insoluble in water but dissolves readily in strong acid, e.g. hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. It also dissolves well in solutions of chelating agents such as EDTA and oxalic acid.\\nHeating iron(III) oxides with other metal oxides or carbonates yields materials known as ferrates:\\nIron(III) oxide is a product of the oxidation of iron. It can be prepared in the laboratory by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate, an inert electrolyte, with an iron anode:\\nThe resulting hydrated iron(III) oxide, written here as Fe(O)OH, dehydrates around 200 °C.\\nIt can also be prepared by the thermal decomposition of iron(III) hydroxide under temperature above 200 °C.\\nThe overwhelming application of iron(III) oxide is as the feedstock of the steel and iron industries, e.g. the production of iron, steel, and many alloys.\\nA very fine powder of ferric oxide is known as \\\"jeweler's rouge\\\", \\\"red rouge\\\", or simply rouge. It is used to put the final polish on metallic jewelry and lenses, and historically as a cosmetic. Rouge cuts more slowly than some modern polishes, such as cerium(IV) oxide, but is still used in optics fabrication and by jewelers for the superior finish it can produce. When polishing gold, the rouge slightly stains the gold, which contributes to the appearance of the finished piece. Rouge is sold as a powder, paste, laced on polishing cloths, or solid bar (with a wax or grease binder). Other polishing compounds are also often called \\\"rouge\\\", even when they do not contain iron oxide. Jewelers remove the residual rouge on jewelry by use of ultrasonic cleaning. Products sold as \\\"stropping compound\\\" are often applied to a leather strop to assist in getting a razor edge on knives, straight razors, or any other edged tool.\\nIron(III) oxide is also used as a pigment, under names \\\"Pigment Brown 6\\\", \\\"Pigment Brown 7\\\", and \\\"Pigment Red 101\\\". Some of them, e.g. Pigment Red 101 and Pigment Brown 6, are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in cosmetics. Iron oxides are used as pigments in dental composites alongside titanium oxides.\\nHematite is the characteristic component of the Swedish paint color Falu red.\\nIron(III) oxide was the most common magnetic particle used in all types of magnetic storage and recording media, including magnetic disks (for data storage) and magnetic tape (used in audio and video recording as well as data storage). Its use in computer disks was superseded by cobalt alloy, enabling thinner magnetic films with higher storage density.\\nBecause its bandgap (1.9-2.2 eV) lies in an intense region of the solar spectrum, α-FeO has been studied as a photoanode for solar water oxidation. However, its efficacy is limited by a short diffusion length (2-4 nm) of photo-excited charge carriers and subsequent fast recombination, requiring a large overpotential to drive the reaction. Research has been focused on improving the water oxidation performance of FeO using nanostructuring, surface functionalization, or by employing alternate crystal phases such as β-FeO.\\nA mixture of zinc oxide with about 0.5% iron(III) oxide is called calamine, which is the active ingredient of calamine lotion.\\n\",\n \"Ferric subsulfate solution\\nFerric subsulfate solution is a styptic or hemostatic agent used after superficial skin biopsies. Ferric subsulfate solution is also known as basic ferric sulfate solution or Monsel's solution. It has a recognised formula published in United States Pharmacopeia 29.\\nFerric subsulfate solution is prepared from ferrous sulfate, sulfuric acid and nitric acid.\\nIt contains, per 100 mL, basic ferric sulfate equivalent to not less than 20g and not more than 22g of iron.\\nFerric subsulfate solution should be stored in airtight containers at a temperature above 22 degrees Celsius. Crystallization may occur at temperatures below 22 degrees. Warming the solution may redissolve the crystals. The solution should be protected from light.\\nFerric subsulfate (also known as Monsell's Solution) is often used by Jewish burial societies (chevra kadisha) to stop post-mortem bleeding. Since Jewish burial does not allow any external skin adhesives such as bandages, tape, glue or resin, ferric subsulfate is an effective way to stop post-mortem bleeding. Most post-mortem bleeding stems from surgery, emergency room situations, autopsies or blood which may result when removing IV lines during Jewish burial preparation. A piece of cotton, or Q-tip, soaked with this solution is pressed against the open wound and held for a few seconds. This is usually enough time for the seal to take effect. For more severe cases, such as arterial lines, if the line is still inside, the solution can be inserted directly into the IV line.\\nAstrinGyn by CooperSurgical is a thickened and specially modified gel formulation.\\nIt was invented in the late 1840s by Leon Monsel (March 13, 1816 – April 15, 1878), a French Military Pharmacist. His invention soon became a standard in the French Corps which saved many lives during battles of the French Army.\",\n \"Mars Black (pigment)\\nMars Black is an iron oxide pigment developed in the 20th century. Also known under the names of black iron oxide, magnetic oxide, Pigment Black 11, and ferrous ferric oxide (FeO), it has no known health hazards and is considered non-toxic, with an ASTM lightfastness rating of I. It is more opaque and less toxic than other black pigments. Artists' paint manufacturers have rated it one of the most satisfactory black pigments for acrylic paints with regard to opacity, lightfastness, and permanence. It takes its name from Mars, the god of war and patron of iron.\\n\\n\",\n \"Narrow-range ethoxylate\\nFatty alcohol polyglycol ethers with a narrow homolog distribution, which are also known as narrow-range ethoxylates (NRE), are known nonionic surfactants, which are industrially produced, for example, by addition of ethylene oxide onto fatty alcohols in the presence of suitable catalysts (layer compounds which have been calcined or hydrophobized with fatty acids). This process can also be carried out on a variety of other hydrophobes and using different alkoxylating compounds (e.g., propylene oxide and butylene oxide) by modifying the catalyst properties.\\nAn ethoxylation reaction proceeds under an inert atmosphere with an amount of heat depending on the starting material. The reaction proceeds via the epoxide (in this case ethylene oxide) ring opening and activation of the nucleophile, ring, or combination thereof via the catalyst.\\nWith conventional catalysts (i.e. potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, etc.) one obtains a distribution of ethoxymers. If one targets a 12 mole ethoxylate with a conventional alkaline earth hydroxide, one could expect to get a broad range of ethoxylates with n being anywhere from 3 to 30 moles of EO. With narrow-range catalysts a much tighter distribution can be obtained.\\nNarrow-range surfactants like alcohol ethoxylates and propoxylates can be incorporated into alkyl ether sulfates or mixed with other anionic surfactants and exhibit beneficial properties such as reduced irritation to skin/eyes and lower free alcohol content.\",\n \"Compounds of berkelium\\nBerkelium forms a number of chemical compounds, where it normally exists in an oxidation state of +3 or +4, and behaves similarly to its lanthanide analogue, terbium. Like all actinides, berkelium easily dissolves in various aqueous inorganic acids, liberating gaseous hydrogen and converting into the trivalent oxidation state. This trivalent state is the most stable, especially in aqueous solutions, but tetravalent berkelium compounds are also known. The existence of divalent berkelium salts is uncertain and has only been reported in mixed lanthanum chloride-strontium chloride melts. Aqueous solutions of Bk ions are green in most acids. The color of the Bk ions is yellow in hydrochloric acid and orange-yellow in sulfuric acid. Berkelium does not react rapidly with oxygen at room temperature, possibly due to the formation of a protective oxide surface layer; however, it reacts with molten metals, hydrogen, halogens, chalcogens and pnictogens to form various binary compounds. Berkelium can also form several organometallic compounds.\\nTwo oxides of berkelium are known, with berkelium in the +3 (BkO) and +4 (BkO) oxidation states. Berkelium(IV) oxide is a brown solid that crystallizes in a cubic (fluorite) crystal structure with the space group \\\"Fm3 m\\\" and the coordination numbers of Bk[8] and O[4]. The lattice parameter is 533.4 ± 0.5 pm.\\nBerkelium(III) oxide, a yellow-green solid, is formed from BkO by reduction with hydrogen:\\nThe compound has a melting point of 1920 °C, body-centered cubic crystal lattice and a lattice constant \\\"a\\\" = 1088.0 ± 0.5 pm. Upon heating to 1200 °C, the cubic BkO transforms to a monoclinic structure, which further converts to a hexagonal phase at 1750 °C; the latter transition is reversible. Such three-phase behavior is typical for the actinide sesquioxides.\\nA divalent oxide BkO has been reported as a brittle gray solid with a face centered cubic (\\\"fcc\\\") structure and a lattice constant \\\"a\\\" = 496.4 pm, but its exact chemical composition is uncertain.\\nIn halides, berkelium assumes the oxidation states +3 and +4. The +3 state is most stable, especially in solutions, and the tetravalent halides BkF and CsBkCl are only known in the solid phase. The coordination of the berkelium atom in its trivalent fluoride and chloride is tricapped trigonal prismatic, with a coordination number of 9. In the trivalent bromide, it is bicapped trigonal prismatic (coordination 8) or octahedral (coordination 6), and in the iodide it is octahedral.\\nBerkelium(IV) fluoride (BkF) is a yellow-green ionic solid which crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system (Pearson symbol mS60, space group C2/c No. 15, lattice constants \\\"a\\\" = 1247 pm, \\\"b\\\" = 1058 pm, \\\"c\\\" = 817 pm) and is isotypic with uranium tetrafluoride or zirconium(IV) fluoride.\\nBerkelium(III) fluoride (BkF) is also a yellow-green solid, but it has two crystalline structures. The most stable phase at low temperatures has an orthorhombic symmetry, isotypic with yttrium(III) fluoride (Pearson symbol oP16, space group Pnma, No. 62, \\\"a\\\" = 670 pm, \\\"b\\\" = 709 pm, \\\"c\\\" = 441 pm). Upon heating to 350 to 600 °C, it transforms to a trigonal structure found in lanthanum(III) fluoride (Pearson symbol hP24, space group P3 c1, No. 165, \\\"a\\\" = 697 pm, \\\"c\\\" = 714 pm).\\nVisible amounts of berkelium(III) chloride (BkCl) were first isolated and characterized in 1962, and weighed only 3 billionths of a gram. It can be prepared by introducing hydrogen chloride vapors into an evacuated quartz tube containing berkelium oxide at a temperature of about 500 °C. This green solid has a melting point of 603 °C and crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system isotypic with uranium(III) chloride (Pearson symbol hP8, space group P6/m, No. 176). Upon heating to just below its melting point, BkCl converts into an orthorhombic phase. The hexahydrate BkCl·6HO (berkelium trichloride hexahydrate) has a monoclinic structure with the lattice constants \\\"a\\\" = 966 pm, \\\"b\\\" = 654 pm and \\\"c\\\" = 797 pm. Another berkelium(III) chloride, CsNaBkCl can be crystallized from a chilled aqueous solution containing berkelium(III) hydroxide, hydrochloric acid and caesium chloride. It has a face-centered cubic structure where Bk(III) ions are surrounded by chloride ions in an octahedral configuration.\\nThe ternary berkelium(IV) chloride CsBkCl is obtained by dissolving berkelium(IV) hydroxide in a chilled solution of caesium chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It forms orange hexagonal crystals with the lattice constants \\\"a\\\" = 745.1 pm and \\\"c\\\" = 1209.7 pm. The average radius of the BkCl ion in this compound is estimated as 270 pm.\\nTwo forms of berkelium(III) bromide are known, a monoclinic with berkelium coordination 6 and orthorhombic with coordination 8; the latter is less stable and transforms to the former phase upon heating to about 350 °C. An important phenomenon for radioactive solids has been studied for these two crystal forms: the structures of fresh and aged BkBr samples were studied using X-ray diffraction over a period longer than 3 years, so that various fractions of Bk had beta decayed to Cf. No change in structure was observed upon the BkBr—CfBr transformation, even though the orthorhombic bromide was previously unknown for californium. However, other differences were noted for BkBr and CfBr. For example, the latter could be reduced with hydrogen toCfBr, but the former could be not – this result was reproduced on individual BkBr and CfBr samples, as well on the samples containing both bromides. The intergrowth of californium in berkelium occurs at a rate of 0.22% per day and is an intrinsic obstacle in studying berkelium properties. Besides a chemical contamination, Cf, as an alpha emitter brings undesirable self-damage of the crystal lattice due to the resulting self-heating. This can be avoided by performing measurements as a function of time and extrapolating the obtained results.\\nBerkelium(III) iodide forms hexagonal crystals with the lattice constants \\\"a\\\" = 758.4 pm and \\\"c\\\" = 2087 pm. The known oxyhalides of berkelium include BkOCl, BkOBr and BkOI; they all crystallize in a tetragonal lattice.\\nThe monopnictides of berkelium-249 are known for the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony. They are prepared by the reaction of either berkelium(III) hydride (BkH) or metallic berkelium with these elements at elevated temperatures (about 600 °C) under high vacuum in quartz ampoules. They crystallize in the cubic crystal system with the lattice constant of 495.1 pm for BkN, 566.9 pm for BkP, 582.9 for BkAs and 619.1 pm for BkSb. These lattice constant values are smaller than those in curium pnictides, but are comparable to those of terbium pnictides.\\nBerkelium(III) sulfide, BkS, has been prepared by either treating berkelium oxide with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfidevapors at 1130 °C, or by directly reacting metallic berkelium with sulfur. These procedures yield brownish-black crystals with a cubic symmetry and lattice constant \\\"a\\\" = 844 pm.\\nBerkelium(III) and berkelium(IV) hydroxides are both stable in 1 M sodium hydroxide solutions. Berkelium(III) phosphate (BkPO) has been prepared as a solid, which shows strong fluorescence under argon laser (514.5 nm line) excitation. Berkelium hydrides are produced by reacting metal with hydrogen gas at temperatures about 250 °C. They are non-stoichiometric with the nominal formula BkH (0 < x < 1). Whereas the trihydride has a hexagonal symmetry, the dihydride crystallizes in an \\\"fcc\\\" structure with the lattice constant \\\"a\\\" = 523 pm. Several other salts of berkelium are known, including BkOS, (BkNO)·4HO, BkCl·6HO, Bk(SO)·12HO and Bk(CO)·4HO. Thermal decomposition at about 600 °C in an argon atmosphere (to avoid oxidation to BkO) of Bk(SO)·12HO yields the body-centered orthorhombic crystals of berkelium(IV) oxysulfate (BkOSO). This compound is thermally stable to at least 1000 °C in an inert atmosphere.\\nBerkelium forms a trigonal (η–CH)Bk complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings, which can be synthesized by reacting berkelium(III) chloride with the molten beryllocene Be(CH) at about 70 °C. It has an amber color and orthorhombic symmetry, with the lattice constants of \\\"a\\\" = 1411 pm, \\\"b\\\" = 1755 pm and \\\"c\\\" = 963 pm and the calculated density of 2.47 g/cm. The complex is stable to heating to at least 250 °C, and sublimates without melting at about 350 °C. The high radioactivity of berkelium gradually destroys the compound within a period of weeks. One CH ring in (η–CH)Bk can be substituted by chlorine to yield [Bk(CH)Cl]. The optical absorption spectra of this compound are very similar to those of (η–CH)Bk.\\n\",\n \"Ceramic colorants\\nCeramic colorants are added to a glaze or a clay to create color. Carbonates and oxides of certain metals, characterize most colorants including the commonly used cobalt carbonate, cobalt oxide, chrome oxide, red iron oxide, and copper carbonate. These colorants can create a multitude of colors depending on other materials they interact with and to which temperature and in which atmosphere they are fired.\\nCobalt is commonly used in either its carbonate (CoCO) or its oxide (CoO) forms. In the presence of most fluxes, it yields blue colors ranging from low saturation pastels to high saturation midnight blues in both oxidation and reduction atmospheres. However, in the presence of magnesium, cobalt can become purple, pink or reddish blue depending on whether it was fired in oxidation (yields purple) or reduction. Cobalt is also commonly used in black glazes and in washes as decorative medium. Common saturation percentages for low saturation range from (.25 to .5%) and in high saturation from (1 to 2%).\\n\\\"Chrome is a rather versatile and fickle colorant,\\\" (Chappell). Chrome oxide (CrO) is commonly used for achieving greens. However, in the presence of zinc, chrome can produce brown. Glazes with tin oxide present will often blush to pink if fumed with chrome or if chrome is present in the glaze with the tin, often intense pinks occur. If fired above cone 6, chrome will fume and become a gas in the kiln. Common saturation percentages for chrome at low saturation range from (.25 to .5%) and at higher percentages from (1 to 2%). Chrome is a refractory.\\nIron is commonly used as a colorant in its red iron oxide form as (FeO). Red iron oxide is commonly used to produce earthy reds and browns. It is the metal responsible for making earthenwares red. Iron is also another tricky colorant because of its ability to yield different colors under different circumstances. At low percentages (.5-1%) and in the presence of potassium, iron will become light blue or light blue-green in reduction (as is seen in traditional celadons). In the presence of barium, iron may become yellow green. When used in combination with calcium, red iron oxide can become pale yellow or amber in oxidation or green in reduction. Common percentages for red iron oxide range from (4 up to 10%).\\nCopper's carbonate form (CuCO) is commonly used to produce greens, turquoise, and copper reds. If need be, copper oxide (CuO) can be substituted but has a larger particle size and glazes should be adjusted to generally half the amount called for. In barium based glazes greenish blues often result from copper. Alkaline feldspar glazes with copper fired in reduction atmospheres will often yield ox blood or copper red glazes discovered by the Chinese. When fired above cone 8 copper can become unstable and will often fume off of a glaze in vapor form.\",\n \"Uranium dioxide\\nUranium dioxide or uranium(IV) oxide (U O ), also known as urania or uranous oxide, is an oxide of uranium, and is a black, radioactive, crystalline powder that naturally occurs in the mineral uraninite. It is used in nuclear fuel rods in nuclear reactors. A mixture of uranium and plutonium dioxides is used as MOX fuel. Prior to 1960, it was used as yellow and black color in ceramic glazes and glass.\\nUranium dioxide is produced by reducing uranium trioxide with hydrogen.\\nThis reaction plays an important part in the creation of nuclear fuel through nuclear reprocessing and uranium enrichment.\\nThe solid is isostructural with (has the same structure as) fluorite (calcium fluoride), where each U is surrounded by eight O nearest neighbors in a cubic arrangement. In addition, the dioxides of cerium, plutonium and neptunium have the same structures. No other elemental dioxides have the fluorite structure. Upon melting, the measured average U-O coordination reduces from 8 in the crystalline solid (UO cubes), down to 6.7±0.5 (at 3270 K) in the melt. Models consistent with these measurements show the melt to consist mainly of UO and UO polyhedral units, where roughly 2/3 of the connections between polyhedra are corner sharing and 1/3 are edge sharing.\\nUranium dioxide is oxidized in contact with oxygen to the triuranium octaoxide.\\nThe electrochemistry of uranium dioxide has been investigated in detail as the galvanic corrosion of uranium dioxide controls the rate at which used nuclear fuel dissolves. See the spent nuclear fuel page for further details. Water increases the oxidation rate of plutonium and uranium metals.\\nUranium dioxide is carbonized in contact with carbon, forming uranium carbide and carbon monoxide.\\nUO + 4 C → UC + 2 CO\\nThis process must be done under an inert gas as uranium carbide is easily oxidized back into uranium oxide.\\nUO is used mainly as nuclear fuel, specifically as UO or as a mixture of UO and PuO (plutonium dioxide) called a mixed oxide (MOX fuel), in the form of fuel rods in nuclear reactors.\\nNote that the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide is very low when compared with uranium, uranium nitride, uranium carbide and zirconium cladding material. This low thermal conductivity can result in localised overheating in the centres of fuel pellets. The graph below shows the different temperature gradients in different fuel compounds. For these fuels the thermal power density is the same and the diameter of all the pellets are the same.\\nUranium oxide (urania) was used to color glass and ceramics prior to World War II, and until the applications of radioactivity were discovered this was its main use. In 1958 the military in both the USA and Europe allowed its commercial use again as depleted uranium, and its use began again on a more limited scale. Urania-based ceramic glazes are dark green or black when fired in a reduction or when UO is used; more commonly it is used in oxidation to produce bright yellow, orange and red glazes. Orange-colored Fiestaware is a well-known example of a product with a urania-colored glaze. Uranium glass is pale green to yellow, and often has strong fluorescent properties. Urania has also been used in formulations of enamel and porcelain. It is possible to determine with a Geiger counter if a glaze or glass produced before 1958 contains urania.\\nPrior to the realisation of the harmfulness of radiation, uranium was included in false teeth and dentures, as its slight fluorescence made the dentures appear more like real teeth in a variety of lighting conditions.\\nDepleted UO (DUO) can be used as a material for radiation shielding. For example, DUCRETE is a \\\"heavy concrete\\\" material where gravel is replaced with uranium dioxide aggregate; this material is investigated for use for casks for radioactive waste. Casks can be also made of DUO-steel cermet, a composite material made of an aggregate of uranium dioxide serving as radiation shielding, graphite and/or silicon carbide serving as neutron radiation absorber and moderator, and steel as the matrix, whose high thermal conductivity allows easy removal of decay heat.\\nDepleted uranium dioxide can be also used as a catalyst, e.g. for degradation of volatile organic compounds in gaseous phase, oxidation of methane to methanol, and removal of sulfur from petroleum. It has high efficiency and long-term stability when used to destroy VOCs when compared with some of the commercial catalysts, such as precious metals, TiO, and CoO catalysts. Much research is being done in this area, DU being favoured for the uranium component due to its low radioactivity.\\nThe use of uranium dioxide as a material for rechargeable batteries is being investigated. The batteries could have high power density and potential of 4.7 V per cell. Another investigated application is in photoelectrochemical cells for solar-assisted hydrogen production where UO is used as a photoanode. In earlier times, uranium dioxide was also used as heat conductor for current limitation (URDOX-resistor), which was the first use of its semiconductor properties.\\nUranium dioxide is also the strongest known piezomagnet in the antiferromagnetic state observed at cryogenic temperatures below 30 degrees Kelvin. UO displays a linear magnetostriction that changes sign with the sign of the applied magnetic field, and magnetoelastic memory switching at magnetic fields near 180,000 Oe.\\nThe band gap of uranium dioxide is comparable to these of silicon and gallium arsenide, near the optimum for efficiency vs band gap curve for absorption of solar radiation, suggesting its possible use for very efficient solar cells based on Schottky diode structure; it also absorbs at five different wavelengths, including infrared, further enhancing its efficiency. Its intrinsic conductivity at room temperature is about the same as of single crystal silicon.\\nThe dielectric constant of uranium dioxide is about 22, which is almost twice as high as of silicon (11.2) and GaAs (14.1). This is an advantage over Si and GaAs in construction of integrated circuits, as it may allow higher density integration with higher breakdown voltages and with lower susceptibility to the CMOS tunneling breakdown.\\nThe Seebeck coefficient of uranium dioxide at room temperature is about 750 µV/K, a value significantly higher than the 270 µV/K of thallium tin telluride (TlSnTe) and thallium germanium telluride (TlGeTe) and of bismuth-tellurium alloys, other materials promising for thermoelectric power generation applications and Peltier elements.\\nThe radioactive decay impact of theU andU on its semiconducting properties was not measured as of 2005 . Due to the slow decay rate of these isotopes, it should not meaningfully influence the properties of uranium dioxide solar cells and thermoelectric devices, but it may become an important factor for VLSI chips. Use of depleted uranium oxide is necessary for this reason. The capture of alpha particles emitted during radioactive decay as helium atoms in the crystal lattice may also cause gradual long-term changes in its properties.\\nThe stoichiometry of the material dramatically influences its electrical properties. For example, the electrical conductivity of UO is orders of magnitude lower at higher temperatures than the conductivity of UO.\\nUranium dioxide, like UO, is a ceramic material capable of withstanding high temperatures (about 2300 °C, in comparison with at most 200 °C for silicon or GaAs), making it suitable for high-temperature applications like thermophotovoltaic devices.\\nUranium dioxide is also resistant to radiation damage, making it useful for rad-hard devices for special military and aerospace applications.\\nA Schottky diode of UO and a p-n-p transistor of UO were successfully manufactured in a laboratory.\\nUranium dioxide is known to be absorbed by phagocytosis in the lungs.\\n\",\n \"Deoxyepinephrine\\nDeoxyepinephrine, also known by the common names N-methyldopamine and epinine, is an organic compound and natural product that is structurally related to the important neurotransmitters dopamine and epinephrine. All three of these compounds also belong to the catecholamine family. The pharmacology of epinine largely resembles that of its \\\"parent\\\", dopamine. Epinine has been found in plants, insects and animals. It is also of significance as the active metabolic breakdown product of the prodrug ibopamine, which has been used to treat congestive heart failure.\\nEpinine does not seem to occur widely, but it is present as a minor alkaloid in some plants, such as the peyote cactus, \\\"Lophophora williamsii\\\", and a species of \\\"Acacia\\\", as well as in Scotch Broom, \\\"Cytisus scoparius\\\". This compound has also been isolated from the adrenal medulla of pigs and cows, and from the toad, \\\"Bufo marinus\\\". It has also been detected in the locust, \\\"Locusta migratoria\\\".\\nThe first total synthesis of epinine was reported by Buck, who prepared it from 3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine (\\\"homoveratrylamine\\\") by first converting the latter to its Schiff base with benzaldehyde, then N-methylating this with methyl iodide; hydrolysis of the resulting product was followed by cleavage of the methyl ethers using hydriodic acid to furnish epinine. A very similar synthesis, differing only in the use of dimethyl sulfate for the N-methylation, and HBr for the O-demethylation, but providing more extensive experimental details, was published by Borgman in 1973.\\nAn earlier semi-synthesis (so-called because it began with the natural product laudanosine) due to Pyman is incorrectly cited by Buck, and the error carried over to the entry for epinine (under the name deoxyepinephrine) in the Merck Index.\\nCommon salts of epinine are: hydrochloride, CHNO.HCl, m.p. 179-180 °C; sulfate, (CHNO).HSO, m.p. 289-290 °C; hydrobromide, CHNO.HBr, m.p. 165-166 °C.\\nThe X-ray structure of epinine hydrobromide has been reported.\\nOne of the most prominent pharmacological characteristics of epinine, its ability to raise blood pressure, was noted as early as 1910, by Barger and Dale, who reported that \\\"methylamino-ethyl-catechol\\\", as they called it, had about 1/7 x the pressor potency of epinephrine, but about 5 x the potency of dopamine (\\\"amino-ethyl-catechol\\\") in cat preparations. The Buroughs Wellcome Co., for which Barger, Dale and Pyman (see \\\"Chemistry\\\" section) worked, subsequently marketed the hydrochloride salt of \\\"methylamino-ethyl-catechol\\\", under the name \\\"epinine\\\", as a substitute for epinephrine. Tainter further quantified the pressor activity of epinine in atropine-treated and anesthetized intact cats, showing that doses of 0.02-0.2 mg, given i.v., were about 1/12 as active as l-epinephrine, but that the effect lasted about twice as long (~ 3 minutes), and was accompanied by an increase in pulse rate.\\nEventually, epinine was determined to be a non-selective stimulant of dopamine (DA) receptors, α-, and β-adrenoceptors, with the stimulation of D receptors leading to inhibition of noradrenergic and ganglionic neurotransmission. These studies, conducted using anesthetized animals, were amplified by van Woerkens and co-workers, who compared the effects of epinine and dopamine in unanesthetized pigs, so as to avoid any possible influences of an anesthetic. Drug doses were in the range of 1-10 μg/kg/min, administered by i.v. infusion over a period of 10 minutes. The results of these experiments showed that, in pigs, over the dose-range employed, epinine was more potent than dopamine as an agonist on D, α-, and β-receptors, but was weaker than dopamine as a D-agonist. The β-agonist effect of both compounds was weak or non-existent.\\nComparable studies, in which blood pressure, heart rate and serum prolactin levels were measured after the administration of 0.5-4 μg/kg/min of epinine by i.v. infusion over a 15-minute period to healthy humans, were reported subsequently by Daul and co-workers. These investigators found that at lower doses (0.5 or 1.0 μg/kg/min), which produced plasma concentrations of 20-80 nM/L, epinine, in common with dopamine, caused a fall in prolactin level, but did not affect blood pressure or heart rate. At higher doses (2.0 or 4.0 μg/kg/min), epinine significantly increased both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as well as heart rate. In contrast, dopamine caused an increase in systolic blood pressure and heart rate only.\\nBoth drugs increased diuresis and natriuresis - effects that are thought to be due to the activation of renal D receptors.\\nIt was concluded that at the lower doses, epinine and dopamine exerted their effects only at DA (D) receptors, but did not activate α- or β-adrenoceptors. At the higher doses, epinine activated α-, β- and β-receptors to about the same extent, whereas dopamine showed only a mild stimulation of β-receptors, without any effects on α- or β-receptors. Additionally, it was observed that the effects of epinine were largely due to its direct action on receptors, while dopamine also produced some of its effects indirectly, by stimulating norepinephrine release.\\nLD for HCl salt: 212 mg/kg (mouse; i.p.). For comparison, it might be noted that dopamine has a LD of 1978 mg/kg under the same conditions.\\n\",\n \"Ferrite (magnet)\\nA ferrite is a type of ceramic compound composed of iron(III) oxide (FeO) combined chemically with one or more additional metallic elements. They are both electrically nonconductive and ferrimagnetic, meaning they can be magnetized or attracted to a magnet. Ferrites can be divided into two families based on their magnetic coercivity, their resistance to being demagnetized. \\\"Hard ferrites\\\" have high coercivity, hence they are difficult to demagnetize. They are used to make magnets, for devices such as refrigerator magnets, loudspeakers and small electric motors. \\\"Soft ferrites\\\" have low coercivity. They are used in the electronics industry to make ferrite cores for inductors and transformers, and in various microwave components. Ferrite compounds have extremely low cost, being made of iron oxide (i.e. rusted iron), and also have excellent corrosion resistance. They are very stable and difficult to demagnetize, and can be made with both high and low coercive forces. Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930.\\nFerrites are usually non-conductive ferrimagnetic ceramic compounds derived from iron oxides such as hematite (FeO) or magnetite (FeO) as well as oxides of other metals. Ferrites are, like most of the other ceramics, hard and brittle.\\nMany ferrites are spinels with the formula ABO, where A and B represent various metal cations, usually including iron Fe. Spinel ferrites usually adopt a crystal motif consisting of cubic close-packed (fcc) oxides (O) with A cations occupying one eighth of the tetrahedral holes and B cations occupying half of the octahedral holes. If one eighth of the tetrahedral holes are taken by B cation, then one fourth of the octahedral sites are occupied by A cation and the other one fourth by B cation and it is called the inverse spinel structure. It is also possible to have mixed structure spinel ferrites with formula [MFe][MFe]O where δ is the degree of inversion.\\nThe magnetic material known as \\\"ZnFe\\\" has the formula ZnFeO, with Fe occupying the octahedral sites and Zn occupy the tetrahedral sites, it is an example of normal structure spinel ferrite.\\nSome ferrites have hexagonal crystal structure, like barium and strontium ferrites BaFeO (BaO:6FeO) and SrFeO (SrO:6FeO).\\nIn terms of their magnetic properties, the different ferrites are often classified as \\\"soft\\\" or \\\"hard\\\", which refers to their low or high magnetic coercivity, as follows.\\nFerrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain nickel, zinc, and/or manganese compounds. They have a low coercivity and are called soft ferrites. The low coercivity means the material's magnetization can easily reverse direction without dissipating much energy (hysteresis losses), while the material's high resistivity prevents eddy currents in the core, another source of energy loss. Because of their comparatively low losses at high frequencies, they are extensively used in the cores of RF transformers and inductors in applications such as switched-mode power supplies and loopstick antennas used in AM radios.\\nThe most common soft ferrites are:\\nFor applications below 5 MHz, MnZn ferrites are used; above that, NiZn is the usual choice. The exception is with common mode inductors, where the threshold of choice is at 70 MHz.\\nIn contrast, permanent ferrite magnets are made of hard ferrites, which have a high coercivity and high remanence after magnetization. Iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate are used in manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets. The high coercivity means the materials are very resistant to becoming demagnetized, an essential characteristic for a permanent magnet. They also have high magnetic permeability. These so-called \\\"ceramic magnets\\\" are cheap, and are widely used in household products such as refrigerator magnets. The maximum magnetic field \\\"B\\\" is about 0.35 tesla and the magnetic field strength \\\"H\\\" is about 30 to 160 kiloampere turns per meter (400 to 2000 oersteds). The density of ferrite magnets is about 5 g/cm.\\nThe most common hard ferrites are:\\nFerrites are produced by heating a mixture of finely-powdered precursors pressed into a mold. During the heating process, calcination of carbonates occurs:\\nThe oxides of barium and strontium are typically supplied as their carbonates, BaCO or SrCO.\\nThe resulting mixture of oxides undergoes sintering. Sintering is a high temperature process similar to the firing of ceramic ware.\\nAfterwards, the cooled product is milled to particles smaller than 2 µm, small enough that each particle consists of a single magnetic domain. Next the powder is pressed into a shape, dried, and re-sintered. The shaping may be performed in an external magnetic field, in order to achieve a preferred orientation of the particles (anisotropy).\\nSmall and geometrically easy shapes may be produced with dry pressing. However, in such a process small particles may agglomerate and lead to poorer magnetic properties compared to the wet pressing process. Direct calcination and sintering without re-milling is possible as well but leads to poor magnetic properties.\\nElectromagnets are pre-sintered as well (pre-reaction), milled and pressed. However, the sintering takes place in a specific atmosphere, for instance one with an oxygen shortage. The chemical composition and especially the structure vary strongly between the precursor and the sintered product.\\nTo allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.\\nFerrite cores are used in electronic inductors, transformers, and electromagnets where the high electrical resistance of the ferrite leads to very low eddy current losses. They are commonly seen as a lump in a computer cable, called a ferrite bead, which helps to prevent high frequency electrical noise (radio frequency interference) from exiting or entering the equipment.\\nEarly computer memories stored data in the residual magnetic fields of hard ferrite cores, which were assembled into arrays of \\\"core memory\\\". Ferrite powders are used in the coatings of magnetic recording tapes. One such type of material is iron (III) oxide.\\nFerrite particles are also used as a component of radar-absorbing materials or coatings used in stealth aircraft and in the absorption tiles lining the rooms used for electromagnetic compatibility measurements.\\nMost common radio magnets, including those used in loudspeakers, are ferrite magnets. Ferrite magnets have largely displaced Alnico magnets in these applications.\\nIt is a common magnetic material for electromagnetic instrument pickups.\\nFerrite nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic properties.\\nYogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930. This led to the founding of TDK Corporation in 1935, to manufacture the material.\\nBarium hexaferrite (BaFeO) was discovered in 1950 at the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium (\\\"Philips Physics Laboratory\\\"). The discovery was somewhat accidental—due to a mistake by an assistant who was supposed to be preparing a sample of hexagonal lanthanum ferrite for a team investigating its use as a semiconductor material. On discovering that it was actually a magnetic material, and confirming its structure by X-ray crystallography, they passed it on to the magnetic research group. Barium hexaferrite has both high coercivity (170 kA/m) and low raw material costs. It was developed as a product by Philips Industries (Netherlands) and from 1952 was marketed under the trade name \\\"Ferroxdure\\\". The low price and good performance led to a rapid increase in the use permanent magnets.\\nIn the 1960s Philips developed strontium hexaferrite (SrFeO), with better properties than barium hexaferrite. Barium and strontium hexaferrite dominate the market due to their low costs. However other materials have been found with improved properties. BaFeFeO came in 1980. and BaZnFeO came in 1991.\",\n \"Iron(II) oxide\\nIron(II) oxide or ferrous oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. Its mineral form is known as wüstite. One of several iron oxides, it is a black-colored powder that is sometimes confused with rust, the latter of which consists of hydrated iron(III) oxide (ferric oxide). Iron(II) oxide also refers to a family of related non-stoichiometric compounds, which are typically iron deficient with compositions ranging from FeO to FeO.\\nFeO can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of iron(II) oxalate.\\nThe procedure is conducted under an inert atmosphere to avoid the formation of ferric oxide. A similar procedure can also be used for the synthesis of manganous oxide and stannous oxide.\\nStoichiometric FeO can be prepared by heating FeO with metallic iron at 770 °C and 36 kbar.\\nFeO is thermodynamically unstable below 575 °C, tending to disproportionate to metal and FeO:\\nIron(II) oxide adopts the cubic, rock salt structure, where iron atoms are octahedrally coordinated by oxygen atoms and the oxygen atoms octahedrally coordinated by iron atoms. The non-stoichiometry occurs because of the ease of oxidation of Fe to Fe effectively replacing a small portion of Fe with two thirds their number of Fe, which take up tetrahedral positions in the close packed oxide lattice.\\nBelow 200 K there is a minor change to the structure which changes the symmetry to rhombohedral and samples become antiferromagnetic.\\nIron(II) oxide makes up approximately 9% of the Earth's mantle. Within the mantle, it may be electrically conductive, which is a possible explanation for perturbations in Earth's rotation not accounted for by accepted models of the mantle's properties.\\nIron(II) oxide is used as a pigment. It is FDA-approved for use in cosmetics and it is used in some tattoo inks. It can also be used as a phosphate remover from home aquaria.\\n\\n\",\n \"Ferromagnetism\\nFerromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as <a href=\\\"iron\\\">iron</a>) form <a href=\\\"permanent%20magnet\\\">permanent magnet</a>s, or are attracted to <a href=\\\"magnet\\\">magnet</a>s. In <a href=\\\"physics\\\">physics</a>, several different types of <a href=\\\"magnetism\\\">magnetism</a> are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including <a href=\\\"ferrimagnetism\\\">ferrimagnetism</a>) is the strongest type: it is the only one that typically creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism in <a href=\\\"Magnet%23Common%20uses\\\">magnets encountered in everyday life</a>. Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of magnetism, <a href=\\\"paramagnetism\\\">paramagnetism</a>, <a href=\\\"diamagnetism\\\">diamagnetism</a>, and <a href=\\\"antiferromagnetism\\\">antiferromagnetism</a>, but the forces are usually so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is a <a href=\\\"refrigerator%20magnet\\\">refrigerator magnet</a> used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is \\\"the quality of magnetism first apparent to the ancient world, and to us today\\\".\\nPermanent magnets (materials that can be <a href=\\\"Magnetization\\\">magnetized</a> by an external <a href=\\\"magnetic%20field\\\">magnetic field</a> and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the materials that are noticeably attracted to them. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic. The common ones are <a href=\\\"iron\\\">iron</a>, <a href=\\\"nickel\\\">nickel</a>, <a href=\\\"cobalt\\\">cobalt</a> and most of their alloys, and some compounds of <a href=\\\"Rare-earth%20magnet\\\">rare earth metals</a>.\\nFerromagnetism is very important in industry and modern technology, and is the basis for many electrical and electromechanical devices such as <a href=\\\"electromagnet\\\">electromagnet</a>s, <a href=\\\"electric%20motor\\\">electric motor</a>s, <a href=\\\"Electric%20generator\\\">generators</a>, <a href=\\\"transformer\\\">transformer</a>s, and <a href=\\\"magnetic%20storage\\\">magnetic storage</a> such as <a href=\\\"tape%20recorder\\\">tape recorder</a>s, and <a href=\\\"hard%20disk\\\">hard disk</a>s, and <a href=\\\"nondestructive%20testing\\\">nondestructive testing</a> of ferrous materials.\\nHistorically, the term \\\"ferromagnetism\\\" was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field. This general definition is still in common use. More recently, however, different classes of spontaneous magnetization have been identified when there is more than one magnetic ion per <a href=\\\"primitive%20cell\\\">primitive cell</a> of the material, leading to a stricter definition of \\\"ferromagnetism\\\" that is often used to distinguish it from ferrimagnetism. In particular,\\nThese alignment effects only occur at <a href=\\\"temperature\\\">temperature</a>s below a certain critical temperature, called the <a href=\\\"Curie%20temperature\\\">Curie temperature</a> (for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets) or the <a href=\\\"N%C3%A9el%20temperature\\\">Néel temperature</a> (for antiferromagnets).\\nThe table on the right lists a selection of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic compounds, along with the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see <a href=\\\"Curie%20temperature\\\">Curie temperature</a>).\\nFerromagnetism is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a material, but of its crystalline structure and microstructure. There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic, called <a href=\\\"Heusler%20alloy\\\">Heusler alloy</a>s, named after <a href=\\\"Fritz%20Heusler\\\">Fritz Heusler</a>. Conversely there are non-magnetic alloys, such as types of <a href=\\\"stainless%20steel\\\">stainless steel</a>, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals.\\nAmorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys can be made by very rapid <a href=\\\"quenching\\\">quenching</a> (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low <a href=\\\"coercivity\\\">coercivity</a>, low <a href=\\\"hysteresis\\\">hysteresis</a> loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. One such typical material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component (<a href=\\\"Boron\\\">B</a>, <a href=\\\"Carbon\\\">C</a>, <a href=\\\"Silicon\\\">Si</a>, <a href=\\\"Phosphorus\\\">P</a>, or <a href=\\\"Aluminium\\\">Al</a>) that lowers the melting point.\\nA relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the <a href=\\\"rare-earth%20magnet\\\">rare-earth magnet</a>s. They contain <a href=\\\"lanthanide\\\">lanthanide</a> elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals.\\nA number of <a href=\\\"actinide\\\">actinide</a> compounds are ferromagnets at room temperature or exhibit ferromagnetism upon cooling. <a href=\\\"Plutonium\\\">Pu</a><a href=\\\"Phosphorus\\\">P</a> is a paramagnet with <a href=\\\"Cubic%20crystal%20system\\\">cubic symmetry</a> at <a href=\\\"room%20temperature\\\">room temperature</a>, but which undergoes a structural transition into a <a href=\\\"Tetragonal%20crystal%20system\\\">tetragonal</a> state with ferromagnetic order when cooled below its T = 125 K. In its ferromagnetic state, PuP's <a href=\\\"easy%20axis\\\">easy axis</a> is in the <100> direction.\\nIn <a href=\\\"Neptunium\\\">Np</a>Fe the easy axis is <111>. Above \\\"T\\\" ≈ 500 K NpFe is also paramagnetic and cubic. Cooling below the Curie temperature produces a rhombohedral distortion wherein the rhombohedral angle changes from 60° (cubic phase) to 60.53°. An alternate description of this distortion is to consider the length \\\"c\\\" along the unique trigonal axis (after the distortion has begun) and \\\"a\\\" as the distance in the plane perpendicular to \\\"c\\\". In the cubic phase this reduces to \\\" \\\" = 1.00. Below the <a href=\\\"Curie%20temperature\\\">Curie temperature</a>\\nwhich is the largest strain in any <a href=\\\"actinide\\\">actinide</a> compound. NpNi undergoes a similar lattice distortion below \\\"T\\\" = 32 K, with a strain of (43 ± 5) × 10. NpCo is a ferrimagnet below 15 K.\\nIn 2009, a team of <a href=\\\"MIT\\\">MIT</a> physicists demonstrated that a lithium gas cooled to less than one kelvin can exhibit ferromagnetism. The team cooled <a href=\\\"fermion\\\">fermion</a>ic lithium-6 to less than 150 nK (150 billionths of one kelvin) using infrared <a href=\\\"laser%20cooling\\\">laser cooling</a>. This demonstration is the first time that ferromagnetism has been demonstrated in a gas.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Bohr%E2%80%93van%20Leeuwen%20theorem\\\">Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem</a>, discovered in the 1910s, showed that <a href=\\\"classical%20physics\\\">classical physics</a> theories are unable to account for any form of magnetism, including ferromagnetism. Magnetism is now regarded as a purely <a href=\\\"quantum%20mechanical\\\">quantum mechanical</a> effect. Ferromagnetism arises due to two effects from quantum mechanics: <a href=\\\"spin%20%28physics%29\\\">spin</a> and the <a href=\\\"Pauli%20exclusion%20principle\\\">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.\\nOne of the fundamental properties of an <a href=\\\"electron\\\">electron</a> (besides that it carries charge) is that it has a <a href=\\\"Electron%20magnetic%20moment\\\">magnetic dipole moment</a>, i.e., it behaves like a tiny magnet, producing a <a href=\\\"magnetic%20field\\\">magnetic field</a>. This dipole moment comes from the more fundamental property of the electron that it has quantum mechanical <a href=\\\"Spin%20%28physics%29\\\">spin</a>. Due to its quantum nature, the spin of the electron can be in one of only two states; with the magnetic field either pointing \\\"up\\\" or \\\"down\\\" (for any choice of up and down). The spin of the electrons in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the <a href=\\\"Atomic%20orbital\\\">orbital</a> <a href=\\\"angular%20momentum\\\">angular momentum</a> of the electron about the <a href=\\\"Atomic%20nucleus\\\">nucleus</a>. When these magnetic dipoles in a piece of matter are aligned, (point in the same direction) their individually tiny magnetic fields add together to create a much larger macroscopic field.\\nHowever, materials made of atoms with filled <a href=\\\"electron%20shell\\\">electron shell</a>s have a total dipole moment of zero, because the electrons all exist in pairs with opposite spin, every electron's magnetic moment is cancelled by the opposite moment of the second <a href=\\\"Electron%20pair\\\">electron in the pair</a>. Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can have a net magnetic moment, so ferromagnetism only occurs in materials with partially filled shells. Because of <a href=\\\"Hund%27s%20rules\\\">Hund's rules</a>, the first few electrons in a shell tend to have the same spin, thereby increasing the total dipole moment.\\nThese unpaired dipoles (often called simply \\\"spins\\\" even though they also generally include angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called <a href=\\\"paramagnetism\\\">paramagnetism</a>. Ferromagnetism involves an additional phenomenon, however: in a few substances the dipoles tend to align spontaneously, giving rise to a <a href=\\\"spontaneous%20magnetization\\\">spontaneous magnetization</a>, even when there is no applied field.\\nWhen two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the <a href=\\\"Quantum%20mechanics\\\">quantum mechanical</a> effect called the <a href=\\\"exchange%20interaction\\\">exchange interaction</a>. This in turn affects the electron location and the <a href=\\\"Coulomb%20force\\\">Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction</a> and thus the energy difference between these states.\\nThe exchange interaction is related to the <a href=\\\"Pauli%20exclusion%20principle\\\">Pauli exclusion principle</a>, which says that two electrons with the same spin cannot also have the same \\\"position\\\". Therefore, under certain conditions, when the <a href=\\\"atomic%20orbital\\\">orbitals</a> of the unpaired outer <a href=\\\"valence%20electron\\\">valence electron</a>s from adjacent atoms overlap, the distributions of their electric charge in space are farther apart when the electrons have parallel spins than when they have opposite spins. This reduces the <a href=\\\"electrostatic%20energy\\\">electrostatic energy</a> of the electrons when their spins are parallel compared to their energy when the spins are anti-parallel, so the parallel-spin state is more stable. In simple terms, the electrons, which repel one another, can move \\\"further apart\\\" by aligning their spins, so the spins of these electrons tend to line up. This difference in energy is called the <a href=\\\"exchange%20energy\\\">exchange energy</a>.\\nThis energy difference can be orders of magnitude larger than the energy differences associated with the <a href=\\\"magnetic%20dipole-dipole%20interaction\\\">magnetic dipole-dipole interaction</a> due to dipole orientation, which tends to align the dipoles antiparallel. In certain doped semiconductor oxides <a href=\\\"RKKY%20interaction\\\">RKKY interaction</a>s have been shown to bring about periodic longer-range magnetic interactions, a phenomenon of significance in the study of <a href=\\\"Spintronics\\\">spintronic materials</a>.\\nThe materials in which the exchange interaction is much stronger than the competing dipole-dipole interaction are frequently called \\\"magnetic materials\\\". For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange force is about 1000 times stronger than the dipole interaction. Therefore, below the Curie temperature virtually all of the dipoles in a ferromagnetic material will be aligned. In addition to ferromagnetism, the exchange interaction is also responsible for the other types of spontaneous ordering of atomic magnetic moments occurring in magnetic solids, <a href=\\\"antiferromagnetism\\\">antiferromagnetism</a> and <a href=\\\"ferrimagnetism\\\">ferrimagnetism</a>.\\nThere are different exchange interaction mechanisms which create the magnetism in different ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and antiferromagnetic substances. These mechanisms include <a href=\\\"Exchange%20interaction%23Direct%20exchange%20interactions%20in%20solids\\\">direct exchange</a>, <a href=\\\"RKKY%20interaction\\\">RKKY exchange</a>, <a href=\\\"double%20exchange\\\">double exchange</a>, and <a href=\\\"superexchange\\\">superexchange</a>.\\nAlthough the exchange interaction keeps spins aligned, it does not align them in a particular direction. Without <a href=\\\"magnetic%20anisotropy\\\">magnetic anisotropy</a>, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to <a href=\\\"thermal%20fluctuations\\\">thermal fluctuations</a> and the magnet is <a href=\\\"superparamagnetic\\\">superparamagnetic</a>. There are several kinds of magnetic anisotropy, the most common of which is <a href=\\\"magnetocrystalline%20anisotropy\\\">magnetocrystalline anisotropy</a>. This is a dependence of the energy on the direction of magnetization relative to the <a href=\\\"crystallographic%20lattice\\\">crystallographic lattice</a>. Another common source of anisotropy, <a href=\\\"inverse%20magnetostriction\\\">inverse magnetostriction</a>, is induced by internal <a href=\\\"deformation%20%28mechanics%29\\\">strains</a>. <a href=\\\"Single-domain%20%28magnetic%29\\\">Single-domain magnets</a> also can have a \\\"shape anisotropy\\\" due to the magnetostatic effects of the particle shape. As the temperature of a magnet increases, the anisotropy tends to decrease, and there is often a <a href=\\\"superparamagnetism%23Blocking%20temperature\\\">blocking temperature</a> at which a transition to superparamagnetism occurs.\\n\\nThe above would seem to suggest that every piece of ferromagnetic material should have a strong magnetic field, since all the spins are aligned, yet iron and other ferromagnets are often found in an \\\"unmagnetized\\\" state. The reason for this is that a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material is divided into tiny regions called \\\"<a href=\\\"magnetic%20domain\\\">magnetic domain</a>s\\\" (also known as \\\"Weiss domains\\\"). Within each domain, the spins are aligned, but (if the bulk material is in its lowest energy configuration, i.e. \\\"unmagnetized\\\"), the spins of separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields cancel out, so the object has no net large scale magnetic field.\\nFerromagnetic materials spontaneously divide into magnetic domains because the \\\"<a href=\\\"exchange%20interaction\\\">exchange interaction</a>\\\" is a short-range force, so over long distances of many atoms the tendency of the magnetic dipoles to reduce their energy by orienting in opposite directions wins out. If all the dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are aligned parallel, it creates a large magnetic field extending into the space around it. This contains a lot of <a href=\\\"magnetostatics\\\">magnetostatic</a> energy. The material can reduce this energy by splitting into many domains pointing in different directions, so the magnetic field is confined to small local fields in the material, reducing the volume of the field. The domains are separated by thin <a href=\\\"Domain%20wall%20%28magnetism%29\\\">domain wall</a>s a number of molecules thick, in which the direction of magnetization of the dipoles rotates smoothly from one domain's direction to the other.\\nThus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state (\\\"unmagnetized\\\") generally has little or no net magnetic field. However, the magnetic domains in a material are not fixed in place; they are simply regions where the spins of the electrons have aligned spontaneously due to their magnetic fields, and thus can be altered by an external magnetic field. If a strong enough external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domain walls will move by the process of the spins of the electrons in atoms near the wall in one domain turning under the influence of the external field to face in the same direction as the electrons in the other domain, thus reorienting the domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field. The domains will remain aligned when the external field is removed, creating a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus creating a \\\"permanent\\\" magnet. The domains do not go back to their original minimum energy configuration when the field is removed because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice, preserving their parallel orientation. This is shown by the <a href=\\\"Barkhausen%20effect\\\">Barkhausen effect</a>: as the magnetizing field is changed, the magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as the domain walls suddenly \\\"snap\\\" past defects.\\nThis magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a <a href=\\\"Hysteresis%20loop\\\">hysteresis curve</a>. Although this state of aligned domains found in a piece of magnetized ferromagnetic material is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is <a href=\\\"metastable\\\">metastable</a>, and can persist for long periods, as shown by samples of <a href=\\\"magnetite\\\">magnetite</a> from the sea floor which have maintained their magnetization for millions of years.\\nHeating and then cooling (<a href=\\\"Annealing%20%28metallurgy%29\\\">annealing</a>) a magnetized material, subjecting it to vibration by hammering it, or applying a rapidly oscillating magnetic field from a <a href=\\\"degaussing\\\">degaussing coil</a> tends to release the domain walls from their pinned state, and the domain boundaries tend to move back to a lower energy configuration with less external magnetic field, thus \\\"<a href=\\\"demagnetization\\\">demagnetizing</a>\\\" the material.\\nCommercial <a href=\\\"magnet\\\">magnet</a>s are made of \\\"hard\\\" ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materials with very large <a href=\\\"magnetic%20anisotropy\\\">magnetic anisotropy</a> such as <a href=\\\"alnico\\\">alnico</a> and <a href=\\\"ferrite%20%28magnet%29\\\">ferrites</a>, which have a very strong tendency for the magnetization to be pointed along one axis of the crystal, the \\\"easy axis\\\". During manufacture the materials are subjected to various metallurgical processes in a powerful magnetic field, which aligns the crystal grains so their \\\"easy\\\" axes of magnetization all point in the same direction. Thus the magnetization, and the resulting magnetic field, is \\\"built in\\\" to the crystal structure of the material, making it very difficult to demagnetize.\\nAs the temperature increases, thermal motion, or <a href=\\\"entropy\\\">entropy</a>, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the <a href=\\\"Curie%20temperature\\\">Curie temperature</a>, there is a second-order <a href=\\\"phase%20transition\\\">phase transition</a> and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, so its ability to be magnetized or attracted to a magnet disappears, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a <a href=\\\"spontaneous%20symmetry%20breaking\\\">spontaneous symmetry breaking</a> and magnetic moments become aligned with their neighbors. The Curie temperature itself is a <a href=\\\"critical%20point%20%28thermodynamics%29\\\">critical point</a>, where the <a href=\\\"magnetic%20susceptibility\\\">magnetic susceptibility</a> is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales.\\nThe study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified <a href=\\\"Ising%20model\\\">Ising</a> spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that <a href=\\\"mean%20field%20theory\\\">mean field theory</a> approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a \\\"universality class\\\" that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by <a href=\\\"renormalization%20group\\\">renormalization group</a> theory.\",\n \"Thermal decomposition\\nThermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a <a href=\\\"chemical%20decomposition\\\">chemical decomposition</a> caused by heat. The decomposition temperature of a substance is the <a href=\\\"temperature\\\">temperature</a> at which the substance chemically decomposes.\\nThe reaction is usually <a href=\\\"Endothermic%20process\\\">endothermic</a> as heat is required to break <a href=\\\"chemical%20bond\\\">chemical bond</a>s in the compound undergoing decomposition. If decomposition is sufficiently <a href=\\\"Exothermic%20process\\\">exothermic</a>, a <a href=\\\"positive%20feedback%20loop\\\">positive feedback loop</a> is created producing <a href=\\\"thermal%20runaway\\\">thermal runaway</a> and possibly an explosion.\\nWhen metals are near the bottom of the <a href=\\\"reactivity%20series\\\">reactivity series</a>, their <a href=\\\"Chemical%20compound\\\">compounds</a> generally decompose easily at high temperatures. This is because stronger <a href=\\\"Chemical%20bond\\\">bonds</a> form between <a href=\\\"atom\\\">atom</a>s towards the top of the reactivity series, and strong bonds break less easily. For example, <a href=\\\"copper\\\">copper</a> is near the bottom of the reactivity series, and <a href=\\\"copper%20sulfate\\\">copper sulfate</a> (CuSO), begins to decompose at about 200 °C, increasing rapidly at higher temperatures to about 560 °C. In contrast <a href=\\\"potassium\\\">potassium</a> is near the top of the reactivity series, and <a href=\\\"potassium%20sulfate\\\">potassium sulfate</a> (KSO) does not decompose at its melting point of about 1069 °C, nor even at its boiling point.\",\n \"Oxide\\nAn oxide is a <a href=\\\"chemical%20compound\\\">chemical compound</a> that contains at least one <a href=\\\"oxygen\\\">oxygen</a> atom and one other element in its <a href=\\\"chemical%20formula\\\">chemical formula</a>. \\\"Oxide\\\" itself is the <a href=\\\"dianion\\\">dianion</a> of oxygen, an O atom. <a href=\\\"Metal\\\">Metal</a> oxides thus typically contain an <a href=\\\"anion\\\">anion</a> of <a href=\\\"oxygen\\\">oxygen</a> in the <a href=\\\"oxidation%20state\\\">oxidation state</a> of −2. Most of the <a href=\\\"Earth%27s%20crust\\\">Earth's crust</a> consists of solid oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. <a href=\\\"Hydrocarbon\\\">Hydrocarbon</a> combustion affords the two principal <a href=\\\"carbon\\\">carbon</a> oxides: <a href=\\\"carbon%20monoxide\\\">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href=\\\"carbon%20dioxide\\\">carbon dioxide</a>. Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, <a href=\\\"aluminium%20foil\\\">aluminium foil</a> develops a thin skin of <a href=\\\"alumina\\\">AlO</a> (called a <a href=\\\"Passivation%20%28chemistry%29\\\">passivation layer</a>) that protects the foil from further <a href=\\\"corrosion\\\">corrosion</a>. Individual elements can often form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen. In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and in other cases by specifying the element's <a href=\\\"oxidation%20number\\\">oxidation number</a>, as in <a href=\\\"iron%28II%29%20oxide\\\">iron(II) oxide</a> and <a href=\\\"iron%28III%29%20oxide\\\">iron(III) oxide</a>. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such <a href=\\\"Nitrogen%20oxide\\\">those of nitrogen</a>.\\nDue to its <a href=\\\"electronegativity\\\">electronegativity</a>, oxygen forms stable <a href=\\\"chemical%20bond\\\">chemical bond</a>s with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. <a href=\\\"Noble%20metal\\\">Noble metal</a>s (such as <a href=\\\"gold\\\">gold</a> or <a href=\\\"platinum\\\">platinum</a>) are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, and substances like <a href=\\\"gold%28III%29%20oxide\\\">gold(III) oxide</a> must be generated by indirect routes.\\nTwo independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive. Virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen (or simply air), some elements— <a href=\\\"sodium\\\">sodium</a>—react rapidly, even dangerously, to give the hydroxides. In part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i.e., native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a <a href=\\\"getter\\\">getter</a> in <a href=\\\"vacuum%20tube\\\">vacuum tube</a>s, and solutions of potassium and sodium, so-called <a href=\\\"NaK\\\">NaK</a> are used to deoxygenate and dehydrate some organic solvents. The surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is <a href=\\\"aluminium%20foil\\\">aluminium foil</a>, which is coated with a thin film of <a href=\\\"aluminium%20oxide\\\">aluminium oxide</a> that <a href=\\\"Passivation%20%28chemistry%29\\\">passivates</a> the metal, slowing further <a href=\\\"corrosion\\\">corrosion</a>. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of <a href=\\\"electrolysis\\\">electrolytic</a> <a href=\\\"anodising\\\">anodising</a>. Though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at <a href=\\\"Standard%20conditions%20for%20temperature%20and%20pressure\\\">STP</a>—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be dangerously explosive in air. Consequently, they are often used in <a href=\\\"Solid-fuel%20rocket\\\">Solid-fuel rocket</a>s.\\nIn dry oxygen, <a href=\\\"iron\\\">iron</a> readily forms <a href=\\\"iron%28II%29%20oxide\\\">iron(II) oxide</a>, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, FeO(OH), that mainly comprise rust, typically requires oxygen \\\"and\\\" water. Free oxygen production by <a href=\\\"photosynthesis\\\">photosynthetic</a> <a href=\\\"bacteria\\\">bacteria</a> some 3.5 billion years ago <a href=\\\"precipitate\\\">precipitate</a>d iron out of solution in the oceans as FeO in the economically important <a href=\\\"banded%20iron%20formations\\\">iron ore</a> <a href=\\\"hematite\\\">hematite</a>.\\nOxides have a range of different structures, from individual molecules to polymeric and crystalline structures. At standard conditions, oxides may range from solids to gases.\\nOxides of most metals adopt polymeric structures. The oxide typically links three metals (e.g., rutile structure) or six metals (<a href=\\\"carborundum\\\">carborundum</a> or <a href=\\\"rock%20salt\\\">rock salt</a> structures) Because the M-O bonds are strong, the solids tend to be insoluble in solvents, though they are attacked by acids and bases. The formulas are often deceptively simple. Many are <a href=\\\"nonstoichiometric%20compound\\\">nonstoichiometric compound</a>s.\\nAlthough most metal oxides are polymeric, some oxides are molecules. Examples of molecular oxides are <a href=\\\"carbon%20dioxide\\\">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href=\\\"carbon%20monoxide\\\">carbon monoxide</a>. All simple oxides of nitrogen are molecular, e.g., NO, NO, NO and NO. <a href=\\\"Phosphorus%20pentoxide\\\">Phosphorus pentoxide</a> is a more complex molecular oxide with a deceptive name, the real formula being PO. Some polymeric oxides <a href=\\\"Cracking%20%28chemistry%29\\\">depolymerize</a> when heated to give molecules, examples being <a href=\\\"selenium%20dioxide\\\">selenium dioxide</a> and <a href=\\\"sulfur%20trioxide\\\">sulfur trioxide</a>. Tetroxides are rare. The more common examples: <a href=\\\"ruthenium%20tetroxide\\\">ruthenium tetroxide</a>, <a href=\\\"osmium%20tetroxide\\\">osmium tetroxide</a>, and <a href=\\\"xenon%20tetroxide\\\">xenon tetroxide</a>.\\nMany oxyanions are known, such as <a href=\\\"polyphosphate\\\">polyphosphate</a>s and <a href=\\\"polyoxometalate\\\">polyoxometalate</a>s. Oxycations are rarer, some examples being <a href=\\\"nitrosonium\\\">nitrosonium</a> (NO), <a href=\\\"vanadyl\\\">vanadyl</a> (VO), and <a href=\\\"uranyl\\\">uranyl</a> (UO22+ ). Of course many compounds are known with both oxides and other groups. In <a href=\\\"organic%20chemistry\\\">organic chemistry</a>, these include <a href=\\\"ketone\\\">ketone</a>s and many related <a href=\\\"carbonyl\\\">carbonyl</a> compounds. For the transition metals, many <a href=\\\"Oxo%20ligand\\\">oxo complex</a>es are known as well as <a href=\\\"oxyhalide\\\">oxyhalide</a>s.\\nOxides can be reacted by <a href=\\\"acid\\\">acid</a>s or <a href=\\\"Base%20%28chemistry%29\\\">bases</a>. Those reacted only by acids are basic oxides; those reacted only by bases are acidic oxides. Oxides that react with both acids and bases are <a href=\\\"amphoteric\\\">amphoteric</a>. Metals tend to form basic oxides, non-metals tend to form acidic oxides, and amphoteric oxides are formed by elements near the boundary between metals and non-metals (<a href=\\\"metalloid\\\">metalloid</a>s).\\nThis reactivity is the basis of many practical processes such, as the extraction of some metals from their ores in the process called <a href=\\\"hydrometallurgy\\\">hydrometallurgy</a>.\\nConverting the metal oxide back to the pure metal is called reduction. There are many ways of reduction.\\nMetals are \\\"won\\\" from their oxides by chemical reduction. A common and cheap reducing agent is carbon in the form of <a href=\\\"coke%20%28fuel%29\\\">coke</a>. The most prominent example is that of <a href=\\\"Iron%23Industrial%20production\\\">iron ore smelting</a>. Many reactions are involved, but the simplified equation is usually shown as:\\nMetal oxides can be reduced by organic compounds. This redox process is the basis for many important transformations in chemistry, such as the detoxification of drugs by the <a href=\\\"P450\\\">P450</a> enzymes and the production of <a href=\\\"ethylene%20oxide\\\">ethylene oxide</a>, which is converted to antifreeze. In such systems the metal centre transfers an oxide ligand to the organic compound followed by regeneration of the metal oxide, often by oxygen in air.\\nMetals that are lower in the <a href=\\\"reactivity%20series\\\">reactivity series</a> can be reduced by heating alone. For example, <a href=\\\"silver%20oxide\\\">silver oxide</a> decomposes at 200 °C:\\nMetals that are more <a href=\\\"reactivity%20series\\\">reactive</a> displace the oxide of the metals that are less reactive. For example, <a href=\\\"zinc\\\">zinc</a> is more reactive than <a href=\\\"copper\\\">copper</a>, so it displaces <a href=\\\"copper%20%28II%29%20oxide\\\">copper (II) oxide</a> to form <a href=\\\"zinc%20oxide\\\">zinc oxide</a>:\\nApart from metals, hydrogen can also displace metal oxides to form <a href=\\\"hydrogen%20oxide\\\">hydrogen oxide</a>, also known as water:\\nSince metals that are reactive form oxides that are stable, some metal oxides must be electrolyzed to be reduced. This includes <a href=\\\"sodium%20oxide\\\">sodium oxide</a>, <a href=\\\"potassium%20oxide\\\">potassium oxide</a>, <a href=\\\"calcium%20oxide\\\">calcium oxide</a>, <a href=\\\"magnesium%20oxide\\\">magnesium oxide</a>, and <a href=\\\"aluminium%20oxide\\\">aluminium oxide</a>. The oxides must be molten before immersing graphite electrodes in it:\\nOxides of more <a href=\\\"electropositive\\\">electropositive</a> elements tend to be basic. They are called \\\"basic anhydrides\\\". Exposed to water, they may form basic <a href=\\\"hydroxide\\\">hydroxide</a>s. For example, <a href=\\\"sodium%20oxide\\\">sodium oxide</a> is basic—when hydrated, it forms <a href=\\\"sodium%20hydroxide\\\">sodium hydroxide</a>. Oxides of more <a href=\\\"electronegative\\\">electronegative</a> elements tend to be acidic. They are called \\\"acid anhydrides\\\"; adding water, they form <a href=\\\"oxoacid\\\">oxoacid</a>s. For example, <a href=\\\"dichlorine%20heptoxide\\\">dichlorine heptoxide</a> is an acid anhydride; <a href=\\\"perchloric%20acid\\\">perchloric acid</a> is its fully hydrated form. Some oxides can act as both acid and base. They are <a href=\\\"amphoteric\\\">amphoteric</a>. An example is <a href=\\\"aluminium%20oxide\\\">aluminium oxide</a>. Some oxides do not show behavior as either acid or base.\\nThe oxide <a href=\\\"ion\\\">ion</a> has the formula O. It is the <a href=\\\"conjugate%20acid\\\">conjugate base</a> of the <a href=\\\"hydroxide\\\">hydroxide</a> ion, OH, and is encountered in <a href=\\\"ionic%20compound\\\">ionic</a> solid such as <a href=\\\"calcium%20oxide\\\">calcium oxide</a>. O is unstable in <a href=\\\"water\\\">aqueous</a> <a href=\\\"solution\\\">solution</a> − its affinity for H is so great (p\\\"K\\\" ~ −38) that it abstracts a <a href=\\\"proton\\\">proton</a> from a solvent HO molecule:\\nThe equilibrium constant of aforesaid reactions is pK ~ −22\\nIn the 18th century, oxides were named calxes or calces after the <a href=\\\"calcination\\\">calcination</a> process used to produce oxides. \\\"Calx\\\" was later replaced by \\\"oxyd.\\\"\\nSometimes, metal-oxygen ratios are used to name oxides. Thus, NbO would be called niobium monoxide and TiO is titanium dioxide. This naming follows the <a href=\\\"Greek%20language\\\">Greek</a> <a href=\\\"numerical%20prefix\\\">numerical prefix</a>es. In the older literature and continuing in industry, oxides are named by adding the suffix \\\"<a href=\\\"%3Awikt%3A-a%23Etymology_4\\\">-a</a>\\\" to the element's name. Hence alumina, magnesia and chromia, are, respectively, AlO, MgO and CrO.\\nSpecial types of oxides are <a href=\\\"peroxide\\\">peroxide</a>, O, and <a href=\\\"superoxide\\\">superoxide</a>, O. In such species, oxygen is assigned higher <a href=\\\"oxidation%20state\\\">oxidation state</a>s than oxide.\\nThe <a href=\\\"chemical%20formula\\\">chemical formula</a>s of the oxides of the <a href=\\\"chemical%20element\\\">chemical element</a>s in their highest <a href=\\\"oxidation%20state\\\">oxidation state</a> are predictable and are derived from the number of <a href=\\\"valence%20electron\\\">valence electron</a>s for that element. Even the chemical formula of O, <a href=\\\"tetraoxygen\\\">tetraoxygen</a>, is predictable as a <a href=\\\"group%2016%20element\\\">group 16 element</a>. One exception is <a href=\\\"copper\\\">copper</a>, for which the highest oxidation state oxide is <a href=\\\"copper%28II%29%20oxide\\\">copper(II) oxide</a> and not <a href=\\\"copper%28I%29%20oxide\\\">copper(I) oxide</a>. Another exception is <a href=\\\"fluoride\\\">fluoride</a>, which does not exist as one might expect—as FO—but as <a href=\\\"oxygen%20difluoride\\\">OF</a>.\\nSince fluorine is more <a href=\\\"Electronegativity\\\">electronegative</a> than oxygen, <a href=\\\"oxygen%20difluoride\\\">oxygen difluoride</a> (OF) does not represent an oxide of fluorine, but instead represents a <a href=\\\"fluoride\\\">fluoride</a> of oxygen.\\nThe following table gives examples of commonly encountered oxides. Only a few representatives are given, as the number of polyatomic ions encountered in practice is very large.\",\n \"Overpotential\\nIn <a href=\\\"electrochemistry\\\">electrochemistry</a>, overpotential is the <a href=\\\"electric%20potential\\\">potential</a> difference (<a href=\\\"voltage\\\">voltage</a>) between a <a href=\\\"half-reaction\\\">half-reaction</a>'s thermodynamically determined <a href=\\\"reduction%20potential\\\">reduction potential</a> and the potential at which the <a href=\\\"redox\\\">redox</a> event is experimentally observed. The term is directly related to a cell's \\\"voltage efficiency\\\". In an <a href=\\\"electrolytic%20cell\\\">electrolytic cell</a> the existence of overpotential implies the cell requires more energy than thermodynamically expected to drive a reaction. In a <a href=\\\"galvanic%20cell\\\">galvanic cell</a> the existence of overpotential means less energy is recovered than <a href=\\\"thermodynamics\\\">thermodynamics</a> predicts. In each case the extra/missing energy is lost as <a href=\\\"heat\\\">heat</a>. The quantity of overpotential is specific to each cell design and varies across cells and operational conditions, even for the same reaction. Overpotential is experimentally determined by measuring the potential at which a given <a href=\\\"current%20density\\\">current density</a> (typically small) is achieved.\\nThe four possible polarities of overpotentials are listed below.\\nThe overpotential increases with growing <a href=\\\"current%20density\\\">current density</a> (or rate), as described by the <a href=\\\"Tafel%20equation\\\">Tafel equation</a>. An electrochemical reaction is a combination of two half-cells and multiple elementary steps. Each <a href=\\\"Electrochemical%20reaction%20mechanism\\\">step</a> is associated with multiple forms of overpotential. The overall overpotential is the summation of many individual losses.\\n\\\"Voltage efficiency\\\" describes the fraction of energy lost through overpotential. For an \\\"electrolytic\\\" cell this is the ratio of a cell's thermodynamic potential divided by the cell's experimental potential converted to a percentile. For a \\\"galvanic\\\" cell it is the ratio of a cell's experimental potential divided by the cell's thermodynamic potential converted to a percentile. Voltage efficiency should not be confused with <a href=\\\"Faraday%20efficiency\\\">Faraday efficiency</a>. Both terms refer to a mode through which electrochemical systems can lose energy. Energy can be expressed as the product of potential, current and time (<a href=\\\"joule\\\">joule</a>s = <a href=\\\"volt\\\">volt</a>s × <a href=\\\"Ampere\\\">amps</a> × <a href=\\\"second\\\">second</a>s). Losses in the potential term through overpotentials are described by voltage efficiency. Losses in the current term through misdirected electrons are described by Faraday efficiency.\\nOverpotential can be divided into many different subcategories that are not all well defined. For example, \\\"polarization overpotential\\\" can refer to the electrode polarization and the <a href=\\\"hysteresis\\\">hysteresis</a> found in forward and reverse peaks of <a href=\\\"cyclic%20voltammetry\\\">cyclic voltammetry</a>. A likely reason for the lack of strict definitions is that it is difficult to determine how much of a measured overpotential is derived from a specific source. Overpotentials can be grouped into three categories: activation, concentration, and resistance.\\nThe activation overpotential is the potential difference above the equilibrium value required to produce a current that depends on the <a href=\\\"activation%20energy\\\">activation energy</a> of the redox event. While ambiguous, \\\"activation overpotential\\\" often refers exclusively to the activation energy necessary to transfer an electron from an electrode to an <a href=\\\"anolyte\\\">anolyte</a>. This sort of overpotential can also be called \\\"electron transfer overpotential\\\" and is a component of \\\"polarization overpotential\\\", a phenomenon observed in <a href=\\\"cyclic%20voltammetry\\\">cyclic voltammetry</a> and partially described by the <a href=\\\"Cottrell%20equation\\\">Cottrell equation</a>.\\nReaction overpotential is an activation overpotential that specifically relates to <a href=\\\"Electrochemical%20reaction%20mechanism\\\">chemical reactions</a> that precede electron transfer. Reaction overpotential can be reduced or eliminated with the use of <a href=\\\"electrocatalyst\\\">electrocatalyst</a>s. The electrochemical reaction rate and related <a href=\\\"current%20density\\\">current density</a> is dictated by the kinetics of the electrocatalyst and <a href=\\\"substrate%20%28chemistry%29\\\">substrate</a> concentration.\\nThe <a href=\\\"platinum\\\">platinum</a> electrode common to much of <a href=\\\"electrochemistry\\\">electrochemistry</a> is electrocatalytically involved in many reactions. For example, <a href=\\\"hydrogen\\\">hydrogen</a> is oxidized and protons are reduced readily at the platinum surface of a <a href=\\\"standard%20hydrogen%20electrode\\\">standard hydrogen electrode</a> in <a href=\\\"aqueous%20solution\\\">aqueous solution</a>. Substituting an electrocatalytically inert <a href=\\\"glassy%20carbon\\\">glassy carbon</a> electrode for the platinum electrode produces irreversible reduction and oxidation peaks with large overpotentials.\\nConcentration overpotential spans a variety of phenomena that involve the depletion of charge-carriers at the electrode surface. Bubble overpotential is a specific form of concentration overpotential in which the concentration of charge-carriers is depleted by the formation of a physical bubble. The \\\"diffusion overpotential\\\" can refer to a concentration overpotential created by slow diffusion rates as well as \\\"polarization overpotential\\\", whose overpotential is derived mostly from activation overpotential but whose peak current is limited by diffusion of analyte.\\nThe potential difference is caused by differences in the concentration of charge-carriers between bulk solution and the electrode surface. It occurs when electrochemical reaction is sufficiently rapid to lower the surface concentration of the charge-carriers below that of bulk solution. The rate of reaction is then dependent on the ability of the charge-carriers to reach the electrode surface.\\nBubble overpotential is a specific form of concentration overpotential and is due to the evolution of gas at either the anode or cathode. This reduces the effective area for current and increases the local current density. An example is the electrolysis of an aqueous <a href=\\\"sodium%20chloride\\\">sodium chloride</a> solution—although <a href=\\\"oxygen\\\">oxygen</a> should be produced at the anode based on its potential, bubble overpotential causes <a href=\\\"chlorine\\\">chlorine</a> to be produced instead, which allows the easy industrial production of chlorine and <a href=\\\"sodium%20hydroxide\\\">sodium hydroxide</a> by electrolysis.\\nResistance overpotentials are those tied to a cell design. These include \\\"junction overpotentials\\\" that occur at electrode surfaces and interfaces like electrolyte membranes. They can also include aspects of electrolyte diffusion, surface polarization (<a href=\\\"capacitance\\\">capacitance</a>) and other sources of counter <a href=\\\"electromotive%20force\\\">electromotive force</a>s.\",\n \"Néel temperature\\nThe Néel temperature or magnetic ordering temperature, \\\"T\\\", is the <a href=\\\"temperature\\\">temperature</a> above which an <a href=\\\"antiferromagnetic\\\">antiferromagnetic</a> material becomes <a href=\\\"paramagnetic\\\">paramagnetic</a>—that is, the thermal energy becomes large enough to destroy the microscopic <a href=\\\"magnetic\\\">magnetic</a> ordering within the material.\\nThe Néel temperature is analogous to the <a href=\\\"Curie%20temperature\\\">Curie temperature</a>, \\\"T\\\", for <a href=\\\"ferromagnetic\\\">ferromagnetic</a> materials. It is named after <a href=\\\"Louis%20N%C3%A9el\\\">Louis Néel</a> (1904–2000), who received the 1970 <a href=\\\"Nobel%20prize\\\">Nobel prize</a> in <a href=\\\"physics\\\">physics</a> for his work in the area.\\nListed below are the Néel temperatures of several materials:\\n\",\n \"Cubic crystal system\\nIn <a href=\\\"crystallography\\\">crystallography</a>, the cubic (or isometric) crystal system is a <a href=\\\"crystal%20system\\\">crystal system</a> where the <a href=\\\"Crystal_structure%23Unit_cell\\\">unit cell</a> is in the shape of a <a href=\\\"cube\\\">cube</a>. This is one of the most common and simplest shapes found in <a href=\\\"crystal\\\">crystal</a>s and <a href=\\\"mineral\\\">mineral</a>s.\\nThere are three main varieties of these crystals:\\nEach is subdivided into other variants listed below. Note that although the \\\"unit cell\\\" in these crystals is conventionally taken to be a cube, the <a href=\\\"primitive_cell\\\">\\\"primitive\\\" unit cell</a> often is not. This is related to the fact that in most cubic crystal systems, there is more than one atom per cubic unit cell.\\nA classic isometric crystal has square or <a href=\\\"Pentagon\\\">pentagonal</a> <a href=\\\"Face%20%28geometry%29\\\">faces</a>.\\nThe three <a href=\\\"Bravais%20lattice\\\">Bravais lattice</a>s in the cubic crystal system are:\\nThe primitive cubic system (cP) consists of one <a href=\\\"Lattice_%28group%29\\\">lattice</a> point on each corner of the cube. Each atom at a lattice point is then shared equally between eight adjacent cubes, and the unit cell therefore contains in total one atom (⁄ × 8).The body-centered cubic system (cI) has one lattice point in the center of the unit cell in addition to the eight corner points. It has a net total of 2 lattice points per unit cell (⁄ × 8 + 1).The face-centered cubic system (cF) has lattice points on the faces of the cube, that each gives exactly one half contribution, in addition to the corner lattice points, giving a total of 4 lattice points per unit cell (⁄ × 8 from the corners plus ⁄ × 6 from the faces). Each sphere in a cF lattice has <a href=\\\"coordination%20number\\\">coordination number</a> 12. Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of a central atom in the structure.\\nThe face-centered cubic system is closely related to the <a href=\\\"Hexagonal_crystal_system\\\">hexagonal close packed (HCP) system</a>, and the two systems differ only in the relative placements of their hexagonal layers. The <a href=\\\"Miller_index\\\">[111</a>] plane of a face-centered cubic system is a hexagonal grid.\\nAttempting to create a C-centered cubic crystal system (i.e., putting an extra lattice point in the center of each horizontal face) would result in a simple <a href=\\\"Tetragonal_crystal_system\\\">tetragonal</a> <a href=\\\"Bravais%20lattice\\\">Bravais lattice</a>.\\nThe \\\"isometric crystal system\\\" class names, examples, <a href=\\\"Schoenflies_notation\\\">Schönflies notation</a>, <a href=\\\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\\\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>, <a href=\\\"crystallographic_point_group\\\">point groups</a>, International Tables for Crystallography space group number, <a href=\\\"orbifold\\\">orbifold</a>, type, and <a href=\\\"space%20group\\\">space group</a>s are listed in the table below. There are a total 36 cubic space groups.\\nOther terms for hexoctahedral are: normal class, <a href=\\\"wiktionary%3Aholohedral\\\">holohedral</a>, ditesseral central class, <a href=\\\"galena\\\">galena</a> type.\\nA simple cubic unit cell has a single cubic void in the center.\\nA body-centered <a href=\\\"cube\\\">cubic</a> unit cell has six <a href=\\\"octahedron\\\">octahedral</a> voids located at the center of each face of the unit cell, and twelve further ones located at the midpoint of each edge of the same cell, for a total of six net octahedral voids. Additionally, there are 24 <a href=\\\"tetrahedron\\\">tetrahedral</a> voids located in a square spacing around each octahedral void, for a total of twelve net tetrahedral voids. These tetrahedral voids are not local maxima and are not technically voids, but they do occasionally appear in multi-atom unit cells.\\nA face-centered cubic unit cell has eight tetrahedral voids located midway between each corner and the center of the unit cell, for a total of eight net tetrahedral voids. Additionally, there are twelve octahedral voids located at the midpoints of the edges of the unit cell as well as one octahedral hole in the very center of the cell, for a total of four net octahedral voids.\\nOne important characteristic of a crystalline structure is its <a href=\\\"atomic%20packing%20factor\\\">atomic packing factor</a>. This is calculated by assuming that all the atoms are identical spheres, with a radius large enough that each sphere abuts on the next. The atomic packing factor is the proportion of space filled by these spheres.\\nAssuming one atom per lattice point, in a primitive cubic lattice with cube side length \\\"a\\\", the sphere radius would be ⁄ and the atomic packing factor turns out to be about 0.524 (which is quite low). Similarly, in a \\\"bcc\\\" lattice, the atomic packing factor is 0.680, and in \\\"fcc\\\" it is 0.740. The \\\"fcc\\\" value is the <a href=\\\"Close-packing_of_equal_spheres\\\">highest theoretically possible value</a> for any lattice, although there are other lattices which also achieve the same value, such as hexagonal close packed and one version of tetrahedral bcc.\\nAs a rule, since atoms in a solid attract each other, the more tightly packed arrangements of atoms tend to be more common. (Loosely packed arrangements do occur, though, for example if the <a href=\\\"Orbital_hybridisation\\\">orbital hybridization</a> demands certain <a href=\\\"Molecular_geometry\\\">bond angles</a>.) Accordingly, the primitive-cubic structure, with especially low atomic packing factor, is rare in nature, but is found in <a href=\\\"polonium\\\">polonium</a>. The \\\"bcc\\\" and fcc, with their higher densities, are both quite common in nature. Examples of \\\"bcc\\\" include <a href=\\\"iron\\\">iron</a>, <a href=\\\"chromium\\\">chromium</a>, <a href=\\\"tungsten\\\">tungsten</a>, and <a href=\\\"niobium\\\">niobium</a>. Examples of \\\"fcc\\\" include <a href=\\\"aluminium\\\">aluminium</a>, <a href=\\\"copper\\\">copper</a>, <a href=\\\"gold\\\">gold</a> and <a href=\\\"silver\\\">silver</a>.\\nCompounds that consist of more than one element (e.g. <a href=\\\"binary%20compound\\\">binary compound</a>s) often have crystal structures based on a cubic crystal system. Some of the more common ones are listed here.\\nThe <a href=\\\"space%20group\\\">space group</a> of the <a href=\\\"caesium%20chloride\\\">caesium chloride</a> (CsCl) structure is called Pm3 m (in <a href=\\\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\\\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>), or \\\"221\\\" (in the International Tables for Crystallography). The is \\\"B2\\\".\\nOne structure is the \\\"interpenetrating primitive cubic\\\" structure, also called the \\\"caesium chloride\\\" structure. Each of the two atom types forms a separate primitive cubic lattice, with an atom of one type at the center of each cube of the other type. Altogether, the arrangement of atoms is the same as body-centered cubic, but with alternating types of atoms at the different lattice sites. (See picture <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.ilpi.com/inorganic/structures/cscl/index.html\\\">here</a>.) Alternately, one could view this lattice as a simple cubic structure with a secondary atom in its cubic void.\\nIn addition to caesium chloride itself, the structure also appears in certain other <a href=\\\"Alkali_metal_halide\\\">alkali halides</a> when prepared at low temperatures or high pressures. Generally, this structure is more likely to be formed from two elements whose ions are of roughly the same size (for example, ionic radius of Cs = 181 pm, and Cl = 167 pm).\\nThe <a href=\\\"coordination%20number\\\">coordination number</a> of each atom in the structure is 8: the central cation is coordinated to 8 anions on the corners of a cube as shown, and similarly, the central anion is coordinated to 8 cations on the corners of a cube.\\nOther compounds showing caesium chloride like structure are CsBr, CsI, high-temp RbCl, AlCo, AgZn, BeCu, MgCe, RuAl and SrTl.\\nThe <a href=\\\"space%20group\\\">space group</a> of the rock-salt (NaCl) structure is called Fm3 m (in <a href=\\\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\\\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>), or \\\"225\\\" (in the International Tables for Crystallography). The Strukturbericht designation is \\\"B1\\\".\\nIn the rock-salt or <a href=\\\"sodium%20chloride\\\">sodium chloride</a> (<a href=\\\"halite\\\">halite</a>) structure, each of the two atom types forms a separate face-centered cubic lattice, with the two lattices interpenetrating so as to form a 3D checkerboard pattern. Alternately, one could view this structure as a face-centered cubic structure with secondary atoms in its octahedral holes.\\nExamples of compounds with this structure include sodium chloride itself, along with almost all other alkali halides, and \\\"many divalent metal oxides, sulfides, selenides, and tellurides\\\". More generally, this structure is more likely to be formed if the cation is somewhat smaller than the anion (a cation/anion radius ratio of 0.414 to 0.732).\\nThe coordination number of each atom in this structure is 6: each cation is coordinated to 6 anions at the vertices of an <a href=\\\"octahedron\\\">octahedron</a>, and similarly, each anion is coordinated to 6 cations at the vertices of an octahedron.\\nThe interatomic distance (distance between cation and anion, or half the unit cell length \\\"a\\\") in some rock-salt-structure crystals are: 2.3 Å (2.3 × 10 m) for NaF, 2.8 Å for NaCl, and 3.2 Å for SnTe.\\nOther compounds showing rock salt like structure are LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, NaF, NaBr, NaI, KF, KCl, KBr, KI, RbF, RbCl, RbBr, RbI, CsF, MgO, PbS, AgF, AgCl, AgBr and ScN.\\nThe <a href=\\\"space%20group\\\">space group</a> of the Zincblende structure is called F4 3m (in <a href=\\\"Hermann%E2%80%93Mauguin%20notation\\\">Hermann–Mauguin notation</a>), or 216. The Strukturbericht designation is \\\"B3\\\".\\nThe Zincblende structure (also written \\\"zinc blende\\\") is named after the mineral zincblende (<a href=\\\"sphalerite\\\">sphalerite</a>), one form of <a href=\\\"zinc%20sulfide\\\">zinc sulfide</a> (β-ZnS). As in the rock-salt structure, the two atom types form two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices. However, it differs from rock-salt structure in how the two lattices are positioned relative to one another. The zincblende structure has <a href=\\\"tetrahedron\\\">tetrahedral</a> <a href=\\\"coordination_number\\\">coordination</a>: Each atom's nearest neighbors consist of four atoms of the opposite type, positioned like the four vertices of a <a href=\\\"Tetrahedron%23Regular_tetrahedron\\\">regular tetrahedron</a>. Altogether, the arrangement of atoms in zincblende structure is the same as <a href=\\\"diamond%20cubic\\\">diamond cubic</a> structure, but with alternating types of atoms at the different lattice sites.\\nExamples of compounds with this structure include zincblende itself, <a href=\\\"lead%28II%29%20nitrate\\\">lead(II) nitrate</a>, many compound semiconductors (such as <a href=\\\"gallium%20arsenide\\\">gallium arsenide</a> and <a href=\\\"cadmium%20telluride\\\">cadmium telluride</a>), and a wide array of other binary compounds.\\nOther compounds showing zinc blende-like structure are α-AgI, β-BN, <a href=\\\"diamond\\\">diamond</a>, CuBr, β-CdS, BP and BAs.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Weaire%E2%80%93Phelan%20structure\\\">Weaire–Phelan structure</a> has Pm3n (223) symmetry.\\nIt has 3 orientations of stacked <a href=\\\"tetradecahedron\\\">tetradecahedron</a>s with <a href=\\\"Dodecahedron%23Pyritohedron\\\">pyritohedral</a> cells in the gaps. It is found as a <a href=\\\"crystal%20structure\\\">crystal structure</a> in <a href=\\\"chemistry\\\">chemistry</a> where it is usually known as the \\\"Type I <a href=\\\"Clathrate_compound\\\">clathrate</a> structure\\\". <a href=\\\"Clathrate_hydrate\\\">Gas hydrates</a> formed by methane, propane, and carbon dioxide at low temperatures have a structure in which <a href=\\\"water\\\">water</a> molecules lie at the nodes of the Weaire–Phelan structure and are <a href=\\\"hydrogen%20bond\\\">hydrogen bond</a>ed together, and the larger gas molecules are trapped in the polyhedral cages.\\n\",\n \"Cerium(IV) oxide\\nCerium(IV) oxide, also known as ceric oxide, ceric dioxide, ceria, cerium oxide or cerium dioxide, is an <a href=\\\"oxide\\\">oxide</a> of the <a href=\\\"rare-earth%20metal\\\">rare-earth metal</a> <a href=\\\"cerium\\\">cerium</a>. It is a pale yellow-white powder with the chemical formula CeO. It is an important commercial product and an intermediate in the purification of the element from the ores. The distinctive property of this material is its reversible conversion to a <a href=\\\"nonstoichiometric%20oxide\\\">nonstoichiometric oxide</a>.\\nCerium occurs naturally as a mixture with other rare-earth elements in its principal ores <a href=\\\"bastnaesite\\\">bastnaesite</a> and <a href=\\\"monazite\\\">monazite</a>. After extraction of the metal ions into aqueous base, Ce is separated from that mixture by addition of an oxidant followed by adjustment of the pH. This step exploits the low solubility of CeO and the fact that other rare-earth elements resist oxidation.\\nCerium(IV) oxide is formed by the <a href=\\\"calcination\\\">calcination</a> of <a href=\\\"cerium%20oxalate\\\">cerium oxalate</a> or <a href=\\\"cerium%20hydroxide\\\">cerium hydroxide</a>.\\nCerium also forms <a href=\\\"cerium%28III%29%20oxide\\\">cerium(III) oxide</a>, Ce2O3 , which is unstable and will oxidize to cerium(IV) oxide.\\nCerium oxide adopts the <a href=\\\"fluorite\\\">fluorite</a> structure, space group Fm3m, #225 containing 8-coordinate Ce and 4-coordinate O. At high temperatures it releases oxygen to give a <a href=\\\"nonstoichiometric%20compound\\\">non-stoichiometric, anion deficient form</a> that retains the fluorite lattice. This material has the formula CeO, where 0 < \\\"x\\\" < 0.28. The value of \\\"x\\\" depends on both the temperature and the oxygen partial pressure. The equation\\nhas been shown to predict the equilibrium non stoichiometry \\\"x\\\" over a wide range of oxygen partial pressures (10–10 Pa) and temperatures (1000–1900 °C).\\nThe non stoichiometric form has a blue to black color, and exhibits both ionic and electronic conduction with ionic being the most significant at temperatures > 500 °C.\\nThe number of oxygen vacancies is frequently measured by using <a href=\\\"X-ray%20photoelectron%20spectroscopy\\\">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a> to compare the ratios of Ce3+ to Ce4+ .\\nIn the most stable <a href=\\\"fluorite\\\">fluorite</a> phase of ceria, it exhibits several defects depending on partial pressure of oxygen or stress state of the material.\\nThe primary defects of concern are oxygen vacancies and small polarons (electrons localized on cerium cations). Increases in the number of oxygen defects increases the diffusion rate of oxide in the lattice as reflected in an increase in <a href=\\\"Ionic%20conductivity%20%28solid%20state%29\\\">ionic conductivity</a>. These factors recommend ceria as a solid electrolyte in <a href=\\\"solid-oxide%20fuel%20cell\\\">solid-oxide fuel cell</a>s. Undoped and doped ceria also exhibit high electronic conductivity at low partial pressures of oxygen due to reduction of the cerium ion leading to the formation of small <a href=\\\"polaron\\\">polaron</a>s. Since the oxygen atoms in a ceria crystal occur in planes, diffusion of these anions is facile. The diffusion rate increases as the defect concentration increases.\\nThe principal application of ceria is for polishing, especially <a href=\\\"chemical-mechanical%20planarization\\\">chemical-mechanical planarization</a> (CMP). For this purpose, it has displaced many other oxides that were previously used, such as <a href=\\\"iron%20oxide\\\">iron oxide</a> and <a href=\\\"zirconia\\\">zirconia</a>. For hobbyists, it is also known as \\\"opticians' rouge\\\".\\nCeO is used to decolorize glass by converting green-tinted ferrous impurities to nearly colorless ferric oxides.\\nCerium oxide has found use in <a href=\\\"Infrared\\\">infrared filters</a>, as an oxidizing species in <a href=\\\"catalytic%20converter\\\">catalytic converter</a>s and as a replacement for <a href=\\\"thorium%20dioxide\\\">thorium dioxide</a> in <a href=\\\"Gas%20mantle\\\">incandescent mantles</a>\\nThe interconvertibility of CeOx materials is the basis of the use of ceria for an oxidation catalyst. One small but illustrative use is its use in the walls of <a href=\\\"self-cleaning%20ovens\\\">self-cleaning ovens</a> as a hydrocarbon oxidation catalyst during the high-temperature cleaning process. Another small scale but famous example is its role in oxidation of natural gas in <a href=\\\"gas%20mantle\\\">gas mantle</a>s.\\nCeria has been used as a sensor in <a href=\\\"catalytic%20converter\\\">catalytic converter</a>s in automotive applications, controlling the air-exhaust ratio to reduce <a href=\\\"Nitrogen%20oxide\\\">NO</a> and <a href=\\\"carbon%20monoxide\\\">carbon monoxide</a>.\\nDue to the significant <a href=\\\"Ionic%20compound\\\">ionic</a> and <a href=\\\"electron\\\">electron</a>ic <a href=\\\"Electrical%20conductor\\\">conduction</a> of cerium oxide, it is well suited to be used as a <a href=\\\"mixed%20conductor\\\">mixed conductor</a>.\\nCeria is of interest as a material for <a href=\\\"solid%20oxide%20fuel%20cell\\\">solid oxide fuel cell</a>s (SOFCs) because of its relatively high oxygen <a href=\\\"Fast%20ion%20conductor\\\">ion conductivity</a> (i.e. oxygen atoms readily move through it) at intermediate temperatures (500–650 °C) and lower association enthalpy compared to Zirconia system.\\nThe <a href=\\\"cerium%28IV%29%20oxide%E2%80%93cerium%28III%29%20oxide%20cycle\\\">cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle</a> or CeO/CeO cycle is a two step <a href=\\\"Thermochemistry\\\">thermochemical</a> <a href=\\\"water%20splitting\\\">water splitting</a> process based on cerium(IV) oxide and <a href=\\\"cerium%28III%29%20oxide\\\">cerium(III) oxide</a> for <a href=\\\"hydrogen%20production\\\">hydrogen production</a>.\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(II,III) oxide (FeO), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, FeO is the main source of iron for the steel industry. FeO is ferromagnetic , dark red, and readily attacked by acids. Iron(III) oxide is often called rust, and to some extent this label is useful, because rust shares several properties and has a similar composition. To a chemist, rust is considered an ill-defined material, described as \"hydrated\" ferric oxide.","Ceramic colorants are added to a glaze or a clay to create color. Carbonates and oxides of certain metals, characterize most colorants including the commonly used cobalt carbonate, cobalt oxide, chrome oxide, red iron oxide, and copper carbonate. These colorants can create a multitude of colors depending on other materials they interact with and to which temperature and in which atmosphere they are fired."],"string":"[\n \"Iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula FeO. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(II,III) oxide (FeO), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, FeO is the main source of iron for the steel industry. FeO is ferromagnetic , dark red, and readily attacked by acids. Iron(III) oxide is often called rust, and to some extent this label is useful, because rust shares several properties and has a similar composition. To a chemist, rust is considered an ill-defined material, described as \\\"hydrated\\\" ferric oxide.\",\n \"Ceramic colorants are added to a glaze or a clay to create color. Carbonates and oxides of certain metals, characterize most colorants including the commonly used cobalt carbonate, cobalt oxide, chrome oxide, red iron oxide, and copper carbonate. These colorants can create a multitude of colors depending on other materials they interact with and to which temperature and in which atmosphere they are fired.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":76,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Where was the dual placed between Ohio Bobcats and a university team of Youngstown, Ohio, United States?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Ohio University's Aquatic Center"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ohio University Aquatic Center\nOhio University's Aquatic Center is the swimming and diving facility of the Ohio Bobcats. It has been home to Ohio Bobcats swimming and diving since it was opened on January 27, 1984 before a dual meet against the Youngstown State University Penguins.\nThe Aquatic Center has a potential to hold 1,105 spectators in the bleachers located above two sides of the pool. The Olympic-sized pool at the Aquatic Center has 22 25-yard lanes, 10 50-meter lanes and a pair of one and three meter diving boards. The pool's shallow end is 3 ft deep and the pool's deep end is 14 ft deep. The surface area of the pool is 12,300 ft2 , which contains 645,468.75 usgal of water.\nBecause it is one of the best swimming and diving facilities in the region, the Aquatic Center has hosted the 1985 NCAA Diving Regionals, 6 Women's Mid-American Conference Swimming and Diving Championships (1986, 1989, 1992, 1996, 2000 and 2005), and 4 Men's Mid-American Conference Swimming and Diving Championships (1988, 1991, 1998 and 2002). The Ohio High School Athletic Association also holds regional-level competition here often.\nIn addition to serving as the home of the Bobcats, the facility hosts various local high school swim meets and is used by Ohio University faculty, staff, and students as well as Athens, Ohio community members for recreational swimming.","Chessa Field\nChessa Field is the women's soccer field of the Ohio Bobcats. It was opened under the name of \"Ohio Soccer Field\" on September 6, 1997. On that day, Ohio defeated the Youngstown State University Penguins 2-0 in what was also the first home varsity women's soccer game in the history of Ohio University.\nIn 2003, several renovations took place to the field thanks to a $60,000 donation from Ohio University groundskeeper Scott Blower and his wife Crista. This allowed a new state-of-the-art, laser leveled grass playing surface to be installed at the field. The work was completed by Buckeye Lawn & Landscaping. Also, the field dimensions were expanded to the NCAA maximum, new bleachers with a capacity of 1,000 were added, a new press box were constructed, a new digital scoreboard was added to the facility, and wrought-iron fencing was erected to surround the field.\nThe stadium was named Chessa Field in honor of Scott and Crista Blower's daughter, Chessa Blower.\n","Bill Hess\nWilliam R. Hess (February 5, 1923 – June 10, 1978) was an American football coach. He served as the head football coach at Ohio University from 1958 to 1977. In his tenure as head coach for the Ohio Bobcats football team, Hess compiled a 108–91–4 record, ranking him second only to coach Don Peden on Ohio's all-time victories list. Hess's teams won four Mid-American Conference (MAC) championships (1960, 1963, 1967, and 1968) and won a National Small College Championship in 1960 after having an undefeated season. Hess also led the Bobcats to two bowl games, losing 15–14 to West Texas State in the 1962 Sun Bowl and losing 49–42 to Richmond in the 1968 Tangerine Bowl. His 1968 team is the only team in school history to finish ranked in the major polls. Hess was a native of Columbus, Ohio. He coached high school football in Portsmouth and Grandview Heights, Ohio before joining Woody Hayes's staff at Ohio State University in 1951.\n","1948 Ohio Bobcats football team\nThe 1948 Ohio Bobcats football team was an American football team that represented Ohio University in the Mid-American Conference (MAC) during the 1948 college football season. In their second and final season under head coach Harold Wise, the Bobcats compiled a 3–6 record (2–3 against MAC opponents), finished in fourth place in the MAC, and were outscored by all opponents by a combined total of 179 to 98. Three Ohio players received All-MAC honors: end John Marco (first team); halfback Jim McKenna (second team); and offensive guard Milt Taylor (second team).","2011–12 Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team\nThe 2011–12 Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team represented Ohio University during the 2011–12 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. The Bobcats, led by fourth year head coach John Groce, played their home games at the Convocation Center and are members of the East Division of the Mid-American Conference. They finished the season 29–8, 11–5 in MAC play to finish in third place in the East Division. They were champions of the MAC Basketball Tournament and earned an automatic bid into the 2012 NCAA Tournament where the 13th seeded Bobcats defeated Michigan in the second round and South Florida in the third round to advance to school's first \"Sweet Sixteen\" since 1964. They lost in the \"Sweet Sixteen\" to North Carolina in overtime.","Ohio Bobcats baseball\nThe Ohio Bobcats baseball team is a varsity intercollegiate athletic team of Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, United States. The team is a member of the Mid-American Conference East division, which is part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division I. Ohio's first baseball team was fielded in 1892. The team plays its home games at Bob Wren Stadium in Athens, Ohio. The Bobcats are coached by Rob Smith.\n","2012 Ohio Bobcats football team\nThe 2012 Ohio Bobcats football team represented Ohio University in the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season. They were led by eighth-year head coach Frank Solich and played their home games at Peden Stadium. They were a member of the East Division of the Mid-American Conference (MAC). After defeating Akron on October 13 to become 7–0 the Bobcats were ranked #25 in the AP Poll; Ohio had not been ranked nationally since 1968. On October 21, 2012, the Bobcats peaked at #23 in both the Coaches Poll and AP Poll, and #24 in the BCS standings. They finished the season 9–4, 4–4 in MAC play to finish in third place in the East Division. They were invited to the Independence Bowl where they defeated Louisiana–Monroe for their second consecutive bowl victory.\n","1949 Ohio Bobcats football team\nThe 1949 Ohio Bobcats football team was an American football team that represented Ohio University in the Mid-American Conference (MAC) during the 1949 college football season. In their first season under head coach Carroll Widdoes, the Bobcats compiled a 4–4–1 record (2–2 against MAC opponents), finished in third place in the MAC, and were outscored by all opponents by a combined total of 120 to 114. Three Ohio players received All-MAC honors: offensive tackle Al Scheider (first team); offensive guard Milt Taylor (first team); and end John Marco (second team).","Jim Snyder (coach)\nJames E. Snyder (June 29, 1919 – April 27, 1994) was head coach of the Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team for 26 years (1949–1974). He amassed 20 winning seasons and led his teams to 7 NCAA Tournament appearances (1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1972, and 1974) and one National Invitation Tournament appearance (1969). Snyder's teams compiled a 355-255 record, good for a .581 winning percentage. He was also an Ohio graduate (Class of 1941), and was a football and basketball star as an undergraduate in the late 1930s and early 1940s. One of his most memorable wins came against the University of Kentucky in the 1964 NCAA tournament, advancing the Ohio Bobcats to the Elite 8. One interesting aspect of this game was that Ohio had an integrated team while Kentucky had one of its last all white teams. Snyder was widely admired throughout the college basketball coaching fraternity as being a coach with great integrity and an engaging personality; he was often referred to as \"Gentleman Jim.\"","Ohio Bobcats\nThe Bobcats are the <a href=\"sport\">athletic</a> teams that represent <a href=\"Ohio%20University\">Ohio University</a>. The university fields six men's and women's intercollegiate teams that compete at the <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I\">NCAA Division I</a> level.\nThe Bobcats are 1946 charter members of the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a>. The school colors are Ohio Green and White.\nA member of the East Division of the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> (MAC), Ohio University sponsors teams in six men's and ten women's <a href=\"NCAA\">NCAA</a> sanctioned sports.\nFor the 2004 bicentennial biography of the university, the institution commissioned a book documenting the university's history. Betty Hollow's bicentennial publication \"Ohio University: The Spirit of a Singular Place\" describes many historical events in the university's athletic program.\nIn her book, Hollow records that Frank Super, the son of university president Charles W. Super, took time from his <a href=\"electrical%20engineering\">electrical engineering</a> studies to quarterback Ohio's first gridiron squad in 1894. Local businesses and \"sympathizers\", or fans, sported light-blue decorations and ribbons to show their support. Not only two years later, in 1896, did Ohio teams adopt green and white as school colors, chosen by the student body's vote. Hal Rowland, a former student, won the $10.00 contest to put forward the idea of a nickname that exemplified the team's tenacity and fighting spirit best: the Bobcat was born. Women's sports had advanced over many years at Ohio University, starting originally as the tennis club and participation in the <a href=\"Sports%20day\">field day</a>, where women could only compete in the baseball throw. The football team was invited to meet U.S. President <a href=\"Herbert%20Hoover\">Herbert Hoover</a> at the White House in 1932. Despite wide acclaim, football's legacy at the university is presently out-shined by Bobcat <a href=\"baseball\">baseball</a>.\nNumber \"54\" is the only number ever retired at Ohio University. It belonged to <a href=\"Frank%20Baumholtz\">Frank Baumholtz</a>, a two-sport star and one of the few athletes ever to play two professional sports. Baumholtz and men's basketball head coach W. J. \"Dutch\" Trautwein led the Cats to the 1941 National Invitational Tournament championship, building upon standards established by Butch Grover during his 16-year run as head coach from 1922 to 1938. Larry Hunter is one on a distinguished list of coaches that also includes <a href=\"Jim%20Snyder%20%28coach%29\">Jim Snyder</a>, whose twenty-five seasons produced 355 wins, conference crowns, and NCAA and NIT appearances. Baumholtz signed with the <a href=\"Cincinnati%20Reds\">Cincinnati Reds</a> in 1941. Bob Wren, a Bobcat infielder, was named coach in 1949 and in his twenty-three seasons his teams won almost 500 games, never suffering a losing season. Future major leaguers like <a href=\"Phillies\">Phillies</a>'s Hall of Famer <a href=\"Mike%20Schmidt\">Mike Schmidt</a> fueled Wren's powerhouse ballclubs. In fact, the 1970 team with Schmidt and future coach <a href=\"Joe%20Carbone\">Joe Carbone</a> as players advanced all the way to the College World Series, upsetting <a href=\"University%20of%20Southern%20California\">Southern California</a> in the first round.\nInstrumental within the university administrators building equal opportunities for women through increased spending and scholarship support was Peggy Pruitt, who retired in 2001. Building upon a tradition that has produced such stand-outs as Anita Corl Miller-Huntsman, Shelly Morris's field hockey team earned a MAC championship and an NCAA appearance in 2001. Wendy Weeden Devine, 1974, became the first woman inducted into the Ohio University Athletic Hall of Fame. An Ohio All-American and 1964 NCAA cross-country champion, Elmore \"Mo\" Banton led the cross-country and track and field teams as a coach to many MAC championships and NCAA highlights. Retiring in 1972, baseball's Coach Wren gave way to Jerry France, who coached future <a href=\"World%20Series\">World Series</a> skipper Bob Brenly of the <a href=\"Arizona%20Diamondbacks\">Arizona Diamondbacks</a>. France won almost 400 games, and his successor Joe Carbone added another 400 victories to the tradition.\n\"<a href=\"Sporting%20News\">Sporting News</a>\" ranked Ohio University thirty-second in the nation for overall achievement in 2001, ahead of such <a href=\"Dynasty%20%28sports%29\">powerhouses</a> as <a href=\"Florida%20State%20University\">Florida State</a>, <a href=\"University%20of%20Iowa\">Iowa</a>, <a href=\"University%20of%20Kentucky\">Kentucky</a>, <a href=\"Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology\">Georgia Tech</a>, and <a href=\"University%20of%20Kansas\">Kansas</a>.\nOhio's <a href=\"marching%20band\">marching band</a> is <a href=\"The%20Ohio%20University%20Marching%20110\">The Ohio University Marching 110</a>. On October 28, 1976, the Marching 110 became the first marching band in history to perform at <a href=\"Carnegie%20Hall\">Carnegie Hall</a>. The Marching 110 performed in <a href=\"Bill%20Clinton\">Bill Clinton</a>'s first inaugural parade through Washington, D.C., in 1992 when Clinton personally asked his campaign chairman, alumnus <a href=\"David%20Wilhelm\">David Wilhelm</a>, for the band to march and perform to throngs of thousands of Americans greeting the new <a href=\"First%20Family%20of%20the%20United%20States\">first family</a>. The band has also performed at many professional football games and has taken part in the <a href=\"Macy%27s%20Thanksgiving%20Day%20Parade\">Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade</a> in 2000 and 2005. Called \"The Most Exciting Band in the Land\", the band is widely regarded as one of the best in the nation and was ranked by Link Magazine in 1996 as one of the Top 10 college marching bands in the nation. They perform at every Ohio home football game.\nMany of those traditions are associated with athletics events on campus. Ohio traditions include:\nVarsity Ohio is the exclusive organization for student-athlete alumni, and sponsors the annual all-sports reunion during the week of Homecoming, with athletics alumni flying in from around the world.\nOhio's baseball and fastpitch <a href=\"softball\">softball</a> teams have storied programs.\nThe Ohio baseball program has won 14 MAC regular season titles in 1947, 1948, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1991. The team has also won MAC tournament titles in 1997 and 2015, and has made a College World Series appearance in 1970. There have been a total of 23 Bobcats in the major leagues, and hundreds more in the minors. Most notably, <a href=\"National%20Baseball%20Hall%20of%20Fame%20and%20Museum\">hall of famer</a> <a href=\"Mike%20Schmidt\">Mike Schmidt</a> was a Bobcat, selected 30th in the <a href=\"1971%20Major%20League%20Baseball%20draft\">1971 Major League Baseball draft</a> following his senior season.\nAlthough softball at Ohio University began earlier than the 1970s, records were not well kept. Upon the creation of the <a href=\"Association%20for%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics%20for%20Women\">Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women</a> (AIAW), the current program began to take shape. The 1974 team, led by Head Coach Joyce King, went undefeated, boasting a record of 11-0-1. It was not until 1975 that the program made the switch from slow-pitch to fast-pitch. In that 1975 season, the team went 16-1 and made it to the AIAW <a href=\"Women%27s%20College%20World%20Series\">Women's College World Series</a> for the first time in program history. The early success continued as the 1976 team earned a spot in the Ohio State Invitational.\nThe MAC and the NCAA did not begin to recognize women's softball until 1980 and both neglected to sponsor a tournament until 1982. The first MAC tournament featured the Bobcats as the runner-up, losing to their rival Miami of Ohio. In her second season, head coach Tracy Bunge led the Bobcats to the most wins in a season with a record of 39-22, winning their first MAC title and their first appearance in the NCAA regional play.\nIn the 2014 season, the softball program won its first MAC tournament title. They were able to receive an automatic bid for the NCAA Championship tournament. During this season, they tied their record for most regular season wins at 32, while reaching their first national postseason tournament in 19 years.\nThe current head coach of the Bobcats is Jodi Hermanek, who accepted the position on July 17, 2008. Her time of coaching at Ohio University has been remarkable, leading the team to break their program records in total strikeouts, most wins in a season, and its first MAC championship title.\nOhio's home basketball games are played at the 13,080-seat <a href=\"Convocation%20Center%20%28Ohio%20University%29\">Convocation Center</a>. Located on the West Green of Ohio University's main campus, the venue has a seating capacity of 13,080. Ohio is consistently one of the attendance leaders in the Mid-American Conference and has the ability to draw good crowds, win or lose. The arena was completed in 1968 and is the largest basketball facility in the Mid-American Conference. The Bobcats have won over 75% of their home games since the opening of The Convo. Prior to playing at the Convo, Ohio basketball games were first played in Bentley Hall and then at Grover Center, two buildings that today exist as office space and classrooms for the university. The Convocation Center brought in its largest crowd on February 28, 1970, when 14,102 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats men's basketball team defeat the <a href=\"Bowling%20Green%20State%20University\">Bowling Green</a> Falcons 77-76.\nThe first Ohio basketball game occurred in 1907 when the Bobcats defeated the <a href=\"Parkersburg%2C%20West%20Virginia\">Parkersburg YMCA</a> 46-9. Since that day, Ohio has posted a .571 winning percentage over their 100-year history and a .566 winning percentage in their 65 years in the Mid-American Conference. The Bobcats have won 6 Mid-American Conference tournament titles in 1983, 1985, 1994, 2005, 2010, and 2012. As well as 9 MAC regular season titles in 1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1985, and 1994. Prior to joining the MAC, the 'Cats won an Ohio Athletic Conference title in 1921 and three Buckeye Athletic Association championships in 1931, 1933, and 1937. In addition, Ohio has played in the <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournament</a> 13 times, appearing in 1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1983, 1985, 1994, 2005, 2010, and 2012. The Bobcats have been selected for the <a href=\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">National Invitation Tournament</a> 4 times in 1941 (runner-up), 1969, 1986, and 1995, while also appearing in the <a href=\"College%20Basketball%20Invitational\">College Basketball Invitational</a> in 2008. As a result of the storied tradition of Ohio Bobcats basketball, the program was recently ranked 86th in \"Street & Smith's 100 Greatest Basketball Programs of All Time\", published in 2005.\nSome of Ohio's famous men's basketball coaches include <a href=\"Jim%20Snyder%20%28coach%29\">Jim Snyder</a>, <a href=\"Danny%20Nee\">Danny Nee</a>, <a href=\"Larry%20Hunter\">Larry Hunter</a> and <a href=\"John%20Groce\">John Groce</a>. Jim Snyder led the Bobcats for 26 years (1949–1974) and helped Ohio to 7 NCAA Tournament appearances and one NIT appearance. Snyder's teams compiled a 355-255 record, good for a .581 winning percentage. Former Ohio coach Danny Nee led Ohio for 7 years from 1980–1986. Nee helped rebuild the program from several years of losing records, and he helped lead the team to 2 MAC Tournament titles, 2 NCAA Tournament appearances, and one NIT appearance. Following Nee's tenure at Ohio, he took a job as head coach of the <a href=\"Nebraska%20Cornhuskers\">Nebraska Cornhuskers</a>. Today Nee is head coach of the <a href=\"Duquesne%20Dukes\">Duquesne Dukes</a>. <a href=\"Larry%20Hunter\">Larry Hunter</a> served as head coach of Ohio from 1989–2001, compiling a winning percentage of .580 (204-148). His teams made one NCAA Tournament appearance in 1994, an NIT appearance in 1995, and won the Pre-Season NIT in 1994. Despite his record as coach of the Bobcats, Hunter was relieved of his duties in 2001 for a lack of postseason success. Today, Hunter is head coach of the <a href=\"Western%20Carolina%20Catamounts\">Western Carolina Catamounts</a>.\nOhio's head coach from 2001 to 2008 was <a href=\"Tim%20O%27Shea\">Tim O'Shea</a>. Coach O'Shea resigned on Monday June 23, 2008, in order to become the head coach of Bryant University in Rhode Island. Coach O'Shea had arrived at Ohio in 2001 after 4 seasons as an assistant coach at his alma mater, <a href=\"Boston%20College\">Boston College</a>. He came to Athens on March 29, 2001 and vowed to take the Ohio men's basketball program to what he called the \"next level\". This next level was realized in 2005 as he led to Bobcats to a 21-11 record, a MAC Tournament Title, and an NCAA Tournament appearance in which 13 seed Ohio nearly upset 4 seed <a href=\"Florida\">Florida</a>. O'Shea's 2005–2006 team proved successful as well, posting a 19-11 record with wins over teams such as <a href=\"Rhode%20Island\">Rhode Island</a> and <a href=\"Samford%20University\">Samford</a>, and a close loss to <a href=\"Kentucky\">Kentucky</a>. The 2006–2007 team also posted 19 wins, with a final record of 19-13. A 20 win campaign was had in the 2007–2008 season, including notable non-conference wins over <a href=\"Maryland\">Maryland</a>, <a href=\"St.%20John%27s%20University%20%28New%20York%20City%29\">St. John's</a>, <a href=\"George%20Mason%20University\">George Mason</a>, and <a href=\"Bucknell%20University\">Bucknell</a>. The team was extended an invite to the <a href=\"College%20Basketball%20Invitational\">College Basketball Invitational</a>, where the Bobcats advanced to the second round. On June 27, 2008, former <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes\">Ohio State Buckeyes</a> associate head coach <a href=\"John%20Groce\">John Groce</a> was named the sixteenth head coach in Bobcats history. Groce brings fourteen years of assistant coaching experience to Athens, along with a pair of outright <a href=\"Big%20Ten\">Big Ten</a> regular-season titles, two <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\">NCAA Tournament</a> appearances, a berth in the 2007 NCAA National Championship game and the 2008 <a href=\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">NIT</a> title.\nOn March 18, 2010, the men's basketball program recorded a 97-83 blowout of the <a href=\"Georgetown%20Hoyas\">Georgetown Hoyas</a>. The upset marked the first time in NCAA tournament history that a fourteen seed defeated a three seed by double digits. Ohio defeated 4th seeded Michigan in the 2012 Tournament. They followed up the 2012 victory over <a href=\"Michigan%20Wolverines\">Michigan</a> with a 62–56 win over 12th seeded South Florida, reaching the Sweet Sixteen for the first time since 1964. On March 28, 2012, <a href=\"John%20Groce\">John Groce</a> left the program to coach at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Illinois\">University of Illinois</a>. He was replaced by <a href=\"Texas%20Christian%20University\">Texas Christian University</a> head coach <a href=\"Jim%20Christian\">Jim Christian</a> on April 3, 2012. Christian became Ohio University's highest paid faculty member in school history, having a base salary of $425,000 a year. He was replaced two years later on the same day after he got a coaching job at Boston College by Saul Phillips. Phillips was the head coach of North Dakota State.\nThe Bobcats have won three MAC Tournaments (1986, 1995, 2015) since beginning play in 1973 and starting MAC play in 1982. They have reached the NCAA Tournament in those three championship years. Their current coach is <a href=\"Bob%20Boldon\">Bob Boldon</a>.\nThe men's and women's teams are now coached by Clay Calkins, Mitch Bentley, and Nick Pero. The Ohio Bobcats’ women's cross country team competes at <a href=\"Goldsberry%20Track\">Goldsberry Track</a> in Athens, Ohio. The current head coach of the cross country and distance team is Mitch Bentley. Bentley is an alumnus of Ohio University, graduating with his bachelor's degree in geology in 1985. While on the team, he set two school records for the outdoor 10,000 meters (29:57.50) and the indoor 5,000 meter race. He is a four-time varsity letter winner in cross country and track, earning two All-MAC honors for cross country, indoor, and outdoor track. He began his university coaching career in 2003. The teams were previously coached by Elmore \"Mo\" Banton, a widely-known coach who became Ohio's first African American head coach in 1980 and stayed with the program for over twenty years. Many cross country runners also run for the track team in the spring, forming the core of the distance runners. The runners were greatly affected by the loss of the Men's Track program in 2007.\nThe Ohio Men's Cross-Country program claims MAC titles from 1962, 1964, and 1996. Recently, distance athlete and Ohio's former Director of Compliance Craig Leon became a qualifier to the U.S. Olympic Trials for the marathon in Eugene, Oregon. Leon finished 10th at the 2013 Boston Marathon, the same race during the 2013 <a href=\"Boston%20Marathon%20bombing\">Boston Marathon bombing</a>. Since the 2007 track team elimination, the cross-country squad competes in mid- and long-distance events each Spring as the Club Track Team at the annual <a href=\"Wake%20Forest%20University\">Wake Forest University</a> track meet.\nThe women's cross country team has been highly successful. Between 1980 and 2014, Ohio has had the top female runner in the MAC 7 times. During this time, four females have been named the first runner up for the best female athlete in the MAC. In 2013, Juli Accurso, became the first female runner in the MAC to win three consecutive conference titles. The women's cross country team has won the MAC Championship a total of 10 times, in the years 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1997, 2006, and 2007.\nOhio Bobcats football began in 1894 with an 8-0 loss to <a href=\"Marietta%20College\">Marietta College</a>. Since that day, the Bobcats have posted a 498-516-48 record over their 112-year existence and a 202-243-11 record over their 60 years in the Mid-American Conference.\n<a href=\"Peden%20Stadium\">Peden Stadium</a>, built in 1929, is the oldest football venue in the MAC and among the oldest in the nation. Located on the south of Ohio University's campus in Athens, the venue has a <a href=\"seating%20capacity\">seating capacity</a> of 24,000. In 2010, Peden Stadium was designated an official Ohio Historical landmark site after a university alumnus, Michael A Massa, advanced the idea to Ohio University and State of Ohio officials. Many recent renovation and expansion efforts have allowed the stadium to keep pace with the ever-changing landscape of college football stadiums. As such, Peden Stadium is nicknamed \"The <a href=\"Wrigley%20Field\">Wrigley Field</a> of College Football\". The historic stadium brought its largest crowd on September 8, 2012, when 25,893 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats decisively beat the <a href=\"2012%20New%20Mexico%20State%20Aggies%20football%20team\">New Mexico State Aggies</a> by a score of 51-24. This mark overtook the previous record set on September 5, 2009, when 24,617 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats drop a 23-16 decision to the <a href=\"Connecticut%20Huskies%20football\">Connecticut Huskies</a>. The third largest crowd came on September 9, 2005, when 24,545 fans watched the Bobcats defeat the <a href=\"Pittsburgh%20Panthers%20football\">Pittsburgh Panthers</a> 16-10. The fourth largest crowd was on September 17, 2011, when 24,422 fans watched the Bobcats defeat the Marshall Thundering Herd 44-7 in the Battle of the Bell. Ohio is consistently one of the attendance leaders in the Mid-American Conference.\nThe Bobcats have won five MAC Football championships in 1953, 1960, 1963, 1967, and 1968, and MAC East Division championships in 2006, 2009, and 2011. Prior to joining the MAC, the Bobcats won six Buckeye Athletic Association championships in 1929, 1930, 1931, 1935, 1936, and 1938. In 1960, the Bobcats were crowned National Small College Champions after compiling a 10-0 record under Coach Bill Hess. The Bobcats have appeared in six bowl games, losing 15-14 to <a href=\"West%20Texas%20A%26amp%3BM%20University\">West Texas State</a> in the 1962 <a href=\"Sun%20Bowl\">Sun Bowl</a>, losing 49-42 to <a href=\"University%20of%20Richmond\">Richmond</a> in the 1968 <a href=\"Tangerine%20Bowl%20%281947%E2%80%9382%29\">Tangerine Bowl</a>, falling 28-7 to <a href=\"The%20University%20of%20Southern%20Mississippi\">Southern Mississippi</a> in the 2007 <a href=\"GMAC%20Bowl\">GMAC Bowl</a>, losing 21-17 to <a href=\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd\">Marshall</a> in the 2009 <a href=\"Little%20Caesars%20Pizza%20Bowl\">Little Caesars Pizza Bowl</a>, and losing to Troy in the 2010 <a href=\"New%20Orleans%20Bowl\">New Orleans Bowl</a>, 48-21, before finally winning a bowl game in the 2011 <a href=\"Famous%20Idaho%20Potato%20Bowl\">Famous Idaho Potato Bowl</a> against Utah State, 24-23.\nSome of Ohio's notable football coaches include <a href=\"Don%20Peden\">Don Peden</a>, <a href=\"Bill%20Hess\">Bill Hess</a>, <a href=\"Jim%20Grobe\">Jim Grobe</a>, and current head coach <a href=\"Frank%20Solich\">Frank Solich</a>. Peden coached from 1924–1946, compiling a 121-46-11 record, good for a winning percentage of .711 that still stands as the best ever for an Ohio football coach. Peden's teams won a total of 6 Buckeye Athletic Association Championships in his tenure and left a lasting mark on the program when the Bobcat's football stadium, Peden Stadium, was named in his honor following his retirement. Bill Hess's time at Ohio was equally impressive. Coaching from 1958–1977, Hess had a 108-91-4 record, giving him a winning percentage of .542 that is second only to Peden on Ohio's all-time list. Coach Hess's teams won 4 MAC Championships, participated in 2 bowl games, and won a National Small College Championship in 1960 after having an undefeated season. Former Ohio coach Jim Grobe took the helm of the Bobcats program in 1995, inheriting a squad that winless in the previous season. Grobe quickly turned the program around, as his teams went 8-3 in 1997 and 7-4 in 2000. Coach Grobe had a 33-33-1 record in his time at Ohio, good for a .500 winning percentage that is fourth among all Ohio football coaches. After the 2000 football season, Grobe took a job as head football coach at Wake Forest University.\n<a href=\"Frank%20Solich\">Frank Solich</a> was named the 28th football coach of the Bobcats on December 16, 2004. Prior to coming to Ohio, Solich spent many years as a part of the <a href=\"University%20of%20Nebraska-Lincoln\">University of Nebraska</a> football program, as a player, an assistant coach, and later as the head coach. Solich was head coach of the Cornhuskers from 1998–2003 where he directed Nebraska to 6 consecutive bowl games, including the national championship game in the 2002 <a href=\"Rose%20Bowl%20Game\">Rose Bowl</a>. Solich's impact on the Ohio program was immediate, as plans were put in place to renovate Ohio's football facilities and increase financial support for the football program. Also, Ohio was selected to appear on national television 6 times for the 2005 football season, a record for the program. Frank Solich's first home game as coach of Ohio was a memorable one, as Peden Stadium brought in its largest ever crowd to watch the Bobcats defeat the <a href=\"University%20of%20Pittsburgh%20Panthers\">University of Pittsburgh Panthers</a> 16-10.\nUnder the guidance of Frank Solich, the Ohio football program has enjoyed a return to national prominence. On November 16, 2006 the Bobcats secured their first-ever MAC East Division title and their first football championship of any sort since 1968 with a victory over the <a href=\"Akron%20Zips%20football\">Akron Zips</a>. They then advanced to the <a href=\"MAC%20Football%20Championship%20Game\">MAC Championship Game</a> in <a href=\"Detroit\">Detroit</a>, where they were defeated by Central Michigan 31-10. On January 7, 2007, the Bobcats acted as the MAC representative in the <a href=\"GMAC%20Bowl\">GMAC Bowl</a> in <a href=\"Mobile%2C%20Alabama\">Mobile, Alabama</a>, losing 28-7 to the <a href=\"University%20of%20Southern%20Mississippi%20Golden%20Eagles\">University of Southern Mississippi Golden Eagles</a> in a game nationally televised on <a href=\"ESPN\">ESPN</a>. The Bobcats followed up the 2006 campaign with a 6-6 record in 2007, and was one of six <a href=\"bowl%20eligible\">bowl eligible</a> programs that was not invited to post-season play. The Bobcats returned to the post-season in 2009, posting a 9-3 regular season record and another MAC East Championship. Ohio played in the <a href=\"MAC%20Football%20Championship%20Game\">MAC Championship Game</a>, where they fell to Central Michigan 20-10. On December 26, 2009, the Bobcats fell 21-17 to the <a href=\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd%20football\">Thundering Herd</a> in the <a href=\"Little%20Caesars%20Pizza%20Bowl\">Little Caesars Pizza Bowl</a>.\n\"All players in bold are current NFL players.\"\nThe Ohio Bobcats golf teams are two of the only teams in the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">MAC</a> that possess their own <a href=\"golf%20course\">golf course</a>. Both the men's and women's teams have several notable victories in national tournaments and compete at regular matches across the country.\nThrough the 2014 season, the men's golf team has won 18 MAC tournament titles: 1951–55, 1957–61, 1963–65, 1967, 1969, 1971, 1979–80 (1954 co-champions with <a href=\"Kent%20State%20Golden%20Flashes%23Men%27s%20golf\">Kent State</a>). <a href=\"PGA%20Tour\">PGA Tour</a> golfer <a href=\"Dow%20Finsterwald\">Dow Finsterwald</a> is among the Ohio golf program's famous alumni.\nOhio's volleyball team has been steadily increasing national prominence: Under the direction of Coach Geoff Carlston, the team won five consecutive Mid-American Conference regular season championships from 2003 to 2007, and 4 consecutive MAC tournament titles from 2003 to 2006. The team has appeared in the <a href=\"NCAA\">NCAA</a> Tournament every year since 2003, and made the \"Sweet 16\" of the <a href=\"NCAA\">NCAA</a> tournament in 2005. Following the end of the 2007 season, Coach Geoff Carlston moved on to take the head coaching position at <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20University\">Ohio State University</a>, with Ohio naming former Florida assistant Ryan Theis to the vacant head coaching position. Under the direction of Theis, the Bobcats have won 2 MAC regular season titles and have recorded 2 <a href=\"NCAA\">NCAA</a> Tournament appearances.\nThe 2014 season was highly successful, with Deane Webb as their new head coach. Overall, the team went 23-6 on the season and remained undefeated in the MAC for the fourth time ever, their first since 2006. They won the MAC East Division title for 12th time and won the MAC regular season title for the second year in a row, their ninth overall. Their junior setter, Abby Gilleland, won the MAC Player of the Year, MAC Setter of the Year, and First Team All-MAC honors for the second year in a row. Meredith Ashy, also a junior, was the first player in Ohio Bobcats history to receive the MAC Defensive Player of the Year award, as well as being named First Team All-MAC selection. Graduating senior Kelly Lamberti capped her career off as one of two players to receive four First Team All-MAC honors.\nOhio's women's swimming and diving team has won 11 MAC championships in 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2008 and 2011. This is more than any other women's swimming and diving program in the conference. The team competes in The Ohio University Aquatic Center, one of the finest swimming and diving facilities in the conference. The OUAC has hosted many Mid-American Conference Championship meets. Paul Anastacio is considered their best men's swimmer ever.\nWomen's soccer at Ohio University began in 1997 under head coach Wendy Logan. Logan won the MAC Coach of the Year award in 1997, then led the team to their first regular season MAC champion title in 1998. In 2000, Stacy Strauss took over the head coach position and remained until 2012. During this time, Strauss led the 2001 and 2004 teams to become the MAC regular season champions. The Bobcats have never won the MAC tournament, though their record is 7-14.\nThe current head coach is Aaron Rodgers, who took over the program in 2013. He was the former Kentucky Wildcats assistant coach. In his first two seasons at Ohio University, he has led the team to a combined record of 33-0-0.\nThe current head coach of the program is Clay Calkins, a 1995 graduate of <a href=\"Malone%20University\">Malone University</a>. Calkins was born and raised in East Sparta, Ohio and had success in hurdles, pole vault, and jumps. After accepting the position in June 2003, Calkins led the men's track and field teams to 4 years of success, only ending because of the 2007 <a href=\"Title%20IX\">Title IX</a> legislation, which eliminated a total of 4 teams. Under his coaching, the numerous female athletes have become MAC and Regional Champions, as well as multiple national qualifiers.\nThe team as a whole has won the MAC Championship in 1983, 1984, and 1994. Ohio's coach Diane Stamm won the MAC Women's Track Coach of the Year in the years 1982, 1983, 1984. In 1994, Elmore Banton, Ohio head coach, became the most recent coach from the Bobcats to win the award.\nThe Ohio University wrestling program's inception was in 1919, when Thor Olson, the so-called \"Granddaddy of Collegiate Wrestling\", coached the very first Bobcat varsity wrestling team to a 1-1 record. The first of its kind at any university or institution in the state of Ohio, that wrestling team established a tradition that has continued under the leadership of past coaches like Fred Schleicher and Harry Houska. Present coach Joel Greenlee is entering his 17th season as the head coach of the Bobcat wrestling program after helping five individuals earn bids for the 2013 NCAA Wrestling Championships. Recent Bobcat standout <a href=\"wrestling\">wrestler</a> Jake Percival was at the 2004 NCAA meet, less than 40 seconds away from becoming Ohio's fifth national champion, but a late two-point reversal by Stanford's Matt Gentry in the 157-pound finals resulted in a second-place finish for Percival as the Bobcats placed 25th in the country under the guidance of Greenlee. Percival, the three-time MAC Wrestler of the Year, became the first four-time\nAll-American in MAC history with a third-place finish at nationals in 2005. During his senior season, the Elyria native passed Enright (115-31) and Gardner (122-26) to become the school's all-time wins leader. He ended his career with a 142-10 record, including 18-6 in the NCAA Tournament, 113-4 during the regular season and a 17-0 mark in the conference. Ohio University wrestling home dual meets and tournaments take place in the <a href=\"Convocation%20Center%20%28Ohio%20University%29\">Convocation Center</a> located on campus.\nMAC Championships in parentheses:\nOn January 25, 2007, then-Athletic Director Kirby Hocutt announced the elimination of four varsity sports at Ohio University. Those sports include: men's swimming and diving, men's indoor track, men's outdoor track and women's lacrosse. The decision was announced without any advance warning to the student athletes involved causing major tension between the student body and the administration. The Athletic Department later revealed that the money saved would be reinvested in forcible sports.\nOhio's athletic facilities and the teams that utilize them are as follows:\nThe Kermit Blosser Ohio Athletics Hall of Fame was established in 1965. Inductees to the Blosser Ohio Athletics Hall of Fame are inducted during banquet ceremonies the evening prior to a designated home football game. Inductees are also recognized during a special halftime ceremony at the football game the following day. A portrait and accomplishments are displayed in the Ohio Athletics Hall of Fame located in the Convocation Center.\nJim Schaus was named the new Director of Athletics at Ohio University by President <a href=\"Roderick%20J.%20McDavis\">Roderick J. McDavis</a> on April 7, 2008. Before accepting the job at Ohio, Schaus served in the same capacity at <a href=\"Wichita%20State%20University\">Wichita State University</a> for 9 years. Schaus replaced <a href=\"Kirby%20Hocutt\">Kirby Hocutt</a>, who took the Director of Athletics position at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Miami\">University of Miami</a>. Schaus' senior staff at Ohio includes: Amy Dean (Senior Associate AD/Administration & Sport Programs), Dan Hauser (Associate AD/External Operations), Lauren Ashman (Associate AD/Compliance), Randee Duffy (Associate AD/NCAA Eligibility & Student Athlete Success), Ryan White (Associate AD/Development), Tim Knavel (Associate AD/Business Operations) and Matt Molde (General Manager Ohio IMG Sports Marketing).\nBetween 2011 and 2012, the University sponsored a select committee for leveraging talks for an indoor, multipurpose center. The building was dedicated after nearly five years of planning on August 26, 2014.\nIn 2014, the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics and affiliated groups began a fundraising drive for a state-of-the-art study wing at Peden Stadium due to crowded interior space.\nThe official radio home of the Ohio Bobcats is the Ohio IMG Sports Network. The first MAC network to reach into Columbus, the Ohio IMG Sports Network continues to serve the university's alumni base and fans in other parts of southeastern Ohio and parts of northern West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. The radio voice of the Bobcats is Russ Eisenstein with Rob Cornelius as color analyst for Bobcat football and men's basketball and Tom Hodson as the football sideline reporter.\nThe network features 13 radio affiliations throughout southeast and central Ohio, and into West Virginia:\n\n","Don Peden\nDon C. Peden (c. 1898 – February 23, 1970) was an <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> and <a href=\"baseball\">baseball</a> player and coach. He served as the head football coach at <a href=\"Ohio%20University\">Ohio University</a> from 1924 to 1946, compiling a record of 121–46–11. Peden's winning percentage of .711 is the highest of any coach in the history of the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\">Ohio Bobcats football</a> program. His teams won six <a href=\"Buckeye%20Athletic%20Association\">Buckeye Athletic Association</a> championships, in 1929, 1930, 1931, 1935, 1936, and 1938. Peden was also the head baseball coach at Ohio from 1924 to 1948, tallying a mark of 250–134. The Bobcats' football stadium was renamed in his honor as <a href=\"Peden%20Stadium\">Peden Stadium</a> following his retirement. Peden died at the age of 71 on February 23, 1970 in <a href=\"San%20Diego\">San Diego, California</a>.\n","1968 Tangerine Bowl\nThe 1968 Tangerine Bowl was held on December 27, 1968, at the <a href=\"Camping%20World%20Stadium\">Tangerine Bowl</a> stadium in <a href=\"Orlando%2C%20Florida\">Orlando, Florida</a>. The <a href=\"Richmond%20Spiders%20football\">Richmond Spiders</a> of the <a href=\"Southern%20Conference\">Southern Conference</a> defeated the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\">Ohio Bobcats</a> of the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> by a score of 49–42. The Tangerine Bowl is a former name of what is now called the <a href=\"Citrus%20Bowl\">Citrus Bowl</a>.\nHeading into the game, <a href=\"Ohio%20University\">Ohio University</a> finished their regular season slate with a perfect 10–0–0 record. The Bobcats also held a #15 <a href=\"Associated%20Press\">Associated Press</a> (AP) national ranking. The 1970 Ohio Bobcats football team had one of the most potent offenses the nation and was spearheaded by <a href=\"quarterback\">quarterback</a> <a href=\"Cleve%20Bryant\">Cleve Bryant</a>. Ohio was one of only three NCAA programs to finish their regular season with an unbeaten and untied record.\nThe <a href=\"University%20of%20Richmond\">University of Richmond</a> entered with an 8–3–0 record. They were <a href=\"List%20of%20Southern%20Conference%20football%20champions\">Southern Conference champions</a> after having finished 6–0–0 in conference play. They were decided underdogs against Ohio and the national media did not give them much of a chance to compete, let alone win the game. The upset-minded Spiders did just that, however, winning their first-ever postseason bowl game 49–42. It would ultimately be Richmond's only bowl victory (they lost in their only other bowl appearance, the <a href=\"1971%20Tangerine%20Bowl\">1971 Tangerine Bowl</a>).\nAfter the loss, the Bobcats finished #20 in the final <a href=\"AP%20Poll\">AP Poll</a>.\n","Grandview Heights, Ohio\nGrandview Heights is a city in <a href=\"Franklin%20County%2C%20Ohio\">Franklin County</a>, <a href=\"Ohio\">Ohio</a>, <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>. The population was 6,536 at the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>.\nThe city was originally part of <a href=\"Marble%20Cliff%2C%20Ohio\">Marble Cliff</a>, one of the first suburbs of <a href=\"Columbus%2C%20Ohio\">Columbus</a>, which settled as a community in 1890 and incorporated as the \"Hamlet of Marble Cliff\" in 1901. Grandview Heights became a separate village in 1906, and a city in 1931.\nGrandview Heights maintains its own police and fire departments and an independent school district. Its neighbor, Marble Cliff, contracts with the city to provide these to its own residents.\nGrandview Heights is often remarked upon as being a small insulated city very close to downtown Columbus and has one of the smallest school districts in the greater urban area in terms of student population.\nGrandview Heights is located at (39.980564, -83.041027).\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 1.33 sqmi , all land.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2010, there were 6,536 people, 2,927 households, and 1,680 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 4914.3 PD/sqmi . There were 3,087 housing units at an average density of 2321.1 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 94.6% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 1.4% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.2% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 1.2% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.8% from <a href=\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.9% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 2.4% of the population.\nThere were 2,927 households of which 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.6% were non-families. 31.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.86.\nThe median age in the city was 35.7 years. 21.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 33.7% were from 25 to 44; 27.6% were from 45 to 64; and 9.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 6,695 people, 2,953 households, and 1,742 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 4,972.1 people per square mile (1,914.8/km²). There were 3,034 housing units at an average density of 2,253.2 per square mile (867.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 95.92% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 1.34% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.06% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 1.00% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.42% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.25% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 1.51% of the population.\nThere were 2,953 households out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.6% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.0% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.92.\nIn the city the population was spread out with 24.7% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $51,328, and the median income for a family was $63,713. Males had a median income of $41,989 versus $36,711 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $27,495. About 3.0% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 5.4% of those under age 18 and 5.2% of those age 65 or over.\nThe Bank Block is a historic strip mall along Grandview Avenue, the main commercial road. One of the first to include a parking lot, the Bank Block was built in 1927. It first included a grocery store, a pharmacy, and a bank among a total of 12 storefronts.","1962 Sun Bowl\nThe 1962 Sun Bowl was a <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> postseason <a href=\"bowl%20game\">bowl game</a> between the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\">Ohio Bobcats</a> and the <a href=\"West%20Texas%20State%20Buffaloes%20football\">West Texas State Buffaloes</a>.\nWest Texas State (now known as West Texas A&M) was selected as an independent and was third in scoring with 29.7 points per game and fifth in rushing with 255.5 yards per game. Ohio was selected to represent as a member of the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-America Athletic Conference</a> in their first ever bowl game. This was the final Sun Bowl played at Kidd Field.\nJim McKee kicked a 52-yard field goal to put the Bobcats ahead early but they trailed at the half 7-3 after a touchdown pass from Jim Dawson to Jerry Don Logan. In the third quarter, Skip Hoovler intercepted a pass and ran it back 91 yards for a touchdown, which still stands as the longest interception return in the Sun Bowl. Bob Babbitt completed a pass to Ken Smith for the two-point conversion to give Ohio an 11-7 lead. Ohio added in a field goal in the 4th to make it 14-7 late in the game. West Texas scored on a Dave “Hoot” Gibson pass to Jerry Richardson, who went 32 yards for the score. The game came down to a two-point conversion attempt by the Buffaloes. Dawson's pass to Jim Ostrander was successful, and the Buffaloes won. Logan recorded six tackles and caught a touchdown pass and was named MVP. Pete Pedro rshed for 105 yards on 14 carries for the Buffaloes.\nOhio would win the MAC title the following year, but wasn't invited to a bowl game. The Buffaloes made just one more bowl game, the <a href=\"Junior%20Rose%20Bowl\">Junior Rose Bowl</a> in 1967.\n","Richmond Spiders football\nThe Richmond Spiders are a <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> team representing the <a href=\"University%20of%20Richmond\">University of Richmond</a> in <a href=\"Richmond%2C%20Virginia\">Richmond, Virginia</a>. Richmond was the <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%23Football%20Championship%20Subdivision\">NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision</a> champion for the 2008 season. Richmond currently competes in the <a href=\"Colonial%20Athletic%20Association\">Colonial Athletic Association</a> of the <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">NCAA</a>'s Division I Football Championship Subdivision. Former <a href=\"University%20of%20Tennessee%20at%20Chattanooga\">University of Tennessee at Chattanooga</a> head coach <a href=\"Russ%20Huesman\">Russ Huesman</a> was named head coach of the Spiders, on December 14, 2016, replacing <a href=\"Danny%20Rocco\">Danny Rocco</a> who had depart to become head coach at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Delaware\">University of Delaware</a> a day earlier.\nIn <a href=\"2008%20Richmond%20Spiders%20football%20team\">2008</a>, #7 Richmond beat <a href=\"Eastern%20Kentucky%20Colonels%20football\">Eastern Kentucky</a>, <a href=\"Appalachian%20State%20Mountaineers%20football\">Appalachian State</a>, and <a href=\"Northern%20Iowa%20Panthers%20football\">Northern Iowa</a> to advance to the <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\">NCAA Division I Football Championship</a> against <a href=\"Montana%20Grizzlies%20football\">Montana</a>. In the FCS National Championship Game on December 19, 2008, they defeated Montana 24–7 to win the first team NCAA national title for the University of Richmond in any sport.\nRichmond's traditional rival in many sports is the <a href=\"College%20of%20William%20%26amp%3B%20Mary\">College of William & Mary</a>. Richmond and William & Mary have met 127 times since 1898, making the rivalry (sometimes referred to as \"the South's oldest rivalry\") the fourth most-played in Division I college football. Only <a href=\"The%20Rivalry%20%28Lehigh%E2%80%93Lafayette%29\">Lafayette–Lehigh</a>, <a href=\"Princeton%E2%80%93Yale%20football%20rivalry\">Princeton–Yale</a>, and <a href=\"Harvard%E2%80%93Yale%20football%20rivalry\">Harvard–Yale</a> have played more games. The winner of the annual W&M–Richmond match-up claims the <a href=\"Capital%20Cup\">Capital Cup</a> (formerly the <a href=\"I-64%20Trophy\">I-64 Trophy</a>), which reflects the historical significance of the cities of Williamsburg and Richmond as the last two capitals of the Commonwealth of Virginia.\nThe Spiders have appeared in the Division I-AA/FCS Playoffs 11 times. Their combined record is 15–10. They were FCS National Champions in 2008.\n","Woody Hayes\nWayne Woodrow \"Woody\" Hayes (February 14, 1913 – March 12, 1987) was an <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> player and coach. He served as the head coach at <a href=\"Denison%20University\">Denison University</a> (1946–1948), <a href=\"Miami%20University\">Miami University</a> in <a href=\"Oxford%2C%20Ohio\">Oxford, Ohio</a> (1949–1950), and <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20University\">Ohio State University</a> (1951–1978), compiling a career <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> record of 238 wins, 72 losses, and 10 ties.\nDuring his 28 seasons as the head coach of the <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20football\">Ohio State Buckeyes football</a> program, Hayes' teams won five <a href=\"College%20football%20national%20championships%20in%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS\">national championships</a> (1954, 1957, 1961, 1968, 1970), captured 13 <a href=\"Big%20Ten%20Conference\">Big Ten Conference</a> titles, and amassed a record of 205–61–10. Over the last decade of his coaching tenure at Ohio State, Hayes's Buckeye squads faced off in a fierce rivalry against the <a href=\"Michigan%20Wolverines%20football\">Michigan Wolverines</a> coached by <a href=\"Bo%20Schembechler\">Bo Schembechler</a>, a former player under and assistant coach to Hayes. During that stretch in the <a href=\"Michigan%E2%80%93Ohio%20State%20football%20rivalry\">Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry</a>, dubbed \"<a href=\"The%20Ten%20Year%20War\">The Ten Year War</a>\", Hayes and Schembechler's teams won or shared the Big Ten Conference crown every season and usually each placed in the national rankings.\nDespite his great achievements at Ohio State, Hayes's coaching career ended ignominiously when he was dismissed from the University after punching Clemson middle guard Charlie Bauman for intercepting an Ohio State pass with two minutes left on the clock in the <a href=\"1978%20Gator%20Bowl\">1978 Gator Bowl</a>. He was inducted into the <a href=\"College%20Football%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">College Football Hall of Fame</a> as a coach in 1983.\nA native of <a href=\"Clifton%2C%20Ohio\">Clifton, Ohio</a>, Hayes was the youngest of three children born to Wayne B. and Effie (née Hupp) Hayes. He played <a href=\"Center%20%28American%20football%29\">center</a> at <a href=\"Newcomerstown%20High%20School\">Newcomerstown High School</a> in <a href=\"Newcomerstown%2C%20Ohio\">Newcomerstown, Ohio</a>. At <a href=\"Denison%20University\">Denison University</a>, he played <a href=\"offensive%20tackle\">tackle</a> under coach Tom Rogers, and was a member of <a href=\"Sigma%20Chi\">Sigma Chi</a> fraternity. After graduating from Denison in 1935, Hayes went on to serve as an assistant at two <a href=\"Ohio\">Ohio</a> high schools: <a href=\"Mingo%20Junction\">Mingo Junction</a> in 1935–1936 and <a href=\"New%20Philadelphia%2C%20Ohio\">New Philadelphia</a> in 1937. When New Philadelphia head coach John Brickels left to accept another position, Hayes was elevated to the head coaching position, where he put together a 17–2–1 record in his first two seasons before enduring a 1–9 record in 1940.\nHayes enlisted in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Navy\">United States Navy</a> in July 1941, eventually rising to the rank of <a href=\"Lieutenant%20commander%20%28United%20States%29\">Lieutenant Commander</a> during World War II. He commanded \"PC 1251\" in the <a href=\"Palau%20Islands\">Palau Islands</a> invasion and the destroyer-escort <a href=\"USS%20Rinehart\">USS \"Rinehart\"</a> in both the Atlantic and Pacific operations.\nAs World War II was winding down and Hayes' alma mater, Denison University, was pursuing plans to reinstate its football program (which had been suspended during the war), it contacted former head coach Rogers (also in the Navy) about rejoining the program as head coach. Rogers declined, but recommended that his former team captain, Hayes, be named the next head coach. Denison was able to locate and cable Hayes an offer, which he accepted, minutes before his Navy ship was to begin the passage through the <a href=\"Panama%20Canal\">Panama Canal</a> — meaning Hayes would have been <a href=\"Solitary%20confinement\">incommunicado</a> for an extended period of time.\nUpon returning to Denison in 1946, Hayes struggled during his first year, winning only two games, over Capital and the season finale against Wittenberg. However, that victory sparked a 19-game winning streak, a surge that propelled him into the head coaching position at Miami University. Miami is recognized as the \"<a href=\"Cradle%20of%20Coaches\">Cradle of Coaches</a>\" because of its history of outstanding coaches starting their careers there, such as <a href=\"Paul%20Brown\">Paul Brown</a>, <a href=\"Ara%20Parseghian\">Ara Parseghian</a>, <a href=\"Weeb%20Ewbank\">Weeb Ewbank</a>, <a href=\"Bill%20Mallory\">Bill Mallory</a>, <a href=\"Sid%20Gillman\">Sid Gillman</a>, <a href=\"Randy%20Walker%20%28American%20football%20coach%29\">Randy Walker</a>, and <a href=\"Bo%20Schembechler\">Bo Schembechler</a>. Gillman was Hayes' immediate predecessor at Miami before Gillman moved down the road to coach at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Cincinnati\">University of Cincinnati</a>, which was then Miami's chief rival. Hayes and Gillman maintained a fierce rivalry between themselves, combining mutual distaste for the other's coaching style and because they were in recruiting competition in the same general area.\nIn his second year with the <a href=\"Miami%20Redhawks%20football\">Miami Redskins</a>, Hayes led the 1950 squad to an appearance in the <a href=\"Salad%20Bowl%20%28American%20College%20Football%29\">Salad Bowl</a>, where they defeated <a href=\"Arizona%20State%20University\">Arizona State University</a>. That success led him to accept the Ohio State head coaching position on February 18, 1951, in a controversial decision after the university rejected the applications of other more well-known coaches, including former Buckeyes' head coach <a href=\"Paul%20Brown\">Paul Brown</a>, incumbent Buckeye assistant Harry Strobel and Missouri head coach <a href=\"Don%20Faurot\">Don Faurot</a>.\nAs head coach of the <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20football\">Ohio State Buckeyes</a>, Hayes led his teams to a 205–61–10 record (.761), including three consensus national championships (1954, 1957 and 1968), two other non-consensus national titles (1961 and 1970), 13 <a href=\"Big%20Ten%20Conference%20football%20champions\">Big Ten conference championships</a>, and eight <a href=\"Rose%20Bowl%20Game\">Rose Bowl</a> appearances. Hayes was a three-time winner of The College Football Coach of the Year Award, now known as the <a href=\"Paul%20%26quot%3BBear%26quot%3B%20Bryant%20Award\">Paul \"Bear\" Bryant Award</a>, and was \"the subject of more varied and colorful anecdotal material than any other coach past or present, including fabled <a href=\"Knute%20Rockne\">Knute Rockne</a>\", according to biographer Jerry Brondfield.\nHayes' basic coaching philosophy was that \"nobody could win football games unless they regarded the game positively and would agree to pay the price that success demands of a team.\" His conservative style of football (especially on offense) was often described as \"three yards and a cloud of dust\"—in other words, a \"crunching, frontal assault of muscle against muscle, bone upon bone, will against will.\" The basic, bread-and-butter play in Hayes' playbook was a fullback off-guard run or a tailback off tackle play. Hayes was often quoted as saying \"only three things can happen when you pass (a completion, an incompletion, and an interception) and two of them are bad.\"\nIn spite of this apparent willingness to avoid change, Hayes became one of the first major college head coaches to recruit <a href=\"African-American\">African-American</a> players, including <a href=\"Jim%20Parker%20%28American%20football%29\">Jim Parker</a>, who played both offensive and defensive tackle on Hayes' first national championship team in 1954. While Hayes was not the first to recruit African-Americans to Ohio State, he was the first to recruit and start African-Americans in large numbers there and to hire African-American assistant coaches.\nAnother Hayes' recruit, <a href=\"Archie%20Griffin\">Archie Griffin</a>, remains the only two-time <a href=\"Heisman%20Trophy\">Heisman Trophy</a> winner in seven decades of selections. Altogether Hayes had 58 players earn <a href=\"All-America\">All-America</a> honors under his tutelage. Many notable football coaches, such as <a href=\"Lou%20Holtz\">Lou Holtz</a>, <a href=\"Bill%20Arnsparger\">Bill Arnsparger</a>, <a href=\"Bill%20Mallory\">Bill Mallory</a>, <a href=\"Dick%20Crum%20%28football%20coach%29\">Dick Crum</a>, <a href=\"Bo%20Schembechler\">Bo Schembechler</a>, <a href=\"Ara%20Parseghian\">Ara Parseghian</a> and Woody's successor, <a href=\"Earle%20Bruce\">Earle Bruce</a>, served as his assistants at various times.\nHayes would often use illustrations from historical events to make a point in his coaching and teaching. When Hayes was first hired to be the head coach at OSU, he was also made a \"full professor of physical education\", having earned an <a href=\"Master%20of%20Arts\">M.A.</a> degree in educational administration from Ohio State in 1948. The classes that he taught on campus were usually full, and he was called \"Professor Hayes\" by students. Hayes also taught mandatory English and <a href=\"vocabulary\">vocabulary</a> classes to his freshman football players. One of his students was a basketball player named <a href=\"Bobby%20Knight\">Bobby Knight</a>, who was to become a legendary basketball coach.\nDuring his time at Ohio State, Hayes' relationships with faculty members were particularly good. Even those members of the faculty who believed that the role of <a href=\"intercollegiate%20athletics\">intercollegiate athletics</a> was growing out of control respected Hayes personally for his commitment to academics, the standards of integrity with which he ran his program, and the genuine enthusiasm he brought to his hobby as an amateur historian. Hayes often ate lunch or dinner at the university's faculty club, interacting with faculty and administrators.\nAs a coach and an educator, Hayes was one of the first to use the <a href=\"motion%20picture\">motion picture</a> as a teaching and learning tool. He was also memorable in that he could be seen walking across campus, taking the time to visit with students. When talking to young people, Hayes treated all with respect, without regard to race or socio-economic class. This behavior by Hayes was helpful to Ohio State to quell the violence and damage from anti-war demonstrations that other college campuses suffered in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He would actually take the time to communicate with student leaders. Then-team quarterback <a href=\"Rex%20Kern\">Rex Kern</a> said, \"Woody was out there on the Oval with the protesters, and he'd grab a bullhorn and tell the students to express their beliefs but not be destructive. He believed in <a href=\"Richard%20Nixon\">Nixon</a>, and he believed in <a href=\"the%20Establishment\">the Establishment</a>, but he wasn't afraid to talk to the students. He wanted to stay close to the action.\" Hayes was considered one of the few authority figures that students then had respect for. His enthusiasm for coaching and winning was such that many across the nation consider the following maxim to be true: \"What <a href=\"Vince%20Lombardi\">Vince Lombardi</a> was to professional football, Woody Hayes was to college football.\"\nDuring his tenure at Ohio State, Hayes would joke that he considered himself to be <a href=\"Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football\">Notre Dame</a>'s best recruiter because if he could not convince a recruit to come to Ohio State instead of Michigan he would try to steer the recruit to Notre Dame, whom Ohio State did not play. While Hayes' public stance was that he refused to play Notre Dame because he was afraid of polarizing the <a href=\"Catholic%20Church\">Catholic</a> population in Ohio, Notre Dame's long-time athletic director <a href=\"Moose%20Krause\">Edward \"Moose\" Krause</a> said that Hayes had told him that Hayes liked having Michigan as the only tough game on the Ohio State schedule and that having the Buckeyes play Notre Dame would detract from that. Despite Hayes' apparent fear of playing more than one \"tough\" game a year, Ohio State still managed to schedule regular-season games with Nebraska, Washington, Southern California, UCLA, and Oklahoma during his tenure.\nAfter losses or ties, Hayes would conduct locker room interviews while naked. A journalist from his tenure noted, \"He was an ugly guy so it would clear the locker room out pretty fast.\"\nIn 1959, following a 17−0 loss to <a href=\"USC%20Trojans%20football\">USC</a>, Hayes threw a punch at \"<a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Examiner\">Los Angeles Examiner</a>\" sportswriter Al Bine, but missed, and punched the brother of \"Pasadena Independent\" sports editor Bob Shafer in the back instead. In a May 1965 meeting of Big Ten Conference athletic directors and coaches, Hayes nearly started a fight with <a href=\"Iowa%20Hawkeyes\">Iowa's</a> athletic director, <a href=\"Forest%20Evashevski\">Forest Evashevski</a>, before being restrained.\nIn 1968, Hayes team won a game against rival <a href=\"1968%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20football%20team\">Michigan</a>, 50–14. Late in that game, Ohio State held a commanding 44–14 advantage and scored one final touchdown. Rather than taking the more common <a href=\"extra%20point\">extra point</a> kick, Hayes instead opted for a <a href=\"two-point%20conversion\">two-point conversion</a> (which was unsuccessful), leading many football fans to believe that Hayes was <a href=\"running%20up%20the%20score\">running up the score</a>. When asked later why he went for two points, Hayes said, \"Because I couldn't go for three!\"\nPrior to the <a href=\"1973%20Rose%20Bowl\">1973 Rose Bowl</a>, Hayes shoved a camera into the face of a news photographer; Hayes was suspended for three games, fined $2,000, and left California with a subpoena.\nIn 1977, a late fumble at Michigan caused him to charge at <a href=\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\">ABC</a> cameraman Mike Freedman, who recorded his frustration; Hayes was ejected, put on probation by the Big Ten Conference, and fined $2,000.\nIn the 1961 season Ohio State won the Big Ten championship, qualifying automatically for the Rose Bowl. At the time, the Big Ten Conference rules stated that the school's Faculty Council must officially approve of the trip. In this unusual development, the Ohio State Faculty Council voted 25 to 28 against the <a href=\"1962%20Rose%20Bowl\">1962 Rose Bowl</a> trip, prompted by the head of a university alumni group, on the grounds that the school's academic reputation was suffering because of over-emphasis on the football team. Other reports state that the bid was declined because Ohio State had already beaten their would-be Rose Bowl opponent, <a href=\"University%20of%20California%20at%20Los%20Angeles\">UCLA</a>, during the regular season. The decision sparked minor rioting on the Ohio State Campus and in the Columbus area. The \"<a href=\"Columbus%20Dispatch\">Columbus Dispatch</a>\" published the names, addresses, and phone numbers of those Faculty Council Members who voted against the trip as well as the amount of university money that they spent on trips. While Hayes was diplomatic with some faculty members who voted against the trip and urged the students to cease complaining, he did not spare his criticism of the alumni club president who led the charge against accepting the bowl bid.\nSpeaking at a football banquet in 1969, Hayes spoke about the recently revealed <a href=\"My%20Lai%20Massacre\">My Lai Massacre</a>. He stated that the Vietnamese men in My Lai deserved to die, \"and I wouldn't be so sure those women were innocent. The children are obviously innocent – if they are less than five.\"\nLate in the 1971 rivalry game against <a href=\"Michigan%20Wolverines%20football\">Michigan</a> in <a href=\"Ann%20Arbor%2C%20Michigan\">Ann Arbor</a>, furious over what he thought was a missed defensive pass interference foul committed by <a href=\"Thom%20Darden\">Thom Darden</a> of Michigan, Hayes stormed onto the field, launched a profanity-laced tirade at referee <a href=\"Jerry%20Markbreit\">Jerry Markbreit</a>, and tore up the sideline markers, receiving a 15-yard unsportsmanlike-conduct penalty. Hayes then threw the penalty flag into the crowd, began destroying the yard markers, and threw the first-down marker into the ground like a javelin before being restrained by Buckeyes team officials; Hayes was then assessed an additional 15-yard penalty and ejected. Hayes was suspended for one game and fined $1,000. As of 2017, Hayes is the only coach in football history to be ejected from a game, as coaches in football do not usually get ejected.\nThe 1978 Sugar Bowl was the only time that Woody Hayes and Bear Bryant had coached against each other. Bear Bryant's Alabama Crimson Tide beat Woody's Buckeyes by a score of 35-6.\nOn December 29, 1978, the Buckeyes played in the <a href=\"1978%20Gator%20Bowl\">Gator Bowl</a> against <a href=\"Clemson%20Tigers%20football\">the Clemson Tigers</a>. Late in the fourth quarter, the Tigers were leading the Buckeyes 17–15. Freshman quarterback <a href=\"Art%20Schlichter\">Art Schlichter</a> directed the Buckeyes into field goal range. On 3rd and 5 at the Clemson 24-yard line with 2:30 left and the clock running, Hayes called a pass rather than a run, because Schlichter was having a great game up to that point.\nThe pass was intercepted by Clemson <a href=\"nose%20guard\">nose guard</a> Charlie Bauman, who returned it toward the OSU sideline where he was run out of bounds. After Bauman got back up, Hayes punched him in the throat, triggering a bench-clearing brawl. Hayes stormed onto the field and was abusive towards the referee. When one of Hayes' own players, offensive lineman <a href=\"Ken%20Fritz\">Ken Fritz</a>, tried to intervene, Hayes turned on him, and had to be restrained by defensive coordinator George Hill. The Buckeyes were assessed two 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalties for Hayes' attack on Bauman and his abuse towards the referee. Bauman was not injured by Hayes' punch and shrugged the incident off. Even though the game was being telecast by ABC, announcers <a href=\"Keith%20Jackson\">Keith Jackson</a> and <a href=\"Ara%20Parseghian\">Ara Parseghian</a> did not comment about the punch. (At the time, all non-press box cameras were operated remotely from another site, and Keith did not actually witness the punch, his view of the sideline's being blocked by the upper tier of the stadium).\nAfter the game, OSU Athletic Director Hugh Hindman, who had played for Hayes at Miami of Ohio, and had been an assistant under him for seven years, privately and furiously confronted Hayes in the Buckeye locker room. He said that he intended to tell school president <a href=\"Harold%20Leroy%20Enarson\">Harold Enarson</a> about what happened, and strongly implied that Hayes had coached his last game at Ohio State. After a heated exchange, Hindman said he then offered Hayes a chance to resign, but Hayes refused, saying, \"That would make it too easy for you. You had better go ahead and fire me.\" Hindman then met with Enarson at a country club near <a href=\"Jacksonville%2C%20Florida\">Jacksonville</a>, and the two agreed that Hayes had to go.\nThe next morning, Hindman told Hayes that he had been dismissed and relieved of his coaching duties at OSU. A press conference was held at the hotel where the team had been staying. The team returned to Columbus around noon, and Hayes left the airport in a police car. Regarding Hayes' dismissal, Enarson said that \"there isn't a university or athletic conference in this country that would permit a coach to physically assault a college athlete.\" After the incident, Hayes reflected on his career by saying, \"Nobody despises to lose more than I do. That's got me into trouble over the years, but it also made a man of mediocre ability into a pretty good coach.\" About two months after the incident, Hayes called Bauman in his dorm room, but did not apologize for his previous attack on him. <a href=\"Earle%20Bruce\">Earle Bruce</a> succeeded Hayes as head football coach at Ohio State University.\nMany years later, <a href=\"Leonard%20Downie%2C%20Jr.\">Leonard Downie, Jr.</a>, former executive editor of \"<a href=\"The%20Washington%20Post\">The Washington Post</a>\" and student journalist at Ohio State, said he regretted not reporting an incident in the 1960s where Hayes instructed a player to take off his helmet and then hit him in the head.\nAccording to the 1994 <a href=\"Home%20Box%20Office\">HBO</a> documentary \"American Coaches: Men of Vision and Victory\", Hindman had placed Hayes on notice at the beginning of the 1978 season, not just for the swing at the ABC cameraman during the 1977 Michigan game, but also for hitting a player during a practice. In his 1989 autobiography, Michigan's <a href=\"Bo%20Schembechler\">Bo Schembechler</a> wrote that he believed Hayes, who was <a href=\"diabetes\">diabetic</a> and may have had a high <a href=\"blood%20sugar\">blood sugar</a> level, didn’t believe he struck Bauman. Schembechler also pointed out that Hayes had maintained that all he was trying to do was grab the ball away.\nBefore and after the dismissal incident, Hayes was a professor of Military History at Ohio State. His office was in the ROTC building, Converse Hall, across the street from Ohio Stadium. For the remainder of his years at OSU, he continued to teach and mentor students.\nOn March 11, 1987, Hayes was clearly in failing health when he had someone drive him in his pickup truck to <a href=\"Dayton\">Dayton</a> to introduce Schembechler, who was speaking at a banquet. Organizers had tried to discourage Hayes from attending, but Hayes insisted. He gave a lengthy introduction to Schembechler and then stayed to hear him speak before being driven back home.\nThe next morning, March 12, Hayes's wife Anne found him dead in his bed at the couple's home. He died of a heart attack at age 74. He is interred at Union Cemetery in <a href=\"Columbus%2C%20Ohio\">Columbus, Ohio</a>.\nHayes's lifetime record of 238–72–10 placed him ninth in all-time <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">NCAA</a> Division I FBS coaching victories. He was inducted into the <a href=\"College%20Football%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">College Football Hall of Fame</a> in 1983.\nAt Hayes's <a href=\"funeral\">funeral</a> at First Community Church in Grandview, Ohio on March 17, 1987, <a href=\"President%20of%20the%20United%20States\">former president</a> <a href=\"Richard%20Nixon\">Richard Nixon</a> delivered the eulogy before a crowd of 1,400, acknowledging the friendship that had begun between the two during his second term as <a href=\"U.S.%20Vice%20President\">vice president</a>. Having met Hayes at a reception following a Buckeye win over Iowa in 1957, Nixon recalled, \"I wanted to talk about <a href=\"American%20football\">football</a>. Woody wanted to talk about <a href=\"foreign%20policy\">foreign policy</a>. And you know Woody—we talked about foreign policy.\" The following day, more than 15,000 people took part in a <a href=\"funeral\">memorial service</a> at <a href=\"Ohio%20Stadium\">Ohio Stadium</a>.\nHayes's commitment to academics at Ohio State was evidenced by his request that donations from his family, friends, and supporters be made to the academic side of the university. Following his death and in keeping with his wishes, the Wayne Woodrow Hayes Chair in National Security Studies was established at Ohio State's <a href=\"Mershon%20Center%20for%20International%20Security%20Studies\">Mershon Center for International Security Studies</a>. Professor <a href=\"John%20Mueller\">John Mueller</a> currently holds the chair. In November 1987, the university dedicated the new <a href=\"Woody%20Hayes%20Athletic%20Center\">Woody Hayes Athletic Center</a> in his memory.\nHayes married the former Anne Gross in 1942. Anne Hayes was a formidable and popular woman in her own right, who used to jokingly say at numerous sports banquets, \"Divorce Woody? Never! But there were plenty of times I wanted to murder him!\" The couple had one son, Steven, who went on to become a lawyer and judge. Coincidentally, the younger Hayes would be assigned to the 2003 trial of former Ohio State standout <a href=\"Maurice%20Clarett\">Maurice Clarett</a>.\nBecause of his knowledge of military history and ongoing popularity, Hayes in the early 1980s hosted the broadcast of six World War II films for <a href=\"WBNS-TV\">WBNS-TV</a> in Columbus, which has served as the official outlet of Ohio State sports media programming for years, including the football coach's shows. Among the movies broadcast were \"<a href=\"Patton%20%28film%29\">Patton</a>\", \"<a href=\"Midway%20%28film%29\">Midway</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Wackiest%20Ship%20in%20the%20Army%20%28film%29\">The Wackiest Ship in the Army</a>\", \"\", and \"<a href=\"Tora%21%20Tora%21%20Tora%21\">Tora! Tora! Tora!</a>\"\nHayes would also give salty historical perspectives related to each movie. Hayes' segments, depending upon the movie, were taped in such locations as <a href=\"Fort%20Knox\">Fort Knox</a>, <a href=\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\">West Point</a>, the <a href=\"USS%26%2332%3BYorktown%26%2332%3B%28CV-10%29\">USS \"Yorktown\"</a> , and <a href=\"Stuttgart\">Stuttgart</a>, Germany, where he interviewed <a href=\"Manfred%20Rommel\">Manfred Rommel</a>, Lord Mayor of Stuttgart and the son of <a href=\"Erwin%20Rommel\">Erwin Rommel</a>.\nFormer assistants who became NCAA Division I <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\">FBS</a> or <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a> head coaches:\nFormer players who became assistants who became NCAA Division I <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\">FBS</a> or <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a> head coaches:\nFormer players who became NCAA Division I <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\">FBS</a> or <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a> head coaches:\n\n","West Texas A&M Buffaloes football\nThe West Texas A&M Buffaloes football program is the intercollegiate <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> team for the <a href=\"West%20Texas%20A%26amp%3BM%20University\">West Texas A&M University</a> located in the U.S. state of <a href=\"Texas\">Texas</a>. The team competes in <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20II\">Division II</a> and are members of the <a href=\"Lone%20Star%20Conference\">Lone Star Conference</a>. The school's first football team was fielded in 1910. The team plays its home games at the 20,000 seat <a href=\"Kimbrough%20Memorial%20Stadium\">Kimbrough Memorial Stadium</a>. They are coached by <a href=\"Mike%20Nesbitt%20%28American%20football%29\">Mike Nesbitt</a>.\nNotable alumni include:\nThey have also competed in the <a href=\"Kanza%20Bowl\">Kanza Bowl</a>, a Division II bowl between the Lone Star Conference and the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association from 2009–2012.\n<a href=\"Joe%20Kerbel\">Joe Kerbel</a> has the most all-time wins for the Buffaloes, who have gone 496–491–23 as of 2014.","Convocation Center (Ohio University)\nThe Convocation Center is a 13,080-seat multi-purpose arena that is home to the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats\">Ohio Bobcats</a> <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a>, <a href=\"volleyball\">volleyball</a>, and <a href=\"collegiate%20wrestling\">wrestling</a> teams.\nThe Convocation Center, affectionately called \"The Convo,\" was designed by Brubaker and Brandt Architects of <a href=\"Columbus%2C%20Ohio\">Columbus, Ohio</a> and built by Knowlton Construction Company of <a href=\"Bellefontaine%2C%20Ohio\">Bellefontaine, Ohio</a>. The first men's basketball game in the arena featured an 80–70 Ohio victory over the <a href=\"Indiana%20Hoosiers\">Indiana Hoosiers</a> on December 3, 1968. The arena houses offices for the Ohio Athletics Department numerous coaches' offices, team locker rooms, and athletic training rooms. Additionally it houses offices and classrooms for the computer science branch of the Russ College of Engineering. Over the years, there have been numerous renovations, some of the most recent being in 1997, where improved lighting, an expanded press row, and a wider camera deck were added to the arena. Also, The Vern and Marion Alden Basketball Suite which houses offices and meeting rooms for Ohio men's and women's basketball was completed. A few years later, the locker rooms for both basketball teams were expanded and given new furniture, carpeting, and individual wooden lockers. Following the 2004 season, more renovations occurred as a new playing surface was installed and two large <a href=\"Daktronics\">Daktronics</a> video boards were added to the venue.\nThe Convocation Center's atmosphere has helped the Bobcats to win over 75% of their home games since the opening of The Convo in 1968. At the beginning of the 2001–2002 season, a new <a href=\"student%20cheering%20section\">student cheering section</a>, dubbed the \"O Zone,\" was started for men's basketball games.\nThe Convocation Center brought in its largest crowd on February 28, 1970, when 14,102 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats men's basketball team defeat the <a href=\"Bowling%20Green%20Falcons%20men%27s%20basketball\">Bowling Green Falcons</a> 77–76. That year Ohio finished 20–5, winning the Mid-American Conference and advancing to the <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">NCAA</a> <a href=\"Tournament\">Tournament</a>.\nIn addition to Ohio basketball, <a href=\"volleyball\">volleyball</a>, and <a href=\"wrestling\">wrestling</a> contests, the Convo hosts numerous other events annually. The facility has held local high school basketball games as well as high school state tournament games as well as a variety of concerts, including a May 17, 1969 concert by <a href=\"Led%20Zeppelin\">Led Zeppelin</a>, professional wrestling events, and special university events, most notably Ohio University's graduation ceremonies.\nThe Convocation Center is used for Thursday night rehearsals for <a href=\"The%20Ohio%20University%20Marching%20110\">The Ohio University Marching 110</a> when the weather causes temperatures to drop far too low for these late-night sessions. The band uses these rehearsals to learn/polish dance routines for their home football games on the basketball court. The building was also used for several of the Marching 110's LP recording sessions in the 1970s, 80s and 90s.\nOhio University Athletics Director Jim Schaus announced plans to renovate the Convocation Center athletic training center by 2012 as part of the Bobcat Renaissance, which is an initiative geared toward improving OU's athletic programs.\nThe Arena has also hosted some events of <a href=\"WCW\">WCW</a>.\n\n","2012 MAC Men's Basketball Tournament\nThe 2012 <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> men's basketball tournament is the post-season basketball tournament for the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> (MAC) <a href=\"2011%E2%80%9312%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20season\">2011–12</a> <a href=\"college%20basketball\">college basketball</a> season. The winner of the tournament receives the MAC's automatic bid into the <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\">NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship</a> tournament.\nThe format for the conference tournament has been modified for this season. The new format seeds the tournament by rewarding the No. 1 and No. 2 seeds with a bye into the semifinal round, while the No. 3 and No. 4 seeds will receive a bye to the quarterfinal round. Seeding will be determined by winning percentage in conference games, regardless of division. First round games will be played on campus sites at the higher seed. The remaining rounds will be held at <a href=\"Quicken%20Loans%20Arena\">Quicken Loans Arena</a>.\n","John Groce\nJohn Gordon Groce ( ) (born September 7, 1971) is an American <a href=\"college%20basketball\">college basketball</a> coach, currently the <a href=\"head%20coach\">head coach</a> for the <a href=\"Akron%20Zips%20men%27s%20basketball\">Akron Zips men's basketball team</a>. Prior to coaching for Akron, he was the head coach at <a href=\"Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball\">Illinois</a> and <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball\">Ohio</a>.\nGroce graduated from <a href=\"Taylor%20University\">Taylor University</a>, an <a href=\"National%20Association%20of%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics\">NAIA Division II</a> school in <a href=\"Upland%2C%20Indiana\">Upland, Indiana</a>, in 1994 and played basketball for the school while he was there. Groce started his coaching career as an assistant with his alma mater, <a href=\"Taylor%20University\">Taylor University</a>, under Paul Patterson from 1993 to 1996. His next job was an assistant at <a href=\"NC%20State%20Wolfpack%20men%27s%20basketball\">North Carolina State</a> under <a href=\"Herb%20Sendek\">Herb Sendek</a> from 1996 to 2000. He then moved on to <a href=\"Butler%20Bulldogs%20men%27s%20basketball\">Butler</a> as an assistant to <a href=\"Thad%20Matta\">Thad Matta</a> and was there just one season (2000–01). When Matta accepted the head coaching position at <a href=\"Xavier%20Musketeers%20men%27s%20basketball\">Xavier</a>, Groce went with him and served as an assistant from 2001 to 2004, before moving again with Matta when he was named as the head coach of <a href=\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20men%27s%20basketball\">Ohio State</a>. He served as an assistant from 2004 to 2008.\nGroce was named the head coach at Ohio University on June 27, 2008, replacing <a href=\"Tim%20O%27Shea\">Tim O'Shea</a>, who resigned to take the head coach position at <a href=\"Bryant%20University\">Bryant University</a>.\nIn his <a href=\"2008%E2%80%9309%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">first year</a>, the Bobcats finished 7–9 in <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> play and failed to qualify for postseason play. The team's overall record improved the <a href=\"2009%E2%80%9310%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">following year</a>, but the Bobcats finished with another 7–9 record. However, the Bobcats went on a run in the MAC Tournament, winning the championship as the No. 9 seed. As a result, the Bobcats received the conference's automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament. They received a No. 14 seed in the Midwest region and Groce led the Bobcats to an upset win over No. 12-ranked and No. 3-seeded <a href=\"2009%E2%80%9310%20Georgetown%20Hoyas%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Georgetown</a> in the First Round. They then lost in the Second Round to <a href=\"2009%E2%80%9310%20Tennessee%20Volunteers%20basketball%20team\">Tennessee</a>.\nIn <a href=\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">2011</a>, the Bobcats increased their conference record to 9–7 and earned a bid to the <a href=\"2011%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">National Invitation Tournament</a>. A first round victory over <a href=\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd%20men%27s%20basketball\">Marshall</a> preceded a loss to <a href=\"East%20Tennessee%20State%20Buccaneers%20basketball\">East Tennessee State</a> in the NIT Quarterfinals.\nIn <a href=\"2011%E2%80%9312%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">2012</a>, Groce led the Bobcats to a 11–5 conference record and another <a href=\"2012%20MAC%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">MAC Tournament</a> championship. As the conference's automatic bid to the <a href=\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournament</a>, the Bobcats received a No. 13 seed. In the Tournament, Ohio defeated No. 4-seeded <a href=\"2011%E2%80%9312%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Michigan</a> and No. 12-seeded <a href=\"2011%E2%80%9312%20South%20Florida%20Bulls%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">South Florida</a> to earn a trip to the Sweet Sixteen, Ohio's first rip to the Sweet Sixteen since 1964. In the Sweet Sixteen, they pushed No. 1-seed <a href=\"North%20Carolina%20Tar%20Heels%20men%27s%20basketball\">North Carolina</a> to overtime before losing 73–65.\nIn four seasons at Ohio, Groce was 85–56 overall and 34–30 in Mid-American Conference games.\nGroce finalized negotiations to become the men's basketball head coach at the University of Illinois on March 28, 2012, after both <a href=\"Shaka%20Smart\">Shaka Smart</a> and <a href=\"Brad%20Stevens\">Brad Stevens</a> declined interest in the position.\nThe Illini started 12–0 in <a href=\"2012%E2%80%9313%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">2013</a> under Groce, the best start for a first-year coach in the team's modern era. The team won the <a href=\"2012%20Maui%20Invitational%20Tournament\">2012 Maui Invitational</a> by defeating <a href=\"2012%E2%80%9313%20Butler%20Bulldogs%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Butler</a> in the championship game. Illinois finished the year 23–13, but with a losing conference record at 8–10. The Illini did receive a bid to the <a href=\"2013%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournament</a> advancing to the Third Round (formerly known as the Second Round) before losing to No. 2-seeded <a href=\"2012%E2%80%9313%20Miami%20Hurricanes%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Miami</a>.\nDuring their <a href=\"2013%E2%80%9314%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">2014 season</a>, Illinois' success in the month of November improved to 21–0 under Groce. Until losing five non-conference games in 2015, Illinois was the only program in the nation with an undefeated November record dating back to 2011. The Illini would slip however, finishing 20–15, 7–11 in <a href=\"2013%E2%80%9314%20Big%20Ten%20Conference%20men%27s%20basketball%20season\">Big Ten play</a> and failing to make the <a href=\"2014%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournament</a>. They did receive a bid to the <a href=\"2014%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">NIT</a> advancing to the second round.\nThe Illini continued to struggle in <a href=\"2014%E2%80%9315%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">2015</a>, finishing 19–14, 9–9 and again failing to make the <a href=\"2015%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournament</a>. They did receive a bid to the <a href=\"2015%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">NIT</a> where they lost in the first round.\nBefore the end of their <a href=\"2015%E2%80%9316%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">2016 season</a>, new Illinois <a href=\"Athletic%20director\">AD</a> Josh Whitman gave John Groce a vote of confidence, praising his leadership and stating that \"John Groce is going to continue to be our basketball coach.\" However, the Illini finished the season 15–19, 5–13.\nThe <a href=\"2016%E2%80%9317%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Illini</a> fared better in 2017, finishing 20–15, 8–10. The team did win four in a row toward the end of the season leading to talks of an <a href=\"2017%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">NCAA Tournament</a> bid, but a loss at Rutgers in the final regular season game likely ended their Tournament hopes. On March 11, 2017, John Groce was relieved of his duties, two days after the Illini lost its <a href=\"2017%20Big%20Ten%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\">Big Ten Tournament</a> opening-round game to <a href=\"2016%E2%80%9317%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">Michigan</a>. Following Groce's dismissal, the Illini advanced to the <a href=\"2017%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\">NIT</a> quarterfinals before losing to <a href=\"2016%E2%80%9317%20UCF%20Knights%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\">UCF</a>.\nFrom 2013 to 2016, Groce reversed Illinois' prior four-game <a href=\"losing%20streak\">losing streak</a> in the annual <a href=\"Braggin%27%20Rights\">Braggin' Rights</a> interstate rivalry against the <a href=\"Missouri%20Tigers%20men%27s%20basketball\">Missouri</a> by winning the contest for four straight seasons.\nFollowing his dismissal from Illinois, Groce was hired on April 5, 2017 to become the new head coach of the Akron Zips.\n\n","Bob Wren Stadium\nBob Wren Stadium is a <a href=\"baseball\">baseball</a> stadium located in <a href=\"Athens%2C%20Ohio\">Athens, Ohio</a> on the campus of <a href=\"Ohio%20University\">Ohio University</a>. It serves as the home field for the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20baseball\">Ohio Bobcats</a> since opening on April 18, 1998. The Bobcats opened the facility by defeating the <a href=\"Bowling%20Green%20Falcons%20baseball\">Bowling Green Falcons</a> 4–1 in front of 1,389 fans.\nBob Wren Stadium features many modern amenities and has a capacity of 4,000. The stadium has 100 chairback seats that are part of the VIP club, named the Baumholtz club in honor of former Ohio baseball player Frank Baumholtz. In addition, there are around 1,000 bleacher-back seats in the stadium and another 1,000 seats of regular bleachers. Down both the third and first base lines there are two grassy knolls that are capable of seating up to another 1,000 fans.\nThere are two concession stands available with traditional ballpark fare, and members of the Baumholtz Club have access to a private lounge that serves more upscale food items. The press box provides multiple phones and computer lines for members of the media. There are also two radio broadcast booths and one television broadcast booth available.\nThe stadium has already undergone several modifications since opening. In 2003, a large Daktronics digital scoreboard was added to the outfield of the stadium. That same year, heated batting cages were added to the northeast of the stadium, allowing Bobcat players to practice inside during cold weather. Most recently, lights were installed in 2004. As a result of this new addition, 15 of Ohio's 28 home games in 2005 were played at night.\nThe stadium is named for former Bobcat head coach Bob Wren, who held the highest all-time winning percentage of any Ohio baseball coach.\nIn addition to serving as the home of Ohio Bobcats baseball, Bob Wren Stadium is home to the <a href=\"Southern%20Ohio%20Copperheads\">Southern Ohio Copperheads</a> of the <a href=\"Great%20Lakes%20Summer%20Collegiate%20League\">Great Lakes Summer Collegiate League</a> and is the home of the state <a href=\"American%20Legion\">American Legion</a> baseball tournament every year.\n","Rob Smith (baseball)\nRob Smith in an American <a href=\"college%20baseball\">college baseball</a> coach, currently serving as head coach of the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20baseball\">Ohio Bobcats baseball</a> program. He was named to that position prior to the <a href=\"2013%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20baseball%20season\">2013 season</a>.\nSmith played at <a href=\"Vincennes%20Trailblazers%20baseball\">Vincennes</a> for two seasons, then completed his eligibility at <a href=\"Indiana%E2%80%93Southeast%20Grenadiers%20baseball\">Indiana–Southeast</a> before completing his degree at <a href=\"Indiana%20University%20Bloomington\">Indiana University Bloomington</a> in 1998. He then spent a year as an assistant coach at <a href=\"Purdue%20Boilermakers%20baseball\">Purdue</a> in 1999, and returned to the Boilermakers from 2001 through 2006. Smith was hired as Associate Head Coach at <a href=\"Creighton%20Bluejays%20baseball\">Creighton</a>. He was hired as head coach at Ohio in June 2012.\n","2012 Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks football team\nThe 2012 Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks football team represented the <a href=\"University%20of%20Louisiana%20at%20Monroe\">University of Louisiana at Monroe</a> in the <a href=\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. The Warhawks were led by third year head coach <a href=\"Todd%20Berry\">Todd Berry</a> and played their home games at <a href=\"Malone%20Stadium\">Malone Stadium</a>. They were a member of the <a href=\"Sun%20Belt%20Conference\">Sun Belt Conference</a>. They finished the season 8–5, 6–2 in Sun Belt play to finish in a three way tie for second place. They were invited to the <a href=\"2012%20Independence%20Bowl\">Independence Bowl</a>, the first bowl appearance in school history, where they were defeated by <a href=\"2012%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20football%20team\">Ohio</a>.\nThe Warhawks came into War Memorial Stadium as 30.5 point underdogs. In regulation, the Warhawks played the Razorbacks to a tie. Arkansas, who had three starters (including QB Tyler Wilson) injured in the game, was held to a field goal in the 1st overtime. ULM faced a 4th and 1 in same overtime period, and elected to pursue a first down. The result was a ULM QB Kolton Browning game-winning touchdown run. Browning finished with 481 total yards, three passing touchdows, and one rushing touchdown.\nLouisiana-Monroe's victory over #8 Arkansas marked the first victory by \"any\" Sun Belt Conference team over a top-ten opponent and the first victory over any ranked opponent since 2004.\n","2012 Independence Bowl\nThe 2012 <a href=\"AdvoCare\">AdvoCare</a> V100 <a href=\"Independence%20Bowl\">Independence Bowl</a> was a post-season American <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> <a href=\"bowl%20game\">bowl game</a> held on December 28, 2012 at <a href=\"Independence%20Stadium%20%28Shreveport%29\">Independence Stadium</a> in <a href=\"Shreveport%2C%20Louisiana\">Shreveport, Louisiana</a> in the United States. The 37th edition of the Independence Bowl began at 1:00 p.m. <a href=\"Central%20Standard%20Time\">CST</a> and aired on <a href=\"ESPN\">ESPN</a>. It featured the <a href=\"2012%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20football%20team\">Ohio Bobcats</a> from the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> against the <a href=\"2012%20Louisiana%E2%80%93Monroe%20Warhawks%20football%20team\">Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks</a> from the <a href=\"Sun%20Belt%20Conference\">Sun Belt Conference</a> and was the final game of the <a href=\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a> for both teams. Both the Bobcats and the Warhawks accepted their invitation after finishing at 8–4 during the regular season.\nThis was both teams' first appearance in the Independence Bowl.\nUnder normal circumstances, the Independence Bowl would feature the seventh bowl-eligible team from the <a href=\"Atlantic%20Coast%20Conference\">Atlantic Coast Conference</a> against the tenth bowl-eligible team from the <a href=\"Southeastern%20Conference\">Southeastern Conference</a>. However, both conferences are one school shy of having enough bowl-eligible teams to qualify (the ACC has six and the SEC has nine).\nOn Friday, November 30, <a href=\"2012%20Louisiana%20Tech%20Bulldogs%20football%20team\">Louisiana Tech</a> was invited to play in the <a href=\"Independence%20Bowl\">Independence Bowl</a> but asked for more time as they were in negotiations with the <a href=\"Liberty%20Bowl\">Liberty Bowl</a> and <a href=\"Heart%20of%20Dallas%20Bowl\">Heart of Dallas Bowl</a>. Louisiana Tech athletic director Bruce Van De Velde and <a href=\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\">WAC</a> commissioner Jeff Hurd both claimed that on Saturday, December 1, the <a href=\"Liberty%20Bowl\">Liberty Bowl</a> executive director Steve Ehrhart guaranteed the Bulldogs a bowl invite. After the Independence Bowl's deadline for Louisiana Tech to accept their invitation passed, the Independence Bowl selected the MAC's <a href=\"2012%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20football%20team\">Ohio</a> (8-4) instead. On Sunday, December 2, the Liberty Bowl extended their remaining bid to <a href=\"2012%20Iowa%20State%20Cyclones%20football%20team\">Iowa State</a> (6-6) instead of Louisiana Tech (9-3). The Bulldogs did not end up playing in any bowl game despite boasting the nation's top scoring offense.\nThis was the first meeting between these two teams.\nDespite a promising 7-0 start to the season (including a #23 ranking as well as defeating <a href=\"2012%20Penn%20State%20Nittany%20Lions%20football%20team\">Penn State</a>), the Bobcats would decline during their last five games, posting a mere 1-4 record during that timespan, dropping their conference record to 4-4, only good for third place in the MAC East Division. When Louisiana Tech declined their invitation, the Bobcats accepted theirs.\nIn their first winning season since joining <a href=\"Division%20I%20%28NCAA%29%23Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\">Division I FBS</a> (then Division I-A) in <a href=\"1994%20Northeast%20Louisiana%20Indians%20football%20team\">1994</a> (when they were the Northeast Louisiana Indians), the Warhawks finished in a tie for second place in the Sun Belt, amassing a 6–2 conference and 8–4 overall record. After the season, the Warhawks accepted an invitation to the 2012 Independence Bowl.\nThis will be the first bowl game in school history for the Warhawks, being one of two teams making their bowl debut this season (along with fellow Sun Belt member the <a href=\"2012%20WKU%20Hilltoppers%20football%20team\">WKU Hilltoppers</a>).\nSource:\n\n","Peden Stadium\nPeden Stadium is an <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> stadium on the banks of the <a href=\"Hocking%20River\">Hocking River</a> in <a href=\"Athens%2C%20Ohio\">Athens, Ohio</a>. The \"Crowned Jewel\" of the MAC, It has been the home of the <a href=\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\">Ohio Bobcats football</a> team for 90 years and today has a proposed capacity of 27,000. Peden Stadium is the oldest college football venue in the <a href=\"Mid-American%20Conference\">Mid-American Conference</a> and among the oldest in the nation. At the suggestion of OHIO Alumnus Michael A\nMassa, Peden Stadium has been designated as an official Ohio historical site.\nServing <a href=\"Ohio%20University\">Ohio University</a> for eight decades, the facility, originally known as Ohio Complex, not to be mistaken with the one in Columbus, was built at a cost of $185,000 and was completed in 1929. Viewed as the \"Wrigley Field\" of college football due to its intimate and picturesque setting, the stadium originally sat only 12,000 fans with grandstands on each side of the playing field. The first ever game at the venue featured a 14-0 Bobcats victory over archrival <a href=\"Miami%20University\">Miami University</a> in front of a sellout crowd. Following the retirement of legendary Ohio football coach <a href=\"Don%20Peden\">Don Peden</a> in 1946, the stadium was renamed Peden Stadium. Although a smaller stadium, It was designed by Osborne Architects, who designed illustrious early Americana style brick composed sports venues such as Yankee Stadium.\nThe \"Bobcat's Lair\" has undergone several modifications through the years. In 1986, the <a href=\"seating%20capacity\">seating capacity</a> was increased to 19,000 with the addition of two new grandstands in the north end zone. Four years later, a five story tower, called the Peden Tower, was added to the stadium's west side. Today, this state-of-the-art facility houses press boxes, game day suites, football offices, athletic training facilities, team meeting rooms, a recruiting lounge, a ticket office, the football locker room, and Ohio Athletics' academic services and compliance departments. In 1999, a new 10000 sqft strength and conditioning center called The Carin Center was added to the ground level of Peden Stadium.\nSeveral other historic events have occurred at the Stadium, including a visit by then President Lyndon B. Johnson, as well as an event which featured a landing by helicopter on the 50-yard line by former President Eisenhower. The stadium has served as a venue for many visiting national collegiate teams including the Big Ten. A bronze life-sized sculpture of an OHIO Bobcat, commissioned by a well known naturalist artist, stands poised at the north of the stadium.\nAt the suggestion of Michael A Massa, an alumnus, Peden Stadium was formally designated an official Ohio Historical Site, and an Ohio Historical Marker was placed at the front of the stadium in August 2010.\nSome of the most extensive renovations, though, occurred after the 2000 football season. This $2.8 million project removed the track, lowered the stadium's playing surface by 10 ft , and increased the <a href=\"seating%20capacity\">seating capacity</a> to its current mark of 24,000 with the addition of lower-level, bleacher-back seats collectively called the Phillips Club. Also during this renovation, permanent seating for the marching band, <a href=\"The%20Ohio%20University%20Marching%20110\">The Ohio University Marching 110</a>, was created in the north end zone and Victory Hill, a grass berm for overflow seating, was added to the south end of the field. In 2002, the natural grass playing surface at the stadium was replaced with <a href=\"FieldTurf\">FieldTurf</a>, and in 2017 , an updated video <a href=\"scoreboard\">scoreboard</a> was added to the south end zone. Following the completion of the 2004 season, the stadium underwent another large project that renovated/expanded the stadium's athletic training facilities, added a large team auditorium, improved position meeting rooms, expanded the recruiting lounge, and enlarged office space for the football coaches. In 2009, the Marching 110's former permanent location in the north end zone was transformed into \"Touchdown Club\" donor seating, and the band returned to their former location in the general admission seating by the student section.\nIn 2014, the administration of the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics, along with Varsity OHIO and affiliated university alumni organizations and bodies, began a cooperative campaign for a state-of-the-art academic wing at Peden Stadium due to crowded interior space for students, and renovated locker rooms for teams that had not received prior renovations.\nThough the attendance for Peden Stadium is listed at 24,000, Victory Hill allows for standing room beyond the listed capacity. As such, the attendance records at the stadium all eclipse the 24,000 mark, and additionally, creating a potential capacity for 27,000 once the new academic center is completed at the stadium's north endzone in 2018.\nIn addition to serving as the home of Ohio Bobcats football games, the stadium has been used for several other purposes. It has hosted numerous local high school football games and high school state playoff games. In addition, the stadium serves as the home of Ohio's \"O Zone\" Student Cheering Section and an annual homecoming \"Yell Like Hell\" pep rally and has been the site of several concerts. 5k Runs have started from the 50 yard line.\n"],"string":"[\n \"Ohio University Aquatic Center\\nOhio University's Aquatic Center is the swimming and diving facility of the Ohio Bobcats. It has been home to Ohio Bobcats swimming and diving since it was opened on January 27, 1984 before a dual meet against the Youngstown State University Penguins.\\nThe Aquatic Center has a potential to hold 1,105 spectators in the bleachers located above two sides of the pool. The Olympic-sized pool at the Aquatic Center has 22 25-yard lanes, 10 50-meter lanes and a pair of one and three meter diving boards. The pool's shallow end is 3 ft deep and the pool's deep end is 14 ft deep. The surface area of the pool is 12,300 ft2 , which contains 645,468.75 usgal of water.\\nBecause it is one of the best swimming and diving facilities in the region, the Aquatic Center has hosted the 1985 NCAA Diving Regionals, 6 Women's Mid-American Conference Swimming and Diving Championships (1986, 1989, 1992, 1996, 2000 and 2005), and 4 Men's Mid-American Conference Swimming and Diving Championships (1988, 1991, 1998 and 2002). The Ohio High School Athletic Association also holds regional-level competition here often.\\nIn addition to serving as the home of the Bobcats, the facility hosts various local high school swim meets and is used by Ohio University faculty, staff, and students as well as Athens, Ohio community members for recreational swimming.\",\n \"Chessa Field\\nChessa Field is the women's soccer field of the Ohio Bobcats. It was opened under the name of \\\"Ohio Soccer Field\\\" on September 6, 1997. On that day, Ohio defeated the Youngstown State University Penguins 2-0 in what was also the first home varsity women's soccer game in the history of Ohio University.\\nIn 2003, several renovations took place to the field thanks to a $60,000 donation from Ohio University groundskeeper Scott Blower and his wife Crista. This allowed a new state-of-the-art, laser leveled grass playing surface to be installed at the field. The work was completed by Buckeye Lawn & Landscaping. Also, the field dimensions were expanded to the NCAA maximum, new bleachers with a capacity of 1,000 were added, a new press box were constructed, a new digital scoreboard was added to the facility, and wrought-iron fencing was erected to surround the field.\\nThe stadium was named Chessa Field in honor of Scott and Crista Blower's daughter, Chessa Blower.\\n\",\n \"Bill Hess\\nWilliam R. Hess (February 5, 1923 – June 10, 1978) was an American football coach. He served as the head football coach at Ohio University from 1958 to 1977. In his tenure as head coach for the Ohio Bobcats football team, Hess compiled a 108–91–4 record, ranking him second only to coach Don Peden on Ohio's all-time victories list. Hess's teams won four Mid-American Conference (MAC) championships (1960, 1963, 1967, and 1968) and won a National Small College Championship in 1960 after having an undefeated season. Hess also led the Bobcats to two bowl games, losing 15–14 to West Texas State in the 1962 Sun Bowl and losing 49–42 to Richmond in the 1968 Tangerine Bowl. His 1968 team is the only team in school history to finish ranked in the major polls. Hess was a native of Columbus, Ohio. He coached high school football in Portsmouth and Grandview Heights, Ohio before joining Woody Hayes's staff at Ohio State University in 1951.\\n\",\n \"1948 Ohio Bobcats football team\\nThe 1948 Ohio Bobcats football team was an American football team that represented Ohio University in the Mid-American Conference (MAC) during the 1948 college football season. In their second and final season under head coach Harold Wise, the Bobcats compiled a 3–6 record (2–3 against MAC opponents), finished in fourth place in the MAC, and were outscored by all opponents by a combined total of 179 to 98. Three Ohio players received All-MAC honors: end John Marco (first team); halfback Jim McKenna (second team); and offensive guard Milt Taylor (second team).\",\n \"2011–12 Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team\\nThe 2011–12 Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team represented Ohio University during the 2011–12 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. The Bobcats, led by fourth year head coach John Groce, played their home games at the Convocation Center and are members of the East Division of the Mid-American Conference. They finished the season 29–8, 11–5 in MAC play to finish in third place in the East Division. They were champions of the MAC Basketball Tournament and earned an automatic bid into the 2012 NCAA Tournament where the 13th seeded Bobcats defeated Michigan in the second round and South Florida in the third round to advance to school's first \\\"Sweet Sixteen\\\" since 1964. They lost in the \\\"Sweet Sixteen\\\" to North Carolina in overtime.\",\n \"Ohio Bobcats baseball\\nThe Ohio Bobcats baseball team is a varsity intercollegiate athletic team of Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, United States. The team is a member of the Mid-American Conference East division, which is part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division I. Ohio's first baseball team was fielded in 1892. The team plays its home games at Bob Wren Stadium in Athens, Ohio. The Bobcats are coached by Rob Smith.\\n\",\n \"2012 Ohio Bobcats football team\\nThe 2012 Ohio Bobcats football team represented Ohio University in the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season. They were led by eighth-year head coach Frank Solich and played their home games at Peden Stadium. They were a member of the East Division of the Mid-American Conference (MAC). After defeating Akron on October 13 to become 7–0 the Bobcats were ranked #25 in the AP Poll; Ohio had not been ranked nationally since 1968. On October 21, 2012, the Bobcats peaked at #23 in both the Coaches Poll and AP Poll, and #24 in the BCS standings. They finished the season 9–4, 4–4 in MAC play to finish in third place in the East Division. They were invited to the Independence Bowl where they defeated Louisiana–Monroe for their second consecutive bowl victory.\\n\",\n \"1949 Ohio Bobcats football team\\nThe 1949 Ohio Bobcats football team was an American football team that represented Ohio University in the Mid-American Conference (MAC) during the 1949 college football season. In their first season under head coach Carroll Widdoes, the Bobcats compiled a 4–4–1 record (2–2 against MAC opponents), finished in third place in the MAC, and were outscored by all opponents by a combined total of 120 to 114. Three Ohio players received All-MAC honors: offensive tackle Al Scheider (first team); offensive guard Milt Taylor (first team); and end John Marco (second team).\",\n \"Jim Snyder (coach)\\nJames E. Snyder (June 29, 1919 – April 27, 1994) was head coach of the Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team for 26 years (1949–1974). He amassed 20 winning seasons and led his teams to 7 NCAA Tournament appearances (1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1972, and 1974) and one National Invitation Tournament appearance (1969). Snyder's teams compiled a 355-255 record, good for a .581 winning percentage. He was also an Ohio graduate (Class of 1941), and was a football and basketball star as an undergraduate in the late 1930s and early 1940s. One of his most memorable wins came against the University of Kentucky in the 1964 NCAA tournament, advancing the Ohio Bobcats to the Elite 8. One interesting aspect of this game was that Ohio had an integrated team while Kentucky had one of its last all white teams. Snyder was widely admired throughout the college basketball coaching fraternity as being a coach with great integrity and an engaging personality; he was often referred to as \\\"Gentleman Jim.\\\"\",\n \"Ohio Bobcats\\nThe Bobcats are the <a href=\\\"sport\\\">athletic</a> teams that represent <a href=\\\"Ohio%20University\\\">Ohio University</a>. The university fields six men's and women's intercollegiate teams that compete at the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I\\\">NCAA Division I</a> level.\\nThe Bobcats are 1946 charter members of the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a>. The school colors are Ohio Green and White.\\nA member of the East Division of the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> (MAC), Ohio University sponsors teams in six men's and ten women's <a href=\\\"NCAA\\\">NCAA</a> sanctioned sports.\\nFor the 2004 bicentennial biography of the university, the institution commissioned a book documenting the university's history. Betty Hollow's bicentennial publication \\\"Ohio University: The Spirit of a Singular Place\\\" describes many historical events in the university's athletic program.\\nIn her book, Hollow records that Frank Super, the son of university president Charles W. Super, took time from his <a href=\\\"electrical%20engineering\\\">electrical engineering</a> studies to quarterback Ohio's first gridiron squad in 1894. Local businesses and \\\"sympathizers\\\", or fans, sported light-blue decorations and ribbons to show their support. Not only two years later, in 1896, did Ohio teams adopt green and white as school colors, chosen by the student body's vote. Hal Rowland, a former student, won the $10.00 contest to put forward the idea of a nickname that exemplified the team's tenacity and fighting spirit best: the Bobcat was born. Women's sports had advanced over many years at Ohio University, starting originally as the tennis club and participation in the <a href=\\\"Sports%20day\\\">field day</a>, where women could only compete in the baseball throw. The football team was invited to meet U.S. President <a href=\\\"Herbert%20Hoover\\\">Herbert Hoover</a> at the White House in 1932. Despite wide acclaim, football's legacy at the university is presently out-shined by Bobcat <a href=\\\"baseball\\\">baseball</a>.\\nNumber \\\"54\\\" is the only number ever retired at Ohio University. It belonged to <a href=\\\"Frank%20Baumholtz\\\">Frank Baumholtz</a>, a two-sport star and one of the few athletes ever to play two professional sports. Baumholtz and men's basketball head coach W. J. \\\"Dutch\\\" Trautwein led the Cats to the 1941 National Invitational Tournament championship, building upon standards established by Butch Grover during his 16-year run as head coach from 1922 to 1938. Larry Hunter is one on a distinguished list of coaches that also includes <a href=\\\"Jim%20Snyder%20%28coach%29\\\">Jim Snyder</a>, whose twenty-five seasons produced 355 wins, conference crowns, and NCAA and NIT appearances. Baumholtz signed with the <a href=\\\"Cincinnati%20Reds\\\">Cincinnati Reds</a> in 1941. Bob Wren, a Bobcat infielder, was named coach in 1949 and in his twenty-three seasons his teams won almost 500 games, never suffering a losing season. Future major leaguers like <a href=\\\"Phillies\\\">Phillies</a>'s Hall of Famer <a href=\\\"Mike%20Schmidt\\\">Mike Schmidt</a> fueled Wren's powerhouse ballclubs. In fact, the 1970 team with Schmidt and future coach <a href=\\\"Joe%20Carbone\\\">Joe Carbone</a> as players advanced all the way to the College World Series, upsetting <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Southern%20California\\\">Southern California</a> in the first round.\\nInstrumental within the university administrators building equal opportunities for women through increased spending and scholarship support was Peggy Pruitt, who retired in 2001. Building upon a tradition that has produced such stand-outs as Anita Corl Miller-Huntsman, Shelly Morris's field hockey team earned a MAC championship and an NCAA appearance in 2001. Wendy Weeden Devine, 1974, became the first woman inducted into the Ohio University Athletic Hall of Fame. An Ohio All-American and 1964 NCAA cross-country champion, Elmore \\\"Mo\\\" Banton led the cross-country and track and field teams as a coach to many MAC championships and NCAA highlights. Retiring in 1972, baseball's Coach Wren gave way to Jerry France, who coached future <a href=\\\"World%20Series\\\">World Series</a> skipper Bob Brenly of the <a href=\\\"Arizona%20Diamondbacks\\\">Arizona Diamondbacks</a>. France won almost 400 games, and his successor Joe Carbone added another 400 victories to the tradition.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"Sporting%20News\\\">Sporting News</a>\\\" ranked Ohio University thirty-second in the nation for overall achievement in 2001, ahead of such <a href=\\\"Dynasty%20%28sports%29\\\">powerhouses</a> as <a href=\\\"Florida%20State%20University\\\">Florida State</a>, <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Iowa\\\">Iowa</a>, <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Kentucky\\\">Kentucky</a>, <a href=\\\"Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology\\\">Georgia Tech</a>, and <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Kansas\\\">Kansas</a>.\\nOhio's <a href=\\\"marching%20band\\\">marching band</a> is <a href=\\\"The%20Ohio%20University%20Marching%20110\\\">The Ohio University Marching 110</a>. On October 28, 1976, the Marching 110 became the first marching band in history to perform at <a href=\\\"Carnegie%20Hall\\\">Carnegie Hall</a>. The Marching 110 performed in <a href=\\\"Bill%20Clinton\\\">Bill Clinton</a>'s first inaugural parade through Washington, D.C., in 1992 when Clinton personally asked his campaign chairman, alumnus <a href=\\\"David%20Wilhelm\\\">David Wilhelm</a>, for the band to march and perform to throngs of thousands of Americans greeting the new <a href=\\\"First%20Family%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">first family</a>. The band has also performed at many professional football games and has taken part in the <a href=\\\"Macy%27s%20Thanksgiving%20Day%20Parade\\\">Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade</a> in 2000 and 2005. Called \\\"The Most Exciting Band in the Land\\\", the band is widely regarded as one of the best in the nation and was ranked by Link Magazine in 1996 as one of the Top 10 college marching bands in the nation. They perform at every Ohio home football game.\\nMany of those traditions are associated with athletics events on campus. Ohio traditions include:\\nVarsity Ohio is the exclusive organization for student-athlete alumni, and sponsors the annual all-sports reunion during the week of Homecoming, with athletics alumni flying in from around the world.\\nOhio's baseball and fastpitch <a href=\\\"softball\\\">softball</a> teams have storied programs.\\nThe Ohio baseball program has won 14 MAC regular season titles in 1947, 1948, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1991. The team has also won MAC tournament titles in 1997 and 2015, and has made a College World Series appearance in 1970. There have been a total of 23 Bobcats in the major leagues, and hundreds more in the minors. Most notably, <a href=\\\"National%20Baseball%20Hall%20of%20Fame%20and%20Museum\\\">hall of famer</a> <a href=\\\"Mike%20Schmidt\\\">Mike Schmidt</a> was a Bobcat, selected 30th in the <a href=\\\"1971%20Major%20League%20Baseball%20draft\\\">1971 Major League Baseball draft</a> following his senior season.\\nAlthough softball at Ohio University began earlier than the 1970s, records were not well kept. Upon the creation of the <a href=\\\"Association%20for%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics%20for%20Women\\\">Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women</a> (AIAW), the current program began to take shape. The 1974 team, led by Head Coach Joyce King, went undefeated, boasting a record of 11-0-1. It was not until 1975 that the program made the switch from slow-pitch to fast-pitch. In that 1975 season, the team went 16-1 and made it to the AIAW <a href=\\\"Women%27s%20College%20World%20Series\\\">Women's College World Series</a> for the first time in program history. The early success continued as the 1976 team earned a spot in the Ohio State Invitational.\\nThe MAC and the NCAA did not begin to recognize women's softball until 1980 and both neglected to sponsor a tournament until 1982. The first MAC tournament featured the Bobcats as the runner-up, losing to their rival Miami of Ohio. In her second season, head coach Tracy Bunge led the Bobcats to the most wins in a season with a record of 39-22, winning their first MAC title and their first appearance in the NCAA regional play.\\nIn the 2014 season, the softball program won its first MAC tournament title. They were able to receive an automatic bid for the NCAA Championship tournament. During this season, they tied their record for most regular season wins at 32, while reaching their first national postseason tournament in 19 years.\\nThe current head coach of the Bobcats is Jodi Hermanek, who accepted the position on July 17, 2008. Her time of coaching at Ohio University has been remarkable, leading the team to break their program records in total strikeouts, most wins in a season, and its first MAC championship title.\\nOhio's home basketball games are played at the 13,080-seat <a href=\\\"Convocation%20Center%20%28Ohio%20University%29\\\">Convocation Center</a>. Located on the West Green of Ohio University's main campus, the venue has a seating capacity of 13,080. Ohio is consistently one of the attendance leaders in the Mid-American Conference and has the ability to draw good crowds, win or lose. The arena was completed in 1968 and is the largest basketball facility in the Mid-American Conference. The Bobcats have won over 75% of their home games since the opening of The Convo. Prior to playing at the Convo, Ohio basketball games were first played in Bentley Hall and then at Grover Center, two buildings that today exist as office space and classrooms for the university. The Convocation Center brought in its largest crowd on February 28, 1970, when 14,102 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats men's basketball team defeat the <a href=\\\"Bowling%20Green%20State%20University\\\">Bowling Green</a> Falcons 77-76.\\nThe first Ohio basketball game occurred in 1907 when the Bobcats defeated the <a href=\\\"Parkersburg%2C%20West%20Virginia\\\">Parkersburg YMCA</a> 46-9. Since that day, Ohio has posted a .571 winning percentage over their 100-year history and a .566 winning percentage in their 65 years in the Mid-American Conference. The Bobcats have won 6 Mid-American Conference tournament titles in 1983, 1985, 1994, 2005, 2010, and 2012. As well as 9 MAC regular season titles in 1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1985, and 1994. Prior to joining the MAC, the 'Cats won an Ohio Athletic Conference title in 1921 and three Buckeye Athletic Association championships in 1931, 1933, and 1937. In addition, Ohio has played in the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournament</a> 13 times, appearing in 1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1983, 1985, 1994, 2005, 2010, and 2012. The Bobcats have been selected for the <a href=\\\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">National Invitation Tournament</a> 4 times in 1941 (runner-up), 1969, 1986, and 1995, while also appearing in the <a href=\\\"College%20Basketball%20Invitational\\\">College Basketball Invitational</a> in 2008. As a result of the storied tradition of Ohio Bobcats basketball, the program was recently ranked 86th in \\\"Street & Smith's 100 Greatest Basketball Programs of All Time\\\", published in 2005.\\nSome of Ohio's famous men's basketball coaches include <a href=\\\"Jim%20Snyder%20%28coach%29\\\">Jim Snyder</a>, <a href=\\\"Danny%20Nee\\\">Danny Nee</a>, <a href=\\\"Larry%20Hunter\\\">Larry Hunter</a> and <a href=\\\"John%20Groce\\\">John Groce</a>. Jim Snyder led the Bobcats for 26 years (1949–1974) and helped Ohio to 7 NCAA Tournament appearances and one NIT appearance. Snyder's teams compiled a 355-255 record, good for a .581 winning percentage. Former Ohio coach Danny Nee led Ohio for 7 years from 1980–1986. Nee helped rebuild the program from several years of losing records, and he helped lead the team to 2 MAC Tournament titles, 2 NCAA Tournament appearances, and one NIT appearance. Following Nee's tenure at Ohio, he took a job as head coach of the <a href=\\\"Nebraska%20Cornhuskers\\\">Nebraska Cornhuskers</a>. Today Nee is head coach of the <a href=\\\"Duquesne%20Dukes\\\">Duquesne Dukes</a>. <a href=\\\"Larry%20Hunter\\\">Larry Hunter</a> served as head coach of Ohio from 1989–2001, compiling a winning percentage of .580 (204-148). His teams made one NCAA Tournament appearance in 1994, an NIT appearance in 1995, and won the Pre-Season NIT in 1994. Despite his record as coach of the Bobcats, Hunter was relieved of his duties in 2001 for a lack of postseason success. Today, Hunter is head coach of the <a href=\\\"Western%20Carolina%20Catamounts\\\">Western Carolina Catamounts</a>.\\nOhio's head coach from 2001 to 2008 was <a href=\\\"Tim%20O%27Shea\\\">Tim O'Shea</a>. Coach O'Shea resigned on Monday June 23, 2008, in order to become the head coach of Bryant University in Rhode Island. Coach O'Shea had arrived at Ohio in 2001 after 4 seasons as an assistant coach at his alma mater, <a href=\\\"Boston%20College\\\">Boston College</a>. He came to Athens on March 29, 2001 and vowed to take the Ohio men's basketball program to what he called the \\\"next level\\\". This next level was realized in 2005 as he led to Bobcats to a 21-11 record, a MAC Tournament Title, and an NCAA Tournament appearance in which 13 seed Ohio nearly upset 4 seed <a href=\\\"Florida\\\">Florida</a>. O'Shea's 2005–2006 team proved successful as well, posting a 19-11 record with wins over teams such as <a href=\\\"Rhode%20Island\\\">Rhode Island</a> and <a href=\\\"Samford%20University\\\">Samford</a>, and a close loss to <a href=\\\"Kentucky\\\">Kentucky</a>. The 2006–2007 team also posted 19 wins, with a final record of 19-13. A 20 win campaign was had in the 2007–2008 season, including notable non-conference wins over <a href=\\\"Maryland\\\">Maryland</a>, <a href=\\\"St.%20John%27s%20University%20%28New%20York%20City%29\\\">St. John's</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Mason%20University\\\">George Mason</a>, and <a href=\\\"Bucknell%20University\\\">Bucknell</a>. The team was extended an invite to the <a href=\\\"College%20Basketball%20Invitational\\\">College Basketball Invitational</a>, where the Bobcats advanced to the second round. On June 27, 2008, former <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes\\\">Ohio State Buckeyes</a> associate head coach <a href=\\\"John%20Groce\\\">John Groce</a> was named the sixteenth head coach in Bobcats history. Groce brings fourteen years of assistant coaching experience to Athens, along with a pair of outright <a href=\\\"Big%20Ten\\\">Big Ten</a> regular-season titles, two <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\\\">NCAA Tournament</a> appearances, a berth in the 2007 NCAA National Championship game and the 2008 <a href=\\\"National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">NIT</a> title.\\nOn March 18, 2010, the men's basketball program recorded a 97-83 blowout of the <a href=\\\"Georgetown%20Hoyas\\\">Georgetown Hoyas</a>. The upset marked the first time in NCAA tournament history that a fourteen seed defeated a three seed by double digits. Ohio defeated 4th seeded Michigan in the 2012 Tournament. They followed up the 2012 victory over <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Wolverines\\\">Michigan</a> with a 62–56 win over 12th seeded South Florida, reaching the Sweet Sixteen for the first time since 1964. On March 28, 2012, <a href=\\\"John%20Groce\\\">John Groce</a> left the program to coach at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Illinois\\\">University of Illinois</a>. He was replaced by <a href=\\\"Texas%20Christian%20University\\\">Texas Christian University</a> head coach <a href=\\\"Jim%20Christian\\\">Jim Christian</a> on April 3, 2012. Christian became Ohio University's highest paid faculty member in school history, having a base salary of $425,000 a year. He was replaced two years later on the same day after he got a coaching job at Boston College by Saul Phillips. Phillips was the head coach of North Dakota State.\\nThe Bobcats have won three MAC Tournaments (1986, 1995, 2015) since beginning play in 1973 and starting MAC play in 1982. They have reached the NCAA Tournament in those three championship years. Their current coach is <a href=\\\"Bob%20Boldon\\\">Bob Boldon</a>.\\nThe men's and women's teams are now coached by Clay Calkins, Mitch Bentley, and Nick Pero. The Ohio Bobcats’ women's cross country team competes at <a href=\\\"Goldsberry%20Track\\\">Goldsberry Track</a> in Athens, Ohio. The current head coach of the cross country and distance team is Mitch Bentley. Bentley is an alumnus of Ohio University, graduating with his bachelor's degree in geology in 1985. While on the team, he set two school records for the outdoor 10,000 meters (29:57.50) and the indoor 5,000 meter race. He is a four-time varsity letter winner in cross country and track, earning two All-MAC honors for cross country, indoor, and outdoor track. He began his university coaching career in 2003. The teams were previously coached by Elmore \\\"Mo\\\" Banton, a widely-known coach who became Ohio's first African American head coach in 1980 and stayed with the program for over twenty years. Many cross country runners also run for the track team in the spring, forming the core of the distance runners. The runners were greatly affected by the loss of the Men's Track program in 2007.\\nThe Ohio Men's Cross-Country program claims MAC titles from 1962, 1964, and 1996. Recently, distance athlete and Ohio's former Director of Compliance Craig Leon became a qualifier to the U.S. Olympic Trials for the marathon in Eugene, Oregon. Leon finished 10th at the 2013 Boston Marathon, the same race during the 2013 <a href=\\\"Boston%20Marathon%20bombing\\\">Boston Marathon bombing</a>. Since the 2007 track team elimination, the cross-country squad competes in mid- and long-distance events each Spring as the Club Track Team at the annual <a href=\\\"Wake%20Forest%20University\\\">Wake Forest University</a> track meet.\\nThe women's cross country team has been highly successful. Between 1980 and 2014, Ohio has had the top female runner in the MAC 7 times. During this time, four females have been named the first runner up for the best female athlete in the MAC. In 2013, Juli Accurso, became the first female runner in the MAC to win three consecutive conference titles. The women's cross country team has won the MAC Championship a total of 10 times, in the years 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1997, 2006, and 2007.\\nOhio Bobcats football began in 1894 with an 8-0 loss to <a href=\\\"Marietta%20College\\\">Marietta College</a>. Since that day, the Bobcats have posted a 498-516-48 record over their 112-year existence and a 202-243-11 record over their 60 years in the Mid-American Conference.\\n<a href=\\\"Peden%20Stadium\\\">Peden Stadium</a>, built in 1929, is the oldest football venue in the MAC and among the oldest in the nation. Located on the south of Ohio University's campus in Athens, the venue has a <a href=\\\"seating%20capacity\\\">seating capacity</a> of 24,000. In 2010, Peden Stadium was designated an official Ohio Historical landmark site after a university alumnus, Michael A Massa, advanced the idea to Ohio University and State of Ohio officials. Many recent renovation and expansion efforts have allowed the stadium to keep pace with the ever-changing landscape of college football stadiums. As such, Peden Stadium is nicknamed \\\"The <a href=\\\"Wrigley%20Field\\\">Wrigley Field</a> of College Football\\\". The historic stadium brought its largest crowd on September 8, 2012, when 25,893 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats decisively beat the <a href=\\\"2012%20New%20Mexico%20State%20Aggies%20football%20team\\\">New Mexico State Aggies</a> by a score of 51-24. This mark overtook the previous record set on September 5, 2009, when 24,617 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats drop a 23-16 decision to the <a href=\\\"Connecticut%20Huskies%20football\\\">Connecticut Huskies</a>. The third largest crowd came on September 9, 2005, when 24,545 fans watched the Bobcats defeat the <a href=\\\"Pittsburgh%20Panthers%20football\\\">Pittsburgh Panthers</a> 16-10. The fourth largest crowd was on September 17, 2011, when 24,422 fans watched the Bobcats defeat the Marshall Thundering Herd 44-7 in the Battle of the Bell. Ohio is consistently one of the attendance leaders in the Mid-American Conference.\\nThe Bobcats have won five MAC Football championships in 1953, 1960, 1963, 1967, and 1968, and MAC East Division championships in 2006, 2009, and 2011. Prior to joining the MAC, the Bobcats won six Buckeye Athletic Association championships in 1929, 1930, 1931, 1935, 1936, and 1938. In 1960, the Bobcats were crowned National Small College Champions after compiling a 10-0 record under Coach Bill Hess. The Bobcats have appeared in six bowl games, losing 15-14 to <a href=\\\"West%20Texas%20A%26amp%3BM%20University\\\">West Texas State</a> in the 1962 <a href=\\\"Sun%20Bowl\\\">Sun Bowl</a>, losing 49-42 to <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Richmond\\\">Richmond</a> in the 1968 <a href=\\\"Tangerine%20Bowl%20%281947%E2%80%9382%29\\\">Tangerine Bowl</a>, falling 28-7 to <a href=\\\"The%20University%20of%20Southern%20Mississippi\\\">Southern Mississippi</a> in the 2007 <a href=\\\"GMAC%20Bowl\\\">GMAC Bowl</a>, losing 21-17 to <a href=\\\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd\\\">Marshall</a> in the 2009 <a href=\\\"Little%20Caesars%20Pizza%20Bowl\\\">Little Caesars Pizza Bowl</a>, and losing to Troy in the 2010 <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans%20Bowl\\\">New Orleans Bowl</a>, 48-21, before finally winning a bowl game in the 2011 <a href=\\\"Famous%20Idaho%20Potato%20Bowl\\\">Famous Idaho Potato Bowl</a> against Utah State, 24-23.\\nSome of Ohio's notable football coaches include <a href=\\\"Don%20Peden\\\">Don Peden</a>, <a href=\\\"Bill%20Hess\\\">Bill Hess</a>, <a href=\\\"Jim%20Grobe\\\">Jim Grobe</a>, and current head coach <a href=\\\"Frank%20Solich\\\">Frank Solich</a>. Peden coached from 1924–1946, compiling a 121-46-11 record, good for a winning percentage of .711 that still stands as the best ever for an Ohio football coach. Peden's teams won a total of 6 Buckeye Athletic Association Championships in his tenure and left a lasting mark on the program when the Bobcat's football stadium, Peden Stadium, was named in his honor following his retirement. Bill Hess's time at Ohio was equally impressive. Coaching from 1958–1977, Hess had a 108-91-4 record, giving him a winning percentage of .542 that is second only to Peden on Ohio's all-time list. Coach Hess's teams won 4 MAC Championships, participated in 2 bowl games, and won a National Small College Championship in 1960 after having an undefeated season. Former Ohio coach Jim Grobe took the helm of the Bobcats program in 1995, inheriting a squad that winless in the previous season. Grobe quickly turned the program around, as his teams went 8-3 in 1997 and 7-4 in 2000. Coach Grobe had a 33-33-1 record in his time at Ohio, good for a .500 winning percentage that is fourth among all Ohio football coaches. After the 2000 football season, Grobe took a job as head football coach at Wake Forest University.\\n<a href=\\\"Frank%20Solich\\\">Frank Solich</a> was named the 28th football coach of the Bobcats on December 16, 2004. Prior to coming to Ohio, Solich spent many years as a part of the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Nebraska-Lincoln\\\">University of Nebraska</a> football program, as a player, an assistant coach, and later as the head coach. Solich was head coach of the Cornhuskers from 1998–2003 where he directed Nebraska to 6 consecutive bowl games, including the national championship game in the 2002 <a href=\\\"Rose%20Bowl%20Game\\\">Rose Bowl</a>. Solich's impact on the Ohio program was immediate, as plans were put in place to renovate Ohio's football facilities and increase financial support for the football program. Also, Ohio was selected to appear on national television 6 times for the 2005 football season, a record for the program. Frank Solich's first home game as coach of Ohio was a memorable one, as Peden Stadium brought in its largest ever crowd to watch the Bobcats defeat the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Pittsburgh%20Panthers\\\">University of Pittsburgh Panthers</a> 16-10.\\nUnder the guidance of Frank Solich, the Ohio football program has enjoyed a return to national prominence. On November 16, 2006 the Bobcats secured their first-ever MAC East Division title and their first football championship of any sort since 1968 with a victory over the <a href=\\\"Akron%20Zips%20football\\\">Akron Zips</a>. They then advanced to the <a href=\\\"MAC%20Football%20Championship%20Game\\\">MAC Championship Game</a> in <a href=\\\"Detroit\\\">Detroit</a>, where they were defeated by Central Michigan 31-10. On January 7, 2007, the Bobcats acted as the MAC representative in the <a href=\\\"GMAC%20Bowl\\\">GMAC Bowl</a> in <a href=\\\"Mobile%2C%20Alabama\\\">Mobile, Alabama</a>, losing 28-7 to the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Southern%20Mississippi%20Golden%20Eagles\\\">University of Southern Mississippi Golden Eagles</a> in a game nationally televised on <a href=\\\"ESPN\\\">ESPN</a>. The Bobcats followed up the 2006 campaign with a 6-6 record in 2007, and was one of six <a href=\\\"bowl%20eligible\\\">bowl eligible</a> programs that was not invited to post-season play. The Bobcats returned to the post-season in 2009, posting a 9-3 regular season record and another MAC East Championship. Ohio played in the <a href=\\\"MAC%20Football%20Championship%20Game\\\">MAC Championship Game</a>, where they fell to Central Michigan 20-10. On December 26, 2009, the Bobcats fell 21-17 to the <a href=\\\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd%20football\\\">Thundering Herd</a> in the <a href=\\\"Little%20Caesars%20Pizza%20Bowl\\\">Little Caesars Pizza Bowl</a>.\\n\\\"All players in bold are current NFL players.\\\"\\nThe Ohio Bobcats golf teams are two of the only teams in the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">MAC</a> that possess their own <a href=\\\"golf%20course\\\">golf course</a>. Both the men's and women's teams have several notable victories in national tournaments and compete at regular matches across the country.\\nThrough the 2014 season, the men's golf team has won 18 MAC tournament titles: 1951–55, 1957–61, 1963–65, 1967, 1969, 1971, 1979–80 (1954 co-champions with <a href=\\\"Kent%20State%20Golden%20Flashes%23Men%27s%20golf\\\">Kent State</a>). <a href=\\\"PGA%20Tour\\\">PGA Tour</a> golfer <a href=\\\"Dow%20Finsterwald\\\">Dow Finsterwald</a> is among the Ohio golf program's famous alumni.\\nOhio's volleyball team has been steadily increasing national prominence: Under the direction of Coach Geoff Carlston, the team won five consecutive Mid-American Conference regular season championships from 2003 to 2007, and 4 consecutive MAC tournament titles from 2003 to 2006. The team has appeared in the <a href=\\\"NCAA\\\">NCAA</a> Tournament every year since 2003, and made the \\\"Sweet 16\\\" of the <a href=\\\"NCAA\\\">NCAA</a> tournament in 2005. Following the end of the 2007 season, Coach Geoff Carlston moved on to take the head coaching position at <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20University\\\">Ohio State University</a>, with Ohio naming former Florida assistant Ryan Theis to the vacant head coaching position. Under the direction of Theis, the Bobcats have won 2 MAC regular season titles and have recorded 2 <a href=\\\"NCAA\\\">NCAA</a> Tournament appearances.\\nThe 2014 season was highly successful, with Deane Webb as their new head coach. Overall, the team went 23-6 on the season and remained undefeated in the MAC for the fourth time ever, their first since 2006. They won the MAC East Division title for 12th time and won the MAC regular season title for the second year in a row, their ninth overall. Their junior setter, Abby Gilleland, won the MAC Player of the Year, MAC Setter of the Year, and First Team All-MAC honors for the second year in a row. Meredith Ashy, also a junior, was the first player in Ohio Bobcats history to receive the MAC Defensive Player of the Year award, as well as being named First Team All-MAC selection. Graduating senior Kelly Lamberti capped her career off as one of two players to receive four First Team All-MAC honors.\\nOhio's women's swimming and diving team has won 11 MAC championships in 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2008 and 2011. This is more than any other women's swimming and diving program in the conference. The team competes in The Ohio University Aquatic Center, one of the finest swimming and diving facilities in the conference. The OUAC has hosted many Mid-American Conference Championship meets. Paul Anastacio is considered their best men's swimmer ever.\\nWomen's soccer at Ohio University began in 1997 under head coach Wendy Logan. Logan won the MAC Coach of the Year award in 1997, then led the team to their first regular season MAC champion title in 1998. In 2000, Stacy Strauss took over the head coach position and remained until 2012. During this time, Strauss led the 2001 and 2004 teams to become the MAC regular season champions. The Bobcats have never won the MAC tournament, though their record is 7-14.\\nThe current head coach is Aaron Rodgers, who took over the program in 2013. He was the former Kentucky Wildcats assistant coach. In his first two seasons at Ohio University, he has led the team to a combined record of 33-0-0.\\nThe current head coach of the program is Clay Calkins, a 1995 graduate of <a href=\\\"Malone%20University\\\">Malone University</a>. Calkins was born and raised in East Sparta, Ohio and had success in hurdles, pole vault, and jumps. After accepting the position in June 2003, Calkins led the men's track and field teams to 4 years of success, only ending because of the 2007 <a href=\\\"Title%20IX\\\">Title IX</a> legislation, which eliminated a total of 4 teams. Under his coaching, the numerous female athletes have become MAC and Regional Champions, as well as multiple national qualifiers.\\nThe team as a whole has won the MAC Championship in 1983, 1984, and 1994. Ohio's coach Diane Stamm won the MAC Women's Track Coach of the Year in the years 1982, 1983, 1984. In 1994, Elmore Banton, Ohio head coach, became the most recent coach from the Bobcats to win the award.\\nThe Ohio University wrestling program's inception was in 1919, when Thor Olson, the so-called \\\"Granddaddy of Collegiate Wrestling\\\", coached the very first Bobcat varsity wrestling team to a 1-1 record. The first of its kind at any university or institution in the state of Ohio, that wrestling team established a tradition that has continued under the leadership of past coaches like Fred Schleicher and Harry Houska. Present coach Joel Greenlee is entering his 17th season as the head coach of the Bobcat wrestling program after helping five individuals earn bids for the 2013 NCAA Wrestling Championships. Recent Bobcat standout <a href=\\\"wrestling\\\">wrestler</a> Jake Percival was at the 2004 NCAA meet, less than 40 seconds away from becoming Ohio's fifth national champion, but a late two-point reversal by Stanford's Matt Gentry in the 157-pound finals resulted in a second-place finish for Percival as the Bobcats placed 25th in the country under the guidance of Greenlee. Percival, the three-time MAC Wrestler of the Year, became the first four-time\\nAll-American in MAC history with a third-place finish at nationals in 2005. During his senior season, the Elyria native passed Enright (115-31) and Gardner (122-26) to become the school's all-time wins leader. He ended his career with a 142-10 record, including 18-6 in the NCAA Tournament, 113-4 during the regular season and a 17-0 mark in the conference. Ohio University wrestling home dual meets and tournaments take place in the <a href=\\\"Convocation%20Center%20%28Ohio%20University%29\\\">Convocation Center</a> located on campus.\\nMAC Championships in parentheses:\\nOn January 25, 2007, then-Athletic Director Kirby Hocutt announced the elimination of four varsity sports at Ohio University. Those sports include: men's swimming and diving, men's indoor track, men's outdoor track and women's lacrosse. The decision was announced without any advance warning to the student athletes involved causing major tension between the student body and the administration. The Athletic Department later revealed that the money saved would be reinvested in forcible sports.\\nOhio's athletic facilities and the teams that utilize them are as follows:\\nThe Kermit Blosser Ohio Athletics Hall of Fame was established in 1965. Inductees to the Blosser Ohio Athletics Hall of Fame are inducted during banquet ceremonies the evening prior to a designated home football game. Inductees are also recognized during a special halftime ceremony at the football game the following day. A portrait and accomplishments are displayed in the Ohio Athletics Hall of Fame located in the Convocation Center.\\nJim Schaus was named the new Director of Athletics at Ohio University by President <a href=\\\"Roderick%20J.%20McDavis\\\">Roderick J. McDavis</a> on April 7, 2008. Before accepting the job at Ohio, Schaus served in the same capacity at <a href=\\\"Wichita%20State%20University\\\">Wichita State University</a> for 9 years. Schaus replaced <a href=\\\"Kirby%20Hocutt\\\">Kirby Hocutt</a>, who took the Director of Athletics position at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Miami\\\">University of Miami</a>. Schaus' senior staff at Ohio includes: Amy Dean (Senior Associate AD/Administration & Sport Programs), Dan Hauser (Associate AD/External Operations), Lauren Ashman (Associate AD/Compliance), Randee Duffy (Associate AD/NCAA Eligibility & Student Athlete Success), Ryan White (Associate AD/Development), Tim Knavel (Associate AD/Business Operations) and Matt Molde (General Manager Ohio IMG Sports Marketing).\\nBetween 2011 and 2012, the University sponsored a select committee for leveraging talks for an indoor, multipurpose center. The building was dedicated after nearly five years of planning on August 26, 2014.\\nIn 2014, the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics and affiliated groups began a fundraising drive for a state-of-the-art study wing at Peden Stadium due to crowded interior space.\\nThe official radio home of the Ohio Bobcats is the Ohio IMG Sports Network. The first MAC network to reach into Columbus, the Ohio IMG Sports Network continues to serve the university's alumni base and fans in other parts of southeastern Ohio and parts of northern West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. The radio voice of the Bobcats is Russ Eisenstein with Rob Cornelius as color analyst for Bobcat football and men's basketball and Tom Hodson as the football sideline reporter.\\nThe network features 13 radio affiliations throughout southeast and central Ohio, and into West Virginia:\\n\\n\",\n \"Don Peden\\nDon C. Peden (c. 1898 – February 23, 1970) was an <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> and <a href=\\\"baseball\\\">baseball</a> player and coach. He served as the head football coach at <a href=\\\"Ohio%20University\\\">Ohio University</a> from 1924 to 1946, compiling a record of 121–46–11. Peden's winning percentage of .711 is the highest of any coach in the history of the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\\\">Ohio Bobcats football</a> program. His teams won six <a href=\\\"Buckeye%20Athletic%20Association\\\">Buckeye Athletic Association</a> championships, in 1929, 1930, 1931, 1935, 1936, and 1938. Peden was also the head baseball coach at Ohio from 1924 to 1948, tallying a mark of 250–134. The Bobcats' football stadium was renamed in his honor as <a href=\\\"Peden%20Stadium\\\">Peden Stadium</a> following his retirement. Peden died at the age of 71 on February 23, 1970 in <a href=\\\"San%20Diego\\\">San Diego, California</a>.\\n\",\n \"1968 Tangerine Bowl\\nThe 1968 Tangerine Bowl was held on December 27, 1968, at the <a href=\\\"Camping%20World%20Stadium\\\">Tangerine Bowl</a> stadium in <a href=\\\"Orlando%2C%20Florida\\\">Orlando, Florida</a>. The <a href=\\\"Richmond%20Spiders%20football\\\">Richmond Spiders</a> of the <a href=\\\"Southern%20Conference\\\">Southern Conference</a> defeated the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\\\">Ohio Bobcats</a> of the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> by a score of 49–42. The Tangerine Bowl is a former name of what is now called the <a href=\\\"Citrus%20Bowl\\\">Citrus Bowl</a>.\\nHeading into the game, <a href=\\\"Ohio%20University\\\">Ohio University</a> finished their regular season slate with a perfect 10–0–0 record. The Bobcats also held a #15 <a href=\\\"Associated%20Press\\\">Associated Press</a> (AP) national ranking. The 1970 Ohio Bobcats football team had one of the most potent offenses the nation and was spearheaded by <a href=\\\"quarterback\\\">quarterback</a> <a href=\\\"Cleve%20Bryant\\\">Cleve Bryant</a>. Ohio was one of only three NCAA programs to finish their regular season with an unbeaten and untied record.\\nThe <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Richmond\\\">University of Richmond</a> entered with an 8–3–0 record. They were <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Southern%20Conference%20football%20champions\\\">Southern Conference champions</a> after having finished 6–0–0 in conference play. They were decided underdogs against Ohio and the national media did not give them much of a chance to compete, let alone win the game. The upset-minded Spiders did just that, however, winning their first-ever postseason bowl game 49–42. It would ultimately be Richmond's only bowl victory (they lost in their only other bowl appearance, the <a href=\\\"1971%20Tangerine%20Bowl\\\">1971 Tangerine Bowl</a>).\\nAfter the loss, the Bobcats finished #20 in the final <a href=\\\"AP%20Poll\\\">AP Poll</a>.\\n\",\n \"Grandview Heights, Ohio\\nGrandview Heights is a city in <a href=\\\"Franklin%20County%2C%20Ohio\\\">Franklin County</a>, <a href=\\\"Ohio\\\">Ohio</a>, <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>. The population was 6,536 at the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>.\\nThe city was originally part of <a href=\\\"Marble%20Cliff%2C%20Ohio\\\">Marble Cliff</a>, one of the first suburbs of <a href=\\\"Columbus%2C%20Ohio\\\">Columbus</a>, which settled as a community in 1890 and incorporated as the \\\"Hamlet of Marble Cliff\\\" in 1901. Grandview Heights became a separate village in 1906, and a city in 1931.\\nGrandview Heights maintains its own police and fire departments and an independent school district. Its neighbor, Marble Cliff, contracts with the city to provide these to its own residents.\\nGrandview Heights is often remarked upon as being a small insulated city very close to downtown Columbus and has one of the smallest school districts in the greater urban area in terms of student population.\\nGrandview Heights is located at (39.980564, -83.041027).\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 1.33 sqmi , all land.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2010, there were 6,536 people, 2,927 households, and 1,680 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 4914.3 PD/sqmi . There were 3,087 housing units at an average density of 2321.1 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 94.6% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 1.4% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.2% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 1.2% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.8% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.9% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 2.4% of the population.\\nThere were 2,927 households of which 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.6% were non-families. 31.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.86.\\nThe median age in the city was 35.7 years. 21.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 33.7% were from 25 to 44; 27.6% were from 45 to 64; and 9.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 6,695 people, 2,953 households, and 1,742 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 4,972.1 people per square mile (1,914.8/km²). There were 3,034 housing units at an average density of 2,253.2 per square mile (867.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 95.92% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 1.34% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.06% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 1.00% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.42% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.25% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 1.51% of the population.\\nThere were 2,953 households out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.6% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.0% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.92.\\nIn the city the population was spread out with 24.7% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $51,328, and the median income for a family was $63,713. Males had a median income of $41,989 versus $36,711 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $27,495. About 3.0% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 5.4% of those under age 18 and 5.2% of those age 65 or over.\\nThe Bank Block is a historic strip mall along Grandview Avenue, the main commercial road. One of the first to include a parking lot, the Bank Block was built in 1927. It first included a grocery store, a pharmacy, and a bank among a total of 12 storefronts.\",\n \"1962 Sun Bowl\\nThe 1962 Sun Bowl was a <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> postseason <a href=\\\"bowl%20game\\\">bowl game</a> between the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\\\">Ohio Bobcats</a> and the <a href=\\\"West%20Texas%20State%20Buffaloes%20football\\\">West Texas State Buffaloes</a>.\\nWest Texas State (now known as West Texas A&M) was selected as an independent and was third in scoring with 29.7 points per game and fifth in rushing with 255.5 yards per game. Ohio was selected to represent as a member of the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-America Athletic Conference</a> in their first ever bowl game. This was the final Sun Bowl played at Kidd Field.\\nJim McKee kicked a 52-yard field goal to put the Bobcats ahead early but they trailed at the half 7-3 after a touchdown pass from Jim Dawson to Jerry Don Logan. In the third quarter, Skip Hoovler intercepted a pass and ran it back 91 yards for a touchdown, which still stands as the longest interception return in the Sun Bowl. Bob Babbitt completed a pass to Ken Smith for the two-point conversion to give Ohio an 11-7 lead. Ohio added in a field goal in the 4th to make it 14-7 late in the game. West Texas scored on a Dave “Hoot” Gibson pass to Jerry Richardson, who went 32 yards for the score. The game came down to a two-point conversion attempt by the Buffaloes. Dawson's pass to Jim Ostrander was successful, and the Buffaloes won. Logan recorded six tackles and caught a touchdown pass and was named MVP. Pete Pedro rshed for 105 yards on 14 carries for the Buffaloes.\\nOhio would win the MAC title the following year, but wasn't invited to a bowl game. The Buffaloes made just one more bowl game, the <a href=\\\"Junior%20Rose%20Bowl\\\">Junior Rose Bowl</a> in 1967.\\n\",\n \"Richmond Spiders football\\nThe Richmond Spiders are a <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> team representing the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Richmond\\\">University of Richmond</a> in <a href=\\\"Richmond%2C%20Virginia\\\">Richmond, Virginia</a>. Richmond was the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%23Football%20Championship%20Subdivision\\\">NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision</a> champion for the 2008 season. Richmond currently competes in the <a href=\\\"Colonial%20Athletic%20Association\\\">Colonial Athletic Association</a> of the <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">NCAA</a>'s Division I Football Championship Subdivision. Former <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Tennessee%20at%20Chattanooga\\\">University of Tennessee at Chattanooga</a> head coach <a href=\\\"Russ%20Huesman\\\">Russ Huesman</a> was named head coach of the Spiders, on December 14, 2016, replacing <a href=\\\"Danny%20Rocco\\\">Danny Rocco</a> who had depart to become head coach at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Delaware\\\">University of Delaware</a> a day earlier.\\nIn <a href=\\\"2008%20Richmond%20Spiders%20football%20team\\\">2008</a>, #7 Richmond beat <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Kentucky%20Colonels%20football\\\">Eastern Kentucky</a>, <a href=\\\"Appalachian%20State%20Mountaineers%20football\\\">Appalachian State</a>, and <a href=\\\"Northern%20Iowa%20Panthers%20football\\\">Northern Iowa</a> to advance to the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\\\">NCAA Division I Football Championship</a> against <a href=\\\"Montana%20Grizzlies%20football\\\">Montana</a>. In the FCS National Championship Game on December 19, 2008, they defeated Montana 24–7 to win the first team NCAA national title for the University of Richmond in any sport.\\nRichmond's traditional rival in many sports is the <a href=\\\"College%20of%20William%20%26amp%3B%20Mary\\\">College of William & Mary</a>. Richmond and William & Mary have met 127 times since 1898, making the rivalry (sometimes referred to as \\\"the South's oldest rivalry\\\") the fourth most-played in Division I college football. Only <a href=\\\"The%20Rivalry%20%28Lehigh%E2%80%93Lafayette%29\\\">Lafayette–Lehigh</a>, <a href=\\\"Princeton%E2%80%93Yale%20football%20rivalry\\\">Princeton–Yale</a>, and <a href=\\\"Harvard%E2%80%93Yale%20football%20rivalry\\\">Harvard–Yale</a> have played more games. The winner of the annual W&M–Richmond match-up claims the <a href=\\\"Capital%20Cup\\\">Capital Cup</a> (formerly the <a href=\\\"I-64%20Trophy\\\">I-64 Trophy</a>), which reflects the historical significance of the cities of Williamsburg and Richmond as the last two capitals of the Commonwealth of Virginia.\\nThe Spiders have appeared in the Division I-AA/FCS Playoffs 11 times. Their combined record is 15–10. They were FCS National Champions in 2008.\\n\",\n \"Woody Hayes\\nWayne Woodrow \\\"Woody\\\" Hayes (February 14, 1913 – March 12, 1987) was an <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> player and coach. He served as the head coach at <a href=\\\"Denison%20University\\\">Denison University</a> (1946–1948), <a href=\\\"Miami%20University\\\">Miami University</a> in <a href=\\\"Oxford%2C%20Ohio\\\">Oxford, Ohio</a> (1949–1950), and <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20University\\\">Ohio State University</a> (1951–1978), compiling a career <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> record of 238 wins, 72 losses, and 10 ties.\\nDuring his 28 seasons as the head coach of the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20football\\\">Ohio State Buckeyes football</a> program, Hayes' teams won five <a href=\\\"College%20football%20national%20championships%20in%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS\\\">national championships</a> (1954, 1957, 1961, 1968, 1970), captured 13 <a href=\\\"Big%20Ten%20Conference\\\">Big Ten Conference</a> titles, and amassed a record of 205–61–10. Over the last decade of his coaching tenure at Ohio State, Hayes's Buckeye squads faced off in a fierce rivalry against the <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Wolverines%20football\\\">Michigan Wolverines</a> coached by <a href=\\\"Bo%20Schembechler\\\">Bo Schembechler</a>, a former player under and assistant coach to Hayes. During that stretch in the <a href=\\\"Michigan%E2%80%93Ohio%20State%20football%20rivalry\\\">Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry</a>, dubbed \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ten%20Year%20War\\\">The Ten Year War</a>\\\", Hayes and Schembechler's teams won or shared the Big Ten Conference crown every season and usually each placed in the national rankings.\\nDespite his great achievements at Ohio State, Hayes's coaching career ended ignominiously when he was dismissed from the University after punching Clemson middle guard Charlie Bauman for intercepting an Ohio State pass with two minutes left on the clock in the <a href=\\\"1978%20Gator%20Bowl\\\">1978 Gator Bowl</a>. He was inducted into the <a href=\\\"College%20Football%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">College Football Hall of Fame</a> as a coach in 1983.\\nA native of <a href=\\\"Clifton%2C%20Ohio\\\">Clifton, Ohio</a>, Hayes was the youngest of three children born to Wayne B. and Effie (née Hupp) Hayes. He played <a href=\\\"Center%20%28American%20football%29\\\">center</a> at <a href=\\\"Newcomerstown%20High%20School\\\">Newcomerstown High School</a> in <a href=\\\"Newcomerstown%2C%20Ohio\\\">Newcomerstown, Ohio</a>. At <a href=\\\"Denison%20University\\\">Denison University</a>, he played <a href=\\\"offensive%20tackle\\\">tackle</a> under coach Tom Rogers, and was a member of <a href=\\\"Sigma%20Chi\\\">Sigma Chi</a> fraternity. After graduating from Denison in 1935, Hayes went on to serve as an assistant at two <a href=\\\"Ohio\\\">Ohio</a> high schools: <a href=\\\"Mingo%20Junction\\\">Mingo Junction</a> in 1935–1936 and <a href=\\\"New%20Philadelphia%2C%20Ohio\\\">New Philadelphia</a> in 1937. When New Philadelphia head coach John Brickels left to accept another position, Hayes was elevated to the head coaching position, where he put together a 17–2–1 record in his first two seasons before enduring a 1–9 record in 1940.\\nHayes enlisted in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Navy\\\">United States Navy</a> in July 1941, eventually rising to the rank of <a href=\\\"Lieutenant%20commander%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Lieutenant Commander</a> during World War II. He commanded \\\"PC 1251\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Palau%20Islands\\\">Palau Islands</a> invasion and the destroyer-escort <a href=\\\"USS%20Rinehart\\\">USS \\\"Rinehart\\\"</a> in both the Atlantic and Pacific operations.\\nAs World War II was winding down and Hayes' alma mater, Denison University, was pursuing plans to reinstate its football program (which had been suspended during the war), it contacted former head coach Rogers (also in the Navy) about rejoining the program as head coach. Rogers declined, but recommended that his former team captain, Hayes, be named the next head coach. Denison was able to locate and cable Hayes an offer, which he accepted, minutes before his Navy ship was to begin the passage through the <a href=\\\"Panama%20Canal\\\">Panama Canal</a> — meaning Hayes would have been <a href=\\\"Solitary%20confinement\\\">incommunicado</a> for an extended period of time.\\nUpon returning to Denison in 1946, Hayes struggled during his first year, winning only two games, over Capital and the season finale against Wittenberg. However, that victory sparked a 19-game winning streak, a surge that propelled him into the head coaching position at Miami University. Miami is recognized as the \\\"<a href=\\\"Cradle%20of%20Coaches\\\">Cradle of Coaches</a>\\\" because of its history of outstanding coaches starting their careers there, such as <a href=\\\"Paul%20Brown\\\">Paul Brown</a>, <a href=\\\"Ara%20Parseghian\\\">Ara Parseghian</a>, <a href=\\\"Weeb%20Ewbank\\\">Weeb Ewbank</a>, <a href=\\\"Bill%20Mallory\\\">Bill Mallory</a>, <a href=\\\"Sid%20Gillman\\\">Sid Gillman</a>, <a href=\\\"Randy%20Walker%20%28American%20football%20coach%29\\\">Randy Walker</a>, and <a href=\\\"Bo%20Schembechler\\\">Bo Schembechler</a>. Gillman was Hayes' immediate predecessor at Miami before Gillman moved down the road to coach at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Cincinnati\\\">University of Cincinnati</a>, which was then Miami's chief rival. Hayes and Gillman maintained a fierce rivalry between themselves, combining mutual distaste for the other's coaching style and because they were in recruiting competition in the same general area.\\nIn his second year with the <a href=\\\"Miami%20Redhawks%20football\\\">Miami Redskins</a>, Hayes led the 1950 squad to an appearance in the <a href=\\\"Salad%20Bowl%20%28American%20College%20Football%29\\\">Salad Bowl</a>, where they defeated <a href=\\\"Arizona%20State%20University\\\">Arizona State University</a>. That success led him to accept the Ohio State head coaching position on February 18, 1951, in a controversial decision after the university rejected the applications of other more well-known coaches, including former Buckeyes' head coach <a href=\\\"Paul%20Brown\\\">Paul Brown</a>, incumbent Buckeye assistant Harry Strobel and Missouri head coach <a href=\\\"Don%20Faurot\\\">Don Faurot</a>.\\nAs head coach of the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20football\\\">Ohio State Buckeyes</a>, Hayes led his teams to a 205–61–10 record (.761), including three consensus national championships (1954, 1957 and 1968), two other non-consensus national titles (1961 and 1970), 13 <a href=\\\"Big%20Ten%20Conference%20football%20champions\\\">Big Ten conference championships</a>, and eight <a href=\\\"Rose%20Bowl%20Game\\\">Rose Bowl</a> appearances. Hayes was a three-time winner of The College Football Coach of the Year Award, now known as the <a href=\\\"Paul%20%26quot%3BBear%26quot%3B%20Bryant%20Award\\\">Paul \\\"Bear\\\" Bryant Award</a>, and was \\\"the subject of more varied and colorful anecdotal material than any other coach past or present, including fabled <a href=\\\"Knute%20Rockne\\\">Knute Rockne</a>\\\", according to biographer Jerry Brondfield.\\nHayes' basic coaching philosophy was that \\\"nobody could win football games unless they regarded the game positively and would agree to pay the price that success demands of a team.\\\" His conservative style of football (especially on offense) was often described as \\\"three yards and a cloud of dust\\\"—in other words, a \\\"crunching, frontal assault of muscle against muscle, bone upon bone, will against will.\\\" The basic, bread-and-butter play in Hayes' playbook was a fullback off-guard run or a tailback off tackle play. Hayes was often quoted as saying \\\"only three things can happen when you pass (a completion, an incompletion, and an interception) and two of them are bad.\\\"\\nIn spite of this apparent willingness to avoid change, Hayes became one of the first major college head coaches to recruit <a href=\\\"African-American\\\">African-American</a> players, including <a href=\\\"Jim%20Parker%20%28American%20football%29\\\">Jim Parker</a>, who played both offensive and defensive tackle on Hayes' first national championship team in 1954. While Hayes was not the first to recruit African-Americans to Ohio State, he was the first to recruit and start African-Americans in large numbers there and to hire African-American assistant coaches.\\nAnother Hayes' recruit, <a href=\\\"Archie%20Griffin\\\">Archie Griffin</a>, remains the only two-time <a href=\\\"Heisman%20Trophy\\\">Heisman Trophy</a> winner in seven decades of selections. Altogether Hayes had 58 players earn <a href=\\\"All-America\\\">All-America</a> honors under his tutelage. Many notable football coaches, such as <a href=\\\"Lou%20Holtz\\\">Lou Holtz</a>, <a href=\\\"Bill%20Arnsparger\\\">Bill Arnsparger</a>, <a href=\\\"Bill%20Mallory\\\">Bill Mallory</a>, <a href=\\\"Dick%20Crum%20%28football%20coach%29\\\">Dick Crum</a>, <a href=\\\"Bo%20Schembechler\\\">Bo Schembechler</a>, <a href=\\\"Ara%20Parseghian\\\">Ara Parseghian</a> and Woody's successor, <a href=\\\"Earle%20Bruce\\\">Earle Bruce</a>, served as his assistants at various times.\\nHayes would often use illustrations from historical events to make a point in his coaching and teaching. When Hayes was first hired to be the head coach at OSU, he was also made a \\\"full professor of physical education\\\", having earned an <a href=\\\"Master%20of%20Arts\\\">M.A.</a> degree in educational administration from Ohio State in 1948. The classes that he taught on campus were usually full, and he was called \\\"Professor Hayes\\\" by students. Hayes also taught mandatory English and <a href=\\\"vocabulary\\\">vocabulary</a> classes to his freshman football players. One of his students was a basketball player named <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Knight\\\">Bobby Knight</a>, who was to become a legendary basketball coach.\\nDuring his time at Ohio State, Hayes' relationships with faculty members were particularly good. Even those members of the faculty who believed that the role of <a href=\\\"intercollegiate%20athletics\\\">intercollegiate athletics</a> was growing out of control respected Hayes personally for his commitment to academics, the standards of integrity with which he ran his program, and the genuine enthusiasm he brought to his hobby as an amateur historian. Hayes often ate lunch or dinner at the university's faculty club, interacting with faculty and administrators.\\nAs a coach and an educator, Hayes was one of the first to use the <a href=\\\"motion%20picture\\\">motion picture</a> as a teaching and learning tool. He was also memorable in that he could be seen walking across campus, taking the time to visit with students. When talking to young people, Hayes treated all with respect, without regard to race or socio-economic class. This behavior by Hayes was helpful to Ohio State to quell the violence and damage from anti-war demonstrations that other college campuses suffered in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He would actually take the time to communicate with student leaders. Then-team quarterback <a href=\\\"Rex%20Kern\\\">Rex Kern</a> said, \\\"Woody was out there on the Oval with the protesters, and he'd grab a bullhorn and tell the students to express their beliefs but not be destructive. He believed in <a href=\\\"Richard%20Nixon\\\">Nixon</a>, and he believed in <a href=\\\"the%20Establishment\\\">the Establishment</a>, but he wasn't afraid to talk to the students. He wanted to stay close to the action.\\\" Hayes was considered one of the few authority figures that students then had respect for. His enthusiasm for coaching and winning was such that many across the nation consider the following maxim to be true: \\\"What <a href=\\\"Vince%20Lombardi\\\">Vince Lombardi</a> was to professional football, Woody Hayes was to college football.\\\"\\nDuring his tenure at Ohio State, Hayes would joke that he considered himself to be <a href=\\\"Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football\\\">Notre Dame</a>'s best recruiter because if he could not convince a recruit to come to Ohio State instead of Michigan he would try to steer the recruit to Notre Dame, whom Ohio State did not play. While Hayes' public stance was that he refused to play Notre Dame because he was afraid of polarizing the <a href=\\\"Catholic%20Church\\\">Catholic</a> population in Ohio, Notre Dame's long-time athletic director <a href=\\\"Moose%20Krause\\\">Edward \\\"Moose\\\" Krause</a> said that Hayes had told him that Hayes liked having Michigan as the only tough game on the Ohio State schedule and that having the Buckeyes play Notre Dame would detract from that. Despite Hayes' apparent fear of playing more than one \\\"tough\\\" game a year, Ohio State still managed to schedule regular-season games with Nebraska, Washington, Southern California, UCLA, and Oklahoma during his tenure.\\nAfter losses or ties, Hayes would conduct locker room interviews while naked. A journalist from his tenure noted, \\\"He was an ugly guy so it would clear the locker room out pretty fast.\\\"\\nIn 1959, following a 17−0 loss to <a href=\\\"USC%20Trojans%20football\\\">USC</a>, Hayes threw a punch at \\\"<a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Examiner\\\">Los Angeles Examiner</a>\\\" sportswriter Al Bine, but missed, and punched the brother of \\\"Pasadena Independent\\\" sports editor Bob Shafer in the back instead. In a May 1965 meeting of Big Ten Conference athletic directors and coaches, Hayes nearly started a fight with <a href=\\\"Iowa%20Hawkeyes\\\">Iowa's</a> athletic director, <a href=\\\"Forest%20Evashevski\\\">Forest Evashevski</a>, before being restrained.\\nIn 1968, Hayes team won a game against rival <a href=\\\"1968%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20football%20team\\\">Michigan</a>, 50–14. Late in that game, Ohio State held a commanding 44–14 advantage and scored one final touchdown. Rather than taking the more common <a href=\\\"extra%20point\\\">extra point</a> kick, Hayes instead opted for a <a href=\\\"two-point%20conversion\\\">two-point conversion</a> (which was unsuccessful), leading many football fans to believe that Hayes was <a href=\\\"running%20up%20the%20score\\\">running up the score</a>. When asked later why he went for two points, Hayes said, \\\"Because I couldn't go for three!\\\"\\nPrior to the <a href=\\\"1973%20Rose%20Bowl\\\">1973 Rose Bowl</a>, Hayes shoved a camera into the face of a news photographer; Hayes was suspended for three games, fined $2,000, and left California with a subpoena.\\nIn 1977, a late fumble at Michigan caused him to charge at <a href=\\\"American%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">ABC</a> cameraman Mike Freedman, who recorded his frustration; Hayes was ejected, put on probation by the Big Ten Conference, and fined $2,000.\\nIn the 1961 season Ohio State won the Big Ten championship, qualifying automatically for the Rose Bowl. At the time, the Big Ten Conference rules stated that the school's Faculty Council must officially approve of the trip. In this unusual development, the Ohio State Faculty Council voted 25 to 28 against the <a href=\\\"1962%20Rose%20Bowl\\\">1962 Rose Bowl</a> trip, prompted by the head of a university alumni group, on the grounds that the school's academic reputation was suffering because of over-emphasis on the football team. Other reports state that the bid was declined because Ohio State had already beaten their would-be Rose Bowl opponent, <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%20at%20Los%20Angeles\\\">UCLA</a>, during the regular season. The decision sparked minor rioting on the Ohio State Campus and in the Columbus area. The \\\"<a href=\\\"Columbus%20Dispatch\\\">Columbus Dispatch</a>\\\" published the names, addresses, and phone numbers of those Faculty Council Members who voted against the trip as well as the amount of university money that they spent on trips. While Hayes was diplomatic with some faculty members who voted against the trip and urged the students to cease complaining, he did not spare his criticism of the alumni club president who led the charge against accepting the bowl bid.\\nSpeaking at a football banquet in 1969, Hayes spoke about the recently revealed <a href=\\\"My%20Lai%20Massacre\\\">My Lai Massacre</a>. He stated that the Vietnamese men in My Lai deserved to die, \\\"and I wouldn't be so sure those women were innocent. The children are obviously innocent – if they are less than five.\\\"\\nLate in the 1971 rivalry game against <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Wolverines%20football\\\">Michigan</a> in <a href=\\\"Ann%20Arbor%2C%20Michigan\\\">Ann Arbor</a>, furious over what he thought was a missed defensive pass interference foul committed by <a href=\\\"Thom%20Darden\\\">Thom Darden</a> of Michigan, Hayes stormed onto the field, launched a profanity-laced tirade at referee <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Markbreit\\\">Jerry Markbreit</a>, and tore up the sideline markers, receiving a 15-yard unsportsmanlike-conduct penalty. Hayes then threw the penalty flag into the crowd, began destroying the yard markers, and threw the first-down marker into the ground like a javelin before being restrained by Buckeyes team officials; Hayes was then assessed an additional 15-yard penalty and ejected. Hayes was suspended for one game and fined $1,000. As of 2017, Hayes is the only coach in football history to be ejected from a game, as coaches in football do not usually get ejected.\\nThe 1978 Sugar Bowl was the only time that Woody Hayes and Bear Bryant had coached against each other. Bear Bryant's Alabama Crimson Tide beat Woody's Buckeyes by a score of 35-6.\\nOn December 29, 1978, the Buckeyes played in the <a href=\\\"1978%20Gator%20Bowl\\\">Gator Bowl</a> against <a href=\\\"Clemson%20Tigers%20football\\\">the Clemson Tigers</a>. Late in the fourth quarter, the Tigers were leading the Buckeyes 17–15. Freshman quarterback <a href=\\\"Art%20Schlichter\\\">Art Schlichter</a> directed the Buckeyes into field goal range. On 3rd and 5 at the Clemson 24-yard line with 2:30 left and the clock running, Hayes called a pass rather than a run, because Schlichter was having a great game up to that point.\\nThe pass was intercepted by Clemson <a href=\\\"nose%20guard\\\">nose guard</a> Charlie Bauman, who returned it toward the OSU sideline where he was run out of bounds. After Bauman got back up, Hayes punched him in the throat, triggering a bench-clearing brawl. Hayes stormed onto the field and was abusive towards the referee. When one of Hayes' own players, offensive lineman <a href=\\\"Ken%20Fritz\\\">Ken Fritz</a>, tried to intervene, Hayes turned on him, and had to be restrained by defensive coordinator George Hill. The Buckeyes were assessed two 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalties for Hayes' attack on Bauman and his abuse towards the referee. Bauman was not injured by Hayes' punch and shrugged the incident off. Even though the game was being telecast by ABC, announcers <a href=\\\"Keith%20Jackson\\\">Keith Jackson</a> and <a href=\\\"Ara%20Parseghian\\\">Ara Parseghian</a> did not comment about the punch. (At the time, all non-press box cameras were operated remotely from another site, and Keith did not actually witness the punch, his view of the sideline's being blocked by the upper tier of the stadium).\\nAfter the game, OSU Athletic Director Hugh Hindman, who had played for Hayes at Miami of Ohio, and had been an assistant under him for seven years, privately and furiously confronted Hayes in the Buckeye locker room. He said that he intended to tell school president <a href=\\\"Harold%20Leroy%20Enarson\\\">Harold Enarson</a> about what happened, and strongly implied that Hayes had coached his last game at Ohio State. After a heated exchange, Hindman said he then offered Hayes a chance to resign, but Hayes refused, saying, \\\"That would make it too easy for you. You had better go ahead and fire me.\\\" Hindman then met with Enarson at a country club near <a href=\\\"Jacksonville%2C%20Florida\\\">Jacksonville</a>, and the two agreed that Hayes had to go.\\nThe next morning, Hindman told Hayes that he had been dismissed and relieved of his coaching duties at OSU. A press conference was held at the hotel where the team had been staying. The team returned to Columbus around noon, and Hayes left the airport in a police car. Regarding Hayes' dismissal, Enarson said that \\\"there isn't a university or athletic conference in this country that would permit a coach to physically assault a college athlete.\\\" After the incident, Hayes reflected on his career by saying, \\\"Nobody despises to lose more than I do. That's got me into trouble over the years, but it also made a man of mediocre ability into a pretty good coach.\\\" About two months after the incident, Hayes called Bauman in his dorm room, but did not apologize for his previous attack on him. <a href=\\\"Earle%20Bruce\\\">Earle Bruce</a> succeeded Hayes as head football coach at Ohio State University.\\nMany years later, <a href=\\\"Leonard%20Downie%2C%20Jr.\\\">Leonard Downie, Jr.</a>, former executive editor of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Washington%20Post\\\">The Washington Post</a>\\\" and student journalist at Ohio State, said he regretted not reporting an incident in the 1960s where Hayes instructed a player to take off his helmet and then hit him in the head.\\nAccording to the 1994 <a href=\\\"Home%20Box%20Office\\\">HBO</a> documentary \\\"American Coaches: Men of Vision and Victory\\\", Hindman had placed Hayes on notice at the beginning of the 1978 season, not just for the swing at the ABC cameraman during the 1977 Michigan game, but also for hitting a player during a practice. In his 1989 autobiography, Michigan's <a href=\\\"Bo%20Schembechler\\\">Bo Schembechler</a> wrote that he believed Hayes, who was <a href=\\\"diabetes\\\">diabetic</a> and may have had a high <a href=\\\"blood%20sugar\\\">blood sugar</a> level, didn’t believe he struck Bauman. Schembechler also pointed out that Hayes had maintained that all he was trying to do was grab the ball away.\\nBefore and after the dismissal incident, Hayes was a professor of Military History at Ohio State. His office was in the ROTC building, Converse Hall, across the street from Ohio Stadium. For the remainder of his years at OSU, he continued to teach and mentor students.\\nOn March 11, 1987, Hayes was clearly in failing health when he had someone drive him in his pickup truck to <a href=\\\"Dayton\\\">Dayton</a> to introduce Schembechler, who was speaking at a banquet. Organizers had tried to discourage Hayes from attending, but Hayes insisted. He gave a lengthy introduction to Schembechler and then stayed to hear him speak before being driven back home.\\nThe next morning, March 12, Hayes's wife Anne found him dead in his bed at the couple's home. He died of a heart attack at age 74. He is interred at Union Cemetery in <a href=\\\"Columbus%2C%20Ohio\\\">Columbus, Ohio</a>.\\nHayes's lifetime record of 238–72–10 placed him ninth in all-time <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">NCAA</a> Division I FBS coaching victories. He was inducted into the <a href=\\\"College%20Football%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">College Football Hall of Fame</a> in 1983.\\nAt Hayes's <a href=\\\"funeral\\\">funeral</a> at First Community Church in Grandview, Ohio on March 17, 1987, <a href=\\\"President%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">former president</a> <a href=\\\"Richard%20Nixon\\\">Richard Nixon</a> delivered the eulogy before a crowd of 1,400, acknowledging the friendship that had begun between the two during his second term as <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Vice%20President\\\">vice president</a>. Having met Hayes at a reception following a Buckeye win over Iowa in 1957, Nixon recalled, \\\"I wanted to talk about <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">football</a>. Woody wanted to talk about <a href=\\\"foreign%20policy\\\">foreign policy</a>. And you know Woody—we talked about foreign policy.\\\" The following day, more than 15,000 people took part in a <a href=\\\"funeral\\\">memorial service</a> at <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Stadium\\\">Ohio Stadium</a>.\\nHayes's commitment to academics at Ohio State was evidenced by his request that donations from his family, friends, and supporters be made to the academic side of the university. Following his death and in keeping with his wishes, the Wayne Woodrow Hayes Chair in National Security Studies was established at Ohio State's <a href=\\\"Mershon%20Center%20for%20International%20Security%20Studies\\\">Mershon Center for International Security Studies</a>. Professor <a href=\\\"John%20Mueller\\\">John Mueller</a> currently holds the chair. In November 1987, the university dedicated the new <a href=\\\"Woody%20Hayes%20Athletic%20Center\\\">Woody Hayes Athletic Center</a> in his memory.\\nHayes married the former Anne Gross in 1942. Anne Hayes was a formidable and popular woman in her own right, who used to jokingly say at numerous sports banquets, \\\"Divorce Woody? Never! But there were plenty of times I wanted to murder him!\\\" The couple had one son, Steven, who went on to become a lawyer and judge. Coincidentally, the younger Hayes would be assigned to the 2003 trial of former Ohio State standout <a href=\\\"Maurice%20Clarett\\\">Maurice Clarett</a>.\\nBecause of his knowledge of military history and ongoing popularity, Hayes in the early 1980s hosted the broadcast of six World War II films for <a href=\\\"WBNS-TV\\\">WBNS-TV</a> in Columbus, which has served as the official outlet of Ohio State sports media programming for years, including the football coach's shows. Among the movies broadcast were \\\"<a href=\\\"Patton%20%28film%29\\\">Patton</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Midway%20%28film%29\\\">Midway</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Wackiest%20Ship%20in%20the%20Army%20%28film%29\\\">The Wackiest Ship in the Army</a>\\\", \\\"\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Tora%21%20Tora%21%20Tora%21\\\">Tora! Tora! Tora!</a>\\\"\\nHayes would also give salty historical perspectives related to each movie. Hayes' segments, depending upon the movie, were taped in such locations as <a href=\\\"Fort%20Knox\\\">Fort Knox</a>, <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Military%20Academy\\\">West Point</a>, the <a href=\\\"USS%26%2332%3BYorktown%26%2332%3B%28CV-10%29\\\">USS \\\"Yorktown\\\"</a> , and <a href=\\\"Stuttgart\\\">Stuttgart</a>, Germany, where he interviewed <a href=\\\"Manfred%20Rommel\\\">Manfred Rommel</a>, Lord Mayor of Stuttgart and the son of <a href=\\\"Erwin%20Rommel\\\">Erwin Rommel</a>.\\nFormer assistants who became NCAA Division I <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\\\">FBS</a> or <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a> head coaches:\\nFormer players who became assistants who became NCAA Division I <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\\\">FBS</a> or <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a> head coaches:\\nFormer players who became NCAA Division I <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\\\">FBS</a> or <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a> head coaches:\\n\\n\",\n \"West Texas A&M Buffaloes football\\nThe West Texas A&M Buffaloes football program is the intercollegiate <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> team for the <a href=\\\"West%20Texas%20A%26amp%3BM%20University\\\">West Texas A&M University</a> located in the U.S. state of <a href=\\\"Texas\\\">Texas</a>. The team competes in <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20II\\\">Division II</a> and are members of the <a href=\\\"Lone%20Star%20Conference\\\">Lone Star Conference</a>. The school's first football team was fielded in 1910. The team plays its home games at the 20,000 seat <a href=\\\"Kimbrough%20Memorial%20Stadium\\\">Kimbrough Memorial Stadium</a>. They are coached by <a href=\\\"Mike%20Nesbitt%20%28American%20football%29\\\">Mike Nesbitt</a>.\\nNotable alumni include:\\nThey have also competed in the <a href=\\\"Kanza%20Bowl\\\">Kanza Bowl</a>, a Division II bowl between the Lone Star Conference and the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association from 2009–2012.\\n<a href=\\\"Joe%20Kerbel\\\">Joe Kerbel</a> has the most all-time wins for the Buffaloes, who have gone 496–491–23 as of 2014.\",\n \"Convocation Center (Ohio University)\\nThe Convocation Center is a 13,080-seat multi-purpose arena that is home to the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats\\\">Ohio Bobcats</a> <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a>, <a href=\\\"volleyball\\\">volleyball</a>, and <a href=\\\"collegiate%20wrestling\\\">wrestling</a> teams.\\nThe Convocation Center, affectionately called \\\"The Convo,\\\" was designed by Brubaker and Brandt Architects of <a href=\\\"Columbus%2C%20Ohio\\\">Columbus, Ohio</a> and built by Knowlton Construction Company of <a href=\\\"Bellefontaine%2C%20Ohio\\\">Bellefontaine, Ohio</a>. The first men's basketball game in the arena featured an 80–70 Ohio victory over the <a href=\\\"Indiana%20Hoosiers\\\">Indiana Hoosiers</a> on December 3, 1968. The arena houses offices for the Ohio Athletics Department numerous coaches' offices, team locker rooms, and athletic training rooms. Additionally it houses offices and classrooms for the computer science branch of the Russ College of Engineering. Over the years, there have been numerous renovations, some of the most recent being in 1997, where improved lighting, an expanded press row, and a wider camera deck were added to the arena. Also, The Vern and Marion Alden Basketball Suite which houses offices and meeting rooms for Ohio men's and women's basketball was completed. A few years later, the locker rooms for both basketball teams were expanded and given new furniture, carpeting, and individual wooden lockers. Following the 2004 season, more renovations occurred as a new playing surface was installed and two large <a href=\\\"Daktronics\\\">Daktronics</a> video boards were added to the venue.\\nThe Convocation Center's atmosphere has helped the Bobcats to win over 75% of their home games since the opening of The Convo in 1968. At the beginning of the 2001–2002 season, a new <a href=\\\"student%20cheering%20section\\\">student cheering section</a>, dubbed the \\\"O Zone,\\\" was started for men's basketball games.\\nThe Convocation Center brought in its largest crowd on February 28, 1970, when 14,102 fans were in attendance to watch the Bobcats men's basketball team defeat the <a href=\\\"Bowling%20Green%20Falcons%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Bowling Green Falcons</a> 77–76. That year Ohio finished 20–5, winning the Mid-American Conference and advancing to the <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">NCAA</a> <a href=\\\"Tournament\\\">Tournament</a>.\\nIn addition to Ohio basketball, <a href=\\\"volleyball\\\">volleyball</a>, and <a href=\\\"wrestling\\\">wrestling</a> contests, the Convo hosts numerous other events annually. The facility has held local high school basketball games as well as high school state tournament games as well as a variety of concerts, including a May 17, 1969 concert by <a href=\\\"Led%20Zeppelin\\\">Led Zeppelin</a>, professional wrestling events, and special university events, most notably Ohio University's graduation ceremonies.\\nThe Convocation Center is used for Thursday night rehearsals for <a href=\\\"The%20Ohio%20University%20Marching%20110\\\">The Ohio University Marching 110</a> when the weather causes temperatures to drop far too low for these late-night sessions. The band uses these rehearsals to learn/polish dance routines for their home football games on the basketball court. The building was also used for several of the Marching 110's LP recording sessions in the 1970s, 80s and 90s.\\nOhio University Athletics Director Jim Schaus announced plans to renovate the Convocation Center athletic training center by 2012 as part of the Bobcat Renaissance, which is an initiative geared toward improving OU's athletic programs.\\nThe Arena has also hosted some events of <a href=\\\"WCW\\\">WCW</a>.\\n\\n\",\n \"2012 MAC Men's Basketball Tournament\\nThe 2012 <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> men's basketball tournament is the post-season basketball tournament for the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> (MAC) <a href=\\\"2011%E2%80%9312%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20season\\\">2011–12</a> <a href=\\\"college%20basketball\\\">college basketball</a> season. The winner of the tournament receives the MAC's automatic bid into the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Basketball%20Championship\\\">NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship</a> tournament.\\nThe format for the conference tournament has been modified for this season. The new format seeds the tournament by rewarding the No. 1 and No. 2 seeds with a bye into the semifinal round, while the No. 3 and No. 4 seeds will receive a bye to the quarterfinal round. Seeding will be determined by winning percentage in conference games, regardless of division. First round games will be played on campus sites at the higher seed. The remaining rounds will be held at <a href=\\\"Quicken%20Loans%20Arena\\\">Quicken Loans Arena</a>.\\n\",\n \"John Groce\\nJohn Gordon Groce ( ) (born September 7, 1971) is an American <a href=\\\"college%20basketball\\\">college basketball</a> coach, currently the <a href=\\\"head%20coach\\\">head coach</a> for the <a href=\\\"Akron%20Zips%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Akron Zips men's basketball team</a>. Prior to coaching for Akron, he was the head coach at <a href=\\\"Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Illinois</a> and <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Ohio</a>.\\nGroce graduated from <a href=\\\"Taylor%20University\\\">Taylor University</a>, an <a href=\\\"National%20Association%20of%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics\\\">NAIA Division II</a> school in <a href=\\\"Upland%2C%20Indiana\\\">Upland, Indiana</a>, in 1994 and played basketball for the school while he was there. Groce started his coaching career as an assistant with his alma mater, <a href=\\\"Taylor%20University\\\">Taylor University</a>, under Paul Patterson from 1993 to 1996. His next job was an assistant at <a href=\\\"NC%20State%20Wolfpack%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">North Carolina State</a> under <a href=\\\"Herb%20Sendek\\\">Herb Sendek</a> from 1996 to 2000. He then moved on to <a href=\\\"Butler%20Bulldogs%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Butler</a> as an assistant to <a href=\\\"Thad%20Matta\\\">Thad Matta</a> and was there just one season (2000–01). When Matta accepted the head coaching position at <a href=\\\"Xavier%20Musketeers%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Xavier</a>, Groce went with him and served as an assistant from 2001 to 2004, before moving again with Matta when he was named as the head coach of <a href=\\\"Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Ohio State</a>. He served as an assistant from 2004 to 2008.\\nGroce was named the head coach at Ohio University on June 27, 2008, replacing <a href=\\\"Tim%20O%27Shea\\\">Tim O'Shea</a>, who resigned to take the head coach position at <a href=\\\"Bryant%20University\\\">Bryant University</a>.\\nIn his <a href=\\\"2008%E2%80%9309%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">first year</a>, the Bobcats finished 7–9 in <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> play and failed to qualify for postseason play. The team's overall record improved the <a href=\\\"2009%E2%80%9310%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">following year</a>, but the Bobcats finished with another 7–9 record. However, the Bobcats went on a run in the MAC Tournament, winning the championship as the No. 9 seed. As a result, the Bobcats received the conference's automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament. They received a No. 14 seed in the Midwest region and Groce led the Bobcats to an upset win over No. 12-ranked and No. 3-seeded <a href=\\\"2009%E2%80%9310%20Georgetown%20Hoyas%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Georgetown</a> in the First Round. They then lost in the Second Round to <a href=\\\"2009%E2%80%9310%20Tennessee%20Volunteers%20basketball%20team\\\">Tennessee</a>.\\nIn <a href=\\\"2010%E2%80%9311%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">2011</a>, the Bobcats increased their conference record to 9–7 and earned a bid to the <a href=\\\"2011%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">National Invitation Tournament</a>. A first round victory over <a href=\\\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Marshall</a> preceded a loss to <a href=\\\"East%20Tennessee%20State%20Buccaneers%20basketball\\\">East Tennessee State</a> in the NIT Quarterfinals.\\nIn <a href=\\\"2011%E2%80%9312%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">2012</a>, Groce led the Bobcats to a 11–5 conference record and another <a href=\\\"2012%20MAC%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">MAC Tournament</a> championship. As the conference's automatic bid to the <a href=\\\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournament</a>, the Bobcats received a No. 13 seed. In the Tournament, Ohio defeated No. 4-seeded <a href=\\\"2011%E2%80%9312%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Michigan</a> and No. 12-seeded <a href=\\\"2011%E2%80%9312%20South%20Florida%20Bulls%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">South Florida</a> to earn a trip to the Sweet Sixteen, Ohio's first rip to the Sweet Sixteen since 1964. In the Sweet Sixteen, they pushed No. 1-seed <a href=\\\"North%20Carolina%20Tar%20Heels%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">North Carolina</a> to overtime before losing 73–65.\\nIn four seasons at Ohio, Groce was 85–56 overall and 34–30 in Mid-American Conference games.\\nGroce finalized negotiations to become the men's basketball head coach at the University of Illinois on March 28, 2012, after both <a href=\\\"Shaka%20Smart\\\">Shaka Smart</a> and <a href=\\\"Brad%20Stevens\\\">Brad Stevens</a> declined interest in the position.\\nThe Illini started 12–0 in <a href=\\\"2012%E2%80%9313%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">2013</a> under Groce, the best start for a first-year coach in the team's modern era. The team won the <a href=\\\"2012%20Maui%20Invitational%20Tournament\\\">2012 Maui Invitational</a> by defeating <a href=\\\"2012%E2%80%9313%20Butler%20Bulldogs%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Butler</a> in the championship game. Illinois finished the year 23–13, but with a losing conference record at 8–10. The Illini did receive a bid to the <a href=\\\"2013%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournament</a> advancing to the Third Round (formerly known as the Second Round) before losing to No. 2-seeded <a href=\\\"2012%E2%80%9313%20Miami%20Hurricanes%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Miami</a>.\\nDuring their <a href=\\\"2013%E2%80%9314%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">2014 season</a>, Illinois' success in the month of November improved to 21–0 under Groce. Until losing five non-conference games in 2015, Illinois was the only program in the nation with an undefeated November record dating back to 2011. The Illini would slip however, finishing 20–15, 7–11 in <a href=\\\"2013%E2%80%9314%20Big%20Ten%20Conference%20men%27s%20basketball%20season\\\">Big Ten play</a> and failing to make the <a href=\\\"2014%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournament</a>. They did receive a bid to the <a href=\\\"2014%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">NIT</a> advancing to the second round.\\nThe Illini continued to struggle in <a href=\\\"2014%E2%80%9315%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">2015</a>, finishing 19–14, 9–9 and again failing to make the <a href=\\\"2015%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournament</a>. They did receive a bid to the <a href=\\\"2015%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">NIT</a> where they lost in the first round.\\nBefore the end of their <a href=\\\"2015%E2%80%9316%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">2016 season</a>, new Illinois <a href=\\\"Athletic%20director\\\">AD</a> Josh Whitman gave John Groce a vote of confidence, praising his leadership and stating that \\\"John Groce is going to continue to be our basketball coach.\\\" However, the Illini finished the season 15–19, 5–13.\\nThe <a href=\\\"2016%E2%80%9317%20Illinois%20Fighting%20Illini%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Illini</a> fared better in 2017, finishing 20–15, 8–10. The team did win four in a row toward the end of the season leading to talks of an <a href=\\\"2017%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">NCAA Tournament</a> bid, but a loss at Rutgers in the final regular season game likely ended their Tournament hopes. On March 11, 2017, John Groce was relieved of his duties, two days after the Illini lost its <a href=\\\"2017%20Big%20Ten%20Conference%20Men%27s%20Basketball%20Tournament\\\">Big Ten Tournament</a> opening-round game to <a href=\\\"2016%E2%80%9317%20Michigan%20Wolverines%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">Michigan</a>. Following Groce's dismissal, the Illini advanced to the <a href=\\\"2017%20National%20Invitation%20Tournament\\\">NIT</a> quarterfinals before losing to <a href=\\\"2016%E2%80%9317%20UCF%20Knights%20men%27s%20basketball%20team\\\">UCF</a>.\\nFrom 2013 to 2016, Groce reversed Illinois' prior four-game <a href=\\\"losing%20streak\\\">losing streak</a> in the annual <a href=\\\"Braggin%27%20Rights\\\">Braggin' Rights</a> interstate rivalry against the <a href=\\\"Missouri%20Tigers%20men%27s%20basketball\\\">Missouri</a> by winning the contest for four straight seasons.\\nFollowing his dismissal from Illinois, Groce was hired on April 5, 2017 to become the new head coach of the Akron Zips.\\n\\n\",\n \"Bob Wren Stadium\\nBob Wren Stadium is a <a href=\\\"baseball\\\">baseball</a> stadium located in <a href=\\\"Athens%2C%20Ohio\\\">Athens, Ohio</a> on the campus of <a href=\\\"Ohio%20University\\\">Ohio University</a>. It serves as the home field for the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20baseball\\\">Ohio Bobcats</a> since opening on April 18, 1998. The Bobcats opened the facility by defeating the <a href=\\\"Bowling%20Green%20Falcons%20baseball\\\">Bowling Green Falcons</a> 4–1 in front of 1,389 fans.\\nBob Wren Stadium features many modern amenities and has a capacity of 4,000. The stadium has 100 chairback seats that are part of the VIP club, named the Baumholtz club in honor of former Ohio baseball player Frank Baumholtz. In addition, there are around 1,000 bleacher-back seats in the stadium and another 1,000 seats of regular bleachers. Down both the third and first base lines there are two grassy knolls that are capable of seating up to another 1,000 fans.\\nThere are two concession stands available with traditional ballpark fare, and members of the Baumholtz Club have access to a private lounge that serves more upscale food items. The press box provides multiple phones and computer lines for members of the media. There are also two radio broadcast booths and one television broadcast booth available.\\nThe stadium has already undergone several modifications since opening. In 2003, a large Daktronics digital scoreboard was added to the outfield of the stadium. That same year, heated batting cages were added to the northeast of the stadium, allowing Bobcat players to practice inside during cold weather. Most recently, lights were installed in 2004. As a result of this new addition, 15 of Ohio's 28 home games in 2005 were played at night.\\nThe stadium is named for former Bobcat head coach Bob Wren, who held the highest all-time winning percentage of any Ohio baseball coach.\\nIn addition to serving as the home of Ohio Bobcats baseball, Bob Wren Stadium is home to the <a href=\\\"Southern%20Ohio%20Copperheads\\\">Southern Ohio Copperheads</a> of the <a href=\\\"Great%20Lakes%20Summer%20Collegiate%20League\\\">Great Lakes Summer Collegiate League</a> and is the home of the state <a href=\\\"American%20Legion\\\">American Legion</a> baseball tournament every year.\\n\",\n \"Rob Smith (baseball)\\nRob Smith in an American <a href=\\\"college%20baseball\\\">college baseball</a> coach, currently serving as head coach of the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20baseball\\\">Ohio Bobcats baseball</a> program. He was named to that position prior to the <a href=\\\"2013%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20baseball%20season\\\">2013 season</a>.\\nSmith played at <a href=\\\"Vincennes%20Trailblazers%20baseball\\\">Vincennes</a> for two seasons, then completed his eligibility at <a href=\\\"Indiana%E2%80%93Southeast%20Grenadiers%20baseball\\\">Indiana–Southeast</a> before completing his degree at <a href=\\\"Indiana%20University%20Bloomington\\\">Indiana University Bloomington</a> in 1998. He then spent a year as an assistant coach at <a href=\\\"Purdue%20Boilermakers%20baseball\\\">Purdue</a> in 1999, and returned to the Boilermakers from 2001 through 2006. Smith was hired as Associate Head Coach at <a href=\\\"Creighton%20Bluejays%20baseball\\\">Creighton</a>. He was hired as head coach at Ohio in June 2012.\\n\",\n \"2012 Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks football team\\nThe 2012 Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks football team represented the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Louisiana%20at%20Monroe\\\">University of Louisiana at Monroe</a> in the <a href=\\\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. The Warhawks were led by third year head coach <a href=\\\"Todd%20Berry\\\">Todd Berry</a> and played their home games at <a href=\\\"Malone%20Stadium\\\">Malone Stadium</a>. They were a member of the <a href=\\\"Sun%20Belt%20Conference\\\">Sun Belt Conference</a>. They finished the season 8–5, 6–2 in Sun Belt play to finish in a three way tie for second place. They were invited to the <a href=\\\"2012%20Independence%20Bowl\\\">Independence Bowl</a>, the first bowl appearance in school history, where they were defeated by <a href=\\\"2012%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20football%20team\\\">Ohio</a>.\\nThe Warhawks came into War Memorial Stadium as 30.5 point underdogs. In regulation, the Warhawks played the Razorbacks to a tie. Arkansas, who had three starters (including QB Tyler Wilson) injured in the game, was held to a field goal in the 1st overtime. ULM faced a 4th and 1 in same overtime period, and elected to pursue a first down. The result was a ULM QB Kolton Browning game-winning touchdown run. Browning finished with 481 total yards, three passing touchdows, and one rushing touchdown.\\nLouisiana-Monroe's victory over #8 Arkansas marked the first victory by \\\"any\\\" Sun Belt Conference team over a top-ten opponent and the first victory over any ranked opponent since 2004.\\n\",\n \"2012 Independence Bowl\\nThe 2012 <a href=\\\"AdvoCare\\\">AdvoCare</a> V100 <a href=\\\"Independence%20Bowl\\\">Independence Bowl</a> was a post-season American <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> <a href=\\\"bowl%20game\\\">bowl game</a> held on December 28, 2012 at <a href=\\\"Independence%20Stadium%20%28Shreveport%29\\\">Independence Stadium</a> in <a href=\\\"Shreveport%2C%20Louisiana\\\">Shreveport, Louisiana</a> in the United States. The 37th edition of the Independence Bowl began at 1:00 p.m. <a href=\\\"Central%20Standard%20Time\\\">CST</a> and aired on <a href=\\\"ESPN\\\">ESPN</a>. It featured the <a href=\\\"2012%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20football%20team\\\">Ohio Bobcats</a> from the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> against the <a href=\\\"2012%20Louisiana%E2%80%93Monroe%20Warhawks%20football%20team\\\">Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks</a> from the <a href=\\\"Sun%20Belt%20Conference\\\">Sun Belt Conference</a> and was the final game of the <a href=\\\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a> for both teams. Both the Bobcats and the Warhawks accepted their invitation after finishing at 8–4 during the regular season.\\nThis was both teams' first appearance in the Independence Bowl.\\nUnder normal circumstances, the Independence Bowl would feature the seventh bowl-eligible team from the <a href=\\\"Atlantic%20Coast%20Conference\\\">Atlantic Coast Conference</a> against the tenth bowl-eligible team from the <a href=\\\"Southeastern%20Conference\\\">Southeastern Conference</a>. However, both conferences are one school shy of having enough bowl-eligible teams to qualify (the ACC has six and the SEC has nine).\\nOn Friday, November 30, <a href=\\\"2012%20Louisiana%20Tech%20Bulldogs%20football%20team\\\">Louisiana Tech</a> was invited to play in the <a href=\\\"Independence%20Bowl\\\">Independence Bowl</a> but asked for more time as they were in negotiations with the <a href=\\\"Liberty%20Bowl\\\">Liberty Bowl</a> and <a href=\\\"Heart%20of%20Dallas%20Bowl\\\">Heart of Dallas Bowl</a>. Louisiana Tech athletic director Bruce Van De Velde and <a href=\\\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">WAC</a> commissioner Jeff Hurd both claimed that on Saturday, December 1, the <a href=\\\"Liberty%20Bowl\\\">Liberty Bowl</a> executive director Steve Ehrhart guaranteed the Bulldogs a bowl invite. After the Independence Bowl's deadline for Louisiana Tech to accept their invitation passed, the Independence Bowl selected the MAC's <a href=\\\"2012%20Ohio%20Bobcats%20football%20team\\\">Ohio</a> (8-4) instead. On Sunday, December 2, the Liberty Bowl extended their remaining bid to <a href=\\\"2012%20Iowa%20State%20Cyclones%20football%20team\\\">Iowa State</a> (6-6) instead of Louisiana Tech (9-3). The Bulldogs did not end up playing in any bowl game despite boasting the nation's top scoring offense.\\nThis was the first meeting between these two teams.\\nDespite a promising 7-0 start to the season (including a #23 ranking as well as defeating <a href=\\\"2012%20Penn%20State%20Nittany%20Lions%20football%20team\\\">Penn State</a>), the Bobcats would decline during their last five games, posting a mere 1-4 record during that timespan, dropping their conference record to 4-4, only good for third place in the MAC East Division. When Louisiana Tech declined their invitation, the Bobcats accepted theirs.\\nIn their first winning season since joining <a href=\\\"Division%20I%20%28NCAA%29%23Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\\\">Division I FBS</a> (then Division I-A) in <a href=\\\"1994%20Northeast%20Louisiana%20Indians%20football%20team\\\">1994</a> (when they were the Northeast Louisiana Indians), the Warhawks finished in a tie for second place in the Sun Belt, amassing a 6–2 conference and 8–4 overall record. After the season, the Warhawks accepted an invitation to the 2012 Independence Bowl.\\nThis will be the first bowl game in school history for the Warhawks, being one of two teams making their bowl debut this season (along with fellow Sun Belt member the <a href=\\\"2012%20WKU%20Hilltoppers%20football%20team\\\">WKU Hilltoppers</a>).\\nSource:\\n\\n\",\n \"Peden Stadium\\nPeden Stadium is an <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> stadium on the banks of the <a href=\\\"Hocking%20River\\\">Hocking River</a> in <a href=\\\"Athens%2C%20Ohio\\\">Athens, Ohio</a>. The \\\"Crowned Jewel\\\" of the MAC, It has been the home of the <a href=\\\"Ohio%20Bobcats%20football\\\">Ohio Bobcats football</a> team for 90 years and today has a proposed capacity of 27,000. Peden Stadium is the oldest college football venue in the <a href=\\\"Mid-American%20Conference\\\">Mid-American Conference</a> and among the oldest in the nation. At the suggestion of OHIO Alumnus Michael A\\nMassa, Peden Stadium has been designated as an official Ohio historical site.\\nServing <a href=\\\"Ohio%20University\\\">Ohio University</a> for eight decades, the facility, originally known as Ohio Complex, not to be mistaken with the one in Columbus, was built at a cost of $185,000 and was completed in 1929. Viewed as the \\\"Wrigley Field\\\" of college football due to its intimate and picturesque setting, the stadium originally sat only 12,000 fans with grandstands on each side of the playing field. The first ever game at the venue featured a 14-0 Bobcats victory over archrival <a href=\\\"Miami%20University\\\">Miami University</a> in front of a sellout crowd. Following the retirement of legendary Ohio football coach <a href=\\\"Don%20Peden\\\">Don Peden</a> in 1946, the stadium was renamed Peden Stadium. Although a smaller stadium, It was designed by Osborne Architects, who designed illustrious early Americana style brick composed sports venues such as Yankee Stadium.\\nThe \\\"Bobcat's Lair\\\" has undergone several modifications through the years. In 1986, the <a href=\\\"seating%20capacity\\\">seating capacity</a> was increased to 19,000 with the addition of two new grandstands in the north end zone. Four years later, a five story tower, called the Peden Tower, was added to the stadium's west side. Today, this state-of-the-art facility houses press boxes, game day suites, football offices, athletic training facilities, team meeting rooms, a recruiting lounge, a ticket office, the football locker room, and Ohio Athletics' academic services and compliance departments. In 1999, a new 10000 sqft strength and conditioning center called The Carin Center was added to the ground level of Peden Stadium.\\nSeveral other historic events have occurred at the Stadium, including a visit by then President Lyndon B. Johnson, as well as an event which featured a landing by helicopter on the 50-yard line by former President Eisenhower. The stadium has served as a venue for many visiting national collegiate teams including the Big Ten. A bronze life-sized sculpture of an OHIO Bobcat, commissioned by a well known naturalist artist, stands poised at the north of the stadium.\\nAt the suggestion of Michael A Massa, an alumnus, Peden Stadium was formally designated an official Ohio Historical Site, and an Ohio Historical Marker was placed at the front of the stadium in August 2010.\\nSome of the most extensive renovations, though, occurred after the 2000 football season. This $2.8 million project removed the track, lowered the stadium's playing surface by 10 ft , and increased the <a href=\\\"seating%20capacity\\\">seating capacity</a> to its current mark of 24,000 with the addition of lower-level, bleacher-back seats collectively called the Phillips Club. Also during this renovation, permanent seating for the marching band, <a href=\\\"The%20Ohio%20University%20Marching%20110\\\">The Ohio University Marching 110</a>, was created in the north end zone and Victory Hill, a grass berm for overflow seating, was added to the south end of the field. In 2002, the natural grass playing surface at the stadium was replaced with <a href=\\\"FieldTurf\\\">FieldTurf</a>, and in 2017 , an updated video <a href=\\\"scoreboard\\\">scoreboard</a> was added to the south end zone. Following the completion of the 2004 season, the stadium underwent another large project that renovated/expanded the stadium's athletic training facilities, added a large team auditorium, improved position meeting rooms, expanded the recruiting lounge, and enlarged office space for the football coaches. In 2009, the Marching 110's former permanent location in the north end zone was transformed into \\\"Touchdown Club\\\" donor seating, and the band returned to their former location in the general admission seating by the student section.\\nIn 2014, the administration of the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics, along with Varsity OHIO and affiliated university alumni organizations and bodies, began a cooperative campaign for a state-of-the-art academic wing at Peden Stadium due to crowded interior space for students, and renovated locker rooms for teams that had not received prior renovations.\\nThough the attendance for Peden Stadium is listed at 24,000, Victory Hill allows for standing room beyond the listed capacity. As such, the attendance records at the stadium all eclipse the 24,000 mark, and additionally, creating a potential capacity for 27,000 once the new academic center is completed at the stadium's north endzone in 2018.\\nIn addition to serving as the home of Ohio Bobcats football games, the stadium has been used for several other purposes. It has hosted numerous local high school football games and high school state playoff games. In addition, the stadium serves as the home of Ohio's \\\"O Zone\\\" Student Cheering Section and an annual homecoming \\\"Yell Like Hell\\\" pep rally and has been the site of several concerts. 5k Runs have started from the 50 yard line.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ohio University's Aquatic Center is the swimming and diving facility of the Ohio Bobcats. It has been home to Ohio Bobcats swimming and diving since it was opened on January 27, 1984 before a dual meet against the Youngstown State University Penguins.","Youngstown State University (YSU), founded in 1908, is an urban research university located in Youngstown, Ohio, United States. As of fall 2010, there were 15,194 students and a student-faculty ratio of 19:1. The fall 2010 enrollment figure is the highest since 1990, when the number of students on campus was 15,454. Records show that 11,803 of the students are undergraduates. Beyond its current student body, YSU claims more than 94,000 alumni."],"string":"[\n \"Ohio University's Aquatic Center is the swimming and diving facility of the Ohio Bobcats. It has been home to Ohio Bobcats swimming and diving since it was opened on January 27, 1984 before a dual meet against the Youngstown State University Penguins.\",\n \"Youngstown State University (YSU), founded in 1908, is an urban research university located in Youngstown, Ohio, United States. As of fall 2010, there were 15,194 students and a student-faculty ratio of 19:1. The fall 2010 enrollment figure is the highest since 1990, when the number of students on campus was 15,454. Records show that 11,803 of the students are undergraduates. Beyond its current student body, YSU claims more than 94,000 alumni.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":77,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which head coach of these two teams--Alabama Crimson Tide and Oklahoma Sooners--had the longest time with their team during the 2013 football season?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Bob Stoops"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Alabama Crimson Tide football under Nick Saban\nAlabama Crimson Tide football under Nick Saban covers the history of the Alabama Crimson Tide football team during the period from when Nick Saban was hired as head coach in 2007 through the present. Under Saban, Alabama plays as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), and is a member of the West Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The Crimson Tide plays its home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. During the nine years Saban has served as head football coach, Alabama has compiled an overall official record of 101–18 ( ) (106–18 on the field), seven bowl game appearances with five victories, a share of five SEC Western Division titles, four SEC championships, and four national championships. Since 2008, Saban's teams have spent all or part of each season ranked number 1 in national polls.\nAfter repeated denials, on January 7 Saban officially accepted the head coaching position with the Crimson Tide. In his first season at Alabama, the team experienced many highs-and-lows, but the team finished with a winning record after a victory in the Independence Bowl. In the 2008 season, Saban led the Crimson Tide to their first undefeated regular season since the 1994 season, but the Tide then proceeded to lose their final two games in the SEC Championship Game and Sugar Bowl. In 2009, Saban led Alabama to a perfect 14–0 record and to their first BCS National Championship, and their first overall national championship since the 1992 season. After a relatively disappointing 10–3 2010 season, Saban then led the Crimson Tide to back-to-back BCS National Championships in both the 2011 and 2012 seasons. The 2013 team won the first 11 games of the season, but failed to capture a third consecutive national championship for Alabama, losing the last two games. Saban's 2014 team won the SEC West division and SEC championship and lost to the Ohio State Buckeyes in the inaugural College Football Playoff's semi-final round at the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans to finish 12-2. Saban won his 4th championship at Alabama in 2015.\nMany players who have competed at Alabama during Saban's tenure have also been recognized for their on-field accomplishments. Under his tenure, Mark Ingram Jr. in 2009, and Derrick Henry in 2015 became Alabama's first and second Heisman Trophy winners and 43 players have been recognized as First Team All-Americans, 29 of which were either consensus or unanimous selections. Additionally, 65 former Crimson Tide players have been drafted into the National Football League, with 22 being first round selections.\nAfter four seasons as head coach in which he compiled an overall record of 26–23 ( ) on November 26, 2006, Mike Shula was fired as head coach of the Crimson Tide. At the time of his firing, athletic director Mal Moore promoted defensive coordinator Joe Kines into the roll of interim head coach for the Independence Bowl and that the search for a permanent replacement would begin immediately. At that time several current coaches were rumored to be in consideration for the position at Alabama, with Steve Spurrier of South Carolina and Saban of the Miami Dolphins thought to be the preferred candidates. On November 27, Saban publicly stated he had not been contacted by Alabama and that he had no interest in leaving the Dolphins to become the head coach of the Crimson Tide.\nIn early December, Moore made a preliminary offer to Saban's agent Jimmy Sexton to coach at Alabama for $5 million per season for seven years with a $7 million signing bonus. At that time Saban also stated he had not personally interviewed at Alabama and told his players that he was not leaving. After West Virginia head coach Rich Rodriguez turned down an offer to coach the Crimson Tide, speculation again focused on Saban. As the rumors persisted that he was prepared to take the Alabama job, on December 21 Saban stated \"I guess I have to say it, I'm not going to be the Alabama coach\" in an effort to stop the Alabama rumors. After the Dolphins season ended, it was speculated again that Alabama was to offer their head coaching position to Saban. On January 3, 2007, Saban officially resigned from the Dolphins and became the head coach of the Crimson Tide. At that time he signed an eight-year contract worth a guaranteed $32 million to coach Alabama.\nAfter his hiring, Saban worked to hire his first staff and complete his first recruiting class with the Crimson Tide. His staff did not include any of Shula's former staff, and Kevin Steele was hired as defensive coordinator and Major Applewhite as offensive coordinator. On February 7, he landed his first recruiting class that was highly ranked by the major recruiting services in spite of having just over a month to complete it. Anticipation for his first season continued to build through his first spring practices, and reached its peak when an overflow crowd of 92,138 attended the A-Day spring game on April 21.\nIn Saban's debut as head coach, the Crimson Tide defeated Western Carolina\nPrior to their game against the Vols, Antoine Caldwell, Marlon Davis, Glen Coffee, Marquis Johnson and Chris Rogers were suspended as a result of violating NCAA rules. The violation was a result of a failure in the distribution system of textbooks that was deemed to be an improper benefits as defined by the NCAA. After the NCAA reviewed the case, in June 2009 they determined all players that received the improper benefits to be retroactively ineligible. As part of their penalty, the NCAA forced Alabama to vacate football victories that dated back to the 2005 season through the first five games of the 2007 season.\nAfter their victory over Tennessee, the Crimson Tide lost their four remaining regular season games. Against his former team LSU, the Crimson Tide lost to the eventual national champions in what was dubbed as the \"Saban Bowl.\" They followed that with a loss at Mississippi State and against Louisiana–Monroe in one of the bigger upsets of the 2007 season. After their sixth consecutive loss to Auburn in the Iron Bowl, Alabama closed the season with a victory over Colorado in the Independence Bowl and finished the season with a winning record at 7-6 in Saban's first season.\nLooking to improve on their 7–6 record from the previous season, Alabama signed the top recruiting class as determined by a wide variety of selectors. The class featured many players that were later drafted into the NFL and formed the foundation for their championship run from 2009 through 2012. Players from the class included future first round draft picks Marcell Dareus, Julio Jones, Mark Barron, Dont'a Hightower, and Mark Ingram. The Crimson Tide then completed spring practice with another large A-Day crowd before the season started later in the fall.\nThe Crimson Tide opened the season ranked No. 24, and they defeated No. 9 Clemson in the inaugural Chick-fil-A College Kickoff to open the season. They followed the victory with home wins over Tulane and WKU and won on the road over Arkansas before a much-hyped game at Georgia. Ranked No. 8 and playing against the No. 3 Bulldogs in what was deemed a \"blackout\" game by Georgia head coach Mark Richt, the Crimson Tide took a 31–0 halftime lead en route to a 41–30 upset victory. After their win, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 2 ranking and then defeated Kentucky, Ole Miss, Tennessee and Arkansas State on homecoming to extend their record to 9–0.\nAfter No. 1 Texas lost to Texas Tech, the Crimson Tide achieved their first regular season No. 1 ranking in the AP Poll since the 1980 season and their first ever No. 1 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) ranking prior to their game at LSU. In what was Saban's first game at Tiger Stadium since he resigned as LSU's coach after their 2004 season, the Crimson Tide defeated the Tigers 27–21 in overtime. The victory over LSU also allowed the Crimson Tide to clinch the SEC West Division championship, and earned a spot in the SEC Championship Game. Alabama then closed with wins over Mississippi State and Auburn, that ended their six-game losing streak in the Iron Bowl, and finished the regular season undefeated 12–0. Although favored, a two touchdown rally led by Florida's Tim Tebow in the fourth quarter resulted in the Crimson Tide failing to capture the SEC championship and instead of playing for a national championship, they accepted an invitation to play in the Sugar Bowl. Against an undefeated Utah team, Alabama was upset 31–17 and finished the season with an overall record of 12–2.\nAlthough they reached their first BCS game since the 1999 season, Alabama looked improve for the 2009 season after they closed 2008 on a two-game losing streak after a 12–0 start to the year. Again, the Crimson Tide secured one of the top ranked recruiting classes for the third consecutive season in February 2009. Just as in the previous year, the 2009 class included many players that played significant roles in their championship run. These players included first round NFL draft picks James Carpenter, Dre Kirkpatrick, Trent Richardson, D. J. Fluker, and Chance Warmack in addition to Eddie Lacy and AJ McCarron. In the annual A-Day game, the Crimson team defeated the White team by a score of 14–7 before 84,050 fans at Bryant–Denny Stadium.\nFor the second year in a row, Alabama opened the season at Atlanta in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game. Against Virginia Tech, the Crimson Tide trailed at halftime, but an 18-point rally in the fourth quarter gave Alabama the 34–24 win. After consecutive wins over non-conference Florida International and North Texas, the Crimson Tide defeated Arkansas 35–7 to open conference play at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Alabama next went on a two-game road trip, defeated both Kentucky and Ole Miss and extended their record to 6–0.\nThe Crimson Tide then returned home where they played South Carolina on homecoming. Against the Gamecocks, Mark Ingram had a career-high with 246 rushing yards and entered the Heisman Trophy conversation as he led Alabama to a 20–6 victory. In their next game, a pair of Terrence Cody blocked field goals, one of which came as time expired, preserved a 12–10 win over rival Tennessee. With a berth in the SEC Championship Game on the line, the Crimson Tide clinched the West division championship with a 24–15 victory LSU in their next game. Alabama then closed the season with wins over Mississippi State, Chattanooga\nIn the SEC Championship Game, Alabama faced East division champion Florida for the second season in a row in a No. 1 versus No. 2 matchup. With both the conference championship and a berth in the 2010 BCS National Championship Game on the line, the Crimson Tide defeated the Gators 32–13 and won the SEC for the first time since 1999. At the conclusion of the regular season, Mark Ingram won the first Heisman Trophy in Alabama history with the closest margin of victory in the history of the award over Toby Gerhart. The Crimson Tide then closed the season with a 37–21 victory over Texas to finish a perfect 14-0 and recorded their first national championship since the 1992 season and their thirteenth overall in the history of the program.\nAs the defending national champions, Alabama entered the 2010 season as the favorite to repeat and win their second national championship in as many years. After again signing a highly rated recruiting class, the Crimson Tide opened the season in the No. 1 position in the polls. Alabama then won their first five games over San Jose State, Penn State, Duke, Arkansas, and Florida and retained their unanimous No. 1 ranking. However, in their sixth game, the Crimson Tide lost their first regular season game since the 2007 season when they were upset at South Carolina 35–21.\nThey rebounded the next week with a 23–10 win over Ole Miss on homecoming and at Tennessee by a margin of 41–10 before their top ten matchup at LSU. Against the Tigers, a late Stevan Ridley touchdown run set up by a 23-yard DeAngelo Peterson run on a fourth-down play gave LSU the upset victory and effectively ended the opportunity for an Alabama repeat of the national championship. The Crimson Tide then defeated Mississippi State and Georgia State prior to their season finale against Auburn. With the No. 2 Tigers still in the national championship picture, Auburn overcame a 24–0 deficit and won 28–27 in what was the largest comeback in Iron Bowl history. Alabama then closed the season with a 49–7 victory over Michigan State in the Capital One Bowl and finished with an overall record of 10–3.\nAfter a disappointing 2010 season in which they opened the year as a national title favorite and ended with three losses, the Crimson Tide looked to regain their championship form for the 2011 campaign. After again signing one of the top recruiting classes in the country, and going through spring practice, tragedy struck Tuscaloosa on April 27, 2011, when an EF4 rated tornado devastated the city. The tornado resulted in the deaths of 43 people in the city, and the team later would dedicate their season to both the victims and survivors of the storm.\nThe Crimson Tide opened the season with a 48–7 victory over Saban's alma mater, Kent State and then traveled to Beaver Stadium and defeated Penn State 27–11. After a 41–0 shutout over North Texas, Alabama opened conference play with a 38–14 victory over Arkansas. After they defeated Florida 38–10 at Gainesville, the Crimson Tide shutout Vanderbilt 34–0, and defeated both Ole Miss and Tennessee to set up a \"Game of the Century\" against LSU.\nAgainst the Tigers, neither team scored a touchdown and LSU won by a final score of 9–6 in overtime. With the loss, Alabama dropped into the No. 3 BCS position prior to their game against Mississippi State. However, they regained the No. 2 ranking in all of the polls after Oklahoma State was upset by Iowa State, and they defeated the Bulldogs at Starkville. Alabama then closed the regular season with wins over both Georgia Southern and Auburn and finished in second place in the West division behind LSU.\nAfter the Tigers won the SEC Championship Game, a rematch against the Crimson Tide became the likely pairing for the 2012 BCS National Championship Game. Alabama qualified for the BCS National Championship Game after they received a final BCS score of .942, just slightly ahead of Oklahoma State's BCS score of .933. In their rematch against LSU at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, the Crimson Tide shutout the SEC champion Tigers 21–0 and captured Alabama's second BCS championship and 14th overall national championship.\nAfter they captured their second national championship in three years, Alabama again signed one of the nation's top recruiting classes in February 2012. After they completed spring practice in April, the Crimson Tide entered the season with a No. 2 ranking and as a favorite to repeat as national champions. Alabama opened the season with a 41–14 victory over Michigan in the Cowboys Classic. After their win over the Wolverines, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 ranking prior to their game against WKU that they won 35–0 in their home opener. The next week, Alabama posted their second consecutive shutout with their 52–0 win at Arkansas to open conference play. The Crimson Tide then returned to Tuscaloosa and defeated Florida Atlantic and Ole Miss prior to their first win over Missouri as conference foes at Faurot Field.\nNext Alabama defeated rival Tennessee 44–13 at Neyland Stadium and followed that with a 38–7 win over then undefeated and No. 13 ranked Mississippi State. The Crimson Tide then defeated LSU at Tiger Stadium 21–17 when AJ McCarron threw a screen pass to T. J. Yeldon that he took 28-yards for the game-winning touchdown within the final minute of play. However, the next week, Alabama suffered their only loss of the season when Texas A&M upset the Tide 29–24 in Tuscaloosa.\nAfter their loss to the Aggies, Alabama dropped into the No. 4 ranking for their 49–0 win over Western Carolina. In the evening after their win over the Catamounts, Alabama moved back into the No. 2 position as a result of upset losses for both Kansas State and Oregon. Alabama then closed the regular season with a 49–0 win over Auburn and captured the SEC West division title to play Georgia in the SEC Championship Game. In the championship game, Alabama escaped with a 32–28 win after the Bulldogs were stopped inside the Crimson Tide's five-yard line as time expired and captured the SEC Championship and a berth in the BCS National Championship Game against Notre Dame. In the BCS Championship Game, the Tide defeated the Irish 42–14 and captured their third national championship in four years and the schools 15th overall football championship.\nAs the two-time defending national champions, Alabama entered the 2013 season as the favorite to repeat and win their third consecutive national championship and their fourth in five years. After again signing a highly rated recruiting class, the Crimson Tide opened the season in the No. 1 position in the polls. Alabama then won their first eleven games and retained their unanimous No. 1 ranking throughout. The Crimson Tide opened the season with a victory over Virginia Tech in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game at Atlanta. After their first bye week Alabama traveled to Kyle Field where they defeated Texas A&M in a 49–42 shootout that saw the Aggies have the best offensive day against a Crimson Tide defense in the history of the program.\nThe defense responded after the A&M game and did not allow a touchdown over the next 14-quarters in victories over Colorado State, Ole Miss, Georgia State and Kentucky. After the touchdown-free streak ended, started a three-game homestand that saw Alabama shutout Arkansas and defeat both Tennessee and LSU in back-to-back rivalry games. They next defeated Mississippi State and Chattanooga that set up a top five matchup against Auburn.\nIn the Iron Bowl, Alabama kicker Adam Griffith attempted and missed a 57-yard field goal attempt as time expired in regulation. In what was since dubbed \"Kick Bama Kick\", Chris Davis returned the missed field goal 109 yards for the game-winning score with no time left on the clock to clinch a 34–28 Auburn victory. As the loss also cost the Crimson Tide an opportunity to play for both the SEC and national championships, they were selected to play in the 2014 Sugar Bowl. In the game, Alabama was defeated by Oklahoma 45–31 and closed the season with an overall record of 11–2.\nAlabama entered the 2014 season ranked #3 in the polls. The Crimson Tide rolled off four straight victories before losing to Ole Miss 17-23. Their loss to Ole Miss dropped them down to #7 in the rankings. However, Alabama rebounded by winning eight straight games, including victories against #14 LSU, #1 Mississippi State, and #15 Auburn in the Iron Bowl. They then defeated #14 Missouri in the SEC Championship 42-13 and earned a spot in the inaugural College Football Playoff, where they lost to the eventual national champion Ohio State 35-42.\nAlabama started the 2015 season with a win against 20th ranked Wisconsin. Alabama would start 2-0 but would lose their next game against Ole Miss 43-37. Following the loss the Crimson Tide would go in to win the next twelve games including the 2015 Cotton Bowl Playoff Semifinal 38-0 over Michigan State and winning the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship over undefeated Clemson 45-40 to claim Alabama's sixteenth National Championship and Saban's fourth national championship at the Capstone.\nAlabama entered the 2016 season ranked number #1 in the polls. The reigning national champions began 2016 with a resounding 52-6 win over #9 USC in Arlington, Texas, led by true freshman quarterback, Jalen Hurts. In what was the first meeting between the Tide and the Trojans since 1985, Blake Barnett started the game, but was soon replaced by Hurts, who would then go on to be the starting QB for the season. Hurts was the first true freshman QB to start for the Crimson Tide since 1984. For the first time since 2009, Alabama would go undefeated all the way through the SEC Championship Game. Alabama crushed Florida 54-16 to win their third consecutive SEC Title. This made the Tide the first three peat SEC Champion since the Florida Gators won four in a row from 1993-1996. It also marked the first three peat for Alabama since the late 1970s when Alabama won SEC Championships from 1977-1979. The Tide would once again go on to the Playoffs where they would defeat the Washington Huskies 24-7 in the Peach Bowl to advance to their second consecutive College Football Playoff National Championship Game in Tampa, Florida. In the first ever national title game rematch, Alabama would fall to Clemson, 35-31. In the closing seconds of the game, Clemson QB Deshaun Watson found Hunter Renfrow for a two-yard touchdown pass to give Clemson the win and their first national championship since 1981. The loss ended Alabama's 26 game winning streak, the second longest in program history. It marked the first time that Nick Saban had ever lost in a national championship game.\nThe Iron Bowl is the name given to Alabama's annual game against the in-state Auburn University Tigers. Through the 2016 season, Saban has compiled an overall record of seven wins and three losses (7–3) against the Tigers. After the Crimson Tide lost 17–10 in his first Iron Bowl, Alabama shutout Auburn in the 2008 game 36–0. Their win in that game ended a six-game losing streak against the Tigers, was the largest margin of victory in the Iron Bowl since the 1962 season and was the first all-time Iron Bowl win for the Crimson Tide at Tuscaloosa. The next year, Auburn took a 14–0 first quarter lead, but Alabama eventually won 26–21 after Greg McElroy threw a four-yard touchdown pass to Roy Upchurch with just under 2:00 left in the game. The next year, Alabama surrendered a 24-point lead and lost to the eventual national champions 28–27 in what was the largest comeback in Iron Bowl history. The Crimson Tide rebounded from that loss and did not allow the Tigers' to score an offensive touchdown in either the 2011 or 2012 edition of the Iron Bowl. In 2013, both teams came into the game ranked in the top five and Auburn won, 34–28, in what has since been dubbed \"the kick six\", after Chris Davis returned a missed Adam Griffith field goal 109 yards for the game-winning score with no time left on the clock. The 2014 Iron Bowl saw the highest-scoring game in history between the two rivals, as Alabama came behind from a 12-point deficit and defeated Auburn 55–44. Alabama would defeat Auburn in 2015 by a score of 29-13 in Auburn.It was Bama's first trip to Jordan-Hare Stadium since the \"kick-six\" game. However, the result would be different as Adam Griffith hit 5 field goals, accounting for 15 of Alabama's 29 points.In 2016, Alabama true freshman quarterback Jalen Hurts overcame two first half interceptions with a stellar 2nd half performance as Alabama topped Auburn 30-12 in Tuscaloosa. The 2016 win marked the first time that Alabama had defeated Auburn three consecutive years since 1990-1992.\nThe Third Saturday in October is the name given to Alabama's annual game against the University of Tennessee Volunteers. Through the 2016 season, Saban has compiled an overall record of ten wins and zero losses (10–0) against the Volunteers. In the period between the 1995 and 2006 seasons prior to the arrival of Saban, the Volunteers were 10–2 against the Crimson Tide. Since Saban has been Alabama's head coach, they have outscored Tennessee 351 to 119 in their ten victories (average score 35.1 to 11.9). The only games that the Crimson Tide did not win by at least two touchdowns came in the 2009 game when Terrence Cody blocked a field goal as time expired and preserved the 12–10 Alabama victory and in 2015 when the tide won 19-14 due to a game clinching fumble recovered by A'shawn Robinson.\nLouisiana State University (LSU) and Alabama first met on the field in 1895 and continuously since 1964. However, the annual game against the Tigers was not considered a rivalry until Saban (a former LSU head coach) was hired in the same capacity at Alabama for 2007 season. Through the 2016 season, Saban has compiled an overall record of eight wins and three losses (8–3) against the Tigers. After a 41–34 loss in their first matchup, Alabama won at Baton Rouge in overtime 27–21 in 2008. After the Tigers upset the Crimson Tide 24–21 in 2010, they again were victorious the following season 9–6 in a No. 1 versus No. 2 \"Game of the Century\" during the regular season. They met again in a rematch for the 2011 national championship in the BCS National Championship Game where Alabama won 21–0 in the rematch for the national championship. The Crimson Tide won their second straight in the series in 2012 after they defeated LSU 21–17 when AJ McCarron threw a 28-yard, game-winning touchdown pass to T. J. Yeldon in the final two minutes of the game. In 2013, Alabama turned a 17-17 tie in the third quarter into a 38-17 rout behind a 372-yard rushing effort, including 133 yards and two touchdowns from T. J. Yeldon. At Baton Rouge in 2014, Blake Sims drove Alabama 55 yards in the final 50 seconds of regulation for a tying field goal, and then threw a 6-yard touchdown to DeAndrew White in overtime to lead the Tide to a 20-13 win over the Tigers. In 2015, Alabama won handily against an undefeated LSU team, 30-16 in Tuscaloosa. Bama had 250 rushing yards and A'shawn Robinson blocked one of LSU's extra points in spectacular fashion. In 2016, the game was scoreless going into the fourth quarter. However, true freshman quarterback Jalen Hurts ran 21 yards for a touchdown. That put Alabama up 7-0, and the Tide never looked back as they would shut out LSU 10-0 in Baton Rouge.\nReference:\nReference:\nReference:\nDuring Saban's tenure as head coach of the Crimson Tide, Alabama has played all home games on-campus at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Prior to the 2006 season, the north endzone expansion brought the total seating capacity of Bryant–Denny to 92,138, the seventh largest stadium in college football. After Saban became head coach, in February 2009, the University of Alabama System Board of Trustees unanimously approved a proposal to expand the south endzone with an upper deck that seated approximately 9,000 spectators and added 36 luxury boxes. The expansion was budgeted at $80.6 million and Davis Architects of Birmingham, Alabama served as the architect of record for the project. The expansion was completed just prior to the start of the 2010 season on August 20 and increased Bryant–Denny's capacity to 101,821, the fifth largest in college football.\nOutside the stadium on its northern side is the Walk of Champions. This areas pays tribute to past championship teams at Alabama in addition to featuring bronze statues of all five head coaches that won national championships with the Crimson Tide. After he led them to the 2009 national championship, athletics director Mal Moore indicated that a statue of Saban would be erected in the Walk of Champions just as the previous four coaches. The nine-foot statue was designed by Alabama student Jeremy Davis and fabricated by MTM Recognition of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It was officially unveiled prior to the 2011 A-Day spring game on April 16, 2011, and has since been updated to include subsequent championships.","2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\", \"Bama\" or \"The Tide\") represented the University of Alabama in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 119th overall season, 80th as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and its 22nd within the SEC Western Division. The team was led by head coach Nick Saban, in his seventh year, and played its home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of eleven wins and two losses (11–2 overall, 7–1 in the SEC) and with a loss in the 2014 Sugar Bowl to Oklahoma.\nAfter they captured the 2012 national championship, the Crimson Tide signed a highly rated recruiting class in February 2013 and completed spring practice the following April. With thirteen returning starters from the previous season, Alabama entered the 2013 season as the two-time defending national champions, ranked as the number one team in the nation and as a favorite to win the Western Division, the SEC and national championships. The Crimson Tide opened the season with eleven consecutive victories that included one over Virginia Tech at a neutral site, against Texas A&M in a game that saw many team records broken and an emotional victory over Louisiana State University (LSU) at Bryant–Denny Stadium. In their twelfth game, Alabama was upset by Auburn. The loss, in a game since the \"Kick Six,\" kept the Crimson Tide out of the SEC Championship Game. Although they did not qualify to play for their third consecutive national championship with a final BCS ranking of third, Alabama did accept an invitation to play in the Sugar Bowl. Against Oklahoma, the Crimson Tide lost 45–31.\nAt the conclusion of the season, Alabama's defense was nationally ranked near the top in total defense, scoring defense, rushing defense and ranked passing defense. Offensively, the Alabama offense ranked 17th in scoring offense, 24th in rushing offense, 33rd in total offense and 49th in passing offense. Additionally, several players were recognized for their individual accomplishments on the field. C. J. Mosley won the Butkus Award as the top collegiate linebacker; AJ McCarron won both the Maxwell Award as the overall player of the year and the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the top senior quarterback. Also, four players were named to various All-America Teams with C. J. Mosley being a unanimous selection and Ha Ha Clinton-Dix and Cyrus Kouandjio being consensus selections.\nIn 2012, Alabama came into the season ranked No. 2 in both preseason polls. After their week one victory over Michigan, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 spot in both polls, and then proceeded to win their next eight games that included a victory at LSU. However, the next week, Alabama was upset by Johnny Manziel and the Texas A&M Aggies and dropped to the No. 4 position. Alabama bounced back and won its remaining games to clinch the SEC Western Division and secured a spot in the 2012 SEC Championship Game against Georgia. The Crimson Tide then defeated the Bulldogs and captured the SEC Championship. The next day, Alabama finished No. 2 in the final BCS rankings and would play Notre Dame in the 2013 BCS National Championship Game. In the game, Alabama defeated the Fighting Irish 42–14 and captured their 15th national championship and made Nick Saban the only coach in college football to win four BCS Championships.\nIn February 2013 Tuscaloosa Police arrested four football players from the 2012 season: Brent Calloway, Tyler Hayes, D. J. Pettway and Eddie Williams. Williams was involved in four separate incidents on February 10 and 11. On February 10 he had a dispute with a gas station clerk about paying for gas and said he had to get something in the trunk of his car. The clerk called the police, the police arrested Williams with carrying a pistol without a license, but Williams was released later that day on a $500 bond. Later that night around 12:30 a.m., Williams attacked an Alabama student with Hayes and Pettway and they stole the student's backpack. In a separate incident almost an hour later, Williams attacked another student while Hayes and Pettway waited in a car. Later Williams used one of the students' credit cards. Calloway was also arrested after he used a victim's student debit card with knowledge it was stolen. Following the arrests, Alabama suspended all four from the football team. Alabama also prohibited Hayes, Pettway and Williams from entering campus. On February 27, Alabama dismissed all four players from the university after completing a judicial review.\nAlabama started spring practice on March 16 and concluded 15 practices later on April 20 with the annual A-Day game. In the annual A-Day game at the conclusion of spring practice, the White team composed of offensive starters defeated the Crimson team of defensive starters 17–14. The White team opened on offense and scored a touchdown on their first possession on a 40-yard AJ McCarron pass to Kenny Bell. After Nick Perry intercepted a Blake Sims pass on the first Crimson possession, the White team extended their lead to 10–0 on a 29-yard Adam Griffith field goal. Both offenses then struggled for the remainder of the first half with turnovers for the Crimson team coming on a second Perry interception of a Sims pass, an Alec Morris fumble recovered by Dillon Lee, and on a Cooper Bateman pass intercepted by Landon Collins. The White team had turnovers on a Kenny Bell fumble recovered by C. J. Mosley and on the last play of the first half when a McCarron pass was intercepted by Vinnie Sunseri and returned 86-yards for a touchdown that made the halftime score 10–7.\nThe offensive struggles continued into the second half with neither team scoring any points in the third quarter. In the fourth, the Crimson team took a 14–10 lead after Ha'Sean Clinton-Dix recovered a Brian Vogler fumble and returned it 55-yards for a touchdown. The White team responded on their next possession with a seven-yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 17–14 victory. For his performance, Ryan Kelly earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A-Day Game Award. On offense, Yeldon earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A-Day Game Award for his 129 all-purpose yards on the day that included 69 rushing and 60 receiving, and game-winning touchdown run.\nBy August, Alabama had a combined 31 players on 14 different preseason award watch lists. These players included C. J. Mosley, Ha'Sean Clinton-Dix and Deion Belue for the Chuck Bednarik Award; Amari Cooper and Kevin Norwood for the Fred Biletnikoff Award; Adrian Hubbard and Mosley for the Butkus Award; Cooper, AJ McCarron, Mosley and T. J. Yeldon for the Walter Camp Award; Hubbard, Mosley, Cyrus Kouandjio and Anthony Steen for the Lombardi Award; Christion Jones for the Paul Hornung Award; Brian Vogler for the John Mackey Award; Cooper, McCarron, Mosley and Yeldon for the Maxwell Award; Belue, Clinton-Dix, Hubbard and Mosley for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy; McCarron for the Davey O'Brien Award; Kouandjio and Steen for the Outland Trophy; Ryan Kelly for the Rimington Trophy; Clinton-Dix for the Jim Thorpe Award; and Yeldon for the Doak Walker Award.\nAlabama head coach Nick Saban completed his seventh year as the Crimson Tide's head coach for the 2013 season. During his previous six years with Alabama, he led the Crimson Tide to an overall record of 63 wins and 13 losses (63–13) and the 2009, 2011 and 2012 national championships. On January 9, 2013, former Colorado defensive coordinator Greg Brown was hired as the successor for Jeremy Pruitt as secondary coach. On February 18, former Florida International head coach Mario Cristobal was hired as Jeff Stoutland's replacement for offensive line coach. On February 21, former Florida State tight ends coach and recruiting coordinator Billy Napier was hired as Mike Groh's replacement as wide receivers coach.\nAlabama had six returning players on offense and seven on defense that started games in 2012. Another notable player that returned for 2013, but did not start in 2012, was running back T. J. Yeldon, who appeared in all 14 Alabama games in 2012 as the backup for Eddie Lacy. Additionally, four first-year players in 2012 made the SEC Coaches' All-Freshman Team: Amari Cooper, Ryan Kelly, D. J. Pettway and Yeldon.\nDue to varying circumstances throughout the season, several players were rotated in and out of starting positions throughout Alabama's depth chart. Below is a listing of at what times during the season players were substituted as starter or saw increased playing time. On the offensive side of the ball, freshman Grant Hill split time with starter Austin Shepherd at right tackle against Kentucky. Kellen Williams was listed on the depth chart as a backup at left tackle and guard; however, coach Saban mentioned Williams as being the sixth starter who can fill in at all the offensive line positions. After the Ole Miss, Williams was listed as the back-up center to Chad Lindsay after an injury to starter Ryan Kelly.\nOn the defensive side of the ball, reserve Nick Perry sustained a shoulder injury in practice prior to the Colorado State game that ended his season. On October 2, Nick Saban announced the indefinite suspension of Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, and indicated Landon Collins and Geno Smith would play more in Clinton-Dix's absence. Clinton-Dix's eligibility was reinstated by the NCAA on October 18 after he served a two-game suspension for receiving an improper benefit.\nThe depth chart listed below shows starters and backups as announced in August 2013.\nPrior to National Signing Day on February 6, 2013, nine players enrolled for the spring semester in order to participate in spring practice (six former high school seniors on scholarship, one former junior college player on scholarship, one walk-on from professional baseball and one walk-on from high school). The early enrollments from high school included quarterbacks Cooper Bateman and Parker McLeod, wide receiver Raheem Falkins, running back Derrick Henry, offensive lineman Brandon Hill and tight end O. J. Howard. Lineman Brandon Hill spent a post-graduate high school year at Hargrave Military Academy, and does not have the option to take a redshirt year, but still has four years of playing eligibility. Offensive tackle Leon Brown enrolled at Alabama after he transferred from junior college and will be eligible to play in the 2013 season and for a maximum of two seasons. Four of the eight players who were early enrollees in 2012 saw playing time last season: Amari Cooper, Dillon Lee, T. J. Yeldon and Deion Blue.\nHenry and Howard entered school as two of the top 100 recruits in the country. Henry was the No. 1 ranked \"athlete\" according to 247Sports Composite Rankings based on his potential to make an immediate impact at either running back or outside linebacker, but he has commented that he plans to compete at running back. Henry broke the national high school record for career yards, and in his 2012 high school season he averaged 328 yards per game.\nIn addition to those scholarship recruits that signed early, former professional baseball player Jai Miller and high school quarterback Luke Del Rio enrolled in order compete for roster spots as invited walk-ons. Miller is a 28-year-old who out of high school signed to play baseball and football at Stanford, but ended up playing professional baseball out of high school after being drafted by the Florida Marlins in 2003. Based on the terms of his original contract, the Marlins will pay for Miller's tuition at Alabama.\nOn National Signing Day, Alabama signed 18 additional players out of high school that completed the 2013 recruiting class. The class was highlighted by fourteen players from the \"ESPN 150\": No. 9 Derrick Henry; No. 16 Reuben Foster; No. 25 Robert Foster; No. 26 Dee Liner; No. 28 Jonathan Allen; No. 32 Alvin Kamara; No. 36 Tim Williams; No. 44 Cooper Bateman; No. 45 O. J. Howard; No. 63 Tyren Jones; No. 81 Altee Tenpenny; No. 84 Maurice Smith; No. 86 Grant Hill and No. 105 A'Shawn Robinson. Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to \"Rivals.com\" and the No. 3 recruiting class according to \"Scout.com\".\nThe 2013 schedule was officially released on October 18, 2012. The 2013 schedule was developed as a \"bridge\" schedule for only the 2013 season as a permanent system was developed by the conference in spring 2013. Alabama faced all six Western Division opponents: Arkansas, Auburn, LSU, Mississippi State, Ole Miss, and Texas A&M. They also faced two Eastern Division opponents: official SEC rival Tennessee and Kentucky. Alabama was not scheduled to play SEC opponents Georgia, Missouri, South Carolina, Florida or Vanderbilt. They also played four non-conference games: Virginia Tech of the Atlantic Coast Conference, Colorado State of the Mountain West Conference, Georgia State of the Sun Belt Conference and Chattanooga of the Southern Conference. The Crimson Tide had two bye weeks: their first was before they faced Texas A&M, and their second before they faced LSU. On December 9, Alabama was selected as an at-large BCS selection to compete in the Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma of the Big 12 Conference.\n\nOn July 7, 2011, officials from both Alabama and Virginia Tech announced the Crimson Tide and the Hokies would meet to open the 2013 season in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game at Atlanta. In the game, the offense struggled, but Christion Jones became the first Alabama player to score two non-offensive touchdowns in a single game and led the Crimson Tide to a 35–10 victory at the Georgia Dome. After the Hokies were held to a three-and-out, Christion Jones gave Alabama a 7–0 lead with his first touchdown on a 72-yard punt return. The teams then traded a series of punts before T. J. Yeldon extended the Alabama lead to 14–0 with his two-yard touchdown run that capped a 49-yard drive.\nVirginia Tech responded on the possession that ensued with their only touchdown of the game on a 77-yard Trey Edmunds touchdown run that cut the lead to 14–7. Early in the second quarter, Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Logan Thomas pass and returned it 38-yards for a touchdown and a 21–7 lead. The teams then again traded punts before Kyle Fuller intercepted an AJ McCarron pass that set up an eventual 29-yard Cody Journell field goal. On the kickoff that ensued, Jones scored his second non-offensive touchdown of the game on a 94-yard return that made the halftime score 28–10.\nNeither team scored again until late in third quarter when McCarron Connected with Jones on a 38-yard touchdown pass that made the final score 35–10. For his three touchdown and 256 all-purpose yardage performance, Jones was recognized as the Walter Camp National Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Hokies to 12–1.\n\nIn the first conference game of the 2013 season, Alabama defeated the Texas A&M Aggies at College Station, 49–42. Texas A&M opened the game with a pair of touchdowns on their first two offensive possessions and took a 14–0 lead. After they received the opening kickoff, the Aggies scored on their first possession when Johnny Manziel threw a one-yard touchdown pass to Cameron Clear and on their second possession on a one-yard Ben Malena touchdown run. Alabama responded with their first of five consecutive touchdowns on their next possession and cut the A&M lead to 14–7 when AJ McCarron threw a 22-yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood.\nAfter the Crimson Tide defense held the Aggies to a punt, McCarron threw his second touchdown pass of the afternoon on the drive that ensued early in the second quarter on a 44-yard flea flicker pass to DeAndrew White that tied the game 14–14. On the next drive, Cyrus Jones intercepted a Manziel pass in the end zone for a touchback and an Alabama possession. McCarron then threw his third touchdown pass on the game from 51 yards to Kenny Bell and gave the Crimson Tide their first lead of the game, 21–14. Alabama then closed the first half with an 11-play, 93-yard drive capped with a four-yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 28–14 halftime lead.\nAfter the A&M defense forced a punt on the opening possession of the third quarter, Vinnie Sunseri intercepted the first Manziel pass of the second half and returned it 73 yards for a touchdown and extended the Alabama lead to 35–14. The Aggies responded on the drive that followed with a 14-yard Manziel touchdown pass to Malcome Kennedy which was followed with a three-yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run that made the score 42–21 in favor of the Crimson Tide at the end of the third quarter. In the fourth, the Aggies scored first on a 12-yard Kennedy touchdown reception, and Alabama looked like they were about to respond with a touchdown as well, but Yeldon fumbled at the two-yard line that was recovered by A&M. Three plays later, Manziel threw a 95-yard touchdown pass to Mike Evans that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 42–35. Alabama rebounded on their next drive that was capped with a five-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler that extended their lead to 49–35. A four-yard touchdown pass from Manziel to Kennedy in the last 0:20 made the final score 49–42. Alabama recovered the ensuing onside kick to seal the win.\nThe 628 yards of total offense by A&M were the most ever surrendered by an Alabama defense in the history of the program. For his career-high 334 yards on 20 of 29 passing and four touchdowns, McCarron was recognized as the SEC Offensive Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Aggies to 4–2.\n\nOn December 13, 2012, officials from both Alabama and Colorado State announced the Crimson Tide and the Rams would meet each other for the first time in the third game of the 2013 season. Although Alabama was a 40-point favorite as they entered the game, the Rams played the Crimson Tide close through the fourth quarter when a pair of late touchdowns gave Alabama a 31–6 victory. After both teams traded punts on their opening pair of possessions, Alabama took a 7–0 lead on a three-yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run.\nDrake was able to score the first touchdown as he was the starting running back in the game due to T. J. Yeldon being suspended for the first quarter by Nick Saban for his unsportsmanlike conduct penalty against A&M the week before. They extended their lead to 14–0 early in the second quarter when Drake blocked a Rams punt that was returned 15-yards by Dillon Lee for a touchdown, and then to 17–0 at halftime when Cade Foster connected on a 46-yard field goal late in the quarter.\nAfter Bernard Blake intercepted an AJ McCarron pass on Alabama's first possession of the second half, Jared Roberts kicked a 45-yard field goal on the drive that ensured that made the score 17–3. Roberts then scored the Rams' only other points on their next possession with his 31-yard field goal. Early in the fourth quarter, Trey DePriest both forced and recovered a Garrett Grayson fumble. On the next play, Alabama scored on a 30-yard McCarron touchdown pass to DeAndrew White for a 24–6 lead. The Crimson Tide then made the final score 31–6 with a 15-yard Blake Sims touchdown pass to Chris Black. In the game, the Rams were led by former Crimson Tide offensive coordinator Jim McElwain and received $1.5 million to play the game at Bryant–Denny Stadium.\n\nIn their first home conference game of the 2013 season, Alabama shutout the Ole Miss Rebels 25–0 at Tuscaloosa. After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt on the Rebels' first possession, AJ McCarron led the Alabama offense on an 11 play, 61-yard drive that ended with a 3–0 lead after a 28-yard Cade Foster field goal. Each team played strong defense for the remainder of the quarter with an Eddie Jackson interception of a Laquon Treadwell sideline pass for Alabama being the major play. Alabama then extended their lead in the second quarter to 9–0 at halftime after Foster connected on field goals of 53 and 42-yards.\nOn the second play of the third quarter, Alabama scored their first touchdown of the game. It came on a 68-yard T. J. Yeldon run and gave the Crimson Tide a 16–0 lead. Each team again traded punts before the Alabama defense stopped an Ole Miss scoring opportunity on a fourth-and-two play from their own seven-yard line that kept the score 16–0. In the fourth, Cody Mandell had a punt downed at the Rebels' one-yard line and on the next play, C. J. Mosley sacked Ole Miss quarterback Bo Wallace for a safety and an 18–0 lead. On the next offensive play for Alabama after they received the safety kick, Kenyan Drake scored on a 50-yard touchdown run that made the final score 25–0. The shutout was the first for the Rebels since their loss against Arkansas in 1998. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Rebels to 47–9–2 (51–8–2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\n\nIn their fifth game of the 2013 season and their second home game, Alabama defeated the Georgia State Panthers 45–3. AJ McCarron led a 71-yard drive capped off with an eight-yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones for a 7–0 lead. On their first possession, Georgia State gained one first down but was quickly driven back by Alabama's defense who forced a punt. Alabama's next drive saw it lean more on the running game, and T. J. Yeldon scored on a four-yard touchdown run for a 14–0 Crimson Tide lead. On the kickoff that ensued, Dee Hart forced a fumble that Crimson Tide linebacker Dillon Lee recovered and returned to the Panthers' 10-yard line. On the next play, McCarron completed a touchdown pass to DeAndrew White that increased Alabama's lead to 21–0.\nThe Crimson Tide scored on its next two possessions as well, and McCarron completed touchdown passes to running backs Kenyan Drake and Jalston Fowler. With the lead at 35–0 late in the second quarter, Alabama played its reserves for much of the remainder of the game. After the Crimson Tide defense forced another punt from the Panthers, McCarron was replaced by backup quarterback Blake Sims. On his first possession at the helm of Alabama's offense, Sims led the team to the Georgia State one-yard line, but a pair of false starts forced Alabama to settle for a field goal that increased the lead to 38–0 at halftime.\nGeorgia State opened the second half with a drive to the Alabama 36-yard line to set up a school record 53-yard field goal by Wil Lutz. Alabama responded with a 68-yard march that ended in a touchdown pass from Blake Sims to Chris Black for a 45–3 lead. With the score at 45–3, neither team scored again. After a Panthers punt, Alabama's next drive ended with Crimson Tide backup kicker Adam Griffith missing a 30-yard field goal. Before his exit late in the second quarter, McCarron set the Alabama record for passing accuracy at 93.75%, going 15–16 and surpassed the previous record of 84.2% held by Ken Stabler. With the win, Alabama improved its all-time record against Georgia State to 2–0.\n\nFor the first time since 2009, Alabama played Kentucky at Lexington, and in the game Alabama defeated the Wildcats 48–7. Although the Crimson Tide defense opened the game strong and forced Kentucky to punt after they held the Wildcats to a series of three-and-outs on their initial possessions, the Alabama offense did not see the same on-field success. After they were held to a punt on their first possession, fumbles by Kenyan Drake and T. J. Yeldon on the next two Crimson Tide possessions inside the Wildcats' 15-yard line kept the game scoreless.\nAfter a scoreless first quarter, Alabama took a 3–0 lead early in the second quarter on a 25-yard Cade Foster field goal. On their next possession, the Crimson Tide scored their first touchdown on a two-play drive that saw a 42-yard Kevin Norwood reception and a one-yard Drake touchdown run for a 10–0 lead. Alabama then extended their lead to 24–0 at halftime after touchdown runs of 24-yards from Yeldon and one-yard from Drake on their final two possessions of the half.\nOn their first possession of the second half, the Crimson Tide extended their lead further to 31–0 after Yeldon scored on a three-yard run that capped a drive that featured a 34-yard Yeldon run and 42-yard Amari Cooper reception. On the Kentucky possession that ensued, the Wildcats scored their only points of the game on a 30-yard Maxwell Smith touchdown pass to Javess Blue that made the score 31–7. The touchdown was the first allowed by the Alabama defense since the Texas A&M game and ended a 14-quarter touchdown-free streak for the Crimson Tide. A 20-yard Foster field goal then made the score 34–7 as they entered the fourth quarter.\nIn the fourth, the Crimson Tide scored touchdowns on both of their offensive possessions and made the final score 48–7. The first came on a 20-yard AJ McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood and the second on a seven-yard Altee Tenpenny run. Offensively, McCarron threw for 359 yards and Drake and Yeldon ran for 106 yards and 124 respectively. This marked the first time in team history that Alabama had a 300-yard passer and two 100-yard runners in a single game. For his performance, right guard Anthony Steen was recognized as SEC Offensive Linemen of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Wildcats to 36–2–1.\n\nIn what was the first Bret Bielema coached team to play against the Crimson Tide, Alabama shut out the Arkansas Razorbacks 52–0 at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Alabama took a 7–0 lead on their first possession with a four-yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler and extended it to 14–0 on their second with a one-yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run. Later in the first, HaHa Clinton-Dix intercepted a Brandon Allen pass in what was his return to the team after he served a two-game suspension for a violation of NCAA rules.\nAfter the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt on the first Razorback possession of the second quarter, Drake extended the Alabama lead to 21–0 with his 46-yard touchdown run. Arkansas responded on their next possession with their longest drive of the game. However, they were unable to score any points as Deion Belue blocked a 41-yard Zach Hocker field goal that preserved the shutout. On the next possession, Alabama closed the first half with a 30-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that made the halftime score 28–0.\nOn the opening kickoff of the second half, Derrick Henry forced a Keon Hatcher fumble that was recovered by Eddie Jackson for the Crimson Tide. Three plays later, Alabama led 35–0 after McCarron threw a 17-yard touchdown pass to O. J. Howard. On their next offensive drive, T. J. Yeldon scored on a 24-yard touchdown run that extended the Crimson Tide lead to 42–0. The Alabama defense then had their second Allen interception of the evening on the Razorbacks possession that ensued with Cyrus Jones' play at the 47-yard line. With the offensive reserves in the game, Blake Sims led the team to a 45–0 lead after Cade Foster connected on a 48-yard field goal. Henry then made the final score 52–0 in the final minute of play with his 80-yard touchdown run. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Razorbacks 14–8 (17–7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\n\nIn their annual rivalry game, Alabama defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 45–10 at Tuscaloosa. The Crimson Tide took a 21–0 lead after they scored touchdowns on all three of their first quarter possessions. The first came on a 54-yard AJ McCarron pass to Amari Cooper, the second on a one-yard T. J. Yeldon run and the third on a 22-yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood. After Alabama extended their lead to 28–0 early in the second quarter on Yeldon's second one-yard run of the game, the defense made their first turnover when Deion Belue intercepted a Justin Worley pass.\nHowever, the Crimson Tide were unable to capitalize on the drive that ensued after Kenyan Drake fumbled the ball at the goal line and was recovered by the Vols' Cameron Sutton. Looking to score before halftime, Tennessee drove from their one-yard line to the Alabama 24 before Worley threw his second interception of the game. This time Landon Collins made the play at the 11-yard line and returned it 89-yards for a touchdown and a 35–0 halftime lead. Tennessee opened the second half with their first points on a 37-yard Michael Palardy field goal that made the score 35–3. The Crimson Tide responded later in the third with Yeldon's third one-yard touchdown run of the game and extended their lead to 42–3.\nIn the fourth, the Vols scored their only touchdown on a three-yard Rajion Neal run and Adam Griffith then kicked his first field goal for the Crimson Tide and made the final score 45–10. For his six tackle performance and long interception return, Collins was recognized as the SEC Defensive Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Volunteers to 50–38–7 (51–37–8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\n\nIn their annual rivalry game, Alabama defeated the LSU Tigers at Tuscaloosa 38–17. After LSU forced an Alabama punt on their first possession, they proceeded to drive 79-yards to the Crimson Tide three-yard line. On the next play, Tana Patrick forced a J. C. Copeland fumble at the one-yard line that prevented a Tigers' score. The ball was recovered by Landon Collins and gave the Crimson Tide possession at their 10-yard line. After the LSU defense forced a second punt, their offense had their second turnover of the game when a Zach Mettenberger fumble was recovered by Trey DePriest at the Tigers' 27-yard line. Four plays later, Alabama took a 3–0 lead on a 41-yard Cade Foster field goal.\nOn their next possession, LSU responded with their first touchdown and a 7–3 lead on a three-yard Jeremy Hill run early in the second quarter. Alabama then retook a 10–7 lead on the next possession when O. J. Howard took a short slant pass from AJ McCarron 52-yards for a touchdown. After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt, their offense extended their lead to 17–7 on a nine-yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood. LSU then made the halftime score 17–14 after Mettenberger threw a six-yard touchdown pass to Travin Dural.\nAfter the Tigers' tied the game 17–17 on a 41-yard Colby Delahoussaye field goal to open the second half, the Crimson Tide went on their first of three consecutive touchdown drives. Their first touchdown came on a four-yard T. J. Yeldon run that capped a 14 play, 79-yard drive that included a successful fake punt. On their next possession, Yeldon scored on a one-yard touchdown run that extended Alabama's lead to 31–17. Odell Beckham Jr. then returned the kickoff that ensued 82-yards to the Crimson Tide 18-yard line. However, the offense was unable to capitalize on the good field position as the Alabama defense forced a turnover on downs. The Crimson Tide then drove 78 yards in eight plays, capping the drive with a three-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler that made the score 38–17. The Alabama defense then closed the game with three consecutive sacks of Mettenberger, winning 38–17. For his 12 tackle performance, C. J. Mosley was recognized as both the SEC Defensive Player of the Week and as the Lott IMPACT National Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Tigers to 48–25–5.\n\nIn their annual rivalry game, Alabama defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs 20–7 at Starkville despite having four turnovers. Alabama won the coin toss and elected to receive the ball to start the game. They then scored on a 33-yard Cade Foster field goal for an early 3–0 lead. Both teams then traded punts for their next six combined possessions before the Bulldogs missed a 23-yard field goal midway through the second quarter. On the Alabama drive that ensued, the Crimson Tide had their first of four turnovers on a Taveze Calhoun interception of an AJ McCarron pass. Alabama rebounded on their next possession with an 18-yard touchdown pass from McCarron to Brian Vogler that made the halftime score 10–0.\nAfter the Crimson Tide defense forced a State punt to open the third quarter, Kendrick Market forced a T. J. Yeldon fumble that was recovered by Beniquez Brown at the State 49-yard line. The Bulldogs scored on their drive that ensued after Charles Siddoway recovered a Tyler Russell fumble in the endzone that made the score 10–7. Alabama responded on their next possession with an 11-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood that extended their lead to 17–7. After the State possession that followed, HaHa Clinton-Dix intercepted a Tyler Russell pass. Foster then made the score 20–7 with his 35-yard field goal early in the fourth quarter. The Crimson Tide then had a difficult time closing the game as turnovers on consecutive possessions on a McCarron interception and a Kenyan Drake fumble. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Bulldogs to 76–18–3 (78–17–3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\n\nIn the final non-conference game the 2013 season, Alabama shutout the Chattanooga Mocs of the Southern Conference 49–0 on senior day at Bryant–Denny Stadium. After the Alabama defense forced a Mocs three-and-out on the first possession of the game, Christion Jones fumbled the punt that ensued with Sema'je Kendall for Chattanooga making the recovery at the Alabama 34-yard line. The Alabama defense once again held strong and Trey DePriest ended the possession with his interception at the 17-yard line on fourth down. The Crimson Tide offense then took the ball 83-yards on its first possession with Kenyan Drake making the score 7–0 on his 13-yard touchdown run.\nDerrick Henry scored Alabama's next touchdown early in the second quarter on a five-yard run that extended their lead to 14–0. On the next Chattanooga possession, Alabama again forced a punt, but this time Jones returned it 75-yards for a touchdown and a 21–0 lead. The Mocs responded with their best drive of the game; however, A'Shawn Robinson blocked a 48-yard Nick Pollard field goal attempt that kept Chattanooga scoreless. The Crimson Tide then closed the half with a 28-yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood that made the halftime score 28–0.\nAlabama continued their scoring into the third quarter with touchdowns on their first two possessions of the half. The first came on a 38-yard McCarron pass to Amari Cooper on a drive that also saw McCarron complete a pass to his brother Corey McCarron. The second came on a 31-yard Chris Black run that made the score 42–0. With the Crimson Tide significantly up, mostly back-up players completed the fourth quarter. After a long drive stalled at the Mocs' 23-yard line, Eddie Jackson returned a C. J. Board fumble caused by Jonathan Allen to the Chattanooga six-yard line. On the next play, Dee Hart made the final score 49–0 with his six-yard touchdown run. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Mocs to 12–0.\n\nIn the final regular season game the 2013 season, Alabama lost 34–28 to the Auburn Tigers after Chris Davis returned a missed Adam Griffith field goal 109-yards for the game-winning score with no time left on the clock in a game since dubbed \"Kick Bama Kick\". Going into the game, Alabama had been ranked atop the polls all season, while Auburn was fourth in all major polls, making this the highest combined ranking ever in the Iron Bowl. With the victory, Auburn won the SEC West division title and prevented Alabama from potentially playing for their third consecutive national championship.\nAfter Alabama failed to score on the first drive when Cade Foster missed a 44-yard field goal attempt, Auburn took a 7–0 lead on their second offensive possession on a 45-yard Nick Marshall touchdown run. The Crimson Tide responded early in the second and tied the game 7–7 on a three-yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler. Alabama's Landon Collins both forced and recovered a Tre Mason fumble on the Tigers' possession that ensued. Four plays later Alabama took a 14–7 lead on a 20-yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood. The Crimson Tide then went ahead 21–7 on a one-yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run, but Auburn responded with a late Mason touchdown run that made the halftime score 21–14.\nThe Tigers tied the score 21–21 on their first possession of the third quarter when Marshall threw a 13-yard touchdown pass to C. J. Uzomah. Early in the fourth Foster missed a 33-yard field goal attempt, but on their next possession McCarron connected with Amari Cooper for a 99-yard touchdown reception and a 28–21 lead. Late in the game, Ryan Smith blocked a 44-yard Foster field goal attempt, and on the Auburn possession that ensued Marshall threw a 39-yard touchdown pass to Sammie Coates that tied the game 28–28.\nWith seven seconds left in regulation and the score tied at 28, Yeldon made a long run as time expired. The play was reviewed from the replay booth, and one second was put back on the clock after the referees determined Yeldon had stepped out of bounds just before time expired. Alabama then opted to attempt a game-winning 57-yard field goal, but chose freshman kicker Adam Griffith over Foster due to Foster's woes that day. Alabama failed its fourth field goal of the day with Griffith's attempt falling short, but Auburn's Chris Davis fielded it nine yards deep in his own end zone, and with no Crimson Tide skill players in his path (the field goal unit was made up almost entirely of offensive linemen), sprinted for a 109-yard touchdown return and a 34–28 Auburn win. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against the Tigers to 42–35–1.\n\nOn December 9, Alabama was selected as an at-large BCS participant to play in the Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma. Against the Sooners, the Crimson Tide were upset 45–31 against an upstart Oklahoma squad. Alabama opened the game with a four play, 75-yard touchdown drive that saw AJ McCarron complete a 53-yard pass to Amari Cooper and T. J. Yeldon score on a one-yard run for a 7–0 lead. On the first Oklahoma possession of the game, Landon Collins intercepted a Trevor Knight pass that halted the Sooners' drive. However, on the Alabama play that ensued, McCarron threw an interception to Gabe Lynn, and Oklahoma responded on their next play with a 45-yard Knight pass to Lacoltan Bester that tied the game 7–7. Alabama retook a 10–7 lead on a 27-yard Cade Foster field goal, but the Sooners again responded and took a 14–10 lead at the end of the first quarter when Knight threw an eight-yard touchdown pass to Jalen Saunders.\nEarly in the second quarter, McCarron threw a 67-yard touchdown pass to DeAndrew White for a 17–14 lead. However, this would be the last time the Crimson Tide led in the game as a pair of turnovers by the Crimson Tide later in the quarter directly resulted in a pair of Oklahoma touchdowns. After the Sooners tied the game with a 47-yard Michael Hunnicutt field goal, Geneo Grissom recovered a Yeldon fumble at their eight-yard line and returned it to the 34. Seven plays later Knight threw a 43-yard touchdown pass to Saunders for a 24–17 Oklahoma lead. On the next offensive series, McCarron threw his second interception of the game to Zack Sanchez who returned it to the Alabama 13-yard line. On the next play, Sterling Shepard extended the Sooners' lead to 31–17 with his 13-yard touchdown run. The Crimson Tide was able to get into field goal range late, but Foster missed an attempt from 32-yards as time expired for the first half.\nAfter the teams traded punts to open the second half, Derrick Henry made the score 31–24 with his 43-yard touchdown run for the only points scored in the third quarter. Oklahoma next scored on their opening possession of the fourth quarter on a nine-yard Knight touchdown pass to Shepard that capped an eight-play drive. Later in the quarter, Henry scored his second long touchdown of the game for Alabama on a 61—yard reception from McCarron that cut the Oklahoma lead to 38–31. However, the Sooners closed the game with a long drive that ran down the clock and in the final minute, an Eric Striker sack of McCarron caused a fumble that Grissom recovered and returned eight-yards for a touchdown and made the final score 45–31. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against the Sooners 1–3–1.\nAs they entered the 2013 season, the Crimson Tide were ranked No. 1 in both the AP and Coaches' Preseason Polls. As they were still undefeated at the time of the initial Bowl Championship Series (BCS) standings, the Crimson Tide were ranked first by the BCS on October 21. Alabama remained in the No. 1 position through their final regular season game against Auburn. After their 34–28 loss against the Tigers, Alabama dropped to No. 4 in all of the standings. The Crimson Tide closed the regular season in the No. 3 position in all of the standings and failed to qualify for their third consecutive BCS National Championship Game. In the final poll of the season, Alabama dropped into the No. 7 position in the AP and No. 8 position in the Coaches' Polls after their loss against Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl.\nAfter their loss to Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl, Alabama's final team statistics were released. Nationally, Cody Mandell led the nation with an average of 42.43 net yards per punt. On the defensive side of the ball, of the 124 FBS teams, the Crimson Tide was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories both nationally and in conference. They ranked fourth nationally and first in conference scoring defense (13.9 points per game), fifth nationally and first in conference in total defense (286.50 yards per game), seventh nationally and first in conference in rushing defense (106.2 yards per game) and eleventh nationally and second in conference in passing defense (180.3 yards per game). Individually, C. J. Mosley led the team with 108 total tackles, 61 of which were assisted, and 47 solo tackles. Mosley also led the team with 8 tackles for loss. A'Shawn Robinson led the team with 5.5 quarterback sacks. Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, Landon Collins, Cyrus Jones and Vinnie Sunseri tied for the team lead in interception with each having made two.\nOn offense, of the 124 FBS teams, Alabama ranked 17th nationally and fourth in conference in scoring offense (38.2 points per game), 24th nationally and fourth in conference in rushing offense (205.6 yards per game), 33rd nationally and sixth in conference in total offense (454.1 yards per game) and 49th nationally and seventh in conference in passing offense (248.5 yards per game). AJ McCarron led the team in passing offense and completed 226 of 336 passes for 3,063 passing yards and 28 touchdowns. Amari Cooper led the team with 45 receptions for 736 yards and Kevin Norwood led the team with seven touchdown receptions. T. J. Yeldon led the team with 207 rushing attempts for 1,279 yards and 14 touchdown runs. Kenyan Drake was second on the team with 92 rushing attempts for 694 yards and 8 touchdown runs.\nAfter the SEC Championship Game, multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on-field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions. At the team awards banquet on December 8, AJ McCarron C. J. Mosley and Kevin Norwood were each named the permanent captains of the 2013 squad. At that time Mosley was also named the 2013 most valuable player with Mosley and HaHa Clinton-Dix named defensive players of the year and AJ McCarron and T. J. Yeldon named offensive players of the year.\nThe SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards. On December 11, C. J. Mosley was named SEC co-Defensive Player of the year with Michael Sam of Missouri, and Christion Jones was named SEC Special Teams Player of the Year. On December 9, Cyrus Kouandjio, Cody Mandell, Mosley and Anthony Steen were named to the AP All-SEC First Team. HaHa Clinton-Dix, Landon Collins, Christion Jones, Trey DePriest and T. J. Yeldon were named to the AP All-SEC Second Team; Brandon Ivory, AJ McCarron and Vinnie Sunseri were named to the AP All-SEC Honorable Mention Team. Clinton-Dix, Jones, Kouandjio, Mosley and Yeldon were named to the Coaches' All-SEC First Team. Mandell, McCarron, Steen and Ed Stinson were named to the Coaches' All-SEC Second Team. A'Shawn Robinson was named to the SEC All-Freshman Team.\nAfter the season, a number of Alabama players both won and were named as national award winners and finalists. Finalists for major awards from the Crimson Tide included: C. J. Mosley for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy, Chuck Bednarik Award and the Lombardi Award and AJ McCarron for the Davey O'Brien Award. Mosley won the Butkus Award as the top collegiate linebacker and McCarron won both the Maxwell Award as the overall player of the year and the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the top senior quarterback. McCarron also finished second behind Jameis Winston in voting for the Heisman Trophy.\nFor their individual performances during the regular season, several players were named to various national All-American Teams. Cyrus Kouandjio, AJ McCarron and C. J. Mosley were named to the Walter Camp All-America First Team (WC). HaHa Clinton-Dix and Mosley were named to the \"Sporting News\" (\"TSN\") All-America Team. Kouandjio and Mosley were named to the Associated Press All-American First Team; Clinton-Dix and McCarron were named to the Associated Press All-American Second Team. Clinton-Dix, Kouandjio and Mosley were named to the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA) All-America Team.\nThe NCAA recognizes five All-America lists in the determination of both consensus and unanimous All-America selections: the AP, AFCA, the FWAA, \"TSN\" and the WC. In order for an honoree to earn a consensus selection, he must be selected as first team in three of the five lists recognized by the NCAA, and unanimous selections must be selected as first team in all five lists. As such, for the 2013 season Mosley was a unanimous selection and Clinton-Dix and Kouandjio were consensus selections.\nSeveral Alabama players were selected by postseason all-star games. Kenny Bell and John Fulton were selected to play in the College All-Star Bowl. Cody Mandell, C. J. Mosley, Kevin Norwood and Ed Stinson all accepted invitations to play in the Senior Bowl. Adrian Hubbard was also invited to compete in the game as fourth-year junior and became only the third non-senior to participate in the Senior Bowl. Invitations were also extended to Deion Belue and AJ McCarron to participate in the game. Alabama did not have players participate in the East–West Shrine Game or the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl.\nIn the weeks that followed the conclusion of the season, several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff. On January 9 offensive coordinator Doug Nussmeier was officially hired in the same capacity at Michigan as the replacement for Al Borges. On January 10, former Oakland Raiders, Tennessee and USC head coach Lane Kiffin was hired as the replacement for Nussmeier as both offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach. On January 11, it was announced defensive line coach Chris Rumph had resigned and took the same position on the Texas staff. On January 13 USC defensive line coach Bo Davis was hired as Rumph's replacement. Davis previously coached defensive line at Alabama from 2007 to 2010 and had also served under Saban at LSU and with the Miami Dolphins. On February 12, Greg Brown resigned to become the safeties coach at Louisville. Two days later, Kevin Steele was promoted from Alabama's director of player personnel to inside linebackers coach. Steele previously served as a defensive assistant for Saban at Alabama in 2007 and 2008.\nOf all the draft-eligible juniors, Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, Adrian Hubbard, Cyrus Kouandjio, Jeoffrey Pagan and Vinnie Sunseri declared their eligibility for the 2014 NFL Draft. At the time of their announcement, Clinton-Dix and Kouandjio were projected to be first-round picks and both Hubbard and Pagan were projected to be no lower than third-round picks. With their departures it marked the first time during the Saban era that more than three juniors declared early for the NFL Draft. In February 2014, twelve Alabama players, seven seniors and five juniors, were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine. The invited players were offensive linemen Cyrus Kouandjio and Anthony Steen, safeties Ha Ha Clinton-Dix and Vinnie Sunseri, linebackers Adrian Hubbard and C. J. Mosley, defensive ends Jeoffrey Pagan and Ed Stinson, quarterback AJ McCarron, wide receiver Kevin Norwood, cornerback Deion Belue and punter Cody Mandell.\nIn the first round, two Crimson Tide players were selected: Mosley (17th Baltimore Ravens) and Clinton-Dix (21st Green Bay Packers). Kouandjio was selected in the second round (44th Buffalo Bills); Norwood (123rd Seattle Seahawks) was selected in the fourth round; Stinson (160th Arizona Cardinals), McCarron (164th Cincinnati Bengals) and Sunseri (167th New Orleans Saints) were selected in the fifth round; and Pagan (177th Houston Texans) was selected in the sixth round. In the days after the draft, several players from the 2013 squad that were not drafted signed as undrafted free agents. These players included Hubbard (Green Bay Packers), Steen (Arizona Cardinals), Mandell (Dallas Cowboys), John Fulton (Philadelphia Eagles), Tana Patrick (Chicago Bears) and Belue (Miami Dolphins).","2013 Oklahoma Sooners football team\nThe 2013 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 119th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 15th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference.\nConference play began at home on September 7 with a win against the West Virginia Mountaineers and ended in the annual Bedlam Series on December 7 against the Oklahoma State Cowboys in Stillwater with the Sooners upsetting the Cowboys 33–24 on the road. With the victory over the Kansas State Wildcats on November 23, head coach Bob Stoops got his 158th career win to move past Barry Switzer for the most wins in program history. After finishing the regular season with a record of 10–2 (7–2 in Big 12 play), finishing in a tie for second place in the conference, the Sooners received an at-large bid to play in the Sugar Bowl, where they defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide with a final score of 45–31.\nFollowing the season, Jalen Saunders and Aaron Colvin were selected in the fourth round of the 2014 NFL Draft, along with Corey Nelson and Trey Millard in the seventh.\n\nFreshman Dominique Alexander was named Big 12 Conference Defensive Freshman of the Year.\nOklahoma's only All-American this year was Gabe Ikard. He was given first team All-American status by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA), Walter Camp Foundation (WCFF), and CBS Sports (CBS).\nThe 2014 NFL Draft was held at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on May 8–10, 2014. The following Oklahoma players were either selected or signed as free agents following the draft.","Alabama Crimson Tide softball\nThe Alabama Crimson Tide softball team represents the University of Alabama in NCAA Division I college softball. The team participates in the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). It is currently led by head coach Patrick Murphy and assistant coaches Alyson Habetz and Stephanie VanBrakle. The team plays its home games at the Rhoads Stadium located on the university's campus. The Alabama Crimson Tide softball team won its first National Championship in 2012, after they defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the championship series of the Women's College World Series.\nOn September 28, 1995, Alabama athletics director Glen Tuckett announced the school would sponsor a softball program to begin play in the 1997 season. At the time of its addition, softball became both the 20th varsity sport overall and 11th women's sport sponsored at Alabama. On January 3, 1996, Kalum Haack was hired from Kansas to serve as the first head coach for the team. The next spring, Haack recruited his first class for the inaugural 1997 team. On February 15, 1997, Alabama defeated Tulsa 5–2 in their first all-time game at ASA Hall of Fame Stadium in Oklahoma City. Two weeks later, the Crimson Tide won their first all-time home game in their home opener at Sokol Park against Delta State 4–3.\nAfter he led the Crimson Tide in their inaugural season and to their first SEC championship in their second season, on June 30, 1998, Haack resigned as head coach. He cited personal reasons for his resignation. During his two-year stint as head coach, Haack compiled an overall record of 78 wins and 47 losses (78–47). A week later on July 9, Alabama assistant coach Patrick Murphy was promoted to the Crimson Tide's head coach position.\nSince Murphy took over in 1999, the Crimson Tide has won 10 SEC championships (5 regular season and 5 tournaments), made 17 consecutive NCAA tournaments (every year since 1999) and have advanced to the Women's College World Series ten times. In 2012, Alabama defeated the Oklahoma Sooners, 2 games to 1, in the championship series of the Women's College World Series, to win its first national championship in school history and the first softball national championship in the history of the SEC.\n†Denotes 1st Team selection\n","1964 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 1964 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\" or \"Bama\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1964 college football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 70th overall and 31st season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his seventh year, and played their home games at Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Legion Field in Birmingham and Ladd Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. They finished season with ten wins and one loss (10–1 overall, 8–0 in the SEC), as SEC champions and with a loss to Texas in the Orange Bowl. As the major wire services at that time awarded their national champions prior to the start of bowl season, Alabama was also recognized as national champions by the AP and UPI before their loss to Texas. After the bowl games, the Football Writers Association of America as stated in 1964 college football season named the undefeated Arkansas Razorbacks as the national champions. The Razorbacks defeated Texas during the regular season.\nThe Crimson Tide opened the season ranked in the No. 6 position with wins at Tuscaloosa against Georgia, against Tulane in Mobile and at Birmingham against Vanderbilt. After a victory over NC State in their first non-conference game of the season, Alabama defeated Tennessee in their first road game of the season at Neyland Stadium. The Crimson Tide then returned to Tuscaloosa where they defeated a Steve Spurrier-led Florida team on homecoming before their second road victory at Mississippi State at Jackson.\nAlabama then defeated LSU in a newly expanded Legion Field and captured the SEC championship, and the next week defeated Georgia Tech in what was the final game of their annual series. In the annual Iron Bowl against Auburn, the Crimson Tide completed an undefeated regular season with their victory and accepted a bid to play Texas in the Orange Bowl. Although recognized as national champions at the conclusion of the regular season, Alabama closed the season with a loss to the Texas Longhorns in the Orange Bowl.\nAfter the season, Joe Namath was selected as the first overall pick by the New York Jets in the 1965 AFL Draft. In addition to Namath, eleven other lettermen from the 1964 squad were drafted into the National Football League.\n\nTo open the 1964 season, the Crimson Tide defeated Georgia 31–3 in what was the first game for Vince Dooley as head coach of the Bulldogs. After the Crimson Tide took a 7–0 lead on a five-yard Hudson Harris touchdown run in the first quarter, Georgia scored their only points early in the second on a 26-yard Robert Etter field goal. Alabama responded with the first of three Joe Namath touchdown runs from eight-yards out that gave the Crimson Tide a 14–3 halftime lead. Alabama closed the game with a 27-yard David Ray field goal and Namath touchdown runs of one and five-yards for the 31–3 victory. In the game, Namath completed 16 of 21 passes for 167 yards, ran for 55 yards, and scored three touchdowns. The 16 completions tied a school record with Harry Gilmer set during the 1946 season, and for his performance Namath was recognized as the AP's Back of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia to 28–18–4.\n\nAt Mobile, the Crimson Tide defeated the Tulane Green Wave 36–6 in their annual Ladd Stadium game of the season. After a scoreless first quarter, Alabama took a 10–0 halftime lead after David Ray connected on a 22-yard field goal and Joe Namath scored on a one-yard touchdown run. Ray extended the Crimson Tide lead to 20–0 with his 33-yard field goal and 33-yard touchdown reception from Namath in the third quarter. In the fourth, Frank Canterbury scored on a five-yard touchdown run, and Tulane responded with their only points of the game on an eight-yard David East touchdown pass to Lanis O'Steen. Alabama then closed the game with a one-yard Namath run that made the final score 36–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tulane to 22–10–3.\n\nAfter their victory over Tulane, Alabama moved into the No. 4 position in the AP Poll prior to their game against Vanderbilt. In the first Legion Field game of the season, the Crimson Tide shut out the Commodores, 24–0, at Birmingham. After a scoreless first half, Alabama took a 14–0 third-quarter lead on a two-yard Joe Namath touchdown pass to Hudson Harris and on a 15-yard Namath run. They then closed the game with a nine-yard Namath touchdown pass to Tommy Tolleson and a 28-yard David Ray field goal in the fourth quarter that made the final score 24–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 23–16–4.\n\nAfter their victory over Vanderbilt, Alabama moved up one position in the polls to the No. 3 spot prior to their first non-conference game of the season. In a game that saw starting quarterback Joe Namath injured in the second quarter, backup Steve Sloan rallied the Crimson Tide to a 21–0 victory over the NC State Wolfpack in Tuscaloosa. After a scoreless first quarter, Namath twisted his knee with just over 6:00 remaining in the half. Sloan entered the game and led Alabama on a 69-yard drive that culminated with his one-yard touchdown run to give Alabama a 7–0 halftime lead. The Crimson Tide then closed the game with a three-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run in the third and a 10-yard Sloan touchdown pass to Tommy Tolleson in the fourth that made the final score 21–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against NC State to 3–0.\n\nIn what was their first road game of the 1964 season, Alabama defeated the rival Tennessee Volunteers 19–8 at Neyland Stadium. David Ray gave the Crimson Tide an early 3–0 lead after he connected on a 30-yard field goal in the first quarter. Alabama then extended their lead to 16–0 at halftime with a pair of second-quarter touchdowns. The first came on a one-yard Steve Sloan run and the second after Wayne Cook blocked a Tennessee punt that Gaylon McCollough returned 22-yards for a touchdown. The Volunteers cut the Tide's lead in half to 16–8 with a seven-yard Hal Wantland touchdown run and two-point conversion in the third quarter. A 23-yard Ray field goal in the fourth quarter provided for the final 19–8 margin in the Alabama victory. Tom Fisher starred defensively for Tennessee with a blocked field goal, a blocked punt and an interception of a Sloan pass in defeat. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tennessee to 22–19–6.\n\nAs they entered their 1964 homecoming game against Florida, Alabama was ranked No. 3 and Florida No. 9 in the AP Poll. Against the Gators, Alabama rallied for a 17–14 comeback victory after they scored ten unanswered points in the fourth quarter. After a scoreless first quarter, Florida took a 7–0 second quarter lead when Steve Spurrier threw a nine-yard touchdown pass to Randy Jackson. Alabama responded with a one-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run later in the quarter that tied the game 7–7 at halftime. In the third, the Gators retook the lead with a three-yard John Feiber touchdown run before the Crimson Tide started their fourth quarter rally. In the final period, a 30-yard Bowman touchdown run tied the game and a 21-yard David Ray field goal with just 3:06 left in the game. Spurrier then led the Gators on a drive that stalled at the Tide's seven-yard line where James Hall missed a field goal to tie the game and preserved the 17–14 Alabama win. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Florida to 9–5.\n\nAt the Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium, a near sellout crowd saw David Ray connect on three field goals and Steve Bowman score on a pair of touchdown runs in this 23–6 win over the Mississippi State Bulldogs. The Bulldogs took an early 6–0 lead after a seven-yard Price Hodges touchdown run capped a 64-yard opening drive for Mississippi State. Ray field goals of 34, 40 and 20-yards that followed gave the Crimson Tide a 9–6 halftime lead. Alabama then held the Bulldogs to only four offensive plays in the third quarter and scored on a pair of one-yard Bowman touchdown runs for the 23–6 win. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Mississippi State to 36–10–3.\n\nAs they entered their game against LSU, Alabama remained in the No. 3 position with the Tigers in the No. 8 position for a top ten matchup. Against the Tigers, Alabama rallied back for a 17–9 win that secured the 1964 SEC championship at Legion Field in Birmingham. LSU scored first and took an early 6–0 lead on a 13-yard Billy Ezell touchdown pass to Doug Moreau. The Crimson Tide responded later in the first quarter with a one-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run and took a 7–6 lead. Later, a 35-yard Moreau field goal in the second quarter gave the Tigers a 9–7 halftime lead that they retained through the fourth quarter when Alabama started their rally. In the fourth, the Tide took the lead with a 36-yard David Ray field goal and extended it to the final margin of 17–9 later in the quarter when Hudson Harris intercepted and Ezell pass and returned it 34-yards for the touchdown.\nThe game was also the dedication of 13,000 additional seats at Legion Field, and the 67,749 in attendance made it the largest crowd to ever see a football game in the state of Alabama at that time. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against LSU to 16–8–4.\n\nAfter their victory over LSU, Alabama moved into the No. 2 position and Georgia Tech, which exited the SEC following the 1963 season, into the No. 10 position in the AP poll prior to their game in Atlanta. In what was the final game of a series that stretched back nearly uninterrupted to the 1920s, Alabama defeated the Yellow Jackets 24–7 at Grant Field. After a scoreless first quarter, an injured Joe Namath entered the game for the Crimson Tide and led them to a pair of touchdowns in just a 1:20 of playing time. After Alabama recovered a Tech fumble at their 49-yard line, Namath threw a 48-yard completion to David Ray and on the next play took a 7–0 lead on a one-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run. The Crimson Tide then recovered an onside kick on the kickoff that ensued on the Jackets' 48-yard line. On the next play, Namath passed for 45-yards to Ray Ogden and then thew a three-yard touchdown pass to Ray for the 14–0 halftime lead.\nAfter a 22-yard Ray field goal extended their lead to 17–0 in the third, Bowman scored on a four-yard fumble recovered for a touchdown in the fourth quarter. Georgia Tech did manage to avoid the shutout late in the fourth when Jerry Priestley threw a five-yard touchdown pass to Giles Smith that made the final score 24–7. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 24–19–3.\n\nIn the week prior to their game against Auburn, Alabama retained their No. 2 ranking in the AP poll. In the annual Iron Bowl game, Alabama defeated the Tigers 21–14 land secured their second undefeated regular season under coach Bryant. The Crimson Tide took an early 6–0 lead after Steve Bowman recovered an Auburn fumble on a failed punt attempt and returned it 39-yards for a touchdown. The Tigers responded with a three-yard Tucker Frederickson touchdown run in the second quarter for a 7–6 halftime lead. Alabama then took a 14–7 lead in the third after Ray Ogden returned the opening kickoff 107 yards for a touchdown. An Auburn fumble then set up the final scoring drive for Alabama in the fourth that culminated in a 23-yard Joe Namath touchdown pass to Ray Perkins for a 21–7 lead. The Tigers responded later with a 16-yard Tom Bryan touchdown pass to Jimmy Sidle that made the final score 21–14. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Auburn to 14–14–1.\n\nImmediately after their Iron Bowl victory, Alabama accepted a bid to play Texas in the Orange Bowl. Although they were recognized as undefeated national champions at the conclusion of the regular season, Alabama lost to the Longhorns 21–17 in the game and finished the season 10–1. Texas took a 14–0 lead after touchdowns were scored on a 79-yard Ernie Koy run in the first and on a 69-yard Jim Hudson pass to George Sauer in the second quarter. The Crimson Tide responded with a seven-yard Joe Namath touchdown pass to Wayne Trimble, but a two-yard Koy touchdown run made the halftime score 21–7 in favor of Texas. Alabama closed the game with a 20-yard Ray Perkins touchdown reception in the third and with a 26-yard David Ray field goal in the fourth, but lost 21–17. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Texas to 0–5–1.\nThe NCAA recognizes consensus national champions as the teams that have captured a championship by way of one of the major polls since the 1950 college football season. After No. 1 Notre Dame was upset by USC in their final game of the season, it was speculated that Alabama would move into the top position in the polls and claim the 1964 national championship. As such, the Crimson Tide were voted into the No. 1 position in both the final AP and UPI polls and captured the national championship. On November 30, the final UPI poll was released with Alabama in the No. 1 position having claimed 33 first place votes and 333 total points in the poll ahead of No. 2 Arkansas. On December 1, the final AP poll was released with Alabama in the No. 1 position having claimed 34.5 first place votes ahead of the 11.5 first place votes awarded to No. 2 Arkansas.\nAlthough officially recognized as national champions at the conclusion of the regular season, Alabama went on to lose against Texas in the Orange Bowl. Due to this and the increasing number of top ranked teams participating in bowl games, 1964 was one of the final years the AP released its final poll before the completion of bowl season. The AP would permanently switch to a final poll conducted after the bowl games starting with the 1968 season. Arkansas (the only major team that finished the season undefeated), Notre Dame, and Michigan were also recognized as national champions by various other selectors for the 1964 season.\nSeveral players that were varsity lettermen from the 1964 squad were drafted into the National Football League (NFL) and the American Football League (AFL) between the 1965 and 1967 drafts. These players included the following:\nPrior to the 1972 college football season, NCAA rules prohibited freshmen from participating on the varsity team, and as such many schools fielded freshmen teams. For the 1964 season, the Alabama freshmen squad was coached by Sam Bailey and finished their season with a record of two wins and two losses (2–2). Alabama opened the season with a 14–7 loss to Mississippi State in a game that saw the Baby Tide turn the ball over seven times. The Bulldogs took a 7–0 lead in the first quarter on a one-yard Walter Pennebaker touchdown run. Alabama tied the game 7–7 in the third quarter on a 46-yard Ken Stabler touchdown pass to Dennis Homan; however, Stabler threw an interception later in the third to Alton Ellis that he returned 73 yards for the game-winning touchdown.\nTwo weeks later, Alabama won their first game of the season at New Orleans with a 13–6 victory over Tulane. The Baby Tide scored on their first offensive play when Stabler threw a 33-yard touchdown pass to Homan in the first quarter. Steve Davis kicked a 26-yard field goal on the next Alabama possession and another from 24 yards out in the third that made the score 13–0 in favor of the Tide. Paul Arnold scored Tulane's only points in the fourth quarter on a one-yard run and made the final score 13–6. In their third game, Alabama was shut out by Ole Miss, 14–0, at Hemingway Stadium. In the game, Rebel touchdowns were scored on a pair of Carr Walker touchdown passes. The first came in the opening period to Milie Haile and the second on a 59-yard pass to Carl Pope in the third quarter.\nThe next week, Alabama closed the season with a 17–0 victory over rival Auburn at Denny Stadium. The Baby Tide took a 14–0 first quarter lead on a 70-yard Homan punt return and on a one-yard Phil Schaeffer touchdown run that capped a 71-yard drive. Steve Davis provided for the final points of the game late in the fourth quarter n a 21-yard field goal that made the final score 21–0.\nGeneral\nSpecific","1961 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 1961 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\" or \"Bama\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1961 college football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 67th overall and 28th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his fourth year, and played their home games at Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Legion Field in Birmingham and Ladd Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. They finished season undefeated with eleven wins (11–0 overall, 7–0 in the SEC), with a victory over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl and as consensus national champions. The 1961 national championship was the first of the six that Bear Bryant would win as head coach of the Crimson Tide.\nAlabama opened the season with a win over Georgia on the road in week one, and then defeated Tulane in their home game at Ladd Stadium in week two. After they won their second road game of the season at Vanderbilt, Alabama returned to Tuscaloosa where they defeated NC State\nThe Crimson Tide then defeated Houston\n\nTo open the 1961 season, the Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 32–6 on the road at Athens. Alabama took a 10–0 halftime lead after Tim Davis connected on a 41-yard field goal in the first quarter and Mike Fracchia scored on a one-yard touchdown run in the second quarter. After a 37-yard Pat Trammell touchdown pass to Butch Wilson in the third, the Crimson Tide scored a pair of fourth-quarter touchdowns that extended their lead to 32–0. Fracchia scored first on a two-yard run and was followed with a seven-yard Mal Moore touchdown pass to Red Wilkins. The Bulldogs then scored on a 12-yard Langdale Williams touchdown pass to Carlton Guthrie that ended Alabama's bid for a shutout and made the final score 32–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia to 25–18–4.\n\nAfter their victory over Georgia in their season opener, Alabama dropped one position in the polls to the No. 4 position. At Mobile, the Crimson Tide shutout the Tulane Green Wave for the first time since the 1959 season in this 9–0 victory. Alabama scored their only touchdown in the first quarter on a 22-yard Pat Trammell pass to Tommy Brooker for a 6–0 lead. The Crimson Tide did not score again until a 25-yard Tim Davis field goal in the fourth quarter made the final score 9–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tulane to 19–10–3.\n\nAfter their victory over Tulane at Ladd Stadium, Alabama retained the No. 4 position in the AP Poll prior to their game against Vanderbilt. Against the Commodores, the Crimson Tide won by a final score of 35–6 at Dudley Stadium in Nashville. Alabama took a 13–0 first quarter lead on touchdown runs of 66-yards by Mike Fracchia and eight-yards by Pat Trammell. Early in the second quarter, Trammell scored his second touchdown on a 16-yard run. This was followed with a 13-yard Henry Lesesne touchdown pass to Marion Starling for the Commodores and a one-yard Larry Wall touchdown run for Alabama that made the halftime score 28–6. Trammell then scored the final touchdown of the game in the third on a three-yard run that made the final score 35–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 20–16–4.\n\nAfter their victory over Vanderbilt, Alabama moved up one position in the polls to the No. 3 spot prior to their first Denny Stadium game of the season. In what was their first non-conference game of the season, Alabama defeated the NC State Wolfpack 26–7 in Tuscaloosa. After a scoreless first quarter, the Wolfpack scored their only points of the game on a one-yard Roman Gabriel touchdown run for a 7–0 lead. The Crimson Tide responded with 26 unanswered points and won the game 26–7. Alabama touchdowns were scored on Pat Trammell passes of 12-yards to Richard Williamson and two-yards to Bill Battle in the second and on runs of five-yards by Trammell and 45-yards by Eddie Versprille in the fourth quarter. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against NC State to 2–0.\n\nPrior to their game against Tennessee, Alabama dropped two positions in the polls to the No. 5 spot prior to their first Legion Field game of the season. Against the Volunteers, Alabama won 34–3, and the victory was both the first for Alabama over Tennessee since the 1954 season and the largest since their 51–0 win in 1906. After Tennessee took an early 3–0 lead on a 53-yard George Shuford field goal, Alabama responded with 34 unanswered points. The Crimson Tide scored first-quarter touchdowns on a five-yard Mike Fracchia run and a nine-yard Pat Trammell pass to Butch Wilson and a pair of Tim Davis field goals in the second quarter for a 20–3 halftime lead. They then closed the game with touchdown runs of eight-yards by Billy Richardson in the third and one-yard by Trammell in the fourth quarter. After their win, Alabama was formally extended an invitation to compete in the inaugural National Trophy Bowl at Washington, D.C., only to later decline the invitation. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tennessee to 19–19–6.\n\nAfter their victory over Tennessee, the Crimson Tide moved up into the No. 4 position in the polls prior to their road game at Houston. In the first night game of the year, Alabama defeated a tough Cougars squad 17–0 at Rice Stadium. After a scoreless first quarter, the Crimson Tide took a 10–0 halftime lead on a 33-yard Tim Davis field goal and a five-yard Pat Trammell touchdown pass to Bill Oliver in the second quarter. Trammell then made the final score 17–0 with his two-yard touchdown run in the third quarter. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Houston to 3–0.\n\nAfter their road shutout at Houston, Alabama returned to play Mississippi State in Tuscaloosa as the No. 4 ranked team for the second consecutive week. On what was homecoming in Denny Stadium, the Crimson Tide shutout the Bulldogs 24–0. Alabama took a 14–0 first quarter lead on touchdown runs of four-yards by Billy Richardson and one-yard by Pat Trammell, and after a 26-yard Tim Davis field goal in the second quarter led 17–0 at halftime. After a scoreless third quarter, the Crimson Tide closed the game with a one-yard Larry Wall touchdown run in the fourth quarter and made the final score 24–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Mississippi State to 33–10–3.\n\nPrior to their game against Richmond, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 2 position in the weekly polls. In what was the only all-time meeting against the Spiders, Alabama won 66–0 and scored the most points in a game since their 89–0 win over Delta State in 1951. The Crimson Tide took a 34–0 halftime lead after first-quarter touchdown runs of one-yard by Pat Trammell and 30-yards by Larry Wall and second-quarter touchdowns on a four-yard Trammell pass to Richard Williamson and runs of 12 and one-yard by Wall. Alabama then closed the game with five second half touchdowns and won 66–0. Touchdowns were scored in the third quarter on a 66-yard Benny Nelson punt return and a 26-yard Jack Hurlbut pass to Red Wilkins and in the fourth quarter on runs of three-yards by Eddie Versprille, two-yards by Marlin Mooneyham and on a 28-yard Mal Moore pass to Jimmy Dill.\n\nFor their game at Legion Field against Georgia Tech, the Crimson Tide remained in the No. 2 position in the national polls. Against the Yellow Jackets, Alabama won in a 10–0 shutout to move their record to nine wins and zero losses. After a scoreless first quarter, the Crimson Tide scored their only touchdown on a 16-yard Mike Fracchia run for a 7–0 lead. Tim Davis then made the final score 10–0 with his 32-yard field goal in the third quarter. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 22–18–3.\n\nAfter their win over Tech combined with No. 1 Texas' loss to TCU, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 position in the polls prior to their game against Auburn. Against the Tigers in the annual Iron Bowl game at Legion Field, Alabama shutout Auburn for the third consecutive season, this time by a score of 34–0 and completed an undefeated regular season. After Billy Richardson gave Alabama a 7–0 first quarter lead with his 11-yard touchdown run, they scored 17 second quarter points and took a 24–0 halftime lead. In the second, Pat Trammell scored on a one-yard run, Tim Davis connected on a 35-yard field goal and Trammell threw a 19-yard touchdown pass to Richard Williamson. Alabama then closed the game with a six-yard Richardson touchdown run in the third and a 34-yard field goal in the fourth to win 34–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Auburn to 12–13–1.\n\nAfter the Crimson Tide was recognized as national champions by the major wire services, they defeated the Arkansas Razorbacks 10–3 in the 1962 edition of the Sugar Bowl in what was the first all-time meeting between the schools. The Crimson Tide took a 10–0 halftime lead after they scored on a 12-yard Pat Trammell touchdown run in the first quarter and on a 32-yard Tim Davis field goal in the second quarter. Although Alabama was held scoreless in the second half, the Razorbacks only managed to score a 23-yard Mickey Cissell field goal in the third quarter that made the final score 10–3 in favor of Alabama.\nAfter the season, Alabama had several players recognized individually for their on-field performances. Billy Neighbors was a unanimous selection to the 1961 College Football All-America Team at the tackle position. Second Team All-America selections included Lee Roy Jordan at center and Pat Trammell at quarterback. Additionally, Alabama had four players selected to the All-SEC First Team: Mike Fracchia at back, Jordan, Neighbors and Trammell. Trammell was also selected as the SEC Most Valuable Player for the 1961 season and Neighbors won the Jacobs Blocking Trophy. In having led his team to both the SEC and national championships, Bear Bryant was recognized as the AP, UPI and coaches' SEC Coach of the Year.\nSeveral players that were varsity lettermen from the 1961 squad were drafted into the National Football League (NFL) and the American Football League (AFL) between the 1962 and 1965 drafts. These players included the following:\nPrior to the 1972 college football season, NCAA rules prohibited freshmen from participating on the varsity team, and as such many schools fielded freshmen teams. For the 1961 season, the Alabama freshmen squad was coached by Sam Bailey and finished their season with a record of two wins and one tie (2–0–1). The 1961 freshman squad was noted for its being led by Joe Namath at quarterback after he chose to attend Alabama after he received more than 50 athletic scholarship offers from other schools.\nIn their first game of the season, Alabama came from behind and defeated Mississippi State 20–14 before 3,500 fans at Denny Stadium. After the Bulldogs took a 7–0 first quarter lead on a six-yard Ray Reed pass to Tommy Inman, Alabama tied the game 7–7 on an eight-yard Namath touchdown run early in the second. The Crimson Tide then took a 13–7 halftime lead on a nine-yard Namath pass to Creed Gilmer late in the second. State retook a 14–13 lead in the third on an eight-yard Reed to Inman pass, but Alabama scored the game-winning touchdown on a 36-yard Ron McKinney run that made the final score 20–13.\nIn their second game, the Baby Tide defeated Tulane 32–6 at Denny Stadium in a game they scored touchdowns in all four quarters. After the Green Wave scored their only points on the first play of the game when Leon Verriere recovered the fumbled kickoff in the end zone for a touchdown, Alabama responded on the next drive and tied the game 6–6 after Namath threw an 11-yard touchdown pass to Ray Ogden. The Crimson Tide then took a 12–6 lead in the second quarter on a 26-yard Tommy Tolleson double reverse. Alabama then closed the game with a pair of Namath touchdown runs and a touchdown pass to Creed Gilmer in the second half that made the final score 32–6.\nIn their final game of the season, Alabama tied the Auburn freshman team 7–7 before 7,000 fans in the rain at Cliff Hare Stadium. Both touchdowns came in the first quarter. Alabama took a 7–0 lead when Namath threw a 46-yard touchdown pass to Creed Gilmer, and Auburn tied the game 7–7 on the kickoff that ensued after Tucker Frederickson returned it 92-yards for a touchdown.\nGeneral\nSpecific","1984 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 1984 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\", \"Bama\" or \"The Tide\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1984 NCAA Division I-A football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 92nd overall and 51st season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Ray Perkins, in his second year, and played their home games at both Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of five wins and six losses (5–6 overall, 2–4 in the SEC). This marked Alabama's first losing season since the Tide went 2–7–1 in 1957 under Jennings B. Whitworth, and ended Alabama's streak of 25 consecutive bowl appearances.\nSome of the more notable contests of the season included a season-opening loss to Boston College (and their quarterback, Doug Flutie, who went on to win the 1984 Heisman Trophy), a third consecutive loss to Tennessee in which the Tide gave up a 14-point fourth quarter lead, and Alabama's first loss to Vanderbilt since 1969. However, Alabama did upset Auburn 17–15 in the 1984 edition of the Iron Bowl, denying the Tigers a berth in the Sugar Bowl.\nGeneral\nSpecific","1983 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 1983 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\", \"Bama\" or \"The Tide\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1983 NCAA Division I-A football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 91st overall and 50th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Ray Perkins, in his first year, and played their home games at both Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of eight wins and four losses (8–4 overall, 4–2 in the SEC). Ray Perkins, who played as a wide receiver for Bear Bryant in the 1960s, was named as the new head coach at Alabama on December 14, 1982, to succeed Bryant after his 25-year tenure as Alabama's head coach.\nAfter opening the season with four consecutive wins and rising to #3 in the AP poll, The Tide suffered a controversial 34–28 loss to Penn State. Trailing 34-7 entering the 4th quarter, Alabama rallied and seemed to be an extra point away from victory after tight end Preston Gothard appeared to catch a game-tying touchdown pass with eight seconds left in the game. One official signaled a touchdown but was overruled by the back judge who ruled Gothard was out of bounds. Video replay indicated otherwise, however instant replay in college football was still decades away. Bama avenged the previous year's losses to LSU and Southern Miss but lost to Tennessee and Auburn again. The Crimson Tide completed their season with a 28–7 victory over SMU in the Sun Bowl.\nGeneral\nSpecific","1979 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 1979 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\" or \"Bama\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1979 NCAA Division I-A football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 85th overall and 46th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his 22nd year, and played their home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. They finished the season undefeated (12–0 overall, 6–0 in the SEC) and with a victory over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl. For their collective efforts, the Crimson Tide were recognized as consensus national champions for the 1979 season.\nIn 1979 the Alabama Crimson Tide capped off a decade of remarkable success with the program's seventh perfect season in college history after 1925, 1930, 1934, 1945, 1961, and 1966 (discounting the 1897 “season” in which Bama played and won only one game). The Tide defense recorded five shutouts and allowed only two teams to score in double digits. The offense scored thirty points or more seven times.\nDespite this dominance Alabama had three close calls. Against Tennessee on October 20, Alabama fell behind 17–0 in the second quarter before rallying to win 27–17. Three weeks later, against LSU, all the Tide offense could scrape up was a single field goal, but it was enough to win 3–0. In the regular season finale against Auburn, after leading 14–3 at the half Alabama let Auburn take an 18–17 fourth quarter lead before winning 25–18. The Auburn and Tennessee games were the only two times in the 1979 season that Alabama trailed. A 24–9 victory over Arkansas capped a 12–0 season and a unanimous national championship, Alabama’s sixth wire service national title.\n\nAs they entered the 1979 season, Alabama was ranked as the No. 2 team in the first AP Poll prior to their season opener against Georgia Tech. Playing before a nationally televised audience, the Crimson Tide rushed for over 300 yards in this 30–6 victory over the Yellow Jackets. Alabama took a 6–0 lead in the first quarter after E. J. Junior intercepted a Mike Kelley pass and returned it 59-yards for a touchdown. Major Ogilvie then extended their lead to 12–0 with his one-yard touchdown run late in the second quarter.\nThe Crimson Tide took control of the game with a pair of third quarter touchdowns that extended their lead to 27–0. Steve Whitman scored first on a thirteen-yard run and this was followed by an eleven-yard Steadman S. Shealy touchdown run. After a late Gary DeNiro interception set up a 31-yard Alan McElroy field goal, Georgia Tech scored on a 36-yard Kelley touchdown pass to Leon Chadwick that made the final score 30–6 and prevented a shutout. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 25–19–3.\n\nComing off their bye week, Alabama was still ranked as the No. 2 team in the AP Poll prior to their home opener against Baylor. Playing at Legion Field, the Crimson Tide shutout the Bears of the Southwest Conference 45–0 in what was the first all-time meeting between the schools. After taking a 6–0 lead on a pair of Alan McElroy field goals, Alabama led 14–0 at halftime after Major Ogilvie scored om a one-yard touchdown run in the second quarter. A 33-yard McElroy field goal in the third brought the Crimson Tide lead to 17–0 before Alabama scored four touchdowns in the fourth quarter and made the final score 45–0. Mark Nix scored the first pair on runs of two and eight-yards, followed by a one-yard Joe Jones run and John Hill scored the final points with his ten-yard touchdown run in the final minute of the game.\n\nAfter their victory over Baylor, Alabama was still ranked as the No. 2 team in the AP Poll prior to their game against Vanderbilt. Playing at Nashville, the Crimson Tide defeated the Commodores by a blowout score of 66–3 in the conference opener. The Crimson Tide took a 14–0 first quarter lead behind touchdown runs of 65 and eight-yards by Steadman S. Shealy and Major Ogilvie. After Mike Woodard scored the only Vandy points with his 47-yard field goal, Alabama extended their lead to 32–3 at the half after Alan McElroy connected on a 21-yard field goal and touchdowns were scored on runs of 19 and one-yard by Shealy and Mark Nix.\nThe Crimson Tide continued their strong play into the second half as they scored five touchdowns and kept the Commodores scoreless on defense. Touchdowns were scored in the third on runs of three and one-yards by Steve Whitman and Joe Jones and in the fourth on a pair of three and a 14-yard run by Jones, Michael Landrum and John Hill. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 36–17–4.\n\nAs they prepared for their first Tuscaloosa game of the season, Alabama retained their No. 2 position in AP Poll prior to their game against Wichita State. In what was the only game ever played against the Shockers, the Crimson Tide won with this 38–0 shutout at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Alabama took a 28–0 lead into halftime behind a pair of touchdowns scored in each of the first two quarters. After Steadman S. Shealy connected with Keith Pugh on a 27-yard touchdown pass, Shealy scored on a three-yard run for a 14–0 first quarter lead. Major Ogilvie then gave the Crimson Tide a 28–0 halftime lead after he scored on touchdown runs of six and four-yards in the second. Alabama closed the game with an eight-yard Shealy touchdown run in the third and a 40-yard Alan McElroy field goal in the fourth that made the final score 38–0.\nThe contest vs. the Hurricanes marked the first national television broadcast from Bryant–Denny Stadium. Portable light standards had to be brought in by ABC, since the Tuscaloosa stadium lacked permanent fixtures at the time. It also marked the Alabama homecoming for former Crimson Tide assistant Howard Schnellenberger, in his first season at Miami.\n\n","1958 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\nThe 1958 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\" or \"Bama\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1958 college football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 64th overall and 25th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his first year, and played their home games at Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Legion Field in Birmingham and at Ladd Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. They finished with a record of five wins, four losses and one tie (5–4–1 overall, 3–4–1 in the SEC). As they finished the season above .500, Alabama secured its first winning season since 1953, and their five victories gave Bryant more wins games in one season than former head coach Jennings B. Whitworth did in previous three.\nOn December 3, 1957, the University formally introduced then Texas A&M head coach and former Crimson Tide player Bear Bryant as the new head coach of the Crimson Tide. In the season opener, Bama led future national champion LSU 3–0 at the half before they lost 13–3, and the next week played a ranked Vanderbilt team to a scoreless tie. In their third game, the Crimson Tide defeated Furman\nThe Crimson Tide were then upset at Tulane on a Friday evening, but bounced back with wins over Georgia Tech and Memphis State\n\nTo open the Bear Bryant era, Alabama led 3–0 at halftime but lost 13–3 to the eventual national champion LSU Tigers in Ladd Stadium in Mobile. After a scoreless first quarter, the Crimson Tide took a 3–0 halftime lead after Fred Sington, Jr. connected on an eight-yard field goal. Midway through the half, a section of bleachers in the north end zone collapsed and resulted in 60 spectators being injured. The collapse resulted in a stoppage of play while emergency responders worked to assist those injured by the collapse.\nLSU took a 7–3 lead in the third quarter when Warren Rabb threw a nine-yard touchdown pass to Johnny Robinson that capped a 67-yard drive. Billy Cannon then scored on a 12-yard touchdown run in the fourth quarter that made the final score 13–3. For the game, the Tigers were led by head coach Paul Dietzel who previously served as an assistant coach for Bryant during his tenure at Kentucky. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against LSU to 15–8–4.\n\nIn their first Legion Field game of the 1958 season, the Crimson Tide played the Vanderbilt Commodores to a 0–0 tie in Birmingham. The tie brought Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 18–16–3.\n\nIn their first Denny Stadium game of the 1958 season, the Crimson Tide notched the first victory of the Bryant era with this 29–6 win over the Furman Paladins in Tuscaloosa. The Crimson Tide took an early 20–0 lead after they scored three touchdowns in the final four minutes of the first quarter. Bobby Jackson scored first on a two-yard run, the second was scored on a 16-yard Jackson pass to Laurien Stapp and the third on a 56-yard Gary O'Steen punt return. A 24-yard Pete Reaves field goal in the second quarter extended the Alabama lead to 23–0 at halftime. In the third quarter, Furman scored their only points of the game on a nine-yard Roy Nickles touchdown run. The Crimson Tide responded with a 61-yard Bobby Smith touchdown pass to O'Steen that made the final score 29–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Furman to 4–0.\n\nIn their annual rivalry game against Tennessee, a pair of Billy Majors touchdowns for the Volunteers provided for the final margin in their 14–7 victory in Knoxville. After a scoreless first quarter, the Vols took a 7–0 halftime lead when Majors scored on a one-yard run on the first play of the second quarter. He then extended the Tennessee lead to 14–0 in the third on a seven-yard run, before Alabama made the final score 14–7 on a one-yard Bobby Jackson touchdown run. In the game, Alabama fumbled the ball five times and Tennessee recovered three of them. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Tennessee to 18–18–5.\n\nOn what was homecoming in Starkville, the Crimson Tide upset the Mississippi State Maroons 9–7 and secured Bryant's first SEC victory. Alabama took a 3–0 first quarter lead after Fred Sington, Jr. connected on a 22-yard field goal. Still up by three in the third quarter, the Crimson Tide scored their only touchdown of the game on a 21-yard Bobby Jackson pass to Norbie Ronsonet and extended their lead to 9–0. The Maroons managed their only points late in the fourth on a six-yard Billy Stacy touchdown run that made the final score 9–7. The victory was Alabama's first over a ranked opponent since their win over Auburn in 1953 and improved Alabama's all-time record against Mississippi State to 30–10–3.\n\nOn homecoming in Tuscaloosa, Alabama shutout the Georgia Bulldogs 12–0 for their second consecutive conference victory. The Crimson Tide took a 6–0 first quarter lead after Gary O'Steen scored on a 14-yard run and then made the final score 12–0 late in the fourth quarter on a short Bobby Jackson touchdown run. The victory gave Alabama their first two-game winning streak since the 1954 season and improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia to 23–17–4.\n\nOn a Friday evening at New Orleans, the Crimson Tide were defeated 13–7 by the Tulane Green Wave after they turned the ball over on downs late in the fourth quarter. Richie Petitbon gave Tulane an early 6–0 lead with his two-yard touchdown run in the first quarter. Petitbon then extended the Green Wave lead to 13–0 late in the third on a one-yard run before Alabama scored their lone touchdown of the game. The only Crimson Tide points came on a one-yard Bobby Jackson touchdown run that capped a 73-yard drive in the fourth quarter. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Tulane to 17–10–2.\n\nBehind a 17-point first quarter, the Crimson Tide upset the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 17–8 on homecoming at Grant Field. All 17 first quarter points were scored on drives that immediately followed a turnover. Bobby Jackson first scored on a one-yard touchdown run to cap a drive that started after a fumble was recovered by Baxter Booth. Duff Morrison's interception then set up the next Alabama scoring drive that ended when Pete Reaves connected on a 19-yard field goal for a 10–0 lead. The lead was then extended to 17–0 on a five-yard Jackson run that completed a drive started at the Tech 20-yard line when Milton Frank recovered a fumble. The only Yellow Jacket points came in the third quarter when a Calvin James fumble was recovered by Billy Shaw for a touchdown that made the final score 17–8 after a successful two-point conversion. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 19–18–3.\n\nIn what was the first all-time meeting against Memphis State, the Crimson Tide shutout the Tigers 14–0 in the final Denny Stadium game of the season. Alabama took a 6–0 first quarter lead after Bobby Jackson threw a 62-yard touchdown pass to Marlin Dyess on the first offensive play of the game. Jackson then scored what proved to be the final points of the game with his 18-yard touchdown run in the second quarter. He then successfully converted the two-point conversion that made the final score 14–0.\n\nAgainst rival Auburn, the Crimson Tide nearly upset the No. 2 ranked Tigers but lost 14–8 at Legion Field in what was the closest game between the schools since the 1953 season. The Tigers' took an early 7–0 lead after Dick Wood threw a three-yard touchdown pass to Jim Pettus in the first quarter. Neither team would score again until late in the fourth quarter when Auburn went up 14–0 on a one-yard Jim Reynolds touchdown run. Alabama responded with a nine-yard Marlin Dyess touchdown run that cut the Tigers' lead to 14–8 after they converted a two-point conversion. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Auburn to 9–13–1.\nAfter their victory over Memphis State\nIt was reported that prior to the announcement, the game was to have seen a rematch of Alabama against Vanderbilt, but that no deal was reached. After the Crimson Tide declined the invitation, Florida State accepted it. Years later, Bryant stated he regretted he did not accept the bid as it would have allowed for additional practice time at the conclusion of the season. The 1958 season also marked the only one where a Bryant-led team at Alabama failed to participate in a bowl game.\nPrior to the 1972 college football season, NCAA rules prohibited freshmen from participating on the varsity team, and as such many schools fielded freshmen teams. For the 1958 season, the Alabama freshmen squad was coached by Sam Bailey and finished their season with a record of two wins, zero losses and one tie (2–0–1). In their first game against the Mississippi State Baby Maroons, a 27-yard Jimmy Spencer field goal fell short with under a minute left, and the game ended in a scoreless tie at Starkville. In their second game, the Crimson Tide defeated Tulane 25–6 before 3,000 fans at Denny Stadium. After the game was tied 6–6 at halftime, Alabama scored 19 unanswered points in the second half to win. Touchdowns were scored by Mal Moore on a one-yard run, a 37-yard Moore pass to Tommy Brooker and on a 22-yard Ronnie Davis pass to Steve Anderson. The Baby Tide then closed the season with a 14–6 win over Auburn in a game that saw touchdowns scored of runs of 10-yards by Jerry Rich and one-yard by Pat Trammell.\nAt the conclusion of the season several members of the 1958 squad were drafted into the National Football League. These players included: Bobby Jackson in the seventh round to the Green Bay Packers, Ernie Moore in the 29th round to the Los Angeles Rams and Dave Sington in the 30th round to the New York Giants.\nGeneral\nSpecific"],"string":"[\n \"Alabama Crimson Tide football under Nick Saban\\nAlabama Crimson Tide football under Nick Saban covers the history of the Alabama Crimson Tide football team during the period from when Nick Saban was hired as head coach in 2007 through the present. Under Saban, Alabama plays as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), and is a member of the West Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The Crimson Tide plays its home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. During the nine years Saban has served as head football coach, Alabama has compiled an overall official record of 101–18 ( ) (106–18 on the field), seven bowl game appearances with five victories, a share of five SEC Western Division titles, four SEC championships, and four national championships. Since 2008, Saban's teams have spent all or part of each season ranked number 1 in national polls.\\nAfter repeated denials, on January 7 Saban officially accepted the head coaching position with the Crimson Tide. In his first season at Alabama, the team experienced many highs-and-lows, but the team finished with a winning record after a victory in the Independence Bowl. In the 2008 season, Saban led the Crimson Tide to their first undefeated regular season since the 1994 season, but the Tide then proceeded to lose their final two games in the SEC Championship Game and Sugar Bowl. In 2009, Saban led Alabama to a perfect 14–0 record and to their first BCS National Championship, and their first overall national championship since the 1992 season. After a relatively disappointing 10–3 2010 season, Saban then led the Crimson Tide to back-to-back BCS National Championships in both the 2011 and 2012 seasons. The 2013 team won the first 11 games of the season, but failed to capture a third consecutive national championship for Alabama, losing the last two games. Saban's 2014 team won the SEC West division and SEC championship and lost to the Ohio State Buckeyes in the inaugural College Football Playoff's semi-final round at the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans to finish 12-2. Saban won his 4th championship at Alabama in 2015.\\nMany players who have competed at Alabama during Saban's tenure have also been recognized for their on-field accomplishments. Under his tenure, Mark Ingram Jr. in 2009, and Derrick Henry in 2015 became Alabama's first and second Heisman Trophy winners and 43 players have been recognized as First Team All-Americans, 29 of which were either consensus or unanimous selections. Additionally, 65 former Crimson Tide players have been drafted into the National Football League, with 22 being first round selections.\\nAfter four seasons as head coach in which he compiled an overall record of 26–23 ( ) on November 26, 2006, Mike Shula was fired as head coach of the Crimson Tide. At the time of his firing, athletic director Mal Moore promoted defensive coordinator Joe Kines into the roll of interim head coach for the Independence Bowl and that the search for a permanent replacement would begin immediately. At that time several current coaches were rumored to be in consideration for the position at Alabama, with Steve Spurrier of South Carolina and Saban of the Miami Dolphins thought to be the preferred candidates. On November 27, Saban publicly stated he had not been contacted by Alabama and that he had no interest in leaving the Dolphins to become the head coach of the Crimson Tide.\\nIn early December, Moore made a preliminary offer to Saban's agent Jimmy Sexton to coach at Alabama for $5 million per season for seven years with a $7 million signing bonus. At that time Saban also stated he had not personally interviewed at Alabama and told his players that he was not leaving. After West Virginia head coach Rich Rodriguez turned down an offer to coach the Crimson Tide, speculation again focused on Saban. As the rumors persisted that he was prepared to take the Alabama job, on December 21 Saban stated \\\"I guess I have to say it, I'm not going to be the Alabama coach\\\" in an effort to stop the Alabama rumors. After the Dolphins season ended, it was speculated again that Alabama was to offer their head coaching position to Saban. On January 3, 2007, Saban officially resigned from the Dolphins and became the head coach of the Crimson Tide. At that time he signed an eight-year contract worth a guaranteed $32 million to coach Alabama.\\nAfter his hiring, Saban worked to hire his first staff and complete his first recruiting class with the Crimson Tide. His staff did not include any of Shula's former staff, and Kevin Steele was hired as defensive coordinator and Major Applewhite as offensive coordinator. On February 7, he landed his first recruiting class that was highly ranked by the major recruiting services in spite of having just over a month to complete it. Anticipation for his first season continued to build through his first spring practices, and reached its peak when an overflow crowd of 92,138 attended the A-Day spring game on April 21.\\nIn Saban's debut as head coach, the Crimson Tide defeated Western Carolina\\nPrior to their game against the Vols, Antoine Caldwell, Marlon Davis, Glen Coffee, Marquis Johnson and Chris Rogers were suspended as a result of violating NCAA rules. The violation was a result of a failure in the distribution system of textbooks that was deemed to be an improper benefits as defined by the NCAA. After the NCAA reviewed the case, in June 2009 they determined all players that received the improper benefits to be retroactively ineligible. As part of their penalty, the NCAA forced Alabama to vacate football victories that dated back to the 2005 season through the first five games of the 2007 season.\\nAfter their victory over Tennessee, the Crimson Tide lost their four remaining regular season games. Against his former team LSU, the Crimson Tide lost to the eventual national champions in what was dubbed as the \\\"Saban Bowl.\\\" They followed that with a loss at Mississippi State and against Louisiana–Monroe in one of the bigger upsets of the 2007 season. After their sixth consecutive loss to Auburn in the Iron Bowl, Alabama closed the season with a victory over Colorado in the Independence Bowl and finished the season with a winning record at 7-6 in Saban's first season.\\nLooking to improve on their 7–6 record from the previous season, Alabama signed the top recruiting class as determined by a wide variety of selectors. The class featured many players that were later drafted into the NFL and formed the foundation for their championship run from 2009 through 2012. Players from the class included future first round draft picks Marcell Dareus, Julio Jones, Mark Barron, Dont'a Hightower, and Mark Ingram. The Crimson Tide then completed spring practice with another large A-Day crowd before the season started later in the fall.\\nThe Crimson Tide opened the season ranked No. 24, and they defeated No. 9 Clemson in the inaugural Chick-fil-A College Kickoff to open the season. They followed the victory with home wins over Tulane and WKU and won on the road over Arkansas before a much-hyped game at Georgia. Ranked No. 8 and playing against the No. 3 Bulldogs in what was deemed a \\\"blackout\\\" game by Georgia head coach Mark Richt, the Crimson Tide took a 31–0 halftime lead en route to a 41–30 upset victory. After their win, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 2 ranking and then defeated Kentucky, Ole Miss, Tennessee and Arkansas State on homecoming to extend their record to 9–0.\\nAfter No. 1 Texas lost to Texas Tech, the Crimson Tide achieved their first regular season No. 1 ranking in the AP Poll since the 1980 season and their first ever No. 1 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) ranking prior to their game at LSU. In what was Saban's first game at Tiger Stadium since he resigned as LSU's coach after their 2004 season, the Crimson Tide defeated the Tigers 27–21 in overtime. The victory over LSU also allowed the Crimson Tide to clinch the SEC West Division championship, and earned a spot in the SEC Championship Game. Alabama then closed with wins over Mississippi State and Auburn, that ended their six-game losing streak in the Iron Bowl, and finished the regular season undefeated 12–0. Although favored, a two touchdown rally led by Florida's Tim Tebow in the fourth quarter resulted in the Crimson Tide failing to capture the SEC championship and instead of playing for a national championship, they accepted an invitation to play in the Sugar Bowl. Against an undefeated Utah team, Alabama was upset 31–17 and finished the season with an overall record of 12–2.\\nAlthough they reached their first BCS game since the 1999 season, Alabama looked improve for the 2009 season after they closed 2008 on a two-game losing streak after a 12–0 start to the year. Again, the Crimson Tide secured one of the top ranked recruiting classes for the third consecutive season in February 2009. Just as in the previous year, the 2009 class included many players that played significant roles in their championship run. These players included first round NFL draft picks James Carpenter, Dre Kirkpatrick, Trent Richardson, D. J. Fluker, and Chance Warmack in addition to Eddie Lacy and AJ McCarron. In the annual A-Day game, the Crimson team defeated the White team by a score of 14–7 before 84,050 fans at Bryant–Denny Stadium.\\nFor the second year in a row, Alabama opened the season at Atlanta in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game. Against Virginia Tech, the Crimson Tide trailed at halftime, but an 18-point rally in the fourth quarter gave Alabama the 34–24 win. After consecutive wins over non-conference Florida International and North Texas, the Crimson Tide defeated Arkansas 35–7 to open conference play at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Alabama next went on a two-game road trip, defeated both Kentucky and Ole Miss and extended their record to 6–0.\\nThe Crimson Tide then returned home where they played South Carolina on homecoming. Against the Gamecocks, Mark Ingram had a career-high with 246 rushing yards and entered the Heisman Trophy conversation as he led Alabama to a 20–6 victory. In their next game, a pair of Terrence Cody blocked field goals, one of which came as time expired, preserved a 12–10 win over rival Tennessee. With a berth in the SEC Championship Game on the line, the Crimson Tide clinched the West division championship with a 24–15 victory LSU in their next game. Alabama then closed the season with wins over Mississippi State, Chattanooga\\nIn the SEC Championship Game, Alabama faced East division champion Florida for the second season in a row in a No. 1 versus No. 2 matchup. With both the conference championship and a berth in the 2010 BCS National Championship Game on the line, the Crimson Tide defeated the Gators 32–13 and won the SEC for the first time since 1999. At the conclusion of the regular season, Mark Ingram won the first Heisman Trophy in Alabama history with the closest margin of victory in the history of the award over Toby Gerhart. The Crimson Tide then closed the season with a 37–21 victory over Texas to finish a perfect 14-0 and recorded their first national championship since the 1992 season and their thirteenth overall in the history of the program.\\nAs the defending national champions, Alabama entered the 2010 season as the favorite to repeat and win their second national championship in as many years. After again signing a highly rated recruiting class, the Crimson Tide opened the season in the No. 1 position in the polls. Alabama then won their first five games over San Jose State, Penn State, Duke, Arkansas, and Florida and retained their unanimous No. 1 ranking. However, in their sixth game, the Crimson Tide lost their first regular season game since the 2007 season when they were upset at South Carolina 35–21.\\nThey rebounded the next week with a 23–10 win over Ole Miss on homecoming and at Tennessee by a margin of 41–10 before their top ten matchup at LSU. Against the Tigers, a late Stevan Ridley touchdown run set up by a 23-yard DeAngelo Peterson run on a fourth-down play gave LSU the upset victory and effectively ended the opportunity for an Alabama repeat of the national championship. The Crimson Tide then defeated Mississippi State and Georgia State prior to their season finale against Auburn. With the No. 2 Tigers still in the national championship picture, Auburn overcame a 24–0 deficit and won 28–27 in what was the largest comeback in Iron Bowl history. Alabama then closed the season with a 49–7 victory over Michigan State in the Capital One Bowl and finished with an overall record of 10–3.\\nAfter a disappointing 2010 season in which they opened the year as a national title favorite and ended with three losses, the Crimson Tide looked to regain their championship form for the 2011 campaign. After again signing one of the top recruiting classes in the country, and going through spring practice, tragedy struck Tuscaloosa on April 27, 2011, when an EF4 rated tornado devastated the city. The tornado resulted in the deaths of 43 people in the city, and the team later would dedicate their season to both the victims and survivors of the storm.\\nThe Crimson Tide opened the season with a 48–7 victory over Saban's alma mater, Kent State and then traveled to Beaver Stadium and defeated Penn State 27–11. After a 41–0 shutout over North Texas, Alabama opened conference play with a 38–14 victory over Arkansas. After they defeated Florida 38–10 at Gainesville, the Crimson Tide shutout Vanderbilt 34–0, and defeated both Ole Miss and Tennessee to set up a \\\"Game of the Century\\\" against LSU.\\nAgainst the Tigers, neither team scored a touchdown and LSU won by a final score of 9–6 in overtime. With the loss, Alabama dropped into the No. 3 BCS position prior to their game against Mississippi State. However, they regained the No. 2 ranking in all of the polls after Oklahoma State was upset by Iowa State, and they defeated the Bulldogs at Starkville. Alabama then closed the regular season with wins over both Georgia Southern and Auburn and finished in second place in the West division behind LSU.\\nAfter the Tigers won the SEC Championship Game, a rematch against the Crimson Tide became the likely pairing for the 2012 BCS National Championship Game. Alabama qualified for the BCS National Championship Game after they received a final BCS score of .942, just slightly ahead of Oklahoma State's BCS score of .933. In their rematch against LSU at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, the Crimson Tide shutout the SEC champion Tigers 21–0 and captured Alabama's second BCS championship and 14th overall national championship.\\nAfter they captured their second national championship in three years, Alabama again signed one of the nation's top recruiting classes in February 2012. After they completed spring practice in April, the Crimson Tide entered the season with a No. 2 ranking and as a favorite to repeat as national champions. Alabama opened the season with a 41–14 victory over Michigan in the Cowboys Classic. After their win over the Wolverines, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 ranking prior to their game against WKU that they won 35–0 in their home opener. The next week, Alabama posted their second consecutive shutout with their 52–0 win at Arkansas to open conference play. The Crimson Tide then returned to Tuscaloosa and defeated Florida Atlantic and Ole Miss prior to their first win over Missouri as conference foes at Faurot Field.\\nNext Alabama defeated rival Tennessee 44–13 at Neyland Stadium and followed that with a 38–7 win over then undefeated and No. 13 ranked Mississippi State. The Crimson Tide then defeated LSU at Tiger Stadium 21–17 when AJ McCarron threw a screen pass to T. J. Yeldon that he took 28-yards for the game-winning touchdown within the final minute of play. However, the next week, Alabama suffered their only loss of the season when Texas A&M upset the Tide 29–24 in Tuscaloosa.\\nAfter their loss to the Aggies, Alabama dropped into the No. 4 ranking for their 49–0 win over Western Carolina. In the evening after their win over the Catamounts, Alabama moved back into the No. 2 position as a result of upset losses for both Kansas State and Oregon. Alabama then closed the regular season with a 49–0 win over Auburn and captured the SEC West division title to play Georgia in the SEC Championship Game. In the championship game, Alabama escaped with a 32–28 win after the Bulldogs were stopped inside the Crimson Tide's five-yard line as time expired and captured the SEC Championship and a berth in the BCS National Championship Game against Notre Dame. In the BCS Championship Game, the Tide defeated the Irish 42–14 and captured their third national championship in four years and the schools 15th overall football championship.\\nAs the two-time defending national champions, Alabama entered the 2013 season as the favorite to repeat and win their third consecutive national championship and their fourth in five years. After again signing a highly rated recruiting class, the Crimson Tide opened the season in the No. 1 position in the polls. Alabama then won their first eleven games and retained their unanimous No. 1 ranking throughout. The Crimson Tide opened the season with a victory over Virginia Tech in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game at Atlanta. After their first bye week Alabama traveled to Kyle Field where they defeated Texas A&M in a 49–42 shootout that saw the Aggies have the best offensive day against a Crimson Tide defense in the history of the program.\\nThe defense responded after the A&M game and did not allow a touchdown over the next 14-quarters in victories over Colorado State, Ole Miss, Georgia State and Kentucky. After the touchdown-free streak ended, started a three-game homestand that saw Alabama shutout Arkansas and defeat both Tennessee and LSU in back-to-back rivalry games. They next defeated Mississippi State and Chattanooga that set up a top five matchup against Auburn.\\nIn the Iron Bowl, Alabama kicker Adam Griffith attempted and missed a 57-yard field goal attempt as time expired in regulation. In what was since dubbed \\\"Kick Bama Kick\\\", Chris Davis returned the missed field goal 109 yards for the game-winning score with no time left on the clock to clinch a 34–28 Auburn victory. As the loss also cost the Crimson Tide an opportunity to play for both the SEC and national championships, they were selected to play in the 2014 Sugar Bowl. In the game, Alabama was defeated by Oklahoma 45–31 and closed the season with an overall record of 11–2.\\nAlabama entered the 2014 season ranked #3 in the polls. The Crimson Tide rolled off four straight victories before losing to Ole Miss 17-23. Their loss to Ole Miss dropped them down to #7 in the rankings. However, Alabama rebounded by winning eight straight games, including victories against #14 LSU, #1 Mississippi State, and #15 Auburn in the Iron Bowl. They then defeated #14 Missouri in the SEC Championship 42-13 and earned a spot in the inaugural College Football Playoff, where they lost to the eventual national champion Ohio State 35-42.\\nAlabama started the 2015 season with a win against 20th ranked Wisconsin. Alabama would start 2-0 but would lose their next game against Ole Miss 43-37. Following the loss the Crimson Tide would go in to win the next twelve games including the 2015 Cotton Bowl Playoff Semifinal 38-0 over Michigan State and winning the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship over undefeated Clemson 45-40 to claim Alabama's sixteenth National Championship and Saban's fourth national championship at the Capstone.\\nAlabama entered the 2016 season ranked number #1 in the polls. The reigning national champions began 2016 with a resounding 52-6 win over #9 USC in Arlington, Texas, led by true freshman quarterback, Jalen Hurts. In what was the first meeting between the Tide and the Trojans since 1985, Blake Barnett started the game, but was soon replaced by Hurts, who would then go on to be the starting QB for the season. Hurts was the first true freshman QB to start for the Crimson Tide since 1984. For the first time since 2009, Alabama would go undefeated all the way through the SEC Championship Game. Alabama crushed Florida 54-16 to win their third consecutive SEC Title. This made the Tide the first three peat SEC Champion since the Florida Gators won four in a row from 1993-1996. It also marked the first three peat for Alabama since the late 1970s when Alabama won SEC Championships from 1977-1979. The Tide would once again go on to the Playoffs where they would defeat the Washington Huskies 24-7 in the Peach Bowl to advance to their second consecutive College Football Playoff National Championship Game in Tampa, Florida. In the first ever national title game rematch, Alabama would fall to Clemson, 35-31. In the closing seconds of the game, Clemson QB Deshaun Watson found Hunter Renfrow for a two-yard touchdown pass to give Clemson the win and their first national championship since 1981. The loss ended Alabama's 26 game winning streak, the second longest in program history. It marked the first time that Nick Saban had ever lost in a national championship game.\\nThe Iron Bowl is the name given to Alabama's annual game against the in-state Auburn University Tigers. Through the 2016 season, Saban has compiled an overall record of seven wins and three losses (7–3) against the Tigers. After the Crimson Tide lost 17–10 in his first Iron Bowl, Alabama shutout Auburn in the 2008 game 36–0. Their win in that game ended a six-game losing streak against the Tigers, was the largest margin of victory in the Iron Bowl since the 1962 season and was the first all-time Iron Bowl win for the Crimson Tide at Tuscaloosa. The next year, Auburn took a 14–0 first quarter lead, but Alabama eventually won 26–21 after Greg McElroy threw a four-yard touchdown pass to Roy Upchurch with just under 2:00 left in the game. The next year, Alabama surrendered a 24-point lead and lost to the eventual national champions 28–27 in what was the largest comeback in Iron Bowl history. The Crimson Tide rebounded from that loss and did not allow the Tigers' to score an offensive touchdown in either the 2011 or 2012 edition of the Iron Bowl. In 2013, both teams came into the game ranked in the top five and Auburn won, 34–28, in what has since been dubbed \\\"the kick six\\\", after Chris Davis returned a missed Adam Griffith field goal 109 yards for the game-winning score with no time left on the clock. The 2014 Iron Bowl saw the highest-scoring game in history between the two rivals, as Alabama came behind from a 12-point deficit and defeated Auburn 55–44. Alabama would defeat Auburn in 2015 by a score of 29-13 in Auburn.It was Bama's first trip to Jordan-Hare Stadium since the \\\"kick-six\\\" game. However, the result would be different as Adam Griffith hit 5 field goals, accounting for 15 of Alabama's 29 points.In 2016, Alabama true freshman quarterback Jalen Hurts overcame two first half interceptions with a stellar 2nd half performance as Alabama topped Auburn 30-12 in Tuscaloosa. The 2016 win marked the first time that Alabama had defeated Auburn three consecutive years since 1990-1992.\\nThe Third Saturday in October is the name given to Alabama's annual game against the University of Tennessee Volunteers. Through the 2016 season, Saban has compiled an overall record of ten wins and zero losses (10–0) against the Volunteers. In the period between the 1995 and 2006 seasons prior to the arrival of Saban, the Volunteers were 10–2 against the Crimson Tide. Since Saban has been Alabama's head coach, they have outscored Tennessee 351 to 119 in their ten victories (average score 35.1 to 11.9). The only games that the Crimson Tide did not win by at least two touchdowns came in the 2009 game when Terrence Cody blocked a field goal as time expired and preserved the 12–10 Alabama victory and in 2015 when the tide won 19-14 due to a game clinching fumble recovered by A'shawn Robinson.\\nLouisiana State University (LSU) and Alabama first met on the field in 1895 and continuously since 1964. However, the annual game against the Tigers was not considered a rivalry until Saban (a former LSU head coach) was hired in the same capacity at Alabama for 2007 season. Through the 2016 season, Saban has compiled an overall record of eight wins and three losses (8–3) against the Tigers. After a 41–34 loss in their first matchup, Alabama won at Baton Rouge in overtime 27–21 in 2008. After the Tigers upset the Crimson Tide 24–21 in 2010, they again were victorious the following season 9–6 in a No. 1 versus No. 2 \\\"Game of the Century\\\" during the regular season. They met again in a rematch for the 2011 national championship in the BCS National Championship Game where Alabama won 21–0 in the rematch for the national championship. The Crimson Tide won their second straight in the series in 2012 after they defeated LSU 21–17 when AJ McCarron threw a 28-yard, game-winning touchdown pass to T. J. Yeldon in the final two minutes of the game. In 2013, Alabama turned a 17-17 tie in the third quarter into a 38-17 rout behind a 372-yard rushing effort, including 133 yards and two touchdowns from T. J. Yeldon. At Baton Rouge in 2014, Blake Sims drove Alabama 55 yards in the final 50 seconds of regulation for a tying field goal, and then threw a 6-yard touchdown to DeAndrew White in overtime to lead the Tide to a 20-13 win over the Tigers. In 2015, Alabama won handily against an undefeated LSU team, 30-16 in Tuscaloosa. Bama had 250 rushing yards and A'shawn Robinson blocked one of LSU's extra points in spectacular fashion. In 2016, the game was scoreless going into the fourth quarter. However, true freshman quarterback Jalen Hurts ran 21 yards for a touchdown. That put Alabama up 7-0, and the Tide never looked back as they would shut out LSU 10-0 in Baton Rouge.\\nReference:\\nReference:\\nReference:\\nDuring Saban's tenure as head coach of the Crimson Tide, Alabama has played all home games on-campus at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Prior to the 2006 season, the north endzone expansion brought the total seating capacity of Bryant–Denny to 92,138, the seventh largest stadium in college football. After Saban became head coach, in February 2009, the University of Alabama System Board of Trustees unanimously approved a proposal to expand the south endzone with an upper deck that seated approximately 9,000 spectators and added 36 luxury boxes. The expansion was budgeted at $80.6 million and Davis Architects of Birmingham, Alabama served as the architect of record for the project. The expansion was completed just prior to the start of the 2010 season on August 20 and increased Bryant–Denny's capacity to 101,821, the fifth largest in college football.\\nOutside the stadium on its northern side is the Walk of Champions. This areas pays tribute to past championship teams at Alabama in addition to featuring bronze statues of all five head coaches that won national championships with the Crimson Tide. After he led them to the 2009 national championship, athletics director Mal Moore indicated that a statue of Saban would be erected in the Walk of Champions just as the previous four coaches. The nine-foot statue was designed by Alabama student Jeremy Davis and fabricated by MTM Recognition of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It was officially unveiled prior to the 2011 A-Day spring game on April 16, 2011, and has since been updated to include subsequent championships.\",\n \"2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\", \\\"Bama\\\" or \\\"The Tide\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 119th overall season, 80th as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and its 22nd within the SEC Western Division. The team was led by head coach Nick Saban, in his seventh year, and played its home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of eleven wins and two losses (11–2 overall, 7–1 in the SEC) and with a loss in the 2014 Sugar Bowl to Oklahoma.\\nAfter they captured the 2012 national championship, the Crimson Tide signed a highly rated recruiting class in February 2013 and completed spring practice the following April. With thirteen returning starters from the previous season, Alabama entered the 2013 season as the two-time defending national champions, ranked as the number one team in the nation and as a favorite to win the Western Division, the SEC and national championships. The Crimson Tide opened the season with eleven consecutive victories that included one over Virginia Tech at a neutral site, against Texas A&M in a game that saw many team records broken and an emotional victory over Louisiana State University (LSU) at Bryant–Denny Stadium. In their twelfth game, Alabama was upset by Auburn. The loss, in a game since the \\\"Kick Six,\\\" kept the Crimson Tide out of the SEC Championship Game. Although they did not qualify to play for their third consecutive national championship with a final BCS ranking of third, Alabama did accept an invitation to play in the Sugar Bowl. Against Oklahoma, the Crimson Tide lost 45–31.\\nAt the conclusion of the season, Alabama's defense was nationally ranked near the top in total defense, scoring defense, rushing defense and ranked passing defense. Offensively, the Alabama offense ranked 17th in scoring offense, 24th in rushing offense, 33rd in total offense and 49th in passing offense. Additionally, several players were recognized for their individual accomplishments on the field. C. J. Mosley won the Butkus Award as the top collegiate linebacker; AJ McCarron won both the Maxwell Award as the overall player of the year and the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the top senior quarterback. Also, four players were named to various All-America Teams with C. J. Mosley being a unanimous selection and Ha Ha Clinton-Dix and Cyrus Kouandjio being consensus selections.\\nIn 2012, Alabama came into the season ranked No. 2 in both preseason polls. After their week one victory over Michigan, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 spot in both polls, and then proceeded to win their next eight games that included a victory at LSU. However, the next week, Alabama was upset by Johnny Manziel and the Texas A&M Aggies and dropped to the No. 4 position. Alabama bounced back and won its remaining games to clinch the SEC Western Division and secured a spot in the 2012 SEC Championship Game against Georgia. The Crimson Tide then defeated the Bulldogs and captured the SEC Championship. The next day, Alabama finished No. 2 in the final BCS rankings and would play Notre Dame in the 2013 BCS National Championship Game. In the game, Alabama defeated the Fighting Irish 42–14 and captured their 15th national championship and made Nick Saban the only coach in college football to win four BCS Championships.\\nIn February 2013 Tuscaloosa Police arrested four football players from the 2012 season: Brent Calloway, Tyler Hayes, D. J. Pettway and Eddie Williams. Williams was involved in four separate incidents on February 10 and 11. On February 10 he had a dispute with a gas station clerk about paying for gas and said he had to get something in the trunk of his car. The clerk called the police, the police arrested Williams with carrying a pistol without a license, but Williams was released later that day on a $500 bond. Later that night around 12:30 a.m., Williams attacked an Alabama student with Hayes and Pettway and they stole the student's backpack. In a separate incident almost an hour later, Williams attacked another student while Hayes and Pettway waited in a car. Later Williams used one of the students' credit cards. Calloway was also arrested after he used a victim's student debit card with knowledge it was stolen. Following the arrests, Alabama suspended all four from the football team. Alabama also prohibited Hayes, Pettway and Williams from entering campus. On February 27, Alabama dismissed all four players from the university after completing a judicial review.\\nAlabama started spring practice on March 16 and concluded 15 practices later on April 20 with the annual A-Day game. In the annual A-Day game at the conclusion of spring practice, the White team composed of offensive starters defeated the Crimson team of defensive starters 17–14. The White team opened on offense and scored a touchdown on their first possession on a 40-yard AJ McCarron pass to Kenny Bell. After Nick Perry intercepted a Blake Sims pass on the first Crimson possession, the White team extended their lead to 10–0 on a 29-yard Adam Griffith field goal. Both offenses then struggled for the remainder of the first half with turnovers for the Crimson team coming on a second Perry interception of a Sims pass, an Alec Morris fumble recovered by Dillon Lee, and on a Cooper Bateman pass intercepted by Landon Collins. The White team had turnovers on a Kenny Bell fumble recovered by C. J. Mosley and on the last play of the first half when a McCarron pass was intercepted by Vinnie Sunseri and returned 86-yards for a touchdown that made the halftime score 10–7.\\nThe offensive struggles continued into the second half with neither team scoring any points in the third quarter. In the fourth, the Crimson team took a 14–10 lead after Ha'Sean Clinton-Dix recovered a Brian Vogler fumble and returned it 55-yards for a touchdown. The White team responded on their next possession with a seven-yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 17–14 victory. For his performance, Ryan Kelly earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A-Day Game Award. On offense, Yeldon earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A-Day Game Award for his 129 all-purpose yards on the day that included 69 rushing and 60 receiving, and game-winning touchdown run.\\nBy August, Alabama had a combined 31 players on 14 different preseason award watch lists. These players included C. J. Mosley, Ha'Sean Clinton-Dix and Deion Belue for the Chuck Bednarik Award; Amari Cooper and Kevin Norwood for the Fred Biletnikoff Award; Adrian Hubbard and Mosley for the Butkus Award; Cooper, AJ McCarron, Mosley and T. J. Yeldon for the Walter Camp Award; Hubbard, Mosley, Cyrus Kouandjio and Anthony Steen for the Lombardi Award; Christion Jones for the Paul Hornung Award; Brian Vogler for the John Mackey Award; Cooper, McCarron, Mosley and Yeldon for the Maxwell Award; Belue, Clinton-Dix, Hubbard and Mosley for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy; McCarron for the Davey O'Brien Award; Kouandjio and Steen for the Outland Trophy; Ryan Kelly for the Rimington Trophy; Clinton-Dix for the Jim Thorpe Award; and Yeldon for the Doak Walker Award.\\nAlabama head coach Nick Saban completed his seventh year as the Crimson Tide's head coach for the 2013 season. During his previous six years with Alabama, he led the Crimson Tide to an overall record of 63 wins and 13 losses (63–13) and the 2009, 2011 and 2012 national championships. On January 9, 2013, former Colorado defensive coordinator Greg Brown was hired as the successor for Jeremy Pruitt as secondary coach. On February 18, former Florida International head coach Mario Cristobal was hired as Jeff Stoutland's replacement for offensive line coach. On February 21, former Florida State tight ends coach and recruiting coordinator Billy Napier was hired as Mike Groh's replacement as wide receivers coach.\\nAlabama had six returning players on offense and seven on defense that started games in 2012. Another notable player that returned for 2013, but did not start in 2012, was running back T. J. Yeldon, who appeared in all 14 Alabama games in 2012 as the backup for Eddie Lacy. Additionally, four first-year players in 2012 made the SEC Coaches' All-Freshman Team: Amari Cooper, Ryan Kelly, D. J. Pettway and Yeldon.\\nDue to varying circumstances throughout the season, several players were rotated in and out of starting positions throughout Alabama's depth chart. Below is a listing of at what times during the season players were substituted as starter or saw increased playing time. On the offensive side of the ball, freshman Grant Hill split time with starter Austin Shepherd at right tackle against Kentucky. Kellen Williams was listed on the depth chart as a backup at left tackle and guard; however, coach Saban mentioned Williams as being the sixth starter who can fill in at all the offensive line positions. After the Ole Miss, Williams was listed as the back-up center to Chad Lindsay after an injury to starter Ryan Kelly.\\nOn the defensive side of the ball, reserve Nick Perry sustained a shoulder injury in practice prior to the Colorado State game that ended his season. On October 2, Nick Saban announced the indefinite suspension of Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, and indicated Landon Collins and Geno Smith would play more in Clinton-Dix's absence. Clinton-Dix's eligibility was reinstated by the NCAA on October 18 after he served a two-game suspension for receiving an improper benefit.\\nThe depth chart listed below shows starters and backups as announced in August 2013.\\nPrior to National Signing Day on February 6, 2013, nine players enrolled for the spring semester in order to participate in spring practice (six former high school seniors on scholarship, one former junior college player on scholarship, one walk-on from professional baseball and one walk-on from high school). The early enrollments from high school included quarterbacks Cooper Bateman and Parker McLeod, wide receiver Raheem Falkins, running back Derrick Henry, offensive lineman Brandon Hill and tight end O. J. Howard. Lineman Brandon Hill spent a post-graduate high school year at Hargrave Military Academy, and does not have the option to take a redshirt year, but still has four years of playing eligibility. Offensive tackle Leon Brown enrolled at Alabama after he transferred from junior college and will be eligible to play in the 2013 season and for a maximum of two seasons. Four of the eight players who were early enrollees in 2012 saw playing time last season: Amari Cooper, Dillon Lee, T. J. Yeldon and Deion Blue.\\nHenry and Howard entered school as two of the top 100 recruits in the country. Henry was the No. 1 ranked \\\"athlete\\\" according to 247Sports Composite Rankings based on his potential to make an immediate impact at either running back or outside linebacker, but he has commented that he plans to compete at running back. Henry broke the national high school record for career yards, and in his 2012 high school season he averaged 328 yards per game.\\nIn addition to those scholarship recruits that signed early, former professional baseball player Jai Miller and high school quarterback Luke Del Rio enrolled in order compete for roster spots as invited walk-ons. Miller is a 28-year-old who out of high school signed to play baseball and football at Stanford, but ended up playing professional baseball out of high school after being drafted by the Florida Marlins in 2003. Based on the terms of his original contract, the Marlins will pay for Miller's tuition at Alabama.\\nOn National Signing Day, Alabama signed 18 additional players out of high school that completed the 2013 recruiting class. The class was highlighted by fourteen players from the \\\"ESPN 150\\\": No. 9 Derrick Henry; No. 16 Reuben Foster; No. 25 Robert Foster; No. 26 Dee Liner; No. 28 Jonathan Allen; No. 32 Alvin Kamara; No. 36 Tim Williams; No. 44 Cooper Bateman; No. 45 O. J. Howard; No. 63 Tyren Jones; No. 81 Altee Tenpenny; No. 84 Maurice Smith; No. 86 Grant Hill and No. 105 A'Shawn Robinson. Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to \\\"Rivals.com\\\" and the No. 3 recruiting class according to \\\"Scout.com\\\".\\nThe 2013 schedule was officially released on October 18, 2012. The 2013 schedule was developed as a \\\"bridge\\\" schedule for only the 2013 season as a permanent system was developed by the conference in spring 2013. Alabama faced all six Western Division opponents: Arkansas, Auburn, LSU, Mississippi State, Ole Miss, and Texas A&M. They also faced two Eastern Division opponents: official SEC rival Tennessee and Kentucky. Alabama was not scheduled to play SEC opponents Georgia, Missouri, South Carolina, Florida or Vanderbilt. They also played four non-conference games: Virginia Tech of the Atlantic Coast Conference, Colorado State of the Mountain West Conference, Georgia State of the Sun Belt Conference and Chattanooga of the Southern Conference. The Crimson Tide had two bye weeks: their first was before they faced Texas A&M, and their second before they faced LSU. On December 9, Alabama was selected as an at-large BCS selection to compete in the Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma of the Big 12 Conference.\\n\\nOn July 7, 2011, officials from both Alabama and Virginia Tech announced the Crimson Tide and the Hokies would meet to open the 2013 season in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game at Atlanta. In the game, the offense struggled, but Christion Jones became the first Alabama player to score two non-offensive touchdowns in a single game and led the Crimson Tide to a 35–10 victory at the Georgia Dome. After the Hokies were held to a three-and-out, Christion Jones gave Alabama a 7–0 lead with his first touchdown on a 72-yard punt return. The teams then traded a series of punts before T. J. Yeldon extended the Alabama lead to 14–0 with his two-yard touchdown run that capped a 49-yard drive.\\nVirginia Tech responded on the possession that ensued with their only touchdown of the game on a 77-yard Trey Edmunds touchdown run that cut the lead to 14–7. Early in the second quarter, Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Logan Thomas pass and returned it 38-yards for a touchdown and a 21–7 lead. The teams then again traded punts before Kyle Fuller intercepted an AJ McCarron pass that set up an eventual 29-yard Cody Journell field goal. On the kickoff that ensued, Jones scored his second non-offensive touchdown of the game on a 94-yard return that made the halftime score 28–10.\\nNeither team scored again until late in third quarter when McCarron Connected with Jones on a 38-yard touchdown pass that made the final score 35–10. For his three touchdown and 256 all-purpose yardage performance, Jones was recognized as the Walter Camp National Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Hokies to 12–1.\\n\\nIn the first conference game of the 2013 season, Alabama defeated the Texas A&M Aggies at College Station, 49–42. Texas A&M opened the game with a pair of touchdowns on their first two offensive possessions and took a 14–0 lead. After they received the opening kickoff, the Aggies scored on their first possession when Johnny Manziel threw a one-yard touchdown pass to Cameron Clear and on their second possession on a one-yard Ben Malena touchdown run. Alabama responded with their first of five consecutive touchdowns on their next possession and cut the A&M lead to 14–7 when AJ McCarron threw a 22-yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood.\\nAfter the Crimson Tide defense held the Aggies to a punt, McCarron threw his second touchdown pass of the afternoon on the drive that ensued early in the second quarter on a 44-yard flea flicker pass to DeAndrew White that tied the game 14–14. On the next drive, Cyrus Jones intercepted a Manziel pass in the end zone for a touchback and an Alabama possession. McCarron then threw his third touchdown pass on the game from 51 yards to Kenny Bell and gave the Crimson Tide their first lead of the game, 21–14. Alabama then closed the first half with an 11-play, 93-yard drive capped with a four-yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 28–14 halftime lead.\\nAfter the A&M defense forced a punt on the opening possession of the third quarter, Vinnie Sunseri intercepted the first Manziel pass of the second half and returned it 73 yards for a touchdown and extended the Alabama lead to 35–14. The Aggies responded on the drive that followed with a 14-yard Manziel touchdown pass to Malcome Kennedy which was followed with a three-yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run that made the score 42–21 in favor of the Crimson Tide at the end of the third quarter. In the fourth, the Aggies scored first on a 12-yard Kennedy touchdown reception, and Alabama looked like they were about to respond with a touchdown as well, but Yeldon fumbled at the two-yard line that was recovered by A&M. Three plays later, Manziel threw a 95-yard touchdown pass to Mike Evans that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 42–35. Alabama rebounded on their next drive that was capped with a five-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler that extended their lead to 49–35. A four-yard touchdown pass from Manziel to Kennedy in the last 0:20 made the final score 49–42. Alabama recovered the ensuing onside kick to seal the win.\\nThe 628 yards of total offense by A&M were the most ever surrendered by an Alabama defense in the history of the program. For his career-high 334 yards on 20 of 29 passing and four touchdowns, McCarron was recognized as the SEC Offensive Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Aggies to 4–2.\\n\\nOn December 13, 2012, officials from both Alabama and Colorado State announced the Crimson Tide and the Rams would meet each other for the first time in the third game of the 2013 season. Although Alabama was a 40-point favorite as they entered the game, the Rams played the Crimson Tide close through the fourth quarter when a pair of late touchdowns gave Alabama a 31–6 victory. After both teams traded punts on their opening pair of possessions, Alabama took a 7–0 lead on a three-yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run.\\nDrake was able to score the first touchdown as he was the starting running back in the game due to T. J. Yeldon being suspended for the first quarter by Nick Saban for his unsportsmanlike conduct penalty against A&M the week before. They extended their lead to 14–0 early in the second quarter when Drake blocked a Rams punt that was returned 15-yards by Dillon Lee for a touchdown, and then to 17–0 at halftime when Cade Foster connected on a 46-yard field goal late in the quarter.\\nAfter Bernard Blake intercepted an AJ McCarron pass on Alabama's first possession of the second half, Jared Roberts kicked a 45-yard field goal on the drive that ensured that made the score 17–3. Roberts then scored the Rams' only other points on their next possession with his 31-yard field goal. Early in the fourth quarter, Trey DePriest both forced and recovered a Garrett Grayson fumble. On the next play, Alabama scored on a 30-yard McCarron touchdown pass to DeAndrew White for a 24–6 lead. The Crimson Tide then made the final score 31–6 with a 15-yard Blake Sims touchdown pass to Chris Black. In the game, the Rams were led by former Crimson Tide offensive coordinator Jim McElwain and received $1.5 million to play the game at Bryant–Denny Stadium.\\n\\nIn their first home conference game of the 2013 season, Alabama shutout the Ole Miss Rebels 25–0 at Tuscaloosa. After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt on the Rebels' first possession, AJ McCarron led the Alabama offense on an 11 play, 61-yard drive that ended with a 3–0 lead after a 28-yard Cade Foster field goal. Each team played strong defense for the remainder of the quarter with an Eddie Jackson interception of a Laquon Treadwell sideline pass for Alabama being the major play. Alabama then extended their lead in the second quarter to 9–0 at halftime after Foster connected on field goals of 53 and 42-yards.\\nOn the second play of the third quarter, Alabama scored their first touchdown of the game. It came on a 68-yard T. J. Yeldon run and gave the Crimson Tide a 16–0 lead. Each team again traded punts before the Alabama defense stopped an Ole Miss scoring opportunity on a fourth-and-two play from their own seven-yard line that kept the score 16–0. In the fourth, Cody Mandell had a punt downed at the Rebels' one-yard line and on the next play, C. J. Mosley sacked Ole Miss quarterback Bo Wallace for a safety and an 18–0 lead. On the next offensive play for Alabama after they received the safety kick, Kenyan Drake scored on a 50-yard touchdown run that made the final score 25–0. The shutout was the first for the Rebels since their loss against Arkansas in 1998. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Rebels to 47–9–2 (51–8–2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\\n\\nIn their fifth game of the 2013 season and their second home game, Alabama defeated the Georgia State Panthers 45–3. AJ McCarron led a 71-yard drive capped off with an eight-yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones for a 7–0 lead. On their first possession, Georgia State gained one first down but was quickly driven back by Alabama's defense who forced a punt. Alabama's next drive saw it lean more on the running game, and T. J. Yeldon scored on a four-yard touchdown run for a 14–0 Crimson Tide lead. On the kickoff that ensued, Dee Hart forced a fumble that Crimson Tide linebacker Dillon Lee recovered and returned to the Panthers' 10-yard line. On the next play, McCarron completed a touchdown pass to DeAndrew White that increased Alabama's lead to 21–0.\\nThe Crimson Tide scored on its next two possessions as well, and McCarron completed touchdown passes to running backs Kenyan Drake and Jalston Fowler. With the lead at 35–0 late in the second quarter, Alabama played its reserves for much of the remainder of the game. After the Crimson Tide defense forced another punt from the Panthers, McCarron was replaced by backup quarterback Blake Sims. On his first possession at the helm of Alabama's offense, Sims led the team to the Georgia State one-yard line, but a pair of false starts forced Alabama to settle for a field goal that increased the lead to 38–0 at halftime.\\nGeorgia State opened the second half with a drive to the Alabama 36-yard line to set up a school record 53-yard field goal by Wil Lutz. Alabama responded with a 68-yard march that ended in a touchdown pass from Blake Sims to Chris Black for a 45–3 lead. With the score at 45–3, neither team scored again. After a Panthers punt, Alabama's next drive ended with Crimson Tide backup kicker Adam Griffith missing a 30-yard field goal. Before his exit late in the second quarter, McCarron set the Alabama record for passing accuracy at 93.75%, going 15–16 and surpassed the previous record of 84.2% held by Ken Stabler. With the win, Alabama improved its all-time record against Georgia State to 2–0.\\n\\nFor the first time since 2009, Alabama played Kentucky at Lexington, and in the game Alabama defeated the Wildcats 48–7. Although the Crimson Tide defense opened the game strong and forced Kentucky to punt after they held the Wildcats to a series of three-and-outs on their initial possessions, the Alabama offense did not see the same on-field success. After they were held to a punt on their first possession, fumbles by Kenyan Drake and T. J. Yeldon on the next two Crimson Tide possessions inside the Wildcats' 15-yard line kept the game scoreless.\\nAfter a scoreless first quarter, Alabama took a 3–0 lead early in the second quarter on a 25-yard Cade Foster field goal. On their next possession, the Crimson Tide scored their first touchdown on a two-play drive that saw a 42-yard Kevin Norwood reception and a one-yard Drake touchdown run for a 10–0 lead. Alabama then extended their lead to 24–0 at halftime after touchdown runs of 24-yards from Yeldon and one-yard from Drake on their final two possessions of the half.\\nOn their first possession of the second half, the Crimson Tide extended their lead further to 31–0 after Yeldon scored on a three-yard run that capped a drive that featured a 34-yard Yeldon run and 42-yard Amari Cooper reception. On the Kentucky possession that ensued, the Wildcats scored their only points of the game on a 30-yard Maxwell Smith touchdown pass to Javess Blue that made the score 31–7. The touchdown was the first allowed by the Alabama defense since the Texas A&M game and ended a 14-quarter touchdown-free streak for the Crimson Tide. A 20-yard Foster field goal then made the score 34–7 as they entered the fourth quarter.\\nIn the fourth, the Crimson Tide scored touchdowns on both of their offensive possessions and made the final score 48–7. The first came on a 20-yard AJ McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood and the second on a seven-yard Altee Tenpenny run. Offensively, McCarron threw for 359 yards and Drake and Yeldon ran for 106 yards and 124 respectively. This marked the first time in team history that Alabama had a 300-yard passer and two 100-yard runners in a single game. For his performance, right guard Anthony Steen was recognized as SEC Offensive Linemen of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Wildcats to 36–2–1.\\n\\nIn what was the first Bret Bielema coached team to play against the Crimson Tide, Alabama shut out the Arkansas Razorbacks 52–0 at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Alabama took a 7–0 lead on their first possession with a four-yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler and extended it to 14–0 on their second with a one-yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run. Later in the first, HaHa Clinton-Dix intercepted a Brandon Allen pass in what was his return to the team after he served a two-game suspension for a violation of NCAA rules.\\nAfter the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt on the first Razorback possession of the second quarter, Drake extended the Alabama lead to 21–0 with his 46-yard touchdown run. Arkansas responded on their next possession with their longest drive of the game. However, they were unable to score any points as Deion Belue blocked a 41-yard Zach Hocker field goal that preserved the shutout. On the next possession, Alabama closed the first half with a 30-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that made the halftime score 28–0.\\nOn the opening kickoff of the second half, Derrick Henry forced a Keon Hatcher fumble that was recovered by Eddie Jackson for the Crimson Tide. Three plays later, Alabama led 35–0 after McCarron threw a 17-yard touchdown pass to O. J. Howard. On their next offensive drive, T. J. Yeldon scored on a 24-yard touchdown run that extended the Crimson Tide lead to 42–0. The Alabama defense then had their second Allen interception of the evening on the Razorbacks possession that ensued with Cyrus Jones' play at the 47-yard line. With the offensive reserves in the game, Blake Sims led the team to a 45–0 lead after Cade Foster connected on a 48-yard field goal. Henry then made the final score 52–0 in the final minute of play with his 80-yard touchdown run. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Razorbacks 14–8 (17–7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\\n\\nIn their annual rivalry game, Alabama defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 45–10 at Tuscaloosa. The Crimson Tide took a 21–0 lead after they scored touchdowns on all three of their first quarter possessions. The first came on a 54-yard AJ McCarron pass to Amari Cooper, the second on a one-yard T. J. Yeldon run and the third on a 22-yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood. After Alabama extended their lead to 28–0 early in the second quarter on Yeldon's second one-yard run of the game, the defense made their first turnover when Deion Belue intercepted a Justin Worley pass.\\nHowever, the Crimson Tide were unable to capitalize on the drive that ensued after Kenyan Drake fumbled the ball at the goal line and was recovered by the Vols' Cameron Sutton. Looking to score before halftime, Tennessee drove from their one-yard line to the Alabama 24 before Worley threw his second interception of the game. This time Landon Collins made the play at the 11-yard line and returned it 89-yards for a touchdown and a 35–0 halftime lead. Tennessee opened the second half with their first points on a 37-yard Michael Palardy field goal that made the score 35–3. The Crimson Tide responded later in the third with Yeldon's third one-yard touchdown run of the game and extended their lead to 42–3.\\nIn the fourth, the Vols scored their only touchdown on a three-yard Rajion Neal run and Adam Griffith then kicked his first field goal for the Crimson Tide and made the final score 45–10. For his six tackle performance and long interception return, Collins was recognized as the SEC Defensive Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Volunteers to 50–38–7 (51–37–8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\\n\\nIn their annual rivalry game, Alabama defeated the LSU Tigers at Tuscaloosa 38–17. After LSU forced an Alabama punt on their first possession, they proceeded to drive 79-yards to the Crimson Tide three-yard line. On the next play, Tana Patrick forced a J. C. Copeland fumble at the one-yard line that prevented a Tigers' score. The ball was recovered by Landon Collins and gave the Crimson Tide possession at their 10-yard line. After the LSU defense forced a second punt, their offense had their second turnover of the game when a Zach Mettenberger fumble was recovered by Trey DePriest at the Tigers' 27-yard line. Four plays later, Alabama took a 3–0 lead on a 41-yard Cade Foster field goal.\\nOn their next possession, LSU responded with their first touchdown and a 7–3 lead on a three-yard Jeremy Hill run early in the second quarter. Alabama then retook a 10–7 lead on the next possession when O. J. Howard took a short slant pass from AJ McCarron 52-yards for a touchdown. After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt, their offense extended their lead to 17–7 on a nine-yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood. LSU then made the halftime score 17–14 after Mettenberger threw a six-yard touchdown pass to Travin Dural.\\nAfter the Tigers' tied the game 17–17 on a 41-yard Colby Delahoussaye field goal to open the second half, the Crimson Tide went on their first of three consecutive touchdown drives. Their first touchdown came on a four-yard T. J. Yeldon run that capped a 14 play, 79-yard drive that included a successful fake punt. On their next possession, Yeldon scored on a one-yard touchdown run that extended Alabama's lead to 31–17. Odell Beckham Jr. then returned the kickoff that ensued 82-yards to the Crimson Tide 18-yard line. However, the offense was unable to capitalize on the good field position as the Alabama defense forced a turnover on downs. The Crimson Tide then drove 78 yards in eight plays, capping the drive with a three-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler that made the score 38–17. The Alabama defense then closed the game with three consecutive sacks of Mettenberger, winning 38–17. For his 12 tackle performance, C. J. Mosley was recognized as both the SEC Defensive Player of the Week and as the Lott IMPACT National Player of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Tigers to 48–25–5.\\n\\nIn their annual rivalry game, Alabama defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs 20–7 at Starkville despite having four turnovers. Alabama won the coin toss and elected to receive the ball to start the game. They then scored on a 33-yard Cade Foster field goal for an early 3–0 lead. Both teams then traded punts for their next six combined possessions before the Bulldogs missed a 23-yard field goal midway through the second quarter. On the Alabama drive that ensued, the Crimson Tide had their first of four turnovers on a Taveze Calhoun interception of an AJ McCarron pass. Alabama rebounded on their next possession with an 18-yard touchdown pass from McCarron to Brian Vogler that made the halftime score 10–0.\\nAfter the Crimson Tide defense forced a State punt to open the third quarter, Kendrick Market forced a T. J. Yeldon fumble that was recovered by Beniquez Brown at the State 49-yard line. The Bulldogs scored on their drive that ensued after Charles Siddoway recovered a Tyler Russell fumble in the endzone that made the score 10–7. Alabama responded on their next possession with an 11-yard McCarron touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood that extended their lead to 17–7. After the State possession that followed, HaHa Clinton-Dix intercepted a Tyler Russell pass. Foster then made the score 20–7 with his 35-yard field goal early in the fourth quarter. The Crimson Tide then had a difficult time closing the game as turnovers on consecutive possessions on a McCarron interception and a Kenyan Drake fumble. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Bulldogs to 76–18–3 (78–17–3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits).\\n\\nIn the final non-conference game the 2013 season, Alabama shutout the Chattanooga Mocs of the Southern Conference 49–0 on senior day at Bryant–Denny Stadium. After the Alabama defense forced a Mocs three-and-out on the first possession of the game, Christion Jones fumbled the punt that ensued with Sema'je Kendall for Chattanooga making the recovery at the Alabama 34-yard line. The Alabama defense once again held strong and Trey DePriest ended the possession with his interception at the 17-yard line on fourth down. The Crimson Tide offense then took the ball 83-yards on its first possession with Kenyan Drake making the score 7–0 on his 13-yard touchdown run.\\nDerrick Henry scored Alabama's next touchdown early in the second quarter on a five-yard run that extended their lead to 14–0. On the next Chattanooga possession, Alabama again forced a punt, but this time Jones returned it 75-yards for a touchdown and a 21–0 lead. The Mocs responded with their best drive of the game; however, A'Shawn Robinson blocked a 48-yard Nick Pollard field goal attempt that kept Chattanooga scoreless. The Crimson Tide then closed the half with a 28-yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood that made the halftime score 28–0.\\nAlabama continued their scoring into the third quarter with touchdowns on their first two possessions of the half. The first came on a 38-yard McCarron pass to Amari Cooper on a drive that also saw McCarron complete a pass to his brother Corey McCarron. The second came on a 31-yard Chris Black run that made the score 42–0. With the Crimson Tide significantly up, mostly back-up players completed the fourth quarter. After a long drive stalled at the Mocs' 23-yard line, Eddie Jackson returned a C. J. Board fumble caused by Jonathan Allen to the Chattanooga six-yard line. On the next play, Dee Hart made the final score 49–0 with his six-yard touchdown run. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against the Mocs to 12–0.\\n\\nIn the final regular season game the 2013 season, Alabama lost 34–28 to the Auburn Tigers after Chris Davis returned a missed Adam Griffith field goal 109-yards for the game-winning score with no time left on the clock in a game since dubbed \\\"Kick Bama Kick\\\". Going into the game, Alabama had been ranked atop the polls all season, while Auburn was fourth in all major polls, making this the highest combined ranking ever in the Iron Bowl. With the victory, Auburn won the SEC West division title and prevented Alabama from potentially playing for their third consecutive national championship.\\nAfter Alabama failed to score on the first drive when Cade Foster missed a 44-yard field goal attempt, Auburn took a 7–0 lead on their second offensive possession on a 45-yard Nick Marshall touchdown run. The Crimson Tide responded early in the second and tied the game 7–7 on a three-yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler. Alabama's Landon Collins both forced and recovered a Tre Mason fumble on the Tigers' possession that ensued. Four plays later Alabama took a 14–7 lead on a 20-yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood. The Crimson Tide then went ahead 21–7 on a one-yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run, but Auburn responded with a late Mason touchdown run that made the halftime score 21–14.\\nThe Tigers tied the score 21–21 on their first possession of the third quarter when Marshall threw a 13-yard touchdown pass to C. J. Uzomah. Early in the fourth Foster missed a 33-yard field goal attempt, but on their next possession McCarron connected with Amari Cooper for a 99-yard touchdown reception and a 28–21 lead. Late in the game, Ryan Smith blocked a 44-yard Foster field goal attempt, and on the Auburn possession that ensued Marshall threw a 39-yard touchdown pass to Sammie Coates that tied the game 28–28.\\nWith seven seconds left in regulation and the score tied at 28, Yeldon made a long run as time expired. The play was reviewed from the replay booth, and one second was put back on the clock after the referees determined Yeldon had stepped out of bounds just before time expired. Alabama then opted to attempt a game-winning 57-yard field goal, but chose freshman kicker Adam Griffith over Foster due to Foster's woes that day. Alabama failed its fourth field goal of the day with Griffith's attempt falling short, but Auburn's Chris Davis fielded it nine yards deep in his own end zone, and with no Crimson Tide skill players in his path (the field goal unit was made up almost entirely of offensive linemen), sprinted for a 109-yard touchdown return and a 34–28 Auburn win. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against the Tigers to 42–35–1.\\n\\nOn December 9, Alabama was selected as an at-large BCS participant to play in the Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma. Against the Sooners, the Crimson Tide were upset 45–31 against an upstart Oklahoma squad. Alabama opened the game with a four play, 75-yard touchdown drive that saw AJ McCarron complete a 53-yard pass to Amari Cooper and T. J. Yeldon score on a one-yard run for a 7–0 lead. On the first Oklahoma possession of the game, Landon Collins intercepted a Trevor Knight pass that halted the Sooners' drive. However, on the Alabama play that ensued, McCarron threw an interception to Gabe Lynn, and Oklahoma responded on their next play with a 45-yard Knight pass to Lacoltan Bester that tied the game 7–7. Alabama retook a 10–7 lead on a 27-yard Cade Foster field goal, but the Sooners again responded and took a 14–10 lead at the end of the first quarter when Knight threw an eight-yard touchdown pass to Jalen Saunders.\\nEarly in the second quarter, McCarron threw a 67-yard touchdown pass to DeAndrew White for a 17–14 lead. However, this would be the last time the Crimson Tide led in the game as a pair of turnovers by the Crimson Tide later in the quarter directly resulted in a pair of Oklahoma touchdowns. After the Sooners tied the game with a 47-yard Michael Hunnicutt field goal, Geneo Grissom recovered a Yeldon fumble at their eight-yard line and returned it to the 34. Seven plays later Knight threw a 43-yard touchdown pass to Saunders for a 24–17 Oklahoma lead. On the next offensive series, McCarron threw his second interception of the game to Zack Sanchez who returned it to the Alabama 13-yard line. On the next play, Sterling Shepard extended the Sooners' lead to 31–17 with his 13-yard touchdown run. The Crimson Tide was able to get into field goal range late, but Foster missed an attempt from 32-yards as time expired for the first half.\\nAfter the teams traded punts to open the second half, Derrick Henry made the score 31–24 with his 43-yard touchdown run for the only points scored in the third quarter. Oklahoma next scored on their opening possession of the fourth quarter on a nine-yard Knight touchdown pass to Shepard that capped an eight-play drive. Later in the quarter, Henry scored his second long touchdown of the game for Alabama on a 61—yard reception from McCarron that cut the Oklahoma lead to 38–31. However, the Sooners closed the game with a long drive that ran down the clock and in the final minute, an Eric Striker sack of McCarron caused a fumble that Grissom recovered and returned eight-yards for a touchdown and made the final score 45–31. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against the Sooners 1–3–1.\\nAs they entered the 2013 season, the Crimson Tide were ranked No. 1 in both the AP and Coaches' Preseason Polls. As they were still undefeated at the time of the initial Bowl Championship Series (BCS) standings, the Crimson Tide were ranked first by the BCS on October 21. Alabama remained in the No. 1 position through their final regular season game against Auburn. After their 34–28 loss against the Tigers, Alabama dropped to No. 4 in all of the standings. The Crimson Tide closed the regular season in the No. 3 position in all of the standings and failed to qualify for their third consecutive BCS National Championship Game. In the final poll of the season, Alabama dropped into the No. 7 position in the AP and No. 8 position in the Coaches' Polls after their loss against Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl.\\nAfter their loss to Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl, Alabama's final team statistics were released. Nationally, Cody Mandell led the nation with an average of 42.43 net yards per punt. On the defensive side of the ball, of the 124 FBS teams, the Crimson Tide was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories both nationally and in conference. They ranked fourth nationally and first in conference scoring defense (13.9 points per game), fifth nationally and first in conference in total defense (286.50 yards per game), seventh nationally and first in conference in rushing defense (106.2 yards per game) and eleventh nationally and second in conference in passing defense (180.3 yards per game). Individually, C. J. Mosley led the team with 108 total tackles, 61 of which were assisted, and 47 solo tackles. Mosley also led the team with 8 tackles for loss. A'Shawn Robinson led the team with 5.5 quarterback sacks. Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, Landon Collins, Cyrus Jones and Vinnie Sunseri tied for the team lead in interception with each having made two.\\nOn offense, of the 124 FBS teams, Alabama ranked 17th nationally and fourth in conference in scoring offense (38.2 points per game), 24th nationally and fourth in conference in rushing offense (205.6 yards per game), 33rd nationally and sixth in conference in total offense (454.1 yards per game) and 49th nationally and seventh in conference in passing offense (248.5 yards per game). AJ McCarron led the team in passing offense and completed 226 of 336 passes for 3,063 passing yards and 28 touchdowns. Amari Cooper led the team with 45 receptions for 736 yards and Kevin Norwood led the team with seven touchdown receptions. T. J. Yeldon led the team with 207 rushing attempts for 1,279 yards and 14 touchdown runs. Kenyan Drake was second on the team with 92 rushing attempts for 694 yards and 8 touchdown runs.\\nAfter the SEC Championship Game, multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on-field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions. At the team awards banquet on December 8, AJ McCarron C. J. Mosley and Kevin Norwood were each named the permanent captains of the 2013 squad. At that time Mosley was also named the 2013 most valuable player with Mosley and HaHa Clinton-Dix named defensive players of the year and AJ McCarron and T. J. Yeldon named offensive players of the year.\\nThe SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards. On December 11, C. J. Mosley was named SEC co-Defensive Player of the year with Michael Sam of Missouri, and Christion Jones was named SEC Special Teams Player of the Year. On December 9, Cyrus Kouandjio, Cody Mandell, Mosley and Anthony Steen were named to the AP All-SEC First Team. HaHa Clinton-Dix, Landon Collins, Christion Jones, Trey DePriest and T. J. Yeldon were named to the AP All-SEC Second Team; Brandon Ivory, AJ McCarron and Vinnie Sunseri were named to the AP All-SEC Honorable Mention Team. Clinton-Dix, Jones, Kouandjio, Mosley and Yeldon were named to the Coaches' All-SEC First Team. Mandell, McCarron, Steen and Ed Stinson were named to the Coaches' All-SEC Second Team. A'Shawn Robinson was named to the SEC All-Freshman Team.\\nAfter the season, a number of Alabama players both won and were named as national award winners and finalists. Finalists for major awards from the Crimson Tide included: C. J. Mosley for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy, Chuck Bednarik Award and the Lombardi Award and AJ McCarron for the Davey O'Brien Award. Mosley won the Butkus Award as the top collegiate linebacker and McCarron won both the Maxwell Award as the overall player of the year and the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the top senior quarterback. McCarron also finished second behind Jameis Winston in voting for the Heisman Trophy.\\nFor their individual performances during the regular season, several players were named to various national All-American Teams. Cyrus Kouandjio, AJ McCarron and C. J. Mosley were named to the Walter Camp All-America First Team (WC). HaHa Clinton-Dix and Mosley were named to the \\\"Sporting News\\\" (\\\"TSN\\\") All-America Team. Kouandjio and Mosley were named to the Associated Press All-American First Team; Clinton-Dix and McCarron were named to the Associated Press All-American Second Team. Clinton-Dix, Kouandjio and Mosley were named to the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA) All-America Team.\\nThe NCAA recognizes five All-America lists in the determination of both consensus and unanimous All-America selections: the AP, AFCA, the FWAA, \\\"TSN\\\" and the WC. In order for an honoree to earn a consensus selection, he must be selected as first team in three of the five lists recognized by the NCAA, and unanimous selections must be selected as first team in all five lists. As such, for the 2013 season Mosley was a unanimous selection and Clinton-Dix and Kouandjio were consensus selections.\\nSeveral Alabama players were selected by postseason all-star games. Kenny Bell and John Fulton were selected to play in the College All-Star Bowl. Cody Mandell, C. J. Mosley, Kevin Norwood and Ed Stinson all accepted invitations to play in the Senior Bowl. Adrian Hubbard was also invited to compete in the game as fourth-year junior and became only the third non-senior to participate in the Senior Bowl. Invitations were also extended to Deion Belue and AJ McCarron to participate in the game. Alabama did not have players participate in the East–West Shrine Game or the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl.\\nIn the weeks that followed the conclusion of the season, several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff. On January 9 offensive coordinator Doug Nussmeier was officially hired in the same capacity at Michigan as the replacement for Al Borges. On January 10, former Oakland Raiders, Tennessee and USC head coach Lane Kiffin was hired as the replacement for Nussmeier as both offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach. On January 11, it was announced defensive line coach Chris Rumph had resigned and took the same position on the Texas staff. On January 13 USC defensive line coach Bo Davis was hired as Rumph's replacement. Davis previously coached defensive line at Alabama from 2007 to 2010 and had also served under Saban at LSU and with the Miami Dolphins. On February 12, Greg Brown resigned to become the safeties coach at Louisville. Two days later, Kevin Steele was promoted from Alabama's director of player personnel to inside linebackers coach. Steele previously served as a defensive assistant for Saban at Alabama in 2007 and 2008.\\nOf all the draft-eligible juniors, Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, Adrian Hubbard, Cyrus Kouandjio, Jeoffrey Pagan and Vinnie Sunseri declared their eligibility for the 2014 NFL Draft. At the time of their announcement, Clinton-Dix and Kouandjio were projected to be first-round picks and both Hubbard and Pagan were projected to be no lower than third-round picks. With their departures it marked the first time during the Saban era that more than three juniors declared early for the NFL Draft. In February 2014, twelve Alabama players, seven seniors and five juniors, were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine. The invited players were offensive linemen Cyrus Kouandjio and Anthony Steen, safeties Ha Ha Clinton-Dix and Vinnie Sunseri, linebackers Adrian Hubbard and C. J. Mosley, defensive ends Jeoffrey Pagan and Ed Stinson, quarterback AJ McCarron, wide receiver Kevin Norwood, cornerback Deion Belue and punter Cody Mandell.\\nIn the first round, two Crimson Tide players were selected: Mosley (17th Baltimore Ravens) and Clinton-Dix (21st Green Bay Packers). Kouandjio was selected in the second round (44th Buffalo Bills); Norwood (123rd Seattle Seahawks) was selected in the fourth round; Stinson (160th Arizona Cardinals), McCarron (164th Cincinnati Bengals) and Sunseri (167th New Orleans Saints) were selected in the fifth round; and Pagan (177th Houston Texans) was selected in the sixth round. In the days after the draft, several players from the 2013 squad that were not drafted signed as undrafted free agents. These players included Hubbard (Green Bay Packers), Steen (Arizona Cardinals), Mandell (Dallas Cowboys), John Fulton (Philadelphia Eagles), Tana Patrick (Chicago Bears) and Belue (Miami Dolphins).\",\n \"2013 Oklahoma Sooners football team\\nThe 2013 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 119th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 15th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference.\\nConference play began at home on September 7 with a win against the West Virginia Mountaineers and ended in the annual Bedlam Series on December 7 against the Oklahoma State Cowboys in Stillwater with the Sooners upsetting the Cowboys 33–24 on the road. With the victory over the Kansas State Wildcats on November 23, head coach Bob Stoops got his 158th career win to move past Barry Switzer for the most wins in program history. After finishing the regular season with a record of 10–2 (7–2 in Big 12 play), finishing in a tie for second place in the conference, the Sooners received an at-large bid to play in the Sugar Bowl, where they defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide with a final score of 45–31.\\nFollowing the season, Jalen Saunders and Aaron Colvin were selected in the fourth round of the 2014 NFL Draft, along with Corey Nelson and Trey Millard in the seventh.\\n\\nFreshman Dominique Alexander was named Big 12 Conference Defensive Freshman of the Year.\\nOklahoma's only All-American this year was Gabe Ikard. He was given first team All-American status by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA), Walter Camp Foundation (WCFF), and CBS Sports (CBS).\\nThe 2014 NFL Draft was held at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on May 8–10, 2014. The following Oklahoma players were either selected or signed as free agents following the draft.\",\n \"Alabama Crimson Tide softball\\nThe Alabama Crimson Tide softball team represents the University of Alabama in NCAA Division I college softball. The team participates in the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). It is currently led by head coach Patrick Murphy and assistant coaches Alyson Habetz and Stephanie VanBrakle. The team plays its home games at the Rhoads Stadium located on the university's campus. The Alabama Crimson Tide softball team won its first National Championship in 2012, after they defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the championship series of the Women's College World Series.\\nOn September 28, 1995, Alabama athletics director Glen Tuckett announced the school would sponsor a softball program to begin play in the 1997 season. At the time of its addition, softball became both the 20th varsity sport overall and 11th women's sport sponsored at Alabama. On January 3, 1996, Kalum Haack was hired from Kansas to serve as the first head coach for the team. The next spring, Haack recruited his first class for the inaugural 1997 team. On February 15, 1997, Alabama defeated Tulsa 5–2 in their first all-time game at ASA Hall of Fame Stadium in Oklahoma City. Two weeks later, the Crimson Tide won their first all-time home game in their home opener at Sokol Park against Delta State 4–3.\\nAfter he led the Crimson Tide in their inaugural season and to their first SEC championship in their second season, on June 30, 1998, Haack resigned as head coach. He cited personal reasons for his resignation. During his two-year stint as head coach, Haack compiled an overall record of 78 wins and 47 losses (78–47). A week later on July 9, Alabama assistant coach Patrick Murphy was promoted to the Crimson Tide's head coach position.\\nSince Murphy took over in 1999, the Crimson Tide has won 10 SEC championships (5 regular season and 5 tournaments), made 17 consecutive NCAA tournaments (every year since 1999) and have advanced to the Women's College World Series ten times. In 2012, Alabama defeated the Oklahoma Sooners, 2 games to 1, in the championship series of the Women's College World Series, to win its first national championship in school history and the first softball national championship in the history of the SEC.\\n†Denotes 1st Team selection\\n\",\n \"1964 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 1964 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\" or \\\"Bama\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1964 college football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 70th overall and 31st season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his seventh year, and played their home games at Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Legion Field in Birmingham and Ladd Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. They finished season with ten wins and one loss (10–1 overall, 8–0 in the SEC), as SEC champions and with a loss to Texas in the Orange Bowl. As the major wire services at that time awarded their national champions prior to the start of bowl season, Alabama was also recognized as national champions by the AP and UPI before their loss to Texas. After the bowl games, the Football Writers Association of America as stated in 1964 college football season named the undefeated Arkansas Razorbacks as the national champions. The Razorbacks defeated Texas during the regular season.\\nThe Crimson Tide opened the season ranked in the No. 6 position with wins at Tuscaloosa against Georgia, against Tulane in Mobile and at Birmingham against Vanderbilt. After a victory over NC State in their first non-conference game of the season, Alabama defeated Tennessee in their first road game of the season at Neyland Stadium. The Crimson Tide then returned to Tuscaloosa where they defeated a Steve Spurrier-led Florida team on homecoming before their second road victory at Mississippi State at Jackson.\\nAlabama then defeated LSU in a newly expanded Legion Field and captured the SEC championship, and the next week defeated Georgia Tech in what was the final game of their annual series. In the annual Iron Bowl against Auburn, the Crimson Tide completed an undefeated regular season with their victory and accepted a bid to play Texas in the Orange Bowl. Although recognized as national champions at the conclusion of the regular season, Alabama closed the season with a loss to the Texas Longhorns in the Orange Bowl.\\nAfter the season, Joe Namath was selected as the first overall pick by the New York Jets in the 1965 AFL Draft. In addition to Namath, eleven other lettermen from the 1964 squad were drafted into the National Football League.\\n\\nTo open the 1964 season, the Crimson Tide defeated Georgia 31–3 in what was the first game for Vince Dooley as head coach of the Bulldogs. After the Crimson Tide took a 7–0 lead on a five-yard Hudson Harris touchdown run in the first quarter, Georgia scored their only points early in the second on a 26-yard Robert Etter field goal. Alabama responded with the first of three Joe Namath touchdown runs from eight-yards out that gave the Crimson Tide a 14–3 halftime lead. Alabama closed the game with a 27-yard David Ray field goal and Namath touchdown runs of one and five-yards for the 31–3 victory. In the game, Namath completed 16 of 21 passes for 167 yards, ran for 55 yards, and scored three touchdowns. The 16 completions tied a school record with Harry Gilmer set during the 1946 season, and for his performance Namath was recognized as the AP's Back of the Week. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia to 28–18–4.\\n\\nAt Mobile, the Crimson Tide defeated the Tulane Green Wave 36–6 in their annual Ladd Stadium game of the season. After a scoreless first quarter, Alabama took a 10–0 halftime lead after David Ray connected on a 22-yard field goal and Joe Namath scored on a one-yard touchdown run. Ray extended the Crimson Tide lead to 20–0 with his 33-yard field goal and 33-yard touchdown reception from Namath in the third quarter. In the fourth, Frank Canterbury scored on a five-yard touchdown run, and Tulane responded with their only points of the game on an eight-yard David East touchdown pass to Lanis O'Steen. Alabama then closed the game with a one-yard Namath run that made the final score 36–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tulane to 22–10–3.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Tulane, Alabama moved into the No. 4 position in the AP Poll prior to their game against Vanderbilt. In the first Legion Field game of the season, the Crimson Tide shut out the Commodores, 24–0, at Birmingham. After a scoreless first half, Alabama took a 14–0 third-quarter lead on a two-yard Joe Namath touchdown pass to Hudson Harris and on a 15-yard Namath run. They then closed the game with a nine-yard Namath touchdown pass to Tommy Tolleson and a 28-yard David Ray field goal in the fourth quarter that made the final score 24–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 23–16–4.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Vanderbilt, Alabama moved up one position in the polls to the No. 3 spot prior to their first non-conference game of the season. In a game that saw starting quarterback Joe Namath injured in the second quarter, backup Steve Sloan rallied the Crimson Tide to a 21–0 victory over the NC State Wolfpack in Tuscaloosa. After a scoreless first quarter, Namath twisted his knee with just over 6:00 remaining in the half. Sloan entered the game and led Alabama on a 69-yard drive that culminated with his one-yard touchdown run to give Alabama a 7–0 halftime lead. The Crimson Tide then closed the game with a three-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run in the third and a 10-yard Sloan touchdown pass to Tommy Tolleson in the fourth that made the final score 21–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against NC State to 3–0.\\n\\nIn what was their first road game of the 1964 season, Alabama defeated the rival Tennessee Volunteers 19–8 at Neyland Stadium. David Ray gave the Crimson Tide an early 3–0 lead after he connected on a 30-yard field goal in the first quarter. Alabama then extended their lead to 16–0 at halftime with a pair of second-quarter touchdowns. The first came on a one-yard Steve Sloan run and the second after Wayne Cook blocked a Tennessee punt that Gaylon McCollough returned 22-yards for a touchdown. The Volunteers cut the Tide's lead in half to 16–8 with a seven-yard Hal Wantland touchdown run and two-point conversion in the third quarter. A 23-yard Ray field goal in the fourth quarter provided for the final 19–8 margin in the Alabama victory. Tom Fisher starred defensively for Tennessee with a blocked field goal, a blocked punt and an interception of a Sloan pass in defeat. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tennessee to 22–19–6.\\n\\nAs they entered their 1964 homecoming game against Florida, Alabama was ranked No. 3 and Florida No. 9 in the AP Poll. Against the Gators, Alabama rallied for a 17–14 comeback victory after they scored ten unanswered points in the fourth quarter. After a scoreless first quarter, Florida took a 7–0 second quarter lead when Steve Spurrier threw a nine-yard touchdown pass to Randy Jackson. Alabama responded with a one-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run later in the quarter that tied the game 7–7 at halftime. In the third, the Gators retook the lead with a three-yard John Feiber touchdown run before the Crimson Tide started their fourth quarter rally. In the final period, a 30-yard Bowman touchdown run tied the game and a 21-yard David Ray field goal with just 3:06 left in the game. Spurrier then led the Gators on a drive that stalled at the Tide's seven-yard line where James Hall missed a field goal to tie the game and preserved the 17–14 Alabama win. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Florida to 9–5.\\n\\nAt the Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium, a near sellout crowd saw David Ray connect on three field goals and Steve Bowman score on a pair of touchdown runs in this 23–6 win over the Mississippi State Bulldogs. The Bulldogs took an early 6–0 lead after a seven-yard Price Hodges touchdown run capped a 64-yard opening drive for Mississippi State. Ray field goals of 34, 40 and 20-yards that followed gave the Crimson Tide a 9–6 halftime lead. Alabama then held the Bulldogs to only four offensive plays in the third quarter and scored on a pair of one-yard Bowman touchdown runs for the 23–6 win. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Mississippi State to 36–10–3.\\n\\nAs they entered their game against LSU, Alabama remained in the No. 3 position with the Tigers in the No. 8 position for a top ten matchup. Against the Tigers, Alabama rallied back for a 17–9 win that secured the 1964 SEC championship at Legion Field in Birmingham. LSU scored first and took an early 6–0 lead on a 13-yard Billy Ezell touchdown pass to Doug Moreau. The Crimson Tide responded later in the first quarter with a one-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run and took a 7–6 lead. Later, a 35-yard Moreau field goal in the second quarter gave the Tigers a 9–7 halftime lead that they retained through the fourth quarter when Alabama started their rally. In the fourth, the Tide took the lead with a 36-yard David Ray field goal and extended it to the final margin of 17–9 later in the quarter when Hudson Harris intercepted and Ezell pass and returned it 34-yards for the touchdown.\\nThe game was also the dedication of 13,000 additional seats at Legion Field, and the 67,749 in attendance made it the largest crowd to ever see a football game in the state of Alabama at that time. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against LSU to 16–8–4.\\n\\nAfter their victory over LSU, Alabama moved into the No. 2 position and Georgia Tech, which exited the SEC following the 1963 season, into the No. 10 position in the AP poll prior to their game in Atlanta. In what was the final game of a series that stretched back nearly uninterrupted to the 1920s, Alabama defeated the Yellow Jackets 24–7 at Grant Field. After a scoreless first quarter, an injured Joe Namath entered the game for the Crimson Tide and led them to a pair of touchdowns in just a 1:20 of playing time. After Alabama recovered a Tech fumble at their 49-yard line, Namath threw a 48-yard completion to David Ray and on the next play took a 7–0 lead on a one-yard Steve Bowman touchdown run. The Crimson Tide then recovered an onside kick on the kickoff that ensued on the Jackets' 48-yard line. On the next play, Namath passed for 45-yards to Ray Ogden and then thew a three-yard touchdown pass to Ray for the 14–0 halftime lead.\\nAfter a 22-yard Ray field goal extended their lead to 17–0 in the third, Bowman scored on a four-yard fumble recovered for a touchdown in the fourth quarter. Georgia Tech did manage to avoid the shutout late in the fourth when Jerry Priestley threw a five-yard touchdown pass to Giles Smith that made the final score 24–7. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 24–19–3.\\n\\nIn the week prior to their game against Auburn, Alabama retained their No. 2 ranking in the AP poll. In the annual Iron Bowl game, Alabama defeated the Tigers 21–14 land secured their second undefeated regular season under coach Bryant. The Crimson Tide took an early 6–0 lead after Steve Bowman recovered an Auburn fumble on a failed punt attempt and returned it 39-yards for a touchdown. The Tigers responded with a three-yard Tucker Frederickson touchdown run in the second quarter for a 7–6 halftime lead. Alabama then took a 14–7 lead in the third after Ray Ogden returned the opening kickoff 107 yards for a touchdown. An Auburn fumble then set up the final scoring drive for Alabama in the fourth that culminated in a 23-yard Joe Namath touchdown pass to Ray Perkins for a 21–7 lead. The Tigers responded later with a 16-yard Tom Bryan touchdown pass to Jimmy Sidle that made the final score 21–14. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Auburn to 14–14–1.\\n\\nImmediately after their Iron Bowl victory, Alabama accepted a bid to play Texas in the Orange Bowl. Although they were recognized as undefeated national champions at the conclusion of the regular season, Alabama lost to the Longhorns 21–17 in the game and finished the season 10–1. Texas took a 14–0 lead after touchdowns were scored on a 79-yard Ernie Koy run in the first and on a 69-yard Jim Hudson pass to George Sauer in the second quarter. The Crimson Tide responded with a seven-yard Joe Namath touchdown pass to Wayne Trimble, but a two-yard Koy touchdown run made the halftime score 21–7 in favor of Texas. Alabama closed the game with a 20-yard Ray Perkins touchdown reception in the third and with a 26-yard David Ray field goal in the fourth, but lost 21–17. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Texas to 0–5–1.\\nThe NCAA recognizes consensus national champions as the teams that have captured a championship by way of one of the major polls since the 1950 college football season. After No. 1 Notre Dame was upset by USC in their final game of the season, it was speculated that Alabama would move into the top position in the polls and claim the 1964 national championship. As such, the Crimson Tide were voted into the No. 1 position in both the final AP and UPI polls and captured the national championship. On November 30, the final UPI poll was released with Alabama in the No. 1 position having claimed 33 first place votes and 333 total points in the poll ahead of No. 2 Arkansas. On December 1, the final AP poll was released with Alabama in the No. 1 position having claimed 34.5 first place votes ahead of the 11.5 first place votes awarded to No. 2 Arkansas.\\nAlthough officially recognized as national champions at the conclusion of the regular season, Alabama went on to lose against Texas in the Orange Bowl. Due to this and the increasing number of top ranked teams participating in bowl games, 1964 was one of the final years the AP released its final poll before the completion of bowl season. The AP would permanently switch to a final poll conducted after the bowl games starting with the 1968 season. Arkansas (the only major team that finished the season undefeated), Notre Dame, and Michigan were also recognized as national champions by various other selectors for the 1964 season.\\nSeveral players that were varsity lettermen from the 1964 squad were drafted into the National Football League (NFL) and the American Football League (AFL) between the 1965 and 1967 drafts. These players included the following:\\nPrior to the 1972 college football season, NCAA rules prohibited freshmen from participating on the varsity team, and as such many schools fielded freshmen teams. For the 1964 season, the Alabama freshmen squad was coached by Sam Bailey and finished their season with a record of two wins and two losses (2–2). Alabama opened the season with a 14–7 loss to Mississippi State in a game that saw the Baby Tide turn the ball over seven times. The Bulldogs took a 7–0 lead in the first quarter on a one-yard Walter Pennebaker touchdown run. Alabama tied the game 7–7 in the third quarter on a 46-yard Ken Stabler touchdown pass to Dennis Homan; however, Stabler threw an interception later in the third to Alton Ellis that he returned 73 yards for the game-winning touchdown.\\nTwo weeks later, Alabama won their first game of the season at New Orleans with a 13–6 victory over Tulane. The Baby Tide scored on their first offensive play when Stabler threw a 33-yard touchdown pass to Homan in the first quarter. Steve Davis kicked a 26-yard field goal on the next Alabama possession and another from 24 yards out in the third that made the score 13–0 in favor of the Tide. Paul Arnold scored Tulane's only points in the fourth quarter on a one-yard run and made the final score 13–6. In their third game, Alabama was shut out by Ole Miss, 14–0, at Hemingway Stadium. In the game, Rebel touchdowns were scored on a pair of Carr Walker touchdown passes. The first came in the opening period to Milie Haile and the second on a 59-yard pass to Carl Pope in the third quarter.\\nThe next week, Alabama closed the season with a 17–0 victory over rival Auburn at Denny Stadium. The Baby Tide took a 14–0 first quarter lead on a 70-yard Homan punt return and on a one-yard Phil Schaeffer touchdown run that capped a 71-yard drive. Steve Davis provided for the final points of the game late in the fourth quarter n a 21-yard field goal that made the final score 21–0.\\nGeneral\\nSpecific\",\n \"1961 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 1961 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\" or \\\"Bama\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1961 college football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 67th overall and 28th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his fourth year, and played their home games at Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Legion Field in Birmingham and Ladd Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. They finished season undefeated with eleven wins (11–0 overall, 7–0 in the SEC), with a victory over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl and as consensus national champions. The 1961 national championship was the first of the six that Bear Bryant would win as head coach of the Crimson Tide.\\nAlabama opened the season with a win over Georgia on the road in week one, and then defeated Tulane in their home game at Ladd Stadium in week two. After they won their second road game of the season at Vanderbilt, Alabama returned to Tuscaloosa where they defeated NC State\\nThe Crimson Tide then defeated Houston\\n\\nTo open the 1961 season, the Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 32–6 on the road at Athens. Alabama took a 10–0 halftime lead after Tim Davis connected on a 41-yard field goal in the first quarter and Mike Fracchia scored on a one-yard touchdown run in the second quarter. After a 37-yard Pat Trammell touchdown pass to Butch Wilson in the third, the Crimson Tide scored a pair of fourth-quarter touchdowns that extended their lead to 32–0. Fracchia scored first on a two-yard run and was followed with a seven-yard Mal Moore touchdown pass to Red Wilkins. The Bulldogs then scored on a 12-yard Langdale Williams touchdown pass to Carlton Guthrie that ended Alabama's bid for a shutout and made the final score 32–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia to 25–18–4.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Georgia in their season opener, Alabama dropped one position in the polls to the No. 4 position. At Mobile, the Crimson Tide shutout the Tulane Green Wave for the first time since the 1959 season in this 9–0 victory. Alabama scored their only touchdown in the first quarter on a 22-yard Pat Trammell pass to Tommy Brooker for a 6–0 lead. The Crimson Tide did not score again until a 25-yard Tim Davis field goal in the fourth quarter made the final score 9–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tulane to 19–10–3.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Tulane at Ladd Stadium, Alabama retained the No. 4 position in the AP Poll prior to their game against Vanderbilt. Against the Commodores, the Crimson Tide won by a final score of 35–6 at Dudley Stadium in Nashville. Alabama took a 13–0 first quarter lead on touchdown runs of 66-yards by Mike Fracchia and eight-yards by Pat Trammell. Early in the second quarter, Trammell scored his second touchdown on a 16-yard run. This was followed with a 13-yard Henry Lesesne touchdown pass to Marion Starling for the Commodores and a one-yard Larry Wall touchdown run for Alabama that made the halftime score 28–6. Trammell then scored the final touchdown of the game in the third on a three-yard run that made the final score 35–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 20–16–4.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Vanderbilt, Alabama moved up one position in the polls to the No. 3 spot prior to their first Denny Stadium game of the season. In what was their first non-conference game of the season, Alabama defeated the NC State Wolfpack 26–7 in Tuscaloosa. After a scoreless first quarter, the Wolfpack scored their only points of the game on a one-yard Roman Gabriel touchdown run for a 7–0 lead. The Crimson Tide responded with 26 unanswered points and won the game 26–7. Alabama touchdowns were scored on Pat Trammell passes of 12-yards to Richard Williamson and two-yards to Bill Battle in the second and on runs of five-yards by Trammell and 45-yards by Eddie Versprille in the fourth quarter. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against NC State to 2–0.\\n\\nPrior to their game against Tennessee, Alabama dropped two positions in the polls to the No. 5 spot prior to their first Legion Field game of the season. Against the Volunteers, Alabama won 34–3, and the victory was both the first for Alabama over Tennessee since the 1954 season and the largest since their 51–0 win in 1906. After Tennessee took an early 3–0 lead on a 53-yard George Shuford field goal, Alabama responded with 34 unanswered points. The Crimson Tide scored first-quarter touchdowns on a five-yard Mike Fracchia run and a nine-yard Pat Trammell pass to Butch Wilson and a pair of Tim Davis field goals in the second quarter for a 20–3 halftime lead. They then closed the game with touchdown runs of eight-yards by Billy Richardson in the third and one-yard by Trammell in the fourth quarter. After their win, Alabama was formally extended an invitation to compete in the inaugural National Trophy Bowl at Washington, D.C., only to later decline the invitation. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Tennessee to 19–19–6.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Tennessee, the Crimson Tide moved up into the No. 4 position in the polls prior to their road game at Houston. In the first night game of the year, Alabama defeated a tough Cougars squad 17–0 at Rice Stadium. After a scoreless first quarter, the Crimson Tide took a 10–0 halftime lead on a 33-yard Tim Davis field goal and a five-yard Pat Trammell touchdown pass to Bill Oliver in the second quarter. Trammell then made the final score 17–0 with his two-yard touchdown run in the third quarter. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Houston to 3–0.\\n\\nAfter their road shutout at Houston, Alabama returned to play Mississippi State in Tuscaloosa as the No. 4 ranked team for the second consecutive week. On what was homecoming in Denny Stadium, the Crimson Tide shutout the Bulldogs 24–0. Alabama took a 14–0 first quarter lead on touchdown runs of four-yards by Billy Richardson and one-yard by Pat Trammell, and after a 26-yard Tim Davis field goal in the second quarter led 17–0 at halftime. After a scoreless third quarter, the Crimson Tide closed the game with a one-yard Larry Wall touchdown run in the fourth quarter and made the final score 24–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Mississippi State to 33–10–3.\\n\\nPrior to their game against Richmond, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 2 position in the weekly polls. In what was the only all-time meeting against the Spiders, Alabama won 66–0 and scored the most points in a game since their 89–0 win over Delta State in 1951. The Crimson Tide took a 34–0 halftime lead after first-quarter touchdown runs of one-yard by Pat Trammell and 30-yards by Larry Wall and second-quarter touchdowns on a four-yard Trammell pass to Richard Williamson and runs of 12 and one-yard by Wall. Alabama then closed the game with five second half touchdowns and won 66–0. Touchdowns were scored in the third quarter on a 66-yard Benny Nelson punt return and a 26-yard Jack Hurlbut pass to Red Wilkins and in the fourth quarter on runs of three-yards by Eddie Versprille, two-yards by Marlin Mooneyham and on a 28-yard Mal Moore pass to Jimmy Dill.\\n\\nFor their game at Legion Field against Georgia Tech, the Crimson Tide remained in the No. 2 position in the national polls. Against the Yellow Jackets, Alabama won in a 10–0 shutout to move their record to nine wins and zero losses. After a scoreless first quarter, the Crimson Tide scored their only touchdown on a 16-yard Mike Fracchia run for a 7–0 lead. Tim Davis then made the final score 10–0 with his 32-yard field goal in the third quarter. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 22–18–3.\\n\\nAfter their win over Tech combined with No. 1 Texas' loss to TCU, the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 position in the polls prior to their game against Auburn. Against the Tigers in the annual Iron Bowl game at Legion Field, Alabama shutout Auburn for the third consecutive season, this time by a score of 34–0 and completed an undefeated regular season. After Billy Richardson gave Alabama a 7–0 first quarter lead with his 11-yard touchdown run, they scored 17 second quarter points and took a 24–0 halftime lead. In the second, Pat Trammell scored on a one-yard run, Tim Davis connected on a 35-yard field goal and Trammell threw a 19-yard touchdown pass to Richard Williamson. Alabama then closed the game with a six-yard Richardson touchdown run in the third and a 34-yard field goal in the fourth to win 34–0. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Auburn to 12–13–1.\\n\\nAfter the Crimson Tide was recognized as national champions by the major wire services, they defeated the Arkansas Razorbacks 10–3 in the 1962 edition of the Sugar Bowl in what was the first all-time meeting between the schools. The Crimson Tide took a 10–0 halftime lead after they scored on a 12-yard Pat Trammell touchdown run in the first quarter and on a 32-yard Tim Davis field goal in the second quarter. Although Alabama was held scoreless in the second half, the Razorbacks only managed to score a 23-yard Mickey Cissell field goal in the third quarter that made the final score 10–3 in favor of Alabama.\\nAfter the season, Alabama had several players recognized individually for their on-field performances. Billy Neighbors was a unanimous selection to the 1961 College Football All-America Team at the tackle position. Second Team All-America selections included Lee Roy Jordan at center and Pat Trammell at quarterback. Additionally, Alabama had four players selected to the All-SEC First Team: Mike Fracchia at back, Jordan, Neighbors and Trammell. Trammell was also selected as the SEC Most Valuable Player for the 1961 season and Neighbors won the Jacobs Blocking Trophy. In having led his team to both the SEC and national championships, Bear Bryant was recognized as the AP, UPI and coaches' SEC Coach of the Year.\\nSeveral players that were varsity lettermen from the 1961 squad were drafted into the National Football League (NFL) and the American Football League (AFL) between the 1962 and 1965 drafts. These players included the following:\\nPrior to the 1972 college football season, NCAA rules prohibited freshmen from participating on the varsity team, and as such many schools fielded freshmen teams. For the 1961 season, the Alabama freshmen squad was coached by Sam Bailey and finished their season with a record of two wins and one tie (2–0–1). The 1961 freshman squad was noted for its being led by Joe Namath at quarterback after he chose to attend Alabama after he received more than 50 athletic scholarship offers from other schools.\\nIn their first game of the season, Alabama came from behind and defeated Mississippi State 20–14 before 3,500 fans at Denny Stadium. After the Bulldogs took a 7–0 first quarter lead on a six-yard Ray Reed pass to Tommy Inman, Alabama tied the game 7–7 on an eight-yard Namath touchdown run early in the second. The Crimson Tide then took a 13–7 halftime lead on a nine-yard Namath pass to Creed Gilmer late in the second. State retook a 14–13 lead in the third on an eight-yard Reed to Inman pass, but Alabama scored the game-winning touchdown on a 36-yard Ron McKinney run that made the final score 20–13.\\nIn their second game, the Baby Tide defeated Tulane 32–6 at Denny Stadium in a game they scored touchdowns in all four quarters. After the Green Wave scored their only points on the first play of the game when Leon Verriere recovered the fumbled kickoff in the end zone for a touchdown, Alabama responded on the next drive and tied the game 6–6 after Namath threw an 11-yard touchdown pass to Ray Ogden. The Crimson Tide then took a 12–6 lead in the second quarter on a 26-yard Tommy Tolleson double reverse. Alabama then closed the game with a pair of Namath touchdown runs and a touchdown pass to Creed Gilmer in the second half that made the final score 32–6.\\nIn their final game of the season, Alabama tied the Auburn freshman team 7–7 before 7,000 fans in the rain at Cliff Hare Stadium. Both touchdowns came in the first quarter. Alabama took a 7–0 lead when Namath threw a 46-yard touchdown pass to Creed Gilmer, and Auburn tied the game 7–7 on the kickoff that ensued after Tucker Frederickson returned it 92-yards for a touchdown.\\nGeneral\\nSpecific\",\n \"1984 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 1984 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\", \\\"Bama\\\" or \\\"The Tide\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1984 NCAA Division I-A football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 92nd overall and 51st season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Ray Perkins, in his second year, and played their home games at both Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of five wins and six losses (5–6 overall, 2–4 in the SEC). This marked Alabama's first losing season since the Tide went 2–7–1 in 1957 under Jennings B. Whitworth, and ended Alabama's streak of 25 consecutive bowl appearances.\\nSome of the more notable contests of the season included a season-opening loss to Boston College (and their quarterback, Doug Flutie, who went on to win the 1984 Heisman Trophy), a third consecutive loss to Tennessee in which the Tide gave up a 14-point fourth quarter lead, and Alabama's first loss to Vanderbilt since 1969. However, Alabama did upset Auburn 17–15 in the 1984 edition of the Iron Bowl, denying the Tigers a berth in the Sugar Bowl.\\nGeneral\\nSpecific\",\n \"1983 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 1983 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\", \\\"Bama\\\" or \\\"The Tide\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1983 NCAA Division I-A football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 91st overall and 50th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Ray Perkins, in his first year, and played their home games at both Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of eight wins and four losses (8–4 overall, 4–2 in the SEC). Ray Perkins, who played as a wide receiver for Bear Bryant in the 1960s, was named as the new head coach at Alabama on December 14, 1982, to succeed Bryant after his 25-year tenure as Alabama's head coach.\\nAfter opening the season with four consecutive wins and rising to #3 in the AP poll, The Tide suffered a controversial 34–28 loss to Penn State. Trailing 34-7 entering the 4th quarter, Alabama rallied and seemed to be an extra point away from victory after tight end Preston Gothard appeared to catch a game-tying touchdown pass with eight seconds left in the game. One official signaled a touchdown but was overruled by the back judge who ruled Gothard was out of bounds. Video replay indicated otherwise, however instant replay in college football was still decades away. Bama avenged the previous year's losses to LSU and Southern Miss but lost to Tennessee and Auburn again. The Crimson Tide completed their season with a 28–7 victory over SMU in the Sun Bowl.\\nGeneral\\nSpecific\",\n \"1979 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 1979 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\" or \\\"Bama\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1979 NCAA Division I-A football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 85th overall and 46th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his 22nd year, and played their home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. They finished the season undefeated (12–0 overall, 6–0 in the SEC) and with a victory over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl. For their collective efforts, the Crimson Tide were recognized as consensus national champions for the 1979 season.\\nIn 1979 the Alabama Crimson Tide capped off a decade of remarkable success with the program's seventh perfect season in college history after 1925, 1930, 1934, 1945, 1961, and 1966 (discounting the 1897 “season” in which Bama played and won only one game). The Tide defense recorded five shutouts and allowed only two teams to score in double digits. The offense scored thirty points or more seven times.\\nDespite this dominance Alabama had three close calls. Against Tennessee on October 20, Alabama fell behind 17–0 in the second quarter before rallying to win 27–17. Three weeks later, against LSU, all the Tide offense could scrape up was a single field goal, but it was enough to win 3–0. In the regular season finale against Auburn, after leading 14–3 at the half Alabama let Auburn take an 18–17 fourth quarter lead before winning 25–18. The Auburn and Tennessee games were the only two times in the 1979 season that Alabama trailed. A 24–9 victory over Arkansas capped a 12–0 season and a unanimous national championship, Alabama’s sixth wire service national title.\\n\\nAs they entered the 1979 season, Alabama was ranked as the No. 2 team in the first AP Poll prior to their season opener against Georgia Tech. Playing before a nationally televised audience, the Crimson Tide rushed for over 300 yards in this 30–6 victory over the Yellow Jackets. Alabama took a 6–0 lead in the first quarter after E. J. Junior intercepted a Mike Kelley pass and returned it 59-yards for a touchdown. Major Ogilvie then extended their lead to 12–0 with his one-yard touchdown run late in the second quarter.\\nThe Crimson Tide took control of the game with a pair of third quarter touchdowns that extended their lead to 27–0. Steve Whitman scored first on a thirteen-yard run and this was followed by an eleven-yard Steadman S. Shealy touchdown run. After a late Gary DeNiro interception set up a 31-yard Alan McElroy field goal, Georgia Tech scored on a 36-yard Kelley touchdown pass to Leon Chadwick that made the final score 30–6 and prevented a shutout. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 25–19–3.\\n\\nComing off their bye week, Alabama was still ranked as the No. 2 team in the AP Poll prior to their home opener against Baylor. Playing at Legion Field, the Crimson Tide shutout the Bears of the Southwest Conference 45–0 in what was the first all-time meeting between the schools. After taking a 6–0 lead on a pair of Alan McElroy field goals, Alabama led 14–0 at halftime after Major Ogilvie scored om a one-yard touchdown run in the second quarter. A 33-yard McElroy field goal in the third brought the Crimson Tide lead to 17–0 before Alabama scored four touchdowns in the fourth quarter and made the final score 45–0. Mark Nix scored the first pair on runs of two and eight-yards, followed by a one-yard Joe Jones run and John Hill scored the final points with his ten-yard touchdown run in the final minute of the game.\\n\\nAfter their victory over Baylor, Alabama was still ranked as the No. 2 team in the AP Poll prior to their game against Vanderbilt. Playing at Nashville, the Crimson Tide defeated the Commodores by a blowout score of 66–3 in the conference opener. The Crimson Tide took a 14–0 first quarter lead behind touchdown runs of 65 and eight-yards by Steadman S. Shealy and Major Ogilvie. After Mike Woodard scored the only Vandy points with his 47-yard field goal, Alabama extended their lead to 32–3 at the half after Alan McElroy connected on a 21-yard field goal and touchdowns were scored on runs of 19 and one-yard by Shealy and Mark Nix.\\nThe Crimson Tide continued their strong play into the second half as they scored five touchdowns and kept the Commodores scoreless on defense. Touchdowns were scored in the third on runs of three and one-yards by Steve Whitman and Joe Jones and in the fourth on a pair of three and a 14-yard run by Jones, Michael Landrum and John Hill. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 36–17–4.\\n\\nAs they prepared for their first Tuscaloosa game of the season, Alabama retained their No. 2 position in AP Poll prior to their game against Wichita State. In what was the only game ever played against the Shockers, the Crimson Tide won with this 38–0 shutout at Bryant–Denny Stadium. Alabama took a 28–0 lead into halftime behind a pair of touchdowns scored in each of the first two quarters. After Steadman S. Shealy connected with Keith Pugh on a 27-yard touchdown pass, Shealy scored on a three-yard run for a 14–0 first quarter lead. Major Ogilvie then gave the Crimson Tide a 28–0 halftime lead after he scored on touchdown runs of six and four-yards in the second. Alabama closed the game with an eight-yard Shealy touchdown run in the third and a 40-yard Alan McElroy field goal in the fourth that made the final score 38–0.\\nThe contest vs. the Hurricanes marked the first national television broadcast from Bryant–Denny Stadium. Portable light standards had to be brought in by ABC, since the Tuscaloosa stadium lacked permanent fixtures at the time. It also marked the Alabama homecoming for former Crimson Tide assistant Howard Schnellenberger, in his first season at Miami.\\n\\n\",\n \"1958 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\\nThe 1958 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\" or \\\"Bama\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 1958 college football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 64th overall and 25th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The team was led by head coach Bear Bryant, in his first year, and played their home games at Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Legion Field in Birmingham and at Ladd Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. They finished with a record of five wins, four losses and one tie (5–4–1 overall, 3–4–1 in the SEC). As they finished the season above .500, Alabama secured its first winning season since 1953, and their five victories gave Bryant more wins games in one season than former head coach Jennings B. Whitworth did in previous three.\\nOn December 3, 1957, the University formally introduced then Texas A&M head coach and former Crimson Tide player Bear Bryant as the new head coach of the Crimson Tide. In the season opener, Bama led future national champion LSU 3–0 at the half before they lost 13–3, and the next week played a ranked Vanderbilt team to a scoreless tie. In their third game, the Crimson Tide defeated Furman\\nThe Crimson Tide were then upset at Tulane on a Friday evening, but bounced back with wins over Georgia Tech and Memphis State\\n\\nTo open the Bear Bryant era, Alabama led 3–0 at halftime but lost 13–3 to the eventual national champion LSU Tigers in Ladd Stadium in Mobile. After a scoreless first quarter, the Crimson Tide took a 3–0 halftime lead after Fred Sington, Jr. connected on an eight-yard field goal. Midway through the half, a section of bleachers in the north end zone collapsed and resulted in 60 spectators being injured. The collapse resulted in a stoppage of play while emergency responders worked to assist those injured by the collapse.\\nLSU took a 7–3 lead in the third quarter when Warren Rabb threw a nine-yard touchdown pass to Johnny Robinson that capped a 67-yard drive. Billy Cannon then scored on a 12-yard touchdown run in the fourth quarter that made the final score 13–3. For the game, the Tigers were led by head coach Paul Dietzel who previously served as an assistant coach for Bryant during his tenure at Kentucky. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against LSU to 15–8–4.\\n\\nIn their first Legion Field game of the 1958 season, the Crimson Tide played the Vanderbilt Commodores to a 0–0 tie in Birmingham. The tie brought Alabama's all-time record against Vanderbilt to 18–16–3.\\n\\nIn their first Denny Stadium game of the 1958 season, the Crimson Tide notched the first victory of the Bryant era with this 29–6 win over the Furman Paladins in Tuscaloosa. The Crimson Tide took an early 20–0 lead after they scored three touchdowns in the final four minutes of the first quarter. Bobby Jackson scored first on a two-yard run, the second was scored on a 16-yard Jackson pass to Laurien Stapp and the third on a 56-yard Gary O'Steen punt return. A 24-yard Pete Reaves field goal in the second quarter extended the Alabama lead to 23–0 at halftime. In the third quarter, Furman scored their only points of the game on a nine-yard Roy Nickles touchdown run. The Crimson Tide responded with a 61-yard Bobby Smith touchdown pass to O'Steen that made the final score 29–6. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Furman to 4–0.\\n\\nIn their annual rivalry game against Tennessee, a pair of Billy Majors touchdowns for the Volunteers provided for the final margin in their 14–7 victory in Knoxville. After a scoreless first quarter, the Vols took a 7–0 halftime lead when Majors scored on a one-yard run on the first play of the second quarter. He then extended the Tennessee lead to 14–0 in the third on a seven-yard run, before Alabama made the final score 14–7 on a one-yard Bobby Jackson touchdown run. In the game, Alabama fumbled the ball five times and Tennessee recovered three of them. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Tennessee to 18–18–5.\\n\\nOn what was homecoming in Starkville, the Crimson Tide upset the Mississippi State Maroons 9–7 and secured Bryant's first SEC victory. Alabama took a 3–0 first quarter lead after Fred Sington, Jr. connected on a 22-yard field goal. Still up by three in the third quarter, the Crimson Tide scored their only touchdown of the game on a 21-yard Bobby Jackson pass to Norbie Ronsonet and extended their lead to 9–0. The Maroons managed their only points late in the fourth on a six-yard Billy Stacy touchdown run that made the final score 9–7. The victory was Alabama's first over a ranked opponent since their win over Auburn in 1953 and improved Alabama's all-time record against Mississippi State to 30–10–3.\\n\\nOn homecoming in Tuscaloosa, Alabama shutout the Georgia Bulldogs 12–0 for their second consecutive conference victory. The Crimson Tide took a 6–0 first quarter lead after Gary O'Steen scored on a 14-yard run and then made the final score 12–0 late in the fourth quarter on a short Bobby Jackson touchdown run. The victory gave Alabama their first two-game winning streak since the 1954 season and improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia to 23–17–4.\\n\\nOn a Friday evening at New Orleans, the Crimson Tide were defeated 13–7 by the Tulane Green Wave after they turned the ball over on downs late in the fourth quarter. Richie Petitbon gave Tulane an early 6–0 lead with his two-yard touchdown run in the first quarter. Petitbon then extended the Green Wave lead to 13–0 late in the third on a one-yard run before Alabama scored their lone touchdown of the game. The only Crimson Tide points came on a one-yard Bobby Jackson touchdown run that capped a 73-yard drive in the fourth quarter. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Tulane to 17–10–2.\\n\\nBehind a 17-point first quarter, the Crimson Tide upset the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 17–8 on homecoming at Grant Field. All 17 first quarter points were scored on drives that immediately followed a turnover. Bobby Jackson first scored on a one-yard touchdown run to cap a drive that started after a fumble was recovered by Baxter Booth. Duff Morrison's interception then set up the next Alabama scoring drive that ended when Pete Reaves connected on a 19-yard field goal for a 10–0 lead. The lead was then extended to 17–0 on a five-yard Jackson run that completed a drive started at the Tech 20-yard line when Milton Frank recovered a fumble. The only Yellow Jacket points came in the third quarter when a Calvin James fumble was recovered by Billy Shaw for a touchdown that made the final score 17–8 after a successful two-point conversion. The victory improved Alabama's all-time record against Georgia Tech to 19–18–3.\\n\\nIn what was the first all-time meeting against Memphis State, the Crimson Tide shutout the Tigers 14–0 in the final Denny Stadium game of the season. Alabama took a 6–0 first quarter lead after Bobby Jackson threw a 62-yard touchdown pass to Marlin Dyess on the first offensive play of the game. Jackson then scored what proved to be the final points of the game with his 18-yard touchdown run in the second quarter. He then successfully converted the two-point conversion that made the final score 14–0.\\n\\nAgainst rival Auburn, the Crimson Tide nearly upset the No. 2 ranked Tigers but lost 14–8 at Legion Field in what was the closest game between the schools since the 1953 season. The Tigers' took an early 7–0 lead after Dick Wood threw a three-yard touchdown pass to Jim Pettus in the first quarter. Neither team would score again until late in the fourth quarter when Auburn went up 14–0 on a one-yard Jim Reynolds touchdown run. Alabama responded with a nine-yard Marlin Dyess touchdown run that cut the Tigers' lead to 14–8 after they converted a two-point conversion. The loss brought Alabama's all-time record against Auburn to 9–13–1.\\nAfter their victory over Memphis State\\nIt was reported that prior to the announcement, the game was to have seen a rematch of Alabama against Vanderbilt, but that no deal was reached. After the Crimson Tide declined the invitation, Florida State accepted it. Years later, Bryant stated he regretted he did not accept the bid as it would have allowed for additional practice time at the conclusion of the season. The 1958 season also marked the only one where a Bryant-led team at Alabama failed to participate in a bowl game.\\nPrior to the 1972 college football season, NCAA rules prohibited freshmen from participating on the varsity team, and as such many schools fielded freshmen teams. For the 1958 season, the Alabama freshmen squad was coached by Sam Bailey and finished their season with a record of two wins, zero losses and one tie (2–0–1). In their first game against the Mississippi State Baby Maroons, a 27-yard Jimmy Spencer field goal fell short with under a minute left, and the game ended in a scoreless tie at Starkville. In their second game, the Crimson Tide defeated Tulane 25–6 before 3,000 fans at Denny Stadium. After the game was tied 6–6 at halftime, Alabama scored 19 unanswered points in the second half to win. Touchdowns were scored by Mal Moore on a one-yard run, a 37-yard Moore pass to Tommy Brooker and on a 22-yard Ronnie Davis pass to Steve Anderson. The Baby Tide then closed the season with a 14–6 win over Auburn in a game that saw touchdowns scored of runs of 10-yards by Jerry Rich and one-yard by Pat Trammell.\\nAt the conclusion of the season several members of the 1958 squad were drafted into the National Football League. These players included: Bobby Jackson in the seventh round to the Green Bay Packers, Ernie Moore in the 29th round to the Los Angeles Rams and Dave Sington in the 30th round to the New York Giants.\\nGeneral\\nSpecific\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The 2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \"Alabama\", \"UA\", \"Bama\" or \"The Tide\") represented the University of Alabama in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 119th overall season, 80th as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and its 22nd within the SEC Western Division. The team was led by head coach Nick Saban, in his seventh year, and played its home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of eleven wins and two losses (11–2 overall, 7–1 in the SEC) and with a loss in the 2014 Sugar Bowl to Oklahoma.","The 2013 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 119th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 15th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference."],"string":"[\n \"The 2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team (variously \\\"Alabama\\\", \\\"UA\\\", \\\"Bama\\\" or \\\"The Tide\\\") represented the University of Alabama in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season. It was the Crimson Tide's 119th overall season, 80th as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and its 22nd within the SEC Western Division. The team was led by head coach Nick Saban, in his seventh year, and played its home games at Bryant–Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. They finished the season with a record of eleven wins and two losses (11–2 overall, 7–1 in the SEC) and with a loss in the 2014 Sugar Bowl to Oklahoma.\",\n \"The 2013 Oklahoma Sooners football team represented the University of Oklahoma in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season, the 119th season of Sooner football. The team was led by two-time Walter Camp Coach of the Year Award winner, Bob Stoops, in his 15th season as head coach. They played their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. They were a charter member of the Big 12 Conference.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":78,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"which game played on January 1, 2007 did 2006 Boise State Broncos football team faced Oklahoma"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The 2007 Tostitos"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["2002 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2002 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2002 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by second-year head coach Dan Hawkins. The Broncos finished the season 12–1 and 8–0 in conference to win their first WAC title and played in the Humanitarian Bowl, where they defeated Iowa State, 34–16. The 2002 marked the first season that Boise State was ranked in the top 25 since moving to Division I-A in 1996.","Boise State Broncos football statistical leaders\nThe Boise State Broncos football statistical leaders are individual statistical leaders of the Boise State Broncos football program in various categories, including passing, rushing, receiving, total offense, defensive stats, and kicking. Within those areas, the lists identify single-game, single-season, and career leaders. The Broncos represent Boise State University in the NCAA's Mountain West Conference.\nAlthough Boise State began competing in intercollegiate football as a 2-year college in 1933, the school's official record book only includes 1968 and later, when Boise State became a 4-year college.\nThese lists are dominated by more recent players for several reasons:\nThese lists are updated through the end of the 2016 season.\nTotal offense is the sum of passing and rushing statistics. It does not include receiving or returns.\n","1991 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 1991 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season. The Broncos competed in the Big Sky Conference and played their home games on campus at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. Led by fifth-year head coach Skip Hall, Boise State finished the season 7–4 overall and 4–4 in conference. The Broncos won all of their home games, but lost the rest.\n","2009 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2009 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Broncos played their home games at Bronco Stadium, most famous for its blue artificial turf surface, often referred to as the \"smurf-turf\". They completed the regular season undefeated (13–0), their second consecutive unbeaten regular season and fourth in the last six years (2004, 2006, 2008, 2009), and won the WAC title for the seventh time in the last eight years. The Broncos capped their season with a showdown against fellow unbeaten TCU in the 2010 Fiesta Bowl, which marked the Broncos' return to the site of the game that put the program on the national sports map, the 2007 Fiesta Bowl. With their 17–10 win, the Broncos avenged a loss to the Horned Frogs in the previous season's Poinsettia Bowl, and became only the second team in Division I FBS history to finish a season 14–0, after Ohio State in 2002 (Alabama became the third team to go 14–0 just three days after the Fiesta Bowl). The Broncos finished ranked #4 in the Associated Press and USA Today coaches poll for their highest ranking in school history to finish a season.\nHead Coach Chris Petersen was named the Paul \"Bear\" Bryant National Coach of the Year, an award he also won following the 2006 season. Petersen is the first two-time winner of the award since it was renamed in 1986.\nThe Broncos were one of only two teams (the other being the Utah Utes) to finish the 2008 regular season with an undefeated record and win their sixth WAC Championship in seven years. However, The Broncos were unable to finish the season undefeated after losing 17–16 to #11 TCU in the San Diego County Credit Union Poinsettia Bowl.\nThe Broncos entered the 2009 season as one of the youngest college teams in the nation, with only five seniors on their roster, easily the fewest in FBS. No other team had fewer than nine.\nTwo Broncos were listed on scout.com's list of the 100 best returning players in the nation. Senior defensive back Kyle Wilson at #54 (#5 best DB) and sophomore quarterback Kellen Moore at #37 (#11 best QB).\nKyle Wilson (Sr.-DB)- Playboy, nationalchamps.net 2nd team, CBSSports.com. 2nd team\nRimington- Thomas Byrd (So-C)\nLombardi- Ryan Winterswyk (Jr-DL)\nO'Brien- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\nWalter Camp- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\nThorpe- Kyle Wilson (Sr-DB)\nGroza- Kyle Brotzman (Jr-K)\nBednarik- Kyle Wilson (Sr-DB)\nMaxwell- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\nManning- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\nNagurski- Kyle Wilson (Sr-DB)\nOn August 6 Boise State received 542 points to rank 16th in the USA Today preseason poll, two spots behind their season opening opponent, Oregon. The Broncos were the highest rated non BCS conference school.\nOn August 22 Boise State received 659 points to rank 14th in the Associated Press preseason poll, two spots ahead of Oregon. Just as they were in the USA Today poll, the Broncos were the highest rated non BCS conference school. The 14th ranking was the highest preseason ranking in school history.\nOn July 29, Boise State was picked to win the WAC and received 8 first place votes in the WAC coaches poll to 1 first place vote for Nevada, but it should be noted that no coach can vote his own team in first place, thus Boise State received all 8 possible first place votes.\nThe media also voted Boise State to win the conference with the Broncos receiving 55 first place votes to only 3 for Nevada.\nAnd Kyle Wilson was named the preseason Defensive Player of the Year.\nFor the second consecutive year Bronco Stadium received an expansion, this time in the south endzone temporary bleachers. Following the multimillion-dollar sky box expansion which opened in 2008, the sub-million dollar bleacher expansion extends the number of rows in the south endzone and adds an additional 1,600 seats to the stadium capacity, which is now 33,500.\nRankings reflect the Coaches poll until the week of the Hawaii game, after which the BCS poll was used, and are from the respective poll released prior to game time.\n\n\"2nd meeting. 1–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 37–32 Broncos win in Eugene.\"\nOn August 31, this game was named the Allstate Sugar Bowl Manning Award Matchup of the Week for the matchup of Boise State QB Kellen Moore vs Oregon QB Jeremiah Masoli.\nThe Broncos won their 50th straight regular season home game, and the first ever at home against a top 25 team, with a 19–8 win over the Oregon Ducks, the second straight year the Broncos have beaten the highly ranked Pac-10 team. The Bronco defense completely shut down the fast paced spread option offense of Oregon holding them to six first half three and outs, forced a safety in the second quarter, did not allow a first down until 7:07 left in the third quarter and only allowed six overall, and only allowed 31 rushing yards. The Bronco offense scored on a 10-yard TD pass from Kellen Moore to Austin Pettis in the second quarter (Michael Choate 2pt conv.), a D.J. Harper 1 yard TD run in the third (conv. failed), and a 45-yard Kyle Brotzman field goal, but missed several other opportunities to score with two missed field goals, another failed on a bad snap, and three straight fumbles in the second half. The Broncos set a school record with 59 rushing attempts. Kellen Moore finished 19/29 for 197 and 1 TD. Austin Pettis had 6 catches for 68 yards and the TD. The Broncos out gained the Ducks 351 to 152. The 34,127 in attendance set a new Bronco Stadium record. The Broncos moved up 2 spots in the AP poll to #12 and 5 spots in the Coaches poll to #11.\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\n\"First ever meeting. The RedHawks are scheduled to return to Boise in 2012. There are currently no future plans for Boise to play at Miami.\"\nBoise State shutout a non-conference FBS school for the first time in school history by dominating Miami (OH) 48–0. The Broncos outgained the RedHawks 441 to 197. Kellen Moore went over 300 yards for the fifth time in his career and threw 4 touchdowns for the first time in his career. Austin Pettis and Titus Young both had over 110 yards receiving with longs of over 50 each and 3 combined touchdowns. The Broncos held their opponent to less than 40 yards rushing for the second consecutive week (Oregon: 31, Miami: 38) and forced 4 interceptions (Iloka, Johnson, Smith, Tevis). When asked about stopping the run, safety Jeron Johnson said, \"That's the key to our defense is to stop the run game and make them pass. We have a good secondary so we feel that we can hold our own in the passing game. If we can stop the run, we'll be in good shape\". Kyle Brotzman missed his first ever extra point, ending his school record for consecutive PAT's at 118. The Broncos moved to #10 in both major polls following the win.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\n\n\"12th meeting. 7–4 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 61–10 Broncos win in Boise.\"\nAn offensive explosion occurred in Fresno with the Broncos and Bulldogs combining for 987 yards, 1494 yards including return yards in a 51–34 Bronco win. Winston Venable opened the scoring with a 30-yard interception return for a touchdown on the Bulldogs opening drive. The Broncos would follow with a 32-yard Kyle Brotzman field goal to go up 10–0. A 60-yard touchdown run by D.J. Harper on the Broncos next possession was just a sampling of the fireworks that would follow. After a Fresno State field goal, Titus Young returned the following kickoff 77 yards to set up a 7-yard touchdown catch to him from Kelln Moore. The Broncos looked to be in complete control of the game at 24–3, but Ryan Mathews of Fresno State would answer with consecutive 69 and 60 yard touchdown runs to bring the Bulldogs within 7 at the half. The Broncos returned the opening kickoff of the 2nd half for a touchdown only to see it overturned on offsetting penalties for a block in the back and a personal foul, but Doug Martin would return the next kick 77 yards to set up a Brotzman field goal. The Bulldogs would drive and score a touchdown to bring the score to 27–24. The Broncos would follow with a 74-yard Jeremy Avery rush which was fumbled at the 1 yard line but recovered in the end zone for a Bronco touchdown by Titus Young. Fresno answered with a 17-play drive ending with a 27-yard field goal to end the 3rd quarter with a score of 34–27. In the first two minutes of the 4th quarter, Kellen Moore connected with Austin Pettis for an 8-yard touchdown catch, Ryan Mathews broke his third 60+ yard touchdown run of the night, this time 68 yards, then Jeremy Avery scored on a 67-yard screen pass to bring the score to 48–34. Following a 69-yard Jeremy Avery rush the Broncos added a late 24-yard field goal by Jimmy Pavel to end the scoring. The Broncos and Bulldogs combined for 8 plays of 60 yards or more with 2 being over 70. Despite the 17-point win, the Broncos gave up 507 yards. Boise State moved to #8 in both major polls, their highest regular-season ranking in school history to date.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nBoth Fresno State and Boise State wore \"D.B.\" decals on their helmets to honor Dan Brown, former Boise State linebacker (1978–1981) and former Fresno State defensive coordinator (2002–2008), who died from brain cancer on March 15, 2009. Junior wide receiver Titus Young was selected as the WAC Special Teams Player of the Week for returning five kickoffs for 154 yards with a long of 77. Junior running back D.J. Harper, the Broncos leading rusher through three games, tore his left ACL against Fresno State and missed the rest of the season. Harper applied for, and was granted, a medical redshirt.\n\n\"3rd meeting. 2–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 20–7 Broncos win in Boise.\"\nThe Broncos made a rare trip to the Eastern time zone and walked away with a victory against a MAC team for the second time this season with a 49–14 win over Bowling Green. After a scoreless first quarter, the Broncos ran off 22 points in a span of 2:47 in the second quarter with two Titus Young TD runs (18, 25) and a Doug Martin TD run (34). The Broncos first six scoring drives all took only four plays or less. Kellen Moore threw for 195 yards in the second quarter and finished 17/21 for 247 and 2 TDs before leaving the game midway through the third quarter. Jeremy Avery got his first rushing TD of the season in impressive fashion with a 71-yard run in the third. The Broncos gained a total of 529 yards. The Broncos once again set a school record by climbing to #5 in all major polls, including the Harris poll which debuted this week.\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\n\n\"4th meeting. 3–0 all time. Last meeting 1985, a 13–9 Broncos win in Boise. Boise State head coach Chris Petersen was quarterback for UC Davis in the last meeting.\"\nIt was a game that was much closer than was expected as UC Davis of the FCS gave the Broncos all they could handle in a 34–16 Bronco win in a cold, rain-soaked, tension-filled Bronco Stadium. The Aggies held the Broncos scoreless in the first quarter and held them on a 4th and goal at the 1 yard line to give them momentum for the rest of the game. The Broncos did manage to be up 13–0 at half time on two Kyle Brotzman FGs and a Kellen Moore to Austin Pettis TD pass, but UC Davis hung close in the second half with scores of 20–10 and 27–16 before a late Doug Martin TD sealed the win for the Broncos. Austin Pettis had a career-high of 10 receptions for 129 yards and two TDs. Ryan Winterswyk recorded a sack for the third straight game and blocked a field goal right before halftime. The Bronco defense was without their captain Kyle Wilson who missed the game with a shoulder injury. The lackluster performance by the Broncos contributed to them dropping in the AP and Coaches polls to #6, but they did remain #5 in the Harris poll.\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nFollowing their bye week the Broncos moved back to #5 in the AP poll and remained at #6 in the Coaches poll and #5 in the Harris poll.\n\n\"5th meeting. 4–0 all time. Last meeting in 2004, a 45–42 Broncos win in Tulsa. Tulsa is scheduled to play at Boise in 2011.\"\nBig plays kept Tulsa in the game, but the Broncos were able to hang on to remain undefeated with a 28–21 win. The Broncos gave up points in the 1st quarter for the first time this season and had their first deficit of the season. Tulsa connected on long TD passes of 55 and 53 yards. The Broncos tried to answer with their own big plays, but could not connect twice on long passes to Titus Young. Instead the Broncos moved the ball with a steady dose of Doug Martin (112 YDS) and Jeremy Avery (73 YDS) on the ground to set up 3 short Kellen Moore TD passes (8,17,2), 2 to Tommy Gallarda. Tulsa held the Broncos in the redzone twice leading to 2 Kyle Brotzman field goals (27,18). Tulsa had the ball with a chance to score to tie the game but were unable to convert on a 4th down with 37 seconds to play. The Bronco defense came up with 13 tackles for loss and 5 sacks, 2 by Ryan Winterswyk, bringing his season total to 5. The Broncos would fall in the AP poll to #6 but rose to #5 in the Coaches poll and debuted at #4 in the BCS poll, their highest ranking in any major poll in school history.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\n\n\"11th meeting. 7–3 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 27–7 Broncos win in Boise.\"\nBoise State had lost their last two trips to the islands in 2007, but this game was never in doubt as the Broncos beat the Warriors for the 8th time in 9 years as a member of the WAC. Kellen Moore had a career-high 5 TD passes (35, 14, 24, 10, 48) going 18/30 for 223 yards. Titus Young caught 8 passes for 115 yards and 3 TDS. Freshman running back Matt Kaiserman, who had been hurt the entire season, made his Bronco debut and ran for 122 yards, 51 of those on the Broncos final drive alone where he carried the ball on all 11 plays to lead to his first career TD. The score could have been much worse than it was, but Hawaii was able to force the Broncos to attempt 5 field goals, 4 of which Kyle Brotzman made (25, 28, 32, 27). The Bronco defence force 3 INTS, 2 by Jeron Johnson, and 3 fumble recoveries. The Broncos did continue to have center to quarterback exchange problems which led to 6 fumbles, all of which they did recover, and center Thomas Byrd was replaced by Garret Pendergast, but Pendergast snapped a ball into the end zone which led to a Hawaii safety. The Broncos remained the same in the AP (#6) and the two human BCS polls (Coaches #5, Harris #5), but their BCS computer poll average fell from #5 to #8 to bring their BCS ranking to #7.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn October 26 Jeron Johnson was named the WAC defensive player of the week for his 2 interceptions and 1 fumble recovery and Kyle Brotzman was named the WAC special teams player of the week for going 4–5 on field goals and having a 72-yard punt, which is the longest punt in the WAC so far this season. Brotzman also completed a 28-yard pass on a fake punt.\n\n\"10th meeting. 9–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 33–16 Broncos win in San Jose.\"\nThe Broncos cruised to their 20th straight regular season win to remain undefeated on the season with a 45–7 win over San Jose State. The Broncos opened the game with a 61-yard touchdown pass from Kellen Moore to his brother Kirby Moore for Kirby's first career TD. When asked about the brother to brother connection, Boise State head coach Chris Petersen said, \"When that happened on the sideline, I think everyone just had a smile on their face. It’s so hard to play\nDivision I football and then to be able to do that with your brother is something that is really special. I just\nthink that that’s a special thing to play college football with your brother, and when you hook up for a big play\nlike that, and hopefully they’ll be many more down the road.\" Boise State led only 10–7 with less the a minute left in the 1st half until Kellen Moore found Mitch Burroughs on an 18-yard TD pass then scored on a Moore 1 yard TD run after a San Jose fumble to lead 24–7 at halftime. Austin Pettis caught an 8-yard TD pass to open the 3rd quarter and now has a touchdown reception in all 8 games this season. Kyle Wilson returned an interception 27 yards for the defence's 2nd TD of the year. A late Doug Martin TD run capped off the Bronco scoring. Kellen Moore added 3 more TD passes and now has 24 with only 2 INT's. The Broncos moved up in the AP (#5) and Harris polls (#4 including 1 first place vote) and remained the same in the Coache's (#5) and BCS (#7).\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn November 2, Kyle Wilson was named the WAC defensive player of the week after his first career interception return for a touchdown and recording 5 tackles with 1 for a loss of 2 yards.\n\n\"12th meeting. 7–4 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 35–3 Broncos win in Boise.\"\nBoise State has always played exciting, close games when they travel to Ruston, Louisiana, and 2009 was no different as the Broncos had to hold on late for a 45–35 win against the upset-minded Bulldogs. The Broncos looked as if they were going to run away the game, building a lead of 27–7 at halftime with the help of big plays from Titus Young (40 yard touchdown reception) and Kyle Wilson (59 yard punt return to the 3 to set up a Doug Martin TD). But mistakes loomed large as Kellen Moore was intercepted and returned 75 yards for a TD and Kyle Brotzman missed 2 of his 5 field goals (29, 34, 25 made. 44, 31 missed). Tech got as close as 30–28 before the Kellen Moore connected with Austin Pettis for a 12-yard TD and Jeremy Avery broke a 44-yard TD run to extend the lead to 45–28. Tech would add a late TD to bring final to 45–35. Kellen Moore threw for a season high 354 yards and added 3 more TDs to bring his total to 27 on the season with only 3 INTs. Austin Pettis now has a TD catch in all 9 games this season and has 10 total for the year. Kyle Wilson recorded his second INT in as many weeks. The Broncos would fall in the Coaches, AP and Harris polls but rose one spot in the BCS to now be ranked #6 in every poll.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\n\n\"39th meeting. 20–17–1 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 45–10 Broncos win in Moscow.\"\nThe Broncos won their 11th straight game against their in-state rival to remain undefeated on the season with a 63–25 win. The Vandals came into the game with high hopes after winning 7 of their first 10 games, but the Broncos ended the Vandals hopes early with 4 first half Kellen Moore TD passes (4, 25, 8, 20), 3 of which went to Austin Pettis. Add a 1 YD TD run by Jeremy Avery and a 100+ yard Titus Young kickoff return for a TD to bring the Broncos lead to 42–17 at halftime. Kyle Wilson opened the second half scoring by returning an INT 71 yards for his second TD ruturn of the season. Matt Kaiserman found Kyle Efaw for an 11 YD halfback pass TD before Moore found Pettis for a TD for the 4th time (14 YDS). Kellen Moore finished 22/32 for 299 and 5 TDS to bring his season total to 32 with only 3 INTS. Austin Pettis finished with 8 Receptions for 123 YDS and 4 TDS, brought his TD streak to 10 games and set a school record with 14 touchdown receptions for the season. The Broncos intercepted Vandal quarterback Brian Reader 5 times and recovered 2 fumbles to record 7 turnovers. The Broncos would remain at #6 in all 4 major polls following the win.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn November 16 Austin Pettis was named the WAC offensive player of the week and Titus Young was named WAC special teams player of the week. Senior fullback and offensive captain Richie Brockel, one of only five seniors on the roster, missed the remainder of the season with a foot injury. Freshman running back Matt Kaiserman, who had missed the first six games with a concussion, missed the remainder of the season with a broken leg.\n\n\"16th meeting. 11–4 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 49–14 Broncos win in Boise.\"\nThe Broncos opened the season 11–0 for the 4th time in 6 years and their 9th straight win over Utah State with a 52–21 win. The Aggies hung with the Broncos until about 6 minutes left in the first half with the score tied at 14 until the Broncos scored 3 quick TDs to end the half, one after a fumble recovery at the 9 yard line, to lead 35–14 at half. The Aggie pass defense held Kellen Moore to under 60% pass completions for the first time in his career (24 games) going 15/29 (51.7%) for 233 YDs and only 1 TD which ended a streak of 9 straight games with multiple TD passes and 6 straight with 3 or more. The Bronco run game picked up where the passing left off as they racked up a season high 323 YDs with both Doug Martin and Jeremy Avery going over 115 YDs with a combined 6 TDS, 4 for Martin alone. Austin Pettis failed to catch a TD for the first time in a game this season. Kyle Brotzman's 52 yard FG in the 3rd quarter was a career long. The Bronco defense dominated the Aggies forcing 13 TFL of 45 YDs, 4 Sacks and 2 turnovers. Boise State remained at #6 in every major poll for the 3rd straight week.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn November 23 Doug Martin was named WAC offensive player of the week, the 4th Bronco in the last 3 weeks to be awarded by the WAC, for his performance of 13 CAR for 121 YDs and 4 TDs.\n\n\"36th meeting. 23–12 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 41–34 Broncos win in Reno.\"\nOn November 23, this game was named the Allstate Sugar Bowl Manning Award Matchup of the Week for the matchup of Boise State QB Kellen Moore vs Nevada QB Colin Kaepernick.\nNevada came into the game on an eight-game win streak and 7–0 in the WAC and looked to knock off the Broncos to win the outright WAC championship, but the undefeated Broncos set the tone early and often on their way to at least a share of their seventh WAC title in eight years. Titus Young took the games opening kickoff 95 yards for a touchdown, his second return TD in three weeks, and the Broncos would add two TD passes to seldom-used fullback Dan Paul to lead 20–0 at the end of the first quarter. After a Wolf Pack field goal, Paul added his third touchdown reception to give the Broncos their largest lead of the game 27–3. Nevada would keep the game close by scoring two TDs before halftime to be down by 11 but could only match the Broncos point for point in the second half to lose 44–33. The Broncos held the nations leading rushing attack to only 242 yards and Kaepernick was held to only 172 total yards. Moore added five more TDs to bring his season total to 38, which set a new school record for TD passes in a season, passing the old record of 35. The Broncos stayed at #6 for the fourth straight week in every major poll and with Oklahoma's win over Oklahoma State, Boise State became the front runner to receive an at large bid to a BCS bowl game.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn November 30, wide receiver Titus Young was named the WAC special teams player of the week, marking the third time he has won the award this season. Wide receiver Austin Pettis, who leads the team with 14 TD catches, broke his leg on the Broncos failed two point conversion after their second TD. He did return and played sparingly in the Broncos bowl game. Starting linebacker Daron Mackey tore his ACL and missed the remainder of the season.\n\n\"10th meeting. 9–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 49–0 Broncos win in Las Cruces.\"\nBoise State wrapped un another undefeated season and outright WAC title with a 42–7 win over New Mexico State. The Broncos finished the regular season 13–0 for their second consecutive and fourth undefeated regular season in six years. The conference title is their seventh title in nine years as a WAC member and sixth outright title. The win was also the 56th straight game and eighth straight season of being undefeated at home in the regular season (2002–2009).The Broncos opened the scoring with a 47-yard TD pass from Moore to Young, bringing Moore's school record for TD passes in a season to 39. Jeremy Avery and Doug Martin would provide the rest of the scoring combining for 5 TDs (4 for Martin) and 170 yards with Martin breaking a TD run of 56 yards, his season long. Ryan Winterswyk had half a sack to finish the year with a team high 8.5. Brandyn Thompson's INT in the 2nd quarter brought the Bronco total to 21 for the year. Boise State finished the regular season ranked #6 in every major poll, their highest ranking to end a season in school history.\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn December 6 the Broncos were selected to play 12–0 and BCS #4 TCU in the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. This will be Boise State's second BCS appearance with the other being the 2007 Fiesta Bowl. TCU earned the non–automatic qualifiers automatic bid by being the highest ranked team from a non BCS conference. Boise State became the first team from a non BCS conference to earn an at large bid to a BCS bowl. The Fiesta Bowl will also be the first BCS bowl to feature two teams from non-automatic BCS qualifying conferences and the first to feature two undefeated teams outside of the National Championship game.\n\"3rd meeting. 1–1 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 17–16 Horned Frogs win in the Poinsettia Bowl.\"\nThe Broncos reached into their bag of tricks once again on the biggest of stages to help pull out a 17–10 victory over TCU to avenge their only loss in the 2008 season and win their second Fiesta Bowl championship. In a game dominated by defense the Broncos would strike first with a Brandyn Thompson 51 yard interception return for a touchdown. Kyle Brotzman, who had earlier in the game missed a 36-yard field goal, connected on a 40-yard field goal to extend the lead to 10–0. TCU's Andy Dalton threw a 30-yard TD pass to Curtis Clay right before halftime to make the score 10–7 at the break. A third quarter 29 yard TCU field goal would tie the game. Both teams went back and forth into the fourth quarter until Boise State pulled off a gutsy call that opened the game up. On fourth and nine on their own 33 yard line the Broncos executed a fake punt for a first down with a 29-yard pass from Kyle Brotzman to Kyle Efaw. Three straight completions by Kellen Moore put the Broncos on the 2 yard line where Doug Martin dove into the endzone for a 17–10 lead. Brotzman came up clutch two more times as he made a touchdown saving tackle on a punt return with about five minutes to play and punted the ball to the one yard line with only 1:06 to play. The Horned Frogs would have had to go 99 yards to tie the game. TCU drove to the Broncos 30 yard line before Dalton was intercepted by Winston Venable to seal the win with 18 seconds to play. Brandyn Thompson was named the games defensive MVP with 2 interceptions, 1 for a TD, and 7 tackles. Kyle Efaw was named the games offensive MVP with 4 receptions for 75 yards and caught the pass on the fake punt. The 14 wins is the most in school history and only the second 14–0 season in NCAA history (2002 Ohio State, the winner of the 2010 BCS National Championship, Alabama, also was 14–0).\n\"1st Quarter\"\n\"2nd Quarter\"\n\"3rd Quarter\"\n\"4th Quarter\"\nOn January 7, following the National Championship game, the Broncos would finish ranked #4 in the AP and coaches poll, their highest ranking in school history to finish a season (#5 AP and #6 coaches in 2006).\nChris Petersen- 2nd straight year\nKellen Moore- So. QB\nKellen Moore- So. QB- 2008 2nd team\nAustin Pettis- Jr. WR- 2008 2nd team\nTitus Young- Jr. WR\nNate Potter- So. OL\nKyle Wilson-Sr. DB- 2nd straight year on the 1st team, 2007 2nd team\nRyan Winterswyk- Jr. DL- 2nd straight year on the 1st team\nTitus Young- Jr. ST/KR\nJeremy Avery- Jr. RB\nBilly Winn- So. DL\nWinston Venable-Jr. LB\nJeron Johnson- Jr. DB- 2008 2nd team\nHead Coach Chris Petersen\nLowest percentage of passes intercepted, season (over 350 attempts): Kellen Moore, 0.70%\n<small> An NCAA FBS record as of the end of 2014 <small>\nStarters in Bold\nOn April 22, 2010, Sr. Cornerback Kyle Wilson was selected as the 29th overall pick in the first round of the 2010 NFL Draft by the New York Jets. Wilson is just the second Bronco ever taken in the first round of the draft (Ryan Clady 12th overall in 2008). Wilson grew up in Piscataway, New Jersey, which is only about 30 miles from where the Jets play their home games.","2004 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2004 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2004 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by fourth-year head coach Dan Hawkins. The Broncos finished the season 11–1 and 8–0 in conference (went undefeated 11–0 in the regular season) to win their third straight WAC title and played in the Liberty Bowl, where they lost to Louisville, 44–40.","Boise State–Nevada football rivalry\nThe Boise State–Nevada football rivalry is a college football rivalry between the Boise State Broncos football team of Boise State University and Nevada Wolf Pack football team of University of Nevada, Reno. The game has been played every year since 1971 with the exception of 1978, 1992, 1995, 2000, 2015 and 2016. The game was also played twice in 1990 as the second game was a Division I-AA semifinal playoff game, and to date has been the only post-season game played between the two programs. The series has mostly been a conference match-up, with the exception of the first seven games as well as the 1993, 1994, and 2011 games. Boise State and Nevada have faced each other as conference rivals in four separate conferences - the Big Sky Conference, Big West Conference, Western Athletic Conference and the Mountain West Conference. The two teams have played each other from the NCAA Division II level all the way up to the highest level of college football, NCAA Division I FBS.\nIn 2013, however, their rivalry is no longer played annually. Due to the MW expanding to 12 football members in 2013, the conference was split into two divisions for that sport, with Boise State placed in the Mountain Division and Nevada in the West Division. Future MW football schedules include five divisional games and three cross-division games, with no permanent cross-division opponents. This means that in a four-year cycle, teams in opposite divisions will play one another twice (two seasons on and two off, or vice versa). They played in 2013 and 2014 and have not played each other in 2015 and 2016 in the regular season. They can still meet in the Mountain West Championship game.\nSince first game on September 25, 1971\n","2006 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2006 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Broncos won the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) championship with an undefeated 12–0 regular-season record (8–0 in the WAC), their second unbeaten regular season in the past three years. This was also Boise State's fifth consecutive season with at least a share of the WAC title, and the fourth in that period in which they went unbeaten in conference play. They became only the second team from outside the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) to play in a BCS bowl game when they faced Oklahoma in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl, defeating the Sooners in a dramatic thriller.\nThe Broncos completed the first undefeated and untied season in school history with a 43–42 overtime win over the Sooners. The Broncos led most of the game, but fell behind late in the fourth quarter when quarterback Jared Zabransky threw an interception that was returned for an Oklahoma touchdown. They tied the game on a 50-yard hook and ladder play that ended in a touchdown with 7 seconds left. In the overtime, Sooners star running back Adrian Peterson scored a touchdown on the first play of Oklahoma's possession. Zabransky led the Broncos on a touchdown drive, capped off by a trick play in which backup receiver Vinny Peretta connected with tight end Derek Schouman on a fourth-down pass. They then gambled for the win on a two-point conversion, and tried another trick play. The Broncos ran a play very similar to the Statue of Liberty play, with Zabransky looking toward three receivers before handing the ball off behind his back to star running back Ian Johnson, who ran into the end zone untouched for the win. (The play would later be named the 2nd greatest highlight of all time in a 2008 ESPN Sportscenter poll behind Mike Eruzione's goal against the Soviets in the 1980 Miracle on Ice)\nDue to Florida's 41–14 thrashing of previously unbeaten Ohio State in the BCS National Championship Game, the Broncos ended the season as the only undefeated team in NCAA Division I football, as no other team in Division I-AA (officially known as the \"Football Championship Subdivision\") finished undefeated (Three teams in lower divisions finished unbeaten: Grand Valley State in Division II, Mount Union in Division III, and Sioux Falls in NAIA.)\nThe Broncos play their home games at Bronco Stadium, most famous for its blue artificial turf surface, often referred to as the \"Smurf-turf.\"\nBoise State finished the 2005 regular season with a 9–3 record. The Broncos' 7–1 conference record was good enough for a share of the title with Nevada. They ended their season with a 21-27 loss to Boston College in the MPC Computers Bowl on their home field in Boise to finish the season at 9–4. After the season, head coach Dan Hawkins left to take over the head coaching vacancy at Colorado, with offensive coordinator Chris Petersen taking his place.\nThe 2006 Broncos were an overwhelming favorite in the league's Preseason Media Poll to win the WAC title. They returned more starters than any other team in Division I FBS football—nine on offense and nine on defense, as well as their placekicker and punter. Among the returning starters was quarterback Jared Zabransky, whose 20 wins in the previous two seasons was the most by any returning quarterback in Division I FBS.\nKorey Hall\nIan Johnson\nJared Zabransky\nThe Broncos started the season unranked in both the Coaches Poll or the AP Poll, and would not enter the polls until they had won their first three games. They steadily rose in the rankings mainly on the strength of an offense that finished the regular season second in scoring. The keys to their offense were running back Ian Johnson, who was the nation's leading scorer and second in rushing yards per game, and Zabransky, eighth in passing efficiency. Due to their threats on both the ground and in the air, they were one of only two teams in the country to rush and pass for over 200 yards per game (the other being Oklahoma State). In a more obscure statistic, they led the country in percentage of fourth-down conversions, converting 15 of 19 attempts.\nThe Broncos played five bowl-bound teams during the season—Oregon State, their only opponent from one of the six BCS conferences; Utah; and conference rivals Hawaii, San Jose State, and Nevada. Four out of five of these teams won their bowl game. The only loser, Nevada, lost by one point. Notably, they put a 42-14 defeat on an Oregon State team that would later in the season end the 38-game regular-season winning streak of USC.\nChris Petersen\nKorey Hall\nIan Johnson\nJared Zabransky\n2007 Espy Awards","2005 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2005 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University during the 2005 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by fifth-year head coach Dan Hawkins. He resigned at the end of the regular season to take the head coaching job at Colorado, but remained to coach the Broncos in their bowl game. The Broncos finished the season 9–4 and 7–1 in conference to win their fourth straight WAC title (shared with Nevada) and played in the MPC Computers Bowl, where they lost to Boston College, 27–21.","2003 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2003 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2003 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by third-year head coach Dan Hawkins. The Broncos finished the season 13–1 and 8–0 in conference to win their second consecutive WAC title and played in the Fort Worth Bowl, where they defeated TCU, 34–31.","2002 NCAA Division I-A football season\nThe 2002 NCAA Division I-A football season ended with a double overtime national championship game. <a href=\"2002%20Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20football%20team\">Ohio State</a> and <a href=\"2002%20Miami%20Hurricanes%20football%20team\">Miami</a> both came into the <a href=\"2003%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">Fiesta Bowl</a> undefeated. The underdog Buckeyes defeated the defending-champion Hurricanes 31–24, ending Miami's 34-game winning streak. <a href=\"Jim%20Tressel\">Jim Tressel</a> won the national championship in only his second year as head coach.\nRose Bowl officials were vocally upset over the loss of the Big Ten champ from the game. Former <a href=\"New%20England%20Patriots\">New England Patriots</a> coach <a href=\"Pete%20Carroll\">Pete Carroll</a> returned the <a href=\"USC%20Trojans%20football\">USC Trojans</a> to a BCS bid in only his second season as head coach. Notre Dame also returned to prominence, as <a href=\"Tyrone%20Willingham\">Tyrone Willingham</a> became the first coach in <a href=\"Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football\">Notre Dame</a> history to win 10 games in his first season.\nBeginning with the 2002 season, teams were allowed to schedule twelve regular season games instead of eleven leading to additional revenues for all teams and allowing players the enhanced opportunity to break various statistical records.\nThe NCAA Rules Committee adopted the following rules changes for the 2002 season:\nNo teams upgraded from Division I-AA, leaving the number of Division I-A schools fixed at 117.\nThe <a href=\"Rose%20Bowl%20%28game%29\">Rose Bowl</a> normally features the champions of the <a href=\"Big%20Ten\">Big Ten</a> and the <a href=\"Pac-10\">Pac-10</a>. However, Big Ten-champion Ohio State, finishing #2 in the BCS, had qualified to play in the <a href=\"2003%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">2003 Fiesta Bowl</a> for the national championship against Miami (Fla.) Earlier in the season, Ohio State had defeated <a href=\"2002%20Washington%20State%20Cougars%20football%20team\">Washington State</a> 25-7.\nAfter the national championship was set, the Orange Bowl had the next pick, and invited #3 (#5 BCS) Iowa from the Big Ten. When it was the Rose Bowl's turn to select, the best available team was #8 (#7 BCS) Oklahoma, who won the <a href=\"2002%20Big%2012%20Championship%20Game\">Big 12 Championship Game</a>. When it came time for the Orange Bowl and Sugar Bowl to make a second pick, both wanted Pac-10 co-champion USC. However, a BCS rule stated that if two bowls wanted the same team, the bowl with the higher payoff had priority. The Orange Bowl immediately extended an at-large bid to the #5 Trojans and paired them with at-large #3 Iowa in a Big Ten/Pac-10 \"Rose Bowl East\" matchup in the <a href=\"2003%20Orange%20Bowl\">2003 Orange Bowl</a>. The Rose Bowl was left to pair Oklahoma with Pac-10 co-champion Washington State. Rose Bowl committee executive director Mitch Dorger was not pleased with the results.\nAs such, the BCS instituted a new rule, whereby a bowl losing its conference champion to the BCS championship could \"protect\" the second-place team from that conference from going to another bowl. This left the Sugar Bowl with #14 BCS <a href=\"2002%20Florida%20State%20Seminoles%20football%20team\">Florida State</a>, the winner of the Atlantic Coast Conference. <a href=\"2002%20Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football%20team\">Notre Dame</a> at 10-2 and #9 in the BCS standings was invited to the <a href=\"2003%20Gator%20Bowl\">2003 Gator Bowl</a>. <a href=\"2002%20Kansas%20State%20Wildcats%20football%20team\">Kansas State</a> at #8 also was left out.\n\n15\n\n\"The <a href=\"Heisman%20Trophy\">Heisman Memorial Trophy Award</a> is given to the\nMost Outstanding Player of the year\"<br>\nWinner:\n<a href=\"Carson%20Palmer\">Carson Palmer</a> (Sr.), QB, USC (1,328 points)\n","2002 Humanitarian Bowl\nThe 2002 edition to the Humanitarian Bowl was the 6th edition of the bowl game. It featured the <a href=\"2002%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">Boise State Broncos</a> and the <a href=\"2002%20Iowa%20State%20Cyclones%20football%20team\">Iowa State Cyclones</a>.\nIowa State got on the board first after a 30-yard field goal from Adam Benike, taking a 3-0 lead. In the second quarter, Boise State's <a href=\"Brock%20Forsey\">Brock Forsey</a> scored from 4 yards out for Boise State to jump ahead 7-3. Iowa State quarterback <a href=\"Seneca%20Wallace\">Seneca Wallace</a> threw a 6-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver <a href=\"Jamaul%20Montgomery\">Jamaul Montgomery</a>, and Iowa State took a 10-7 lead to halftime.\nIn the third quarter, Brock Forsey gave Boise State the lead again, as he rumbled in from 2 yards out to place the Broncos in front 14-10. Quarterback <a href=\"Ryan%20Dinwiddie\">Ryan Dinwiddie</a> later scored on a 1-yard quarterback sneak to make it 21-10. In the fourth quarter, Brock Forsey added his third touchdown of the game, a 9 yarder, as Boise State built a 27-10 lead, and pulled away from Iowa State. <a href=\"Lane%20Danielson\">Lane Danielson</a> scored on a four-yard run making it 27-16, but Ryan Dinwiddie threw a 3-yard touchdown pass to Lou Fanucchi to cap the scoring, and give Boise State a 34-16 win.\n\n","2002 Iowa State Cyclones football team\nThe 2002 Iowa State Cyclones football team represented the <a href=\"Iowa%20State%20University\">Iowa State University</a> in the <a href=\"2002%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\">2002 NCAA Division I-A football season</a>. The team captains were Zach Butler, Jordan Carstens, Seneca Wallace, and Chris Whitaker. The Cyclones were quarterbacked by <a href=\"Seneca%20Wallace\">Seneca Wallace</a>. Seneca is among many former Cyclones from the 2002 team to make it to the NFL. Others were <a href=\"Ellis%20Hobbs\">Ellis Hobbs</a>, <a href=\"Jordan%20Carstens\">Jordan Carstens</a>, Jeremy Loyd. Iowa State would conclude its season by playing in the <a href=\"2002%20Humanitarian%20Bowl\">2002 Humanitarian Bowl</a>. It was Iowa State's third consecutive bowl appearance - the two previous bowls were the <a href=\"2000%20Insight.com%20Bowl\">2000 Insight.com Bowl</a> and the <a href=\"2001%20Independence%20Bowl\">2001 Independence Bowl</a>.\nOn November 30, 2002 eight Iowa State players were named to the all-Big 12 football teams. Second-team players were Offensive lineman Bob Montgomery, quarterback Seneca Wallace, place-kicker Adam Benike and defensive tackle Jordan Carstens. The third-team consisted of offensive lineman Zach Butler and strong safety JaMaine Billups. Wide receiver Lane Danielsen and linebacker Jeremy Loyd were honorable mention choices. On December 2, 2002 defensive tackle Jordan Carstens and wide receiver Jack Whitver were named to the Verizon Academic All-America Football Teams. They earned first and second team honors respectively. Iowa State was also only one of eight teams with more than one player recognized. On December 4, 2002 Iowa State started taking deposits on three bowl games. The three Bowls were the Tangerine, Humanitarian and Motor City bowls.","2016 Boise State Broncos football team\nThe 2016 Boise State Broncos football team represented <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a> during the <a href=\"2016%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2016 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. It marked the Broncos' 80th season overall, sixth as a member of the <a href=\"Mountain%20West%20Conference\">Mountain West Conference</a> and fourth within the Mountain Division. They played their home games at <a href=\"Albertsons%20Stadium\">Albertsons Stadium</a> in <a href=\"Boise%2C%20Idaho\">Boise, Idaho</a>. They were led by third-year head coach <a href=\"Bryan%20Harsin\">Bryan Harsin</a>. They finished the season 10–3, 6–2 in Mountain West play to finish in a three-way tie for the Mountain Division title. After tiebreakers, they did not represent the Mountain Division in the <a href=\"2016%20Mountain%20West%20Conference%20Football%20Championship%20Game\">Mountain West Championship Game</a>. They were invited to the <a href=\"2016%20Cactus%20Bowl%20%28December%29\">Cactus Bowl</a> where they lost to <a href=\"2016%20Baylor%20Bears%20football%20team\">Baylor</a>.\nThis season marked the 30th anniversary season that the Broncos have played on the Blue Turf.\nListed in the order that they were released.\n<a href=\"Maxwell%20Award\">Maxwell Award</a> – So. QB <a href=\"Brett%20Rypien\">Brett Rypien</a> & Jr. RB <a href=\"Jeremy%20McNichols\">Jeremy McNichols</a>\n<a href=\"Mackey%20Award\">Mackey Award</a> – Jr. TE Jake Roh\n<a href=\"Lou%20Groza%20Award\">Lou Groza Award</a> – Sr. K Tyler Rausa\n<a href=\"Bronko%20Nagurski%20Trophy\">Bronko Nagurski Trophy</a> – Sr. LB Tanner Vallejo\n<a href=\"Butkus%20Award\">Butkus Award</a> – Sr. LB Tanner Vallejo\n<a href=\"Fred%20Biletnikoff%20Award\">Fred Biletnikoff Award</a> – Sr. WR <a href=\"Thomas%20Sperbeck\">Thomas Sperbeck</a>\n<a href=\"Davey%20O%27Brien%20Award\">Davey O'Brien Award</a> – So. QB Brett Rypien\n<a href=\"Doak%20Walker%20Award\">Doak Walker Award</a> – Jr. RB Jeremy McNichols\n<a href=\"Walter%20Camp%20Award\">Walter Camp Award</a> – So. QB Brett Rypien\nAt the Mountain West media days, held at the <a href=\"Cosmopolitan%20of%20Las%20Vegas\">Cosmopolitan</a> in <a href=\"Las%20Vegas%20Valley\">Las Vegas</a>, <a href=\"Nevada\">Nevada</a>, the Broncos were picked as the overwhelming favorites to win the Mountain Division title, receiving 27 of a possible 29 first place votes. So. QB <a href=\"Brett%20Rypien\">Brett Rypien</a>, Sr. WR <a href=\"Thomas%20Sperbeck\">Thomas Sperbeck</a> and Sr. K Tyler Rausa were selected to the all-conference first team.\n\n\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, blue jersey, blue pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, blue jersey, blue pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks and throwback logos, white jersey, orange pants. This combo is in honor of the 10th anniversary of the <a href=\"2006%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2006 team</a> that won the <a href=\"2007%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">2007 Fiesta Bowl</a>. It is also the first time Boise State wore white at home since the <a href=\"2005%20MPC%20Computers%20Bowl\">2005 MPC Computers Bowl</a>.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, blue jersey, blue pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, black jersey, black pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks and stars and stripes helmet numbers, white jersey, blue pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks and stars and stripes helmet numbers, blue jersey, blue pants.\"\n\n\"Uniform combination: black helmet, white jersey, white pants.\"\nAir Force became the first team to beat Boise State for three consecutive season since Nevada in 1996–98.\n\n\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, white jersey, orange pants\"\nAll opponents\nMountain West opponents\n\"Offense\"\n<a href=\"Brett%20Rypien\">Brett Rypien</a> – So. QB\n<a href=\"Thomas%20Sperbeck\">Thomas Sperbeck</a> – Sr. WR\nTravis Averill – Sr. OL\nMario Yakoo – Sr. OL\n\"Defense\"\nSam McCaskill – Sr. DL\nDavid Moa – So. DL\n\"Offense\"\n<a href=\"Jeremy%20McNichols\">Jeremy McNichols</a> – Jr. RB\n\"Defense\"\nBen Weaver – Sr. LB\nChanceller James – Sr. DB\nJonathan Moxey – Sr. DB\nSean Wale – Sr. P\nSteven Baggett – Sr. OL\nMason Hampton – Jr. OL\nTanner Vallejo – Sr. LB\nCedrick Wilson – Jr. WR","Skip Hall\nMerle \"Skip\" Hall (born February 18, 1944) is a former <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> coach. He served as the head football coach at <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a> for six seasons, from 1987 to 1992, compiling a record of 42–28. He replaced <a href=\"Lyle%20Setencich\">Lyle Setencich</a> following the 1986 season, Boise State's first losing season in four decades. Hall was previously an assistant coach at <a href=\"Kent%20State%20Golden%20Flashes%20football\">Kent State</a> and <a href=\"Washington%20Huskies%20football\">Washington</a> under <a href=\"Don%20James%20%28American%20football%29\">Don James</a>, and later was the <a href=\"defensive%20coordinator\">defensive coordinator</a> at <a href=\"Missouri%20Tigers%20football\">Missouri</a> under <a href=\"Bob%20Stull\">Bob Stull</a>.\nIn Hall's second season, he led the Broncos back to the <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\">NCAA Division I-AA playoffs</a>, their first appearance since 1981. Hall's best season was in 1990, when Boise State advanced to the national semifinals, falling in a high scoring game against <a href=\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\">Big Sky</a> rival <a href=\"Nevada%20Wolf%20Pack%20football\">Nevada</a>, the conference champion whom the Broncos had defeated a month earlier in <a href=\"Boise%2C%20Idaho\">Boise</a>.\nHall gave <a href=\"Jim%20Zorn\">Jim Zorn</a> his first coaching job, as quarterbacks coach at Boise State in 1988. Former <a href=\"Seattle%20Seahawks\">Seattle Seahawks</a> and <a href=\"Atlanta%20Falcons\">Atlanta Falcons</a> head coach <a href=\"Jim%20L.%20Mora\">Jim Mora</a> is a former player of Hall's, as are <a href=\"Nick%20Saban\">Nick Saban</a> of <a href=\"Alabama%20Crimson%20Tide%20football\">Alabama</a> and <a href=\"Gary%20Pinkel\">Gary Pinkel</a> of <a href=\"Missouri%20Tigers%20football\">Missouri</a>.\nAfter 30 years of coaching college football, Hall transferred to the business arena with <a href=\"Aflac\">Aflac</a>, recruiting, coaching, and building teams. He was a regional manager with Aflac for ten years, and was then appointed Associate Managing Director of Individual Sales for the <a href=\"Principal%20Financial%20Group\">Principal Financial Group</a> in Boise. Hall also travels throughout the United States addressing business leaders on the subjects of communication, leadership, motivation and accountability.\nAssistants under Skip Hall who became NCAA or NFL head coaches:\n","1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season\nThe 1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season, part of <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> in the United States organized by the <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">National Collegiate Athletic Association</a> at the <a href=\"Division%20I%20%28NCAA%29\">Division I Football Championship Subdivision</a> level, began in August 1991, and concluded with the National Championship Game of the <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\">NCAA Division I Football Championship</a> on December 21, 1991, at <a href=\"Paulson%20Stadium\">Paulson Stadium</a> in <a href=\"Statesboro%2C%20Georgia\">Statesboro, Georgia</a>. The <a href=\"Youngstown%20State%20Penguins%20football\">Youngstown State Penguins</a> won their first I-AA championship, defeating the <a href=\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd%20football\">Marshall Thundering Herd</a> by a final score of 25−17.\n<nowiki>*</nowiki> \"Next to team name denotes host institution\"\n<nowiki>*</nowiki> \"Next to score denotes host overtime period\"\n","Albertsons Stadium\nAlbertsons Stadium is an outdoor athletic stadium in the <a href=\"Western%20United%20States\">western</a> <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, located on the campus of <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a> in <a href=\"Boise%2C%20Idaho\">Boise, Idaho</a>. It is the home field of the <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State Broncos</a> of the <a href=\"Mountain%20West%20Conference\">Mountain West Conference</a>. Known as Bronco Stadium for its first 44 seasons, it was renamed in May <a href=\"2014%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2014</a> when <a href=\"Albertsons\">Albertsons</a>, a chain of grocery stores founded by Boise area resident <a href=\"Joe%20Albertson\">Joe Albertson</a>, purchased the naming rights.\nOpened in <a href=\"1970%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1970</a>, it was also a <a href=\"Track%20and%20field%20athletics\">track & field</a> stadium and hosted the <a href=\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Outdoor%20Track%20and%20Field%20Championships\">NCAA track & field championships</a> twice, in <a href=\"1994%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Outdoor%20Track%20and%20Field%20Championships\">1994</a> and 1999. The stadium was used extensively for local <a href=\"high%20school%20football\">high school football</a> for decades until August <a href=\"2012%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2012</a>, when games were transferred a few blocks northeast to the new Dona Larsen Park, which is also the new home venue of Boise State's track & field team.\nAlbertsons Stadium is widely known for its unusual blue playing surface, installed in <a href=\"1986%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1986</a>, while Boise State was in the <a href=\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\">Big Sky Conference</a>. It was the first non-green playing surface (outside of painted end zones) in football history and remained the only one among <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I\">NCAA Division I</a> <a href=\"Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\">FBS</a> schools for almost 20 years.\nSince <a href=\"1997%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\">1997</a>, it has hosted the <a href=\"Famous%20Idaho%20Potato%20Bowl\">Famous Idaho Potato Bowl</a> (also called the Humanitarian Bowl from 1997 to January 2004 & 2007 to 2010; as well as the MPC Computers Bowl from 2004 to 2006), which is the longest-running outdoor <a href=\"bowl%20game\">bowl game</a> in a cold-weather venue.\nAlbertsons Stadium is located at the east end of the BSU campus, bordered by Broadway Avenue to the east, University Drive to the south, and the <a href=\"Boise%20River\">Boise River</a> to the north. The <a href=\"elevation\">elevation</a> of its playing field is 2695 ft above <a href=\"sea%20level\">sea level</a>.\nAlbertsons Stadium is the first venue to hold its name. However, when it was Bronco Stadium, it was the fourth venue and second of the same name at Boise State; the three on-campus stadiums were built in 1940, 1950, and 1970, respectively.\nDuring its first years at its original campus, BJC football was played at \"Public School Field,\" located three blocks north-northeast of today's Albertsons Stadium. The site was the home of East Junior High School from 1953 to 2009 until it was demolished and rebuilt further down Warm Springs Ave., and the previous area became Dona Larsen Park in 2012.\nAfter the college moved to its present campus in 1940, \"College Field\" opened in September 1940 with lights and a seating capacity of 1,000. Also called \"Chaffee Field,\" it was used through 1949 for <a href=\"junior%20college\">junior college</a> football <a href=\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D308%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D1\">(photo - 1940s)</a>. In the 1950s, it became the <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%23Baseball\">baseball</a> field, aligned southeast, until right field was displaced by the construction of the Student Union Building, which opened in 1967. The baseball field migrated slightly east, then north, with a new northeast alignment and home plate at ( ). It was eliminated in 1980 by the construction of the <a href=\"Taco%20Bell%20Arena\">BSU Pavilion</a> and the relocation of the tennis courts. (Baseball was dropped by both BSU and <a href=\"Idaho%20Vandals%20baseball\">Idaho</a> following the 1980 season; the Broncos played home games at <a href=\"Borah%20High%20School\">Borah Field</a> during their final season.)\nThe first \"Bronco Stadium\" was built in three months in <a href=\"1950%20college%20football%20season\">1950</a> at the east end of campus, with wooden grandstands, a natural grass playing field, lights, and a cinder running track; seating capacity was 10,000. It was in approximately the same location as the present stadium, but aligned northwest to southeast. <a href=\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D471%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D11\">(photo - 1964)</a> The 45° offset was designed to keep the mid-afternoon sun of mid-October out of the players' eyes (but put it into the eyes of half of the spectators).\nFrom the 1920s through <a href=\"1968%20college%20football%20season\">1968</a>, the <a href=\"University%20of%20Idaho\">University of Idaho</a> <a href=\"Idaho%20Vandals%20football\">Vandals</a> usually played one home game per season in Boise, often against schools from Oregon or Utah. After Boise State joined the <a href=\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\">Big Sky</a> in 1970, Idaho discontinued its practice of scheduling home games in Boise, sometimes referred to as \"southern homecoming.\" (Idaho did use the new Bronco Stadium for a \"home\" game in <a href=\"1971%20Idaho%20Vandals%20football%20team\">1971</a>, but it was against Boise State in the first football game ever played between the schools. Idaho's <a href=\"Kibbie%20Dome\">new stadium</a> on campus in <a href=\"Moscow%2C%20Idaho\">Moscow</a> was behind schedule so the university rented Bronco Stadium for its opening game. The underdog \"visitors\" of Boise State built a 28–7 lead at halftime and won handily 42–14 and a <a href=\"Boise%20State%E2%80%93Idaho%20football%20rivalry\">rivalry game</a> was born.)\nThe Boise College football program upgraded from junior college to four-year status in <a href=\"1968%20college%20football%20season\">1968</a> and competed as an <a href=\"National%20Association%20for%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics\">NAIA</a> independent for two seasons. The school became Boise State College in 1969 and the Broncos were accepted into the <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">NCAA</a> in October. A month later the school was voted into the <a href=\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\">Big Sky Conference</a>, effective fall 1970. Following the 1969 football season, the first Bronco Stadium was razed in November and the new concrete stadium was ready for play in less than ten months.\nBoise State began NCAA competition in <a href=\"1970%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1970</a> in the College Division (became <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20II\">Division II</a> in <a href=\"1973%20NCAA%20Division%20II%20football%20season\">1973</a>) in a brand new venue. The first game at the new Bronco Stadium was on September 11, a 49–14 victory over <a href=\"Chico%20State%20Wildcats\">Chico State</a>. The $2.2 million concrete stadium opened with a <a href=\"seating%20capacity\">seating capacity</a> of 14,500 and a green <a href=\"AstroTurf\">AstroTurf</a> playing field, configured in the traditional north-south direction, and an all-weather running track. For its first five seasons, the stadium consisted of two sideline grandstands, the west side having an upper deck and the press box. <a href=\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D473%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D2\">(photo - 1971)</a> Boise State became a charter member of Division II when the NCAA reorganized the former College Division in <a href=\"1973%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1973</a>.\nFollowing the <a href=\"1974%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1974</a> season, the school's first as Boise State University, an upper deck was added to the east side <a href=\"http%3A//www.idahostatesman.com/2009/10/13/934974_a934981/boise-state-vs-idaho-rivalry-over.html\">(photo - 1971)</a> - <a href=\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D286%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D6\">(photo -1975)</a>, adding 5,500 seats as well as symmetry to the stadium. The permanent seating capacity grew to 20,000 for its Bronco Stadium's sixth season in <a href=\"1975%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1975</a>, with up to 2,600 temporary seats available in the north end zone seating for bigger games. The original green artificial turf was replaced with the same in <a href=\"1978%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1978</a> as the Big Sky and the Broncos moved up to the newly-formed <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%23Football%20Championship%20Subdivision\">Division I-AA</a>. <a href=\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D616%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D9\">(photo - mid 1980s)</a> The Broncos moved to the <a href=\"Big%20West%20Conference\">Big West</a> and <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\">Division I-A</a> in <a href=\"1996%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1996</a>, which resulted in another stadium expansion. The two-tier grandstands were extended around the corners of the south end zone, raising the permanent seating capacity to 30,000 in <a href=\"1997%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1997</a>. The latest stadium expansion was completed in time for the <a href=\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2008</a> season, with the addition of the Stueckle Sky Club press box, luxury suites, loge boxes, and club seating; raising the capacity to 32,000. In the summer of <a href=\"2009%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2009</a>, 1,500 additional bleacher seats were added to the south end zone to bring capacity up to 33,500. Prior to the <a href=\"2012%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2012</a> season, expanded bleacher sections were added to the north and south end zones, expanding capacity to a total of 36,387.\nDuring its 11th season, the playing field at Bronco Stadium was named Lyle Smith Field during the <a href=\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\">I-AA national championship</a> season of <a href=\"1980%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1980</a>. Ceremonies during halftime of the 14–3 victory over <a href=\"Nevada%20Wolf%20Pack%20football\">Nevada</a> on November 8 marked the event. It honors <a href=\"Lyle%20Smith\">Lyle H. Smith</a>, the <a href=\"head%20coach\">head coach</a> from 1947 to 1967 and athletic director from 1968 to 1981, overseeing BSU's rise from the junior college ranks to Division I-AA champions in 1980.\nSmith led Boise, as BJC, to multiple post-season bowls, including the 1958 <a href=\"NJCAA%20National%20Football%20Championship\">national junior college championship</a>, and compiled an overall record of 156–26–8 ( ), which included five undefeated seasons and 16 conference titles. He was also the <a href=\"baseball\">baseball</a> coach for 17 seasons and served as <a href=\"basketball\">basketball</a> coach for a season at the school. Smith hired <a href=\"Tony%20Knap\">Tony Knap</a> to replace himself as football coach in 1968, and <a href=\"Jim%20Criner\">Jim Criner</a> to replace Knap in <a href=\"1976%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1976</a>.\nThe current attendance record is 36,864, set on September 20, <a href=\"2012%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2012</a> against <a href=\"2012%20BYU%20Cougars%20football%20team\">BYU</a>.\nIn 2015, the stadium played host to a <a href=\"Exhibition%20game\">soccer friendly</a> on July 18, named the <a href=\"Basques\">Basque</a> Soccer Friendly, between <a href=\"Athletic%20Bilbao\">Athletic Bilbao</a> of <a href=\"La%20Liga\">La Liga</a> vs <a href=\"Club%20Tijuana\">Club Tijuana</a> of <a href=\"Liga%20MX\">Liga MX</a>. To accommodate the game, a natural grass surface was laid on top of the famous blue turf to conform to La Liga rules. It was the first time since <a href=\"1985%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1985</a> that the stadium featured a green surface for any sporting event. Before a crowd of 21,948, Athletic Bilbao won 2–0.\nAlbertsons Stadium is best known for its distinctive blue playing surface, which was the only non-green football playing surface among Division I FBS programs from Boise State's entry into what is now FBS in <a href=\"1996%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\">1996</a> until <a href=\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20football\">Eastern Michigan</a> installed a gray surface at <a href=\"Rynearson%20Stadium\">Rynearson Stadium</a> in <a href=\"2014%20Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20football%20team\">2014</a>.\n<a href=\"Chris%20Berman\">Chris Berman</a> of <a href=\"ESPN\">ESPN</a> has also called Boise's turf \"The Blue Plastic Tundra,\" a joking reference to \"the frozen tundra\" of <a href=\"Lambeau%20Field\">Lambeau Field</a> in <a href=\"Green%20Bay%2C%20Wisconsin\">Green Bay, Wisconsin</a>. Another nickname for the surface is \"<a href=\"Smurf\">Smurf</a> Turf.\" Players refer to it simply as \"The Blue.\"\nAfter sixteen seasons of playing on standard green <a href=\"AstroTurf\">AstroTurf</a>, athletic director <a href=\"Gene%20Bleymaier\">Gene Bleymaier</a> came up with the idea to install the blue turf. He decided that, if BSU was going to spend $750,000 on a new surface, he didn't want to see BSU install yet another green field, and that a blue field might provide some national notoriety for the school, then a member of the <a href=\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\">Big Sky Conference</a>. Bleymaier gained the support of BSU President John Keiser, and on September 13, 1986, Bronco Stadium introduced its unique playing surface to the world with a 74-0 victory over Division II <a href=\"Humboldt%20State%20Lumberjacks\">Humboldt State</a>. (BSU was 4–2 at home in <a href=\"1986%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1986</a>, but managed just one road victory and posted its first losing record in four decades, resulting in the resignation of fourth-year head coach <a href=\"Lyle%20Setencich\">Lyle Setencich</a>.)\nBSU replaced the first blue AstroTurf with the same in <a href=\"1995%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1995</a>, then with blue <a href=\"Astroplay\">Astroplay</a> (a grass-like synthetic surface that is more forgiving than traditional AstroTurf) in <a href=\"2002%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2002</a>. The AstroPlay field lasted just six seasons and was replaced in the summer of <a href=\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2008</a> with blue <a href=\"FieldTurf\">FieldTurf</a> surface. Due to complaints by fans that the reflection and glare off the field gave the new field a dull and uneven shade of blue, FieldTurf agreed to replace the field free of charge. The fifth blue turf was installed in the summer of <a href=\"2010%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2010</a>.\nThe unique blue turf has spawned several myths. The most prevalent is that the NCAA subsequently banned playing surface colors other than green, but allowed Albertsons Stadium's field to remain blue under a <a href=\"grandfather%20clause\">grandfather clause</a>. In reality, the NCAA has never adopted such a rule. Any school may color its playing surface (or any part, mainly the end zones) any color it wishes. Indeed, since 1986 other schools have non-green football fields including the <a href=\"New%20Haven%20Chargers\">University of New Haven</a> (blue) and <a href=\"Eastern%20Washington%20Eagles%20football\">Eastern Washington University</a> (<a href=\"Roos%20Field\">red</a>). On April 1, 2011, the <a href=\"Central%20Arkansas%20Bears%20and%20Sugar%20Bears\">University of Central Arkansas</a> announced it would install a purple and grey striped field to <a href=\"Estes%20Stadium\">Estes Stadium</a>. In 2012, <a href=\"Lindenwood%20University%20%E2%80%93%20Belleville\">Lindenwood University</a> in <a href=\"Belleville%2C%20Illinois\">Belleville, Illinois</a>, played their first football season, on a home field with alternating maroon and gray stripes. The blue turf at Boise State remained the only non-traditionally colored field used by a Division I FBS program until June 2014, when <a href=\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20football\">Eastern Michigan</a> announced it would install a gray FieldTurf surface at <a href=\"Rynearson%20Stadium\">Rynearson Stadium</a> in time for the 2014 season.\nAnother myth is that, mistaking the blue field for a large body of water, birds have flown into the blue turf and to their deaths. Although Bronco head coach <a href=\"Chris%20Petersen\">Chris Petersen</a> claimed to have found a dead duck on the field in <a href=\"2007%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2007</a>, the origin of the duck on the field has never been confirmed.\nBSU's blue turf has become such a highly visible icon for the Broncos that BSU obtained a U.S. trademark registration for a blue athletics field in November 2009. In 2010, this trademark was extended to any non-green field.\nIn , the <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a> banned any playing surface color other than green, naming the rule the \"Boise Rule\" in reference to the university, though this was more a reaction to sponsor influence as no team had ever proposed a different turf color for its field. Also in 2011, the Mountain West Conference banned Boise from wearing its all-blue uniforms during home conference games, after complaints from other Mountain West coaches that it was an unfair advantage. However, the uniform restriction was removed from the <a href=\"2013%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2013</a> season forward, as part of the deal that <a href=\"2010%E2%80%9313%20Mountain%20West%20Conference%20realignment%23Boise%20State%20remains%20in%20MW\">kept Boise State in the MW</a> after it had originally planned to leave the conference.\nIn October 2014, Boise State's blue field topped USA Today's Fan Index list of top 10 best fields in college football.\nAs the Boise State football program rose to national prominence in the early 2000s, Albertsons Stadium became increasingly insufficient. The school completed a three-story complex on the stadium's west side called the Stueckle Sky Club (pronounced \"Stickle\"). Construction began on February 11, 2007, and the facility officially opened on August 27, <a href=\"2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2008</a> with a gala for ticket holders prior to the first game on August 30. It features levels for a new press box, luxury suites, loge boxes, and club seating and increased seating capacity to 32,000.\nThe practice facility, named the Caven-Williams Sports Complex, officially opened in February <a href=\"2006%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2006</a>, and is located immediately northwest of Albertsons Stadium. The university added additional temporary seating for 1,500 prior to the <a href=\"2009%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2009</a> season. The removable bleachers increased capacity to 33,500. It also added permanent bleachers to the north and south end zones prior to the <a href=\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2012</a> season, raising Albertsons Stadium's capacity to a total of 37,000.\nIn late August 2010, the athletic department revealed expansion plans for Albertsons Stadium. The first stages were to include adding a new facility to the north end zone to house the football offices, weight room, training room, equipment room and locker room. Plans also included a 13,200 seat grandstand. The later stages of the expansion plan included removal of the track, lowering of the field, and adding 3,300 seats in front of the first deck of the stadium, completion of the south end zone horseshoe, building of an east side skybox, and renovation of the east side concourse. The total cost for all planned expansions was around $100 million. The total seating capacity for a fully expanded Albertsons Stadium was estimated to be around 53,000. In April 2012, the university broke ground on a revised expansion which it hoped to complete by June 2013.\nDuring Boise State's recent streak of conference championships, Albertsons Stadium has proven to be a tough place for opponents. The Broncos are 112–7 ( ) at home since the <a href=\"1999%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">1999</a> season with the losses being to <a href=\"2001%20Washington%20State%20Cougars%20football%20team\">Washington State</a> in <a href=\"2001%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\">2001</a>, <a href=\"2005%20Boston%20College%20Eagles%20football%20team\">Boston College</a> in the <a href=\"2005%20MPC%20Computers%20Bowl\">2005 MPC Computers Bowl</a>, <a href=\"2011%20TCU%20Horned%20Frogs%20football%20team\">TCU</a> in 2011, <a href=\"2012%20San%20Diego%20State%20Aztecs%20football%20team\">San Diego State</a> in 2012, <a href=\"2015%20New%20Mexico%20Lobos%20football%20team\">New Mexico</a> and <a href=\"2015%20Air%20Force%20Falcons%20football%20team\">Air Force</a> in 2015 in back-to-back weeks and to <a href=\"2017%20Virginia%20Cavaliers%20football%20team\">Virginia</a> in 2017. The Broncos won 47 straight home conference games from 1999 to 2011 and were undefeated in conference during their 10 years in the <a href=\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\">WAC</a> (40–0). The Broncos are 108–6 ( ) in regular season home games since 1999, and had a winning streak of 65 regular season games from 2001 to 2011.\nThe stadium expanded to 36,387 in 2012 and the highest attendances have all come since.\n\n","Nate Potter\nNate Potter (born May 16, 1988) is an <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> <a href=\"offensive%20tackle\">offensive tackle</a> who is currently a free agent. He played <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> for <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a> and was recognized as an <a href=\"All-American\">All-American</a>. The Cardinals drafted him in the seventh round of the <a href=\"2012%20NFL%20Draft\">2012 NFL Draft</a>.\nPotter was born in <a href=\"Denver%2C%20Colorado\">Denver, Colorado</a>. He attended <a href=\"Timberline%20High%20School%20%28Boise%2C%20Idaho%29\">Timberline High School</a> in Boise and was a standout lineman for the Timberline Wolves <a href=\"high%20school%20football\">high school football</a> team.\nPotter attended Boise State University, where he played for the <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State Broncos football</a> team from 2008 to 2011. He grayshirted and later <a href=\"Redshirt%20%28college%20sports%29\">redshirted</a> in <a href=\"2007%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2007</a>. In <a href=\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2008</a>, he started three games at <a href=\"Offensive%20tackle\">left tackle</a> and five games at right tackle for the Broncos.\nPotter earned <a href=\"ESPN\">ESPN</a>'s second-team Academic All-America honors on November 23, 2010. He earned first-team All-WAC honors for the second straight season following the <a href=\"2010%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">2010 season</a>. In 2011, Potter was a consensus All-American.\nPotter was drafted by the Arizona Cardinals in the seventh round of the 2012 NFL Draft. He played eight games that season. He was released with an injury settlement on August 30, 2014.\n","2008 Poinsettia Bowl\nThe 2008 San Diego County Credit Union <a href=\"Poinsettia%20Bowl\">Poinsettia Bowl</a> was the fourth edition of the <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> <a href=\"bowl%20game\">bowl game</a>, and was played at <a href=\"Qualcomm%20Stadium\">Qualcomm Stadium</a> in <a href=\"San%20Diego%2C%20California\">San Diego</a>, <a href=\"California\">California</a>. The game started at 5 PM <a href=\"Pacific%20Time%20Zone\">US PST</a> on Tuesday, December 23, <a href=\"2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2008</a>. The game, <a href=\"simulcast\">simulcast</a> on <a href=\"ESPN\">ESPN</a> and <a href=\"ESPN%20Radio\">ESPN Radio</a> with <a href=\"Rece%20Davis\">Rece Davis</a>, <a href=\"Mark%20May\">Mark May</a>, and <a href=\"Lou%20Holtz\">Lou Holtz</a> announcing, pit the <a href=\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">Boise State Broncos</a> against the <a href=\"2008%20TCU%20Horned%20Frogs%20football%20team\">Texas Christian Horned Frogs</a>. In the game, TCU overcame a 13–0 deficit to pull off an impressive 17–16 win over Boise State.\nWith Boise State ranked 9th and TCU ranked 11th, this bowl pairing featured teams both ranked higher than the teams playing in a <a href=\"Bowl%20Championship%20Series\">BCS</a> game during the same season, the <a href=\"2009%20Orange%20Bowl\">2009 Orange Bowl</a>, a first in BCS history.\nTCU and Boise State would face off in a bowl game again the following season when both played in a BCS game, the <a href=\"2010%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">2010 Fiesta Bowl</a>.\n","2008 TCU Horned Frogs football team\nThe 2008 TCU Horned Frogs football team represented <a href=\"Texas%20Christian%20University\">Texas Christian University</a> in the <a href=\"2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. The team was coached by <a href=\"Gary%20Patterson\">Gary Patterson</a>. The Frogs played their home games at <a href=\"Amon%20G.%20Carter%20Stadium\">Amon G. Carter Stadium</a>, which is located on campus in <a href=\"Fort%20Worth%2C%20Texas\">Fort Worth</a>. The Horned Frogs finished the season 11–2, 7–1 in conference, and won the <a href=\"2008%20Poinsettia%20Bowl\">Poinsettia Bowl</a> against #9 <a href=\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">Boise State</a>, 17–16.\n<nowiki>** </nowiki>Game was moved to an earlier start time due to <a href=\"Hurricane%20Ike\">Hurricane Ike</a>\nNote that parenthetical rankings are not official below No. 25, but are based on number of votes received in the various polls.","2009 TCU Horned Frogs football team\nThe 2009 TCU Horned Frogs football team represented <a href=\"Texas%20Christian%20University\">Texas Christian University</a> in the <a href=\"2009%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\">2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. The team was coached by <a href=\"Gary%20Patterson\">Gary Patterson</a>. The Frogs played their home games at <a href=\"Amon%20G.%20Carter%20Stadium\">Amon G. Carter Stadium</a>, which is located on campus in <a href=\"Fort%20Worth%2C%20Texas\">Fort Worth</a>. The Horned Frogs finished the season 12–1 (8–0 MWC) and won the <a href=\"Mountain%20West%20Conference\">Mountain West Conference</a> title. On December 6, they were invited to their first <a href=\"Bowl%20Championship%20Series\">Bowl Championship Series</a> game and their first major bowl since the <a href=\"1959%20Cotton%20Bowl%20Classic\">1959 Cotton Bowl Classic</a>, against #6 <a href=\"2009%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">Boise State</a> in the <a href=\"2010%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">Tostitos Fiesta Bowl</a> on January 4, 2010. In the <a href=\"Fiesta%20Bowl\">Fiesta Bowl</a>, TCU was upset by underdog <a href=\"2009%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\">Boise State</a>, 17–10.\n","Paul "Bear" Bryant Award\nThe <a href=\"American%20Heart%20Association\">American Heart Association</a> (AHA) Paul \"Bear\" Bryant Awards are an annual awards banquet that is hosted each year in January, in <a href=\"Houston%2C%20Texas\">Houston, Texas</a>, by the AHA. There are two awards. One of them—the Paul \"Bear\" Bryant Coach of the Year Award—has been given annually since 1986 to <a href=\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\">NCAA</a> <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a>'s national coach of the year. The Award was named in honor of longtime <a href=\"University%20of%20Alabama\">Alabama</a> coach <a href=\"Bear%20Bryant\">Bear Bryant</a> after he died of a heart attack in 1983. It is voted on by the <a href=\"National%20Sports%20Media%20Association%23Paul%20%26quot%3BBear%26quot%3B%20Bryant%20Award\">National Sports Media Association</a> (formerly the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association) and proceeds from the awards ceremony benefit the Houston chapter of the <a href=\"American%20Heart%20Association\">American Heart Association</a>, which is the organizing sponsor—since 1986, at the request of the Bryant family—and which obtains a \"presenting sponsor\" (currently <a href=\"Marathon%20Oil%20Corporation\">Marathon Oil Corporation</a>). The College Football Coach of the Year Award began in 1957 and was renamed for Bryant in 1986. Bryant himself won the <a href=\"AFCA%20Coach%20of%20the%20Year\">AFCA Coach of the Year</a> award in 1961, 1971, and 1973.\nAccording to the official website:\nThe Paul \"Bear\" Bryant College Football Coaching Awards is an exclusive event that honors a college football coach whose great accomplishments, both on and off the field, are legendary. The award recognizes the masters of coaching and allows them to take their deserved place in history beside other legends like Bear Bryant.\nUnlike many college football head coaching awards, it is presented after each season's bowl games.\nIn 2000, the AHA began presenting a second award, the Paul \"Bear\" Bryant Lifetime Achievement Award.\n2000 – <a href=\"Darrell%20Royal\">Darrell Royal</a>\n2001 – <a href=\"Charles%20McClendon\">Charles McClendon</a>\n2002 – <a href=\"Bill%20Yeoman\">Bill Yeoman</a>\n2003 – <a href=\"Frank%20Broyles\">Frank Broyles</a>\n2004 – <a href=\"Gene%20Stallings\">Gene Stallings</a>\n2005 – <a href=\"Lou%20Holtz\">Lou Holtz</a>\n2006 – <a href=\"Jack%20Pardee\">Jack Pardee</a>\n2007 – <a href=\"Bo%20Schembechler\">Bo Schembechler</a>\n2008 – <a href=\"Tom%20Osborne\">Tom Osborne</a>\n2009 – <a href=\"Barry%20Switzer\">Barry Switzer</a>\n2010 – <a href=\"Vince%20Dooley\">Vince Dooley</a>\n2011 – <a href=\"Bobby%20Bowden\">Bobby Bowden</a>\n2012 – <a href=\"Hayden%20Fry\">Hayden Fry</a>\n2013 – <a href=\"LaVell%20Edwards\">LaVell Edwards</a>\n2014 – <a href=\"R.%20C.%20Slocum\">R. C. Slocum</a>\n2015 – <a href=\"Jimmy_Johnson_%28American_football_coach%29\">Jimmy Johnson</a>\n2016 – <a href=\"Mack%20Brown\">Mack Brown</a>\n2017 – <a href=\"Barry%20Alvarez\">Barry Alvarez</a>\n","Ryan Clady\nRyan Jacob Clady (born September 6, 1986) is a former <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> <a href=\"offensive%20tackle\">offensive tackle</a> who played nine seasons in the <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">National Football League</a> (NFL). He played <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> for <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a>, and earned consensus <a href=\"All-American\">All-American</a> honors. The <a href=\"Denver%20Broncos\">Denver Broncos</a> selected Clady in the first round of the <a href=\"2008%20NFL%20Draft\">2008 NFL Draft</a>, and he was named to four <a href=\"Pro%20Bowl\">Pro Bowl</a>s in his eight years with the team. He also played one season for the <a href=\"New%20York%20Jets\">New York Jets</a>.\nClady was born in <a href=\"Long%20Beach%2C%20California\">Long Beach, California</a>. He attended <a href=\"Eisenhower%20High%20School%20%28Rialto%2C%20California%29\">Eisenhower High School</a> in <a href=\"Rialto%2C%20California\">Rialto, California</a> and was a <a href=\"Letterman%20%28sports%29\">letterman</a> in <a href=\"High%20school%20football\">football</a> and track. He was also a first-team All-<a href=\"Citrus%20Belt%20League\">Citrus Belt League</a> selection, a first-team All-<a href=\"San%20Bernardino%20County\">San Bernardino County</a> selection, and a first-team All-<a href=\"California%20Interscholastic%20Federation\">California Interscholastic Federation</a> Division I selection.\nIn <a href=\"track%20%26amp%3B%20field\">track & field</a>, Clady competed in the <a href=\"shot%20put\">shot put</a> (PR of 15.90m) and the <a href=\"discus%20throw\">discus throw</a> (PR of 46.41m).\nClady graduated from Eisenhower High School in 2004. Rated only a two-star recruit by <a href=\"Rivals.com\">Rivals.com</a>, he was not ranked among the nation's top offensive tackle prospects.\nClady attended <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a>, where he played for the <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State Broncos football</a> team from 2004 to 2007. He <a href=\"Redshirt%20%28college%20sports%29\">redshirt</a>ed as a freshman in 2004. He earned the starting right tackle position at the beginning of the 2005 season and started 13 of 13 games. He was voted to several <a href=\".com\">dotcoms</a>' second and third team <a href=\"All-American\">All-American</a> squads. He was moved to the left side before the 2006 campaign, starting all 13 games. Clady earned first team All-<a href=\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\">Western Athletic Conference</a> (WAC) honors following his sophomore season and was also named to the prestigious <a href=\"Sports%20Illustrated\">SI.com</a> Second-team All-American squad. In 2007, he started each game he played for Boise State and was once again a First-team All-WAC selection. Clady also made several First-team All-American rosters.\nClady was part of Boise State's historic 43–42 overtime win over <a href=\"2006%20Oklahoma%20Sooners%20football%20team\">Oklahoma</a> in the <a href=\"2007%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">2007 Fiesta Bowl</a>. In that game, many scouts first were able to see Clady on a national stage, and marveled at how well Clady handled Oklahoma pass rushers. He also had the key block for <a href=\"Ian%20Johnson%20%28American%20football%29\">Ian Johnson</a> in the game-winning <a href=\"Statue%20of%20Liberty%20play\">Statue of Liberty play</a>.\nClady drew comparisons to <a href=\"Chris%20Samuels\">Chris Samuels</a>. He was selected by the <a href=\"Denver%20Broncos\">Denver Broncos</a>, with the 12th overall pick in the first round of the <a href=\"2008%20NFL%20Draft\">2008 NFL Draft</a>. Clady was the highest drafted player in Boise State history and the 11th to be selected in the 1st round. He was also Denver's highest selected offensive lineman since <a href=\"Chris%20Hinton\">Chris Hinton</a> in <a href=\"1983%20NFL%20Draft\">1983</a>. The Broncos signed him to a five-year deal worth $46.75 million. It was reported to guarantee $23.375 million.\nClady started every game during the <a href=\"2008%20NFL%20season\">2008 NFL season</a> and gave up just a half of a sack while committing only three penalties. Following Week 12 of the <a href=\"2008%20NFL%20season\">2008 NFL season</a>, <a href=\"Peter%20King%20%28sportswriter%29\">Peter King</a> of \"<a href=\"Sports%20Illustrated\">Sports Illustrated</a>\" said Clady was the third-best rookie overall. On December 12, 2008, Clady won the <a href=\"Diet%20Pepsi%20NFL%20Rookie%20of%20the%20Week\">Diet Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week</a> award, after his game against the <a href=\"Kansas%20City%20Chiefs\">Kansas City Chiefs</a>. That was the first time all season that a <a href=\"lineman%20%28American%20football%29\">lineman</a>, either offensive or defensive, won the award.\nClady finished third in voting behind <a href=\"Matt%20Ryan%20%28American%20football%29\">Matt Ryan</a> and <a href=\"Chris%20Johnson%20%28running%20back%29\">Chris Johnson</a> for the 2008 <a href=\"National%20Football%20League%20Rookie%20of%20the%20Year%20Award\">NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award</a>. He was the only offensive lineman to receive any votes. He was the only starting NFL offensive lineman to give up less than one sack for the entire season. He was named to the <a href=\"Associated%20Press\">Associated Press</a> <a href=\"All-Pro\">NFL All-Pro Second Team</a> behind <a href=\"Michael%20Roos\">Michael Roos</a> and <a href=\"Jordan%20Gross\">Jordan Gross</a>.\nIn 2009, \"<a href=\"The%20Sporting%20News\">The Sporting News</a>\" listed Clady as the No. 1 offensive tackle in the NFL. After the Broncos' October 4, 2009 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, Clady set a new NFL record for consecutive games to start a career without giving up a full sack. Through 20 games, he has surrendered only half of a sack. Clady was named a starter for the <a href=\"2009%20Pro%20Bowl\">2009 Pro Bowl</a> and was named First-team All-Pro by the <a href=\"Sporting%20News\">Sporting News</a> and <a href=\"Associated%20Press\">Associated Press</a> after the 2009 season.\nOn April 28, 2010, Clady injured his patella tendon while playing basketball but did not miss a game the following season.\nIn 2011, Clady played all 16 games and was added to the <a href=\"2012%20Pro%20Bowl\">2012 Pro Bowl</a> roster along with teammate <a href=\"Willis%20McGahee\">Willis McGahee</a>. After the season, the Broncos tried to sign Clady to a long-term deal and offered him a 5-year $50 million deal with $28 million guaranteed, but he refused.\nIn the 2012 season, Clady allowed just one sack the entire season. Towards the end of the season, he tore a <a href=\"glenoid%20labrum\">labrum</a> in his right shoulder, but still did not miss any time. He played the last few games of the season including the playoffs with the injury, and had surgery to repair it only after the season ended. He was selected to the <a href=\"2013%20Pro%20Bowl\">2013 Pro Bowl</a> but did not play because of his shoulder injury.\nOn March 1, 2013, in order to prevent Clady from becoming an unrestricted free agent, the Broncos assigned him with the <a href=\"franchise%20tag\">franchise tag</a> worth $9.823 million. On July 14, 2013. Clady agreed to a new contract with the Broncos worth $52.5 million for five years. Of that, $33 million is guaranteed over the first three years of the contract. There is a maximum of $5 million in incentives attached to the deal. If Clady is named to the <a href=\"Associated%20Press\">Associated Press</a>'s <a href=\"All-Pro\">All-Pro</a> team, then he would receive an extra $500,000 each subsequent season. Should he be named to the team a second time, he will receive an extra $1.5 million. The deal came one day prior to the July 15th Deadline to extend \"franchise tagged\" Players.\nOn September 18, 2013, Clady was placed on season-ending <a href=\"injured%20reserve\">injured reserve</a>, due to a <a href=\"Lisfranc%20injury\">Lisfranc injury</a> he suffered during a week two matchup against the <a href=\"2013%20New%20York%20Giants%20season\">New York Giants</a>. The Denver Broncos signed <a href=\"Winston%20Justice\">Winston Justice</a> to replace his roster spot. Without Clady, the Broncos finished the 2013 season with the #1 offense and a 13-3 record. They reached <a href=\"Super%20Bowl%20XLVIII\">Super Bowl XLVIII</a>, but lost 43-8 to the <a href=\"Seattle%20Seahawks\">Seattle Seahawks</a>.\nClady played in the <a href=\"2015%20Pro%20Bowl\">2015 Pro Bowl</a>, earning his fourth appearance based on play during the 2014 season.\nOn May 28, 2015, Clady tore his <a href=\"Anterior%20cruciate%20ligament\">ACL</a> during OTA's. He was placed on injured reserve and sat out for the 2015 season.\nOn February 7, 2016, Clady was part of the Broncos team that won <a href=\"Super%20Bowl%2050\">Super Bowl 50</a> over the <a href=\"2015%20Carolina%20Panthers%20season\">Carolina Panthers</a> by a score of 24–10, but he did not play in the game due to his previously torn ACL.\nOn April 9, 2016, Clady and a seventh round pick were traded to the <a href=\"New%20York%20Jets\">New York Jets</a> in exchange for a fifth round pick. On April 10, he signed a one-year, $6 million contract with the Jets, including a club option for 2017. He was placed on injured reserve on November 9, 2016 with a shoulder injury. It was reported he was diagnosed with a torn <a href=\"rotator%20cuff\">rotator cuff</a> and missed the rest of the season after having surgery.\nOn February 15, 2017 the Jets declined Clady's $10 million option, making him an unrestricted free agent.\nOn August 1, 2017, Clady announced his retirement from the NFL after nine seasons, tweeting, \"I'm excited about what life holds for me going forward.\"\n\n","Ryan Winterswyk\nRyan Winterswyk (born February 10, 1987) is a former <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> <a href=\"tight%20end\">tight end</a>. He was signed by the <a href=\"Atlanta%20Falcons\">Atlanta Falcons</a> as an <a href=\"undrafted%20free%20agent\">undrafted free agent</a> in 2011. He played <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> at <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State</a>. Despite beginning his college football careers as a walk on, he was selected as a first-team All-<a href=\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\">WAC</a> player three consecutive years and was selected as the Most Valuable Defensive Player for the 2008 and 2009 Boise State teams that were undefeated in the regular season.\nWinterswyk attended high school in <a href=\"La%20Habra%2C%20California\">La Habra, California</a>. Despite having 150 tackles as a senior at La Habra High School, Winterswyk \"got little love from recruiters.\" He considered playing in junior college when the secondary coach from <a href=\"Boise%20State%20University\">Boise State University</a> suggested he enroll there, but as a walk on with no scholarship. He followed that suggestion and enrolled at Boise State in 2007. He was a walk on at the safety position in January 2007. He was a four-year starter on defense for the <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State Broncos football</a> team from 2007 to 2010. He was selected as a first-team All-WAC player three consecutive years (2008, 2009, and 2010) and was a key defensive player for Boise State teams that compiled an overall record of 38–2 from 2008 to 2010, including an undefeated 14–0 record in 2009. He was a defensive starter in 43 games for Boise State from 2007 to 2010. Despite his original walk-on status, Winterswyk is acknowledged as \"one of the best defensive ends in school history.\"\nAs a red-shirt freshman in 2007, he led the team with nine tackles for loss and was selected as an honorable mention Freshman All-American by \"<a href=\"The%20Sporting%20News\">The Sporting News</a>\".\nAs a sophomore in 2008, he was selected as a first-team All-<a href=\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\">WAC</a> player and was named the Co-Most Valuable Defensive Player on a Boise State team that compiled a 12-0 record in the regular season and was ranked third in the country in scoring defense (allowing only 12.6 points per game).\nAs a junior in 2009, Winterswyk was placed on both the Lott and Lombardi Award watch lists. He received his second consecutive first-team All-WAC honor and was named the Most Valuable Defensive Player on a Boise State team that compiled a perfect 14-0 record. In January 2011, he was named to the WAC All-Decade Team for the 2000s.\nAfter its 14-0 finish in 2009, \"<a href=\"Sports%20Illustrated\">Sports Illustrated</a>\" picked Boise State as a contender for the national championship. In the August 2010 issue announcing its pre-season picks, a photograph of Winterswyk and two other players appeared on the magazine's cover. In its feature story on the rise of Boise State, \"Sports Illustrated\" devoted four paragraphs to Winterswyk. The article noted:Winterswyk has gone from walk-on to four-year starter. His 19 career sacks include a clutch fourth-quarter takedown of Dalton in the Fiesta Bowl. Once a clueless freshman who struggled to master a three-point stance, he's now the star of a defense returning 10 starters. His rapid ascent embodies the Boise State program, which in 15 seasons has risen from I-AA to serial BCS buster.\n\"<a href=\"The%20Orange%20County%20Register\">The Orange County Register</a>\" took note of Winterswyk's fame: \"Ryan Winterswyk, a 2005 La Habra High School grad, graces the cover of the Aug. 16 Sports Illustrated, and is also featured in an article on the inside pages.\" In an interview with the \"<a href=\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\">Los Angeles Times</a>\", Winterswyk credited the players who laid the foundation for Boise State's development and noted his desire to meet expectations: \"You don't want to be on the cover of SI and then go blow it all.\" In an on-line edition in October 2010, <a href=\"SI.com\">SI.com</a> again published a photograph of Winterswyk with the caption: \"Ryan Winterswyk and Boise State rank No. 1 nationally in total defense, rushing defense and pass-efficiency defense.\"\nAs a senior in 2010, Winterswyk was slowed early in the season by a knee injury that required him to undergo surgery. However, he remained such a dominant defensive player that opposing coaches regularly assigned two players to block him. He started all 12 games at defensive end for Boise State and received his third consecutive first-team All-WAC honor. Winterswyk was also a finalist for the <a href=\"Burlsworth%20Trophy\">Burlsworth Trophy</a>, given to outstanding college football players who began their careers as a walk-on. He was also invited to play in the annual <a href=\"East-West%20Shrine%20Game\">East-West Shrine Game</a> in January 2011 in <a href=\"Orlando%2C%20Florida\">Orlando, Florida</a>.\nWinterswyk was signed by the <a href=\"Atlanta%20Falcons\">Atlanta Falcons</a> as an <a href=\"undrafted%20free%20agent\">undrafted free agent</a> following the <a href=\"2011%20NFL%20Draft\">2011 NFL Draft</a> on July 27, 2011. The Falcons converted him to tight end after playing <a href=\"defensive%20end\">defensive end</a> at <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State</a>. He was released during final cuts on September 3, 2011. He spent the final five weeks of the season on the team's <a href=\"practice%20squad\">practice squad</a> before being re-signed to the active roster following the season. He announced his retirement from the NFL on April 30, 2012.","Kyle Wilson (American football)\nKyle Wilson (born May 30, 1987) is an <a href=\"American%20football\">American football</a> <a href=\"cornerback\">cornerback</a> who is currently a free agent. He played <a href=\"college%20football\">college football</a> for <a href=\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\">Boise State</a>. He was drafted by the <a href=\"New%20York%20Jets\">New York Jets</a> in the first round of the <a href=\"2010%20NFL%20Draft\">2010 NFL Draft</a>.\nA native of <a href=\"Piscataway%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Piscataway, New Jersey</a>, Wilson attended <a href=\"Piscataway%20High%20School\">Piscataway High School</a>, where he helped the football team to three straight state championships, including undefeated seasons in 2002 and 2004, and a 33-3 overall record. He was named first-team all-state as wide receiver while also garnering all-area, all-county, all-conference and all-division honors. Wilson also lettered in <a href=\"track%20%26amp%3B%20field\">track & field</a> at Piscataway, running the <a href=\"100-meter%20dash\">100-meter dash</a> in 10.8 seconds and the <a href=\"200-meter%20dash\">200-meter dash</a> in 22.49 seconds.\nConsidered just a two-star recruit by \"<a href=\"Rivals.com\">Rivals.com</a>\", Wilson received only few scholarship offers. He picked Boise State over <a href=\"Rutgers%20University\">Rutgers</a> and <a href=\"University%20of%20Delaware\">Delaware</a>.\nAfter <a href=\"Redshirt%20%28college%20sports%29\">redshirting</a> the 2005 season, Wilson played in 10 games and finished 10th on team with 41 tackles, 0.5 tackles for loss, five pass breakups, one forced fumble, one fumble recovery and an interception. He started final five games at cornerback and delivered an impressive performance at the <a href=\"2007%20Fiesta%20Bowl\">2007 Fiesta Bowl</a>, finishing with 10 tackles in Boise State's 43-42 upset win over Oklahoma. Wilson was named honorable mention Freshman All-America by \"<a href=\"Sporting%20News\">Sporting News</a>\".\nAs a sophomore, Wilson started all 13 games at cornerback, finishing the season with 41 tackles, eight pass breakups, two interceptions, two tackles for loss, one sack and a blocked kick. His season-high six tackles came against <a href=\"East%20Carolina%20University\">East Carolina</a> in the <a href=\"2007%20Hawaii%20Bowl\">2007 Hawaii Bowl</a>. Wilson earned second-team All-WAC honors.\nIn his junior season, Wilson led Boise State with five interceptions, 10 pass breakups and 15 passes defended. He recorded 35 tackles, 26 of which were unassisted, and returned 33 punts for 470 yards and three touchdowns. Wilson started each game of the season, making his current streak of 31 consecutive starts the longest active streak on team. He was named first-team All-WAC cornerback and second-team all-conference punt returner. Also, \"<a href=\"The%20Sporting%20News\">The Sporting News</a>\" named him to their 2008 All-American Second Team.\nIn 2009, \"Rivals.com\" listed him at No. 3 of their preseason cornerback power ranking. In October, he was named a midseason All-American by \"<a href=\"The%20Sporting%20News\">The Sporting News</a>\", and in early November he was named one of twelve semifinalists for the 2009 <a href=\"Jim%20Thorpe%20Award\">Jim Thorpe Award</a>.\nWilson was considered one of the best cornerbacks available in the <a href=\"2010%20NFL%20Draft\">2010 NFL Draft</a>, and drew comparisons to <a href=\"Dr%C3%A9%20Bly\">Dré Bly</a>. According to \"<a href=\"Sports%20Illustrated\">Sports Illustrated</a>′s\" Tony Pauline, Wilson was \"graded as a fringe middle round pick by NFL scouting services\" prior to his senior season, \"but has since cemented himself as a top 100 choice.\" He was only the second defensive back from Boise State to be selected in the first three rounds of an NFL Draft, following <a href=\"Gerald%20Alexander\">Gerald Alexander</a> in <a href=\"2007%20NFL%20Draft\">2007</a>.\nWilson was taken 29th overall by the New York Jets. At the 2010 Jets minicamp, Wilson impressed the coaching staff, many of whom considered Wilson a \"steal.\"\nOn July 31, 2010, Wilson signed a five-year, $13 million contract with the Jets. He served as the #3 CB behind <a href=\"Darrelle%20Revis\">Darrelle Revis</a> and <a href=\"Antonio%20Cromartie\">Antonio Cromartie</a> going into training camp.\nWilson intercepted the first pass of his professional career on October 23, 2011 against <a href=\"Philip%20Rivers\">Philip Rivers</a>. It came at a critical point during the game as the <a href=\"San%20Diego%20Chargers\">Chargers</a> attempted to regain the lead, ultimately losing to the Jets 27-21.\nGoing into the 2013 season following the draft of University of Alabama cornerback <a href=\"Dee%20Milliner\">Dee Milliner</a>, Wilson was again projected as starting as the nickel CB.\nOn April 1, 2015, the <a href=\"New%20Orleans%20Saints\">New Orleans Saints</a> signed Wilson to a one-year, $825,000 contract with a signing bonus of $80,000.\nOn March 7, 2016, the Saints signed Wilson to a one-year, $840,000 contract with an $80,000 signing bonus.\nOn June 24, 2016, the Saints placed Wilson on the Reserved/Injured list.\nKey\nWilson graduated from Boise State with a degree in communication.\n","2008 NFL Draft\nThe 2008 NFL Draft took place at <a href=\"Radio%20City%20Music%20Hall\">Radio City Music Hall</a> in New York City, <a href=\"New%20York%20%28state%29\">New York</a>, on April 26 and April 27, 2008. For the 29th consecutive year, <a href=\"ESPN\">ESPN</a> televised the draft; the <a href=\"NFL%20Network\">NFL Network</a> also broadcast the event, its third year doing so. Of the 252 selections, 220 were regular selections in rounds one through seven, and 32 were <a href=\"National%20Football%20League%20draft%23Compensatory%20picks\">compensatory selections</a>, distributed among rounds three through seven.\nFor the first time since the common draft began, no <a href=\"wide%20receiver\">wide receiver</a> was selected in the first round. For the first time ever, the first two picks had the same last name (Jake Long and Chris Long). Also, a record 34 trades were made during the draft itself.\nThe schedule for the draft was changed: day one began at 3:00 PM <a href=\"Eastern%20Time%20Zone\">EDT</a> (1900 <a href=\"Coordinated%20Universal%20Time\">UTC</a>), instead of noon, and consisted of just two rounds. Day two began with round three at 10:00 AM EDT (1400 UTC), instead of 11:00 AM. Moreover, the time limits for day one selections were reduced, from 15 minutes to ten for first-round picks and from ten minutes to seven in the second. The limit remained five minutes for all picks in rounds three through seven.\nThe draft also marked the official debut of a new NFL shield logo, replacing the old shield logo which had been used since 1970, featuring eight white stars to represent each of the league's eight divisions, and a football rotated to the same angle as the one on the top of the <a href=\"Vince%20Lombardi%20Trophy\">Vince Lombardi Trophy</a> given to the Super Bowl champion.\n\nIn the explanations below, (PD) indicates trades completed prior to the start of the draft (i.e. Pre-Draft), while (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2008 draft.\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"2002 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2002 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2002 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by second-year head coach Dan Hawkins. The Broncos finished the season 12–1 and 8–0 in conference to win their first WAC title and played in the Humanitarian Bowl, where they defeated Iowa State, 34–16. The 2002 marked the first season that Boise State was ranked in the top 25 since moving to Division I-A in 1996.\",\n \"Boise State Broncos football statistical leaders\\nThe Boise State Broncos football statistical leaders are individual statistical leaders of the Boise State Broncos football program in various categories, including passing, rushing, receiving, total offense, defensive stats, and kicking. Within those areas, the lists identify single-game, single-season, and career leaders. The Broncos represent Boise State University in the NCAA's Mountain West Conference.\\nAlthough Boise State began competing in intercollegiate football as a 2-year college in 1933, the school's official record book only includes 1968 and later, when Boise State became a 4-year college.\\nThese lists are dominated by more recent players for several reasons:\\nThese lists are updated through the end of the 2016 season.\\nTotal offense is the sum of passing and rushing statistics. It does not include receiving or returns.\\n\",\n \"1991 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 1991 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season. The Broncos competed in the Big Sky Conference and played their home games on campus at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. Led by fifth-year head coach Skip Hall, Boise State finished the season 7–4 overall and 4–4 in conference. The Broncos won all of their home games, but lost the rest.\\n\",\n \"2009 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2009 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Broncos played their home games at Bronco Stadium, most famous for its blue artificial turf surface, often referred to as the \\\"smurf-turf\\\". They completed the regular season undefeated (13–0), their second consecutive unbeaten regular season and fourth in the last six years (2004, 2006, 2008, 2009), and won the WAC title for the seventh time in the last eight years. The Broncos capped their season with a showdown against fellow unbeaten TCU in the 2010 Fiesta Bowl, which marked the Broncos' return to the site of the game that put the program on the national sports map, the 2007 Fiesta Bowl. With their 17–10 win, the Broncos avenged a loss to the Horned Frogs in the previous season's Poinsettia Bowl, and became only the second team in Division I FBS history to finish a season 14–0, after Ohio State in 2002 (Alabama became the third team to go 14–0 just three days after the Fiesta Bowl). The Broncos finished ranked #4 in the Associated Press and USA Today coaches poll for their highest ranking in school history to finish a season.\\nHead Coach Chris Petersen was named the Paul \\\"Bear\\\" Bryant National Coach of the Year, an award he also won following the 2006 season. Petersen is the first two-time winner of the award since it was renamed in 1986.\\nThe Broncos were one of only two teams (the other being the Utah Utes) to finish the 2008 regular season with an undefeated record and win their sixth WAC Championship in seven years. However, The Broncos were unable to finish the season undefeated after losing 17–16 to #11 TCU in the San Diego County Credit Union Poinsettia Bowl.\\nThe Broncos entered the 2009 season as one of the youngest college teams in the nation, with only five seniors on their roster, easily the fewest in FBS. No other team had fewer than nine.\\nTwo Broncos were listed on scout.com's list of the 100 best returning players in the nation. Senior defensive back Kyle Wilson at #54 (#5 best DB) and sophomore quarterback Kellen Moore at #37 (#11 best QB).\\nKyle Wilson (Sr.-DB)- Playboy, nationalchamps.net 2nd team, CBSSports.com. 2nd team\\nRimington- Thomas Byrd (So-C)\\nLombardi- Ryan Winterswyk (Jr-DL)\\nO'Brien- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\\nWalter Camp- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\\nThorpe- Kyle Wilson (Sr-DB)\\nGroza- Kyle Brotzman (Jr-K)\\nBednarik- Kyle Wilson (Sr-DB)\\nMaxwell- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\\nManning- Kellen Moore (So-QB)\\nNagurski- Kyle Wilson (Sr-DB)\\nOn August 6 Boise State received 542 points to rank 16th in the USA Today preseason poll, two spots behind their season opening opponent, Oregon. The Broncos were the highest rated non BCS conference school.\\nOn August 22 Boise State received 659 points to rank 14th in the Associated Press preseason poll, two spots ahead of Oregon. Just as they were in the USA Today poll, the Broncos were the highest rated non BCS conference school. The 14th ranking was the highest preseason ranking in school history.\\nOn July 29, Boise State was picked to win the WAC and received 8 first place votes in the WAC coaches poll to 1 first place vote for Nevada, but it should be noted that no coach can vote his own team in first place, thus Boise State received all 8 possible first place votes.\\nThe media also voted Boise State to win the conference with the Broncos receiving 55 first place votes to only 3 for Nevada.\\nAnd Kyle Wilson was named the preseason Defensive Player of the Year.\\nFor the second consecutive year Bronco Stadium received an expansion, this time in the south endzone temporary bleachers. Following the multimillion-dollar sky box expansion which opened in 2008, the sub-million dollar bleacher expansion extends the number of rows in the south endzone and adds an additional 1,600 seats to the stadium capacity, which is now 33,500.\\nRankings reflect the Coaches poll until the week of the Hawaii game, after which the BCS poll was used, and are from the respective poll released prior to game time.\\n\\n\\\"2nd meeting. 1–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 37–32 Broncos win in Eugene.\\\"\\nOn August 31, this game was named the Allstate Sugar Bowl Manning Award Matchup of the Week for the matchup of Boise State QB Kellen Moore vs Oregon QB Jeremiah Masoli.\\nThe Broncos won their 50th straight regular season home game, and the first ever at home against a top 25 team, with a 19–8 win over the Oregon Ducks, the second straight year the Broncos have beaten the highly ranked Pac-10 team. The Bronco defense completely shut down the fast paced spread option offense of Oregon holding them to six first half three and outs, forced a safety in the second quarter, did not allow a first down until 7:07 left in the third quarter and only allowed six overall, and only allowed 31 rushing yards. The Bronco offense scored on a 10-yard TD pass from Kellen Moore to Austin Pettis in the second quarter (Michael Choate 2pt conv.), a D.J. Harper 1 yard TD run in the third (conv. failed), and a 45-yard Kyle Brotzman field goal, but missed several other opportunities to score with two missed field goals, another failed on a bad snap, and three straight fumbles in the second half. The Broncos set a school record with 59 rushing attempts. Kellen Moore finished 19/29 for 197 and 1 TD. Austin Pettis had 6 catches for 68 yards and the TD. The Broncos out gained the Ducks 351 to 152. The 34,127 in attendance set a new Bronco Stadium record. The Broncos moved up 2 spots in the AP poll to #12 and 5 spots in the Coaches poll to #11.\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\n\\\"First ever meeting. The RedHawks are scheduled to return to Boise in 2012. There are currently no future plans for Boise to play at Miami.\\\"\\nBoise State shutout a non-conference FBS school for the first time in school history by dominating Miami (OH) 48–0. The Broncos outgained the RedHawks 441 to 197. Kellen Moore went over 300 yards for the fifth time in his career and threw 4 touchdowns for the first time in his career. Austin Pettis and Titus Young both had over 110 yards receiving with longs of over 50 each and 3 combined touchdowns. The Broncos held their opponent to less than 40 yards rushing for the second consecutive week (Oregon: 31, Miami: 38) and forced 4 interceptions (Iloka, Johnson, Smith, Tevis). When asked about stopping the run, safety Jeron Johnson said, \\\"That's the key to our defense is to stop the run game and make them pass. We have a good secondary so we feel that we can hold our own in the passing game. If we can stop the run, we'll be in good shape\\\". Kyle Brotzman missed his first ever extra point, ending his school record for consecutive PAT's at 118. The Broncos moved to #10 in both major polls following the win.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\n\\n\\\"12th meeting. 7–4 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 61–10 Broncos win in Boise.\\\"\\nAn offensive explosion occurred in Fresno with the Broncos and Bulldogs combining for 987 yards, 1494 yards including return yards in a 51–34 Bronco win. Winston Venable opened the scoring with a 30-yard interception return for a touchdown on the Bulldogs opening drive. The Broncos would follow with a 32-yard Kyle Brotzman field goal to go up 10–0. A 60-yard touchdown run by D.J. Harper on the Broncos next possession was just a sampling of the fireworks that would follow. After a Fresno State field goal, Titus Young returned the following kickoff 77 yards to set up a 7-yard touchdown catch to him from Kelln Moore. The Broncos looked to be in complete control of the game at 24–3, but Ryan Mathews of Fresno State would answer with consecutive 69 and 60 yard touchdown runs to bring the Bulldogs within 7 at the half. The Broncos returned the opening kickoff of the 2nd half for a touchdown only to see it overturned on offsetting penalties for a block in the back and a personal foul, but Doug Martin would return the next kick 77 yards to set up a Brotzman field goal. The Bulldogs would drive and score a touchdown to bring the score to 27–24. The Broncos would follow with a 74-yard Jeremy Avery rush which was fumbled at the 1 yard line but recovered in the end zone for a Bronco touchdown by Titus Young. Fresno answered with a 17-play drive ending with a 27-yard field goal to end the 3rd quarter with a score of 34–27. In the first two minutes of the 4th quarter, Kellen Moore connected with Austin Pettis for an 8-yard touchdown catch, Ryan Mathews broke his third 60+ yard touchdown run of the night, this time 68 yards, then Jeremy Avery scored on a 67-yard screen pass to bring the score to 48–34. Following a 69-yard Jeremy Avery rush the Broncos added a late 24-yard field goal by Jimmy Pavel to end the scoring. The Broncos and Bulldogs combined for 8 plays of 60 yards or more with 2 being over 70. Despite the 17-point win, the Broncos gave up 507 yards. Boise State moved to #8 in both major polls, their highest regular-season ranking in school history to date.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nBoth Fresno State and Boise State wore \\\"D.B.\\\" decals on their helmets to honor Dan Brown, former Boise State linebacker (1978–1981) and former Fresno State defensive coordinator (2002–2008), who died from brain cancer on March 15, 2009. Junior wide receiver Titus Young was selected as the WAC Special Teams Player of the Week for returning five kickoffs for 154 yards with a long of 77. Junior running back D.J. Harper, the Broncos leading rusher through three games, tore his left ACL against Fresno State and missed the rest of the season. Harper applied for, and was granted, a medical redshirt.\\n\\n\\\"3rd meeting. 2–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 20–7 Broncos win in Boise.\\\"\\nThe Broncos made a rare trip to the Eastern time zone and walked away with a victory against a MAC team for the second time this season with a 49–14 win over Bowling Green. After a scoreless first quarter, the Broncos ran off 22 points in a span of 2:47 in the second quarter with two Titus Young TD runs (18, 25) and a Doug Martin TD run (34). The Broncos first six scoring drives all took only four plays or less. Kellen Moore threw for 195 yards in the second quarter and finished 17/21 for 247 and 2 TDs before leaving the game midway through the third quarter. Jeremy Avery got his first rushing TD of the season in impressive fashion with a 71-yard run in the third. The Broncos gained a total of 529 yards. The Broncos once again set a school record by climbing to #5 in all major polls, including the Harris poll which debuted this week.\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\n\\n\\\"4th meeting. 3–0 all time. Last meeting 1985, a 13–9 Broncos win in Boise. Boise State head coach Chris Petersen was quarterback for UC Davis in the last meeting.\\\"\\nIt was a game that was much closer than was expected as UC Davis of the FCS gave the Broncos all they could handle in a 34–16 Bronco win in a cold, rain-soaked, tension-filled Bronco Stadium. The Aggies held the Broncos scoreless in the first quarter and held them on a 4th and goal at the 1 yard line to give them momentum for the rest of the game. The Broncos did manage to be up 13–0 at half time on two Kyle Brotzman FGs and a Kellen Moore to Austin Pettis TD pass, but UC Davis hung close in the second half with scores of 20–10 and 27–16 before a late Doug Martin TD sealed the win for the Broncos. Austin Pettis had a career-high of 10 receptions for 129 yards and two TDs. Ryan Winterswyk recorded a sack for the third straight game and blocked a field goal right before halftime. The Bronco defense was without their captain Kyle Wilson who missed the game with a shoulder injury. The lackluster performance by the Broncos contributed to them dropping in the AP and Coaches polls to #6, but they did remain #5 in the Harris poll.\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nFollowing their bye week the Broncos moved back to #5 in the AP poll and remained at #6 in the Coaches poll and #5 in the Harris poll.\\n\\n\\\"5th meeting. 4–0 all time. Last meeting in 2004, a 45–42 Broncos win in Tulsa. Tulsa is scheduled to play at Boise in 2011.\\\"\\nBig plays kept Tulsa in the game, but the Broncos were able to hang on to remain undefeated with a 28–21 win. The Broncos gave up points in the 1st quarter for the first time this season and had their first deficit of the season. Tulsa connected on long TD passes of 55 and 53 yards. The Broncos tried to answer with their own big plays, but could not connect twice on long passes to Titus Young. Instead the Broncos moved the ball with a steady dose of Doug Martin (112 YDS) and Jeremy Avery (73 YDS) on the ground to set up 3 short Kellen Moore TD passes (8,17,2), 2 to Tommy Gallarda. Tulsa held the Broncos in the redzone twice leading to 2 Kyle Brotzman field goals (27,18). Tulsa had the ball with a chance to score to tie the game but were unable to convert on a 4th down with 37 seconds to play. The Bronco defense came up with 13 tackles for loss and 5 sacks, 2 by Ryan Winterswyk, bringing his season total to 5. The Broncos would fall in the AP poll to #6 but rose to #5 in the Coaches poll and debuted at #4 in the BCS poll, their highest ranking in any major poll in school history.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\n\\n\\\"11th meeting. 7–3 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 27–7 Broncos win in Boise.\\\"\\nBoise State had lost their last two trips to the islands in 2007, but this game was never in doubt as the Broncos beat the Warriors for the 8th time in 9 years as a member of the WAC. Kellen Moore had a career-high 5 TD passes (35, 14, 24, 10, 48) going 18/30 for 223 yards. Titus Young caught 8 passes for 115 yards and 3 TDS. Freshman running back Matt Kaiserman, who had been hurt the entire season, made his Bronco debut and ran for 122 yards, 51 of those on the Broncos final drive alone where he carried the ball on all 11 plays to lead to his first career TD. The score could have been much worse than it was, but Hawaii was able to force the Broncos to attempt 5 field goals, 4 of which Kyle Brotzman made (25, 28, 32, 27). The Bronco defence force 3 INTS, 2 by Jeron Johnson, and 3 fumble recoveries. The Broncos did continue to have center to quarterback exchange problems which led to 6 fumbles, all of which they did recover, and center Thomas Byrd was replaced by Garret Pendergast, but Pendergast snapped a ball into the end zone which led to a Hawaii safety. The Broncos remained the same in the AP (#6) and the two human BCS polls (Coaches #5, Harris #5), but their BCS computer poll average fell from #5 to #8 to bring their BCS ranking to #7.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn October 26 Jeron Johnson was named the WAC defensive player of the week for his 2 interceptions and 1 fumble recovery and Kyle Brotzman was named the WAC special teams player of the week for going 4–5 on field goals and having a 72-yard punt, which is the longest punt in the WAC so far this season. Brotzman also completed a 28-yard pass on a fake punt.\\n\\n\\\"10th meeting. 9–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 33–16 Broncos win in San Jose.\\\"\\nThe Broncos cruised to their 20th straight regular season win to remain undefeated on the season with a 45–7 win over San Jose State. The Broncos opened the game with a 61-yard touchdown pass from Kellen Moore to his brother Kirby Moore for Kirby's first career TD. When asked about the brother to brother connection, Boise State head coach Chris Petersen said, \\\"When that happened on the sideline, I think everyone just had a smile on their face. It’s so hard to play\\nDivision I football and then to be able to do that with your brother is something that is really special. I just\\nthink that that’s a special thing to play college football with your brother, and when you hook up for a big play\\nlike that, and hopefully they’ll be many more down the road.\\\" Boise State led only 10–7 with less the a minute left in the 1st half until Kellen Moore found Mitch Burroughs on an 18-yard TD pass then scored on a Moore 1 yard TD run after a San Jose fumble to lead 24–7 at halftime. Austin Pettis caught an 8-yard TD pass to open the 3rd quarter and now has a touchdown reception in all 8 games this season. Kyle Wilson returned an interception 27 yards for the defence's 2nd TD of the year. A late Doug Martin TD run capped off the Bronco scoring. Kellen Moore added 3 more TD passes and now has 24 with only 2 INT's. The Broncos moved up in the AP (#5) and Harris polls (#4 including 1 first place vote) and remained the same in the Coache's (#5) and BCS (#7).\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn November 2, Kyle Wilson was named the WAC defensive player of the week after his first career interception return for a touchdown and recording 5 tackles with 1 for a loss of 2 yards.\\n\\n\\\"12th meeting. 7–4 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 35–3 Broncos win in Boise.\\\"\\nBoise State has always played exciting, close games when they travel to Ruston, Louisiana, and 2009 was no different as the Broncos had to hold on late for a 45–35 win against the upset-minded Bulldogs. The Broncos looked as if they were going to run away the game, building a lead of 27–7 at halftime with the help of big plays from Titus Young (40 yard touchdown reception) and Kyle Wilson (59 yard punt return to the 3 to set up a Doug Martin TD). But mistakes loomed large as Kellen Moore was intercepted and returned 75 yards for a TD and Kyle Brotzman missed 2 of his 5 field goals (29, 34, 25 made. 44, 31 missed). Tech got as close as 30–28 before the Kellen Moore connected with Austin Pettis for a 12-yard TD and Jeremy Avery broke a 44-yard TD run to extend the lead to 45–28. Tech would add a late TD to bring final to 45–35. Kellen Moore threw for a season high 354 yards and added 3 more TDs to bring his total to 27 on the season with only 3 INTs. Austin Pettis now has a TD catch in all 9 games this season and has 10 total for the year. Kyle Wilson recorded his second INT in as many weeks. The Broncos would fall in the Coaches, AP and Harris polls but rose one spot in the BCS to now be ranked #6 in every poll.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\n\\n\\\"39th meeting. 20–17–1 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 45–10 Broncos win in Moscow.\\\"\\nThe Broncos won their 11th straight game against their in-state rival to remain undefeated on the season with a 63–25 win. The Vandals came into the game with high hopes after winning 7 of their first 10 games, but the Broncos ended the Vandals hopes early with 4 first half Kellen Moore TD passes (4, 25, 8, 20), 3 of which went to Austin Pettis. Add a 1 YD TD run by Jeremy Avery and a 100+ yard Titus Young kickoff return for a TD to bring the Broncos lead to 42–17 at halftime. Kyle Wilson opened the second half scoring by returning an INT 71 yards for his second TD ruturn of the season. Matt Kaiserman found Kyle Efaw for an 11 YD halfback pass TD before Moore found Pettis for a TD for the 4th time (14 YDS). Kellen Moore finished 22/32 for 299 and 5 TDS to bring his season total to 32 with only 3 INTS. Austin Pettis finished with 8 Receptions for 123 YDS and 4 TDS, brought his TD streak to 10 games and set a school record with 14 touchdown receptions for the season. The Broncos intercepted Vandal quarterback Brian Reader 5 times and recovered 2 fumbles to record 7 turnovers. The Broncos would remain at #6 in all 4 major polls following the win.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn November 16 Austin Pettis was named the WAC offensive player of the week and Titus Young was named WAC special teams player of the week. Senior fullback and offensive captain Richie Brockel, one of only five seniors on the roster, missed the remainder of the season with a foot injury. Freshman running back Matt Kaiserman, who had missed the first six games with a concussion, missed the remainder of the season with a broken leg.\\n\\n\\\"16th meeting. 11–4 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 49–14 Broncos win in Boise.\\\"\\nThe Broncos opened the season 11–0 for the 4th time in 6 years and their 9th straight win over Utah State with a 52–21 win. The Aggies hung with the Broncos until about 6 minutes left in the first half with the score tied at 14 until the Broncos scored 3 quick TDs to end the half, one after a fumble recovery at the 9 yard line, to lead 35–14 at half. The Aggie pass defense held Kellen Moore to under 60% pass completions for the first time in his career (24 games) going 15/29 (51.7%) for 233 YDs and only 1 TD which ended a streak of 9 straight games with multiple TD passes and 6 straight with 3 or more. The Bronco run game picked up where the passing left off as they racked up a season high 323 YDs with both Doug Martin and Jeremy Avery going over 115 YDs with a combined 6 TDS, 4 for Martin alone. Austin Pettis failed to catch a TD for the first time in a game this season. Kyle Brotzman's 52 yard FG in the 3rd quarter was a career long. The Bronco defense dominated the Aggies forcing 13 TFL of 45 YDs, 4 Sacks and 2 turnovers. Boise State remained at #6 in every major poll for the 3rd straight week.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn November 23 Doug Martin was named WAC offensive player of the week, the 4th Bronco in the last 3 weeks to be awarded by the WAC, for his performance of 13 CAR for 121 YDs and 4 TDs.\\n\\n\\\"36th meeting. 23–12 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 41–34 Broncos win in Reno.\\\"\\nOn November 23, this game was named the Allstate Sugar Bowl Manning Award Matchup of the Week for the matchup of Boise State QB Kellen Moore vs Nevada QB Colin Kaepernick.\\nNevada came into the game on an eight-game win streak and 7–0 in the WAC and looked to knock off the Broncos to win the outright WAC championship, but the undefeated Broncos set the tone early and often on their way to at least a share of their seventh WAC title in eight years. Titus Young took the games opening kickoff 95 yards for a touchdown, his second return TD in three weeks, and the Broncos would add two TD passes to seldom-used fullback Dan Paul to lead 20–0 at the end of the first quarter. After a Wolf Pack field goal, Paul added his third touchdown reception to give the Broncos their largest lead of the game 27–3. Nevada would keep the game close by scoring two TDs before halftime to be down by 11 but could only match the Broncos point for point in the second half to lose 44–33. The Broncos held the nations leading rushing attack to only 242 yards and Kaepernick was held to only 172 total yards. Moore added five more TDs to bring his season total to 38, which set a new school record for TD passes in a season, passing the old record of 35. The Broncos stayed at #6 for the fourth straight week in every major poll and with Oklahoma's win over Oklahoma State, Boise State became the front runner to receive an at large bid to a BCS bowl game.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn November 30, wide receiver Titus Young was named the WAC special teams player of the week, marking the third time he has won the award this season. Wide receiver Austin Pettis, who leads the team with 14 TD catches, broke his leg on the Broncos failed two point conversion after their second TD. He did return and played sparingly in the Broncos bowl game. Starting linebacker Daron Mackey tore his ACL and missed the remainder of the season.\\n\\n\\\"10th meeting. 9–0 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 49–0 Broncos win in Las Cruces.\\\"\\nBoise State wrapped un another undefeated season and outright WAC title with a 42–7 win over New Mexico State. The Broncos finished the regular season 13–0 for their second consecutive and fourth undefeated regular season in six years. The conference title is their seventh title in nine years as a WAC member and sixth outright title. The win was also the 56th straight game and eighth straight season of being undefeated at home in the regular season (2002–2009).The Broncos opened the scoring with a 47-yard TD pass from Moore to Young, bringing Moore's school record for TD passes in a season to 39. Jeremy Avery and Doug Martin would provide the rest of the scoring combining for 5 TDs (4 for Martin) and 170 yards with Martin breaking a TD run of 56 yards, his season long. Ryan Winterswyk had half a sack to finish the year with a team high 8.5. Brandyn Thompson's INT in the 2nd quarter brought the Bronco total to 21 for the year. Boise State finished the regular season ranked #6 in every major poll, their highest ranking to end a season in school history.\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn December 6 the Broncos were selected to play 12–0 and BCS #4 TCU in the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. This will be Boise State's second BCS appearance with the other being the 2007 Fiesta Bowl. TCU earned the non–automatic qualifiers automatic bid by being the highest ranked team from a non BCS conference. Boise State became the first team from a non BCS conference to earn an at large bid to a BCS bowl. The Fiesta Bowl will also be the first BCS bowl to feature two teams from non-automatic BCS qualifying conferences and the first to feature two undefeated teams outside of the National Championship game.\\n\\\"3rd meeting. 1–1 all time. Last meeting in 2008, a 17–16 Horned Frogs win in the Poinsettia Bowl.\\\"\\nThe Broncos reached into their bag of tricks once again on the biggest of stages to help pull out a 17–10 victory over TCU to avenge their only loss in the 2008 season and win their second Fiesta Bowl championship. In a game dominated by defense the Broncos would strike first with a Brandyn Thompson 51 yard interception return for a touchdown. Kyle Brotzman, who had earlier in the game missed a 36-yard field goal, connected on a 40-yard field goal to extend the lead to 10–0. TCU's Andy Dalton threw a 30-yard TD pass to Curtis Clay right before halftime to make the score 10–7 at the break. A third quarter 29 yard TCU field goal would tie the game. Both teams went back and forth into the fourth quarter until Boise State pulled off a gutsy call that opened the game up. On fourth and nine on their own 33 yard line the Broncos executed a fake punt for a first down with a 29-yard pass from Kyle Brotzman to Kyle Efaw. Three straight completions by Kellen Moore put the Broncos on the 2 yard line where Doug Martin dove into the endzone for a 17–10 lead. Brotzman came up clutch two more times as he made a touchdown saving tackle on a punt return with about five minutes to play and punted the ball to the one yard line with only 1:06 to play. The Horned Frogs would have had to go 99 yards to tie the game. TCU drove to the Broncos 30 yard line before Dalton was intercepted by Winston Venable to seal the win with 18 seconds to play. Brandyn Thompson was named the games defensive MVP with 2 interceptions, 1 for a TD, and 7 tackles. Kyle Efaw was named the games offensive MVP with 4 receptions for 75 yards and caught the pass on the fake punt. The 14 wins is the most in school history and only the second 14–0 season in NCAA history (2002 Ohio State, the winner of the 2010 BCS National Championship, Alabama, also was 14–0).\\n\\\"1st Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"2nd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"3rd Quarter\\\"\\n\\\"4th Quarter\\\"\\nOn January 7, following the National Championship game, the Broncos would finish ranked #4 in the AP and coaches poll, their highest ranking in school history to finish a season (#5 AP and #6 coaches in 2006).\\nChris Petersen- 2nd straight year\\nKellen Moore- So. QB\\nKellen Moore- So. QB- 2008 2nd team\\nAustin Pettis- Jr. WR- 2008 2nd team\\nTitus Young- Jr. WR\\nNate Potter- So. OL\\nKyle Wilson-Sr. DB- 2nd straight year on the 1st team, 2007 2nd team\\nRyan Winterswyk- Jr. DL- 2nd straight year on the 1st team\\nTitus Young- Jr. ST/KR\\nJeremy Avery- Jr. RB\\nBilly Winn- So. DL\\nWinston Venable-Jr. LB\\nJeron Johnson- Jr. DB- 2008 2nd team\\nHead Coach Chris Petersen\\nLowest percentage of passes intercepted, season (over 350 attempts): Kellen Moore, 0.70%\\n<small> An NCAA FBS record as of the end of 2014 <small>\\nStarters in Bold\\nOn April 22, 2010, Sr. Cornerback Kyle Wilson was selected as the 29th overall pick in the first round of the 2010 NFL Draft by the New York Jets. Wilson is just the second Bronco ever taken in the first round of the draft (Ryan Clady 12th overall in 2008). Wilson grew up in Piscataway, New Jersey, which is only about 30 miles from where the Jets play their home games.\",\n \"2004 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2004 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2004 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by fourth-year head coach Dan Hawkins. The Broncos finished the season 11–1 and 8–0 in conference (went undefeated 11–0 in the regular season) to win their third straight WAC title and played in the Liberty Bowl, where they lost to Louisville, 44–40.\",\n \"Boise State–Nevada football rivalry\\nThe Boise State–Nevada football rivalry is a college football rivalry between the Boise State Broncos football team of Boise State University and Nevada Wolf Pack football team of University of Nevada, Reno. The game has been played every year since 1971 with the exception of 1978, 1992, 1995, 2000, 2015 and 2016. The game was also played twice in 1990 as the second game was a Division I-AA semifinal playoff game, and to date has been the only post-season game played between the two programs. The series has mostly been a conference match-up, with the exception of the first seven games as well as the 1993, 1994, and 2011 games. Boise State and Nevada have faced each other as conference rivals in four separate conferences - the Big Sky Conference, Big West Conference, Western Athletic Conference and the Mountain West Conference. The two teams have played each other from the NCAA Division II level all the way up to the highest level of college football, NCAA Division I FBS.\\nIn 2013, however, their rivalry is no longer played annually. Due to the MW expanding to 12 football members in 2013, the conference was split into two divisions for that sport, with Boise State placed in the Mountain Division and Nevada in the West Division. Future MW football schedules include five divisional games and three cross-division games, with no permanent cross-division opponents. This means that in a four-year cycle, teams in opposite divisions will play one another twice (two seasons on and two off, or vice versa). They played in 2013 and 2014 and have not played each other in 2015 and 2016 in the regular season. They can still meet in the Mountain West Championship game.\\nSince first game on September 25, 1971\\n\",\n \"2006 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2006 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Broncos won the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) championship with an undefeated 12–0 regular-season record (8–0 in the WAC), their second unbeaten regular season in the past three years. This was also Boise State's fifth consecutive season with at least a share of the WAC title, and the fourth in that period in which they went unbeaten in conference play. They became only the second team from outside the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) to play in a BCS bowl game when they faced Oklahoma in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl, defeating the Sooners in a dramatic thriller.\\nThe Broncos completed the first undefeated and untied season in school history with a 43–42 overtime win over the Sooners. The Broncos led most of the game, but fell behind late in the fourth quarter when quarterback Jared Zabransky threw an interception that was returned for an Oklahoma touchdown. They tied the game on a 50-yard hook and ladder play that ended in a touchdown with 7 seconds left. In the overtime, Sooners star running back Adrian Peterson scored a touchdown on the first play of Oklahoma's possession. Zabransky led the Broncos on a touchdown drive, capped off by a trick play in which backup receiver Vinny Peretta connected with tight end Derek Schouman on a fourth-down pass. They then gambled for the win on a two-point conversion, and tried another trick play. The Broncos ran a play very similar to the Statue of Liberty play, with Zabransky looking toward three receivers before handing the ball off behind his back to star running back Ian Johnson, who ran into the end zone untouched for the win. (The play would later be named the 2nd greatest highlight of all time in a 2008 ESPN Sportscenter poll behind Mike Eruzione's goal against the Soviets in the 1980 Miracle on Ice)\\nDue to Florida's 41–14 thrashing of previously unbeaten Ohio State in the BCS National Championship Game, the Broncos ended the season as the only undefeated team in NCAA Division I football, as no other team in Division I-AA (officially known as the \\\"Football Championship Subdivision\\\") finished undefeated (Three teams in lower divisions finished unbeaten: Grand Valley State in Division II, Mount Union in Division III, and Sioux Falls in NAIA.)\\nThe Broncos play their home games at Bronco Stadium, most famous for its blue artificial turf surface, often referred to as the \\\"Smurf-turf.\\\"\\nBoise State finished the 2005 regular season with a 9–3 record. The Broncos' 7–1 conference record was good enough for a share of the title with Nevada. They ended their season with a 21-27 loss to Boston College in the MPC Computers Bowl on their home field in Boise to finish the season at 9–4. After the season, head coach Dan Hawkins left to take over the head coaching vacancy at Colorado, with offensive coordinator Chris Petersen taking his place.\\nThe 2006 Broncos were an overwhelming favorite in the league's Preseason Media Poll to win the WAC title. They returned more starters than any other team in Division I FBS football—nine on offense and nine on defense, as well as their placekicker and punter. Among the returning starters was quarterback Jared Zabransky, whose 20 wins in the previous two seasons was the most by any returning quarterback in Division I FBS.\\nKorey Hall\\nIan Johnson\\nJared Zabransky\\nThe Broncos started the season unranked in both the Coaches Poll or the AP Poll, and would not enter the polls until they had won their first three games. They steadily rose in the rankings mainly on the strength of an offense that finished the regular season second in scoring. The keys to their offense were running back Ian Johnson, who was the nation's leading scorer and second in rushing yards per game, and Zabransky, eighth in passing efficiency. Due to their threats on both the ground and in the air, they were one of only two teams in the country to rush and pass for over 200 yards per game (the other being Oklahoma State). In a more obscure statistic, they led the country in percentage of fourth-down conversions, converting 15 of 19 attempts.\\nThe Broncos played five bowl-bound teams during the season—Oregon State, their only opponent from one of the six BCS conferences; Utah; and conference rivals Hawaii, San Jose State, and Nevada. Four out of five of these teams won their bowl game. The only loser, Nevada, lost by one point. Notably, they put a 42-14 defeat on an Oregon State team that would later in the season end the 38-game regular-season winning streak of USC.\\nChris Petersen\\nKorey Hall\\nIan Johnson\\nJared Zabransky\\n2007 Espy Awards\",\n \"2005 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2005 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University during the 2005 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by fifth-year head coach Dan Hawkins. He resigned at the end of the regular season to take the head coaching job at Colorado, but remained to coach the Broncos in their bowl game. The Broncos finished the season 9–4 and 7–1 in conference to win their fourth straight WAC title (shared with Nevada) and played in the MPC Computers Bowl, where they lost to Boston College, 27–21.\",\n \"2003 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2003 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2003 NCAA Division I-A football season. Boise State competed as a member of the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), and played their home games at Bronco Stadium in Boise, Idaho. The Broncos were led by third-year head coach Dan Hawkins. The Broncos finished the season 13–1 and 8–0 in conference to win their second consecutive WAC title and played in the Fort Worth Bowl, where they defeated TCU, 34–31.\",\n \"2002 NCAA Division I-A football season\\nThe 2002 NCAA Division I-A football season ended with a double overtime national championship game. <a href=\\\"2002%20Ohio%20State%20Buckeyes%20football%20team\\\">Ohio State</a> and <a href=\\\"2002%20Miami%20Hurricanes%20football%20team\\\">Miami</a> both came into the <a href=\\\"2003%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">Fiesta Bowl</a> undefeated. The underdog Buckeyes defeated the defending-champion Hurricanes 31–24, ending Miami's 34-game winning streak. <a href=\\\"Jim%20Tressel\\\">Jim Tressel</a> won the national championship in only his second year as head coach.\\nRose Bowl officials were vocally upset over the loss of the Big Ten champ from the game. Former <a href=\\\"New%20England%20Patriots\\\">New England Patriots</a> coach <a href=\\\"Pete%20Carroll\\\">Pete Carroll</a> returned the <a href=\\\"USC%20Trojans%20football\\\">USC Trojans</a> to a BCS bid in only his second season as head coach. Notre Dame also returned to prominence, as <a href=\\\"Tyrone%20Willingham\\\">Tyrone Willingham</a> became the first coach in <a href=\\\"Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football\\\">Notre Dame</a> history to win 10 games in his first season.\\nBeginning with the 2002 season, teams were allowed to schedule twelve regular season games instead of eleven leading to additional revenues for all teams and allowing players the enhanced opportunity to break various statistical records.\\nThe NCAA Rules Committee adopted the following rules changes for the 2002 season:\\nNo teams upgraded from Division I-AA, leaving the number of Division I-A schools fixed at 117.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Rose%20Bowl%20%28game%29\\\">Rose Bowl</a> normally features the champions of the <a href=\\\"Big%20Ten\\\">Big Ten</a> and the <a href=\\\"Pac-10\\\">Pac-10</a>. However, Big Ten-champion Ohio State, finishing #2 in the BCS, had qualified to play in the <a href=\\\"2003%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">2003 Fiesta Bowl</a> for the national championship against Miami (Fla.) Earlier in the season, Ohio State had defeated <a href=\\\"2002%20Washington%20State%20Cougars%20football%20team\\\">Washington State</a> 25-7.\\nAfter the national championship was set, the Orange Bowl had the next pick, and invited #3 (#5 BCS) Iowa from the Big Ten. When it was the Rose Bowl's turn to select, the best available team was #8 (#7 BCS) Oklahoma, who won the <a href=\\\"2002%20Big%2012%20Championship%20Game\\\">Big 12 Championship Game</a>. When it came time for the Orange Bowl and Sugar Bowl to make a second pick, both wanted Pac-10 co-champion USC. However, a BCS rule stated that if two bowls wanted the same team, the bowl with the higher payoff had priority. The Orange Bowl immediately extended an at-large bid to the #5 Trojans and paired them with at-large #3 Iowa in a Big Ten/Pac-10 \\\"Rose Bowl East\\\" matchup in the <a href=\\\"2003%20Orange%20Bowl\\\">2003 Orange Bowl</a>. The Rose Bowl was left to pair Oklahoma with Pac-10 co-champion Washington State. Rose Bowl committee executive director Mitch Dorger was not pleased with the results.\\nAs such, the BCS instituted a new rule, whereby a bowl losing its conference champion to the BCS championship could \\\"protect\\\" the second-place team from that conference from going to another bowl. This left the Sugar Bowl with #14 BCS <a href=\\\"2002%20Florida%20State%20Seminoles%20football%20team\\\">Florida State</a>, the winner of the Atlantic Coast Conference. <a href=\\\"2002%20Notre%20Dame%20Fighting%20Irish%20football%20team\\\">Notre Dame</a> at 10-2 and #9 in the BCS standings was invited to the <a href=\\\"2003%20Gator%20Bowl\\\">2003 Gator Bowl</a>. <a href=\\\"2002%20Kansas%20State%20Wildcats%20football%20team\\\">Kansas State</a> at #8 also was left out.\\n\\n15\\n\\n\\\"The <a href=\\\"Heisman%20Trophy\\\">Heisman Memorial Trophy Award</a> is given to the\\nMost Outstanding Player of the year\\\"<br>\\nWinner:\\n<a href=\\\"Carson%20Palmer\\\">Carson Palmer</a> (Sr.), QB, USC (1,328 points)\\n\",\n \"2002 Humanitarian Bowl\\nThe 2002 edition to the Humanitarian Bowl was the 6th edition of the bowl game. It featured the <a href=\\\"2002%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">Boise State Broncos</a> and the <a href=\\\"2002%20Iowa%20State%20Cyclones%20football%20team\\\">Iowa State Cyclones</a>.\\nIowa State got on the board first after a 30-yard field goal from Adam Benike, taking a 3-0 lead. In the second quarter, Boise State's <a href=\\\"Brock%20Forsey\\\">Brock Forsey</a> scored from 4 yards out for Boise State to jump ahead 7-3. Iowa State quarterback <a href=\\\"Seneca%20Wallace\\\">Seneca Wallace</a> threw a 6-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver <a href=\\\"Jamaul%20Montgomery\\\">Jamaul Montgomery</a>, and Iowa State took a 10-7 lead to halftime.\\nIn the third quarter, Brock Forsey gave Boise State the lead again, as he rumbled in from 2 yards out to place the Broncos in front 14-10. Quarterback <a href=\\\"Ryan%20Dinwiddie\\\">Ryan Dinwiddie</a> later scored on a 1-yard quarterback sneak to make it 21-10. In the fourth quarter, Brock Forsey added his third touchdown of the game, a 9 yarder, as Boise State built a 27-10 lead, and pulled away from Iowa State. <a href=\\\"Lane%20Danielson\\\">Lane Danielson</a> scored on a four-yard run making it 27-16, but Ryan Dinwiddie threw a 3-yard touchdown pass to Lou Fanucchi to cap the scoring, and give Boise State a 34-16 win.\\n\\n\",\n \"2002 Iowa State Cyclones football team\\nThe 2002 Iowa State Cyclones football team represented the <a href=\\\"Iowa%20State%20University\\\">Iowa State University</a> in the <a href=\\\"2002%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\\\">2002 NCAA Division I-A football season</a>. The team captains were Zach Butler, Jordan Carstens, Seneca Wallace, and Chris Whitaker. The Cyclones were quarterbacked by <a href=\\\"Seneca%20Wallace\\\">Seneca Wallace</a>. Seneca is among many former Cyclones from the 2002 team to make it to the NFL. Others were <a href=\\\"Ellis%20Hobbs\\\">Ellis Hobbs</a>, <a href=\\\"Jordan%20Carstens\\\">Jordan Carstens</a>, Jeremy Loyd. Iowa State would conclude its season by playing in the <a href=\\\"2002%20Humanitarian%20Bowl\\\">2002 Humanitarian Bowl</a>. It was Iowa State's third consecutive bowl appearance - the two previous bowls were the <a href=\\\"2000%20Insight.com%20Bowl\\\">2000 Insight.com Bowl</a> and the <a href=\\\"2001%20Independence%20Bowl\\\">2001 Independence Bowl</a>.\\nOn November 30, 2002 eight Iowa State players were named to the all-Big 12 football teams. Second-team players were Offensive lineman Bob Montgomery, quarterback Seneca Wallace, place-kicker Adam Benike and defensive tackle Jordan Carstens. The third-team consisted of offensive lineman Zach Butler and strong safety JaMaine Billups. Wide receiver Lane Danielsen and linebacker Jeremy Loyd were honorable mention choices. On December 2, 2002 defensive tackle Jordan Carstens and wide receiver Jack Whitver were named to the Verizon Academic All-America Football Teams. They earned first and second team honors respectively. Iowa State was also only one of eight teams with more than one player recognized. On December 4, 2002 Iowa State started taking deposits on three bowl games. The three Bowls were the Tangerine, Humanitarian and Motor City bowls.\",\n \"2016 Boise State Broncos football team\\nThe 2016 Boise State Broncos football team represented <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a> during the <a href=\\\"2016%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2016 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. It marked the Broncos' 80th season overall, sixth as a member of the <a href=\\\"Mountain%20West%20Conference\\\">Mountain West Conference</a> and fourth within the Mountain Division. They played their home games at <a href=\\\"Albertsons%20Stadium\\\">Albertsons Stadium</a> in <a href=\\\"Boise%2C%20Idaho\\\">Boise, Idaho</a>. They were led by third-year head coach <a href=\\\"Bryan%20Harsin\\\">Bryan Harsin</a>. They finished the season 10–3, 6–2 in Mountain West play to finish in a three-way tie for the Mountain Division title. After tiebreakers, they did not represent the Mountain Division in the <a href=\\\"2016%20Mountain%20West%20Conference%20Football%20Championship%20Game\\\">Mountain West Championship Game</a>. They were invited to the <a href=\\\"2016%20Cactus%20Bowl%20%28December%29\\\">Cactus Bowl</a> where they lost to <a href=\\\"2016%20Baylor%20Bears%20football%20team\\\">Baylor</a>.\\nThis season marked the 30th anniversary season that the Broncos have played on the Blue Turf.\\nListed in the order that they were released.\\n<a href=\\\"Maxwell%20Award\\\">Maxwell Award</a> – So. QB <a href=\\\"Brett%20Rypien\\\">Brett Rypien</a> & Jr. RB <a href=\\\"Jeremy%20McNichols\\\">Jeremy McNichols</a>\\n<a href=\\\"Mackey%20Award\\\">Mackey Award</a> – Jr. TE Jake Roh\\n<a href=\\\"Lou%20Groza%20Award\\\">Lou Groza Award</a> – Sr. K Tyler Rausa\\n<a href=\\\"Bronko%20Nagurski%20Trophy\\\">Bronko Nagurski Trophy</a> – Sr. LB Tanner Vallejo\\n<a href=\\\"Butkus%20Award\\\">Butkus Award</a> – Sr. LB Tanner Vallejo\\n<a href=\\\"Fred%20Biletnikoff%20Award\\\">Fred Biletnikoff Award</a> – Sr. WR <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Sperbeck\\\">Thomas Sperbeck</a>\\n<a href=\\\"Davey%20O%27Brien%20Award\\\">Davey O'Brien Award</a> – So. QB Brett Rypien\\n<a href=\\\"Doak%20Walker%20Award\\\">Doak Walker Award</a> – Jr. RB Jeremy McNichols\\n<a href=\\\"Walter%20Camp%20Award\\\">Walter Camp Award</a> – So. QB Brett Rypien\\nAt the Mountain West media days, held at the <a href=\\\"Cosmopolitan%20of%20Las%20Vegas\\\">Cosmopolitan</a> in <a href=\\\"Las%20Vegas%20Valley\\\">Las Vegas</a>, <a href=\\\"Nevada\\\">Nevada</a>, the Broncos were picked as the overwhelming favorites to win the Mountain Division title, receiving 27 of a possible 29 first place votes. So. QB <a href=\\\"Brett%20Rypien\\\">Brett Rypien</a>, Sr. WR <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Sperbeck\\\">Thomas Sperbeck</a> and Sr. K Tyler Rausa were selected to the all-conference first team.\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, blue jersey, blue pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, blue jersey, blue pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks and throwback logos, white jersey, orange pants. This combo is in honor of the 10th anniversary of the <a href=\\\"2006%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2006 team</a> that won the <a href=\\\"2007%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">2007 Fiesta Bowl</a>. It is also the first time Boise State wore white at home since the <a href=\\\"2005%20MPC%20Computers%20Bowl\\\">2005 MPC Computers Bowl</a>.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, blue jersey, blue pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: white helmet, white jersey, white pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, black jersey, black pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks and stars and stripes helmet numbers, white jersey, blue pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks and stars and stripes helmet numbers, blue jersey, blue pants.\\\"\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: black helmet, white jersey, white pants.\\\"\\nAir Force became the first team to beat Boise State for three consecutive season since Nevada in 1996–98.\\n\\n\\\"Uniform combination: blue helmet with chrome facemasks, white jersey, orange pants\\\"\\nAll opponents\\nMountain West opponents\\n\\\"Offense\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Brett%20Rypien\\\">Brett Rypien</a> – So. QB\\n<a href=\\\"Thomas%20Sperbeck\\\">Thomas Sperbeck</a> – Sr. WR\\nTravis Averill – Sr. OL\\nMario Yakoo – Sr. OL\\n\\\"Defense\\\"\\nSam McCaskill – Sr. DL\\nDavid Moa – So. DL\\n\\\"Offense\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Jeremy%20McNichols\\\">Jeremy McNichols</a> – Jr. RB\\n\\\"Defense\\\"\\nBen Weaver – Sr. LB\\nChanceller James – Sr. DB\\nJonathan Moxey – Sr. DB\\nSean Wale – Sr. P\\nSteven Baggett – Sr. OL\\nMason Hampton – Jr. OL\\nTanner Vallejo – Sr. LB\\nCedrick Wilson – Jr. WR\",\n \"Skip Hall\\nMerle \\\"Skip\\\" Hall (born February 18, 1944) is a former <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> coach. He served as the head football coach at <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a> for six seasons, from 1987 to 1992, compiling a record of 42–28. He replaced <a href=\\\"Lyle%20Setencich\\\">Lyle Setencich</a> following the 1986 season, Boise State's first losing season in four decades. Hall was previously an assistant coach at <a href=\\\"Kent%20State%20Golden%20Flashes%20football\\\">Kent State</a> and <a href=\\\"Washington%20Huskies%20football\\\">Washington</a> under <a href=\\\"Don%20James%20%28American%20football%29\\\">Don James</a>, and later was the <a href=\\\"defensive%20coordinator\\\">defensive coordinator</a> at <a href=\\\"Missouri%20Tigers%20football\\\">Missouri</a> under <a href=\\\"Bob%20Stull\\\">Bob Stull</a>.\\nIn Hall's second season, he led the Broncos back to the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\\\">NCAA Division I-AA playoffs</a>, their first appearance since 1981. Hall's best season was in 1990, when Boise State advanced to the national semifinals, falling in a high scoring game against <a href=\\\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\\\">Big Sky</a> rival <a href=\\\"Nevada%20Wolf%20Pack%20football\\\">Nevada</a>, the conference champion whom the Broncos had defeated a month earlier in <a href=\\\"Boise%2C%20Idaho\\\">Boise</a>.\\nHall gave <a href=\\\"Jim%20Zorn\\\">Jim Zorn</a> his first coaching job, as quarterbacks coach at Boise State in 1988. Former <a href=\\\"Seattle%20Seahawks\\\">Seattle Seahawks</a> and <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Falcons\\\">Atlanta Falcons</a> head coach <a href=\\\"Jim%20L.%20Mora\\\">Jim Mora</a> is a former player of Hall's, as are <a href=\\\"Nick%20Saban\\\">Nick Saban</a> of <a href=\\\"Alabama%20Crimson%20Tide%20football\\\">Alabama</a> and <a href=\\\"Gary%20Pinkel\\\">Gary Pinkel</a> of <a href=\\\"Missouri%20Tigers%20football\\\">Missouri</a>.\\nAfter 30 years of coaching college football, Hall transferred to the business arena with <a href=\\\"Aflac\\\">Aflac</a>, recruiting, coaching, and building teams. He was a regional manager with Aflac for ten years, and was then appointed Associate Managing Director of Individual Sales for the <a href=\\\"Principal%20Financial%20Group\\\">Principal Financial Group</a> in Boise. Hall also travels throughout the United States addressing business leaders on the subjects of communication, leadership, motivation and accountability.\\nAssistants under Skip Hall who became NCAA or NFL head coaches:\\n\",\n \"1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season\\nThe 1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season, part of <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> in the United States organized by the <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">National Collegiate Athletic Association</a> at the <a href=\\\"Division%20I%20%28NCAA%29\\\">Division I Football Championship Subdivision</a> level, began in August 1991, and concluded with the National Championship Game of the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\\\">NCAA Division I Football Championship</a> on December 21, 1991, at <a href=\\\"Paulson%20Stadium\\\">Paulson Stadium</a> in <a href=\\\"Statesboro%2C%20Georgia\\\">Statesboro, Georgia</a>. The <a href=\\\"Youngstown%20State%20Penguins%20football\\\">Youngstown State Penguins</a> won their first I-AA championship, defeating the <a href=\\\"Marshall%20Thundering%20Herd%20football\\\">Marshall Thundering Herd</a> by a final score of 25−17.\\n<nowiki>*</nowiki> \\\"Next to team name denotes host institution\\\"\\n<nowiki>*</nowiki> \\\"Next to score denotes host overtime period\\\"\\n\",\n \"Albertsons Stadium\\nAlbertsons Stadium is an outdoor athletic stadium in the <a href=\\\"Western%20United%20States\\\">western</a> <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, located on the campus of <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a> in <a href=\\\"Boise%2C%20Idaho\\\">Boise, Idaho</a>. It is the home field of the <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State Broncos</a> of the <a href=\\\"Mountain%20West%20Conference\\\">Mountain West Conference</a>. Known as Bronco Stadium for its first 44 seasons, it was renamed in May <a href=\\\"2014%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2014</a> when <a href=\\\"Albertsons\\\">Albertsons</a>, a chain of grocery stores founded by Boise area resident <a href=\\\"Joe%20Albertson\\\">Joe Albertson</a>, purchased the naming rights.\\nOpened in <a href=\\\"1970%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1970</a>, it was also a <a href=\\\"Track%20and%20field%20athletics\\\">track & field</a> stadium and hosted the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Men%27s%20Division%20I%20Outdoor%20Track%20and%20Field%20Championships\\\">NCAA track & field championships</a> twice, in <a href=\\\"1994%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20Outdoor%20Track%20and%20Field%20Championships\\\">1994</a> and 1999. The stadium was used extensively for local <a href=\\\"high%20school%20football\\\">high school football</a> for decades until August <a href=\\\"2012%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2012</a>, when games were transferred a few blocks northeast to the new Dona Larsen Park, which is also the new home venue of Boise State's track & field team.\\nAlbertsons Stadium is widely known for its unusual blue playing surface, installed in <a href=\\\"1986%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1986</a>, while Boise State was in the <a href=\\\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\\\">Big Sky Conference</a>. It was the first non-green playing surface (outside of painted end zones) in football history and remained the only one among <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I\\\">NCAA Division I</a> <a href=\\\"Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\\\">FBS</a> schools for almost 20 years.\\nSince <a href=\\\"1997%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\\\">1997</a>, it has hosted the <a href=\\\"Famous%20Idaho%20Potato%20Bowl\\\">Famous Idaho Potato Bowl</a> (also called the Humanitarian Bowl from 1997 to January 2004 & 2007 to 2010; as well as the MPC Computers Bowl from 2004 to 2006), which is the longest-running outdoor <a href=\\\"bowl%20game\\\">bowl game</a> in a cold-weather venue.\\nAlbertsons Stadium is located at the east end of the BSU campus, bordered by Broadway Avenue to the east, University Drive to the south, and the <a href=\\\"Boise%20River\\\">Boise River</a> to the north. The <a href=\\\"elevation\\\">elevation</a> of its playing field is 2695 ft above <a href=\\\"sea%20level\\\">sea level</a>.\\nAlbertsons Stadium is the first venue to hold its name. However, when it was Bronco Stadium, it was the fourth venue and second of the same name at Boise State; the three on-campus stadiums were built in 1940, 1950, and 1970, respectively.\\nDuring its first years at its original campus, BJC football was played at \\\"Public School Field,\\\" located three blocks north-northeast of today's Albertsons Stadium. The site was the home of East Junior High School from 1953 to 2009 until it was demolished and rebuilt further down Warm Springs Ave., and the previous area became Dona Larsen Park in 2012.\\nAfter the college moved to its present campus in 1940, \\\"College Field\\\" opened in September 1940 with lights and a seating capacity of 1,000. Also called \\\"Chaffee Field,\\\" it was used through 1949 for <a href=\\\"junior%20college\\\">junior college</a> football <a href=\\\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D308%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D1\\\">(photo - 1940s)</a>. In the 1950s, it became the <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%23Baseball\\\">baseball</a> field, aligned southeast, until right field was displaced by the construction of the Student Union Building, which opened in 1967. The baseball field migrated slightly east, then north, with a new northeast alignment and home plate at ( ). It was eliminated in 1980 by the construction of the <a href=\\\"Taco%20Bell%20Arena\\\">BSU Pavilion</a> and the relocation of the tennis courts. (Baseball was dropped by both BSU and <a href=\\\"Idaho%20Vandals%20baseball\\\">Idaho</a> following the 1980 season; the Broncos played home games at <a href=\\\"Borah%20High%20School\\\">Borah Field</a> during their final season.)\\nThe first \\\"Bronco Stadium\\\" was built in three months in <a href=\\\"1950%20college%20football%20season\\\">1950</a> at the east end of campus, with wooden grandstands, a natural grass playing field, lights, and a cinder running track; seating capacity was 10,000. It was in approximately the same location as the present stadium, but aligned northwest to southeast. <a href=\\\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D471%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D11\\\">(photo - 1964)</a> The 45° offset was designed to keep the mid-afternoon sun of mid-October out of the players' eyes (but put it into the eyes of half of the spectators).\\nFrom the 1920s through <a href=\\\"1968%20college%20football%20season\\\">1968</a>, the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Idaho\\\">University of Idaho</a> <a href=\\\"Idaho%20Vandals%20football\\\">Vandals</a> usually played one home game per season in Boise, often against schools from Oregon or Utah. After Boise State joined the <a href=\\\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\\\">Big Sky</a> in 1970, Idaho discontinued its practice of scheduling home games in Boise, sometimes referred to as \\\"southern homecoming.\\\" (Idaho did use the new Bronco Stadium for a \\\"home\\\" game in <a href=\\\"1971%20Idaho%20Vandals%20football%20team\\\">1971</a>, but it was against Boise State in the first football game ever played between the schools. Idaho's <a href=\\\"Kibbie%20Dome\\\">new stadium</a> on campus in <a href=\\\"Moscow%2C%20Idaho\\\">Moscow</a> was behind schedule so the university rented Bronco Stadium for its opening game. The underdog \\\"visitors\\\" of Boise State built a 28–7 lead at halftime and won handily 42–14 and a <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%E2%80%93Idaho%20football%20rivalry\\\">rivalry game</a> was born.)\\nThe Boise College football program upgraded from junior college to four-year status in <a href=\\\"1968%20college%20football%20season\\\">1968</a> and competed as an <a href=\\\"National%20Association%20for%20Intercollegiate%20Athletics\\\">NAIA</a> independent for two seasons. The school became Boise State College in 1969 and the Broncos were accepted into the <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">NCAA</a> in October. A month later the school was voted into the <a href=\\\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\\\">Big Sky Conference</a>, effective fall 1970. Following the 1969 football season, the first Bronco Stadium was razed in November and the new concrete stadium was ready for play in less than ten months.\\nBoise State began NCAA competition in <a href=\\\"1970%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1970</a> in the College Division (became <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20II\\\">Division II</a> in <a href=\\\"1973%20NCAA%20Division%20II%20football%20season\\\">1973</a>) in a brand new venue. The first game at the new Bronco Stadium was on September 11, a 49–14 victory over <a href=\\\"Chico%20State%20Wildcats\\\">Chico State</a>. The $2.2 million concrete stadium opened with a <a href=\\\"seating%20capacity\\\">seating capacity</a> of 14,500 and a green <a href=\\\"AstroTurf\\\">AstroTurf</a> playing field, configured in the traditional north-south direction, and an all-weather running track. For its first five seasons, the stadium consisted of two sideline grandstands, the west side having an upper deck and the press box. <a href=\\\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D473%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D2\\\">(photo - 1971)</a> Boise State became a charter member of Division II when the NCAA reorganized the former College Division in <a href=\\\"1973%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1973</a>.\\nFollowing the <a href=\\\"1974%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1974</a> season, the school's first as Boise State University, an upper deck was added to the east side <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.idahostatesman.com/2009/10/13/934974_a934981/boise-state-vs-idaho-rivalry-over.html\\\">(photo - 1971)</a> - <a href=\\\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D286%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D6\\\">(photo -1975)</a>, adding 5,500 seats as well as symmetry to the stadium. The permanent seating capacity grew to 20,000 for its Bronco Stadium's sixth season in <a href=\\\"1975%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1975</a>, with up to 2,600 temporary seats available in the north end zone seating for bigger games. The original green artificial turf was replaced with the same in <a href=\\\"1978%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1978</a> as the Big Sky and the Broncos moved up to the newly-formed <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%23Football%20Championship%20Subdivision\\\">Division I-AA</a>. <a href=\\\"http%3A//digital.boisestate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php%3FCISOROOT%3D/archives%26amp%3BCISOPTR%3D616%26amp%3BCISOBOX%3D1%26amp%3BREC%3D9\\\">(photo - mid 1980s)</a> The Broncos moved to the <a href=\\\"Big%20West%20Conference\\\">Big West</a> and <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Bowl%20Subdivision\\\">Division I-A</a> in <a href=\\\"1996%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1996</a>, which resulted in another stadium expansion. The two-tier grandstands were extended around the corners of the south end zone, raising the permanent seating capacity to 30,000 in <a href=\\\"1997%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1997</a>. The latest stadium expansion was completed in time for the <a href=\\\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2008</a> season, with the addition of the Stueckle Sky Club press box, luxury suites, loge boxes, and club seating; raising the capacity to 32,000. In the summer of <a href=\\\"2009%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2009</a>, 1,500 additional bleacher seats were added to the south end zone to bring capacity up to 33,500. Prior to the <a href=\\\"2012%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2012</a> season, expanded bleacher sections were added to the north and south end zones, expanding capacity to a total of 36,387.\\nDuring its 11th season, the playing field at Bronco Stadium was named Lyle Smith Field during the <a href=\\\"NCAA%20Division%20I%20Football%20Championship\\\">I-AA national championship</a> season of <a href=\\\"1980%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1980</a>. Ceremonies during halftime of the 14–3 victory over <a href=\\\"Nevada%20Wolf%20Pack%20football\\\">Nevada</a> on November 8 marked the event. It honors <a href=\\\"Lyle%20Smith\\\">Lyle H. Smith</a>, the <a href=\\\"head%20coach\\\">head coach</a> from 1947 to 1967 and athletic director from 1968 to 1981, overseeing BSU's rise from the junior college ranks to Division I-AA champions in 1980.\\nSmith led Boise, as BJC, to multiple post-season bowls, including the 1958 <a href=\\\"NJCAA%20National%20Football%20Championship\\\">national junior college championship</a>, and compiled an overall record of 156–26–8 ( ), which included five undefeated seasons and 16 conference titles. He was also the <a href=\\\"baseball\\\">baseball</a> coach for 17 seasons and served as <a href=\\\"basketball\\\">basketball</a> coach for a season at the school. Smith hired <a href=\\\"Tony%20Knap\\\">Tony Knap</a> to replace himself as football coach in 1968, and <a href=\\\"Jim%20Criner\\\">Jim Criner</a> to replace Knap in <a href=\\\"1976%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1976</a>.\\nThe current attendance record is 36,864, set on September 20, <a href=\\\"2012%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2012</a> against <a href=\\\"2012%20BYU%20Cougars%20football%20team\\\">BYU</a>.\\nIn 2015, the stadium played host to a <a href=\\\"Exhibition%20game\\\">soccer friendly</a> on July 18, named the <a href=\\\"Basques\\\">Basque</a> Soccer Friendly, between <a href=\\\"Athletic%20Bilbao\\\">Athletic Bilbao</a> of <a href=\\\"La%20Liga\\\">La Liga</a> vs <a href=\\\"Club%20Tijuana\\\">Club Tijuana</a> of <a href=\\\"Liga%20MX\\\">Liga MX</a>. To accommodate the game, a natural grass surface was laid on top of the famous blue turf to conform to La Liga rules. It was the first time since <a href=\\\"1985%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1985</a> that the stadium featured a green surface for any sporting event. Before a crowd of 21,948, Athletic Bilbao won 2–0.\\nAlbertsons Stadium is best known for its distinctive blue playing surface, which was the only non-green football playing surface among Division I FBS programs from Boise State's entry into what is now FBS in <a href=\\\"1996%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\\\">1996</a> until <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20football\\\">Eastern Michigan</a> installed a gray surface at <a href=\\\"Rynearson%20Stadium\\\">Rynearson Stadium</a> in <a href=\\\"2014%20Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20football%20team\\\">2014</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Chris%20Berman\\\">Chris Berman</a> of <a href=\\\"ESPN\\\">ESPN</a> has also called Boise's turf \\\"The Blue Plastic Tundra,\\\" a joking reference to \\\"the frozen tundra\\\" of <a href=\\\"Lambeau%20Field\\\">Lambeau Field</a> in <a href=\\\"Green%20Bay%2C%20Wisconsin\\\">Green Bay, Wisconsin</a>. Another nickname for the surface is \\\"<a href=\\\"Smurf\\\">Smurf</a> Turf.\\\" Players refer to it simply as \\\"The Blue.\\\"\\nAfter sixteen seasons of playing on standard green <a href=\\\"AstroTurf\\\">AstroTurf</a>, athletic director <a href=\\\"Gene%20Bleymaier\\\">Gene Bleymaier</a> came up with the idea to install the blue turf. He decided that, if BSU was going to spend $750,000 on a new surface, he didn't want to see BSU install yet another green field, and that a blue field might provide some national notoriety for the school, then a member of the <a href=\\\"Big%20Sky%20Conference\\\">Big Sky Conference</a>. Bleymaier gained the support of BSU President John Keiser, and on September 13, 1986, Bronco Stadium introduced its unique playing surface to the world with a 74-0 victory over Division II <a href=\\\"Humboldt%20State%20Lumberjacks\\\">Humboldt State</a>. (BSU was 4–2 at home in <a href=\\\"1986%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1986</a>, but managed just one road victory and posted its first losing record in four decades, resulting in the resignation of fourth-year head coach <a href=\\\"Lyle%20Setencich\\\">Lyle Setencich</a>.)\\nBSU replaced the first blue AstroTurf with the same in <a href=\\\"1995%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1995</a>, then with blue <a href=\\\"Astroplay\\\">Astroplay</a> (a grass-like synthetic surface that is more forgiving than traditional AstroTurf) in <a href=\\\"2002%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2002</a>. The AstroPlay field lasted just six seasons and was replaced in the summer of <a href=\\\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2008</a> with blue <a href=\\\"FieldTurf\\\">FieldTurf</a> surface. Due to complaints by fans that the reflection and glare off the field gave the new field a dull and uneven shade of blue, FieldTurf agreed to replace the field free of charge. The fifth blue turf was installed in the summer of <a href=\\\"2010%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2010</a>.\\nThe unique blue turf has spawned several myths. The most prevalent is that the NCAA subsequently banned playing surface colors other than green, but allowed Albertsons Stadium's field to remain blue under a <a href=\\\"grandfather%20clause\\\">grandfather clause</a>. In reality, the NCAA has never adopted such a rule. Any school may color its playing surface (or any part, mainly the end zones) any color it wishes. Indeed, since 1986 other schools have non-green football fields including the <a href=\\\"New%20Haven%20Chargers\\\">University of New Haven</a> (blue) and <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Washington%20Eagles%20football\\\">Eastern Washington University</a> (<a href=\\\"Roos%20Field\\\">red</a>). On April 1, 2011, the <a href=\\\"Central%20Arkansas%20Bears%20and%20Sugar%20Bears\\\">University of Central Arkansas</a> announced it would install a purple and grey striped field to <a href=\\\"Estes%20Stadium\\\">Estes Stadium</a>. In 2012, <a href=\\\"Lindenwood%20University%20%E2%80%93%20Belleville\\\">Lindenwood University</a> in <a href=\\\"Belleville%2C%20Illinois\\\">Belleville, Illinois</a>, played their first football season, on a home field with alternating maroon and gray stripes. The blue turf at Boise State remained the only non-traditionally colored field used by a Division I FBS program until June 2014, when <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Michigan%20Eagles%20football\\\">Eastern Michigan</a> announced it would install a gray FieldTurf surface at <a href=\\\"Rynearson%20Stadium\\\">Rynearson Stadium</a> in time for the 2014 season.\\nAnother myth is that, mistaking the blue field for a large body of water, birds have flown into the blue turf and to their deaths. Although Bronco head coach <a href=\\\"Chris%20Petersen\\\">Chris Petersen</a> claimed to have found a dead duck on the field in <a href=\\\"2007%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2007</a>, the origin of the duck on the field has never been confirmed.\\nBSU's blue turf has become such a highly visible icon for the Broncos that BSU obtained a U.S. trademark registration for a blue athletics field in November 2009. In 2010, this trademark was extended to any non-green field.\\nIn , the <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a> banned any playing surface color other than green, naming the rule the \\\"Boise Rule\\\" in reference to the university, though this was more a reaction to sponsor influence as no team had ever proposed a different turf color for its field. Also in 2011, the Mountain West Conference banned Boise from wearing its all-blue uniforms during home conference games, after complaints from other Mountain West coaches that it was an unfair advantage. However, the uniform restriction was removed from the <a href=\\\"2013%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2013</a> season forward, as part of the deal that <a href=\\\"2010%E2%80%9313%20Mountain%20West%20Conference%20realignment%23Boise%20State%20remains%20in%20MW\\\">kept Boise State in the MW</a> after it had originally planned to leave the conference.\\nIn October 2014, Boise State's blue field topped USA Today's Fan Index list of top 10 best fields in college football.\\nAs the Boise State football program rose to national prominence in the early 2000s, Albertsons Stadium became increasingly insufficient. The school completed a three-story complex on the stadium's west side called the Stueckle Sky Club (pronounced \\\"Stickle\\\"). Construction began on February 11, 2007, and the facility officially opened on August 27, <a href=\\\"2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2008</a> with a gala for ticket holders prior to the first game on August 30. It features levels for a new press box, luxury suites, loge boxes, and club seating and increased seating capacity to 32,000.\\nThe practice facility, named the Caven-Williams Sports Complex, officially opened in February <a href=\\\"2006%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2006</a>, and is located immediately northwest of Albertsons Stadium. The university added additional temporary seating for 1,500 prior to the <a href=\\\"2009%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2009</a> season. The removable bleachers increased capacity to 33,500. It also added permanent bleachers to the north and south end zones prior to the <a href=\\\"2012%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2012</a> season, raising Albertsons Stadium's capacity to a total of 37,000.\\nIn late August 2010, the athletic department revealed expansion plans for Albertsons Stadium. The first stages were to include adding a new facility to the north end zone to house the football offices, weight room, training room, equipment room and locker room. Plans also included a 13,200 seat grandstand. The later stages of the expansion plan included removal of the track, lowering of the field, and adding 3,300 seats in front of the first deck of the stadium, completion of the south end zone horseshoe, building of an east side skybox, and renovation of the east side concourse. The total cost for all planned expansions was around $100 million. The total seating capacity for a fully expanded Albertsons Stadium was estimated to be around 53,000. In April 2012, the university broke ground on a revised expansion which it hoped to complete by June 2013.\\nDuring Boise State's recent streak of conference championships, Albertsons Stadium has proven to be a tough place for opponents. The Broncos are 112–7 ( ) at home since the <a href=\\\"1999%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">1999</a> season with the losses being to <a href=\\\"2001%20Washington%20State%20Cougars%20football%20team\\\">Washington State</a> in <a href=\\\"2001%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season\\\">2001</a>, <a href=\\\"2005%20Boston%20College%20Eagles%20football%20team\\\">Boston College</a> in the <a href=\\\"2005%20MPC%20Computers%20Bowl\\\">2005 MPC Computers Bowl</a>, <a href=\\\"2011%20TCU%20Horned%20Frogs%20football%20team\\\">TCU</a> in 2011, <a href=\\\"2012%20San%20Diego%20State%20Aztecs%20football%20team\\\">San Diego State</a> in 2012, <a href=\\\"2015%20New%20Mexico%20Lobos%20football%20team\\\">New Mexico</a> and <a href=\\\"2015%20Air%20Force%20Falcons%20football%20team\\\">Air Force</a> in 2015 in back-to-back weeks and to <a href=\\\"2017%20Virginia%20Cavaliers%20football%20team\\\">Virginia</a> in 2017. The Broncos won 47 straight home conference games from 1999 to 2011 and were undefeated in conference during their 10 years in the <a href=\\\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">WAC</a> (40–0). The Broncos are 108–6 ( ) in regular season home games since 1999, and had a winning streak of 65 regular season games from 2001 to 2011.\\nThe stadium expanded to 36,387 in 2012 and the highest attendances have all come since.\\n\\n\",\n \"Nate Potter\\nNate Potter (born May 16, 1988) is an <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> <a href=\\\"offensive%20tackle\\\">offensive tackle</a> who is currently a free agent. He played <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> for <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a> and was recognized as an <a href=\\\"All-American\\\">All-American</a>. The Cardinals drafted him in the seventh round of the <a href=\\\"2012%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2012 NFL Draft</a>.\\nPotter was born in <a href=\\\"Denver%2C%20Colorado\\\">Denver, Colorado</a>. He attended <a href=\\\"Timberline%20High%20School%20%28Boise%2C%20Idaho%29\\\">Timberline High School</a> in Boise and was a standout lineman for the Timberline Wolves <a href=\\\"high%20school%20football\\\">high school football</a> team.\\nPotter attended Boise State University, where he played for the <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State Broncos football</a> team from 2008 to 2011. He grayshirted and later <a href=\\\"Redshirt%20%28college%20sports%29\\\">redshirted</a> in <a href=\\\"2007%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2007</a>. In <a href=\\\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2008</a>, he started three games at <a href=\\\"Offensive%20tackle\\\">left tackle</a> and five games at right tackle for the Broncos.\\nPotter earned <a href=\\\"ESPN\\\">ESPN</a>'s second-team Academic All-America honors on November 23, 2010. He earned first-team All-WAC honors for the second straight season following the <a href=\\\"2010%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">2010 season</a>. In 2011, Potter was a consensus All-American.\\nPotter was drafted by the Arizona Cardinals in the seventh round of the 2012 NFL Draft. He played eight games that season. He was released with an injury settlement on August 30, 2014.\\n\",\n \"2008 Poinsettia Bowl\\nThe 2008 San Diego County Credit Union <a href=\\\"Poinsettia%20Bowl\\\">Poinsettia Bowl</a> was the fourth edition of the <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> <a href=\\\"bowl%20game\\\">bowl game</a>, and was played at <a href=\\\"Qualcomm%20Stadium\\\">Qualcomm Stadium</a> in <a href=\\\"San%20Diego%2C%20California\\\">San Diego</a>, <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>. The game started at 5 PM <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Time%20Zone\\\">US PST</a> on Tuesday, December 23, <a href=\\\"2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2008</a>. The game, <a href=\\\"simulcast\\\">simulcast</a> on <a href=\\\"ESPN\\\">ESPN</a> and <a href=\\\"ESPN%20Radio\\\">ESPN Radio</a> with <a href=\\\"Rece%20Davis\\\">Rece Davis</a>, <a href=\\\"Mark%20May\\\">Mark May</a>, and <a href=\\\"Lou%20Holtz\\\">Lou Holtz</a> announcing, pit the <a href=\\\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">Boise State Broncos</a> against the <a href=\\\"2008%20TCU%20Horned%20Frogs%20football%20team\\\">Texas Christian Horned Frogs</a>. In the game, TCU overcame a 13–0 deficit to pull off an impressive 17–16 win over Boise State.\\nWith Boise State ranked 9th and TCU ranked 11th, this bowl pairing featured teams both ranked higher than the teams playing in a <a href=\\\"Bowl%20Championship%20Series\\\">BCS</a> game during the same season, the <a href=\\\"2009%20Orange%20Bowl\\\">2009 Orange Bowl</a>, a first in BCS history.\\nTCU and Boise State would face off in a bowl game again the following season when both played in a BCS game, the <a href=\\\"2010%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">2010 Fiesta Bowl</a>.\\n\",\n \"2008 TCU Horned Frogs football team\\nThe 2008 TCU Horned Frogs football team represented <a href=\\\"Texas%20Christian%20University\\\">Texas Christian University</a> in the <a href=\\\"2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. The team was coached by <a href=\\\"Gary%20Patterson\\\">Gary Patterson</a>. The Frogs played their home games at <a href=\\\"Amon%20G.%20Carter%20Stadium\\\">Amon G. Carter Stadium</a>, which is located on campus in <a href=\\\"Fort%20Worth%2C%20Texas\\\">Fort Worth</a>. The Horned Frogs finished the season 11–2, 7–1 in conference, and won the <a href=\\\"2008%20Poinsettia%20Bowl\\\">Poinsettia Bowl</a> against #9 <a href=\\\"2008%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">Boise State</a>, 17–16.\\n<nowiki>** </nowiki>Game was moved to an earlier start time due to <a href=\\\"Hurricane%20Ike\\\">Hurricane Ike</a>\\nNote that parenthetical rankings are not official below No. 25, but are based on number of votes received in the various polls.\",\n \"2009 TCU Horned Frogs football team\\nThe 2009 TCU Horned Frogs football team represented <a href=\\\"Texas%20Christian%20University\\\">Texas Christian University</a> in the <a href=\\\"2009%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20FBS%20football%20season\\\">2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season</a>. The team was coached by <a href=\\\"Gary%20Patterson\\\">Gary Patterson</a>. The Frogs played their home games at <a href=\\\"Amon%20G.%20Carter%20Stadium\\\">Amon G. Carter Stadium</a>, which is located on campus in <a href=\\\"Fort%20Worth%2C%20Texas\\\">Fort Worth</a>. The Horned Frogs finished the season 12–1 (8–0 MWC) and won the <a href=\\\"Mountain%20West%20Conference\\\">Mountain West Conference</a> title. On December 6, they were invited to their first <a href=\\\"Bowl%20Championship%20Series\\\">Bowl Championship Series</a> game and their first major bowl since the <a href=\\\"1959%20Cotton%20Bowl%20Classic\\\">1959 Cotton Bowl Classic</a>, against #6 <a href=\\\"2009%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">Boise State</a> in the <a href=\\\"2010%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">Tostitos Fiesta Bowl</a> on January 4, 2010. In the <a href=\\\"Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">Fiesta Bowl</a>, TCU was upset by underdog <a href=\\\"2009%20Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football%20team\\\">Boise State</a>, 17–10.\\n\",\n \"Paul "Bear" Bryant Award\\nThe <a href=\\\"American%20Heart%20Association\\\">American Heart Association</a> (AHA) Paul \\\"Bear\\\" Bryant Awards are an annual awards banquet that is hosted each year in January, in <a href=\\\"Houston%2C%20Texas\\\">Houston, Texas</a>, by the AHA. There are two awards. One of them—the Paul \\\"Bear\\\" Bryant Coach of the Year Award—has been given annually since 1986 to <a href=\\\"National%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Association\\\">NCAA</a> <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a>'s national coach of the year. The Award was named in honor of longtime <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Alabama\\\">Alabama</a> coach <a href=\\\"Bear%20Bryant\\\">Bear Bryant</a> after he died of a heart attack in 1983. It is voted on by the <a href=\\\"National%20Sports%20Media%20Association%23Paul%20%26quot%3BBear%26quot%3B%20Bryant%20Award\\\">National Sports Media Association</a> (formerly the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association) and proceeds from the awards ceremony benefit the Houston chapter of the <a href=\\\"American%20Heart%20Association\\\">American Heart Association</a>, which is the organizing sponsor—since 1986, at the request of the Bryant family—and which obtains a \\\"presenting sponsor\\\" (currently <a href=\\\"Marathon%20Oil%20Corporation\\\">Marathon Oil Corporation</a>). The College Football Coach of the Year Award began in 1957 and was renamed for Bryant in 1986. Bryant himself won the <a href=\\\"AFCA%20Coach%20of%20the%20Year\\\">AFCA Coach of the Year</a> award in 1961, 1971, and 1973.\\nAccording to the official website:\\nThe Paul \\\"Bear\\\" Bryant College Football Coaching Awards is an exclusive event that honors a college football coach whose great accomplishments, both on and off the field, are legendary. The award recognizes the masters of coaching and allows them to take their deserved place in history beside other legends like Bear Bryant.\\nUnlike many college football head coaching awards, it is presented after each season's bowl games.\\nIn 2000, the AHA began presenting a second award, the Paul \\\"Bear\\\" Bryant Lifetime Achievement Award.\\n2000 – <a href=\\\"Darrell%20Royal\\\">Darrell Royal</a>\\n2001 – <a href=\\\"Charles%20McClendon\\\">Charles McClendon</a>\\n2002 – <a href=\\\"Bill%20Yeoman\\\">Bill Yeoman</a>\\n2003 – <a href=\\\"Frank%20Broyles\\\">Frank Broyles</a>\\n2004 – <a href=\\\"Gene%20Stallings\\\">Gene Stallings</a>\\n2005 – <a href=\\\"Lou%20Holtz\\\">Lou Holtz</a>\\n2006 – <a href=\\\"Jack%20Pardee\\\">Jack Pardee</a>\\n2007 – <a href=\\\"Bo%20Schembechler\\\">Bo Schembechler</a>\\n2008 – <a href=\\\"Tom%20Osborne\\\">Tom Osborne</a>\\n2009 – <a href=\\\"Barry%20Switzer\\\">Barry Switzer</a>\\n2010 – <a href=\\\"Vince%20Dooley\\\">Vince Dooley</a>\\n2011 – <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Bowden\\\">Bobby Bowden</a>\\n2012 – <a href=\\\"Hayden%20Fry\\\">Hayden Fry</a>\\n2013 – <a href=\\\"LaVell%20Edwards\\\">LaVell Edwards</a>\\n2014 – <a href=\\\"R.%20C.%20Slocum\\\">R. C. Slocum</a>\\n2015 – <a href=\\\"Jimmy_Johnson_%28American_football_coach%29\\\">Jimmy Johnson</a>\\n2016 – <a href=\\\"Mack%20Brown\\\">Mack Brown</a>\\n2017 – <a href=\\\"Barry%20Alvarez\\\">Barry Alvarez</a>\\n\",\n \"Ryan Clady\\nRyan Jacob Clady (born September 6, 1986) is a former <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> <a href=\\\"offensive%20tackle\\\">offensive tackle</a> who played nine seasons in the <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">National Football League</a> (NFL). He played <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> for <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a>, and earned consensus <a href=\\\"All-American\\\">All-American</a> honors. The <a href=\\\"Denver%20Broncos\\\">Denver Broncos</a> selected Clady in the first round of the <a href=\\\"2008%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2008 NFL Draft</a>, and he was named to four <a href=\\\"Pro%20Bowl\\\">Pro Bowl</a>s in his eight years with the team. He also played one season for the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Jets\\\">New York Jets</a>.\\nClady was born in <a href=\\\"Long%20Beach%2C%20California\\\">Long Beach, California</a>. He attended <a href=\\\"Eisenhower%20High%20School%20%28Rialto%2C%20California%29\\\">Eisenhower High School</a> in <a href=\\\"Rialto%2C%20California\\\">Rialto, California</a> and was a <a href=\\\"Letterman%20%28sports%29\\\">letterman</a> in <a href=\\\"High%20school%20football\\\">football</a> and track. He was also a first-team All-<a href=\\\"Citrus%20Belt%20League\\\">Citrus Belt League</a> selection, a first-team All-<a href=\\\"San%20Bernardino%20County\\\">San Bernardino County</a> selection, and a first-team All-<a href=\\\"California%20Interscholastic%20Federation\\\">California Interscholastic Federation</a> Division I selection.\\nIn <a href=\\\"track%20%26amp%3B%20field\\\">track & field</a>, Clady competed in the <a href=\\\"shot%20put\\\">shot put</a> (PR of 15.90m) and the <a href=\\\"discus%20throw\\\">discus throw</a> (PR of 46.41m).\\nClady graduated from Eisenhower High School in 2004. Rated only a two-star recruit by <a href=\\\"Rivals.com\\\">Rivals.com</a>, he was not ranked among the nation's top offensive tackle prospects.\\nClady attended <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a>, where he played for the <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State Broncos football</a> team from 2004 to 2007. He <a href=\\\"Redshirt%20%28college%20sports%29\\\">redshirt</a>ed as a freshman in 2004. He earned the starting right tackle position at the beginning of the 2005 season and started 13 of 13 games. He was voted to several <a href=\\\".com\\\">dotcoms</a>' second and third team <a href=\\\"All-American\\\">All-American</a> squads. He was moved to the left side before the 2006 campaign, starting all 13 games. Clady earned first team All-<a href=\\\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">Western Athletic Conference</a> (WAC) honors following his sophomore season and was also named to the prestigious <a href=\\\"Sports%20Illustrated\\\">SI.com</a> Second-team All-American squad. In 2007, he started each game he played for Boise State and was once again a First-team All-WAC selection. Clady also made several First-team All-American rosters.\\nClady was part of Boise State's historic 43–42 overtime win over <a href=\\\"2006%20Oklahoma%20Sooners%20football%20team\\\">Oklahoma</a> in the <a href=\\\"2007%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">2007 Fiesta Bowl</a>. In that game, many scouts first were able to see Clady on a national stage, and marveled at how well Clady handled Oklahoma pass rushers. He also had the key block for <a href=\\\"Ian%20Johnson%20%28American%20football%29\\\">Ian Johnson</a> in the game-winning <a href=\\\"Statue%20of%20Liberty%20play\\\">Statue of Liberty play</a>.\\nClady drew comparisons to <a href=\\\"Chris%20Samuels\\\">Chris Samuels</a>. He was selected by the <a href=\\\"Denver%20Broncos\\\">Denver Broncos</a>, with the 12th overall pick in the first round of the <a href=\\\"2008%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2008 NFL Draft</a>. Clady was the highest drafted player in Boise State history and the 11th to be selected in the 1st round. He was also Denver's highest selected offensive lineman since <a href=\\\"Chris%20Hinton\\\">Chris Hinton</a> in <a href=\\\"1983%20NFL%20Draft\\\">1983</a>. The Broncos signed him to a five-year deal worth $46.75 million. It was reported to guarantee $23.375 million.\\nClady started every game during the <a href=\\\"2008%20NFL%20season\\\">2008 NFL season</a> and gave up just a half of a sack while committing only three penalties. Following Week 12 of the <a href=\\\"2008%20NFL%20season\\\">2008 NFL season</a>, <a href=\\\"Peter%20King%20%28sportswriter%29\\\">Peter King</a> of \\\"<a href=\\\"Sports%20Illustrated\\\">Sports Illustrated</a>\\\" said Clady was the third-best rookie overall. On December 12, 2008, Clady won the <a href=\\\"Diet%20Pepsi%20NFL%20Rookie%20of%20the%20Week\\\">Diet Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week</a> award, after his game against the <a href=\\\"Kansas%20City%20Chiefs\\\">Kansas City Chiefs</a>. That was the first time all season that a <a href=\\\"lineman%20%28American%20football%29\\\">lineman</a>, either offensive or defensive, won the award.\\nClady finished third in voting behind <a href=\\\"Matt%20Ryan%20%28American%20football%29\\\">Matt Ryan</a> and <a href=\\\"Chris%20Johnson%20%28running%20back%29\\\">Chris Johnson</a> for the 2008 <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League%20Rookie%20of%20the%20Year%20Award\\\">NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award</a>. He was the only offensive lineman to receive any votes. He was the only starting NFL offensive lineman to give up less than one sack for the entire season. He was named to the <a href=\\\"Associated%20Press\\\">Associated Press</a> <a href=\\\"All-Pro\\\">NFL All-Pro Second Team</a> behind <a href=\\\"Michael%20Roos\\\">Michael Roos</a> and <a href=\\\"Jordan%20Gross\\\">Jordan Gross</a>.\\nIn 2009, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Sporting%20News\\\">The Sporting News</a>\\\" listed Clady as the No. 1 offensive tackle in the NFL. After the Broncos' October 4, 2009 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, Clady set a new NFL record for consecutive games to start a career without giving up a full sack. Through 20 games, he has surrendered only half of a sack. Clady was named a starter for the <a href=\\\"2009%20Pro%20Bowl\\\">2009 Pro Bowl</a> and was named First-team All-Pro by the <a href=\\\"Sporting%20News\\\">Sporting News</a> and <a href=\\\"Associated%20Press\\\">Associated Press</a> after the 2009 season.\\nOn April 28, 2010, Clady injured his patella tendon while playing basketball but did not miss a game the following season.\\nIn 2011, Clady played all 16 games and was added to the <a href=\\\"2012%20Pro%20Bowl\\\">2012 Pro Bowl</a> roster along with teammate <a href=\\\"Willis%20McGahee\\\">Willis McGahee</a>. After the season, the Broncos tried to sign Clady to a long-term deal and offered him a 5-year $50 million deal with $28 million guaranteed, but he refused.\\nIn the 2012 season, Clady allowed just one sack the entire season. Towards the end of the season, he tore a <a href=\\\"glenoid%20labrum\\\">labrum</a> in his right shoulder, but still did not miss any time. He played the last few games of the season including the playoffs with the injury, and had surgery to repair it only after the season ended. He was selected to the <a href=\\\"2013%20Pro%20Bowl\\\">2013 Pro Bowl</a> but did not play because of his shoulder injury.\\nOn March 1, 2013, in order to prevent Clady from becoming an unrestricted free agent, the Broncos assigned him with the <a href=\\\"franchise%20tag\\\">franchise tag</a> worth $9.823 million. On July 14, 2013. Clady agreed to a new contract with the Broncos worth $52.5 million for five years. Of that, $33 million is guaranteed over the first three years of the contract. There is a maximum of $5 million in incentives attached to the deal. If Clady is named to the <a href=\\\"Associated%20Press\\\">Associated Press</a>'s <a href=\\\"All-Pro\\\">All-Pro</a> team, then he would receive an extra $500,000 each subsequent season. Should he be named to the team a second time, he will receive an extra $1.5 million. The deal came one day prior to the July 15th Deadline to extend \\\"franchise tagged\\\" Players.\\nOn September 18, 2013, Clady was placed on season-ending <a href=\\\"injured%20reserve\\\">injured reserve</a>, due to a <a href=\\\"Lisfranc%20injury\\\">Lisfranc injury</a> he suffered during a week two matchup against the <a href=\\\"2013%20New%20York%20Giants%20season\\\">New York Giants</a>. The Denver Broncos signed <a href=\\\"Winston%20Justice\\\">Winston Justice</a> to replace his roster spot. Without Clady, the Broncos finished the 2013 season with the #1 offense and a 13-3 record. They reached <a href=\\\"Super%20Bowl%20XLVIII\\\">Super Bowl XLVIII</a>, but lost 43-8 to the <a href=\\\"Seattle%20Seahawks\\\">Seattle Seahawks</a>.\\nClady played in the <a href=\\\"2015%20Pro%20Bowl\\\">2015 Pro Bowl</a>, earning his fourth appearance based on play during the 2014 season.\\nOn May 28, 2015, Clady tore his <a href=\\\"Anterior%20cruciate%20ligament\\\">ACL</a> during OTA's. He was placed on injured reserve and sat out for the 2015 season.\\nOn February 7, 2016, Clady was part of the Broncos team that won <a href=\\\"Super%20Bowl%2050\\\">Super Bowl 50</a> over the <a href=\\\"2015%20Carolina%20Panthers%20season\\\">Carolina Panthers</a> by a score of 24–10, but he did not play in the game due to his previously torn ACL.\\nOn April 9, 2016, Clady and a seventh round pick were traded to the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Jets\\\">New York Jets</a> in exchange for a fifth round pick. On April 10, he signed a one-year, $6 million contract with the Jets, including a club option for 2017. He was placed on injured reserve on November 9, 2016 with a shoulder injury. It was reported he was diagnosed with a torn <a href=\\\"rotator%20cuff\\\">rotator cuff</a> and missed the rest of the season after having surgery.\\nOn February 15, 2017 the Jets declined Clady's $10 million option, making him an unrestricted free agent.\\nOn August 1, 2017, Clady announced his retirement from the NFL after nine seasons, tweeting, \\\"I'm excited about what life holds for me going forward.\\\"\\n\\n\",\n \"Ryan Winterswyk\\nRyan Winterswyk (born February 10, 1987) is a former <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> <a href=\\\"tight%20end\\\">tight end</a>. He was signed by the <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Falcons\\\">Atlanta Falcons</a> as an <a href=\\\"undrafted%20free%20agent\\\">undrafted free agent</a> in 2011. He played <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> at <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State</a>. Despite beginning his college football careers as a walk on, he was selected as a first-team All-<a href=\\\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">WAC</a> player three consecutive years and was selected as the Most Valuable Defensive Player for the 2008 and 2009 Boise State teams that were undefeated in the regular season.\\nWinterswyk attended high school in <a href=\\\"La%20Habra%2C%20California\\\">La Habra, California</a>. Despite having 150 tackles as a senior at La Habra High School, Winterswyk \\\"got little love from recruiters.\\\" He considered playing in junior college when the secondary coach from <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20University\\\">Boise State University</a> suggested he enroll there, but as a walk on with no scholarship. He followed that suggestion and enrolled at Boise State in 2007. He was a walk on at the safety position in January 2007. He was a four-year starter on defense for the <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State Broncos football</a> team from 2007 to 2010. He was selected as a first-team All-WAC player three consecutive years (2008, 2009, and 2010) and was a key defensive player for Boise State teams that compiled an overall record of 38–2 from 2008 to 2010, including an undefeated 14–0 record in 2009. He was a defensive starter in 43 games for Boise State from 2007 to 2010. Despite his original walk-on status, Winterswyk is acknowledged as \\\"one of the best defensive ends in school history.\\\"\\nAs a red-shirt freshman in 2007, he led the team with nine tackles for loss and was selected as an honorable mention Freshman All-American by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Sporting%20News\\\">The Sporting News</a>\\\".\\nAs a sophomore in 2008, he was selected as a first-team All-<a href=\\\"Western%20Athletic%20Conference\\\">WAC</a> player and was named the Co-Most Valuable Defensive Player on a Boise State team that compiled a 12-0 record in the regular season and was ranked third in the country in scoring defense (allowing only 12.6 points per game).\\nAs a junior in 2009, Winterswyk was placed on both the Lott and Lombardi Award watch lists. He received his second consecutive first-team All-WAC honor and was named the Most Valuable Defensive Player on a Boise State team that compiled a perfect 14-0 record. In January 2011, he was named to the WAC All-Decade Team for the 2000s.\\nAfter its 14-0 finish in 2009, \\\"<a href=\\\"Sports%20Illustrated\\\">Sports Illustrated</a>\\\" picked Boise State as a contender for the national championship. In the August 2010 issue announcing its pre-season picks, a photograph of Winterswyk and two other players appeared on the magazine's cover. In its feature story on the rise of Boise State, \\\"Sports Illustrated\\\" devoted four paragraphs to Winterswyk. The article noted:Winterswyk has gone from walk-on to four-year starter. His 19 career sacks include a clutch fourth-quarter takedown of Dalton in the Fiesta Bowl. Once a clueless freshman who struggled to master a three-point stance, he's now the star of a defense returning 10 starters. His rapid ascent embodies the Boise State program, which in 15 seasons has risen from I-AA to serial BCS buster.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Orange%20County%20Register\\\">The Orange County Register</a>\\\" took note of Winterswyk's fame: \\\"Ryan Winterswyk, a 2005 La Habra High School grad, graces the cover of the Aug. 16 Sports Illustrated, and is also featured in an article on the inside pages.\\\" In an interview with the \\\"<a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%20Times\\\">Los Angeles Times</a>\\\", Winterswyk credited the players who laid the foundation for Boise State's development and noted his desire to meet expectations: \\\"You don't want to be on the cover of SI and then go blow it all.\\\" In an on-line edition in October 2010, <a href=\\\"SI.com\\\">SI.com</a> again published a photograph of Winterswyk with the caption: \\\"Ryan Winterswyk and Boise State rank No. 1 nationally in total defense, rushing defense and pass-efficiency defense.\\\"\\nAs a senior in 2010, Winterswyk was slowed early in the season by a knee injury that required him to undergo surgery. However, he remained such a dominant defensive player that opposing coaches regularly assigned two players to block him. He started all 12 games at defensive end for Boise State and received his third consecutive first-team All-WAC honor. Winterswyk was also a finalist for the <a href=\\\"Burlsworth%20Trophy\\\">Burlsworth Trophy</a>, given to outstanding college football players who began their careers as a walk-on. He was also invited to play in the annual <a href=\\\"East-West%20Shrine%20Game\\\">East-West Shrine Game</a> in January 2011 in <a href=\\\"Orlando%2C%20Florida\\\">Orlando, Florida</a>.\\nWinterswyk was signed by the <a href=\\\"Atlanta%20Falcons\\\">Atlanta Falcons</a> as an <a href=\\\"undrafted%20free%20agent\\\">undrafted free agent</a> following the <a href=\\\"2011%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2011 NFL Draft</a> on July 27, 2011. The Falcons converted him to tight end after playing <a href=\\\"defensive%20end\\\">defensive end</a> at <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State</a>. He was released during final cuts on September 3, 2011. He spent the final five weeks of the season on the team's <a href=\\\"practice%20squad\\\">practice squad</a> before being re-signed to the active roster following the season. He announced his retirement from the NFL on April 30, 2012.\",\n \"Kyle Wilson (American football)\\nKyle Wilson (born May 30, 1987) is an <a href=\\\"American%20football\\\">American football</a> <a href=\\\"cornerback\\\">cornerback</a> who is currently a free agent. He played <a href=\\\"college%20football\\\">college football</a> for <a href=\\\"Boise%20State%20Broncos%20football\\\">Boise State</a>. He was drafted by the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Jets\\\">New York Jets</a> in the first round of the <a href=\\\"2010%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2010 NFL Draft</a>.\\nA native of <a href=\\\"Piscataway%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Piscataway, New Jersey</a>, Wilson attended <a href=\\\"Piscataway%20High%20School\\\">Piscataway High School</a>, where he helped the football team to three straight state championships, including undefeated seasons in 2002 and 2004, and a 33-3 overall record. He was named first-team all-state as wide receiver while also garnering all-area, all-county, all-conference and all-division honors. Wilson also lettered in <a href=\\\"track%20%26amp%3B%20field\\\">track & field</a> at Piscataway, running the <a href=\\\"100-meter%20dash\\\">100-meter dash</a> in 10.8 seconds and the <a href=\\\"200-meter%20dash\\\">200-meter dash</a> in 22.49 seconds.\\nConsidered just a two-star recruit by \\\"<a href=\\\"Rivals.com\\\">Rivals.com</a>\\\", Wilson received only few scholarship offers. He picked Boise State over <a href=\\\"Rutgers%20University\\\">Rutgers</a> and <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Delaware\\\">Delaware</a>.\\nAfter <a href=\\\"Redshirt%20%28college%20sports%29\\\">redshirting</a> the 2005 season, Wilson played in 10 games and finished 10th on team with 41 tackles, 0.5 tackles for loss, five pass breakups, one forced fumble, one fumble recovery and an interception. He started final five games at cornerback and delivered an impressive performance at the <a href=\\\"2007%20Fiesta%20Bowl\\\">2007 Fiesta Bowl</a>, finishing with 10 tackles in Boise State's 43-42 upset win over Oklahoma. Wilson was named honorable mention Freshman All-America by \\\"<a href=\\\"Sporting%20News\\\">Sporting News</a>\\\".\\nAs a sophomore, Wilson started all 13 games at cornerback, finishing the season with 41 tackles, eight pass breakups, two interceptions, two tackles for loss, one sack and a blocked kick. His season-high six tackles came against <a href=\\\"East%20Carolina%20University\\\">East Carolina</a> in the <a href=\\\"2007%20Hawaii%20Bowl\\\">2007 Hawaii Bowl</a>. Wilson earned second-team All-WAC honors.\\nIn his junior season, Wilson led Boise State with five interceptions, 10 pass breakups and 15 passes defended. He recorded 35 tackles, 26 of which were unassisted, and returned 33 punts for 470 yards and three touchdowns. Wilson started each game of the season, making his current streak of 31 consecutive starts the longest active streak on team. He was named first-team All-WAC cornerback and second-team all-conference punt returner. Also, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Sporting%20News\\\">The Sporting News</a>\\\" named him to their 2008 All-American Second Team.\\nIn 2009, \\\"Rivals.com\\\" listed him at No. 3 of their preseason cornerback power ranking. In October, he was named a midseason All-American by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Sporting%20News\\\">The Sporting News</a>\\\", and in early November he was named one of twelve semifinalists for the 2009 <a href=\\\"Jim%20Thorpe%20Award\\\">Jim Thorpe Award</a>.\\nWilson was considered one of the best cornerbacks available in the <a href=\\\"2010%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2010 NFL Draft</a>, and drew comparisons to <a href=\\\"Dr%C3%A9%20Bly\\\">Dré Bly</a>. According to \\\"<a href=\\\"Sports%20Illustrated\\\">Sports Illustrated</a>′s\\\" Tony Pauline, Wilson was \\\"graded as a fringe middle round pick by NFL scouting services\\\" prior to his senior season, \\\"but has since cemented himself as a top 100 choice.\\\" He was only the second defensive back from Boise State to be selected in the first three rounds of an NFL Draft, following <a href=\\\"Gerald%20Alexander\\\">Gerald Alexander</a> in <a href=\\\"2007%20NFL%20Draft\\\">2007</a>.\\nWilson was taken 29th overall by the New York Jets. At the 2010 Jets minicamp, Wilson impressed the coaching staff, many of whom considered Wilson a \\\"steal.\\\"\\nOn July 31, 2010, Wilson signed a five-year, $13 million contract with the Jets. He served as the #3 CB behind <a href=\\\"Darrelle%20Revis\\\">Darrelle Revis</a> and <a href=\\\"Antonio%20Cromartie\\\">Antonio Cromartie</a> going into training camp.\\nWilson intercepted the first pass of his professional career on October 23, 2011 against <a href=\\\"Philip%20Rivers\\\">Philip Rivers</a>. It came at a critical point during the game as the <a href=\\\"San%20Diego%20Chargers\\\">Chargers</a> attempted to regain the lead, ultimately losing to the Jets 27-21.\\nGoing into the 2013 season following the draft of University of Alabama cornerback <a href=\\\"Dee%20Milliner\\\">Dee Milliner</a>, Wilson was again projected as starting as the nickel CB.\\nOn April 1, 2015, the <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans%20Saints\\\">New Orleans Saints</a> signed Wilson to a one-year, $825,000 contract with a signing bonus of $80,000.\\nOn March 7, 2016, the Saints signed Wilson to a one-year, $840,000 contract with an $80,000 signing bonus.\\nOn June 24, 2016, the Saints placed Wilson on the Reserved/Injured list.\\nKey\\nWilson graduated from Boise State with a degree in communication.\\n\",\n \"2008 NFL Draft\\nThe 2008 NFL Draft took place at <a href=\\\"Radio%20City%20Music%20Hall\\\">Radio City Music Hall</a> in New York City, <a href=\\\"New%20York%20%28state%29\\\">New York</a>, on April 26 and April 27, 2008. For the 29th consecutive year, <a href=\\\"ESPN\\\">ESPN</a> televised the draft; the <a href=\\\"NFL%20Network\\\">NFL Network</a> also broadcast the event, its third year doing so. Of the 252 selections, 220 were regular selections in rounds one through seven, and 32 were <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League%20draft%23Compensatory%20picks\\\">compensatory selections</a>, distributed among rounds three through seven.\\nFor the first time since the common draft began, no <a href=\\\"wide%20receiver\\\">wide receiver</a> was selected in the first round. For the first time ever, the first two picks had the same last name (Jake Long and Chris Long). Also, a record 34 trades were made during the draft itself.\\nThe schedule for the draft was changed: day one began at 3:00 PM <a href=\\\"Eastern%20Time%20Zone\\\">EDT</a> (1900 <a href=\\\"Coordinated%20Universal%20Time\\\">UTC</a>), instead of noon, and consisted of just two rounds. Day two began with round three at 10:00 AM EDT (1400 UTC), instead of 11:00 AM. Moreover, the time limits for day one selections were reduced, from 15 minutes to ten for first-round picks and from ten minutes to seven in the second. The limit remained five minutes for all picks in rounds three through seven.\\nThe draft also marked the official debut of a new NFL shield logo, replacing the old shield logo which had been used since 1970, featuring eight white stars to represent each of the league's eight divisions, and a football rotated to the same angle as the one on the top of the <a href=\\\"Vince%20Lombardi%20Trophy\\\">Vince Lombardi Trophy</a> given to the Super Bowl champion.\\n\\nIn the explanations below, (PD) indicates trades completed prior to the start of the draft (i.e. Pre-Draft), while (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2008 draft.\\n\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The 2007 Tostitos Fiesta Bowl was a college football bowl game played as part of the 2006–2007 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) of the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The game was played on January 1, 2007 at its new venue, the University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. The matchup pitted the Big 12 champion No. 8 Oklahoma Sooners against the WAC champion No. 9 Boise State Broncos. The contest was televised on Fox. With this broadcast, the Fiesta Bowl became the first bowl game to air on all the \"big four\" television networks (ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC) – the Orange Bowl became the second, the following night.","The 2006 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Broncos won the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) championship with an undefeated 12–0 regular-season record (8–0 in the WAC), their second unbeaten regular season in the past three years. This was also Boise State's fifth consecutive season with at least a share of the WAC title, and the fourth in that period in which they went unbeaten in conference play. They became only the second team from outside the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) to play in a BCS bowl game when they faced Oklahoma in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl, defeating the Sooners in a dramatic thriller."],"string":"[\n \"The 2007 Tostitos Fiesta Bowl was a college football bowl game played as part of the 2006–2007 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) of the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The game was played on January 1, 2007 at its new venue, the University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. The matchup pitted the Big 12 champion No. 8 Oklahoma Sooners against the WAC champion No. 9 Boise State Broncos. The contest was televised on Fox. With this broadcast, the Fiesta Bowl became the first bowl game to air on all the \\\"big four\\\" television networks (ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC) – the Orange Bowl became the second, the following night.\",\n \"The 2006 Boise State Broncos football team represented Boise State University in the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Broncos won the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) championship with an undefeated 12–0 regular-season record (8–0 in the WAC), their second unbeaten regular season in the past three years. This was also Boise State's fifth consecutive season with at least a share of the WAC title, and the fourth in that period in which they went unbeaten in conference play. They became only the second team from outside the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) to play in a BCS bowl game when they faced Oklahoma in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl, defeating the Sooners in a dramatic thriller.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":79,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Honeyman: Live 1973 was recorded as a live radio broadcast for a contemporary Christian music radio station that is licensed to who?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Hampton Bays"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["KQIP-LP\nKQIP-LP (107.1 FM) is a radio station licensed to Chico, California, United States, the station serves the Chico area. The station is currently owned by Calvary Chapel of Chico. KQIP 107.1 FM is a low power FM radio station in Chico, California however it also broadcasts online. The radio station airs Bible studies from several Calvary Chapel pastors, as well as a small selection of Christian music. The radio station also airs Pastor Sam Allen from Calvary Chapel Chico on The Calvary Road Radio Broadcast, a weekday radio program. Listen Live at: http://ccchico.com/KQIP\n","Rush of Fools\nRush of Fools is a Christian rock/contemporary Christian music band from Alabama, U.S. They are known for their 2007 hit single \"Undo\", co-written with producer Scott Davis, which was the most played song of 2007 on Adult Contemporary Christian Music radio stations according to R&R magazine. It was the No. 1 Christian song for five consecutive weeks from June 4 to July 2, 2007 on 20 The Countdown Magazine's charts. Their second single \"When Our Hearts Sing\" was the seventh most played song of 2007. The band's name was taken from the Biblical passage, 1 Corinthians 1:26-31.\nThe band's second album, \"Wonder of the World\", was released on September 16, 2008. It features their hit song \"Lose it All\".\nFor their third album, the band changed to the record label eOne Christian Music. The album is titled \"We Once Were\" and was released on September 27, 2011. The lead single, \"Grace Found Me\" was released June 24, 2011.\nStarting up as a small band in Alabama, Rush of Fools had only played for a short time before entering a contest called \"Band with a Mission\". Winning the contest, they received attention from record labels, including Midas Records, with whom Rush of Fools soon recorded and released their self-titled debut album.\nCurrent\nFormer","WLIR-FM\nWLIR-FM (107.1 FM, \"Hope Radio\") is a contemporary Christian music radio station. Licensed to Hampton Bays, New York, WLIR-FM serves the Long Island area. Its transmitter is currently located near East Quogue, New York.\n107.1 FM began as WWHB (\"HB-107\") in 1980, with an adult contemporary format. In 1984, Eddie Simon along with his brother, Paul Simon, purchased the station. Its format then shifted to Top 40. On September 1, 1990, it began simulcasting rock station WNEW-FM from New York City.\nOn December 7, 1996, the station became part of the Big City Radio trimulcast (and eventual quadcast) with other 107.1 stations in Briarcliff Manor, New York and northern New Jersey and later, the Allentown/Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania area. WWHB and the other two multicast stations switched formats to country as \"Y-107\". The call sign was changed to WWVY on May 16, 1997, then to WWXY on March 22, 1999 (after 107.1 FM in Briarcliff Manor, New York changed from WWXY to WYNY). On May 9, 2002, after a day of stunting with construction noises, the quadcast adopted a Tropical music format branded \"Rumba 107\". The format was ill-suited to the quadcast suburban signals, and at the end of the year, Big City Radio filed for bankruptcy and sold the quadcast to Nassau Broadcasting, who broke up the quadcast and sold the individual stations.\nJarad Broadcasting picked up WWXY in April 2003. 107.1 FM initially simulcasted WLIR (92.7 FM) from Garden City, New York, but in January 2004, 92.7 FM was purchased by Univision and flipped to Spanish language \"Latino Mix\" WZAA, simulcasting WCAA. 107.1 FM then became a fully transplanted WLIR, taking on a modern rock format and the WLIR-FM call sign, turning into \"THE BOX.\" This format lasted until September 2005, when a smooth jazz/chill music format called \"NeoBreeze\" was adopted. This format was a failure, and the modern rock format returned in December 2005. In January 2008, the music ended and WLIR began simulcasting WEPN (ESPN Radio, then on 1050 AM, now on 98.7 FM) in a local marketing agreement. WLIR was sold to Livingstone in 2011 and flipped to a Christian format branded as \"Hope Radio.\"\nOn August 5, 2013, Livingstone Broadcasting shifted the \"Hope Radio\" Christian format to WBLI-HD2 along with translators W235BB 94.9FM Hauppauge, New York; W243BF 96.5FM Shirley, New York; W268AN 101.5FM Plainview, New York and W283BA 104.5FM Selden, New York. WLIR-FM dropped the Christian format and became \"Champions Radio\" touted as Long Island's First & Only Sports Radio Station. WLIR-FM was broadcast on 107.1 and 96.9 (W245BA) in Suffolk County, New York. The format was short lived due Mr. Anderson's refusal to air familiar ESPN programming in exchange for local unknown programming which was likely brokered. In addition, Mr. Anderson suffered severe backlash from his congregation for airing sports on some of his platforms, due to the fact that he consistently and aggressively asked his congregation to bankroll the stations in an effort to spread Christian messages.\nOn February 24, 2014, WLIR-FM dropped all sports programming and reverted to Christian formatted \"Hope Radio.\"\nOn August 1, 2014 Pillar of Fire began a lease of WLIR-FM. WAWZ-FM, Zarephath, New Jersey (STAR 99.1) was broadcast on WLIR-FM as well as its translators as STAR 107.1. The lease ended in April 2015 and WLIR-FM reverted to Christian formatted \"Hope Radio.\".\nOn July 1, 2017 the station was sold to VMT Media Inc. and presently continues to air the \"Hope Radio\" format.\n\n","KUSP\nKUSP (88.9 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian music format. Licensed to Santa Cruz, California, United States, the station is an affiliate of the K-LOVE Christian music radio network and is owned by Educational Media Foundation. The signal covers much of California's Central Coast.\nPataphysical Broadcasting Foundation, Inc. started broadcasting from downtown Santa Cruz on 89.1 MHz in 1972. In May 1974 it moved the transmitter to much higher Mt. Toro, increased power from 10 watts to 1,250 watts ERP and changed frequency from 89.1 to 88.9 MHz.\nIt broadcast music, programs of local interest and many programs from NPR. On November 1, 2015 the format changed to adult album alternative, with a few news and information programs.\nOn August 1, 2016 KUSP ceased programming and on August 12th declared bankruptcy.\nOn December 19, 2016 Educational Media Foundation filed an application with the FCC to purchase the license for $605,000. The application was granted on February 6, 2017, and the purchase was consummated on March 16, 2017.\nEducational Media Foundation resumed operation of KUSP on April 5, 2017. On April 5, 2017 it filed applications with the FCC to sell the licenses of the K207CN, K217EK and K237EV translators to California State University, Monterey Bay for $5,000.The applications were consummated on June 30, 2017 and July 7, 2017.\nOn April 21, 2017 KUSP was granted a Federal Communications Commission construction permit to move the transmitter site of translator K206BQ .708 miles to Fremont Peak and decrease the effective radiated power from 200 watts to 150 watts.\n","KHRI (FM)\nKHRI (90.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian format. Licensed to Hollister, California, United States, the station is an affiliate of the Air 1 Christian music radio network and is owned by Educational Media Foundation. On November 4, 2016 KHRI was granted a Federal Communications Commission construction permit to increase the effective radiated power to 6,000 watts.\nIn addition to the main station, KHRI is relayed by an additional 22 translators to widen its broadcast area.\n\n","Honeyman: Live 1973\nHoneyman: Live 1973 is a live album by rock artist Tim Buckley. The album was recorded as a live radio broadcast for radio station WLIR in New York City, United States on November 27, 1973.\nThe concert features songs from Buckley's seventh studio album \"Greetings from L.A.\" and his 1973 studio album \"Sefronia\". Also featured are the songs Pleasant Street from \"Goodbye and Hello\" and Buzzin' Fly from the album \"Happy Sad\". This live album is an example of his transformation from a late 60's folk rock poster boy to a sexualized funk and soul musician.\nAll songs by Tim Buckley unless stated otherwise","KLVM\nKLVM (89.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian format. Licensed to Prunedale, California, United States, the station is an affiliate of the K-LOVE Christian music radio network and is owned by the Prunedale Educational Association.\nKLVM's signal is also broadcast on five translators:\nPrunedale Educational Association is swapping KLVM and its five translators to Educational Media Foundation for KARW Salinas.\n\n","WBDX\nWBDX (102.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian format. Licensed to Trenton, Georgia, USA, the station serves the Chattanooga, Tennessee area. The station is owned by Partners For Christian Media, Inc. The station is the Tennessee Valley's only local Contemporary Christian music station. WJLJ (103.1 FM), licensed to Etowah, Tennessee, airs the same programming.\nThe station went on the air as WBDX on October 31, 1989 as a Top 40 station known as \"B 103 The Outrageous FM\" owned by local car dealer Herb Adcox. The studio was located in a glass box in the middle of Eastgate Mall. Throughout its early years the station was also known as \"Magic 102.7\" when it aired an Adult Contemporary format in the early 1990s. In January 1994 the station became \"Talk 102.7\" and took on a locally driven talk radio format, featuring local personalities, and the majorly popular afternoon drivetime show \"Sport Talk\". They kept this format until mid 1994, when \"Talk 102.7\" moved to 102.3. In mid-1994, WBDX flipped to classic rock known as \"Fox 102\", a format which had previously aired on 102.3. In early 1995 Partners For Christian Media bought WBDX. On March 4, 1995 WBDX started playing Contemporary Christian Music first under the name \"102.7 The Light\", but eventually they changed the name to \"J103\". The original J103 studio was located in a small 10x10 room within Eastgate. In 1998 J103 moved into what was actually the former home of the now defunct RX-107,(a former Contemporary Christian Music outlet in the Chattanooga area) with studios and offices in East Ridge. In October 2015 the station moved out near Hamilton Place Mall to a building on Hickory Valley rd, this move enabled J103 to begin broadcasting with state of the art digital equipment. On February 4, 1998 the station changed its call sign to WJLL, and on February 5, 1998, it changed back to WBDX. The station was originally affiliated Salem Communications to provide a large part of their on-air broadcasting. This included music programming from 7 p.m. – 6 a.m. and news. In 2005, the station dropped all Salem Communications programming and went fully local.\nThe station went on the air as WVKS on December 29, 1986. On August 4, 1989 the station changed its call sign to WDRZ, and its format to Contemporary Christian Music. The station was known as \"SuperPower 103\". In the 1990s the station was owned by a man named Dr. Grey. In mid 1994 he fired the then station managers Bob and Debbie Lubell, (who now own J103), and installed a new staff and format. The station did not do well with its new country music format and soon flipped to modern rock. This format was also short lived, and in 1997 the station started simulcasting \"97 Kicks FM\" out of Chattanooga. On January 20, 1998, the callsign was changed to WLLJ, and then to the current WJLJ on August 13, 2015. WJLJ operates with an effective radiated power of 50,000 watts, making the stations signal reach into the Knoxville market and upper East Tennessee and Western North Carolina area.\nIn 1997, \"Kicks FM\" was adult contemporary and simulcasting on 97.3 FM and 103.1 FM. The station was co-purchased by Partners For Christian Media, with the help of Friendship Broadcasting in late 1997 and began simulcasting WBDX in February 1998.\n","Live 1973\nLive 1973 is a live album by Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels. It was recorded at Sonic Studios in Hempstead, New York on March 13, 1973 during a live radio broadcast from WLIR-FM, a station located in Garden City, New York. The timing of the recording thus sandwiched it between Parsons' only two solo studio albums, \"GP\", and \"Grievous Angel\", although it was not officially released (on LP) until 1982, long after Parsons' 1973 death at age 26.\nAs with both of Parsons' solo studio albums, Emmylou Harris provides prominent duet and harmony vocals. The Fallen Angels, however, were a different band than that which appeared on Parsons' two solo albums. As Parsons and Harris prepared to tour the United States in 1973 to promote his solo debut, \"GP\", James Burton, Ronnie Tutt, and most of the band who performed on the album had prior commitments to Elvis Presley's TCB Band. Parsons instead assembled a crew of roadhouse pickers he dubbed \"the Fallen Angels\", and they began making their way through America's rock clubs and honky tonks.\nThe original album had eleven tracks, but included a 7\" 45rpm record with the encore medley on side one, and an interview with Parsons, Harris, and Jock Bartley plus a version of the Flying Burrito Brothers' \"Hot Burrito #1\" performed by Gene Parsons in tribute as the B-side. When later reissued by Rhino Records on CD in 1994. the medley and in between song patter were added but the interview segments and the Gene Parsons track were omitted.","Total Axxess\nTotal Axxess was a contemporary Christian music radio program. The afternoon show was broadcast nationwide on WAY-FM Network and other affiliated Contemporary Christian music radio stations. The program was based out of Nashville, Tennessee. The show was produced by CHRSN. The show began in January 2004, and ended in September 2011.\nCliff Tredway was the original host of Total Axxess.\nJayar Reeves hosted the show for two years.\nThe show hosted its second annual Duckie Awards in April 2007. Listeners voted for their favorite artists in ten categories such as Best Chica (female artist), Best Dude, Best Accent, and Favorite Moment.\nWally became the new host for the show on April 30, 2007. According to the program's official website, there were radio stations in 25 states in over 100 markets when he took over.\nWally was the last host of Total Axxess. In 2011 he became the host of the WAY-FM morning show, The Wally Show.","Chico, California\nChico is the most populous city in <a href=\"Butte%20County%2C%20California\">Butte County</a>, California, United States. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a>, the population was 86,187, reflecting an increase of 26,233 from the 59,954 counted in the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 Census</a>. The city is a cultural, economic, and educational center of the northern <a href=\"Sacramento%20Valley\">Sacramento Valley</a> and home to both <a href=\"California%20State%20University%2C%20Chico\">California State University, Chico</a> and <a href=\"Bidwell%20Park\">Bidwell Park</a>, the country's <a href=\"List%20of%20urban%20parks%20by%20size\">26th largest</a> <a href=\"Urban%20park\">municipal park</a> and the 13th largest municipally-owned park. Bidwell Park makes up over 17% of the city.\nOther cities in close proximity to the Chico Metropolitan Area (population 212,000) include <a href=\"Paradise%2C%20California\">Paradise</a> and <a href=\"Oroville%2C%20California\">Oroville</a>, while local towns and villages (unincorporated areas) include <a href=\"Durham%2C%20California\">Durham</a>, <a href=\"Cohasset%2C%20California\">Cohasset</a>, <a href=\"Dayton%2C%20California\">Dayton</a>, <a href=\"Nord%2C%20California\">Nord</a>, and <a href=\"Forest%20Ranch%2C%20California\">Forest Ranch</a>. The Chico Metropolitan Area is the <a href=\"California%20statistical%20areas\">14th largest</a> <a href=\"Metropolitan%20Statistical%20Area\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a> in <a href=\"California\">California</a>.\nThe nickname \"City of Roses\" appears on the Seal of the City of Chico. The city has been designated a <a href=\"Tree%20City%20USA\">Tree City USA</a> for 31 years by the <a href=\"National%20Arbor%20Day%20Foundation\">National Arbor Day Foundation</a>.\nThe original inhabitants of the area now known as Chico were the <a href=\"Mechoopda\">Mechoopda</a> <a href=\"Maidu\">Maidu</a> Native Americans. The City of Chico was founded in 1860 by <a href=\"John%20Bidwell\">John Bidwell</a>, a member of one of the first wagon trains to reach California in 1843. During the <a href=\"American%20Civil%20War\">American Civil War</a>, <a href=\"Camp%20Bidwell\">Camp Bidwell</a> (named for John Bidwell, by then a <a href=\"Brigadier%20General\">Brigadier General</a> of the <a href=\"California%20Army%20National%20Guard%23History\">California Militia</a>), was established a mile outside Chico, by Lt. Col. A. E. Hooker with a company of cavalry and two of infantry, on August 26, 1863.\nBy early 1865 it was being referred to as Camp Chico when a post called Camp Bidwell was established in northeast California, later to be <a href=\"Fort%20Bidwell\">Fort Bidwell</a>. The city became incorporated January 8, 1872.\nChico was home to a significant Chinese American community when it was first incorporated, but arsonists burned Chico's Chinatown in February 1886, driving Chinese Americans out of town.\nHistorian W.H. \"Old Hutch\" Hutchinson identified five events as the most seminal in Chico history. They included the arrival of John Bidwell in 1850, the arrival of the <a href=\"California%20and%20Oregon%20Railroad\">California and Oregon Railroad</a> in 1870, the establishment in 1887 of the Northern Branch of the State Normal School, which later became <a href=\"California%20State%20University%2C%20Chico\">California State University, Chico</a> (Chico State), the purchase of the Sierra Lumber Company by the <a href=\"Diamond%20Match%20Company\">Diamond Match Company</a> in 1900, and the development of the Army Air Base, which is now the <a href=\"Chico%20Municipal%20Airport\">Chico Municipal Airport</a>.\nSeveral other significant events have unfolded in Chico more recently. These include the construction and relocation of <a href=\"California%20State%20Route%2099\">Route 99E</a> through town in the early 1960s, \"<a href=\"Playboy%20Magazine\">Playboy Magazine</a>\" naming Chico State the number-one <a href=\"party%20school\">party school</a> in the nation in 1987, and the establishment of a \"Green Line\" on the western city limits as protection of agricultural lands.\nChico is at the northeast edge of the Sacramento Valley, one of the richest agricultural areas in the world. The <a href=\"Sierra%20Nevada%20%28U.S.%29\">Sierra Nevada</a> mountains lie to the east, with Chico's city limits venturing several miles into the foothills. To the west, the <a href=\"Sacramento%20River\">Sacramento River</a> lies 5 mi from the city limits.\nChico sits on the <a href=\"Sacramento%20Valley\">Sacramento Valley</a> floor close to the foothills of the <a href=\"Cascade%20Range\">Cascade Range</a> to the north and the Sierra Nevada range to the south. <a href=\"Big%20Chico%20Creek\">Big Chico Creek</a> is the demarcation line between the ranges. The city's terrain is generally flat with increasingly hilly terrain beginning at the eastern city limits.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 27.8 sqmi , of which 27.7 sqmi is land and 0.04% is water.\nThe city is bisected by <a href=\"Bidwell%20Park\">Bidwell Park</a>, which runs 5 mi from the flat city center deep into the foothills.\nThe city is also traversed by two creeks and a flood channel, which feeds the Sacramento River. They are named Big Chico Creek, <a href=\"Little%20Chico%20Creek\">Little Chico Creek</a>, and Lindo Channel (also known as Sandy Gulch, locally).\nDowntown Chico is located generally between Big Chico Creek and Little Chico Creek. The downtown has a street grid offset 49.75° from the four cardinal directions. There are numbered streets and avenues, which generally run east-northeast to west-southwest. Blocks are usually addressed in hundreds corresponding to the numbered streets and avenues. While the east-northeast to west-southwest streets and avenues are numbered, streets running north-northwest to south-southeast are generally named after trees. The part of the \"tree\" streets that intersect the Chico State campus spell the word \"CHICO\" at Chestnut, Hazel, Ivy, Cherry, and Orange streets.\nThe main thoroughfare running northwest–southeast through the city is State Route Business 99, not to be confused with Highway 99. Business 99 has several common names. From Northwest to Southeast, these are Esplanade, Main Street/Broadway (these are one-way southeast and northwest, respectively, in downtown Chico), Main Street/Oroville Avenue (similarly one-way), Park Avenue, and Midway. The city streets are designated as \"east\" or \"west\" by their relation to this street.\nThere are numbered streets and avenues both of which flow east–west. This fact can cause confusion. The \"streets\" are south of the Chico State campus through downtown, while the \"avenues\" are north of campus through The Esplanade. There are no left turns permitted onto any odd numbered avenue from The Esplanade, in either direction, with the exception of West 11th Avenue.\nIn the numbered streets and avenues and most other streets that intersect The Esplanade, Main, and Park, the west addresses are all numbers whose last two digits are 00 through 49 and the east addresses are all numbers whose last two digits are 50 through 99. There are few exceptions. On most Chico streets odd addresses are on the south side of the street.\nStanding at the bridge over the Big Chico Creek—where Main Street changes to The Esplanade—and facing north, the odd addresses are on the left. (<a href=\"Bidwell%20Mansion\">Bidwell Mansion</a> is 525 The Esplanade.) This convention holds for all the numbered avenues. However, while facing south the odd addresses are still on the left (i.e., the convention has switched). This convention holds throughout the numbered streets.\nMany streets in Chico, most notably Nord Avenue/Walnut Street, change street names after small bridges. When the city was being built, these streets were on the outskirts of town and did not require bridge building. Modern residents of Chico use these streets frequently, and the name changes can cause confusion.\nDowntown Chico – This is the main commercial district in Chico. It is located generally between the Big Chico Creek and Little Chico Creek between Wall Street and Salem Street. The Downtown Chico Business Association represents the interests of the downtown to the community. Main Street and Broadway are the two main thoroughfares bisecting the downtown. Ringel Park is the triangular-shaped area immediately north of downtown. The Chico City Plaza is the central point of downtown, between Fourth and Fifth Streets. The area of West Ninth Street where Main Street and Oroville Avenue converge is known as The Junction, the southernmost part of the downtown. \"The Junction\", as the confluence of Humboldt Road and the old Shasta Stage Road (now Main Street and The Esplanade), got its name in the early 1860s when John Bidwell and partners established a company that created a stage line between Chico and Susanville, ultimately leading to Ruby City, Idaho, and the rich gold strikes there. This is the place where Humboldt Road began; it is now called Humboldt Avenue until it reaches the Highway 99 freeway, then regains the Humboldt Road name on the eastern side as it continues into the foothills. \"The Junction\" was for some years a business district unto itself, providing goods and services to people arriving at and departing from the stage depot.\n<a href=\"South%20Campus%20Neighborhood\">South Campus</a> – The South Campus neighborhood is the area bounded by West Second Street, Salem Street, West Ninth Street and the western city limits (which is called \"The Green Line\"). Historically, this area was the first residential area established in the city. Currently, it is the most densely populated area of the city. The South Campus Neighborhood Association represents the interests of the neighborhood to the community. South Campus is a dynamic residential neighborhood consisting overwhelmingly of young renters under thirty-five, and specifically Chico State students. The intersection of Fifth and Ivy streets is a neighborhood commercial core sometimes referred to locally as \"Five and I.\" There are many fraternity and sorority houses in the area, and the city has designated a \"Fraternity/Sorority Overlay Zone\", largely contiguous with the neighborhood. South Campus is home of Craig Hall and Depot Park.\n<a href=\"Barber%2C%20California\">Barber</a> – The Barber neighborhood is a working class residential neighborhood generally south of Little Chico Creek and west of Park avenue. The Barber Neighborhood Association represents the interests of the neighborhood to the community. This neighborhood was originally built to house the employees of the adjacent Diamond Match Factory. The neighborhood was named after <a href=\"O.C.%20Barber\">Ohio Columbus Barber</a>, president of the Diamond Match Company. Today, the Diamond Match property is designated for a future development called Barber Yard.\n<a href=\"Chapmantown%2C%20California\">Chapmantown</a> – This is a working-class residential neighborhood entirely surrounded by area inside the city of Chico, but which itself is not a part of the city. Rather, it is under the jurisdiction of the <a href=\"Butte%20County%2C%20California\">County of Butte.</a> Chapmantown is currently known as the area bounded by Little Chico Creek, Boucher Street, Guill Street and East Sixteenth Street. The neighborhood south of East Twentieth Street to the east of Fair street is also referred to as Chapmantown. Historically, Chapmantown referred to everything east of Mulberry street, but that is no longer the case. Due to not being within city limits, there are no sidewalks, sewers, or any other city services. However, there are also none of the regulations associated with the municipality either (prohibition on chicken coops, burn permits, etc.) The neighborhood is home to The Dorothy F. Johnson Neighborhood Center, a facility of the Chico Area Recreation District. The neighborhood is named after Augustus Chapman.\nThe Avenues – A relatively new name that refers to the area north of Big Chico Creek historically known as Chico Vecino (Spanish for 'neighbor'). This area includes the numbered avenues that intersect The Esplanade. This residential neighborhood is adjacent to the northern boundary of Chico State campus and is south of Lindo Channel. The neighborhood also is home to Enloe Medical Center. The Avenues are known for their beautiful older homes, mature trees and walkability.\nMansion Park is the high end residential neighborhood adjacent to the Bidwell Mansion, and immediately between the northeast corner of the Chico State campus and <a href=\"Chico%20High%20School\">Chico High School</a>. This neighborhood is notable for its being a preferred parking zone for residents with permits only, located in an area of the city with very impacted parking. This neighborhood is home to the Albert E. Warrens Reception Center (formerly the Julia Morgan House), and the Bidwell Amphitheatre. Originally, home to mostly university professors and staff, other professionals and upper-middle-class families now also call it home.\nDoe Mill is a developing \"new urbanist\" residential neighborhood generally north of East Twentieth Street and East of Bruce Road. Cheerful, colorful homes, welcoming porches, mixed home sizes, and narrow streets that encourage pedestrian rather than vehicular traffic characterize this charming neighborhood.\nNob Hill is the developing residential neighborhood west of Bruce Road and north of <a href=\"California%20State%20Route%2032\">Highway 32</a>.\nCalifornia Park is the developing residential neighborhood east of Bruce Road and north of Highway 32. This area contains a smaller area known as Canyon Oaks.\nAspen Glen is the residential neighborhood east of the Esplanade and north of East Shasta avenue. Many streets there are named after things associated with Colorado.\nCussick Area Neighborhood is an assortment of different housing types on the northwest end of town. It is flanked by orchards, the Esplanade, and West East Avenue.\nBig Chico Creek Estates is a middle class development in the southwest area of town, Backed by Big Chico Creek, and very close to Chico's newest elementary school.\nLittle Chico Creek Estates generally referred to as \"Chico Creek Estates\", is a middle-class development that is bordered to the north by Little Chico Creek, to the west by Bruce Road, to the South by a seasonal flood control channel and Doe Mill neighborhood and bordered to the east by <a href=\"Stilson%20Canyon\">Stilson Canyon</a>. Prior to its development in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Little Chico Creek Estates was an olive orchard. As a result, the streets in the neighborhood are named after olive varieties.\nConnors Neighborhood is a very small neighborhood squeezed between East East Avenue and Rio Lindo and between the Esplanade and Highway 99. Connors Neighborhood is made up of Connors Ave and White Ave, along with a couple of courts and circles. This neighborhood was incorporated into Chico in 2003; the state plans to add sewers in Q1 of 2011.\nOther neighborhoods include South Park, North Park, Vallombrosa, Baroni Park, Heritage Oaks and Hancock Park.\nChico also is home to several large <a href=\"New%20Urbanism\">new urbanist</a> neighborhoods, either planned or under construction, including Doe Mill, Barber Yard, Meriam Park, The Orchard and Westside Place.\nThe above-mentioned \"neighborhoods\" do not include large sections of Chico. There are numerous other areas that each have unique characteristics and attractions. While some of these areas were not so long ago outside of city limits, they have always been a part of the Chico community. Most of these areas are well established with a high percentage of residents who have lived there for more than 20 years. In the older areas of the outlying neighborhoods, it is not uncommon to find households that have been there for fifty or even more years.\nChico and the <a href=\"Sacramento%20Valley\">Sacramento Valley</a> have a typically <a href=\"Mediterranean%20climate\">Mediterranean climate</a> (<a href=\"K%C3%B6ppen%20climate%20classification\">Köppen</a> Csa).\nTemperatures can rise well above 100 F in the summer. Chico is one of the top metropolitan areas in the nation for number of clear days.\nWinters are fairly mild and wet, with the most rainfall coming in January. July is usually the warmest month, with an average high temperature of 94 °F and an average low temperature of 61 °F . January is the coolest month, with an average high temperature of 55 °F and an average low temperature of 35 °F . The average annual rainfall is 27 in . <a href=\"Tule%20fog\">Tule fog</a> is often present during the autumn and winter months.\nThe <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a> reported that Chico had a population of 86,187. The population density was 2,604.2 people per square mile (1,005.5/km²). The racial makeup of Chico was 69,606 (80.8%) <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 1,771 (2.1%) <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 1,167 (1.4%) <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 3,656 (4.2%) <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 210 (0.2%) <a href=\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 5,437 (6.3%) from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 4,340 (5.0%) from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 13,315 persons (15.4%).\nThe Census reported that 83,009 people (96.3% of the population) lived in households, 2,591 (3.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 587 (0.7%) were institutionalized.\nThere were 34,805 households, out of which 9,222 (26.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 11,745 (33.7%) were <a href=\"marriage\">heterosexual</a> living together, 3,975 (11.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,729 (5.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,806 (8.1%) <a href=\"POSSLQ\">unmarried heterosexual partnerships</a>, and 295 (0.8%) <a href=\"homosexual%20partnerships\">homosexual married couples or partnerships</a>. 10,419 households (29.9%) were made up of individuals and 3,100 (8.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38. There were 17,449 <a href=\"family%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">families</a> (50.1% of all households); the average family size was 2.97.\nThe population was spread out with 16,771 people (19.5%) under the age of 18, 20,622 people (23.9%) aged 18 to 24, 22,360 people (25.9%) aged 25 to 44, 17,256 people (20.0%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,178 people (10.6%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28.6 years. For every 100 females there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over there were 96.8 males.\nThere were 37,050 housing units at an average density of 1,119.5 per square mile (432.2/km²), of which 14,878 (42.7%) were owner-occupied, and 19,927 (57.3%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.8%. 36,008 people (41.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 47,001 people (54.5%) lived in rental housing units.\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 59,954 people, 23,476 households, and 11,644 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,161.0 people per square mile (834.5/km²). There were 24,386 housing units at an average density of 879.0 per square mile (339.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 82.4% White, 2.0% Black or African American, 1.3% Native American, 4.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 5.7% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.3% of the population.\nThere were 23,476 households out of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.4% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% were non-families. 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.03.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 21.1% under the age of 18, 27.0% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 15.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 96.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over there were 93.9 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $29,359, and the median income for a family was $43,077. Males had a median income of $35,548 versus $26,173 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,970. About 12.7% of families and 26.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.\nMuch of the local economy is driven by the presence of Chico State. Industries providing employment: educational, health and social services (30.3%), retail trade (14.9%), arts, entertainment, recreation, accommodation and food services (12.6%).\nChico has always been a regional retail shopping destination. Chico's largest retail district is focused around the <a href=\"Chico%20Mall\">Chico Mall</a> on East 20th Street. In the two decades since the Chico Mall was constructed, many national retailers have located nearby, including <a href=\"Target%20Corporation\">Target</a>, <a href=\"Kohl%27s\">Kohl's</a>, <a href=\"Forever%2021\">Forever 21</a>, <a href=\"Best%20Buy\">Best Buy</a>, and <a href=\"Walmart\">Walmart</a>. In January 2008, plans were unveiled to remodel the Chico Mall by demolishing the westernmost portion of the mall (previously home to Troutman's) and constructing an open air \"lifestyle\" shopping center that will connect the mall with the Kohl's shopping center nearby. This has since been amended as <a href=\"Dick%27s%20Sporting%20Goods\">Dick's Sporting Goods</a> has renovated both the interior and exterior the space formerly occupied by Troutmans, and officially opened on July 10, 2013.\nChico is also home to the North Valley Plaza Mall, which was the city's first enclosed shopping center. Construction on this mall began in 1965 and it was the County's largest shopping center until the Chico Mall was completed in 1988. For a few years the \"old\" mall and the \"new\" mall competed against one another. The North Valley Plaza Mall was dealt a blow when JCPenney, one of the old mall's anchors, moved to the Chico Mall in 1993. The \"old\" mall slowly declined with increasing vacancies. After several failed attempts at revitalization, the North Valley Plaza Mall was overhauled in 2002, with the center of the mall demolished. Several large retailers, such as <a href=\"Trader%20Joe%27s\">Trader Joe's</a>, and Tinseltown Theater, are operating at the mall plus a number of restaurants. <a href=\"Mervyn%27s\">Mervyn's</a> anchored the mall at the west end, filling the spot vacated by JCPenney, but declared bankruptcy in 2008 and liquidated its entire stock by the end of December of that year. The entire Mervyn's chain ceased operations just before the end of the year. A portion of the space is now being utilized by <a href=\"Goodwill%20Industries\">Goodwill</a>. Other spaces in the North Valley Plaza include a dollar store, 99 cent only store, a U.S. Navy recruiting center and a number of smaller boutiques.\nChico's downtown is a thriving area for unique, independent retail shops and restaurants. Farmers markets attract crowds on Saturday mornings and Thursday evenings. City Plaza hosts free concerts regularly during the summer. Performance venues large and small, bars, coffee shops, bookstores and city offices contribute to a lively and flavorful experience.\n<a href=\"Build.com\">Build.com</a> (as of April 2013) was named as No. 81 on Internet Retailer Magazine's Top 500 List of online retailers. Additionally, Wanderful Media, the company that acquired Chico based <a href=\"http%3A//www.findnsave.com\">Find n Save®</a> opened a fully renovated office downtown in early 2013.\nThe City of Chico is a <a href=\"charter%20city\">charter city</a> and has a <a href=\"council%E2%80%93manager%20government\">council–manager government</a>. The City of Chico's administration offices are located at 411 Main Street immediately adjacent to the City Council Chambers. Chico's <a href=\"city%20council\">city council</a> consists of seven nonpartisan councilmembers each elected <a href=\"at-large\">at-large</a> in November of even-numbered years. Their terms begin on the first Tuesday in December and end on the first Tuesday in December four years thereafter. The mayor is chosen by and from among the council members and serves for two years. City council meetings are on the first and third Tuesday of each month.\nThe City Council appoints members of the Airport Commission, Architecture Review Board, Arts Commission, Bidwell Park and Playground Commission, and Planning Commission.\nThe council consists of Mayor Sean Morgan, Vice Mayor Reanette Fillmer, Andrew Coolidge, Karl Ory, Ann Schwab, Mark Sorensen and Randall Stone.\nThe citizens of Chico are represented in the <a href=\"Butte%20County%20Board%20of%20Supervisors\">Butte County Board of Supervisors</a> by the District Two Supervisor Larry Wahl and the District Three Supervisor Maureen Kirk.\nThe Butte County Association of Governments office is located in Chico at 2580 Sierra Sunrise Terrace, Suite 100.\nThe citizens of Chico, as constituents of <a href=\"California%27s%203rd%20Assembly%20District\">California's 3rd Assembly District</a>, are represented by <a href=\"California%20Republican%20Party\">Republican</a> <a href=\"James%20Gallagher%20%28California%20politician%29\">James Gallagher</a> in the <a href=\"California%20State%20Assembly\">California State Assembly</a>, and as members of <a href=\"California%27s%204th%20Senate%20District\">California's 4th Senate District</a>, are represented by <a href=\"California%20Republican%20Party\">Republican</a> <a href=\"Jim%20Nielsen\">Jim Nielsen</a> in the <a href=\"California%20State%20Senate\">California State Senate</a>.\nThe citizens of Chico, as constituents of <a href=\"California%27s%201st%20congressional%20district\">California's 1st congressional district</a>, are represented by <a href=\"Doug%20LaMalfa\">Doug LaMalfa</a> (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>–<a href=\"Richvale%2C%20California\">Richvale</a>) in the <a href=\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\">United States House of Representatives</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Chico%20Unified%20School%20District\">Chico Unified School District</a> includes all of the greater Chico area including area not within the city limits.\nIn 1998, city voters approved a bond to build a third comprehensive high school that was to be called Canyon View High School. However, after a protracted search for an acceptable site, the school district opted not to build the new high school, a decision based largely on declining enrollment figures. The money from the bond is now planned to be used for improvements at Chico and Pleasant Valley high school\nThe Chico Museum first opened in February 1986 in the former Carnegie Library building in downtown Chico. It currently features the only circus exhibit of its kind in the Western United States. The museum has two main galleries, which host a variety of temporary and traveling exhibits. In addition, the museum has two smaller, permanent galleries displaying the diverse history of Chico. The Chico Museum is run by the Far West Heritage Association, which also runs the Patrick Ranch Museum. The museum is free and donations are graciously accepted.\nThe <a href=\"Chico%20Air%20Museum\">Chico Air Museum</a> is an aviation museum, which opened in 2004. Several aircraft and exhibits are displayed in and adjacent to an old hangar, one of the few remaining from World War II.\nThe <a href=\"National%20Yo-Yo%20Museum\">National Yo-Yo Museum</a> is the country's largest collection of <a href=\"yo-yo\">yo-yo</a> artifacts, which also includes a 4 ft tall yo-yo that is dropped with a crane every few years, the world's largest functional yo-yo. Classes are available as well for those new to yo-yo and those who just want to get better. An art museum, the Chico Art Center, is also located in the city.\nTwo other historical buildings are also museums. Bidwell Mansion is a Victorian house completed in 1868, and the former home of John and Annie Bidwell. Bidwell Mansion is a California State Historical Park. Stansbury House, former home of physician Oscar Stansbury, is a museum of 19th-century life, completed in 1883.\n<a href=\"http%3A//www.csuchico.edu/anthmuseum/\">The Valene L. Smith Museum of Anthropology</a> on the Chico State campus presents temporary exhibits researched, designed and installed primarily by students. The museum was renamed November 18, 2009, by the Chico State Board of Trustees in honor of professor emerita Valene L. Smith, whose contributions and commitments to the museum have totaled over $4.6 million. The grand opening was held on January 28, 2010. The museum is across from the main entrance of the Miriam Library, next to the <a href=\"Janet%20Turner%20Print%20Museum\">Janet Turner Print Museum</a>.\nConstruction started on the Gateway Science Museum (formerly the Northern California Natural History Museum) in 2008 and was completed on February 27, 2010. In the works for more than 10 years, the Gateway Science Museum is the leading center for science education and <a href=\"Northern%20California\">Northern California's</a> local history, natural resources, seacoast, Sacramento Valley, and surrounding foothills and mountains.\nAbout 40 <a href=\"murals\">murals</a> and several galleries can be found in the city, including Chico Paper Company, 1078 Gallery, Avenue 9, The Space, 24-Hour Drive-By and numerous other galleries. The theatres in Chico include Blue Room Theatre, Theatre ETC, <a href=\"Chico%20Cabaret\">Chico Cabaret</a>, Chico Performances, Chico Theater Company, and Theatre on the Ridge. The California State University, Chico Theatre Department also offers a variety of entertainment throughout the school year. In 2003, author John Villani named Chico one of the top 10 Best Small Art Towns in America.\nChico is the site of Bidwell Park, the ninth-largest municipally-owned park in the United States, <a href=\"Bidwell%20Mansion%20State%20Historic%20Park\">Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park</a>, the <a href=\"Chico%20University%20Arboretum\">Chico University Arboretum</a>.\n<a href=\"Sierra%20Nevada%20Brewing%20Company\">Sierra Nevada Brewing Company</a>, the second-largest <a href=\"craft%20brewer\">craft brewer</a> in the country, is based in Chico.\nChico has the tallest building north of Sacramento in California: Whitney Hall, a nine-story dormitory on the Chico State college campus.\nThe Meriam Library on the Chico State campus is named\nafter <a href=\"Ted%20Meriam\">Ted Meriam</a>. The building has more square footage than any other building in California north of <a href=\"Sacramento\">Sacramento</a>.\nThe <a href=\"State%20of%20California\">State of California</a>, <a href=\"Office%20of%20Statewide%20Health%20Planning%20and%20Development\">Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development</a> defines Enloe Medical Center as a General Acute Care Hospital in Chico with a Level II <a href=\"Trauma%20center\">Trauma Center</a> and Basic emergency care as of August 22, 2006. The facility is located at 1531 The Esplanade at (NAD83) latitude/longitude .\nThe <a href=\"Hooker%20Oak\">Hooker Oak</a>, formerly the largest <a href=\"Valley%20Oak\">Valley Oak</a> in the world, was located at Hooker Oak Recreation Area in Bidwell Park.\nLocated in urban Chico, the <a href=\"Mechoopda\">Mechoopda</a> <a href=\"Maidu\">Maidu</a> Indian Tribe of Chico Rancheria is at 125 Mission Ranch Blvd.\nBidwell Municipal Golf Course, United States Department of Agriculture Plant Introduction Garden,\nCanyon Oaks Golf Course, Diamond Match Factory, Chico Museum, Chico Municipal Center, Dorothy F. Johnson Neighborhood Center, Veterans Memorial Building, Craig Hall, Stansbury House, Scrappy Dog, Madison Bear Garden, Chico Creek Nature Center, <a href=\"Chico%20Community%20Observatory\">Chico Community Observatory</a>, Big Chico Creek Ecological Reserve, Chico Area Recreation and Park District, Bidwell Amphitheatre, <a href=\"Honey%20Run%20Covered%20Bridge\">Honey Run Covered Bridge</a>, Senator Theatre, A. H. Chapman House, Allen-Sommer-Gage House, Patrick Ranch House, <a href=\"Silberstein%20Park%20Building\">Silberstein Park Building</a>, <a href=\"Pioneer%20Days%20%28Chico%2C%20California%29\">Pioneer Days</a>.\nChico is home to <a href=\"Nettleton%20Stadium\">Nettleton Stadium</a> (also called \"The Net\") <a href=\"Baseball%20park\">baseball stadium</a> on the California State University campus. It is the home field for the <a href=\"Chico%20State%20Wildcats\">Chico State Wildcats</a> baseball team, in <a href=\"List%20of%20NCAA%20Division%20II%20institutions\">NCAA Division 2</a>.\nChico is also home of the <a href=\"Silver%20Dollar%20Speedway\">Silver Dollar Speedway</a>, a race track at the Silver Dollar Fairgrounds used for <a href=\"sprint%20car%20racing\">sprint car racing</a>.\nChico is one of few cities to be home to two championship baseball teams in two different leagues simultaneously. The Chico State Wildcats were champions in both the 1997 and 1999 Division II College World Series. The <a href=\"Chico%20Heat\">Chico Heat</a> were also champions in the <a href=\"Western%20Baseball%20League\">Western Baseball League</a> in 1997. The <a href=\"Chico%20Outlaws\">Chico Outlaws</a> were founded with the <a href=\"Golden%20Baseball%20League\">Golden Baseball League</a> in 2005 where they also won the championship in 2007 and 2010. Starting in the summer of 2016, the <a href=\"Chico%20Heat%20%28Great%20West%20League%29\">Chico Heat</a> will return as a part of the <a href=\"Great%20West%20League\">Great West League</a>, a collegiate summer wood-bat league.\nThe Chico State Women's Rugby Club won the Collegiate Division I National Championship in 2001.\nThe Chico Rugby Club senior men's team won the Division III National Championship in 2002.\nChico has also gained a reputation as being a bicycle-friendly city. In 1997, Chico was ranked as the number-one cycling city in the nation by \"Bicycle Magazine\" and also hosts the Wildflower Century, an annual 100 mi bike ride throughout Butte County every April, put on by Chico Velo Cycling Club. The city is in the process of creating a network of bicycle paths, trails and lanes. Some notable bicycle routes include a path leading from The Esplanade to the Chico Airport, a path running from downtown to East Avenue parallel to Hwy 32 along the railroad, a path along Park Avenue continuing down the Midway toward Durham, a path following Little Chico Creek from Bruce Road to Route 99, and a series of paths throughout Bidwell Park, and the Steve Harrison Memorial Bike Path, which bypasses Skyway and takes riders out to Honey Run Road.\nChico is former home of the <a href=\"Chico%20Rooks\">Chico Rooks</a> (Soccer), the <a href=\"Chico%20Heat\">Chico Heat</a> (Baseball – Western Baseball League), and <a href=\"Chico%20Outlaws\">Chico Outlaws</a> (Baseball - Golden Baseball League).\n<a href=\"Almond\">Almond</a>s are the number one crop in Chico and the surrounding area, only recently edging out rice. Other crops in the area include <a href=\"walnut\">walnut</a>s, <a href=\"kiwi\">kiwi</a>s, <a href=\"olive\">olive</a>s, <a href=\"peach\">peach</a>es, and <a href=\"plum\">plum</a>s.\nThe city is bounded on the west by orchards with thousands of almond trees, and there are still a few pockets of orchards remaining within the contiguous city limits. The trees bloom with a pink/white flower in late February or early March. Millions of bees are brought in for the pollination. The nuts are harvested in late August.\nWalnuts are also a major agricultural production in the area north and west of town. Unlike the almond crops of the area, walnuts do not have the same appeal as they do not bloom but they grow much larger and live much longer than almonds, but similar to the almond crops, walnuts are harvested in early September.\nThere are several <a href=\"Farmers%27%20Market\">farmers' markets</a> held in Chico:\nIn June 2014, the Thursday night Chico farmers market was named one of the top 9 farmers markets to eat at in Northern California.`\n<a href=\"Chico%20Municipal%20Airport\">Chico Municipal Airport</a> serves the area and is north of the city limits. It was served by <a href=\"United%20Airlines\">United Airlines</a>' <a href=\"United%20Express\">United Express</a> flights operated by <a href=\"SkyWest%20Airlines\">SkyWest Airlines</a> nonstop to San Francisco (SFO). Commercial passenger flights were discontinued by SkyWest on December 2, 2014 due to nonviability as indicated by United Airlines in June 2014. The city administration is trying to restore air service which would be provided by alternate airlines. On July 31, 1961, the first-ever <a href=\"aircraft%20hijacking\">aircraft hijacking</a> on United States soil occurred at the Chico Municipal Airport. Two men were critically wounded and the hijacker was sentenced to more than 30 years in prison.\nIn the early 1980s, the airport was the home base and headquarters for <a href=\"Pacific%20Express\">Pacific Express</a>, a scheduled passenger airline that served Chico with <a href=\"British%20Aircraft%20Corporation\">British Aircraft Corporation</a> <a href=\"BAC%20One-Eleven\">BAC One-Eleven</a> twin jets. From 1962 to 2010, the airport was also home to <a href=\"Aero%20Union\">Aero Union</a>, a company that refitted and operated surplus military aircraft such as the <a href=\"Lockheed%20P-3%20Orion\">Lockheed P-3 Orion</a> turboprop as fire fighting aircraft for state and federal agencies until their move to <a href=\"McClellan%20Airfield\">McClellan Airfield</a>, near Sacramento.\nAnother local airfield is <a href=\"Ranchaero%20Airport\">Ranchaero Airport</a> which is surrounded by orchards on the west edge of Chico.\nAn <a href=\"List%20of%20altitude%20records%20reached%20by%20different%20aircraft%20types\">altitude record</a> for unmanned gas balloons was set in Chico in October 1972 (51.8 km ). The record was broken on May 23, 2002.\n<a href=\"Amtrak\">Amtrak</a> operates the <a href=\"Chico%20%28Amtrak%20station%29\">Chico Amtrak</a> station at Fifth and Orange Streets for the <a href=\"Coast%20Starlight\">Coast Starlight</a> service. The terminal is partially wheelchair accessible, has an enclosed waiting area, public restrooms, public pay phones, free short-term and long-term parking. Trains run between <a href=\"Seattle\">Seattle</a> and <a href=\"Union%20Station%20%28Los%20Angeles%29\">Los Angeles</a> with a northbound, and a southbound train departing from the station daily. The <a href=\"Greyhound%20Lines\">Greyhound</a> bus station is also located at Fifth and Orange Streets.\nThe North Valley Shuttle has five scheduled runs daily to <a href=\"Sacramento%20International%20Airport\">Sacramento International Airport</a> leaving from Jack's Restaurant at Sixth and Main Streets.\nThe B-Line (<a href=\"Butte%20Regional%20Transit\">Butte Regional Transit</a>) serves the Chico Urban area with eight routes operating Monday through Saturday and two shuttle routes for Chico State students during the academic year. It also serves the Chico urban area with nine modified vans providing transportation for the elderly and the mobility impaired seven days a week. The transit center in Chico is located at Second and Salem Streets.\nChico is a silver level <a href=\"bicycle-friendly\">bicycle-friendly</a> community as designated by the <a href=\"League%20of%20American%20Bicyclists\">League of American Bicyclists</a>. Chico was also named \"America's Best Bike Town\" by \"<a href=\"Bicycle%20%28magazine%29\">Bicycle</a>\" magazine in 1997.\n<a href=\"Pedicab\">Pedicab</a>s are commonly available downtown during the evenings.\nState Route 99 and State Route 32 intersect in Chico.\nChico was designated to be the provisional capital of California, in the event that a disaster occurred that would cause evacuation of Sacramento after a <a href=\"Civil%20Defense\">Civil Defense</a> exercise named <a href=\"Operation%20Chico\">Operation Chico</a> was deemed a success.\nNo person shall produce, test, maintain, or store within the city a <a href=\"nuclear%20weapon\">nuclear weapon</a>, component of a nuclear weapon, nuclear weapon delivery system, or component of a nuclear weapon delivery system under penalty of Chapter 9.60.030 of the Chico Municipal Code.\n\n","20 The Countdown Magazine\n20 The Countdown Magazine is a weekly <a href=\"Christian\">Christian</a> music <a href=\"countdown\">countdown</a> program, syndicated to Christian radio stations in the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, <a href=\"Canada\">Canada</a> and worldwide, including the <a href=\"K-LOVE\">K-LOVE</a> and <a href=\"American%20Family%20Radio\">American Family Radio</a> networks.\nThe program, produced by Christian Network Services, is hosted by <a href=\"Jon%20Rivers\">Jon Rivers</a>, and counts down the top twenty Christian pop favorites, as compiled by \"Christian Radio Weekly\" magazine. Each countdown also includes special features, including \"Artist Spotlight\", \"Jon's Future Favorites\", and other features. Occasionally, the program would also feature weekly special programming, such as a countdown for the top twenty songs for the year, an annual Christmas program hosted by <a href=\"Amy%20Grant\">Amy Grant</a>, and a tribute special on <a href=\"Rich%20Mullins\">Rich Mullins</a>.\n","Undo (Rush of Fools song)\n\"Undo\" is the first <a href=\"Single%20%28music%29\">record single</a> from <a href=\"Contemporary%20Christian%20music\">contemporary Christian</a> band <a href=\"Rush%20of%20Fools\">Rush of Fools</a>. It was released in 2007 from the band's first album \"<a href=\"Rush%20of%20Fools%20%28album%29\">Rush of Fools</a>\". It was the most played song of the year in 2007 on Christian <a href=\"adult%20contemporary\">adult contemporary</a> radio.\nThis song was also by the compilation album \"<a href=\"WOW%20Hits%202008\">WOW Hits 2008</a>\".\nThe song was written in <a href=\"Nashville%2C%20Tennessee\">Nashville, Tennessee</a>, where lead vocalist Wes Willis and guitarist Kevin Huguley were songwriting with producer, Scotty D. Huguley said: \"We'd got writer's block and [we] ... packed up our guitars and our bags; everything was out by the door and we were saying our goodbyes and this lyric hit one of us, it was just: 'I've been here before, here I am again' ... We picked everything back out and we grabbed our guitars and it was about 45 minutes or an hour and we'd written this song.\"\nThe song received mixed reviews from music critics. Kim Jones, Christian music guide of <a href=\"About.com\">About.com</a>, called \"Undo\" an album \"highlight\" and praised its lyrical composition. In reference to the song's second verse, Jones said, \"Honestly; how many teens do you know that are that real and introspective?\". Jesus Freak Hideout's review was less positive towards the song, describing it as \"kind of a 'paint by numbers' ballad that is commonly found on CHR [radio] stations.\" \"<a href=\"Christian%20Music%20Today\">Christian Music Today</a>\" editor Russ Breimeier was generally negative towards the band's first album, but said that the song possessed \"a refreshing openness in its prayerful confession of sinful nature\".\nIn 2008, the song was nominated for two <a href=\"Dove%20Award\">Dove Award</a>s: Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the <a href=\"39th%20GMA%20Dove%20Awards\">39th GMA Dove Awards</a>.","We Once Were\nWe Once Were is the third <a href=\"studio%20album\">studio album</a> from <a href=\"Christian%20rock\">Christian rock</a> band <a href=\"Rush%20of%20Fools\">Rush of Fools</a>. It was released on September 27, 2011 on <a href=\"E1%20Entertainment\">eOne Christian Music</a>.\nThe lead single, \"Grace Found Me\" was released June 24, 2011.\n","R&R (magazine)\nR&R (also known as the \"new\" <a href=\"Radio%20%26amp%3B%20Records\">Radio & Records</a>) was a weekly music trade publication that followed the radio industry and tracked the monitoring of current songs by format, station and audience <a href=\"cume\">cume</a>s. The magazine was a sister publication to \"<a href=\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\">Billboard</a>\" magazine and was mostly available through subscription to people who work in the radio industry and music chart enthusiasts, as well as various record stores and newsstands. On June 5, 2009, parent company <a href=\"AC%20Nielsen\">AC Nielsen</a> ceased operations on \"R&R\" just short of three years after acquiring the former independent trade periodical. When it ceased publication in 2009, \"R&R\" was the successor-in-interest of publications that traced their operations back to 1973.\n\"R&R\" was a newly relaunched version of two different publications: \"<a href=\"Billboard%20Radio%20Monitor\">Billboard Radio Monitor</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Radio%20%26amp%3B%20Records\">Radio & Records</a>\", the latter where the \"R&R\" name was adopted from as the trade's \"new\" name. The move was a result of a merger between the 'original' \"R&R\" and \"Radio Monitor\" after VNU Media acquired \"Radio & Records\" on July 6, 2006.\nOn July 14, 2006, \"Billboard Radio Monitor\", which originally started out in 1993 as \"Airplay Monitor\", ceased publication with its final issue, while \"Radio & Records\", which originally started in 1973, published its last issue as an independent trade on August 4, 2006. Its first issue under the newly retitled \"R&R\" was August 11, 2006, beginning with the official monitored BDS charts ending the week of August 6, 2006.\nOn June 3, 2009, it was announced that \"Radio & Records\" would cease all operations. The website closed down that date, and currently redirects to Billboard.biz. The reason for ending the publication was due to economic factors. Most of the articles and features that was published in \"R&R\" will now be included in \"Billboard\". Its final published issue was on June 5, 2009.\nAmong the features and articles that appeared in \"R&R\", there were one for each format, \"Street Talk\" (which tracked the latest buzz in the radio industry), and daily news from radio and record industry in general. Those features were carried over from \"Radio & Records\".\nIt also featured the latest weekly <a href=\"Nielsen%20Broadcast%20Data%20Systems\">BDS monitored music charts</a> and chart data information. Those features were carried over from \"Billboard Radio Monitor\", but it also included the addition of indicators for non-monitored radio markets and Canadian chart airplay that was part of \"R&R\". The overlapping of radio station reporters and format criteria from the former \"Monitor\" and \"R&R\" were modified in the new \"R&R\".\nOn January 17, 2008, \"R&R\" awarded <a href=\"Bob%20Grant%20%28radio%20host%29\">Bob Grant</a> with the \"Talk Radio Lifetime Achievement Award.\" Almost immediately, the award was withdrawn, apparently after \"R&R\" received derogatory information about Bob Grant. \"\"R&R\" is sensitive to the diversity of our community and does not want the presentation of an award to Mr. Grant to imply our endorsement of past comments by him that contradict our values and the respect we have for all members of our community,\" but \"R&R\" then invited <a href=\"Al%20Sharpton\">Al Sharpton</a> to speak, himself the subject of controversy.\nThe list continued using the BDS radio panels that was featured in \"Billboard Radio Monitor\", but the names of the formats were changed after the conversion was completed.\nThe monitored radio panels are:\nFor articles about their predecessors:","WLIX-LP\nWLIX-LP (94.7 <a href=\"FM%20broadcasting\">FM</a>) is a <a href=\"low-power%20FM\">low-power FM</a> <a href=\"radio%20station\">radio station</a> broadcasting a <a href=\"soft%20adult%20contemporary\">soft adult contemporary</a> format. Licensed to <a href=\"Ridge%2C%20New%20York\">Ridge, New York</a>, the station is currently owned by Pine Barrens Broadcasting.\nThe radio station began in 2005 as RadioX, a modern/alternative rock radio station. The <a href=\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\">Federal Communications Commission</a> issued a <a href=\"construction%20permit\">construction permit</a> for the station on February 27, 2004. The station was assigned the WLIX-LP <a href=\"call%20sign\">call sign</a> on March 10, 2004, and received its <a href=\"Broadcast%20license\">license to cover</a> on September 30, 2005. The radio station had approximately 60,000 listeners at its peak, but suffered financial difficulties. A programming agreement was established with a local ministry in April 2007. This converted WLIX-LP to a <a href=\"Christian%20Radio\">Christian Radio</a> format.\nThis arrangement continued until Labor Day weekend of 2012. On August 31, 94.7 WLIX switched programming to <a href=\"adult%20standards\">adult standards</a> utilizing \"The Penthouse\" format from Big Sticks Broadcasting and served as the flagship station for this format.\nOn November 1, 2012, the adult standards programming ceased, and WLIX switched to a classic soft adult contemporary format.\n","WQBU-FM\nWQBU-FM (92.7 <a href=\"FM%20broadcasting\">FM</a>, \"Que Buena 92.7\") is a <a href=\"radio%20station\">radio station</a> licensed to <a href=\"Garden%20City%2C%20New%20York\">Garden City, New York</a> and serves the western <a href=\"Long%20Island\">Long Island</a> area. It broadcasts a <a href=\"Spanish%20language\">Spanish language</a> <a href=\"Regional%20Mexican\">Regional Mexican</a> format and is owned by <a href=\"Univision\">Univision</a>'s radio division.\n92.7 FM went on the air in 1959 with the call letters WLIR and played Broadway tunes and classical music. In the early 1970s, the format shifted to progressive rock, then to modern rock in the 1980s. In 1987, the call sign changed to WDRE-FM, and in 1996 they went back to WLIR-FM. And station went jockless and Univision bought the station in 2004 and became a multi-cast for \"Latino Mix\" <a href=\"WXNY-FM\">WCAA</a> 105.9 FM based in <a href=\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Newark, New Jersey</a> and <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> (WCAA would later start broadcasting at 96.3 FM as the result of a frequency swap with classical music station <a href=\"WQXR-FM\">WQXR</a>.)\nOn <a href=\"Memorial%20Day\">Memorial Day</a> 2005, both stations became \"La Kalle,\" a <a href=\"reggaeton\">reggaeton</a>-formatted station. The station at 105.9 became WCAA and 92.7 became WZAA.\nIn late January 2007, Univision ended the simulcast and changed the call sign to WQBU-FM.\nIn March 2007, the station announced that they would become the Spanish-language home of the <a href=\"New%20York%20Yankees\">New York Yankees</a>. Beto Villa is the <a href=\"play-by-play\">play-by-play</a> announcer.\nIn 2010, the station became the Spanish language home of the <a href=\"New%20York%20Mets\">New York Mets</a>, with Juan Alicea and Max Perez Jimenez with the calls.\nOn November 15, 2012 WQBU-FM changed their format to Spanish Tropical, branded as \"Mami 92.7\".\nOn March 31, 2014; WQBU-FM switched to a news/talk format nationally syndicated by <a href=\"Univision%20America\">Univision America</a>. This makes it the 10th station overall and the first FM station in Univision's portfolio to have the Univision America network.\nOn October 22, 2014 WQBU-FM changed their format to regional Mexican, branded as \"92.7 Nueva York\".\nIn March 2016 WQBU-FM rebranded as \"Que Buena 92.7\".\n","WAWZ\nWAWZ (99.1 <a href=\"FM%20broadcasting\">FM</a>, \"Star 99.1\") is a <a href=\"contemporary%20Christian%20music\">contemporary Christian music</a> radio station located in <a href=\"Zarephath%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Zarephath, New Jersey</a>. It is a listener supported/commercial radio station owned by the <a href=\"Pillar%20of%20Fire%20International\">Pillar of Fire International</a>. The station's target demographic is a 25- to 34-year-olds. The Class B, 28,000-watt signal based in <a href=\"Bridgewater%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Bridgewater, New Jersey</a> and can be heard through Central and Northern New Jersey, Eastern Pennsylvania and as far south as Burlington County, New Jersey.\nThe call letters for the station, like its AM counterpart which went off the air in 1984, were chosen to honor Bishop <a href=\"Alma%20White\">Alma White</a>, who was the founder of the <a href=\"Pillar%20of%20Fire%20Church\">Pillar of Fire Church</a> and <a href=\"Zarephath%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Zarephath</a>, the community of license.\nWAWZ began airing its current format as Star 99.1 on February 3, 2003. Its original format was traditional and classical music and church services. In later years inspirational contemporary Christian music and mostly syndicated Christian teaching and talk shows were added. In this format its tagline was WAWZ - Your Voice of Faith and Inspiration\nWAWZ was founded in 1931 by Bishop <a href=\"Alma%20White\">Alma White</a> and the <a href=\"Pillar%20of%20Fire%20Church\">Pillar of Fire Church</a>. Formerly headquartered in <a href=\"Denver%2C%20Colorado\">Denver, Colorado</a>, the organization was given land in 1906, in <a href=\"Franklin%20Township%2C%20Somerset%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Franklin Township, Somerset County, New Jersey</a>.\nThe station was first assigned a frequency on 1350 AM, sharing time equally with three other stations, WCDA, WBNX and WMSG. In later years, on 1380 AM, it shared time with <a href=\"WKDM\">WBNX</a> in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>. WAWZ was the second station owned by the Pillar of Fire Church. (<a href=\"KPOF\">KPOF</a> in Denver was the first).\nOn September 1, 1984, WAWZ sold its part-time AM operation to New York station WBNX (now christened WKDM.)\nOn WAWZ's final day, they produced a special program recalling the station's 53 years of religious broadcasting, and by <a href=\"Electrical%20transcriptions\">electrical transcription</a>, once again featured the voice of Alma White.\nThe station began broadcasting on FM on August 22, 1954. The broadcast format was eighteen hours a day of classical music along with Pillar of Fire church services. By the late 1960s. WAWZ evolved into a Traditional Christian Music and Teaching station. They played traditional Christian music about 6 to 8 hours a day. The rest of the time they ran teaching and preaching programs by various Christian groups. They did not sell time in a traditional way but took a percentage of donations each ministry received from WAWZ's listening area. Overall, the format was similar to what <a href=\"Family%20Radio\">Family Radio</a> and <a href=\"Bible%20Broadcasting%20Network\">BBN</a> offered back then as well as being musically close. In 1980 there was a challenge to its license. The challenge alleged that the station did not serve the public good. Allen Lewis was hired as the new program director and it became a 24-hour station.\nFor many years WAWZ carried teaching programs, talk shows, church services, and traditional Christian music. The station ran the tagline, WAWZ-Your Voice of Faith and Inspiration and featured mostly syndicated evangelical Christian teaching and talk shows and inspirational music. Local news, AP World News, public affairs programs and several call-in shows added a New Jersey feel to the station as it attempted to serve its license area it had just vigorously defended. Most of the schedule consisted of programming came from area church services and outside ministries via the state-of-the-art Chicago-based Moody Broadcasting Service satellite subscription. Among these was a local program called Search Light which served tri-state area prison inmates. The station ran \"Share-a-thons\" twice a year to solicit support from listeners. During the 1980s WAWZ began moving from a conservative format of traditional hymns to more of a Christian MOR format which included softer music by contemporary Christian artists as well as the traditional music they were playing. By 1990 the music mix was about half traditional and half contemporary By 1994 the music format was nearly all contemporary. However, the majority of the schedule consisted of non-musical programming.\nMajor changes began on Thanksgiving Day in 2002, WAWZ began playing wall-to-wall traditional and contemporary as well as secular Christmas music. After Christmas, the station started airing hot adult contemporary Christian music with non-musical elements reduced to four hours per day. Finally on February 2, 2003, WAWZ renamed itself STAR 99.1. The station also began selling time to commercial advertisers, but as it remains owned by a 501C3 they continue to have an annual \"Radiothon\". But it has continued its all Christmas format since 2002. Playing mostly Christian themed holiday music.\nWAWZ's signal is among the strongest in NJ and can be heard through all of Central and Northern New Jersey and New York City and as far south as Ocean and Burlington counties as well as Eastern Pennsylvania. With its polished family-friendly contemporary sound, Star 99.1 aims at Christians and nonbelievers alike. A casual listener scanning the radio may not easily differentiate it from secular stations that play Phil Collins or U2.\nThe <a href=\"National%20Religious%20Broadcasters\">National Religious Broadcasters</a> honored WAWZ with Station of the Year awards in 2007 and 2008 and the <a href=\"National%20Association%20of%20Broadcasters\">National Association of Broadcasters</a> honored them with the 2008 Crystal Radio Award for community service.\nOn August 1, 2014 Pillar of Fire began a lease of \"WLIR-FM\". WAWZ-FM, Zarephath, New Jersey (STAR 99.1) was broadcast on WLIR-FM as well as its translators as STAR 107.1. The lease ended in April 2015 and WLIR-FM reverted to Christian formatted \"Hope Radio.\". This ceased operation in early 2015.\nOn April 2006, WAWZ-FM started HD radio operations with Star 99.1-2. The eight-hour block of teaching programs resembles the station's mid-1990s format, including the use of the former tagline, WAWZ-Your Voice of Faith and Inspiration. In 2007, 99.1-3, The Energy, was launched to coincide with the station-sponsored annual youth festival, Autumn Blaze 2007. The Energy playlist and consisted of various genres of Christian-themed, youth-oriented music (e.g., Rock, Hip-Hop, Rhythm & Blues). In 2014, The Energy ceased broadcasts on HD and online.\nIn Early 2015 991 HD3 The Energy returned to WAWZ's HD Side channel.\nIn Early 2016 991 HD-2 ceased operating it's teaching block and has begun playing an assortment of gospel songs.","WBLI\nWBLI (106.1 <a href=\"FM%20broadcasting\">FM</a>, \"106.1 'BLI\") is a <a href=\"Contemporary%20Hit%20Radio\">Top 40 (CHR)</a> music formatted <a href=\"radio%20station\">radio station</a> which is owned by <a href=\"Cox%20Radio\">Cox Radio</a> and licensed to <a href=\"Patchogue%2C%20New%20York\">Patchogue, New York</a>. The station mainly serves <a href=\"Suffolk%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Suffolk</a> and <a href=\"Nassau%20County%2C%20New%20York\">Nassau</a> Counties on <a href=\"Long%20Island\">Long Island</a>. It can also be heard in the <a href=\"Hudson%20Valley\">Hudson Valley</a>, <a href=\"Southern%20Connecticut\">Southern Connecticut</a>, and the <a href=\"Jersey%20Shore\">Jersey Shore</a>. Its transmitter is located in <a href=\"Selden%2C%20New%20York\">Selden, New York</a>, and studios are located at 555 Sunrise Highway (<a href=\"New%20York%20State%20Route%2027\">NY 27</a>) in <a href=\"West%20Babylon%2C%20New%20York\">West Babylon, New York</a>.\nWBLI is programmed by Jeremy \"J.J.\" Rice who has been with the station since 1998. Rice was formerly PD of <a href=\"WWHT\">WWHT</a> (Hot 107.9) in <a href=\"Syracuse%2C%20New%20York\">Syracuse</a> while the station was owned by Cox Radio. When <a href=\"Clear%20Channel\">Clear Channel</a> purchased WWHT in 1998, Rice moved to Long Island and has since been the program director of WBLI and CHR format director for Cox Radio. The assistant program director is Alan \"Al On The Scene\" Levine, who has been with 'BLI since February 5, 1995 and has done nights, afternoon drive and now middays.\nThe station went on the air on December 13, 1957 as WPAC-FM, but gained fame in the 1970s under their new call letters \"\"The New 106 WBLI\"\". BLI <a href=\"Disc%20jockey\">DJs</a> during the 1970s & 1980s included Barry Neal, Randi Taylor, Bruce Michaels, Nick O'Neil, Chris Tyler, Bill Terry (was PD in the 1980s), Jeff Thomas (also the PD), Scott Taylor, Don Nelson, Rick Sommers, Keith Allen (who moved over to <a href=\"WBZO\">WBZO</a> after BLI), Rob McLean, Mary \"J.J. Kennedy\" Ann of <a href=\"WPLJ\">WPLJ</a> and <a href=\"WLTW\">WLTW</a> in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, Carl Dayton, TK Townsend, Brooke Daniels, Larry Adams, Scott Miller and Kelly Hart. WBLI had a Saturday night dance show called Club 106 during the <a href=\"Disco\">Disco</a> era, hosted by Long Island club DJ Rory J. Thompson. On Sunday nights BLI aired an <a href=\"Oldies\">Oldies</a> show known as Only Gold during the 1970s through the mid-1980s hosted by Bruce Michaels and later by Jerry St. James and then Don Nelson. Although technically a CHR/Top 40, WBLI had a more <a href=\"adult%20contemporary\">adult contemporary</a> sound in certain dayparts and avoided such harder-rocking CHR hits such as \"<a href=\"I%20Love%20Rock%20%27n%27%20Roll\">I Love Rock 'n' Roll</a>\" by <a href=\"Joan%20Jett%20%26amp%3B%20The%20Blackhearts\">Joan Jett & The Blackhearts</a> during their initial chart runs.\nBy 1991 with CHR on the decline across the country, WBLI evolved into more of a <a href=\"Adult%20contemporary%20music\">Hot A/C</a> radio station with Steve Harper and news director <a href=\"Ken%20Rosato\">Ken Rhodes</a> (now <a href=\"WABC-TV\">WABC-TV</a>'s (channel 7) morning news anchor) in mornings. The station ran various feature weekends such as the \"Almost made it but didn't weekend\" and \"The Ladies of the 80s\" etc.. Musically the station was slightly hotter than New York City's WPLJ and <a href=\"WWPR-FM\">Mix 105 WMXV</a>. In February 1995 WBLI slowly began to move back to Top 40. Long time <a href=\"New%20England\">New England</a> Top 40 DJ Al Levine \"on the scene\" joined WBLI. The station also began to run a music video countdown show on Friday nights called \"SEGWAY\" hosted by Steve Harper and simulcast on<a href=\"WLNY-TV\">TV55</a>. WBLI also picked up the syndicated Saturday night show <a href=\"Open%20House%20Party\">Open House Party</a> - which had previously been run on the station in the late 80s.\nIn July 1996 WBLI was acquired by Chancellor Broadcasting - Ken Rosato exited mornings, Kelly Nash exited afternoons and the station began adding more R & B and Dance product especially at night.\nIn September 1996 Ken \"Doc\" Medek was hired to be Program Director after serving in that role in Northeast PA at <a href=\"WKRZ\">98.5 KRZ</a>.\nUnder Doc Medek and Al Levine as <a href=\"Music%20director\">MD</a> and night jock, features like the \"Fresh 5 at 9\", and the \"New Music Challenge\" returned. The station redeveloped its CHR sound on Long Island. The station was now voiced by Billy Moore and had a new jingle package by <a href=\"TM%20Studios\">TM Century</a>. By 1997 'BLI was one of the more rhythmic mainstream CHRs on the air featuring \"Classic Dance Weekends\". Doc Medek left the station in September 1998 to return to WKRZ.\nWhen Cox Radio took over 'BLI they evolved into a more mainstream CHR with less dance product (though still more than most other CHR's) and a tighter playlist voiced by Kurt Flood, Mark Driscoll, with Jennifer Vaughn, and Brian James. On March 29, 2006 Beau Weaver took over as voice of 106.1 BLI, and a new jingle package debuted at that time, which is still used today.\nOn July 11, 2016 Cooper Lawrence formerly of <a href=\"WPLJ\">WPLJ</a> and Anthony Michaels who had previously co-hosted on the syndicated Cooper Lawrence Show, took over mornings 5:30 - 9am on the station.\nOn June 30, 2016 the station announced on its <a href=\"Facebook\">Facebook</a> page that \"Dana and Jayson in the Morning\" had ended its run.\nThe morning program, which had begun as \"BLI in the Morning,\" featured Dana DiDonato, Jayson Prim, John Mingione (John Online), Shawn \"Puffy The Producer\" Novatt, and Ted Lindner with news and traffic.\nRecurring segments on BLI in the Morning:\n\"Dana and Jayson in the Morning\" often posed questions or opinions to the listeners, both on the air and online. They had many people call in each day with their opinions, and even had some 'friends' who they know well and who called a lot, like \"Loyal Listener Lucille,\" \"Lighthouse Michelle (LHM),\" \"Millie Milz\" and more.\nSteve Harper (now doing mornings on <a href=\"WKJY\">K98.3</a> Long Island) had hosted BLI in the AM for 25 years before being let go in the Summer of 2006, with Maria Garcia (Now freelance anchor and reporter on <a href=\"WABC%20%28AM%29\">770 WABC</a>, <a href=\"WCBS%20%28AM%29\">WCBS Newsradio 880</a> and <a href=\"WOR%20%28AM%29\">WOR</a> New York City and freelance contributor for <a href=\"ABC%20News%20Radio\">ABC News Radio</a>) for about eight of them as \"Steve and Maria in the Morning\". Maria left in 2005. Dana DiDonato (now mornings at <a href=\"KBZT\">FM94.9</a> in San Diego CA) joined Steve in January 2006. Steve's last show was on July 19, 2006. Dana then assumed hosting duties alongside Randy \"Big Gay Randy\" Spears (now retired from radio) and Drew (Drew Appelbaum, now Community Director at <a href=\"Yelp\">Yelp</a> Long Island NY). Randy and Drew exited the station on December 16, 2010.\nOn January 10, 2011, the radio station introduced \"The New BLI in the Morning\", which featured Dana with new co-host Jeffrey Jameson (currently mornings on <a href=\"WNEW-FM\">Fresh 102.7</a> in New York City), and the return of Shawn \"Puffy The Producer\" Novatt (now at 90.3 <a href=\"WHPC\">WHPC</a> Garden City, New York) one month later, who was with BLI in a similar role from 2000–2004.\nThe show was syndicated to Cox sister-station \"Hot 100.9\" <a href=\"WJSR\">WHTI</a>/Richmond, VA and renamed \"Dana and Jeffrey in the Morning\" on Monday, June 4, 2012. Syndication ended with WHTI was sold to another owner in June, 2013.\nJeffrey Jameson announced he was leaving in December, 2013 and Jayson Prim (now mornings at <a href=\"KBZT\">FM94.9</a> in San Diego CA) debuted on January 6, 2014.\nOn Wednesday, February 27, 2008, Randy of the \"BLI in the Morning\" show offended a caller from <a href=\"Mastic%2C%20New%20York\">Mastic</a> Long Island, by insinuating that she lived in a trailer park. After the station received complaints regarding the remarks, and after Randy's refusal to apologize, he was suspended by station management.\nOn Friday, February 29, 2008, radio announcers <a href=\"Gregg%20Hughes\">Gregg Hughes</a> and <a href=\"Anthony%20Cumia\">Anthony Cumia</a> of <a href=\"Opie%20and%20Anthony\">Opie and Anthony</a>, vocal proponents for free speech in broadcasting, called for the firing of WBLI station manager John Shea for \"not standing behind his guy.\"\n\n","WNEW-FM\nWNEW-FM (102.7 <a href=\"FM%20broadcasting\">FM</a>, \"Fresh 102.7\") is a <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> <a href=\"hot%20adult%20contemporary\">hot adult contemporary</a> <a href=\"radio%20station\">radio station</a> owned and operated by <a href=\"CBS%20Radio\">CBS Radio</a>. WNEW-FM's studios are in the combined CBS Radio facility in the <a href=\"Soho%2C%20Manhattan\">West Soho</a> section of <a href=\"Manhattan\">Manhattan</a>, and its <a href=\"transmitter\">transmitter</a> sits atop the <a href=\"Empire%20State%20Building\">Empire State Building</a>.\nWNEW-FM is best remembered for one of its previous incarnations, a <a href=\"progressive%20rock%20%28radio%20format%29\">progressive rock radio format</a> that began in 1967 and lasted into the 1990s. That station became very influential in the development of rock music during the 1970s and 1980s.\nThe station shared the WNEW <a href=\"call%20letters\">call letters</a> between 1958 and 1986 with former sister <a href=\"AM%20radio\">AM</a> station WNEW (1130 kHz) and <a href=\"television%20station\">television station</a> WNEW-TV (channel 5), with all being owned by <a href=\"Metromedia\">Metromedia</a>. After WNEW-TV was sold to the <a href=\"News%20Corporation\">News Corporation</a> in 1986 (and became <a href=\"WNYW\">WNYW</a>), and the AM station was sold to <a href=\"Bloomberg%20L.P.\">Bloomberg L.P.</a> in 1992 (and became <a href=\"WBBR\">WBBR</a>), 102.7 FM retained the WNEW-FM callsign until it was changed in 2007; the callsign letters returned to 102.7 on March 15, 2016.\nWNEW-FM broadcasts in the <a href=\"HD%20Radio\">HD Radio</a> format.\nThe 102.7 FM frequency was first assigned in the mid-1940s as WNJR-FM from <a href=\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Newark, New Jersey</a>. Intended to be a simulcasting sister to <a href=\"WNJR%20%28AM%29\">WNJR</a> (1430 AM, now <a href=\"WNSW\">WNSW</a>), the FM station never made it to the air despite being granted several extensions of its <a href=\"construction%20permit%23Broadcasting\">construction permit</a>. WNJR gave up and turned in the FM license to the <a href=\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) in 1953.\nIn 1955 the FCC awarded a new permit for 102.7 FM to a group called Fidelity Radio Corporation, based in West Paterson, New Jersey (now <a href=\"Woodland%20Park%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Woodland Park</a>). The station was later granted the call sign WHFI, and a year later the <a href=\"community%20of%20license\">community of license</a> was moved back to Newark from West Paterson. Once again, the owners failed to put the station on the air.\nIn November 1957, the WHFI construction permit was purchased by the DuMont Broadcasting Corporation, which already owned WABD (later WNEW-TV) and earlier in the year bought WNEW radio. In January 1958, WHFI was renamed WNEW-FM and DuMont completed its build-out, moving the license to New York City. The station finally came on the air on August 25, 1958, mostly simulcasting WNEW (AM) with a <a href=\"popular%20music\">popular music</a> format. DuMont Broadcasting, meanwhile, would change its corporate name twice within the next three years before settling on <a href=\"Metromedia\">Metromedia</a> in 1961.\nWNEW-FM's early programming also included an <a href=\"automation\">automated</a> <a href=\"middle-of-the-road\">middle-of-the-road</a> (MOR) format, followed quickly by a period (<a href=\"Independence%20Day%20%28United%20States%29\">July 4</a>, 1966, to September 1967) playing pop music with an unusual twist in its day...an all-female air staff. The gimmick was unique and had not before been attempted anywhere in American radio. The lineup of <a href=\"disc%20jockey\">disc jockey</a>s during this stunt included actress and TV personality <a href=\"Peggy%20Cass\">Peggy Cass</a>, <a href=\"Alison%20Steele\">Alison Steele</a> (who stayed on to become the \"Night Bird\" on the progressive rock format), Rita Sands (later with <a href=\"WCBS%20%28AM%29\">WCBS</a> Newsradio 880), Margaret Draper, Ann Clements, Arlene Kieta, Pam McKissick, and Nell Bassett. The music was similar to that of WNEW (AM)'s MOR format. But only Cass, Steele, Sands, and Bassett had broadcast experience, and not as disc jockeys. Meanwhile, the male DJs on WNEW (AM) were still very popular, so it was hard for WNEW-FM to find an audience. The all-female disc jockey lineup endured for a little more than a year, switching in September 1967 to a mixed-gender staff, before a major change the following month.\nOn October 30, 1967, WNEW-FM adopted a <a href=\"progressive%20rock%20%28radio%20format%29\">progressive rock</a> radio format. It was not the first in New York to do so – <a href=\"WOR-FM\">WOR-FM</a> preceded it – but it was the one that prospered and became famous for the format and that in turn influenced the rock listenership as well as the rock industry. The original disc jockeys were <a href=\"William%20%28Rosko%29%20Mercer\">Bill \"Rosko\" Mercer</a>, who started on October 30, 1967; <a href=\"Jonathan%20Schwartz%20%28radio%29\">Jonathan Schwartz</a>, who made his debut on November 16, 1967; and \"the Professor\" <a href=\"Scott%20Muni\">Scott Muni</a>, who first appeared on November 18, 1967. Alison Steele would stay on from the female staff and eventually take over the overnight shift on January 1, 1968.\nThe station's <a href=\"disc%20jockey\">disc jockey</a>s would broadcast in ways that bore out their personalities:\nOther well-known disc jockeys who worked at the station included <a href=\"Dennis%20Elsas\">Dennis Elsas</a>, <a href=\"Carol%20Miller%20%28disc%20jockey%29\">Carol Miller</a>, Pete Larkin, brothers Dan Neer and <a href=\"Richard%20Neer\">Richard Neer</a>, Jim Monaghan, Pam Merly, Thom Morrera, <a href=\"Meg%20Griffin%20%28radio%20personality%29\">Meg Griffin</a>, and <a href=\"John%20Zacherle\">John Zacherle</a>.\nWNEW-FM was among the first stations to give <a href=\"Bruce%20Springsteen\">Bruce Springsteen</a> significant airplay, and conducted live broadcasts of key Springsteen concerts in 1975 and 1978; Springsteen would sometimes call up the DJs during records. Later, Dave Herman featured a \"Bruce Juice\" segment each morning. <a href=\"John%20Lennon\">John Lennon</a> once stopped by to guest-DJ along with Dennis Elsas and appeared on-air several other times during his friend <a href=\"Scott%20Muni\">Scott Muni</a>'s afternoon slot. Members of the <a href=\"Grateful%20Dead\">Grateful Dead</a> and other groups would hang out in the studio; <a href=\"Emerson%2C%20Lake%20%26amp%3B%20Palmer\">Emerson, Lake & Palmer</a>'s visit to Muni's show is often credited for popularizing the group in America. In addition to music, youth-oriented <a href=\"comedy%20record\">comedy record</a>ings such as from <a href=\"Monty%20Python\">Monty Python</a> would also be aired.\nThe station sponsored a <a href=\"benefit%20concert\">benefit concert</a> at <a href=\"Madison%20Square%20Garden\">Madison Square Garden</a> each holiday season that drew reasonably big-name acts.\nThe station thrived during the late 1970s when it helped boost the transition of the <a href=\"punk%20rock\">punk rock</a>/<a href=\"New%20wave%20music\">new wave</a> movement into the mainstream. During this era, the station hosted many live broadcasts from the legendary Greenwich Village night club, <a href=\"The%20Bottom%20Line%20%28venue%29\">The Bottom Line</a>. Among the bands featured live from the club were <a href=\"The%20Police\">The Police</a>, <a href=\"Joe%20Jackson%20%28musician%29\">Joe Jackson</a>, <a href=\"Squeeze%20%28band%29\">Squeeze</a>, The Records, Rachel Sweet, <a href=\"David%20Johansen\">David Johansen</a>, Rockpile, <a href=\"Mink%20DeVille\">Mink DeVille</a> and the Tom Robinson Band. Many of these bands were being spotlighted during their debut New York City performance.\nAt the same time, the station began to feel the threat of disco. They hired Gianettino and Meredith Advertising to come up with a way to communicate with the New York area. The pitch by creative director George Meredith to station manager <a href=\"Mel%20Karmazin\">Mel Karmazin</a>: \"You can't tell them what you want to say, which is 'Disco Sucks,' but you can tell them that 'Rock Lives.'\" That became their battle cry, and it could fairly be said that WNEW-FM earned the slogan \"Where Rock Lives\". The station's television commercials during these years featured the song \"<a href=\"Layla\">Layla</a>\" by <a href=\"Derek%20and%20the%20Dominos\">Derek and the Dominos</a> and was considered one of the station's anthems.\nBeginning in the mid 1970s and extending into the 1980s, WNEW fielded a successful softball team, the WNEW All-Stars, playing in and around the New York metropolitan area and competing in the New York Sports and Entertainment League. Among the All-Stars were DJs Thom Morrera, Jim Monaghan, Richard Neer, Dan Neer and Pat Dawson, along with \"<a href=\"Crawdaddy%21\">Crawdaddy</a>\" editor <a href=\"Peter%20Knobler\">Peter Knobler</a> at shortstop, music business regulars Bobby Diebold, Jack Hopke, Ed Vitale, Matt Birkbeck, Ralph Cuccurullo and John \"Boots\" Boulos in the outfield, and Michael \"Chopper\" Boulos at second base. The team consistently won deep into the playoffs, playing against teams led by <a href=\"Meat%20Loaf\">Meat Loaf</a>, among others.\nOn the evening of December 8, 1980, following news of the <a href=\"Death%20of%20John%20Lennon\">murder</a> of <a href=\"John%20Lennon\">John Lennon</a>, WNEW-FM opened up its lines for calls from listeners.\nIn the 1980s, the station gradually adopted a more conventional <a href=\"album-oriented%20rock\">album-oriented rock</a> format, and sometimes seemed stodgy compared to <a href=\"Campus%20radio\">college radio</a> stations playing <a href=\"alternative%20rock\">alternative rock</a>. When long-time competitor <a href=\"WPLJ\">WPLJ</a> switched away from rock in 1983, WNEW-FM picked up some of its most popular DJs, such as Carol Miller, and years later, <a href=\"Pat%20St.%20John\">Pat St. John</a>, who would take over the morning show and programming duties.\nIn 1986, following the sale of WNEW-TV and Metromedia's other television outlets to <a href=\"News%20Corporation\">News Corporation</a>, the company's radio station group was spun off from Metromedia into a new company, Metropolitan Broadcasting. Two years later, WNEW-FM was sold to <a href=\"Westinghouse%20Broadcasting\">Westinghouse Broadcasting</a>, bringing it into common ownership with all-news outlet <a href=\"WINS%20%28AM%29\">WINS</a>. WNEW-FM and WINS became CBS-owned stations in 1996, when Westinghouse Broadcasting's <a href=\"Westinghouse%20Electric%20%281886%29\">corporate parent</a> purchased the network.\nBy the 1990s, the station was further losing relevance in the face of the popularity of <a href=\"grunge\">grunge rock</a> and so became more of a <a href=\"classic%20rock\">classic rock</a> station. It spent its remaining music days flip flopping between a variety of classic, adult album and alternative rock.\nOn September 1, 1990, WNEW-FM began simulcasting on <a href=\"WLIR-FM\">WWHB-FM</a> on <a href=\"Long%20Island\">Long Island</a>. The simulcast would be dropped on December 7, 1996, when that station flipped to <a href=\"country%20music\">country</a> and joined a <a href=\"WYNY%20%28defunct%29\">simulcast with a network of suburban stations</a> as \"Y-107.\"\nIn 1995, WNEW-FM adopted an <a href=\"adult%20album%20alternative\">adult album alternative</a> format. The station, which now had the slogan of \"New York's Rock Alternative\", evolved to an eclectic mix of adult rock by the end of 1995. Longtime listeners were alienated when <a href=\"Jerry%20Garcia\">Jerry Garcia</a>'s death on August 9, 1995 was virtually ignored by the station.\nIn January 1996, the station declined to switch to classic rock when WXRK, also known as \"K-Rock\" (now <a href=\"WBMP%20%28FM%29\">WBMP</a>), which had a classic rock format for several years, decided to adopt an <a href=\"alternative%20rock\">alternative rock</a> format. In July 1996, <a href=\"WAXQ\">WAXQ</a> adopted a classic rock format. By the beginning of 1997, the station reverted to a classic rock station, becoming the second choice for the format when earlier they could have been first. At this point, many long-time fans felt WNEW-FM had completely lost its focus.\nThroughout the 1990s, many of WNEW-FM's DJs defected to classic rock competitors WXRK and later <a href=\"WAXQ\">WAXQ</a>, or to smaller but more freeform <a href=\"WFUV\">WFUV</a>. Ratings remained dismal. In 1996, Westinghouse merged with CBS. <a href=\"Infinity%20Broadcasting\">Infinity Broadcasting</a> would then merge with CBS in 1997, and CBS retained the Infinity name for its radio division; thus, ownership of this station would go from one network owner to another.\nIn December 1997, sister station WFAN (then flagship station of the <a href=\"MetroStars\">MetroStars</a>) announced that WNEW-FM would be their FM flagship station after <a href=\"Infinity%20Broadcasting%20Corporation\">Infinity Broadcasting Corporation</a> (now <a href=\"CBS%20Radio\">CBS Radio</a>) reached a six-year extension deal (starting in the <a href=\"1998%20MLS%20season\">1998 MLS season</a>) with the <a href=\"MSG%20%28TV%20network%29\">MSG Network</a> and the MetroStars to simulcast their games until the <a href=\"2004%20MLS%20season\">2004 season</a>. However, in the fall of 2004, the MetroStars and the MSG Network reached a deal with <a href=\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\">Disney</a>-owned radio station <a href=\"WEPN%20%28AM%29\">WEPN</a> and then-sister FM station <a href=\"WPLJ\">WPLJ</a> to broadcast their games, ending their relationship with Infinity/CBS Radio.\nIn 1998, WNEW-FM moved to a harder-edged <a href=\"active%20rock\">active rock</a> format and continued to slump in the ratings. The remaining older DJs left on the station departed one by one during 1998. In June of that year, ex-Boston <a href=\"shock%20jock\">shock jock</a>s <a href=\"Opie%20and%20Anthony\">Opie and Anthony</a> arrived from <a href=\"WAAF%20%28FM%29\">WAAF</a> to do afternoons on WNEW. They played several songs an hour, but for the most part, the show was a typical shock-jock talk show. Opie and Anthony immediately got attention from the station by interrupting their annual \"Evolution of Rock and Roll\" event by refusing to play the music, or destroying the CDs. They were confronted by WNEW peer Carol Miller a few times on the air, until they were forbidden by management to make eye contact.\nWith Opie and Anthony's ratings soaring, the station decided to drop its 32-year rock format for a \"hot talk\" format. On September 12, 1999, sole remaining long-time jock Richard Neer signed off his Sunday morning show by playing <a href=\"Bruce%20Springsteen\">Bruce Springsteen</a>'s dirge-like \"<a href=\"Racing%20in%20the%20Street\">Racing in the Street</a>\", and identifying the station one last time, changing the slogan to \"Where Rock Lived\".\nThe day after, on September 13, in the run-up to 3 p.m., the rock format ended with an all-request midday show by Ralph Tortora (which featured a phone call from <a href=\"Billy%20Joel\">Billy Joel</a>, who talked about the impact WNEW had on his life), which concluded with \"<a href=\"Thank%20You%20%28Led%20Zeppelin%20song%29\">Thank You</a>\" by <a href=\"Led%20Zeppelin\">Led Zeppelin</a>, \"<a href=\"Better%20Things%20%28song%29\">Better Things</a>\" by <a href=\"The%20Kinks\">The Kinks</a> and \"<a href=\"The%20End%20%28Beatles%20song%29\">The End</a>\" by <a href=\"The%20Beatles\">The Beatles</a>, followed by the famous final chord of their song \"<a href=\"A%20Day%20in%20the%20Life\">A Day in the Life</a>\".\nAfter a commercial break, the new <a href=\"hot%20talk\">hot talk</a> format officially began as \"FM Talk @ 102.7, Talk You Can't Ignore\". Opie and Anthony signed on the talk format by saying that WNEW didn't die that day or that week, but that \"it died years ago\", saying that WNEW's death had been \"the longest funeral ever\", and inaugurated \"FM Talk\" by holding an on-air funeral for the old rock format, complete with a coffin, hearse, and <a href=\"The%20fat%20lady%20sings\">a fat lady</a> singing \"<a href=\"Na%20Na%20Hey%20Hey%20Kiss%20Him%20Goodbye\">Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye</a>\".\nThe new format consisted of shock jocks, such as <a href=\"Opie%20and%20Anthony\">Opie and Anthony</a>, <a href=\"Don%20and%20Mike\">Don and Mike</a>, <a href=\"The%20Radio%20Chick\">The Radio Chick</a>, <a href=\"Ron%20and%20Fez\">Ron and Fez</a> and <a href=\"Tom%20Leykis\">Tom Leykis</a>. Mornings featured \"guy talk\" from \"Mason & Kalinsky\", who would be replaced by morning programming that revolved around sports, such as \"The Sports Guys\" and \"Ferrall In The Morning\" hosted by <a href=\"Scott%20Ferrall\">Scott Ferrall</a> (now with <a href=\"CBS%20Sports%20Radio\">CBS Sports Radio</a>), while overnight programming featured syndicated programs such as \"<a href=\"Loveline\">Loveline</a>\" and repeats of weekday programming. On weekends, the station retained a hard rock format, as Opie and Anthony gradually stopped playing music by July 2000. Also in 2000, <a href=\"Viacom\">Viacom</a> acquired CBS/Infinity Broadcasting, but kept the radio division under the \"Infinity\" banner. By 2001, WNEW added <a href=\"infomercial\">infomercial</a>s on weekends and stopped playing music altogether, with the exception of <a href=\"Eddie%20Trunk\">Eddie Trunk</a>'s Friday and Saturday night hard rock-oriented shows, as well as Vin Scelsa's \"Idiot's Delight\".\nOn <a href=\"September%2011%2C%202001\">September 11, 2001</a>, Opie and Anthony did their show live from the <a href=\"WLIR\">WLIR</a> studios because of the terrorist attacks on the <a href=\"World%20Trade%20Center%20%281973%E2%80%932001%29\">World Trade Center</a>, which caused city officials to block all roads going into <a href=\"Manhattan\">Manhattan</a>. The <a href=\"Don%20and%20Mike%20Show\">Don and Mike Show</a> started their midday program a little earlier than usual, and stayed on for most of the morning and mid-afternoon. <a href=\"Ron%20and%20Fez\">Ron and Fez</a> did their show at WNEW at the regular time. All three shows opened the airways and let the listeners speak their minds and let other listeners who were looking for loved ones search for them by descriptions.\nDuring this time, the station's ratings were abysmal apart from Opie and Anthony. The beginning of the end for the \"hot talk\" format came in August 2002, when Opie and Anthony were fired for encouraging a stunt involving two people allegedly engaging in sexual intercourse in a vestibule within <a href=\"St.%20Patrick%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20New%20York\">St. Patrick's Cathedral</a>. The FCC eventually fined Infinity $357,000—the maximum fine allowed by law, and the third largest indecency fine in American radio history at the time. FCC Commissioner <a href=\"Michael%20Copps\">Michael Copps</a> dissented, claiming the FCC should have taken steps to revoke WNEW's license. A few months earlier, the FCC had fined Infinity $21,000 for three \"patently offensive\" Opie and Anthony broadcasts, including one referring to <a href=\"incest\">incest</a>.\nThe station's ratings plummeted even further—at one point, it only netted a 0.7 rating, an unprecedented level for a major-market FM station, and lower than ratings for noncommercial stations. With the cancellation of the only show that generated any ratings for the station, management decided that the station needed to take a new direction.\nOn the morning of January 27, 2003, WNEW-FM dropped the talk format and <a href=\"stunting%20%28broadcasting%29\">stunted</a> for the next 3 months with <a href=\"Contemporary%20hit%20radio\">CHR</a> music, using a limited playlist of approximately 50 songs from artists like <a href=\"Pink%20%28singer%29\">Pink</a>, <a href=\"Eminem\">Eminem</a>, <a href=\"Bowling%20for%20Soup\">Bowling for Soup</a>, and <a href=\"Avril%20Lavigne\">Avril Lavigne</a>, as well as nightly simulcasts of <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a>'s \"<a href=\"Late%20Show%20with%20David%20Letterman\">Late Show with David Letterman</a>\".\nHowever, the station's ratings sank further. The station's pink logo led to the derisive nickname \"Barbie Radio\", and Booker & Lopez did little more on the air than talk about <a href=\"Jennifer%20Lopez\">Jennifer Lopez</a>, Lynda's older sister. On September 12, the station fired most of the staff, rebranded as \"102.7 Blink FM: Music Women Love\", and adopted a more mainstream <a href=\"adult%20contemporary\">adult contemporary</a> format, with ratings going up slightly. That November, the station (like many AC stations) adopted the increasingly popular \"all Christmas music, all the time\" format, and dropped the \"Blink\" format after less than 7 months for the name \"New York's New 102.7 FM\".\nOn December 26, 2003, at 10:27 AM, the station became \"Mix 102.7\", making the switch to a more <a href=\"Rhythmic%20AC\">Rhythmic-leaning adult contemporary</a> format. The station played a range of upbeat, danceable hits from the 1970s to the 2000s, and used the slogan \"The Station That Picks You Up and Makes You Feel Good.\" The first song on \"Mix\" was \"<a href=\"Ain%27t%20No%20Stoppin%27%20Us%20Now\">Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now</a>\" by <a href=\"McFadden%20%26amp%3B%20Whitehead\">McFadden & Whitehead</a>. The original program director was Smokey Rivers, and the music director was Rick Martini. WNEW initially was a mainstream AC, but began to focus on dance hits, mainly from the 1970s and 1980s, by the end of January. In the succeeding months, the \"mix\" tended to skew towards 90s and current dance hits (during this time, program director Frankie Blue was fired for drunken on-air behavior, not only saying \"<a href=\"fuck\">fuck</a>\" on-air, but also misidentifying the station as rival \"<a href=\"WKTU\">103.5 KTU</a>\"), with this all culminating in a change with Rick Martini as the new Program Director and an official \"classic dance\" or <a href=\"Rhythmic%20AC\">Rhythmic AC</a> format in early 2005 under the slogan \"Move to the Mix\", and in the later months, adopted the \"New York's Classic Dance Mix\" slogan. However, the \"Mix 102.7\" moniker and the WNEW call letters remained. Ratings continued to be among the lowest of any major station in New York City.\nOn December 31, 2005, the station underwent another ownership change after Viacom and <a href=\"CBS%20Corporation\">CBS Corporation</a> organized a split that saw the Infinity Broadcasting division go under CBS ownership, which resulted in a corporate name change to <a href=\"CBS%20Radio\">CBS Radio</a>.\nIn December 2006, the station began increasing the amount of Christmas music, but at the same time saw <a href=\"Michelle%20Visage\">Michelle Visage</a> being let go and Joe Causi being reduced to weekend duties, relegating him to his Sunday night <a href=\"Studio%2054\">Studio 54</a> classic Disco program. As of December 22, 2006, Paco Lopez, Efren Sifuentes, Carol Ford and Yvonne Velázquez had also been released in anticipation of an expected format change.\nIn 2006, WNEW launched WNEW2, an <a href=\"HD%20Radio\">HD Radio</a> subchannel, broadcasting <a href=\"WINS%20%28AM%29\">1010 WINS</a>.\nAt 5 AM on January 2, 2007, after playing <a href=\"Kool%20and%20the%20Gang\">Kool and the Gang</a>'s \"<a href=\"Fresh%20%28Kool%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Gang%20song%29\">Fresh</a>\", WNEW flipped to an <a href=\"adult%20contemporary\">adult contemporary</a> format with a verge towards <a href=\"hot%20adult%20contemporary\">hot adult contemporary</a> known as \"Fresh 102.7\", with \"<a href=\"How%20to%20Save%20a%20Life\">How to Save a Life</a>\" by <a href=\"The%20Fray%20%28band%29\">The Fray</a> being the first song played. Program Director Rick Martini remained in charge of programming the new format, targeted to a younger (age 25–44) female audience, with claims of a playlist \"without the kid stuff or tired, old and boring music like the lite station\" (though the former is no longer mentioned), an obvious shot at competitor <a href=\"WLTW\">WLTW</a> (in response, the station briefly dropped its \"Lite FM\" moniker and was referred to on-air as simply \"106.7\" during that time). The station would also compete against <a href=\"WPLJ\">WPLJ</a>. Around <a href=\"2009%20in%20radio\">2009</a>, the station began to add more 1980s hits (most of which couldn't be played on its <a href=\"classic%20hits\">classic hits</a> sister station <a href=\"WCBS-FM\">WCBS-FM</a>).\nThe WWFS calls were approved on January 9, 2007, by the <a href=\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\">Federal Communications Commission</a>, resulting in the WNEW calls disappearing from the New York radio/television spectrum after being used continuously in the market since 1934. The WNEW <a href=\"call%20sign\">call letters</a> were transferred to <a href=\"WUUB\">a CBS-owned station</a> in <a href=\"West%20Palm%20Beach%2C%20Florida\">West Palm Beach, Florida</a> during the second week of January 2007, reportedly to keep another New York station from claiming the historic call. In December 2011, CBS again transferred the WNEW call letters to 99.1FM in Washington, D.C. as it began an all-news format.\nUntil the launch of WWFS, Clear Channel's WLTW had gone unchallenged as the only adult contemporary station in New York City (along with <a href=\"New%20Brunswick%2C%20New%20Jersey\">New Brunswick, New Jersey</a>'s <a href=\"WMGQ\">WMGQ</a>, a <a href=\"Greater%20Media\">Greater Media</a>-owned AC station that is a New York City <a href=\"rimshot%20%28broadcasting%29\">rimshot</a> and <a href=\"Hempstead%2C%20New%20York\">Hempstead, New York</a>'s <a href=\"WKJY\">WKJY</a>, another <a href=\"rimshot%20%28broadcasting%29\">rimshot</a>, although both stations are on 98.3), and was the most listened to station in the city for years. WWFS's ratings improved after switching to the adult contemporary format, with increases in both the Winter 2007 and Spring 2007 ratings periods. After a peak 3.1 rating in the Spring 2007 period, WWFS settled down to a 2.5 rating in the Summer 2007 period. Some speculate that WWFS has drawn listeners from WLTW, causing that station's ratings to decline.\nAs a result of the station's success, CBS Radio cloned the format and branding in <a href=\"Chicago\">Chicago</a> on <a href=\"WCFS-FM\">WCFS-FM</a> and Washington, D.C. on <a href=\"WIAD\">WIAD</a>, although the Washington station is <a href=\"Hot%20AC\">Hot AC</a>.\nOn October 12, <a href=\"2011%20in%20radio\">2011</a>, the station dropped <a href=\"adult%20contemporary\">adult contemporary</a> along with its \"Today's Fresh Music\" slogan and changed to the current slogan as WWFS was moved to the <a href=\"Nielsen%20BDS\">Nielsen BDS</a> <a href=\"hot%20adult%20contemporary\">hot adult contemporary</a> panel from the <a href=\"adult%20contemporary\">adult contemporary</a> panel with <a href=\"Mediabase\">Mediabase</a> following suit as of October 28, 2011. However, <a href=\"CBS%20Radio\">CBS Radio</a> still reports the station as an AC. WWFS did not switch to all-Christmas music on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, 2011, as main rival <a href=\"WPLJ\">WPLJ</a> aired <a href=\"Christmas%20music\">Christmas music</a> during those days.\nSince the hot AC switch at WWFS, ratings have been strong, surpassing WPLJ by having a 3.9 share over WPLJ's 2.7 in December <a href=\"2011%20in%20radio\">2011</a>. As of 2015, they started adding more adult-targeting <a href=\"alternative%20rock\">alternative music</a> to their playlist and have seen an increase in the ratings from 2.4 in June 2015 to 3.5 in July 2015.\nOn March 15, 2016, the station reverted to the WNEW-FM callsign, as the previous station to hold the calls changed theirs to <a href=\"WDCH-FM\">WDCH-FM</a> at the same time.\nIn April 2003, WNEW-FM launched the \"Blink\" format by saying \"The first FM station in New York to broadcast in high definition radio.\"\nWNEW-HD2 was launched in <a href=\"2006%20in%20radio\">2006</a> as a simulcast of all-news sister station 1010 <a href=\"WINS%20%28AM%29\">WINS</a>. On April 12, 2008, WNEW-HD2 (as WWFS-HD2) flipped to a rock format, under the branding of \"102.7 WNEW\" and the slogan \"Where Rock Lives\" and <a href=\"http%3A//wnew.radio.com\">wnew.radio.com</a> (The website and audio stream being launched on April 14, 2008) with <a href=\"WXRT\">WXRT</a>'s Norm Winer as Program Director. In early October 2008, the WINS simulcast returned to 102.7 on WWFS-HD3.\nIn 2009, the rock format on WWFS-HD2 switched to an alternative format from internet radio website <a href=\"last.fm\">last.fm</a> known as \"Last FM Discover\", which airs on several CBS owned HD side channels including <a href=\"WXRT\">WXRT</a> HD-3 in Chicago. The WNEW rock format is web exclusive at wnew.radio.com.\nIn November 2012, WWFS-HD2 flipped to an all-Christmas format. The Christmas format continued into January and early February. On February 7, 2013, the all-Christmas format changed to a mainstream Smooth Jazz format under the name \"Smooth Jazz 102.7\". This was most likely made because when CBS bought WRXP (to become <a href=\"WFAN-FM\">WFAN-FM</a>), which had the Smooth Jazz/Smooth AC format on their HD2 channel (\"CD 101.9\"), it was taken away as the HD transmitter was turned off on the frequency, which left no Smooth Jazz music to be broadcast anywhere in the New York area prior to the aforementioned date. WNEW-FM is licensed by the FCC to broadcast in the <a href=\"HD%20Radio\">HD</a> format.\nIn 2016, WNEW-HD4 (as WWFS-HD4) signed on with a Russian language format as \"Russkaya Reklama.\"\nFormat Changes\n"],"string":"[\n \"KQIP-LP\\nKQIP-LP (107.1 FM) is a radio station licensed to Chico, California, United States, the station serves the Chico area. The station is currently owned by Calvary Chapel of Chico. KQIP 107.1 FM is a low power FM radio station in Chico, California however it also broadcasts online. The radio station airs Bible studies from several Calvary Chapel pastors, as well as a small selection of Christian music. The radio station also airs Pastor Sam Allen from Calvary Chapel Chico on The Calvary Road Radio Broadcast, a weekday radio program. Listen Live at: http://ccchico.com/KQIP\\n\",\n \"Rush of Fools\\nRush of Fools is a Christian rock/contemporary Christian music band from Alabama, U.S. They are known for their 2007 hit single \\\"Undo\\\", co-written with producer Scott Davis, which was the most played song of 2007 on Adult Contemporary Christian Music radio stations according to R&R magazine. It was the No. 1 Christian song for five consecutive weeks from June 4 to July 2, 2007 on 20 The Countdown Magazine's charts. Their second single \\\"When Our Hearts Sing\\\" was the seventh most played song of 2007. The band's name was taken from the Biblical passage, 1 Corinthians 1:26-31.\\nThe band's second album, \\\"Wonder of the World\\\", was released on September 16, 2008. It features their hit song \\\"Lose it All\\\".\\nFor their third album, the band changed to the record label eOne Christian Music. The album is titled \\\"We Once Were\\\" and was released on September 27, 2011. The lead single, \\\"Grace Found Me\\\" was released June 24, 2011.\\nStarting up as a small band in Alabama, Rush of Fools had only played for a short time before entering a contest called \\\"Band with a Mission\\\". Winning the contest, they received attention from record labels, including Midas Records, with whom Rush of Fools soon recorded and released their self-titled debut album.\\nCurrent\\nFormer\",\n \"WLIR-FM\\nWLIR-FM (107.1 FM, \\\"Hope Radio\\\") is a contemporary Christian music radio station. Licensed to Hampton Bays, New York, WLIR-FM serves the Long Island area. Its transmitter is currently located near East Quogue, New York.\\n107.1 FM began as WWHB (\\\"HB-107\\\") in 1980, with an adult contemporary format. In 1984, Eddie Simon along with his brother, Paul Simon, purchased the station. Its format then shifted to Top 40. On September 1, 1990, it began simulcasting rock station WNEW-FM from New York City.\\nOn December 7, 1996, the station became part of the Big City Radio trimulcast (and eventual quadcast) with other 107.1 stations in Briarcliff Manor, New York and northern New Jersey and later, the Allentown/Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania area. WWHB and the other two multicast stations switched formats to country as \\\"Y-107\\\". The call sign was changed to WWVY on May 16, 1997, then to WWXY on March 22, 1999 (after 107.1 FM in Briarcliff Manor, New York changed from WWXY to WYNY). On May 9, 2002, after a day of stunting with construction noises, the quadcast adopted a Tropical music format branded \\\"Rumba 107\\\". The format was ill-suited to the quadcast suburban signals, and at the end of the year, Big City Radio filed for bankruptcy and sold the quadcast to Nassau Broadcasting, who broke up the quadcast and sold the individual stations.\\nJarad Broadcasting picked up WWXY in April 2003. 107.1 FM initially simulcasted WLIR (92.7 FM) from Garden City, New York, but in January 2004, 92.7 FM was purchased by Univision and flipped to Spanish language \\\"Latino Mix\\\" WZAA, simulcasting WCAA. 107.1 FM then became a fully transplanted WLIR, taking on a modern rock format and the WLIR-FM call sign, turning into \\\"THE BOX.\\\" This format lasted until September 2005, when a smooth jazz/chill music format called \\\"NeoBreeze\\\" was adopted. This format was a failure, and the modern rock format returned in December 2005. In January 2008, the music ended and WLIR began simulcasting WEPN (ESPN Radio, then on 1050 AM, now on 98.7 FM) in a local marketing agreement. WLIR was sold to Livingstone in 2011 and flipped to a Christian format branded as \\\"Hope Radio.\\\"\\nOn August 5, 2013, Livingstone Broadcasting shifted the \\\"Hope Radio\\\" Christian format to WBLI-HD2 along with translators W235BB 94.9FM Hauppauge, New York; W243BF 96.5FM Shirley, New York; W268AN 101.5FM Plainview, New York and W283BA 104.5FM Selden, New York. WLIR-FM dropped the Christian format and became \\\"Champions Radio\\\" touted as Long Island's First & Only Sports Radio Station. WLIR-FM was broadcast on 107.1 and 96.9 (W245BA) in Suffolk County, New York. The format was short lived due Mr. Anderson's refusal to air familiar ESPN programming in exchange for local unknown programming which was likely brokered. In addition, Mr. Anderson suffered severe backlash from his congregation for airing sports on some of his platforms, due to the fact that he consistently and aggressively asked his congregation to bankroll the stations in an effort to spread Christian messages.\\nOn February 24, 2014, WLIR-FM dropped all sports programming and reverted to Christian formatted \\\"Hope Radio.\\\"\\nOn August 1, 2014 Pillar of Fire began a lease of WLIR-FM. WAWZ-FM, Zarephath, New Jersey (STAR 99.1) was broadcast on WLIR-FM as well as its translators as STAR 107.1. The lease ended in April 2015 and WLIR-FM reverted to Christian formatted \\\"Hope Radio.\\\".\\nOn July 1, 2017 the station was sold to VMT Media Inc. and presently continues to air the \\\"Hope Radio\\\" format.\\n\\n\",\n \"KUSP\\nKUSP (88.9 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian music format. Licensed to Santa Cruz, California, United States, the station is an affiliate of the K-LOVE Christian music radio network and is owned by Educational Media Foundation. The signal covers much of California's Central Coast.\\nPataphysical Broadcasting Foundation, Inc. started broadcasting from downtown Santa Cruz on 89.1 MHz in 1972. In May 1974 it moved the transmitter to much higher Mt. Toro, increased power from 10 watts to 1,250 watts ERP and changed frequency from 89.1 to 88.9 MHz.\\nIt broadcast music, programs of local interest and many programs from NPR. On November 1, 2015 the format changed to adult album alternative, with a few news and information programs.\\nOn August 1, 2016 KUSP ceased programming and on August 12th declared bankruptcy.\\nOn December 19, 2016 Educational Media Foundation filed an application with the FCC to purchase the license for $605,000. The application was granted on February 6, 2017, and the purchase was consummated on March 16, 2017.\\nEducational Media Foundation resumed operation of KUSP on April 5, 2017. On April 5, 2017 it filed applications with the FCC to sell the licenses of the K207CN, K217EK and K237EV translators to California State University, Monterey Bay for $5,000.The applications were consummated on June 30, 2017 and July 7, 2017.\\nOn April 21, 2017 KUSP was granted a Federal Communications Commission construction permit to move the transmitter site of translator K206BQ .708 miles to Fremont Peak and decrease the effective radiated power from 200 watts to 150 watts.\\n\",\n \"KHRI (FM)\\nKHRI (90.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian format. Licensed to Hollister, California, United States, the station is an affiliate of the Air 1 Christian music radio network and is owned by Educational Media Foundation. On November 4, 2016 KHRI was granted a Federal Communications Commission construction permit to increase the effective radiated power to 6,000 watts.\\nIn addition to the main station, KHRI is relayed by an additional 22 translators to widen its broadcast area.\\n\\n\",\n \"Honeyman: Live 1973\\nHoneyman: Live 1973 is a live album by rock artist Tim Buckley. The album was recorded as a live radio broadcast for radio station WLIR in New York City, United States on November 27, 1973.\\nThe concert features songs from Buckley's seventh studio album \\\"Greetings from L.A.\\\" and his 1973 studio album \\\"Sefronia\\\". Also featured are the songs Pleasant Street from \\\"Goodbye and Hello\\\" and Buzzin' Fly from the album \\\"Happy Sad\\\". This live album is an example of his transformation from a late 60's folk rock poster boy to a sexualized funk and soul musician.\\nAll songs by Tim Buckley unless stated otherwise\",\n \"KLVM\\nKLVM (89.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian format. Licensed to Prunedale, California, United States, the station is an affiliate of the K-LOVE Christian music radio network and is owned by the Prunedale Educational Association.\\nKLVM's signal is also broadcast on five translators:\\nPrunedale Educational Association is swapping KLVM and its five translators to Educational Media Foundation for KARW Salinas.\\n\\n\",\n \"WBDX\\nWBDX (102.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a Contemporary Christian format. Licensed to Trenton, Georgia, USA, the station serves the Chattanooga, Tennessee area. The station is owned by Partners For Christian Media, Inc. The station is the Tennessee Valley's only local Contemporary Christian music station. WJLJ (103.1 FM), licensed to Etowah, Tennessee, airs the same programming.\\nThe station went on the air as WBDX on October 31, 1989 as a Top 40 station known as \\\"B 103 The Outrageous FM\\\" owned by local car dealer Herb Adcox. The studio was located in a glass box in the middle of Eastgate Mall. Throughout its early years the station was also known as \\\"Magic 102.7\\\" when it aired an Adult Contemporary format in the early 1990s. In January 1994 the station became \\\"Talk 102.7\\\" and took on a locally driven talk radio format, featuring local personalities, and the majorly popular afternoon drivetime show \\\"Sport Talk\\\". They kept this format until mid 1994, when \\\"Talk 102.7\\\" moved to 102.3. In mid-1994, WBDX flipped to classic rock known as \\\"Fox 102\\\", a format which had previously aired on 102.3. In early 1995 Partners For Christian Media bought WBDX. On March 4, 1995 WBDX started playing Contemporary Christian Music first under the name \\\"102.7 The Light\\\", but eventually they changed the name to \\\"J103\\\". The original J103 studio was located in a small 10x10 room within Eastgate. In 1998 J103 moved into what was actually the former home of the now defunct RX-107,(a former Contemporary Christian Music outlet in the Chattanooga area) with studios and offices in East Ridge. In October 2015 the station moved out near Hamilton Place Mall to a building on Hickory Valley rd, this move enabled J103 to begin broadcasting with state of the art digital equipment. On February 4, 1998 the station changed its call sign to WJLL, and on February 5, 1998, it changed back to WBDX. The station was originally affiliated Salem Communications to provide a large part of their on-air broadcasting. This included music programming from 7 p.m. – 6 a.m. and news. In 2005, the station dropped all Salem Communications programming and went fully local.\\nThe station went on the air as WVKS on December 29, 1986. On August 4, 1989 the station changed its call sign to WDRZ, and its format to Contemporary Christian Music. The station was known as \\\"SuperPower 103\\\". In the 1990s the station was owned by a man named Dr. Grey. In mid 1994 he fired the then station managers Bob and Debbie Lubell, (who now own J103), and installed a new staff and format. The station did not do well with its new country music format and soon flipped to modern rock. This format was also short lived, and in 1997 the station started simulcasting \\\"97 Kicks FM\\\" out of Chattanooga. On January 20, 1998, the callsign was changed to WLLJ, and then to the current WJLJ on August 13, 2015. WJLJ operates with an effective radiated power of 50,000 watts, making the stations signal reach into the Knoxville market and upper East Tennessee and Western North Carolina area.\\nIn 1997, \\\"Kicks FM\\\" was adult contemporary and simulcasting on 97.3 FM and 103.1 FM. The station was co-purchased by Partners For Christian Media, with the help of Friendship Broadcasting in late 1997 and began simulcasting WBDX in February 1998.\\n\",\n \"Live 1973\\nLive 1973 is a live album by Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels. It was recorded at Sonic Studios in Hempstead, New York on March 13, 1973 during a live radio broadcast from WLIR-FM, a station located in Garden City, New York. The timing of the recording thus sandwiched it between Parsons' only two solo studio albums, \\\"GP\\\", and \\\"Grievous Angel\\\", although it was not officially released (on LP) until 1982, long after Parsons' 1973 death at age 26.\\nAs with both of Parsons' solo studio albums, Emmylou Harris provides prominent duet and harmony vocals. The Fallen Angels, however, were a different band than that which appeared on Parsons' two solo albums. As Parsons and Harris prepared to tour the United States in 1973 to promote his solo debut, \\\"GP\\\", James Burton, Ronnie Tutt, and most of the band who performed on the album had prior commitments to Elvis Presley's TCB Band. Parsons instead assembled a crew of roadhouse pickers he dubbed \\\"the Fallen Angels\\\", and they began making their way through America's rock clubs and honky tonks.\\nThe original album had eleven tracks, but included a 7\\\" 45rpm record with the encore medley on side one, and an interview with Parsons, Harris, and Jock Bartley plus a version of the Flying Burrito Brothers' \\\"Hot Burrito #1\\\" performed by Gene Parsons in tribute as the B-side. When later reissued by Rhino Records on CD in 1994. the medley and in between song patter were added but the interview segments and the Gene Parsons track were omitted.\",\n \"Total Axxess\\nTotal Axxess was a contemporary Christian music radio program. The afternoon show was broadcast nationwide on WAY-FM Network and other affiliated Contemporary Christian music radio stations. The program was based out of Nashville, Tennessee. The show was produced by CHRSN. The show began in January 2004, and ended in September 2011.\\nCliff Tredway was the original host of Total Axxess.\\nJayar Reeves hosted the show for two years.\\nThe show hosted its second annual Duckie Awards in April 2007. Listeners voted for their favorite artists in ten categories such as Best Chica (female artist), Best Dude, Best Accent, and Favorite Moment.\\nWally became the new host for the show on April 30, 2007. According to the program's official website, there were radio stations in 25 states in over 100 markets when he took over.\\nWally was the last host of Total Axxess. In 2011 he became the host of the WAY-FM morning show, The Wally Show.\",\n \"Chico, California\\nChico is the most populous city in <a href=\\\"Butte%20County%2C%20California\\\">Butte County</a>, California, United States. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a>, the population was 86,187, reflecting an increase of 26,233 from the 59,954 counted in the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 Census</a>. The city is a cultural, economic, and educational center of the northern <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20Valley\\\">Sacramento Valley</a> and home to both <a href=\\\"California%20State%20University%2C%20Chico\\\">California State University, Chico</a> and <a href=\\\"Bidwell%20Park\\\">Bidwell Park</a>, the country's <a href=\\\"List%20of%20urban%20parks%20by%20size\\\">26th largest</a> <a href=\\\"Urban%20park\\\">municipal park</a> and the 13th largest municipally-owned park. Bidwell Park makes up over 17% of the city.\\nOther cities in close proximity to the Chico Metropolitan Area (population 212,000) include <a href=\\\"Paradise%2C%20California\\\">Paradise</a> and <a href=\\\"Oroville%2C%20California\\\">Oroville</a>, while local towns and villages (unincorporated areas) include <a href=\\\"Durham%2C%20California\\\">Durham</a>, <a href=\\\"Cohasset%2C%20California\\\">Cohasset</a>, <a href=\\\"Dayton%2C%20California\\\">Dayton</a>, <a href=\\\"Nord%2C%20California\\\">Nord</a>, and <a href=\\\"Forest%20Ranch%2C%20California\\\">Forest Ranch</a>. The Chico Metropolitan Area is the <a href=\\\"California%20statistical%20areas\\\">14th largest</a> <a href=\\\"Metropolitan%20Statistical%20Area\\\">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a> in <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a>.\\nThe nickname \\\"City of Roses\\\" appears on the Seal of the City of Chico. The city has been designated a <a href=\\\"Tree%20City%20USA\\\">Tree City USA</a> for 31 years by the <a href=\\\"National%20Arbor%20Day%20Foundation\\\">National Arbor Day Foundation</a>.\\nThe original inhabitants of the area now known as Chico were the <a href=\\\"Mechoopda\\\">Mechoopda</a> <a href=\\\"Maidu\\\">Maidu</a> Native Americans. The City of Chico was founded in 1860 by <a href=\\\"John%20Bidwell\\\">John Bidwell</a>, a member of one of the first wagon trains to reach California in 1843. During the <a href=\\\"American%20Civil%20War\\\">American Civil War</a>, <a href=\\\"Camp%20Bidwell\\\">Camp Bidwell</a> (named for John Bidwell, by then a <a href=\\\"Brigadier%20General\\\">Brigadier General</a> of the <a href=\\\"California%20Army%20National%20Guard%23History\\\">California Militia</a>), was established a mile outside Chico, by Lt. Col. A. E. Hooker with a company of cavalry and two of infantry, on August 26, 1863.\\nBy early 1865 it was being referred to as Camp Chico when a post called Camp Bidwell was established in northeast California, later to be <a href=\\\"Fort%20Bidwell\\\">Fort Bidwell</a>. The city became incorporated January 8, 1872.\\nChico was home to a significant Chinese American community when it was first incorporated, but arsonists burned Chico's Chinatown in February 1886, driving Chinese Americans out of town.\\nHistorian W.H. \\\"Old Hutch\\\" Hutchinson identified five events as the most seminal in Chico history. They included the arrival of John Bidwell in 1850, the arrival of the <a href=\\\"California%20and%20Oregon%20Railroad\\\">California and Oregon Railroad</a> in 1870, the establishment in 1887 of the Northern Branch of the State Normal School, which later became <a href=\\\"California%20State%20University%2C%20Chico\\\">California State University, Chico</a> (Chico State), the purchase of the Sierra Lumber Company by the <a href=\\\"Diamond%20Match%20Company\\\">Diamond Match Company</a> in 1900, and the development of the Army Air Base, which is now the <a href=\\\"Chico%20Municipal%20Airport\\\">Chico Municipal Airport</a>.\\nSeveral other significant events have unfolded in Chico more recently. These include the construction and relocation of <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Route%2099\\\">Route 99E</a> through town in the early 1960s, \\\"<a href=\\\"Playboy%20Magazine\\\">Playboy Magazine</a>\\\" naming Chico State the number-one <a href=\\\"party%20school\\\">party school</a> in the nation in 1987, and the establishment of a \\\"Green Line\\\" on the western city limits as protection of agricultural lands.\\nChico is at the northeast edge of the Sacramento Valley, one of the richest agricultural areas in the world. The <a href=\\\"Sierra%20Nevada%20%28U.S.%29\\\">Sierra Nevada</a> mountains lie to the east, with Chico's city limits venturing several miles into the foothills. To the west, the <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20River\\\">Sacramento River</a> lies 5 mi from the city limits.\\nChico sits on the <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20Valley\\\">Sacramento Valley</a> floor close to the foothills of the <a href=\\\"Cascade%20Range\\\">Cascade Range</a> to the north and the Sierra Nevada range to the south. <a href=\\\"Big%20Chico%20Creek\\\">Big Chico Creek</a> is the demarcation line between the ranges. The city's terrain is generally flat with increasingly hilly terrain beginning at the eastern city limits.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 27.8 sqmi , of which 27.7 sqmi is land and 0.04% is water.\\nThe city is bisected by <a href=\\\"Bidwell%20Park\\\">Bidwell Park</a>, which runs 5 mi from the flat city center deep into the foothills.\\nThe city is also traversed by two creeks and a flood channel, which feeds the Sacramento River. They are named Big Chico Creek, <a href=\\\"Little%20Chico%20Creek\\\">Little Chico Creek</a>, and Lindo Channel (also known as Sandy Gulch, locally).\\nDowntown Chico is located generally between Big Chico Creek and Little Chico Creek. The downtown has a street grid offset 49.75° from the four cardinal directions. There are numbered streets and avenues, which generally run east-northeast to west-southwest. Blocks are usually addressed in hundreds corresponding to the numbered streets and avenues. While the east-northeast to west-southwest streets and avenues are numbered, streets running north-northwest to south-southeast are generally named after trees. The part of the \\\"tree\\\" streets that intersect the Chico State campus spell the word \\\"CHICO\\\" at Chestnut, Hazel, Ivy, Cherry, and Orange streets.\\nThe main thoroughfare running northwest–southeast through the city is State Route Business 99, not to be confused with Highway 99. Business 99 has several common names. From Northwest to Southeast, these are Esplanade, Main Street/Broadway (these are one-way southeast and northwest, respectively, in downtown Chico), Main Street/Oroville Avenue (similarly one-way), Park Avenue, and Midway. The city streets are designated as \\\"east\\\" or \\\"west\\\" by their relation to this street.\\nThere are numbered streets and avenues both of which flow east–west. This fact can cause confusion. The \\\"streets\\\" are south of the Chico State campus through downtown, while the \\\"avenues\\\" are north of campus through The Esplanade. There are no left turns permitted onto any odd numbered avenue from The Esplanade, in either direction, with the exception of West 11th Avenue.\\nIn the numbered streets and avenues and most other streets that intersect The Esplanade, Main, and Park, the west addresses are all numbers whose last two digits are 00 through 49 and the east addresses are all numbers whose last two digits are 50 through 99. There are few exceptions. On most Chico streets odd addresses are on the south side of the street.\\nStanding at the bridge over the Big Chico Creek—where Main Street changes to The Esplanade—and facing north, the odd addresses are on the left. (<a href=\\\"Bidwell%20Mansion\\\">Bidwell Mansion</a> is 525 The Esplanade.) This convention holds for all the numbered avenues. However, while facing south the odd addresses are still on the left (i.e., the convention has switched). This convention holds throughout the numbered streets.\\nMany streets in Chico, most notably Nord Avenue/Walnut Street, change street names after small bridges. When the city was being built, these streets were on the outskirts of town and did not require bridge building. Modern residents of Chico use these streets frequently, and the name changes can cause confusion.\\nDowntown Chico – This is the main commercial district in Chico. It is located generally between the Big Chico Creek and Little Chico Creek between Wall Street and Salem Street. The Downtown Chico Business Association represents the interests of the downtown to the community. Main Street and Broadway are the two main thoroughfares bisecting the downtown. Ringel Park is the triangular-shaped area immediately north of downtown. The Chico City Plaza is the central point of downtown, between Fourth and Fifth Streets. The area of West Ninth Street where Main Street and Oroville Avenue converge is known as The Junction, the southernmost part of the downtown. \\\"The Junction\\\", as the confluence of Humboldt Road and the old Shasta Stage Road (now Main Street and The Esplanade), got its name in the early 1860s when John Bidwell and partners established a company that created a stage line between Chico and Susanville, ultimately leading to Ruby City, Idaho, and the rich gold strikes there. This is the place where Humboldt Road began; it is now called Humboldt Avenue until it reaches the Highway 99 freeway, then regains the Humboldt Road name on the eastern side as it continues into the foothills. \\\"The Junction\\\" was for some years a business district unto itself, providing goods and services to people arriving at and departing from the stage depot.\\n<a href=\\\"South%20Campus%20Neighborhood\\\">South Campus</a> – The South Campus neighborhood is the area bounded by West Second Street, Salem Street, West Ninth Street and the western city limits (which is called \\\"The Green Line\\\"). Historically, this area was the first residential area established in the city. Currently, it is the most densely populated area of the city. The South Campus Neighborhood Association represents the interests of the neighborhood to the community. South Campus is a dynamic residential neighborhood consisting overwhelmingly of young renters under thirty-five, and specifically Chico State students. The intersection of Fifth and Ivy streets is a neighborhood commercial core sometimes referred to locally as \\\"Five and I.\\\" There are many fraternity and sorority houses in the area, and the city has designated a \\\"Fraternity/Sorority Overlay Zone\\\", largely contiguous with the neighborhood. South Campus is home of Craig Hall and Depot Park.\\n<a href=\\\"Barber%2C%20California\\\">Barber</a> – The Barber neighborhood is a working class residential neighborhood generally south of Little Chico Creek and west of Park avenue. The Barber Neighborhood Association represents the interests of the neighborhood to the community. This neighborhood was originally built to house the employees of the adjacent Diamond Match Factory. The neighborhood was named after <a href=\\\"O.C.%20Barber\\\">Ohio Columbus Barber</a>, president of the Diamond Match Company. Today, the Diamond Match property is designated for a future development called Barber Yard.\\n<a href=\\\"Chapmantown%2C%20California\\\">Chapmantown</a> – This is a working-class residential neighborhood entirely surrounded by area inside the city of Chico, but which itself is not a part of the city. Rather, it is under the jurisdiction of the <a href=\\\"Butte%20County%2C%20California\\\">County of Butte.</a> Chapmantown is currently known as the area bounded by Little Chico Creek, Boucher Street, Guill Street and East Sixteenth Street. The neighborhood south of East Twentieth Street to the east of Fair street is also referred to as Chapmantown. Historically, Chapmantown referred to everything east of Mulberry street, but that is no longer the case. Due to not being within city limits, there are no sidewalks, sewers, or any other city services. However, there are also none of the regulations associated with the municipality either (prohibition on chicken coops, burn permits, etc.) The neighborhood is home to The Dorothy F. Johnson Neighborhood Center, a facility of the Chico Area Recreation District. The neighborhood is named after Augustus Chapman.\\nThe Avenues – A relatively new name that refers to the area north of Big Chico Creek historically known as Chico Vecino (Spanish for 'neighbor'). This area includes the numbered avenues that intersect The Esplanade. This residential neighborhood is adjacent to the northern boundary of Chico State campus and is south of Lindo Channel. The neighborhood also is home to Enloe Medical Center. The Avenues are known for their beautiful older homes, mature trees and walkability.\\nMansion Park is the high end residential neighborhood adjacent to the Bidwell Mansion, and immediately between the northeast corner of the Chico State campus and <a href=\\\"Chico%20High%20School\\\">Chico High School</a>. This neighborhood is notable for its being a preferred parking zone for residents with permits only, located in an area of the city with very impacted parking. This neighborhood is home to the Albert E. Warrens Reception Center (formerly the Julia Morgan House), and the Bidwell Amphitheatre. Originally, home to mostly university professors and staff, other professionals and upper-middle-class families now also call it home.\\nDoe Mill is a developing \\\"new urbanist\\\" residential neighborhood generally north of East Twentieth Street and East of Bruce Road. Cheerful, colorful homes, welcoming porches, mixed home sizes, and narrow streets that encourage pedestrian rather than vehicular traffic characterize this charming neighborhood.\\nNob Hill is the developing residential neighborhood west of Bruce Road and north of <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Route%2032\\\">Highway 32</a>.\\nCalifornia Park is the developing residential neighborhood east of Bruce Road and north of Highway 32. This area contains a smaller area known as Canyon Oaks.\\nAspen Glen is the residential neighborhood east of the Esplanade and north of East Shasta avenue. Many streets there are named after things associated with Colorado.\\nCussick Area Neighborhood is an assortment of different housing types on the northwest end of town. It is flanked by orchards, the Esplanade, and West East Avenue.\\nBig Chico Creek Estates is a middle class development in the southwest area of town, Backed by Big Chico Creek, and very close to Chico's newest elementary school.\\nLittle Chico Creek Estates generally referred to as \\\"Chico Creek Estates\\\", is a middle-class development that is bordered to the north by Little Chico Creek, to the west by Bruce Road, to the South by a seasonal flood control channel and Doe Mill neighborhood and bordered to the east by <a href=\\\"Stilson%20Canyon\\\">Stilson Canyon</a>. Prior to its development in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Little Chico Creek Estates was an olive orchard. As a result, the streets in the neighborhood are named after olive varieties.\\nConnors Neighborhood is a very small neighborhood squeezed between East East Avenue and Rio Lindo and between the Esplanade and Highway 99. Connors Neighborhood is made up of Connors Ave and White Ave, along with a couple of courts and circles. This neighborhood was incorporated into Chico in 2003; the state plans to add sewers in Q1 of 2011.\\nOther neighborhoods include South Park, North Park, Vallombrosa, Baroni Park, Heritage Oaks and Hancock Park.\\nChico also is home to several large <a href=\\\"New%20Urbanism\\\">new urbanist</a> neighborhoods, either planned or under construction, including Doe Mill, Barber Yard, Meriam Park, The Orchard and Westside Place.\\nThe above-mentioned \\\"neighborhoods\\\" do not include large sections of Chico. There are numerous other areas that each have unique characteristics and attractions. While some of these areas were not so long ago outside of city limits, they have always been a part of the Chico community. Most of these areas are well established with a high percentage of residents who have lived there for more than 20 years. In the older areas of the outlying neighborhoods, it is not uncommon to find households that have been there for fifty or even more years.\\nChico and the <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20Valley\\\">Sacramento Valley</a> have a typically <a href=\\\"Mediterranean%20climate\\\">Mediterranean climate</a> (<a href=\\\"K%C3%B6ppen%20climate%20classification\\\">Köppen</a> Csa).\\nTemperatures can rise well above 100 F in the summer. Chico is one of the top metropolitan areas in the nation for number of clear days.\\nWinters are fairly mild and wet, with the most rainfall coming in January. July is usually the warmest month, with an average high temperature of 94 °F and an average low temperature of 61 °F . January is the coolest month, with an average high temperature of 55 °F and an average low temperature of 35 °F . The average annual rainfall is 27 in . <a href=\\\"Tule%20fog\\\">Tule fog</a> is often present during the autumn and winter months.\\nThe <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a> reported that Chico had a population of 86,187. The population density was 2,604.2 people per square mile (1,005.5/km²). The racial makeup of Chico was 69,606 (80.8%) <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 1,771 (2.1%) <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 1,167 (1.4%) <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 3,656 (4.2%) <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 210 (0.2%) <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 5,437 (6.3%) from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 4,340 (5.0%) from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 13,315 persons (15.4%).\\nThe Census reported that 83,009 people (96.3% of the population) lived in households, 2,591 (3.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 587 (0.7%) were institutionalized.\\nThere were 34,805 households, out of which 9,222 (26.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 11,745 (33.7%) were <a href=\\\"marriage\\\">heterosexual</a> living together, 3,975 (11.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,729 (5.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,806 (8.1%) <a href=\\\"POSSLQ\\\">unmarried heterosexual partnerships</a>, and 295 (0.8%) <a href=\\\"homosexual%20partnerships\\\">homosexual married couples or partnerships</a>. 10,419 households (29.9%) were made up of individuals and 3,100 (8.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38. There were 17,449 <a href=\\\"family%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">families</a> (50.1% of all households); the average family size was 2.97.\\nThe population was spread out with 16,771 people (19.5%) under the age of 18, 20,622 people (23.9%) aged 18 to 24, 22,360 people (25.9%) aged 25 to 44, 17,256 people (20.0%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,178 people (10.6%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28.6 years. For every 100 females there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over there were 96.8 males.\\nThere were 37,050 housing units at an average density of 1,119.5 per square mile (432.2/km²), of which 14,878 (42.7%) were owner-occupied, and 19,927 (57.3%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.8%. 36,008 people (41.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 47,001 people (54.5%) lived in rental housing units.\\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 59,954 people, 23,476 households, and 11,644 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,161.0 people per square mile (834.5/km²). There were 24,386 housing units at an average density of 879.0 per square mile (339.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 82.4% White, 2.0% Black or African American, 1.3% Native American, 4.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 5.7% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.3% of the population.\\nThere were 23,476 households out of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.4% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% were non-families. 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.03.\\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 21.1% under the age of 18, 27.0% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 15.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 96.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over there were 93.9 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $29,359, and the median income for a family was $43,077. Males had a median income of $35,548 versus $26,173 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,970. About 12.7% of families and 26.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.\\nMuch of the local economy is driven by the presence of Chico State. Industries providing employment: educational, health and social services (30.3%), retail trade (14.9%), arts, entertainment, recreation, accommodation and food services (12.6%).\\nChico has always been a regional retail shopping destination. Chico's largest retail district is focused around the <a href=\\\"Chico%20Mall\\\">Chico Mall</a> on East 20th Street. In the two decades since the Chico Mall was constructed, many national retailers have located nearby, including <a href=\\\"Target%20Corporation\\\">Target</a>, <a href=\\\"Kohl%27s\\\">Kohl's</a>, <a href=\\\"Forever%2021\\\">Forever 21</a>, <a href=\\\"Best%20Buy\\\">Best Buy</a>, and <a href=\\\"Walmart\\\">Walmart</a>. In January 2008, plans were unveiled to remodel the Chico Mall by demolishing the westernmost portion of the mall (previously home to Troutman's) and constructing an open air \\\"lifestyle\\\" shopping center that will connect the mall with the Kohl's shopping center nearby. This has since been amended as <a href=\\\"Dick%27s%20Sporting%20Goods\\\">Dick's Sporting Goods</a> has renovated both the interior and exterior the space formerly occupied by Troutmans, and officially opened on July 10, 2013.\\nChico is also home to the North Valley Plaza Mall, which was the city's first enclosed shopping center. Construction on this mall began in 1965 and it was the County's largest shopping center until the Chico Mall was completed in 1988. For a few years the \\\"old\\\" mall and the \\\"new\\\" mall competed against one another. The North Valley Plaza Mall was dealt a blow when JCPenney, one of the old mall's anchors, moved to the Chico Mall in 1993. The \\\"old\\\" mall slowly declined with increasing vacancies. After several failed attempts at revitalization, the North Valley Plaza Mall was overhauled in 2002, with the center of the mall demolished. Several large retailers, such as <a href=\\\"Trader%20Joe%27s\\\">Trader Joe's</a>, and Tinseltown Theater, are operating at the mall plus a number of restaurants. <a href=\\\"Mervyn%27s\\\">Mervyn's</a> anchored the mall at the west end, filling the spot vacated by JCPenney, but declared bankruptcy in 2008 and liquidated its entire stock by the end of December of that year. The entire Mervyn's chain ceased operations just before the end of the year. A portion of the space is now being utilized by <a href=\\\"Goodwill%20Industries\\\">Goodwill</a>. Other spaces in the North Valley Plaza include a dollar store, 99 cent only store, a U.S. Navy recruiting center and a number of smaller boutiques.\\nChico's downtown is a thriving area for unique, independent retail shops and restaurants. Farmers markets attract crowds on Saturday mornings and Thursday evenings. City Plaza hosts free concerts regularly during the summer. Performance venues large and small, bars, coffee shops, bookstores and city offices contribute to a lively and flavorful experience.\\n<a href=\\\"Build.com\\\">Build.com</a> (as of April 2013) was named as No. 81 on Internet Retailer Magazine's Top 500 List of online retailers. Additionally, Wanderful Media, the company that acquired Chico based <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.findnsave.com\\\">Find n Save®</a> opened a fully renovated office downtown in early 2013.\\nThe City of Chico is a <a href=\\\"charter%20city\\\">charter city</a> and has a <a href=\\\"council%E2%80%93manager%20government\\\">council–manager government</a>. The City of Chico's administration offices are located at 411 Main Street immediately adjacent to the City Council Chambers. Chico's <a href=\\\"city%20council\\\">city council</a> consists of seven nonpartisan councilmembers each elected <a href=\\\"at-large\\\">at-large</a> in November of even-numbered years. Their terms begin on the first Tuesday in December and end on the first Tuesday in December four years thereafter. The mayor is chosen by and from among the council members and serves for two years. City council meetings are on the first and third Tuesday of each month.\\nThe City Council appoints members of the Airport Commission, Architecture Review Board, Arts Commission, Bidwell Park and Playground Commission, and Planning Commission.\\nThe council consists of Mayor Sean Morgan, Vice Mayor Reanette Fillmer, Andrew Coolidge, Karl Ory, Ann Schwab, Mark Sorensen and Randall Stone.\\nThe citizens of Chico are represented in the <a href=\\\"Butte%20County%20Board%20of%20Supervisors\\\">Butte County Board of Supervisors</a> by the District Two Supervisor Larry Wahl and the District Three Supervisor Maureen Kirk.\\nThe Butte County Association of Governments office is located in Chico at 2580 Sierra Sunrise Terrace, Suite 100.\\nThe citizens of Chico, as constituents of <a href=\\\"California%27s%203rd%20Assembly%20District\\\">California's 3rd Assembly District</a>, are represented by <a href=\\\"California%20Republican%20Party\\\">Republican</a> <a href=\\\"James%20Gallagher%20%28California%20politician%29\\\">James Gallagher</a> in the <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Assembly\\\">California State Assembly</a>, and as members of <a href=\\\"California%27s%204th%20Senate%20District\\\">California's 4th Senate District</a>, are represented by <a href=\\\"California%20Republican%20Party\\\">Republican</a> <a href=\\\"Jim%20Nielsen\\\">Jim Nielsen</a> in the <a href=\\\"California%20State%20Senate\\\">California State Senate</a>.\\nThe citizens of Chico, as constituents of <a href=\\\"California%27s%201st%20congressional%20district\\\">California's 1st congressional district</a>, are represented by <a href=\\\"Doug%20LaMalfa\\\">Doug LaMalfa</a> (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>–<a href=\\\"Richvale%2C%20California\\\">Richvale</a>) in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">United States House of Representatives</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Chico%20Unified%20School%20District\\\">Chico Unified School District</a> includes all of the greater Chico area including area not within the city limits.\\nIn 1998, city voters approved a bond to build a third comprehensive high school that was to be called Canyon View High School. However, after a protracted search for an acceptable site, the school district opted not to build the new high school, a decision based largely on declining enrollment figures. The money from the bond is now planned to be used for improvements at Chico and Pleasant Valley high school\\nThe Chico Museum first opened in February 1986 in the former Carnegie Library building in downtown Chico. It currently features the only circus exhibit of its kind in the Western United States. The museum has two main galleries, which host a variety of temporary and traveling exhibits. In addition, the museum has two smaller, permanent galleries displaying the diverse history of Chico. The Chico Museum is run by the Far West Heritage Association, which also runs the Patrick Ranch Museum. The museum is free and donations are graciously accepted.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Chico%20Air%20Museum\\\">Chico Air Museum</a> is an aviation museum, which opened in 2004. Several aircraft and exhibits are displayed in and adjacent to an old hangar, one of the few remaining from World War II.\\nThe <a href=\\\"National%20Yo-Yo%20Museum\\\">National Yo-Yo Museum</a> is the country's largest collection of <a href=\\\"yo-yo\\\">yo-yo</a> artifacts, which also includes a 4 ft tall yo-yo that is dropped with a crane every few years, the world's largest functional yo-yo. Classes are available as well for those new to yo-yo and those who just want to get better. An art museum, the Chico Art Center, is also located in the city.\\nTwo other historical buildings are also museums. Bidwell Mansion is a Victorian house completed in 1868, and the former home of John and Annie Bidwell. Bidwell Mansion is a California State Historical Park. Stansbury House, former home of physician Oscar Stansbury, is a museum of 19th-century life, completed in 1883.\\n<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.csuchico.edu/anthmuseum/\\\">The Valene L. Smith Museum of Anthropology</a> on the Chico State campus presents temporary exhibits researched, designed and installed primarily by students. The museum was renamed November 18, 2009, by the Chico State Board of Trustees in honor of professor emerita Valene L. Smith, whose contributions and commitments to the museum have totaled over $4.6 million. The grand opening was held on January 28, 2010. The museum is across from the main entrance of the Miriam Library, next to the <a href=\\\"Janet%20Turner%20Print%20Museum\\\">Janet Turner Print Museum</a>.\\nConstruction started on the Gateway Science Museum (formerly the Northern California Natural History Museum) in 2008 and was completed on February 27, 2010. In the works for more than 10 years, the Gateway Science Museum is the leading center for science education and <a href=\\\"Northern%20California\\\">Northern California's</a> local history, natural resources, seacoast, Sacramento Valley, and surrounding foothills and mountains.\\nAbout 40 <a href=\\\"murals\\\">murals</a> and several galleries can be found in the city, including Chico Paper Company, 1078 Gallery, Avenue 9, The Space, 24-Hour Drive-By and numerous other galleries. The theatres in Chico include Blue Room Theatre, Theatre ETC, <a href=\\\"Chico%20Cabaret\\\">Chico Cabaret</a>, Chico Performances, Chico Theater Company, and Theatre on the Ridge. The California State University, Chico Theatre Department also offers a variety of entertainment throughout the school year. In 2003, author John Villani named Chico one of the top 10 Best Small Art Towns in America.\\nChico is the site of Bidwell Park, the ninth-largest municipally-owned park in the United States, <a href=\\\"Bidwell%20Mansion%20State%20Historic%20Park\\\">Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park</a>, the <a href=\\\"Chico%20University%20Arboretum\\\">Chico University Arboretum</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Sierra%20Nevada%20Brewing%20Company\\\">Sierra Nevada Brewing Company</a>, the second-largest <a href=\\\"craft%20brewer\\\">craft brewer</a> in the country, is based in Chico.\\nChico has the tallest building north of Sacramento in California: Whitney Hall, a nine-story dormitory on the Chico State college campus.\\nThe Meriam Library on the Chico State campus is named\\nafter <a href=\\\"Ted%20Meriam\\\">Ted Meriam</a>. The building has more square footage than any other building in California north of <a href=\\\"Sacramento\\\">Sacramento</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"State%20of%20California\\\">State of California</a>, <a href=\\\"Office%20of%20Statewide%20Health%20Planning%20and%20Development\\\">Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development</a> defines Enloe Medical Center as a General Acute Care Hospital in Chico with a Level II <a href=\\\"Trauma%20center\\\">Trauma Center</a> and Basic emergency care as of August 22, 2006. The facility is located at 1531 The Esplanade at (NAD83) latitude/longitude .\\nThe <a href=\\\"Hooker%20Oak\\\">Hooker Oak</a>, formerly the largest <a href=\\\"Valley%20Oak\\\">Valley Oak</a> in the world, was located at Hooker Oak Recreation Area in Bidwell Park.\\nLocated in urban Chico, the <a href=\\\"Mechoopda\\\">Mechoopda</a> <a href=\\\"Maidu\\\">Maidu</a> Indian Tribe of Chico Rancheria is at 125 Mission Ranch Blvd.\\nBidwell Municipal Golf Course, United States Department of Agriculture Plant Introduction Garden,\\nCanyon Oaks Golf Course, Diamond Match Factory, Chico Museum, Chico Municipal Center, Dorothy F. Johnson Neighborhood Center, Veterans Memorial Building, Craig Hall, Stansbury House, Scrappy Dog, Madison Bear Garden, Chico Creek Nature Center, <a href=\\\"Chico%20Community%20Observatory\\\">Chico Community Observatory</a>, Big Chico Creek Ecological Reserve, Chico Area Recreation and Park District, Bidwell Amphitheatre, <a href=\\\"Honey%20Run%20Covered%20Bridge\\\">Honey Run Covered Bridge</a>, Senator Theatre, A. H. Chapman House, Allen-Sommer-Gage House, Patrick Ranch House, <a href=\\\"Silberstein%20Park%20Building\\\">Silberstein Park Building</a>, <a href=\\\"Pioneer%20Days%20%28Chico%2C%20California%29\\\">Pioneer Days</a>.\\nChico is home to <a href=\\\"Nettleton%20Stadium\\\">Nettleton Stadium</a> (also called \\\"The Net\\\") <a href=\\\"Baseball%20park\\\">baseball stadium</a> on the California State University campus. It is the home field for the <a href=\\\"Chico%20State%20Wildcats\\\">Chico State Wildcats</a> baseball team, in <a href=\\\"List%20of%20NCAA%20Division%20II%20institutions\\\">NCAA Division 2</a>.\\nChico is also home of the <a href=\\\"Silver%20Dollar%20Speedway\\\">Silver Dollar Speedway</a>, a race track at the Silver Dollar Fairgrounds used for <a href=\\\"sprint%20car%20racing\\\">sprint car racing</a>.\\nChico is one of few cities to be home to two championship baseball teams in two different leagues simultaneously. The Chico State Wildcats were champions in both the 1997 and 1999 Division II College World Series. The <a href=\\\"Chico%20Heat\\\">Chico Heat</a> were also champions in the <a href=\\\"Western%20Baseball%20League\\\">Western Baseball League</a> in 1997. The <a href=\\\"Chico%20Outlaws\\\">Chico Outlaws</a> were founded with the <a href=\\\"Golden%20Baseball%20League\\\">Golden Baseball League</a> in 2005 where they also won the championship in 2007 and 2010. Starting in the summer of 2016, the <a href=\\\"Chico%20Heat%20%28Great%20West%20League%29\\\">Chico Heat</a> will return as a part of the <a href=\\\"Great%20West%20League\\\">Great West League</a>, a collegiate summer wood-bat league.\\nThe Chico State Women's Rugby Club won the Collegiate Division I National Championship in 2001.\\nThe Chico Rugby Club senior men's team won the Division III National Championship in 2002.\\nChico has also gained a reputation as being a bicycle-friendly city. In 1997, Chico was ranked as the number-one cycling city in the nation by \\\"Bicycle Magazine\\\" and also hosts the Wildflower Century, an annual 100 mi bike ride throughout Butte County every April, put on by Chico Velo Cycling Club. The city is in the process of creating a network of bicycle paths, trails and lanes. Some notable bicycle routes include a path leading from The Esplanade to the Chico Airport, a path running from downtown to East Avenue parallel to Hwy 32 along the railroad, a path along Park Avenue continuing down the Midway toward Durham, a path following Little Chico Creek from Bruce Road to Route 99, and a series of paths throughout Bidwell Park, and the Steve Harrison Memorial Bike Path, which bypasses Skyway and takes riders out to Honey Run Road.\\nChico is former home of the <a href=\\\"Chico%20Rooks\\\">Chico Rooks</a> (Soccer), the <a href=\\\"Chico%20Heat\\\">Chico Heat</a> (Baseball – Western Baseball League), and <a href=\\\"Chico%20Outlaws\\\">Chico Outlaws</a> (Baseball - Golden Baseball League).\\n<a href=\\\"Almond\\\">Almond</a>s are the number one crop in Chico and the surrounding area, only recently edging out rice. Other crops in the area include <a href=\\\"walnut\\\">walnut</a>s, <a href=\\\"kiwi\\\">kiwi</a>s, <a href=\\\"olive\\\">olive</a>s, <a href=\\\"peach\\\">peach</a>es, and <a href=\\\"plum\\\">plum</a>s.\\nThe city is bounded on the west by orchards with thousands of almond trees, and there are still a few pockets of orchards remaining within the contiguous city limits. The trees bloom with a pink/white flower in late February or early March. Millions of bees are brought in for the pollination. The nuts are harvested in late August.\\nWalnuts are also a major agricultural production in the area north and west of town. Unlike the almond crops of the area, walnuts do not have the same appeal as they do not bloom but they grow much larger and live much longer than almonds, but similar to the almond crops, walnuts are harvested in early September.\\nThere are several <a href=\\\"Farmers%27%20Market\\\">farmers' markets</a> held in Chico:\\nIn June 2014, the Thursday night Chico farmers market was named one of the top 9 farmers markets to eat at in Northern California.`\\n<a href=\\\"Chico%20Municipal%20Airport\\\">Chico Municipal Airport</a> serves the area and is north of the city limits. It was served by <a href=\\\"United%20Airlines\\\">United Airlines</a>' <a href=\\\"United%20Express\\\">United Express</a> flights operated by <a href=\\\"SkyWest%20Airlines\\\">SkyWest Airlines</a> nonstop to San Francisco (SFO). Commercial passenger flights were discontinued by SkyWest on December 2, 2014 due to nonviability as indicated by United Airlines in June 2014. The city administration is trying to restore air service which would be provided by alternate airlines. On July 31, 1961, the first-ever <a href=\\\"aircraft%20hijacking\\\">aircraft hijacking</a> on United States soil occurred at the Chico Municipal Airport. Two men were critically wounded and the hijacker was sentenced to more than 30 years in prison.\\nIn the early 1980s, the airport was the home base and headquarters for <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Express\\\">Pacific Express</a>, a scheduled passenger airline that served Chico with <a href=\\\"British%20Aircraft%20Corporation\\\">British Aircraft Corporation</a> <a href=\\\"BAC%20One-Eleven\\\">BAC One-Eleven</a> twin jets. From 1962 to 2010, the airport was also home to <a href=\\\"Aero%20Union\\\">Aero Union</a>, a company that refitted and operated surplus military aircraft such as the <a href=\\\"Lockheed%20P-3%20Orion\\\">Lockheed P-3 Orion</a> turboprop as fire fighting aircraft for state and federal agencies until their move to <a href=\\\"McClellan%20Airfield\\\">McClellan Airfield</a>, near Sacramento.\\nAnother local airfield is <a href=\\\"Ranchaero%20Airport\\\">Ranchaero Airport</a> which is surrounded by orchards on the west edge of Chico.\\nAn <a href=\\\"List%20of%20altitude%20records%20reached%20by%20different%20aircraft%20types\\\">altitude record</a> for unmanned gas balloons was set in Chico in October 1972 (51.8 km ). The record was broken on May 23, 2002.\\n<a href=\\\"Amtrak\\\">Amtrak</a> operates the <a href=\\\"Chico%20%28Amtrak%20station%29\\\">Chico Amtrak</a> station at Fifth and Orange Streets for the <a href=\\\"Coast%20Starlight\\\">Coast Starlight</a> service. The terminal is partially wheelchair accessible, has an enclosed waiting area, public restrooms, public pay phones, free short-term and long-term parking. Trains run between <a href=\\\"Seattle\\\">Seattle</a> and <a href=\\\"Union%20Station%20%28Los%20Angeles%29\\\">Los Angeles</a> with a northbound, and a southbound train departing from the station daily. The <a href=\\\"Greyhound%20Lines\\\">Greyhound</a> bus station is also located at Fifth and Orange Streets.\\nThe North Valley Shuttle has five scheduled runs daily to <a href=\\\"Sacramento%20International%20Airport\\\">Sacramento International Airport</a> leaving from Jack's Restaurant at Sixth and Main Streets.\\nThe B-Line (<a href=\\\"Butte%20Regional%20Transit\\\">Butte Regional Transit</a>) serves the Chico Urban area with eight routes operating Monday through Saturday and two shuttle routes for Chico State students during the academic year. It also serves the Chico urban area with nine modified vans providing transportation for the elderly and the mobility impaired seven days a week. The transit center in Chico is located at Second and Salem Streets.\\nChico is a silver level <a href=\\\"bicycle-friendly\\\">bicycle-friendly</a> community as designated by the <a href=\\\"League%20of%20American%20Bicyclists\\\">League of American Bicyclists</a>. Chico was also named \\\"America's Best Bike Town\\\" by \\\"<a href=\\\"Bicycle%20%28magazine%29\\\">Bicycle</a>\\\" magazine in 1997.\\n<a href=\\\"Pedicab\\\">Pedicab</a>s are commonly available downtown during the evenings.\\nState Route 99 and State Route 32 intersect in Chico.\\nChico was designated to be the provisional capital of California, in the event that a disaster occurred that would cause evacuation of Sacramento after a <a href=\\\"Civil%20Defense\\\">Civil Defense</a> exercise named <a href=\\\"Operation%20Chico\\\">Operation Chico</a> was deemed a success.\\nNo person shall produce, test, maintain, or store within the city a <a href=\\\"nuclear%20weapon\\\">nuclear weapon</a>, component of a nuclear weapon, nuclear weapon delivery system, or component of a nuclear weapon delivery system under penalty of Chapter 9.60.030 of the Chico Municipal Code.\\n\\n\",\n \"20 The Countdown Magazine\\n20 The Countdown Magazine is a weekly <a href=\\\"Christian\\\">Christian</a> music <a href=\\\"countdown\\\">countdown</a> program, syndicated to Christian radio stations in the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canada</a> and worldwide, including the <a href=\\\"K-LOVE\\\">K-LOVE</a> and <a href=\\\"American%20Family%20Radio\\\">American Family Radio</a> networks.\\nThe program, produced by Christian Network Services, is hosted by <a href=\\\"Jon%20Rivers\\\">Jon Rivers</a>, and counts down the top twenty Christian pop favorites, as compiled by \\\"Christian Radio Weekly\\\" magazine. Each countdown also includes special features, including \\\"Artist Spotlight\\\", \\\"Jon's Future Favorites\\\", and other features. Occasionally, the program would also feature weekly special programming, such as a countdown for the top twenty songs for the year, an annual Christmas program hosted by <a href=\\\"Amy%20Grant\\\">Amy Grant</a>, and a tribute special on <a href=\\\"Rich%20Mullins\\\">Rich Mullins</a>.\\n\",\n \"Undo (Rush of Fools song)\\n\\\"Undo\\\" is the first <a href=\\\"Single%20%28music%29\\\">record single</a> from <a href=\\\"Contemporary%20Christian%20music\\\">contemporary Christian</a> band <a href=\\\"Rush%20of%20Fools\\\">Rush of Fools</a>. It was released in 2007 from the band's first album \\\"<a href=\\\"Rush%20of%20Fools%20%28album%29\\\">Rush of Fools</a>\\\". It was the most played song of the year in 2007 on Christian <a href=\\\"adult%20contemporary\\\">adult contemporary</a> radio.\\nThis song was also by the compilation album \\\"<a href=\\\"WOW%20Hits%202008\\\">WOW Hits 2008</a>\\\".\\nThe song was written in <a href=\\\"Nashville%2C%20Tennessee\\\">Nashville, Tennessee</a>, where lead vocalist Wes Willis and guitarist Kevin Huguley were songwriting with producer, Scotty D. Huguley said: \\\"We'd got writer's block and [we] ... packed up our guitars and our bags; everything was out by the door and we were saying our goodbyes and this lyric hit one of us, it was just: 'I've been here before, here I am again' ... We picked everything back out and we grabbed our guitars and it was about 45 minutes or an hour and we'd written this song.\\\"\\nThe song received mixed reviews from music critics. Kim Jones, Christian music guide of <a href=\\\"About.com\\\">About.com</a>, called \\\"Undo\\\" an album \\\"highlight\\\" and praised its lyrical composition. In reference to the song's second verse, Jones said, \\\"Honestly; how many teens do you know that are that real and introspective?\\\". Jesus Freak Hideout's review was less positive towards the song, describing it as \\\"kind of a 'paint by numbers' ballad that is commonly found on CHR [radio] stations.\\\" \\\"<a href=\\\"Christian%20Music%20Today\\\">Christian Music Today</a>\\\" editor Russ Breimeier was generally negative towards the band's first album, but said that the song possessed \\\"a refreshing openness in its prayerful confession of sinful nature\\\".\\nIn 2008, the song was nominated for two <a href=\\\"Dove%20Award\\\">Dove Award</a>s: Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the <a href=\\\"39th%20GMA%20Dove%20Awards\\\">39th GMA Dove Awards</a>.\",\n \"We Once Were\\nWe Once Were is the third <a href=\\\"studio%20album\\\">studio album</a> from <a href=\\\"Christian%20rock\\\">Christian rock</a> band <a href=\\\"Rush%20of%20Fools\\\">Rush of Fools</a>. It was released on September 27, 2011 on <a href=\\\"E1%20Entertainment\\\">eOne Christian Music</a>.\\nThe lead single, \\\"Grace Found Me\\\" was released June 24, 2011.\\n\",\n \"R&R (magazine)\\nR&R (also known as the \\\"new\\\" <a href=\\\"Radio%20%26amp%3B%20Records\\\">Radio & Records</a>) was a weekly music trade publication that followed the radio industry and tracked the monitoring of current songs by format, station and audience <a href=\\\"cume\\\">cume</a>s. The magazine was a sister publication to \\\"<a href=\\\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\\\">Billboard</a>\\\" magazine and was mostly available through subscription to people who work in the radio industry and music chart enthusiasts, as well as various record stores and newsstands. On June 5, 2009, parent company <a href=\\\"AC%20Nielsen\\\">AC Nielsen</a> ceased operations on \\\"R&R\\\" just short of three years after acquiring the former independent trade periodical. When it ceased publication in 2009, \\\"R&R\\\" was the successor-in-interest of publications that traced their operations back to 1973.\\n\\\"R&R\\\" was a newly relaunched version of two different publications: \\\"<a href=\\\"Billboard%20Radio%20Monitor\\\">Billboard Radio Monitor</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Radio%20%26amp%3B%20Records\\\">Radio & Records</a>\\\", the latter where the \\\"R&R\\\" name was adopted from as the trade's \\\"new\\\" name. The move was a result of a merger between the 'original' \\\"R&R\\\" and \\\"Radio Monitor\\\" after VNU Media acquired \\\"Radio & Records\\\" on July 6, 2006.\\nOn July 14, 2006, \\\"Billboard Radio Monitor\\\", which originally started out in 1993 as \\\"Airplay Monitor\\\", ceased publication with its final issue, while \\\"Radio & Records\\\", which originally started in 1973, published its last issue as an independent trade on August 4, 2006. Its first issue under the newly retitled \\\"R&R\\\" was August 11, 2006, beginning with the official monitored BDS charts ending the week of August 6, 2006.\\nOn June 3, 2009, it was announced that \\\"Radio & Records\\\" would cease all operations. The website closed down that date, and currently redirects to Billboard.biz. The reason for ending the publication was due to economic factors. Most of the articles and features that was published in \\\"R&R\\\" will now be included in \\\"Billboard\\\". Its final published issue was on June 5, 2009.\\nAmong the features and articles that appeared in \\\"R&R\\\", there were one for each format, \\\"Street Talk\\\" (which tracked the latest buzz in the radio industry), and daily news from radio and record industry in general. Those features were carried over from \\\"Radio & Records\\\".\\nIt also featured the latest weekly <a href=\\\"Nielsen%20Broadcast%20Data%20Systems\\\">BDS monitored music charts</a> and chart data information. Those features were carried over from \\\"Billboard Radio Monitor\\\", but it also included the addition of indicators for non-monitored radio markets and Canadian chart airplay that was part of \\\"R&R\\\". The overlapping of radio station reporters and format criteria from the former \\\"Monitor\\\" and \\\"R&R\\\" were modified in the new \\\"R&R\\\".\\nOn January 17, 2008, \\\"R&R\\\" awarded <a href=\\\"Bob%20Grant%20%28radio%20host%29\\\">Bob Grant</a> with the \\\"Talk Radio Lifetime Achievement Award.\\\" Almost immediately, the award was withdrawn, apparently after \\\"R&R\\\" received derogatory information about Bob Grant. \\\"\\\"R&R\\\" is sensitive to the diversity of our community and does not want the presentation of an award to Mr. Grant to imply our endorsement of past comments by him that contradict our values and the respect we have for all members of our community,\\\" but \\\"R&R\\\" then invited <a href=\\\"Al%20Sharpton\\\">Al Sharpton</a> to speak, himself the subject of controversy.\\nThe list continued using the BDS radio panels that was featured in \\\"Billboard Radio Monitor\\\", but the names of the formats were changed after the conversion was completed.\\nThe monitored radio panels are:\\nFor articles about their predecessors:\",\n \"WLIX-LP\\nWLIX-LP (94.7 <a href=\\\"FM%20broadcasting\\\">FM</a>) is a <a href=\\\"low-power%20FM\\\">low-power FM</a> <a href=\\\"radio%20station\\\">radio station</a> broadcasting a <a href=\\\"soft%20adult%20contemporary\\\">soft adult contemporary</a> format. Licensed to <a href=\\\"Ridge%2C%20New%20York\\\">Ridge, New York</a>, the station is currently owned by Pine Barrens Broadcasting.\\nThe radio station began in 2005 as RadioX, a modern/alternative rock radio station. The <a href=\\\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\\\">Federal Communications Commission</a> issued a <a href=\\\"construction%20permit\\\">construction permit</a> for the station on February 27, 2004. The station was assigned the WLIX-LP <a href=\\\"call%20sign\\\">call sign</a> on March 10, 2004, and received its <a href=\\\"Broadcast%20license\\\">license to cover</a> on September 30, 2005. The radio station had approximately 60,000 listeners at its peak, but suffered financial difficulties. A programming agreement was established with a local ministry in April 2007. This converted WLIX-LP to a <a href=\\\"Christian%20Radio\\\">Christian Radio</a> format.\\nThis arrangement continued until Labor Day weekend of 2012. On August 31, 94.7 WLIX switched programming to <a href=\\\"adult%20standards\\\">adult standards</a> utilizing \\\"The Penthouse\\\" format from Big Sticks Broadcasting and served as the flagship station for this format.\\nOn November 1, 2012, the adult standards programming ceased, and WLIX switched to a classic soft adult contemporary format.\\n\",\n \"WQBU-FM\\nWQBU-FM (92.7 <a href=\\\"FM%20broadcasting\\\">FM</a>, \\\"Que Buena 92.7\\\") is a <a href=\\\"radio%20station\\\">radio station</a> licensed to <a href=\\\"Garden%20City%2C%20New%20York\\\">Garden City, New York</a> and serves the western <a href=\\\"Long%20Island\\\">Long Island</a> area. It broadcasts a <a href=\\\"Spanish%20language\\\">Spanish language</a> <a href=\\\"Regional%20Mexican\\\">Regional Mexican</a> format and is owned by <a href=\\\"Univision\\\">Univision</a>'s radio division.\\n92.7 FM went on the air in 1959 with the call letters WLIR and played Broadway tunes and classical music. In the early 1970s, the format shifted to progressive rock, then to modern rock in the 1980s. In 1987, the call sign changed to WDRE-FM, and in 1996 they went back to WLIR-FM. And station went jockless and Univision bought the station in 2004 and became a multi-cast for \\\"Latino Mix\\\" <a href=\\\"WXNY-FM\\\">WCAA</a> 105.9 FM based in <a href=\\\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Newark, New Jersey</a> and <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> (WCAA would later start broadcasting at 96.3 FM as the result of a frequency swap with classical music station <a href=\\\"WQXR-FM\\\">WQXR</a>.)\\nOn <a href=\\\"Memorial%20Day\\\">Memorial Day</a> 2005, both stations became \\\"La Kalle,\\\" a <a href=\\\"reggaeton\\\">reggaeton</a>-formatted station. The station at 105.9 became WCAA and 92.7 became WZAA.\\nIn late January 2007, Univision ended the simulcast and changed the call sign to WQBU-FM.\\nIn March 2007, the station announced that they would become the Spanish-language home of the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Yankees\\\">New York Yankees</a>. Beto Villa is the <a href=\\\"play-by-play\\\">play-by-play</a> announcer.\\nIn 2010, the station became the Spanish language home of the <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Mets\\\">New York Mets</a>, with Juan Alicea and Max Perez Jimenez with the calls.\\nOn November 15, 2012 WQBU-FM changed their format to Spanish Tropical, branded as \\\"Mami 92.7\\\".\\nOn March 31, 2014; WQBU-FM switched to a news/talk format nationally syndicated by <a href=\\\"Univision%20America\\\">Univision America</a>. This makes it the 10th station overall and the first FM station in Univision's portfolio to have the Univision America network.\\nOn October 22, 2014 WQBU-FM changed their format to regional Mexican, branded as \\\"92.7 Nueva York\\\".\\nIn March 2016 WQBU-FM rebranded as \\\"Que Buena 92.7\\\".\\n\",\n \"WAWZ\\nWAWZ (99.1 <a href=\\\"FM%20broadcasting\\\">FM</a>, \\\"Star 99.1\\\") is a <a href=\\\"contemporary%20Christian%20music\\\">contemporary Christian music</a> radio station located in <a href=\\\"Zarephath%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Zarephath, New Jersey</a>. It is a listener supported/commercial radio station owned by the <a href=\\\"Pillar%20of%20Fire%20International\\\">Pillar of Fire International</a>. The station's target demographic is a 25- to 34-year-olds. The Class B, 28,000-watt signal based in <a href=\\\"Bridgewater%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Bridgewater, New Jersey</a> and can be heard through Central and Northern New Jersey, Eastern Pennsylvania and as far south as Burlington County, New Jersey.\\nThe call letters for the station, like its AM counterpart which went off the air in 1984, were chosen to honor Bishop <a href=\\\"Alma%20White\\\">Alma White</a>, who was the founder of the <a href=\\\"Pillar%20of%20Fire%20Church\\\">Pillar of Fire Church</a> and <a href=\\\"Zarephath%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Zarephath</a>, the community of license.\\nWAWZ began airing its current format as Star 99.1 on February 3, 2003. Its original format was traditional and classical music and church services. In later years inspirational contemporary Christian music and mostly syndicated Christian teaching and talk shows were added. In this format its tagline was WAWZ - Your Voice of Faith and Inspiration\\nWAWZ was founded in 1931 by Bishop <a href=\\\"Alma%20White\\\">Alma White</a> and the <a href=\\\"Pillar%20of%20Fire%20Church\\\">Pillar of Fire Church</a>. Formerly headquartered in <a href=\\\"Denver%2C%20Colorado\\\">Denver, Colorado</a>, the organization was given land in 1906, in <a href=\\\"Franklin%20Township%2C%20Somerset%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Franklin Township, Somerset County, New Jersey</a>.\\nThe station was first assigned a frequency on 1350 AM, sharing time equally with three other stations, WCDA, WBNX and WMSG. In later years, on 1380 AM, it shared time with <a href=\\\"WKDM\\\">WBNX</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>. WAWZ was the second station owned by the Pillar of Fire Church. (<a href=\\\"KPOF\\\">KPOF</a> in Denver was the first).\\nOn September 1, 1984, WAWZ sold its part-time AM operation to New York station WBNX (now christened WKDM.)\\nOn WAWZ's final day, they produced a special program recalling the station's 53 years of religious broadcasting, and by <a href=\\\"Electrical%20transcriptions\\\">electrical transcription</a>, once again featured the voice of Alma White.\\nThe station began broadcasting on FM on August 22, 1954. The broadcast format was eighteen hours a day of classical music along with Pillar of Fire church services. By the late 1960s. WAWZ evolved into a Traditional Christian Music and Teaching station. They played traditional Christian music about 6 to 8 hours a day. The rest of the time they ran teaching and preaching programs by various Christian groups. They did not sell time in a traditional way but took a percentage of donations each ministry received from WAWZ's listening area. Overall, the format was similar to what <a href=\\\"Family%20Radio\\\">Family Radio</a> and <a href=\\\"Bible%20Broadcasting%20Network\\\">BBN</a> offered back then as well as being musically close. In 1980 there was a challenge to its license. The challenge alleged that the station did not serve the public good. Allen Lewis was hired as the new program director and it became a 24-hour station.\\nFor many years WAWZ carried teaching programs, talk shows, church services, and traditional Christian music. The station ran the tagline, WAWZ-Your Voice of Faith and Inspiration and featured mostly syndicated evangelical Christian teaching and talk shows and inspirational music. Local news, AP World News, public affairs programs and several call-in shows added a New Jersey feel to the station as it attempted to serve its license area it had just vigorously defended. Most of the schedule consisted of programming came from area church services and outside ministries via the state-of-the-art Chicago-based Moody Broadcasting Service satellite subscription. Among these was a local program called Search Light which served tri-state area prison inmates. The station ran \\\"Share-a-thons\\\" twice a year to solicit support from listeners. During the 1980s WAWZ began moving from a conservative format of traditional hymns to more of a Christian MOR format which included softer music by contemporary Christian artists as well as the traditional music they were playing. By 1990 the music mix was about half traditional and half contemporary By 1994 the music format was nearly all contemporary. However, the majority of the schedule consisted of non-musical programming.\\nMajor changes began on Thanksgiving Day in 2002, WAWZ began playing wall-to-wall traditional and contemporary as well as secular Christmas music. After Christmas, the station started airing hot adult contemporary Christian music with non-musical elements reduced to four hours per day. Finally on February 2, 2003, WAWZ renamed itself STAR 99.1. The station also began selling time to commercial advertisers, but as it remains owned by a 501C3 they continue to have an annual \\\"Radiothon\\\". But it has continued its all Christmas format since 2002. Playing mostly Christian themed holiday music.\\nWAWZ's signal is among the strongest in NJ and can be heard through all of Central and Northern New Jersey and New York City and as far south as Ocean and Burlington counties as well as Eastern Pennsylvania. With its polished family-friendly contemporary sound, Star 99.1 aims at Christians and nonbelievers alike. A casual listener scanning the radio may not easily differentiate it from secular stations that play Phil Collins or U2.\\nThe <a href=\\\"National%20Religious%20Broadcasters\\\">National Religious Broadcasters</a> honored WAWZ with Station of the Year awards in 2007 and 2008 and the <a href=\\\"National%20Association%20of%20Broadcasters\\\">National Association of Broadcasters</a> honored them with the 2008 Crystal Radio Award for community service.\\nOn August 1, 2014 Pillar of Fire began a lease of \\\"WLIR-FM\\\". WAWZ-FM, Zarephath, New Jersey (STAR 99.1) was broadcast on WLIR-FM as well as its translators as STAR 107.1. The lease ended in April 2015 and WLIR-FM reverted to Christian formatted \\\"Hope Radio.\\\". This ceased operation in early 2015.\\nOn April 2006, WAWZ-FM started HD radio operations with Star 99.1-2. The eight-hour block of teaching programs resembles the station's mid-1990s format, including the use of the former tagline, WAWZ-Your Voice of Faith and Inspiration. In 2007, 99.1-3, The Energy, was launched to coincide with the station-sponsored annual youth festival, Autumn Blaze 2007. The Energy playlist and consisted of various genres of Christian-themed, youth-oriented music (e.g., Rock, Hip-Hop, Rhythm & Blues). In 2014, The Energy ceased broadcasts on HD and online.\\nIn Early 2015 991 HD3 The Energy returned to WAWZ's HD Side channel.\\nIn Early 2016 991 HD-2 ceased operating it's teaching block and has begun playing an assortment of gospel songs.\",\n \"WBLI\\nWBLI (106.1 <a href=\\\"FM%20broadcasting\\\">FM</a>, \\\"106.1 'BLI\\\") is a <a href=\\\"Contemporary%20Hit%20Radio\\\">Top 40 (CHR)</a> music formatted <a href=\\\"radio%20station\\\">radio station</a> which is owned by <a href=\\\"Cox%20Radio\\\">Cox Radio</a> and licensed to <a href=\\\"Patchogue%2C%20New%20York\\\">Patchogue, New York</a>. The station mainly serves <a href=\\\"Suffolk%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Suffolk</a> and <a href=\\\"Nassau%20County%2C%20New%20York\\\">Nassau</a> Counties on <a href=\\\"Long%20Island\\\">Long Island</a>. It can also be heard in the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20Valley\\\">Hudson Valley</a>, <a href=\\\"Southern%20Connecticut\\\">Southern Connecticut</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Jersey%20Shore\\\">Jersey Shore</a>. Its transmitter is located in <a href=\\\"Selden%2C%20New%20York\\\">Selden, New York</a>, and studios are located at 555 Sunrise Highway (<a href=\\\"New%20York%20State%20Route%2027\\\">NY 27</a>) in <a href=\\\"West%20Babylon%2C%20New%20York\\\">West Babylon, New York</a>.\\nWBLI is programmed by Jeremy \\\"J.J.\\\" Rice who has been with the station since 1998. Rice was formerly PD of <a href=\\\"WWHT\\\">WWHT</a> (Hot 107.9) in <a href=\\\"Syracuse%2C%20New%20York\\\">Syracuse</a> while the station was owned by Cox Radio. When <a href=\\\"Clear%20Channel\\\">Clear Channel</a> purchased WWHT in 1998, Rice moved to Long Island and has since been the program director of WBLI and CHR format director for Cox Radio. The assistant program director is Alan \\\"Al On The Scene\\\" Levine, who has been with 'BLI since February 5, 1995 and has done nights, afternoon drive and now middays.\\nThe station went on the air on December 13, 1957 as WPAC-FM, but gained fame in the 1970s under their new call letters \\\"\\\"The New 106 WBLI\\\"\\\". BLI <a href=\\\"Disc%20jockey\\\">DJs</a> during the 1970s & 1980s included Barry Neal, Randi Taylor, Bruce Michaels, Nick O'Neil, Chris Tyler, Bill Terry (was PD in the 1980s), Jeff Thomas (also the PD), Scott Taylor, Don Nelson, Rick Sommers, Keith Allen (who moved over to <a href=\\\"WBZO\\\">WBZO</a> after BLI), Rob McLean, Mary \\\"J.J. Kennedy\\\" Ann of <a href=\\\"WPLJ\\\">WPLJ</a> and <a href=\\\"WLTW\\\">WLTW</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, Carl Dayton, TK Townsend, Brooke Daniels, Larry Adams, Scott Miller and Kelly Hart. WBLI had a Saturday night dance show called Club 106 during the <a href=\\\"Disco\\\">Disco</a> era, hosted by Long Island club DJ Rory J. Thompson. On Sunday nights BLI aired an <a href=\\\"Oldies\\\">Oldies</a> show known as Only Gold during the 1970s through the mid-1980s hosted by Bruce Michaels and later by Jerry St. James and then Don Nelson. Although technically a CHR/Top 40, WBLI had a more <a href=\\\"adult%20contemporary\\\">adult contemporary</a> sound in certain dayparts and avoided such harder-rocking CHR hits such as \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Love%20Rock%20%27n%27%20Roll\\\">I Love Rock 'n' Roll</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Joan%20Jett%20%26amp%3B%20The%20Blackhearts\\\">Joan Jett & The Blackhearts</a> during their initial chart runs.\\nBy 1991 with CHR on the decline across the country, WBLI evolved into more of a <a href=\\\"Adult%20contemporary%20music\\\">Hot A/C</a> radio station with Steve Harper and news director <a href=\\\"Ken%20Rosato\\\">Ken Rhodes</a> (now <a href=\\\"WABC-TV\\\">WABC-TV</a>'s (channel 7) morning news anchor) in mornings. The station ran various feature weekends such as the \\\"Almost made it but didn't weekend\\\" and \\\"The Ladies of the 80s\\\" etc.. Musically the station was slightly hotter than New York City's WPLJ and <a href=\\\"WWPR-FM\\\">Mix 105 WMXV</a>. In February 1995 WBLI slowly began to move back to Top 40. Long time <a href=\\\"New%20England\\\">New England</a> Top 40 DJ Al Levine \\\"on the scene\\\" joined WBLI. The station also began to run a music video countdown show on Friday nights called \\\"SEGWAY\\\" hosted by Steve Harper and simulcast on<a href=\\\"WLNY-TV\\\">TV55</a>. WBLI also picked up the syndicated Saturday night show <a href=\\\"Open%20House%20Party\\\">Open House Party</a> - which had previously been run on the station in the late 80s.\\nIn July 1996 WBLI was acquired by Chancellor Broadcasting - Ken Rosato exited mornings, Kelly Nash exited afternoons and the station began adding more R & B and Dance product especially at night.\\nIn September 1996 Ken \\\"Doc\\\" Medek was hired to be Program Director after serving in that role in Northeast PA at <a href=\\\"WKRZ\\\">98.5 KRZ</a>.\\nUnder Doc Medek and Al Levine as <a href=\\\"Music%20director\\\">MD</a> and night jock, features like the \\\"Fresh 5 at 9\\\", and the \\\"New Music Challenge\\\" returned. The station redeveloped its CHR sound on Long Island. The station was now voiced by Billy Moore and had a new jingle package by <a href=\\\"TM%20Studios\\\">TM Century</a>. By 1997 'BLI was one of the more rhythmic mainstream CHRs on the air featuring \\\"Classic Dance Weekends\\\". Doc Medek left the station in September 1998 to return to WKRZ.\\nWhen Cox Radio took over 'BLI they evolved into a more mainstream CHR with less dance product (though still more than most other CHR's) and a tighter playlist voiced by Kurt Flood, Mark Driscoll, with Jennifer Vaughn, and Brian James. On March 29, 2006 Beau Weaver took over as voice of 106.1 BLI, and a new jingle package debuted at that time, which is still used today.\\nOn July 11, 2016 Cooper Lawrence formerly of <a href=\\\"WPLJ\\\">WPLJ</a> and Anthony Michaels who had previously co-hosted on the syndicated Cooper Lawrence Show, took over mornings 5:30 - 9am on the station.\\nOn June 30, 2016 the station announced on its <a href=\\\"Facebook\\\">Facebook</a> page that \\\"Dana and Jayson in the Morning\\\" had ended its run.\\nThe morning program, which had begun as \\\"BLI in the Morning,\\\" featured Dana DiDonato, Jayson Prim, John Mingione (John Online), Shawn \\\"Puffy The Producer\\\" Novatt, and Ted Lindner with news and traffic.\\nRecurring segments on BLI in the Morning:\\n\\\"Dana and Jayson in the Morning\\\" often posed questions or opinions to the listeners, both on the air and online. They had many people call in each day with their opinions, and even had some 'friends' who they know well and who called a lot, like \\\"Loyal Listener Lucille,\\\" \\\"Lighthouse Michelle (LHM),\\\" \\\"Millie Milz\\\" and more.\\nSteve Harper (now doing mornings on <a href=\\\"WKJY\\\">K98.3</a> Long Island) had hosted BLI in the AM for 25 years before being let go in the Summer of 2006, with Maria Garcia (Now freelance anchor and reporter on <a href=\\\"WABC%20%28AM%29\\\">770 WABC</a>, <a href=\\\"WCBS%20%28AM%29\\\">WCBS Newsradio 880</a> and <a href=\\\"WOR%20%28AM%29\\\">WOR</a> New York City and freelance contributor for <a href=\\\"ABC%20News%20Radio\\\">ABC News Radio</a>) for about eight of them as \\\"Steve and Maria in the Morning\\\". Maria left in 2005. Dana DiDonato (now mornings at <a href=\\\"KBZT\\\">FM94.9</a> in San Diego CA) joined Steve in January 2006. Steve's last show was on July 19, 2006. Dana then assumed hosting duties alongside Randy \\\"Big Gay Randy\\\" Spears (now retired from radio) and Drew (Drew Appelbaum, now Community Director at <a href=\\\"Yelp\\\">Yelp</a> Long Island NY). Randy and Drew exited the station on December 16, 2010.\\nOn January 10, 2011, the radio station introduced \\\"The New BLI in the Morning\\\", which featured Dana with new co-host Jeffrey Jameson (currently mornings on <a href=\\\"WNEW-FM\\\">Fresh 102.7</a> in New York City), and the return of Shawn \\\"Puffy The Producer\\\" Novatt (now at 90.3 <a href=\\\"WHPC\\\">WHPC</a> Garden City, New York) one month later, who was with BLI in a similar role from 2000–2004.\\nThe show was syndicated to Cox sister-station \\\"Hot 100.9\\\" <a href=\\\"WJSR\\\">WHTI</a>/Richmond, VA and renamed \\\"Dana and Jeffrey in the Morning\\\" on Monday, June 4, 2012. Syndication ended with WHTI was sold to another owner in June, 2013.\\nJeffrey Jameson announced he was leaving in December, 2013 and Jayson Prim (now mornings at <a href=\\\"KBZT\\\">FM94.9</a> in San Diego CA) debuted on January 6, 2014.\\nOn Wednesday, February 27, 2008, Randy of the \\\"BLI in the Morning\\\" show offended a caller from <a href=\\\"Mastic%2C%20New%20York\\\">Mastic</a> Long Island, by insinuating that she lived in a trailer park. After the station received complaints regarding the remarks, and after Randy's refusal to apologize, he was suspended by station management.\\nOn Friday, February 29, 2008, radio announcers <a href=\\\"Gregg%20Hughes\\\">Gregg Hughes</a> and <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Cumia\\\">Anthony Cumia</a> of <a href=\\\"Opie%20and%20Anthony\\\">Opie and Anthony</a>, vocal proponents for free speech in broadcasting, called for the firing of WBLI station manager John Shea for \\\"not standing behind his guy.\\\"\\n\\n\",\n \"WNEW-FM\\nWNEW-FM (102.7 <a href=\\\"FM%20broadcasting\\\">FM</a>, \\\"Fresh 102.7\\\") is a <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> <a href=\\\"hot%20adult%20contemporary\\\">hot adult contemporary</a> <a href=\\\"radio%20station\\\">radio station</a> owned and operated by <a href=\\\"CBS%20Radio\\\">CBS Radio</a>. WNEW-FM's studios are in the combined CBS Radio facility in the <a href=\\\"Soho%2C%20Manhattan\\\">West Soho</a> section of <a href=\\\"Manhattan\\\">Manhattan</a>, and its <a href=\\\"transmitter\\\">transmitter</a> sits atop the <a href=\\\"Empire%20State%20Building\\\">Empire State Building</a>.\\nWNEW-FM is best remembered for one of its previous incarnations, a <a href=\\\"progressive%20rock%20%28radio%20format%29\\\">progressive rock radio format</a> that began in 1967 and lasted into the 1990s. That station became very influential in the development of rock music during the 1970s and 1980s.\\nThe station shared the WNEW <a href=\\\"call%20letters\\\">call letters</a> between 1958 and 1986 with former sister <a href=\\\"AM%20radio\\\">AM</a> station WNEW (1130 kHz) and <a href=\\\"television%20station\\\">television station</a> WNEW-TV (channel 5), with all being owned by <a href=\\\"Metromedia\\\">Metromedia</a>. After WNEW-TV was sold to the <a href=\\\"News%20Corporation\\\">News Corporation</a> in 1986 (and became <a href=\\\"WNYW\\\">WNYW</a>), and the AM station was sold to <a href=\\\"Bloomberg%20L.P.\\\">Bloomberg L.P.</a> in 1992 (and became <a href=\\\"WBBR\\\">WBBR</a>), 102.7 FM retained the WNEW-FM callsign until it was changed in 2007; the callsign letters returned to 102.7 on March 15, 2016.\\nWNEW-FM broadcasts in the <a href=\\\"HD%20Radio\\\">HD Radio</a> format.\\nThe 102.7 FM frequency was first assigned in the mid-1940s as WNJR-FM from <a href=\\\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Newark, New Jersey</a>. Intended to be a simulcasting sister to <a href=\\\"WNJR%20%28AM%29\\\">WNJR</a> (1430 AM, now <a href=\\\"WNSW\\\">WNSW</a>), the FM station never made it to the air despite being granted several extensions of its <a href=\\\"construction%20permit%23Broadcasting\\\">construction permit</a>. WNJR gave up and turned in the FM license to the <a href=\\\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\\\">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) in 1953.\\nIn 1955 the FCC awarded a new permit for 102.7 FM to a group called Fidelity Radio Corporation, based in West Paterson, New Jersey (now <a href=\\\"Woodland%20Park%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Woodland Park</a>). The station was later granted the call sign WHFI, and a year later the <a href=\\\"community%20of%20license\\\">community of license</a> was moved back to Newark from West Paterson. Once again, the owners failed to put the station on the air.\\nIn November 1957, the WHFI construction permit was purchased by the DuMont Broadcasting Corporation, which already owned WABD (later WNEW-TV) and earlier in the year bought WNEW radio. In January 1958, WHFI was renamed WNEW-FM and DuMont completed its build-out, moving the license to New York City. The station finally came on the air on August 25, 1958, mostly simulcasting WNEW (AM) with a <a href=\\\"popular%20music\\\">popular music</a> format. DuMont Broadcasting, meanwhile, would change its corporate name twice within the next three years before settling on <a href=\\\"Metromedia\\\">Metromedia</a> in 1961.\\nWNEW-FM's early programming also included an <a href=\\\"automation\\\">automated</a> <a href=\\\"middle-of-the-road\\\">middle-of-the-road</a> (MOR) format, followed quickly by a period (<a href=\\\"Independence%20Day%20%28United%20States%29\\\">July 4</a>, 1966, to September 1967) playing pop music with an unusual twist in its day...an all-female air staff. The gimmick was unique and had not before been attempted anywhere in American radio. The lineup of <a href=\\\"disc%20jockey\\\">disc jockey</a>s during this stunt included actress and TV personality <a href=\\\"Peggy%20Cass\\\">Peggy Cass</a>, <a href=\\\"Alison%20Steele\\\">Alison Steele</a> (who stayed on to become the \\\"Night Bird\\\" on the progressive rock format), Rita Sands (later with <a href=\\\"WCBS%20%28AM%29\\\">WCBS</a> Newsradio 880), Margaret Draper, Ann Clements, Arlene Kieta, Pam McKissick, and Nell Bassett. The music was similar to that of WNEW (AM)'s MOR format. But only Cass, Steele, Sands, and Bassett had broadcast experience, and not as disc jockeys. Meanwhile, the male DJs on WNEW (AM) were still very popular, so it was hard for WNEW-FM to find an audience. The all-female disc jockey lineup endured for a little more than a year, switching in September 1967 to a mixed-gender staff, before a major change the following month.\\nOn October 30, 1967, WNEW-FM adopted a <a href=\\\"progressive%20rock%20%28radio%20format%29\\\">progressive rock</a> radio format. It was not the first in New York to do so – <a href=\\\"WOR-FM\\\">WOR-FM</a> preceded it – but it was the one that prospered and became famous for the format and that in turn influenced the rock listenership as well as the rock industry. The original disc jockeys were <a href=\\\"William%20%28Rosko%29%20Mercer\\\">Bill \\\"Rosko\\\" Mercer</a>, who started on October 30, 1967; <a href=\\\"Jonathan%20Schwartz%20%28radio%29\\\">Jonathan Schwartz</a>, who made his debut on November 16, 1967; and \\\"the Professor\\\" <a href=\\\"Scott%20Muni\\\">Scott Muni</a>, who first appeared on November 18, 1967. Alison Steele would stay on from the female staff and eventually take over the overnight shift on January 1, 1968.\\nThe station's <a href=\\\"disc%20jockey\\\">disc jockey</a>s would broadcast in ways that bore out their personalities:\\nOther well-known disc jockeys who worked at the station included <a href=\\\"Dennis%20Elsas\\\">Dennis Elsas</a>, <a href=\\\"Carol%20Miller%20%28disc%20jockey%29\\\">Carol Miller</a>, Pete Larkin, brothers Dan Neer and <a href=\\\"Richard%20Neer\\\">Richard Neer</a>, Jim Monaghan, Pam Merly, Thom Morrera, <a href=\\\"Meg%20Griffin%20%28radio%20personality%29\\\">Meg Griffin</a>, and <a href=\\\"John%20Zacherle\\\">John Zacherle</a>.\\nWNEW-FM was among the first stations to give <a href=\\\"Bruce%20Springsteen\\\">Bruce Springsteen</a> significant airplay, and conducted live broadcasts of key Springsteen concerts in 1975 and 1978; Springsteen would sometimes call up the DJs during records. Later, Dave Herman featured a \\\"Bruce Juice\\\" segment each morning. <a href=\\\"John%20Lennon\\\">John Lennon</a> once stopped by to guest-DJ along with Dennis Elsas and appeared on-air several other times during his friend <a href=\\\"Scott%20Muni\\\">Scott Muni</a>'s afternoon slot. Members of the <a href=\\\"Grateful%20Dead\\\">Grateful Dead</a> and other groups would hang out in the studio; <a href=\\\"Emerson%2C%20Lake%20%26amp%3B%20Palmer\\\">Emerson, Lake & Palmer</a>'s visit to Muni's show is often credited for popularizing the group in America. In addition to music, youth-oriented <a href=\\\"comedy%20record\\\">comedy record</a>ings such as from <a href=\\\"Monty%20Python\\\">Monty Python</a> would also be aired.\\nThe station sponsored a <a href=\\\"benefit%20concert\\\">benefit concert</a> at <a href=\\\"Madison%20Square%20Garden\\\">Madison Square Garden</a> each holiday season that drew reasonably big-name acts.\\nThe station thrived during the late 1970s when it helped boost the transition of the <a href=\\\"punk%20rock\\\">punk rock</a>/<a href=\\\"New%20wave%20music\\\">new wave</a> movement into the mainstream. During this era, the station hosted many live broadcasts from the legendary Greenwich Village night club, <a href=\\\"The%20Bottom%20Line%20%28venue%29\\\">The Bottom Line</a>. Among the bands featured live from the club were <a href=\\\"The%20Police\\\">The Police</a>, <a href=\\\"Joe%20Jackson%20%28musician%29\\\">Joe Jackson</a>, <a href=\\\"Squeeze%20%28band%29\\\">Squeeze</a>, The Records, Rachel Sweet, <a href=\\\"David%20Johansen\\\">David Johansen</a>, Rockpile, <a href=\\\"Mink%20DeVille\\\">Mink DeVille</a> and the Tom Robinson Band. Many of these bands were being spotlighted during their debut New York City performance.\\nAt the same time, the station began to feel the threat of disco. They hired Gianettino and Meredith Advertising to come up with a way to communicate with the New York area. The pitch by creative director George Meredith to station manager <a href=\\\"Mel%20Karmazin\\\">Mel Karmazin</a>: \\\"You can't tell them what you want to say, which is 'Disco Sucks,' but you can tell them that 'Rock Lives.'\\\" That became their battle cry, and it could fairly be said that WNEW-FM earned the slogan \\\"Where Rock Lives\\\". The station's television commercials during these years featured the song \\\"<a href=\\\"Layla\\\">Layla</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Derek%20and%20the%20Dominos\\\">Derek and the Dominos</a> and was considered one of the station's anthems.\\nBeginning in the mid 1970s and extending into the 1980s, WNEW fielded a successful softball team, the WNEW All-Stars, playing in and around the New York metropolitan area and competing in the New York Sports and Entertainment League. Among the All-Stars were DJs Thom Morrera, Jim Monaghan, Richard Neer, Dan Neer and Pat Dawson, along with \\\"<a href=\\\"Crawdaddy%21\\\">Crawdaddy</a>\\\" editor <a href=\\\"Peter%20Knobler\\\">Peter Knobler</a> at shortstop, music business regulars Bobby Diebold, Jack Hopke, Ed Vitale, Matt Birkbeck, Ralph Cuccurullo and John \\\"Boots\\\" Boulos in the outfield, and Michael \\\"Chopper\\\" Boulos at second base. The team consistently won deep into the playoffs, playing against teams led by <a href=\\\"Meat%20Loaf\\\">Meat Loaf</a>, among others.\\nOn the evening of December 8, 1980, following news of the <a href=\\\"Death%20of%20John%20Lennon\\\">murder</a> of <a href=\\\"John%20Lennon\\\">John Lennon</a>, WNEW-FM opened up its lines for calls from listeners.\\nIn the 1980s, the station gradually adopted a more conventional <a href=\\\"album-oriented%20rock\\\">album-oriented rock</a> format, and sometimes seemed stodgy compared to <a href=\\\"Campus%20radio\\\">college radio</a> stations playing <a href=\\\"alternative%20rock\\\">alternative rock</a>. When long-time competitor <a href=\\\"WPLJ\\\">WPLJ</a> switched away from rock in 1983, WNEW-FM picked up some of its most popular DJs, such as Carol Miller, and years later, <a href=\\\"Pat%20St.%20John\\\">Pat St. John</a>, who would take over the morning show and programming duties.\\nIn 1986, following the sale of WNEW-TV and Metromedia's other television outlets to <a href=\\\"News%20Corporation\\\">News Corporation</a>, the company's radio station group was spun off from Metromedia into a new company, Metropolitan Broadcasting. Two years later, WNEW-FM was sold to <a href=\\\"Westinghouse%20Broadcasting\\\">Westinghouse Broadcasting</a>, bringing it into common ownership with all-news outlet <a href=\\\"WINS%20%28AM%29\\\">WINS</a>. WNEW-FM and WINS became CBS-owned stations in 1996, when Westinghouse Broadcasting's <a href=\\\"Westinghouse%20Electric%20%281886%29\\\">corporate parent</a> purchased the network.\\nBy the 1990s, the station was further losing relevance in the face of the popularity of <a href=\\\"grunge\\\">grunge rock</a> and so became more of a <a href=\\\"classic%20rock\\\">classic rock</a> station. It spent its remaining music days flip flopping between a variety of classic, adult album and alternative rock.\\nOn September 1, 1990, WNEW-FM began simulcasting on <a href=\\\"WLIR-FM\\\">WWHB-FM</a> on <a href=\\\"Long%20Island\\\">Long Island</a>. The simulcast would be dropped on December 7, 1996, when that station flipped to <a href=\\\"country%20music\\\">country</a> and joined a <a href=\\\"WYNY%20%28defunct%29\\\">simulcast with a network of suburban stations</a> as \\\"Y-107.\\\"\\nIn 1995, WNEW-FM adopted an <a href=\\\"adult%20album%20alternative\\\">adult album alternative</a> format. The station, which now had the slogan of \\\"New York's Rock Alternative\\\", evolved to an eclectic mix of adult rock by the end of 1995. Longtime listeners were alienated when <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Garcia\\\">Jerry Garcia</a>'s death on August 9, 1995 was virtually ignored by the station.\\nIn January 1996, the station declined to switch to classic rock when WXRK, also known as \\\"K-Rock\\\" (now <a href=\\\"WBMP%20%28FM%29\\\">WBMP</a>), which had a classic rock format for several years, decided to adopt an <a href=\\\"alternative%20rock\\\">alternative rock</a> format. In July 1996, <a href=\\\"WAXQ\\\">WAXQ</a> adopted a classic rock format. By the beginning of 1997, the station reverted to a classic rock station, becoming the second choice for the format when earlier they could have been first. At this point, many long-time fans felt WNEW-FM had completely lost its focus.\\nThroughout the 1990s, many of WNEW-FM's DJs defected to classic rock competitors WXRK and later <a href=\\\"WAXQ\\\">WAXQ</a>, or to smaller but more freeform <a href=\\\"WFUV\\\">WFUV</a>. Ratings remained dismal. In 1996, Westinghouse merged with CBS. <a href=\\\"Infinity%20Broadcasting\\\">Infinity Broadcasting</a> would then merge with CBS in 1997, and CBS retained the Infinity name for its radio division; thus, ownership of this station would go from one network owner to another.\\nIn December 1997, sister station WFAN (then flagship station of the <a href=\\\"MetroStars\\\">MetroStars</a>) announced that WNEW-FM would be their FM flagship station after <a href=\\\"Infinity%20Broadcasting%20Corporation\\\">Infinity Broadcasting Corporation</a> (now <a href=\\\"CBS%20Radio\\\">CBS Radio</a>) reached a six-year extension deal (starting in the <a href=\\\"1998%20MLS%20season\\\">1998 MLS season</a>) with the <a href=\\\"MSG%20%28TV%20network%29\\\">MSG Network</a> and the MetroStars to simulcast their games until the <a href=\\\"2004%20MLS%20season\\\">2004 season</a>. However, in the fall of 2004, the MetroStars and the MSG Network reached a deal with <a href=\\\"The%20Walt%20Disney%20Company\\\">Disney</a>-owned radio station <a href=\\\"WEPN%20%28AM%29\\\">WEPN</a> and then-sister FM station <a href=\\\"WPLJ\\\">WPLJ</a> to broadcast their games, ending their relationship with Infinity/CBS Radio.\\nIn 1998, WNEW-FM moved to a harder-edged <a href=\\\"active%20rock\\\">active rock</a> format and continued to slump in the ratings. The remaining older DJs left on the station departed one by one during 1998. In June of that year, ex-Boston <a href=\\\"shock%20jock\\\">shock jock</a>s <a href=\\\"Opie%20and%20Anthony\\\">Opie and Anthony</a> arrived from <a href=\\\"WAAF%20%28FM%29\\\">WAAF</a> to do afternoons on WNEW. They played several songs an hour, but for the most part, the show was a typical shock-jock talk show. Opie and Anthony immediately got attention from the station by interrupting their annual \\\"Evolution of Rock and Roll\\\" event by refusing to play the music, or destroying the CDs. They were confronted by WNEW peer Carol Miller a few times on the air, until they were forbidden by management to make eye contact.\\nWith Opie and Anthony's ratings soaring, the station decided to drop its 32-year rock format for a \\\"hot talk\\\" format. On September 12, 1999, sole remaining long-time jock Richard Neer signed off his Sunday morning show by playing <a href=\\\"Bruce%20Springsteen\\\">Bruce Springsteen</a>'s dirge-like \\\"<a href=\\\"Racing%20in%20the%20Street\\\">Racing in the Street</a>\\\", and identifying the station one last time, changing the slogan to \\\"Where Rock Lived\\\".\\nThe day after, on September 13, in the run-up to 3 p.m., the rock format ended with an all-request midday show by Ralph Tortora (which featured a phone call from <a href=\\\"Billy%20Joel\\\">Billy Joel</a>, who talked about the impact WNEW had on his life), which concluded with \\\"<a href=\\\"Thank%20You%20%28Led%20Zeppelin%20song%29\\\">Thank You</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Led%20Zeppelin\\\">Led Zeppelin</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Better%20Things%20%28song%29\\\">Better Things</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"The%20Kinks\\\">The Kinks</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20End%20%28Beatles%20song%29\\\">The End</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"The%20Beatles\\\">The Beatles</a>, followed by the famous final chord of their song \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Day%20in%20the%20Life\\\">A Day in the Life</a>\\\".\\nAfter a commercial break, the new <a href=\\\"hot%20talk\\\">hot talk</a> format officially began as \\\"FM Talk @ 102.7, Talk You Can't Ignore\\\". Opie and Anthony signed on the talk format by saying that WNEW didn't die that day or that week, but that \\\"it died years ago\\\", saying that WNEW's death had been \\\"the longest funeral ever\\\", and inaugurated \\\"FM Talk\\\" by holding an on-air funeral for the old rock format, complete with a coffin, hearse, and <a href=\\\"The%20fat%20lady%20sings\\\">a fat lady</a> singing \\\"<a href=\\\"Na%20Na%20Hey%20Hey%20Kiss%20Him%20Goodbye\\\">Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye</a>\\\".\\nThe new format consisted of shock jocks, such as <a href=\\\"Opie%20and%20Anthony\\\">Opie and Anthony</a>, <a href=\\\"Don%20and%20Mike\\\">Don and Mike</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Radio%20Chick\\\">The Radio Chick</a>, <a href=\\\"Ron%20and%20Fez\\\">Ron and Fez</a> and <a href=\\\"Tom%20Leykis\\\">Tom Leykis</a>. Mornings featured \\\"guy talk\\\" from \\\"Mason & Kalinsky\\\", who would be replaced by morning programming that revolved around sports, such as \\\"The Sports Guys\\\" and \\\"Ferrall In The Morning\\\" hosted by <a href=\\\"Scott%20Ferrall\\\">Scott Ferrall</a> (now with <a href=\\\"CBS%20Sports%20Radio\\\">CBS Sports Radio</a>), while overnight programming featured syndicated programs such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Loveline\\\">Loveline</a>\\\" and repeats of weekday programming. On weekends, the station retained a hard rock format, as Opie and Anthony gradually stopped playing music by July 2000. Also in 2000, <a href=\\\"Viacom\\\">Viacom</a> acquired CBS/Infinity Broadcasting, but kept the radio division under the \\\"Infinity\\\" banner. By 2001, WNEW added <a href=\\\"infomercial\\\">infomercial</a>s on weekends and stopped playing music altogether, with the exception of <a href=\\\"Eddie%20Trunk\\\">Eddie Trunk</a>'s Friday and Saturday night hard rock-oriented shows, as well as Vin Scelsa's \\\"Idiot's Delight\\\".\\nOn <a href=\\\"September%2011%2C%202001\\\">September 11, 2001</a>, Opie and Anthony did their show live from the <a href=\\\"WLIR\\\">WLIR</a> studios because of the terrorist attacks on the <a href=\\\"World%20Trade%20Center%20%281973%E2%80%932001%29\\\">World Trade Center</a>, which caused city officials to block all roads going into <a href=\\\"Manhattan\\\">Manhattan</a>. The <a href=\\\"Don%20and%20Mike%20Show\\\">Don and Mike Show</a> started their midday program a little earlier than usual, and stayed on for most of the morning and mid-afternoon. <a href=\\\"Ron%20and%20Fez\\\">Ron and Fez</a> did their show at WNEW at the regular time. All three shows opened the airways and let the listeners speak their minds and let other listeners who were looking for loved ones search for them by descriptions.\\nDuring this time, the station's ratings were abysmal apart from Opie and Anthony. The beginning of the end for the \\\"hot talk\\\" format came in August 2002, when Opie and Anthony were fired for encouraging a stunt involving two people allegedly engaging in sexual intercourse in a vestibule within <a href=\\\"St.%20Patrick%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20New%20York\\\">St. Patrick's Cathedral</a>. The FCC eventually fined Infinity $357,000—the maximum fine allowed by law, and the third largest indecency fine in American radio history at the time. FCC Commissioner <a href=\\\"Michael%20Copps\\\">Michael Copps</a> dissented, claiming the FCC should have taken steps to revoke WNEW's license. A few months earlier, the FCC had fined Infinity $21,000 for three \\\"patently offensive\\\" Opie and Anthony broadcasts, including one referring to <a href=\\\"incest\\\">incest</a>.\\nThe station's ratings plummeted even further—at one point, it only netted a 0.7 rating, an unprecedented level for a major-market FM station, and lower than ratings for noncommercial stations. With the cancellation of the only show that generated any ratings for the station, management decided that the station needed to take a new direction.\\nOn the morning of January 27, 2003, WNEW-FM dropped the talk format and <a href=\\\"stunting%20%28broadcasting%29\\\">stunted</a> for the next 3 months with <a href=\\\"Contemporary%20hit%20radio\\\">CHR</a> music, using a limited playlist of approximately 50 songs from artists like <a href=\\\"Pink%20%28singer%29\\\">Pink</a>, <a href=\\\"Eminem\\\">Eminem</a>, <a href=\\\"Bowling%20for%20Soup\\\">Bowling for Soup</a>, and <a href=\\\"Avril%20Lavigne\\\">Avril Lavigne</a>, as well as nightly simulcasts of <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Late%20Show%20with%20David%20Letterman\\\">Late Show with David Letterman</a>\\\".\\nHowever, the station's ratings sank further. The station's pink logo led to the derisive nickname \\\"Barbie Radio\\\", and Booker & Lopez did little more on the air than talk about <a href=\\\"Jennifer%20Lopez\\\">Jennifer Lopez</a>, Lynda's older sister. On September 12, the station fired most of the staff, rebranded as \\\"102.7 Blink FM: Music Women Love\\\", and adopted a more mainstream <a href=\\\"adult%20contemporary\\\">adult contemporary</a> format, with ratings going up slightly. That November, the station (like many AC stations) adopted the increasingly popular \\\"all Christmas music, all the time\\\" format, and dropped the \\\"Blink\\\" format after less than 7 months for the name \\\"New York's New 102.7 FM\\\".\\nOn December 26, 2003, at 10:27 AM, the station became \\\"Mix 102.7\\\", making the switch to a more <a href=\\\"Rhythmic%20AC\\\">Rhythmic-leaning adult contemporary</a> format. The station played a range of upbeat, danceable hits from the 1970s to the 2000s, and used the slogan \\\"The Station That Picks You Up and Makes You Feel Good.\\\" The first song on \\\"Mix\\\" was \\\"<a href=\\\"Ain%27t%20No%20Stoppin%27%20Us%20Now\\\">Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"McFadden%20%26amp%3B%20Whitehead\\\">McFadden & Whitehead</a>. The original program director was Smokey Rivers, and the music director was Rick Martini. WNEW initially was a mainstream AC, but began to focus on dance hits, mainly from the 1970s and 1980s, by the end of January. In the succeeding months, the \\\"mix\\\" tended to skew towards 90s and current dance hits (during this time, program director Frankie Blue was fired for drunken on-air behavior, not only saying \\\"<a href=\\\"fuck\\\">fuck</a>\\\" on-air, but also misidentifying the station as rival \\\"<a href=\\\"WKTU\\\">103.5 KTU</a>\\\"), with this all culminating in a change with Rick Martini as the new Program Director and an official \\\"classic dance\\\" or <a href=\\\"Rhythmic%20AC\\\">Rhythmic AC</a> format in early 2005 under the slogan \\\"Move to the Mix\\\", and in the later months, adopted the \\\"New York's Classic Dance Mix\\\" slogan. However, the \\\"Mix 102.7\\\" moniker and the WNEW call letters remained. Ratings continued to be among the lowest of any major station in New York City.\\nOn December 31, 2005, the station underwent another ownership change after Viacom and <a href=\\\"CBS%20Corporation\\\">CBS Corporation</a> organized a split that saw the Infinity Broadcasting division go under CBS ownership, which resulted in a corporate name change to <a href=\\\"CBS%20Radio\\\">CBS Radio</a>.\\nIn December 2006, the station began increasing the amount of Christmas music, but at the same time saw <a href=\\\"Michelle%20Visage\\\">Michelle Visage</a> being let go and Joe Causi being reduced to weekend duties, relegating him to his Sunday night <a href=\\\"Studio%2054\\\">Studio 54</a> classic Disco program. As of December 22, 2006, Paco Lopez, Efren Sifuentes, Carol Ford and Yvonne Velázquez had also been released in anticipation of an expected format change.\\nIn 2006, WNEW launched WNEW2, an <a href=\\\"HD%20Radio\\\">HD Radio</a> subchannel, broadcasting <a href=\\\"WINS%20%28AM%29\\\">1010 WINS</a>.\\nAt 5 AM on January 2, 2007, after playing <a href=\\\"Kool%20and%20the%20Gang\\\">Kool and the Gang</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Fresh%20%28Kool%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Gang%20song%29\\\">Fresh</a>\\\", WNEW flipped to an <a href=\\\"adult%20contemporary\\\">adult contemporary</a> format with a verge towards <a href=\\\"hot%20adult%20contemporary\\\">hot adult contemporary</a> known as \\\"Fresh 102.7\\\", with \\\"<a href=\\\"How%20to%20Save%20a%20Life\\\">How to Save a Life</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"The%20Fray%20%28band%29\\\">The Fray</a> being the first song played. Program Director Rick Martini remained in charge of programming the new format, targeted to a younger (age 25–44) female audience, with claims of a playlist \\\"without the kid stuff or tired, old and boring music like the lite station\\\" (though the former is no longer mentioned), an obvious shot at competitor <a href=\\\"WLTW\\\">WLTW</a> (in response, the station briefly dropped its \\\"Lite FM\\\" moniker and was referred to on-air as simply \\\"106.7\\\" during that time). The station would also compete against <a href=\\\"WPLJ\\\">WPLJ</a>. Around <a href=\\\"2009%20in%20radio\\\">2009</a>, the station began to add more 1980s hits (most of which couldn't be played on its <a href=\\\"classic%20hits\\\">classic hits</a> sister station <a href=\\\"WCBS-FM\\\">WCBS-FM</a>).\\nThe WWFS calls were approved on January 9, 2007, by the <a href=\\\"Federal%20Communications%20Commission\\\">Federal Communications Commission</a>, resulting in the WNEW calls disappearing from the New York radio/television spectrum after being used continuously in the market since 1934. The WNEW <a href=\\\"call%20sign\\\">call letters</a> were transferred to <a href=\\\"WUUB\\\">a CBS-owned station</a> in <a href=\\\"West%20Palm%20Beach%2C%20Florida\\\">West Palm Beach, Florida</a> during the second week of January 2007, reportedly to keep another New York station from claiming the historic call. In December 2011, CBS again transferred the WNEW call letters to 99.1FM in Washington, D.C. as it began an all-news format.\\nUntil the launch of WWFS, Clear Channel's WLTW had gone unchallenged as the only adult contemporary station in New York City (along with <a href=\\\"New%20Brunswick%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">New Brunswick, New Jersey</a>'s <a href=\\\"WMGQ\\\">WMGQ</a>, a <a href=\\\"Greater%20Media\\\">Greater Media</a>-owned AC station that is a New York City <a href=\\\"rimshot%20%28broadcasting%29\\\">rimshot</a> and <a href=\\\"Hempstead%2C%20New%20York\\\">Hempstead, New York</a>'s <a href=\\\"WKJY\\\">WKJY</a>, another <a href=\\\"rimshot%20%28broadcasting%29\\\">rimshot</a>, although both stations are on 98.3), and was the most listened to station in the city for years. WWFS's ratings improved after switching to the adult contemporary format, with increases in both the Winter 2007 and Spring 2007 ratings periods. After a peak 3.1 rating in the Spring 2007 period, WWFS settled down to a 2.5 rating in the Summer 2007 period. Some speculate that WWFS has drawn listeners from WLTW, causing that station's ratings to decline.\\nAs a result of the station's success, CBS Radio cloned the format and branding in <a href=\\\"Chicago\\\">Chicago</a> on <a href=\\\"WCFS-FM\\\">WCFS-FM</a> and Washington, D.C. on <a href=\\\"WIAD\\\">WIAD</a>, although the Washington station is <a href=\\\"Hot%20AC\\\">Hot AC</a>.\\nOn October 12, <a href=\\\"2011%20in%20radio\\\">2011</a>, the station dropped <a href=\\\"adult%20contemporary\\\">adult contemporary</a> along with its \\\"Today's Fresh Music\\\" slogan and changed to the current slogan as WWFS was moved to the <a href=\\\"Nielsen%20BDS\\\">Nielsen BDS</a> <a href=\\\"hot%20adult%20contemporary\\\">hot adult contemporary</a> panel from the <a href=\\\"adult%20contemporary\\\">adult contemporary</a> panel with <a href=\\\"Mediabase\\\">Mediabase</a> following suit as of October 28, 2011. However, <a href=\\\"CBS%20Radio\\\">CBS Radio</a> still reports the station as an AC. WWFS did not switch to all-Christmas music on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, 2011, as main rival <a href=\\\"WPLJ\\\">WPLJ</a> aired <a href=\\\"Christmas%20music\\\">Christmas music</a> during those days.\\nSince the hot AC switch at WWFS, ratings have been strong, surpassing WPLJ by having a 3.9 share over WPLJ's 2.7 in December <a href=\\\"2011%20in%20radio\\\">2011</a>. As of 2015, they started adding more adult-targeting <a href=\\\"alternative%20rock\\\">alternative music</a> to their playlist and have seen an increase in the ratings from 2.4 in June 2015 to 3.5 in July 2015.\\nOn March 15, 2016, the station reverted to the WNEW-FM callsign, as the previous station to hold the calls changed theirs to <a href=\\\"WDCH-FM\\\">WDCH-FM</a> at the same time.\\nIn April 2003, WNEW-FM launched the \\\"Blink\\\" format by saying \\\"The first FM station in New York to broadcast in high definition radio.\\\"\\nWNEW-HD2 was launched in <a href=\\\"2006%20in%20radio\\\">2006</a> as a simulcast of all-news sister station 1010 <a href=\\\"WINS%20%28AM%29\\\">WINS</a>. On April 12, 2008, WNEW-HD2 (as WWFS-HD2) flipped to a rock format, under the branding of \\\"102.7 WNEW\\\" and the slogan \\\"Where Rock Lives\\\" and <a href=\\\"http%3A//wnew.radio.com\\\">wnew.radio.com</a> (The website and audio stream being launched on April 14, 2008) with <a href=\\\"WXRT\\\">WXRT</a>'s Norm Winer as Program Director. In early October 2008, the WINS simulcast returned to 102.7 on WWFS-HD3.\\nIn 2009, the rock format on WWFS-HD2 switched to an alternative format from internet radio website <a href=\\\"last.fm\\\">last.fm</a> known as \\\"Last FM Discover\\\", which airs on several CBS owned HD side channels including <a href=\\\"WXRT\\\">WXRT</a> HD-3 in Chicago. The WNEW rock format is web exclusive at wnew.radio.com.\\nIn November 2012, WWFS-HD2 flipped to an all-Christmas format. The Christmas format continued into January and early February. On February 7, 2013, the all-Christmas format changed to a mainstream Smooth Jazz format under the name \\\"Smooth Jazz 102.7\\\". This was most likely made because when CBS bought WRXP (to become <a href=\\\"WFAN-FM\\\">WFAN-FM</a>), which had the Smooth Jazz/Smooth AC format on their HD2 channel (\\\"CD 101.9\\\"), it was taken away as the HD transmitter was turned off on the frequency, which left no Smooth Jazz music to be broadcast anywhere in the New York area prior to the aforementioned date. WNEW-FM is licensed by the FCC to broadcast in the <a href=\\\"HD%20Radio\\\">HD</a> format.\\nIn 2016, WNEW-HD4 (as WWFS-HD4) signed on with a Russian language format as \\\"Russkaya Reklama.\\\"\\nFormat Changes\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["WLIR-FM (107.1 FM, \"Hope Radio\") is a contemporary Christian music radio station. Licensed to Hampton Bays, New York, WLIR-FM serves the Long Island area. Its transmitter is currently located near East Quogue, New York.","Honeyman: Live 1973 is a live album by rock artist Tim Buckley. The album was recorded as a live radio broadcast for radio station WLIR in New York City, United States on November 27, 1973."],"string":"[\n \"WLIR-FM (107.1 FM, \\\"Hope Radio\\\") is a contemporary Christian music radio station. Licensed to Hampton Bays, New York, WLIR-FM serves the Long Island area. Its transmitter is currently located near East Quogue, New York.\",\n \"Honeyman: Live 1973 is a live album by rock artist Tim Buckley. The album was recorded as a live radio broadcast for radio station WLIR in New York City, United States on November 27, 1973.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":80,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which persons name the Avoca Lodge is known who is the wife of James Joseph Brown and \"RMS Titanic\" survivor?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Molly Brown"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Titanic: The Complete Story\nTitanic: The Complete Story is an American documentary chronicling the story of the ocean liner RMS Titanic which sank on its maiden voyage in 1912. This is a compilation of a four-hour documentary special produced by A&E Television Networks in 1994. A&E Home Video originally sold the entire documentary in a 4-tape VHS set. It is considered by many critics and historians to be the definitive documentary regarding the \"Titanic\".\nThe documentary is narrated by actor David McCallum (who played survivor Harold Bride in the film A Night to Remember) and begins with a quote from first-class passenger Jack Thayer, about how the world's mindset was forever altered by the sinking. Rare interviews with some of the few remaining \"Titanic\" survivors, including Edith Brown, Eva Hart, Ruth Becker (who had already died in 1990), Millvina Dean, and Michel Marcel Navratil; discussions with leading historical authorities on the sinking, including Charles Haas, John Eaton, Ken Marschall, Don Lynch and Robert Ballard; and excerpts from survivor's writings and newspaper articles accompany McCallum's telling of the story.\nThe documentary is presented in two parts:\nThe first half, \"Titanic: Death of a Dream\", encapsulates the first two hours. It tells the story of the RMS \"Titanic\"' s origins, from its conception and construction, to its maiden voyage, leading up to the initial collision with the iceberg that would ultimately sink the ship.\nThe second half, \"Titanic: The Legend Lives On\", concentrates on the ship's sinking, its immediate aftermath, and its discovery in 1985 by Dr. Robert Ballard, along with Titanic's continuing legacy.\n\"Titanic: The Complete Story\" is considered by many critics and historians to be the definitive documentary regarding the \"Titanic\". Additionally, critics were impressed by certain camera tricks used throughout the program, such as a static image of the ship which slowly panned across the screen, overlaid atop videotaped footage of an ocean view, simulating footage of the ship sailing in real time.\n","Alice Cleaver\nAlice Catherine Cleaver was a survivor of the \"RMS Titanic\" and nursemaid for the Allison family, wealthy insurance moguls from Canada during the early 20th century. She is best known for rescuing the youngest Allison child, Trevor, from the \"Titanic\". Little is known about her later life, as she refused to give interviews after surviving the shipwreck. She was the subject of books and movies that misidentified her as Alice Mary Cleaver, a woman who was infamous for murdering her own infant.\nAlice Catherine Cleaver was born in London on 5 July 1889. Her father Joseph Cleaver was a postman, and her mother was Lavinia Alice Cleaver (maiden name Thomas).\nWhen she was 22, Cleaver was hired by the Allison family to be a nursemaid for their youngest child, Trevor. She traveled first class on the \"Titanic\" with them (under ticket No. 113781) and boarded in Southampton. She stayed in the same room as Trevor so that she could care for him, which was right next to the parents in first class.\nOn 14 April 1912 the RMS \"Titanic\" struck an iceberg and started to sink. Cleaver took Trevor into her lifeboat, but didn't tell anyone. Speculation claims this confusion could have led to the Allison family perishing, as the mother Bess would not want to leave her son behind. Testimony from that night has speculated why she never alerted the Allisons to her departure from her room, but Cleaver herself never spoke of the incident.\nThere has been some confusion over the age and identity of Alice Cleaver, with some mistaking her for Alice Mary Cleaver, a woman who was convicted in 1909 for the murder of her own child. This misconception was printed as fact in at least two books about the sinking of the \"Titanic\", \"Titanic: An Illustrated History\" (1992) and \"Titanic: Women and Children First\" (1998), and was included as part of the plot for the 1996 television mini-series \"Titanic.\" In the miniseries Cleaver was portrayed as an emotionally unstable young woman who has premonitions of the disaster, who then sees the opportunity to rescue baby Trevor from the sinking ship as a saving grace from her tumultuous past.\nCleaver's age has also been debated due to descriptions of her being a competent nursemaid and a good maternal figure, which \"Titanic Lives\" author Rob Rondeau believes were indicative of an older woman.","James Joseph Brown\nJames Joseph \"J.J.\" Brown (September 27, 1854 – September 5, 1922), was an American mining engineer, inventor, and self-made member of fashionable \"society\". His wife was \"RMS Titanic\" survivor Molly Brown.\nJ.J. was born in Waymart, Pennsylvania. His father, James Brown, was an Irish immigrant. His mother, Cecilia Palmer, was a schoolteacher. J.J's family moved to Pittston, Pennsylvania shortly after his birth. J.J's mother home-schooled him and later sent him to St. John's Academy. He left home at the age of 23, lured by the riches in the West. His first stop was a farm in Nebraska. From Nebraska he moved to the placer mines in the Dakotas. He spent two years learning the mining trade before moving to Colorado where he tried his luck in Georgetown, Aspen, and Ashcroft. He spent another two years in the Aspen and Ashcroft area before moving to Alma, Fairplay, Red Cliff, and, finally, Leadville. He studied geology, ore deposits, and mining techniques to become a better miner.\nJ.J. married Margaret Tobin on September 1, 1886, in Leadville's Annunciation Church. Margaret was later known as \"The Unsinkable Molly Brown\" when a Broadway fictionalized movie about her life titled, \"The Unsinkable Molly Brown\" was released in 1964. That was how Margaret's moniker \"Molly\" was acquired. Margaret Brown was one of the survivors of the RMS Titanic sinking in 1912. At the time of their marriage, J.J. was 31 and Margaret was 19. They first settled in Leadville, Colorado in a small, two-room log cabin, then later moved to a two bedroom house at 320 East Ninth Street. The Browns had two children. Their first child, Lawrence Palmer Brown, nicknamed Larry, was born on August 30, 1887 in his maternal grandparents' four room cottage near the Mississippi River in Hannibal, Missouri. Larry married Eileen Elizabeth Horton (1890–1985) on January 1, 1911 in Kansas City, Missouri. They had two children, Lawrence Palmer \"Pat\" Brown Jr. (1911–1976) and Elizabeth \"Betty\" Brown (1913–1974). The marriage failed and Larry married Hollywood actress Mildred Gregory (1895–1956) on November 17, 1926 in Beverly Hills, California. This marriage produced no other children. Larry died on April 2, 1949. J.J. and Margaret's second child, Catherine Ellen Brown, nicknamed Helen, was born on July 22, 1889 in her parents' three bedroom house at 322 West Seventh Street in Leadville, Colorado. She married George Joseph Peter Adelheid Benziger (1877–1970) on April 7, 1913 in Chicago, Illinois. Her children were James George Benziger (1914–1995) and George Peter Joseph Adelrich Benziger (1917–1985). Her grandchildren include Bradford Benziger (born December 13, 1944), Katherine Benziger (born July 12, 1947), Vincent Benziger (born August 3, 1950), Pamela Benziger Feeley (born 1946), Alice Lynne Davy (born 1948), Helen Anne Benziger (born 1950) and Heidi Rautio (born 1952). Helen died on October 17, 1969.\nIn 1909, after 23 years of marriage, J.J. and Molly signed a separation agreement and went their separate ways. The agreement gave Margaret a cash settlement and possession of the Victorian mansion on Pennsylvania Street in Denver's Wealthy Capital Hill neighborhood, and also the summer mansion Avoca Lodge in Southwest Denver, near Bear Creak. She also received a $700 monthly allowance to continue her travels and philanthropic activities. Although they never reconciled, they remained connected and cared for each other throughout their lives. At the time of J.J.'s death in 1922, Margaret told newspapers, \"\"I've never met a finer, bigger, more worthwhile man than J.J. Brown.\"\"\nAlthough J.J. was not born into wealth, he was ambitious, smart, and charismatic. He quickly rose through the mining ranks to shift-boss and timberman. He was foreman of the Louisville Mine by the time he and Margaret met. By 1887 he was superintendent of the Louisville Mine, and in 1888 he was superintendent of the Henriette & Maid Consolidated Mining Company, at the time one of the most productive mines in the area.\nThe Brown family came into great wealth when J.J's engineering efforts proved instrumental in the production of a substantial gold and copper seam at the Little Jonny mine of his employers, Ibex Mining Company.\nJ.J., who was the superintendent of all the Ibex properties, devised a method of using baled hay and timbers to stop cave-ins. His invention paid off. When the Little Jonny mine opened, vast quantities of high-grade copper and gold were found. The grade of gold was so pure and the vein so wide that it was heralded as the world's richest gold strike. By October 29, 1893, the Little Jonny was shipping 135 tons of gold ore per day. J.J. was awarded 12,500 shares or 12.5% of stock and a seat on the board. The Ibex Company and its owners, including the Browns, became extraordinarily wealthy. In 1894, the Browns moved to Denver, Colorado, buying a $30,000 Victorian mansion in Denver's wealthy Capitol Hill neighborhood. In 1897, they built a summer mansion Avoca Lodge in Southwest Denver, near Bear Creak.\nOn September 5, 1922, J.J. died after suffering a series of heart attacks at a hospital in Nassau, New York, with his daughter Catherine by his side. He died without a will, and it took 5 years of fighting between Margaret and her two children to settle the estate. Due to their lavish spending, J.J. left an estate valued at only $238,000 (worth $ today). Margaret was to receive $20,000 in cash and securities, and the interest on a $100,000 trust fund set up in her name. $118,000 was divided between her two children. Her son Lawrence received a $59,000 (worth $ today) trust fund, and her daughter Catherine received a $59,000 trust fund. From that time until her death in 1932, Margaret had no contact with her two children (but Margaret's page says they were reconciled). Both J.J. and Margaret are buried in the Cemetery of the Holy Rood in Westbury, New York.","The Legend of the Titanic\nThe Legend of the Titanic (Spanish: La leyenda del Titanic , Italian: La leggenda del Titanic ) is a 1999 Italian animated film directed by Orlando Corradi and Kim J. Ok. The film is a very loose adaptation of the RMS Titanic sinking and featured several fantasy elements such as anthropomorphic animals.\n\"The Legend of the Titanic\" was followed by a 2004 sequel titled \"Tentacolino\".\nIn modern-day New York City an old mouse named Conners tells his grandchildren the supposedly \"true\" story of RMS \"Titanic\".\nIn April 1912, Conners was a young sailor mouse on \"Titanic\"' s maiden voyage from Southampton to New York. He is in charge of taking account for the mice who are making the trip. A young mouse from Brazil named Ronny who enjoys playing soccer befriends Conners and Conners falls in love with Ronny's sister Stella.\nMeanwhile, a rich aristocratic woman named Elizabeth and her family board the \"Titanic\". Her father is a famous Duke and is very prominent in the whaling business. He and Elizabeth's stepmother have arranged for Elizabeth to marry Mr. Evarard Maltravers, a rich whaler. Unknown to the Duke, the marriage is actually a scheme concocted by his wife and Maltravers to gain worldwide whaling rights for themselves, and asserts that the marriage is what's best for his daughter. Elizabeth sees several gypsies dancing at the dock and happily watches them. A gypsy man named Don Juan is dancing with his dog Smiley. He notices Elizabeth and sends Smiley to see her. When Elizabeth takes off one of her gloves to pet Smiley, Smiley snatches it and takes it back to Juan. Juan looks at Elizabeth and the two instantly fall in love. The \"Titanic\" then sets off to sea from Southampton on her first, and only, voyage.\nConners and Ronny learn all about what's going on with Elizabeth by their observations during their trips throughout the ship's ventilation system. They are appalled by the way Elizabeth is being treated badly and decide to help her. When Elizabeth goes to the bow of the ship that night, some dolphins talk to her due to some magic moonbeams catching her tears. The dolphins jump very high out of the water and seem to levitate. They tell her of Maltravers's evil scheme. Maltravers's manservant Geoffreys spies on Elizabeth's activities and uses a special whistle at the stern of the ship to call the criminal shark named Mr. Ice and use him for causing destruction.\nConners and Ronny introduce themselves to Elizabeth and offer to help her. Listening to their advice, Elizabeth tells her father she doesn't want to marry Maltravers. He listens to his daughter and tells her that he will never force her to do something she doesn't want to do. Meanwhile, Smiley tries to look for Elizabeth to cheer up Juan. After he unsuccessfully tries to find her in the ship's ballroom, he meets Conners and Ronny, who agree to help arrange a meeting and dance for Elizabeth and Juan. The meeting goes according to schedule and Elizabeth and Juan dance together before sharing their first kiss.\nElizabeth tells her father that she wants to marry Juan, and he agrees, but Elizabeth's stepmother is furious. Following an argument with Elizabeth, she storms off in anger. Elizabeth's stepmother and Maltravers decide to resort to drastic measures, as it is clear that Elizabeth will not marry him. They decide to sink the \"Titanic\" using the help of Mr. Ice and his gang of criminal sharks. Maltravers prepares to send news to his whaling ships by telegraph, and the mice decide to chew apart the wires to stop it from being sent.\nIce and his gang of sharks decide to let an iceberg sink the \"Titanic\". They fool an octopus named Tentacles into heaving an iceberg to the surface of the ocean by concealing the plan in the form of a bet to see who can throw ice the farthest. Onboard the \"Titanic\", the Duke is forced to sign the whaling concession at gunpoint, after which Maltravers and his entourage flee the ship in a lifeboat.\nThe crew of the \"Titanic\" then see the iceberg and attempt to avoid it, but the \"Titanic\" hits the berg despite their efforts. The ship quickly begins to sink.\nThe mice realize that because they have cut the telegraph wires, the ship can't send out a distress signal. They enlist the help of another mouse friend of theirs, named Camembert, to help repair the wires. They are unable to do so, so Camembert has them tie up the ends of the cut wire to his moustache. They do so, but Camembert is electrocuted as the SOS is signalled out.\nElizabeth and Juan manage to save her father, who is still tied up in a chair by Maltravers, and manage to put him on a lifeboat. Suddenly, several whales and dolphins arrive to help with the rescue. Elizabeth, Juan, Conners, Ronny, and Smiley jump off the now-perpendicular stern and jump into the water, and they are saved by a whale as well. Once everyone on the ship has been saved, the \"Titanic\" finally sinks, taking Tentacles with it and seemingly killing him, as he was still heroically holding it together. In the morning, the passengers are taken aboard the \"RMS Carpathia\". Conners mournfully remembers the heroes of the disaster; Camembert and Tentacles.\nThe \"Carpathia\" arrives in New York and disembarks the passengers. Elizabeth and Juan are married, as are Conners and Stella. It is revealed that Tentacles and Camembert have both somehow survived and are well. Everyone is elated and celebratess at the Brooklyn Bridge, congratulating Tentacles for saving everyone in the disaster.\nThe film ends with old Conners and Stella back in modern-day New York and Conners telling his grandchildren that whales are still hunted. Stella says: \"Your grandfather loves to tell stories, but like all sailors, you shouldn't take him too seriously.\"\nA sequel for the movie, \"Tentacolino\", was made.","Titanic Canyon\nTitanic Canyon is a submarine canyon located south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Canada. Its name was proposed in 1991 by marine geologist Alan Ruffman for the remembrance of British passenger liner RMS Titanic, the wreck of which lies about 34 km south of the head of Titanic Canyon on its eastern slope.\n","Martin Bayerle\nCaptain Martin Gerard Bayerle (born April 23, 1951) is an American treasure hunter and author, best known for finding the 1909 shipwreck of the White Star Liner RMS Republic. He is also star of the History Channel show \"Billion Dollar Wreck.\" The \"Republic\" was the largest ship to sink in history to her day, only to be eclipsed by the loss of RMS Titanic in 1912. Capt. Bayerle and his company, Martha's Vineyard Scuba Headquarters, Inc. (\"MAVIS\") were referred to as \"modern day pirates\" by Judge Nancy Gertner of the United States District Court, District of Massachusetts in a 2005 opinion granting exclusive salvage rights to the \"Republic\" to MAVIS. MAVIS subsequently acquired legal title to the RMS Republic shipwreck and her contents in August 2011, with the U.S. District Court of Boston also barring all future claims.\nMartin was born in St. Albans Naval Hospital in Queens, New York, and grew up in the Brighton Beach neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. His father, Gerard, was a lawyer and lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army Reserve. His mother, Ruth, was a German immigrant who came to the United States following World War II. Martin lost sight in his left eye from a small explosives accident when he was 11 years old. He first began scuba diving off the coast of New Jersey and New York at the age of 15 and went on to graduate from Abraham Lincoln High School in February 1969.\nMartin attended Brooklyn College in New York from 1969 through 1972 where he majored in Geology. He taught scuba diving as a student and adjunct professor within the Adult Education Department; during his time there until he opened up a dive shop - Brooklyn Divers Supply Corp. – in 1972. He began running dive operations to local shipwreck sites, such as the \"Mistletoe\", \"Black Warrior\", \"USS Turner (DD-648)\", \"Oregon\", and \"U-853\", among others. He trained about 1,200 people how to scuba dive and became a Master PADI SCUBA instructor in 1975 (# M1761).\nBrooklyn Divers was operated successfully until 1978, when the company’s source of supply and advertisements was abruptly cut off. Martin sued eight SCUBA company defendants for price fixing conspiracy under the Sherman Act and reached a six-figure settlement once the case went to trial in federal court in the Southern District of New York (\"Brooklyn Diver Supply Corp. v ScubaPro, Petersen Publications, Dacor, NASDS ...\" – and other major components of the sport SCUBA diving industry). Martin then closed up his Brooklyn operations and moved to Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts. There he obtained a captain’s license, pilot’s license, and established Martha’s Vineyard Scuba Headquarters, Inc. (MAVIS) to serve as a base of operations to attempt to locate the fabled shipwreck of the RMS \"Republic\". The \"Republic\" was the largest ship to sink in history when she sank off the U.S. East Coast in January 1909 and was rumored to be carrying a vast cargo of gold.\nAfter two and a half years of preparatory research to determine the wreck’s location, Capt. Bayerle discovered the wreck of the RMS \"Republic\" in 1981. He raised investor capital and purchased the assets from a bankrupt Canadian offshore oil rig support company, Wolf Sub-Ocean Ltd., in addition to the purchase of a 285 ft Diving Support Vessel, the \"Oil Endeavor\" (renamed the \"SOSI Inspector\") in the years following the find. Martin also married during those years and he and his wife, Susan, gave birth to two children – a daughter, Tessa, and a son, Grant. During the summer of 1987, Martin went out to perform a major salvage on the \"Republic\" to try to recover the gold, an event that generated international media attention. Capt. Bayerle was featured on television programs such as \"CBS Evening News,\" \"ABC Evening News\", and \"ABC Good Morning America\". The 74-day salvage was also closely followed in international periodicals, such as \"Forbes,\" \"New York Times,\" \"Associated Press,\" \"Japan Times\", \"London Times,\" and the \"Los Angeles Times\" among many other major publications.\nThe 1987 salvage effort was successful in targeting and excavating their target area, but failed to locate the gold, however. The crew excavated the target area but ended up in the ship’s wine locker, finding hundreds of pre-1900 bottles of wine and champagne. Once they realized they were in the wine locker rather than the specie room, Capt. Bayerle flew to London and appeared on ITV and BBC radio, offering a £25,000 reward for the construction plans of the \"Republic\". No one came forth with the plans to the ship, however, and the salvage was terminated for lack of funds. Despite many years of research and effort, the plans to the ship still have never been found.\nFollowing the salvage attempt, the 1987 joint venture disbanded and any artifacts brought up were sold at auction. Martin moved to Clarksburg, West Virginia, to live with his in-laws, the Youngs, on a small farm. He finished his undergraduate education, earning B.Sc. and B.Sc.B.Adm. magna cum laude degrees from Fairmont State College and went on to start his M.B.A. education from West Virginia University. He was accepted into the WVU College of Law in the fall of 1990 but would not complete his legal education there, however, as other personal events intervened.\nOn April 6, 1991, Bayerle shot and killed 38-year old Stefano Robotti, the 'lover' of his alienated wife Susan, in Library, Pennsylvania. He argued that he \"was protecting his family,\" although a legal and justifiable homicide defense of self or defense of family was not offered to the jury as an option. Evidence of the sexual exploitation of Bayerle's wife and children by the deceased was presented at trial. After a six-week trial, the jury vacillated between involuntary (a misdemeanor) and voluntary manslaughter, and found him guilty of voluntary manslaughter; Bayerle was sentenced to one to five years in State prison. He completed his sentence, with good time, in two-and-a-half years.\nUpon his release, Capt. Bayerle continued school in Morgantown, West Virginia, to complete his M.B.A. education in order to add credibility and depth to his research. There, he started up an Internet Service Provider business that he ran for five years and established IDEA, the Internet Development and Exchange Association. Capt. Bayerle moved back to Manhattan, New York City, in 2002 to continue his years of research into the rumored gold cargo aboard the Republic. From that research, he refined a trademarked Third Theory that identified the $3,000,000 1909-value secret transaction on board that was being shipped to the Tsar of Russia, “Bloody” Nicholas II, a gold cargo that today may be worth in excess of two billion dollars.\nCapt. Bayerle subsequently started an archival research company specializing in retrieving records from government archives. His old company, MAVIS, has since acquired legal title to the wreck of the RMS \"Republic\" and her contents, with the court also barring all future claims. After acquiring ownership of Republic, on August 1, 2013, Bayerle published the bulk of his significant research into the mystery of RMS Republic by releasing a book titled \"The Tsar's Treasure: The Sunken White Star Liner With a Billion Dollar Secret.\" In 2013, MAVIS retained Etoile Blanc Consulting, LLC to manage investment and media properties related to the RMS Republic recovery. Investment opportunities are made available to Accredited Investors through Lords Of Fortune LLC. Captain Bayerle's personal life is also the subject of an upcoming non-fiction book series, with the first book of the trilogy planned for release in mid-2016. Plans to adapt the series into feature films are also in development. MAVIS is currently preparing for a major recovery operation of the wreck planned for the summer seasons of 2015–2017.","Edward Kamuda\nEdward Stephen Kamuda (November 10, 1939 – April 13, 2014) was an American historian who specialized in the study of the RMS Titanic. The Titanic sank on April 14, 1912, after striking an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean. Kamuda devoted much of his life to the preservation of the Titanic's legacy as the founder and president of the Titanic Historical Society. Much of his research focused on the biographies of the crew and passengers of the RMS Titanic.\nKamuda co-founded the Titanic Historical Society on July 7, 1963, in Indian Orchard, Springfield, Massachusetts, with five other people. The society was originally called the \"Titanic Enthusiasts of America\", but Kamuda changed its name after a widow of a Titanic passenger questioned their \"enthusiasm\" for the disaster which killed 1,517 people, including her husband. Kamuda, who served as the president of the Titanic Historical Society, saw the society's membership grow to thousands during his lifetime. Under his leadership, the Titanic Historical Society became one of the world's leading centers for the research of the RMS Titanic, as well as its passengers and crew.\nKamuda and other members of the society served as consultants for the 1997 film, \"Titanic\", directed by James Cameron. Kamuda helped Cameron with the historical details of the set and story. In return, Cameron cast Kamuda and his wife, society vice president Karen Kamuda, as extras in the film. Before shooting their scene, James Cameron told the assembled \"Titanic\" cast and crew, \"Because of these two people we are here today.\" The director also introduced Kamuda to several actors, telling them, \"Here's the man who made it all possible.\" Ed and Karen Kamuda can be seen in the background on the ship's promenade while Leonardo DiCaprio (who plays Jack Dawson) teaches Kate Winslet (Rose DeWitt Bukater) how to spit. Edward Kamuda, who was initially reluctant to appear onscreen in the film, later described the experience on set in a 1997 interview with \"The Republican\", \"To look at the books for 40 years and then to walk the decks of the ship - it was a dream come true.\"\nIn 2012, Kamuda, on behalf of the Titanic Historical Society, presented the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, with the Titanic Centennial Memorial, a 10,000 pound, black granite monument to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the disaster. The Titanic Centennial Memorial, which was dedicated in the Oak Grove Cemetery, includes the names of two Springfield residents who died on the Titanic: Jane Carr, 47, a third class passenger and Milton C. Long, 29, a first class passenger and son of a Springfield mayor and judge.\nEd Kamuda died from a long illness at his home on April 13, 2014, at the age of 74. He was survived by his wife, Karen Kamuda. Kamuda was buried at Oak Grove Cemetery in Springfield, Massachusetts.","The Titanic (song)\n\"The Titanic\" (also known as \"It Was Sad When That Great Ship Went Down\" and \"Titanic (Husbands and Wives)\") is a folk song and children's song most known for being sung in the United States at summer camp. \"The Titanic\" is about the sinking of the RMS Titanic which sank on April 15, 1912 after striking an iceberg.\nThe first folk songs about the \"Titanic\" disaster appeared within weeks after the disaster. Recordings of various songs about the disaster date to as early as 1913.\nThe canonical version of the song has the chorus:\nIn most variants, although not the earliest, the chorus starts with a line \"it was sad, so sad, it was sad\", and in many versions, the line \"to the bottom of the...\" appended after the repeat of \"went down.\" Other than the chorus, different versions may contain verses in different order.\nThere are several regional variations on the song. According to Newman I. White's 1928 book \"American Negro Folk-Songs\", \"The Titanic\" has been traced back to 1915 or 1916 in Hackleburg, Alabama. Other versions from around 1920 are documented in the Frank C. Brown Collection at Duke University in North Carolina. Early recordings include Ernest Stoneman's \"The Titanic\" (Okeh 40288) in September 1924 and William and Versey Smith's \"When That Great Ship Went Down\" in August 1927.\nAccording to Jeff Place, in his notes for the \"Anthology of American Folk Music\": \"African-American musicians, in particular, found it noteworthy and ironic that company policies had kept Blacks from the doomed ship; the sinking was also attributed by some to divine retribution.\"\nA large number of parody verses exist, either added following the serious lyrics, or sung instead of the usual verses; for example, replacing the line \"husbands and wives, little children lost their lives\" with \"uncles and aunts, little children lost their pants.\"\n\"The Titanic\" was sung by Paul Newman and Brandon de Wilde's characters after a drunken night out, in the 1963 film \"Hud\".\nTraditionally, the University of California Marching Band performs the song during its march up to Memorial Stadium from Sproul Plaza on the Berkeley campus.\nThe Romantic song is commonly sung at many Boy Scout and Girl Scout camps, and other children's camps with numerous more hilarious verses added on.","Avoca Lodge\nAvoca Lodge, known as The Molly Brown Summer House, is a Registered Historic Place in southwest Denver, Colorado near Bear Creek. The home served as a summer retreat for philanthropist, socialite, and activist Margaret Brown and her husband James Joseph Brown. It is open to the public rental and for tours.\n","Distant Waves\nDistant Waves is a novel using the RMS Titanic as much of its setting. It is not a story completely of the Titanic, it mixes fiction with real people that were alive during the Titanic era.\nA girl named Jane Taylor lives with her mother and four other sisters (Mimi, Amelie, Emma, and Blythe). Her mother, Maude, is a medium. They live in America in the late 19th century. Jane's father has recently died of Smallpox, and her mother is in grief.\nOne day, they go to a park to meditate, and Mimi & Jane go for a walk. Their mother decides to go to a little place named Spirit Vale. They soon take a train to New York city when, suddenly, the ground starts splitting apart and shaking. An earthquake starts, buildings start shaking and Mimi gets a bad headache. But a man named Nikola Tesla rescues them, and they watch him smash a small device. He explains that he has been destroying things and this earthquake machine is one of his ideas. He believes that everything vibrates and at different frequencies, you can travel between time and different worlds. They are amused. Tesla becomes Jane's ultimate role model and collects newspaper clippings about him over the years. Maude moves them to Spirit Vale, where they are going to stay at the inn for a bit. The inn is already fully booked, but, Maude \"contacts\" the husband of the inn's owner, Aunty Lily, and she lets them stay.\nWhen they stay in Spirit Vale Maude opens a business where she \"contacts\" the spirits and practices the movement known as Spiritualism. There she changes everyone's name to Oneida Taylor. Maude becomes very well known and is the center and buzz of Spirit Vale. Everyone comes to see her and get readings and many other things. As the years pass many more things are added to her sign outside the home they share. They soon move out of the hotel and into their own house.\nIn 1911, Mimi and Jane run away to New York City, where Jane falls in love with Thad who is Tesla's assistant. Mimi gets a job as a companion to a wealthy French woman, Ninette, and she goes to travel with her to Europe. As Jane boards her train to return to Spirit Vale, Thad learns that Jane is only 16, 4 years younger than him. He doesn't write to Jane like he promised her. Jane gets very sad over Mimi's departure and Thad. Maude is devastated and blames Jane for running away with Mimi and her departure.\nAfter Mimi has been gone for a while, she finally contacts her family while they are in London, England for a spiritual convention for mediums, psychics, etc. It is there that it is proven that the twins, Amelie and Emma, have their mother's gift of being able to speak to the dead after having Queen Victoria speak to Conan Doyle. Mimi reveals that she is going to be sailing on the Titanic, and Blythe wants to go with her. After much convincing, she is allowed to go. Mimi is in first class, and Blythe is in second class.\nWhen W.T Stead predicts that the Titanic will sink and Mimi and Blythe are on it. Jane, Amelie, and Emma get on it to try to talk them into getting off of the boat when Jane bumps into Thad, who is on the ship with Tesla. He is overjoyed to see her, and he tells her he made a mistake in not being with her.Jane, Amelie, and Emma are convinced the ship won't sink, so they stay on. Mimi announces that she will be having her wedding on the Titanic to her mistress's butler.\nJust before the wedding, Thad reveals to Jane that he loves her. She feels the same way, and Mimi is happy for her sister.\nDuring the wedding, Tesla wants to show off his newest invention. It's supposed to break ice. Jane recognizes it as the earthquake machine. When he used it, it malfunctioned and the rudder cracks. This causes the rudder to not function properly and the iceberg to hit the ship. They start telling people to get on life boats. They realize that Amelie is missing, so Mimi, Jane, Emma, and Thad go looking for her. Tesla tells Thad and Jane to follow him. He says he has an invention that could save everyone. It's a time machine. Mimi finds Jane in the bottom of the ship with Tesla and Thad. She tells her to get on the lifeboats, but she stays.\nTesla's machine partly works and Jane finds herself in the water. She sees a floating chair and she gets on it. She finds Amelie and Emma in the water. Tesla helps them up onto the overturned table he was on. Mrs. Brown's life boat spots them and they pulled Emma and Amelie on board. Emma dies of hypothermia. Amelie had two broken legs and frostbite on her toes. Nobody can find Mimi or Thad. Amelie goes to the hospital. She starts to talk, but says that Emma is talking. Jane recalls Emma saying \"I won't leave\", just before she dies.\nTwo years pass by. Mimi and Thad, though no bodies were found, are said to have drowned. Jane, now 19, gets a job as a reporter. She sees a picture on a newspaper of two people that survived the sinking of the Titanic in the water all these years. Jane thinks they look like Thad and Mimi. She begs her boss to let her do this story, and he lets her. She goes to them and finds that they are Mimi and Thad. When they were in the time machine, it didn't send them a couple minutes into the future, it sent them a couple of years. Although to everyone else, Mimi and Thad had been gone years, to them it only seems like a few minutes. They all get on a train, and Jane reluctantly tells Mimi that her husband is dead. Jane, Thad, and Mimi ride back home together, where the book ends.","Michel Marcel Navratil\nMichel Marcel Navratil, Jr. (12 June 1908 – 30 January 2001) was one of the last survivors of the <a href=\"sinking%20of%20RMS%20Titanic\">sinking of \"Titanic\"</a> on 15 April 1912. He, along with his brother, Edmond (1910–1953), were known as the \"Titanic Orphans\", having been the only children rescued without a parent or guardian. He was three years old at the time of the disaster, and was the last remaining male survivor.\nMichel Jr. was born on 12 June 1908 in <a href=\"Nice%2C%20France\">Nice, France</a> to <a href=\"Michel%20Navratil\">Michel Navratil</a>, a tailor and <a href=\"Slovaks\">Slovak</a> immigrant to France, and Marcelle Caretto, an Italian, who he had married in <a href=\"London%2C%20England\">London, England</a>. His younger brother, Edmond, was born on 5 March 1910.\nThe marriage was troubled, and in early 1912, his parents separated. Marcelle was awarded full custody of the boys. She allowed them to stay with their father over the <a href=\"Easter\">Easter</a> weekend; however, when she went to collect them, they had disappeared. Michel had decided to immigrate to the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, taking the boys with him. After a brief stay in <a href=\"Monte%20Carlo\">Monte Carlo</a>, they traveled to <a href=\"England\">England</a> where they boarded the <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BTitanic\"></a> .\nMichel, Edmond, and their father boarded the \"Titanic\" at <a href=\"Southampton%2C%20England\">Southampton, England</a> on 10 April 1912, as second-class passengers. For the journey, Mr. Navratil assumed the alias \"Louis M. Hoffman\", and the boys were booked as \"Lolo and Momon\". On board the ship, he led passengers to believe that he was a widower. He let the boys out of his sight only once, when he allowed a French-speaking woman, Bertha Lehmann, to watch them for a few hours while he played cards.\nAfter the collision with the iceberg at 11:40 pm on 14 April 1912, Navratil placed Michel and Edmond in <a href=\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Collapsible%20Boat%20D%20%28port%29\">Collapsible D</a>, the last lifeboat successfully launched from the ship. Michel, although not quite four years old at the time, later claimed to remember his father telling him, \"My child, when your mother comes for you, as she surely will, tell her that I loved her dearly and still do. Tell her I expected her to follow us, so that we might all live happily together in the peace and freedom of the New World.\" The elder Navratil died in the sinking, and his body was recovered by the rescue ship, \"<a href=\"Mackay-Bennett\">Mackay-Bennett</a>\". In his pocket was a revolver. Because of his assumed <a href=\"Jewish\">Jewish</a> surname, he was buried in <a href=\"Baron%20de%20Hirsch%20Cemetery%2C%20Halifax\">Baron de Hirsch Cemetery, Halifax</a>, a <a href=\"Jewish%20cemetery\">Jewish cemetery</a> in <a href=\"Nova%20Scotia\">Nova Scotia</a>.\nWhile in Collapsible D, Michel was fed biscuits by first-class passenger Hugh Woolner. When the rescue ship <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BCarpathia\">\"Carpathia\"</a> arrived at the scene, he and Edmond were hoisted to its deck in burlap sacks. Since they were toddlers and spoke no <a href=\"English%20language\">English</a>, they could not identify themselves and were soon referred to as the \"Titanic Orphans\". French-speaking first-class passenger <a href=\"Margaret%20Bechstein%20Hays\">Margaret Hays</a> cared for them at her house until their mother could be located, which occurred as a result of newspaper articles which included their pictures. She sailed to <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> and was reunited with them on 16 May 1912. She took them back to France aboard the \"<a href=\"RMS%20Oceanic%20%281899%29\">Oceanic</a>\".\nMichel later recalled his memory of the Titanic:\nand later:\nMichel attended college and in 1933 married a fellow student. He went on to earn a doctorate and became a professor of philosophy. Throughout his life, he maintained that his brush with death at such a young age, coupled with the loss of his father, strongly influenced his thought processes.\nIn 1987, Michel travelled to <a href=\"Wilmington%2C%20Delaware\">Wilmington, Delaware</a> to mark the 75th anniversary of the sinking. It was his first visit to the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> since 1912. The following year, he joined ten fellow survivors at a <a href=\"Titanic%20Historical%20Society\">Titanic Historical Society</a> convention in <a href=\"Boston%2C%20Massachusetts\">Boston, Massachusetts</a>. In 1996, he joined fellow survivors <a href=\"Eleanor%20Ileen%20Johnson\">Eleanor Shuman</a> and <a href=\"Edith%20Haisman\">Edith Brown</a> on a cruise to the location of the wreck, where attempts were made to bring a large portion of the hull to the surface. On 27 August 1996, before his return to <a href=\"France\">France</a>, he traveled to <a href=\"Halifax%20Regional%20Municipality\">Halifax</a>, <a href=\"Nova%20Scotia\">Nova Scotia</a> to see his father's grave for the first time.\nMichel lived the remainder of his life in <a href=\"Montpellier%2C%20France\">Montpellier, France</a>. He died on 30 January 2001, at the age of 92 and was preceded in death by his mother and brother.","Edith Haisman\nEdith Haisman (27 October 1896 – 20 January 1997) was one of the last remaining and oldest survivors of the sinking of the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS Titanic</a> in April 1912. She was the last survivor born in the 19th century, although seven younger survivors outlived her.\nEdith Eileen Brown was born on 27 October 1896 in <a href=\"Cape%20Town%2C%20South%20Africa\">Cape Town, South Africa</a> to Thomas William Solomon Brown and his wife, Elizabeth Catherine (née Ford) who owned and operated a hotel in <a href=\"Worcester%2C%20South%20Africa\">Worcester</a>.\nEdith was 15 years old when she and her parents boarded the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS Titanic</a> in <a href=\"Southampton%2C%20England\">Southampton, England</a> as second-class passengers. Her father was taking them to <a href=\"Seattle%2C%20Washington\">Seattle, Washington</a> where he was going to open a hotel business. The ship's hold contained tableware, furnishings, and 1,000 rolls of bed linen for the intended hotel.\nEdith remembered clearly when the ship struck the iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on 14 April 1912. In a series of interviews in her later years and a biography, \"A Lifetime on the Titanic,\" published in 1995, she gave a vivid account of its final moments, although some details have been called into question.\n\"Father appeared a few minutes later. He told us, 'You'd better put on your life jackets and something warm, it's cold on deck. It's just a precaution. We've struck an iceberg, it's nothing much. The steward in the corridor says it's nothing to worry about.' We waited for ages on the boat deck for someone to tell us what to do. The ship's band was playing ragtime. They played to keep our spirits up. Everybody kept saying, 'She's unsinkable. She won't go down.' Father kissed us and saw us into Lifeboat 14. Up to fifty people got in as it swung perilously over the side. One man jumped into the boat dressed as a woman. As we rowed away from the ship, we could still hear the band playing, but now it was hymns. We were almost six hours in the lifeboat and during that time we had no water and nothing to eat. I kept wondering if my father had gotten off the ship, that's all I could think of. - 1995\"\nHer father did not survive and his body, if recovered, was never identified. Her last memory of him was that he was dressed in an Edwardian dinner jacket while smoking a cigar and sipping brandy on the deck as she and her mother were being lowered in the lifeboat. Upon arrival in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, they stayed at the Junior League House before traveling to Seattle to live with her aunt, Josephine Acton. They soon returned to Cape Town where she lived with relatives after her mother remarried and moved to <a href=\"Rhodesia\">Rhodesia</a>.\nIn May 1917 at age 20, Edith met Frederick Thankful Haisman and they were married six weeks later on 30 June. Their first child, a boy, was born in August 1918, and would be followed by nine more children. They lived in <a href=\"South%20Africa\">South Africa</a> and <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a> before settling in <a href=\"Southampton\">Southampton</a>. Frederick died in 1977. He was survived by four sons, two daughters, and more than 30 grandchildren and great-grandchildren. In 1977 he and Edith celebrated their diamond wedding anniversary at Rhinefield House in the <a href=\"New%20Forest\">New Forest</a>.\nOn 15 April 1995, Edith aged 97 was present with fellow survivor, <a href=\"Eva%20Hart\">Eva Hart</a>, age 90, at the opening of a memorial garden at the National Maritime Museum in <a href=\"Greenwich%2C%20London\">Greenwich, London</a> where a granite monument commemorating the 83rd anniversary of the sinking was erected. In August 1996, at age 98, she joined fellow survivor <a href=\"Michel%20Marcel%20Navratil\">Michel Marcel Navratil</a> on a cruise to the location of the Titanic's wreck where attempts were made to bring a large portion of its hull to the surface. Before leaving the site, she threw a rose into the ocean where her father had died 84 years earlier. There is also a road named after her in Freemantle, Southampton, England.\nEdith died on 20 January 1997 in a <a href=\"Southampton\">Southampton</a> nursing home at age 100. By her bed stood a photograph of her father in a straw boater, stiff collar, and bow tie. She remains one of the longest-lived Titanic survivors. <a href=\"Mary%20Davies%20Wilburn\">Mary Davies Wilburn</a> holds the record, having died in 1987, at age 104.\nhttp://records.ancestry.com/Edith_Eileen_Brown_records.ashx?pid=117308364\n","Eva Hart\nEva Miriam Hart <a href=\"Member%20of%20the%20Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire\">MBE</a> (31 January 1905 – 14 February 1996) was a survivor of the <a href=\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\">sinking of the RMS \"Titanic\"</a> on 15 April 1912.\nHart was born on 31 January 1905 in <a href=\"Ilford\">Ilford</a>, <a href=\"London\">London</a>, <a href=\"England\">England</a> to Benjamin Hart and <a href=\"Esther%20Hart%20%28Titanic%20survivor%29\">Esther Bloomfield</a>. She was their only child. Her mother had been previously married and had several children from her first marriage who died young. Eva was educated at St. Mary's Convent (Later St. Mary's Hare Park) in <a href=\"Gidea%20Park\">Gidea Park</a>, Essex. In early 1912, Benjamin decided to take his family and emigrate to <a href=\"Winnipeg%2C%20Manitoba\">Winnipeg, Manitoba</a>, where he planned to open a drugstore.\nHart was seven years old when she and her parents boarded the \"<a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">Titanic</a>\" as second-class passengers on 10 April 1912 at <a href=\"Southampton%2C%20England\">Southampton, England</a>. They had originally been booked on a ship called the \"<a href=\"USS%20Yale%20%281888%29\">Philadelphia</a>\" but the coal strike at Southampton that spring kept it from sailing and many of her passengers were transferred to the \"Titanic\". Almost instantly, her mother felt uneasy about the \"Titanic\" and feared that some catastrophe would happen. To call a ship unsinkable was, in her mind, flying in the face of God. With such fear, she slept only during the day and stayed awake in their cabin at night fully dressed.\nEva was sleeping when the \"Titanic\" struck the iceberg at 11:40 pm on 14 April. Her father rushed into their cabin to alert her and her mother, and after wrapping her in a blanket, he carried her to the boat deck. He placed his wife and daughter in <a href=\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2014%20%28port%29\">Lifeboat No. 14</a> and told Hart to 'be a good girl and hold Mummy's hand'. It was the last thing he ever said to her and the last time she ever saw him.\nShe and her mother were picked up by the rescue ship <a href=\"RMS%20Carpathia\">RMS \"Carpathia\"</a> and arrived in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> on 18 April. Her father perished and his body, if recovered, was never identified.\nSoon after arriving in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">America</a>, she and her mother returned to the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a> and the latter remarried. She was plagued with nightmares and upon the death of her mother in 1928 when Hart was 23, she confronted her fears head on by returning to the sea and locking herself in a cabin for four straight days until the nightmares went away.\nIn April 2012 an audio walking guide to \"Titanic\" memorials in Southampton, Hampshire, was produced featuring audio clips of Hart talking about her experience. The guide takes the listener on a walking route around Southampton, where the \"Titanic\" set sail on her maiden voyage.\nBeing seven years old at the time of the sinking, she maintained several vivid memories.\n\"We went on the day on the boat train. I was 7, I had never seen a ship before. It looked very big. Everybody was very excited. We went down to the cabin and that's when my mother said to my father that she had made up her mind quite firmly that she would not go to bed in that ship. She would sit up at night. She decided that she wouldn't go to bed at night and she didn't!\"\n\"I saw that ship sink,\" she said in a 1993 interview. \"I never closed my eyes. I didn't sleep at all. I saw it, I heard it, and nobody could possibly forget it.\" \"I can remember the colors, the sounds, everything,\" she said. \"The worst thing I can remember are the screams.\" \"It seemed as if once everybody had gone, drowned, finished, the whole world was standing still. There was nothing, just this deathly, terrible silence in the dark night with the stars overhead.\" \"The band played one version of 'Nearer My God to Thee' of which there are three and the one they played was the one that was played in church.\" \"I never closed my eyes at all – I saw that ship sink. And I saw that ship break in half.\"\nHart worked several jobs throughout her life. She was a professional singer in <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a> and a <a href=\"Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29\">Conservative Party</a> <a href=\"organizer%20%28party%29\">organizer</a>, and also served as a magistrate.\nHart was one of the most outspoken survivors concerning the \"Titanic\"'s lack of sufficient lifeboats and of any salvage attempts of the \"Titanic\" after its discovery in 1985 by <a href=\"Robert%20Ballard\">Robert Ballard</a>.\nShe commonly criticised the <a href=\"White%20Star%20Line\">White Star Line</a> for failing to provide enough lifeboats for all aboard the \"Titanic\". \"If a ship is torpedoed, that's war,\" she once said. \"If it strikes a rock in a storm, that's nature. But just to die because there weren't enough lifeboats, that's ridiculous.\"\nHart was vocal in interviews about the ship having broken in half, a widely debated rumor that was later proven to be true after the discovery of the wreck site. She was also adamant regarding the controversy surrounding the <a href=\"SS%20Californian\">SS \"Californian\"</a>, a ship that was only a few miles from the \"Titanic\" and yet failed to respond to distress rockets and calls for help. Hart claimed the vessel was less than ten miles from \"Titanic\", not nineteen as was previously believed. \"I saw that ship (the \"Californian\"). It was terribly close...I didn't see a ship nineteen miles away. I saw a ship that was so close; and they said at the time it was less than nine miles away, [and yet] now they're trying to say it was nineteen... I saw it you know, and it wasn't just 'lights on the horizon' – you could see it was a ship. And I saw our rockets being fired, which that ship must have seen. Well, this inquiry says that they did see it but they didn't think it was a <a href=\"Portent%20%28divination%29\">portent</a> of danger. I would have thought in the middle of the Atlantic in the middle of the night that rockets must mean trouble.\"\nWhen salvaging efforts began in 1987, she was quick to note that the \"Titanic\" was a gravesite and should be treated as such. She often decried the \"insensitivity and greed\" and labelled the salvors \"fortune hunters, vultures, pirates, and grave robbers.\" In \"Titanic: The Complete Story\", she stated: \"I hope severely that they will never attempt to raise part of it. I do hope they will remember this is a grave - a grave of 1,500 people who should never have died, and I don't think you should go down there and rob graves and I'm very much opposed to it.\"\nHart remained active in <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">\"Titanic\"</a>-related activities well into her 80s. In 1982, she returned to the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> and joined several other survivors at a <a href=\"Titanic%20Historical%20Society\">Titanic Historical Society</a> convention commemorating the 70th anniversary of the \"Titanic\" sinking. She participated in three more conventions in 1987, 1988, and in 1992. In 1994, she wrote an autobiography, \"Shadow of the Titanic – A Survivor's Story\", in which she described her experiences aboard the ship and the lasting implications of its sinking. On 15 April 1995, the 83rd anniversary of the disaster, she and fellow second-class \"Titanic\" survivor <a href=\"Edith%20Haisman\">Edith Brown</a> dedicated a memorial garden plaque on the grounds of the <a href=\"National%20Maritime%20Museum\">National Maritime Museum</a> in <a href=\"London\">London</a>.\nHart died on 14 February 1996 at her home in <a href=\"Chadwell%20Heath\">Chadwell Heath</a>, two weeks after her 91st birthday. Her death left eight remaining survivors. In her memory, a <a href=\"Wetherspoons\">Wetherspoon's</a> <a href=\"Public%20House\">Pub</a> in <a href=\"Chadwell%20Heath\">Chadwell Heath</a> is named 'The Eva Hart'.\nHart's connection to the \"Titanic\" and her active involvement in later years made her popular in numerous forms of media, including mentions in <a href=\"non-nonfiction\">non-nonfiction</a> books, museums and <a href=\"exhibition\">exhibition</a>s.\n","A Night to Remember (1958 film)\nA Night to Remember is a 1958 British <a href=\"drama%20film\">drama film</a> adaptation of <a href=\"Walter%20Lord\">Walter Lord</a>'s <a href=\"A%20Night%20to%20Remember%20%28book%29\">1955 book</a>, which recounts the <a href=\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\">final night</a> of <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BTitanic\"></a> . Adapted by <a href=\"Eric%20Ambler\">Eric Ambler</a> and directed by <a href=\"Roy%20Ward%20Baker\">Roy Ward Baker</a>, the film stars <a href=\"Kenneth%20More\">Kenneth More</a> and features <a href=\"Ronald%20Allen\">Ronald Allen</a>, <a href=\"Robert%20Ayres%20%28actor%29\">Robert Ayres</a>, <a href=\"Honor%20Blackman\">Honor Blackman</a>, <a href=\"Michael%20Goodliffe\">Michael Goodliffe</a>, and <a href=\"Laurence%20Naismith\">Laurence Naismith</a>. It was filmed in the <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">United Kingdom</a>. The production team, supervised by producer <a href=\"William%20MacQuitty\">William MacQuitty</a>, used blueprints of the ship to create the sets accurately, while Fourth Officer <a href=\"Joseph%20Boxhall\">Joseph Boxhall</a> and ex-<a href=\"Cunard%20Line\">Cunard</a> Commodore Harry Grattidge both worked as technical advisors on the film.\nThe film's World Premiere was on Thursday, 3 July 1958 at the <a href=\"Odeon%20Leicester%20Square\">Odeon Leicester Square</a>. <a href=\"Passengers%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Third%20class\">\"Titanic\" survivor</a> Elizabeth Dowdell attended the American premiere in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a> on Tuesday 16 December 1958. The film received critical acclaim upon release.\nAmong the many <a href=\"List%20of%20films%20about%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\">films about the \"Titanic\"</a>, \"A Night to Remember\" has long been regarded as the high point by \"Titanic\" historians and survivors alike for its accuracy, despite its modest production values when compared with the <a href=\"70th%20Academy%20Awards\">Oscar</a>-winning film \"<a href=\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\">Titanic</a>\" (1997).\nThe \"Titanic\" was built to be the largest vessel afloat and was widely believed to be unsinkable. It included the cream of American and British society. The story of its sinking is told from the point of view of her passengers and crew, principally Second Officer <a href=\"Charles%20Lightoller\">Charles Lightoller</a>.\nIn the open sea on its maiden voyage, the ship receives a number of ice warnings from other steamers. Only a few of the messages are relayed to Captain <a href=\"Edward%20Smith%20%28sea%20captain%29\">Edward J. Smith</a>, who orders a lookout but does not slow the ship or consider an alternate route.\nLate on 14 April 1912, lookout <a href=\"Frederick%20Fleet\">Frederick Fleet</a> spots an iceberg in front of the ship. The vessel turns to port but collides with the iceberg on its starboard side. <a href=\"Thomas%20Andrews%20%28shipbuilder%29\">Thomas Andrews</a>, the ship's builder, determines that the ship will sink within two hours, and it lacks sufficient <a href=\"Lifeboat%20%28shipboard%29\">lifeboat</a> capacity for everyone on board.\nA distress signal is sent out, and efforts begin to signal the \"<a href=\"SS%20Californian\">SS Californian</a>\", visible on the horizon 10 miles away. But its radio operator is off duty and does not hear the distress signal. Fortunately, the radio operator on the <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BCarpathia\"></a> receives the distress call and alerts Captain <a href=\"Arthur%20Rostron\">Arthur Rostron</a>, who orders the ship to head to the site. Unfortunately, the ship will take around four hours to reach the \"Titanic\". Meanwhile, the \"Californian\" remains where it is, the crew failing to comprehend why the large ship they are in sight of is firing rockets.\nCaptain Smith orders Officers Lightoller and <a href=\"William%20McMaster%20Murdoch\">William Murdoch</a> to start lowering the lifeboats. Many women and children are reluctant to board, and Murdoch and Lightoller force them in. Many men try to sneak on board, but Lightoller will not allow them. Murdoch, working the other side of the ship, is more accommodating to men. As the stewards struggle to hold back women and children in third-class, most of those from first- and second-class board the lifeboats and launch away from the ship. Joseph Ismay, the president of the White Star Line, gets off the ship when he wasn't meant to and cries as he watches her sink.\nThe \"Titanic\" sinks amid much chaos on the deck, with third-class passengers allowed up from below only after all the lifeboats have gone. The bow submerges, and only two collapsible lifeboats are left. Lightoller and other able seamen struggle to untie them. The ship's band plays a final song as Andrews and Smith decide to go down with the ship and die during the sinking. The ship's lights flicker off, then the last funnel collapse and kills the young Clark couple. Lightoller and many others are swept off the ship. The passengers still on board pray as the ship sinks.\nMany men and some women and children die of hypothermia or drowning. One of the overturned collapsible boats is floating, so Lightoller and a few more men balance on it and wait. Chief Baker <a href=\"Charles%20Joughin\">Charles Joughin</a> is found in the water, not minding the cold because he's been drinking, and is pulled onto the boat. Lightoller spots another boat, and the men are saved. The \"Carpathia\" comes and rescues the survivors.\nOn the \"Carpathia\", Lightoller is told by Rostron that only 705 have survived, and the ship has only passed one body. The wireless operator comes on deck to inform Rostron that the \"Californian\" has just heard about \"Titanic\"'s sinking and wants to help. Rostron says anything that was humanly possible has been done.\nThe film's epilogue states that the passengers and crew of the \"Titanic\" have not died in vain, as today ships reflect lessons learned: they are equipped with lifeboats for all and an unceasing radio vigil, and the <a href=\"International%20Ice%20Patrol\">International Ice Patrol</a> guards the sea lanes, making them safe for the peoples of the world.\nCast notes:\nThe film is based on <a href=\"Walter%20Lord\">Walter Lord</a>'s book \"<a href=\"A%20Night%20to%20Remember%20%28book%29\">A Night to Remember</a>\" (1955), but in Ray Johnson’s documentary \"The Making of 'A Night to Remember\"' (1993), Lord says that when he wrote his book, there was no mass interest in the \"Titanic\", and he was the first writer in four decades to attempt a grand-scale history of the disaster, synthesizing written sources and survivors’ firsthand accounts. Lord dated the genesis of his interest in the subject to childhood. So did producer MacQuitty, who, as a boy of six, watched the \"Titanic\" set out from Belfast, as well as screenwriter Ambler, who was a lad in London when the ship was launched.\nProducer MacQuitty had originally contracted with <a href=\"Shaw%2C%20Savill%20%26amp%3B%20Albion%20Line\">Shaw, Savill & Albion Line</a> to use its former flagship <a href=\"QSMV%26%2332%3BDominion%20Monarch\"></a> to shoot scenes for the film, but the company pulled out of the production at the last minute, citing that they did not want to use one of their liners to recreate the \"Titanic\" sinking. However, according to MacQuitty, the Shaw Savill Line at the time was managed by Basil Sanderson, son of Harold Sanderson, the White Star Line's director in the U.S. at the time of the sinking. Harold Sanderson would later succeed <a href=\"J.%20Bruce%20Ismay\">J. Bruce Ismay</a> as president of the <a href=\"International%20Mercantile%20Marine%20Company\">International Mercantile Marine Company</a>, <a href=\"J.P.%20Morgan\">J.P. Morgan</a>'s shipping conglomerate that owned the White Star Line. This connection to White Star, according to MacQuitty, is what actually led the Shaw Savill Line to pull out of the film. MacQuitty eventually got permission from Ship Breaking Industries in <a href=\"Faslane\">Faslane</a>, Scotland to film scenes aboard <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BAsturias%26%2332%3B%281925%29\">RMS \"Asturias\"</a> , a 1920s ocean liner that the company was <a href=\"Ship%20breaking\">scrapping</a>. The liner's port side had been demolished, but its starboard was still intact, and so MacQuitty got art students to paint the liner the White Star Line colors and used mirrors to recreate scenes that took place on the port side.\nIn addition to basing the script — both in action and dialogue — on Lord's book, the filmmakers achieved nuanced performances and authentic atmosphere by consulting several actual \"Titanic\" survivors who served as technical advisors. Among them were <a href=\"Joseph%20Boxhall\">Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall</a>, and passengers <a href=\"Edith%20Rosenbaum\">Edith Russell</a> and <a href=\"Lawrence%20Beesley\">Lawrence Beesley</a>. Boxhall and Russell were also portrayed in the movie. One day during shooting Beesley infiltrated the set but was discovered by the director, who ordered him off; thus, as <a href=\"Julian%20Barnes\">Julian Barnes</a> puts it, \"for the second time in his life, Beesley left the \"Titanic\" just before it was due to go down.\" Charles Lightoller's widow Sylvia Lightoller was also consulted during production, at one point visiting Pinewood Studios and meeting with Kenneth More, whom she introduced to her children on set. Sylvia commended More for the role of her husband, and praised the film's historical accuracy in an interview with \"<a href=\"The%20Guardian\">The Guardian</a>\", stating \"The film is really the truth and has not been embroidered,\"\n<a href=\"Kenneth%20More\">Kenneth More</a> recalled the production of the film in his autobiography, published 20 years later in 1978. There was no tank big enough at <a href=\"Pinewood%20Studios\">Pinewood Studios</a> to film the survivors struggling to climb into lifeboats, so it was done in the open-air swimming bath at <a href=\"Ruislip\">Ruislip</a> Lido, at 2:00am on an icy November morning. When the extras refused to jump in, More realised he would have to set an example. He called out: \"Come on!\"\nI leaped. Never have I experienced such cold in all my life. It was like jumping into a deep freeze. The shock forced the breath out of my body. My heart seemed to stop beating. I felt crushed, unable to think. I had \"rigor mortis\", without the \"mortis\". And then I surfaced, spat out the dirty water and, gasping for breath, found my voice.\n'Stop!' I shouted. \"Don't listen to me! It's bloody awful! Stay where you are!\nBut it was too late ...\nThe character of the baker, seen drinking after giving up his seat in a lifeboat to a female passenger, is based on Chief Baker <a href=\"Charles%20Joughin\">Charles Joughin</a> who, on that night, drank some <a href=\"whisky\">whisky</a>, threw deck chairs overboard, rode the stern all the way down, swam in the freezing water for hours, was eventually picked up by the overturned collapsible boat B, and survived the disaster.\nDuring the sinking, a steward pauses as he flees through the first-class smoking room to ask ship's designer <a href=\"Thomas%20Andrews%20%28shipbuilder%29\">Thomas Andrews</a>, \"Aren't you even going to try for it, Mr Andrews?\" This sequence was replicated essentially word-for-word in \"<a href=\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\">Titanic</a>\" (1997), substituting that film's protagonists Jack Dawson and Rose DeWitt Bukater instead of the steward. The scene was also repeated in \"<a href=\"S.O.S.%20Titanic\">S.O.S. Titanic</a>\", with a stewardess asking him if he will save himself, pointing out that there would be questions that only he could answer.\nFour clips from the <a href=\"Nazi\">Nazi</a> <a href=\"propaganda%20film\">propaganda film</a> \"<a href=\"Titanic%20%281943%20film%29\">Titanic</a>\" (1943) were used in \"A Night to Remember\"; two of the ship sailing in calm waters during the day, and two of a flooding walkway in the engine room. As Brian Hawkins writes: the British came closest \"to the \"Titanic\" truth in 1958 with their black-and-white production of Walter Lord's novel \"A Night to Remember\", seamlessly incorporating sequences from director <a href=\"Herbert%20Selpin\">Herbert Selpin</a>'s 1943 (Nazi) \"Titanic\" without giving any screen credits for these incredible scenes.\" Selpin himself was executed by <a href=\"Goebbels\">Goebbels</a> over the course of production in early August 1942, for offering a negative opinion of the German military while directing this earlier Nazi era film.\nOf note are some historical inaccuracies:\nThe first scene of \"A Night to Remember\" depicts the christening of the ship at its launch. However, the \"Titanic\" was never christened, as it was not the practice of the White Star Line to stand on this sort of ceremony. This has come down in popular lore as one of the many contributing factors to the ship's \"bad luck\".\nAs with most films about the \"Titanic\" made before the discovery of the <a href=\"Wreck%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\">wreck</a> in 1985, the film portrays the ship as sinking in one piece, when in fact, the \"Titanic\" broke into two pieces as it sank. This is because people did not believe that Titanic split. Even though survivors remember seeing the ship split, White Star Line denied it, as if it was true, the public would not think the <a href=\"Olympic-class%20ocean%20liner\">Olympic-Class</a> liners were structurally sound. The split was proven in 1985 when the bow and stern were found in two pieces, about a third of a mile (600 m) apart, at a depth of about 12,500 feet (3,800 m).\nThe crew, including <a href=\"Edward%20John%20Smith\">Captain Smith</a> is depicted having a full trust in the \"Titanic\", considering her \"unsinkable\", an allegation which was never claimed with such a certainty.\nUpon its December 1958 U.S. premiere, <a href=\"Bosley%20Crowther\">Bosley Crowther</a> called the film a \"tense, exciting and supremely awesome drama...[that] puts the story of the great disaster in simple human terms and yet brings it all into a drama of monumental unity and scope\"; according to Crowther:\n\"this remarkable picture is a brilliant and moving account of the behavior of the people on the \"Titanic\" on that night that should never be forgotten. It is an account of the casualness and flippancy of most of the people right after the great ship has struck (even though an ominous cascade of water is pouring into her bowels); of the slow accumulation of panic that finally mounts to a human holocaust, of shockingly ugly bits of baseness and of wonderfully brave and noble deeds.\"\nThe film was a relative disappointment at the box office. However, it received critical acclaim. \"A Night to Remember\" won the 1959 \"Samuel Goldwyn International Award\" for the UK at the <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Awards\">Golden Globe Awards</a>. The film currently has a \"certified fresh\" score of 100%. It still receives praise. It is considered \"the best \"Titanic\" film before \"<a href=\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\">Titanic</a>\" (1997)\" and \"the most \"accurate\" of all \"Titanic\" films\" and \"the definitive \"Titanic\" tale\", especially for its social realism, reflecting, in the words of one critic, \"the overwhelming historical evidence that the class rigidity of 1912, for all its defects, produced a genuine sense of behavioural obligation on the \"Titanic\" among rich and poor alike; that the greatest number of people aboard faced death or hardship with a stoic and selfless grace that the world has wondered at for most of this century.\" Although it won numerous awards including a <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Award\">Golden Globe Award</a> for <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20English-Language%20Foreign%20Film\">Best English-Language Foreign Film</a> and received high praise from reviewers on both sides of the Atlantic, it was at best only a modest commercial success due to its original huge budget and a relatively poor impact in America. It has nonetheless aged well; the film has considerable artistic merit and, according to Professor Paul Heyer, it helped to spark the wave of <a href=\"disaster%20film\">disaster film</a>s that included \"<a href=\"The%20Poseidon%20Adventure%20%281972%20film%29\">The Poseidon Adventure</a>\" (1972) and \"<a href=\"The%20Towering%20Inferno\">The Towering Inferno</a>\" (1974). Heyer comments that it \"still stands as the definitive cinematic telling of the story and the prototype and finest example of the disaster-film genre.\"\n\"A Night to Remember\" is one of <a href=\"the%20Criterion%20Collection\">the Criterion Collection</a>'s early titles. A high definition upgrade of the DVD and a Blu-ray edition were released on 27 March 2012.\n","Ruth Becker\nRuth Elizabeth Becker (October 28, 1899 – July 6, 1990) was one of the last remaining survivors of the sinking of the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS \"Titanic\"</a> on April 15, 1912.\nBecker was born on October 28, 1899 in <a href=\"Guntur\">Guntur</a>, <a href=\"India\">India</a>, to American <a href=\"Lutheran\">Lutheran</a> <a href=\"missionary\">missionary</a> Allen Oliver Becker and his wife, Nellie E. Baumgardner Becker. A younger brother, Luther, was born in <a href=\"Lima%2C%20Ohio\">Lima, Ohio</a>, in March 1905, but died on 7 February 1907 in Guntur just before his second birthday. In December 1907, Nellie gave birth to a second daughter, Marion. A son, Richard, was born in June 1910 at <a href=\"Kodaikanal\">Kodaikanal</a>.\nIn early 1912, Richard contracted an illness in <a href=\"India\">India</a>, and Nellie decided to take him, Ruth, and Marion to <a href=\"Benton%20Harbor%2C%20Michigan\">Benton Harbor, Michigan</a> to seek treatment for him.\nRuth's two-year-old brother Richard got the illness from India and Nellie decided to sail from England to the U.S. with him, Ruth and Ruth's younger sister leaving their father behind. They boarded the Ellerman Line steamer \"City of Benares\" for a trip to England that started at Madras, went through the Suez Canal to Port Said and then through the Mediterranean, through the Strait of Gilbraltar and finally up to London, England. Ruth boarded the \"Titanic\" along with Nellie, Marion, and Richard as second-class passengers on April 10, 1912 at <a href=\"Southampton\">Southampton</a>, <a href=\"England\">England</a>. Shortly after the ship's collision with the iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on April 14, she recalled that a steward told her mother, \"We've had a little accident. They're going to fix it, and then we'll be on our way.\" Realizing that the ship was seriously damaged, Nellie took her children up on the boat deck, but told Ruth to go back to her cabin to get some blankets.\nJunior Officer <a href=\"James%20Paul%20Moody\">James Moody</a> loaded Marion and Richard into <a href=\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2011%20%28starboard%29\">Boat 11</a>, but wouldn't let Nellie in. It was only after pleading with a steward that he finally consented, but Ruth was not allowed in. Nellie then screamed to her to get in another lifeboat. Boat 11 was one of the few that was overloaded. She later got tossed into <a href=\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2013%20%28starboard%29\">Boat 13</a> by Officer Moody.\nNellie, Ruth, Marion, and Richard were all picked up by the rescue ship <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BCarpathia\"></a> . Although it was a struggle to find her mother and siblings on the ship, Ruth finally did. They arrived in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a> on April 18. Soon after their arrival, they took a train to <a href=\"Benton%20Harbor%2C%20Michigan\">Benton Harbor, Michigan</a>. Allen finished his missionary work in <a href=\"India\">India</a> and joined them in 1913.\nIn the years following the disaster, Becker refused to talk about her experiences aboard the \"Titanic\" and her own children, when young, did not know that she had been on board. After she retired and moved to <a href=\"Santa%20Barbara%2C%20California\">Santa Barbara, California</a>, she began speaking more openly.\nIn 1982, Becker joined several other survivors at a <a href=\"Titanic%20Historical%20Society\">Titanic Historical Society</a> convention in <a href=\"Philadelphia%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</a> commemorating the 70th anniversary of the sinking. She would attend two more conventions in 1987 and 1988. In March 1990, she made her first sea voyage since 1912 when she went on a cruise to <a href=\"Mexico\">Mexico</a>.\nBecker died on July 6, 1990 in Santa Barbara at the age of 90 as a result of <a href=\"malnutrition\">malnutrition</a>. She was cremated and on April 16, 1994 her ashes were spread over the exact spot in the <a href=\"Atlantic%20Ocean\">Atlantic Ocean</a> where the \"Titanic\" sank eighty-two years before. <a href=\"Frank%20John%20William%20Goldsmith\">Frank Goldsmith</a> and Fourth Officer <a href=\"Joseph%20Boxhall\">Joseph Boxhall</a> also had theirs scattered over there.\n","Jack Thayer\nJohn Borland \"Jack\" Thayer III (December 24, 1894 – September 20, 1945) was a first-class passenger on the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS \"Titanic\"</a> who survived and provided several first-hand accounts of the disaster.\nJohn (Jack) Borland Thayer, III was born into the <a href=\"Thayer%20family\">Thayer family</a>, a wealthy aristocratic American family and was the son of <a href=\"John%20Thayer%20%28cricketer%29\">John Borland Thayer II</a>, a Director and Second Vice President of the <a href=\"Pennsylvania%20Railroad\">Pennsylvania Railroad Company</a>, and Philadelphia socialite <a href=\"Marian%20Thayer\">Marian Morris Thayer</a>. Seventeen-year-old Jack had been traveling in Europe with his parents and a maid named Margaret Fleming and heading to New York, when they embarked aboard the RMS \"Titanic\" at <a href=\"Cherbourg\">Cherbourg</a> on Wednesday, April 10, 1912. Jack's stateroom, cabin C-70, adjoined his parents', C-68.\nShortly after 11:30 p.m., on the ship's collision with the iceberg, he dressed and went to A deck on the port side to see what had happened. Finding nothing, he walked to the bow, where he could faintly make out ice on the forward <a href=\"well%20deck\">well deck</a>.\nJack woke his parents, who accompanied him back to the port side of the ship. Noticing that the \"Titanic\" was developing a list to port, they returned to their rooms, and put on warmer clothes and life vests. They returned to the deck, but Jack lost sight of his parents. After searching for them, he assumed they had boarded a lifeboat.\nJack soon encountered <a href=\"Milton%20Long\">Milton Long</a>, a chap he had met hours before over coffee. Both Milton and Jack tried to board a <a href=\"Lifeboat%20%28shipboard%29\">lifeboat</a> but were turned away because they were men. Jack then proposed jumping off the ship, as he was a good swimmer. However, Milton was not, and he advised Jack against it.\nEventually, as the ship was sinking quickly, the two men decided to jump and attempt to swim to safety. Milton went first, jumping while facing the ship; it was the last time Jack ever saw him. Jack launched himself from the rail, back facing the ship and pushing outward. Once in the water, Jack reached the improperly launched and overturned Collapsible B. Too exhausted to save himself, he was pulled from the water. He and a number of other men, including <a href=\"Harold%20Bride\">Harold Bride</a>, <a href=\"Archibald%20Gracie%20IV\">Archibald Gracie IV</a>, chief baker <a href=\"Charles%20Joughin\">Charles Joughin</a>, and second officer <a href=\"Charles%20Lightoller\">Charles Lightoller</a>, were able to balance on the boat for some hours. Jack later recalled that the cries of hundreds of people in the water reminded him of the high-pitched hum of locusts in his native <a href=\"Pennsylvania\">Pennsylvania</a>.\nAfter spending the night on the overturned Collapsible B, Jack was picked up by <a href=\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2012%20%28port%29\">Lifeboat 12</a>. He was so distraught and frozen that he did not notice his mother in nearby Lifeboat 4; nor did she notice him. Lifeboat 12 finally made its way to the <a href=\"RMS%20Carpathia\">RMS \"Carpathia\"</a> at 8:30 am. Jack's father did not escape on a lifeboat and was lost.\nNearly all those who lived did so by boarding lifeboats. Jack was one of only about 40 survivors who jumped or fell into the water.\nThayer went on to graduate from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Pennsylvania\">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where he was a member of <a href=\"Saint%20Anthony%20Hall\">Saint Anthony Hall</a>. During World War I, he served as an <a href=\"artillery\">artillery</a> officer in the US Army. Thayer was the financial vice president of the <a href=\"University%20of%20Pennsylvania\">University of Pennsylvania</a> at the time of his death.\nOn December 15, 1917, Thayer married Lois Buchanan Cassatt, daughter of <a href=\"Edward%20B.%20Cassatt\">Edward B. Cassatt</a> and Emily L. Phillips. Her grandfather was <a href=\"Alexander%20Johnston%20Cassatt\">Alexander Johnston Cassatt</a>, President of the <a href=\"Pennsylvania%20Railroad\">Pennsylvania Railroad</a>.\nThe couple had two sons, Edward Cassatt and John Borland IV, and three daughters, Lois, Julie, and Pauline. A third son, Alexander Johnston Cassatt Thayer, died a few days after his birth in 1920.\nIn 1940, Thayer shared his experiences with the \"Titanic\"'s sinking in vivid detail, in a self-published pamphlet titled \"The Sinking of the S.S. Titanic\"; 500 copies were printed for family and friends. <a href=\"Oceanography\">Oceanographer</a> <a href=\"Robert%20Ballard\">Robert Ballard</a> used it to determine the location of the \"Titanic\" and proved that the ship had split in half as it sank, contrary to popular belief. Thayer was among those who clearly reported seeing the \"Titanic \"break in two, as was finally confirmed by Ballard's discovery of the wreck.\nThayer's account is sometimes included jointly with the memoirs of the disaster by fellow survivor <a href=\"Archibald%20Gracie%20IV\">Archibald Gracie IV</a>, in modern editions of Gracie's book \"Titanic: A Survivor's Story\".\nDuring <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, both of Jack's sons enlisted in the armed services. Edward, a bomber pilot, was listed as missing and presumed dead after his plane was shot down in 1943, in the <a href=\"Pacific%20War\">Pacific theatre</a>. His body was never recovered. When the news reached Thayer, he became extremely <a href=\"Major%20depressive%20disorder\">depressed</a>.\nThayer's mother Marian died on April 14, 1944, the 32nd anniversary of the \"Titanic\"'s collision with the iceberg. Her loss seemed to push him even further into a downward spiral, and he committed suicide on September 20, 1945. He was found in an automobile at 48th Street and Parkside Avenue in <a href=\"West%20Philadelphia\">West Philadelphia</a>, his throat and wrists cut. He is buried at the Church of the Redeemer Cemetery in <a href=\"Bryn%20Mawr%2C%20Pennsylvania\">Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania</a>.","Ken Marschall\nKen Marschall (born October 28, 1950) is an American painter and illustrator notable for his paintings of famous <a href=\"ocean%20liner\">ocean liner</a>s, such as the <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BTitanic\"></a> , <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BLusitania\"></a> , and the <a href=\"HMHS%26%2332%3BBritannic\"></a> . His paintings have been used in many books about the \"Titanic\", most notably his depictions of the sinking, of which no photographs that could be used were taken.\nHe has served as consultant to many documentaries about the \"Titanic\", including James Cameron's \"<a href=\"Ghosts%20of%20the%20Abyss\">Ghosts of the Abyss</a>\" (in which he also appeared as <a href=\"J.%20Bruce%20Ismay\">J. Bruce Ismay</a>), as well as a consultant to Cameron's <a href=\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\">1997 film</a> and the two-part <a href=\"A%26amp%3BE%20Television%20Networks\">A&E</a> \"Titanic\" <a href=\"television%20special\">television special</a>s \"Death of a Dream\" and \"The Legend Lives On\".\n","Millvina Dean\nEliza Gladys \"Millvina\" Dean (2 February 1912 – 31 May 2009) was a British civil servant and <a href=\"cartographer\">cartographer</a>. She was the last remaining survivor of the <a href=\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\">sinking of the RMS \"Titanic\"</a> on 15 April 1912. At 2 months old, she was also the youngest passenger aboard.\nDean was born in <a href=\"Branscombe\">Branscombe</a>, England, to Bertram Frank Dean (1886–1912) and Georgette Eva Light (1879–1975). She had an older brother, Bertram Vere Dean, born 21 May 1910. She never married and had no children. Her father died on the \"Titanic\"; her mother died on 16 September 1975, aged 96; and her brother died on 14 April 1992, age 81, the 80th anniversary of the iceberg collision.\nDean's parents decided to leave the United Kingdom and emigrate to <a href=\"Wichita%2C%20Kansas\">Wichita, Kansas</a>, where her father had relatives, and his cousin owned a tobacco shop that he was going to co-own. They were not supposed to be aboard the \"Titanic\", but due to a coal strike, they were transferred onto it and boarded it as third-class passengers at <a href=\"Southampton%2C%20England\">Southampton, England</a>. Dean was barely two months old when she boarded the ship. Her father felt its collision with the iceberg on the night of 14 April 1912, and after investigating, returned to his cabin, telling his wife to dress the children and go up on deck. Dean, her mother, and her brother were placed in <a href=\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2010%20%28port%29\">Lifeboat 10</a> and were among the first third-class passengers to escape. Her father, however, did not survive, and his body, if recovered, was never identified.\nAt first, Dean's mother wanted to continue on to <a href=\"Kansas\">Kansas</a> to fulfil her husband's wish of a new life in the United States. However, after losing him and being left with two small children for whom to care, they returned to Britain aboard the <a href=\"RMS%26%2332%3BAdriatic\"></a> . While aboard the ship, Dean attracted considerable attention. An article in the \"<a href=\"Daily%20Mirror\">Daily Mirror</a>\" dated 12 May 1912 described the ordeal:\nMillvina and Bertram were raised mostly on pension funds and educated in <a href=\"Southampton\">Southampton</a> schools, including <a href=\"The%20Gregg%20School\">The Gregg School</a>. It was not until she was eight years old, and her mother was planning to remarry, that Dean was told she had been a passenger on the \"Titanic\".\nDean worked for the British government during the <a href=\"Second%20World%20War\">Second World War</a> and later as a purchaser for a local engineering firm. Other careers she held were as a cartographer, a secretary, and an assistant to a tobacconist.\nIt was not until Dean was in her seventies that she became involved in \"Titanic\"-related events. Over the years, she participated in numerous conventions, exhibitions, documentaries, radio and television interviews, and personal correspondence. In 1998, she travelled to the United States to participate in a \"Titanic\" convention in <a href=\"Springfield%2C%20Massachusetts\">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>, and another in 1999 in <a href=\"Montreal\">Montreal</a>. She had also been scheduled to appear at a commemoration of the 94th anniversary of the sinking in 2006, but a broken hip prevented her appearance. She also appeared in the <a href=\"History%20%28U.S.%20TV%20channel%29\">History</a> special \"Titanic's Final Moments: Missing Pieces\".\nIn October 2007, Dean became the last \"Titanic\" survivor following the death of <a href=\"Barbara%20West\">Barbara West Dainton</a>, who died at age 96 in England.\nIn December 2007, Dean criticised the <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a> and its television programme \"<a href=\"Doctor%20Who\">Doctor Who</a>\" for including an episode with a starship \"cruise liner\" called the \"Titanic\", that was similar in appearance to the historical liner. Speaking from her nursing home, she said: \"The \"Titanic\" was a tragedy which tore so many families apart. I lost my father and he lies on that wreck. I think it is disrespectful to make entertainment of such a tragedy.\" A spokeswoman for the show said: \"No offence was intended. '<a href=\"Voyage%20of%20the%20Damned%20%28Doctor%20Who%29\">Voyage of the Damned</a>' is set on a spaceship called \"The Titanic\" and not a boat.\"\nIn April 2008, Dean had accepted an invitation to speak in Southampton at an event commemorating the 96th anniversary of the sinking, but ill health resulting from a respiratory infection forced her to cancel.\nIn December 2008, at age 96, Dean was forced to sell several of her family's possessions to pay for her private medical care following a broken hip. These included a letter sent to her mother from the \"Titanic\" Relief Fund, and a suitcase given to her and her mother in New York following the sinking. Their sale raised approximately £32,000. In February 2009, she announced that she would be selling several more items to pay for her increasing medical costs which she said exceeded £3,000 a month.\n97-year-old Dean died of <a href=\"pneumonia\">pneumonia</a> on the morning of 31 May 2009, 97 years and seven weeks after the \"Titanic\" sailed, at a <a href=\"care%20home\">care home</a> in <a href=\"Ashurst%2C%20Hampshire\">Ashurst, Hampshire</a>. She was cremated, and on 24 October 2009, her ashes were scattered from a <a href=\"launch%20%28boat%29\">launch</a> at the docks in Southampton where the \"Titanic\" set sail.\nIn response to the escalating cost of Dean's healthcare, The Millvina Fund was set up in April 2009 by the Belfast, British, and International Titanic Societies with the exclusive aim of taking care of her nursing home bills. It was given a boost by the Irish author and campaigning journalist, <a href=\"Don%20Mullan\">Don Mullan</a>, at the opening of his worldwide Nokia photographic exhibition, \"A Thousand Reasons for Living\", (featuring a portrait of Dean) in Dublin on 22 April 2009. Mullan introduced an additional portrait of Dean's hands, as she signed a card for a \"Titanic\" autograph collector, which he produced as a limited edition of 100 copies. He made the edition available at €500 each and then challenged the director and stars of the film \"<a href=\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\">Titanic</a>\" (1997) - <a href=\"James%20Cameron\">James Cameron</a>, <a href=\"Leonardo%20DiCaprio\">Leonardo DiCaprio</a>, and <a href=\"Kate%20Winslet\">Kate Winslet</a> - singer <a href=\"Celine%20Dion\">Celine Dion</a>, and the corporations <a href=\"Sony%20Music\">Sony Music</a>, <a href=\"20th%20Century%20Fox\">20th Century Fox</a>, and <a href=\"Paramount%20Pictures\">Paramount Pictures</a> to match him euro-for-euro to support her with her bills. DiCaprio and Winslet led the way with a joint contribution of US$20,000. Cameron and Dion donated US$10,000 each.\n","Titanic (1996 miniseries)\nTitanic is a made-for-TV dramatization that premiered as a 2-part miniseries on <a href=\"CBS\">CBS</a> in 1996. \"Titanic\" follows several characters on board the <a href=\"RMS%20Titanic\">RMS \"Titanic\"</a> when she sinks on her maiden voyage in 1912. The miniseries was directed by <a href=\"Robert%20Lieberman\">Robert Lieberman</a>. The original music score was composed by <a href=\"Lennie%20Niehaus\">Lennie Niehaus</a>.\n\"Titanic\" follows three main story threads.\nIsabella Paradine is traveling on the \"Titanic\" to join her husband after attending her aunt's funeral in England. On the \"Titanic\", she meets Wynn Park, her former lover. She falls in love with him again, and after a brief affair, she sends her husband a wireless saying they cannot be together anymore (despite their daughter). When the ship starts sinking, Isabella reluctantly leaves Wynn when he forces her to board a <a href=\"Lifeboat%20%28shipboard%29\">lifeboat</a>. As the boat is lowered, Isabella confesses a long kept secret that her daughter Claire is actually Wynn's. Later on board the <a href=\"RMS%20Carpathia\">RMS \"Carpathia\"</a> she is grief-stricken when she finds Wynn's lifeless body on deck, having died of <a href=\"hypothermia\">hypothermia</a>, but luckily, when the \"Carpathia\" reaches <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York</a> she is reunited with her family who are blissfully unaware of Isabella's tryst because the telegram was never sent out due to the sinking.\nAlso in first class is the <a href=\"Allison%20family\">Allison family</a>, a family travelling on the Titanic, returning home to <a href=\"Montreal\">Montreal</a> with their two small children and new nurse, <a href=\"Alice%20Cleaver\">Alice Cleaver</a>. They gradually become wary and suspicious of her hysterical and neurotic behavior. Later on, a fellow maid asks her if she'd seen her in Cairo the previous month, but soon realizes that she remembers her from the highly publicized trial where Alice was accused of throwing her baby off a train. When the \"Titanic\" starts sinking, Alice Cleaver panics and quickly boards a lifeboat with Trevor, the Allisons' infant son. The parents with their small daughter are unaware that the baby is safe and refuse to leave the ship without him, which in the end costs them their lives.\nIn third class, a young vagrant named Jamie Perse steals a ticket to get on board. He manages to become friends with one of the crewmen, Simon Doonan, who is also a robber, but later is revealed to be a much more violent and callous criminal than Jamie. The young man falls in love with Aase (pronounced \"Osa\") Ludvigsen, a recent Christian convert and missionary. On the night of the sinking, Aase is brutally raped and beaten by Doonan, causing her to lose her faith and will to live, but Jamie manages to get her into Isabella's boat. Unbeknownst to them, Doonan also sneaks aboard that same boat, disguised as an old woman. After the ship sinks, Aase is knocked off the lifeboat by Doonan after she recognizes him, and he attempts to hold the passengers in the boat hostage at gunpoint, but Officer <a href=\"Harold%20Lowe\">Lowe</a>, who is in charge of the boat, hits Doonan in the head with a paddle, snapping his neck and killing him. Jamie himself manages to survive when he accidentally falls into one of the last lifeboats before the \"Titanic\" sinks. He subsequently atones for his past life after he finds Aase in the makeshift hospital aboard the \"Carpathia\". In the end, upon arriving in New York, the two plan to start a new life together.\n\"Titanic\" received mixed to negative reviews from critics. The \"<a href=\"New%20York%20Daily%20News\">New York Daily News</a>\" commented on the fact that the acting was substandard and the ship's operators and owner are portrayed \"about as sympathetically as those connected with the <a href=\"Exxon%20Valdez\">Exxon Valdez</a>.\" The \"<a href=\"Seattle%20Post-Intelligencer\">Seattle Post-Intelligencer</a>\" also referenced the \"embarrassingly bad acting\" and out of place scenes.\n\"Titanic\" received an <a href=\"Emmy%20Award\">Emmy Award</a> for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Miniseries or a Special. It was also nominated for Outstanding Costume Design for a Miniseries or a Special.\n","Mail carrier\nA mail carrier, mailman, mailwoman, postal carrier, postman, postwoman, or letter carrier (in <a href=\"American%20English\">American English</a>), sometimes colloquially known as a postie (in <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a>, <a href=\"New%20Zealand\">New Zealand</a>, <a href=\"Scotland\">Scotland</a>, and other parts of the United Kingdom), is an employee of a <a href=\"post%20office\">post office</a> or postal service, who delivers <a href=\"mail\">mail</a> and <a href=\"parcel%20post\">parcel post</a> to residences and businesses. The term \"mail carrier\" came to be used as a gender-neutral substitute for \"mailman\" soon after women began performing the job. In the <a href=\"Royal%20Mail\">Royal Mail</a>, the official name changed from \"letter carrier\" to \"postman\" in 1883, and \"postwoman\" has also been used for many years.\nIn the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a>, there are three types of mail carriers: Letter Carriers, who are represented by the <a href=\"National%20Association%20of%20Letter%20Carriers\">National Association of Letter Carriers</a>; <a href=\"Rural%20Letter%20Carrier\">Rural Carriers</a>, who are represented by the <a href=\"National%20Rural%20Letter%20Carriers%27%20Association\">National Rural Letter Carriers' Association</a>; and Highway Contract Route carriers, who are independent contractors. While union membership is voluntary, city carriers are organized near 70% nationally.\nLetter carriers are paid hourly with the potential for overtime. Letter Carriers are also subject to \"pivoting\" on a daily basis. Pivoting (when a carrier's assigned route will take less than 8 hours to complete, management may \"pivot\" said carrier to work on another route to fill that carrier up to 8 hours.) is a tool postal management uses to redistribute and eliminate overtime costs, based on consultation with the Carrier about his/her estimated workload for the day and mail volume projections from the DOIS (Delivery Operations Information System) computer program. Routes are adjusted and/ or eliminated based on information (length, time, and overall workload) also controlled by this program, consultations with the carrier assigned to the route, and a current PS Form 3999 (street observation by a postal supervisor to determine accurate times spent on actual delivery of mail). Many carriers object to the fact that average mail volumes used for route adjustments come from DOIS as it is not an actual count of the mail by a person and instead by a machine, leading carriers to question the accuracy of the count.\nRural carriers are under a form of <a href=\"salary\">salary</a> called \"evaluated hours\", usually with overtime built into their pay. The evaluated hours are created by having all mail counted for a period of two or four weeks, and a formula used to create the set dollar amount they will be paid for each day worked until the next time the route is counted. Highway Contract Routes are awarded to the lowest bidder, and that person then either carries the route themselves or hires carriers to fulfill their contract to deliver the mail.\nLetter carriers typically work urban routes that are high density and low mileage. These routes are classified as either \"mounted\" routes (for those that require a vehicle) or \"walking\" routes (for those that are done on foot). When working a mounted route, letter carriers usually drive distinctive white vans with the logo of the <a href=\"United%20States%20Postal%20Service\">United States Postal Service</a> on the side and deliver to curbside and building affixed <a href=\"Letter%20box\">mailboxes</a>.\nCarriers who walk generally also drive postal vehicles to their routes, park at a specified location, and carry one \"loop\" of mail, up one side of the street and back down the other side, until they are back to their vehicle. This method of delivery is referred to as \"park and loop\". Letter carriers may also accommodate alternate delivery points in cases where \"extreme physical hardship\" is confirmed.\nRural carriers typically work routes that have a lower density and higher mileage than those of letter carriers. They all work mounted routes, leaving their vehicles only to deliver to group mailboxes or to deliver an article that must be taken to a customer's door. However, now that former rural areas are being urbanized, their routes are growing very similar to mounted \"city routes\". Rural carriers often use their own vehicles and are not required to wear a uniform. Because of urbanization around cities and because rural carriers deliver mail at less cost to the Postal Service, the rural carrier craft is the only craft in the Postal Service which is growing.\nHighway Contract Route carriers work routes that were established with a density of less than one customer per mile driven (some later grow denser, and can then be converted to rural delivery). They are only mounted routes, and all HCR carriers use their own vehicle. These routes are typically found in outlying areas, or around very small communities.\nThe three types of mail carriers are also hired quite differently. A new letter carrier begins as a City Carrier Assistant (CCA.) Rural carriers are hired as Rural Carrier Associate (RCA) carriers, without benefits. There is normally an RCA assigned to each rural route, so they usually work less frequently than city CCAs. As a result, there are thousands of RCA positions that go unfilled due to a lack of applicants, and are being covered by other RCA's until hiring improves for the hiring process explained). Highway Contract Route carriers are hired by the winning bidder for that route. They are not United States Postal Service employees, and normally receive lower pay than carriers on city or rural routes.\nWomen have been transporting mail in the United States since the late 1800s. According to the United States Post Office archive, \"the first known appointment of a woman to carry mail was on April 3, 1845, when Postmaster General <a href=\"Cave%20Johnson\">Cave Johnson</a> appointed Sarah Black to carry the mail between Charlestown Md P.O. & the Rail Road . . . daily or as often as requisite at $48 per annum. For at least two years Black served as a mail messenger, ferrying the mail between Charlestown's train depot and its Post Office.\"\nAt least two women, Susanna A. Brunner in New York and Minnie Westman in Oregon, were known to be mail carriers in the 1880s. <a href=\"Mary%20Fields\">Mary Fields</a>, nicknamed \"Stagecoach Mary\", was the first black woman to work for the USPS, driving a <a href=\"stagecoach\">stagecoach</a> in Montana from 1895 until the early 1900s. When aviation introduced <a href=\"airmail\">airmail</a>, the first woman mail pilot was <a href=\"Katherine%20Stinson\">Katherine Stinson</a> who dropped <a href=\"mailbag\">mailbag</a>s from her plane at the Montana State Fair in September 1913.\nThe first women city carriers were appointed in World War I and by 2007, about 59,700 women served as city carriers and 36,600 as rural carriers representing 40% of the carrier force.\nFamous real-life letter carriers include:","Nursemaid\nA nursemaid or nursery maid, is mostly a historical term of employment for a female <a href=\"domestic%20worker\">servant</a> employed in the field of the care of children within the community of a large <a href=\"household\">household</a>, from the medieval castle, through the <a href=\"Georgian%20era\">Georgian</a> <a href=\"Manor%20house\">Manor house</a>, to the <a href=\"Victorian%20era\">Victorian</a> <a href=\"townhouse\">townhouse</a> or <a href=\"Great%20house\">Great house</a>.\nThe term 'nursemaid' has wide historical use, mostly related to servants charged with the actual care of children, including in many cases the duties of a <a href=\"wet%20nurse\">wet nurse</a>. In ancient usage the terms 'nursemaid' and 'nurse' (as, for example, the <a href=\"Nurse%20%28Romeo%20and%20Juliet%29\">character</a> in Shakespeare's <a href=\"Romeo%20and%20Juliet\">Romeo and Juliet</a>) are largely interchangeable. Everything that a parent ordinarily might do, especially the more onerous tasks, could be turned over to a nursemaid. Feeding very young children and supervising somewhat older children at meal times, seeing that the children are dressed properly, watching over the children as they play outside, and other such tasks could be left to a nursemaid.\nThe title 'Nursery Maid' refers to a specific role within the hierarchy of a <a href=\"great%20house\">great house</a>. In the 21st century, the position is largely defunct, owing to the relatively small number of households who maintain large staffs with the traditional hierarchy. In the Victorian household, the children's quarters were referred to as the 'nursery', but the name of the responsible servant had largely evolved from 'nurse' to '<a href=\"nanny\">nanny</a>'. The Nursery Maid was a general servant within the nursery, and although regularly in the presence of the children, would often have a less direct role in their care. The nursery maid reported to the nanny (or nurse) and assisted her in taking care of the children of the employer's family, her duties including tidying and maintaining the <a href=\"nursery%20%28room%29\">nursery</a>, lighting the nursery fires, and carrying meals, laundry, and hot water between the nursery, kitchen, and scullery. It was a junior role for young <a href=\"girl\">girl</a>s, working under the supervision of the experienced and usually older nanny. Nursery Maids wore a uniform, similar to the other <a href=\"maid\">maid</a>s in the household. In 1845 the satirical magazine <a href=\"Punch%20%28magazine%29\">Punch</a> published a guide to domestic servants in which it suggested that any girl could undertake the duties of a Nursery Maid, as every girl had the requisite training of \"snubbing and slapping\" either her own siblings, or the siblings of other people. Domestic service agencies supplied nursery maids and sometimes gave basic training, for which popular manuals were also published.\nBy reason of their close involvement in most if not all of the daily affairs of the children, including maintaining proper standards of behaviour, nannies and nursemaids might easily establish the close kind of relationship with the children that a mother would herself ordinarily form. In many cases this could lead to nannies being retained on the staff even after the children had grown up, or to nursemaids continuing to hold a responsible role for the adult child as a type of <a href=\"Chaperone%20%28social%29\">chaperone</a>, as in the example of <a href=\"Nurse%20%28Romeo%20and%20Juliet%29\">Juliet's nurse</a>.","20th century\nThe 20th century was a <a href=\"century\">century</a> that began on\nJanuary 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the <a href=\"2nd%20millennium\">2nd millennium</a>. It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1, 1900, and ended on December 31, 1999.\nThe 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era: <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a> and <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, <a href=\"nuclear%20power\">nuclear power</a> and <a href=\"space%20exploration\">space exploration</a>, <a href=\"nationalism\">nationalism</a> and <a href=\"decolonization\">decolonization</a>, the <a href=\"Cold%20War\">Cold War</a> and post-Cold War conflicts; <a href=\"intergovernmental%20organization\">intergovernmental organization</a>s and <a href=\"cultural%20homogenization\">cultural homogenization</a> through developments in <a href=\"Emerging%20technologies\">emerging</a> <a href=\"transportation\">transportation</a> and <a href=\"communications%20technology\">communications technology</a>; <a href=\"poverty%20reduction\">poverty reduction</a> and <a href=\"world%20population\">world population</a> growth, awareness of <a href=\"environmental%20degradation\">environmental degradation</a>, <a href=\"ecological%20extinction\">ecological extinction</a>; and the birth of the <a href=\"Digital%20Revolution\">Digital Revolution</a>. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for <a href=\"Internet\">near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication</a> and <a href=\"genetic%20modification\">genetic modification</a> of life. The term \"<a href=\"short%20twentieth%20century\">short twentieth century</a>\" was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991.\nGlobal <a href=\"total%20fertility%20rate\">total fertility rate</a>s, <a href=\"sea%20level%20rise\">sea level rise</a> and <a href=\"ecological%20collapse\">ecological collapse</a>s increased; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated <a href=\"deforestation\">deforestation</a>, water depletion, and the <a href=\"Holocene%20extinction\">mass extinction</a> of many of the world's species and decline in the population of others; consequences which are now being dealt with. It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world's population to reach 1 billion; <a href=\"World%20population%20milestones\">world population</a> reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927; by late 1999, the global population reached 6 billion. Global <a href=\"literacy\">literacy</a> averaged 80%; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40+ years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70+ years (three decades \"longer\" than it was a century ago).\nThe century had the first global-scale <a href=\"total%20war\">total war</a>s between world powers across continents and oceans in <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a> and <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>. <a href=\"Nationalism\">Nationalism</a> became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in <a href=\"international%20law\">international law</a> along with the right of <a href=\"nation\">nation</a>s to <a href=\"self-determination\">self-determination</a>, official <a href=\"decolonization\">decolonization</a> in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts.\nThe century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like \"<a href=\"ideology\">ideology</a>\", \"<a href=\"world%20war\">world war</a>\", \"<a href=\"genocide\">genocide</a>,\" and \"<a href=\"nuclear%20war\">nuclear war</a>\" entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the <a href=\"theory%20of%20relativity\">theory of relativity</a> and <a href=\"quantum%20physics\">quantum physics</a>, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and <a href=\"Cargo%20ship\">freighters</a> but ended with <a href=\"high-speed%20rail\">high-speed rail</a>, <a href=\"cruise%20ships\">cruise ships</a>, global <a href=\"Aviation\">commercial air travel</a> and the <a href=\"Space%20Shuttle\">Space Shuttle</a>. Horses, Western society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of <a href=\"fossil%20fuel\">fossil fuel</a> resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the <a href=\"environment%20%28biophysical%29\">environment</a>. Humans explored <a href=\"outer%20space\">space</a> for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the <a href=\"Moon\">Moon</a>.\nMass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, <a href=\"paperback%20book\">paperback book</a>s, <a href=\"public%20education\">public education</a>, and the <a href=\"Internet\">Internet</a>) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Advancements in <a href=\"medical%20technology\">medical technology</a> also improved the health of many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while <a href=\"nuclear%20weapons\">nuclear weapons</a> gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, <a href=\"empire\">empire</a>s and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline.\nThe world also became more <a href=\"monoculturalism\">culturally homogenized</a> than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, <a href=\"popular%20music\">popular music</a> and other influences of <a href=\"Western%20culture\">Western culture</a>, international corporations, and what was arguably a true <a href=\"economic%20globalization\">global economy</a> by the end of the 20th century.\nTechnological advancements during <a href=\"World%20War%20I\">World War I</a> changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as <a href=\"tank\">tank</a>s, <a href=\"chemical%20weapons\">chemical weapons</a>, and <a href=\"aircraft\">aircraft</a> modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of <a href=\"trench%20warfare\">trench warfare</a> in western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the <a href=\"Triple%20Entente\">Triple Entente</a> (<a href=\"French%20Third%20Republic\">France</a>, <a href=\"British%20Empire\">Britain</a>, and <a href=\"Russian%20Empire\">Russia</a>, later replaced by the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> and joined by <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Italy\">Italy</a> and <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Romania\">Romania</a>) emerged victorious over the <a href=\"Central%20Powers\">Central Powers</a> (<a href=\"German%20Empire\">Germany</a>, <a href=\"Austria-Hungary\">Austria-Hungary</a>, the <a href=\"Ottoman%20Empire\">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Bulgaria\">Bulgaria</a>). In addition to annexing much of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The regime of Tsar <a href=\"Nicholas%20II\">Nicholas II</a> was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, and the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion.\nAt the beginning of the period, <a href=\"United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland\">Britain</a> was the world's most powerful nation, having <a href=\"Pax%20Britannica\">acted as the world's policeman</a> for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war <a href=\"angst\">angst</a> and which accelerated during the <a href=\"Great%20Depression\">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in <a href=\"World%20War%20II\">World War II</a>, sparked by <a href=\"Nazi%20Germany\">Nazi Germany</a>'s aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, <a href=\"Empire%20of%20Japan\">Japan</a> had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in <a href=\"Attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\">a surprise attack</a> on the United States, <a href=\"Military%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States%20during%20World%20War%20II\">bringing it</a> into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was <a href=\"German%20Instrument%20of%20Surrender\">defeated</a> in 1945, having been <a href=\"Western%20Allied%20invasion%20of%20Germany\">invaded</a> by the <a href=\"Soviet%20Union\">Soviet Union</a> and Poland from the east and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and <a href=\"Free%20France\">Free France</a> from the west. The war ended with the <a href=\"Atomic%20bombings%20of%20Hiroshima%20and%20Nagasaki\">dropping of two atomic bombs</a> on Japan. Japan later became a western ally with an economy based on the manufacture of <a href=\"consumer%20goods\">consumer goods</a> and trade. Germany <a href=\"Allied-occupied%20Germany\">was divided</a> between the Western powers (<a href=\"West%20Germany\">West Germany</a>) and the <a href=\"Soviet%20Union\">Soviet Union</a>; all areas recaptured by the Soviet Union (<a href=\"East%20Germany\">East Germany</a> and eastward) became Soviet <a href=\"puppet%20states\">puppet states</a> under communist rule. Meanwhile, Western European countries were influenced by the American <a href=\"Marshall%20Plan\">Marshall Plan</a> and made a quick <a href=\"economic%20recovery\">economic recovery</a>, becoming major allies of the United States under capitalist economies and relatively democratic governments.\nWorld War II left about 60 million people dead. When the conflict ended in 1945, the United States and the <a href=\"Soviet%20Union\">Soviet Union</a> emerged as the major world powers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as the competing ideologies of communism and <a href=\"democratic%20capitalism\">democratic capitalism</a> occupied Europe, divided by the <a href=\"Iron%20Curtain\">Iron Curtain</a> and the <a href=\"Berlin%20Wall\">Berlin Wall</a>. The military alliances headed by these nations (<a href=\"NATO\">NATO</a> in North America and Western Europe; the <a href=\"Warsaw%20Pact\">Warsaw Pact</a> in Eastern Europe) threatened each other with total war in what was called the <a href=\"Cold%20War\">Cold War</a> (1947–91). The period was marked by a new arms race, and <a href=\"nuclear%20weapons\">nuclear weapons</a> were produced in the tens of thousands, sufficient to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. The size of the nuclear arsenals is believed by many historians to have staved off war between the two, as the consequences were too great to bear. The policy of massive nuclear attack, knowing a similar counterattack would be forthcoming, was called <a href=\"mutually%20assured%20destruction\">mutually assured destruction</a> (MAD). However, several <a href=\"proxy%20war\">proxy war</a>s, such as the <a href=\"Korean%20War\">Korean War</a> (1950–1953) and the <a href=\"Vietnam%20War\">Vietnam War</a> (1955–1975), were waged as the United States implemented its worldwide \"<a href=\"containment\">containment</a>\" policy against communism.\nAfter World War II, most of the <a href=\"History%20of%20colonialism\">European-colonized world</a> in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of <a href=\"decolonization\">decolonization</a>. Meanwhile, the wars empowered several nations, including the UK, USA, Russia, China and Japan, to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. <a href=\"Culture%20of%20the%20United%20States\">American culture</a> spread around the world with the advent of the <a href=\"Cinema%20of%20the%20United%20States\">Hollywood motion picture industry</a>, <a href=\"Broadway%20%28Manhattan%29\">Broadway</a>, <a href=\"rock%20and%20roll\">rock and roll</a>, <a href=\"pop%20music\">pop music</a>, <a href=\"fast%20food\">fast food</a>, <a href=\"big-box%20store\">big-box store</a>s, and the <a href=\"hip-hop\">hip-hop</a> lifestyle. Britain continued to influence world <a href=\"culture\">culture</a>, including the \"<a href=\"British%20Invasion\">British Invasion</a>\" (<a href=\"The%20Rolling%20Stones\">The Rolling Stones</a>, <a href=\"The%20Beatles\">The Beatles</a>) into <a href=\"Music%20of%20the%20United%20States\">American music</a>, leading many <a href=\"Band%20%28rock%20and%20pop%29\">rock band</a>s from other countries (such as Swedish <a href=\"ABBA\">ABBA</a>) to sing in English. The western world and parts of Asia enjoyed a <a href=\"post%E2%80%93World%20War%20II%20economic%20expansion\">post–World War II economic expansion</a>. After the Soviet Union <a href=\"Dissolution%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union\">collapsed</a> under internal pressure in 1991, the communist governments of the <a href=\"Eastern%20bloc\">Eastern bloc</a> were dismantled, followed by awkward transitions into market economies.\nFollowing World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted <a href=\"United%20Nations%20resolution\">resolution</a>s on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international <a href=\"sovereignty\">sovereignty</a>, and <a href=\"human%20rights\">human rights</a>. <a href=\"Peacekeeping\">Peacekeeping</a> forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the <a href=\"European%20Union\">European Union</a>, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century.\nIn the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's <a href=\"environment%20%28biophysical%29\">environment</a> made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through <a href=\"Green%20party\">Green parties</a>. Increasing awareness of <a href=\"global%20warming\">global warming</a> began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate.\nDue to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the <a href=\"light%20bulb\">light bulb</a>, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by <a href=\"supertanker\">supertanker</a>s, <a href=\"airliner\">airliner</a>s, motorways, radio, television, <a href=\"antibiotics\">antibiotics</a>, <a href=\"frozen%20food\">frozen food</a>, computers and <a href=\"microcomputer\">microcomputer</a>s, the Internet, and <a href=\"mobile%20telephone\">mobile telephone</a>s affected people's <a href=\"quality%20of%20life\">quality of life</a> across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development drove changes in everyday life.\nAt the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the <a href=\"Atlantic%20slave%20trade\">Atlantic slave trade</a> had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of <a href=\"sexism\">sexism</a> fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards <a href=\"homosexuality\">homosexuality</a> also began to change in the later part of the century.\nThe number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million . Political scientist <a href=\"Rudolph%20Rummel\">Rudolph Rummel</a> estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by <a href=\"democide\">democide</a>, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to <a href=\"Charles%20Tilly\">Charles Tilly</a>, \"Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects.\" It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945.\nScience advanced dramatically during the century. There were new and radical developments in the <a href=\"Outline%20of%20physical%20science\">physical</a>, <a href=\"Life%20sciences\">life</a> and <a href=\"Human%20science\">human</a> sciences, building on the progress made in the 19th century. <a href=\"Big%20Science\">Big Science</a> flourished, especially after the <a href=\"Second%20World%20War\">Second World War</a>, as funding for science increased. Mathematics became ever more specialized and abstract.\nOne of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\nCommunications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states after centuries of foreign domination.\nThe world was undergoing its second major period of <a href=\"globalization\">globalization</a>; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was <a href=\"Americanization\">Americanization</a>. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy.\nTerrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of <a href=\"nuclear%20weapons\">nuclear weapons</a> were some issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. <a href=\"Despotism\">Despots</a> such as <a href=\"Kim%20Jong-il\">Kim Jong-il</a> of <a href=\"North%20Korea\">North Korea</a> continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.\nDisease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as <a href=\"SARS\">SARS</a> and <a href=\"West%20Nile%20virus\">West Nile</a> continued to spread. <a href=\"Malaria\">Malaria</a> and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an <a href=\"AIDS%20in%20Africa\">epidemic in southern Africa</a>.\nBased on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems may threaten the planet's habitability. One argument is that of <a href=\"global%20warming\">global warming</a> occurring, and that it may be due (at least partially) to human-caused emission of <a href=\"greenhouse%20gas\">greenhouse gas</a>es, particularly <a href=\"carbon%20dioxide\">carbon dioxide</a> produced by the burning of <a href=\"fossil%20fuel\">fossil fuel</a>s. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the <a href=\"Kyoto%20Protocol\">Kyoto treaty</a>, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.\n<a href=\"World%20population\">World population</a> increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end.\n"],"string":"[\n \"Titanic: The Complete Story\\nTitanic: The Complete Story is an American documentary chronicling the story of the ocean liner RMS Titanic which sank on its maiden voyage in 1912. This is a compilation of a four-hour documentary special produced by A&E Television Networks in 1994. A&E Home Video originally sold the entire documentary in a 4-tape VHS set. It is considered by many critics and historians to be the definitive documentary regarding the \\\"Titanic\\\".\\nThe documentary is narrated by actor David McCallum (who played survivor Harold Bride in the film A Night to Remember) and begins with a quote from first-class passenger Jack Thayer, about how the world's mindset was forever altered by the sinking. Rare interviews with some of the few remaining \\\"Titanic\\\" survivors, including Edith Brown, Eva Hart, Ruth Becker (who had already died in 1990), Millvina Dean, and Michel Marcel Navratil; discussions with leading historical authorities on the sinking, including Charles Haas, John Eaton, Ken Marschall, Don Lynch and Robert Ballard; and excerpts from survivor's writings and newspaper articles accompany McCallum's telling of the story.\\nThe documentary is presented in two parts:\\nThe first half, \\\"Titanic: Death of a Dream\\\", encapsulates the first two hours. It tells the story of the RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"' s origins, from its conception and construction, to its maiden voyage, leading up to the initial collision with the iceberg that would ultimately sink the ship.\\nThe second half, \\\"Titanic: The Legend Lives On\\\", concentrates on the ship's sinking, its immediate aftermath, and its discovery in 1985 by Dr. Robert Ballard, along with Titanic's continuing legacy.\\n\\\"Titanic: The Complete Story\\\" is considered by many critics and historians to be the definitive documentary regarding the \\\"Titanic\\\". Additionally, critics were impressed by certain camera tricks used throughout the program, such as a static image of the ship which slowly panned across the screen, overlaid atop videotaped footage of an ocean view, simulating footage of the ship sailing in real time.\\n\",\n \"Alice Cleaver\\nAlice Catherine Cleaver was a survivor of the \\\"RMS Titanic\\\" and nursemaid for the Allison family, wealthy insurance moguls from Canada during the early 20th century. She is best known for rescuing the youngest Allison child, Trevor, from the \\\"Titanic\\\". Little is known about her later life, as she refused to give interviews after surviving the shipwreck. She was the subject of books and movies that misidentified her as Alice Mary Cleaver, a woman who was infamous for murdering her own infant.\\nAlice Catherine Cleaver was born in London on 5 July 1889. Her father Joseph Cleaver was a postman, and her mother was Lavinia Alice Cleaver (maiden name Thomas).\\nWhen she was 22, Cleaver was hired by the Allison family to be a nursemaid for their youngest child, Trevor. She traveled first class on the \\\"Titanic\\\" with them (under ticket No. 113781) and boarded in Southampton. She stayed in the same room as Trevor so that she could care for him, which was right next to the parents in first class.\\nOn 14 April 1912 the RMS \\\"Titanic\\\" struck an iceberg and started to sink. Cleaver took Trevor into her lifeboat, but didn't tell anyone. Speculation claims this confusion could have led to the Allison family perishing, as the mother Bess would not want to leave her son behind. Testimony from that night has speculated why she never alerted the Allisons to her departure from her room, but Cleaver herself never spoke of the incident.\\nThere has been some confusion over the age and identity of Alice Cleaver, with some mistaking her for Alice Mary Cleaver, a woman who was convicted in 1909 for the murder of her own child. This misconception was printed as fact in at least two books about the sinking of the \\\"Titanic\\\", \\\"Titanic: An Illustrated History\\\" (1992) and \\\"Titanic: Women and Children First\\\" (1998), and was included as part of the plot for the 1996 television mini-series \\\"Titanic.\\\" In the miniseries Cleaver was portrayed as an emotionally unstable young woman who has premonitions of the disaster, who then sees the opportunity to rescue baby Trevor from the sinking ship as a saving grace from her tumultuous past.\\nCleaver's age has also been debated due to descriptions of her being a competent nursemaid and a good maternal figure, which \\\"Titanic Lives\\\" author Rob Rondeau believes were indicative of an older woman.\",\n \"James Joseph Brown\\nJames Joseph \\\"J.J.\\\" Brown (September 27, 1854 – September 5, 1922), was an American mining engineer, inventor, and self-made member of fashionable \\\"society\\\". His wife was \\\"RMS Titanic\\\" survivor Molly Brown.\\nJ.J. was born in Waymart, Pennsylvania. His father, James Brown, was an Irish immigrant. His mother, Cecilia Palmer, was a schoolteacher. J.J's family moved to Pittston, Pennsylvania shortly after his birth. J.J's mother home-schooled him and later sent him to St. John's Academy. He left home at the age of 23, lured by the riches in the West. His first stop was a farm in Nebraska. From Nebraska he moved to the placer mines in the Dakotas. He spent two years learning the mining trade before moving to Colorado where he tried his luck in Georgetown, Aspen, and Ashcroft. He spent another two years in the Aspen and Ashcroft area before moving to Alma, Fairplay, Red Cliff, and, finally, Leadville. He studied geology, ore deposits, and mining techniques to become a better miner.\\nJ.J. married Margaret Tobin on September 1, 1886, in Leadville's Annunciation Church. Margaret was later known as \\\"The Unsinkable Molly Brown\\\" when a Broadway fictionalized movie about her life titled, \\\"The Unsinkable Molly Brown\\\" was released in 1964. That was how Margaret's moniker \\\"Molly\\\" was acquired. Margaret Brown was one of the survivors of the RMS Titanic sinking in 1912. At the time of their marriage, J.J. was 31 and Margaret was 19. They first settled in Leadville, Colorado in a small, two-room log cabin, then later moved to a two bedroom house at 320 East Ninth Street. The Browns had two children. Their first child, Lawrence Palmer Brown, nicknamed Larry, was born on August 30, 1887 in his maternal grandparents' four room cottage near the Mississippi River in Hannibal, Missouri. Larry married Eileen Elizabeth Horton (1890–1985) on January 1, 1911 in Kansas City, Missouri. They had two children, Lawrence Palmer \\\"Pat\\\" Brown Jr. (1911–1976) and Elizabeth \\\"Betty\\\" Brown (1913–1974). The marriage failed and Larry married Hollywood actress Mildred Gregory (1895–1956) on November 17, 1926 in Beverly Hills, California. This marriage produced no other children. Larry died on April 2, 1949. J.J. and Margaret's second child, Catherine Ellen Brown, nicknamed Helen, was born on July 22, 1889 in her parents' three bedroom house at 322 West Seventh Street in Leadville, Colorado. She married George Joseph Peter Adelheid Benziger (1877–1970) on April 7, 1913 in Chicago, Illinois. Her children were James George Benziger (1914–1995) and George Peter Joseph Adelrich Benziger (1917–1985). Her grandchildren include Bradford Benziger (born December 13, 1944), Katherine Benziger (born July 12, 1947), Vincent Benziger (born August 3, 1950), Pamela Benziger Feeley (born 1946), Alice Lynne Davy (born 1948), Helen Anne Benziger (born 1950) and Heidi Rautio (born 1952). Helen died on October 17, 1969.\\nIn 1909, after 23 years of marriage, J.J. and Molly signed a separation agreement and went their separate ways. The agreement gave Margaret a cash settlement and possession of the Victorian mansion on Pennsylvania Street in Denver's Wealthy Capital Hill neighborhood, and also the summer mansion Avoca Lodge in Southwest Denver, near Bear Creak. She also received a $700 monthly allowance to continue her travels and philanthropic activities. Although they never reconciled, they remained connected and cared for each other throughout their lives. At the time of J.J.'s death in 1922, Margaret told newspapers, \\\"\\\"I've never met a finer, bigger, more worthwhile man than J.J. Brown.\\\"\\\"\\nAlthough J.J. was not born into wealth, he was ambitious, smart, and charismatic. He quickly rose through the mining ranks to shift-boss and timberman. He was foreman of the Louisville Mine by the time he and Margaret met. By 1887 he was superintendent of the Louisville Mine, and in 1888 he was superintendent of the Henriette & Maid Consolidated Mining Company, at the time one of the most productive mines in the area.\\nThe Brown family came into great wealth when J.J's engineering efforts proved instrumental in the production of a substantial gold and copper seam at the Little Jonny mine of his employers, Ibex Mining Company.\\nJ.J., who was the superintendent of all the Ibex properties, devised a method of using baled hay and timbers to stop cave-ins. His invention paid off. When the Little Jonny mine opened, vast quantities of high-grade copper and gold were found. The grade of gold was so pure and the vein so wide that it was heralded as the world's richest gold strike. By October 29, 1893, the Little Jonny was shipping 135 tons of gold ore per day. J.J. was awarded 12,500 shares or 12.5% of stock and a seat on the board. The Ibex Company and its owners, including the Browns, became extraordinarily wealthy. In 1894, the Browns moved to Denver, Colorado, buying a $30,000 Victorian mansion in Denver's wealthy Capitol Hill neighborhood. In 1897, they built a summer mansion Avoca Lodge in Southwest Denver, near Bear Creak.\\nOn September 5, 1922, J.J. died after suffering a series of heart attacks at a hospital in Nassau, New York, with his daughter Catherine by his side. He died without a will, and it took 5 years of fighting between Margaret and her two children to settle the estate. Due to their lavish spending, J.J. left an estate valued at only $238,000 (worth $ today). Margaret was to receive $20,000 in cash and securities, and the interest on a $100,000 trust fund set up in her name. $118,000 was divided between her two children. Her son Lawrence received a $59,000 (worth $ today) trust fund, and her daughter Catherine received a $59,000 trust fund. From that time until her death in 1932, Margaret had no contact with her two children (but Margaret's page says they were reconciled). Both J.J. and Margaret are buried in the Cemetery of the Holy Rood in Westbury, New York.\",\n \"The Legend of the Titanic\\nThe Legend of the Titanic (Spanish: La leyenda del Titanic , Italian: La leggenda del Titanic ) is a 1999 Italian animated film directed by Orlando Corradi and Kim J. Ok. The film is a very loose adaptation of the RMS Titanic sinking and featured several fantasy elements such as anthropomorphic animals.\\n\\\"The Legend of the Titanic\\\" was followed by a 2004 sequel titled \\\"Tentacolino\\\".\\nIn modern-day New York City an old mouse named Conners tells his grandchildren the supposedly \\\"true\\\" story of RMS \\\"Titanic\\\".\\nIn April 1912, Conners was a young sailor mouse on \\\"Titanic\\\"' s maiden voyage from Southampton to New York. He is in charge of taking account for the mice who are making the trip. A young mouse from Brazil named Ronny who enjoys playing soccer befriends Conners and Conners falls in love with Ronny's sister Stella.\\nMeanwhile, a rich aristocratic woman named Elizabeth and her family board the \\\"Titanic\\\". Her father is a famous Duke and is very prominent in the whaling business. He and Elizabeth's stepmother have arranged for Elizabeth to marry Mr. Evarard Maltravers, a rich whaler. Unknown to the Duke, the marriage is actually a scheme concocted by his wife and Maltravers to gain worldwide whaling rights for themselves, and asserts that the marriage is what's best for his daughter. Elizabeth sees several gypsies dancing at the dock and happily watches them. A gypsy man named Don Juan is dancing with his dog Smiley. He notices Elizabeth and sends Smiley to see her. When Elizabeth takes off one of her gloves to pet Smiley, Smiley snatches it and takes it back to Juan. Juan looks at Elizabeth and the two instantly fall in love. The \\\"Titanic\\\" then sets off to sea from Southampton on her first, and only, voyage.\\nConners and Ronny learn all about what's going on with Elizabeth by their observations during their trips throughout the ship's ventilation system. They are appalled by the way Elizabeth is being treated badly and decide to help her. When Elizabeth goes to the bow of the ship that night, some dolphins talk to her due to some magic moonbeams catching her tears. The dolphins jump very high out of the water and seem to levitate. They tell her of Maltravers's evil scheme. Maltravers's manservant Geoffreys spies on Elizabeth's activities and uses a special whistle at the stern of the ship to call the criminal shark named Mr. Ice and use him for causing destruction.\\nConners and Ronny introduce themselves to Elizabeth and offer to help her. Listening to their advice, Elizabeth tells her father she doesn't want to marry Maltravers. He listens to his daughter and tells her that he will never force her to do something she doesn't want to do. Meanwhile, Smiley tries to look for Elizabeth to cheer up Juan. After he unsuccessfully tries to find her in the ship's ballroom, he meets Conners and Ronny, who agree to help arrange a meeting and dance for Elizabeth and Juan. The meeting goes according to schedule and Elizabeth and Juan dance together before sharing their first kiss.\\nElizabeth tells her father that she wants to marry Juan, and he agrees, but Elizabeth's stepmother is furious. Following an argument with Elizabeth, she storms off in anger. Elizabeth's stepmother and Maltravers decide to resort to drastic measures, as it is clear that Elizabeth will not marry him. They decide to sink the \\\"Titanic\\\" using the help of Mr. Ice and his gang of criminal sharks. Maltravers prepares to send news to his whaling ships by telegraph, and the mice decide to chew apart the wires to stop it from being sent.\\nIce and his gang of sharks decide to let an iceberg sink the \\\"Titanic\\\". They fool an octopus named Tentacles into heaving an iceberg to the surface of the ocean by concealing the plan in the form of a bet to see who can throw ice the farthest. Onboard the \\\"Titanic\\\", the Duke is forced to sign the whaling concession at gunpoint, after which Maltravers and his entourage flee the ship in a lifeboat.\\nThe crew of the \\\"Titanic\\\" then see the iceberg and attempt to avoid it, but the \\\"Titanic\\\" hits the berg despite their efforts. The ship quickly begins to sink.\\nThe mice realize that because they have cut the telegraph wires, the ship can't send out a distress signal. They enlist the help of another mouse friend of theirs, named Camembert, to help repair the wires. They are unable to do so, so Camembert has them tie up the ends of the cut wire to his moustache. They do so, but Camembert is electrocuted as the SOS is signalled out.\\nElizabeth and Juan manage to save her father, who is still tied up in a chair by Maltravers, and manage to put him on a lifeboat. Suddenly, several whales and dolphins arrive to help with the rescue. Elizabeth, Juan, Conners, Ronny, and Smiley jump off the now-perpendicular stern and jump into the water, and they are saved by a whale as well. Once everyone on the ship has been saved, the \\\"Titanic\\\" finally sinks, taking Tentacles with it and seemingly killing him, as he was still heroically holding it together. In the morning, the passengers are taken aboard the \\\"RMS Carpathia\\\". Conners mournfully remembers the heroes of the disaster; Camembert and Tentacles.\\nThe \\\"Carpathia\\\" arrives in New York and disembarks the passengers. Elizabeth and Juan are married, as are Conners and Stella. It is revealed that Tentacles and Camembert have both somehow survived and are well. Everyone is elated and celebratess at the Brooklyn Bridge, congratulating Tentacles for saving everyone in the disaster.\\nThe film ends with old Conners and Stella back in modern-day New York and Conners telling his grandchildren that whales are still hunted. Stella says: \\\"Your grandfather loves to tell stories, but like all sailors, you shouldn't take him too seriously.\\\"\\nA sequel for the movie, \\\"Tentacolino\\\", was made.\",\n \"Titanic Canyon\\nTitanic Canyon is a submarine canyon located south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Canada. Its name was proposed in 1991 by marine geologist Alan Ruffman for the remembrance of British passenger liner RMS Titanic, the wreck of which lies about 34 km south of the head of Titanic Canyon on its eastern slope.\\n\",\n \"Martin Bayerle\\nCaptain Martin Gerard Bayerle (born April 23, 1951) is an American treasure hunter and author, best known for finding the 1909 shipwreck of the White Star Liner RMS Republic. He is also star of the History Channel show \\\"Billion Dollar Wreck.\\\" The \\\"Republic\\\" was the largest ship to sink in history to her day, only to be eclipsed by the loss of RMS Titanic in 1912. Capt. Bayerle and his company, Martha's Vineyard Scuba Headquarters, Inc. (\\\"MAVIS\\\") were referred to as \\\"modern day pirates\\\" by Judge Nancy Gertner of the United States District Court, District of Massachusetts in a 2005 opinion granting exclusive salvage rights to the \\\"Republic\\\" to MAVIS. MAVIS subsequently acquired legal title to the RMS Republic shipwreck and her contents in August 2011, with the U.S. District Court of Boston also barring all future claims.\\nMartin was born in St. Albans Naval Hospital in Queens, New York, and grew up in the Brighton Beach neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. His father, Gerard, was a lawyer and lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army Reserve. His mother, Ruth, was a German immigrant who came to the United States following World War II. Martin lost sight in his left eye from a small explosives accident when he was 11 years old. He first began scuba diving off the coast of New Jersey and New York at the age of 15 and went on to graduate from Abraham Lincoln High School in February 1969.\\nMartin attended Brooklyn College in New York from 1969 through 1972 where he majored in Geology. He taught scuba diving as a student and adjunct professor within the Adult Education Department; during his time there until he opened up a dive shop - Brooklyn Divers Supply Corp. – in 1972. He began running dive operations to local shipwreck sites, such as the \\\"Mistletoe\\\", \\\"Black Warrior\\\", \\\"USS Turner (DD-648)\\\", \\\"Oregon\\\", and \\\"U-853\\\", among others. He trained about 1,200 people how to scuba dive and became a Master PADI SCUBA instructor in 1975 (# M1761).\\nBrooklyn Divers was operated successfully until 1978, when the company’s source of supply and advertisements was abruptly cut off. Martin sued eight SCUBA company defendants for price fixing conspiracy under the Sherman Act and reached a six-figure settlement once the case went to trial in federal court in the Southern District of New York (\\\"Brooklyn Diver Supply Corp. v ScubaPro, Petersen Publications, Dacor, NASDS ...\\\" – and other major components of the sport SCUBA diving industry). Martin then closed up his Brooklyn operations and moved to Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts. There he obtained a captain’s license, pilot’s license, and established Martha’s Vineyard Scuba Headquarters, Inc. (MAVIS) to serve as a base of operations to attempt to locate the fabled shipwreck of the RMS \\\"Republic\\\". The \\\"Republic\\\" was the largest ship to sink in history when she sank off the U.S. East Coast in January 1909 and was rumored to be carrying a vast cargo of gold.\\nAfter two and a half years of preparatory research to determine the wreck’s location, Capt. Bayerle discovered the wreck of the RMS \\\"Republic\\\" in 1981. He raised investor capital and purchased the assets from a bankrupt Canadian offshore oil rig support company, Wolf Sub-Ocean Ltd., in addition to the purchase of a 285 ft Diving Support Vessel, the \\\"Oil Endeavor\\\" (renamed the \\\"SOSI Inspector\\\") in the years following the find. Martin also married during those years and he and his wife, Susan, gave birth to two children – a daughter, Tessa, and a son, Grant. During the summer of 1987, Martin went out to perform a major salvage on the \\\"Republic\\\" to try to recover the gold, an event that generated international media attention. Capt. Bayerle was featured on television programs such as \\\"CBS Evening News,\\\" \\\"ABC Evening News\\\", and \\\"ABC Good Morning America\\\". The 74-day salvage was also closely followed in international periodicals, such as \\\"Forbes,\\\" \\\"New York Times,\\\" \\\"Associated Press,\\\" \\\"Japan Times\\\", \\\"London Times,\\\" and the \\\"Los Angeles Times\\\" among many other major publications.\\nThe 1987 salvage effort was successful in targeting and excavating their target area, but failed to locate the gold, however. The crew excavated the target area but ended up in the ship’s wine locker, finding hundreds of pre-1900 bottles of wine and champagne. Once they realized they were in the wine locker rather than the specie room, Capt. Bayerle flew to London and appeared on ITV and BBC radio, offering a £25,000 reward for the construction plans of the \\\"Republic\\\". No one came forth with the plans to the ship, however, and the salvage was terminated for lack of funds. Despite many years of research and effort, the plans to the ship still have never been found.\\nFollowing the salvage attempt, the 1987 joint venture disbanded and any artifacts brought up were sold at auction. Martin moved to Clarksburg, West Virginia, to live with his in-laws, the Youngs, on a small farm. He finished his undergraduate education, earning B.Sc. and B.Sc.B.Adm. magna cum laude degrees from Fairmont State College and went on to start his M.B.A. education from West Virginia University. He was accepted into the WVU College of Law in the fall of 1990 but would not complete his legal education there, however, as other personal events intervened.\\nOn April 6, 1991, Bayerle shot and killed 38-year old Stefano Robotti, the 'lover' of his alienated wife Susan, in Library, Pennsylvania. He argued that he \\\"was protecting his family,\\\" although a legal and justifiable homicide defense of self or defense of family was not offered to the jury as an option. Evidence of the sexual exploitation of Bayerle's wife and children by the deceased was presented at trial. After a six-week trial, the jury vacillated between involuntary (a misdemeanor) and voluntary manslaughter, and found him guilty of voluntary manslaughter; Bayerle was sentenced to one to five years in State prison. He completed his sentence, with good time, in two-and-a-half years.\\nUpon his release, Capt. Bayerle continued school in Morgantown, West Virginia, to complete his M.B.A. education in order to add credibility and depth to his research. There, he started up an Internet Service Provider business that he ran for five years and established IDEA, the Internet Development and Exchange Association. Capt. Bayerle moved back to Manhattan, New York City, in 2002 to continue his years of research into the rumored gold cargo aboard the Republic. From that research, he refined a trademarked Third Theory that identified the $3,000,000 1909-value secret transaction on board that was being shipped to the Tsar of Russia, “Bloody” Nicholas II, a gold cargo that today may be worth in excess of two billion dollars.\\nCapt. Bayerle subsequently started an archival research company specializing in retrieving records from government archives. His old company, MAVIS, has since acquired legal title to the wreck of the RMS \\\"Republic\\\" and her contents, with the court also barring all future claims. After acquiring ownership of Republic, on August 1, 2013, Bayerle published the bulk of his significant research into the mystery of RMS Republic by releasing a book titled \\\"The Tsar's Treasure: The Sunken White Star Liner With a Billion Dollar Secret.\\\" In 2013, MAVIS retained Etoile Blanc Consulting, LLC to manage investment and media properties related to the RMS Republic recovery. Investment opportunities are made available to Accredited Investors through Lords Of Fortune LLC. Captain Bayerle's personal life is also the subject of an upcoming non-fiction book series, with the first book of the trilogy planned for release in mid-2016. Plans to adapt the series into feature films are also in development. MAVIS is currently preparing for a major recovery operation of the wreck planned for the summer seasons of 2015–2017.\",\n \"Edward Kamuda\\nEdward Stephen Kamuda (November 10, 1939 – April 13, 2014) was an American historian who specialized in the study of the RMS Titanic. The Titanic sank on April 14, 1912, after striking an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean. Kamuda devoted much of his life to the preservation of the Titanic's legacy as the founder and president of the Titanic Historical Society. Much of his research focused on the biographies of the crew and passengers of the RMS Titanic.\\nKamuda co-founded the Titanic Historical Society on July 7, 1963, in Indian Orchard, Springfield, Massachusetts, with five other people. The society was originally called the \\\"Titanic Enthusiasts of America\\\", but Kamuda changed its name after a widow of a Titanic passenger questioned their \\\"enthusiasm\\\" for the disaster which killed 1,517 people, including her husband. Kamuda, who served as the president of the Titanic Historical Society, saw the society's membership grow to thousands during his lifetime. Under his leadership, the Titanic Historical Society became one of the world's leading centers for the research of the RMS Titanic, as well as its passengers and crew.\\nKamuda and other members of the society served as consultants for the 1997 film, \\\"Titanic\\\", directed by James Cameron. Kamuda helped Cameron with the historical details of the set and story. In return, Cameron cast Kamuda and his wife, society vice president Karen Kamuda, as extras in the film. Before shooting their scene, James Cameron told the assembled \\\"Titanic\\\" cast and crew, \\\"Because of these two people we are here today.\\\" The director also introduced Kamuda to several actors, telling them, \\\"Here's the man who made it all possible.\\\" Ed and Karen Kamuda can be seen in the background on the ship's promenade while Leonardo DiCaprio (who plays Jack Dawson) teaches Kate Winslet (Rose DeWitt Bukater) how to spit. Edward Kamuda, who was initially reluctant to appear onscreen in the film, later described the experience on set in a 1997 interview with \\\"The Republican\\\", \\\"To look at the books for 40 years and then to walk the decks of the ship - it was a dream come true.\\\"\\nIn 2012, Kamuda, on behalf of the Titanic Historical Society, presented the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, with the Titanic Centennial Memorial, a 10,000 pound, black granite monument to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the disaster. The Titanic Centennial Memorial, which was dedicated in the Oak Grove Cemetery, includes the names of two Springfield residents who died on the Titanic: Jane Carr, 47, a third class passenger and Milton C. Long, 29, a first class passenger and son of a Springfield mayor and judge.\\nEd Kamuda died from a long illness at his home on April 13, 2014, at the age of 74. He was survived by his wife, Karen Kamuda. Kamuda was buried at Oak Grove Cemetery in Springfield, Massachusetts.\",\n \"The Titanic (song)\\n\\\"The Titanic\\\" (also known as \\\"It Was Sad When That Great Ship Went Down\\\" and \\\"Titanic (Husbands and Wives)\\\") is a folk song and children's song most known for being sung in the United States at summer camp. \\\"The Titanic\\\" is about the sinking of the RMS Titanic which sank on April 15, 1912 after striking an iceberg.\\nThe first folk songs about the \\\"Titanic\\\" disaster appeared within weeks after the disaster. Recordings of various songs about the disaster date to as early as 1913.\\nThe canonical version of the song has the chorus:\\nIn most variants, although not the earliest, the chorus starts with a line \\\"it was sad, so sad, it was sad\\\", and in many versions, the line \\\"to the bottom of the...\\\" appended after the repeat of \\\"went down.\\\" Other than the chorus, different versions may contain verses in different order.\\nThere are several regional variations on the song. According to Newman I. White's 1928 book \\\"American Negro Folk-Songs\\\", \\\"The Titanic\\\" has been traced back to 1915 or 1916 in Hackleburg, Alabama. Other versions from around 1920 are documented in the Frank C. Brown Collection at Duke University in North Carolina. Early recordings include Ernest Stoneman's \\\"The Titanic\\\" (Okeh 40288) in September 1924 and William and Versey Smith's \\\"When That Great Ship Went Down\\\" in August 1927.\\nAccording to Jeff Place, in his notes for the \\\"Anthology of American Folk Music\\\": \\\"African-American musicians, in particular, found it noteworthy and ironic that company policies had kept Blacks from the doomed ship; the sinking was also attributed by some to divine retribution.\\\"\\nA large number of parody verses exist, either added following the serious lyrics, or sung instead of the usual verses; for example, replacing the line \\\"husbands and wives, little children lost their lives\\\" with \\\"uncles and aunts, little children lost their pants.\\\"\\n\\\"The Titanic\\\" was sung by Paul Newman and Brandon de Wilde's characters after a drunken night out, in the 1963 film \\\"Hud\\\".\\nTraditionally, the University of California Marching Band performs the song during its march up to Memorial Stadium from Sproul Plaza on the Berkeley campus.\\nThe Romantic song is commonly sung at many Boy Scout and Girl Scout camps, and other children's camps with numerous more hilarious verses added on.\",\n \"Avoca Lodge\\nAvoca Lodge, known as The Molly Brown Summer House, is a Registered Historic Place in southwest Denver, Colorado near Bear Creek. The home served as a summer retreat for philanthropist, socialite, and activist Margaret Brown and her husband James Joseph Brown. It is open to the public rental and for tours.\\n\",\n \"Distant Waves\\nDistant Waves is a novel using the RMS Titanic as much of its setting. It is not a story completely of the Titanic, it mixes fiction with real people that were alive during the Titanic era.\\nA girl named Jane Taylor lives with her mother and four other sisters (Mimi, Amelie, Emma, and Blythe). Her mother, Maude, is a medium. They live in America in the late 19th century. Jane's father has recently died of Smallpox, and her mother is in grief.\\nOne day, they go to a park to meditate, and Mimi & Jane go for a walk. Their mother decides to go to a little place named Spirit Vale. They soon take a train to New York city when, suddenly, the ground starts splitting apart and shaking. An earthquake starts, buildings start shaking and Mimi gets a bad headache. But a man named Nikola Tesla rescues them, and they watch him smash a small device. He explains that he has been destroying things and this earthquake machine is one of his ideas. He believes that everything vibrates and at different frequencies, you can travel between time and different worlds. They are amused. Tesla becomes Jane's ultimate role model and collects newspaper clippings about him over the years. Maude moves them to Spirit Vale, where they are going to stay at the inn for a bit. The inn is already fully booked, but, Maude \\\"contacts\\\" the husband of the inn's owner, Aunty Lily, and she lets them stay.\\nWhen they stay in Spirit Vale Maude opens a business where she \\\"contacts\\\" the spirits and practices the movement known as Spiritualism. There she changes everyone's name to Oneida Taylor. Maude becomes very well known and is the center and buzz of Spirit Vale. Everyone comes to see her and get readings and many other things. As the years pass many more things are added to her sign outside the home they share. They soon move out of the hotel and into their own house.\\nIn 1911, Mimi and Jane run away to New York City, where Jane falls in love with Thad who is Tesla's assistant. Mimi gets a job as a companion to a wealthy French woman, Ninette, and she goes to travel with her to Europe. As Jane boards her train to return to Spirit Vale, Thad learns that Jane is only 16, 4 years younger than him. He doesn't write to Jane like he promised her. Jane gets very sad over Mimi's departure and Thad. Maude is devastated and blames Jane for running away with Mimi and her departure.\\nAfter Mimi has been gone for a while, she finally contacts her family while they are in London, England for a spiritual convention for mediums, psychics, etc. It is there that it is proven that the twins, Amelie and Emma, have their mother's gift of being able to speak to the dead after having Queen Victoria speak to Conan Doyle. Mimi reveals that she is going to be sailing on the Titanic, and Blythe wants to go with her. After much convincing, she is allowed to go. Mimi is in first class, and Blythe is in second class.\\nWhen W.T Stead predicts that the Titanic will sink and Mimi and Blythe are on it. Jane, Amelie, and Emma get on it to try to talk them into getting off of the boat when Jane bumps into Thad, who is on the ship with Tesla. He is overjoyed to see her, and he tells her he made a mistake in not being with her.Jane, Amelie, and Emma are convinced the ship won't sink, so they stay on. Mimi announces that she will be having her wedding on the Titanic to her mistress's butler.\\nJust before the wedding, Thad reveals to Jane that he loves her. She feels the same way, and Mimi is happy for her sister.\\nDuring the wedding, Tesla wants to show off his newest invention. It's supposed to break ice. Jane recognizes it as the earthquake machine. When he used it, it malfunctioned and the rudder cracks. This causes the rudder to not function properly and the iceberg to hit the ship. They start telling people to get on life boats. They realize that Amelie is missing, so Mimi, Jane, Emma, and Thad go looking for her. Tesla tells Thad and Jane to follow him. He says he has an invention that could save everyone. It's a time machine. Mimi finds Jane in the bottom of the ship with Tesla and Thad. She tells her to get on the lifeboats, but she stays.\\nTesla's machine partly works and Jane finds herself in the water. She sees a floating chair and she gets on it. She finds Amelie and Emma in the water. Tesla helps them up onto the overturned table he was on. Mrs. Brown's life boat spots them and they pulled Emma and Amelie on board. Emma dies of hypothermia. Amelie had two broken legs and frostbite on her toes. Nobody can find Mimi or Thad. Amelie goes to the hospital. She starts to talk, but says that Emma is talking. Jane recalls Emma saying \\\"I won't leave\\\", just before she dies.\\nTwo years pass by. Mimi and Thad, though no bodies were found, are said to have drowned. Jane, now 19, gets a job as a reporter. She sees a picture on a newspaper of two people that survived the sinking of the Titanic in the water all these years. Jane thinks they look like Thad and Mimi. She begs her boss to let her do this story, and he lets her. She goes to them and finds that they are Mimi and Thad. When they were in the time machine, it didn't send them a couple minutes into the future, it sent them a couple of years. Although to everyone else, Mimi and Thad had been gone years, to them it only seems like a few minutes. They all get on a train, and Jane reluctantly tells Mimi that her husband is dead. Jane, Thad, and Mimi ride back home together, where the book ends.\",\n \"Michel Marcel Navratil\\nMichel Marcel Navratil, Jr. (12 June 1908 – 30 January 2001) was one of the last survivors of the <a href=\\\"sinking%20of%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">sinking of \\\"Titanic\\\"</a> on 15 April 1912. He, along with his brother, Edmond (1910–1953), were known as the \\\"Titanic Orphans\\\", having been the only children rescued without a parent or guardian. He was three years old at the time of the disaster, and was the last remaining male survivor.\\nMichel Jr. was born on 12 June 1908 in <a href=\\\"Nice%2C%20France\\\">Nice, France</a> to <a href=\\\"Michel%20Navratil\\\">Michel Navratil</a>, a tailor and <a href=\\\"Slovaks\\\">Slovak</a> immigrant to France, and Marcelle Caretto, an Italian, who he had married in <a href=\\\"London%2C%20England\\\">London, England</a>. His younger brother, Edmond, was born on 5 March 1910.\\nThe marriage was troubled, and in early 1912, his parents separated. Marcelle was awarded full custody of the boys. She allowed them to stay with their father over the <a href=\\\"Easter\\\">Easter</a> weekend; however, when she went to collect them, they had disappeared. Michel had decided to immigrate to the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, taking the boys with him. After a brief stay in <a href=\\\"Monte%20Carlo\\\">Monte Carlo</a>, they traveled to <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a> where they boarded the <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BTitanic\\\"></a> .\\nMichel, Edmond, and their father boarded the \\\"Titanic\\\" at <a href=\\\"Southampton%2C%20England\\\">Southampton, England</a> on 10 April 1912, as second-class passengers. For the journey, Mr. Navratil assumed the alias \\\"Louis M. Hoffman\\\", and the boys were booked as \\\"Lolo and Momon\\\". On board the ship, he led passengers to believe that he was a widower. He let the boys out of his sight only once, when he allowed a French-speaking woman, Bertha Lehmann, to watch them for a few hours while he played cards.\\nAfter the collision with the iceberg at 11:40 pm on 14 April 1912, Navratil placed Michel and Edmond in <a href=\\\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Collapsible%20Boat%20D%20%28port%29\\\">Collapsible D</a>, the last lifeboat successfully launched from the ship. Michel, although not quite four years old at the time, later claimed to remember his father telling him, \\\"My child, when your mother comes for you, as she surely will, tell her that I loved her dearly and still do. Tell her I expected her to follow us, so that we might all live happily together in the peace and freedom of the New World.\\\" The elder Navratil died in the sinking, and his body was recovered by the rescue ship, \\\"<a href=\\\"Mackay-Bennett\\\">Mackay-Bennett</a>\\\". In his pocket was a revolver. Because of his assumed <a href=\\\"Jewish\\\">Jewish</a> surname, he was buried in <a href=\\\"Baron%20de%20Hirsch%20Cemetery%2C%20Halifax\\\">Baron de Hirsch Cemetery, Halifax</a>, a <a href=\\\"Jewish%20cemetery\\\">Jewish cemetery</a> in <a href=\\\"Nova%20Scotia\\\">Nova Scotia</a>.\\nWhile in Collapsible D, Michel was fed biscuits by first-class passenger Hugh Woolner. When the rescue ship <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BCarpathia\\\">\\\"Carpathia\\\"</a> arrived at the scene, he and Edmond were hoisted to its deck in burlap sacks. Since they were toddlers and spoke no <a href=\\\"English%20language\\\">English</a>, they could not identify themselves and were soon referred to as the \\\"Titanic Orphans\\\". French-speaking first-class passenger <a href=\\\"Margaret%20Bechstein%20Hays\\\">Margaret Hays</a> cared for them at her house until their mother could be located, which occurred as a result of newspaper articles which included their pictures. She sailed to <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> and was reunited with them on 16 May 1912. She took them back to France aboard the \\\"<a href=\\\"RMS%20Oceanic%20%281899%29\\\">Oceanic</a>\\\".\\nMichel later recalled his memory of the Titanic:\\nand later:\\nMichel attended college and in 1933 married a fellow student. He went on to earn a doctorate and became a professor of philosophy. Throughout his life, he maintained that his brush with death at such a young age, coupled with the loss of his father, strongly influenced his thought processes.\\nIn 1987, Michel travelled to <a href=\\\"Wilmington%2C%20Delaware\\\">Wilmington, Delaware</a> to mark the 75th anniversary of the sinking. It was his first visit to the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> since 1912. The following year, he joined ten fellow survivors at a <a href=\\\"Titanic%20Historical%20Society\\\">Titanic Historical Society</a> convention in <a href=\\\"Boston%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Boston, Massachusetts</a>. In 1996, he joined fellow survivors <a href=\\\"Eleanor%20Ileen%20Johnson\\\">Eleanor Shuman</a> and <a href=\\\"Edith%20Haisman\\\">Edith Brown</a> on a cruise to the location of the wreck, where attempts were made to bring a large portion of the hull to the surface. On 27 August 1996, before his return to <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>, he traveled to <a href=\\\"Halifax%20Regional%20Municipality\\\">Halifax</a>, <a href=\\\"Nova%20Scotia\\\">Nova Scotia</a> to see his father's grave for the first time.\\nMichel lived the remainder of his life in <a href=\\\"Montpellier%2C%20France\\\">Montpellier, France</a>. He died on 30 January 2001, at the age of 92 and was preceded in death by his mother and brother.\",\n \"Edith Haisman\\nEdith Haisman (27 October 1896 – 20 January 1997) was one of the last remaining and oldest survivors of the sinking of the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS Titanic</a> in April 1912. She was the last survivor born in the 19th century, although seven younger survivors outlived her.\\nEdith Eileen Brown was born on 27 October 1896 in <a href=\\\"Cape%20Town%2C%20South%20Africa\\\">Cape Town, South Africa</a> to Thomas William Solomon Brown and his wife, Elizabeth Catherine (née Ford) who owned and operated a hotel in <a href=\\\"Worcester%2C%20South%20Africa\\\">Worcester</a>.\\nEdith was 15 years old when she and her parents boarded the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS Titanic</a> in <a href=\\\"Southampton%2C%20England\\\">Southampton, England</a> as second-class passengers. Her father was taking them to <a href=\\\"Seattle%2C%20Washington\\\">Seattle, Washington</a> where he was going to open a hotel business. The ship's hold contained tableware, furnishings, and 1,000 rolls of bed linen for the intended hotel.\\nEdith remembered clearly when the ship struck the iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on 14 April 1912. In a series of interviews in her later years and a biography, \\\"A Lifetime on the Titanic,\\\" published in 1995, she gave a vivid account of its final moments, although some details have been called into question.\\n\\\"Father appeared a few minutes later. He told us, 'You'd better put on your life jackets and something warm, it's cold on deck. It's just a precaution. We've struck an iceberg, it's nothing much. The steward in the corridor says it's nothing to worry about.' We waited for ages on the boat deck for someone to tell us what to do. The ship's band was playing ragtime. They played to keep our spirits up. Everybody kept saying, 'She's unsinkable. She won't go down.' Father kissed us and saw us into Lifeboat 14. Up to fifty people got in as it swung perilously over the side. One man jumped into the boat dressed as a woman. As we rowed away from the ship, we could still hear the band playing, but now it was hymns. We were almost six hours in the lifeboat and during that time we had no water and nothing to eat. I kept wondering if my father had gotten off the ship, that's all I could think of. - 1995\\\"\\nHer father did not survive and his body, if recovered, was never identified. Her last memory of him was that he was dressed in an Edwardian dinner jacket while smoking a cigar and sipping brandy on the deck as she and her mother were being lowered in the lifeboat. Upon arrival in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, they stayed at the Junior League House before traveling to Seattle to live with her aunt, Josephine Acton. They soon returned to Cape Town where she lived with relatives after her mother remarried and moved to <a href=\\\"Rhodesia\\\">Rhodesia</a>.\\nIn May 1917 at age 20, Edith met Frederick Thankful Haisman and they were married six weeks later on 30 June. Their first child, a boy, was born in August 1918, and would be followed by nine more children. They lived in <a href=\\\"South%20Africa\\\">South Africa</a> and <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a> before settling in <a href=\\\"Southampton\\\">Southampton</a>. Frederick died in 1977. He was survived by four sons, two daughters, and more than 30 grandchildren and great-grandchildren. In 1977 he and Edith celebrated their diamond wedding anniversary at Rhinefield House in the <a href=\\\"New%20Forest\\\">New Forest</a>.\\nOn 15 April 1995, Edith aged 97 was present with fellow survivor, <a href=\\\"Eva%20Hart\\\">Eva Hart</a>, age 90, at the opening of a memorial garden at the National Maritime Museum in <a href=\\\"Greenwich%2C%20London\\\">Greenwich, London</a> where a granite monument commemorating the 83rd anniversary of the sinking was erected. In August 1996, at age 98, she joined fellow survivor <a href=\\\"Michel%20Marcel%20Navratil\\\">Michel Marcel Navratil</a> on a cruise to the location of the Titanic's wreck where attempts were made to bring a large portion of its hull to the surface. Before leaving the site, she threw a rose into the ocean where her father had died 84 years earlier. There is also a road named after her in Freemantle, Southampton, England.\\nEdith died on 20 January 1997 in a <a href=\\\"Southampton\\\">Southampton</a> nursing home at age 100. By her bed stood a photograph of her father in a straw boater, stiff collar, and bow tie. She remains one of the longest-lived Titanic survivors. <a href=\\\"Mary%20Davies%20Wilburn\\\">Mary Davies Wilburn</a> holds the record, having died in 1987, at age 104.\\nhttp://records.ancestry.com/Edith_Eileen_Brown_records.ashx?pid=117308364\\n\",\n \"Eva Hart\\nEva Miriam Hart <a href=\\\"Member%20of%20the%20Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire\\\">MBE</a> (31 January 1905 – 14 February 1996) was a survivor of the <a href=\\\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">sinking of the RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a> on 15 April 1912.\\nHart was born on 31 January 1905 in <a href=\\\"Ilford\\\">Ilford</a>, <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>, <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a> to Benjamin Hart and <a href=\\\"Esther%20Hart%20%28Titanic%20survivor%29\\\">Esther Bloomfield</a>. She was their only child. Her mother had been previously married and had several children from her first marriage who died young. Eva was educated at St. Mary's Convent (Later St. Mary's Hare Park) in <a href=\\\"Gidea%20Park\\\">Gidea Park</a>, Essex. In early 1912, Benjamin decided to take his family and emigrate to <a href=\\\"Winnipeg%2C%20Manitoba\\\">Winnipeg, Manitoba</a>, where he planned to open a drugstore.\\nHart was seven years old when she and her parents boarded the \\\"<a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">Titanic</a>\\\" as second-class passengers on 10 April 1912 at <a href=\\\"Southampton%2C%20England\\\">Southampton, England</a>. They had originally been booked on a ship called the \\\"<a href=\\\"USS%20Yale%20%281888%29\\\">Philadelphia</a>\\\" but the coal strike at Southampton that spring kept it from sailing and many of her passengers were transferred to the \\\"Titanic\\\". Almost instantly, her mother felt uneasy about the \\\"Titanic\\\" and feared that some catastrophe would happen. To call a ship unsinkable was, in her mind, flying in the face of God. With such fear, she slept only during the day and stayed awake in their cabin at night fully dressed.\\nEva was sleeping when the \\\"Titanic\\\" struck the iceberg at 11:40 pm on 14 April. Her father rushed into their cabin to alert her and her mother, and after wrapping her in a blanket, he carried her to the boat deck. He placed his wife and daughter in <a href=\\\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2014%20%28port%29\\\">Lifeboat No. 14</a> and told Hart to 'be a good girl and hold Mummy's hand'. It was the last thing he ever said to her and the last time she ever saw him.\\nShe and her mother were picked up by the rescue ship <a href=\\\"RMS%20Carpathia\\\">RMS \\\"Carpathia\\\"</a> and arrived in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> on 18 April. Her father perished and his body, if recovered, was never identified.\\nSoon after arriving in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">America</a>, she and her mother returned to the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a> and the latter remarried. She was plagued with nightmares and upon the death of her mother in 1928 when Hart was 23, she confronted her fears head on by returning to the sea and locking herself in a cabin for four straight days until the nightmares went away.\\nIn April 2012 an audio walking guide to \\\"Titanic\\\" memorials in Southampton, Hampshire, was produced featuring audio clips of Hart talking about her experience. The guide takes the listener on a walking route around Southampton, where the \\\"Titanic\\\" set sail on her maiden voyage.\\nBeing seven years old at the time of the sinking, she maintained several vivid memories.\\n\\\"We went on the day on the boat train. I was 7, I had never seen a ship before. It looked very big. Everybody was very excited. We went down to the cabin and that's when my mother said to my father that she had made up her mind quite firmly that she would not go to bed in that ship. She would sit up at night. She decided that she wouldn't go to bed at night and she didn't!\\\"\\n\\\"I saw that ship sink,\\\" she said in a 1993 interview. \\\"I never closed my eyes. I didn't sleep at all. I saw it, I heard it, and nobody could possibly forget it.\\\" \\\"I can remember the colors, the sounds, everything,\\\" she said. \\\"The worst thing I can remember are the screams.\\\" \\\"It seemed as if once everybody had gone, drowned, finished, the whole world was standing still. There was nothing, just this deathly, terrible silence in the dark night with the stars overhead.\\\" \\\"The band played one version of 'Nearer My God to Thee' of which there are three and the one they played was the one that was played in church.\\\" \\\"I never closed my eyes at all – I saw that ship sink. And I saw that ship break in half.\\\"\\nHart worked several jobs throughout her life. She was a professional singer in <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a> and a <a href=\\\"Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29\\\">Conservative Party</a> <a href=\\\"organizer%20%28party%29\\\">organizer</a>, and also served as a magistrate.\\nHart was one of the most outspoken survivors concerning the \\\"Titanic\\\"'s lack of sufficient lifeboats and of any salvage attempts of the \\\"Titanic\\\" after its discovery in 1985 by <a href=\\\"Robert%20Ballard\\\">Robert Ballard</a>.\\nShe commonly criticised the <a href=\\\"White%20Star%20Line\\\">White Star Line</a> for failing to provide enough lifeboats for all aboard the \\\"Titanic\\\". \\\"If a ship is torpedoed, that's war,\\\" she once said. \\\"If it strikes a rock in a storm, that's nature. But just to die because there weren't enough lifeboats, that's ridiculous.\\\"\\nHart was vocal in interviews about the ship having broken in half, a widely debated rumor that was later proven to be true after the discovery of the wreck site. She was also adamant regarding the controversy surrounding the <a href=\\\"SS%20Californian\\\">SS \\\"Californian\\\"</a>, a ship that was only a few miles from the \\\"Titanic\\\" and yet failed to respond to distress rockets and calls for help. Hart claimed the vessel was less than ten miles from \\\"Titanic\\\", not nineteen as was previously believed. \\\"I saw that ship (the \\\"Californian\\\"). It was terribly close...I didn't see a ship nineteen miles away. I saw a ship that was so close; and they said at the time it was less than nine miles away, [and yet] now they're trying to say it was nineteen... I saw it you know, and it wasn't just 'lights on the horizon' – you could see it was a ship. And I saw our rockets being fired, which that ship must have seen. Well, this inquiry says that they did see it but they didn't think it was a <a href=\\\"Portent%20%28divination%29\\\">portent</a> of danger. I would have thought in the middle of the Atlantic in the middle of the night that rockets must mean trouble.\\\"\\nWhen salvaging efforts began in 1987, she was quick to note that the \\\"Titanic\\\" was a gravesite and should be treated as such. She often decried the \\\"insensitivity and greed\\\" and labelled the salvors \\\"fortune hunters, vultures, pirates, and grave robbers.\\\" In \\\"Titanic: The Complete Story\\\", she stated: \\\"I hope severely that they will never attempt to raise part of it. I do hope they will remember this is a grave - a grave of 1,500 people who should never have died, and I don't think you should go down there and rob graves and I'm very much opposed to it.\\\"\\nHart remained active in <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">\\\"Titanic\\\"</a>-related activities well into her 80s. In 1982, she returned to the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> and joined several other survivors at a <a href=\\\"Titanic%20Historical%20Society\\\">Titanic Historical Society</a> convention commemorating the 70th anniversary of the \\\"Titanic\\\" sinking. She participated in three more conventions in 1987, 1988, and in 1992. In 1994, she wrote an autobiography, \\\"Shadow of the Titanic – A Survivor's Story\\\", in which she described her experiences aboard the ship and the lasting implications of its sinking. On 15 April 1995, the 83rd anniversary of the disaster, she and fellow second-class \\\"Titanic\\\" survivor <a href=\\\"Edith%20Haisman\\\">Edith Brown</a> dedicated a memorial garden plaque on the grounds of the <a href=\\\"National%20Maritime%20Museum\\\">National Maritime Museum</a> in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>.\\nHart died on 14 February 1996 at her home in <a href=\\\"Chadwell%20Heath\\\">Chadwell Heath</a>, two weeks after her 91st birthday. Her death left eight remaining survivors. In her memory, a <a href=\\\"Wetherspoons\\\">Wetherspoon's</a> <a href=\\\"Public%20House\\\">Pub</a> in <a href=\\\"Chadwell%20Heath\\\">Chadwell Heath</a> is named 'The Eva Hart'.\\nHart's connection to the \\\"Titanic\\\" and her active involvement in later years made her popular in numerous forms of media, including mentions in <a href=\\\"non-nonfiction\\\">non-nonfiction</a> books, museums and <a href=\\\"exhibition\\\">exhibition</a>s.\\n\",\n \"A Night to Remember (1958 film)\\nA Night to Remember is a 1958 British <a href=\\\"drama%20film\\\">drama film</a> adaptation of <a href=\\\"Walter%20Lord\\\">Walter Lord</a>'s <a href=\\\"A%20Night%20to%20Remember%20%28book%29\\\">1955 book</a>, which recounts the <a href=\\\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">final night</a> of <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BTitanic\\\"></a> . Adapted by <a href=\\\"Eric%20Ambler\\\">Eric Ambler</a> and directed by <a href=\\\"Roy%20Ward%20Baker\\\">Roy Ward Baker</a>, the film stars <a href=\\\"Kenneth%20More\\\">Kenneth More</a> and features <a href=\\\"Ronald%20Allen\\\">Ronald Allen</a>, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Ayres%20%28actor%29\\\">Robert Ayres</a>, <a href=\\\"Honor%20Blackman\\\">Honor Blackman</a>, <a href=\\\"Michael%20Goodliffe\\\">Michael Goodliffe</a>, and <a href=\\\"Laurence%20Naismith\\\">Laurence Naismith</a>. It was filmed in the <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">United Kingdom</a>. The production team, supervised by producer <a href=\\\"William%20MacQuitty\\\">William MacQuitty</a>, used blueprints of the ship to create the sets accurately, while Fourth Officer <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Boxhall\\\">Joseph Boxhall</a> and ex-<a href=\\\"Cunard%20Line\\\">Cunard</a> Commodore Harry Grattidge both worked as technical advisors on the film.\\nThe film's World Premiere was on Thursday, 3 July 1958 at the <a href=\\\"Odeon%20Leicester%20Square\\\">Odeon Leicester Square</a>. <a href=\\\"Passengers%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Third%20class\\\">\\\"Titanic\\\" survivor</a> Elizabeth Dowdell attended the American premiere in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a> on Tuesday 16 December 1958. The film received critical acclaim upon release.\\nAmong the many <a href=\\\"List%20of%20films%20about%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">films about the \\\"Titanic\\\"</a>, \\\"A Night to Remember\\\" has long been regarded as the high point by \\\"Titanic\\\" historians and survivors alike for its accuracy, despite its modest production values when compared with the <a href=\\\"70th%20Academy%20Awards\\\">Oscar</a>-winning film \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Titanic</a>\\\" (1997).\\nThe \\\"Titanic\\\" was built to be the largest vessel afloat and was widely believed to be unsinkable. It included the cream of American and British society. The story of its sinking is told from the point of view of her passengers and crew, principally Second Officer <a href=\\\"Charles%20Lightoller\\\">Charles Lightoller</a>.\\nIn the open sea on its maiden voyage, the ship receives a number of ice warnings from other steamers. Only a few of the messages are relayed to Captain <a href=\\\"Edward%20Smith%20%28sea%20captain%29\\\">Edward J. Smith</a>, who orders a lookout but does not slow the ship or consider an alternate route.\\nLate on 14 April 1912, lookout <a href=\\\"Frederick%20Fleet\\\">Frederick Fleet</a> spots an iceberg in front of the ship. The vessel turns to port but collides with the iceberg on its starboard side. <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Andrews%20%28shipbuilder%29\\\">Thomas Andrews</a>, the ship's builder, determines that the ship will sink within two hours, and it lacks sufficient <a href=\\\"Lifeboat%20%28shipboard%29\\\">lifeboat</a> capacity for everyone on board.\\nA distress signal is sent out, and efforts begin to signal the \\\"<a href=\\\"SS%20Californian\\\">SS Californian</a>\\\", visible on the horizon 10 miles away. But its radio operator is off duty and does not hear the distress signal. Fortunately, the radio operator on the <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BCarpathia\\\"></a> receives the distress call and alerts Captain <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Rostron\\\">Arthur Rostron</a>, who orders the ship to head to the site. Unfortunately, the ship will take around four hours to reach the \\\"Titanic\\\". Meanwhile, the \\\"Californian\\\" remains where it is, the crew failing to comprehend why the large ship they are in sight of is firing rockets.\\nCaptain Smith orders Officers Lightoller and <a href=\\\"William%20McMaster%20Murdoch\\\">William Murdoch</a> to start lowering the lifeboats. Many women and children are reluctant to board, and Murdoch and Lightoller force them in. Many men try to sneak on board, but Lightoller will not allow them. Murdoch, working the other side of the ship, is more accommodating to men. As the stewards struggle to hold back women and children in third-class, most of those from first- and second-class board the lifeboats and launch away from the ship. Joseph Ismay, the president of the White Star Line, gets off the ship when he wasn't meant to and cries as he watches her sink.\\nThe \\\"Titanic\\\" sinks amid much chaos on the deck, with third-class passengers allowed up from below only after all the lifeboats have gone. The bow submerges, and only two collapsible lifeboats are left. Lightoller and other able seamen struggle to untie them. The ship's band plays a final song as Andrews and Smith decide to go down with the ship and die during the sinking. The ship's lights flicker off, then the last funnel collapse and kills the young Clark couple. Lightoller and many others are swept off the ship. The passengers still on board pray as the ship sinks.\\nMany men and some women and children die of hypothermia or drowning. One of the overturned collapsible boats is floating, so Lightoller and a few more men balance on it and wait. Chief Baker <a href=\\\"Charles%20Joughin\\\">Charles Joughin</a> is found in the water, not minding the cold because he's been drinking, and is pulled onto the boat. Lightoller spots another boat, and the men are saved. The \\\"Carpathia\\\" comes and rescues the survivors.\\nOn the \\\"Carpathia\\\", Lightoller is told by Rostron that only 705 have survived, and the ship has only passed one body. The wireless operator comes on deck to inform Rostron that the \\\"Californian\\\" has just heard about \\\"Titanic\\\"'s sinking and wants to help. Rostron says anything that was humanly possible has been done.\\nThe film's epilogue states that the passengers and crew of the \\\"Titanic\\\" have not died in vain, as today ships reflect lessons learned: they are equipped with lifeboats for all and an unceasing radio vigil, and the <a href=\\\"International%20Ice%20Patrol\\\">International Ice Patrol</a> guards the sea lanes, making them safe for the peoples of the world.\\nCast notes:\\nThe film is based on <a href=\\\"Walter%20Lord\\\">Walter Lord</a>'s book \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Night%20to%20Remember%20%28book%29\\\">A Night to Remember</a>\\\" (1955), but in Ray Johnson’s documentary \\\"The Making of 'A Night to Remember\\\"' (1993), Lord says that when he wrote his book, there was no mass interest in the \\\"Titanic\\\", and he was the first writer in four decades to attempt a grand-scale history of the disaster, synthesizing written sources and survivors’ firsthand accounts. Lord dated the genesis of his interest in the subject to childhood. So did producer MacQuitty, who, as a boy of six, watched the \\\"Titanic\\\" set out from Belfast, as well as screenwriter Ambler, who was a lad in London when the ship was launched.\\nProducer MacQuitty had originally contracted with <a href=\\\"Shaw%2C%20Savill%20%26amp%3B%20Albion%20Line\\\">Shaw, Savill & Albion Line</a> to use its former flagship <a href=\\\"QSMV%26%2332%3BDominion%20Monarch\\\"></a> to shoot scenes for the film, but the company pulled out of the production at the last minute, citing that they did not want to use one of their liners to recreate the \\\"Titanic\\\" sinking. However, according to MacQuitty, the Shaw Savill Line at the time was managed by Basil Sanderson, son of Harold Sanderson, the White Star Line's director in the U.S. at the time of the sinking. Harold Sanderson would later succeed <a href=\\\"J.%20Bruce%20Ismay\\\">J. Bruce Ismay</a> as president of the <a href=\\\"International%20Mercantile%20Marine%20Company\\\">International Mercantile Marine Company</a>, <a href=\\\"J.P.%20Morgan\\\">J.P. Morgan</a>'s shipping conglomerate that owned the White Star Line. This connection to White Star, according to MacQuitty, is what actually led the Shaw Savill Line to pull out of the film. MacQuitty eventually got permission from Ship Breaking Industries in <a href=\\\"Faslane\\\">Faslane</a>, Scotland to film scenes aboard <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BAsturias%26%2332%3B%281925%29\\\">RMS \\\"Asturias\\\"</a> , a 1920s ocean liner that the company was <a href=\\\"Ship%20breaking\\\">scrapping</a>. The liner's port side had been demolished, but its starboard was still intact, and so MacQuitty got art students to paint the liner the White Star Line colors and used mirrors to recreate scenes that took place on the port side.\\nIn addition to basing the script — both in action and dialogue — on Lord's book, the filmmakers achieved nuanced performances and authentic atmosphere by consulting several actual \\\"Titanic\\\" survivors who served as technical advisors. Among them were <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Boxhall\\\">Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall</a>, and passengers <a href=\\\"Edith%20Rosenbaum\\\">Edith Russell</a> and <a href=\\\"Lawrence%20Beesley\\\">Lawrence Beesley</a>. Boxhall and Russell were also portrayed in the movie. One day during shooting Beesley infiltrated the set but was discovered by the director, who ordered him off; thus, as <a href=\\\"Julian%20Barnes\\\">Julian Barnes</a> puts it, \\\"for the second time in his life, Beesley left the \\\"Titanic\\\" just before it was due to go down.\\\" Charles Lightoller's widow Sylvia Lightoller was also consulted during production, at one point visiting Pinewood Studios and meeting with Kenneth More, whom she introduced to her children on set. Sylvia commended More for the role of her husband, and praised the film's historical accuracy in an interview with \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Guardian\\\">The Guardian</a>\\\", stating \\\"The film is really the truth and has not been embroidered,\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Kenneth%20More\\\">Kenneth More</a> recalled the production of the film in his autobiography, published 20 years later in 1978. There was no tank big enough at <a href=\\\"Pinewood%20Studios\\\">Pinewood Studios</a> to film the survivors struggling to climb into lifeboats, so it was done in the open-air swimming bath at <a href=\\\"Ruislip\\\">Ruislip</a> Lido, at 2:00am on an icy November morning. When the extras refused to jump in, More realised he would have to set an example. He called out: \\\"Come on!\\\"\\nI leaped. Never have I experienced such cold in all my life. It was like jumping into a deep freeze. The shock forced the breath out of my body. My heart seemed to stop beating. I felt crushed, unable to think. I had \\\"rigor mortis\\\", without the \\\"mortis\\\". And then I surfaced, spat out the dirty water and, gasping for breath, found my voice.\\n'Stop!' I shouted. \\\"Don't listen to me! It's bloody awful! Stay where you are!\\nBut it was too late ...\\nThe character of the baker, seen drinking after giving up his seat in a lifeboat to a female passenger, is based on Chief Baker <a href=\\\"Charles%20Joughin\\\">Charles Joughin</a> who, on that night, drank some <a href=\\\"whisky\\\">whisky</a>, threw deck chairs overboard, rode the stern all the way down, swam in the freezing water for hours, was eventually picked up by the overturned collapsible boat B, and survived the disaster.\\nDuring the sinking, a steward pauses as he flees through the first-class smoking room to ask ship's designer <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Andrews%20%28shipbuilder%29\\\">Thomas Andrews</a>, \\\"Aren't you even going to try for it, Mr Andrews?\\\" This sequence was replicated essentially word-for-word in \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Titanic</a>\\\" (1997), substituting that film's protagonists Jack Dawson and Rose DeWitt Bukater instead of the steward. The scene was also repeated in \\\"<a href=\\\"S.O.S.%20Titanic\\\">S.O.S. Titanic</a>\\\", with a stewardess asking him if he will save himself, pointing out that there would be questions that only he could answer.\\nFour clips from the <a href=\\\"Nazi\\\">Nazi</a> <a href=\\\"propaganda%20film\\\">propaganda film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281943%20film%29\\\">Titanic</a>\\\" (1943) were used in \\\"A Night to Remember\\\"; two of the ship sailing in calm waters during the day, and two of a flooding walkway in the engine room. As Brian Hawkins writes: the British came closest \\\"to the \\\"Titanic\\\" truth in 1958 with their black-and-white production of Walter Lord's novel \\\"A Night to Remember\\\", seamlessly incorporating sequences from director <a href=\\\"Herbert%20Selpin\\\">Herbert Selpin</a>'s 1943 (Nazi) \\\"Titanic\\\" without giving any screen credits for these incredible scenes.\\\" Selpin himself was executed by <a href=\\\"Goebbels\\\">Goebbels</a> over the course of production in early August 1942, for offering a negative opinion of the German military while directing this earlier Nazi era film.\\nOf note are some historical inaccuracies:\\nThe first scene of \\\"A Night to Remember\\\" depicts the christening of the ship at its launch. However, the \\\"Titanic\\\" was never christened, as it was not the practice of the White Star Line to stand on this sort of ceremony. This has come down in popular lore as one of the many contributing factors to the ship's \\\"bad luck\\\".\\nAs with most films about the \\\"Titanic\\\" made before the discovery of the <a href=\\\"Wreck%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">wreck</a> in 1985, the film portrays the ship as sinking in one piece, when in fact, the \\\"Titanic\\\" broke into two pieces as it sank. This is because people did not believe that Titanic split. Even though survivors remember seeing the ship split, White Star Line denied it, as if it was true, the public would not think the <a href=\\\"Olympic-class%20ocean%20liner\\\">Olympic-Class</a> liners were structurally sound. The split was proven in 1985 when the bow and stern were found in two pieces, about a third of a mile (600 m) apart, at a depth of about 12,500 feet (3,800 m).\\nThe crew, including <a href=\\\"Edward%20John%20Smith\\\">Captain Smith</a> is depicted having a full trust in the \\\"Titanic\\\", considering her \\\"unsinkable\\\", an allegation which was never claimed with such a certainty.\\nUpon its December 1958 U.S. premiere, <a href=\\\"Bosley%20Crowther\\\">Bosley Crowther</a> called the film a \\\"tense, exciting and supremely awesome drama...[that] puts the story of the great disaster in simple human terms and yet brings it all into a drama of monumental unity and scope\\\"; according to Crowther:\\n\\\"this remarkable picture is a brilliant and moving account of the behavior of the people on the \\\"Titanic\\\" on that night that should never be forgotten. It is an account of the casualness and flippancy of most of the people right after the great ship has struck (even though an ominous cascade of water is pouring into her bowels); of the slow accumulation of panic that finally mounts to a human holocaust, of shockingly ugly bits of baseness and of wonderfully brave and noble deeds.\\\"\\nThe film was a relative disappointment at the box office. However, it received critical acclaim. \\\"A Night to Remember\\\" won the 1959 \\\"Samuel Goldwyn International Award\\\" for the UK at the <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Awards\\\">Golden Globe Awards</a>. The film currently has a \\\"certified fresh\\\" score of 100%. It still receives praise. It is considered \\\"the best \\\"Titanic\\\" film before \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Titanic</a>\\\" (1997)\\\" and \\\"the most \\\"accurate\\\" of all \\\"Titanic\\\" films\\\" and \\\"the definitive \\\"Titanic\\\" tale\\\", especially for its social realism, reflecting, in the words of one critic, \\\"the overwhelming historical evidence that the class rigidity of 1912, for all its defects, produced a genuine sense of behavioural obligation on the \\\"Titanic\\\" among rich and poor alike; that the greatest number of people aboard faced death or hardship with a stoic and selfless grace that the world has wondered at for most of this century.\\\" Although it won numerous awards including a <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Award\\\">Golden Globe Award</a> for <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20English-Language%20Foreign%20Film\\\">Best English-Language Foreign Film</a> and received high praise from reviewers on both sides of the Atlantic, it was at best only a modest commercial success due to its original huge budget and a relatively poor impact in America. It has nonetheless aged well; the film has considerable artistic merit and, according to Professor Paul Heyer, it helped to spark the wave of <a href=\\\"disaster%20film\\\">disaster film</a>s that included \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Poseidon%20Adventure%20%281972%20film%29\\\">The Poseidon Adventure</a>\\\" (1972) and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Towering%20Inferno\\\">The Towering Inferno</a>\\\" (1974). Heyer comments that it \\\"still stands as the definitive cinematic telling of the story and the prototype and finest example of the disaster-film genre.\\\"\\n\\\"A Night to Remember\\\" is one of <a href=\\\"the%20Criterion%20Collection\\\">the Criterion Collection</a>'s early titles. A high definition upgrade of the DVD and a Blu-ray edition were released on 27 March 2012.\\n\",\n \"Ruth Becker\\nRuth Elizabeth Becker (October 28, 1899 – July 6, 1990) was one of the last remaining survivors of the sinking of the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a> on April 15, 1912.\\nBecker was born on October 28, 1899 in <a href=\\\"Guntur\\\">Guntur</a>, <a href=\\\"India\\\">India</a>, to American <a href=\\\"Lutheran\\\">Lutheran</a> <a href=\\\"missionary\\\">missionary</a> Allen Oliver Becker and his wife, Nellie E. Baumgardner Becker. A younger brother, Luther, was born in <a href=\\\"Lima%2C%20Ohio\\\">Lima, Ohio</a>, in March 1905, but died on 7 February 1907 in Guntur just before his second birthday. In December 1907, Nellie gave birth to a second daughter, Marion. A son, Richard, was born in June 1910 at <a href=\\\"Kodaikanal\\\">Kodaikanal</a>.\\nIn early 1912, Richard contracted an illness in <a href=\\\"India\\\">India</a>, and Nellie decided to take him, Ruth, and Marion to <a href=\\\"Benton%20Harbor%2C%20Michigan\\\">Benton Harbor, Michigan</a> to seek treatment for him.\\nRuth's two-year-old brother Richard got the illness from India and Nellie decided to sail from England to the U.S. with him, Ruth and Ruth's younger sister leaving their father behind. They boarded the Ellerman Line steamer \\\"City of Benares\\\" for a trip to England that started at Madras, went through the Suez Canal to Port Said and then through the Mediterranean, through the Strait of Gilbraltar and finally up to London, England. Ruth boarded the \\\"Titanic\\\" along with Nellie, Marion, and Richard as second-class passengers on April 10, 1912 at <a href=\\\"Southampton\\\">Southampton</a>, <a href=\\\"England\\\">England</a>. Shortly after the ship's collision with the iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on April 14, she recalled that a steward told her mother, \\\"We've had a little accident. They're going to fix it, and then we'll be on our way.\\\" Realizing that the ship was seriously damaged, Nellie took her children up on the boat deck, but told Ruth to go back to her cabin to get some blankets.\\nJunior Officer <a href=\\\"James%20Paul%20Moody\\\">James Moody</a> loaded Marion and Richard into <a href=\\\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2011%20%28starboard%29\\\">Boat 11</a>, but wouldn't let Nellie in. It was only after pleading with a steward that he finally consented, but Ruth was not allowed in. Nellie then screamed to her to get in another lifeboat. Boat 11 was one of the few that was overloaded. She later got tossed into <a href=\\\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2013%20%28starboard%29\\\">Boat 13</a> by Officer Moody.\\nNellie, Ruth, Marion, and Richard were all picked up by the rescue ship <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BCarpathia\\\"></a> . Although it was a struggle to find her mother and siblings on the ship, Ruth finally did. They arrived in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a> on April 18. Soon after their arrival, they took a train to <a href=\\\"Benton%20Harbor%2C%20Michigan\\\">Benton Harbor, Michigan</a>. Allen finished his missionary work in <a href=\\\"India\\\">India</a> and joined them in 1913.\\nIn the years following the disaster, Becker refused to talk about her experiences aboard the \\\"Titanic\\\" and her own children, when young, did not know that she had been on board. After she retired and moved to <a href=\\\"Santa%20Barbara%2C%20California\\\">Santa Barbara, California</a>, she began speaking more openly.\\nIn 1982, Becker joined several other survivors at a <a href=\\\"Titanic%20Historical%20Society\\\">Titanic Historical Society</a> convention in <a href=\\\"Philadelphia%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</a> commemorating the 70th anniversary of the sinking. She would attend two more conventions in 1987 and 1988. In March 1990, she made her first sea voyage since 1912 when she went on a cruise to <a href=\\\"Mexico\\\">Mexico</a>.\\nBecker died on July 6, 1990 in Santa Barbara at the age of 90 as a result of <a href=\\\"malnutrition\\\">malnutrition</a>. She was cremated and on April 16, 1994 her ashes were spread over the exact spot in the <a href=\\\"Atlantic%20Ocean\\\">Atlantic Ocean</a> where the \\\"Titanic\\\" sank eighty-two years before. <a href=\\\"Frank%20John%20William%20Goldsmith\\\">Frank Goldsmith</a> and Fourth Officer <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Boxhall\\\">Joseph Boxhall</a> also had theirs scattered over there.\\n\",\n \"Jack Thayer\\nJohn Borland \\\"Jack\\\" Thayer III (December 24, 1894 – September 20, 1945) was a first-class passenger on the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a> who survived and provided several first-hand accounts of the disaster.\\nJohn (Jack) Borland Thayer, III was born into the <a href=\\\"Thayer%20family\\\">Thayer family</a>, a wealthy aristocratic American family and was the son of <a href=\\\"John%20Thayer%20%28cricketer%29\\\">John Borland Thayer II</a>, a Director and Second Vice President of the <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania%20Railroad\\\">Pennsylvania Railroad Company</a>, and Philadelphia socialite <a href=\\\"Marian%20Thayer\\\">Marian Morris Thayer</a>. Seventeen-year-old Jack had been traveling in Europe with his parents and a maid named Margaret Fleming and heading to New York, when they embarked aboard the RMS \\\"Titanic\\\" at <a href=\\\"Cherbourg\\\">Cherbourg</a> on Wednesday, April 10, 1912. Jack's stateroom, cabin C-70, adjoined his parents', C-68.\\nShortly after 11:30 p.m., on the ship's collision with the iceberg, he dressed and went to A deck on the port side to see what had happened. Finding nothing, he walked to the bow, where he could faintly make out ice on the forward <a href=\\\"well%20deck\\\">well deck</a>.\\nJack woke his parents, who accompanied him back to the port side of the ship. Noticing that the \\\"Titanic\\\" was developing a list to port, they returned to their rooms, and put on warmer clothes and life vests. They returned to the deck, but Jack lost sight of his parents. After searching for them, he assumed they had boarded a lifeboat.\\nJack soon encountered <a href=\\\"Milton%20Long\\\">Milton Long</a>, a chap he had met hours before over coffee. Both Milton and Jack tried to board a <a href=\\\"Lifeboat%20%28shipboard%29\\\">lifeboat</a> but were turned away because they were men. Jack then proposed jumping off the ship, as he was a good swimmer. However, Milton was not, and he advised Jack against it.\\nEventually, as the ship was sinking quickly, the two men decided to jump and attempt to swim to safety. Milton went first, jumping while facing the ship; it was the last time Jack ever saw him. Jack launched himself from the rail, back facing the ship and pushing outward. Once in the water, Jack reached the improperly launched and overturned Collapsible B. Too exhausted to save himself, he was pulled from the water. He and a number of other men, including <a href=\\\"Harold%20Bride\\\">Harold Bride</a>, <a href=\\\"Archibald%20Gracie%20IV\\\">Archibald Gracie IV</a>, chief baker <a href=\\\"Charles%20Joughin\\\">Charles Joughin</a>, and second officer <a href=\\\"Charles%20Lightoller\\\">Charles Lightoller</a>, were able to balance on the boat for some hours. Jack later recalled that the cries of hundreds of people in the water reminded him of the high-pitched hum of locusts in his native <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania\\\">Pennsylvania</a>.\\nAfter spending the night on the overturned Collapsible B, Jack was picked up by <a href=\\\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2012%20%28port%29\\\">Lifeboat 12</a>. He was so distraught and frozen that he did not notice his mother in nearby Lifeboat 4; nor did she notice him. Lifeboat 12 finally made its way to the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Carpathia\\\">RMS \\\"Carpathia\\\"</a> at 8:30 am. Jack's father did not escape on a lifeboat and was lost.\\nNearly all those who lived did so by boarding lifeboats. Jack was one of only about 40 survivors who jumped or fell into the water.\\nThayer went on to graduate from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Pennsylvania\\\">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where he was a member of <a href=\\\"Saint%20Anthony%20Hall\\\">Saint Anthony Hall</a>. During World War I, he served as an <a href=\\\"artillery\\\">artillery</a> officer in the US Army. Thayer was the financial vice president of the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Pennsylvania\\\">University of Pennsylvania</a> at the time of his death.\\nOn December 15, 1917, Thayer married Lois Buchanan Cassatt, daughter of <a href=\\\"Edward%20B.%20Cassatt\\\">Edward B. Cassatt</a> and Emily L. Phillips. Her grandfather was <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Johnston%20Cassatt\\\">Alexander Johnston Cassatt</a>, President of the <a href=\\\"Pennsylvania%20Railroad\\\">Pennsylvania Railroad</a>.\\nThe couple had two sons, Edward Cassatt and John Borland IV, and three daughters, Lois, Julie, and Pauline. A third son, Alexander Johnston Cassatt Thayer, died a few days after his birth in 1920.\\nIn 1940, Thayer shared his experiences with the \\\"Titanic\\\"'s sinking in vivid detail, in a self-published pamphlet titled \\\"The Sinking of the S.S. Titanic\\\"; 500 copies were printed for family and friends. <a href=\\\"Oceanography\\\">Oceanographer</a> <a href=\\\"Robert%20Ballard\\\">Robert Ballard</a> used it to determine the location of the \\\"Titanic\\\" and proved that the ship had split in half as it sank, contrary to popular belief. Thayer was among those who clearly reported seeing the \\\"Titanic \\\"break in two, as was finally confirmed by Ballard's discovery of the wreck.\\nThayer's account is sometimes included jointly with the memoirs of the disaster by fellow survivor <a href=\\\"Archibald%20Gracie%20IV\\\">Archibald Gracie IV</a>, in modern editions of Gracie's book \\\"Titanic: A Survivor's Story\\\".\\nDuring <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, both of Jack's sons enlisted in the armed services. Edward, a bomber pilot, was listed as missing and presumed dead after his plane was shot down in 1943, in the <a href=\\\"Pacific%20War\\\">Pacific theatre</a>. His body was never recovered. When the news reached Thayer, he became extremely <a href=\\\"Major%20depressive%20disorder\\\">depressed</a>.\\nThayer's mother Marian died on April 14, 1944, the 32nd anniversary of the \\\"Titanic\\\"'s collision with the iceberg. Her loss seemed to push him even further into a downward spiral, and he committed suicide on September 20, 1945. He was found in an automobile at 48th Street and Parkside Avenue in <a href=\\\"West%20Philadelphia\\\">West Philadelphia</a>, his throat and wrists cut. He is buried at the Church of the Redeemer Cemetery in <a href=\\\"Bryn%20Mawr%2C%20Pennsylvania\\\">Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania</a>.\",\n \"Ken Marschall\\nKen Marschall (born October 28, 1950) is an American painter and illustrator notable for his paintings of famous <a href=\\\"ocean%20liner\\\">ocean liner</a>s, such as the <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BTitanic\\\"></a> , <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BLusitania\\\"></a> , and the <a href=\\\"HMHS%26%2332%3BBritannic\\\"></a> . His paintings have been used in many books about the \\\"Titanic\\\", most notably his depictions of the sinking, of which no photographs that could be used were taken.\\nHe has served as consultant to many documentaries about the \\\"Titanic\\\", including James Cameron's \\\"<a href=\\\"Ghosts%20of%20the%20Abyss\\\">Ghosts of the Abyss</a>\\\" (in which he also appeared as <a href=\\\"J.%20Bruce%20Ismay\\\">J. Bruce Ismay</a>), as well as a consultant to Cameron's <a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\\\">1997 film</a> and the two-part <a href=\\\"A%26amp%3BE%20Television%20Networks\\\">A&E</a> \\\"Titanic\\\" <a href=\\\"television%20special\\\">television special</a>s \\\"Death of a Dream\\\" and \\\"The Legend Lives On\\\".\\n\",\n \"Millvina Dean\\nEliza Gladys \\\"Millvina\\\" Dean (2 February 1912 – 31 May 2009) was a British civil servant and <a href=\\\"cartographer\\\">cartographer</a>. She was the last remaining survivor of the <a href=\\\"Sinking%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic\\\">sinking of the RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a> on 15 April 1912. At 2 months old, she was also the youngest passenger aboard.\\nDean was born in <a href=\\\"Branscombe\\\">Branscombe</a>, England, to Bertram Frank Dean (1886–1912) and Georgette Eva Light (1879–1975). She had an older brother, Bertram Vere Dean, born 21 May 1910. She never married and had no children. Her father died on the \\\"Titanic\\\"; her mother died on 16 September 1975, aged 96; and her brother died on 14 April 1992, age 81, the 80th anniversary of the iceberg collision.\\nDean's parents decided to leave the United Kingdom and emigrate to <a href=\\\"Wichita%2C%20Kansas\\\">Wichita, Kansas</a>, where her father had relatives, and his cousin owned a tobacco shop that he was going to co-own. They were not supposed to be aboard the \\\"Titanic\\\", but due to a coal strike, they were transferred onto it and boarded it as third-class passengers at <a href=\\\"Southampton%2C%20England\\\">Southampton, England</a>. Dean was barely two months old when she boarded the ship. Her father felt its collision with the iceberg on the night of 14 April 1912, and after investigating, returned to his cabin, telling his wife to dress the children and go up on deck. Dean, her mother, and her brother were placed in <a href=\\\"Lifeboats%20of%20the%20RMS%20Titanic%23Boat%2010%20%28port%29\\\">Lifeboat 10</a> and were among the first third-class passengers to escape. Her father, however, did not survive, and his body, if recovered, was never identified.\\nAt first, Dean's mother wanted to continue on to <a href=\\\"Kansas\\\">Kansas</a> to fulfil her husband's wish of a new life in the United States. However, after losing him and being left with two small children for whom to care, they returned to Britain aboard the <a href=\\\"RMS%26%2332%3BAdriatic\\\"></a> . While aboard the ship, Dean attracted considerable attention. An article in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Daily%20Mirror\\\">Daily Mirror</a>\\\" dated 12 May 1912 described the ordeal:\\nMillvina and Bertram were raised mostly on pension funds and educated in <a href=\\\"Southampton\\\">Southampton</a> schools, including <a href=\\\"The%20Gregg%20School\\\">The Gregg School</a>. It was not until she was eight years old, and her mother was planning to remarry, that Dean was told she had been a passenger on the \\\"Titanic\\\".\\nDean worked for the British government during the <a href=\\\"Second%20World%20War\\\">Second World War</a> and later as a purchaser for a local engineering firm. Other careers she held were as a cartographer, a secretary, and an assistant to a tobacconist.\\nIt was not until Dean was in her seventies that she became involved in \\\"Titanic\\\"-related events. Over the years, she participated in numerous conventions, exhibitions, documentaries, radio and television interviews, and personal correspondence. In 1998, she travelled to the United States to participate in a \\\"Titanic\\\" convention in <a href=\\\"Springfield%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>, and another in 1999 in <a href=\\\"Montreal\\\">Montreal</a>. She had also been scheduled to appear at a commemoration of the 94th anniversary of the sinking in 2006, but a broken hip prevented her appearance. She also appeared in the <a href=\\\"History%20%28U.S.%20TV%20channel%29\\\">History</a> special \\\"Titanic's Final Moments: Missing Pieces\\\".\\nIn October 2007, Dean became the last \\\"Titanic\\\" survivor following the death of <a href=\\\"Barbara%20West\\\">Barbara West Dainton</a>, who died at age 96 in England.\\nIn December 2007, Dean criticised the <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a> and its television programme \\\"<a href=\\\"Doctor%20Who\\\">Doctor Who</a>\\\" for including an episode with a starship \\\"cruise liner\\\" called the \\\"Titanic\\\", that was similar in appearance to the historical liner. Speaking from her nursing home, she said: \\\"The \\\"Titanic\\\" was a tragedy which tore so many families apart. I lost my father and he lies on that wreck. I think it is disrespectful to make entertainment of such a tragedy.\\\" A spokeswoman for the show said: \\\"No offence was intended. '<a href=\\\"Voyage%20of%20the%20Damned%20%28Doctor%20Who%29\\\">Voyage of the Damned</a>' is set on a spaceship called \\\"The Titanic\\\" and not a boat.\\\"\\nIn April 2008, Dean had accepted an invitation to speak in Southampton at an event commemorating the 96th anniversary of the sinking, but ill health resulting from a respiratory infection forced her to cancel.\\nIn December 2008, at age 96, Dean was forced to sell several of her family's possessions to pay for her private medical care following a broken hip. These included a letter sent to her mother from the \\\"Titanic\\\" Relief Fund, and a suitcase given to her and her mother in New York following the sinking. Their sale raised approximately £32,000. In February 2009, she announced that she would be selling several more items to pay for her increasing medical costs which she said exceeded £3,000 a month.\\n97-year-old Dean died of <a href=\\\"pneumonia\\\">pneumonia</a> on the morning of 31 May 2009, 97 years and seven weeks after the \\\"Titanic\\\" sailed, at a <a href=\\\"care%20home\\\">care home</a> in <a href=\\\"Ashurst%2C%20Hampshire\\\">Ashurst, Hampshire</a>. She was cremated, and on 24 October 2009, her ashes were scattered from a <a href=\\\"launch%20%28boat%29\\\">launch</a> at the docks in Southampton where the \\\"Titanic\\\" set sail.\\nIn response to the escalating cost of Dean's healthcare, The Millvina Fund was set up in April 2009 by the Belfast, British, and International Titanic Societies with the exclusive aim of taking care of her nursing home bills. It was given a boost by the Irish author and campaigning journalist, <a href=\\\"Don%20Mullan\\\">Don Mullan</a>, at the opening of his worldwide Nokia photographic exhibition, \\\"A Thousand Reasons for Living\\\", (featuring a portrait of Dean) in Dublin on 22 April 2009. Mullan introduced an additional portrait of Dean's hands, as she signed a card for a \\\"Titanic\\\" autograph collector, which he produced as a limited edition of 100 copies. He made the edition available at €500 each and then challenged the director and stars of the film \\\"<a href=\\\"Titanic%20%281997%20film%29\\\">Titanic</a>\\\" (1997) - <a href=\\\"James%20Cameron\\\">James Cameron</a>, <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20DiCaprio\\\">Leonardo DiCaprio</a>, and <a href=\\\"Kate%20Winslet\\\">Kate Winslet</a> - singer <a href=\\\"Celine%20Dion\\\">Celine Dion</a>, and the corporations <a href=\\\"Sony%20Music\\\">Sony Music</a>, <a href=\\\"20th%20Century%20Fox\\\">20th Century Fox</a>, and <a href=\\\"Paramount%20Pictures\\\">Paramount Pictures</a> to match him euro-for-euro to support her with her bills. DiCaprio and Winslet led the way with a joint contribution of US$20,000. Cameron and Dion donated US$10,000 each.\\n\",\n \"Titanic (1996 miniseries)\\nTitanic is a made-for-TV dramatization that premiered as a 2-part miniseries on <a href=\\\"CBS\\\">CBS</a> in 1996. \\\"Titanic\\\" follows several characters on board the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Titanic\\\">RMS \\\"Titanic\\\"</a> when she sinks on her maiden voyage in 1912. The miniseries was directed by <a href=\\\"Robert%20Lieberman\\\">Robert Lieberman</a>. The original music score was composed by <a href=\\\"Lennie%20Niehaus\\\">Lennie Niehaus</a>.\\n\\\"Titanic\\\" follows three main story threads.\\nIsabella Paradine is traveling on the \\\"Titanic\\\" to join her husband after attending her aunt's funeral in England. On the \\\"Titanic\\\", she meets Wynn Park, her former lover. She falls in love with him again, and after a brief affair, she sends her husband a wireless saying they cannot be together anymore (despite their daughter). When the ship starts sinking, Isabella reluctantly leaves Wynn when he forces her to board a <a href=\\\"Lifeboat%20%28shipboard%29\\\">lifeboat</a>. As the boat is lowered, Isabella confesses a long kept secret that her daughter Claire is actually Wynn's. Later on board the <a href=\\\"RMS%20Carpathia\\\">RMS \\\"Carpathia\\\"</a> she is grief-stricken when she finds Wynn's lifeless body on deck, having died of <a href=\\\"hypothermia\\\">hypothermia</a>, but luckily, when the \\\"Carpathia\\\" reaches <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York</a> she is reunited with her family who are blissfully unaware of Isabella's tryst because the telegram was never sent out due to the sinking.\\nAlso in first class is the <a href=\\\"Allison%20family\\\">Allison family</a>, a family travelling on the Titanic, returning home to <a href=\\\"Montreal\\\">Montreal</a> with their two small children and new nurse, <a href=\\\"Alice%20Cleaver\\\">Alice Cleaver</a>. They gradually become wary and suspicious of her hysterical and neurotic behavior. Later on, a fellow maid asks her if she'd seen her in Cairo the previous month, but soon realizes that she remembers her from the highly publicized trial where Alice was accused of throwing her baby off a train. When the \\\"Titanic\\\" starts sinking, Alice Cleaver panics and quickly boards a lifeboat with Trevor, the Allisons' infant son. The parents with their small daughter are unaware that the baby is safe and refuse to leave the ship without him, which in the end costs them their lives.\\nIn third class, a young vagrant named Jamie Perse steals a ticket to get on board. He manages to become friends with one of the crewmen, Simon Doonan, who is also a robber, but later is revealed to be a much more violent and callous criminal than Jamie. The young man falls in love with Aase (pronounced \\\"Osa\\\") Ludvigsen, a recent Christian convert and missionary. On the night of the sinking, Aase is brutally raped and beaten by Doonan, causing her to lose her faith and will to live, but Jamie manages to get her into Isabella's boat. Unbeknownst to them, Doonan also sneaks aboard that same boat, disguised as an old woman. After the ship sinks, Aase is knocked off the lifeboat by Doonan after she recognizes him, and he attempts to hold the passengers in the boat hostage at gunpoint, but Officer <a href=\\\"Harold%20Lowe\\\">Lowe</a>, who is in charge of the boat, hits Doonan in the head with a paddle, snapping his neck and killing him. Jamie himself manages to survive when he accidentally falls into one of the last lifeboats before the \\\"Titanic\\\" sinks. He subsequently atones for his past life after he finds Aase in the makeshift hospital aboard the \\\"Carpathia\\\". In the end, upon arriving in New York, the two plan to start a new life together.\\n\\\"Titanic\\\" received mixed to negative reviews from critics. The \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20York%20Daily%20News\\\">New York Daily News</a>\\\" commented on the fact that the acting was substandard and the ship's operators and owner are portrayed \\\"about as sympathetically as those connected with the <a href=\\\"Exxon%20Valdez\\\">Exxon Valdez</a>.\\\" The \\\"<a href=\\\"Seattle%20Post-Intelligencer\\\">Seattle Post-Intelligencer</a>\\\" also referenced the \\\"embarrassingly bad acting\\\" and out of place scenes.\\n\\\"Titanic\\\" received an <a href=\\\"Emmy%20Award\\\">Emmy Award</a> for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Miniseries or a Special. It was also nominated for Outstanding Costume Design for a Miniseries or a Special.\\n\",\n \"Mail carrier\\nA mail carrier, mailman, mailwoman, postal carrier, postman, postwoman, or letter carrier (in <a href=\\\"American%20English\\\">American English</a>), sometimes colloquially known as a postie (in <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20Zealand\\\">New Zealand</a>, <a href=\\\"Scotland\\\">Scotland</a>, and other parts of the United Kingdom), is an employee of a <a href=\\\"post%20office\\\">post office</a> or postal service, who delivers <a href=\\\"mail\\\">mail</a> and <a href=\\\"parcel%20post\\\">parcel post</a> to residences and businesses. The term \\\"mail carrier\\\" came to be used as a gender-neutral substitute for \\\"mailman\\\" soon after women began performing the job. In the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Mail\\\">Royal Mail</a>, the official name changed from \\\"letter carrier\\\" to \\\"postman\\\" in 1883, and \\\"postwoman\\\" has also been used for many years.\\nIn the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a>, there are three types of mail carriers: Letter Carriers, who are represented by the <a href=\\\"National%20Association%20of%20Letter%20Carriers\\\">National Association of Letter Carriers</a>; <a href=\\\"Rural%20Letter%20Carrier\\\">Rural Carriers</a>, who are represented by the <a href=\\\"National%20Rural%20Letter%20Carriers%27%20Association\\\">National Rural Letter Carriers' Association</a>; and Highway Contract Route carriers, who are independent contractors. While union membership is voluntary, city carriers are organized near 70% nationally.\\nLetter carriers are paid hourly with the potential for overtime. Letter Carriers are also subject to \\\"pivoting\\\" on a daily basis. Pivoting (when a carrier's assigned route will take less than 8 hours to complete, management may \\\"pivot\\\" said carrier to work on another route to fill that carrier up to 8 hours.) is a tool postal management uses to redistribute and eliminate overtime costs, based on consultation with the Carrier about his/her estimated workload for the day and mail volume projections from the DOIS (Delivery Operations Information System) computer program. Routes are adjusted and/ or eliminated based on information (length, time, and overall workload) also controlled by this program, consultations with the carrier assigned to the route, and a current PS Form 3999 (street observation by a postal supervisor to determine accurate times spent on actual delivery of mail). Many carriers object to the fact that average mail volumes used for route adjustments come from DOIS as it is not an actual count of the mail by a person and instead by a machine, leading carriers to question the accuracy of the count.\\nRural carriers are under a form of <a href=\\\"salary\\\">salary</a> called \\\"evaluated hours\\\", usually with overtime built into their pay. The evaluated hours are created by having all mail counted for a period of two or four weeks, and a formula used to create the set dollar amount they will be paid for each day worked until the next time the route is counted. Highway Contract Routes are awarded to the lowest bidder, and that person then either carries the route themselves or hires carriers to fulfill their contract to deliver the mail.\\nLetter carriers typically work urban routes that are high density and low mileage. These routes are classified as either \\\"mounted\\\" routes (for those that require a vehicle) or \\\"walking\\\" routes (for those that are done on foot). When working a mounted route, letter carriers usually drive distinctive white vans with the logo of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Postal%20Service\\\">United States Postal Service</a> on the side and deliver to curbside and building affixed <a href=\\\"Letter%20box\\\">mailboxes</a>.\\nCarriers who walk generally also drive postal vehicles to their routes, park at a specified location, and carry one \\\"loop\\\" of mail, up one side of the street and back down the other side, until they are back to their vehicle. This method of delivery is referred to as \\\"park and loop\\\". Letter carriers may also accommodate alternate delivery points in cases where \\\"extreme physical hardship\\\" is confirmed.\\nRural carriers typically work routes that have a lower density and higher mileage than those of letter carriers. They all work mounted routes, leaving their vehicles only to deliver to group mailboxes or to deliver an article that must be taken to a customer's door. However, now that former rural areas are being urbanized, their routes are growing very similar to mounted \\\"city routes\\\". Rural carriers often use their own vehicles and are not required to wear a uniform. Because of urbanization around cities and because rural carriers deliver mail at less cost to the Postal Service, the rural carrier craft is the only craft in the Postal Service which is growing.\\nHighway Contract Route carriers work routes that were established with a density of less than one customer per mile driven (some later grow denser, and can then be converted to rural delivery). They are only mounted routes, and all HCR carriers use their own vehicle. These routes are typically found in outlying areas, or around very small communities.\\nThe three types of mail carriers are also hired quite differently. A new letter carrier begins as a City Carrier Assistant (CCA.) Rural carriers are hired as Rural Carrier Associate (RCA) carriers, without benefits. There is normally an RCA assigned to each rural route, so they usually work less frequently than city CCAs. As a result, there are thousands of RCA positions that go unfilled due to a lack of applicants, and are being covered by other RCA's until hiring improves for the hiring process explained). Highway Contract Route carriers are hired by the winning bidder for that route. They are not United States Postal Service employees, and normally receive lower pay than carriers on city or rural routes.\\nWomen have been transporting mail in the United States since the late 1800s. According to the United States Post Office archive, \\\"the first known appointment of a woman to carry mail was on April 3, 1845, when Postmaster General <a href=\\\"Cave%20Johnson\\\">Cave Johnson</a> appointed Sarah Black to carry the mail between Charlestown Md P.O. & the Rail Road . . . daily or as often as requisite at $48 per annum. For at least two years Black served as a mail messenger, ferrying the mail between Charlestown's train depot and its Post Office.\\\"\\nAt least two women, Susanna A. Brunner in New York and Minnie Westman in Oregon, were known to be mail carriers in the 1880s. <a href=\\\"Mary%20Fields\\\">Mary Fields</a>, nicknamed \\\"Stagecoach Mary\\\", was the first black woman to work for the USPS, driving a <a href=\\\"stagecoach\\\">stagecoach</a> in Montana from 1895 until the early 1900s. When aviation introduced <a href=\\\"airmail\\\">airmail</a>, the first woman mail pilot was <a href=\\\"Katherine%20Stinson\\\">Katherine Stinson</a> who dropped <a href=\\\"mailbag\\\">mailbag</a>s from her plane at the Montana State Fair in September 1913.\\nThe first women city carriers were appointed in World War I and by 2007, about 59,700 women served as city carriers and 36,600 as rural carriers representing 40% of the carrier force.\\nFamous real-life letter carriers include:\",\n \"Nursemaid\\nA nursemaid or nursery maid, is mostly a historical term of employment for a female <a href=\\\"domestic%20worker\\\">servant</a> employed in the field of the care of children within the community of a large <a href=\\\"household\\\">household</a>, from the medieval castle, through the <a href=\\\"Georgian%20era\\\">Georgian</a> <a href=\\\"Manor%20house\\\">Manor house</a>, to the <a href=\\\"Victorian%20era\\\">Victorian</a> <a href=\\\"townhouse\\\">townhouse</a> or <a href=\\\"Great%20house\\\">Great house</a>.\\nThe term 'nursemaid' has wide historical use, mostly related to servants charged with the actual care of children, including in many cases the duties of a <a href=\\\"wet%20nurse\\\">wet nurse</a>. In ancient usage the terms 'nursemaid' and 'nurse' (as, for example, the <a href=\\\"Nurse%20%28Romeo%20and%20Juliet%29\\\">character</a> in Shakespeare's <a href=\\\"Romeo%20and%20Juliet\\\">Romeo and Juliet</a>) are largely interchangeable. Everything that a parent ordinarily might do, especially the more onerous tasks, could be turned over to a nursemaid. Feeding very young children and supervising somewhat older children at meal times, seeing that the children are dressed properly, watching over the children as they play outside, and other such tasks could be left to a nursemaid.\\nThe title 'Nursery Maid' refers to a specific role within the hierarchy of a <a href=\\\"great%20house\\\">great house</a>. In the 21st century, the position is largely defunct, owing to the relatively small number of households who maintain large staffs with the traditional hierarchy. In the Victorian household, the children's quarters were referred to as the 'nursery', but the name of the responsible servant had largely evolved from 'nurse' to '<a href=\\\"nanny\\\">nanny</a>'. The Nursery Maid was a general servant within the nursery, and although regularly in the presence of the children, would often have a less direct role in their care. The nursery maid reported to the nanny (or nurse) and assisted her in taking care of the children of the employer's family, her duties including tidying and maintaining the <a href=\\\"nursery%20%28room%29\\\">nursery</a>, lighting the nursery fires, and carrying meals, laundry, and hot water between the nursery, kitchen, and scullery. It was a junior role for young <a href=\\\"girl\\\">girl</a>s, working under the supervision of the experienced and usually older nanny. Nursery Maids wore a uniform, similar to the other <a href=\\\"maid\\\">maid</a>s in the household. In 1845 the satirical magazine <a href=\\\"Punch%20%28magazine%29\\\">Punch</a> published a guide to domestic servants in which it suggested that any girl could undertake the duties of a Nursery Maid, as every girl had the requisite training of \\\"snubbing and slapping\\\" either her own siblings, or the siblings of other people. Domestic service agencies supplied nursery maids and sometimes gave basic training, for which popular manuals were also published.\\nBy reason of their close involvement in most if not all of the daily affairs of the children, including maintaining proper standards of behaviour, nannies and nursemaids might easily establish the close kind of relationship with the children that a mother would herself ordinarily form. In many cases this could lead to nannies being retained on the staff even after the children had grown up, or to nursemaids continuing to hold a responsible role for the adult child as a type of <a href=\\\"Chaperone%20%28social%29\\\">chaperone</a>, as in the example of <a href=\\\"Nurse%20%28Romeo%20and%20Juliet%29\\\">Juliet's nurse</a>.\",\n \"20th century\\nThe 20th century was a <a href=\\\"century\\\">century</a> that began on\\nJanuary 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the <a href=\\\"2nd%20millennium\\\">2nd millennium</a>. It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1, 1900, and ended on December 31, 1999.\\nThe 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era: <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a> and <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, <a href=\\\"nuclear%20power\\\">nuclear power</a> and <a href=\\\"space%20exploration\\\">space exploration</a>, <a href=\\\"nationalism\\\">nationalism</a> and <a href=\\\"decolonization\\\">decolonization</a>, the <a href=\\\"Cold%20War\\\">Cold War</a> and post-Cold War conflicts; <a href=\\\"intergovernmental%20organization\\\">intergovernmental organization</a>s and <a href=\\\"cultural%20homogenization\\\">cultural homogenization</a> through developments in <a href=\\\"Emerging%20technologies\\\">emerging</a> <a href=\\\"transportation\\\">transportation</a> and <a href=\\\"communications%20technology\\\">communications technology</a>; <a href=\\\"poverty%20reduction\\\">poverty reduction</a> and <a href=\\\"world%20population\\\">world population</a> growth, awareness of <a href=\\\"environmental%20degradation\\\">environmental degradation</a>, <a href=\\\"ecological%20extinction\\\">ecological extinction</a>; and the birth of the <a href=\\\"Digital%20Revolution\\\">Digital Revolution</a>. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for <a href=\\\"Internet\\\">near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication</a> and <a href=\\\"genetic%20modification\\\">genetic modification</a> of life. The term \\\"<a href=\\\"short%20twentieth%20century\\\">short twentieth century</a>\\\" was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991.\\nGlobal <a href=\\\"total%20fertility%20rate\\\">total fertility rate</a>s, <a href=\\\"sea%20level%20rise\\\">sea level rise</a> and <a href=\\\"ecological%20collapse\\\">ecological collapse</a>s increased; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated <a href=\\\"deforestation\\\">deforestation</a>, water depletion, and the <a href=\\\"Holocene%20extinction\\\">mass extinction</a> of many of the world's species and decline in the population of others; consequences which are now being dealt with. It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world's population to reach 1 billion; <a href=\\\"World%20population%20milestones\\\">world population</a> reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927; by late 1999, the global population reached 6 billion. Global <a href=\\\"literacy\\\">literacy</a> averaged 80%; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40+ years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70+ years (three decades \\\"longer\\\" than it was a century ago).\\nThe century had the first global-scale <a href=\\\"total%20war\\\">total war</a>s between world powers across continents and oceans in <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a> and <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>. <a href=\\\"Nationalism\\\">Nationalism</a> became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in <a href=\\\"international%20law\\\">international law</a> along with the right of <a href=\\\"nation\\\">nation</a>s to <a href=\\\"self-determination\\\">self-determination</a>, official <a href=\\\"decolonization\\\">decolonization</a> in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts.\\nThe century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like \\\"<a href=\\\"ideology\\\">ideology</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"world%20war\\\">world war</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"genocide\\\">genocide</a>,\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"nuclear%20war\\\">nuclear war</a>\\\" entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the <a href=\\\"theory%20of%20relativity\\\">theory of relativity</a> and <a href=\\\"quantum%20physics\\\">quantum physics</a>, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and <a href=\\\"Cargo%20ship\\\">freighters</a> but ended with <a href=\\\"high-speed%20rail\\\">high-speed rail</a>, <a href=\\\"cruise%20ships\\\">cruise ships</a>, global <a href=\\\"Aviation\\\">commercial air travel</a> and the <a href=\\\"Space%20Shuttle\\\">Space Shuttle</a>. Horses, Western society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of <a href=\\\"fossil%20fuel\\\">fossil fuel</a> resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the <a href=\\\"environment%20%28biophysical%29\\\">environment</a>. Humans explored <a href=\\\"outer%20space\\\">space</a> for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the <a href=\\\"Moon\\\">Moon</a>.\\nMass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, <a href=\\\"paperback%20book\\\">paperback book</a>s, <a href=\\\"public%20education\\\">public education</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Internet\\\">Internet</a>) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Advancements in <a href=\\\"medical%20technology\\\">medical technology</a> also improved the health of many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while <a href=\\\"nuclear%20weapons\\\">nuclear weapons</a> gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, <a href=\\\"empire\\\">empire</a>s and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline.\\nThe world also became more <a href=\\\"monoculturalism\\\">culturally homogenized</a> than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, <a href=\\\"popular%20music\\\">popular music</a> and other influences of <a href=\\\"Western%20culture\\\">Western culture</a>, international corporations, and what was arguably a true <a href=\\\"economic%20globalization\\\">global economy</a> by the end of the 20th century.\\nTechnological advancements during <a href=\\\"World%20War%20I\\\">World War I</a> changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as <a href=\\\"tank\\\">tank</a>s, <a href=\\\"chemical%20weapons\\\">chemical weapons</a>, and <a href=\\\"aircraft\\\">aircraft</a> modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of <a href=\\\"trench%20warfare\\\">trench warfare</a> in western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the <a href=\\\"Triple%20Entente\\\">Triple Entente</a> (<a href=\\\"French%20Third%20Republic\\\">France</a>, <a href=\\\"British%20Empire\\\">Britain</a>, and <a href=\\\"Russian%20Empire\\\">Russia</a>, later replaced by the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> and joined by <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Italy\\\">Italy</a> and <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Romania\\\">Romania</a>) emerged victorious over the <a href=\\\"Central%20Powers\\\">Central Powers</a> (<a href=\\\"German%20Empire\\\">Germany</a>, <a href=\\\"Austria-Hungary\\\">Austria-Hungary</a>, the <a href=\\\"Ottoman%20Empire\\\">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Bulgaria\\\">Bulgaria</a>). In addition to annexing much of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The regime of Tsar <a href=\\\"Nicholas%20II\\\">Nicholas II</a> was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, and the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion.\\nAt the beginning of the period, <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland\\\">Britain</a> was the world's most powerful nation, having <a href=\\\"Pax%20Britannica\\\">acted as the world's policeman</a> for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war <a href=\\\"angst\\\">angst</a> and which accelerated during the <a href=\\\"Great%20Depression\\\">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in <a href=\\\"World%20War%20II\\\">World War II</a>, sparked by <a href=\\\"Nazi%20Germany\\\">Nazi Germany</a>'s aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, <a href=\\\"Empire%20of%20Japan\\\">Japan</a> had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in <a href=\\\"Attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor\\\">a surprise attack</a> on the United States, <a href=\\\"Military%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States%20during%20World%20War%20II\\\">bringing it</a> into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was <a href=\\\"German%20Instrument%20of%20Surrender\\\">defeated</a> in 1945, having been <a href=\\\"Western%20Allied%20invasion%20of%20Germany\\\">invaded</a> by the <a href=\\\"Soviet%20Union\\\">Soviet Union</a> and Poland from the east and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and <a href=\\\"Free%20France\\\">Free France</a> from the west. The war ended with the <a href=\\\"Atomic%20bombings%20of%20Hiroshima%20and%20Nagasaki\\\">dropping of two atomic bombs</a> on Japan. Japan later became a western ally with an economy based on the manufacture of <a href=\\\"consumer%20goods\\\">consumer goods</a> and trade. Germany <a href=\\\"Allied-occupied%20Germany\\\">was divided</a> between the Western powers (<a href=\\\"West%20Germany\\\">West Germany</a>) and the <a href=\\\"Soviet%20Union\\\">Soviet Union</a>; all areas recaptured by the Soviet Union (<a href=\\\"East%20Germany\\\">East Germany</a> and eastward) became Soviet <a href=\\\"puppet%20states\\\">puppet states</a> under communist rule. Meanwhile, Western European countries were influenced by the American <a href=\\\"Marshall%20Plan\\\">Marshall Plan</a> and made a quick <a href=\\\"economic%20recovery\\\">economic recovery</a>, becoming major allies of the United States under capitalist economies and relatively democratic governments.\\nWorld War II left about 60 million people dead. When the conflict ended in 1945, the United States and the <a href=\\\"Soviet%20Union\\\">Soviet Union</a> emerged as the major world powers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as the competing ideologies of communism and <a href=\\\"democratic%20capitalism\\\">democratic capitalism</a> occupied Europe, divided by the <a href=\\\"Iron%20Curtain\\\">Iron Curtain</a> and the <a href=\\\"Berlin%20Wall\\\">Berlin Wall</a>. The military alliances headed by these nations (<a href=\\\"NATO\\\">NATO</a> in North America and Western Europe; the <a href=\\\"Warsaw%20Pact\\\">Warsaw Pact</a> in Eastern Europe) threatened each other with total war in what was called the <a href=\\\"Cold%20War\\\">Cold War</a> (1947–91). The period was marked by a new arms race, and <a href=\\\"nuclear%20weapons\\\">nuclear weapons</a> were produced in the tens of thousands, sufficient to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. The size of the nuclear arsenals is believed by many historians to have staved off war between the two, as the consequences were too great to bear. The policy of massive nuclear attack, knowing a similar counterattack would be forthcoming, was called <a href=\\\"mutually%20assured%20destruction\\\">mutually assured destruction</a> (MAD). However, several <a href=\\\"proxy%20war\\\">proxy war</a>s, such as the <a href=\\\"Korean%20War\\\">Korean War</a> (1950–1953) and the <a href=\\\"Vietnam%20War\\\">Vietnam War</a> (1955–1975), were waged as the United States implemented its worldwide \\\"<a href=\\\"containment\\\">containment</a>\\\" policy against communism.\\nAfter World War II, most of the <a href=\\\"History%20of%20colonialism\\\">European-colonized world</a> in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of <a href=\\\"decolonization\\\">decolonization</a>. Meanwhile, the wars empowered several nations, including the UK, USA, Russia, China and Japan, to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. <a href=\\\"Culture%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">American culture</a> spread around the world with the advent of the <a href=\\\"Cinema%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">Hollywood motion picture industry</a>, <a href=\\\"Broadway%20%28Manhattan%29\\\">Broadway</a>, <a href=\\\"rock%20and%20roll\\\">rock and roll</a>, <a href=\\\"pop%20music\\\">pop music</a>, <a href=\\\"fast%20food\\\">fast food</a>, <a href=\\\"big-box%20store\\\">big-box store</a>s, and the <a href=\\\"hip-hop\\\">hip-hop</a> lifestyle. Britain continued to influence world <a href=\\\"culture\\\">culture</a>, including the \\\"<a href=\\\"British%20Invasion\\\">British Invasion</a>\\\" (<a href=\\\"The%20Rolling%20Stones\\\">The Rolling Stones</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Beatles\\\">The Beatles</a>) into <a href=\\\"Music%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">American music</a>, leading many <a href=\\\"Band%20%28rock%20and%20pop%29\\\">rock band</a>s from other countries (such as Swedish <a href=\\\"ABBA\\\">ABBA</a>) to sing in English. The western world and parts of Asia enjoyed a <a href=\\\"post%E2%80%93World%20War%20II%20economic%20expansion\\\">post–World War II economic expansion</a>. After the Soviet Union <a href=\\\"Dissolution%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union\\\">collapsed</a> under internal pressure in 1991, the communist governments of the <a href=\\\"Eastern%20bloc\\\">Eastern bloc</a> were dismantled, followed by awkward transitions into market economies.\\nFollowing World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted <a href=\\\"United%20Nations%20resolution\\\">resolution</a>s on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international <a href=\\\"sovereignty\\\">sovereignty</a>, and <a href=\\\"human%20rights\\\">human rights</a>. <a href=\\\"Peacekeeping\\\">Peacekeeping</a> forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the <a href=\\\"European%20Union\\\">European Union</a>, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century.\\nIn the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's <a href=\\\"environment%20%28biophysical%29\\\">environment</a> made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through <a href=\\\"Green%20party\\\">Green parties</a>. Increasing awareness of <a href=\\\"global%20warming\\\">global warming</a> began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate.\\nDue to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the <a href=\\\"light%20bulb\\\">light bulb</a>, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by <a href=\\\"supertanker\\\">supertanker</a>s, <a href=\\\"airliner\\\">airliner</a>s, motorways, radio, television, <a href=\\\"antibiotics\\\">antibiotics</a>, <a href=\\\"frozen%20food\\\">frozen food</a>, computers and <a href=\\\"microcomputer\\\">microcomputer</a>s, the Internet, and <a href=\\\"mobile%20telephone\\\">mobile telephone</a>s affected people's <a href=\\\"quality%20of%20life\\\">quality of life</a> across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development drove changes in everyday life.\\nAt the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the <a href=\\\"Atlantic%20slave%20trade\\\">Atlantic slave trade</a> had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of <a href=\\\"sexism\\\">sexism</a> fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards <a href=\\\"homosexuality\\\">homosexuality</a> also began to change in the later part of the century.\\nThe number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million . Political scientist <a href=\\\"Rudolph%20Rummel\\\">Rudolph Rummel</a> estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by <a href=\\\"democide\\\">democide</a>, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to <a href=\\\"Charles%20Tilly\\\">Charles Tilly</a>, \\\"Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects.\\\" It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945.\\nScience advanced dramatically during the century. There were new and radical developments in the <a href=\\\"Outline%20of%20physical%20science\\\">physical</a>, <a href=\\\"Life%20sciences\\\">life</a> and <a href=\\\"Human%20science\\\">human</a> sciences, building on the progress made in the 19th century. <a href=\\\"Big%20Science\\\">Big Science</a> flourished, especially after the <a href=\\\"Second%20World%20War\\\">Second World War</a>, as funding for science increased. Mathematics became ever more specialized and abstract.\\nOne of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\\nCommunications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states after centuries of foreign domination.\\nThe world was undergoing its second major period of <a href=\\\"globalization\\\">globalization</a>; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was <a href=\\\"Americanization\\\">Americanization</a>. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy.\\nTerrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of <a href=\\\"nuclear%20weapons\\\">nuclear weapons</a> were some issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. <a href=\\\"Despotism\\\">Despots</a> such as <a href=\\\"Kim%20Jong-il\\\">Kim Jong-il</a> of <a href=\\\"North%20Korea\\\">North Korea</a> continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.\\nDisease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as <a href=\\\"SARS\\\">SARS</a> and <a href=\\\"West%20Nile%20virus\\\">West Nile</a> continued to spread. <a href=\\\"Malaria\\\">Malaria</a> and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an <a href=\\\"AIDS%20in%20Africa\\\">epidemic in southern Africa</a>.\\nBased on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems may threaten the planet's habitability. One argument is that of <a href=\\\"global%20warming\\\">global warming</a> occurring, and that it may be due (at least partially) to human-caused emission of <a href=\\\"greenhouse%20gas\\\">greenhouse gas</a>es, particularly <a href=\\\"carbon%20dioxide\\\">carbon dioxide</a> produced by the burning of <a href=\\\"fossil%20fuel\\\">fossil fuel</a>s. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the <a href=\\\"Kyoto%20Protocol\\\">Kyoto treaty</a>, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.\\n<a href=\\\"World%20population\\\">World population</a> increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["James Joseph \"J.J.\" Brown (September 27, 1854 – September 5, 1922), was an American mining engineer, inventor, and self-made member of fashionable \"society\". His wife was \"RMS Titanic\" survivor Molly Brown.","Avoca Lodge, known as The Molly Brown Summer House, is a Registered Historic Place in southwest Denver, Colorado near Bear Creek. The home served as a summer retreat for philanthropist, socialite, and activist Margaret Brown and her husband James Joseph Brown. It is open to the public rental and for tours."],"string":"[\n \"James Joseph \\\"J.J.\\\" Brown (September 27, 1854 – September 5, 1922), was an American mining engineer, inventor, and self-made member of fashionable \\\"society\\\". His wife was \\\"RMS Titanic\\\" survivor Molly Brown.\",\n \"Avoca Lodge, known as The Molly Brown Summer House, is a Registered Historic Place in southwest Denver, Colorado near Bear Creek. The home served as a summer retreat for philanthropist, socialite, and activist Margaret Brown and her husband James Joseph Brown. It is open to the public rental and for tours.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":81,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which congressional district did this senior United States Senator from Michigan, for whom Rostin Behnam served as senior counsel, serve in the House of Representatives from 1997 to 2001?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Michigan's 8th congressional district"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Debbie Stabenow\nDeborah Ann Greer Stabenow (born April 29, 1950) is the senior United States Senator from Michigan and a member of the Democratic Party. Before her election to the U.S. Senate, she was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Michigan's 8th congressional district from 1997 to 2001. She previously served as a member of the Ingham County Board of Commissioners, Michigan House of Representatives, and Michigan Senate.\nStabenow served as Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee from 2011 to 2015. She was re-elected to the Senate for a third term in November 2012. She became the state's senior senator upon the retirement of Carl Levin on January 3, 2015. She served as Vice Chair of the Senate Democratic Policy Committee from 2011 to 2017 and became its Chair in 2017.\nStabenow was born in Gladwin, Michigan, the daughter of Anna Merle (née Hallmark) and Robert Lee Greer. She grew up in Clare, Michigan. She graduated from Clare High School, and received a Bachelor of Arts from Michigan State University in 1972 and a Master of Social Work \"magna cum laude\" from Michigan State University in 1975.\nWhile in graduate school, Stabenow won her first election to public office: the Ingham County Board of Commissioners, a position in which she served from 1975 to 1978.\nShe served in the Michigan House of Representatives from 1979 to 1990, where she became the first woman to preside over the House. She also served in the Michigan Senate from 1991 to 1994.\nIn 1994, she ran for Governor of Michigan in the Democratic primary, for the opportunity to challenge incumbent Republican John Engler. However, U.S. Congressman Howard Wolpe defeated her in the primary with a plurality of 35% to Stabenow's 30%. After the primary, Wolpe chose Stabenow as his running mate, and she appeared on the general election ballot as the Democratic candidate for Lieutenant Governor. Stabenow failed to become Lieutenant Governor of Michigan as Engler defeated Wolpe 61%-38%.\nIn 1996, she decided to run for a seat in the United States House of Representatives. She challenged incumbent Republican U.S. Congressman Dick Chrysler of Michigan's 8th congressional district. She defeated him 54%-44%. In 1998, she won re-election to a second term with 57% of the vote.\nShe did not seek re-election in 2000 in order to challenge incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Spencer Abraham. She won the Democratic primary unopposed. She was considered the underdog for much of the Senate race, but rallied in the final weeks. She defeated him 49.5%-48%, a difference of 67,259 votes.\nStabenow was challenged by Republican Michael Bouchard, Oakland County sheriff and former State Senate Majority Leader. Stabenow defeated him 57%-41%.\nStabenow was unopposed in the Democratic primary and defeated Republican nominee Pete Hoekstra, former U.S. representative. Stabenow won 59% to Hoekstra's 38%.\nBefore her current committee assignments, Senator Stabenow also served on the Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Committee and the Special Committee on Aging.\nStabenow is only the second person from Michigan to have served in both houses of the Michigan State Legislature and in both houses of the United States Congress. Stabenow is also the first person to have served as a Michigan state legislator to be popularly elected to the U.S. Senate (until enactment of the Seventeenth amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, U.S. Senators were selected by the state legislature). No former Michigan state legislator had served in the U.S. Senate since 1894, when Francis B. Stockbridge died.\nStabenow became the third-ranking Democratic Party member in the U.S. Senate on November 16, 2004, when she was elected as secretary of the Democratic caucus. As caucus secretary, she assisted Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) to set the Democratic agenda and priorities. Senator Dick Durbin (D-IL) was elected Minority Whip, the second-ranking Democratic spot. In November 2006, Majority Leader Harry Reid announced that Stabenow would leave the caucus secretary position to succeed Hillary Clinton as chair of the Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee, charged with \"engag[ing] Democratic Senators and community leaders across the country in an active dialogue\".\nFollowing the withdrawal of Tom Daschle as President Barack Obama's nominee as United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, the National Organization for Women endorsed Stabenow for the position and urged the president to appoint Stabenow, saying, \"Sen. Debbie Stabenow (D-Mich.) has long focused on health care as a priority, and with her background as a social worker she is well positioned to take the helm of this agency that is so critical to women and families.\"\nStabenow became the Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee in 2011, following the defeat of Chairwoman Blanche Lincoln. A controversial item during Stabenow's tenure, has been the renewal and reform of the 2012 U.S. Farm Bill. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) demonstrated his commitment to working on a new five-year Farm Bill by reintroducing 2012's Senate Farm Bill in the new 113th Congress in January 2013. Senator Reid indicated that the Farm Bill is on his top priority list, and Senate Agriculture Committee Chairwoman Stabenow has voiced support for Reid’s move stating, \"Majority Leader Reid has demonstrated that the Senate will once again make supporting our nation’s agriculture economy while cutting spending a top priority.\"\nOn October 29, 2014, Stabenow introduced the Gun Lake Trust Land Reaffirmation Act (S. 1603; 113th Congress), a bill that would reaffirm the status of lands taken into trust by the Department of the Interior (DOI) for the benefit of the Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band. The bill would clarify that the Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band's land trust could not be challenged in court under the Supreme Court decision of \"Carcieri v. Salazar\".\nStabenow has expressed support in regulating talk radio via a measure like the Fairness doctrine. On February 5, 2009, she stated \"I think it’s absolutely time to pass a standard. Now, whether it’s called the Fairness Standard, whether it’s called something else — I absolutely think it’s time to be bringing accountability to the airwaves.\" Her support for these measures has been met with criticism about a conflict of interest, given that the primary target is conservative talk radio and that her former husband, Tom Athans, has been an executive at a number of liberal progressive talk radio networks, such as Air America\nShe authored the first law to ban drilling in the Great Lakes.\nOn August 31, 2006, Stabenow, along with Senator Carl Levin and Rep. John Dingell, announced an agreement that would completely cease Ontario's dumping of solid waste in Michigan within four years. This has been an issue in Michigan for the past several years. Previously in the Senate, Stabenow wrote legislation intended to reduce the dumping of Canadian trash into Michigan by requiring machines to search trash being dumped across the border. In July 2006, the Senate unanimously passed a law sponsored by Stabenow requiring the payment of $420 inspection fee for every truckload of Canadian trash being brought into Michigan.\nOn August 10, 2009, Stabenow was reported by The Detroit News as saying \"Global warming creates volatility. I feel it when I'm flying. The storms are more volatile. We are paying the price in more hurricanes and tornadoes.\" However, she has opposed regulation of greenhouse gases, enhanced fuel efficiency standards in California, and greenhouse gas emission reporting standards.\nStabenow supported President Barack Obama's health reform legislation; she voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and she voted for the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010. She also sponsored S. 2257: Excellence in Mental Health Act.\nStabenow voted in favor of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 in December 2011, which included highly controversial provisions drafted by Senators Carl Levin and John McCain in closed session, that allows for the indefinite military detention of American citizens who are deemed potential terrorists and enemies of the state without trial, challenging the general judicial status of \"innocent until proven guilty.\"\nIn March 2011, the Think Progress website criticized Stabenow for joining “the pro-polluter frenzy sweeping the U.S. Senate, introducing legislation to permanently cripple Clean Air Act rules on global warming pollution. The legislation in question was the SBIR/STTR Reauthorization Act of 2011 (S.493), which, according to Think Progress, was “being used as a vehicle for senators who wish to prevent regulation of greenhouse pollution from oil refineries, coal-fired power plants, heavy industry, and other major emitters. Stabenow has added her amendment to three others intended to hamstring the Environmental Protection Agency on behalf of carbon polluters.”\nStabenow's proposed amendment to keep the Environmental Protection Agency from regulating greenhouse gas emissions for two years also draw criticism. The amendment would have given “coal-fired power plants, oil refineries and other industrial sources a two year exemption” from rules requiring them to report greenhouse gas emissions. Stabenow defended her position by saying “My amendment is a common-sense approach that allows protections from carbon pollution, determined by scientists and public health experts, to continue being developed while providing businesses the support and incentives they need as they reduce pollution, generate new clean energy technologies and create jobs.”\nIn 2009, Stabenow voted for President Obama's $787 billion stimulus plan. In 2008, however, she voted against the bailout proposed by President Bush.\nStabenow is for the equal rights of the LGBT community in the U.S. On two separate occasions she has voted against the Constitutional Amendment, 2004 and 2006, to define marriage “as between one man and one woman\". In 2006, Stabenow also voted NO on the constitutional ban of same sex marriage.\nStabenow was first married to Dennis Stabenow; the couple divorced in 1990. They have two children, Michelle and Todd.\nIn 2003, Stabenow married Tom Athans, now co-founder of Democracy Radio and former executive vice president of Air America. By this marriage, she has a stepdaughter, Gina. In 2008, Athans said to the police that he had used the internet “to make a date with a prostitute and paid her $150 for sex at a hotel” in Detroit. The news came about after police investigations into an internet-based prostitution ring operating in the hotel questioned Athans. Stabenow and Athans divorced on May 28, 2010, approximately two years after Athans was detained in Troy, Michigan, as part of a prostitution sting.\nStabenow belongs to the Grace United Methodist Church in Lansing Michigan.\nStabenow made a cameo in the 2016 Zack Snyder film \"\" as the Governor of New Jersey, the state in which Gotham City is located in the DC Extended Universe.\n\n","John Thune\nJohn Randolph Thune (born January 7, 1961) is an American politician and senior United States Senator from South Dakota, a member of the Republican Party. He previously served as a United States Representative for South Dakota 's at-large congressional . He became South Dakota's senior senator with the retirement of Tim Johnson in 2015. He is South Dakota's senior senator, having served as the GOP's Chief Deputy Whip in 2006, chairman of the Republican Policy Committee in June 2009, and Republican Conference Chairman in 2011, the third-ranking position in the Senate. He has worked in politics and civic organizations since completing his MBA graduate degree. He is also the current dean of South Dakota's congressional delegation.\nThune was born in the South Dakota state capital of Pierre, South Dakota, the son of Yvonne Patricia (maiden name Bodine) and Harold Richard Thune. Thune's paternal grandfather, Nicholas Thune, was an immigrant from Norway who partnered with his brother Matt to start Thune Hardware stores in Mitchell and Murdo, South Dakota. His maternal grandfather is from Ontario, Canada, and Thune's mother was born in Saskatchewan. Thune's brother, Richard Thune, is an English teacher at Rowland High School in California. Thune was a star athlete in high school, and was active in basketball, track, and football. Thune graduated from Jones County High School in 1979.\nHe played college basketball at Biola University in California, where he graduated in 1983 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Business. Thune received the degree of Master of Business Administration from the University of South Dakota in 1984.\nThune continues to be physically active and frequently competes in running events. A 2012 feature by \"Runner's World Magazine\" noted that Thune has \"been the fastest man in Congress since 2009.\"\nAfter completing his MBA, Thune became involved in politics. He worked as a legislative aide for U.S. Senator James Abdnor from 1985 to 1987. In 1980, Abdnor defeated U.S. Senator George McGovern.\nIn 1989, Thune moved to the state capital of Pierre, South Dakota, where he served as executive director of the state Republican Party for two years. Thune was appointed as Railroad Director of South Dakota by Governor George S. Mickelson, serving from 1991 to 1993. From 1993 to 1996, he was executive director of the South Dakota Municipal League.\nIn 1996, Thune decided to make his first foray into electoral politics. That year, he entered the race for South Dakota's lone seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. \"The Almanac of American Politics\" said that Thune \"entered the 1996 race as very much an underdog.\" Thune's primary opponent was sitting Lt. Governor Carole Hillard of Rapid City, who benefited from the support of the long-term South Dakota governor Bill Janklow. A poll released in May 1996 showed Hillard ahead of Thune 69%-15%. By relying on strong personal skills and the help of his old network of Abdnor friends, Thune won the primary, defeating Hillard 59%-41%. In the general election, Thune defeated Democrat Rick Weiland, a long-serving aide to U.S. Senator Tom Daschle, 58%-37%.\nThune won his subsequent races for U.S. House by wide margins. He won re-election in 1998 with 75% of the vote and in 2000 with 73% of the vote. In 2002, after briefly considering a run for governor of South Dakota, Thune set his sights on a run for the U.S. Senate.\nAs a Representative, Thune sponsored 48 bills, including:\nIn 2002 Thune challenged incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Tim Johnson. Thune lost his bid by only 524 votes (0.15%). One study concluded: “While the margin of victory [for Johnson] was a mere 524 votes, getting into that winning position required a number of important factors, including Native American turnout, the ability of Johnson and his allies to more effectively use the ground war to get their message out, Thune’s ineffectiveness on the air and lack of experience in winning competitive elections, low voter turnout in key Republican counties, the drought, and finally the presence of Kurt Evans. Evans, a Libertarian candidate who withdrew from the race, endorsed Thune, but remained on the ballot and siphoned away more votes from Thune than Johnson. Evans received only 3,070 votes, but that ended up being six times greater than the margin of victory.” Despite the close results, Thune did not contest the election.\nFollowing his 2002 loss to Tim Johnson, Thune challenged Tom Daschle, the United States Senate Minority Leader and leader of the Senate Democrats, in the 2004 elections. In early 2003, Daschle unexpectedly decided not to run for president. CNN reported that the \"announcement surprised even some of his closest aides, one of whom told CNN plans were being made for Daschle to announce his candidacy Saturday in his hometown of Aberdeen, South Dakota.\"\nThis was the most expensive Senate race in 2004, with $30 million spent, and it was the most expensive race in South Dakota history. It was widely followed in the national media. Thune, along with Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist, President of the United States George W. Bush, and Vice President Dick Cheney, described Daschle as the \"chief obstructionist\" of Bush's agenda: \"Thune was able to criticize 'Daschle for serving incompatible masters' and portray him, as Frist did when he came to South Dakota to campaign for Thune, as a partisan obstructionist and political heir to liberal icon and former Senator George McGovern of South Dakota.\"\nDaschle's critics charged the Democrat with using filibusters to block confirmation of several of Bush's nominees to the federal judiciary and of being out of step with the views of South Dakota voters on other political and social issues: \"The GOP had targeted Daschle, the Senate minority leader, claiming he had been the chief obstruction to President Bush on such issues as tax cuts, judicial nominees and the war in Iraq.\"\nWhen the race began in early 2004, Daschle led by 7% in January and February. By May, his lead fell to just 2% and into the summer, polls showed an effective tie. Throughout September, Daschle led Thune by margins of 2–5%; from October until the November 2 election, most polls showed Thune and Daschle tied 49% to 49% among likely voters.\nOn November 2, 2004, Thune defeated Daschle by 4,508 votes, winning 51% of the vote. Daschle's loss was the first ousting of an incumbent Floor Leader since 1952, when Arizona Senator Ernest McFarland lost his seat to Barry Goldwater. \"The New York Times\" reported that the loss made “Mr. Daschle the first Senate party leader in more than five decades to be voted out of office. The race had been closely watched by both parties, with White House officials calling the senator an obstructionist for opposing the president on the war in Iraq, tax cuts and judicial nominees. Senator Daschle had fought hard, raising $16 million during the campaign as of mid-October, which he spent largely on television advertisements. Mr. Thune had raised $10 million by the same time.”\nSouth Dakota native Tom Brokaw commented that Thune \"ran a very strong campaign\" to win the 2004 race. University of South Dakota political scientist Bill Richardson said \"motivated John Thune supporters went to the polls in large numbers, part of a massive South Dakota turnout. Unofficial results show nearly 80 percent of registered voters cast ballots.\"\nAfter Thune defeated Daschle in 2004, many Republicans regarded Thune as a \"rising star with unlimited political potential.\"\nThune faced no Republican or Democratic opposition for his Senate seat in 2010 and won re-election with 100% of the vote. Scott Heidepriem, the South Dakota Senate Minority Leader and a Democratic candidate for Governor of South Dakota, said, \"We just concluded that John Thune is an extremely popular senator who is going to win another term in the Senate.\" One political observer of South Dakota politics noted in 2010 that it was \"the first time in the state’s modern history in which a major party has failed to field a Senate candidate.\"\nOn December 6, 2006, Thune was chosen by Senate Republican Whip Trent Lott to be the GOP's Chief Deputy Whip. After briefly serving as Republican Conference Vice-Chairman, Thune became chairman of the Republican Policy Committee in June 2009, which is the fourth-ranking position in the Senate.\nHe was elected Republican Conference Chairman in 2011, taking office in January 2012. The Conference Chairman is the third-ranking position in the US Senate. In late 2011, the \"Mitchell Daily Republic\" reported that \"Thune’s elevation to the No. 3 spot makes him the highest-ranking Republican senator in South Dakota history. Thune has served as chairman of the Republican Policy Committee from 2009 until the present time and was vice chairman of the Republican Conference from 2008 to 2009 and the Republican chief deputy whip from 2006 to 2008.\"\nThune's emergence as a conservative voice in the US Senate gained him a lengthy profile in the conservative magazine \"The Weekly Standard.\" The American Conservative Union gave Senator Thune a rating of 100 in 2006, and again in 2010; as of 2010, Thune's lifetime ACU rating was 88.97. Thune was praised in a 2010 profile by the \"Weekly Standard\" as an exceptional politician who was, unlike many of his colleagues, able to communicate traditional conservatism, making him a popular alternative to Tea Party representatives.\nSince becoming a Senator, Thune has taken a leading role in formulating energy policy. He pushed for the final passage of a comprehensive energy bill, which overcame a series of Democratic filibusters and passed the Senate in 2005. Thune helped pass another energy bill in late 2007. Thune advocates developing alternative sources of energy such as ethanol and wind energy; South Dakota has high levels of corn production and windy prairies to produce these forms of energy.\nOn March 6, 2014, Thune introduced the Reliable Home Heating Act (S. 2086; 113th Congress). The bill would require the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) to exempt motor carriers that transport home heating oil from numerous federal safety regulations if the governor of a state declares a state of emergency caused by a shortage of residential heating fuel. The bill also would require the Energy Information Administration (EIA) to notify states if certain petroleum reserves fall below historical averages. Thune said that he was \"hopeful that this legislation will eliminate red tape for governors to better meet the needs of their residents and businesses during what can be very dangerous conditions.\"\nThune has become a strong advocate of conservative causes such as gun rights, sponsoring legislation that would allow individuals with concealed carry permits to use such permits as a valid permit in other states.\nIn May 2016, Thune sent a letter to Facebook demanding details of how the social media site operates its Trending Topics feature. This followed a Gizmodo article that cited anonymous sources, claiming to be former Facebook employees, who alleged a systemic anti-conservative political bias in how material is selected for display in the list.\nSome commentators criticized Thune's letter as an example of government overreach against a private company. Facebook denied the bias allegations. Thune thanked Facebook in a statement saying, \"Private companies are fully entitled to espouse their own views, so I appreciate Facebook’s efforts to address allegations of bias raised in the media and my concern about a lack of transparency in its methodology for determining trending topics.\"\nThune is part of the group of 13 Senators drafting the Senate version of the AHCA behind closed doors.\nThune was one of eight Republican members of Congress who \"accept the prevailing scientific conclusion that global warming is both real and man-made,\" according to PolitiFact in May 2014.\nAs of 2017, Thune has a lifetime score of 11% on the National Environmental Scorecard of the League of Conservation Voters.\nAs a Senator, Thune has sponsored 117 bills, including:\nSource: John Thune\nPrior to the selection of Sarah Palin, Thune was mentioned as a possible vice presidential pick for Republican Presumptive Nominee John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. Thune publicly played down the speculation.\nSignificant speculation arose regarding a potential 2012 presidential bid by Thune. Thune was encouraged to run by Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, and South Carolina Senator Lindsey Graham, who called him \"a consensus builder.\" One \"Wall Street Journal\" article stated that Thune possesses \"name ID in the parts of the first caucus state of Iowa that get neighboring South Dakota media, a $6.9 million bank account he could use for a presidential run, and a national fundraising list of 100,000 names from his race against [former Senator Tom] Daschle.\" DNC Executive Director Jennifer O'Malley Dillon publicly stated that \"among a field of generally flawed (in one way or another) Republican presidential candidates, there is one who genuinely scares her. 'This is personal[,] but John Thune is somebody that I have nightmares about,' she said. 'I've worked for Tim Johnson and Tom Daschle and he is just a guy you can't ever count out.'\" According to multiple commentators, a Thune candidacy could be helped by his personal appearance (he \"looks like a president\"). On February 22, 2011, however, Thune announced he would not run in the presidential election in 2012. During the summer of 2012, the \"USA Today\" reported that \"South Dakota's Thune is on short list for vice president,\" but Wisconsin Congressman Paul Ryan was instead selected. Thune engendered some speculation that he might run in the 2016 presidential election, but he declined to run, stating that his \"window...might have closed in 2012.\"\nThune married the former Kimberley Weems of Doland, South Dakota in 1984. They have two daughters, Brittany and Larissa.\nThune is a fan of the bands Styx, Journey, Boston, and the Doobie Brothers.\nThune's father, Harold, was a fighter pilot in the Pacific theater during World War II who flew the Grumman F6F Hellcat. KELO News reported that \"Thune flew numerous missions for the Navy from an aircraft carrier. He received the Distinguished Flying Cross for shooting down four enemy planes in the Hellcat.\" Harold Thune flew his missions off the USS \"Intrepid\".\n","Richard Burr\nRichard Mauze Burr (born November 30, 1955) is the senior United States Senator from North Carolina, having served since 2005. A member of the Republican Party, Burr represented North Carolina's 5th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1995 to 2005. Prior to his political career, he worked for seventeen years in private business with Carswell Distributing.\nBurr was born in Charlottesville, Virginia, the son of Martha (née Gillum) and The Rev. David Horace White Burr, a minister. He graduated from Richard J. Reynolds High School in Winston-Salem, N.C. in 1974 and earned a B.A. in Communications from Wake Forest University in 1978. Burr was on the football team at both Reynolds High School and Wake Forest. Burr lettered for the Demon Deacons during the 1974 and 1975 seasons. He is a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity.\nPrior to running for Congress, Burr worked for 17 years as a sales manager for Carswell Distributing Company, a distributor of lawn equipment. Burr is currently a board member of Brenner Children's Hospital, as well as of the group Idealliance—a group of local, academic, and government officials working to expand North Carolina’s Piedmont Triad Research Park. Burr is also a board member of the West Point Board of Visitors.\nBurr has been married to Brooke Fauth Burr, a real estate agent, since 1984, and the couple have two sons, Tyler and William.\nBurr's father, a minister, said that Burr is a 12th cousin of Aaron Burr, the former Vice President, Senator, lawyer, and Continental Army officer known most for killing Founding Father Alexander Hamilton in an 1804 duel and for being arrested, indicted, and ultimately acquitted for treason. Richard Burr is the first Burr in the Senate since Aaron Burr served as the Senator from New York—and only the second person with his last name to win election to Congress (the first being the presumably unrelated Albert G. Burr)—since Aaron. Sen. Burr himself has stated that there are no longer any direct descendants of Aaron Burr, and that he descends from Aaron's brother. However, it is more likely that Senator Burr is descended from the brother of Aaron's father as biographies of Aaron Burr state that he had only an older sister, that his parents died young and they were raised by his father's brother.\nWhen queried, Burr states that he has tempered pride of the association: \"I am [proud] ... though history has proved to shine a different light on him.\"\nIn 1992, Burr ran against incumbent Democratic Representative Stephen L. Neal and lost. He ran again in 1994 after Neal chose not to seek re-election, and was elected to Congress during a landslide year for Republicans. He ran on a platform that advocated accountability for the federal government, lower health care costs, economic development, and strong school systems.\nWhile in the House, Burr authored the FDA Modernization Act of 1997. He also helped to create the National Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, he successfully sponsored amendments to improve defenses against bioterrorism.\nAs a representative, Burr co-sponsored, with Senator Kit Bond (R-MO) an amendment to the Energy Policy Act of 2003 relaxing restrictions on the exports of specific types of enriched uranium, first enacted in the Schumer Amendment to the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The original Schumer amendment placed increased controls on U.S. civilian exports of weapons grade highly enriched uranium (HEU) to encourage foreign users to switch to reactor grade low-enriched uranium (LEU) for isotope production. HEU is attractive to terrorists because it can be used to create a simple nuclear weapon, while LEU cannot be used directly to make nuclear weapons. The amendment allowed exports to five countries for creating medical isotopes.\nBurr did not face a serious challenge in any of his re-election campaigns.\nIn July 2004, Burr won the Republican primary to seek the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by Democrat John Edwards, who had retired from the Senate to run for Vice President under presidential nominee John Kerry in the 2004 election, in which they lost to incumbent president George W. Bush. He faced Democratic Party nominee Erskine Bowles and Libertarian Tom Bailey. Burr won the election by five percentage points.\nBurr defeated North Carolina Secretary of State Elaine Marshall (D) on November 2, 2010, with 55% of the vote. He is the first Republican since Jesse Helms to be re-elected to the United States Senate from North Carolina. He also broke the \"curse\" that his seat held, being the first Senator re-elected to the seat since 1968 (when Sam Ervin won his final term).\nBurr defeated Democratic nominee Deborah K. Ross in the November 2016 general election by a margin of 51–45. Burr was a supporter of and campaign advisor for the presidential election bid of Donald Trump.\nOn July 20, 2016, during his re-election campaign, Burr announced that, should he win that year's election, which he eventually did, he would not seek re-election to a fourth term in 2022.\nIn 2007, Burr ran for the leadership post of Republican Conference chairman but lost to Sen. Lamar Alexander by a vote of 31 to 16. In 2009, he was chosen to serve as Chief Deputy Whip in the 111th Congress. In 2007, Burr was named a deputy whip. In 2011, he announced his intention to seek the post of minority whip, the number two Republican position in the Senate, but he dropped out of that race in 2012.\nAs Chairman of the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Burr will lead that chamber's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.\nBurr has voted to oppose late-term abortion and to support parental notification laws and efforts to restrict federal funding of Planned Parenthood.\nBurr voted against the financial reform bill Restoring American Financial Stability Act of 2010 (Dodd-Frank). In the June 26 debate, he stated: \"I fear we're headed down a path that will be too overburdensome, too duplicative, it will raise the cost of credit ... The balance that we've got to have is more focus on the products that we didn't regulate ... more so than government playing a bigger role with a stronger hand\".\nIn fall 2008, during that year's financial crisis, Burr described his response to problems in the U.S. financial system: \"On Friday night, I called my wife and I said, 'Brooke, I am not coming home this weekend. I will call you on Monday. Tonight, I want you to go to the ATM machine, and I want you to draw out everything it will let you take. And I want you to go tomorrow, and I want you to go Sunday.' I was convinced on Friday night that if you put a plastic card in an ATM machine the last thing you were going to get was cash.\" This statement attracted attention from the national press when an April 2009 story in the \"News and Observer\" made it more widely known. In late April, Burr told WFAE, a public radio station in North Carolina, \"Absolutely I'd do it [again].\" He said that \"The exact situation we were faced with was a freeze bank to bank. And as I stated, my attempt was to make sure my wife had enough cash at home to make it through the next week.\" Burr also said that \"It was not an attempt to run a bank,\" and \"Nor was it a bank that was even considered then or now to be in trouble.\"\nBurr is a signatory of the \"Taxpayer Protection Pledge\".\nIn February 2009, he added an amendment to the proposed economic stimulus package that would end the automatic pay increases of Congress. Burr wrote on his Senate blog: \"As the law is currently written, Congress has to hold a vote to disapprove an automatic pay raise. As you can guess, these votes don't happen too often.\"\nIn 2013, Burr criticized some of his Republican colleagues in the Senate, who were filibustering the passage of the fiscal year 2014 federal budget in an effort to defund the Affordable Care Act. In a tweet, he called their strategy \"the height of hypocrisy\".\nBurr opposes raising the federal minimum wage, and believes that decision should be made by the states.\nHe is opposed to the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP).\nBurr was one of 21 senators who voted against the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009. Supporters of this measure stated that its provisions enjoyed bipartisan backing in Congress and strong local support in the areas affected, and would protect millions of acres of wild land. Opponents said that it was laden with expensive earmarks, that it precluded oil and gas production on large tracts of federal land, and that it would harm rural economies. Burr supports the Land and Water Conservation Fund, which safeguards natural areas, water resources, cultural heritage, and recreational opportunities. It uses revenues from the depletion of offshore oil and gas.\nIn 2011, Burr said he was unsure how of how much human activity contributed to climate change, and that he does not think science can prove it. He has supported the lowering of federal taxes on alternative fuels, renewal of the Land and Water Conservation Fund and the initiation of a hydropower project on the Yadkin River in Wilkes County, North Carolina.\nIn 2013, he voted to create a point of order against legislation that would create a federal tax or fee on carbon emissions.\nBurr voted in favor of the Keystone XL pipeline. In a series of roll call votes attached to debate about the Keystone XL pipeline on January 21, 2015, he voted against Amendments 58 and 87, which were written to \"express the sense of Congress regarding climate change.\" A vote for the amendment was to declare that climate change is real, human-caused, creating problems, and that the US must shift from fossil fuels to sustainable energy.\nBurr voted against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and he voted against the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.\nBurr unsuccessfully tried to filibuster the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009.\nIn 2014, Burr sponsored the Patient Choice, Affordability, Responsibility and Empowerment Act along with Senator Orrin Hatch. The bill is intended to provide an alternative health care reform system to the Affordable Care Act, according to \"Ripon Advance\". The bill would repeal the Affordable Care Act and implement provisions related to consumer protections, pre-existing conditions, and \"consumer-directed healthcare measures.\"\nBurr opposes the regulation of the tobacco industry by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). During the 108th Congress, Burr proposed the National Uniformity for Food Act, which would have banned states from forcing manufacturers to include labels other than those that are required by the Food and Drug Administration on consumables and health and beauty products. A similar bill passed the House, but it died in the Senate.\nSenator Burr opposed a vote to confirm U.S. Supreme Court nominee Merrick Garland and blocked the nomination of Patricia Timmons-Goodson to fill a vacancy on the federal court bench in Eastern North Carolina, which, he proudly notes, is the longest federal court bench vacancy in US history. Burr said that if Hillary Clinton were elected president, he would try to block her from ever filling the Supreme Court vacancy, saying \"I am going to do everything I can do to make sure four years from now, we still got an opening on the Supreme Court.\"\nBurr was the sponsor of Senate bill 1873, the Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005, nicknamed \"Bioshield Two\", which he says will give the Department of Health and Human Services \"additional authority and resources to partner with the private sector to rapidly develop drugs and vaccines.\" Portions of Senate Bill 1873 were eventually included in Senate Bill 3678 (the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act), which was signed into law in December 2006.\nSome provisions of the Patriot Act, including those enabling the bulk collection of metadata for private telephone records by the National Security Agency, were scheduled to expire at the end of May 2015. As Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, Burr proposed extending the provisions for two years, but his amendments were defeated. After the provisions expired, the Senate passed the USA Freedom Act which instead allowed the NSA to subpoena the data from telephone companies.\nBurr supported President Bush's troop surge in Iraq in January 2007, citing the \"need for security and stability\".\nBurr was a national security advisor to the Donald Trump campaign.\nIn April 2016, following the FBI–Apple encryption dispute in the same year, a discussion draft of a bill sponsored by Burr and Senator Dianne Feinstein was leaked. The bill would require technology companies to design their encryption so that they can provide law enforcement with user data in an \"intelligible format\" when required to do so by court order.\nBurr is generally opposed to tighter restrictions on gun rights. He voted against the 2013 legislation which would have extended background checks to internet and gun show weapons purchases. He sponsored legislation to stop the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs from adding the names of veterans to the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) if the department has assigned a financial fiduciary to take care of their finances due to mental incompetence, unless a judge or magistrate deems them to be a danger. Persons added to the NICS system are barred from purchasing or owning a firearm in the United States. Burr voted against Senator Diane Feinstein's No Fly No Buy bill, but said he is open to legislation blocking gun sales to terrorists if due process is observed. Speaking privately on the topic of guns to a group of GOP volunteers in Mooresville, NC, Burr joked that a magazine cover of Hillary Clinton ought to have had a bullseye on it. Burr quickly apologized for the comment.\nOn December 18, 2010, Burr voted in favor of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, the only Southern Republican senator to do so. The repeal would go on to end the core aspect of official Department of Defense employment discrimination against openly gay individuals. Burr and John Ensign were the only Senators who voted against cloture but voted in support of the final passage. Senator Susan Collins (R) of Maine who spearheaded the fractional Republican party support for the repeal expressed grateful surprise at Burr's joining her group in the final vote: \"I think that was a gutsy vote\" said Collins, \"he was not someone who I thought to lobby.\" Burr strongly expressed his opposition to the timing of the vote, reasoning he said that the chaos of double wars warranted delay, but decided it was right to support the bill when the Senate decided to stop waiting.\nOn same-sex marriage, Burr's personal belief is that marriage is between a man and a woman; however, he believes that the law should be left to the states. Burr thinks that bathroom access should be regulated by sex listed on birth certificates, but has also sought to distance himself from HB2, the North Carolina bathroom legislation.\nBurr voted for re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act in 2013.\nIn March 2015, Burr voted for an amendment to establish a deficit-neutral reserve fund to allow employees to earn paid sick time.\nIn 2012, Burr co-sponsored a plan to overhaul Medicare; his bill would have raised the eligibility age from 65 to 67 over time and added more private insurance options. The proposal would have begun \"a transition to a system dominated by private insurance plans.\"\nOn Feb 6, Burr voted to confirm Betsy DeVos as U.S. education secretary; DeVos won the Senate's confirmation, 51-50, with vice president Mike Pence as the deciding vote. Her family donated $43,200 to Burr's re-election campaign against Democrat Deborah Ross.\nBurr's car, a 1973 Volkswagen Thing, is \"something of a local celebrity\" on Capitol Hill. Burr has a known aversion to reporters, once even climbing out of his office window while carrying his dry cleaning to avoid them. Burr is a member of the United Methodist Church.\n\n","Rostin Behnam\nRostin Behnam is an American lawyer and government official who currently serves as a commissioner of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission. Prior to assuming his current role, he served as senior counsel to U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow. Behnam has also practiced law in New York City and worked at the New Jersey Office of the Attorney General.","Peter B. Davidson\nPeter B. Davidson is an American lawyer and government official who currently serves as the General Counsel of the United States Department of Commerce. He was previously the senior vice president for congressional relations at Verizon Communications, general counsel to the United States Trade Representative, vice president for congressional relations at US West and Qwest, general counsel and policy director to the Majority Leader of the House of Representatives, attorney-advisor in the Office of Legal Counsel of the United States Department of Justice, director of congressional and media relations at the United States Information Agency, staffer to Representatives Dick Armey and Bill Frenzel, and law clerk on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit.","Sherrod Brown\nSherrod Campbell Brown (born November 9, 1952) is an American politician and author who is the senior United States Senator from Ohio, in office since January 3, 2007. Brown is a member of the Democratic Party. Before his election to the Senate, he was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Ohio's 13th congressional district from 1993 to 2007. He previously served as the Ohio Secretary of State (1983–1991) and as a member of the Ohio House of Representatives (1974–1982).\nBrown defeated two-term Republican incumbent Mike DeWine in the 2006 Senate election and was re-elected in 2012, defeating state Treasurer Josh Mandel. In the Senate, he was chairman of the Agriculture Subcommittee on Hunger, Nutrition and Family Farms and the Banking Subcommittee on Economic Policy, and is also a member of the Committee on Finance, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, and Select Committee on Ethics. Beginning in January 2015 at the start of the 114th Congress, Brown became the Ranking Democratic Member on the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs.\nBrown was born in Mansfield, Ohio, the son of Emily (née Campbell) and Charles Gailey Brown, M.D. He was named after his maternal grandfather. He became an Eagle Scout in 1967. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Russian studies from Yale University in 1974. At Yale, he lived in Davenport College. While in college, Brown volunteered for liberal politicians such as George McGovern. He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree in education and a Master of Public Administration degree from Ohio State University in Columbus in 1979 and 1981, respectively. He taught at the Mansfield branch campus of Ohio State University from 1979 to 1981. He backpacked in India during the Emergency imposed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.\nDuring his senior year in college, Brown was recruited by a local Democratic leader to run for Ohio's state house. Brown served as a state representative in Ohio from 1974 to 1982. At the time of his election to the Ohio House, he was the youngest person elected to that body. In 1982, Brown ran for Ohio Secretary of State to succeed Anthony J. Celebrezze, Jr. Brown won a four-way Democratic primary that included Dennis Kucinich, then defeated Republican Virgil Brown in the general election. In 1986, Brown won re-election, defeating Vincent C. Campanella. As Secretary of State, Brown focused on voter registration outreach. In 1990, Brown lost re-election in a heated campaign against Republican Bob Taft.\n\nIn 1992, Brown moved from Mansfield to Lorain, Ohio, and won a heavily contested Democratic primary for the open seat for Ohio's 13th district, located in the western and southern suburbs of Cleveland, after eight-term incumbent Don Pease announced his retirement. The Democratic-leaning district gave him an easy win over the little-known Republican Margaret R. Mueller. He was re-elected six times.\nThe Democrats lost their long-held House majority in the 1994 elections, and Democrats remained in the minority for the remainder of Brown's tenure. As ranking member of the Energy and Commerce Health subcommittee, Brown successfully advocated for increased funding to fight tuberculosis.\nIn 2001, the Republican-controlled legislature considered redrawing Brown's district. Some top Democrats urged Brown to relocate and take on fellow Democrat James Traficant after he defected when he voted to elect Republican Dennis Hastert as speaker of the U.S. House.\nIn 2005, Brown led the Democratic effort to block the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). For many months, Brown worked as whip on the issue, securing Democratic \"nay\" votes and seeking Republican allies. After several delays, the House of Representatives finally voted on CAFTA after midnight on July 28, 2005, which ended in passage by one vote.\nHe opposed an amendment to Ohio's constitution that banned same-sex marriage. Brown was also one of the few U.S. Representatives to vote against the Defense of Marriage Act in 1996.\nBrown was the ranking minority member on the House Energy and Commerce Committee's Health Subcommittee. He also served on the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet and the Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade and Consumer Protection. While serving on the House International Relations Committee, he was also a member of the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific.\nBrown opposed the Iraq War and voted against the Iraq Resolution as a House Representative. He voted against the $87 billion war budgetary supplement. He also voted for redeploying US troops out of Iraq by March 2008.\nIn 2008, Brown joined 91 other senators in voting for the Iraq and Afghanistan War Funding, Unemployment Benefits Extension, and GI Bill, which required the Department of Defense to provide a timetable for achieving security in Iraq, provided education funding for veterans, extended unemployment compensation, and appropriated funds to combat drug trafficking, reduce Medicaid fraud, assist victims of natural disasters, and fund the Department of Defense.\nIn 2012, he co-sponsored a resolution to \"oppose any policy that would rely on containment as an option in response to the Iranian nuclear threat\" while also joined bipartisan effort to urge Obama Administration to step up pressure, including strengthening sanctions, cooperating with U.S. allies and military readiness, to prevent Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons. In 2015, Brown co-sponsored an amendment to the budget which unanimously approved by the Senate that would reimpose sanctions on Iran if it violated the interim or final agreement that has paused its nuclear activities.\nFrom U.S. House of Representatives to Senate, Sherrod Brown strongly supported the Taiwan Relations Act and the Six Assurances as cornerstones of United States-Taiwan relations.\nWeeks after the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign and Umbrella Movement broke out which demanded genuine universal suffrage among other goals, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China chair Senator Brown and co-chair U.S. Rep. Chris Smith along with bipartisan Senators Ben Cardin, Marco Rubio, Roger Wicker, Dianne Feinstein, Jeff Merkley and Democratic Leader of the U.S. House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, Congressmen Dan Lipinski and Frank Wolf introduced Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act which would update the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992 and U.S. commitment to Hong Kong's freedom and democracy. \"Hong Kong's autonomy and freedoms are under threat from China. We must strongly support the universal rights of the people of Hong Kong, including free and fair elections in 2017 and beyond,” Brown said.\nHe voted in favor of the 2012 NDAA that sparked controversy over indefinite detention of US citizens.\nIn January 2016, Senator Brown introduced a bill in Congress which would restrict ISIS’ financing by authorizing tough new sanctions on foreign financial institutions that knowingly facilitate financial transactions with ISIS and other terrorist threats. His bill also called for tightening international passport regulations and additional screening of those attempting to enter the U.S. on certain types of Visas.\nAnother part of his bill would secure grant funding to state and local law enforcement agencies to develop specialized anti-terrorism investigation and combat programs and to train first responders in the event of an active shooter or a terrorist attack. To monitor possible terrorist activity on the internet, he proposed better cyber-training to identify and track extremists, such as the couple behind the mass shooting in San Bernardino, California. “We need to ensure that those on the frontlines protecting us have all the tools they need to respond to threats, and to root out these terrorists at home and abroad,” Brown said.\nHe also renewed his call for closing the terrorist gun loophole to stop individuals who are known or suspected terrorists - including those on the “No Fly” list and homegrown extremists - from purchasing deadly firearms. \"If you're too dangerous to fly, you're too dangerous to purchase an assault weapon. Period,\" said Brown.\nIn 2015, Senators Brown and Bob Menendez co-authored the Military Families Credit Reporting Act to safeguard financial security for service members while deployed on active duty and requested specific information and feedback to help ensure deployed military personnel have the tools they need to protect their credit.\nIn 2014, Brown introduced the Gold Star Fathers Act of 2014 (S. 2323; 113th Congress), a bill that would expand preferred eligibility for federal jobs to the fathers of certain permanently disabled or deceased veterans. Brown said that \"when a service member is killed in action or permanently and totally disabled, the government should do its part to be there for grieving parents - no matter if they're fathers or mothers.\"\nIn 2015, Senators Brown and U.S. Rep. Tim Ryan introduced legislation to ensure veterans, students serving in the armed forces, and their qualifying dependents can attain priority enrollment at four-year colleges or universities so that they can finish their degrees before their federal GI benefits expire. Brown said we must invest in and train our men and women when they return to their communities.\nSenator Brown co-sponsored bipartisan legislation to restrict the export of electronic waste, help boost the domestic recycling industry, foster innovation, reduce the number of counterfeit electronics from countries like China, and support efforts to recover rare earth materials found in electronics. He supports research and development on clean and renewable energy, including new fuel cell and offshore wind energy production, and its manufacturing supply chain in U.S. to ensure safe and reliable fuel source.\nIn February 2013, conservative commentator George F. Will wrote in support of Brown's proposal to break up consolidated banks and finance industry conglomerates, ending \"too big to fail\" by restoring the Glass-Steagall Act.\nIn 2016, amid Panama Papers scandal around the globe, Senators Brown and Elizabeth Warren urged the Treasury Department to investigate whether U.S. individuals were involved in possible tax avoidance and misconduct associated with the Panama-based law firm Mossack Fonseca.\nIn 2009 when the vote on the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act came down to just a few votes, Brown (an ardent advocate of the legislation) was attending services for his deceased mother. The White House provided a plane in order to fly him back to vote for the bill when it was determined that no commercial flight would make it on time. \"Although most senators voted shortly after 5:30 p.m., the 60th and final vote was not cast until 10:46 p.m. by Sen. Sherrod Brown.\"\nBrown was instrumental in passing the Food and Drug Administration Food Safety Modernization Act of 2010.\nDue to serious environmental issues and pollution in China as well as series food safety incidents, including pet foods and milk among others, Senator Brown in 2013 criticized the Department of Agriculture over inadequate process of \"No routine inspections\" and \"No country-of-origin labeling\" for meats from that country. \"Given the well-documented shortcoming of the Chinese food safety system, we shouldn't allow unmarked meat into our markets that is processed in Chinese facilities that are not subject to food safety inspection,” Brown said. \"This action could endanger the health and safety of American consumers and potentially undermines confidence in our nation's food safety standards.\" as people are unable to identify whether things are from Chinese processors or not. Brown highlighted the egregious record of China and demanded additional actions from USDA and Food Safety and Inspection Service for those problems as American consumers deserve to be fully informed of their product choices.\nWhile as the Ranking Democrat on U.S. House Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Health, Rep. Brown authored the Children's Hospitals Education and Research Act of 1998 which first proposed the Children's Hospitals Graduate Medical Education (CHGME) program. In 2015, Senator Brown led 31 colleagues to seek continued and $30 million increase funding ($295 million) in fiscal year 2016 which can benefit seven institutions in Ohio among others.\nAs the water crisis in Flint, Michigan also raised similar public health concern in Granville and Sebring, Ohio, Senator Brown in 2016 introduced legislation that would force the federal government to step in when cities and states fail to warn residents about lead-contaminated drinking water and to give Ohio's school districts money to test it.\nIn 2007, Brown and Sam Brownback (R-KS) sponsored an amendment to the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007. President George W. Bush signed the bill in September 2007. The amendment established a prize as an incentive for companies to invest in new drugs and vaccines for neglected tropical diseases. It awards a transferable “Priority Review Voucher” to any company that obtains approval for a treatment for a neglected tropical disease. This provision adds to the market based incentives available for the development of new medicines for developing world diseases in the developing world, among them malaria, tuberculosis and African sleeping sickness. The prize had been proposed by Duke University faculty members Henry Grabowski, Jeffrey Moe, and David Ridley in their 2006 \"Health Affairs\" paper \"Developing Drugs for Developing Countries.\"\nBrown supported the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, voting for it in December 2009, and he voted for the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.\nBrown is an advocate of equal rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. He also voted against prohibiting same-sex couples from adopting children in Washington D.C., and received a perfect score from the Human Rights Campaign. On November 30, 2010 Brown made a contribution to the It Gets Better Project from the Senate floor, and on December 18, 2010 he voted in favor of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010.\nIn 2011, in the \"National Journal\"’s annual rankings, Brown tied with eight other members for the title of the most liberal member of Congress.\nIn 2015, Senator Brown pushed for national charter school reform with more accountability and transparency to ensure tax dollars are spent on education rather than profit.\nBrown was a cosponsor of the Protect-IP Act (PIPA).\nBrown has criticized free trade with China and other countries. In a 2006 Washington Post article, Brown argued against free trade on the grounds that labor activism was responsible for the growth of the U.S. middle class, and that the U.S. economy is harmed by trade relations with countries that lack the kind of labor regulations that have resulted from that activism.\nIn 2011, the \"Columbus Dispatch\" noted that Brown \"loves to rail against international trade agreements.\" Brown's book, \"Myths of Free Trade\", argues that \"an unregulated global economy is a threat to all of us.\" He recommends adopting measures that would allow for emergency tariffs, protect Buy America laws, including those that give preference to minority and women-owned businesses, and hold foreign producers to American labor and environmental standards. Brown was the co-author and sponsor of a bill that would officially declare China a currency manipulator and require the Department of Commerce to impose countervailing duties on Chinese imports. China's policy undervaluing its currency against the dollar and export subsidy has damaged American manufacturers and taken away American jobs.\nAccording to reports unveiled in 2012, China's cheating in the auto parts trade resulted in more than 1.6 million American jobs at risk. Senator Brown addressed China's predatory trading practices on American industry and called for action against China doesn't play fair. He tried to impose tariffs on China.\nIn May 2016, Senator Brown praised Hillary Clinton's in-depth plan to enforce regulations and laws on trade, such as rules of origin, triple the enforcement budgets at the Department of Commerce and the International Trade Commission, and how to bring manufacturing to America.\nIn 2012, Senator Brown urged the Department of Defense to comply with a rule that requires military service members to wear clothes and boots made in the U.S. rather than in China. \"If it's taxpayer dollars, it should help American workers and American businesses, pure and simple. Our men and women in uniform are fighting for their country, and deserve to fight in quality uniforms and boots that are made in the U.S.A.\" Brown said.\nIn 2016, Senator Brown criticized Donald Trump for his outsourcing American jobs to China.\nIn August 2005, Brown announced he would not run for the United States Senate seat held by Republican Mike DeWine. In October, however, Brown reconsidered his decision. His announcement came shortly after Democrat Paul Hackett stated that he would soon announce his candidacy.\nOn February 13, 2006, Hackett withdrew from the race, all but ensuring that Brown would win the Democratic nomination. In the May 2 primary, Brown won 78.05% of the Democratic vote. His opponent, Merrill Samuel Keiser, Jr., received 21.95% of the vote.\nIn the middle of his Senate campaign in April 2006, Brown, along with John Conyers, brought an action against George W. Bush and others, alleging violations of the Constitution in the passage of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The case, \"Conyers v. Bush\", was ultimately dismissed for lack of standing.\nOn November 7, 2006, Brown faced two-term incumbent senator Mike DeWine in the general election. Brown won the seat with 56% of the vote to DeWine's 44%.\nBrown stood for reelection in 2012, defeating opponent Josh Mandel, who in 2010 defeated the incumbent state treasurer by 14 points. Mandel raised $2.3 million in the second quarter of 2011 alone, to Brown’s $1.5 million. Early on, Brown enjoyed a steady lead in the polls. Mandel won the March Republican primary with 63% of the vote.\nThe \"Washington Post\" reported that no candidate running for reelection, save Barack Obama, faced more opposition in 2012 by outside groups. As of April 2012, over $5.1 million had been spent on television ads opposing Brown, according to data provided by a Senate Democratic campaign operative. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce spent $2.7 million. 60 Plus Association, a conservative group that opposes health care reform, spent another $1.4 million. Karl Rove's Crossroads GPS and the Concerned Women for America Legislative Action Committee also spent heavily in the race. In May 2012, Brown hit the campaign trail with West Wing actor Martin Sheen.\nIn March 2011, Brown came under scrutiny for a senate floor speech in which he cited the names of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin while he criticized Republican efforts in Ohio and Wisconsin to mitigate the power of public employee unions to negotiate with taxpayers. In his speech he said \"some of the worst governments that we've ever had, do you know one of the first things they did? They went after unions. Hitler didn't want unions, Stalin didn't want unions, Mubarak didn't want independent unions\". Brown, however, added that he was not comparing the two situations. He later apologized for his speech.\nBrown's second wife, Connie Schultz, is a former newspaper columnist at the \"Cleveland Plain Dealer\", but resigned because being a politician's spouse presented a conflict of interest. She won a Pulitzer Prize for \"her pungent columns that provided a voice for the underdog and underprivileged.\" She is also the author of \"Life Happens\" (2007) and \"...and His Lovely Wife\" (2008), in which she describes her experiences as a spouse of a U.S. Senate candidate. Brown was previously married to Larke Recchie from 1979 to 1987. Brown is the father of four children: two from his marriage to Recchie and two children from his marriage to Schultz. He has five grandchildren.\nOn May 18, 2014, Brown was awarded an honorary doctor of public service degree from Otterbein University. Along with his wife, Brown delivered a keynote address at the undergraduate commencement.\nBrown is the author of two books:\nclass=\"wikitable succession-box\" style=\"margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%;clear:both;\"","Jack Reed (Rhode Island politician)\nJohn Francis \"Jack\" Reed (born November 12, 1949), is the senior United States Senator from Rhode Island, serving since 1997. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served in the United States House of Representatives for Rhode Island 's 2 congressional district from 1991 to 1997.\nReed was born in Cranston, Rhode Island, the son of Mary Louise (née Monahan) and Joseph Anthony Reed. Reed graduated from La Salle Academy and the United States Military Academy at West Point, where he received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1971. Following graduation, he spent several years in active duty military service. Reed earned the Ranger Tab and was a paratrooper. He served as a paratrooper in the 2nd Battalion, 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 82nd Airborne Division where he was a Platoon Leader, Company Commander and Battalion Staff Officer.\nReed attended the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, where he received a Master of Public Policy. He returned to West Point in 1978 as an associate professor in the Department of Social Sciences. He left active duty in 1979 after earning the rank of Captain. However, he would remain a member of the United States Army Reserve until 1991. After leaving active duty, Reed enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he became a member of the Board of Student Advisers. In 1982, he graduated with his Juris Doctor and worked as an associate at the Washington, D.C. office of law firm of Sutherland Asbill & Brennan. Afterwards, he returned to Rhode Island and joined Edwards and Angell, a Providence law firm. He worked with this group until 1990.\nReed was elected as a state senator in 1984 and served three terms.\nReed married professional Senate staffer Julia Hart in a Roman Catholic ceremony in the Catholic chapel on the United States Military Academy campus on April 16, 2005. On January 5, 2007, Mrs. Reed gave birth to a daughter, Emily.\nIn 1990, Reed was elected to the United States House of Representatives, receiving 59% of the vote in the general election. For the next six years, Reed focused on education and health care.\nWhen Senator Claiborne Pell, the longest-serving senator in Rhode Island's history and the 13th longest-serving senator in US history, announced his retirement in 1996, Reed declared his candidacy. Reed won the Democratic primary with 86% of the vote and beat the Republican nominee, Rhode Island General Treasurer Nancy Mayer, in the general election by 63% to 35%.\nReed ran for re-election to a second term. He was unopposed in the Democratic primary and his Republican opponent was Robert Tingle, a casino pit manager and the unsuccessful Republican nominee for the state's 2nd congressional district in 2000. Reed won by 78% to 22%.\nIn 2008, ran for re-election to a third term. He faced a primary challenge which he easily turned aside, winning with 87% of the vote. In the general election, he faced a rematch with Robert Tingle. Reed again won a landslide victory, by 73% to 27%.\nReed announced in May 2014 that he would run for re-election to a fourth term in office. Polling showed him leading prospective Republican opponents by margins of between 29% and 65%. Reed, who was unopposed in the Democratic primary, faced only former Congressional nominee and former Rhode Island Republican Party Chairman Mark Zaccaria in the general election. Reed defeated him in another landslide win, by 71% to 29%.\nIn 2008, Reed was mentioned as a potential Vice Presidential running mate for Barack Obama. On 14 July 2008, Reed announced that he was \"not interested\" in becoming Obama's running mate.\nReed has consistently been speculated as a possible Secretary of Defense. In late 2010, he turned down an offer from President Obama to succeed Robert Gates as Secretary of Defense. The position was ultimately filled by Leon Panetta.\nAfter President Obama was re-elected in 2012 and Panetta announced his decision to retire, Reed was again mentioned as a possible nominee for Secretary of Defense, as well as for Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Once again, he denied interest in either position.\nWhen Panetta's successor Chuck Hagel announced his resignation in December 2014, Reed was again said to be on President Obama's shortlist. Despite the Republican takeover of the Senate in the 2014 elections, it was said that Reed's confirmation would be a \"foregone conclusion\". He again denied interest, with a spokesman saying that \"Senator Reed loves his job and wants to continue serving the people of Rhode Island in the United States Senate. He has made it very clear that he does not wish to be considered for Secretary of Defense or any other cabinet position. He just asked the people of Rhode Island to hire him for another six year term and plans on honoring that commitment.\"\nOn November 24, 2014, Ted Nesi of WPRI-TV noted the reasons that Reed continues to turn down the job, citing his \"safe seat\", his status as one of the most popular politicians in the state, his fondness for working in the Senate and his passion for housing policy. He concluded that \"no matter how many times Reed’s aides privately groan about another flareup of defense secretary speculation, they surely appreciate that each recurrence is a sign of the senator’s positive reputation in Washington and Obama’s esteem for him.\"\nSince his election to Congress, Reed has consistently voted in a similar manner to other New England Democrats, holding generally liberal positions on social and economic issues. Reed has voted with his party 94.7% of the time.\nReed has been an advocate of preventive healthcare. Consistent with other Democrats, he supports increasing Medicare funding, enrolling more Americans into programs that help the uninsured, allowing prescription drugs to be imported from Canada, and negotiating bulk medication purchases for Medicare in order to lower costs.\nReed has generally supported fair trade policies over similar ones advocating free trade. He voted against renewing presidential authority for 'fast tracking' normalized trade relations. Reed opposed CAFTA and similar free trade proposals for Chile, Singapore, Peru, and Oman. However, Reed voted in favor of normalizing trade relations with China. He has also been a strong supporter of unionizing workers, and has criticized government and business interference with these groups. Reed supports increasing the minimum wage and unemployment compensation.\nReed serves on the Senate Banking Committee which has held hearings into JP Morgan Chase bank's activities. Reed has accepted campaign contributions from bank CEO Jamie Dimon.\nReed supports affirmative action. He has voted to expand such policies and to set aside money for women and minorities from the highway fund. Reed also has supported gay rights, voting against a proposed constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage, while voting in favor of measures that prevent job discrimination and hate crimes against LGBT.\nHe is strongly in favor of abortion rights, and he has rejected proposals to limit late-term abortion, such procedures from occurring on military installations, and the ability of minors to cross state lines to obtain abortions.\nReed supports limiting American oil use and expanding alternative energy. He opposes Arctic National Wildlife Refuge drilling and federal subsidies for oil exploration, while favoring a 40 percent reduction in oil use by 2025 and funding for hydrogen automobiles. Reed has voted to end discussions on Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards. He has also been an outspoken proponent of stronger restrictions of mercury use, as well as an end to commercial whaling.\nReed has voted against limiting lawsuits on gun manufacturers and has favored expanding gun control. He voted against loosening background checks at gun shows. This was a stark departure from his voting record on this issue as a state senator. While serving in the state senate, he routinely voted for legislation supporting the 2nd Amendment and receive high rating from the NRA state affiliate.\nAlthough he voted for the 1996 Immigration Reform Bill, Reed has generally supported allowing illegal immigrants and foreign workers to enter the path to citizenship. He supports Guest Worker programs and allowing immigrants to have access to Social Security. He rejected the idea of establishing English as the nation's official language and has been critical of the effort to fence the US-Mexican border. He is the author of the Reed Amendment, which permits former U.S. citizens to be denied entry to the country if they are believed to have renounced citizenship for tax reasons. On February 23, 2010, Reed co-sponsored the DREAM Act, a piece of legislation that would allow undocumented students living in the United States from a very young age to gain legal status.\nWhen asked about voting against Social Security benefits going to illegal immigrants, Reed said that he supported this interim measure and \"any such agreement must be fully examined so that it does not adversely impact benefits earned by American citizens.\"\nReed has made it a point to maintain liaisons within his office specifically to interact with discharged veterans of the Armed Services. These liaisons often help veterans enter the Department of Veteran Affairs, ensuring that these former servicemen and servicewomen can receive medical care.\nReed was one of 23 US senators to vote against H.J. Resolution 114, which authorized President George W. Bush to use force against Iraq in 2002. In 2007, Reed elaborated on his sentiments, saying \"It was a flawed strategy that diverted attention and resources away from hunting down Osama bin Laden's terrorist network.\" Like General Petraeus, Reed said that he believed the real problems in Iraq were political and unrelated to the military.\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 2014\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 2008\nUnited States Senate Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 2008\nJack Reed 86.8%\nChristopher Young 13.2%\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 2002\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 1996\nUnited States Senate Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 1996\nJack Reed 86.1%\nDon Gil 13.9%\nUnited States House of Representative 2nd District election in Rhode Island, 1994\nJack Reed (D) 68.0%\nJohn Elliot (R) 32.0%\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District election in Rhode Island, 1992\nJack Reed (D) 70.7%\nJames Bell (R) 24.5%\nThomas Ricci (I) 3.3%\nJohn Turnbull (IT) 1.6%\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 1992\nJack Reed 76.4%\nSpencer Dickinson 23.6%\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District election in Rhode Island, 1990\nJack Reed (D) 59.2%\nGertrude Coxe (R) 40.8%\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 1990\nJack Reed 49.0%\nEdward Beard, Sr. 27.4%\nCharles Gifford, III 14.7%\nRodney Driver 8.9%\n","Michigan's 8th congressional district\nMichigan's 8th congressional district is a <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> <a href=\"congressional%20district\">congressional district</a> in <a href=\"Southern%20Michigan\">Southern Michigan</a> and <a href=\"Southeast%20Michigan\">Southeast Michigan</a>, centered on the state capital, <a href=\"Lansing%2C%20Michigan\">Lansing</a>. From 2003 to 2013 it consisted of all of <a href=\"Clinton%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Clinton</a>, <a href=\"Ingham%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Ingham</a>, and <a href=\"Livingston%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Livingston</a> counties, and includes the southern portion of <a href=\"Shiawassee%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Shiawassee</a> and the northern portion of <a href=\"Oakland%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Oakland</a> counties.\nThe district shifted slightly in the 2012 redistricting to include <a href=\"Rochester%20Hills%2C%20Michigan\">Rochester Hills</a>.\nThe district was first created in 1873, after <a href=\"United%20States%20congressional%20apportionment\">redistricting</a> following the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%2C%201870\">1870 census</a>.\nThe current congressman is <a href=\"Republican%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican</a> <a href=\"Mike%20Bishop%20%28politician%29\">Mike Bishop</a>, who has represented the district since 2015.\nPrior to 1992, the 8th congressional district included the cities of <a href=\"Saginaw%2C%20Michigan\">Saginaw</a> and <a href=\"Bay%20City%2C%20Michigan\">Bay City</a> as well as Huron, Tuscola and Sanilac Counties in the Thumb of Michigan, Arenac county north from Bay County, a total of about half the area of Sagnaw County, and small northern portions of Lapeer and St. Clair counties.\nThis area would largely be transferred to the <a href=\"Michigan%27s%205th%20congressional%20district\">5th district</a> after the 1990 census, while most of the old 6th district became the 8th district. Unlike the old 6th district, the 8th did not include <a href=\"Pontiac%2C%20Michigan\">Pontiac</a>. To make up for the loss in population, it was pushed further into Lansing (which had previously been split between the 6th and 8th districts), picking up all of Ingham County. It also added the area around Brighton and portions of <a href=\"Washtenaw%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Washtenaw</a> and <a href=\"Genessee%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Genessee</a> counties.\nIn the redistricting for the 2002 election, the district gained all of <a href=\"Clinton%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Clinton County</a> about half of <a href=\"Shiawassee%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Shiawasee County</a> and most of its area in <a href=\"Oakland%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Oakland County</a> while losing its shares of Washtenaw and Genessee counties.\nIn the redistricting for the 2012 election, the district dropped all of its area in Clinton and Shiawasee counties, and was pushed further into Oakland County.\n","Tom Athans\nTom Athans (born 1961) is an American radio executive. He is the co-founder and former CEO of <a href=\"Democracy%20Radio\">Democracy Radio</a>, an organization that created and produced progressive talk radio shows that included \"<a href=\"The%20Ed%20Schultz%20Show\">The Ed Schultz Show</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Stephanie%20Miller%20Show\">The Stephanie Miller Show</a>\". After his tenure at Democracy Radio, he joined <a href=\"Air%20America%20Radio\">Air America Radio</a> as Executive Vice President for Programming. Athans was formerly married to U.S. Senator <a href=\"Debbie%20Stabenow\">Debbie Stabenow</a>. The couple divorced in May 2010.\nAthans, of Greek descent, was born in <a href=\"Detroit%2C%20Michigan\">Detroit, Michigan</a>. He was a congressional aide in the U.S. House of Representatives and the United States Senate. Previous to his tenure as a staffer in Congress, he was elected to local office and served two terms as a Councilman and President of the Village Council in <a href=\"Oxford%2C%20Michigan\">Oxford, Michigan</a>. Athans is also a veteran of the <a href=\"United%20States%20Air%20Force\">United States Air Force</a> and the Michigan Air National Guard.\nIn 2002, Athans and radio industry veteran Paul Fiddick founded <a href=\"Democracy%20Radio\">Democracy Radio</a>, an organization dedicated to creating political balance on America's commercial radio airwaves. Their concept was to develop, fund and incubate progressive oriented talk programming and enlist radio networks to market the programs to stations around the country. Democracy Radio developed and produced talk shows that launched the national careers of <a href=\"Ed%20Schultz\">Ed Schultz</a> and <a href=\"Stephanie%20Miller\">Stephanie Miller</a>, among others.\nOn June 8, 2005, Democracy Radio sold its stake in \"The Ed Schultz Show\" to a new company headed by veteran radio executive <a href=\"Randy%20Michaels\">Randy Michaels</a>, the former CEO of Clear Channel Radio. In November 2005, Democracy Radio's partner in \"The Stephanie Miller Show\", WYD Media headed by radio industry veteran Ron Hartenbaum, purchased Democracy Radio's shares and assumed sole ownership of the venture.\nOn November 4, 2005, Athans stepped down as CEO of Democracy Radio.\nAfter stepping down from Democracy Radio, Athans became Executive Vice-President of <a href=\"Air%20America%20%28radio%20network%29\">Air America</a>, a <a href=\"Progressive%20talk%20radio\">Progressive talk radio</a> network. Athans was in charge of developing new programming to expand Air America's lineup. He also headed Air America's Washington, D.C. corporate office.\nAfter Air America underwent bankruptcy procedures in late 2006, Athans founded TalkUSA Radio, a radio production company. Talk USA launched \"The Leslie Marshall Show\" and \"Washington Monthly on the Radio\" into national syndication.\nAthans, an occasional contributor to \"The Huffington Post\", resides in <a href=\"Saint%20Clair%20Shores%2C%20Michigan\">Saint Clair Shores, Michigan</a> and is Vice President of Communications at Helicon Holdings, LLC in Detroit, Michigan.\nIn February 2008, Athans was detained in <a href=\"Troy%2C%20Michigan\">Troy, Michigan</a>, as part of a prostitution sting and admitted to paying for a sex act. At the time, he was married to U.S. Senator <a href=\"Debbie%20Stabenow\">Debbie Stabenow</a> (D-Michigan). Athans was not charged, but was ticketed for driving with a suspended driver license. In April, Athans made a public statement, \"No words can fully express how sorry I am. At the time this incident occurred, I took responsibility for my actions and fully cooperated with law enforcement. My family and I are dealing with this matter in a personal and private way.\"","Governor of Michigan\nThe Governor of Michigan is the chief executive of the U.S. state of <a href=\"Michigan\">Michigan</a>. The current <a href=\"Governor%20%28United%20States%29\">governor</a> is <a href=\"Rick%20Snyder\">Rick Snyder</a>, a member of the <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28Michigan%29\">Republican Party</a>, who was inaugurated on January 1, 2011, as the state's 48th governor, was re-elected November 4, 2014, and was sworn in for a second term on January 1, 2015. He is not eligible for a third term under Michigan's <a href=\"term%20limits\">term limits</a>, which limit a governor to two, four-year terms.\nGovernors of Michigan, as well as their <a href=\"Lieutenant%20Governor%20of%20Michigan\">lieutenant governors</a>, must be United States citizens who have resided in Michigan for the four years preceding election and must be at least 30 years of age. A constitutional amendment adopted by the voters at the 2010 general election provides that a person is ineligible for any elected office, including governor and lieutenant governor, if convicted of a felony involving dishonesty, deceit, fraud, or a breach of the public trust, and if the conviction were related to the person's official capacity while holding any elective office or position of employment in local, State, or Federal government.\nFrom statehood until the election of 1966, governors were elected to two-year terms. Elections are held in November and the governor assumes office the following January, except in the case of death or resignation. From statehood until 1851, elections were held in odd-numbered years. A new state constitution was drafted in 1850 and took effect in 1851. As part of the process bringing the constitution into effect, there was a single one-year term of governor in 1851. Thereafter elections were held on even years.\nThe <a href=\"Michigan%20Constitution\">constitution adopted in 1963</a> changed the governor's term to four years, starting in 1967. Since then, gubernatorial elections have been offset by two years from <a href=\"U.S.%20Presidential%20elections\">U.S. Presidential elections</a> (e.g., Presidential elections were in <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202008\">2008</a> and <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202012\">2012</a>, the last gubernatorial election was in <a href=\"Michigan%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202014\">2014</a> and the next will be in <a href=\"Michigan%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202018\">2018</a>). Gubernatorial elections are held concurrently with <a href=\"Michigan%20Senate\">state Senate</a> elections. The winner of the gubernatorial election takes office at noon on January 1 of the year following the election.\nIn 1992, an amendment to the Michigan constitution imposed a lifetime term limit of two four-year terms for the office of governor. Prior to this, they were not limited as to how many terms they could serve; <a href=\"John%20Engler\">John Engler</a>, the governor at the time, served three terms as his first term occurred prior to the restriction. Engler was reelected in 1994 and 1998 before being term limited in 2002.\nThe governor has responsibilities to:\nHe appoints the members of the governing boards of 10 of the state's 13 public universities and department commissions.\nForty-eight people have been governor of the state. Prior to statehood, there were five governors of the <a href=\"Michigan%20Territory\">Michigan Territory</a>. <a href=\"Stevens%20T.%20Mason\">Stevens T. Mason</a>, Michigan's first governor, also served as a territorial governor. He was elected governor at age 23 as a member of the <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democratic Party</a> in 1835 and served until 1840. Mason was the youngest state governor in United States history.\n<a href=\"Jennifer%20Granholm\">Jennifer Granholm</a> became the first <a href=\"List%20of%20female%20state%20governors%20in%20the%20United%20States\">female</a> Governor of Michigan on January 1, 2003, when she succeeded <a href=\"John%20Engler\">John Engler</a>; she served for 8 years, until January 1, 2011. Granholm was born in Canada. Former Governor George Romney was born in Mexico.\n","Gladwin, Michigan\nGladwin is a city in the <a href=\"U.S.%20state\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\"Michigan\">Michigan</a>. The population was 2,933 at the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>. It is the <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> of <a href=\"Gladwin%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Gladwin County</a>. The city is at the southwest corner of <a href=\"Gladwin%20Township%2C%20Michigan\">Gladwin Township</a>, but is politically independent.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 2.91 sqmi , of which 2.89 sqmi is land and 0.02 sqmi is water.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2010, there were 2,933 people, 1,261 households, and 680 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 1014.9 PD/sqmi . There were 1,421 housing units at an average density of 491.7 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 96.8% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 0.1% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.4% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 0.7% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.5% from <a href=\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.4% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 1.1% of the population.\nThere were 1,261 households of which 29.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.4% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 15.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.1% were non-families. 42.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.96.\nThe median age in the city was 40.4 years. 23.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.6% were from 25 to 44; 21.8% were from 45 to 64; and 22.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 44.9% male and 55.1% female.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2000, there were 3,001 people, 1,234 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 1,047.5 per square mile (405.1/km²). There were 1,329 housing units at an average density of 463.9 per square mile (179.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.10% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 0.23% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.53% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 1.07% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.37% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.70% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 1.50% of the population.\nThere were 1,234 households out of which 31.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.3% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 14.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 36.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.97.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 24.9% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 21.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 82.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.9 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $29,598, and the median income for a family was $38,269. Males had a median income of $35,040 versus $19,571 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $16,370. About 9.3% of families and 11.7% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 13.7% of those under age 18 and 9.1% of those age 65 or over.\nGladwin had its beginnings in 1875 during the Michigan lumber boom. Situated on the <a href=\"Cedar%20River%20%28Gladwin%20County%2C%20Michigan%29\">Cedar River</a>, the city was named Cedar until it was discovered that another Michigan city shared that name. Thereafter, the city was named after the county.\nGladwin county is named for <a href=\"Henry%20Gladwin\">Henry Gladwin</a>, a British military commander at Detroit during Pontiac's War. The county was named in 1831 and organized in 1875.\nGladwin is governed by a mayor and eight-person city council.\nThis <a href=\"climate\">climatic</a> region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the <a href=\"K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification\">Köppen Climate Classification</a> system, Gladwin has a <a href=\"humid%20continental%20climate\">humid continental climate</a>, abbreviated \"Dfb\" on climate maps.","Spencer Abraham\nEdward Spencer Abraham (born June 12, 1952) is an American author and politician who was a <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate\">United States Senator</a> from <a href=\"Michigan\">Michigan</a> from 1995 to 2001 and the tenth <a href=\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20Energy\">United States Secretary of Energy</a>, serving under President <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a>, from 2001 to 2005. Abraham, a <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican</a>, is one of the founders of the <a href=\"Federalist%20Society\">Federalist Society</a> and a co-founder of the \"<a href=\"Harvard%20Journal%20of%20Law%20and%20Public%20Policy\">Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy</a>\". To date, Abraham is the last Republican to serve as a U.S. Senator from Michigan.\nAbraham was born in <a href=\"East%20Lansing%2C%20Michigan\">East Lansing, Michigan</a>, the son of Juliette Elizabeth (Sear), a member of the Michigan Republican State Central Committee, and Eddie Joseph Abraham. He is a graduate of <a href=\"East%20Lansing%20High%20School\">East Lansing High School</a>. Of <a href=\"Lebanon\">Lebanese</a> descent, Abraham is married to <a href=\"Jane%20Abraham\">Jane Abraham</a> (current co-chairwoman of the <a href=\"Michigan%20Republican%20Party\">Michigan Republican Party</a>, and chair of the <a href=\"Susan%20B.%20Anthony%20List\">Susan B. Anthony List</a>) and has three children: a son, Spencer, and twin girls, Betsy and Julie. He holds a <a href=\"Juris%20Doctor\">Juris Doctor</a> <a href=\"%28J.D.%29\">(J.D.)</a> degree from <a href=\"Harvard%20University\">Harvard University</a>, and is a 1974 <a href=\"Michigan%20State%20University%20Honors%20College\">Honors College</a> graduate of <a href=\"Michigan%20State%20University\">Michigan State University</a>. In 1978, while at Harvard Law School, Abraham helped found the \"<a href=\"Harvard%20Journal%20of%20Law%20and%20Public%20Policy\">Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy</a>\". It became one of the official journals of the <a href=\"Federalist%20Society\">Federalist Society</a>, which was founded in 1982.\nBefore his election to the Senate, Abraham was a law professor at <a href=\"Thomas%20M.%20Cooley%20Law%20School\">Thomas M. Cooley Law School</a>.\nHe was elected chairman of the <a href=\"Michigan%20Republican%20Party\">Michigan Republican Party</a> from 1983 to 1990. He was deputy chief of staff for Vice President <a href=\"Dan%20Quayle\">Dan Quayle</a> from 1990 to 1991. He later served as co-chairman of the <a href=\"National%20Republican%20Congressional%20Committee\">National Republican Congressional Committee</a> (NRCC) from 1991 to 1993 and ran for chairman of the <a href=\"Republican%20National%20Committee\">Republican National Committee</a> in 1993, coming second to <a href=\"Haley%20Barbour\">Haley Barbour</a>.\nAbraham was elected to represent <a href=\"Michigan\">Michigan</a> in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate\">United States Senate</a> in <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%201994\">1994</a>, and he served until 2001 when he was defeated for reelection to the Senate in <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202000\">2000</a> for a second term by <a href=\"Debbie%20Stabenow\">Debbie Stabenow</a>.\nHe was the only <a href=\"Arab%20American\">Arab American</a> in the chamber. According to the \"<a href=\"New%20York%20Times\">New York Times</a>\", State Republicans attributed his loss to \"scathing advertisements by a wide range of special interest groups, including advertisements that criticized Mr. Abraham's support for a relaxation of some immigration restrictions\". During the campaign the <a href=\"Federation%20for%20American%20Immigration%20Reform\">Federation for American Immigration Reform</a> ran ads asking: \"Why is Senator Spencer Abraham trying to make it easier for terrorists like Osama bin Laden to export their war of terror to any city street in America?\" The media denounced these commercials as \"vengeful\". In 1996, when President Clinton endorsed Congresswoman Barbara Jordan's proposed cuts to legal immigration Senator Abraham played a leading role in blocking the proposed cuts. Another factor in his defeat was his vote to convict President Clinton in his <a href=\"Impeachment%20and%20acquittal%20of%20Bill%20Clinton\">1999 impeachment trial</a>. The following year he received the \"Defender of the Melting Pot\" award from the <a href=\"National%20Council%20of%20La%20Raza\">National Council of La Raza</a> for his efforts on the immigration issue.\nHe served on the Budget, Commerce, Science and Transportation, Judiciary, and <a href=\"small%20business\">Small Business</a> Committees. He also chaired two subcommittees: Manufacturing and Competitiveness, and Immigration. Abraham authored the \"H1B Visa in Global and National Commerce Act\", establishing a federal framework for on-line contracts and signatures; the \"Government Paperwork Elimination Act\", and the \"Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act\", which protects Internet <a href=\"domain%20name\">domain name</a>s for businesses and persons against <a href=\"copyright\">copyright</a> and <a href=\"trademark%20infringement\">trademark infringement</a>s. In 1999, Abraham co-sponsored S.896, a bill to abolish the <a href=\"U.S.%20Department%20of%20Energy\">U.S. Department of Energy</a>, which would have transferred control of the <a href=\"Strategic%20Petroleum%20Reserve%20%28United%20States%29\">Strategic Petroleum Reserve</a> in large part to the <a href=\"U.S.%20Defense%20Department\">Defense Department</a>.\nAbraham was appointed <a href=\"Secretary%20of%20Energy\">Secretary of Energy</a> by the incoming <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a>'s administration. On November 15, 2004, Abraham announced that he would resign from this position, effective with the swearing in of his successor <a href=\"Samuel%20W.%20Bodman\">Samuel W. Bodman</a> on February 1, 2005.\nIn 2004, Lebanese Ambassador <a href=\"Farid%20Abboud\">Farid Abboud</a> awarded Abraham the <a href=\"National%20Order%20of%20the%20Cedar\">National Order of the Cedar</a>.\nAbraham was a Distinguished Visiting Fellow at the <a href=\"Hoover%20Institution\">Hoover Institution</a>, an influential think tank based at <a href=\"Stanford%20University\">Stanford University</a> from 2005 through 2007. After leaving office, Abraham opened <a href=\"http%3A//www.abrahamgroupllc.com\">The Abraham Group</a>, a Washington DC based international strategic consulting firm. In 2006, Spencer Abraham accepted the appointment as Chairman of the Board of <a href=\"Areva\">Areva Inc.</a>, the US subsidiary of the French nuclear energy company.\nOn July 24, 2007, Abraham was announced as an \"ambassador to official Washington\" in the <a href=\"Fred%20Thompson\">Fred Thompson</a> presidential campaign.\nIn 2006 Abraham was appointed Non-Executive Chairman of the Board of AREVA Inc., the American arm of the French nuclear company <a href=\"Areva\">Areva</a>, which is planning to build <a href=\"Evolutionary%20Power%20Reactor\">EPR</a> nuclear power plants in the United States, and is building the <a href=\"mixed%20oxide%20fuel\">mixed oxide fuel</a> (MOX) manufacturing plant at the <a href=\"Savannah%20River%20Site\">Savannah River Site</a> to convert legacy weapons-grade plutonium into power station fuel.\nWith William Tucker, Abraham wrote \"Lights Out!: Ten Myths About (and Real Solutions to) America's Energy Crisis\", which was published in July 2010.\nAbraham is also the Chairman and CEO of \"The Abraham Group\", a strategic consulting firm providing assistance to clients seeking opportunities in the U.S. and global markets.\n","Zack Snyder\nZachary Edward Snyder (born March 1, 1966) is an American filmmaker, best known for his action, superhero, and science fiction films. Snyder made his feature film debut with the <a href=\"Dawn%20of%20the%20Dead%20%282004%20film%29\">2004 remake</a> of the horror film \"<a href=\"Dawn%20of%20the%20Dead%20%281978%20film%29\">Dawn of the Dead</a>\". Since then, he has done a number of comic book and superhero films, including \"<a href=\"300%20%28film%29\">300</a>\" (2007) and \"<a href=\"Watchmen%20%28film%29\">Watchmen</a>\" (2009), as well as the <a href=\"Superman\">Superman</a> film that started the <a href=\"DC%20Extended%20Universe\">DC Extended Universe</a>, \"<a href=\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\">Man of Steel</a>\" (2013) and its follow-ups, \"\" (2016) and \"<a href=\"Justice%20League%20%28film%29\">Justice League</a>\" (2017). He also co-wrote the screenplays for \"300\", \"<a href=\"Sucker%20Punch%20%282011%20film%29\">Sucker Punch</a>\" and \"\".\nSnyder is the co-founder of <a href=\"Cruel%20and%20Unusual%20Films\">Cruel and Unusual Films</a>, a production company he established in 2004, alongside his wife <a href=\"Deborah%20Snyder\">Deborah Snyder</a> and producing partner Wesley Coller.\nSnyder was born in <a href=\"Green%20Bay%2C%20Wisconsin\">Green Bay, Wisconsin</a>, and raised in <a href=\"Riverside%2C%20Connecticut\">Riverside, Connecticut</a>. His mother, Marsha Manley (née Reeves), was a painter and a photography teacher at <a href=\"Daycroft%20School\">Daycroft School</a>, which Snyder later attended. His father, Charles Edward \"Ed\" Snyder, worked as an executive recruiter. He has an elder sister, Audrey (Davis), and was raised as a <a href=\"Christian%20Scientist\">Christian Scientist</a>. Snyder attended Camp Owatonna in Harrison, Maine, during the summer months as a child. Snyder's mother inspired him to study painting a year after high school at <a href=\"Heatherley%20School%20of%20Fine%20Art\">Heatherley School of Fine Art</a> in England, although he had already begun filmmaking. Afterward, Snyder attended <a href=\"Art%20Center%20College%20of%20Design\">Art Center College of Design</a> in <a href=\"Pasadena%2C%20California\">Pasadena</a>, California.\nSnyder went on to shoot, as a director and as a <a href=\"cinematographer\">cinematographer</a>, television commercials for such clients as the automobile companies <a href=\"Audi\">Audi</a>, <a href=\"BMW\">BMW</a>, <a href=\"Subaru\">Subaru</a> and <a href=\"Nissan\">Nissan</a>, amongst others. Other commercial work has been for clients including <a href=\"Nike%2C%20Inc.\">Nike</a>, <a href=\"Reebok\">Reebok</a>, and <a href=\"Gatorade\">Gatorade</a>.\nSnyder made his feature film debut with the remake of the horror film \"<a href=\"Dawn%20of%20the%20Dead%20%282004%20film%29\">Dawn of the Dead</a>\" (2004), and scored a box office hit with the fantasy war film \"<a href=\"300%20%28film%29\">300</a>\" (2007), adapted from writer-artist <a href=\"Frank%20Miller%20%28comics%29\">Frank Miller</a>'s <a href=\"Dark%20Horse%20Comics\">Dark Horse Comics</a> <a href=\"miniseries\">miniseries</a> of <a href=\"300%20%28comics%29\">the same name</a>. His <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.\">Warner Bros.</a> film \"<a href=\"Watchmen%20%28film%29\">Watchmen</a>\" was released on March 6, 2009 and grossed $185 million worldwide. His follow-up project/animation debut titled \"\" was released on September 24, 2010. Snyder produced, co-wrote, and directed \"<a href=\"Sucker%20Punch%20%282011%20film%29\">Sucker Punch</a>\", which was released on March 25, 2011. The film, based on a script written by Snyder and Steve Shibuya, was about a young woman in a mental hospital who fantasizes of escape with her fellow inmates.\nHe directed 2013's \"<a href=\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\">Man of Steel</a>\" for Warner Bros., a reboot of the Superman franchise. He will direct a yet-to-be-produced remake of the 1969 film \"<a href=\"The%20Illustrated%20Man%20%28film%29\">The Illustrated Man</a>\", and produced the prequel/sequel to \"300\", \"\" (2014). He also wants to direct a segment for an upcoming \"<a href=\"Heavy%20Metal%20%28film%29%23Remake\">Heavy Metal 3</a>\", and plans to write and direct a sequel to \"Legend of the Guardians\".\nDuring Comic Con 2013, Snyder announced that <a href=\"Batman\">Batman</a> and <a href=\"Superman\">Superman</a> would share the screen in \"\", released in 2016. Cavill reprised his role as Superman, and <a href=\"Ben%20Affleck\">Ben Affleck</a> played Batman. In April 2014, Snyder was announced by Warner Bros. to direct the \"Justice League\" film after finishing \"Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice\". As of March 2016, Snyder is working on \"The Last Photograph\", a drama about a war photographer in Afghanistan. He is also working on an adaptation of the 1943 novel \"<a href=\"The%20Fountainhead\">The Fountainhead</a>\" by <a href=\"Ayn%20Rand\">Ayn Rand</a>.\nSnyder often uses <a href=\"slow%20motion\">slow motion</a> in and out of the fight scenes in his films, which Amy Nicholson of \"<a href=\"BoxOffice%20%28magazine%29\">BoxOffice</a>\" magazine remarked separates the director from other filmmakers who make multiple cuts and close-ups during a fight. A minute-long shot from \"300\" shows King Leonidas slaughtering his enemies, the camera zooming in and out to emphasize each kill and move Leonidas makes.\nSnyder lives in Pasadena with his second wife, producer <a href=\"Deborah%20Snyder\">Deborah Johnson</a>. The couple first met in 1996, started dating in 2002, and married on September 25, 2004 at the <a href=\"St.%20Bartholomew%27s%20Episcopal%20Church%2C%20New%20York\">St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church</a> in Manhattan, New York.\nSnyder has eight children. The four eldest, Olivia, Willow, Autumn, and Eli, are from his first marriage to Denise Weber. Willow and Autumn were adopted from China. Two younger sons, Ezekiel and Jett Elin, are from his relationship with Kirsten Elin, who was his line producer on commercials for a while. Snyder and his current wife Deborah adopted two children during the course of making \"<a href=\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\">Man of Steel</a>\".\nOn March 12, 2017, Snyder's daughter, Autumn, committed suicide, causing him to step away from post-production work on \"<a href=\"Justice%20League%20%28film%29\">Justice League</a>\" in May 2017 to be with his family. <a href=\"Joss%20Whedon\">Joss Whedon</a> was brought in to finish reshoots as well as oversee the remainder of the film's post-production. Before her death, Autumn started a fundraiser on <a href=\"Crowdrise\">CrowdRise</a> to support Elizabeth House charity. Snyder felt proud of her work.\nWhile \"<a href=\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\">Variety</a>\" has praised Snyder's visual direction, it has also criticized him for subpar storytelling and excessive iconography.\nCritical, public and commercial reception to films Zack Snyder has directed as of April 26, 2016:\nSnyder's body of work has earned him a number of awards, including two <a href=\"Clio%20Award\">Clio Award</a>s and a Gold Lion Award for his <a href=\"Jeep\">Jeep</a> \"<a href=\"Frisbee\">Frisbee</a>\" commercial. He also won an award for his humorous commercial \"General's Party\".\n\n","Clare, Michigan\nClare is a city in <a href=\"Clare%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Clare</a> and <a href=\"Isabella%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Isabella</a> counties in the U.S. state of <a href=\"Michigan\">Michigan</a>. Located primarily in Clare County, the population was 3,118 at the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>.\nNorth-south <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%20127%20in%20Michigan\">U.S. Highway 127</a> (US 127) forms the eastern boundary for much of the city and has a junction with east-west <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%2010%20in%20Michigan\">US 10</a> on the east side of the city. US 10 connects with <a href=\"Midland%2C%20Michigan\">Midland</a>, 33 mi to the southeast, and with <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%20131\">US 131</a> at <a href=\"Reed%20City%2C%20Michigan\">Reed City</a>, 44 mi to the west. US 127 connects with <a href=\"Mount%20Pleasant%2C%20Michigan\">Mount Pleasant</a>, 13 mi to the south, and with <a href=\"Harrison%2C%20Clare%20County%2C%20Michigan\">Harrison</a>, 14 mi to the north. The southern terminus of <a href=\"M-115%20%28Michigan%20highway%29\">M-115</a> is in downtown Clare.\nClare was founded with the coming of the Pere Marquette railroad in 1870. It was incorporated as a village in 1871 and as a city in 1891.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 3.50 sqmi , of which 3.39 sqmi is land and 0.11 sqmi is water.\nAs of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $67,299, and the median income for a family was $86,194. Males had a median income of $88,365 versus $59,861 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $68,006. About 10.6% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 16.3% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2010, there were 3,118 people, 1,354 households, and 764 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 919.8 PD/sqmi . There were 1,534 housing units at an average density of 452.5 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 85.0% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 4.7% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.9% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 6.1% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 1.5% from <a href=\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.8% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 6.5% of the population.\nThere were 1,354 households of which 31.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.0% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. 36.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.88.\nThe median age in the city was 36.1 years. 23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 11.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 22.9% were from 45 to 64; and 16.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45.2% male and 54.8% female.\n<a href=\"Cops%20%26amp%3B%20Doughnuts\">Cops & Doughnuts</a>, a doughnut shop founded by members of the city's police precinct, is located downtown.\nThis <a href=\"climate\">climatic</a> region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the <a href=\"K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification\">Köppen Climate Classification</a> system, Clare has a <a href=\"humid%20continental%20climate\">humid continental climate</a>, abbreviated \"Dfb\" on climate maps.\n","Senate Democratic Policy Committee\nThe United States Senate Democratic Policy Committee is responsible for the creation of new <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">United States Democratic Party</a> policy proposals, supporting Democratic senators with legislative research, developing reports on legislation and policy, conducting oversight hearings, monitoring roll call votes, differentiating between Democratic and Republican positions, and building party unity.\nThe committee was established in 1947, by an act signed by President <a href=\"Harry%20S.%20Truman\">Harry S. Truman</a>, alongside its <a href=\"Republican%20Policy%20Committee%20Chairman%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\">Republican counterpart</a>. From 1947 to 2000, the <a href=\"List%20of%20Majority%20and%20Minority%20Leaders%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\">Democratic leader</a> was also the policy committee chairman. From 1989 to 1999, there was a co-chairman. Starting in 1999, the co-chairman was dropped and the position of policy committee chairman became a separate position elected by the <a href=\"Senate%20Democratic%20Caucus\">Senate Democratic Caucus</a>. The committee chairman is a member of the Democratic <a href=\"party%20leadership%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\">party leadership of the United States Senate</a>.\n\n","Pete Hoekstra\nPieter \"Pete\" Hoekstra ( ; born October 30, 1953) is a <a href=\"Dutch-American\">Dutch-American</a> politician who is a former member of the <a href=\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\">United States House of Representatives</a>, representing <a href=\"Michigan%27s%202nd%20congressional%20district\">Michigan's 2nd congressional district</a> from 1993 to 2011. Hoekstra is a member of the <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republican Party</a>.\nBorn in <a href=\"Groningen%2C%20Netherlands\">Groningen, Netherlands</a>, Hoekstra is a graduate of <a href=\"Hope%20College\">Hope College</a> and the <a href=\"University%20of%20Michigan\">University of Michigan</a>'s <a href=\"Ross%20School%20of%20Business\">Ross School of Business</a>. In 1992, Hoekstra ran for the U.S. House, defeating 13-term incumbent <a href=\"Guy%20Vander%20Jagt\">Guy Vander Jagt</a> in the Republican primary, and <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democratic</a> opponent John H. Miltner, in the general election. After the appointment of Congressman <a href=\"Porter%20Goss\">Porter Goss</a> as <a href=\"Director%20of%20the%20Central%20Intelligence%20Agency\">Director of the CIA</a>, Hoekstra became the Chairman of the <a href=\"United%20States%20House%20Permanent%20Select%20Committee%20on%20Intelligence\">House Intelligence Committee</a>, serving from 2004 to 2007. He was a candidate for <a href=\"Governor%20of%20Michigan\">Governor of Michigan</a> in <a href=\"Michigan%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202010\">Michigan's 2010 gubernatorial election</a>, but came in second to <a href=\"Rick%20Snyder\">Rick Snyder</a> in the Republican primary. Hoekstra was also a candidate for the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate\">United States Senate</a> in 2012. He won the Republican primary with 54% of the vote, but later lost to Democratic incumbent <a href=\"Debbie%20Stabenow\">Debbie Stabenow</a> in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202012\">general election</a>.\nIn July 2017, Hoekstra was nominated to be the next <a href=\"United%20States%20Ambassador%20to%20the%20Netherlands\">United States Ambassador to the Netherlands</a> by President <a href=\"Donald%20Trump\">Donald Trump</a>.\nBorn Pieter Hoekstra in <a href=\"Groningen%20%28city%29\">Groningen</a>, <a href=\"Netherlands\">Netherlands</a>, he moved to America with his parents at the age of three. He received a <a href=\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\">B.A.</a> in <a href=\"political%20science\">political science</a> from <a href=\"Hope%20College\">Hope College</a> in 1975 and an <a href=\"Masters%20of%20Business%20Administration\">M.B.A.</a> from the <a href=\"University%20of%20Michigan\">University of Michigan</a>'s <a href=\"Ross%20School%20of%20Business\">Ross School of Business</a> in 1977. He then joined office furniture maker <a href=\"Herman%20Miller%20%28manufacturer%29\">Herman Miller</a> and remained there for 15 years, eventually becoming vice president of marketing.\nIn 1992, Hoekstra made his first bid for public office in the 2nd District. The district, previously the 9th, had been represented for 26 years by <a href=\"Guy%20Vander%20Jagt\">Guy Vander Jagt</a>, longtime chairman of the <a href=\"National%20Republican%20Congressional%20Committee\">National Republican Congressional Committee</a>. Hoekstra rode his <a href=\"bicycle\">bicycle</a> across the district, charging that Vander Jagt had served in Congress for too long. He scored a monumental upset, winning by almost six percent. This primary win was <a href=\"tantamount%20to%20election\">tantamount to election</a> with the 2nd district seen as the \"most Republican\" district in Michigan, as Republicans have held the district for all but four years since it was created in 1873. Hoekstra later defeated <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrat</a> John H. Miltner and <a href=\"Libertarian%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Libertarian</a> Dick Jacobs in the general election, with 63% of the vote. Hoekstra continued to ride his bicycle across the district every summer, and biked across the state for his gubernatorial campaign.\nWhen he was first elected, Hoekstra initially pledged to only serve six terms (12 years) in the House. He eventually broke the term limits pledge and won election to seven successive terms. In 2006, Hoekstra's Leadership PAC (the Mileage Fund) raised nearly $160,000 in Political Action Contributions from contributors including the <a href=\"Teamsters\">Teamsters</a>, Michigan Credit Union League, and Little Planet Books.\nHoekstra faced no significant opposition in the Republican primary or in the general election (as in his previous five reelection campaigns) and went on to secure his seventh term. Shortly after the primary, he was named chairman of the Intelligence Committee, succeeding <a href=\"Porter%20Goss\">Porter Goss</a>, who became <a href=\"Director%20of%20the%20Central%20Intelligence%20Agency\">Director of the Central Intelligence Agency</a>.\nHoekstra had no primary opponent. In November he was opposed by the <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democratic</a> candidate Kimon Kotos, who was also his 2004 opponent. Hoekstra defeated Kotos 183,518 votes to 87,361 votes.\nHoekstra ran for re-election in 2008 against Fred Johnson, Associate Professor of History at <a href=\"Hope%20College\">Hope College</a>. He beat Johnson by 215,471 to 119,959 votes.\nHoekstra had a conservative voting record, consistent with the conservative nature of the 2nd congressional district. He opposed amending the <a href=\"Constitution%20of%20the%20United%20States\">Constitution</a> to prohibit <a href=\"flag%20desecration\">flag desecration</a>.\nHoekstra and <a href=\"Sue%20Myrick\">Sue Myrick</a> sent an open letter to then-Attorney General <a href=\"Alberto%20Gonzales\">Alberto Gonzales</a> regarding the <a href=\"Islamic%20Society%20of%20North%20America\">Islamic Society of North America</a>, criticizing the Justice Department's involvement as providing legitimacy to an organization with extremist roots.\nOn June 22, 2006, Hoekstra made headlines by announcing at a press conference in the Capitol that <a href=\"weapons%20of%20mass%20destruction\">weapons of mass destruction</a> had been located in <a href=\"Iraq\">Iraq</a> in the form of 500 <a href=\"chemical%20weapon\">chemical weapon</a>s.\nA number of other media outlets disputed the claims made by Hoekstra and <a href=\"Rick%20Santorum\">Rick Santorum</a> regarding the existence of weapons of mass destruction, reporting that the claims were disputed by both <a href=\"The%20Pentagon\">Pentagon</a> officials, the Duelfer Report, and the intelligence community.\nOn November 3, 2006, \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times\">The New York Times</a>\" reported that a website created at the request of Hoekstra and <a href=\"United%20States%20Senator\">Senator</a> <a href=\"Pat%20Roberts\">Pat Roberts</a> was found to contain detailed information that could potentially be helpful to those seeking to produce <a href=\"nuclear%20weapon\">nuclear weapon</a>s. The website was shut down on November 2 following questioning by The New York Times.\nAs of September 17, 2007, some news outlets reported that the Congressional committee Hoekstra had overseen had created \"erroneous\" and \"misleading\" reports about Iran's nuclear capabilities. \"Among the committee's assertions is that Iran is producing weapons-grade uranium at its facility in the town of Natanz. The IAEA called that \"incorrect\", noting that weapons-grade uranium is enriched to a level of 90 percent or more. Iran has enriched uranium to 3.5 percent under IAEA monitoring.\"\nOn December 27, 2009, Hoekstra commented on reports that <a href=\"Umar%20Farouk%20Abdulmutallab\">Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab</a>, who had allegedly tried to set off a <a href=\"suicide%20bomb\">suicide bomb</a> on <a href=\"Northwest%20Airlines%20Flight%20253\">Northwest Airlines Flight 253</a> on December 25, 2009, had subsequently confessed to being trained and equipped in Yemen.\nHoekstra called for a halt to the repatriation of <a href=\"Yemeni%20captives%20in%20Guantanamo\">Yemeni captives in Guantanamo</a>.\nHoekstra was a founding member of the Congressional House <a href=\"Tea%20Party%20Caucus\">Tea Party Caucus</a> in 2010.\nIn December 2008, Hoekstra said he would not seek re-election to his U.S. House seat in 2010, and instead campaign to be Michigan's governor. Hoekstra joined <a href=\"Mike%20Bouchard\">Mike Bouchard</a>, the Oakland County Sheriff and former state senator, former <a href=\"Gateway%2C%20Inc.\">Gateway, Inc.</a> president <a href=\"Rick%20Snyder\">Rick Snyder</a>, State Senator <a href=\"Tom%20George\">Tom George</a> and Michigan Attorney General <a href=\"Mike%20Cox%20%28U.S.%20politician%29\">Mike Cox</a> as 2010 Republican gubernatorial candidates. In the primary, held on August 3, 2010, Hoekstra finished second to Snyder.\nHoekstra was suggested as a possible challenger for incumbent <a href=\"Debbie%20Stabenow\">Debbie Stabenow</a> in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202012\">2012 Senate election</a>, but he initially declined to run. Hoekstra later changed his mind and decided to challenge Stabenow in the election. On 29 August 2011, Hoekstra was endorsed by Republican Michigan Governor Rick Snyder, and on 23 September 2011, Hoekstra was endorsed by <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20presidential%20candidates%2C%202012\">2012 Presidential candidate</a> <a href=\"Michele%20Bachmann\">Michele Bachmann</a>.\nHoekstra faced Stabenow and four third-party candidates in the general election. On November 6, 2012, Hoekstra was defeated by Stabenow, receiving 38% of the vote.\nHoekstra targeted Democratic incumbent Debbie Stabenow with a television ad which ran statewide during the <a href=\"Super%20Bowl%20XLVI\">2012 Super Bowl</a>. The 30-second ad, created by Republican advertising consultant <a href=\"Fred%20Davis%20III\">Fred Davis III</a>, opened with the sound of a gong and the image of a Chinese woman (played by 2012 Miss Napa Valley Lisa Chan) riding a bike alongside a rice paddy. The ad sarcastically accused Stabenow of contributing to the U.S.' spending problem, with the woman thanking \"Michigan Senator Debbie Spenditnow\", in <a href=\"broken%20English\">broken English</a>, implying Stabenow has earned China's gratitude for making the U.S. economy \"very weak\" while China's \"get very good\".\nThe commercial included a link to a Hoekstra campaign website with statistics about federal spending, decorated with images of Chinese flags and currency and using a stereotypical [[Chinatown]] font. In the [[HTML]] code on Hoekstra’s site, the woman in the ad is identified as \"yellowgirl\". A statement released by the Hoekstra campaign said the [[HTML]] code was mistakenly shortened from “yellowshirtgirl”.\nAsian-American groups called the ad \"very disturbing\", and two of Hoekstra’s GOP opponents, [[Clark Durant]] and Gary Glenn, questioned whether Hoekstra was the right candidate for Republicans to support. The ad was criticized by [[Michael Yaki]], former aide to [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Nancy Pelosi]], a member of the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]], and U.S. Senator [[Dan Inouye]]. [[James Fallows]] of \"[[The Atlantic]]\" called it the \"most revolting ad\". The [[NAACP]] denounced the ad as an \"unnecessary [[race card]].\"\nThe ad proved costly for Hoekstra; several polls reported him losing ground to Stabenow in a head-to-head match-up.\nHoekstra initially stood by the ad, claiming it hit Stabenow \"smack dab between the eyes\" on the economy. However, on February 10, 2012 Hoekstra shut down his controversial Chinese-themed website and phased in a new TV commercial in place of his original ad. American Values super PAC, an Asian American group, claimed credit for the scrub shortly after the group's launch of an online viral ad condemning Hoekstra.\nOn February 16, Chan apologized for her involvement in the ad. In a statement on her [[Facebook]] page, she said the role was \"not in any way representative of who I am\" and \"absolutely a mistake on my part.\"\nDespite the controversy, Hoekstra won the Republican primary. He lost to Stabenow in the general election.\nIn February 2011, Hoekstra joined the government relations group and [[Washington D.C.]] law firm [[Dickstein Shapiro]], and was named a visiting distinguished fellow at the conservative [[think tank]] [[The Heritage Foundation]], concentrating on education reform. Hoekstra left Dickstein Shapiro in 2014 to join one of its rivals, Greenberg Traurig.\nHoekstra joined the Investigative Project on Terrorism in 2014 as a Shillman Senior Fellow, specializing in national security, international relations, global terrorism and cyber security.\nHoekstra published his first book in October 2015, \"Architects of Disaster: The Destruction of Libya\" with Terri Blumenfeld. An Obama administration spokesman took issue with the book on November 11, 2015 because of Hoekstra's assertion that the removal of Libyan leader Muammar Qadaffi was a serious mistake since he had become an ally of the United States and his down fall caused Libya to become a terrorist safe haven. White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest said: \"a careful consideration of his long record would probably not conclude Col. Qadaffi was not a friend and ally of the United States.\"\nIn an interview with NPR's Robert Siegel on December 10, 2014, Hoekstra said he disagreed with the recently released [[Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture]]. Hoekstra endorsed John Kasich for President in 2016.\nOn March 11, 2017, Hoekstra said that [[Chelsea Manning]], [[Edward Snowden]], and other leakers of government materials, having illegally released classified information, were traitors and should have taken their evidence to the intelligence committees of the U.S. Congress for proper investigations.\n\n[[Category:1953 births]]\n[[Category:21st-century American politicians]]\n[[Category:American people of Dutch descent]]\n[[Category:Dutch emigrants to the United States]]\n[[Category:Hope College alumni]]\n[[Category:Living people]]\n[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan]]\n[[Category:Michigan Republicans]]\n[[Category:People from Groningen (city)]]\n[[Category:People from Holland, Michigan]]\n[[Category:Reformed Church in America members]]\n[[Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]\n[[Category:Ross School of Business alumni]]\n[[Category:Tea Party movement activists]]\n[[Category:Trump administration personnel]]"],"string":"[\n \"Debbie Stabenow\\nDeborah Ann Greer Stabenow (born April 29, 1950) is the senior United States Senator from Michigan and a member of the Democratic Party. Before her election to the U.S. Senate, she was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Michigan's 8th congressional district from 1997 to 2001. She previously served as a member of the Ingham County Board of Commissioners, Michigan House of Representatives, and Michigan Senate.\\nStabenow served as Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee from 2011 to 2015. She was re-elected to the Senate for a third term in November 2012. She became the state's senior senator upon the retirement of Carl Levin on January 3, 2015. She served as Vice Chair of the Senate Democratic Policy Committee from 2011 to 2017 and became its Chair in 2017.\\nStabenow was born in Gladwin, Michigan, the daughter of Anna Merle (née Hallmark) and Robert Lee Greer. She grew up in Clare, Michigan. She graduated from Clare High School, and received a Bachelor of Arts from Michigan State University in 1972 and a Master of Social Work \\\"magna cum laude\\\" from Michigan State University in 1975.\\nWhile in graduate school, Stabenow won her first election to public office: the Ingham County Board of Commissioners, a position in which she served from 1975 to 1978.\\nShe served in the Michigan House of Representatives from 1979 to 1990, where she became the first woman to preside over the House. She also served in the Michigan Senate from 1991 to 1994.\\nIn 1994, she ran for Governor of Michigan in the Democratic primary, for the opportunity to challenge incumbent Republican John Engler. However, U.S. Congressman Howard Wolpe defeated her in the primary with a plurality of 35% to Stabenow's 30%. After the primary, Wolpe chose Stabenow as his running mate, and she appeared on the general election ballot as the Democratic candidate for Lieutenant Governor. Stabenow failed to become Lieutenant Governor of Michigan as Engler defeated Wolpe 61%-38%.\\nIn 1996, she decided to run for a seat in the United States House of Representatives. She challenged incumbent Republican U.S. Congressman Dick Chrysler of Michigan's 8th congressional district. She defeated him 54%-44%. In 1998, she won re-election to a second term with 57% of the vote.\\nShe did not seek re-election in 2000 in order to challenge incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Spencer Abraham. She won the Democratic primary unopposed. She was considered the underdog for much of the Senate race, but rallied in the final weeks. She defeated him 49.5%-48%, a difference of 67,259 votes.\\nStabenow was challenged by Republican Michael Bouchard, Oakland County sheriff and former State Senate Majority Leader. Stabenow defeated him 57%-41%.\\nStabenow was unopposed in the Democratic primary and defeated Republican nominee Pete Hoekstra, former U.S. representative. Stabenow won 59% to Hoekstra's 38%.\\nBefore her current committee assignments, Senator Stabenow also served on the Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Committee and the Special Committee on Aging.\\nStabenow is only the second person from Michigan to have served in both houses of the Michigan State Legislature and in both houses of the United States Congress. Stabenow is also the first person to have served as a Michigan state legislator to be popularly elected to the U.S. Senate (until enactment of the Seventeenth amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, U.S. Senators were selected by the state legislature). No former Michigan state legislator had served in the U.S. Senate since 1894, when Francis B. Stockbridge died.\\nStabenow became the third-ranking Democratic Party member in the U.S. Senate on November 16, 2004, when she was elected as secretary of the Democratic caucus. As caucus secretary, she assisted Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) to set the Democratic agenda and priorities. Senator Dick Durbin (D-IL) was elected Minority Whip, the second-ranking Democratic spot. In November 2006, Majority Leader Harry Reid announced that Stabenow would leave the caucus secretary position to succeed Hillary Clinton as chair of the Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee, charged with \\\"engag[ing] Democratic Senators and community leaders across the country in an active dialogue\\\".\\nFollowing the withdrawal of Tom Daschle as President Barack Obama's nominee as United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, the National Organization for Women endorsed Stabenow for the position and urged the president to appoint Stabenow, saying, \\\"Sen. Debbie Stabenow (D-Mich.) has long focused on health care as a priority, and with her background as a social worker she is well positioned to take the helm of this agency that is so critical to women and families.\\\"\\nStabenow became the Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee in 2011, following the defeat of Chairwoman Blanche Lincoln. A controversial item during Stabenow's tenure, has been the renewal and reform of the 2012 U.S. Farm Bill. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) demonstrated his commitment to working on a new five-year Farm Bill by reintroducing 2012's Senate Farm Bill in the new 113th Congress in January 2013. Senator Reid indicated that the Farm Bill is on his top priority list, and Senate Agriculture Committee Chairwoman Stabenow has voiced support for Reid’s move stating, \\\"Majority Leader Reid has demonstrated that the Senate will once again make supporting our nation’s agriculture economy while cutting spending a top priority.\\\"\\nOn October 29, 2014, Stabenow introduced the Gun Lake Trust Land Reaffirmation Act (S. 1603; 113th Congress), a bill that would reaffirm the status of lands taken into trust by the Department of the Interior (DOI) for the benefit of the Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band. The bill would clarify that the Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band's land trust could not be challenged in court under the Supreme Court decision of \\\"Carcieri v. Salazar\\\".\\nStabenow has expressed support in regulating talk radio via a measure like the Fairness doctrine. On February 5, 2009, she stated \\\"I think it’s absolutely time to pass a standard. Now, whether it’s called the Fairness Standard, whether it’s called something else — I absolutely think it’s time to be bringing accountability to the airwaves.\\\" Her support for these measures has been met with criticism about a conflict of interest, given that the primary target is conservative talk radio and that her former husband, Tom Athans, has been an executive at a number of liberal progressive talk radio networks, such as Air America\\nShe authored the first law to ban drilling in the Great Lakes.\\nOn August 31, 2006, Stabenow, along with Senator Carl Levin and Rep. John Dingell, announced an agreement that would completely cease Ontario's dumping of solid waste in Michigan within four years. This has been an issue in Michigan for the past several years. Previously in the Senate, Stabenow wrote legislation intended to reduce the dumping of Canadian trash into Michigan by requiring machines to search trash being dumped across the border. In July 2006, the Senate unanimously passed a law sponsored by Stabenow requiring the payment of $420 inspection fee for every truckload of Canadian trash being brought into Michigan.\\nOn August 10, 2009, Stabenow was reported by The Detroit News as saying \\\"Global warming creates volatility. I feel it when I'm flying. The storms are more volatile. We are paying the price in more hurricanes and tornadoes.\\\" However, she has opposed regulation of greenhouse gases, enhanced fuel efficiency standards in California, and greenhouse gas emission reporting standards.\\nStabenow supported President Barack Obama's health reform legislation; she voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and she voted for the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010. She also sponsored S. 2257: Excellence in Mental Health Act.\\nStabenow voted in favor of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 in December 2011, which included highly controversial provisions drafted by Senators Carl Levin and John McCain in closed session, that allows for the indefinite military detention of American citizens who are deemed potential terrorists and enemies of the state without trial, challenging the general judicial status of \\\"innocent until proven guilty.\\\"\\nIn March 2011, the Think Progress website criticized Stabenow for joining “the pro-polluter frenzy sweeping the U.S. Senate, introducing legislation to permanently cripple Clean Air Act rules on global warming pollution. The legislation in question was the SBIR/STTR Reauthorization Act of 2011 (S.493), which, according to Think Progress, was “being used as a vehicle for senators who wish to prevent regulation of greenhouse pollution from oil refineries, coal-fired power plants, heavy industry, and other major emitters. Stabenow has added her amendment to three others intended to hamstring the Environmental Protection Agency on behalf of carbon polluters.”\\nStabenow's proposed amendment to keep the Environmental Protection Agency from regulating greenhouse gas emissions for two years also draw criticism. The amendment would have given “coal-fired power plants, oil refineries and other industrial sources a two year exemption” from rules requiring them to report greenhouse gas emissions. Stabenow defended her position by saying “My amendment is a common-sense approach that allows protections from carbon pollution, determined by scientists and public health experts, to continue being developed while providing businesses the support and incentives they need as they reduce pollution, generate new clean energy technologies and create jobs.”\\nIn 2009, Stabenow voted for President Obama's $787 billion stimulus plan. In 2008, however, she voted against the bailout proposed by President Bush.\\nStabenow is for the equal rights of the LGBT community in the U.S. On two separate occasions she has voted against the Constitutional Amendment, 2004 and 2006, to define marriage “as between one man and one woman\\\". In 2006, Stabenow also voted NO on the constitutional ban of same sex marriage.\\nStabenow was first married to Dennis Stabenow; the couple divorced in 1990. They have two children, Michelle and Todd.\\nIn 2003, Stabenow married Tom Athans, now co-founder of Democracy Radio and former executive vice president of Air America. By this marriage, she has a stepdaughter, Gina. In 2008, Athans said to the police that he had used the internet “to make a date with a prostitute and paid her $150 for sex at a hotel” in Detroit. The news came about after police investigations into an internet-based prostitution ring operating in the hotel questioned Athans. Stabenow and Athans divorced on May 28, 2010, approximately two years after Athans was detained in Troy, Michigan, as part of a prostitution sting.\\nStabenow belongs to the Grace United Methodist Church in Lansing Michigan.\\nStabenow made a cameo in the 2016 Zack Snyder film \\\"\\\" as the Governor of New Jersey, the state in which Gotham City is located in the DC Extended Universe.\\n\\n\",\n \"John Thune\\nJohn Randolph Thune (born January 7, 1961) is an American politician and senior United States Senator from South Dakota, a member of the Republican Party. He previously served as a United States Representative for South Dakota 's at-large congressional . He became South Dakota's senior senator with the retirement of Tim Johnson in 2015. He is South Dakota's senior senator, having served as the GOP's Chief Deputy Whip in 2006, chairman of the Republican Policy Committee in June 2009, and Republican Conference Chairman in 2011, the third-ranking position in the Senate. He has worked in politics and civic organizations since completing his MBA graduate degree. He is also the current dean of South Dakota's congressional delegation.\\nThune was born in the South Dakota state capital of Pierre, South Dakota, the son of Yvonne Patricia (maiden name Bodine) and Harold Richard Thune. Thune's paternal grandfather, Nicholas Thune, was an immigrant from Norway who partnered with his brother Matt to start Thune Hardware stores in Mitchell and Murdo, South Dakota. His maternal grandfather is from Ontario, Canada, and Thune's mother was born in Saskatchewan. Thune's brother, Richard Thune, is an English teacher at Rowland High School in California. Thune was a star athlete in high school, and was active in basketball, track, and football. Thune graduated from Jones County High School in 1979.\\nHe played college basketball at Biola University in California, where he graduated in 1983 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Business. Thune received the degree of Master of Business Administration from the University of South Dakota in 1984.\\nThune continues to be physically active and frequently competes in running events. A 2012 feature by \\\"Runner's World Magazine\\\" noted that Thune has \\\"been the fastest man in Congress since 2009.\\\"\\nAfter completing his MBA, Thune became involved in politics. He worked as a legislative aide for U.S. Senator James Abdnor from 1985 to 1987. In 1980, Abdnor defeated U.S. Senator George McGovern.\\nIn 1989, Thune moved to the state capital of Pierre, South Dakota, where he served as executive director of the state Republican Party for two years. Thune was appointed as Railroad Director of South Dakota by Governor George S. Mickelson, serving from 1991 to 1993. From 1993 to 1996, he was executive director of the South Dakota Municipal League.\\nIn 1996, Thune decided to make his first foray into electoral politics. That year, he entered the race for South Dakota's lone seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. \\\"The Almanac of American Politics\\\" said that Thune \\\"entered the 1996 race as very much an underdog.\\\" Thune's primary opponent was sitting Lt. Governor Carole Hillard of Rapid City, who benefited from the support of the long-term South Dakota governor Bill Janklow. A poll released in May 1996 showed Hillard ahead of Thune 69%-15%. By relying on strong personal skills and the help of his old network of Abdnor friends, Thune won the primary, defeating Hillard 59%-41%. In the general election, Thune defeated Democrat Rick Weiland, a long-serving aide to U.S. Senator Tom Daschle, 58%-37%.\\nThune won his subsequent races for U.S. House by wide margins. He won re-election in 1998 with 75% of the vote and in 2000 with 73% of the vote. In 2002, after briefly considering a run for governor of South Dakota, Thune set his sights on a run for the U.S. Senate.\\nAs a Representative, Thune sponsored 48 bills, including:\\nIn 2002 Thune challenged incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Tim Johnson. Thune lost his bid by only 524 votes (0.15%). One study concluded: “While the margin of victory [for Johnson] was a mere 524 votes, getting into that winning position required a number of important factors, including Native American turnout, the ability of Johnson and his allies to more effectively use the ground war to get their message out, Thune’s ineffectiveness on the air and lack of experience in winning competitive elections, low voter turnout in key Republican counties, the drought, and finally the presence of Kurt Evans. Evans, a Libertarian candidate who withdrew from the race, endorsed Thune, but remained on the ballot and siphoned away more votes from Thune than Johnson. Evans received only 3,070 votes, but that ended up being six times greater than the margin of victory.” Despite the close results, Thune did not contest the election.\\nFollowing his 2002 loss to Tim Johnson, Thune challenged Tom Daschle, the United States Senate Minority Leader and leader of the Senate Democrats, in the 2004 elections. In early 2003, Daschle unexpectedly decided not to run for president. CNN reported that the \\\"announcement surprised even some of his closest aides, one of whom told CNN plans were being made for Daschle to announce his candidacy Saturday in his hometown of Aberdeen, South Dakota.\\\"\\nThis was the most expensive Senate race in 2004, with $30 million spent, and it was the most expensive race in South Dakota history. It was widely followed in the national media. Thune, along with Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist, President of the United States George W. Bush, and Vice President Dick Cheney, described Daschle as the \\\"chief obstructionist\\\" of Bush's agenda: \\\"Thune was able to criticize 'Daschle for serving incompatible masters' and portray him, as Frist did when he came to South Dakota to campaign for Thune, as a partisan obstructionist and political heir to liberal icon and former Senator George McGovern of South Dakota.\\\"\\nDaschle's critics charged the Democrat with using filibusters to block confirmation of several of Bush's nominees to the federal judiciary and of being out of step with the views of South Dakota voters on other political and social issues: \\\"The GOP had targeted Daschle, the Senate minority leader, claiming he had been the chief obstruction to President Bush on such issues as tax cuts, judicial nominees and the war in Iraq.\\\"\\nWhen the race began in early 2004, Daschle led by 7% in January and February. By May, his lead fell to just 2% and into the summer, polls showed an effective tie. Throughout September, Daschle led Thune by margins of 2–5%; from October until the November 2 election, most polls showed Thune and Daschle tied 49% to 49% among likely voters.\\nOn November 2, 2004, Thune defeated Daschle by 4,508 votes, winning 51% of the vote. Daschle's loss was the first ousting of an incumbent Floor Leader since 1952, when Arizona Senator Ernest McFarland lost his seat to Barry Goldwater. \\\"The New York Times\\\" reported that the loss made “Mr. Daschle the first Senate party leader in more than five decades to be voted out of office. The race had been closely watched by both parties, with White House officials calling the senator an obstructionist for opposing the president on the war in Iraq, tax cuts and judicial nominees. Senator Daschle had fought hard, raising $16 million during the campaign as of mid-October, which he spent largely on television advertisements. Mr. Thune had raised $10 million by the same time.”\\nSouth Dakota native Tom Brokaw commented that Thune \\\"ran a very strong campaign\\\" to win the 2004 race. University of South Dakota political scientist Bill Richardson said \\\"motivated John Thune supporters went to the polls in large numbers, part of a massive South Dakota turnout. Unofficial results show nearly 80 percent of registered voters cast ballots.\\\"\\nAfter Thune defeated Daschle in 2004, many Republicans regarded Thune as a \\\"rising star with unlimited political potential.\\\"\\nThune faced no Republican or Democratic opposition for his Senate seat in 2010 and won re-election with 100% of the vote. Scott Heidepriem, the South Dakota Senate Minority Leader and a Democratic candidate for Governor of South Dakota, said, \\\"We just concluded that John Thune is an extremely popular senator who is going to win another term in the Senate.\\\" One political observer of South Dakota politics noted in 2010 that it was \\\"the first time in the state’s modern history in which a major party has failed to field a Senate candidate.\\\"\\nOn December 6, 2006, Thune was chosen by Senate Republican Whip Trent Lott to be the GOP's Chief Deputy Whip. After briefly serving as Republican Conference Vice-Chairman, Thune became chairman of the Republican Policy Committee in June 2009, which is the fourth-ranking position in the Senate.\\nHe was elected Republican Conference Chairman in 2011, taking office in January 2012. The Conference Chairman is the third-ranking position in the US Senate. In late 2011, the \\\"Mitchell Daily Republic\\\" reported that \\\"Thune’s elevation to the No. 3 spot makes him the highest-ranking Republican senator in South Dakota history. Thune has served as chairman of the Republican Policy Committee from 2009 until the present time and was vice chairman of the Republican Conference from 2008 to 2009 and the Republican chief deputy whip from 2006 to 2008.\\\"\\nThune's emergence as a conservative voice in the US Senate gained him a lengthy profile in the conservative magazine \\\"The Weekly Standard.\\\" The American Conservative Union gave Senator Thune a rating of 100 in 2006, and again in 2010; as of 2010, Thune's lifetime ACU rating was 88.97. Thune was praised in a 2010 profile by the \\\"Weekly Standard\\\" as an exceptional politician who was, unlike many of his colleagues, able to communicate traditional conservatism, making him a popular alternative to Tea Party representatives.\\nSince becoming a Senator, Thune has taken a leading role in formulating energy policy. He pushed for the final passage of a comprehensive energy bill, which overcame a series of Democratic filibusters and passed the Senate in 2005. Thune helped pass another energy bill in late 2007. Thune advocates developing alternative sources of energy such as ethanol and wind energy; South Dakota has high levels of corn production and windy prairies to produce these forms of energy.\\nOn March 6, 2014, Thune introduced the Reliable Home Heating Act (S. 2086; 113th Congress). The bill would require the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) to exempt motor carriers that transport home heating oil from numerous federal safety regulations if the governor of a state declares a state of emergency caused by a shortage of residential heating fuel. The bill also would require the Energy Information Administration (EIA) to notify states if certain petroleum reserves fall below historical averages. Thune said that he was \\\"hopeful that this legislation will eliminate red tape for governors to better meet the needs of their residents and businesses during what can be very dangerous conditions.\\\"\\nThune has become a strong advocate of conservative causes such as gun rights, sponsoring legislation that would allow individuals with concealed carry permits to use such permits as a valid permit in other states.\\nIn May 2016, Thune sent a letter to Facebook demanding details of how the social media site operates its Trending Topics feature. This followed a Gizmodo article that cited anonymous sources, claiming to be former Facebook employees, who alleged a systemic anti-conservative political bias in how material is selected for display in the list.\\nSome commentators criticized Thune's letter as an example of government overreach against a private company. Facebook denied the bias allegations. Thune thanked Facebook in a statement saying, \\\"Private companies are fully entitled to espouse their own views, so I appreciate Facebook’s efforts to address allegations of bias raised in the media and my concern about a lack of transparency in its methodology for determining trending topics.\\\"\\nThune is part of the group of 13 Senators drafting the Senate version of the AHCA behind closed doors.\\nThune was one of eight Republican members of Congress who \\\"accept the prevailing scientific conclusion that global warming is both real and man-made,\\\" according to PolitiFact in May 2014.\\nAs of 2017, Thune has a lifetime score of 11% on the National Environmental Scorecard of the League of Conservation Voters.\\nAs a Senator, Thune has sponsored 117 bills, including:\\nSource: John Thune\\nPrior to the selection of Sarah Palin, Thune was mentioned as a possible vice presidential pick for Republican Presumptive Nominee John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. Thune publicly played down the speculation.\\nSignificant speculation arose regarding a potential 2012 presidential bid by Thune. Thune was encouraged to run by Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, and South Carolina Senator Lindsey Graham, who called him \\\"a consensus builder.\\\" One \\\"Wall Street Journal\\\" article stated that Thune possesses \\\"name ID in the parts of the first caucus state of Iowa that get neighboring South Dakota media, a $6.9 million bank account he could use for a presidential run, and a national fundraising list of 100,000 names from his race against [former Senator Tom] Daschle.\\\" DNC Executive Director Jennifer O'Malley Dillon publicly stated that \\\"among a field of generally flawed (in one way or another) Republican presidential candidates, there is one who genuinely scares her. 'This is personal[,] but John Thune is somebody that I have nightmares about,' she said. 'I've worked for Tim Johnson and Tom Daschle and he is just a guy you can't ever count out.'\\\" According to multiple commentators, a Thune candidacy could be helped by his personal appearance (he \\\"looks like a president\\\"). On February 22, 2011, however, Thune announced he would not run in the presidential election in 2012. During the summer of 2012, the \\\"USA Today\\\" reported that \\\"South Dakota's Thune is on short list for vice president,\\\" but Wisconsin Congressman Paul Ryan was instead selected. Thune engendered some speculation that he might run in the 2016 presidential election, but he declined to run, stating that his \\\"window...might have closed in 2012.\\\"\\nThune married the former Kimberley Weems of Doland, South Dakota in 1984. They have two daughters, Brittany and Larissa.\\nThune is a fan of the bands Styx, Journey, Boston, and the Doobie Brothers.\\nThune's father, Harold, was a fighter pilot in the Pacific theater during World War II who flew the Grumman F6F Hellcat. KELO News reported that \\\"Thune flew numerous missions for the Navy from an aircraft carrier. He received the Distinguished Flying Cross for shooting down four enemy planes in the Hellcat.\\\" Harold Thune flew his missions off the USS \\\"Intrepid\\\".\\n\",\n \"Richard Burr\\nRichard Mauze Burr (born November 30, 1955) is the senior United States Senator from North Carolina, having served since 2005. A member of the Republican Party, Burr represented North Carolina's 5th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1995 to 2005. Prior to his political career, he worked for seventeen years in private business with Carswell Distributing.\\nBurr was born in Charlottesville, Virginia, the son of Martha (née Gillum) and The Rev. David Horace White Burr, a minister. He graduated from Richard J. Reynolds High School in Winston-Salem, N.C. in 1974 and earned a B.A. in Communications from Wake Forest University in 1978. Burr was on the football team at both Reynolds High School and Wake Forest. Burr lettered for the Demon Deacons during the 1974 and 1975 seasons. He is a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity.\\nPrior to running for Congress, Burr worked for 17 years as a sales manager for Carswell Distributing Company, a distributor of lawn equipment. Burr is currently a board member of Brenner Children's Hospital, as well as of the group Idealliance—a group of local, academic, and government officials working to expand North Carolina’s Piedmont Triad Research Park. Burr is also a board member of the West Point Board of Visitors.\\nBurr has been married to Brooke Fauth Burr, a real estate agent, since 1984, and the couple have two sons, Tyler and William.\\nBurr's father, a minister, said that Burr is a 12th cousin of Aaron Burr, the former Vice President, Senator, lawyer, and Continental Army officer known most for killing Founding Father Alexander Hamilton in an 1804 duel and for being arrested, indicted, and ultimately acquitted for treason. Richard Burr is the first Burr in the Senate since Aaron Burr served as the Senator from New York—and only the second person with his last name to win election to Congress (the first being the presumably unrelated Albert G. Burr)—since Aaron. Sen. Burr himself has stated that there are no longer any direct descendants of Aaron Burr, and that he descends from Aaron's brother. However, it is more likely that Senator Burr is descended from the brother of Aaron's father as biographies of Aaron Burr state that he had only an older sister, that his parents died young and they were raised by his father's brother.\\nWhen queried, Burr states that he has tempered pride of the association: \\\"I am [proud] ... though history has proved to shine a different light on him.\\\"\\nIn 1992, Burr ran against incumbent Democratic Representative Stephen L. Neal and lost. He ran again in 1994 after Neal chose not to seek re-election, and was elected to Congress during a landslide year for Republicans. He ran on a platform that advocated accountability for the federal government, lower health care costs, economic development, and strong school systems.\\nWhile in the House, Burr authored the FDA Modernization Act of 1997. He also helped to create the National Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, he successfully sponsored amendments to improve defenses against bioterrorism.\\nAs a representative, Burr co-sponsored, with Senator Kit Bond (R-MO) an amendment to the Energy Policy Act of 2003 relaxing restrictions on the exports of specific types of enriched uranium, first enacted in the Schumer Amendment to the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The original Schumer amendment placed increased controls on U.S. civilian exports of weapons grade highly enriched uranium (HEU) to encourage foreign users to switch to reactor grade low-enriched uranium (LEU) for isotope production. HEU is attractive to terrorists because it can be used to create a simple nuclear weapon, while LEU cannot be used directly to make nuclear weapons. The amendment allowed exports to five countries for creating medical isotopes.\\nBurr did not face a serious challenge in any of his re-election campaigns.\\nIn July 2004, Burr won the Republican primary to seek the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by Democrat John Edwards, who had retired from the Senate to run for Vice President under presidential nominee John Kerry in the 2004 election, in which they lost to incumbent president George W. Bush. He faced Democratic Party nominee Erskine Bowles and Libertarian Tom Bailey. Burr won the election by five percentage points.\\nBurr defeated North Carolina Secretary of State Elaine Marshall (D) on November 2, 2010, with 55% of the vote. He is the first Republican since Jesse Helms to be re-elected to the United States Senate from North Carolina. He also broke the \\\"curse\\\" that his seat held, being the first Senator re-elected to the seat since 1968 (when Sam Ervin won his final term).\\nBurr defeated Democratic nominee Deborah K. Ross in the November 2016 general election by a margin of 51–45. Burr was a supporter of and campaign advisor for the presidential election bid of Donald Trump.\\nOn July 20, 2016, during his re-election campaign, Burr announced that, should he win that year's election, which he eventually did, he would not seek re-election to a fourth term in 2022.\\nIn 2007, Burr ran for the leadership post of Republican Conference chairman but lost to Sen. Lamar Alexander by a vote of 31 to 16. In 2009, he was chosen to serve as Chief Deputy Whip in the 111th Congress. In 2007, Burr was named a deputy whip. In 2011, he announced his intention to seek the post of minority whip, the number two Republican position in the Senate, but he dropped out of that race in 2012.\\nAs Chairman of the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Burr will lead that chamber's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.\\nBurr has voted to oppose late-term abortion and to support parental notification laws and efforts to restrict federal funding of Planned Parenthood.\\nBurr voted against the financial reform bill Restoring American Financial Stability Act of 2010 (Dodd-Frank). In the June 26 debate, he stated: \\\"I fear we're headed down a path that will be too overburdensome, too duplicative, it will raise the cost of credit ... The balance that we've got to have is more focus on the products that we didn't regulate ... more so than government playing a bigger role with a stronger hand\\\".\\nIn fall 2008, during that year's financial crisis, Burr described his response to problems in the U.S. financial system: \\\"On Friday night, I called my wife and I said, 'Brooke, I am not coming home this weekend. I will call you on Monday. Tonight, I want you to go to the ATM machine, and I want you to draw out everything it will let you take. And I want you to go tomorrow, and I want you to go Sunday.' I was convinced on Friday night that if you put a plastic card in an ATM machine the last thing you were going to get was cash.\\\" This statement attracted attention from the national press when an April 2009 story in the \\\"News and Observer\\\" made it more widely known. In late April, Burr told WFAE, a public radio station in North Carolina, \\\"Absolutely I'd do it [again].\\\" He said that \\\"The exact situation we were faced with was a freeze bank to bank. And as I stated, my attempt was to make sure my wife had enough cash at home to make it through the next week.\\\" Burr also said that \\\"It was not an attempt to run a bank,\\\" and \\\"Nor was it a bank that was even considered then or now to be in trouble.\\\"\\nBurr is a signatory of the \\\"Taxpayer Protection Pledge\\\".\\nIn February 2009, he added an amendment to the proposed economic stimulus package that would end the automatic pay increases of Congress. Burr wrote on his Senate blog: \\\"As the law is currently written, Congress has to hold a vote to disapprove an automatic pay raise. As you can guess, these votes don't happen too often.\\\"\\nIn 2013, Burr criticized some of his Republican colleagues in the Senate, who were filibustering the passage of the fiscal year 2014 federal budget in an effort to defund the Affordable Care Act. In a tweet, he called their strategy \\\"the height of hypocrisy\\\".\\nBurr opposes raising the federal minimum wage, and believes that decision should be made by the states.\\nHe is opposed to the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP).\\nBurr was one of 21 senators who voted against the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009. Supporters of this measure stated that its provisions enjoyed bipartisan backing in Congress and strong local support in the areas affected, and would protect millions of acres of wild land. Opponents said that it was laden with expensive earmarks, that it precluded oil and gas production on large tracts of federal land, and that it would harm rural economies. Burr supports the Land and Water Conservation Fund, which safeguards natural areas, water resources, cultural heritage, and recreational opportunities. It uses revenues from the depletion of offshore oil and gas.\\nIn 2011, Burr said he was unsure how of how much human activity contributed to climate change, and that he does not think science can prove it. He has supported the lowering of federal taxes on alternative fuels, renewal of the Land and Water Conservation Fund and the initiation of a hydropower project on the Yadkin River in Wilkes County, North Carolina.\\nIn 2013, he voted to create a point of order against legislation that would create a federal tax or fee on carbon emissions.\\nBurr voted in favor of the Keystone XL pipeline. In a series of roll call votes attached to debate about the Keystone XL pipeline on January 21, 2015, he voted against Amendments 58 and 87, which were written to \\\"express the sense of Congress regarding climate change.\\\" A vote for the amendment was to declare that climate change is real, human-caused, creating problems, and that the US must shift from fossil fuels to sustainable energy.\\nBurr voted against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and he voted against the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.\\nBurr unsuccessfully tried to filibuster the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009.\\nIn 2014, Burr sponsored the Patient Choice, Affordability, Responsibility and Empowerment Act along with Senator Orrin Hatch. The bill is intended to provide an alternative health care reform system to the Affordable Care Act, according to \\\"Ripon Advance\\\". The bill would repeal the Affordable Care Act and implement provisions related to consumer protections, pre-existing conditions, and \\\"consumer-directed healthcare measures.\\\"\\nBurr opposes the regulation of the tobacco industry by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). During the 108th Congress, Burr proposed the National Uniformity for Food Act, which would have banned states from forcing manufacturers to include labels other than those that are required by the Food and Drug Administration on consumables and health and beauty products. A similar bill passed the House, but it died in the Senate.\\nSenator Burr opposed a vote to confirm U.S. Supreme Court nominee Merrick Garland and blocked the nomination of Patricia Timmons-Goodson to fill a vacancy on the federal court bench in Eastern North Carolina, which, he proudly notes, is the longest federal court bench vacancy in US history. Burr said that if Hillary Clinton were elected president, he would try to block her from ever filling the Supreme Court vacancy, saying \\\"I am going to do everything I can do to make sure four years from now, we still got an opening on the Supreme Court.\\\"\\nBurr was the sponsor of Senate bill 1873, the Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005, nicknamed \\\"Bioshield Two\\\", which he says will give the Department of Health and Human Services \\\"additional authority and resources to partner with the private sector to rapidly develop drugs and vaccines.\\\" Portions of Senate Bill 1873 were eventually included in Senate Bill 3678 (the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act), which was signed into law in December 2006.\\nSome provisions of the Patriot Act, including those enabling the bulk collection of metadata for private telephone records by the National Security Agency, were scheduled to expire at the end of May 2015. As Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, Burr proposed extending the provisions for two years, but his amendments were defeated. After the provisions expired, the Senate passed the USA Freedom Act which instead allowed the NSA to subpoena the data from telephone companies.\\nBurr supported President Bush's troop surge in Iraq in January 2007, citing the \\\"need for security and stability\\\".\\nBurr was a national security advisor to the Donald Trump campaign.\\nIn April 2016, following the FBI–Apple encryption dispute in the same year, a discussion draft of a bill sponsored by Burr and Senator Dianne Feinstein was leaked. The bill would require technology companies to design their encryption so that they can provide law enforcement with user data in an \\\"intelligible format\\\" when required to do so by court order.\\nBurr is generally opposed to tighter restrictions on gun rights. He voted against the 2013 legislation which would have extended background checks to internet and gun show weapons purchases. He sponsored legislation to stop the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs from adding the names of veterans to the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) if the department has assigned a financial fiduciary to take care of their finances due to mental incompetence, unless a judge or magistrate deems them to be a danger. Persons added to the NICS system are barred from purchasing or owning a firearm in the United States. Burr voted against Senator Diane Feinstein's No Fly No Buy bill, but said he is open to legislation blocking gun sales to terrorists if due process is observed. Speaking privately on the topic of guns to a group of GOP volunteers in Mooresville, NC, Burr joked that a magazine cover of Hillary Clinton ought to have had a bullseye on it. Burr quickly apologized for the comment.\\nOn December 18, 2010, Burr voted in favor of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, the only Southern Republican senator to do so. The repeal would go on to end the core aspect of official Department of Defense employment discrimination against openly gay individuals. Burr and John Ensign were the only Senators who voted against cloture but voted in support of the final passage. Senator Susan Collins (R) of Maine who spearheaded the fractional Republican party support for the repeal expressed grateful surprise at Burr's joining her group in the final vote: \\\"I think that was a gutsy vote\\\" said Collins, \\\"he was not someone who I thought to lobby.\\\" Burr strongly expressed his opposition to the timing of the vote, reasoning he said that the chaos of double wars warranted delay, but decided it was right to support the bill when the Senate decided to stop waiting.\\nOn same-sex marriage, Burr's personal belief is that marriage is between a man and a woman; however, he believes that the law should be left to the states. Burr thinks that bathroom access should be regulated by sex listed on birth certificates, but has also sought to distance himself from HB2, the North Carolina bathroom legislation.\\nBurr voted for re-authorization of the Violence Against Women Act in 2013.\\nIn March 2015, Burr voted for an amendment to establish a deficit-neutral reserve fund to allow employees to earn paid sick time.\\nIn 2012, Burr co-sponsored a plan to overhaul Medicare; his bill would have raised the eligibility age from 65 to 67 over time and added more private insurance options. The proposal would have begun \\\"a transition to a system dominated by private insurance plans.\\\"\\nOn Feb 6, Burr voted to confirm Betsy DeVos as U.S. education secretary; DeVos won the Senate's confirmation, 51-50, with vice president Mike Pence as the deciding vote. Her family donated $43,200 to Burr's re-election campaign against Democrat Deborah Ross.\\nBurr's car, a 1973 Volkswagen Thing, is \\\"something of a local celebrity\\\" on Capitol Hill. Burr has a known aversion to reporters, once even climbing out of his office window while carrying his dry cleaning to avoid them. Burr is a member of the United Methodist Church.\\n\\n\",\n \"Rostin Behnam\\nRostin Behnam is an American lawyer and government official who currently serves as a commissioner of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission. Prior to assuming his current role, he served as senior counsel to U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow. Behnam has also practiced law in New York City and worked at the New Jersey Office of the Attorney General.\",\n \"Peter B. Davidson\\nPeter B. Davidson is an American lawyer and government official who currently serves as the General Counsel of the United States Department of Commerce. He was previously the senior vice president for congressional relations at Verizon Communications, general counsel to the United States Trade Representative, vice president for congressional relations at US West and Qwest, general counsel and policy director to the Majority Leader of the House of Representatives, attorney-advisor in the Office of Legal Counsel of the United States Department of Justice, director of congressional and media relations at the United States Information Agency, staffer to Representatives Dick Armey and Bill Frenzel, and law clerk on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit.\",\n \"Sherrod Brown\\nSherrod Campbell Brown (born November 9, 1952) is an American politician and author who is the senior United States Senator from Ohio, in office since January 3, 2007. Brown is a member of the Democratic Party. Before his election to the Senate, he was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Ohio's 13th congressional district from 1993 to 2007. He previously served as the Ohio Secretary of State (1983–1991) and as a member of the Ohio House of Representatives (1974–1982).\\nBrown defeated two-term Republican incumbent Mike DeWine in the 2006 Senate election and was re-elected in 2012, defeating state Treasurer Josh Mandel. In the Senate, he was chairman of the Agriculture Subcommittee on Hunger, Nutrition and Family Farms and the Banking Subcommittee on Economic Policy, and is also a member of the Committee on Finance, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, and Select Committee on Ethics. Beginning in January 2015 at the start of the 114th Congress, Brown became the Ranking Democratic Member on the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs.\\nBrown was born in Mansfield, Ohio, the son of Emily (née Campbell) and Charles Gailey Brown, M.D. He was named after his maternal grandfather. He became an Eagle Scout in 1967. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Russian studies from Yale University in 1974. At Yale, he lived in Davenport College. While in college, Brown volunteered for liberal politicians such as George McGovern. He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree in education and a Master of Public Administration degree from Ohio State University in Columbus in 1979 and 1981, respectively. He taught at the Mansfield branch campus of Ohio State University from 1979 to 1981. He backpacked in India during the Emergency imposed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.\\nDuring his senior year in college, Brown was recruited by a local Democratic leader to run for Ohio's state house. Brown served as a state representative in Ohio from 1974 to 1982. At the time of his election to the Ohio House, he was the youngest person elected to that body. In 1982, Brown ran for Ohio Secretary of State to succeed Anthony J. Celebrezze, Jr. Brown won a four-way Democratic primary that included Dennis Kucinich, then defeated Republican Virgil Brown in the general election. In 1986, Brown won re-election, defeating Vincent C. Campanella. As Secretary of State, Brown focused on voter registration outreach. In 1990, Brown lost re-election in a heated campaign against Republican Bob Taft.\\n\\nIn 1992, Brown moved from Mansfield to Lorain, Ohio, and won a heavily contested Democratic primary for the open seat for Ohio's 13th district, located in the western and southern suburbs of Cleveland, after eight-term incumbent Don Pease announced his retirement. The Democratic-leaning district gave him an easy win over the little-known Republican Margaret R. Mueller. He was re-elected six times.\\nThe Democrats lost their long-held House majority in the 1994 elections, and Democrats remained in the minority for the remainder of Brown's tenure. As ranking member of the Energy and Commerce Health subcommittee, Brown successfully advocated for increased funding to fight tuberculosis.\\nIn 2001, the Republican-controlled legislature considered redrawing Brown's district. Some top Democrats urged Brown to relocate and take on fellow Democrat James Traficant after he defected when he voted to elect Republican Dennis Hastert as speaker of the U.S. House.\\nIn 2005, Brown led the Democratic effort to block the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). For many months, Brown worked as whip on the issue, securing Democratic \\\"nay\\\" votes and seeking Republican allies. After several delays, the House of Representatives finally voted on CAFTA after midnight on July 28, 2005, which ended in passage by one vote.\\nHe opposed an amendment to Ohio's constitution that banned same-sex marriage. Brown was also one of the few U.S. Representatives to vote against the Defense of Marriage Act in 1996.\\nBrown was the ranking minority member on the House Energy and Commerce Committee's Health Subcommittee. He also served on the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet and the Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade and Consumer Protection. While serving on the House International Relations Committee, he was also a member of the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific.\\nBrown opposed the Iraq War and voted against the Iraq Resolution as a House Representative. He voted against the $87 billion war budgetary supplement. He also voted for redeploying US troops out of Iraq by March 2008.\\nIn 2008, Brown joined 91 other senators in voting for the Iraq and Afghanistan War Funding, Unemployment Benefits Extension, and GI Bill, which required the Department of Defense to provide a timetable for achieving security in Iraq, provided education funding for veterans, extended unemployment compensation, and appropriated funds to combat drug trafficking, reduce Medicaid fraud, assist victims of natural disasters, and fund the Department of Defense.\\nIn 2012, he co-sponsored a resolution to \\\"oppose any policy that would rely on containment as an option in response to the Iranian nuclear threat\\\" while also joined bipartisan effort to urge Obama Administration to step up pressure, including strengthening sanctions, cooperating with U.S. allies and military readiness, to prevent Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons. In 2015, Brown co-sponsored an amendment to the budget which unanimously approved by the Senate that would reimpose sanctions on Iran if it violated the interim or final agreement that has paused its nuclear activities.\\nFrom U.S. House of Representatives to Senate, Sherrod Brown strongly supported the Taiwan Relations Act and the Six Assurances as cornerstones of United States-Taiwan relations.\\nWeeks after the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign and Umbrella Movement broke out which demanded genuine universal suffrage among other goals, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China chair Senator Brown and co-chair U.S. Rep. Chris Smith along with bipartisan Senators Ben Cardin, Marco Rubio, Roger Wicker, Dianne Feinstein, Jeff Merkley and Democratic Leader of the U.S. House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, Congressmen Dan Lipinski and Frank Wolf introduced Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act which would update the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992 and U.S. commitment to Hong Kong's freedom and democracy. \\\"Hong Kong's autonomy and freedoms are under threat from China. We must strongly support the universal rights of the people of Hong Kong, including free and fair elections in 2017 and beyond,” Brown said.\\nHe voted in favor of the 2012 NDAA that sparked controversy over indefinite detention of US citizens.\\nIn January 2016, Senator Brown introduced a bill in Congress which would restrict ISIS’ financing by authorizing tough new sanctions on foreign financial institutions that knowingly facilitate financial transactions with ISIS and other terrorist threats. His bill also called for tightening international passport regulations and additional screening of those attempting to enter the U.S. on certain types of Visas.\\nAnother part of his bill would secure grant funding to state and local law enforcement agencies to develop specialized anti-terrorism investigation and combat programs and to train first responders in the event of an active shooter or a terrorist attack. To monitor possible terrorist activity on the internet, he proposed better cyber-training to identify and track extremists, such as the couple behind the mass shooting in San Bernardino, California. “We need to ensure that those on the frontlines protecting us have all the tools they need to respond to threats, and to root out these terrorists at home and abroad,” Brown said.\\nHe also renewed his call for closing the terrorist gun loophole to stop individuals who are known or suspected terrorists - including those on the “No Fly” list and homegrown extremists - from purchasing deadly firearms. \\\"If you're too dangerous to fly, you're too dangerous to purchase an assault weapon. Period,\\\" said Brown.\\nIn 2015, Senators Brown and Bob Menendez co-authored the Military Families Credit Reporting Act to safeguard financial security for service members while deployed on active duty and requested specific information and feedback to help ensure deployed military personnel have the tools they need to protect their credit.\\nIn 2014, Brown introduced the Gold Star Fathers Act of 2014 (S. 2323; 113th Congress), a bill that would expand preferred eligibility for federal jobs to the fathers of certain permanently disabled or deceased veterans. Brown said that \\\"when a service member is killed in action or permanently and totally disabled, the government should do its part to be there for grieving parents - no matter if they're fathers or mothers.\\\"\\nIn 2015, Senators Brown and U.S. Rep. Tim Ryan introduced legislation to ensure veterans, students serving in the armed forces, and their qualifying dependents can attain priority enrollment at four-year colleges or universities so that they can finish their degrees before their federal GI benefits expire. Brown said we must invest in and train our men and women when they return to their communities.\\nSenator Brown co-sponsored bipartisan legislation to restrict the export of electronic waste, help boost the domestic recycling industry, foster innovation, reduce the number of counterfeit electronics from countries like China, and support efforts to recover rare earth materials found in electronics. He supports research and development on clean and renewable energy, including new fuel cell and offshore wind energy production, and its manufacturing supply chain in U.S. to ensure safe and reliable fuel source.\\nIn February 2013, conservative commentator George F. Will wrote in support of Brown's proposal to break up consolidated banks and finance industry conglomerates, ending \\\"too big to fail\\\" by restoring the Glass-Steagall Act.\\nIn 2016, amid Panama Papers scandal around the globe, Senators Brown and Elizabeth Warren urged the Treasury Department to investigate whether U.S. individuals were involved in possible tax avoidance and misconduct associated with the Panama-based law firm Mossack Fonseca.\\nIn 2009 when the vote on the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act came down to just a few votes, Brown (an ardent advocate of the legislation) was attending services for his deceased mother. The White House provided a plane in order to fly him back to vote for the bill when it was determined that no commercial flight would make it on time. \\\"Although most senators voted shortly after 5:30 p.m., the 60th and final vote was not cast until 10:46 p.m. by Sen. Sherrod Brown.\\\"\\nBrown was instrumental in passing the Food and Drug Administration Food Safety Modernization Act of 2010.\\nDue to serious environmental issues and pollution in China as well as series food safety incidents, including pet foods and milk among others, Senator Brown in 2013 criticized the Department of Agriculture over inadequate process of \\\"No routine inspections\\\" and \\\"No country-of-origin labeling\\\" for meats from that country. \\\"Given the well-documented shortcoming of the Chinese food safety system, we shouldn't allow unmarked meat into our markets that is processed in Chinese facilities that are not subject to food safety inspection,” Brown said. \\\"This action could endanger the health and safety of American consumers and potentially undermines confidence in our nation's food safety standards.\\\" as people are unable to identify whether things are from Chinese processors or not. Brown highlighted the egregious record of China and demanded additional actions from USDA and Food Safety and Inspection Service for those problems as American consumers deserve to be fully informed of their product choices.\\nWhile as the Ranking Democrat on U.S. House Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Health, Rep. Brown authored the Children's Hospitals Education and Research Act of 1998 which first proposed the Children's Hospitals Graduate Medical Education (CHGME) program. In 2015, Senator Brown led 31 colleagues to seek continued and $30 million increase funding ($295 million) in fiscal year 2016 which can benefit seven institutions in Ohio among others.\\nAs the water crisis in Flint, Michigan also raised similar public health concern in Granville and Sebring, Ohio, Senator Brown in 2016 introduced legislation that would force the federal government to step in when cities and states fail to warn residents about lead-contaminated drinking water and to give Ohio's school districts money to test it.\\nIn 2007, Brown and Sam Brownback (R-KS) sponsored an amendment to the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007. President George W. Bush signed the bill in September 2007. The amendment established a prize as an incentive for companies to invest in new drugs and vaccines for neglected tropical diseases. It awards a transferable “Priority Review Voucher” to any company that obtains approval for a treatment for a neglected tropical disease. This provision adds to the market based incentives available for the development of new medicines for developing world diseases in the developing world, among them malaria, tuberculosis and African sleeping sickness. The prize had been proposed by Duke University faculty members Henry Grabowski, Jeffrey Moe, and David Ridley in their 2006 \\\"Health Affairs\\\" paper \\\"Developing Drugs for Developing Countries.\\\"\\nBrown supported the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, voting for it in December 2009, and he voted for the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.\\nBrown is an advocate of equal rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. He also voted against prohibiting same-sex couples from adopting children in Washington D.C., and received a perfect score from the Human Rights Campaign. On November 30, 2010 Brown made a contribution to the It Gets Better Project from the Senate floor, and on December 18, 2010 he voted in favor of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010.\\nIn 2011, in the \\\"National Journal\\\"’s annual rankings, Brown tied with eight other members for the title of the most liberal member of Congress.\\nIn 2015, Senator Brown pushed for national charter school reform with more accountability and transparency to ensure tax dollars are spent on education rather than profit.\\nBrown was a cosponsor of the Protect-IP Act (PIPA).\\nBrown has criticized free trade with China and other countries. In a 2006 Washington Post article, Brown argued against free trade on the grounds that labor activism was responsible for the growth of the U.S. middle class, and that the U.S. economy is harmed by trade relations with countries that lack the kind of labor regulations that have resulted from that activism.\\nIn 2011, the \\\"Columbus Dispatch\\\" noted that Brown \\\"loves to rail against international trade agreements.\\\" Brown's book, \\\"Myths of Free Trade\\\", argues that \\\"an unregulated global economy is a threat to all of us.\\\" He recommends adopting measures that would allow for emergency tariffs, protect Buy America laws, including those that give preference to minority and women-owned businesses, and hold foreign producers to American labor and environmental standards. Brown was the co-author and sponsor of a bill that would officially declare China a currency manipulator and require the Department of Commerce to impose countervailing duties on Chinese imports. China's policy undervaluing its currency against the dollar and export subsidy has damaged American manufacturers and taken away American jobs.\\nAccording to reports unveiled in 2012, China's cheating in the auto parts trade resulted in more than 1.6 million American jobs at risk. Senator Brown addressed China's predatory trading practices on American industry and called for action against China doesn't play fair. He tried to impose tariffs on China.\\nIn May 2016, Senator Brown praised Hillary Clinton's in-depth plan to enforce regulations and laws on trade, such as rules of origin, triple the enforcement budgets at the Department of Commerce and the International Trade Commission, and how to bring manufacturing to America.\\nIn 2012, Senator Brown urged the Department of Defense to comply with a rule that requires military service members to wear clothes and boots made in the U.S. rather than in China. \\\"If it's taxpayer dollars, it should help American workers and American businesses, pure and simple. Our men and women in uniform are fighting for their country, and deserve to fight in quality uniforms and boots that are made in the U.S.A.\\\" Brown said.\\nIn 2016, Senator Brown criticized Donald Trump for his outsourcing American jobs to China.\\nIn August 2005, Brown announced he would not run for the United States Senate seat held by Republican Mike DeWine. In October, however, Brown reconsidered his decision. His announcement came shortly after Democrat Paul Hackett stated that he would soon announce his candidacy.\\nOn February 13, 2006, Hackett withdrew from the race, all but ensuring that Brown would win the Democratic nomination. In the May 2 primary, Brown won 78.05% of the Democratic vote. His opponent, Merrill Samuel Keiser, Jr., received 21.95% of the vote.\\nIn the middle of his Senate campaign in April 2006, Brown, along with John Conyers, brought an action against George W. Bush and others, alleging violations of the Constitution in the passage of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The case, \\\"Conyers v. Bush\\\", was ultimately dismissed for lack of standing.\\nOn November 7, 2006, Brown faced two-term incumbent senator Mike DeWine in the general election. Brown won the seat with 56% of the vote to DeWine's 44%.\\nBrown stood for reelection in 2012, defeating opponent Josh Mandel, who in 2010 defeated the incumbent state treasurer by 14 points. Mandel raised $2.3 million in the second quarter of 2011 alone, to Brown’s $1.5 million. Early on, Brown enjoyed a steady lead in the polls. Mandel won the March Republican primary with 63% of the vote.\\nThe \\\"Washington Post\\\" reported that no candidate running for reelection, save Barack Obama, faced more opposition in 2012 by outside groups. As of April 2012, over $5.1 million had been spent on television ads opposing Brown, according to data provided by a Senate Democratic campaign operative. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce spent $2.7 million. 60 Plus Association, a conservative group that opposes health care reform, spent another $1.4 million. Karl Rove's Crossroads GPS and the Concerned Women for America Legislative Action Committee also spent heavily in the race. In May 2012, Brown hit the campaign trail with West Wing actor Martin Sheen.\\nIn March 2011, Brown came under scrutiny for a senate floor speech in which he cited the names of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin while he criticized Republican efforts in Ohio and Wisconsin to mitigate the power of public employee unions to negotiate with taxpayers. In his speech he said \\\"some of the worst governments that we've ever had, do you know one of the first things they did? They went after unions. Hitler didn't want unions, Stalin didn't want unions, Mubarak didn't want independent unions\\\". Brown, however, added that he was not comparing the two situations. He later apologized for his speech.\\nBrown's second wife, Connie Schultz, is a former newspaper columnist at the \\\"Cleveland Plain Dealer\\\", but resigned because being a politician's spouse presented a conflict of interest. She won a Pulitzer Prize for \\\"her pungent columns that provided a voice for the underdog and underprivileged.\\\" She is also the author of \\\"Life Happens\\\" (2007) and \\\"...and His Lovely Wife\\\" (2008), in which she describes her experiences as a spouse of a U.S. Senate candidate. Brown was previously married to Larke Recchie from 1979 to 1987. Brown is the father of four children: two from his marriage to Recchie and two children from his marriage to Schultz. He has five grandchildren.\\nOn May 18, 2014, Brown was awarded an honorary doctor of public service degree from Otterbein University. Along with his wife, Brown delivered a keynote address at the undergraduate commencement.\\nBrown is the author of two books:\\nclass=\\\"wikitable succession-box\\\" style=\\\"margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%;clear:both;\\\"\",\n \"Jack Reed (Rhode Island politician)\\nJohn Francis \\\"Jack\\\" Reed (born November 12, 1949), is the senior United States Senator from Rhode Island, serving since 1997. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served in the United States House of Representatives for Rhode Island 's 2 congressional district from 1991 to 1997.\\nReed was born in Cranston, Rhode Island, the son of Mary Louise (née Monahan) and Joseph Anthony Reed. Reed graduated from La Salle Academy and the United States Military Academy at West Point, where he received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1971. Following graduation, he spent several years in active duty military service. Reed earned the Ranger Tab and was a paratrooper. He served as a paratrooper in the 2nd Battalion, 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 82nd Airborne Division where he was a Platoon Leader, Company Commander and Battalion Staff Officer.\\nReed attended the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, where he received a Master of Public Policy. He returned to West Point in 1978 as an associate professor in the Department of Social Sciences. He left active duty in 1979 after earning the rank of Captain. However, he would remain a member of the United States Army Reserve until 1991. After leaving active duty, Reed enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he became a member of the Board of Student Advisers. In 1982, he graduated with his Juris Doctor and worked as an associate at the Washington, D.C. office of law firm of Sutherland Asbill & Brennan. Afterwards, he returned to Rhode Island and joined Edwards and Angell, a Providence law firm. He worked with this group until 1990.\\nReed was elected as a state senator in 1984 and served three terms.\\nReed married professional Senate staffer Julia Hart in a Roman Catholic ceremony in the Catholic chapel on the United States Military Academy campus on April 16, 2005. On January 5, 2007, Mrs. Reed gave birth to a daughter, Emily.\\nIn 1990, Reed was elected to the United States House of Representatives, receiving 59% of the vote in the general election. For the next six years, Reed focused on education and health care.\\nWhen Senator Claiborne Pell, the longest-serving senator in Rhode Island's history and the 13th longest-serving senator in US history, announced his retirement in 1996, Reed declared his candidacy. Reed won the Democratic primary with 86% of the vote and beat the Republican nominee, Rhode Island General Treasurer Nancy Mayer, in the general election by 63% to 35%.\\nReed ran for re-election to a second term. He was unopposed in the Democratic primary and his Republican opponent was Robert Tingle, a casino pit manager and the unsuccessful Republican nominee for the state's 2nd congressional district in 2000. Reed won by 78% to 22%.\\nIn 2008, ran for re-election to a third term. He faced a primary challenge which he easily turned aside, winning with 87% of the vote. In the general election, he faced a rematch with Robert Tingle. Reed again won a landslide victory, by 73% to 27%.\\nReed announced in May 2014 that he would run for re-election to a fourth term in office. Polling showed him leading prospective Republican opponents by margins of between 29% and 65%. Reed, who was unopposed in the Democratic primary, faced only former Congressional nominee and former Rhode Island Republican Party Chairman Mark Zaccaria in the general election. Reed defeated him in another landslide win, by 71% to 29%.\\nIn 2008, Reed was mentioned as a potential Vice Presidential running mate for Barack Obama. On 14 July 2008, Reed announced that he was \\\"not interested\\\" in becoming Obama's running mate.\\nReed has consistently been speculated as a possible Secretary of Defense. In late 2010, he turned down an offer from President Obama to succeed Robert Gates as Secretary of Defense. The position was ultimately filled by Leon Panetta.\\nAfter President Obama was re-elected in 2012 and Panetta announced his decision to retire, Reed was again mentioned as a possible nominee for Secretary of Defense, as well as for Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Once again, he denied interest in either position.\\nWhen Panetta's successor Chuck Hagel announced his resignation in December 2014, Reed was again said to be on President Obama's shortlist. Despite the Republican takeover of the Senate in the 2014 elections, it was said that Reed's confirmation would be a \\\"foregone conclusion\\\". He again denied interest, with a spokesman saying that \\\"Senator Reed loves his job and wants to continue serving the people of Rhode Island in the United States Senate. He has made it very clear that he does not wish to be considered for Secretary of Defense or any other cabinet position. He just asked the people of Rhode Island to hire him for another six year term and plans on honoring that commitment.\\\"\\nOn November 24, 2014, Ted Nesi of WPRI-TV noted the reasons that Reed continues to turn down the job, citing his \\\"safe seat\\\", his status as one of the most popular politicians in the state, his fondness for working in the Senate and his passion for housing policy. He concluded that \\\"no matter how many times Reed’s aides privately groan about another flareup of defense secretary speculation, they surely appreciate that each recurrence is a sign of the senator’s positive reputation in Washington and Obama’s esteem for him.\\\"\\nSince his election to Congress, Reed has consistently voted in a similar manner to other New England Democrats, holding generally liberal positions on social and economic issues. Reed has voted with his party 94.7% of the time.\\nReed has been an advocate of preventive healthcare. Consistent with other Democrats, he supports increasing Medicare funding, enrolling more Americans into programs that help the uninsured, allowing prescription drugs to be imported from Canada, and negotiating bulk medication purchases for Medicare in order to lower costs.\\nReed has generally supported fair trade policies over similar ones advocating free trade. He voted against renewing presidential authority for 'fast tracking' normalized trade relations. Reed opposed CAFTA and similar free trade proposals for Chile, Singapore, Peru, and Oman. However, Reed voted in favor of normalizing trade relations with China. He has also been a strong supporter of unionizing workers, and has criticized government and business interference with these groups. Reed supports increasing the minimum wage and unemployment compensation.\\nReed serves on the Senate Banking Committee which has held hearings into JP Morgan Chase bank's activities. Reed has accepted campaign contributions from bank CEO Jamie Dimon.\\nReed supports affirmative action. He has voted to expand such policies and to set aside money for women and minorities from the highway fund. Reed also has supported gay rights, voting against a proposed constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage, while voting in favor of measures that prevent job discrimination and hate crimes against LGBT.\\nHe is strongly in favor of abortion rights, and he has rejected proposals to limit late-term abortion, such procedures from occurring on military installations, and the ability of minors to cross state lines to obtain abortions.\\nReed supports limiting American oil use and expanding alternative energy. He opposes Arctic National Wildlife Refuge drilling and federal subsidies for oil exploration, while favoring a 40 percent reduction in oil use by 2025 and funding for hydrogen automobiles. Reed has voted to end discussions on Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards. He has also been an outspoken proponent of stronger restrictions of mercury use, as well as an end to commercial whaling.\\nReed has voted against limiting lawsuits on gun manufacturers and has favored expanding gun control. He voted against loosening background checks at gun shows. This was a stark departure from his voting record on this issue as a state senator. While serving in the state senate, he routinely voted for legislation supporting the 2nd Amendment and receive high rating from the NRA state affiliate.\\nAlthough he voted for the 1996 Immigration Reform Bill, Reed has generally supported allowing illegal immigrants and foreign workers to enter the path to citizenship. He supports Guest Worker programs and allowing immigrants to have access to Social Security. He rejected the idea of establishing English as the nation's official language and has been critical of the effort to fence the US-Mexican border. He is the author of the Reed Amendment, which permits former U.S. citizens to be denied entry to the country if they are believed to have renounced citizenship for tax reasons. On February 23, 2010, Reed co-sponsored the DREAM Act, a piece of legislation that would allow undocumented students living in the United States from a very young age to gain legal status.\\nWhen asked about voting against Social Security benefits going to illegal immigrants, Reed said that he supported this interim measure and \\\"any such agreement must be fully examined so that it does not adversely impact benefits earned by American citizens.\\\"\\nReed has made it a point to maintain liaisons within his office specifically to interact with discharged veterans of the Armed Services. These liaisons often help veterans enter the Department of Veteran Affairs, ensuring that these former servicemen and servicewomen can receive medical care.\\nReed was one of 23 US senators to vote against H.J. Resolution 114, which authorized President George W. Bush to use force against Iraq in 2002. In 2007, Reed elaborated on his sentiments, saying \\\"It was a flawed strategy that diverted attention and resources away from hunting down Osama bin Laden's terrorist network.\\\" Like General Petraeus, Reed said that he believed the real problems in Iraq were political and unrelated to the military.\\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 2014\\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 2008\\nUnited States Senate Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 2008\\nJack Reed 86.8%\\nChristopher Young 13.2%\\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 2002\\nUnited States Senate election in Rhode Island, 1996\\nUnited States Senate Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 1996\\nJack Reed 86.1%\\nDon Gil 13.9%\\nUnited States House of Representative 2nd District election in Rhode Island, 1994\\nJack Reed (D) 68.0%\\nJohn Elliot (R) 32.0%\\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District election in Rhode Island, 1992\\nJack Reed (D) 70.7%\\nJames Bell (R) 24.5%\\nThomas Ricci (I) 3.3%\\nJohn Turnbull (IT) 1.6%\\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 1992\\nJack Reed 76.4%\\nSpencer Dickinson 23.6%\\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District election in Rhode Island, 1990\\nJack Reed (D) 59.2%\\nGertrude Coxe (R) 40.8%\\nUnited States House of Representatives 2nd District Democratic primary election in Rhode Island, 1990\\nJack Reed 49.0%\\nEdward Beard, Sr. 27.4%\\nCharles Gifford, III 14.7%\\nRodney Driver 8.9%\\n\",\n \"Michigan's 8th congressional district\\nMichigan's 8th congressional district is a <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> <a href=\\\"congressional%20district\\\">congressional district</a> in <a href=\\\"Southern%20Michigan\\\">Southern Michigan</a> and <a href=\\\"Southeast%20Michigan\\\">Southeast Michigan</a>, centered on the state capital, <a href=\\\"Lansing%2C%20Michigan\\\">Lansing</a>. From 2003 to 2013 it consisted of all of <a href=\\\"Clinton%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Clinton</a>, <a href=\\\"Ingham%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Ingham</a>, and <a href=\\\"Livingston%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Livingston</a> counties, and includes the southern portion of <a href=\\\"Shiawassee%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Shiawassee</a> and the northern portion of <a href=\\\"Oakland%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Oakland</a> counties.\\nThe district shifted slightly in the 2012 redistricting to include <a href=\\\"Rochester%20Hills%2C%20Michigan\\\">Rochester Hills</a>.\\nThe district was first created in 1873, after <a href=\\\"United%20States%20congressional%20apportionment\\\">redistricting</a> following the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%2C%201870\\\">1870 census</a>.\\nThe current congressman is <a href=\\\"Republican%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican</a> <a href=\\\"Mike%20Bishop%20%28politician%29\\\">Mike Bishop</a>, who has represented the district since 2015.\\nPrior to 1992, the 8th congressional district included the cities of <a href=\\\"Saginaw%2C%20Michigan\\\">Saginaw</a> and <a href=\\\"Bay%20City%2C%20Michigan\\\">Bay City</a> as well as Huron, Tuscola and Sanilac Counties in the Thumb of Michigan, Arenac county north from Bay County, a total of about half the area of Sagnaw County, and small northern portions of Lapeer and St. Clair counties.\\nThis area would largely be transferred to the <a href=\\\"Michigan%27s%205th%20congressional%20district\\\">5th district</a> after the 1990 census, while most of the old 6th district became the 8th district. Unlike the old 6th district, the 8th did not include <a href=\\\"Pontiac%2C%20Michigan\\\">Pontiac</a>. To make up for the loss in population, it was pushed further into Lansing (which had previously been split between the 6th and 8th districts), picking up all of Ingham County. It also added the area around Brighton and portions of <a href=\\\"Washtenaw%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Washtenaw</a> and <a href=\\\"Genessee%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Genessee</a> counties.\\nIn the redistricting for the 2002 election, the district gained all of <a href=\\\"Clinton%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Clinton County</a> about half of <a href=\\\"Shiawassee%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Shiawasee County</a> and most of its area in <a href=\\\"Oakland%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Oakland County</a> while losing its shares of Washtenaw and Genessee counties.\\nIn the redistricting for the 2012 election, the district dropped all of its area in Clinton and Shiawasee counties, and was pushed further into Oakland County.\\n\",\n \"Tom Athans\\nTom Athans (born 1961) is an American radio executive. He is the co-founder and former CEO of <a href=\\\"Democracy%20Radio\\\">Democracy Radio</a>, an organization that created and produced progressive talk radio shows that included \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ed%20Schultz%20Show\\\">The Ed Schultz Show</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Stephanie%20Miller%20Show\\\">The Stephanie Miller Show</a>\\\". After his tenure at Democracy Radio, he joined <a href=\\\"Air%20America%20Radio\\\">Air America Radio</a> as Executive Vice President for Programming. Athans was formerly married to U.S. Senator <a href=\\\"Debbie%20Stabenow\\\">Debbie Stabenow</a>. The couple divorced in May 2010.\\nAthans, of Greek descent, was born in <a href=\\\"Detroit%2C%20Michigan\\\">Detroit, Michigan</a>. He was a congressional aide in the U.S. House of Representatives and the United States Senate. Previous to his tenure as a staffer in Congress, he was elected to local office and served two terms as a Councilman and President of the Village Council in <a href=\\\"Oxford%2C%20Michigan\\\">Oxford, Michigan</a>. Athans is also a veteran of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Air%20Force\\\">United States Air Force</a> and the Michigan Air National Guard.\\nIn 2002, Athans and radio industry veteran Paul Fiddick founded <a href=\\\"Democracy%20Radio\\\">Democracy Radio</a>, an organization dedicated to creating political balance on America's commercial radio airwaves. Their concept was to develop, fund and incubate progressive oriented talk programming and enlist radio networks to market the programs to stations around the country. Democracy Radio developed and produced talk shows that launched the national careers of <a href=\\\"Ed%20Schultz\\\">Ed Schultz</a> and <a href=\\\"Stephanie%20Miller\\\">Stephanie Miller</a>, among others.\\nOn June 8, 2005, Democracy Radio sold its stake in \\\"The Ed Schultz Show\\\" to a new company headed by veteran radio executive <a href=\\\"Randy%20Michaels\\\">Randy Michaels</a>, the former CEO of Clear Channel Radio. In November 2005, Democracy Radio's partner in \\\"The Stephanie Miller Show\\\", WYD Media headed by radio industry veteran Ron Hartenbaum, purchased Democracy Radio's shares and assumed sole ownership of the venture.\\nOn November 4, 2005, Athans stepped down as CEO of Democracy Radio.\\nAfter stepping down from Democracy Radio, Athans became Executive Vice-President of <a href=\\\"Air%20America%20%28radio%20network%29\\\">Air America</a>, a <a href=\\\"Progressive%20talk%20radio\\\">Progressive talk radio</a> network. Athans was in charge of developing new programming to expand Air America's lineup. He also headed Air America's Washington, D.C. corporate office.\\nAfter Air America underwent bankruptcy procedures in late 2006, Athans founded TalkUSA Radio, a radio production company. Talk USA launched \\\"The Leslie Marshall Show\\\" and \\\"Washington Monthly on the Radio\\\" into national syndication.\\nAthans, an occasional contributor to \\\"The Huffington Post\\\", resides in <a href=\\\"Saint%20Clair%20Shores%2C%20Michigan\\\">Saint Clair Shores, Michigan</a> and is Vice President of Communications at Helicon Holdings, LLC in Detroit, Michigan.\\nIn February 2008, Athans was detained in <a href=\\\"Troy%2C%20Michigan\\\">Troy, Michigan</a>, as part of a prostitution sting and admitted to paying for a sex act. At the time, he was married to U.S. Senator <a href=\\\"Debbie%20Stabenow\\\">Debbie Stabenow</a> (D-Michigan). Athans was not charged, but was ticketed for driving with a suspended driver license. In April, Athans made a public statement, \\\"No words can fully express how sorry I am. At the time this incident occurred, I took responsibility for my actions and fully cooperated with law enforcement. My family and I are dealing with this matter in a personal and private way.\\\"\",\n \"Governor of Michigan\\nThe Governor of Michigan is the chief executive of the U.S. state of <a href=\\\"Michigan\\\">Michigan</a>. The current <a href=\\\"Governor%20%28United%20States%29\\\">governor</a> is <a href=\\\"Rick%20Snyder\\\">Rick Snyder</a>, a member of the <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28Michigan%29\\\">Republican Party</a>, who was inaugurated on January 1, 2011, as the state's 48th governor, was re-elected November 4, 2014, and was sworn in for a second term on January 1, 2015. He is not eligible for a third term under Michigan's <a href=\\\"term%20limits\\\">term limits</a>, which limit a governor to two, four-year terms.\\nGovernors of Michigan, as well as their <a href=\\\"Lieutenant%20Governor%20of%20Michigan\\\">lieutenant governors</a>, must be United States citizens who have resided in Michigan for the four years preceding election and must be at least 30 years of age. A constitutional amendment adopted by the voters at the 2010 general election provides that a person is ineligible for any elected office, including governor and lieutenant governor, if convicted of a felony involving dishonesty, deceit, fraud, or a breach of the public trust, and if the conviction were related to the person's official capacity while holding any elective office or position of employment in local, State, or Federal government.\\nFrom statehood until the election of 1966, governors were elected to two-year terms. Elections are held in November and the governor assumes office the following January, except in the case of death or resignation. From statehood until 1851, elections were held in odd-numbered years. A new state constitution was drafted in 1850 and took effect in 1851. As part of the process bringing the constitution into effect, there was a single one-year term of governor in 1851. Thereafter elections were held on even years.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Constitution\\\">constitution adopted in 1963</a> changed the governor's term to four years, starting in 1967. Since then, gubernatorial elections have been offset by two years from <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Presidential%20elections\\\">U.S. Presidential elections</a> (e.g., Presidential elections were in <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202008\\\">2008</a> and <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202012\\\">2012</a>, the last gubernatorial election was in <a href=\\\"Michigan%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202014\\\">2014</a> and the next will be in <a href=\\\"Michigan%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202018\\\">2018</a>). Gubernatorial elections are held concurrently with <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Senate\\\">state Senate</a> elections. The winner of the gubernatorial election takes office at noon on January 1 of the year following the election.\\nIn 1992, an amendment to the Michigan constitution imposed a lifetime term limit of two four-year terms for the office of governor. Prior to this, they were not limited as to how many terms they could serve; <a href=\\\"John%20Engler\\\">John Engler</a>, the governor at the time, served three terms as his first term occurred prior to the restriction. Engler was reelected in 1994 and 1998 before being term limited in 2002.\\nThe governor has responsibilities to:\\nHe appoints the members of the governing boards of 10 of the state's 13 public universities and department commissions.\\nForty-eight people have been governor of the state. Prior to statehood, there were five governors of the <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Territory\\\">Michigan Territory</a>. <a href=\\\"Stevens%20T.%20Mason\\\">Stevens T. Mason</a>, Michigan's first governor, also served as a territorial governor. He was elected governor at age 23 as a member of the <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democratic Party</a> in 1835 and served until 1840. Mason was the youngest state governor in United States history.\\n<a href=\\\"Jennifer%20Granholm\\\">Jennifer Granholm</a> became the first <a href=\\\"List%20of%20female%20state%20governors%20in%20the%20United%20States\\\">female</a> Governor of Michigan on January 1, 2003, when she succeeded <a href=\\\"John%20Engler\\\">John Engler</a>; she served for 8 years, until January 1, 2011. Granholm was born in Canada. Former Governor George Romney was born in Mexico.\\n\",\n \"Gladwin, Michigan\\nGladwin is a city in the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20state\\\">U.S. state</a> of <a href=\\\"Michigan\\\">Michigan</a>. The population was 2,933 at the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>. It is the <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> of <a href=\\\"Gladwin%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Gladwin County</a>. The city is at the southwest corner of <a href=\\\"Gladwin%20Township%2C%20Michigan\\\">Gladwin Township</a>, but is politically independent.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 2.91 sqmi , of which 2.89 sqmi is land and 0.02 sqmi is water.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2010, there were 2,933 people, 1,261 households, and 680 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 1014.9 PD/sqmi . There were 1,421 housing units at an average density of 491.7 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 96.8% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 0.1% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.4% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 0.7% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.5% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.4% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 1.1% of the population.\\nThere were 1,261 households of which 29.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.4% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 15.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.1% were non-families. 42.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.96.\\nThe median age in the city was 40.4 years. 23.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.6% were from 25 to 44; 21.8% were from 45 to 64; and 22.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 44.9% male and 55.1% female.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2000, there were 3,001 people, 1,234 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 1,047.5 per square mile (405.1/km²). There were 1,329 housing units at an average density of 463.9 per square mile (179.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.10% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 0.23% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.53% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 1.07% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.37% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.70% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 1.50% of the population.\\nThere were 1,234 households out of which 31.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.3% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 14.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 36.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.97.\\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 24.9% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 21.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 82.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.9 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $29,598, and the median income for a family was $38,269. Males had a median income of $35,040 versus $19,571 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $16,370. About 9.3% of families and 11.7% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 13.7% of those under age 18 and 9.1% of those age 65 or over.\\nGladwin had its beginnings in 1875 during the Michigan lumber boom. Situated on the <a href=\\\"Cedar%20River%20%28Gladwin%20County%2C%20Michigan%29\\\">Cedar River</a>, the city was named Cedar until it was discovered that another Michigan city shared that name. Thereafter, the city was named after the county.\\nGladwin county is named for <a href=\\\"Henry%20Gladwin\\\">Henry Gladwin</a>, a British military commander at Detroit during Pontiac's War. The county was named in 1831 and organized in 1875.\\nGladwin is governed by a mayor and eight-person city council.\\nThis <a href=\\\"climate\\\">climatic</a> region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the <a href=\\\"K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification\\\">Köppen Climate Classification</a> system, Gladwin has a <a href=\\\"humid%20continental%20climate\\\">humid continental climate</a>, abbreviated \\\"Dfb\\\" on climate maps.\",\n \"Spencer Abraham\\nEdward Spencer Abraham (born June 12, 1952) is an American author and politician who was a <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate\\\">United States Senator</a> from <a href=\\\"Michigan\\\">Michigan</a> from 1995 to 2001 and the tenth <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20Energy\\\">United States Secretary of Energy</a>, serving under President <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a>, from 2001 to 2005. Abraham, a <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican</a>, is one of the founders of the <a href=\\\"Federalist%20Society\\\">Federalist Society</a> and a co-founder of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Harvard%20Journal%20of%20Law%20and%20Public%20Policy\\\">Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy</a>\\\". To date, Abraham is the last Republican to serve as a U.S. Senator from Michigan.\\nAbraham was born in <a href=\\\"East%20Lansing%2C%20Michigan\\\">East Lansing, Michigan</a>, the son of Juliette Elizabeth (Sear), a member of the Michigan Republican State Central Committee, and Eddie Joseph Abraham. He is a graduate of <a href=\\\"East%20Lansing%20High%20School\\\">East Lansing High School</a>. Of <a href=\\\"Lebanon\\\">Lebanese</a> descent, Abraham is married to <a href=\\\"Jane%20Abraham\\\">Jane Abraham</a> (current co-chairwoman of the <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Republican%20Party\\\">Michigan Republican Party</a>, and chair of the <a href=\\\"Susan%20B.%20Anthony%20List\\\">Susan B. Anthony List</a>) and has three children: a son, Spencer, and twin girls, Betsy and Julie. He holds a <a href=\\\"Juris%20Doctor\\\">Juris Doctor</a> <a href=\\\"%28J.D.%29\\\">(J.D.)</a> degree from <a href=\\\"Harvard%20University\\\">Harvard University</a>, and is a 1974 <a href=\\\"Michigan%20State%20University%20Honors%20College\\\">Honors College</a> graduate of <a href=\\\"Michigan%20State%20University\\\">Michigan State University</a>. In 1978, while at Harvard Law School, Abraham helped found the \\\"<a href=\\\"Harvard%20Journal%20of%20Law%20and%20Public%20Policy\\\">Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy</a>\\\". It became one of the official journals of the <a href=\\\"Federalist%20Society\\\">Federalist Society</a>, which was founded in 1982.\\nBefore his election to the Senate, Abraham was a law professor at <a href=\\\"Thomas%20M.%20Cooley%20Law%20School\\\">Thomas M. Cooley Law School</a>.\\nHe was elected chairman of the <a href=\\\"Michigan%20Republican%20Party\\\">Michigan Republican Party</a> from 1983 to 1990. He was deputy chief of staff for Vice President <a href=\\\"Dan%20Quayle\\\">Dan Quayle</a> from 1990 to 1991. He later served as co-chairman of the <a href=\\\"National%20Republican%20Congressional%20Committee\\\">National Republican Congressional Committee</a> (NRCC) from 1991 to 1993 and ran for chairman of the <a href=\\\"Republican%20National%20Committee\\\">Republican National Committee</a> in 1993, coming second to <a href=\\\"Haley%20Barbour\\\">Haley Barbour</a>.\\nAbraham was elected to represent <a href=\\\"Michigan\\\">Michigan</a> in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate\\\">United States Senate</a> in <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%201994\\\">1994</a>, and he served until 2001 when he was defeated for reelection to the Senate in <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202000\\\">2000</a> for a second term by <a href=\\\"Debbie%20Stabenow\\\">Debbie Stabenow</a>.\\nHe was the only <a href=\\\"Arab%20American\\\">Arab American</a> in the chamber. According to the \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20York%20Times\\\">New York Times</a>\\\", State Republicans attributed his loss to \\\"scathing advertisements by a wide range of special interest groups, including advertisements that criticized Mr. Abraham's support for a relaxation of some immigration restrictions\\\". During the campaign the <a href=\\\"Federation%20for%20American%20Immigration%20Reform\\\">Federation for American Immigration Reform</a> ran ads asking: \\\"Why is Senator Spencer Abraham trying to make it easier for terrorists like Osama bin Laden to export their war of terror to any city street in America?\\\" The media denounced these commercials as \\\"vengeful\\\". In 1996, when President Clinton endorsed Congresswoman Barbara Jordan's proposed cuts to legal immigration Senator Abraham played a leading role in blocking the proposed cuts. Another factor in his defeat was his vote to convict President Clinton in his <a href=\\\"Impeachment%20and%20acquittal%20of%20Bill%20Clinton\\\">1999 impeachment trial</a>. The following year he received the \\\"Defender of the Melting Pot\\\" award from the <a href=\\\"National%20Council%20of%20La%20Raza\\\">National Council of La Raza</a> for his efforts on the immigration issue.\\nHe served on the Budget, Commerce, Science and Transportation, Judiciary, and <a href=\\\"small%20business\\\">Small Business</a> Committees. He also chaired two subcommittees: Manufacturing and Competitiveness, and Immigration. Abraham authored the \\\"H1B Visa in Global and National Commerce Act\\\", establishing a federal framework for on-line contracts and signatures; the \\\"Government Paperwork Elimination Act\\\", and the \\\"Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act\\\", which protects Internet <a href=\\\"domain%20name\\\">domain name</a>s for businesses and persons against <a href=\\\"copyright\\\">copyright</a> and <a href=\\\"trademark%20infringement\\\">trademark infringement</a>s. In 1999, Abraham co-sponsored S.896, a bill to abolish the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Department%20of%20Energy\\\">U.S. Department of Energy</a>, which would have transferred control of the <a href=\\\"Strategic%20Petroleum%20Reserve%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Strategic Petroleum Reserve</a> in large part to the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Defense%20Department\\\">Defense Department</a>.\\nAbraham was appointed <a href=\\\"Secretary%20of%20Energy\\\">Secretary of Energy</a> by the incoming <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a>'s administration. On November 15, 2004, Abraham announced that he would resign from this position, effective with the swearing in of his successor <a href=\\\"Samuel%20W.%20Bodman\\\">Samuel W. Bodman</a> on February 1, 2005.\\nIn 2004, Lebanese Ambassador <a href=\\\"Farid%20Abboud\\\">Farid Abboud</a> awarded Abraham the <a href=\\\"National%20Order%20of%20the%20Cedar\\\">National Order of the Cedar</a>.\\nAbraham was a Distinguished Visiting Fellow at the <a href=\\\"Hoover%20Institution\\\">Hoover Institution</a>, an influential think tank based at <a href=\\\"Stanford%20University\\\">Stanford University</a> from 2005 through 2007. After leaving office, Abraham opened <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.abrahamgroupllc.com\\\">The Abraham Group</a>, a Washington DC based international strategic consulting firm. In 2006, Spencer Abraham accepted the appointment as Chairman of the Board of <a href=\\\"Areva\\\">Areva Inc.</a>, the US subsidiary of the French nuclear energy company.\\nOn July 24, 2007, Abraham was announced as an \\\"ambassador to official Washington\\\" in the <a href=\\\"Fred%20Thompson\\\">Fred Thompson</a> presidential campaign.\\nIn 2006 Abraham was appointed Non-Executive Chairman of the Board of AREVA Inc., the American arm of the French nuclear company <a href=\\\"Areva\\\">Areva</a>, which is planning to build <a href=\\\"Evolutionary%20Power%20Reactor\\\">EPR</a> nuclear power plants in the United States, and is building the <a href=\\\"mixed%20oxide%20fuel\\\">mixed oxide fuel</a> (MOX) manufacturing plant at the <a href=\\\"Savannah%20River%20Site\\\">Savannah River Site</a> to convert legacy weapons-grade plutonium into power station fuel.\\nWith William Tucker, Abraham wrote \\\"Lights Out!: Ten Myths About (and Real Solutions to) America's Energy Crisis\\\", which was published in July 2010.\\nAbraham is also the Chairman and CEO of \\\"The Abraham Group\\\", a strategic consulting firm providing assistance to clients seeking opportunities in the U.S. and global markets.\\n\",\n \"Zack Snyder\\nZachary Edward Snyder (born March 1, 1966) is an American filmmaker, best known for his action, superhero, and science fiction films. Snyder made his feature film debut with the <a href=\\\"Dawn%20of%20the%20Dead%20%282004%20film%29\\\">2004 remake</a> of the horror film \\\"<a href=\\\"Dawn%20of%20the%20Dead%20%281978%20film%29\\\">Dawn of the Dead</a>\\\". Since then, he has done a number of comic book and superhero films, including \\\"<a href=\\\"300%20%28film%29\\\">300</a>\\\" (2007) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Watchmen%20%28film%29\\\">Watchmen</a>\\\" (2009), as well as the <a href=\\\"Superman\\\">Superman</a> film that started the <a href=\\\"DC%20Extended%20Universe\\\">DC Extended Universe</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\\\">Man of Steel</a>\\\" (2013) and its follow-ups, \\\"\\\" (2016) and \\\"<a href=\\\"Justice%20League%20%28film%29\\\">Justice League</a>\\\" (2017). He also co-wrote the screenplays for \\\"300\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Sucker%20Punch%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Sucker Punch</a>\\\" and \\\"\\\".\\nSnyder is the co-founder of <a href=\\\"Cruel%20and%20Unusual%20Films\\\">Cruel and Unusual Films</a>, a production company he established in 2004, alongside his wife <a href=\\\"Deborah%20Snyder\\\">Deborah Snyder</a> and producing partner Wesley Coller.\\nSnyder was born in <a href=\\\"Green%20Bay%2C%20Wisconsin\\\">Green Bay, Wisconsin</a>, and raised in <a href=\\\"Riverside%2C%20Connecticut\\\">Riverside, Connecticut</a>. His mother, Marsha Manley (née Reeves), was a painter and a photography teacher at <a href=\\\"Daycroft%20School\\\">Daycroft School</a>, which Snyder later attended. His father, Charles Edward \\\"Ed\\\" Snyder, worked as an executive recruiter. He has an elder sister, Audrey (Davis), and was raised as a <a href=\\\"Christian%20Scientist\\\">Christian Scientist</a>. Snyder attended Camp Owatonna in Harrison, Maine, during the summer months as a child. Snyder's mother inspired him to study painting a year after high school at <a href=\\\"Heatherley%20School%20of%20Fine%20Art\\\">Heatherley School of Fine Art</a> in England, although he had already begun filmmaking. Afterward, Snyder attended <a href=\\\"Art%20Center%20College%20of%20Design\\\">Art Center College of Design</a> in <a href=\\\"Pasadena%2C%20California\\\">Pasadena</a>, California.\\nSnyder went on to shoot, as a director and as a <a href=\\\"cinematographer\\\">cinematographer</a>, television commercials for such clients as the automobile companies <a href=\\\"Audi\\\">Audi</a>, <a href=\\\"BMW\\\">BMW</a>, <a href=\\\"Subaru\\\">Subaru</a> and <a href=\\\"Nissan\\\">Nissan</a>, amongst others. Other commercial work has been for clients including <a href=\\\"Nike%2C%20Inc.\\\">Nike</a>, <a href=\\\"Reebok\\\">Reebok</a>, and <a href=\\\"Gatorade\\\">Gatorade</a>.\\nSnyder made his feature film debut with the remake of the horror film \\\"<a href=\\\"Dawn%20of%20the%20Dead%20%282004%20film%29\\\">Dawn of the Dead</a>\\\" (2004), and scored a box office hit with the fantasy war film \\\"<a href=\\\"300%20%28film%29\\\">300</a>\\\" (2007), adapted from writer-artist <a href=\\\"Frank%20Miller%20%28comics%29\\\">Frank Miller</a>'s <a href=\\\"Dark%20Horse%20Comics\\\">Dark Horse Comics</a> <a href=\\\"miniseries\\\">miniseries</a> of <a href=\\\"300%20%28comics%29\\\">the same name</a>. His <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.\\\">Warner Bros.</a> film \\\"<a href=\\\"Watchmen%20%28film%29\\\">Watchmen</a>\\\" was released on March 6, 2009 and grossed $185 million worldwide. His follow-up project/animation debut titled \\\"\\\" was released on September 24, 2010. Snyder produced, co-wrote, and directed \\\"<a href=\\\"Sucker%20Punch%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Sucker Punch</a>\\\", which was released on March 25, 2011. The film, based on a script written by Snyder and Steve Shibuya, was about a young woman in a mental hospital who fantasizes of escape with her fellow inmates.\\nHe directed 2013's \\\"<a href=\\\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\\\">Man of Steel</a>\\\" for Warner Bros., a reboot of the Superman franchise. He will direct a yet-to-be-produced remake of the 1969 film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Illustrated%20Man%20%28film%29\\\">The Illustrated Man</a>\\\", and produced the prequel/sequel to \\\"300\\\", \\\"\\\" (2014). He also wants to direct a segment for an upcoming \\\"<a href=\\\"Heavy%20Metal%20%28film%29%23Remake\\\">Heavy Metal 3</a>\\\", and plans to write and direct a sequel to \\\"Legend of the Guardians\\\".\\nDuring Comic Con 2013, Snyder announced that <a href=\\\"Batman\\\">Batman</a> and <a href=\\\"Superman\\\">Superman</a> would share the screen in \\\"\\\", released in 2016. Cavill reprised his role as Superman, and <a href=\\\"Ben%20Affleck\\\">Ben Affleck</a> played Batman. In April 2014, Snyder was announced by Warner Bros. to direct the \\\"Justice League\\\" film after finishing \\\"Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice\\\". As of March 2016, Snyder is working on \\\"The Last Photograph\\\", a drama about a war photographer in Afghanistan. He is also working on an adaptation of the 1943 novel \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Fountainhead\\\">The Fountainhead</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Ayn%20Rand\\\">Ayn Rand</a>.\\nSnyder often uses <a href=\\\"slow%20motion\\\">slow motion</a> in and out of the fight scenes in his films, which Amy Nicholson of \\\"<a href=\\\"BoxOffice%20%28magazine%29\\\">BoxOffice</a>\\\" magazine remarked separates the director from other filmmakers who make multiple cuts and close-ups during a fight. A minute-long shot from \\\"300\\\" shows King Leonidas slaughtering his enemies, the camera zooming in and out to emphasize each kill and move Leonidas makes.\\nSnyder lives in Pasadena with his second wife, producer <a href=\\\"Deborah%20Snyder\\\">Deborah Johnson</a>. The couple first met in 1996, started dating in 2002, and married on September 25, 2004 at the <a href=\\\"St.%20Bartholomew%27s%20Episcopal%20Church%2C%20New%20York\\\">St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church</a> in Manhattan, New York.\\nSnyder has eight children. The four eldest, Olivia, Willow, Autumn, and Eli, are from his first marriage to Denise Weber. Willow and Autumn were adopted from China. Two younger sons, Ezekiel and Jett Elin, are from his relationship with Kirsten Elin, who was his line producer on commercials for a while. Snyder and his current wife Deborah adopted two children during the course of making \\\"<a href=\\\"Man%20of%20Steel%20%28film%29\\\">Man of Steel</a>\\\".\\nOn March 12, 2017, Snyder's daughter, Autumn, committed suicide, causing him to step away from post-production work on \\\"<a href=\\\"Justice%20League%20%28film%29\\\">Justice League</a>\\\" in May 2017 to be with his family. <a href=\\\"Joss%20Whedon\\\">Joss Whedon</a> was brought in to finish reshoots as well as oversee the remainder of the film's post-production. Before her death, Autumn started a fundraiser on <a href=\\\"Crowdrise\\\">CrowdRise</a> to support Elizabeth House charity. Snyder felt proud of her work.\\nWhile \\\"<a href=\\\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\\\">Variety</a>\\\" has praised Snyder's visual direction, it has also criticized him for subpar storytelling and excessive iconography.\\nCritical, public and commercial reception to films Zack Snyder has directed as of April 26, 2016:\\nSnyder's body of work has earned him a number of awards, including two <a href=\\\"Clio%20Award\\\">Clio Award</a>s and a Gold Lion Award for his <a href=\\\"Jeep\\\">Jeep</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Frisbee\\\">Frisbee</a>\\\" commercial. He also won an award for his humorous commercial \\\"General's Party\\\".\\n\\n\",\n \"Clare, Michigan\\nClare is a city in <a href=\\\"Clare%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Clare</a> and <a href=\\\"Isabella%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Isabella</a> counties in the U.S. state of <a href=\\\"Michigan\\\">Michigan</a>. Located primarily in Clare County, the population was 3,118 at the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>.\\nNorth-south <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%20127%20in%20Michigan\\\">U.S. Highway 127</a> (US 127) forms the eastern boundary for much of the city and has a junction with east-west <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%2010%20in%20Michigan\\\">US 10</a> on the east side of the city. US 10 connects with <a href=\\\"Midland%2C%20Michigan\\\">Midland</a>, 33 mi to the southeast, and with <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%20131\\\">US 131</a> at <a href=\\\"Reed%20City%2C%20Michigan\\\">Reed City</a>, 44 mi to the west. US 127 connects with <a href=\\\"Mount%20Pleasant%2C%20Michigan\\\">Mount Pleasant</a>, 13 mi to the south, and with <a href=\\\"Harrison%2C%20Clare%20County%2C%20Michigan\\\">Harrison</a>, 14 mi to the north. The southern terminus of <a href=\\\"M-115%20%28Michigan%20highway%29\\\">M-115</a> is in downtown Clare.\\nClare was founded with the coming of the Pere Marquette railroad in 1870. It was incorporated as a village in 1871 and as a city in 1891.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 3.50 sqmi , of which 3.39 sqmi is land and 0.11 sqmi is water.\\nAs of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $67,299, and the median income for a family was $86,194. Males had a median income of $88,365 versus $59,861 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $68,006. About 10.6% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 16.3% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2010, there were 3,118 people, 1,354 households, and 764 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 919.8 PD/sqmi . There were 1,534 housing units at an average density of 452.5 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the city was 85.0% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 4.7% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.9% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 6.1% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 1.5% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.8% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 6.5% of the population.\\nThere were 1,354 households of which 31.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.0% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. 36.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.88.\\nThe median age in the city was 36.1 years. 23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 11.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 22.9% were from 45 to 64; and 16.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45.2% male and 54.8% female.\\n<a href=\\\"Cops%20%26amp%3B%20Doughnuts\\\">Cops & Doughnuts</a>, a doughnut shop founded by members of the city's police precinct, is located downtown.\\nThis <a href=\\\"climate\\\">climatic</a> region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the <a href=\\\"K%C3%B6ppen%20Climate%20Classification\\\">Köppen Climate Classification</a> system, Clare has a <a href=\\\"humid%20continental%20climate\\\">humid continental climate</a>, abbreviated \\\"Dfb\\\" on climate maps.\\n\",\n \"Senate Democratic Policy Committee\\nThe United States Senate Democratic Policy Committee is responsible for the creation of new <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">United States Democratic Party</a> policy proposals, supporting Democratic senators with legislative research, developing reports on legislation and policy, conducting oversight hearings, monitoring roll call votes, differentiating between Democratic and Republican positions, and building party unity.\\nThe committee was established in 1947, by an act signed by President <a href=\\\"Harry%20S.%20Truman\\\">Harry S. Truman</a>, alongside its <a href=\\\"Republican%20Policy%20Committee%20Chairman%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\\\">Republican counterpart</a>. From 1947 to 2000, the <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Majority%20and%20Minority%20Leaders%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\\\">Democratic leader</a> was also the policy committee chairman. From 1989 to 1999, there was a co-chairman. Starting in 1999, the co-chairman was dropped and the position of policy committee chairman became a separate position elected by the <a href=\\\"Senate%20Democratic%20Caucus\\\">Senate Democratic Caucus</a>. The committee chairman is a member of the Democratic <a href=\\\"party%20leadership%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Senate\\\">party leadership of the United States Senate</a>.\\n\\n\",\n \"Pete Hoekstra\\nPieter \\\"Pete\\\" Hoekstra ( ; born October 30, 1953) is a <a href=\\\"Dutch-American\\\">Dutch-American</a> politician who is a former member of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives\\\">United States House of Representatives</a>, representing <a href=\\\"Michigan%27s%202nd%20congressional%20district\\\">Michigan's 2nd congressional district</a> from 1993 to 2011. Hoekstra is a member of the <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republican Party</a>.\\nBorn in <a href=\\\"Groningen%2C%20Netherlands\\\">Groningen, Netherlands</a>, Hoekstra is a graduate of <a href=\\\"Hope%20College\\\">Hope College</a> and the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Michigan\\\">University of Michigan</a>'s <a href=\\\"Ross%20School%20of%20Business\\\">Ross School of Business</a>. In 1992, Hoekstra ran for the U.S. House, defeating 13-term incumbent <a href=\\\"Guy%20Vander%20Jagt\\\">Guy Vander Jagt</a> in the Republican primary, and <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democratic</a> opponent John H. Miltner, in the general election. After the appointment of Congressman <a href=\\\"Porter%20Goss\\\">Porter Goss</a> as <a href=\\\"Director%20of%20the%20Central%20Intelligence%20Agency\\\">Director of the CIA</a>, Hoekstra became the Chairman of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20House%20Permanent%20Select%20Committee%20on%20Intelligence\\\">House Intelligence Committee</a>, serving from 2004 to 2007. He was a candidate for <a href=\\\"Governor%20of%20Michigan\\\">Governor of Michigan</a> in <a href=\\\"Michigan%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202010\\\">Michigan's 2010 gubernatorial election</a>, but came in second to <a href=\\\"Rick%20Snyder\\\">Rick Snyder</a> in the Republican primary. Hoekstra was also a candidate for the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate\\\">United States Senate</a> in 2012. He won the Republican primary with 54% of the vote, but later lost to Democratic incumbent <a href=\\\"Debbie%20Stabenow\\\">Debbie Stabenow</a> in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202012\\\">general election</a>.\\nIn July 2017, Hoekstra was nominated to be the next <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Ambassador%20to%20the%20Netherlands\\\">United States Ambassador to the Netherlands</a> by President <a href=\\\"Donald%20Trump\\\">Donald Trump</a>.\\nBorn Pieter Hoekstra in <a href=\\\"Groningen%20%28city%29\\\">Groningen</a>, <a href=\\\"Netherlands\\\">Netherlands</a>, he moved to America with his parents at the age of three. He received a <a href=\\\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\\\">B.A.</a> in <a href=\\\"political%20science\\\">political science</a> from <a href=\\\"Hope%20College\\\">Hope College</a> in 1975 and an <a href=\\\"Masters%20of%20Business%20Administration\\\">M.B.A.</a> from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Michigan\\\">University of Michigan</a>'s <a href=\\\"Ross%20School%20of%20Business\\\">Ross School of Business</a> in 1977. He then joined office furniture maker <a href=\\\"Herman%20Miller%20%28manufacturer%29\\\">Herman Miller</a> and remained there for 15 years, eventually becoming vice president of marketing.\\nIn 1992, Hoekstra made his first bid for public office in the 2nd District. The district, previously the 9th, had been represented for 26 years by <a href=\\\"Guy%20Vander%20Jagt\\\">Guy Vander Jagt</a>, longtime chairman of the <a href=\\\"National%20Republican%20Congressional%20Committee\\\">National Republican Congressional Committee</a>. Hoekstra rode his <a href=\\\"bicycle\\\">bicycle</a> across the district, charging that Vander Jagt had served in Congress for too long. He scored a monumental upset, winning by almost six percent. This primary win was <a href=\\\"tantamount%20to%20election\\\">tantamount to election</a> with the 2nd district seen as the \\\"most Republican\\\" district in Michigan, as Republicans have held the district for all but four years since it was created in 1873. Hoekstra later defeated <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrat</a> John H. Miltner and <a href=\\\"Libertarian%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Libertarian</a> Dick Jacobs in the general election, with 63% of the vote. Hoekstra continued to ride his bicycle across the district every summer, and biked across the state for his gubernatorial campaign.\\nWhen he was first elected, Hoekstra initially pledged to only serve six terms (12 years) in the House. He eventually broke the term limits pledge and won election to seven successive terms. In 2006, Hoekstra's Leadership PAC (the Mileage Fund) raised nearly $160,000 in Political Action Contributions from contributors including the <a href=\\\"Teamsters\\\">Teamsters</a>, Michigan Credit Union League, and Little Planet Books.\\nHoekstra faced no significant opposition in the Republican primary or in the general election (as in his previous five reelection campaigns) and went on to secure his seventh term. Shortly after the primary, he was named chairman of the Intelligence Committee, succeeding <a href=\\\"Porter%20Goss\\\">Porter Goss</a>, who became <a href=\\\"Director%20of%20the%20Central%20Intelligence%20Agency\\\">Director of the Central Intelligence Agency</a>.\\nHoekstra had no primary opponent. In November he was opposed by the <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democratic</a> candidate Kimon Kotos, who was also his 2004 opponent. Hoekstra defeated Kotos 183,518 votes to 87,361 votes.\\nHoekstra ran for re-election in 2008 against Fred Johnson, Associate Professor of History at <a href=\\\"Hope%20College\\\">Hope College</a>. He beat Johnson by 215,471 to 119,959 votes.\\nHoekstra had a conservative voting record, consistent with the conservative nature of the 2nd congressional district. He opposed amending the <a href=\\\"Constitution%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">Constitution</a> to prohibit <a href=\\\"flag%20desecration\\\">flag desecration</a>.\\nHoekstra and <a href=\\\"Sue%20Myrick\\\">Sue Myrick</a> sent an open letter to then-Attorney General <a href=\\\"Alberto%20Gonzales\\\">Alberto Gonzales</a> regarding the <a href=\\\"Islamic%20Society%20of%20North%20America\\\">Islamic Society of North America</a>, criticizing the Justice Department's involvement as providing legitimacy to an organization with extremist roots.\\nOn June 22, 2006, Hoekstra made headlines by announcing at a press conference in the Capitol that <a href=\\\"weapons%20of%20mass%20destruction\\\">weapons of mass destruction</a> had been located in <a href=\\\"Iraq\\\">Iraq</a> in the form of 500 <a href=\\\"chemical%20weapon\\\">chemical weapon</a>s.\\nA number of other media outlets disputed the claims made by Hoekstra and <a href=\\\"Rick%20Santorum\\\">Rick Santorum</a> regarding the existence of weapons of mass destruction, reporting that the claims were disputed by both <a href=\\\"The%20Pentagon\\\">Pentagon</a> officials, the Duelfer Report, and the intelligence community.\\nOn November 3, 2006, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times\\\">The New York Times</a>\\\" reported that a website created at the request of Hoekstra and <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senator\\\">Senator</a> <a href=\\\"Pat%20Roberts\\\">Pat Roberts</a> was found to contain detailed information that could potentially be helpful to those seeking to produce <a href=\\\"nuclear%20weapon\\\">nuclear weapon</a>s. The website was shut down on November 2 following questioning by The New York Times.\\nAs of September 17, 2007, some news outlets reported that the Congressional committee Hoekstra had overseen had created \\\"erroneous\\\" and \\\"misleading\\\" reports about Iran's nuclear capabilities. \\\"Among the committee's assertions is that Iran is producing weapons-grade uranium at its facility in the town of Natanz. The IAEA called that \\\"incorrect\\\", noting that weapons-grade uranium is enriched to a level of 90 percent or more. Iran has enriched uranium to 3.5 percent under IAEA monitoring.\\\"\\nOn December 27, 2009, Hoekstra commented on reports that <a href=\\\"Umar%20Farouk%20Abdulmutallab\\\">Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab</a>, who had allegedly tried to set off a <a href=\\\"suicide%20bomb\\\">suicide bomb</a> on <a href=\\\"Northwest%20Airlines%20Flight%20253\\\">Northwest Airlines Flight 253</a> on December 25, 2009, had subsequently confessed to being trained and equipped in Yemen.\\nHoekstra called for a halt to the repatriation of <a href=\\\"Yemeni%20captives%20in%20Guantanamo\\\">Yemeni captives in Guantanamo</a>.\\nHoekstra was a founding member of the Congressional House <a href=\\\"Tea%20Party%20Caucus\\\">Tea Party Caucus</a> in 2010.\\nIn December 2008, Hoekstra said he would not seek re-election to his U.S. House seat in 2010, and instead campaign to be Michigan's governor. Hoekstra joined <a href=\\\"Mike%20Bouchard\\\">Mike Bouchard</a>, the Oakland County Sheriff and former state senator, former <a href=\\\"Gateway%2C%20Inc.\\\">Gateway, Inc.</a> president <a href=\\\"Rick%20Snyder\\\">Rick Snyder</a>, State Senator <a href=\\\"Tom%20George\\\">Tom George</a> and Michigan Attorney General <a href=\\\"Mike%20Cox%20%28U.S.%20politician%29\\\">Mike Cox</a> as 2010 Republican gubernatorial candidates. In the primary, held on August 3, 2010, Hoekstra finished second to Snyder.\\nHoekstra was suggested as a possible challenger for incumbent <a href=\\\"Debbie%20Stabenow\\\">Debbie Stabenow</a> in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate%20election%20in%20Michigan%2C%202012\\\">2012 Senate election</a>, but he initially declined to run. Hoekstra later changed his mind and decided to challenge Stabenow in the election. On 29 August 2011, Hoekstra was endorsed by Republican Michigan Governor Rick Snyder, and on 23 September 2011, Hoekstra was endorsed by <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20presidential%20candidates%2C%202012\\\">2012 Presidential candidate</a> <a href=\\\"Michele%20Bachmann\\\">Michele Bachmann</a>.\\nHoekstra faced Stabenow and four third-party candidates in the general election. On November 6, 2012, Hoekstra was defeated by Stabenow, receiving 38% of the vote.\\nHoekstra targeted Democratic incumbent Debbie Stabenow with a television ad which ran statewide during the <a href=\\\"Super%20Bowl%20XLVI\\\">2012 Super Bowl</a>. The 30-second ad, created by Republican advertising consultant <a href=\\\"Fred%20Davis%20III\\\">Fred Davis III</a>, opened with the sound of a gong and the image of a Chinese woman (played by 2012 Miss Napa Valley Lisa Chan) riding a bike alongside a rice paddy. The ad sarcastically accused Stabenow of contributing to the U.S.' spending problem, with the woman thanking \\\"Michigan Senator Debbie Spenditnow\\\", in <a href=\\\"broken%20English\\\">broken English</a>, implying Stabenow has earned China's gratitude for making the U.S. economy \\\"very weak\\\" while China's \\\"get very good\\\".\\nThe commercial included a link to a Hoekstra campaign website with statistics about federal spending, decorated with images of Chinese flags and currency and using a stereotypical [[Chinatown]] font. In the [[HTML]] code on Hoekstra’s site, the woman in the ad is identified as \\\"yellowgirl\\\". A statement released by the Hoekstra campaign said the [[HTML]] code was mistakenly shortened from “yellowshirtgirl”.\\nAsian-American groups called the ad \\\"very disturbing\\\", and two of Hoekstra’s GOP opponents, [[Clark Durant]] and Gary Glenn, questioned whether Hoekstra was the right candidate for Republicans to support. The ad was criticized by [[Michael Yaki]], former aide to [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Nancy Pelosi]], a member of the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]], and U.S. Senator [[Dan Inouye]]. [[James Fallows]] of \\\"[[The Atlantic]]\\\" called it the \\\"most revolting ad\\\". The [[NAACP]] denounced the ad as an \\\"unnecessary [[race card]].\\\"\\nThe ad proved costly for Hoekstra; several polls reported him losing ground to Stabenow in a head-to-head match-up.\\nHoekstra initially stood by the ad, claiming it hit Stabenow \\\"smack dab between the eyes\\\" on the economy. However, on February 10, 2012 Hoekstra shut down his controversial Chinese-themed website and phased in a new TV commercial in place of his original ad. American Values super PAC, an Asian American group, claimed credit for the scrub shortly after the group's launch of an online viral ad condemning Hoekstra.\\nOn February 16, Chan apologized for her involvement in the ad. In a statement on her [[Facebook]] page, she said the role was \\\"not in any way representative of who I am\\\" and \\\"absolutely a mistake on my part.\\\"\\nDespite the controversy, Hoekstra won the Republican primary. He lost to Stabenow in the general election.\\nIn February 2011, Hoekstra joined the government relations group and [[Washington D.C.]] law firm [[Dickstein Shapiro]], and was named a visiting distinguished fellow at the conservative [[think tank]] [[The Heritage Foundation]], concentrating on education reform. Hoekstra left Dickstein Shapiro in 2014 to join one of its rivals, Greenberg Traurig.\\nHoekstra joined the Investigative Project on Terrorism in 2014 as a Shillman Senior Fellow, specializing in national security, international relations, global terrorism and cyber security.\\nHoekstra published his first book in October 2015, \\\"Architects of Disaster: The Destruction of Libya\\\" with Terri Blumenfeld. An Obama administration spokesman took issue with the book on November 11, 2015 because of Hoekstra's assertion that the removal of Libyan leader Muammar Qadaffi was a serious mistake since he had become an ally of the United States and his down fall caused Libya to become a terrorist safe haven. White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest said: \\\"a careful consideration of his long record would probably not conclude Col. Qadaffi was not a friend and ally of the United States.\\\"\\nIn an interview with NPR's Robert Siegel on December 10, 2014, Hoekstra said he disagreed with the recently released [[Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture]]. Hoekstra endorsed John Kasich for President in 2016.\\nOn March 11, 2017, Hoekstra said that [[Chelsea Manning]], [[Edward Snowden]], and other leakers of government materials, having illegally released classified information, were traitors and should have taken their evidence to the intelligence committees of the U.S. Congress for proper investigations.\\n\\n[[Category:1953 births]]\\n[[Category:21st-century American politicians]]\\n[[Category:American people of Dutch descent]]\\n[[Category:Dutch emigrants to the United States]]\\n[[Category:Hope College alumni]]\\n[[Category:Living people]]\\n[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan]]\\n[[Category:Michigan Republicans]]\\n[[Category:People from Groningen (city)]]\\n[[Category:People from Holland, Michigan]]\\n[[Category:Reformed Church in America members]]\\n[[Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]\\n[[Category:Ross School of Business alumni]]\\n[[Category:Tea Party movement activists]]\\n[[Category:Trump administration personnel]]\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Deborah Ann Greer Stabenow (born April 29, 1950) is the senior United States Senator from Michigan and a member of the Democratic Party. Before her election to the U.S. Senate, she was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Michigan's 8th congressional district from 1997 to 2001. She previously served as a member of the Ingham County Board of Commissioners, Michigan House of Representatives, and Michigan Senate.","Rostin Behnam is an American lawyer and government official who currently serves as a commissioner of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission. Prior to assuming his current role, he served as senior counsel to U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow. Behnam has also practiced law in New York City and worked at the New Jersey Office of the Attorney General."],"string":"[\n \"Deborah Ann Greer Stabenow (born April 29, 1950) is the senior United States Senator from Michigan and a member of the Democratic Party. Before her election to the U.S. Senate, she was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Michigan's 8th congressional district from 1997 to 2001. She previously served as a member of the Ingham County Board of Commissioners, Michigan House of Representatives, and Michigan Senate.\",\n \"Rostin Behnam is an American lawyer and government official who currently serves as a commissioner of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission. Prior to assuming his current role, he served as senior counsel to U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow. Behnam has also practiced law in New York City and worked at the New Jersey Office of the Attorney General.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":82,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In what year was the sculpture completed that the Galleria dell'Accademia di Firenze is best known as the home for?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1504"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Florian Vika\nFlorian Vika is an Albanian contemporary painter and visual artist from Tirana. He was graduated in the Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Italy in 2004. His art conception is based in the reconstruction of the new values lost from ancient art which remains in every time and sharing those with post modern ones created from Picasso. This way of creating by Florian was appreciated from the Italian professors of Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze.","Galleria dell'Accademia\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia di Firenze, or \"Gallery of the Academy of Florence\", is an art museum in Florence, Italy. It is best known as the home of Michelangelo's sculpture \"David\". It also has other sculptures by Michelangelo and a large collection of paintings by Florentine artists, mostly from the period 1300-1600, the Trecento to the Late Renaissance. It is smaller and more specialized than the Uffizi, the main art museum in Florence. It adjoins the Accademia di Belle Arti or academy of fine arts of Florence, but despite the name has no other connection with it.\nIn 2016 it had 1,461,185 visitors, making it the second most visited art museum in Italy, after the Uffizi (2.02 million).\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia was founded in 1784 by Pietro Leopoldo, Grand Duke of Tuscany.\nIn 2001 the \"Museo degli strumenti musical\" collection opened. It includes musical instruments made by Stradivarius, Niccolò Amati, and Bartolomeo Cristofori.\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia has housed the original \"David\" by Michelangelo since 1873. The sculpture was allegedly brought to the Accademia for reasons of conservation, although other factors were involved in its move from its previous outdoor location on Piazza della Signoria. The original intention was to create a 'Michelangelo museum', with original sculptures and drawings, to celebrate the fourth centenary of the artist's birth. Today, the gallery's small collection of Michelangelo's work includes his four unfinished \"Prisoners\", intended for the tomb of Pope Julius II, and a statue of Saint Matthew, also unfinished. In 1939, these were joined by a \"Pietà\" discovered in the Barberini chapel in Palestrina, though experts now consider its attribution to Michelangelo to be dubious.\nThe \"David\" in the Accademia is the original. There is a replica in the Piazza della Signoria.\nOther works on display are Florentine paintings from the 13th and 16th centuries, including works by Paolo Uccello, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli and Andrea del Sarto; and, from the High Renaissance, Giambologna's original full-size plaster modello for the \"Rape of the Sabine Women\". As well as a number of Florentine Gothic paintings, the gallery houses the collection of Russian icons assembled by the Grand Dukes of the House of Lorraine, of which Leopoldo was one.","Brera Academy\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera (\"academy of fine arts of Brera\"), also known as the \"Accademia di Brera \" or Brera Academy, is a state-run tertiary public academy of fine arts in Milan, Italy. It shares its history, and in early 2017 still its main building, with the Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan's main public museum for art. In 2010 an agreement was signed to move the accademia to a former military barracks, the Caserma Magenta in via Mascheroni, but the move had not happened by early 2017.\nThe academy was founded in 1776 by Maria Theresa of Austria. In typical Enlightenment fashion, it shared premises with other cultural and scientific institutions – the astronomical observatory, the Orto Botanico di Brera, the Scuole Palatine for philosophy and law, the Gymnasium, laboratories for physics and chemistry, the Biblioteca di Brera, the agricultural society and, from 1806, the Pinacoteca di Brera or art gallery. These were housed in the Palazzo Brera, which was built in about 1615 to designs by Francesco Maria Richini and until the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 had been a Jesuit college.\nLike other state-run art academies in Italy, the Accademia di Brera falls under the Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca, the Italian ministry of education and research. In accordance with presidential decree 212 dated 8 July 2005, it awards first- and second-level degrees, specialised degrees, master's degrees and doctorates.\nThe accademia has three departments: the department of visual arts, with courses in decorative art, graphic art, painting and sculpture; the department of design and applied art, which has courses in art restoration, design for business, new technologies of art and scenic design; and the department of communication and education in art, with courses in conservation of cultural heritage and in art education.\nIt has about 3,800 students, including about 1,000 foreign students (mostly postgraduates). It actively exchanges students and teachers with other European countries through the ERASMUS programme, and since 2006, with countries outside EU such as Japan, China, Hong Kong, Mexico, Taiwan and Australia.\nThe picture gallery of the accademia, now the Pinacoteca di Brera, was started in 1806, in Napoleonic times. Large numbers of paintings were brought to Milan after the suppression of the convents by Napoleon. The façade of the church of Santa Maria in Brera of the former monastery was torn down and the nave of the church divided horizontally; the upper floor became the Napoleonic rooms of the art gallery of the Accademia, which opened in 1809 as the Reale Galleria, and the lower floor housed the sculptures of the museum of antiquities. A Sala dei Moderni, which housed contemporary works, was started in 1806 by Giuseppe Bossi. The Pinacoteca became independent of the accademia in 1882, though both remain in Palazzo Brera.\nAlumni of the academy include the playwright Dario Fo, recipient of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Futurist painter Carlo Carrà, who also taught at the academy from 1939 to 1952.\nOthers who have taught at the Brera include the Venetian painter Francesco Hayez, professor of painting from 1822 to 1880; and the architect and writer Camillo Boito, who was professor of architecture from 1860 to 1909, and for part of that time also president of the academy.\n","Accademia di Belle Arti di Perugia\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Perugia (\"Academy of Fine Arts of Perugia\") is a private tertiary academy of art in Perugia, in Umbria in central Italy. It is not one of the 20 official Italian state academies of fine art, but is legally recognised by the Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca, the Italian ministry of education and research, which gives its full name as Accademia di Belle Arti Legalmente Riconosciuta di Perugia \"Pietro Vannucci\". The academy became an autonomous degree-awarding institution under law no. 508 dated 21 December 1999.\nWith a foundation year of 1573 makes the Academy (initially called the Academia del Disegno - “Academy of Drawing”), the second for longevity after the Academy of Fine Arts of Florence born just eleven years before. Was born by the impulse of a painter (Orazio Alfani) and an architect and mathematician (Raphael Sozi).\nThe Royal Academy has an important collection of books, archives and works of art accessible for research and display.","Gallerie dell'Accademia\nThe Gallerie dell'Accademia is a museum gallery of pre-19th-century art in Venice, northern Italy. It is housed in the Scuola della Carità on the south bank of the Grand Canal, within the sestiere of Dorsoduro. It was originally the gallery of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia, the art academy of Venice, from which it became independent in 1879, and for which the Ponte dell'Accademia and the Accademia boat landing station for the \"vaporetto\" water bus are named. The two institutions remained in the same building until 2004, when the art school moved to the Ospedale degli Incurabili.\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia was founded on 24 September 1750; the statute dates from 1756. The first director was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; Gianbattista Tiepolo became the first president after his return from Würzburg.\nIt was one of the first institutions to study art restoration starting in 1777 with Pietro Edwards, and formalised by 1819 as a course.\nIn 1807 the academy was re-founded by Napoleonic decree. The name was changed from Veneta Academia di Pittura, Scultura e Architettura to Accademia Reale di Belle Arti, \"royal academy of fine arts\", and the academy was moved to the Palladian complex of the Scuola della Carità, where the Gallerie dell'Accademia are still housed. The collections of the Accademia were first opened to the public on 10 August 1817.\nThe Gallerie dell'Accademia became independent from the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia in 1879. Like other state museums in Italy, it falls under the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, the Italian ministry of culture and heritage.\nThe Napoleonic administration had disbanded many institutions in Venice including some churches, convents and Scuole. The Scuola della Carità, the Convento dei Canonici Lateranensi and the church of Santa Maria della Carità thus became the home of the Accademia. The Scuola della Carità was the oldest of the six Scuole Grandi and the building dates back to 1343, though the scuola was formed in 1260. The Convento dei Canonici Lateranensi was started in 1561 by Andrea Palladio, though it was never fully completed. The facade of Santa Maria della Carità was completed in 1441 by Bartolomeo Bon.\nThe Gallerie dell’Accademia contains masterpieces of Venetian painting up to the 18th century, generally arranged chronologically though some thematic displays are evident.\nArtists represented include:\nAntonello da Messina,\nLazzaro Bastiani,\nGentile and Giovanni Bellini,\nBernardo Bellotto,\nPacino di Bonaguida,\nCanaletto,\nCarpaccio,\nGiulio Carpioni,\nRosalba Carriera,\nCima da Conegliano,\nFetti,\nPietro Gaspari,\nMichele Giambono,\nLuca Giordano,\nFrancesco Guardi,\nGiorgione,\nJohann Liss,\nCharles Le Brun,\nPietro Longhi,\nLorenzo Lotto,\nMantegna,\nRocco Marconi,\nMichele Marieschi,\nPiazzetta,\nGiambattista Pittoni,\nPreti,\nTiepolo,\nTintoretto,\nTitian,\nVeronese (Paolo Caliari),\nVasari,\nLeonardo da Vinci (Drawing of Vitruvian Man),\nAlvise Vivarini, and\nGiuseppe Zais.\n","Mary de Piro\nMary de Piro is an Maltese artist (born in Valletta, 1946). She studied art at a young age while at boarding school at Badia a Ripoli in Florence and later at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze. Her first exhibition was held in Wisconsin, in the course of a stay in the United States. Her first solo exhibition in Malta brought her critical acclaim owing to the confidence of her brushwork and choice of large format canvases. This led to commissions from corporate patrons, through curator Richard England. In 1975 she moved to the UK, where she raised a family while continuing to paint, moving into the field of portraiture and sacred art. Over the years she mainly participated in collective exhibitions in the England, Malta, and Italy. Mary de Piro is best known for her landscape paintings, particularly those which evoke the Mediterranean light of the Maltese countryside.\nPersonal exhibitions\nCollective","Accademia di Belle Arti di Carrara\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Carrara is a public tertiary academy of art in Carrara, in Tuscany, Italy. It was founded on 26 September 1769 by Maria Teresa Cybo-Malaspina, duchess of Massa and princess of Carrara; but its origins go back to 1757, when, on the advice of the sculptor Giovanni Domenico Olivieri, she founded the Accademia di San Ceccardo in which sculpture, architecture and painting were to be taught.\nLike other state art academies in Italy, it became an autonomous degree-awarding institution under law no. 508 dated 21 December 1999, and falls under the Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca, the Italian ministry of education and research.\nList of academies of fine art in Italy\n","David (Michelangelo)\nDavid (] ) is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and 1504 by Michelangelo.\nIt is a 5.17 m marble statue of a standing male nude. The statue represents the Biblical hero David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence. Originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, the statue was placed instead in a public square, outside the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of civic government in Florence, in the Piazza della Signoria where it was unveiled on September 8th, 1504.\nBecause of the nature of the hero it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defense of civil liberties embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a warning glare, were turned towards Rome. The statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica.\nThe history of the statue begins before Michelangelo's work on it from 1501 to 1504. Prior to Michelangelo's involvement, the Overseers of the Office of Works of Florence Cathedral, consisting mostly of members of the influential woolen cloth guild, the Arte della Lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large Old Testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral. In 1410 Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello's direction. Eager to continue their project, in 1464, the \"Operai\" contracted Agostino to create a sculpture of David. A block of marble was provided from a quarry in Carrara, a town in the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany. Agostino only got as far as beginning to shape the legs, feet and the torso, roughing out some drapery and probably gouging a hole between the legs. His association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of Donatello in 1466, and ten years later Antonio Rossellino was commissioned to take up where Agostino had left off.\nRossellino's contract was terminated soon thereafter, and the block of marble remained neglected for 25 years, all the while exposed to the elements in the yard of the cathedral workshop. This was of great concern to the \"Opera\" authorities, as such a large piece of marble not only was costly but represented a large amount of labour and difficulty in its transportation to Florence. In 1500, an inventory of the cathedral workshops described the piece as \"a certain figure of marble called David, badly blocked out and supine.\" A year later, documents showed that the \"Operai\" were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and turn it into a finished work of art. They ordered the block of stone, which they called \"The Giant\", \"raised on its feet\" so that a master experienced in this kind of work might examine it and express an opinion. Though Leonardo da Vinci and others were consulted, it was Michelangelo, only 26 years old, who convinced the \"Operai\" that he deserved the commission. On 16 August 1501, Michelangelo was given the official contract to undertake this challenging new task. He began carving the statue early in the morning on 13 September, a month after he was awarded the contract. He would work on the massive statue for more than two years.\nOn 25 January 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, Florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the more than six-ton statue to the roof of the cathedral. They convened a committee of 30 Florentine citizens that comprised many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for \"David\". While nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites. One group, led by Giuliano da Sangallo and supported by Leonardo and Piero di Cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the Loggia dei Lanzi on Piazza della Signoria; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the Palazzo della Signoria, the city's town hall (now known as Palazzo Vecchio). Another opinion, supported by Botticelli, was that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral. In June 1504, \"David\" was installed next to the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio, replacing Donatello's bronze sculpture of \"Judith and Holofernes\", which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. It took four days to move the statue the half mile from Michelangelo's workshop into the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer the sling and tree-stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin-garland.\nIn 1873, the statue of \"David\" was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the Accademia Gallery, Florence, where it attracts many visitors. A replica was placed in the Piazza della Signoria in 1910.\nIn 1991, a mentally disturbed artist named Piero Cannata attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed beneath his jacket; in the process of damaging the toes of the left foot, he was restrained.\nOn 12 November 2010, a fiberglass replica of the \"David\" was installed on the roofline of Florence Cathedral, for one day only. Photographs of the installation reveal the statue the way the \"Operai\" who commissioned the work originally expected it to be seen.\nIn 2010, a dispute over the ownership of \"David\" arose when, based on a legal review of historical documents, the Italian Culture Ministry claimed ownership of the statue in opposition to the city of Florence, where it has always been located. Florence disputes the state claim.\nIn the mid 1800s, small cracks were noticed on the left leg on \"David\" which can possibly be attributed to an uneven sinking of the ground under the massive statue.\nThe pose of Michelangelo's \"David\" is unlike that of earlier Renaissance depictions of David. The bronze statues by Donatello and Verrocchio represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath, and the painter Andrea del Castagno had shown the boy in mid-swing, even as Goliath's head rested between his feet, but no earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. According to Helen Gardner and other scholars, David is depicted before his battle with Goliath. Instead of being shown victorious over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready for combat.\nThe statue appears to show David after he has made the decision to fight Goliath but before the battle has actually taken place, a moment between conscious choice and action. His brow is drawn, his neck tense and the veins bulge out of his lowered right hand. His left hand holds a sling that is draped over his shoulder and down to his right hand, which holds a rock. The twist of his body effectively conveys to the viewer the feeling that he is in motion, an impression heightened with contrapposto. The statue is a Renaissance interpretation of a common ancient Greek theme of the standing heroic male nude. In the High Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture. This is typified in \"David\", as the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg forward. This classic pose causes the figure’s hips and shoulders to rest at opposing angles, giving a slight s-curve to the entire torso. The contrapposto is emphasised by the turn of the head to the left, and by the contrasting positions of the arms.\nMichelangelo’s \"David\" has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture, a symbol of strength and youthful beauty.\nJust the colossal size of the statue impressed Michelangelo's contemporaries. Vasari described it as \"certainly a miracle that of Michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead,\" and then listed all of the largest and most grand of the ancient statues that he had ever seen, concluding that Michelangelo's work surpassed \"all ancient and modern statues, whether Greek or Latin, that have ever existed.\"\nThe proportions of the \"David\" are atypical of Michelangelo's work; the figure has an unusually large head and hands (particularly apparent in the right hand). The small size of the genitals, though, is in line with his other works and with Renaissance conventions in general, perhaps referencing the ancient Greek ideal of pre-pubescent male nudity. These enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture may have been accentuated in order to be visible from below. The statue is unusually slender (front to back) in comparison to its height, which may be a result of the work done on the block before Michelangelo began carving it.\nIt is possible that the \"David\" was conceived as a political statue before Michelangelo began to work on it. Certainly David the giant-killer had long been seen as a political figure in Florence, and images of the Biblical hero already carried political implications there. Donatello's bronze \"David,\" made for the Medici family, perhaps 1440, had been appropriated by the Signoria in 1494, when the Medici were exiled from Florence, and the statue was installed in the courtyard of the Palazzo della Signoria, where it stood for the Republican government of the city. By placing Michelangelo's statue in the same general location, the Florentine authorities ensured that \"David\" would be seen as a political parallel as well as an artistic response to that earlier work. These political overtones led to the statue being attacked twice in its early days. Protesters pelted it with stones the year it debuted, and, in 1527, an anti-Medici riot resulted in its left arm being broken into three pieces.\nCommentators have noted the presence on \"David\"'s penis of his foreskin, which is at odds with the Judaic practice of circumcision, but is consistent with the conventions of Renaissance art.\nDuring World War II, \"David\" was entombed in brick to protect it from damage from airborne bombs.\nIn 1991, the foot of the statue was damaged by a man with a hammer. The samples obtained from that incident allowed scientists to determine that the marble used was obtained from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, the central of three small valleys in Carrara. The marble in question contains many microscopic holes that cause it to deteriorate faster than other marbles. Because of the marble's degradation, from 2003 to 2004 the statue was given its first major cleaning since 1843. Some experts opposed the use of water to clean the statue, fearing further deterioration. Under the direction of Franca Falleti, senior restorers Monica Eichmann and Cinzia Parnigoni undertook the job of restoring the statue.\nIn 2008, plans were proposed to insulate the statue from the vibration of tourists' footsteps at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia, to prevent damage to the marble.\nDavid has stood on display at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia since 1873. In addition to the full-sized replica occupying the spot of the original in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, a bronze version overlooks Florence from the Piazzale Michelangelo. The plaster cast of \"David\" at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response to Queen Victoria's shock upon first viewing the statue's nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks. In 2010, the Italian government began a campaign to solidify its claim to the iconic marble statue.\n\"David\" has been endlessly reproduced, in plaster and imitation marble fibreglass, signifying an attempt to lend an atmosphere of culture even in some unlikely settings such as beach resorts, gambling casinos and model railroads.\n\n","Palestrina Pietà\nThe Palestrina Pietà is a marble sculpture by the Italian High Renaissance, dating from c. 1555 and housed in the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence. It was formerly attributed to Michelangelo, but now it is mostly considered to have been completed by someone else, such as Niccolò Menghini or Gian Lorenzo Bernini. According to the Galleria dell'Accademia, the sculpture's \"attribution to the master is still somehow controversial\".\nThis Pietà depicts three figures, one of them the body of Jesus Christ. The sculpture was originally in a room beside the Santa Rosalia church in Palestrina and was owned by the Barberini family. Some sources indicate it was made in 1556. The sculpture was acquired by the government in 1939. The attribution to Michelangelo was made relatively recently, in the first half of the 18th century. There is no earlier discussion of the work as there is for nearly all others attributed to the master.\n","Paolo Uccello\nPaolo Uccello (] ; 1397 – 10 December 1475), born Paolo di Dono, was an <a href=\"Italy\">Italian</a> painter and mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual <a href=\"Perspective%20%28graphical%29\">perspective</a> in art. In his book \"<a href=\"Lives%20of%20the%20Artists\">Lives of the Artists</a>\" <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a> wrote that Uccello was obsessed by his interest in perspective and would stay up all night in his study trying to grasp the exact vanishing point. While his contemporaries used perspective to narrate different or succeeding stories, Uccello used perspective to create a feeling of depth in his paintings. His best known works are the <a href=\"The%20Battle%20of%20San%20Romano\">three paintings</a> representing the <a href=\"battle%20of%20San%20Romano\">battle of San Romano</a>, which were wrongly entitled the \"Battle of Sant' Egidio of 1416\" for a long period of time.\nPaolo worked in the <a href=\"International%20Gothic\">Late Gothic</a> tradition, emphasizing colour and pageantry rather than the classical realism that other artists were pioneering. His style is best described as idiosyncratic, and he left no school of followers. He has had some influence on twentieth-century art and literary criticism (e.g., in the \"Vies imaginaires\" by <a href=\"Marcel%20Schwob\">Marcel Schwob</a>, \"Uccello le poil\" by <a href=\"Antonin%20Artaud\">Antonin Artaud</a> and \"O Mundo Como Ideia\" by <a href=\"Bruno%20Tolentino\">Bruno Tolentino</a>).\nThe sources for Paolo Uccello’s life are few: <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a>’s biography, written 75 years after Paolo’s death, and a few contemporary official documents. Due to the lack of sources, even his date of birth is questionable. It is believed that Uccello was born in <a href=\"Pratovecchio\">Pratovecchio</a> in 1397, and his tax declarations for some years indicate that he was born in 1397, but in 1446 he claimed to be born in 1396. His father, Dono di Paolo, was a <a href=\"barber\">barber-surgeon</a> from <a href=\"Pratovecchio\">Pratovecchio</a> near Arezzo; his mother, Antonia, was a high-born Florentine. His nickname \"<a href=\"%3Awiktionary%3Auccello\">Uccello</a>\" came from his fondness for painting birds.\nFrom 1412 until 1416 he was apprenticed to the famous sculptor <a href=\"Lorenzo%20Ghiberti\">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a>. Ghiberti was the designer of the doors of the <a href=\"Florence%20Baptistery\">Florence Baptistery</a> and his workshop was the premier centre for Florentine art at the time. Ghiberti's late-Gothic, narrative style and sculptural composition greatly influenced Paolo. It was also around this time that Paolo began his lifelong friendship with <a href=\"Donatello\">Donatello</a>. In 1414, Uccello was admitted to the <a href=\"painters%27%20guild\">painters' guild</a>, \"Compagnia di San Luca,\" and just one year later, in 1415, he joined the official painter's guild of Florence \"Arte dei Medici e degli Speziali\". Although the young Uccello had probably left Ghiberti's workshop by the mid 1420s, he stayed on good terms with his master and may have been privy to the designs for Ghiberti's second set of Baptistery doors, \"The Gates of Paradise.\" These featured a battle scene \"that might well have impressed itself in the mind of the young Uccello,\" and thus influenced \"<a href=\"The%20Battle%20of%20San%20Romano\">The Battle of San Romano</a>\".\nAccording to <a href=\"Vasari\">Vasari</a>, Uccello’s first painting was a Saint Anthony between the saints Cosmas and Damianus, a commission for the hospital of Lelmo. Next, he painted two figures in the convent of Annalena. Shortly afterwards, he painted three <a href=\"fresco\">fresco</a>es with scenes from \"the life of <a href=\"Francis%20of%20Assisi\">Saint Francis</a>\" above the left door of the <a href=\"Santa%20Trinita\">Santa Trinita</a> church. For the <a href=\"Santa%20Maria%20Maggiore%20di%20Firenze\">Santa Maria Maggiore</a> church, he painted a fresco of the <a href=\"Annunciation\">Annunciation</a>. In this fresco, he painted a large building with columns in perspective. According to Vasari, people found this to be a great and beautiful achievement because this was the first example of how lines could be expertly used to demonstrate perspective and size. As a result, this work became a model for artists who wished to craft illusions of space in order to enhance the realness of their paintings.\nPaolo painted \"the Lives of the <a href=\"Church%20Fathers\">Church Fathers</a>\" in the cloisters of the church of <a href=\"San%20Miniato\">San Miniato</a>, which sat on a hill overlooking Florence. According to Vasari, Paolo protested against the monotonous meals of cheese pies and <a href=\"cheese%20soup\">cheese soup</a> served by the abbot by running away, and returned to finish the job only after the abbot promised him a more varied diet.\nUccello was asked to paint a number of scenes of distempered animals for the house of the Medici. The scene most appreciated by Vasari was his depiction of a fierce lion fighting with a venom-spouting snake. Uccello loved to paint animals and he kept a wide variety of pictures of animals, especially birds, at home. This love for birds is what led to his nickname, Paolo Uccelli (Paul of the birds).\nBy 1424, Paolo was earning his own living as a painter. In that year, he proved his artistic maturity by painting episodes of the \"Creation and Expulsion,\" which are now badly damaged, for the Green Cloister (\"Chiostro Verde\") of <a href=\"Santa%20Maria%20Novella\">Santa Maria Novella</a> in Florence. Again, this assignment allowed him to paint a large number of animals in a lively manner. He also succeeded in painting trees in their natural colours. This was a skill that was difficult for many of his predecessors, so Uccello also began to acquire a reputation for painting landscapes. He continued with scenes from the <a href=\"Deluge%20%28mythology%29\">Deluge</a>, the story of <a href=\"Noah%27s%20Ark\">Noah's Ark</a>, Noah's sacrifice and Noah's drunkenness. These scenes brought him great fame in Florence.\nIn 1425, Uccello travelled to <a href=\"Venice\">Venice</a>, where he worked on the mosaics for the façade of <a href=\"St%20Mark%27s%20Basilica\">San Marco</a>, which have all since been lost. During this time, he also painted some frescoes in the <a href=\"Prato%20Cathedral\">Prato Cathedral</a> and <a href=\"Bologna\">Bologna</a>. Some suggest he visited <a href=\"Rome\">Rome</a> with his friend Donatello before returning to Florence in 1431. After he returned, Uccello remained in Florence for most of the rest of his life, executing works for various churches and patrons, most notably the <a href=\"Santa%20Maria%20del%20Fiore\">Duomo</a>.\nDespite his leave from Florence, interest in Uccello did not diminish. In 1432, the Office of Works asked the Florentine ambassador in Venice to enquire after Uccello’s reputation as an artist. In 1436, he was given the commission for the monochromatic fresco of \"Sir <a href=\"John%20Hawkwood\">John Hawkwood</a>\". This equestrian monument exemplified his keen interest in <a href=\"perspective%20%28graphical%29\">perspective</a>. The <a href=\"condottiere\">condottiere</a> and his horse are presented as if the fresco was a sculpture seen from below.\nIt is widely thought that he is the author of the frescoes \"Stories of the Virgin\" and \"Story of Saint Stephen\" in the Cappella dell'Assunta, Florence, so he likely visited nearby <a href=\"Prato\">Prato</a> sometime between 1435 and 1440. Later, in 1443, he painted the figures on the clock of the Duomo. In that same year and continuing into 1444, he designed a few stained glass windows for the same church. In 1444 he was also at work in <a href=\"Padua\">Padua</a>, and he travelled to Padua again in 1445 at Donatello’s invitation.\nBack in Florence in 1446, he painted the \"Green Stations of the Cross\", again for the cloister of the church Santa Maria Novella. Around 1447–1454 he painted \"Scenes of Monastic Life\" for the church <a href=\"Basilica%20di%20San%20Miniato%20al%20Monte\">San Miniato al Monte</a>, Florence.\nAround the mid-1450s, he painted his three most famous paintings, the panels depicting \"<a href=\"The%20Battle%20of%20San%20Romano\">The Battle of San Romano</a>\" for the Palazzo Medici in Florence, commemorating the victory of the Florentine army over the Sienese in 1432. The extraordinarily <a href=\"Perspective%20%28graphical%29\">foreshortened</a> forms extending in many planes accentuate Uccello's virtuosity as a draftsman, and provides a controlled visual structure to the chaos of the battle scene.\nBy 1453, Uccello was married to Tommasa Malifici. This is known because, in that year Donato (named after Donatello), was born. Three years later, in 1456, his wife gave birth to their daughter, Antonia. Antonia Uccello (1456–1491) was a <a href=\"Carmelite\">Carmelite</a> nun, whom <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a> called \"a daughter who knew how to draw.\" She was even noted as a \"pittoressa\", a painter, on her death certificate. Her style and her skill remains a mystery as none of her work is extant.\nFrom 1465 to 1469, Uccello was in <a href=\"Urbino\">Urbino</a> with his son Donato working for the Confraternity of Corpus Domini, a brotherhood of laymen. During this time, he painted the <a href=\"predella\">predella</a> for their new altarpiece with the \"Miracle of the Profaned Host.\" (The main panel representing the \"Communion of the Apostles\" was commissioned to <a href=\"Joos%20van%20Wassenhove\">Justus van Ghent</a> and finished in 1474). Uccello's predella is composed of six meticulous, naturalistic scenes related to the antisemitic myth of <a href=\"host%20desecration\">host desecration</a>, which was based upon an event that supposedly occurred in Paris in 1290. It has been suggested that the subject of the main panel, on which Duke <a href=\"Frederick%20of%20Montefeltro\">Frederick of Montefeltro</a> of Urbino appears in the background conversing with an Asian, is related to the antisemitic intention of the predella. However, Federico did allow a small Jewish community to live in Urbino and not all of these scenes are unanimously attributed to Paolo Uccello.\nIn his Florentine tax return of August 1469, Uccello declared, “I find myself old and ailing, my wife is ill, and I can no longer work.” In the last years of his life, Paolo was a lonesome and forgotten man who was afraid of hardship in life. His last known work is \"<a href=\"The%20Hunt%20in%20the%20Forest\">The Hunt</a>\", c. 1470. He made his testament on 11 November 1475 and died shortly afterwards on 10 December 1475 at the hospital of Florence, at the age of 78. He was buried in his father’s tomb in the Florentine church of <a href=\"Santo%20Spirito%2C%20Florence\">Santo Spirito</a>.\nWith his precise and analytical mind, Paolo Uccello tried to apply a scientific method to depict objects in three-dimensional space. In particular, some of his studies of the perspective foreshortening of the <a href=\"torus\">torus</a> are preserved, and one standard display of drawing skill was his depiction of the <a href=\"mazzocchio\">mazzocchio</a>. The perspective in his paintings has influenced many famous painters, such as <a href=\"Piero%20della%20Francesca\">Piero della Francesca</a>, <a href=\"Albrecht%20D%C3%BCrer\">Albrecht Dürer</a> and <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, to name a few.\n<a href=\"John%20Pope-Hennessy\">Pope-Hennessy</a> is far more conservative than the Italian authors: he attributes some of the works below to a \"Prato Master\" and a \"Karlsruhe Master\". Most of the dates in the list (taken from Borsi and Borsi) are derived from stylistic comparison rather than from documentation.\n","Stradivarius\nA Stradivarius is one of the <a href=\"violin\">violin</a>s, <a href=\"viola\">viola</a>s, <a href=\"cello\">cello</a>s and other <a href=\"string%20instrument\">string instrument</a>s built by members of the Italian family Stradivari, particularly <a href=\"Antonio%20Stradivari\">Antonio Stradivari</a> (<a href=\"Latin%20Language\">Latin</a>: Antonius Stradivarius), during the 17th and 18th centuries. According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. The name \"Stradivarius\" has become a superlative often associated with excellence; to be called \"the Stradivari\" of any field is to be deemed the finest there is. The fame of Stradivarius instruments is widespread, appearing in numerous works of fiction.\nThe wood used included <a href=\"spruce\">spruce</a> for the top, <a href=\"willow\">willow</a> for the internal blocks and linings, and <a href=\"maple\">maple</a> for the back, ribs, and neck. There has been conjecture that this wood was treated with several types of minerals, including potassium borate (<a href=\"borax\">borax</a>), sodium and potassium silicate, and <a href=\"vernice%20bianca\">vernice bianca</a>, a varnish composed of <a href=\"gum%20arabic\">gum arabic</a>, <a href=\"honey\">honey</a>, and <a href=\"egg%20white\">egg white</a>. Stradivari made his instruments using an inner form, unlike the French copyists, such as <a href=\"Jean-Baptiste%20Vuillaume\">Vuillaume</a>, who employed an outer form. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments.\nA comparative study published in <a href=\"PLOS%20ONE\">PLOS ONE</a> in 2008 found no significant differences in median densities between modern and classical violins, or between classical violins from different origins; instead the survey of several modern and classical examples of violins highlighted a notable distinction when comparing density differentials. These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. A later survey, focused on comparing median densities in both classical and modern violin examples, questioned the role available materials may have played in sound production differences, though it made no comment on variations in density differentials. The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments.\nA Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari's \"Long Pattern\" period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today's prices. The 1697 \"<a href=\"Molitor%20Stradivarius\">Molitor</a>\" Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to <a href=\"Napoleon\">Napoleon</a> (it did belong to a general in his army, Count <a href=\"Gabriel%20Jean%20Joseph%20Molitor\">Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor</a>), sold in 2010 at <a href=\"Tarisio%20Auctions\">Tarisio Auctions</a> to violinist <a href=\"Anne%20Akiko%20Meyers\">Anne Akiko Meyers</a> for $3,600,000, at the time a world record.\nDepending on condition, instruments made during Stradivari's \"golden period\" from 1700 to about 1725 can be worth millions of dollars. In 2011, his <a href=\"Lady%20Blunt%20Stradivarius\">\"Lady Blunt\" violin</a> from 1721, which is in pristine condition, was sold in London for $15.9 million (it is named after <a href=\"Lord%20Byron\">Lord Byron</a>'s granddaughter <a href=\"Anne%20Blunt%2C%2015th%20Baroness%20Wentworth\">Lady Anne Blunt</a>, who owned it for 30 years). It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the <a href=\"2011%20T%C5%8Dhoku%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami\">Japanese earthquake and tsunami</a> appeal. In Spring 2014 the \"Macdonald\" viola was put up for auction through the musical instrument auction house Ingles & Hayday in conjunction with <a href=\"Sotheby%27s\">Sotheby's</a> via silent auction with a minimum bid of $45 million. The auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014, and the viola was not sold.\n<a href=\"Vice%20%28magazine%29\">Vice magazine</a> reported in May 2013 that \"in recent years, Stradivarius <a href=\"investment%20fund\">investment fund</a>s have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher\".\nStradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. Stolen instruments are often recovered, however, even after being missing for many years. They are difficult to sell illicitly as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen. In recent years, the \"<a href=\"General%20Kyd%20Stradivarius\">General Kyd Stradivarius</a>\" was stolen in 2004. It was returned three weeks later by a woman who 'found it' and handed it over to the police. The \"Sinsheimer/Iselin\" was stolen in <a href=\"Hanover%2C%20Germany\">Hanover, Germany</a> in 2008 and recovered in 2009. the \"<a href=\"Lipinski%20Stradivarius\">Lipinski Stradivarius</a>\" was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014 and subsequently recovered. The \"<a href=\"Ames%20Stradivarius\">Ames Stradivarius</a>\" was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015.\nA number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the \"Davidoff-Morini\", stolen in 1995, the \"Le Maurien\", stolen in 2002,\nand the \"Karpilowsky\", stolen in 1953.\nAbove all, these instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce. However, the many <a href=\"blind%20experiment\">blind experiment</a>s from 1817 to the present (as of 2014) have never found any difference in sound between Stradivari's violins and high-quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis. In a particularly famous test on a <a href=\"BBC%20Radio%203\">BBC Radio 3</a> programme in 1977, the violinists <a href=\"Isaac%20Stern\">Isaac Stern</a> and <a href=\"Pinchas%20Zukerman\">Pinchas Zukerman</a> and the violin expert and dealer <a href=\"Charles%20Beare\">Charles Beare</a> tried to distinguish between the \"Chaconne\" Stradivarius, a 1739 <a href=\"Guarneri\">Guarneri</a> del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist. The two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments. Two of the listeners identified the 20th-century violin as the Stradivarius. Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not <a href=\"Blind%20experiment%23Double-blind%20trials\">double-blind</a> (in most cases), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly.\nIn a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin-maker . One of Rhonheimer's violins, made with wood that the <a href=\"Swiss%20Federal%20Laboratories%20for%20Materials%20Science%20and%20Technology\">Empa</a> (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology) researcher Francis Schwarze had treated with fungi, received 90 of the 180 votes for the best tone, while the Stradivarius came second with 39 votes. The majority (113) of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius.\nIn a double-blind test in 2012 published in the study \"<a href=\"Player%20preferences%20among%20new%20and%20old%20violins\">Player preferences among new and old violins</a>\", expert players could not distinguish old from new instruments by playing them for a short time in a small room. In an additional test, performed in a concert hall, one of the Stradivarius violins placed first, but one of the participants stated that \"the audience in the concert hall were essentially equivocal on which instruments were better in each of the pair-wise instrument comparisons\" and \"I could tell slight differences in the instruments...but overall they were all great. None of them sounded substantially weaker than the others\"\nWhile many world-class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions. For example, <a href=\"Christian%20Tetzlaff\">Christian Tetzlaff</a> formerly played \"a quite famous Strad\", but switched to a violin made in 2002 by <a href=\"Stefan-Peter%20Greiner\">Stefan-Peter Greiner</a>. He states that the listener cannot tell that his instrument is modern, and he regards it as excellent for <a href=\"Johann%20Sebastian%20Bach\">Bach</a> and better than a Stradivarius for \"the big Romantic and 20th-century <a href=\"concerto\">concerto</a>s.\"\nSome maintain that the very best Stradivari have unique superiorities. Various attempts at explaining these supposed qualities have been undertaken, most results being unsuccessful or inconclusive. Over the centuries, numerous theories have been presented – and debunked – including an assertion that the wood was salvaged from old cathedrals. <a href=\"Dendrochronology\">Dendrochronology</a>, or tree-ring dating, has proved this false.\nA more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global cold temperatures during the <a href=\"Little%20Ice%20Age\">Little Ice Age</a> associated with unusually low solar activity of the <a href=\"Maunder%20Minimum\">Maunder Minimum</a>, circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood. Further evidence for this \"Little Ice Age theory\" comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari's instruments. Two researchers – University of Tennessee tree-ring scientist <a href=\"Henri%20Grissino-Mayer\">Henri Grissino-Mayer</a> and Lloyd Burckle, a Columbia University climatologist – published their conclusions supporting the theory on increased wood density in the journal \"<a href=\"Dendrochronologia\">Dendrochronologia</a>\".\nIn 2008, researchers from the <a href=\"Leiden%20University%20Medical%20Center\">Leiden University Medical Center</a> in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments. After examining the violins with <a href=\"X-ray\">X-ray</a>s, the researchers found that these violins all have extremely consistent density, with relatively low variation in the apparent growth patterns of the trees that produced this wood.\nYet another possible explanation is that the wood was sourced from the forests of northern <a href=\"Croatia\">Croatia</a>. This <a href=\"maple\">maple</a> wood is known for its extreme density resulting from the slow growth caused by harsh Croatian winters. Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local <a href=\"luthier\">luthier</a>s and craftsfolk for musical instruments.\nSome research points to wood preservatives used in that day as contributing to the resonant qualities. <a href=\"Joseph%20Nagyvary\">Joseph Nagyvary</a> reveals that he has always held the belief that there are a wide range of chemicals that will improve the violin's sound. In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained \"<a href=\"borax\">borax</a>, <a href=\"fluoride\">fluoride</a>s, <a href=\"chromium\">chromium</a> and iron salts.\" He also found that the wood had decayed a little, to the extent that the filter plates in the pores between the wood's component <a href=\"tracheid\">tracheid</a>s had rotted away, perhaps while the wood was stored in or under water in the <a href=\"Venice\">Venice</a> lagoon before Stradivarius used it.\nSteven Sirr, a radiologist, worked with researchers to perform a <a href=\"X-ray%20computed%20tomography\">CT</a> scan of a Stradivari known as the \"Betts.\" Data regarding the differing densities of woods used were then used to create a reproduction instrument.\nWhile only about 650 original Stradivari instruments (harps, guitars, violas, cellos, violins) survive, thousands of violins have been made in tribute to Stradivari, copying his model and bearing labels that read \"Stradivarius\" on them. The presence of a Stradivarius label does not confirm that the instrument is a genuine work of Stradivari.","Bartolomeo Cristofori\nBartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (] ; May 4, 1655 – January 27, 1731) was an Italian maker of musical instruments, generally regarded as the inventor of the <a href=\"piano\">piano</a>.\nThe available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth and death records, two wills, the bills he submitted to his employers, and a single interview carried out by <a href=\"Scipione%20Maffei\">Scipione Maffei</a>. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published journal article are preserved.\nCristofori was born in <a href=\"Padua\">Padua</a> in the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Venice\">Republic of Venice</a>. Nothing is known of his early life. A tale is told that he served as an apprentice to the great violin maker <a href=\"Nicol%C3%B2%20Amati\">Nicolò Amati</a>, based on the appearance in a 1680 census record of a \"Christofaro Bartolomei\" living in Amati's house in <a href=\"Cremona\">Cremona</a>. However, as <a href=\"Stewart%20Pollens\">Stewart Pollens</a> points out, this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since the census records an age of 13, whereas Cristofori according to his baptismal record would have been 25 at the time. Pollens also gives strong reasons to doubt the authenticity of the cello and double bass instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.\nProbably the most important event in Cristofori's life is the first one of which we have any record: in 1688, at age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince <a href=\"Ferdinando%20III%20de%27%20Medici\">Ferdinando de Medici</a>. Ferdinando, a lover and patron of music, was the son and heir of <a href=\"Cosimo%20III%20de%27%20Medici%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany\">Cosimo III</a>, Grand Duke of <a href=\"Tuscany\">Tuscany</a>. Tuscany was at a time still a small independent state.\nIt is not known what led Ferdinando to recruit Cristofori. The Prince traveled to <a href=\"Venice\">Venice</a> in 1688 to attend the <a href=\"Carnival\">Carnival</a>, so he may have met Cristofori passing through Padua on his way home. Ferdinando was looking for a new technician to take care of his many musical instruments, the previous incumbent having just died. However, it seems possible that the Prince wanted to hire Cristofori not just as his technician, but specifically as an innovator in musical instruments. It would be surprising if Cristofori at age 33 had not already shown the inventiveness for which he later became famous.\nThe evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired as an inventor is as follows. According to <a href=\"Stewart%20Pollens\">Stewart Pollens</a>, there were already a number of qualified individuals in Florence who could have filled the position; however, the Prince passed them over, and paid Cristofori a higher salary than his predecessor. Moreover, Pollens notes, \"curiously, [among the many bills Cristofori submitted to his employer] there are no records of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could mean that Cristofori was expected to turn over the fruits of his experimentation to the court.\" Lastly, the Prince was evidently fascinated with machines (he collected over forty clocks, in addition to a great variety of elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested in the elaborate mechanical action that was at the core of Cristofori's work on the piano.\nMaffei's interview reports Cristofori's memory of his conversation with the Prince at this time:\nwhich Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:\nThis suggests that the Prince may have felt that Cristofori would be a prize recruit and was trying to charm him into accepting his offer; consistent again with the view that the Prince was attempting to recruit him as an inventor.\nIn any event, Cristofori agreed to the appointment, for a salary of 12 <a href=\"Italian%20scudo\">scudi</a> per month. He moved rather quickly to Florence (May 1688; his job interview having taken place in March or April), was issued a house, complete with utensils and equipment, by the Grand Duke's administration, and set to work. For the Prince, he tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration work on valuable older harpsichords.\nAt this time, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany employed a large staff of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the <a href=\"Uffizi\">Uffizi</a>. Cristofori's initial work space was probably in this area, which did not please him. He later told Maffei:\nCristofori did eventually obtain his own workshop, usually keeping one or two assistants working for him.\nDuring the remaining years of the 17th century, Cristofori invented two keyboard instruments before he began his work on the piano. These instruments are documented in an inventory, dated 1700, of the many instruments kept by Prince Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures that this inventory was prepared by a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his own in a 1716 letter.\nThe <a href=\"spinettone\">spinettone</a>, Italian for \"big spinet\", was a large, multi-choired <a href=\"spinet\">spinet</a> (a harpsichord in which the strings are slanted to save space), with <a href=\"disposition%20%28harpsichord%29\">disposition</a> 1 x 8', 1 x 4'; most spinets have the simple disposition 1 x 8'. This invention may have been meant to fit into a crowded orchestra pit for theatrical performances, while having the louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.\nThe other invention (1690) was the highly original <a href=\"oval%20spinet\">oval spinet</a>, a kind of <a href=\"virginal\">virginal</a> with the longest strings in the middle of the case.\nCristofori also built instruments of existing types, documented in the same 1700 inventory: a <a href=\"clavicytherium\">clavicytherium</a> (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian 2 x 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made of <a href=\"ebony\">ebony</a>.\nIt was thought for some time that the earliest mention of the piano is from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court musician, indicating that Cristofori was already working on the piano by 1698. However, the authenticity of this document is now doubted. The first unambiguous evidence for the piano comes from the 1700 inventory of the Medici mentioned in the preceding section. The entry in this inventory for Cristofori's piano begins as follows:\nThe term \"Arpicembalo\", literally \"harp-harpsichord\", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's day. Edward Good infers that this is what Cristofori himself wanted his instrument to be called. Our own word for the piano, however, is the result of a gradual truncation over time of the words shown in boldface above.\nThe Medici inventory goes on to describe the instrument in considerable detail. The range of this (now lost) instrument was four octaves, C to c″″′, a standard (if slightly small) compass for harpsichords.\nAnother document referring to the earliest piano is a marginal note made by one of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a copy of the book \"Le Istitutioni harmoniche\" by <a href=\"Gioseffo%20Zarlino\">Gioseffo Zarlino</a>. Meccoli wrote:\nAccording to Scipione Maffei's journal article, by 1711 Cristofori had built three pianos. One had been given by the Medici to <a href=\"Cardinal%20Ottoboni\">Cardinal Ottoboni</a> in Rome, and two had been sold in Florence.\nCristofori's patron, Prince Ferdinando, died at the age of 50 in 1713. There is evidence that Cristofori continued to work for the Medici court, still headed by the Prince's father Cosimo III. Specifically, a 1716 inventory of the musical instrument collection is signed \"Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode\", indicating that Cristofori had been given the title of custodian of the collection.\nDuring the early 18th century, the prosperity of the Medici princes declined, and like many of the other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work to others. The king of Portugal bought at least one of his instruments.\nIn 1726, the only known portrait of Cristofori was painted (see above). It portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is almost certainly a piano. In his left hand is a piece of paper, believed to contain a diagram of Cristofori's piano action. The portrait was destroyed in the Second World War, and only photographs of it remain.\nCristofori continued to make pianos until near the end of his life, continually making improvements in his invention. In his senior years, he was assisted by <a href=\"Giovanni%20Ferrini\">Giovanni Ferrini</a>, who went on to have his own distinguished career, continuing his master's tradition. There is tentative evidence that there was another assistant, P. Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to build the first upright piano.\nIn his declining years Cristofori prepared two wills. The first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools to Giovanni Ferrini. The second will, dated March 23 of the same year, changes the provisions substantially, bequeathing almost all his possessions to the \"Dal Mela sisters ... in repayment for their continued assistance lent to him during his illnesses and indispositions, and also in the name of charity.\" This will left the small sum of five \"scudi\" to Ferrini. Pollens notes further evidence from the will that this reflected no falling out between Cristofori and Ferrini, but only Cristofori's moral obligation to his caretakers. The inventor died on January 27, 1731 at the age of 75.\nThe total number of pianos built by Cristofori is unknown. Only three survive today, all dating from the 1720s.\nThe three surviving instruments all bear essentially the same Latin inscription: \"\"BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]\"\", where the date is rendered in Roman numerals. The meaning is \"\"Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, made [this] in Florence in [date].\"\"\nThe piano as built by Cristofori in the 1720s boasted almost all of the features of the modern instrument. It differed in being of very light construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could not produce an especially loud tone. This continued to be the rule for pianos until around 1820, when iron bracing was first introduced. Here are design details of Cristofori's instruments:\nPiano actions are complex mechanical devices which impose very specific design requirements, virtually all of which were met by Cristofori's action.\nFirst, a piano action must be arranged so that a key press does not actually lift the hammer all the way to the string. If it did, the hammer would block on the string and damp its vibrations. The position of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in the key of Cristofori's action (see \"I\" in diagram below) is so adjusted that the hopper escapes from the 'notch' in the middle of the intermediate lever (G) just before the hammer (C) strikes the string, so that the hammer is not driven all the way but travels the remaining distance under its own momentum and then falls into the check (M). When the key is allowed to return to its position of rest, the jack springs back under the notch and a repeated blow is possible. Although Cristofori's design incorporates no specific device for repetition, the lightness of the action gives more facility for repetition than the heavier actions of the English type that developed in the first half of the 19th century, until these were provided with additions of one kind or another to facilitate repetition.\nSecond, a piano action must greatly amplify the motion of the player's finger: in Cristofori's action, an \"intermediate lever\" (G) was used to translate every key motion into a hammer motion eight times greater in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing the needed leverage in a small amount of space.\nThird, after the hammer strikes the string, the action must avoid an unwanted second blow, which could easily result from the hammer bouncing up and down within the space confining it. In Cristofori's action, this was accomplished by two means. By lifting the intermediate lever with a jack that disengages in its highest position, the Cristofori action made it possible for the hammer to fall (after its initial blow) to a position considerably lower than the highest position to which the key had lifted it. By itself, this mechanism greatly reduces the chance of an unwanted second blow. In addition, the Cristofori action also included a \"check\" (also called \"back check\"; M) that catches the hammer and holds it in a partially raised position until the player releases the key; the check also helped to prevent unwanted second blows.\nThe complexity of Cristofori's action and hence the difficulty of building it may have formed a barrier to later builders, who appear to have tried to simplify it. However, Cristofori's design ultimately won out; the standard modern piano action is a still more complex and evolved version of Cristofori's original.\nThe hammer heads in Cristofori's mature pianos (A) are made of paper, curled into a circular coil and secured with glue, and surmounted by a strip of leather at the contact point with the string. According to harpsichord maker and scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their origin in \"15th-century paper organ pipe technology\". The purpose of the leather is presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the lower harmonics of string vibration by maintaining a broad area of contact at impact. The same goal of softness was achieved in later 18th-century pianos by covering the wooden hammers with soft leather, and in mid-19th-century and later instruments by covering a wooden core with a thick layer of compressed felt.\nAs in modern pianos, the hammers are larger in the bass notes than in the treble.\nCristofori's pianos use an internal frame member (bentside) to support the soundboard; in other words, the structural member attaching the right side of the soundboard is distinct from the external case that bears the tension of the strings. This system was also applied by Cristofori to harpsichords. The use of a separate support for the soundboard reflects Cristofori's belief that the soundboard should not be subjected to compression from string tension. This may improve the sound, and also avoids the peril of warping—as harpsichord makers <a href=\"Kerstin%20Schwarz\">Kerstin Schwarz</a> and <a href=\"Tony%20Chinnery\">Tony Chinnery</a> point out <a href=\"http%3A//www.early-keyboard.com/downloads/Cristofori%2520spinet%2520article.doc\"></a>, <a href=\"http%3A//www.gb.early-keyboard.com/guide.htm\"></a>, a severely warped soundboard threatens a structural catastrophe, namely contact between strings and soundboard. Cristofori's principle continues to be applied in modern pianos, where the now-enormous string tension (up to 20 tons) is borne by a separate iron frame (the \"plate\").\nWraight has written that the three surviving Cristofori pianos appear to follow an orderly progression: each has heavier framing than its predecessor. Wraight suggests that this would have been intentional, in that the heavier framing permitted tenser, thicker strings. This in turn increased the volume with which treble notes could be played without pitch distortion, a limitation that Wraight observes when playing replica instruments. Thus, it appears that the move toward heavier framing, a trend that dominates the history of the piano, may already have begun in Cristofori's own building practice.\nOn two of his surviving instruments, Cristofori employed an unusual arrangement of the tuning pins: they are inserted all the way through their supporting wrest plank. Thus, the tuning hammer is used on the top side of the wrest plank, but the strings are wrapped around the pins on the bottom side. This made it harder to replace broken strings, but it provided two compensating advantages. With the nut (front bridge) inverted as well, the blows of the hammers, coming from below, would seat the strings firmly into place, rather than threatening to displace them. The inverted wrestplank also placed the strings lower in the instrument, permitting smaller and lighter hammers, hence a lighter and more responsive touch.\nAccording to musical instrument scholar <a href=\"Grant%20O%27Brien\">Grant O'Brien</a>, the inverted wrestplank is \"still to be found in pianos dating from a period 150 years after [Cristofori's] death.\" (<a href=\"http%3A//www.claviantica.com/Publications_files/Cristofori_Naples.htm\"></a>). In modern pianos, the same basic principle is followed: the contact point for the vibrating length of the string that is close to the hammers is either an <a href=\"agraffe\">agraffe</a> or the <a href=\"capo%20d%27astro%20bar\">capo d'astro bar</a>; these devices pull the string in the direction opposite to the hammer blow, just as in Cristofori's original arrangement.\nCristofori used <a href=\"Cupressus%20sempervirens\">cypress</a>, the wood traditionally favored for soundboards in the Italian school of harpsichord making. Piano making after Cristofori's time ultimately settled consistently on <a href=\"spruce\">spruce</a> as the best material for soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages for cypress.\nIn Cristofori's pianos, there are two strings per note, throughout the compass. Modern pianos use three strings in the mid and upper range, two in the upper bass, and one in the lower bass, with greater variation in thickness than Cristofori used. The strings are equally spaced (<a href=\"http%3A//www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8038510.txt\"></a>), rather than being grouped with strings of identical pitch closer together.\nIn two of the attested pianos, there is a forerunner of the modern <a href=\"piano%23Pedals\">soft pedal</a>: the player can manually slide the entire action four millimeters to one side, so that the hammers strike just one of the two strings (\"una corda\"). It is possible however that this device was intended as an aid to tuning. In his combined harpsichord-piano, with two 8-foot strings for each note, Ferrini allowed one set of harpsichord jacks to be disengaged but did not provide a una corda device for the hammer action.\nThe strings may have been thicker than harpsichord strings of the same period, although there are no original string gauge markings on any of the three surviving pianos to prove this. Thicker strings are thought to be better suited to the hammer blows. Comparing the two 1726 instruments, one a piano, the other a harpsichord, the lengths of the 8-foot strings are almost the same, certainly in the upper halves of the compasses of the two instruments.\nIt is difficult to determine what metal the strings of Cristofori's pianos were made of, since strings are replaced as they break, and sometimes restorers even replace the entire set of strings. According to Stewart Pollens, \"the earlier museum records document that all three [attested] Cristofori pianos were discovered with similar gauges of iron wire through much of the compass, and brass in the bass.\" The New York instrument was restrung entirely in brass in 1970; Pollens reports that with this modification the instrument cannot be tuned closer than a minor third below pitch without breaking strings. This may indicate that the original strings did indeed include iron ones; however, the breakage might also be blamed on the massive rebuilding of this instrument, which changed its tonal range.\nMore recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, and Kerstin Schwarz, who have built replica Cristofori pianos, have taken the view that Cristofori favored brass strings, except occasionally in very demanding locations (such as the upper range of a 2' harpsichord stop). Chinnery suggests that \"cypress soundboards and brass strings go together: sweetness of sound rather than volume or brilliance.\"\nAccording to Wraight, it is not straightforward to determine what Cristofori's pianos sounded like, since the surviving instruments (see above) are either too decrepit to be played or have been extensively and irretrievably altered in later \"restorations\". However, in recent decades, a number of modern builders have made Cristofori replicas, and their collective experience, and particularly the recordings made on these instruments, has created an emerging view concerning the Cristofori piano sound. The sound of the Cristofori replicas is as close to the harpsichord as it is to the modern piano; this is to be expected given that their case construction and stringing are much closer to the harpsichord than to the piano. The note onsets are not as sharply defined as in a harpsichord, and the response of the instrument to the player's varying touch is clearly noticeable.\nSome Cristofori instruments—both restored and replicated—may be heard in the <a href=\"%23External%20links\">external links</a> below.\nKnowledge of how Cristofori's invention was initially received comes in part from the article published in 1711 by <a href=\"Scipione%20Maffei\">Scipione Maffei</a>, an influential literary figure, in the \"Giornale de'letterati d'Italia\" of Venice. Maffei said that \"some professionals have not given this invention all the applause it merits,\" and goes on to say that its sound was felt to be too \"soft\" and \"dull\"—Cristofori was unable to make his instrument as loud as the competing harpsichord. Yet Maffei himself was an enthusiast for the piano, and the instrument did gradually catch on and increase in popularity, in part due to Maffei's efforts.\nOne reason why the piano spread slowly at first was that it was quite expensive to make, and thus was purchased only by royalty and a few wealthy private individuals. The ultimate success of Cristofori's invention occurred only in the 1760s, when the invention of cheaper <a href=\"square%20piano\">square piano</a>s, along with generally greater prosperity, made it possible for many people to acquire one.\nSubsequent technological developments in the piano were often mere \"re-inventions\" of Cristofori's work; in the early years, there were perhaps as many regressions as advances.\nNine instruments that survive today are attributed to Cristofori:\nThe later instruments, dating from Cristofori's old age, probably include work by assistant <a href=\"Giovanni%20Ferrini\">Giovanni Ferrini</a>, who went on after the inventor's death to build pianos of wider range using the same basic design.\nAn apparent remnant harpsichord, lacking soundboard, keyboard, and action, is currently the property of the noted builder <a href=\"Tony%20Chinnery\">Tony Chinnery</a>, who acquired it at an auction in New York. This instrument passed through the shop of the late 19th century builder/fraudster <a href=\"Leopoldo%20Franciolini\">Leopoldo Franciolini</a>, who reworked it with his characteristic form of decoration, but according to Chinnery \"there are enough construction details to identify it definitely as the work of Cristofori\".\nThere are also a number of fraudulent instruments attributed to Cristofori, notably a three-manual harpsichord once displayed in the <a href=\"Deutsches%20Museum\">Deutsches Museum</a> in Munich; this was a rebuilding by Franciolini of a single-manual instrument made in 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.\nCristofori was evidently admired and respected in his own lifetime for his work on the piano. On his death, a <a href=\"theorbo\">theorbo</a> player at the Medici court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:\nAn anonymous 18th-century music dictionary, found in the library of the composer <a href=\"Giovanni%20Battista%20Martini\">Padre G. B. Martini</a>, says of him\nAfter his death, however, Cristofori's reputation went into decline. As Stewart Pollens has documented, in late 18th century France it was believed that the piano had been invented not by Cristofori but by the German builder <a href=\"Gottfried%20Silbermann\">Gottfried Silbermann</a>. Silbermann was in fact an important figure in the history of the piano, but his instruments relied almost entirely on Cristofori for the design of their hammer actions. Later scholarship (notably by Leo Puliti) only gradually corrected this error.\nIn the second half of the 20th century, Cristofori's instruments were studied with care, as part of the general increase in interest in early instruments that developed in this era (see <a href=\"authentic%20performance\">authentic performance</a>). The modern scholars who have studied Cristofori's work in detail tend to express their admiration in the strongest terms; thus the <a href=\"New%20Grove\">New Grove</a> encyclopedia describes him as having possessed \"tremendous ingenuity\"; Stewart Pollens says \"All of Cristofori's work is startling in its ingenuity\"; and the early-instrument scholar <a href=\"Grant%20O%27Brien\">Grant O'Brien</a> has <a href=\"http%3A//www.claviantica.com/Publications_files/Cristofori_conservation.htm\">written</a>\n\"The workmanship and inventiveness displayed by the instruments of Cristofori are of the highest order and his genius has probably never been surpassed by any other keyboard maker of the historical period ... I place Cristofori shoulder to shoulder with <a href=\"Antonio%20Stradivarius\">Antonio Stradivarius</a>.\"\nCristofori is also given credit for originality in inventing the piano. While it is true that there had been earlier, crude attempts to make piano-like instruments, it is not clear that these were even known to Cristofori. The piano is thus an unusual case in which an important invention can be ascribed unambiguously to a single individual, who brought it to an unusual degree of perfection all on his own.\n","Trecento\nThe Trecento (] ; Italian for 300, short for \"mille trecento,\" 1300) refers to the 14th century in Italian cultural history.\nCommonly the Trecento is considered to be the beginning of the <a href=\"Renaissance\">Renaissance</a> in art history. Painters of the Trecento included <a href=\"Giotto%20di%20Bondone\">Giotto di Bondone</a>, as well as painters of the <a href=\"Sienese%20School\">Sienese School</a>, which became the most important in Italy during the century, including <a href=\"Duccio\">Duccio di Buoninsegna</a>, <a href=\"Simone%20Martini\">Simone Martini</a>, <a href=\"Lippo%20Memmi\">Lippo Memmi</a>, <a href=\"Ambrogio%20Lorenzetti\">Ambrogio Lorenzetti</a> and his brother <a href=\"Pietro%20Lorenzetti\">Pietro</a>. Important sculptors included two pupils of <a href=\"Giovanni%20Pisano\">Giovanni Pisano</a>: <a href=\"Arnolfo%20di%20Cambio\">Arnolfo di Cambio</a> and <a href=\"Tino%20di%20Camaino\">Tino di Camaino</a>, and <a href=\"Bonino%20da%20Campione\">Bonino da Campione</a>.\nThe Trecento was also famous as a time of heightened literary activity, with writers working in the vernacular instead of Latin. <a href=\"Dante\">Dante</a>, <a href=\"Petrarch\">Petrarch</a> and <a href=\"Giovanni%20Boccaccio\">Boccaccio</a> were the leading writers of the age. Dante produced his famous \"La divina commedia\" (The <a href=\"Divine%20Comedy\">Divine Comedy</a>), a summation of the medieval worldview, and <a href=\"Petrarch\">Petrarch</a> wrote verse in a lyrical style influenced by the Provençal poetry of the <a href=\"troubadour\">troubadour</a>s.\nIn music, the Trecento was a time of vigorous activity in Italy, as it was in <a href=\"France\">France</a>, with which there was a frequent interchange of musicians and influences. Distinguishing the period from the preceding century was an emphasis on secular song, especially love lyrics; much of the surviving music is <a href=\"polyphonic\">polyphonic</a>, but the influence of the <a href=\"troubadour\">troubadour</a>s who came to Italy, fleeing the <a href=\"Albigensian%20Crusade\">Albigensian Crusade</a> in the early 13th century, is evident. In contrast to the artistic and literary achievements of the century, Trecento music (at least in written form) flourished in the second half of the century, and the period is often extended (especially in English-language scholarship) into the first decades of the 15th century, as a so-called \"Long Trecento.\" Musicians and composers of the Trecento included the renowned <a href=\"Francesco%20Landini\">Francesco Landini</a>, as well as <a href=\"Maestro%20Piero\">Maestro Piero</a>, <a href=\"Gherardello%20da%20Firenze\">Gherardello da Firenze</a>, <a href=\"Jacopo%20da%20Bologna\">Jacopo da Bologna</a>, <a href=\"Giovanni%20da%20Cascia\">Giovanni da Cascia</a>, <a href=\"Paolo%20da%20Firenze\">Paolo \"Tenorista\" da Firenze</a>, <a href=\"Niccol%C3%B2%20da%20Perugia\">Niccolò da Perugia</a>, <a href=\"Bartolino%20da%20Padova\">Bartolino da Padova</a>, <a href=\"Antonio%20Zachara%20da%20Teramo\">Antonio Zachara da Teramo</a>, <a href=\"Matteo%20da%20Perugia\">Matteo da Perugia</a>, and <a href=\"Johannes%20Ciconia\">Johannes Ciconia</a>.\n","List of rulers of Tuscany\nThe rulers of <a href=\"Tuscany\">Tuscany</a> have varied over time, sometimes being <a href=\"margrave\">margrave</a>s, the rulers of handfuls of border counties and sometimes the heads of the most important family of the region.\nAfter this, Tuscany was splintered between the competing republics of <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Florence\">Florence</a>, <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Pisa\">Pisa</a>, <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Siena\">Siena</a>, <a href=\"Arezzo\">Arezzo</a>, <a href=\"Pistoia\">Pistoia</a> and <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Lucca\">Lucca</a>. Since the 14th century, Florence gained dominance over Pistoia (1306, officially annexed 1530), Arezzo (1384), Pisa (1406), and Siena (1559). Lucca was an independent republic until the <a href=\"Napoleonic\">Napoleonic</a> period in the 19th century.\nAfter the <a href=\"Sack%20of%20Rome%20%281527%29\">Sack of Rome</a>, Florence overthrew the <a href=\"Medicis\">Medicis</a> once More and became a Republic, until <a href=\"Pope%20Clement%20VII\">Pope Clement VII</a>, signed a peace treaty with <a href=\"Charles%20V%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> who then invaded Florence and restored the Medicis.\n\"Tuscany was annexed by France, 1807–1814. Napoleon's sister <a href=\"Elisa%20Bonaparte\">Elisa Bonaparte</a> was given the honorary title of \"Grand Duchess of Tuscany\", but did not actually rule over the region.\"\n\"Leopoldo II was driven from Tuscany by revolution from 21 February to 12 April 1849, and again on 27 April 1859. He abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinando IV, on 21 July 1859, but Ferdinando IV was never recognized in Tuscany, and was deposed by the provisional government on 16 August. Tuscany was annexed by <a href=\"Kingdom%20of%20Sardinia\">Piedmont-Sardinia</a>, on 22 March 1860.\"","Modello\nA modello ] (plural modelli), from Italian, is a preparatory study or model, usually at a smaller scale, for a work of art or architecture, especially one produced for the approval of the commissioning patron. The term gained currency in art circles in <a href=\"Tuscany\">Tuscany</a> in the fourteenth century. Modern definitions in reference works vary somewhat. Alternative and overlapping terms are \"<a href=\"oil%20sketch\">oil sketch</a>\" (\"schizzo\") and \"<a href=\"cartoon\">cartoon</a>\" for <a href=\"painting\">painting</a>s or <a href=\"stained%20glass\">stained glass</a>, <a href=\"maquette\">maquette</a>, plastico or bozzetto for sculpture or architecture, or <a href=\"architectural%20model\">architectural model</a>.\nThough in Gothic figural arts bishops and abbots are often represented carrying small simulacra of buildings they had constructed—\"models\" in the familiar modern sense—\"modello\" is only used of pieces which pre-date the finished work, and were at least in part produced by the main artist involved. The less frequently found term ricordo (Italian for \"record\" or \"memory\") means a similar piece produced as a small copy \"after\" completion of the work as a record for the workshop. Naturally it is not always easy for art historians to decide whether a particular piece is one or the other, and, especially in the Late Renaissance and Baroque periods, when several versions of a painting were made, the \"ricordo\" for the <a href=\"prime%20version\">prime version</a> might serve in the atelier as the \"modello\" for the subsequent ones. No doubt a modello was often modified after the main work was completed to reflect any changes in the composition during painting, thus making it a ricordo also; this would normally be impossible for art historians to distinguish from a modello altered during its original production.\nThe <a href=\"Giovanni%20Battista%20Tiepolo\">Tiepolo</a> at right was catalogued as a modello by <a href=\"Michael%20Levey\">Michael Levey</a>, but recent <a href=\"x-ray\">x-ray</a> investigation of the huge finished work in Munich has revealed that in its <a href=\"underpainting\">underpainting</a> it was closer to another, very different and less finished modello, now in the <a href=\"Courtauld%20Institute\">Courtauld Institute</a>, and it has been asserted that the National Gallery picture illustrated is a ricordo. The National Gallery still describe it as \"probably a modello\", presumably produced after work had already begun.\n\"Cartoon\", named for the sturdy \"cartone\" paper on which they were generally executed, is usually used of working drawings, often at full scale, but the distinction is not a firm one, and the terms \"cartoon\" and \"working drawing\" are often used interchangeably. \"Modello\" is especially used of older Italian art and architecture from the late Middle Ages onwards; initially these were mostly drawings, perhaps with some colour from chalk or <a href=\"watercolour\">watercolour</a>, or with colours indicated in writing. The diminutive term modeletto will always be used of small-scale versions. As an Italian word, \"modello\" may be printed in <a href=\"italic%20type\">italic</a>s, or not. The French version of the word, \"modèle\", may be used of French works, and is normally italicised.\nEspecially in the case of oil sketches, many \"modelli\" are greatly valued in their own right, as they may show a freedom in execution and freshness of inspiration missing in the final work, and also may show changes in composition from the finished work, throwing light on the process of artistic creation. Earlier stages of the creative process may be recorded in \"preparatory drawings\" or \"studies\", either for the whole composition, or a part of it, such as a single figure.\nAn example of a modello of a fresco cycle, which was rescued for its intrinsic value is in <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a>'s \"<a href=\"Biography\">vita</a>\" of <a href=\"Rosso%20Fiorentino\">Rosso Fiorentino</a>: Vasari reports that a modello for Rosso's frescoes in Santa Maria delle Lagrime, Arezzo, was carried out by Rosso for Giovanni Pollastra, the inventor of the complex program there, \"un bellisimo modello di tutto l'opera, che è oggi nelle nostre case di Arezzo.\" A preliminary \"modello colorito\" in the form of a painted three-dimensional model was especially important to prejudge the finished effect of <a href=\"Illusionistic%20ceiling\">illusionistic \"sotto-in-su\" perspectives</a> on the curved surfaces of vaulted ceilings, as <a href=\"Andrea%20Pozzo\">Andrea Pozzo</a>, the perfector of the illusionistic ceiling, noted in his \"Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum\" (1700–17)\nMany modelli show versions of works which were never actually realised, or have been lost. Famous examples are the alternative designs produced for the competition in 1401 to design the North doors of the <a href=\"Florence%20Baptistry\">Florence Baptistry</a>. <a href=\"Lorenzo%20Ghiberti\">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a> won, beating six other artists, including <a href=\"Filippo%20Brunelleschi\">Filippo Brunelleschi</a>, <a href=\"Donatello\">Donatello</a> and <a href=\"Jacopo%20della%20Quercia\">Jacopo della Quercia</a>; the modelli survive, for a single panel, of the first two named (<a href=\"Bargello\">Bargello</a> – picture above).\nThere are alternative, unrealised, modelli for many famous buildings, including <a href=\"St%20Peter%27s%2C%20Rome\">St Peter's, Rome</a> and the \"Great Model\" of <a href=\"St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20London\">St Paul's Cathedral, London</a>, showing a different design by <a href=\"Sir%20Christopher%20Wren\">Sir Christopher Wren</a> from that actually built. When accepted, such models were retained during the work, as concrete expressions of what was expected under the terms of the contract, and afterwards were preserved in storage through salutary neglect.","Andrea del Sarto\nAndrea del Sarto (] ; 1486–1530) was an <a href=\"List%20of%20Italian%20painters\">Italian painter</a> from <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a>, whose career flourished during the <a href=\"High%20Renaissance\">High Renaissance</a> and early <a href=\"Mannerism\">Mannerism</a>. Though highly regarded during his lifetime as an artist \"senza errori\" (\"without errors\"), his renown was eclipsed after his death by that of his contemporaries, <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href=\"Michelangelo\">Michelangelo</a> and <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a>.\nAndrea del Sarto was born Andrea d'Agnolo di Francesco di Luca di Paolo del Migliore in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a> on 16 July 1486. Since his father, Agnolo, was a tailor (Italian: \"<a href=\"%3Awiktionary%3Asarto\">sarto</a>\"), he became known as \"del Sarto\" (meaning \"tailor's son\"). Since 1677 some have attributed the surname Vannucchi with little documentation. By 1494 Andrea was apprenticed to a <a href=\"goldsmith\">goldsmith</a>, and then to a <a href=\"woodcarver\">woodcarver</a> and painter named Gian Barile, with whom he remained until 1498. According to his late biographer <a href=\"Lives%20of%20the%20Painters\">Vasari</a>, he then apprenticed to <a href=\"Piero%20di%20Cosimo\">Piero di Cosimo</a>, and later with <a href=\"Raffaellino%20del%20Garbo\">Raffaellino del Garbo</a> (Carli).\nAndrea and an older friend <a href=\"Franciabigio\">Franciabigio</a> decided to open a joint studio at a lodging together in the Piazza del Grano. The first product of their partnership may have been the \"Baptism of Christ\" for the Florentine <a href=\"Compagnia%20dello%20Scalzo\">Compagnia dello Scalzo</a>, the beginning of a <a href=\"monochrome\">monochrome</a> <a href=\"fresco\">fresco</a> series. By the time the partnership was dissolved, Sarto's style bore the stamp of individuality. According to the <a href=\"Encyclop%C3%A6dia%20Britannica\">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, it \"is marked throughout his career by an interest, exceptional among Florentines, in effects of colour and atmosphere and by sophisticated informality and natural expression of emotion.\"\nFrom 1509 to 1514 the <a href=\"Servite%20Order\">Servite Order</a> employed Del Sarto, <a href=\"Franciabigio\">Franciabigio</a> and <a href=\"Andrea%20Feltrini\">Andrea Feltrini</a> in a programme of <a href=\"fresco\">fresco</a>es at <a href=\"Basilica%20della%20Santissima%20Annunziata%20di%20Firenze\">Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze</a>. Sarto completed seven frescoes in the forecourt or atrium (the chiostro dei voti) before the Servite church, five of which illustrated the \"Life and miracles of <a href=\"Filippo%20Benizzi\">Filippo Benizzi</a>\", a Servite saint who died in 1285 (canonized 1671). He executed them rapidly, depicting the saint healing a leper through the gift of his undertunic; predicting the bad end of some blasphemers; and restoring <a href=\"exorcism\">a girl possessed with a devil</a>. The two final frescoes of the series depicted the healing of a child at the death bed of Filippo Benizzi and the curing of sick adults and children through his relic garment held at the church. All five frescoes were completed before the close of 1510. The original contract also required him to paint five scenes of the life and miracles of St Sebastian, but he told the Servites that he no longer wished to continue with the second cycle, most likely due to the low remuneration. The Servites convinced him to do two more frescoes in the forecourt, though of a different subject matter: a \"Procession of the Magi\" (or \"Adoration\", containing a self-portrait) finished in 1511 and a \"Nativity of the Virgin\". These paintings met with respect, the correctness of the contours being particularly admired, and earned for Sarto the nickname of \"Andrea senza errori\" (Andrea the perfect). Towards 1512 he painted an \"Annunciation\" in the <a href=\"monastery\">monastery</a> of S. Gallo and a \"Marriage of Saint Catherine\" (Dresden).\nBy 1514 Andrea had finished his last two frescoes, including his masterpiece, the <a href=\"Birth%20of%20the%20Virgin%20%28Andrea%20del%20Sarto%29\">\"Birth of the Virgin\"</a>, which fuses the influence of <a href=\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\">Leonardo</a>, <a href=\"Domenico%20Ghirlandaio\">Ghirlandaio</a> and <a href=\"Fra%20Bartolomeo\">Fra Bartolomeo</a>. By November 1515 he had finished at the Scalzo the \"Allegory of Justice\" and the \"Baptist preaching in the desert\", followed in 1517 by \"John Baptizing\", and other subjects.\nBefore the end of 1516, a Pietà of Del Sarto's composition, and afterwards a Madonna, were sent to the <a href=\"France\">French</a> Court. This led to an invitation from <a href=\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\">François I</a>, in 1518, and he journeyed to Paris in June of that year, along with his pupil Andrea Squarzzella, leaving his wife, Lucrezia, in Florence.\nAccording to <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a>, Andrea's pupil and biographer, Lucrezia wrote to Andrea and demanded he return to Italy. The King assented, but only on the understanding that his absence from <a href=\"France\">France</a> was to be short. He then entrusted Andrea with a sum of money to be expended in purchasing works of art for the French Court. By Vasari's account, Andrea took the money and used it to buy himself a house in Florence, thus ruining his reputation and preventing him from ever returning to France. The story inspired <a href=\"Robert%20Browning\">Robert Browning</a>'s poem-monologue \"<a href=\"Andrea%20del%20Sarto%20%28poem%29\">Andrea del Sarto Called the 'Faultless Painter'</a>\" (1855), but is now believed by some historians to be apocryphal.\nIn 1520 he resumed work in Florence, and executed the \"Faith\" and \"Charity\" in the cloister of the Scalzo. These were succeeded by the \"Dance of the <a href=\"Salome\">Daughter of Herodias</a>\", the \"Beheading of the Baptist\", the \"Presentation of his head to <a href=\"Herod%20Antipas\">Herod</a>\", an allegory of Hope, the \"Apparition of the Angel to <a href=\"Zechariah%20%28priest%29\">Zacharias</a>\" (1523) and the monochrome \"Visitation\". This last was painted in the autumn of 1524, after Andrea had returned from Luco in <a href=\"Mugello%20region\">Mugello</a>, whence an outbreak of <a href=\"bubonic%20plague\">bubonic plague</a> in Florence had driven him and his family. In 1525 he returned to paint in the Annunziata cloister the \"<a href=\"Madonna%20del%20Sacco\">Madonna del Sacco</a>\", a <a href=\"lunette\">lunette</a> named after a sack against which Joseph is represented propped. In this painting the generous virgin's gown and her gaze indicate his influence on the early style of pupil <a href=\"Jacopo%20Pontormo\">Pontormo</a>.\nIn 1523 Andrea painted a copy of the portrait group of <a href=\"Pope%20Leo%20X\">Pope Leo X</a> by Raphael; this copy is now in the <a href=\"Museo%20di%20Capodimonte\">Museo di Capodimonte</a> in <a href=\"Naples\">Naples</a>, while the original remains at the Pitti Palace. The Raphael painting was owned by <a href=\"Ottaviano%20de%27%20Medici\">Ottaviano de' Medici</a>, and requested by <a href=\"Federico%20II%20Gonzaga\">Federico II Gonzaga</a>, Duke of <a href=\"Mantua\">Mantua</a>. Unwilling to part with the original, Ottaviano retained Andrea to produce a copy, which he passed to the Duke as the original. The imitation was so faithful that even <a href=\"Giulio%20Romano\">Giulio Romano</a>, who had himself manipulated the original to some extent, was completely fooled; and, on showing the copy years afterwards to Vasari, who knew the truth, he could be convinced that it was not genuine only when a private mark on the canvas was pointed out to him by Vasari.\nAndrea's final work at the Scalzo was the \"Birth of the Baptist\" (1526). In the following year he completed his last important painting, a <a href=\"Last%20Supper%20%28Andrea%20del%20Sarto%29\">\"Last Supper\"</a> at <a href=\"Chiesa%20San%20Salvi\">San Salvi</a> (now an inner suburb of Florence), in which all the characters appear to be portraits.\nA number of his paintings were considered to be self-portraits. A \"Portrait of a Young Man \"in the <a href=\"National%20Gallery%2C%20London\">National Gallery, London</a> was formerly believed to be a self-portrait, as was the Portrait of Becuccio Bicchieraio in <a href=\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Scotland\">National Gallery of Scotland</a>, but both are now known not to be. There is a self-portrait at <a href=\"Alnwick%20Castle\">Alnwick Castle</a>, a young man about twenty years, with his elbow on a table. Another youthful portrait is in the <a href=\"Uffizi%20Gallery\">Uffizi Gallery</a>, and the <a href=\"Pitti%20Palace\">Pitti Palace</a> contains more than one.\nThe \"<a href=\"Madonna%20of%20the%20Harpies\">Madonna of the Harpies</a>\" is a depiction of the Virgin and child on a pedestal, flanked by two saints (Bonaventure or Francis and John the Evangelist), and at her feet two cherubs. The pedestal is decorated with a relief depicting some feminine figures interpreted as <a href=\"harpy\">harpies</a> and thus gave rise, in English, to the name of the painting. Originally completed in 1517 for the convent of San Francesco dei Macci, the altarpiece now resides in the Uffizi. In an Italy swamped with a tsunami of Madonnas, it would be easy to overlook this work; however, this commonly copied scheme also lends itself to comparison of his style with that of his contemporaries. The figures have a Leonardo da Vinci-like aura, and the stable pyramid of their composition provides a unified structure. In some ways, his rigid adherence is more classical than Leonardo da Vinci's but less so than <a href=\"Fra%20Bartolomeo\">Fra Bartolomeo</a>'s representations of the Holy Family.\nAndrea married Lucrezia (del Fede), widow of a hatter named Carlo, of <a href=\"Recanati\">Recanati</a>, on 26 December 1512. Lucrezia appears in many of his paintings, often as a <a href=\"Madonna%20%28art%29\">Madonna</a>. However, Vasari describes her as \"faithless, jealous, and vixenish with the apprentices.\" She is similarly characterized in <a href=\"Robert%20Browning\">Robert Browning</a>'s poem.\nAndrea died in Florence at age 43 during an outbreak of <a href=\"Bubonic%20Plague\">Bubonic Plague</a> at the end of September 1530. He was buried unceremoniously by the Misericordia in the church of the Servites. In \"Lives of the Artists\", Vasari claimed Andrea received no attention at all from his wife during his terminal illness. However, it was well-known at the time that plague was highly contagious, so it has been speculated that Lucrezia was simply afraid to contract the virulent and frequently-fatal disease. If true, this well-founded caution was rewarded, as she survived her husband by 40 years.\nIt was Michelangelo who had introduced <a href=\"Vasari\">Vasari</a> in 1524 to Andrea's studio. He is said to have thought very highly of Andrea's talents. Of those who initially followed his style in Florence, the most prominent would have been <a href=\"Jacopo%20Pontormo\">Jacopo Pontormo</a>, but also <a href=\"Rosso%20Fiorentino\">Rosso Fiorentino</a>, <a href=\"Francesco%20de%27%20Rossi%20%28Il%20Salviati%29\">Francesco Salviati</a> and <a href=\"Jacopino%20del%20Conte\">Jacopino del Conte</a>. Other lesser known assistants and pupils include Bernardo del Buda, Lamberto Lombardi, Nannuccio Fiorentino and Andrea Squazzella.\nVasari, however, was highly critical of his teacher, alleging that, though having all the prerequisites of a great artist, he lacked ambition and that divine fire of inspiration which animated the works of his more famous contemporaries: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.\nOn 21 November 1848, the play \"Andre del Sarto,\" by <a href=\"Alfred%20de%20Musset\">Alfred de Musset</a>, premiered in <a href=\"Paris\">Paris</a>.\nIn 1968 the <a href=\"opera\">opera</a> \"Andrea del Sarto\" by French composer <a href=\"Jean-Yves%20Daniel-Lesur\">Jean-Yves Daniel-Lesur</a> was based on Alfred de Musset's 1848 play.\n","Piazza della Signoria\nPiazza della Signoria (] ) is an L-shaped square in front of the <a href=\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\">Palazzo Vecchio</a> in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a>, <a href=\"Italy\">Italy</a>. It was named after the Palazzo della Signoria, also called Palazzo Vecchio. It is the main point of the origin and history of the <a href=\"Florentine%20Republic\">Florentine Republic</a> and still maintains its reputation as the political focus of the city. It is the meeting place of Florentines as well as the numerous tourists, located near <a href=\"Plazzo%20Vecchio\">Plazzo Vecchio</a> and <a href=\"Piazza%20del%20Duomo%2C%20Florence\">Piazza del Duomo</a> and gateway to <a href=\"Uffizi\">Uffizi Gallery</a>.\nThe impressive 14th-century <a href=\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\">Palazzo Vecchio</a> is still preeminent with its <a href=\"Crenellation\">crenellated</a> tower. The square is also shared with the <a href=\"Loggia%20della%20Signoria\">Loggia della Signoria</a>, the <a href=\"Uffizi%20Gallery\">Uffizi Gallery</a>, the <a href=\"Palace%20of%20the%20Tribunale%20della%20Mercanzia\">Palace of the Tribunale della Mercanzia</a> (1359) (now the Bureau of Agriculture), and the <a href=\"Palazzo%20Uguccioni\">Palazzo Uguccioni</a> (1550, with a facade attributed to <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a>, who however died thirty years before its construction). Located in front of the Palazzo Vecchio is the <a href=\"Palace%20of%20the%20Assicurazioni%20Generali\">Palace of the Assicurazioni Generali</a> (1871, built in Renaissance style).\nThe <a href=\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\">Palazzo Vecchio</a> (\"Old Palace\") is the <a href=\"City%20hall\">town hall</a> of the city. This massive, <a href=\"romanesque%20architecture\">Romanesque</a>, <a href=\"Crenellation\">crenellated</a> fortress-palace is among the most impressive town halls of <a href=\"Tuscany\">Tuscany</a>. Overlooking the square with its copy of Michelangelo's David statue as well the gallery of statues in the adjacent <a href=\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a>, it is one of the most significant public places in Italy, and it hosts cultural points and museums.\nOriginally called the \"Palazzo della Signoria\", after the <a href=\"Signoria%20of%20Florence\">Signoria of Florence</a>, the ruling body of the <a href=\"Republic%20of%20Florence\">Republic of Florence</a>, it was also given several other names: \"Palazzo del Popolo\", \"Palazzo dei Priori\", and \"Palazzo Ducale\", in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history. The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno to the <a href=\"Palazzo%20Pitti\">Palazzo Pitti</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a> consists of wide arches open to the street, three <a href=\"bay%20%28architecture%29\">bays</a> wide and one bay deep. The arches rest on clustered pilasters with <a href=\"Corinthian%20order\">Corinthian</a> capitals. The wide arches appealed so much to the Florentines, that <a href=\"Michelangelo\">Michelangelo</a> even proposed that they should be continued all around the Piazza della Signoria . The vivacious construction of the Loggia is in stark contrast with the severe architecture of the Palazzo Vecchio. It is effectively an open-air sculpture gallery of antique and <a href=\"Renaissance%20art\">Renaissance art</a> including the \"<a href=\"Medici%20lions\">Medici lions</a>\".\nThe \"Tribunale della Mercanzia\" (Tribunal of Merchandise) is a building where in the past lawyers judged in the trial between merchants. Here was a porch painted by <a href=\"Taddeo%20Gaddi\">Taddeo Gaddi</a>, <a href=\"Antonio%20del%20Pollaiolo\">Antonio del Pollaiolo</a> and <a href=\"Sandro%20Botticelli\">Sandro Botticelli</a>, today stored in the <a href=\"Uffizi\">Uffizi gallery</a>.\nBuilt for Giovanni Uguccioni since 1550, its design has been variously attributed to <a href=\"Raphael\">Raphael</a>, <a href=\"Michelangelo\">Michelangelo</a>, <a href=\"Bartolomeo%20Ammannati\">Bartolomeo Ammannati</a> or <a href=\"Raffaello%20da%20Montelupo\">Raffaello da Montelupo</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Palazzo%20delle%20Assicurazioni%20Generali%20%28Florence%29\">Palazzo delle Assicurazioni Generali</a> was designed in the <a href=\"Neo-Renaissance\">Neo-Renaissance</a> style in 1871, and is one of the very few purpose-built <a href=\"Commerce\">commercial</a> buildings in the centre of the city. On the ground floor of this palace is the historical cafè <a href=\"Rivoire\">Rivoire</a>.\nOther palaces are the \"palazzo dei Buonaguisi\" and the \"palazzo dell'Arte dei Mercatanti\".\nVarious imposing statues ring this square including:\nThe piazza was already a central square in the original Roman town Florentia, surrounded by a theatre, Roman baths and a workshop for dyeing textiles. Later there was a church San Romolo, a loggia and an enormous 5th-century basilica. This was shown by the archaeological treasures found beneath the square when it was repaved in the 1980s. Even remains of a <a href=\"Neolithic\">Neolithic</a> site were found. The square started taking shape from 1268 on, when houses of <a href=\"Ghibelline\">Ghibelline</a>s were pulled down by the victorious <a href=\"Guelphs%20and%20Ghibellines\">Guelph</a>s. The square remained a long time untidy, full of holes. In 1385 it was paved for the first time. In 1497 <a href=\"Girolamo%20Savonarola\">Girolamo Savonarola</a> and his followers carried out on this square the famous <a href=\"Bonfire%20of%20the%20Vanities\">Bonfire of the Vanities</a>, burning in a large pile books, gaming tables, fine dresses, and works of poets. In front of the fountain of Neptune, a round marble plaque marks the exact spot where <a href=\"Girolamo%20Savonarola\">Girolamo Savonarola</a> was hanged and burned on May 23, 1498.","Giambologna\nGiambologna (1529 – 13 August 1608) — born Jean Boulogne (and incorrectly known as Giovanni da Bologna or Giovanni Bologna) — was a <a href=\"Flemish%20people\">Flemish</a> <a href=\"sculpture\">sculptor</a> based in <a href=\"Italy\">Italy</a>, celebrated for his <a href=\"marble%20sculpture\">marble</a> and <a href=\"bronze%20sculpture\">bronze</a> statuary in a late <a href=\"Renaissance\">Renaissance</a> or <a href=\"Mannerist\">Mannerist</a> style.\nGiambologna was born in <a href=\"Douai\">Douai</a>, <a href=\"Southern%20Netherlands\">Flanders</a> (now in <a href=\"France\">France</a>), in 1529. After youthful studies in <a href=\"Antwerp%20%28city%29\">Antwerp</a> with the architect-sculptor <a href=\"Jacques%20du%20Broeucq\">Jacques du Broeucq</a>, he moved to <a href=\"Italy\">Italy</a> in 1550 and studied in <a href=\"Rome\">Rome</a>, making a detailed study of the sculpture of <a href=\"classical%20antiquity\">classical antiquity</a>. He was also much influenced by <a href=\"Michelangelo\">Michelangelo</a>, but developed his own <a href=\"Mannerism\">Mannerist</a> style, with perhaps less emphasis on emotion and more emphasis on refined surfaces, cool elegance, and beauty. <a href=\"Pope%20Pius%20IV\">Pope Pius IV</a> gave Giambologna his first major commission, the colossal bronze Neptune and subsidiary figures for the <a href=\"Fountain%20of%20Neptune%2C%20Bologna\">Fountain of Neptune</a> (the base designed by <a href=\"Tommaso%20Laureti\">Tommaso Laureti</a>, 1566) in Bologna. Giambologna spent his most productive years in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a>, where he had settled in 1553. In 1653 he was named a member (\"Accademico\") of the prestigious <a href=\"Accademia%20delle%20Arti%20del%20Disegno\">Accademia delle Arti del Disegno</a>, just founded by the Duke <a href=\"Cosimo%20I%20de%27%20Medici\">Cosimo I de' Medici</a>, on 13 January 1563, under the influence of the painter-architect <a href=\"Giorgio%20Vasari\">Giorgio Vasari</a>, becoming also one of the <a href=\"Medici\">Medici</a>s' most important court sculptors. He died in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a> at the age of 79; the Medici had never allowed him to leave Florence, as they rightly feared that either the Austrian or Spanish <a href=\"Habsburgs\">Habsburgs</a> would entice him into permanent employment. He was interred in a chapel he designed himself in the <a href=\"Santissima%20Annunziata%2C%20Florence\">Santissima Annunziata</a>.\nGiambologna became well known for a fine sense of action and movement, and a refined, differentiated surface finish. Among his most famous works are the \" <a href=\"Mercury%20%28mythology%29\">Mercury</a>\" (of which he did four versions), poised on one foot, supported by a zephyr. The god raises one arm to point heavenwards in a gesture borrowed from the repertory of classical rhetoric that is characteristic of Giambologna's \"maniera\".\nHis other most famous work is the <a href=\"Rape%20of%20the%20Sabine%20Women%20%28sculpture%29\">Rape of the Sabine Women</a> (1574–82) a marble sculpture which is featured prominently in the <a href=\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a> in Florence's Piazza della Signoria. This impressive sculpture which includes three full figures was carved from a single piece of marble. Giambologna carved it without a subject in mind, and the name Rape of the Sabine Women was given after it was in place in the Loggia. The sculpture was produced for <a href=\"Francesco%20Medici\">Francesco Medici</a>, <a href=\"Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany\">Grand Duke</a> of Tuscany. Another of his marbles, <a href=\"Hercules%20Slaying%20a%20Centaur\">Hercules Slaying a Centaur</a> was also placed in the <a href=\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a> in 1599.\nGiambologna's several depictions of <a href=\"Venus%20%28mythology%29\">Venus</a> established a canon of proportions, and set models for the goddess' representation that were influential for two generations of sculptors in Italy and in the North. He created allegories strongly promoting Medicean political propaganda, such as \"<a href=\"Florence%20Defeating%20Pisa\">Florence Defeating Pisa</a>\" and, less overtly, \"<a href=\"Samson%20Slaying%20a%20Philistine%20%28Giambologna%29\">Samson Slaying a Philistine</a>\", for <a href=\"Francesco%20de%27%20Medici\">Francesco de' Medici</a> (1562).\nThe equestrian statue of <a href=\"Cosimo%20I%20de%27%20Medici\">Cosimo I de' Medici</a> also in Florence, was completed by his studio assistant <a href=\"Pietro%20Tacca\">Pietro Tacca</a>.\nGiambologna provided as well as many sculptures for garden grottos and fountains in the <a href=\"Boboli%20Gardens\">Boboli Gardens</a> of Florence and at <a href=\"Pratolino\">Pratolino</a>, and the bronze doors of the <a href=\"Piazza%20dei%20Miracoli\">cathedral of Pisa</a>. He created the bronze sea-horses and some other sculptures for Bartolomeo Ammannati's <a href=\"Fountain%20of%20Neptune%2C%20Florence\">Fountain of Neptune, Florence</a>.\nFor the grotto of the Villa Medicea of Castello he sculpted a series of studies of individual animals, from life, which may now be viewed at the <a href=\"Bargello\">Bargello</a>. Small bronze reductions of many of his sculptures were prized by connoisseurs at the time and ever since, for Giambologna's reputation has never suffered eclipse.\nGiambologna was an important influence on later sculptors through his pupils <a href=\"Adriaen%20de%20Vries\">Adriaen de Vries</a> and <a href=\"Pietro%20Francavilla\">Pietro Francavilla</a> who left his atelier for Paris in 1601, as well as <a href=\"Pierre%20Puget\">Pierre Puget</a> who spread Giambologna's influence throughout Northern Europe, and in Italy on <a href=\"Pietro%20Tacca\">Pietro Tacca</a>, who assumed Giambologna's workshop in Florence, and in Rome on <a href=\"Gian%20Lorenzo%20Bernini\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini</a> and <a href=\"Alessandro%20Algardi\">Alessandro Algardi</a>.\n"],"string":"[\n \"Florian Vika\\nFlorian Vika is an Albanian contemporary painter and visual artist from Tirana. He was graduated in the Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Italy in 2004. His art conception is based in the reconstruction of the new values lost from ancient art which remains in every time and sharing those with post modern ones created from Picasso. This way of creating by Florian was appreciated from the Italian professors of Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze.\",\n \"Galleria dell'Accademia\\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia di Firenze, or \\\"Gallery of the Academy of Florence\\\", is an art museum in Florence, Italy. It is best known as the home of Michelangelo's sculpture \\\"David\\\". It also has other sculptures by Michelangelo and a large collection of paintings by Florentine artists, mostly from the period 1300-1600, the Trecento to the Late Renaissance. It is smaller and more specialized than the Uffizi, the main art museum in Florence. It adjoins the Accademia di Belle Arti or academy of fine arts of Florence, but despite the name has no other connection with it.\\nIn 2016 it had 1,461,185 visitors, making it the second most visited art museum in Italy, after the Uffizi (2.02 million).\\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia was founded in 1784 by Pietro Leopoldo, Grand Duke of Tuscany.\\nIn 2001 the \\\"Museo degli strumenti musical\\\" collection opened. It includes musical instruments made by Stradivarius, Niccolò Amati, and Bartolomeo Cristofori.\\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia has housed the original \\\"David\\\" by Michelangelo since 1873. The sculpture was allegedly brought to the Accademia for reasons of conservation, although other factors were involved in its move from its previous outdoor location on Piazza della Signoria. The original intention was to create a 'Michelangelo museum', with original sculptures and drawings, to celebrate the fourth centenary of the artist's birth. Today, the gallery's small collection of Michelangelo's work includes his four unfinished \\\"Prisoners\\\", intended for the tomb of Pope Julius II, and a statue of Saint Matthew, also unfinished. In 1939, these were joined by a \\\"Pietà\\\" discovered in the Barberini chapel in Palestrina, though experts now consider its attribution to Michelangelo to be dubious.\\nThe \\\"David\\\" in the Accademia is the original. There is a replica in the Piazza della Signoria.\\nOther works on display are Florentine paintings from the 13th and 16th centuries, including works by Paolo Uccello, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli and Andrea del Sarto; and, from the High Renaissance, Giambologna's original full-size plaster modello for the \\\"Rape of the Sabine Women\\\". As well as a number of Florentine Gothic paintings, the gallery houses the collection of Russian icons assembled by the Grand Dukes of the House of Lorraine, of which Leopoldo was one.\",\n \"Brera Academy\\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera (\\\"academy of fine arts of Brera\\\"), also known as the \\\"Accademia di Brera \\\" or Brera Academy, is a state-run tertiary public academy of fine arts in Milan, Italy. It shares its history, and in early 2017 still its main building, with the Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan's main public museum for art. In 2010 an agreement was signed to move the accademia to a former military barracks, the Caserma Magenta in via Mascheroni, but the move had not happened by early 2017.\\nThe academy was founded in 1776 by Maria Theresa of Austria. In typical Enlightenment fashion, it shared premises with other cultural and scientific institutions – the astronomical observatory, the Orto Botanico di Brera, the Scuole Palatine for philosophy and law, the Gymnasium, laboratories for physics and chemistry, the Biblioteca di Brera, the agricultural society and, from 1806, the Pinacoteca di Brera or art gallery. These were housed in the Palazzo Brera, which was built in about 1615 to designs by Francesco Maria Richini and until the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 had been a Jesuit college.\\nLike other state-run art academies in Italy, the Accademia di Brera falls under the Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca, the Italian ministry of education and research. In accordance with presidential decree 212 dated 8 July 2005, it awards first- and second-level degrees, specialised degrees, master's degrees and doctorates.\\nThe accademia has three departments: the department of visual arts, with courses in decorative art, graphic art, painting and sculpture; the department of design and applied art, which has courses in art restoration, design for business, new technologies of art and scenic design; and the department of communication and education in art, with courses in conservation of cultural heritage and in art education.\\nIt has about 3,800 students, including about 1,000 foreign students (mostly postgraduates). It actively exchanges students and teachers with other European countries through the ERASMUS programme, and since 2006, with countries outside EU such as Japan, China, Hong Kong, Mexico, Taiwan and Australia.\\nThe picture gallery of the accademia, now the Pinacoteca di Brera, was started in 1806, in Napoleonic times. Large numbers of paintings were brought to Milan after the suppression of the convents by Napoleon. The façade of the church of Santa Maria in Brera of the former monastery was torn down and the nave of the church divided horizontally; the upper floor became the Napoleonic rooms of the art gallery of the Accademia, which opened in 1809 as the Reale Galleria, and the lower floor housed the sculptures of the museum of antiquities. A Sala dei Moderni, which housed contemporary works, was started in 1806 by Giuseppe Bossi. The Pinacoteca became independent of the accademia in 1882, though both remain in Palazzo Brera.\\nAlumni of the academy include the playwright Dario Fo, recipient of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Futurist painter Carlo Carrà, who also taught at the academy from 1939 to 1952.\\nOthers who have taught at the Brera include the Venetian painter Francesco Hayez, professor of painting from 1822 to 1880; and the architect and writer Camillo Boito, who was professor of architecture from 1860 to 1909, and for part of that time also president of the academy.\\n\",\n \"Accademia di Belle Arti di Perugia\\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Perugia (\\\"Academy of Fine Arts of Perugia\\\") is a private tertiary academy of art in Perugia, in Umbria in central Italy. It is not one of the 20 official Italian state academies of fine art, but is legally recognised by the Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca, the Italian ministry of education and research, which gives its full name as Accademia di Belle Arti Legalmente Riconosciuta di Perugia \\\"Pietro Vannucci\\\". The academy became an autonomous degree-awarding institution under law no. 508 dated 21 December 1999.\\nWith a foundation year of 1573 makes the Academy (initially called the Academia del Disegno - “Academy of Drawing”), the second for longevity after the Academy of Fine Arts of Florence born just eleven years before. Was born by the impulse of a painter (Orazio Alfani) and an architect and mathematician (Raphael Sozi).\\nThe Royal Academy has an important collection of books, archives and works of art accessible for research and display.\",\n \"Gallerie dell'Accademia\\nThe Gallerie dell'Accademia is a museum gallery of pre-19th-century art in Venice, northern Italy. It is housed in the Scuola della Carità on the south bank of the Grand Canal, within the sestiere of Dorsoduro. It was originally the gallery of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia, the art academy of Venice, from which it became independent in 1879, and for which the Ponte dell'Accademia and the Accademia boat landing station for the \\\"vaporetto\\\" water bus are named. The two institutions remained in the same building until 2004, when the art school moved to the Ospedale degli Incurabili.\\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia was founded on 24 September 1750; the statute dates from 1756. The first director was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; Gianbattista Tiepolo became the first president after his return from Würzburg.\\nIt was one of the first institutions to study art restoration starting in 1777 with Pietro Edwards, and formalised by 1819 as a course.\\nIn 1807 the academy was re-founded by Napoleonic decree. The name was changed from Veneta Academia di Pittura, Scultura e Architettura to Accademia Reale di Belle Arti, \\\"royal academy of fine arts\\\", and the academy was moved to the Palladian complex of the Scuola della Carità, where the Gallerie dell'Accademia are still housed. The collections of the Accademia were first opened to the public on 10 August 1817.\\nThe Gallerie dell'Accademia became independent from the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia in 1879. Like other state museums in Italy, it falls under the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, the Italian ministry of culture and heritage.\\nThe Napoleonic administration had disbanded many institutions in Venice including some churches, convents and Scuole. The Scuola della Carità, the Convento dei Canonici Lateranensi and the church of Santa Maria della Carità thus became the home of the Accademia. The Scuola della Carità was the oldest of the six Scuole Grandi and the building dates back to 1343, though the scuola was formed in 1260. The Convento dei Canonici Lateranensi was started in 1561 by Andrea Palladio, though it was never fully completed. The facade of Santa Maria della Carità was completed in 1441 by Bartolomeo Bon.\\nThe Gallerie dell’Accademia contains masterpieces of Venetian painting up to the 18th century, generally arranged chronologically though some thematic displays are evident.\\nArtists represented include:\\nAntonello da Messina,\\nLazzaro Bastiani,\\nGentile and Giovanni Bellini,\\nBernardo Bellotto,\\nPacino di Bonaguida,\\nCanaletto,\\nCarpaccio,\\nGiulio Carpioni,\\nRosalba Carriera,\\nCima da Conegliano,\\nFetti,\\nPietro Gaspari,\\nMichele Giambono,\\nLuca Giordano,\\nFrancesco Guardi,\\nGiorgione,\\nJohann Liss,\\nCharles Le Brun,\\nPietro Longhi,\\nLorenzo Lotto,\\nMantegna,\\nRocco Marconi,\\nMichele Marieschi,\\nPiazzetta,\\nGiambattista Pittoni,\\nPreti,\\nTiepolo,\\nTintoretto,\\nTitian,\\nVeronese (Paolo Caliari),\\nVasari,\\nLeonardo da Vinci (Drawing of Vitruvian Man),\\nAlvise Vivarini, and\\nGiuseppe Zais.\\n\",\n \"Mary de Piro\\nMary de Piro is an Maltese artist (born in Valletta, 1946). She studied art at a young age while at boarding school at Badia a Ripoli in Florence and later at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze. Her first exhibition was held in Wisconsin, in the course of a stay in the United States. Her first solo exhibition in Malta brought her critical acclaim owing to the confidence of her brushwork and choice of large format canvases. This led to commissions from corporate patrons, through curator Richard England. In 1975 she moved to the UK, where she raised a family while continuing to paint, moving into the field of portraiture and sacred art. Over the years she mainly participated in collective exhibitions in the England, Malta, and Italy. Mary de Piro is best known for her landscape paintings, particularly those which evoke the Mediterranean light of the Maltese countryside.\\nPersonal exhibitions\\nCollective\",\n \"Accademia di Belle Arti di Carrara\\nThe Accademia di Belle Arti di Carrara is a public tertiary academy of art in Carrara, in Tuscany, Italy. It was founded on 26 September 1769 by Maria Teresa Cybo-Malaspina, duchess of Massa and princess of Carrara; but its origins go back to 1757, when, on the advice of the sculptor Giovanni Domenico Olivieri, she founded the Accademia di San Ceccardo in which sculpture, architecture and painting were to be taught.\\nLike other state art academies in Italy, it became an autonomous degree-awarding institution under law no. 508 dated 21 December 1999, and falls under the Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca, the Italian ministry of education and research.\\nList of academies of fine art in Italy\\n\",\n \"David (Michelangelo)\\nDavid (] ) is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and 1504 by Michelangelo.\\nIt is a 5.17 m marble statue of a standing male nude. The statue represents the Biblical hero David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence. Originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, the statue was placed instead in a public square, outside the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of civic government in Florence, in the Piazza della Signoria where it was unveiled on September 8th, 1504.\\nBecause of the nature of the hero it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defense of civil liberties embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a warning glare, were turned towards Rome. The statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica.\\nThe history of the statue begins before Michelangelo's work on it from 1501 to 1504. Prior to Michelangelo's involvement, the Overseers of the Office of Works of Florence Cathedral, consisting mostly of members of the influential woolen cloth guild, the Arte della Lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large Old Testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral. In 1410 Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello's direction. Eager to continue their project, in 1464, the \\\"Operai\\\" contracted Agostino to create a sculpture of David. A block of marble was provided from a quarry in Carrara, a town in the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany. Agostino only got as far as beginning to shape the legs, feet and the torso, roughing out some drapery and probably gouging a hole between the legs. His association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of Donatello in 1466, and ten years later Antonio Rossellino was commissioned to take up where Agostino had left off.\\nRossellino's contract was terminated soon thereafter, and the block of marble remained neglected for 25 years, all the while exposed to the elements in the yard of the cathedral workshop. This was of great concern to the \\\"Opera\\\" authorities, as such a large piece of marble not only was costly but represented a large amount of labour and difficulty in its transportation to Florence. In 1500, an inventory of the cathedral workshops described the piece as \\\"a certain figure of marble called David, badly blocked out and supine.\\\" A year later, documents showed that the \\\"Operai\\\" were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and turn it into a finished work of art. They ordered the block of stone, which they called \\\"The Giant\\\", \\\"raised on its feet\\\" so that a master experienced in this kind of work might examine it and express an opinion. Though Leonardo da Vinci and others were consulted, it was Michelangelo, only 26 years old, who convinced the \\\"Operai\\\" that he deserved the commission. On 16 August 1501, Michelangelo was given the official contract to undertake this challenging new task. He began carving the statue early in the morning on 13 September, a month after he was awarded the contract. He would work on the massive statue for more than two years.\\nOn 25 January 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, Florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the more than six-ton statue to the roof of the cathedral. They convened a committee of 30 Florentine citizens that comprised many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for \\\"David\\\". While nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites. One group, led by Giuliano da Sangallo and supported by Leonardo and Piero di Cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the Loggia dei Lanzi on Piazza della Signoria; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the Palazzo della Signoria, the city's town hall (now known as Palazzo Vecchio). Another opinion, supported by Botticelli, was that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral. In June 1504, \\\"David\\\" was installed next to the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio, replacing Donatello's bronze sculpture of \\\"Judith and Holofernes\\\", which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. It took four days to move the statue the half mile from Michelangelo's workshop into the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer the sling and tree-stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin-garland.\\nIn 1873, the statue of \\\"David\\\" was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the Accademia Gallery, Florence, where it attracts many visitors. A replica was placed in the Piazza della Signoria in 1910.\\nIn 1991, a mentally disturbed artist named Piero Cannata attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed beneath his jacket; in the process of damaging the toes of the left foot, he was restrained.\\nOn 12 November 2010, a fiberglass replica of the \\\"David\\\" was installed on the roofline of Florence Cathedral, for one day only. Photographs of the installation reveal the statue the way the \\\"Operai\\\" who commissioned the work originally expected it to be seen.\\nIn 2010, a dispute over the ownership of \\\"David\\\" arose when, based on a legal review of historical documents, the Italian Culture Ministry claimed ownership of the statue in opposition to the city of Florence, where it has always been located. Florence disputes the state claim.\\nIn the mid 1800s, small cracks were noticed on the left leg on \\\"David\\\" which can possibly be attributed to an uneven sinking of the ground under the massive statue.\\nThe pose of Michelangelo's \\\"David\\\" is unlike that of earlier Renaissance depictions of David. The bronze statues by Donatello and Verrocchio represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath, and the painter Andrea del Castagno had shown the boy in mid-swing, even as Goliath's head rested between his feet, but no earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. According to Helen Gardner and other scholars, David is depicted before his battle with Goliath. Instead of being shown victorious over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready for combat.\\nThe statue appears to show David after he has made the decision to fight Goliath but before the battle has actually taken place, a moment between conscious choice and action. His brow is drawn, his neck tense and the veins bulge out of his lowered right hand. His left hand holds a sling that is draped over his shoulder and down to his right hand, which holds a rock. The twist of his body effectively conveys to the viewer the feeling that he is in motion, an impression heightened with contrapposto. The statue is a Renaissance interpretation of a common ancient Greek theme of the standing heroic male nude. In the High Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture. This is typified in \\\"David\\\", as the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg forward. This classic pose causes the figure’s hips and shoulders to rest at opposing angles, giving a slight s-curve to the entire torso. The contrapposto is emphasised by the turn of the head to the left, and by the contrasting positions of the arms.\\nMichelangelo’s \\\"David\\\" has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture, a symbol of strength and youthful beauty.\\nJust the colossal size of the statue impressed Michelangelo's contemporaries. Vasari described it as \\\"certainly a miracle that of Michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead,\\\" and then listed all of the largest and most grand of the ancient statues that he had ever seen, concluding that Michelangelo's work surpassed \\\"all ancient and modern statues, whether Greek or Latin, that have ever existed.\\\"\\nThe proportions of the \\\"David\\\" are atypical of Michelangelo's work; the figure has an unusually large head and hands (particularly apparent in the right hand). The small size of the genitals, though, is in line with his other works and with Renaissance conventions in general, perhaps referencing the ancient Greek ideal of pre-pubescent male nudity. These enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture may have been accentuated in order to be visible from below. The statue is unusually slender (front to back) in comparison to its height, which may be a result of the work done on the block before Michelangelo began carving it.\\nIt is possible that the \\\"David\\\" was conceived as a political statue before Michelangelo began to work on it. Certainly David the giant-killer had long been seen as a political figure in Florence, and images of the Biblical hero already carried political implications there. Donatello's bronze \\\"David,\\\" made for the Medici family, perhaps 1440, had been appropriated by the Signoria in 1494, when the Medici were exiled from Florence, and the statue was installed in the courtyard of the Palazzo della Signoria, where it stood for the Republican government of the city. By placing Michelangelo's statue in the same general location, the Florentine authorities ensured that \\\"David\\\" would be seen as a political parallel as well as an artistic response to that earlier work. These political overtones led to the statue being attacked twice in its early days. Protesters pelted it with stones the year it debuted, and, in 1527, an anti-Medici riot resulted in its left arm being broken into three pieces.\\nCommentators have noted the presence on \\\"David\\\"'s penis of his foreskin, which is at odds with the Judaic practice of circumcision, but is consistent with the conventions of Renaissance art.\\nDuring World War II, \\\"David\\\" was entombed in brick to protect it from damage from airborne bombs.\\nIn 1991, the foot of the statue was damaged by a man with a hammer. The samples obtained from that incident allowed scientists to determine that the marble used was obtained from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, the central of three small valleys in Carrara. The marble in question contains many microscopic holes that cause it to deteriorate faster than other marbles. Because of the marble's degradation, from 2003 to 2004 the statue was given its first major cleaning since 1843. Some experts opposed the use of water to clean the statue, fearing further deterioration. Under the direction of Franca Falleti, senior restorers Monica Eichmann and Cinzia Parnigoni undertook the job of restoring the statue.\\nIn 2008, plans were proposed to insulate the statue from the vibration of tourists' footsteps at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia, to prevent damage to the marble.\\nDavid has stood on display at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia since 1873. In addition to the full-sized replica occupying the spot of the original in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, a bronze version overlooks Florence from the Piazzale Michelangelo. The plaster cast of \\\"David\\\" at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response to Queen Victoria's shock upon first viewing the statue's nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks. In 2010, the Italian government began a campaign to solidify its claim to the iconic marble statue.\\n\\\"David\\\" has been endlessly reproduced, in plaster and imitation marble fibreglass, signifying an attempt to lend an atmosphere of culture even in some unlikely settings such as beach resorts, gambling casinos and model railroads.\\n\\n\",\n \"Palestrina Pietà\\nThe Palestrina Pietà is a marble sculpture by the Italian High Renaissance, dating from c. 1555 and housed in the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence. It was formerly attributed to Michelangelo, but now it is mostly considered to have been completed by someone else, such as Niccolò Menghini or Gian Lorenzo Bernini. According to the Galleria dell'Accademia, the sculpture's \\\"attribution to the master is still somehow controversial\\\".\\nThis Pietà depicts three figures, one of them the body of Jesus Christ. The sculpture was originally in a room beside the Santa Rosalia church in Palestrina and was owned by the Barberini family. Some sources indicate it was made in 1556. The sculpture was acquired by the government in 1939. The attribution to Michelangelo was made relatively recently, in the first half of the 18th century. There is no earlier discussion of the work as there is for nearly all others attributed to the master.\\n\",\n \"Paolo Uccello\\nPaolo Uccello (] ; 1397 – 10 December 1475), born Paolo di Dono, was an <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italian</a> painter and mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual <a href=\\\"Perspective%20%28graphical%29\\\">perspective</a> in art. In his book \\\"<a href=\\\"Lives%20of%20the%20Artists\\\">Lives of the Artists</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a> wrote that Uccello was obsessed by his interest in perspective and would stay up all night in his study trying to grasp the exact vanishing point. While his contemporaries used perspective to narrate different or succeeding stories, Uccello used perspective to create a feeling of depth in his paintings. His best known works are the <a href=\\\"The%20Battle%20of%20San%20Romano\\\">three paintings</a> representing the <a href=\\\"battle%20of%20San%20Romano\\\">battle of San Romano</a>, which were wrongly entitled the \\\"Battle of Sant' Egidio of 1416\\\" for a long period of time.\\nPaolo worked in the <a href=\\\"International%20Gothic\\\">Late Gothic</a> tradition, emphasizing colour and pageantry rather than the classical realism that other artists were pioneering. His style is best described as idiosyncratic, and he left no school of followers. He has had some influence on twentieth-century art and literary criticism (e.g., in the \\\"Vies imaginaires\\\" by <a href=\\\"Marcel%20Schwob\\\">Marcel Schwob</a>, \\\"Uccello le poil\\\" by <a href=\\\"Antonin%20Artaud\\\">Antonin Artaud</a> and \\\"O Mundo Como Ideia\\\" by <a href=\\\"Bruno%20Tolentino\\\">Bruno Tolentino</a>).\\nThe sources for Paolo Uccello’s life are few: <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a>’s biography, written 75 years after Paolo’s death, and a few contemporary official documents. Due to the lack of sources, even his date of birth is questionable. It is believed that Uccello was born in <a href=\\\"Pratovecchio\\\">Pratovecchio</a> in 1397, and his tax declarations for some years indicate that he was born in 1397, but in 1446 he claimed to be born in 1396. His father, Dono di Paolo, was a <a href=\\\"barber\\\">barber-surgeon</a> from <a href=\\\"Pratovecchio\\\">Pratovecchio</a> near Arezzo; his mother, Antonia, was a high-born Florentine. His nickname \\\"<a href=\\\"%3Awiktionary%3Auccello\\\">Uccello</a>\\\" came from his fondness for painting birds.\\nFrom 1412 until 1416 he was apprenticed to the famous sculptor <a href=\\\"Lorenzo%20Ghiberti\\\">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a>. Ghiberti was the designer of the doors of the <a href=\\\"Florence%20Baptistery\\\">Florence Baptistery</a> and his workshop was the premier centre for Florentine art at the time. Ghiberti's late-Gothic, narrative style and sculptural composition greatly influenced Paolo. It was also around this time that Paolo began his lifelong friendship with <a href=\\\"Donatello\\\">Donatello</a>. In 1414, Uccello was admitted to the <a href=\\\"painters%27%20guild\\\">painters' guild</a>, \\\"Compagnia di San Luca,\\\" and just one year later, in 1415, he joined the official painter's guild of Florence \\\"Arte dei Medici e degli Speziali\\\". Although the young Uccello had probably left Ghiberti's workshop by the mid 1420s, he stayed on good terms with his master and may have been privy to the designs for Ghiberti's second set of Baptistery doors, \\\"The Gates of Paradise.\\\" These featured a battle scene \\\"that might well have impressed itself in the mind of the young Uccello,\\\" and thus influenced \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Battle%20of%20San%20Romano\\\">The Battle of San Romano</a>\\\".\\nAccording to <a href=\\\"Vasari\\\">Vasari</a>, Uccello’s first painting was a Saint Anthony between the saints Cosmas and Damianus, a commission for the hospital of Lelmo. Next, he painted two figures in the convent of Annalena. Shortly afterwards, he painted three <a href=\\\"fresco\\\">fresco</a>es with scenes from \\\"the life of <a href=\\\"Francis%20of%20Assisi\\\">Saint Francis</a>\\\" above the left door of the <a href=\\\"Santa%20Trinita\\\">Santa Trinita</a> church. For the <a href=\\\"Santa%20Maria%20Maggiore%20di%20Firenze\\\">Santa Maria Maggiore</a> church, he painted a fresco of the <a href=\\\"Annunciation\\\">Annunciation</a>. In this fresco, he painted a large building with columns in perspective. According to Vasari, people found this to be a great and beautiful achievement because this was the first example of how lines could be expertly used to demonstrate perspective and size. As a result, this work became a model for artists who wished to craft illusions of space in order to enhance the realness of their paintings.\\nPaolo painted \\\"the Lives of the <a href=\\\"Church%20Fathers\\\">Church Fathers</a>\\\" in the cloisters of the church of <a href=\\\"San%20Miniato\\\">San Miniato</a>, which sat on a hill overlooking Florence. According to Vasari, Paolo protested against the monotonous meals of cheese pies and <a href=\\\"cheese%20soup\\\">cheese soup</a> served by the abbot by running away, and returned to finish the job only after the abbot promised him a more varied diet.\\nUccello was asked to paint a number of scenes of distempered animals for the house of the Medici. The scene most appreciated by Vasari was his depiction of a fierce lion fighting with a venom-spouting snake. Uccello loved to paint animals and he kept a wide variety of pictures of animals, especially birds, at home. This love for birds is what led to his nickname, Paolo Uccelli (Paul of the birds).\\nBy 1424, Paolo was earning his own living as a painter. In that year, he proved his artistic maturity by painting episodes of the \\\"Creation and Expulsion,\\\" which are now badly damaged, for the Green Cloister (\\\"Chiostro Verde\\\") of <a href=\\\"Santa%20Maria%20Novella\\\">Santa Maria Novella</a> in Florence. Again, this assignment allowed him to paint a large number of animals in a lively manner. He also succeeded in painting trees in their natural colours. This was a skill that was difficult for many of his predecessors, so Uccello also began to acquire a reputation for painting landscapes. He continued with scenes from the <a href=\\\"Deluge%20%28mythology%29\\\">Deluge</a>, the story of <a href=\\\"Noah%27s%20Ark\\\">Noah's Ark</a>, Noah's sacrifice and Noah's drunkenness. These scenes brought him great fame in Florence.\\nIn 1425, Uccello travelled to <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venice</a>, where he worked on the mosaics for the façade of <a href=\\\"St%20Mark%27s%20Basilica\\\">San Marco</a>, which have all since been lost. During this time, he also painted some frescoes in the <a href=\\\"Prato%20Cathedral\\\">Prato Cathedral</a> and <a href=\\\"Bologna\\\">Bologna</a>. Some suggest he visited <a href=\\\"Rome\\\">Rome</a> with his friend Donatello before returning to Florence in 1431. After he returned, Uccello remained in Florence for most of the rest of his life, executing works for various churches and patrons, most notably the <a href=\\\"Santa%20Maria%20del%20Fiore\\\">Duomo</a>.\\nDespite his leave from Florence, interest in Uccello did not diminish. In 1432, the Office of Works asked the Florentine ambassador in Venice to enquire after Uccello’s reputation as an artist. In 1436, he was given the commission for the monochromatic fresco of \\\"Sir <a href=\\\"John%20Hawkwood\\\">John Hawkwood</a>\\\". This equestrian monument exemplified his keen interest in <a href=\\\"perspective%20%28graphical%29\\\">perspective</a>. The <a href=\\\"condottiere\\\">condottiere</a> and his horse are presented as if the fresco was a sculpture seen from below.\\nIt is widely thought that he is the author of the frescoes \\\"Stories of the Virgin\\\" and \\\"Story of Saint Stephen\\\" in the Cappella dell'Assunta, Florence, so he likely visited nearby <a href=\\\"Prato\\\">Prato</a> sometime between 1435 and 1440. Later, in 1443, he painted the figures on the clock of the Duomo. In that same year and continuing into 1444, he designed a few stained glass windows for the same church. In 1444 he was also at work in <a href=\\\"Padua\\\">Padua</a>, and he travelled to Padua again in 1445 at Donatello’s invitation.\\nBack in Florence in 1446, he painted the \\\"Green Stations of the Cross\\\", again for the cloister of the church Santa Maria Novella. Around 1447–1454 he painted \\\"Scenes of Monastic Life\\\" for the church <a href=\\\"Basilica%20di%20San%20Miniato%20al%20Monte\\\">San Miniato al Monte</a>, Florence.\\nAround the mid-1450s, he painted his three most famous paintings, the panels depicting \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Battle%20of%20San%20Romano\\\">The Battle of San Romano</a>\\\" for the Palazzo Medici in Florence, commemorating the victory of the Florentine army over the Sienese in 1432. The extraordinarily <a href=\\\"Perspective%20%28graphical%29\\\">foreshortened</a> forms extending in many planes accentuate Uccello's virtuosity as a draftsman, and provides a controlled visual structure to the chaos of the battle scene.\\nBy 1453, Uccello was married to Tommasa Malifici. This is known because, in that year Donato (named after Donatello), was born. Three years later, in 1456, his wife gave birth to their daughter, Antonia. Antonia Uccello (1456–1491) was a <a href=\\\"Carmelite\\\">Carmelite</a> nun, whom <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a> called \\\"a daughter who knew how to draw.\\\" She was even noted as a \\\"pittoressa\\\", a painter, on her death certificate. Her style and her skill remains a mystery as none of her work is extant.\\nFrom 1465 to 1469, Uccello was in <a href=\\\"Urbino\\\">Urbino</a> with his son Donato working for the Confraternity of Corpus Domini, a brotherhood of laymen. During this time, he painted the <a href=\\\"predella\\\">predella</a> for their new altarpiece with the \\\"Miracle of the Profaned Host.\\\" (The main panel representing the \\\"Communion of the Apostles\\\" was commissioned to <a href=\\\"Joos%20van%20Wassenhove\\\">Justus van Ghent</a> and finished in 1474). Uccello's predella is composed of six meticulous, naturalistic scenes related to the antisemitic myth of <a href=\\\"host%20desecration\\\">host desecration</a>, which was based upon an event that supposedly occurred in Paris in 1290. It has been suggested that the subject of the main panel, on which Duke <a href=\\\"Frederick%20of%20Montefeltro\\\">Frederick of Montefeltro</a> of Urbino appears in the background conversing with an Asian, is related to the antisemitic intention of the predella. However, Federico did allow a small Jewish community to live in Urbino and not all of these scenes are unanimously attributed to Paolo Uccello.\\nIn his Florentine tax return of August 1469, Uccello declared, “I find myself old and ailing, my wife is ill, and I can no longer work.” In the last years of his life, Paolo was a lonesome and forgotten man who was afraid of hardship in life. His last known work is \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Hunt%20in%20the%20Forest\\\">The Hunt</a>\\\", c. 1470. He made his testament on 11 November 1475 and died shortly afterwards on 10 December 1475 at the hospital of Florence, at the age of 78. He was buried in his father’s tomb in the Florentine church of <a href=\\\"Santo%20Spirito%2C%20Florence\\\">Santo Spirito</a>.\\nWith his precise and analytical mind, Paolo Uccello tried to apply a scientific method to depict objects in three-dimensional space. In particular, some of his studies of the perspective foreshortening of the <a href=\\\"torus\\\">torus</a> are preserved, and one standard display of drawing skill was his depiction of the <a href=\\\"mazzocchio\\\">mazzocchio</a>. The perspective in his paintings has influenced many famous painters, such as <a href=\\\"Piero%20della%20Francesca\\\">Piero della Francesca</a>, <a href=\\\"Albrecht%20D%C3%BCrer\\\">Albrecht Dürer</a> and <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, to name a few.\\n<a href=\\\"John%20Pope-Hennessy\\\">Pope-Hennessy</a> is far more conservative than the Italian authors: he attributes some of the works below to a \\\"Prato Master\\\" and a \\\"Karlsruhe Master\\\". Most of the dates in the list (taken from Borsi and Borsi) are derived from stylistic comparison rather than from documentation.\\n\",\n \"Stradivarius\\nA Stradivarius is one of the <a href=\\\"violin\\\">violin</a>s, <a href=\\\"viola\\\">viola</a>s, <a href=\\\"cello\\\">cello</a>s and other <a href=\\\"string%20instrument\\\">string instrument</a>s built by members of the Italian family Stradivari, particularly <a href=\\\"Antonio%20Stradivari\\\">Antonio Stradivari</a> (<a href=\\\"Latin%20Language\\\">Latin</a>: Antonius Stradivarius), during the 17th and 18th centuries. According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. The name \\\"Stradivarius\\\" has become a superlative often associated with excellence; to be called \\\"the Stradivari\\\" of any field is to be deemed the finest there is. The fame of Stradivarius instruments is widespread, appearing in numerous works of fiction.\\nThe wood used included <a href=\\\"spruce\\\">spruce</a> for the top, <a href=\\\"willow\\\">willow</a> for the internal blocks and linings, and <a href=\\\"maple\\\">maple</a> for the back, ribs, and neck. There has been conjecture that this wood was treated with several types of minerals, including potassium borate (<a href=\\\"borax\\\">borax</a>), sodium and potassium silicate, and <a href=\\\"vernice%20bianca\\\">vernice bianca</a>, a varnish composed of <a href=\\\"gum%20arabic\\\">gum arabic</a>, <a href=\\\"honey\\\">honey</a>, and <a href=\\\"egg%20white\\\">egg white</a>. Stradivari made his instruments using an inner form, unlike the French copyists, such as <a href=\\\"Jean-Baptiste%20Vuillaume\\\">Vuillaume</a>, who employed an outer form. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments.\\nA comparative study published in <a href=\\\"PLOS%20ONE\\\">PLOS ONE</a> in 2008 found no significant differences in median densities between modern and classical violins, or between classical violins from different origins; instead the survey of several modern and classical examples of violins highlighted a notable distinction when comparing density differentials. These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. A later survey, focused on comparing median densities in both classical and modern violin examples, questioned the role available materials may have played in sound production differences, though it made no comment on variations in density differentials. The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments.\\nA Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari's \\\"Long Pattern\\\" period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today's prices. The 1697 \\\"<a href=\\\"Molitor%20Stradivarius\\\">Molitor</a>\\\" Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to <a href=\\\"Napoleon\\\">Napoleon</a> (it did belong to a general in his army, Count <a href=\\\"Gabriel%20Jean%20Joseph%20Molitor\\\">Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor</a>), sold in 2010 at <a href=\\\"Tarisio%20Auctions\\\">Tarisio Auctions</a> to violinist <a href=\\\"Anne%20Akiko%20Meyers\\\">Anne Akiko Meyers</a> for $3,600,000, at the time a world record.\\nDepending on condition, instruments made during Stradivari's \\\"golden period\\\" from 1700 to about 1725 can be worth millions of dollars. In 2011, his <a href=\\\"Lady%20Blunt%20Stradivarius\\\">\\\"Lady Blunt\\\" violin</a> from 1721, which is in pristine condition, was sold in London for $15.9 million (it is named after <a href=\\\"Lord%20Byron\\\">Lord Byron</a>'s granddaughter <a href=\\\"Anne%20Blunt%2C%2015th%20Baroness%20Wentworth\\\">Lady Anne Blunt</a>, who owned it for 30 years). It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the <a href=\\\"2011%20T%C5%8Dhoku%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami\\\">Japanese earthquake and tsunami</a> appeal. In Spring 2014 the \\\"Macdonald\\\" viola was put up for auction through the musical instrument auction house Ingles & Hayday in conjunction with <a href=\\\"Sotheby%27s\\\">Sotheby's</a> via silent auction with a minimum bid of $45 million. The auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014, and the viola was not sold.\\n<a href=\\\"Vice%20%28magazine%29\\\">Vice magazine</a> reported in May 2013 that \\\"in recent years, Stradivarius <a href=\\\"investment%20fund\\\">investment fund</a>s have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher\\\".\\nStradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. Stolen instruments are often recovered, however, even after being missing for many years. They are difficult to sell illicitly as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen. In recent years, the \\\"<a href=\\\"General%20Kyd%20Stradivarius\\\">General Kyd Stradivarius</a>\\\" was stolen in 2004. It was returned three weeks later by a woman who 'found it' and handed it over to the police. The \\\"Sinsheimer/Iselin\\\" was stolen in <a href=\\\"Hanover%2C%20Germany\\\">Hanover, Germany</a> in 2008 and recovered in 2009. the \\\"<a href=\\\"Lipinski%20Stradivarius\\\">Lipinski Stradivarius</a>\\\" was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014 and subsequently recovered. The \\\"<a href=\\\"Ames%20Stradivarius\\\">Ames Stradivarius</a>\\\" was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015.\\nA number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the \\\"Davidoff-Morini\\\", stolen in 1995, the \\\"Le Maurien\\\", stolen in 2002,\\nand the \\\"Karpilowsky\\\", stolen in 1953.\\nAbove all, these instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce. However, the many <a href=\\\"blind%20experiment\\\">blind experiment</a>s from 1817 to the present (as of 2014) have never found any difference in sound between Stradivari's violins and high-quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis. In a particularly famous test on a <a href=\\\"BBC%20Radio%203\\\">BBC Radio 3</a> programme in 1977, the violinists <a href=\\\"Isaac%20Stern\\\">Isaac Stern</a> and <a href=\\\"Pinchas%20Zukerman\\\">Pinchas Zukerman</a> and the violin expert and dealer <a href=\\\"Charles%20Beare\\\">Charles Beare</a> tried to distinguish between the \\\"Chaconne\\\" Stradivarius, a 1739 <a href=\\\"Guarneri\\\">Guarneri</a> del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist. The two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments. Two of the listeners identified the 20th-century violin as the Stradivarius. Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not <a href=\\\"Blind%20experiment%23Double-blind%20trials\\\">double-blind</a> (in most cases), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly.\\nIn a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin-maker . One of Rhonheimer's violins, made with wood that the <a href=\\\"Swiss%20Federal%20Laboratories%20for%20Materials%20Science%20and%20Technology\\\">Empa</a> (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology) researcher Francis Schwarze had treated with fungi, received 90 of the 180 votes for the best tone, while the Stradivarius came second with 39 votes. The majority (113) of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius.\\nIn a double-blind test in 2012 published in the study \\\"<a href=\\\"Player%20preferences%20among%20new%20and%20old%20violins\\\">Player preferences among new and old violins</a>\\\", expert players could not distinguish old from new instruments by playing them for a short time in a small room. In an additional test, performed in a concert hall, one of the Stradivarius violins placed first, but one of the participants stated that \\\"the audience in the concert hall were essentially equivocal on which instruments were better in each of the pair-wise instrument comparisons\\\" and \\\"I could tell slight differences in the instruments...but overall they were all great. None of them sounded substantially weaker than the others\\\"\\nWhile many world-class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions. For example, <a href=\\\"Christian%20Tetzlaff\\\">Christian Tetzlaff</a> formerly played \\\"a quite famous Strad\\\", but switched to a violin made in 2002 by <a href=\\\"Stefan-Peter%20Greiner\\\">Stefan-Peter Greiner</a>. He states that the listener cannot tell that his instrument is modern, and he regards it as excellent for <a href=\\\"Johann%20Sebastian%20Bach\\\">Bach</a> and better than a Stradivarius for \\\"the big Romantic and 20th-century <a href=\\\"concerto\\\">concerto</a>s.\\\"\\nSome maintain that the very best Stradivari have unique superiorities. Various attempts at explaining these supposed qualities have been undertaken, most results being unsuccessful or inconclusive. Over the centuries, numerous theories have been presented – and debunked – including an assertion that the wood was salvaged from old cathedrals. <a href=\\\"Dendrochronology\\\">Dendrochronology</a>, or tree-ring dating, has proved this false.\\nA more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global cold temperatures during the <a href=\\\"Little%20Ice%20Age\\\">Little Ice Age</a> associated with unusually low solar activity of the <a href=\\\"Maunder%20Minimum\\\">Maunder Minimum</a>, circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood. Further evidence for this \\\"Little Ice Age theory\\\" comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari's instruments. Two researchers – University of Tennessee tree-ring scientist <a href=\\\"Henri%20Grissino-Mayer\\\">Henri Grissino-Mayer</a> and Lloyd Burckle, a Columbia University climatologist – published their conclusions supporting the theory on increased wood density in the journal \\\"<a href=\\\"Dendrochronologia\\\">Dendrochronologia</a>\\\".\\nIn 2008, researchers from the <a href=\\\"Leiden%20University%20Medical%20Center\\\">Leiden University Medical Center</a> in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments. After examining the violins with <a href=\\\"X-ray\\\">X-ray</a>s, the researchers found that these violins all have extremely consistent density, with relatively low variation in the apparent growth patterns of the trees that produced this wood.\\nYet another possible explanation is that the wood was sourced from the forests of northern <a href=\\\"Croatia\\\">Croatia</a>. This <a href=\\\"maple\\\">maple</a> wood is known for its extreme density resulting from the slow growth caused by harsh Croatian winters. Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local <a href=\\\"luthier\\\">luthier</a>s and craftsfolk for musical instruments.\\nSome research points to wood preservatives used in that day as contributing to the resonant qualities. <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Nagyvary\\\">Joseph Nagyvary</a> reveals that he has always held the belief that there are a wide range of chemicals that will improve the violin's sound. In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained \\\"<a href=\\\"borax\\\">borax</a>, <a href=\\\"fluoride\\\">fluoride</a>s, <a href=\\\"chromium\\\">chromium</a> and iron salts.\\\" He also found that the wood had decayed a little, to the extent that the filter plates in the pores between the wood's component <a href=\\\"tracheid\\\">tracheid</a>s had rotted away, perhaps while the wood was stored in or under water in the <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venice</a> lagoon before Stradivarius used it.\\nSteven Sirr, a radiologist, worked with researchers to perform a <a href=\\\"X-ray%20computed%20tomography\\\">CT</a> scan of a Stradivari known as the \\\"Betts.\\\" Data regarding the differing densities of woods used were then used to create a reproduction instrument.\\nWhile only about 650 original Stradivari instruments (harps, guitars, violas, cellos, violins) survive, thousands of violins have been made in tribute to Stradivari, copying his model and bearing labels that read \\\"Stradivarius\\\" on them. The presence of a Stradivarius label does not confirm that the instrument is a genuine work of Stradivari.\",\n \"Bartolomeo Cristofori\\nBartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (] ; May 4, 1655 – January 27, 1731) was an Italian maker of musical instruments, generally regarded as the inventor of the <a href=\\\"piano\\\">piano</a>.\\nThe available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth and death records, two wills, the bills he submitted to his employers, and a single interview carried out by <a href=\\\"Scipione%20Maffei\\\">Scipione Maffei</a>. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published journal article are preserved.\\nCristofori was born in <a href=\\\"Padua\\\">Padua</a> in the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Venice\\\">Republic of Venice</a>. Nothing is known of his early life. A tale is told that he served as an apprentice to the great violin maker <a href=\\\"Nicol%C3%B2%20Amati\\\">Nicolò Amati</a>, based on the appearance in a 1680 census record of a \\\"Christofaro Bartolomei\\\" living in Amati's house in <a href=\\\"Cremona\\\">Cremona</a>. However, as <a href=\\\"Stewart%20Pollens\\\">Stewart Pollens</a> points out, this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since the census records an age of 13, whereas Cristofori according to his baptismal record would have been 25 at the time. Pollens also gives strong reasons to doubt the authenticity of the cello and double bass instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.\\nProbably the most important event in Cristofori's life is the first one of which we have any record: in 1688, at age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince <a href=\\\"Ferdinando%20III%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Ferdinando de Medici</a>. Ferdinando, a lover and patron of music, was the son and heir of <a href=\\\"Cosimo%20III%20de%27%20Medici%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany\\\">Cosimo III</a>, Grand Duke of <a href=\\\"Tuscany\\\">Tuscany</a>. Tuscany was at a time still a small independent state.\\nIt is not known what led Ferdinando to recruit Cristofori. The Prince traveled to <a href=\\\"Venice\\\">Venice</a> in 1688 to attend the <a href=\\\"Carnival\\\">Carnival</a>, so he may have met Cristofori passing through Padua on his way home. Ferdinando was looking for a new technician to take care of his many musical instruments, the previous incumbent having just died. However, it seems possible that the Prince wanted to hire Cristofori not just as his technician, but specifically as an innovator in musical instruments. It would be surprising if Cristofori at age 33 had not already shown the inventiveness for which he later became famous.\\nThe evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired as an inventor is as follows. According to <a href=\\\"Stewart%20Pollens\\\">Stewart Pollens</a>, there were already a number of qualified individuals in Florence who could have filled the position; however, the Prince passed them over, and paid Cristofori a higher salary than his predecessor. Moreover, Pollens notes, \\\"curiously, [among the many bills Cristofori submitted to his employer] there are no records of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could mean that Cristofori was expected to turn over the fruits of his experimentation to the court.\\\" Lastly, the Prince was evidently fascinated with machines (he collected over forty clocks, in addition to a great variety of elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested in the elaborate mechanical action that was at the core of Cristofori's work on the piano.\\nMaffei's interview reports Cristofori's memory of his conversation with the Prince at this time:\\nwhich Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:\\nThis suggests that the Prince may have felt that Cristofori would be a prize recruit and was trying to charm him into accepting his offer; consistent again with the view that the Prince was attempting to recruit him as an inventor.\\nIn any event, Cristofori agreed to the appointment, for a salary of 12 <a href=\\\"Italian%20scudo\\\">scudi</a> per month. He moved rather quickly to Florence (May 1688; his job interview having taken place in March or April), was issued a house, complete with utensils and equipment, by the Grand Duke's administration, and set to work. For the Prince, he tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration work on valuable older harpsichords.\\nAt this time, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany employed a large staff of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the <a href=\\\"Uffizi\\\">Uffizi</a>. Cristofori's initial work space was probably in this area, which did not please him. He later told Maffei:\\nCristofori did eventually obtain his own workshop, usually keeping one or two assistants working for him.\\nDuring the remaining years of the 17th century, Cristofori invented two keyboard instruments before he began his work on the piano. These instruments are documented in an inventory, dated 1700, of the many instruments kept by Prince Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures that this inventory was prepared by a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his own in a 1716 letter.\\nThe <a href=\\\"spinettone\\\">spinettone</a>, Italian for \\\"big spinet\\\", was a large, multi-choired <a href=\\\"spinet\\\">spinet</a> (a harpsichord in which the strings are slanted to save space), with <a href=\\\"disposition%20%28harpsichord%29\\\">disposition</a> 1 x 8', 1 x 4'; most spinets have the simple disposition 1 x 8'. This invention may have been meant to fit into a crowded orchestra pit for theatrical performances, while having the louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.\\nThe other invention (1690) was the highly original <a href=\\\"oval%20spinet\\\">oval spinet</a>, a kind of <a href=\\\"virginal\\\">virginal</a> with the longest strings in the middle of the case.\\nCristofori also built instruments of existing types, documented in the same 1700 inventory: a <a href=\\\"clavicytherium\\\">clavicytherium</a> (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian 2 x 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made of <a href=\\\"ebony\\\">ebony</a>.\\nIt was thought for some time that the earliest mention of the piano is from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court musician, indicating that Cristofori was already working on the piano by 1698. However, the authenticity of this document is now doubted. The first unambiguous evidence for the piano comes from the 1700 inventory of the Medici mentioned in the preceding section. The entry in this inventory for Cristofori's piano begins as follows:\\nThe term \\\"Arpicembalo\\\", literally \\\"harp-harpsichord\\\", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's day. Edward Good infers that this is what Cristofori himself wanted his instrument to be called. Our own word for the piano, however, is the result of a gradual truncation over time of the words shown in boldface above.\\nThe Medici inventory goes on to describe the instrument in considerable detail. The range of this (now lost) instrument was four octaves, C to c″″′, a standard (if slightly small) compass for harpsichords.\\nAnother document referring to the earliest piano is a marginal note made by one of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a copy of the book \\\"Le Istitutioni harmoniche\\\" by <a href=\\\"Gioseffo%20Zarlino\\\">Gioseffo Zarlino</a>. Meccoli wrote:\\nAccording to Scipione Maffei's journal article, by 1711 Cristofori had built three pianos. One had been given by the Medici to <a href=\\\"Cardinal%20Ottoboni\\\">Cardinal Ottoboni</a> in Rome, and two had been sold in Florence.\\nCristofori's patron, Prince Ferdinando, died at the age of 50 in 1713. There is evidence that Cristofori continued to work for the Medici court, still headed by the Prince's father Cosimo III. Specifically, a 1716 inventory of the musical instrument collection is signed \\\"Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode\\\", indicating that Cristofori had been given the title of custodian of the collection.\\nDuring the early 18th century, the prosperity of the Medici princes declined, and like many of the other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work to others. The king of Portugal bought at least one of his instruments.\\nIn 1726, the only known portrait of Cristofori was painted (see above). It portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is almost certainly a piano. In his left hand is a piece of paper, believed to contain a diagram of Cristofori's piano action. The portrait was destroyed in the Second World War, and only photographs of it remain.\\nCristofori continued to make pianos until near the end of his life, continually making improvements in his invention. In his senior years, he was assisted by <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Ferrini\\\">Giovanni Ferrini</a>, who went on to have his own distinguished career, continuing his master's tradition. There is tentative evidence that there was another assistant, P. Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to build the first upright piano.\\nIn his declining years Cristofori prepared two wills. The first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools to Giovanni Ferrini. The second will, dated March 23 of the same year, changes the provisions substantially, bequeathing almost all his possessions to the \\\"Dal Mela sisters ... in repayment for their continued assistance lent to him during his illnesses and indispositions, and also in the name of charity.\\\" This will left the small sum of five \\\"scudi\\\" to Ferrini. Pollens notes further evidence from the will that this reflected no falling out between Cristofori and Ferrini, but only Cristofori's moral obligation to his caretakers. The inventor died on January 27, 1731 at the age of 75.\\nThe total number of pianos built by Cristofori is unknown. Only three survive today, all dating from the 1720s.\\nThe three surviving instruments all bear essentially the same Latin inscription: \\\"\\\"BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]\\\"\\\", where the date is rendered in Roman numerals. The meaning is \\\"\\\"Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, made [this] in Florence in [date].\\\"\\\"\\nThe piano as built by Cristofori in the 1720s boasted almost all of the features of the modern instrument. It differed in being of very light construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could not produce an especially loud tone. This continued to be the rule for pianos until around 1820, when iron bracing was first introduced. Here are design details of Cristofori's instruments:\\nPiano actions are complex mechanical devices which impose very specific design requirements, virtually all of which were met by Cristofori's action.\\nFirst, a piano action must be arranged so that a key press does not actually lift the hammer all the way to the string. If it did, the hammer would block on the string and damp its vibrations. The position of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in the key of Cristofori's action (see \\\"I\\\" in diagram below) is so adjusted that the hopper escapes from the 'notch' in the middle of the intermediate lever (G) just before the hammer (C) strikes the string, so that the hammer is not driven all the way but travels the remaining distance under its own momentum and then falls into the check (M). When the key is allowed to return to its position of rest, the jack springs back under the notch and a repeated blow is possible. Although Cristofori's design incorporates no specific device for repetition, the lightness of the action gives more facility for repetition than the heavier actions of the English type that developed in the first half of the 19th century, until these were provided with additions of one kind or another to facilitate repetition.\\nSecond, a piano action must greatly amplify the motion of the player's finger: in Cristofori's action, an \\\"intermediate lever\\\" (G) was used to translate every key motion into a hammer motion eight times greater in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing the needed leverage in a small amount of space.\\nThird, after the hammer strikes the string, the action must avoid an unwanted second blow, which could easily result from the hammer bouncing up and down within the space confining it. In Cristofori's action, this was accomplished by two means. By lifting the intermediate lever with a jack that disengages in its highest position, the Cristofori action made it possible for the hammer to fall (after its initial blow) to a position considerably lower than the highest position to which the key had lifted it. By itself, this mechanism greatly reduces the chance of an unwanted second blow. In addition, the Cristofori action also included a \\\"check\\\" (also called \\\"back check\\\"; M) that catches the hammer and holds it in a partially raised position until the player releases the key; the check also helped to prevent unwanted second blows.\\nThe complexity of Cristofori's action and hence the difficulty of building it may have formed a barrier to later builders, who appear to have tried to simplify it. However, Cristofori's design ultimately won out; the standard modern piano action is a still more complex and evolved version of Cristofori's original.\\nThe hammer heads in Cristofori's mature pianos (A) are made of paper, curled into a circular coil and secured with glue, and surmounted by a strip of leather at the contact point with the string. According to harpsichord maker and scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their origin in \\\"15th-century paper organ pipe technology\\\". The purpose of the leather is presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the lower harmonics of string vibration by maintaining a broad area of contact at impact. The same goal of softness was achieved in later 18th-century pianos by covering the wooden hammers with soft leather, and in mid-19th-century and later instruments by covering a wooden core with a thick layer of compressed felt.\\nAs in modern pianos, the hammers are larger in the bass notes than in the treble.\\nCristofori's pianos use an internal frame member (bentside) to support the soundboard; in other words, the structural member attaching the right side of the soundboard is distinct from the external case that bears the tension of the strings. This system was also applied by Cristofori to harpsichords. The use of a separate support for the soundboard reflects Cristofori's belief that the soundboard should not be subjected to compression from string tension. This may improve the sound, and also avoids the peril of warping—as harpsichord makers <a href=\\\"Kerstin%20Schwarz\\\">Kerstin Schwarz</a> and <a href=\\\"Tony%20Chinnery\\\">Tony Chinnery</a> point out <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.early-keyboard.com/downloads/Cristofori%2520spinet%2520article.doc\\\"></a>, <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.gb.early-keyboard.com/guide.htm\\\"></a>, a severely warped soundboard threatens a structural catastrophe, namely contact between strings and soundboard. Cristofori's principle continues to be applied in modern pianos, where the now-enormous string tension (up to 20 tons) is borne by a separate iron frame (the \\\"plate\\\").\\nWraight has written that the three surviving Cristofori pianos appear to follow an orderly progression: each has heavier framing than its predecessor. Wraight suggests that this would have been intentional, in that the heavier framing permitted tenser, thicker strings. This in turn increased the volume with which treble notes could be played without pitch distortion, a limitation that Wraight observes when playing replica instruments. Thus, it appears that the move toward heavier framing, a trend that dominates the history of the piano, may already have begun in Cristofori's own building practice.\\nOn two of his surviving instruments, Cristofori employed an unusual arrangement of the tuning pins: they are inserted all the way through their supporting wrest plank. Thus, the tuning hammer is used on the top side of the wrest plank, but the strings are wrapped around the pins on the bottom side. This made it harder to replace broken strings, but it provided two compensating advantages. With the nut (front bridge) inverted as well, the blows of the hammers, coming from below, would seat the strings firmly into place, rather than threatening to displace them. The inverted wrestplank also placed the strings lower in the instrument, permitting smaller and lighter hammers, hence a lighter and more responsive touch.\\nAccording to musical instrument scholar <a href=\\\"Grant%20O%27Brien\\\">Grant O'Brien</a>, the inverted wrestplank is \\\"still to be found in pianos dating from a period 150 years after [Cristofori's] death.\\\" (<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.claviantica.com/Publications_files/Cristofori_Naples.htm\\\"></a>). In modern pianos, the same basic principle is followed: the contact point for the vibrating length of the string that is close to the hammers is either an <a href=\\\"agraffe\\\">agraffe</a> or the <a href=\\\"capo%20d%27astro%20bar\\\">capo d'astro bar</a>; these devices pull the string in the direction opposite to the hammer blow, just as in Cristofori's original arrangement.\\nCristofori used <a href=\\\"Cupressus%20sempervirens\\\">cypress</a>, the wood traditionally favored for soundboards in the Italian school of harpsichord making. Piano making after Cristofori's time ultimately settled consistently on <a href=\\\"spruce\\\">spruce</a> as the best material for soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages for cypress.\\nIn Cristofori's pianos, there are two strings per note, throughout the compass. Modern pianos use three strings in the mid and upper range, two in the upper bass, and one in the lower bass, with greater variation in thickness than Cristofori used. The strings are equally spaced (<a href=\\\"http%3A//www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8038510.txt\\\"></a>), rather than being grouped with strings of identical pitch closer together.\\nIn two of the attested pianos, there is a forerunner of the modern <a href=\\\"piano%23Pedals\\\">soft pedal</a>: the player can manually slide the entire action four millimeters to one side, so that the hammers strike just one of the two strings (\\\"una corda\\\"). It is possible however that this device was intended as an aid to tuning. In his combined harpsichord-piano, with two 8-foot strings for each note, Ferrini allowed one set of harpsichord jacks to be disengaged but did not provide a una corda device for the hammer action.\\nThe strings may have been thicker than harpsichord strings of the same period, although there are no original string gauge markings on any of the three surviving pianos to prove this. Thicker strings are thought to be better suited to the hammer blows. Comparing the two 1726 instruments, one a piano, the other a harpsichord, the lengths of the 8-foot strings are almost the same, certainly in the upper halves of the compasses of the two instruments.\\nIt is difficult to determine what metal the strings of Cristofori's pianos were made of, since strings are replaced as they break, and sometimes restorers even replace the entire set of strings. According to Stewart Pollens, \\\"the earlier museum records document that all three [attested] Cristofori pianos were discovered with similar gauges of iron wire through much of the compass, and brass in the bass.\\\" The New York instrument was restrung entirely in brass in 1970; Pollens reports that with this modification the instrument cannot be tuned closer than a minor third below pitch without breaking strings. This may indicate that the original strings did indeed include iron ones; however, the breakage might also be blamed on the massive rebuilding of this instrument, which changed its tonal range.\\nMore recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, and Kerstin Schwarz, who have built replica Cristofori pianos, have taken the view that Cristofori favored brass strings, except occasionally in very demanding locations (such as the upper range of a 2' harpsichord stop). Chinnery suggests that \\\"cypress soundboards and brass strings go together: sweetness of sound rather than volume or brilliance.\\\"\\nAccording to Wraight, it is not straightforward to determine what Cristofori's pianos sounded like, since the surviving instruments (see above) are either too decrepit to be played or have been extensively and irretrievably altered in later \\\"restorations\\\". However, in recent decades, a number of modern builders have made Cristofori replicas, and their collective experience, and particularly the recordings made on these instruments, has created an emerging view concerning the Cristofori piano sound. The sound of the Cristofori replicas is as close to the harpsichord as it is to the modern piano; this is to be expected given that their case construction and stringing are much closer to the harpsichord than to the piano. The note onsets are not as sharply defined as in a harpsichord, and the response of the instrument to the player's varying touch is clearly noticeable.\\nSome Cristofori instruments—both restored and replicated—may be heard in the <a href=\\\"%23External%20links\\\">external links</a> below.\\nKnowledge of how Cristofori's invention was initially received comes in part from the article published in 1711 by <a href=\\\"Scipione%20Maffei\\\">Scipione Maffei</a>, an influential literary figure, in the \\\"Giornale de'letterati d'Italia\\\" of Venice. Maffei said that \\\"some professionals have not given this invention all the applause it merits,\\\" and goes on to say that its sound was felt to be too \\\"soft\\\" and \\\"dull\\\"—Cristofori was unable to make his instrument as loud as the competing harpsichord. Yet Maffei himself was an enthusiast for the piano, and the instrument did gradually catch on and increase in popularity, in part due to Maffei's efforts.\\nOne reason why the piano spread slowly at first was that it was quite expensive to make, and thus was purchased only by royalty and a few wealthy private individuals. The ultimate success of Cristofori's invention occurred only in the 1760s, when the invention of cheaper <a href=\\\"square%20piano\\\">square piano</a>s, along with generally greater prosperity, made it possible for many people to acquire one.\\nSubsequent technological developments in the piano were often mere \\\"re-inventions\\\" of Cristofori's work; in the early years, there were perhaps as many regressions as advances.\\nNine instruments that survive today are attributed to Cristofori:\\nThe later instruments, dating from Cristofori's old age, probably include work by assistant <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Ferrini\\\">Giovanni Ferrini</a>, who went on after the inventor's death to build pianos of wider range using the same basic design.\\nAn apparent remnant harpsichord, lacking soundboard, keyboard, and action, is currently the property of the noted builder <a href=\\\"Tony%20Chinnery\\\">Tony Chinnery</a>, who acquired it at an auction in New York. This instrument passed through the shop of the late 19th century builder/fraudster <a href=\\\"Leopoldo%20Franciolini\\\">Leopoldo Franciolini</a>, who reworked it with his characteristic form of decoration, but according to Chinnery \\\"there are enough construction details to identify it definitely as the work of Cristofori\\\".\\nThere are also a number of fraudulent instruments attributed to Cristofori, notably a three-manual harpsichord once displayed in the <a href=\\\"Deutsches%20Museum\\\">Deutsches Museum</a> in Munich; this was a rebuilding by Franciolini of a single-manual instrument made in 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.\\nCristofori was evidently admired and respected in his own lifetime for his work on the piano. On his death, a <a href=\\\"theorbo\\\">theorbo</a> player at the Medici court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:\\nAn anonymous 18th-century music dictionary, found in the library of the composer <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Battista%20Martini\\\">Padre G. B. Martini</a>, says of him\\nAfter his death, however, Cristofori's reputation went into decline. As Stewart Pollens has documented, in late 18th century France it was believed that the piano had been invented not by Cristofori but by the German builder <a href=\\\"Gottfried%20Silbermann\\\">Gottfried Silbermann</a>. Silbermann was in fact an important figure in the history of the piano, but his instruments relied almost entirely on Cristofori for the design of their hammer actions. Later scholarship (notably by Leo Puliti) only gradually corrected this error.\\nIn the second half of the 20th century, Cristofori's instruments were studied with care, as part of the general increase in interest in early instruments that developed in this era (see <a href=\\\"authentic%20performance\\\">authentic performance</a>). The modern scholars who have studied Cristofori's work in detail tend to express their admiration in the strongest terms; thus the <a href=\\\"New%20Grove\\\">New Grove</a> encyclopedia describes him as having possessed \\\"tremendous ingenuity\\\"; Stewart Pollens says \\\"All of Cristofori's work is startling in its ingenuity\\\"; and the early-instrument scholar <a href=\\\"Grant%20O%27Brien\\\">Grant O'Brien</a> has <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.claviantica.com/Publications_files/Cristofori_conservation.htm\\\">written</a>\\n\\\"The workmanship and inventiveness displayed by the instruments of Cristofori are of the highest order and his genius has probably never been surpassed by any other keyboard maker of the historical period ... I place Cristofori shoulder to shoulder with <a href=\\\"Antonio%20Stradivarius\\\">Antonio Stradivarius</a>.\\\"\\nCristofori is also given credit for originality in inventing the piano. While it is true that there had been earlier, crude attempts to make piano-like instruments, it is not clear that these were even known to Cristofori. The piano is thus an unusual case in which an important invention can be ascribed unambiguously to a single individual, who brought it to an unusual degree of perfection all on his own.\\n\",\n \"Trecento\\nThe Trecento (] ; Italian for 300, short for \\\"mille trecento,\\\" 1300) refers to the 14th century in Italian cultural history.\\nCommonly the Trecento is considered to be the beginning of the <a href=\\\"Renaissance\\\">Renaissance</a> in art history. Painters of the Trecento included <a href=\\\"Giotto%20di%20Bondone\\\">Giotto di Bondone</a>, as well as painters of the <a href=\\\"Sienese%20School\\\">Sienese School</a>, which became the most important in Italy during the century, including <a href=\\\"Duccio\\\">Duccio di Buoninsegna</a>, <a href=\\\"Simone%20Martini\\\">Simone Martini</a>, <a href=\\\"Lippo%20Memmi\\\">Lippo Memmi</a>, <a href=\\\"Ambrogio%20Lorenzetti\\\">Ambrogio Lorenzetti</a> and his brother <a href=\\\"Pietro%20Lorenzetti\\\">Pietro</a>. Important sculptors included two pupils of <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Pisano\\\">Giovanni Pisano</a>: <a href=\\\"Arnolfo%20di%20Cambio\\\">Arnolfo di Cambio</a> and <a href=\\\"Tino%20di%20Camaino\\\">Tino di Camaino</a>, and <a href=\\\"Bonino%20da%20Campione\\\">Bonino da Campione</a>.\\nThe Trecento was also famous as a time of heightened literary activity, with writers working in the vernacular instead of Latin. <a href=\\\"Dante\\\">Dante</a>, <a href=\\\"Petrarch\\\">Petrarch</a> and <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Boccaccio\\\">Boccaccio</a> were the leading writers of the age. Dante produced his famous \\\"La divina commedia\\\" (The <a href=\\\"Divine%20Comedy\\\">Divine Comedy</a>), a summation of the medieval worldview, and <a href=\\\"Petrarch\\\">Petrarch</a> wrote verse in a lyrical style influenced by the Provençal poetry of the <a href=\\\"troubadour\\\">troubadour</a>s.\\nIn music, the Trecento was a time of vigorous activity in Italy, as it was in <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>, with which there was a frequent interchange of musicians and influences. Distinguishing the period from the preceding century was an emphasis on secular song, especially love lyrics; much of the surviving music is <a href=\\\"polyphonic\\\">polyphonic</a>, but the influence of the <a href=\\\"troubadour\\\">troubadour</a>s who came to Italy, fleeing the <a href=\\\"Albigensian%20Crusade\\\">Albigensian Crusade</a> in the early 13th century, is evident. In contrast to the artistic and literary achievements of the century, Trecento music (at least in written form) flourished in the second half of the century, and the period is often extended (especially in English-language scholarship) into the first decades of the 15th century, as a so-called \\\"Long Trecento.\\\" Musicians and composers of the Trecento included the renowned <a href=\\\"Francesco%20Landini\\\">Francesco Landini</a>, as well as <a href=\\\"Maestro%20Piero\\\">Maestro Piero</a>, <a href=\\\"Gherardello%20da%20Firenze\\\">Gherardello da Firenze</a>, <a href=\\\"Jacopo%20da%20Bologna\\\">Jacopo da Bologna</a>, <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20da%20Cascia\\\">Giovanni da Cascia</a>, <a href=\\\"Paolo%20da%20Firenze\\\">Paolo \\\"Tenorista\\\" da Firenze</a>, <a href=\\\"Niccol%C3%B2%20da%20Perugia\\\">Niccolò da Perugia</a>, <a href=\\\"Bartolino%20da%20Padova\\\">Bartolino da Padova</a>, <a href=\\\"Antonio%20Zachara%20da%20Teramo\\\">Antonio Zachara da Teramo</a>, <a href=\\\"Matteo%20da%20Perugia\\\">Matteo da Perugia</a>, and <a href=\\\"Johannes%20Ciconia\\\">Johannes Ciconia</a>.\\n\",\n \"List of rulers of Tuscany\\nThe rulers of <a href=\\\"Tuscany\\\">Tuscany</a> have varied over time, sometimes being <a href=\\\"margrave\\\">margrave</a>s, the rulers of handfuls of border counties and sometimes the heads of the most important family of the region.\\nAfter this, Tuscany was splintered between the competing republics of <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Florence\\\">Florence</a>, <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Pisa\\\">Pisa</a>, <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Siena\\\">Siena</a>, <a href=\\\"Arezzo\\\">Arezzo</a>, <a href=\\\"Pistoia\\\">Pistoia</a> and <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Lucca\\\">Lucca</a>. Since the 14th century, Florence gained dominance over Pistoia (1306, officially annexed 1530), Arezzo (1384), Pisa (1406), and Siena (1559). Lucca was an independent republic until the <a href=\\\"Napoleonic\\\">Napoleonic</a> period in the 19th century.\\nAfter the <a href=\\\"Sack%20of%20Rome%20%281527%29\\\">Sack of Rome</a>, Florence overthrew the <a href=\\\"Medicis\\\">Medicis</a> once More and became a Republic, until <a href=\\\"Pope%20Clement%20VII\\\">Pope Clement VII</a>, signed a peace treaty with <a href=\\\"Charles%20V%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor\\\">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> who then invaded Florence and restored the Medicis.\\n\\\"Tuscany was annexed by France, 1807–1814. Napoleon's sister <a href=\\\"Elisa%20Bonaparte\\\">Elisa Bonaparte</a> was given the honorary title of \\\"Grand Duchess of Tuscany\\\", but did not actually rule over the region.\\\"\\n\\\"Leopoldo II was driven from Tuscany by revolution from 21 February to 12 April 1849, and again on 27 April 1859. He abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinando IV, on 21 July 1859, but Ferdinando IV was never recognized in Tuscany, and was deposed by the provisional government on 16 August. Tuscany was annexed by <a href=\\\"Kingdom%20of%20Sardinia\\\">Piedmont-Sardinia</a>, on 22 March 1860.\\\"\",\n \"Modello\\nA modello ] (plural modelli), from Italian, is a preparatory study or model, usually at a smaller scale, for a work of art or architecture, especially one produced for the approval of the commissioning patron. The term gained currency in art circles in <a href=\\\"Tuscany\\\">Tuscany</a> in the fourteenth century. Modern definitions in reference works vary somewhat. Alternative and overlapping terms are \\\"<a href=\\\"oil%20sketch\\\">oil sketch</a>\\\" (\\\"schizzo\\\") and \\\"<a href=\\\"cartoon\\\">cartoon</a>\\\" for <a href=\\\"painting\\\">painting</a>s or <a href=\\\"stained%20glass\\\">stained glass</a>, <a href=\\\"maquette\\\">maquette</a>, plastico or bozzetto for sculpture or architecture, or <a href=\\\"architectural%20model\\\">architectural model</a>.\\nThough in Gothic figural arts bishops and abbots are often represented carrying small simulacra of buildings they had constructed—\\\"models\\\" in the familiar modern sense—\\\"modello\\\" is only used of pieces which pre-date the finished work, and were at least in part produced by the main artist involved. The less frequently found term ricordo (Italian for \\\"record\\\" or \\\"memory\\\") means a similar piece produced as a small copy \\\"after\\\" completion of the work as a record for the workshop. Naturally it is not always easy for art historians to decide whether a particular piece is one or the other, and, especially in the Late Renaissance and Baroque periods, when several versions of a painting were made, the \\\"ricordo\\\" for the <a href=\\\"prime%20version\\\">prime version</a> might serve in the atelier as the \\\"modello\\\" for the subsequent ones. No doubt a modello was often modified after the main work was completed to reflect any changes in the composition during painting, thus making it a ricordo also; this would normally be impossible for art historians to distinguish from a modello altered during its original production.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Battista%20Tiepolo\\\">Tiepolo</a> at right was catalogued as a modello by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Levey\\\">Michael Levey</a>, but recent <a href=\\\"x-ray\\\">x-ray</a> investigation of the huge finished work in Munich has revealed that in its <a href=\\\"underpainting\\\">underpainting</a> it was closer to another, very different and less finished modello, now in the <a href=\\\"Courtauld%20Institute\\\">Courtauld Institute</a>, and it has been asserted that the National Gallery picture illustrated is a ricordo. The National Gallery still describe it as \\\"probably a modello\\\", presumably produced after work had already begun.\\n\\\"Cartoon\\\", named for the sturdy \\\"cartone\\\" paper on which they were generally executed, is usually used of working drawings, often at full scale, but the distinction is not a firm one, and the terms \\\"cartoon\\\" and \\\"working drawing\\\" are often used interchangeably. \\\"Modello\\\" is especially used of older Italian art and architecture from the late Middle Ages onwards; initially these were mostly drawings, perhaps with some colour from chalk or <a href=\\\"watercolour\\\">watercolour</a>, or with colours indicated in writing. The diminutive term modeletto will always be used of small-scale versions. As an Italian word, \\\"modello\\\" may be printed in <a href=\\\"italic%20type\\\">italic</a>s, or not. The French version of the word, \\\"modèle\\\", may be used of French works, and is normally italicised.\\nEspecially in the case of oil sketches, many \\\"modelli\\\" are greatly valued in their own right, as they may show a freedom in execution and freshness of inspiration missing in the final work, and also may show changes in composition from the finished work, throwing light on the process of artistic creation. Earlier stages of the creative process may be recorded in \\\"preparatory drawings\\\" or \\\"studies\\\", either for the whole composition, or a part of it, such as a single figure.\\nAn example of a modello of a fresco cycle, which was rescued for its intrinsic value is in <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Biography\\\">vita</a>\\\" of <a href=\\\"Rosso%20Fiorentino\\\">Rosso Fiorentino</a>: Vasari reports that a modello for Rosso's frescoes in Santa Maria delle Lagrime, Arezzo, was carried out by Rosso for Giovanni Pollastra, the inventor of the complex program there, \\\"un bellisimo modello di tutto l'opera, che è oggi nelle nostre case di Arezzo.\\\" A preliminary \\\"modello colorito\\\" in the form of a painted three-dimensional model was especially important to prejudge the finished effect of <a href=\\\"Illusionistic%20ceiling\\\">illusionistic \\\"sotto-in-su\\\" perspectives</a> on the curved surfaces of vaulted ceilings, as <a href=\\\"Andrea%20Pozzo\\\">Andrea Pozzo</a>, the perfector of the illusionistic ceiling, noted in his \\\"Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum\\\" (1700–17)\\nMany modelli show versions of works which were never actually realised, or have been lost. Famous examples are the alternative designs produced for the competition in 1401 to design the North doors of the <a href=\\\"Florence%20Baptistry\\\">Florence Baptistry</a>. <a href=\\\"Lorenzo%20Ghiberti\\\">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a> won, beating six other artists, including <a href=\\\"Filippo%20Brunelleschi\\\">Filippo Brunelleschi</a>, <a href=\\\"Donatello\\\">Donatello</a> and <a href=\\\"Jacopo%20della%20Quercia\\\">Jacopo della Quercia</a>; the modelli survive, for a single panel, of the first two named (<a href=\\\"Bargello\\\">Bargello</a> – picture above).\\nThere are alternative, unrealised, modelli for many famous buildings, including <a href=\\\"St%20Peter%27s%2C%20Rome\\\">St Peter's, Rome</a> and the \\\"Great Model\\\" of <a href=\\\"St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20London\\\">St Paul's Cathedral, London</a>, showing a different design by <a href=\\\"Sir%20Christopher%20Wren\\\">Sir Christopher Wren</a> from that actually built. When accepted, such models were retained during the work, as concrete expressions of what was expected under the terms of the contract, and afterwards were preserved in storage through salutary neglect.\",\n \"Andrea del Sarto\\nAndrea del Sarto (] ; 1486–1530) was an <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Italian%20painters\\\">Italian painter</a> from <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a>, whose career flourished during the <a href=\\\"High%20Renaissance\\\">High Renaissance</a> and early <a href=\\\"Mannerism\\\">Mannerism</a>. Though highly regarded during his lifetime as an artist \\\"senza errori\\\" (\\\"without errors\\\"), his renown was eclipsed after his death by that of his contemporaries, <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href=\\\"Michelangelo\\\">Michelangelo</a> and <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a>.\\nAndrea del Sarto was born Andrea d'Agnolo di Francesco di Luca di Paolo del Migliore in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a> on 16 July 1486. Since his father, Agnolo, was a tailor (Italian: \\\"<a href=\\\"%3Awiktionary%3Asarto\\\">sarto</a>\\\"), he became known as \\\"del Sarto\\\" (meaning \\\"tailor's son\\\"). Since 1677 some have attributed the surname Vannucchi with little documentation. By 1494 Andrea was apprenticed to a <a href=\\\"goldsmith\\\">goldsmith</a>, and then to a <a href=\\\"woodcarver\\\">woodcarver</a> and painter named Gian Barile, with whom he remained until 1498. According to his late biographer <a href=\\\"Lives%20of%20the%20Painters\\\">Vasari</a>, he then apprenticed to <a href=\\\"Piero%20di%20Cosimo\\\">Piero di Cosimo</a>, and later with <a href=\\\"Raffaellino%20del%20Garbo\\\">Raffaellino del Garbo</a> (Carli).\\nAndrea and an older friend <a href=\\\"Franciabigio\\\">Franciabigio</a> decided to open a joint studio at a lodging together in the Piazza del Grano. The first product of their partnership may have been the \\\"Baptism of Christ\\\" for the Florentine <a href=\\\"Compagnia%20dello%20Scalzo\\\">Compagnia dello Scalzo</a>, the beginning of a <a href=\\\"monochrome\\\">monochrome</a> <a href=\\\"fresco\\\">fresco</a> series. By the time the partnership was dissolved, Sarto's style bore the stamp of individuality. According to the <a href=\\\"Encyclop%C3%A6dia%20Britannica\\\">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, it \\\"is marked throughout his career by an interest, exceptional among Florentines, in effects of colour and atmosphere and by sophisticated informality and natural expression of emotion.\\\"\\nFrom 1509 to 1514 the <a href=\\\"Servite%20Order\\\">Servite Order</a> employed Del Sarto, <a href=\\\"Franciabigio\\\">Franciabigio</a> and <a href=\\\"Andrea%20Feltrini\\\">Andrea Feltrini</a> in a programme of <a href=\\\"fresco\\\">fresco</a>es at <a href=\\\"Basilica%20della%20Santissima%20Annunziata%20di%20Firenze\\\">Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze</a>. Sarto completed seven frescoes in the forecourt or atrium (the chiostro dei voti) before the Servite church, five of which illustrated the \\\"Life and miracles of <a href=\\\"Filippo%20Benizzi\\\">Filippo Benizzi</a>\\\", a Servite saint who died in 1285 (canonized 1671). He executed them rapidly, depicting the saint healing a leper through the gift of his undertunic; predicting the bad end of some blasphemers; and restoring <a href=\\\"exorcism\\\">a girl possessed with a devil</a>. The two final frescoes of the series depicted the healing of a child at the death bed of Filippo Benizzi and the curing of sick adults and children through his relic garment held at the church. All five frescoes were completed before the close of 1510. The original contract also required him to paint five scenes of the life and miracles of St Sebastian, but he told the Servites that he no longer wished to continue with the second cycle, most likely due to the low remuneration. The Servites convinced him to do two more frescoes in the forecourt, though of a different subject matter: a \\\"Procession of the Magi\\\" (or \\\"Adoration\\\", containing a self-portrait) finished in 1511 and a \\\"Nativity of the Virgin\\\". These paintings met with respect, the correctness of the contours being particularly admired, and earned for Sarto the nickname of \\\"Andrea senza errori\\\" (Andrea the perfect). Towards 1512 he painted an \\\"Annunciation\\\" in the <a href=\\\"monastery\\\">monastery</a> of S. Gallo and a \\\"Marriage of Saint Catherine\\\" (Dresden).\\nBy 1514 Andrea had finished his last two frescoes, including his masterpiece, the <a href=\\\"Birth%20of%20the%20Virgin%20%28Andrea%20del%20Sarto%29\\\">\\\"Birth of the Virgin\\\"</a>, which fuses the influence of <a href=\\\"Leonardo%20da%20Vinci\\\">Leonardo</a>, <a href=\\\"Domenico%20Ghirlandaio\\\">Ghirlandaio</a> and <a href=\\\"Fra%20Bartolomeo\\\">Fra Bartolomeo</a>. By November 1515 he had finished at the Scalzo the \\\"Allegory of Justice\\\" and the \\\"Baptist preaching in the desert\\\", followed in 1517 by \\\"John Baptizing\\\", and other subjects.\\nBefore the end of 1516, a Pietà of Del Sarto's composition, and afterwards a Madonna, were sent to the <a href=\\\"France\\\">French</a> Court. This led to an invitation from <a href=\\\"Francis%20I%20of%20France\\\">François I</a>, in 1518, and he journeyed to Paris in June of that year, along with his pupil Andrea Squarzzella, leaving his wife, Lucrezia, in Florence.\\nAccording to <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a>, Andrea's pupil and biographer, Lucrezia wrote to Andrea and demanded he return to Italy. The King assented, but only on the understanding that his absence from <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a> was to be short. He then entrusted Andrea with a sum of money to be expended in purchasing works of art for the French Court. By Vasari's account, Andrea took the money and used it to buy himself a house in Florence, thus ruining his reputation and preventing him from ever returning to France. The story inspired <a href=\\\"Robert%20Browning\\\">Robert Browning</a>'s poem-monologue \\\"<a href=\\\"Andrea%20del%20Sarto%20%28poem%29\\\">Andrea del Sarto Called the 'Faultless Painter'</a>\\\" (1855), but is now believed by some historians to be apocryphal.\\nIn 1520 he resumed work in Florence, and executed the \\\"Faith\\\" and \\\"Charity\\\" in the cloister of the Scalzo. These were succeeded by the \\\"Dance of the <a href=\\\"Salome\\\">Daughter of Herodias</a>\\\", the \\\"Beheading of the Baptist\\\", the \\\"Presentation of his head to <a href=\\\"Herod%20Antipas\\\">Herod</a>\\\", an allegory of Hope, the \\\"Apparition of the Angel to <a href=\\\"Zechariah%20%28priest%29\\\">Zacharias</a>\\\" (1523) and the monochrome \\\"Visitation\\\". This last was painted in the autumn of 1524, after Andrea had returned from Luco in <a href=\\\"Mugello%20region\\\">Mugello</a>, whence an outbreak of <a href=\\\"bubonic%20plague\\\">bubonic plague</a> in Florence had driven him and his family. In 1525 he returned to paint in the Annunziata cloister the \\\"<a href=\\\"Madonna%20del%20Sacco\\\">Madonna del Sacco</a>\\\", a <a href=\\\"lunette\\\">lunette</a> named after a sack against which Joseph is represented propped. In this painting the generous virgin's gown and her gaze indicate his influence on the early style of pupil <a href=\\\"Jacopo%20Pontormo\\\">Pontormo</a>.\\nIn 1523 Andrea painted a copy of the portrait group of <a href=\\\"Pope%20Leo%20X\\\">Pope Leo X</a> by Raphael; this copy is now in the <a href=\\\"Museo%20di%20Capodimonte\\\">Museo di Capodimonte</a> in <a href=\\\"Naples\\\">Naples</a>, while the original remains at the Pitti Palace. The Raphael painting was owned by <a href=\\\"Ottaviano%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Ottaviano de' Medici</a>, and requested by <a href=\\\"Federico%20II%20Gonzaga\\\">Federico II Gonzaga</a>, Duke of <a href=\\\"Mantua\\\">Mantua</a>. Unwilling to part with the original, Ottaviano retained Andrea to produce a copy, which he passed to the Duke as the original. The imitation was so faithful that even <a href=\\\"Giulio%20Romano\\\">Giulio Romano</a>, who had himself manipulated the original to some extent, was completely fooled; and, on showing the copy years afterwards to Vasari, who knew the truth, he could be convinced that it was not genuine only when a private mark on the canvas was pointed out to him by Vasari.\\nAndrea's final work at the Scalzo was the \\\"Birth of the Baptist\\\" (1526). In the following year he completed his last important painting, a <a href=\\\"Last%20Supper%20%28Andrea%20del%20Sarto%29\\\">\\\"Last Supper\\\"</a> at <a href=\\\"Chiesa%20San%20Salvi\\\">San Salvi</a> (now an inner suburb of Florence), in which all the characters appear to be portraits.\\nA number of his paintings were considered to be self-portraits. A \\\"Portrait of a Young Man \\\"in the <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%2C%20London\\\">National Gallery, London</a> was formerly believed to be a self-portrait, as was the Portrait of Becuccio Bicchieraio in <a href=\\\"National%20Gallery%20of%20Scotland\\\">National Gallery of Scotland</a>, but both are now known not to be. There is a self-portrait at <a href=\\\"Alnwick%20Castle\\\">Alnwick Castle</a>, a young man about twenty years, with his elbow on a table. Another youthful portrait is in the <a href=\\\"Uffizi%20Gallery\\\">Uffizi Gallery</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Pitti%20Palace\\\">Pitti Palace</a> contains more than one.\\nThe \\\"<a href=\\\"Madonna%20of%20the%20Harpies\\\">Madonna of the Harpies</a>\\\" is a depiction of the Virgin and child on a pedestal, flanked by two saints (Bonaventure or Francis and John the Evangelist), and at her feet two cherubs. The pedestal is decorated with a relief depicting some feminine figures interpreted as <a href=\\\"harpy\\\">harpies</a> and thus gave rise, in English, to the name of the painting. Originally completed in 1517 for the convent of San Francesco dei Macci, the altarpiece now resides in the Uffizi. In an Italy swamped with a tsunami of Madonnas, it would be easy to overlook this work; however, this commonly copied scheme also lends itself to comparison of his style with that of his contemporaries. The figures have a Leonardo da Vinci-like aura, and the stable pyramid of their composition provides a unified structure. In some ways, his rigid adherence is more classical than Leonardo da Vinci's but less so than <a href=\\\"Fra%20Bartolomeo\\\">Fra Bartolomeo</a>'s representations of the Holy Family.\\nAndrea married Lucrezia (del Fede), widow of a hatter named Carlo, of <a href=\\\"Recanati\\\">Recanati</a>, on 26 December 1512. Lucrezia appears in many of his paintings, often as a <a href=\\\"Madonna%20%28art%29\\\">Madonna</a>. However, Vasari describes her as \\\"faithless, jealous, and vixenish with the apprentices.\\\" She is similarly characterized in <a href=\\\"Robert%20Browning\\\">Robert Browning</a>'s poem.\\nAndrea died in Florence at age 43 during an outbreak of <a href=\\\"Bubonic%20Plague\\\">Bubonic Plague</a> at the end of September 1530. He was buried unceremoniously by the Misericordia in the church of the Servites. In \\\"Lives of the Artists\\\", Vasari claimed Andrea received no attention at all from his wife during his terminal illness. However, it was well-known at the time that plague was highly contagious, so it has been speculated that Lucrezia was simply afraid to contract the virulent and frequently-fatal disease. If true, this well-founded caution was rewarded, as she survived her husband by 40 years.\\nIt was Michelangelo who had introduced <a href=\\\"Vasari\\\">Vasari</a> in 1524 to Andrea's studio. He is said to have thought very highly of Andrea's talents. Of those who initially followed his style in Florence, the most prominent would have been <a href=\\\"Jacopo%20Pontormo\\\">Jacopo Pontormo</a>, but also <a href=\\\"Rosso%20Fiorentino\\\">Rosso Fiorentino</a>, <a href=\\\"Francesco%20de%27%20Rossi%20%28Il%20Salviati%29\\\">Francesco Salviati</a> and <a href=\\\"Jacopino%20del%20Conte\\\">Jacopino del Conte</a>. Other lesser known assistants and pupils include Bernardo del Buda, Lamberto Lombardi, Nannuccio Fiorentino and Andrea Squazzella.\\nVasari, however, was highly critical of his teacher, alleging that, though having all the prerequisites of a great artist, he lacked ambition and that divine fire of inspiration which animated the works of his more famous contemporaries: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.\\nOn 21 November 1848, the play \\\"Andre del Sarto,\\\" by <a href=\\\"Alfred%20de%20Musset\\\">Alfred de Musset</a>, premiered in <a href=\\\"Paris\\\">Paris</a>.\\nIn 1968 the <a href=\\\"opera\\\">opera</a> \\\"Andrea del Sarto\\\" by French composer <a href=\\\"Jean-Yves%20Daniel-Lesur\\\">Jean-Yves Daniel-Lesur</a> was based on Alfred de Musset's 1848 play.\\n\",\n \"Piazza della Signoria\\nPiazza della Signoria (] ) is an L-shaped square in front of the <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\\\">Palazzo Vecchio</a> in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a>, <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italy</a>. It was named after the Palazzo della Signoria, also called Palazzo Vecchio. It is the main point of the origin and history of the <a href=\\\"Florentine%20Republic\\\">Florentine Republic</a> and still maintains its reputation as the political focus of the city. It is the meeting place of Florentines as well as the numerous tourists, located near <a href=\\\"Plazzo%20Vecchio\\\">Plazzo Vecchio</a> and <a href=\\\"Piazza%20del%20Duomo%2C%20Florence\\\">Piazza del Duomo</a> and gateway to <a href=\\\"Uffizi\\\">Uffizi Gallery</a>.\\nThe impressive 14th-century <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\\\">Palazzo Vecchio</a> is still preeminent with its <a href=\\\"Crenellation\\\">crenellated</a> tower. The square is also shared with the <a href=\\\"Loggia%20della%20Signoria\\\">Loggia della Signoria</a>, the <a href=\\\"Uffizi%20Gallery\\\">Uffizi Gallery</a>, the <a href=\\\"Palace%20of%20the%20Tribunale%20della%20Mercanzia\\\">Palace of the Tribunale della Mercanzia</a> (1359) (now the Bureau of Agriculture), and the <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Uguccioni\\\">Palazzo Uguccioni</a> (1550, with a facade attributed to <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a>, who however died thirty years before its construction). Located in front of the Palazzo Vecchio is the <a href=\\\"Palace%20of%20the%20Assicurazioni%20Generali\\\">Palace of the Assicurazioni Generali</a> (1871, built in Renaissance style).\\nThe <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Vecchio\\\">Palazzo Vecchio</a> (\\\"Old Palace\\\") is the <a href=\\\"City%20hall\\\">town hall</a> of the city. This massive, <a href=\\\"romanesque%20architecture\\\">Romanesque</a>, <a href=\\\"Crenellation\\\">crenellated</a> fortress-palace is among the most impressive town halls of <a href=\\\"Tuscany\\\">Tuscany</a>. Overlooking the square with its copy of Michelangelo's David statue as well the gallery of statues in the adjacent <a href=\\\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\\\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a>, it is one of the most significant public places in Italy, and it hosts cultural points and museums.\\nOriginally called the \\\"Palazzo della Signoria\\\", after the <a href=\\\"Signoria%20of%20Florence\\\">Signoria of Florence</a>, the ruling body of the <a href=\\\"Republic%20of%20Florence\\\">Republic of Florence</a>, it was also given several other names: \\\"Palazzo del Popolo\\\", \\\"Palazzo dei Priori\\\", and \\\"Palazzo Ducale\\\", in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history. The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno to the <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20Pitti\\\">Palazzo Pitti</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\\\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a> consists of wide arches open to the street, three <a href=\\\"bay%20%28architecture%29\\\">bays</a> wide and one bay deep. The arches rest on clustered pilasters with <a href=\\\"Corinthian%20order\\\">Corinthian</a> capitals. The wide arches appealed so much to the Florentines, that <a href=\\\"Michelangelo\\\">Michelangelo</a> even proposed that they should be continued all around the Piazza della Signoria . The vivacious construction of the Loggia is in stark contrast with the severe architecture of the Palazzo Vecchio. It is effectively an open-air sculpture gallery of antique and <a href=\\\"Renaissance%20art\\\">Renaissance art</a> including the \\\"<a href=\\\"Medici%20lions\\\">Medici lions</a>\\\".\\nThe \\\"Tribunale della Mercanzia\\\" (Tribunal of Merchandise) is a building where in the past lawyers judged in the trial between merchants. Here was a porch painted by <a href=\\\"Taddeo%20Gaddi\\\">Taddeo Gaddi</a>, <a href=\\\"Antonio%20del%20Pollaiolo\\\">Antonio del Pollaiolo</a> and <a href=\\\"Sandro%20Botticelli\\\">Sandro Botticelli</a>, today stored in the <a href=\\\"Uffizi\\\">Uffizi gallery</a>.\\nBuilt for Giovanni Uguccioni since 1550, its design has been variously attributed to <a href=\\\"Raphael\\\">Raphael</a>, <a href=\\\"Michelangelo\\\">Michelangelo</a>, <a href=\\\"Bartolomeo%20Ammannati\\\">Bartolomeo Ammannati</a> or <a href=\\\"Raffaello%20da%20Montelupo\\\">Raffaello da Montelupo</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Palazzo%20delle%20Assicurazioni%20Generali%20%28Florence%29\\\">Palazzo delle Assicurazioni Generali</a> was designed in the <a href=\\\"Neo-Renaissance\\\">Neo-Renaissance</a> style in 1871, and is one of the very few purpose-built <a href=\\\"Commerce\\\">commercial</a> buildings in the centre of the city. On the ground floor of this palace is the historical cafè <a href=\\\"Rivoire\\\">Rivoire</a>.\\nOther palaces are the \\\"palazzo dei Buonaguisi\\\" and the \\\"palazzo dell'Arte dei Mercatanti\\\".\\nVarious imposing statues ring this square including:\\nThe piazza was already a central square in the original Roman town Florentia, surrounded by a theatre, Roman baths and a workshop for dyeing textiles. Later there was a church San Romolo, a loggia and an enormous 5th-century basilica. This was shown by the archaeological treasures found beneath the square when it was repaved in the 1980s. Even remains of a <a href=\\\"Neolithic\\\">Neolithic</a> site were found. The square started taking shape from 1268 on, when houses of <a href=\\\"Ghibelline\\\">Ghibelline</a>s were pulled down by the victorious <a href=\\\"Guelphs%20and%20Ghibellines\\\">Guelph</a>s. The square remained a long time untidy, full of holes. In 1385 it was paved for the first time. In 1497 <a href=\\\"Girolamo%20Savonarola\\\">Girolamo Savonarola</a> and his followers carried out on this square the famous <a href=\\\"Bonfire%20of%20the%20Vanities\\\">Bonfire of the Vanities</a>, burning in a large pile books, gaming tables, fine dresses, and works of poets. In front of the fountain of Neptune, a round marble plaque marks the exact spot where <a href=\\\"Girolamo%20Savonarola\\\">Girolamo Savonarola</a> was hanged and burned on May 23, 1498.\",\n \"Giambologna\\nGiambologna (1529 – 13 August 1608) — born Jean Boulogne (and incorrectly known as Giovanni da Bologna or Giovanni Bologna) — was a <a href=\\\"Flemish%20people\\\">Flemish</a> <a href=\\\"sculpture\\\">sculptor</a> based in <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italy</a>, celebrated for his <a href=\\\"marble%20sculpture\\\">marble</a> and <a href=\\\"bronze%20sculpture\\\">bronze</a> statuary in a late <a href=\\\"Renaissance\\\">Renaissance</a> or <a href=\\\"Mannerist\\\">Mannerist</a> style.\\nGiambologna was born in <a href=\\\"Douai\\\">Douai</a>, <a href=\\\"Southern%20Netherlands\\\">Flanders</a> (now in <a href=\\\"France\\\">France</a>), in 1529. After youthful studies in <a href=\\\"Antwerp%20%28city%29\\\">Antwerp</a> with the architect-sculptor <a href=\\\"Jacques%20du%20Broeucq\\\">Jacques du Broeucq</a>, he moved to <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italy</a> in 1550 and studied in <a href=\\\"Rome\\\">Rome</a>, making a detailed study of the sculpture of <a href=\\\"classical%20antiquity\\\">classical antiquity</a>. He was also much influenced by <a href=\\\"Michelangelo\\\">Michelangelo</a>, but developed his own <a href=\\\"Mannerism\\\">Mannerist</a> style, with perhaps less emphasis on emotion and more emphasis on refined surfaces, cool elegance, and beauty. <a href=\\\"Pope%20Pius%20IV\\\">Pope Pius IV</a> gave Giambologna his first major commission, the colossal bronze Neptune and subsidiary figures for the <a href=\\\"Fountain%20of%20Neptune%2C%20Bologna\\\">Fountain of Neptune</a> (the base designed by <a href=\\\"Tommaso%20Laureti\\\">Tommaso Laureti</a>, 1566) in Bologna. Giambologna spent his most productive years in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a>, where he had settled in 1553. In 1653 he was named a member (\\\"Accademico\\\") of the prestigious <a href=\\\"Accademia%20delle%20Arti%20del%20Disegno\\\">Accademia delle Arti del Disegno</a>, just founded by the Duke <a href=\\\"Cosimo%20I%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Cosimo I de' Medici</a>, on 13 January 1563, under the influence of the painter-architect <a href=\\\"Giorgio%20Vasari\\\">Giorgio Vasari</a>, becoming also one of the <a href=\\\"Medici\\\">Medici</a>s' most important court sculptors. He died in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a> at the age of 79; the Medici had never allowed him to leave Florence, as they rightly feared that either the Austrian or Spanish <a href=\\\"Habsburgs\\\">Habsburgs</a> would entice him into permanent employment. He was interred in a chapel he designed himself in the <a href=\\\"Santissima%20Annunziata%2C%20Florence\\\">Santissima Annunziata</a>.\\nGiambologna became well known for a fine sense of action and movement, and a refined, differentiated surface finish. Among his most famous works are the \\\" <a href=\\\"Mercury%20%28mythology%29\\\">Mercury</a>\\\" (of which he did four versions), poised on one foot, supported by a zephyr. The god raises one arm to point heavenwards in a gesture borrowed from the repertory of classical rhetoric that is characteristic of Giambologna's \\\"maniera\\\".\\nHis other most famous work is the <a href=\\\"Rape%20of%20the%20Sabine%20Women%20%28sculpture%29\\\">Rape of the Sabine Women</a> (1574–82) a marble sculpture which is featured prominently in the <a href=\\\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\\\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a> in Florence's Piazza della Signoria. This impressive sculpture which includes three full figures was carved from a single piece of marble. Giambologna carved it without a subject in mind, and the name Rape of the Sabine Women was given after it was in place in the Loggia. The sculpture was produced for <a href=\\\"Francesco%20Medici\\\">Francesco Medici</a>, <a href=\\\"Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany\\\">Grand Duke</a> of Tuscany. Another of his marbles, <a href=\\\"Hercules%20Slaying%20a%20Centaur\\\">Hercules Slaying a Centaur</a> was also placed in the <a href=\\\"Loggia%20dei%20Lanzi\\\">Loggia dei Lanzi</a> in 1599.\\nGiambologna's several depictions of <a href=\\\"Venus%20%28mythology%29\\\">Venus</a> established a canon of proportions, and set models for the goddess' representation that were influential for two generations of sculptors in Italy and in the North. He created allegories strongly promoting Medicean political propaganda, such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Florence%20Defeating%20Pisa\\\">Florence Defeating Pisa</a>\\\" and, less overtly, \\\"<a href=\\\"Samson%20Slaying%20a%20Philistine%20%28Giambologna%29\\\">Samson Slaying a Philistine</a>\\\", for <a href=\\\"Francesco%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Francesco de' Medici</a> (1562).\\nThe equestrian statue of <a href=\\\"Cosimo%20I%20de%27%20Medici\\\">Cosimo I de' Medici</a> also in Florence, was completed by his studio assistant <a href=\\\"Pietro%20Tacca\\\">Pietro Tacca</a>.\\nGiambologna provided as well as many sculptures for garden grottos and fountains in the <a href=\\\"Boboli%20Gardens\\\">Boboli Gardens</a> of Florence and at <a href=\\\"Pratolino\\\">Pratolino</a>, and the bronze doors of the <a href=\\\"Piazza%20dei%20Miracoli\\\">cathedral of Pisa</a>. He created the bronze sea-horses and some other sculptures for Bartolomeo Ammannati's <a href=\\\"Fountain%20of%20Neptune%2C%20Florence\\\">Fountain of Neptune, Florence</a>.\\nFor the grotto of the Villa Medicea of Castello he sculpted a series of studies of individual animals, from life, which may now be viewed at the <a href=\\\"Bargello\\\">Bargello</a>. Small bronze reductions of many of his sculptures were prized by connoisseurs at the time and ever since, for Giambologna's reputation has never suffered eclipse.\\nGiambologna was an important influence on later sculptors through his pupils <a href=\\\"Adriaen%20de%20Vries\\\">Adriaen de Vries</a> and <a href=\\\"Pietro%20Francavilla\\\">Pietro Francavilla</a> who left his atelier for Paris in 1601, as well as <a href=\\\"Pierre%20Puget\\\">Pierre Puget</a> who spread Giambologna's influence throughout Northern Europe, and in Italy on <a href=\\\"Pietro%20Tacca\\\">Pietro Tacca</a>, who assumed Giambologna's workshop in Florence, and in Rome on <a href=\\\"Gian%20Lorenzo%20Bernini\\\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini</a> and <a href=\\\"Alessandro%20Algardi\\\">Alessandro Algardi</a>.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Galleria dell'Accademia di Firenze, or \"Gallery of the Academy of Florence\", is an art museum in Florence, Italy. It is best known as the home of Michelangelo's sculpture \"David\". It also has other sculptures by Michelangelo and a large collection of paintings by Florentine artists, mostly from the period 1300-1600, the Trecento to the Late Renaissance. It is smaller and more specialized than the Uffizi, the main art museum in Florence. It adjoins the Accademia di Belle Arti or academy of fine arts of Florence, but despite the name has no other connection with it.","David (] ) is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and 1504 by Michelangelo."],"string":"[\n \"The Galleria dell'Accademia di Firenze, or \\\"Gallery of the Academy of Florence\\\", is an art museum in Florence, Italy. It is best known as the home of Michelangelo's sculpture \\\"David\\\". It also has other sculptures by Michelangelo and a large collection of paintings by Florentine artists, mostly from the period 1300-1600, the Trecento to the Late Renaissance. It is smaller and more specialized than the Uffizi, the main art museum in Florence. It adjoins the Accademia di Belle Arti or academy of fine arts of Florence, but despite the name has no other connection with it.\",\n \"David (] ) is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and 1504 by Michelangelo.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":83,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which author wrote a novel containing a horror icon known as Pennywise the Dancing Clown?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Stephen King"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Demon's Delight\nDemon's Delight is an anthology novel containing four short stories written by authors MaryJanice Davidson, Emma Holly, Vickie Taylor, and Catherine Spangler.\nChris Mere is the descendant of a long line of witches that were cursed in the times of the Salem Witch Trials. The curse causes each generation to pick one descendant and it is his job to kill the witch hunter who comes to destroy the de Mere family. Rhea Goodman is the witch hunter that is destined to kill the next descendant of the de Mere line. Rather than killing Rhea, Chris approaches her days after she discovers her destiny to try to stop the cycle of violence before they become the next dead descendants of their family lines. \"Witch Way\" is written by MaryJanice Davidson.\nWritten by Catherine Spangler.\nWritten by Emma Holly.\nWritten by Vickie Taylor\n","It (character)\nIt, also known as Pennywise the Dancing Clown or Bob Gray, is the title character of Stephen King's 1986 horror novel \"It\". The character is a creature that preys upon the local children of Derry, Maine, roughly every twenty-seven years, using a variety of powers that include the ability to shapeshift, manipulate, and go unnoticed by adults.\nKing stated in a 2013 interview that he came up with the idea for Pennywise after asking himself what scared children \"more than anything else in the world\", which he felt was clowns. King has also acknowledged on his website that he originally wanted the title character of It to be a troll like the one in the children's tale \"Three Billy Goats Gruff\", but who inhabited the local sewer system rather than just the area beneath one bridge. The character has been described as one of the scariest clowns in popular culture.\nThe character was portrayed by Tim Curry in the 1990 television adaptation and by Bill Skarsgård in the 2017 film adaptation.\nIn the novel, It is an eternal entity. After arriving on Earth, It would sleep for approximately 27 to 30 years at a time, then awaken to wreak chaos and feed (primarily on children's fear). It is able to take many more forms than the film adaptations depict, including werewolves, bats, leeches, and sharks. It could embody any of a child's worst fears.\nIt apparently originated in a void containing and surrounding the Universe, a place referred to in the novel as the \"Macroverse\" (a concept similar to the later established \"Todash Darkness\" of the \"Dark Tower\" novels). At several points in the novel, It claims its true name is \"Robert Gray\", and is christened \"It\" by the group of children who later confront it. Throughout the book, It is generally referred to as male; however, late in the book, the children come to believe It may be female (due to It's manifestation as a large female spider). In addition, upon seeing its true form Audra Denbrough says \"Oh dear Jesus, It is female.\" Despite this, the true form of It is never truly known. The final physical form It takes is that of an enormous spider, but this is the closest the human mind can understand. It's actual form is not precisely what the children actually see. Instead, the natural form of It exists in an inter-dimensional realm referred to by It as the \"deadlights\". Bill Denbrough comes dangerously close to seeing the deadlights, but successfully defeats It before this happens. The deadlights are never seen, and their true form outside the physical realm is never revealed, only described as writhing, destroying orange lights. Coming face to face with the deadlights drives any living being instantly insane (a common Lovecraftian device). The only known person to face the deadlights and survive is Bill's wife Audra Phillips, although she is rendered catatonic by the experience.\nIt's natural enemy is the \"Turtle\", another ancient dweller of King's \"Macroverse\" who, eons ago, created our universe and possibly others. The Turtle shows up again in King's series \"The Dark Tower\". The book suggests that It, along with the Turtle, are themselves creations of a separate, omnipotent creator referred to as \"The Other\". The Turtle and It are eternal enemies (creation versus consumption). It may, in fact be either a \"twinner\" of, or the actual one of the six greater demon elementals mentioned by Mia in \"\", as the Spider is not one of the Beam Guardians. It arrived in our world during prehistoric times in a massive, cataclysmic event similar to an asteroid impact, in the place that would, in time, become Derry, Maine.\nThroughout the novel \"It\", some events are described through It's point of view, through which It describes itself as the \"superior\" being, with the Turtle as someone \"close to his superiority\" and humans as mere \"toys\". It explains it prefers to kill and devour children, not by nature, but rather because children's fears are easier to interpret in a physical form and thus children are easier to fill with terror. It says this is akin to \"marinating the meat.\" It is continually surprised by the children's victories over It, and near the end, It begins to question if It is not as superior as It had once thought. However, It never feels that the individual children are strong enough to defeat It, only through \"the Other\" working through them as a group.\nIn the novel, It begins terrorizing a group of children in Derry, Maine, taking the form of a demonic clown called Pennywise. It intends to devour all of them one by one, but the children finally stand up to it and drive it back into its hiding place. It reappears 27 years later to confront the now-grown children, who face It in a final battle that results in It revealing It's true form: a giant, monstrous spider. In the novel's climax, the group finally confronts their fears and destroy It.\nIn the 1990 miniseries, Pennywise is portrayed by English actor Tim Curry, whose performance was praised by critics.\nIn the 2017 film adaptation, Pennywise is portrayed by Swedish actor Bill Skarsgård. Will Poulter was originally cast as Pennywise, with Curry describing the role as a \"wonderful part\" and wishing Poulter the best of luck. Poulter later dropped out of the production due to scheduling conflicts, as well as original director Cary Fukunaga leaving the project. On June 3, 2016, it was announced the role had been recast with Skarsgård. Spanish actor Javier Botet was cast as the Leper. Two original guises are made for the film: the Headless Boy, a burnt victim of the Kitchener Ironworks incident (played by Carter Musselman), and the Amedeo Modigliani-based painting Judith (played by Tatum Lee).\nSeveral media outlets such as \"The Guardian\" have spoken of the character, ranking it as one of the scariest clowns in film or pop culture. \"The Atlantic\" said of the character; \"the scariest thing about Pennywise, though, is how he preys on children's deepest fears, manifesting the monsters they're most petrified by (something J. K. Rowling would later emulate with boggarts).\" British scholar Mikita Brottman has also said of Pennywise; \"one of the most frightening of evil clowns to appear on the small screen\" and that it \"reflects every social and familial horror known to contemporary America\". Critics such as Mark Dery have drawn connections between the character of Pennywise and serial killer John Wayne Gacy, who would dress up at community children's parties as \"Pogo the Clown\"; Dery has stated that the character \"[embodied] our primal fears in a sociopathic Ronald McDonald who oozes honeyed guile\". On his website, however, King makes no mention of Gacy in discussing his inspiration.\nThe American punk rock band Pennywise took its name from the character.\nThe character has also been cited as a possible inspiration for two separate incidents of people dressing up as creepy clowns in Northampton, England and Staten Island, New York. In 2016, several reports of random appearances by \"evil clowns\" were reported by the media, including seven people in Alabama charged with \"clown-related activity\". Several newspaper reports cited the character of Pennywise as an influence for the outbreak, which led to King commenting that people should lower hysteria caused by the sightings and not take his work seriously.\nThe first reported sighting of people dressed as evil clowns was in Greenville, South Carolina, where a small boy spoke to his mother of a pair of clowns that had attempted to lure him away. After such an incident, a number of clowns have since been spotted in various American states including Florida, New York, Wisconsin and Kentucky, and subsequently in other Western countries, from August 2016. By October 2016, in the wake of hundreds of \"clown sightings\" across the United States and Canada, the phenomenon had spread from North America to Europe, Australasia and Latin America.\nSome explanations for the 2016 clown sightings phenomenon hypothesize that at least some of the sightings are part of a viral marketing campaign, possibly for the Rob Zombie film \"31\" (2016). Greenville police chief Ken Miller claimed to reporters that investigators are unsure as to whether the sightings have any connection with Zombie's \"31\", whether it was one or more people looking for \"kicks\", or something more sinister.\nA spokesperson for New Line Cinema (distributor of the 2017 film adaptation) released a statement claiming that \"New Line is absolutely not involved in the rash of clown sightings.\"","Bill Skarsgård\nBill Istvan Günther Skarsgård (born 9 August 1990) is a Swedish actor and model, known for his roles in \"Simple Simon\", \"Hemlock Grove\", \"Atomic Blonde\" and Pennywise the Dancing Clown in the 2017 film \"It\".\nSkarsgård was born on 9 August 1990 in Vällingby, Sweden, as the son of actor Stellan Skarsgård and his first wife, My Sonja Marie Agnes. Bill has seven siblings: Alexander, Gustaf, Sam, Valter, Ossian, Kolbjörn, and Eija. Three of these, Alexander, Gustaf, and Valter, are actors. Ossian and Kolbjörn are half-brothers from a later marriage between Stellan Skarsgård and Megan Everett.\nIn 2011, Skarsgård was nominated for a Guldbagge Award for his leading role as Simon in \"Simple Simon\".\nAt the age of 21, Bill Skarsgård won the European Film Academy's Shooting Stars Award in 2012.\nIn April 2014, Skarsgård featured on the cover of \"Hero\" – a bi-annual men's fashion and culture magazine, shot by Hedi Slimane. In the issue, he is interviewed by his father.\nSkarsgård played Matthew in the science fiction thriller \"\" (2016), his first major American film.\nSkarsgård played horror villain Pennywise in the 2017 film \"It\". His role was met with praise from fans and critics alike.\nIn July 2017, it was announced that Skarsgård had been cast as a series regular in \"Castle Rock\" as a young man with an unusual legal problem.","Alan Moore's Magic Words\nAlan Moore's Magic Words (ISBN ) is a graphic novel containing some of comic creator Alan Moore's songs, poems and writings turned into comics or with added art. All the adaptations are made by writer Art Brooks. The art was created by various European artists: Fred Torres, Ailantd, Sergio Bleda, Juan Jose Ryp, etc. It was printed by Avatar Press in both hardback and softback in 2002. Reprints the original GN published in Europe as Magical Mystery Moore Vol. 1.\n\n","Vandread Extra Stage\nVandread Extra Stage is a light novel containing a collection of five short stories about several important characters from the anime Vandread. The book is set in the same story as the anime, however some of the stories are set before and after the series.\nThis is the first and longest story in the book. Taking place in a period before the series begin, the story mainly focus on the relationship between Jura and Barnette, starting from the time when Barnette joined the pirates. They later got engaged with men of Taraak.\nThis story takes place after the episode \"Mission\". Parfet was trying to fix a shuttle, but then a bug from the main system of Mission infected the systems of the Nirvana. With most of the main crew (i.e. Magno, BC, Meia etc.) on the Mission and Parfet outside of the Nirvana in the shuttle all by herself, the 3 bridge operators Amarone Slangeba, Bervedale Coco and Celtic Midori must try to fix the system, and Parfet must contact Nirvana before the Emergency Life Support System goes off.\nA short story set during the fight between the Mejere Pirates and the Reaping Machine in the Second Stage. It describes what happened after Gascogne had crashed her Delivery Ship into the Reaping Machine and after she went back to Nirvana following the last battle.\nThis is a post-Vandread story about Ezra's daughter Kalua, that also prominently features Misty. After Hibiki and the others departed to Tarak, Pyoro somehow sneaked back to the Pirates Base because of \"his\" desire to see \"Pyoro-2\", much to the distress of Rebecca, Kalua's Ouma. Meanwhile, Misty was stressed too, because she felt she didn't belong with the pirates since she's not from Mejere and Meia was trying to help by suggesting Misty to join the Event-planning crew, who are planning a welcome party for when Hibiki would return with the men from Taraak. At the same time, Ezra, Rebecca and Pyoro find out Kalua is missing...but Misty manages to find Kalua and because of how pleased both Ezra and Rebecca are, they have Misty be Kalua's godmother.\nFinally arriving on Tarak, BC and the other officials in Tarak were starting to plan for what to do during their trip. At the same time, they have encountered another problem about Hibiki. Since Hibiki is Grandpa and Grandma's child, the officials didn't know whether they should treat Hibiki as a diplomat or as the prince of their planet. In order to find out the answer, they wanted Hibiki to meet Grandpa and Grandma. Hibiki himself was also confused by the treatment he received from the officials and in great stress. The story closes when Hibiki and Dita get married and have a baby.","The Pendulum\nThe Pendulum is a 12-issue miniseries of comic books based upon the Dark Carnival universe, a mythology detailed in the music of the Insane Clown Posse. Distributed by Chaos! Comics, the series was published from January 2000 until December 2001. A graphic novel containing all 12 issues was released on August 20, 2002 along with an album featuring most of the Pendulum singles. It is the group's 5th compilation album, and their 17th overall release.\nIn 1999, Chaos! Comics signed on to publish a 12-part comic book series about Insane Clown Posse. After choosing Jumpsteady as the writer for the series, the group decided to release new singles with each issue. However, due to other responsibilities, the duo was unable to record new material for several issues. Each 32-page issue of the comic was polybagged with a CD single in a cardboard sleeve; the reverse of all 12 sleeves could be combined to form a poster.\nThe first issue was released with a variant cover featuring art from \"The Amazing Jeckel Brothers\", advertised as 1 in every 4 issues. On August 20, 2002, a graphic novel of all 12 issues entitled \"\"The Pendulum Tome\"\" was released. A prologue, special Halloween comic issue, and full-length album was released with the novel. The album featured all of the singles released with the comic book issues, with the exception of the three singles from \"The Pendulum #7\" which was replaced with a spoken word intro.\nThe miniseries details Insane Clown Posse's attempts to stop a demon named Killnor from destroying a priest named Father Jesus, who possesses miraculous healing powers. Killnor summons the undead duo Twiztid, a crazed police SWAT team, and a host of demonic minions to stop the clowns. Insane Clown Posse call upon the assistance of the Joker's Cards to overcome the minions. An all-out showdown takes place at the demon's earthly headquarters with the fate of humanity hanging in the balance of the Pendulum.\nSeveral songs were also featured on several other albums. The songs \"The Amazing Maze\" and \"$50 Bucks\" appeared on the 2000 compilation album \"Psychopathics from Outer Space\". \"Run!\", \"Superstar\", \"Confessions\", and \"Nuttin' But A Bitch Thang\" were later featured on \"Forgotten Freshness Volume 3\". The song \"Toxic Love\" was also the 2000 Hallowicked single. An alternate, cleaner version of \"The Greatest Show\" was used as the entrance music for the professional wrestling stable Oddities in the World Wrestling Federation. The song was featured on the album \"WWF The Music, Vol. 3\".\nThe song \"I Don't Care\" was originally slated for Dark Lotus' debut album \"Tales from the Lotus Pod\", but instead appeared on Twiztid's \"Cryptic Collection Vol. 2\". The song was later used in Juggalo Championship Wrestling's highlights video on \"JCW, Volume 2\". The song \"Ain't Nuttin' But a Bitch Thang,\" originally released on Insane Clown Posse's website, is a diss track directed toward rapper Eminem. The songs \"What Rydas Do Fo Money,\" \"Who Wanna Flex?,\" \"I Don't Wanna Die\" were originally intended for solo albums by each member of the group Psychopathic Rydas, but the idea was scrapped. Those 3 songs were the only songs on The Pendulum #7 \"The Rydas EP\" cd.\n","The Temple of My Familiar\nThe Temple of My Familiar is a 1989 novel by Alice Walker. It is an ambitious and multi-narrative novel containing the interleaved stories of Arveyda, a musician in search of his past; Carlotta, his Latin American wife who lives in exile from hers; Suwelo, a black professor of American History who realizes that his generation of men have failed women; Fanny, his ex-wife about to meet her father for the first time; and Lissie, a vibrant creature with a thousand pasts.\n","Skattejakten (novel)\nSkattejakten (in English \"The Treasure Hunt\"; this novel has been translated into English) is a Norwegian novel containing clues to a real-world treasure hunt. It is written by the author Margit Sandemo. The novel is only 124 pages long, and is possibly the shortest book the author has written. Skattejakten has not been reprinted after it was first published in 1999.\nBelow is an English translation of the Norwegian cover text:\nThe book was written as a set of riddles that would lead the treasure hunters to the treasure hidden by Bladkompaniet AS, the publisher of the novel. Competitors searched for the treasure, which had been hidden somewhere in Norway. In the \"treasure\", a telephone number was hidden, which the lucky winner called to claim the prize. The treasure was found 11 October 1999. Margit Sandemo said in a TV-interview that even she hadn't known where the treasure had been hidden.\n","Horror icon\nA horror icon is a person or fictional character that is considered to be significant to one or more genres of horror such as film, literature, or video games. Examples of people considered to be horror icons include directors Stephen King, Kiyoshi Kurosawa, Roger Corman, and Wes Craven, and actors Vincent Price, Barbara Steele, Lon Chaney and Lon Chaney, Jr., Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi, Robert Englund, Tony Todd, Tim Curry, Brad Dourif, and Christopher Lee. Fictional horror icon characters include such as Dracula, Gill-man, Frankenstein's monster, Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Jason Voorhees, Chucky, Candyman, Leatherface, Pennywise the Dancing Clown, Pinhead, and The Mummy.\nExamples of early horror icons began with the Werewolf or Lycanthrope introduced in the 1500s, the Frankenstein monster as introduced by Mary Shelley in 1818, and Dracula as inspired by Vlad the Impaler and introduced into literature in 1897 by Bram Stoker.\nOne of the earliest horror icons in film date back to 1913 with \"The Werewolf\", which is one of the earliest werewolf films. In the 1920s, Dracula and Frankenstein's monster had movies released. Their presence in literary history led to them becoming among the most famous horror film icons. These films have had numerous sequels and remakes made, each one varying in success.\nIn the 1940s, sequels to Dracula and Frankenstein's monster were released, and when \"The Wolf Man\" (1941) was released a new horror icon had rose to prominence, the werewolf. In the 1950s, \"The Creature from the Black Lagoon\" led to the Gill-man becoming an icon. Another well known horror icon is Norman Bates from the \"Psycho\" franchise.\nMany modern horror icons originate from the 1970s. Leatherface from \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\" went on to become a horror icon. The Phantom from \"The Town That Dreaded Sundown\" became an influential on some antagonist in many other horror films with the sack mask he wears. The same type of mask was used on Jason Voorhees in \"Friday the 13th Part 2\", and on one of the killers in \"The Strangers\". In 1978, the influential horror film \"Halloween\" introduced the iconic Michael Myers.\nOne of the earliest 1980s horror icon is Jason Voorhees from \"Friday the 13th\" franchise. Jason is featured in all of the films, as the killer or the motivation for the killings. Freddy Krueger from the hugely influential \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" franchise instantly became an icon. Pinhead from Hellraiser and Tarman, a zombie from \"The Return of the Living Dead\" went on to become icons due to their unique designs. Chucky from \"Child's Play\" went on to become an icon. Some of the more notable horror icons from the 1990s, include Hannibal Lecter, Pennywise the Dancing Clown, and Ghostface.","Pseudo-Ambrose\nPseudo-Ambrose is the name given by Erasmus to refer to the author of a volume containing the first complete Latin commentary on the Pauline epistles. Alexander Souter has established that the same author wrote the \"Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testament\", which had long been attributed to Saint Augustine. Other works ascribed to the same author, less definitely, ore the \"Lex Dei sive Mosaicarum et Romanorum legum collatio,\" \"De bello judaico\", and the fragmentary \"Contra Arianos\" sometimes ascribed to the pseudo-Hilary and the \"sermo 246\" of pseudo-Augustine. They mention Simon Magus.\nInternal evidence from the documents has been taken to suggest that the author was active in Rome during the period of Pope Damasus, and, almost certainly, a member of the clergy.\n","Emma Holly\nEmma Holly (born 1961, <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a>) is American author who specializes in writing <a href=\"erotic%20romance\">erotic romance</a> novels, often with a focus on <a href=\"BDSM\">BDSM</a>. She has written over twenty books and was a finalist for the <a href=\"Romance%20Writers%20of%20America\">Romance Writers of America</a> 2004 RITA award for Best Paranormal Romance.\nEmma Holly was born in <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a> and raised in <a href=\"Baltimore\">Baltimore</a>, where she lived with her older sister Laurie.\nLeading back to her pre-adolescent fantasy, to be the fiancée of <a href=\"Batman\">Batman</a>, Holly always wanted to be a writer. After 10 years of writing, she sold her first book in 1998.\nHolly specializes in writing <a href=\"erotica\">erotica</a>-<a href=\"romance%20novel\">romance</a> and often with a focus on <a href=\"BDSM\">BDSM</a>. Another common element of Holly's erotic style is a <a href=\"Bisexuality\">bisexual</a> male <a href=\"protagonist\">protagonist</a> . She has written over twenty books and was a finalist for the <a href=\"Romance%20Writers%20of%20America\">Romance Writers of America</a> 2004 RITA award for Best Paranormal Romance.","Salem witch trials\nThe Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of <a href=\"witchcraft\">witchcraft</a> in <a href=\"Province%20of%20Massachusetts%20Bay\">colonial Massachusetts</a> between February 1692 and May 1693. The trials resulted in the <a href=\"execution\">execution</a>s of twenty people, fourteen of them women, and all but one by <a href=\"hanging\">hanging</a>. Five others (including two infant children) died in prison.\nTwelve other women had previously been executed in Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 17th century. Despite being generally known as the <a href=\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\">Salem</a> <a href=\"Witch%20trials%20in%20the%20early%20modern%20period\">Witch Trials</a>, the preliminary hearings in 1692 were conducted in several towns: Salem Village (now <a href=\"Danvers%2C%20Massachusetts\">Danvers</a>), <a href=\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\">Salem Town</a>, <a href=\"Ipswich%2C%20Massachusetts\">Ipswich</a>, and <a href=\"Andover%2C%20Massachusetts\">Andover</a>. The most infamous trials were conducted by the Court of <a href=\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\">Oyer and Terminer</a> in 1692 in Salem Town.\nThe episode is one of <a href=\"Colonial%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States\">Colonial America</a>'s most notorious cases of <a href=\"mass%20hysteria\">mass hysteria</a>. It has been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolationism, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due process. It was not unique, but a Colonial American example of the much broader phenomenon of <a href=\"witch%20trials%20in%20the%20early%20modern%20period\">witch trials in the early modern period</a>, which took place also in Europe. Many historians consider the lasting effects of the trials to have been highly influential in subsequent United States history. According to historian <a href=\"George%20Lincoln%20Burr\">George Lincoln Burr</a>, \"the Salem witchcraft was the rock on which the theocracy shattered.\"\nAt the 300th anniversary events in 1992 to commemorate the victims of the trials, a park was dedicated in Salem and a memorial in Danvers. In November 2001, the Massachusetts legislature passed an act exonerating all of those convicted and listing them by name, including some persons left out of earlier actions. In January 2016, the <a href=\"University%20of%20Virginia\">University of Virginia</a> announced its Gallows Hill Project team had determined the execution site in Salem, where the nineteen \"witches\" had been hanged. The city owns the site and is planning a memorial to the victims.\nWhilst the witch trials had begun to fade out across much of Europe by the mid-17th century, they continued on the fringes of Europe and in the American Colonies.\nThe events in 1692/1693 in Salem became a brief outburst of a sortlike hysteria in the New World, while the practice was already waning in most of Europe.\nIn \"Against Modern Sadducism\" (1668) , <a href=\"Joseph%20Glanvill\">Joseph Glanvill</a> claimed that he could prove the existence of witches and ghosts of the supernatural realm. Glanvill wrote about the \"denial of the bodily resurrection, and the [supernatural] spirits.\"\nIn his treatise, Glanvill claimed that ingenious men should believe in witches and apparitions; if they doubted the reality of spirits, they not only denied demons, but also the almighty God. Glanvill wanted to prove that the supernatural could not be denied; those who did deny apparitions were considered <a href=\"heresy\">heretics</a> for it also disproved their beliefs in angels. Works by men such as Glanvill and <a href=\"Cotton%20Mather\">Cotton Mather</a> tried to prove that \"demons were alive.\"\nThe earliest recorded witchcraft execution was that of <a href=\"Alse%20Young\">Alse Young</a> in 1647 in Hartford, Connecticut. Historian Clarence F. Jewett included a list of other people executed in New England in \"The Memorial History of Boston: Including Suffolk County, Massachusetts 1630–1880\" (Ticknor and Company, 1881).\nNew England had been settled by religious refugees seeking to build a pure, Bible-based society. They lived closely with the sense of the supernatural. The original 1629 <a href=\"Royal%20Charter\">Royal Charter</a> of the <a href=\"Massachusetts%20Bay%20Colony\">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> was vacated in 1684, after which <a href=\"James%20II%20of%20England\">King James II</a> installed Sir <a href=\"Edmund%20Andros\">Edmund Andros</a> as the <a href=\"Governor\">Governor</a> of the <a href=\"Dominion%20of%20New%20England\">Dominion of New England</a>. Andros was <a href=\"1689%20Boston%20revolt\">ousted in 1689</a> after the \"<a href=\"Glorious%20Revolution\">Glorious Revolution</a>\" in England replaced the Catholic <a href=\"James%20II%20of%20England\">James II</a> with the Protestant co-rulers <a href=\"William%20III%20of%20England\">William</a> and <a href=\"Mary%20II%20of%20England\">Mary</a>.\n<a href=\"Simon%20Bradstreet\">Simon Bradstreet</a> and <a href=\"Thomas%20Danforth\">Thomas Danforth</a>, the colony's last leaders under the old charter, resumed their posts as governor and deputy governor, but lacked constitutional authority to rule, because the old charter had been vacated. At the same time tensions erupted between English colonists settling in \"the Eastward\" (the present-day coast of <a href=\"Maine\">Maine</a>) and French-supported <a href=\"Wabanaki%20Confederacy\">Wabanaki Indians</a> of that territory in what came to be known as <a href=\"King%20William%27s%20War\">King William's War</a>. This was thirteen years after the devastating <a href=\"King%20Philip%27s%20War\">King Philip's War</a> with the <a href=\"Wampanoag%20people\">Wampanoag</a> and other indigenous tribes in southern and western New England. In October 1690, Sir <a href=\"William%20Phips\">William Phips</a> led an unsuccessful <a href=\"Battle%20of%20Quebec%20%281690%29\">attack on French-held Quebec</a>. Between 1689 and 1692, Native Americans continued to attack many English settlements along the Maine coast, leading to the abandonment of some of the settlements, and resulting in a flood of refugees into areas like <a href=\"Essex%20County%2C%20Massachusetts\">Essex County</a>.\nA new charter for the enlarged <a href=\"Province%20of%20Massachusetts%20Bay\">Province of Massachusetts Bay</a> was given final approval in England on October 16, 1691. News of the appointment of Phips as the new governor reached Boston in late January, and a copy of the new charter reached Boston on February 8, 1692. Phips arrived in Boston on May 14 and was sworn in as governor two days later, along with Lieutenant Governor <a href=\"William%20Stoughton%20%28Massachusetts%29\">William Stoughton</a>. One of the first orders of business for the new governor and council on May 27, 1692, was the formal nomination of county <a href=\"justices%20of%20the%20peace\">justices of the peace</a>, <a href=\"sheriff\">sheriff</a>s, and the commission of a Special Court of Oyer and Terminer to handle the large numbers of people who were \"thronging\" the jails.\n<a href=\"Paul%20Boyer%20%28historian%29\">Paul Boyer</a> and <a href=\"Stephen%20Nissenbaum\">Stephen Nissenbaum</a> have postulated that without a valid charter, the colony had no legitimate form of government to try capital cases until Phips arrived with the new charter. This has been disputed by David Konig. He points out that between charters, according to the \"Records of the Court of Assistants,\" the colony tried and condemned a group of fourteen pirates on January 27, 1690, for acts of piracy and murder committed in August and October 1689.\nSalem Village (present-day <a href=\"Danvers%2C%20Massachusetts\">Danvers, Massachusetts</a>) was known for its fractious population, who had many internal disputes, and for disputes between the village and Salem Town (present-day <a href=\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\">Salem</a>). Arguments about property lines, grazing rights, and church privileges were rife, and neighbors considered the population as \"quarrelsome\". In 1672, the villagers had voted to hire a minister of their own, apart from Salem Town. The first two ministers, James Bayley (1673–79) and <a href=\"George%20Burroughs\">George Burroughs</a> (1680–83), stayed only a few years each, departing after the congregation failed to pay their full rate. (Burroughs would subsequently be arrested at the height of the witchcraft hysteria, and was hanged as a witch in August 1692.)\nDespite the ministers' rights being upheld by the General Court and the parish being admonished, each of the two ministers still chose to leave. The third minister, <a href=\"Deodat%20Lawson\">Deodat Lawson</a> (1684–88), stayed for a short time, leaving after the church in Salem refused to ordain him—and therefore not over issues with the congregation. The parish disagreed about Salem Village's choice of <a href=\"Samuel%20Parris\">Samuel Parris</a> as its first ordained minister. On June 18, 1689, the villagers agreed to hire Parris for £66 annually, \"one third part in money and the other two third parts in provisions,\" and use of the parsonage.\nOn October 10, 1689, however, they raised his benefits, voting to grant him the deed to the parsonage and two acres (0.8 hectares) of land. This conflicted with a 1681 Village resolution which stated that \"it shall not be lawful for the inhabitants of this village to convey the houses or lands or any other concerns belonging to the Ministry to any particular persons or person: not for any cause by vote or other ways\".\nThough the prior ministers' fates and the level of contention in Salem Village were valid reasons for caution in accepting the position, Rev Parris increased the village's divisions by delaying his acceptance. He did not seem able to settle his new parishioners' disputes: by deliberately seeking out \"iniquitous behavior\" in his congregation and making church members in good standing suffer public penance for small infractions, he contributed significantly to the tension within the village. Its bickering increased, unabated. Historian <a href=\"Marion%20L.%20Starkey\">Marion Starkey</a> suggests that, in this atmosphere, serious conflict may have been inevitable.\nPrior to the constitutional turmoil of the 1680s, Massachusetts government had been dominated by conservative <a href=\"Puritan\">Puritan</a> secular leaders. Influenced by <a href=\"Calvinism\">Calvinism</a>, Puritans had opposed many of the traditions of the Anglo-Catholic (Anglican) <a href=\"Church%20of%20England\">Church of England</a>, including use of the <a href=\"Book%20of%20Common%20Prayer\">Book of Common Prayer</a>, the use of priestly vestments (cap and gown) during services, the use of the Holy Cross during <a href=\"baptism\">baptism</a>, and kneeling during the sacrament, all of which they believed constituted <a href=\"popery\">popery</a>. King <a href=\"Charles%20I%20of%20England\">Charles I</a> was hostile to this viewpoint, and Anglican church officials tried to repress these dissenting views during the 1620s and 1630s. Some Puritans and other religious minorities had sought refuge in the Netherlands, but ultimately many made a <a href=\"Great%20Migration%20%28Puritan%29\">major migration</a> to colonial North America to establish their own society.\nThese immigrants, who were mostly constituted of families, established several of the earliest colonies in New England, of which the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the largest and most economically important. They intended to build a society based on their religious beliefs. Colonial leaders were elected by the <a href=\"Freeman%20%28Colonial%29\">freemen</a> of the colony, those individuals who had had their religious experiences formally examined and had been admitted to one of the colony's Puritan congregations. The colonial leadership were prominent members of their congregations, and regularly consulted with the local ministers on issues facing the colony.\nIn the early 1640s, England erupted in <a href=\"English%20Civil%20War\">civil war</a>. The Puritan-dominated <a href=\"Roundhead\">Parliamentarians</a> emerged victorious, and the Crown was supplanted by <a href=\"the%20Protectorate\">the Protectorate</a> of <a href=\"Oliver%20Cromwell\">Oliver Cromwell</a> in 1653. Its failure led to <a href=\"English%20Restoration\">restoration</a> of the old order under <a href=\"Charles%20II%20of%20England\">Charles II</a>. Emigration to New England slowed significantly in these years. In Massachusetts, a successful merchant class began to develop that was less religiously motivated than the colony's early settlers.\nPrior to 1692, there had been rumors of witchcraft in villages neighboring Salem Village and other towns. <a href=\"Cotton%20Mather\">Cotton Mather</a>, a minister of <a href=\"Boston\">Boston</a>'s North Church (not to be confused with the later Anglican <a href=\"Old%20North%20Church\">North Church</a> associated with <a href=\"Paul%20Revere\">Paul Revere</a>), was a prolific publisher of pamphlets, including some that expressed his belief in <a href=\"witchcraft\">witchcraft</a>. In his book \"Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions\" (1689), Mather describes his \"oracular observations\" and how \"stupendous witchcraft\" had affected the children of Boston mason John Goodwin.\nMather illustrates how the Goodwins' eldest child had been tempted by the devil and stolen linen from the washerwoman <a href=\"Ann%20Glover\">Goody Glover</a>. Glover was characterized as a disagreeable old woman and described by her husband as a witch; this may have been why she was accused of casting spells on the Goodwin children. After the event, four out of six Goodwin children began to have strange fits, or what some people referred to as \"the disease of astonishment.\" The manifestations attributed to the disease quickly became associated with witchcraft. Symptoms included neck and back pains, tongues being drawn from their throats, and loud random outcries; other symptoms included having no control over their bodies such as becoming limber, flapping their arms like birds, or trying to harm others as well as themselves. These symptoms would fuel the craze of 1692.\nIn Salem Village, in February 1692, <a href=\"Betty%20Parris\">Betty Parris</a>, age 9, and her cousin <a href=\"Abigail%20Williams%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">Abigail Williams</a>, age 11, the daughter and niece, respectively, of Reverend Samuel Parris, began to have fits described as \"beyond the power of <a href=\"epilepsy\">Epileptic Fits</a> or natural disease to effect\" by <a href=\"John%20Hale%20%28Beverly%20minister%29\">John Hale</a>, the minister of the nearby town of <a href=\"Beverly%2C%20Massachusetts\">Beverly</a>. The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and <a href=\"contorted\">contorted</a> themselves into peculiar positions, according to the eyewitness account of Rev. <a href=\"Deodat%20Lawson\">Deodat Lawson</a>, a former minister in Salem Village.\nThe girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins. A doctor, historically assumed to be William Griggs, could find no physical evidence of any ailment. Other young women in the village began to exhibit similar behaviors. When Lawson preached as a guest in the Salem Village meetinghouse, he was interrupted several times by outbursts of the afflicted.\nThe first three people accused and arrested for allegedly afflicting Betty Parris, Abigail Williams, 12-year-old <a href=\"Ann%20Putnam%2C%20Jr.\">Ann Putnam, Jr.</a>, and <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Hubbard%20%28Salem%29\">Elizabeth Hubbard</a>, were <a href=\"Sarah%20Good\">Sarah Good</a>, <a href=\"Sarah%20Osborne\">Sarah Osborne</a>, and <a href=\"Tituba\">Tituba</a>. Some historians believe that the accusation by Ann Putnam Jr. suggests that a family feud may have been a major cause of the witch trials. At the time, a vicious rivalry was underway between the Putnam and Porter families, one which deeply polarized the people of Salem. Citizens would often have heated debates, which escalated into full-fledged fighting, based solely on their opinion of the feud.\nGood was a homeless beggar, known to seek food and shelter from neighbors. She was accused of witchcraft because of her appalling reputation. At her trial, she was accused of rejecting Puritan ideals of self-control and discipline when she chose to torment and \"scorn [children] instead of leading them towards the path of salvation\".\nSarah Osborne rarely attended church meetings. She was accused of witchcraft because the Puritans believed that Osborne had her own self-interests in mind following her remarriage to an <a href=\"indentured%20servant\">indentured servant</a>. The citizens of the town disapproved of her trying to control her son's inheritance from her previous marriage.\nTituba, an Indian slave, likely became a target because of her ethnic differences from most of the other villagers. She was accused of attracting girls like <a href=\"Abigail%20Williams%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">Abigail Williams</a> and <a href=\"Betty%20Parris\">Betty Parris</a> with stories of enchantment from \"<a href=\"Malleus%20Maleficarum\">Malleus Maleficarum</a>.\" These tales about sexual encounters with demons, swaying the minds of men, and fortune-telling were said to stimulate the imaginations of girls and made Tituba an obvious target of accusations.\nEach of these women was a kind of outcast and exhibited many of the character traits typical of the \"usual suspects\" for witchcraft accusations; they were left to defend themselves. Brought before the local magistrates on the complaint of witchcraft, they were interrogated for several days, starting on March 1, 1692, then sent to jail.\nIn March, others were accused of witchcraft: <a href=\"Martha%20Corey\">Martha Corey</a>, child <a href=\"Dorothy%20Good\">Dorothy Good</a>, and <a href=\"Rebecca%20Nurse\">Rebecca Nurse</a> in Salem Village, and <a href=\"Rachel%20Clinton\">Rachel Clinton</a> in nearby <a href=\"Ipswich%2C%20Massachusetts\">Ipswich</a>. Martha Corey had expressed <a href=\"skepticism\">skepticism</a> about the credibility of the girls' accusations and thus drawn attention. The charges against her and Rebecca Nurse deeply troubled the community because Martha Corey was a full covenanted member of the Church in Salem Village, as was Rebecca Nurse in the Church in Salem Town. If such upstanding people could be witches, the townspeople thought, then anybody could be a witch, and church membership was no protection from accusation. Dorothy Good, the daughter of <a href=\"Sarah%20Good\">Sarah Good</a>, was only four years old, but not exempted from questioning by the magistrates; her answers were construed as a confession that implicated her mother. In Ipswich, Rachel Clinton was arrested for witchcraft at the end of March on independent charges unrelated to the afflictions of the girls in Salem Village.\nWhen <a href=\"Sarah%20Cloyce\">Sarah Cloyce</a> (Nurse's sister) and <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Proctor\">Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor</a> (wife of John Proctor) were arrested in April, they were brought before <a href=\"John%20Hathorne\">John Hathorne</a> and Jonathan Corwin at a meeting in Salem Town. The men were not only local magistrates, but members of the Governor's Council. Present for the examination were Deputy Governor Thomas Danforth, and Assistants Samuel Sewall, Samuel Appleton, James Russell and Isaac Addington. Objections by Elizabeth's husband, <a href=\"John%20Proctor%20%28convicted%20witch%29\">John Proctor</a>, during the proceedings resulted in his arrest that day.\nWithin a week, <a href=\"Giles%20Corey\">Giles Corey</a> (Martha's husband, and a covenanted church member in Salem Town), <a href=\"Abigail%20Hobbs\">Abigail Hobbs</a>, <a href=\"Bridget%20Bishop\">Bridget Bishop</a>, <a href=\"Mary%20Warren\">Mary Warren</a> (a servant in the Proctor household and sometime accuser), and <a href=\"Deliverance%20Hobbs\">Deliverance Hobbs</a> (stepmother of Abigail Hobbs) were arrested and examined. Abigail Hobbs, Mary Warren, and Deliverance Hobbs all confessed and began naming additional people as accomplices. More arrests followed: <a href=\"Sarah%20Wildes\">Sarah Wildes</a>, William Hobbs (husband of Deliverance and father of Abigail), Nehemiah Abbott Jr., <a href=\"Mary%20Eastey\">Mary Eastey</a> (sister of Cloyce and Nurse), Edward Bishop, Jr. and his wife Sarah Bishop, and Mary English.\nOn April 30, the Rev. <a href=\"George%20Burroughs\">George Burroughs</a>, Lydia Dustin, <a href=\"Susannah%20Martin\">Susannah Martin</a>, Dorcas Hoar, Sarah Morey and Philip English (Mary's husband) were arrested. Nehemiah Abbott Jr. was released because the accusers agreed he was not the person whose specter had afflicted them. Mary Eastey was released for a few days after her initial arrest because the accusers failed to confirm that it was she who had afflicted them; she had been arrested again when the accusers reconsidered. In May, accusations continued to pour in, but some of those suspects began to evade apprehension. Multiple warrants were issued before John Willard and Elizabeth Colson were apprehended; George Jacobs Jr. and Daniel Andrews were not caught. Until this point, all the proceedings were investigative, but on May 27, 1692, William Phips ordered the establishment of a Special Court of Oyer and Terminer for Suffolk, Essex and Middlesex counties to prosecute the cases of those in jail. Warrants were issued for more people. Sarah Osborne, one of the first three persons accused, died in jail on May 10, 1692.\nWarrants were issued for 36 more people, with examinations continuing to take place in Salem Village: <a href=\"Sarah%20Dustin\">Sarah Dustin</a> (daughter of Lydia Dustin), Ann Sears, Bethiah Carter Sr. and her daughter Bethiah Carter Jr., <a href=\"George%20Jacobs%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a> and his granddaughter Margaret Jacobs, <a href=\"John%20Willard\">John Willard</a>, <a href=\"Alice%20Parker%20%28Salem%29\">Alice Parker</a>, <a href=\"Ann%20Pudeator\">Ann Pudeator</a>, Abigail Soames, George Jacobs, Jr. (son of George Jacobs, Sr. and father of Margaret Jacobs), Daniel Andrew, Rebecca Jacobs (wife of George Jacobs, Jr. and sister of Daniel Andrew), Sarah Buckley and her daughter Mary Witheridge.\nAlso included were Elizabeth Colson, Elizabeth Hart, Thomas Farrar, Sr., <a href=\"Roger%20Toothaker\">Roger Toothaker</a>, Sarah Proctor (daughter of John and Elizabeth Proctor), Sarah Bassett (sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor), Susannah Roots, Mary DeRich (another sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor), Sarah Pease, Elizabeth Cary, <a href=\"Martha%20Carrier\">Martha Carrier</a>, Elizabeth Fosdick, <a href=\"Wilmot%20Redd\">Wilmot Redd</a>, Sarah Rice, <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Howe\">Elizabeth Howe</a>, <a href=\"John%20Alden%20%28Capt.%29\">Capt. John Alden</a> (son of <a href=\"John%20Alden%20%28Pilgrim%29\">John Alden</a> and <a href=\"Priscilla%20Mullins\">Priscilla Mullins</a>), William Proctor (son of John and Elizabeth Proctor), John Flood, Mary Toothaker (wife of Roger Toothaker and sister of Martha Carrier) and her daughter Margaret Toothaker, and Arthur Abbott. When the Court of <a href=\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\">Oyer and Terminer</a> convened at the end of May, the total number of people in custody was 62.\nCotton Mather wrote to one of the judges, <a href=\"John%20Richards%20%28colonial%20judge%29\">John Richards</a>, a member of his congregation, on May 31, 1692, expressing his support of the prosecutions, but cautioning him,\n\"do not lay more stress on pure <a href=\"spectral%20evidence\">spectral evidence</a> than it will bear ... It is very certain that the Devils have sometimes represented the Shapes of persons not only innocent, but also very virtuous. Though I believe that the just God then ordinarily provides a way for the speedy vindication of the persons thus abused.\"\nThe Court of <a href=\"Oyer%20and%20terminer\">Oyer and Terminer</a> convened in Salem Town on June 2, 1692, with William Stoughton, the new Lieutenant Governor, as Chief Magistrate, Thomas Newton as the Crown's Attorney prosecuting the cases, and Stephen Sewall as clerk. Bridget Bishop's case was the first brought to the grand jury, who endorsed all the indictments against her. Bishop was described as not living a Puritan lifestyle, for she wore black clothing and odd costumes, which was against the Puritan code. When she was examined before her trial, Bishop was asked about her coat, which had been awkwardly “cut or torn in two ways”.\nThis, along with her \"immoral\" lifestyle, affirmed that she was a witch. She went to trial the same day and was convicted. On June 3, the grand jury endorsed indictments against Rebecca Nurse and John Willard, but they did not go to trial immediately, for reasons which are unclear. Bishop was executed by hanging on June 10, 1692.\nImmediately following this execution, the court adjourned for 20 days (until June 30) while it sought advice from New England's most influential ministers \"upon the state of things as they then stood.\" Their collective response came back dated June 15 and composed by Cotton Mather:\n<a href=\"Thomas%20Hutchinson%20%28governor%29\">Hutchinson</a> sums the letter, \"The two first and the last sections of this advice took away the force of all the others, and the prosecutions went on with more vigor than before.\" (Reprinting the letter years later in \"Magnalia\", Cotton Mather left out these \"two first and the last\" sections.) Major <a href=\"Nathaniel%20Saltonstall\">Nathaniel Saltonstall</a> Esq. resigned from the court on or about June 16, presumably dissatisfied with the letter and that it had not outright barred the admission of <a href=\"spectral%20evidence\">spectral evidence</a>. According to Upham, Saltonstall deserves the credit for \"being the only public man of his day who had the sense or courage to condemn the proceedings, at the start.\" (chapt. VII) More people were accused, arrested and examined, but now in Salem Town, by former local magistrates John Hathorne, Jonathan Corwin, and Bartholomew Gedney, who had become judges of the Court of Oyer and Terminer. Suspect Roger Toothaker died in prison on June 16, 1692.\nFrom June 30 through early July, grand juries endorsed indictments against Sarah Good, Elizabeth Howe, Susannah Martin, Elizabeth Proctor, John Proctor, Martha Carrier, Sarah Wildes and Dorcas Hoar. Sarah Good, Elizabeth Howe, Susannah Martin and Sarah Wildes, along with Rebecca Nurse, went to trial at this time, where they were found guilty. All five women were executed by hanging on July 19, 1692. In mid-July, the constable in Andover invited the afflicted girls from Salem Village to visit with his wife to try to determine who was causing her afflictions. Ann Foster, her daughter Mary Lacey Sr., and granddaughter Mary Lacey Jr. all confessed to being witches. Anthony Checkley was appointed by Governor Phips to replace Thomas Newton as the Crown's Attorney when Newton took an appointment in New Hampshire.\nIn August, grand juries indicted <a href=\"George%20Burroughs\">George Burroughs</a>, <a href=\"Mary%20Eastey\">Mary Eastey</a>, <a href=\"Martha%20Corey\">Martha Corey</a> and <a href=\"George%20Jacobs%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a>. Trial juries convicted Martha Carrier, George Jacobs, Sr., George Burroughs, John Willard, Elizabeth Proctor, and John Proctor. Elizabeth Proctor was given a temporary stay of execution because she was pregnant. On August 19, 1692, Martha Carrier, George Jacobs Sr., George Burroughs, John Willard, and John Proctor were executed.\nMr. Burroughs was carried in a Cart with others, through the streets of Salem, to Execution. When he was upon the Ladder, he made a speech for the clearing of his Innocency, with such Solemn and Serious Expressions as were to the Admiration of all present; his Prayer (which he concluded by repeating the Lord's Prayer) [as witches were not supposed to be able to recite] was so well worded, and uttered with such composedness as such fervency of spirit, as was very Affecting, and drew Tears from many, so that if seemed to some that the spectators would hinder the execution. The accusers said the black Man [Devil] stood and dictated to him. As soon as he was turned off [hanged], Mr. Cotton Mather, being mounted upon a Horse, addressed himself to the People, partly to declare that he [Mr. Burroughs] was no ordained Minister, partly to possess the People of his guilt, saying that the devil often had been transformed into the Angel of Light. And this did somewhat appease the People, and the Executions went on; when he [Mr. Burroughs] was cut down, he was dragged by a Halter to a Hole, or Grave, between the Rocks, about two feet deep; his Shirt and Breeches being pulled off, and an old pair of Trousers of one Executed put on his lower parts: he was so put in, together with Willard and Carrier, that one of his Hands, and his Chin, and a Foot of one of them, was left uncovered.\nIn September, grand juries indicted eighteen more people. The grand jury failed to indict William Proctor, who was re-arrested on new charges. On September 19, 1692, <a href=\"Giles%20Corey\">Giles Corey</a> refused to plead at arraignment, and was killed by \"<a href=\"peine%20forte%20et%20dure\">peine forte et dure</a>\", a form of torture in which the subject is pressed beneath an increasingly heavy load of stones, in an attempt to make him enter a plea. Four pleaded guilty and eleven others were tried and found guilty.\nOn September 20, <a href=\"Cotton%20Mather\">Cotton Mather</a> wrote to Stephen Sewall, the clerk of the court: \"That I may be the more capable to assist in lifting up a standard against the infernal enemy\", requesting \"a narrative of the evidence given in at the trials of half a dozen, or if you please, a dozen, of the principal witches that have been condemned.\" On September 22, 1692, eight more persons were executed, \"After Execution Mr. Noyes turning him to the Bodies, said, what a sad thing it is to see Eight Firebrands of Hell hanging there.\"\nOne of the convicted, <a href=\"Dorcas%20Hoar\">Dorcas Hoar</a>, was given a temporary reprieve, with the support of several ministers, to make a confession of being a witch. <a href=\"Mary%20Bradbury\">Mary Bradbury</a> (aged 77) escaped. Abigail Faulkner Sr. was pregnant and given a temporary reprieve (some reports from that era say that Abigail's reprieve later became a stay of charges).\nMather quickly completed his account of the trials, \"Wonders of the Invisible World\" and it was given to Phips when he returned from the fighting in Maine in early October. Burr says both the Phip's letter and Mather's manuscript \"must have gone to London by the same ship\" in mid-October.\nI hereby declare that as soon as I came from fighting ... and understood what danger some of their innocent subjects might be exposed to, if the evidence of the afflicted persons only did prevaile either to the committing or trying any of them, I did before any application was made unto me about it put a stop to the proceedings of the Court and they are now stopt till their Majesties pleasure be known.\nOn October 29, Judge Sewall wrote, \"the Court of Oyer and Terminer count themselves thereby dismissed ... asked whether the Court of Oyer and Terminer should sit, expressing some fear of Inconvenience by its fall, [the] Governour said it must fall\". Perhaps by coincidence, Governor Phips' own wife, Lady Mary Phips, was among those who had been \"called out upon\" around this time. After Phips' order, there were no more executions.\nIn January 1693, the new Superior Court of Judicature, Court of Assize and General Gaol Delivery convened in Salem, Essex County, again headed by William Stoughton, as Chief Justice, with Anthony Checkley continuing as the Attorney General, and Jonathan Elatson as Clerk of the Court. The first five cases tried in January 1693 were of the five people who had been indicted but not tried in September: Sarah Buckley, Margaret Jacobs, Rebecca Jacobs, Mary Whittredge (or Witheridge) and Job Tookey. All were found not guilty. Grand juries were held for many of those remaining in jail. Charges were dismissed against many, but sixteen more people were indicted and tried, three of whom were found guilty: Elizabeth Johnson Jr., Sarah Wardwell, and Mary Post.\nWhen Stoughton wrote the warrants for the execution of these three and others remaining from the previous court, Governor Phips issued pardons, sparing their lives. In late January/early February, the Court sat again in Charlestown, Middlesex County, and held grand juries and tried five people: Sarah Cole (of Lynn), Lydia Dustin & Sarah Dustin, Mary Taylor and Mary Toothaker. All were found not guilty, but not released until they paid their jail fees. Lydia Dustin died in jail on March 10, 1693.\nAt the end of April, the Court convened in Boston, Suffolk County, and cleared <a href=\"John%20Alden%20%28Capt.%29\">Capt. John Alden</a> by proclamation. It heard charges against a servant girl, Mary Watkins, for falsely accusing her mistress of witchcraft. In May, the Court convened in Ipswich, Essex County, and held a variety of grand juries. They dismissed charges against all but five people. Susannah Post, Eunice Frye, Mary Bridges Jr., Mary Barker and William Barker Jr. were all found not guilty at trial, finally putting an end to the series of trials and executions.\nAfter someone concluded that a loss, illness or death had been caused by witchcraft, the accuser entered a complaint against the alleged witch with the local magistrates. If the complaint was deemed credible, the magistrates had the person arrested and brought in for a public examination, essentially an interrogation, where the magistrates pressed the accused to confess.\nIf the magistrates at this local level were satisfied that the complaint was well-founded, the prisoner was handed over to be dealt with by a superior court. In 1692, the magistrates opted to wait for the arrival of the new charter and governor, who would establish a Court of <a href=\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\">Oyer and Terminer</a> to handle these cases. The next step, at the superior court level, was to summon witnesses before a grand jury.\nA person could be indicted on charges of afflicting with witchcraft, or for making an unlawful covenant with the Devil. Once indicted, the defendant went to trial, sometimes on the same day, as in the case of the first person indicted and tried on June 2, <a href=\"Bridget%20Bishop\">Bridget Bishop</a>, who was executed eight days later, on June 10, 1692.\nThere were four execution dates, with one person executed on June 10, 1692, five executed on July 19, 1692 (<a href=\"Sarah%20Good\">Sarah Good</a>, <a href=\"Rebecca%20Nurse\">Rebecca Nurse</a>, <a href=\"Susannah%20Martin\">Susannah Martin</a>, Elizabeth Howe and <a href=\"Sarah%20Wildes\">Sarah Wildes</a>), another five executed on August 19, 1692 (<a href=\"Martha%20Carrier\">Martha Carrier</a>, <a href=\"John%20Willard\">John Willard</a>, <a href=\"George%20Burroughs\">George Burroughs</a>, <a href=\"George%20Jacobs%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a> and <a href=\"John%20Proctor%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">John Proctor</a>), and eight on September 22, 1692 (<a href=\"Mary%20Eastey\">Mary Eastey</a>, <a href=\"Martha%20Corey\">Martha Corey</a>, <a href=\"Ann%20Pudeator\">Ann Pudeator</a>, <a href=\"Samuel%20Wardwell\">Samuel Wardwell</a>, <a href=\"Mary%20Parker%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">Mary Parker</a>, <a href=\"Alice%20Parker%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">Alice Parker</a>, <a href=\"Wilmot%20Redd\">Wilmot Redd</a> and <a href=\"Margaret%20Scott%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\">Margaret Scott</a>).\nSeveral others, including <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Proctor\">Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor</a> and Abigail Faulkner, were convicted but given temporary reprieves because they were pregnant. Five other women were convicted in 1692, but the death sentence was never carried out: <a href=\"Mary%20Bradbury\">Mary Bradbury</a> (in absentia), <a href=\"Ann%20Foster\">Ann Foster</a> (who later died in prison), Mary Lacey Sr. (Foster's daughter), <a href=\"Dorcas%20Hoar\">Dorcas Hoar</a> and <a href=\"Abigail%20Hobbs\">Abigail Hobbs</a>.\n<a href=\"Giles%20Corey\">Giles Corey</a>, an 81-year-old farmer from the southeast end of Salem (called Salem Farms), refused to enter a plea when he came to trial in September. The judges applied an archaic form of punishment called \"peine forte et dure,\" in which stones were piled on his chest until he could no longer breathe. After two days of \"peine fort et dure,\" Corey died without entering a plea. His refusal to plead is usually explained as a way of preventing his estate from being confiscated by the Crown, but, according to historian Chadwick Hansen, much of Corey's property had already been seized, and he had made a will in prison: \"His death was a protest ... against the methods of the court\". A contemporary critic of the trials, <a href=\"Robert%20Calef\">Robert Calef</a>, wrote, \"Giles Corey pleaded not Guilty to his Indictment, but would not put himself upon Tryal by the Jury (they having cleared none upon Tryal) and knowing there would be the same Witnesses against him, rather chose to undergo what Death they would put him to.\"\nAs convicted witches, <a href=\"Rebecca%20Nurse\">Rebecca Nurse</a> and <a href=\"Martha%20Corey\">Martha Corey</a> had been excommunicated from their churches and denied proper burials. As soon as the bodies of the accused were cut down from the trees, they were thrown into a shallow grave and the crowd dispersed. Oral history claims that the families of the dead reclaimed their bodies after dark and buried them in unmarked graves on family property. The record books of the time do not note the deaths of any of those executed.\n\nMuch, but not all, of the evidence used against the accused, was \"<a href=\"spectral%20evidence\">spectral evidence</a>,\" or the testimony of the afflicted who claimed to see the apparition or the shape of the person who was allegedly afflicting them. The theological dispute that ensued about the use of this evidence was based on whether a person had to give permission to the Devil for his/her shape to be used to afflict. Opponents claimed that the Devil was able to use anyone's shape to afflict people, but the Court contended that the Devil could not use a person's shape without that person's permission; therefore, when the afflicted claimed to see the apparition of a specific person, that was accepted as evidence that the accused had been complicit with the Devil.\nCotton Mather's \"The Wonders of the Invisible World\" was written with the purpose to show how careful the court was in managing the trials. Unfortunately the work did not get released until after the trials had already ended. In his book, Mather explained how he felt spectral evidence was presumptive and that it alone was not enough to warrant a conviction. Robert Calef, a strong critic of Cotton Mather, stated in his own book titled \"More Wonders of the Invisible World\" that by confessing an accused would not be brought to trial, such in the cases of Tituba and Dorcas Good.\n<a href=\"Increase%20Mather\">Increase Mather</a> and other ministers sent a letter to the Court, \"The Return of Several Ministers Consulted\", urging the magistrates not to convict on spectral evidence alone. (The court later ruled that spectral evidence was inadmissible, which caused a dramatic reduction in the rate of convictions and may have hastened the end of the trials.) A copy of this letter was printed in <a href=\"Increase%20Mather\">Increase Mather</a>'s \"Cases of Conscience\", published in 1693. The publication <a href=\"Bury%20St.%20Edmunds%20witch%20trial\">\"A Tryal of Witches\"</a>, related to <a href=\"Bury%20St.%20Edmunds%20witch%20trial%23The%201662%20trial\">the 1662 Bury St Edmunds witch trial</a>, was used by the magistrates at Salem when looking for a precedent in allowing spectral evidence. Since the jurist <a href=\"Matthew%20Hale%20%28jurist%29\">Sir Matthew Hale</a> had permitted this evidence, supported by the eminent philosopher, physician and author <a href=\"Thomas%20Browne\">Thomas Browne</a>, to be used in the <a href=\"Bury%20St.%20Edmunds%20witch%20trial%23The%201662%20trial\">Bury St Edmunds witch trial</a> and the accusations against two <a href=\"Lowestoft\">Lowestoft</a> women, the colonial magistrates also accepted its validity and their trials proceeded.\nSometime in February 1692, likely after the afflictions began but before specific names were mentioned, a neighbor of Rev. Parris, Mary Sibly (or Sibley; aunt of <a href=\"Mary%20Walcott\">Mary Walcott</a>), instructed John Indian, one of the minister's slaves, to make a \"witch cake.\" She intended to use traditional English white magic to discover the identity of the witch who was afflicting the girls. The cake, made from rye meal and urine from the afflicted girls, was fed to a dog. According to English folk understanding of how witches accomplished affliction when the dog ate the cake, the witch herself would be hurt. Invisible particles she had sent to afflict the girls were believed to remain in the girls' urine, and a woman's cries of pain when the dog ate the cake would identify her as the witch. This superstition was based on the Cartesian \"Doctrine of Effluvia\", which posited that witches afflicted others by the use of \"venomous and malignant particles, that were ejected from the eye\", according to the October 8, 1692 letter of <a href=\"Thomas%20Brattle\">Thomas Brattle</a>, a contemporary critic of the trials.\nAccording to the \"Records of the Salem-Village Church\", Parris spoke with Sibly (or Sibley) privately on March 25, 1692, about her \"grand error\" and accepted her \"sorrowful confession.\" During his Sunday sermon on March 27 he addressed his congregation on the subject of the \"calamities\" that had begun in his own household, but stated \"it never brake forth to any considerable light, until diabolical means were used, by the making of a cake by my Indian man, who had his direction from this our sister, Mary Sibly.\" He admonished all the congregation against the use of any kind of magic, even white magic, because it was essentially, \"going to the Devil for help against the Devil.\" Mary Sibly (or Sibley) publicly acknowledged the \"error\" of her actions before the congregation, who voted by a show of hands that they were satisfied with her admission.\nOther instances appear in the records of the episode that demonstrated a continued belief by members of the community in this effluvia as legitimate evidence. Two statements against <a href=\"Elizabeth%20Howe\">Elizabeth Howe</a> included accounts of people suggesting that an ear be cut off and burned from two different animals which Howe was thought to have afflicted, to prove she was the one who had bewitched them to death.\nTraditionally, the allegedly afflicted girls are said to have been entertained by Parris' slave, <a href=\"Tituba\">Tituba</a>. (She supposedly taught them about <a href=\"Louisiana%20Voodoo\">voodoo</a> in the parsonage kitchen in early 1692, although there is no contemporary evidence to support this.) A variety of secondary sources, starting with <a href=\"Charles%20Wentworth%20Upham\">Charles W. Upham</a> in the 19th century, typically relate that a circle of the girls, with Tituba's help, tried their hands at fortune telling. They used the white of an egg and a mirror to create a primitive crystal ball to divine the professions of their future spouses and scared one another when one supposedly saw the shape of a coffin instead. The story is drawn from <a href=\"John%20Hale%20%28Beverly%20minister%29\">John Hale</a>'s book about the trials, but in his account, only one of the girls, not a group of them, had confessed to him afterward that she had once tried this. Hale did not mention Tituba as having any part of it, nor identify when the incident took place. But the record of Tituba's pre-trial examination holds her giving an energetic confession, speaking before the court of \"creatures who inhabit the invisible world,\" and \"the dark rituals which bind them together in service of Satan\", implicating both Good and Osborne while asserting that \"many other people in the colony were engaged in the devil's conspiracy against the Bay.\"\nTituba's race has often been described in later accounts as of Carib-Indian or African descent, but contemporary sources describe her only as an \"Indian\". Research by Elaine Breslaw has suggested that Tituba may have been captured in what is now <a href=\"Venezuela\">Venezuela</a> and brought to <a href=\"Barbados\">Barbados</a>, and so may have been an <a href=\"Arawak%20peoples\">Arawak Indian</a>. Other slightly later descriptions of her, by Gov. <a href=\"Thomas%20Hutchinson%20%28governor%29\">Thomas Hutchinson</a> writing his history of the <a href=\"Massachusetts%20Bay%20Colony\">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> in the 18th century, describe her as a \"Spanish Indian.\" In that day, that typically meant a Native American from the Carolinas/<a href=\"Georgia%20%28U.S.%20state%29\">Georgia</a>/<a href=\"Florida\">Florida</a>.\nThe most infamous application of the belief in effluvia was the \"touch test\" used in Andover during preliminary examinations in September 1692. Parris had explicitly warned his congregation against such exams. If the accused witch touched the victim while the victim was having a fit, and the fit stopped, observers believed that meant the accused was the person who had afflicted the victim. As several of those accused later recounted,\n\"we were blindfolded, and our hands were laid upon the afflicted persons, they being in their fits and falling into their fits at our coming into their presence, as they said. Some led us and laid our hands upon them, and then they said they were well and that we were guilty of afflicting them; whereupon we were all seized, as prisoners, by a warrant from the justice of the peace and forthwith carried to Salem.\"The Rev. John Hale explained how this supposedly worked: \"the Witch by the cast of her eye sends forth a Malefick Venome into the Bewitched to cast him into a fit, and therefore the touch of the hand doth by sympathy cause that venome to return into the Body of the Witch again\".\nOther evidence included the confessions of the accused; testimony by a confessed witch who identified others as witches; the discovery of \"poppits\" (\"poppets\"), books of palmistry and horoscopes, or pots of ointments in the possession or home of the accused; and observation of what were called \"witch's teats\" on the body of the accused. A witch's teat was said to be a mole or blemish somewhere on the body that was insensitive to touch; discovery of such insensitive areas was considered \"de facto\" evidence of witchcraft.\nVarious accounts and opinions about the proceedings began to be published in 1692. <a href=\"Deodat%20Lawson\">Deodat Lawson</a>, a former minister in Salem Village, visited Salem Village in March and April 1692. Later that year, he published in Boston an account of what he saw and heard, entitled, \"A Brief and True Narrative of Some Remarkable Passages Relating to Sundry Persons Afflicted by Witchcraft, at Salem Village: Which happened from the Nineteenth of March, to the Fifth of April, 1692.\"\nRev. William Milbourne, a Baptist minister in Boston, publicly petitioned the General Assembly in early June 1692, challenging the use of spectral evidence by the Court. Milbourne had to post £200 bond (equal to £, or about $42,000 USD today) or be arrested for \"contriving, writing and publishing the said scandalous Papers\".\nOn June 15, 1692, twelve local ministers — including <a href=\"Increase%20Mather\">Increase Mather</a> and <a href=\"Samuel%20Willard\">Samuel Willard</a> — submitted \"The Return of several Ministers\" to the Governor and Council in Boston, cautioning the authorities not to rely entirely on the use of spectral evidence:Presumptions whereupon persons may be Committed, and much more, Convictions whereupon persons may be Condemned as Guilty of Witchcrafts, ought certainly to be more considerable, than barely the Accused Persons being Represented by a Spectre unto the Afflicted.\nSometime in 1692, minister of the <a href=\"Old%20South%20Meeting%20House\">Third Church in Boston</a>, <a href=\"Samuel%20Willard\">Samuel Willard</a> anonymously published a short tract in Philadelphia entitled, \"Some Miscellany Observations On our present Debates respecting Witchcrafts, in a Dialogue Between S. & B.\" The authors were listed as \"P.E. and J. A.\" (Philip English and John Alden), but the work is generally attributed to Willard. In it, two characters, S (Salem) and B (Boston), discuss the way the proceedings were being conducted, with \"B\" urging caution about the use of testimony from the afflicted and the confessors, stating, \"whatever comes from them is to be suspected; and it is dangerous using or crediting them too far\".\nSometime in September 1692, at the request of Governor Phips, Cotton Mather wrote \"Wonders of the Invisible World: Being an Account of the Tryals of Several Witches, Lately Executed in New-England\", as a defense of the trials, to \"help very much flatten that fury which we now so much turn upon one another\". It was published in Boston and London in 1692, although dated 1693, with an introductory letter of endorsement by William Stoughton, the Chief Magistrate. The book included accounts of five trials, with much of the material copied directly from the court records, which were supplied to Mather by Stephen Sewall, his friend and Clerk of the Court.\nMather's father, <a href=\"Increase%20Mather\">Increase Mather</a>, published \"Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits\", dated October 3, 1692, after the last trials by the Court of <a href=\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\">Oyer and Terminer</a>. (The title page mistakenly lists the publication year as \"1693\".) In it, Increase Mather repeated his caution about the reliance on spectral evidence, stating \"<a href=\"Blackstone%27s%20formulation\">It were better that Ten Suspected Witches should escape, than that one Innocent Person should be Condemned</a>\". Second and third editions of this book were published in Boston and London in 1693. The third edition also included Lawson's \"Narrative\" and the anonymous \"A Further Account of the Tryals of the New-England Witches, sent in a Letter from thence, to a Gentleman in London.\"\nAlthough the last trial was held in May 1693, public response to the events continued. In the decades following the trials, survivors and family members (and their supporters) sought to establish the innocence of the individuals who were convicted and to gain compensation. In the following centuries, the descendants of those unjustly accused and condemned have sought to honor their memories. Events in Salem and Danvers in 1992 were used to commemorate the trials. In November 2001, years after the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the trials, the Massachusetts legislature passed an act exonerating all who had been convicted and naming each of the innocent. The trials have figured in American culture and been explored in numerous works of art, literature and film.\nThe first indication that public calls for justice were not over occurred in 1695 when <a href=\"Thomas%20Maule%20%28Quaker%29\">Thomas Maule</a>, a noted Quaker, publicly criticized the handling of the trials by the Puritan leaders in Chapter 29 of his book \"Truth Held Forth and Maintained\", expanding on <a href=\"Increase%20Mather\">Increase Mather</a> by stating, \"it were better that one hundred Witches should live, than that one person be put to death for a witch, which is not a Witch\". For publishing this book, Maule was imprisoned twelve months before he was tried and found not guilty.\nOn December 17, 1696, the General Court ruled that there would be a fast day on January 14, 1697, \"referring to the late Tragedy, raised among us by Satan and his Instruments.\" On that day, Samuel Sewall asked Rev. Samuel Willard to read aloud his apology to the congregation of Boston's South Church, \"to take the Blame & Shame\" of the \"late Commission of Oyer & Terminer at Salem\". Thomas Fiske and eleven other trial jurors also asked forgiveness.\nFrom 1693–97, <a href=\"Robert%20Calef\">Robert Calef</a>, a \"weaver\" and a cloth merchant in Boston, collected correspondence, court records and petitions, and other accounts of the trials, and placed them, for contrast, alongside portions of Cotton Mather's \"Wonders of the Invisible World\", under the title \"More Wonders of the Invisible World\",\nCalef could not get it published in Boston and he had to take it to London, where it was published in 1700. Scholars of the trials — Hutchinson, Upham, Burr, and even Poole — have relied on Calef's compilation of documents. John Hale, a minister in Beverly who was present at many of the proceedings, had completed his book, \"A Modest Enquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft\" in 1697, which was not published until 1702, after his death, and perhaps in response to Calef's book. Expressing regret over the actions taken, Hale admitted, \"Such was the darkness of that day, the tortures and lamentations of the afflicted, and the power of former presidents, that we walked in the clouds, and could not see our way.\"\nVarious petitions were filed between 1700 and 1703 with the Massachusetts government, demanding that the convictions be formally reversed. Those tried and found guilty were considered dead in the eyes of the law, and with convictions still on the books, those not executed were vulnerable to further accusations. The General Court initially reversed the attainder only for those who had filed petitions, only three people who had been convicted but not executed: Abigail Faulkner Sr., Elizabeth Proctor and Sarah Wardwell. In 1703, another petition was filed, requesting a more equitable settlement for those wrongly accused, but it was not until 1709, when the General Court received a further request, that it took action on this proposal. In May 1709, twenty-two people who had been convicted of witchcraft, or whose relatives had been convicted of witchcraft, presented the government with a petition in which they demanded both a reversal of attainder and compensation for financial losses.\nRepentance was evident within the Salem Village church. Rev. Joseph Green and the members of the church voted on February 14, 1703, after nearly two months of consideration, to reverse the excommunication of Martha Corey. On August 25, 1706, when <a href=\"Ann%20Putnam\">Ann Putnam Jr.</a>, one of the most active accusers, joined the Salem Village church, she publicly asked forgiveness. She claimed that she had not acted out of malice, but had been deluded by <a href=\"Satan\">Satan</a> into denouncing innocent people, mentioning <a href=\"Rebecca%20Nurse\">Rebecca Nurse</a>, in particular, and was accepted for full membership.\nOn October 17, 1711, the General Court passed a bill reversing the judgment against the twenty-two people listed in the 1709 petition (there were seven additional people who had been convicted but had not signed the petition, but there was no reversal of attainder for them). Two months later, on December 17, 1711, Governor <a href=\"Joseph%20Dudley\">Joseph Dudley</a> authorized monetary compensation to the twenty-two people in the 1709 petition. The amount of £578 12s was authorized to be divided among the survivors and relatives of those accused, and most of the accounts were settled within a year, but Phillip English's extensive claims were not settled until 1718. Finally, on March 6, 1712, <a href=\"Nicholas%20Noyes\">Rev. Nicholas Noyes</a> and members of the Salem church reversed Noyes' earlier excommunications of Rebecca Nurse and Giles Corey.\nRebecca Nurse's descendants erected an obelisk-shaped granite memorial in her memory in 1885 on the grounds of the <a href=\"Rebecca%20Nurse%20Homestead\">Nurse Homestead</a> in Danvers, with an inscription from <a href=\"John%20Greenleaf%20Whittier\">John Greenleaf Whittier</a>. In 1892, an additional monument was erected in honor of forty neighbors who signed a petition in support of Nurse.\nNot all the condemned had been exonerated in the early 18th century. In 1957, descendants of the six people who had been wrongly convicted and executed but who had not been included in the bill for a reversal of <a href=\"attainder\">attainder</a> in 1711, or added to it in 1712, demanded that the General Court formally clear the names of their ancestral family members. An act was passed pronouncing the innocence of those accused, although it listed only <a href=\"Ann%20Pudeator\">Ann Pudeator</a> by name. The others were listed only as \"certain other persons\", phrasing which failed specifically to name <a href=\"Bridget%20Bishop\">Bridget Bishop</a>, <a href=\"Susannah%20Martin\">Susannah Martin</a>, <a href=\"Alice%20Parker%20%28Salem%29\">Alice Parker</a>, <a href=\"Wilmot%20Redd\">Wilmot Redd</a> and Margaret Scott.\nThe 300th anniversary of the trials was marked in 1992 in <a href=\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\">Salem</a> and <a href=\"Danvers%2C%20Massachusetts\">Danvers</a> by a variety of events. A memorial park was dedicated in Salem which included stone slab benches inserted in the stone wall of the park for each of those executed in 1692. Speakers at the ceremony in August included playwright <a href=\"Arthur%20Miller\">Arthur Miller</a> and Nobel Laureate <a href=\"Elie%20Wiesel\">Elie Wiesel</a>. Danvers erected its own new memorial, and reinterred bones unearthed in the 1950s, assumed to be those of <a href=\"George%20Jacobs%2C%20Sr.\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a>, in a new resting place at the Rebecca Nurse Homestead.\nIn 1992, The Danvers Tercentennial Committee also persuaded the Massachusetts House of Representatives to issue a resolution honoring those who had died. After extensive efforts by Paula Keene, a Salem schoolteacher, state representatives <a href=\"J.%20Michael%20Ruane\">J. Michael Ruane</a> and <a href=\"Paul%20Tirone\">Paul Tirone</a>, along with others, issued a bill whereby the names of all those not previously listed were to be added to this resolution. When it was finally signed on October 31, 2001, by <a href=\"Governor%20of%20Massachusetts\">Governor</a> <a href=\"Jane%20Swift\">Jane Swift</a>, more than 300 years later, all were finally proclaimed innocent.\nIn January 2016, the <a href=\"University%20of%20Virginia\">University of Virginia</a> announced its project team had determined the execution site on Gallows Hill in Salem, where nineteen \"witches\" had been hanged in public. Members of the Gallows Hill Project had worked with the city of Salem using old maps and documentation, as well as sophisticated <a href=\"GIS\">GIS</a> and <a href=\"ground-penetrating%20radar\">ground-penetrating radar</a> technology, to survey the area of what became known as Proctor's Ledge. The city owns the property and plans to install a memorial there to the innocent victims. A documentary, \"Gallows Hill – Nineteen,\" is in production about these events.\nThe story of the witchcraft accusations, trials and executions has captured the imagination of writers and artists in the centuries since the event took place. Many interpretations have taken liberties with the facts of the historical episode in the name of literary and/or artistic license. As the trials took place at the intersection between a gradually disappearing medieval past and an emerging enlightenment, and dealt with torture and confession, some interpretations draw attention to the boundaries between the medieval and the post-medieval as cultural constructions.\nThe cause of the symptoms of those who claimed affliction continues to be a subject of interest. Various medical and psychological explanations for the observed symptoms have been explored by researchers, including psychological <a href=\"hysteria\">hysteria</a> in response to Indian attacks, convulsive <a href=\"ergotism\">ergotism</a> caused by eating <a href=\"rye%20bread\">rye bread</a> made from grain infected by the fungus \"<a href=\"Claviceps%20purpurea\">Claviceps purpurea</a>\" (a natural substance from which <a href=\"LSD\">LSD</a> is derived), an epidemic of bird-borne <a href=\"encephalitis%20lethargica\">encephalitis lethargica</a>, and <a href=\"sleep%20paralysis\">sleep paralysis</a> to explain the nocturnal attacks alleged by some of the accusers. Some modern historians are less inclined to focus on biological explanations, preferring instead to explore motivations such as jealousy, spite, and a <a href=\"attention%20seeking\">need for attention</a> to explain the behavior.\n\n","MaryJanice Davidson\nMaryJanice Davidson (born August 1969) is an American author who writes mostly <a href=\"paranormal%20romance\">paranormal romance</a>, but also <a href=\"young%20adult%20literature\">young adult literature</a> and <a href=\"non-fiction\">non-fiction</a>.\nShe is the creator of the popular \"<a href=\"Undead%20%28series%29\">Undead</a>\" series. She is both a \"<a href=\"New%20York%20Times\">New York Times</a>\" and \"<a href=\"USA%20Today\">USA Today</a>\" bestseller.\nShe won a 2004 \"<a href=\"Romantic%20Times\">Romantic Times</a>\" Reviewers’ Choice Award\nand was nominated for the same award in 2005. Davidson lives in Minnesota with her husband and two children. She grew up on military bases and moved often, as she was the child of a <a href=\"United%20States%20Air%20Force\">United States Air Force</a> soldier. Pamela Clare of \"<a href=\"USA%20Today\">USA Today</a>\" wrote, \"It's Davidson's humor, combined with her innate storytelling ability and skill with dialogue, that has lifted her from small presses to the big best-seller lists.\"\nElizabeth \"Betsy\" Taylor turns thirty in the most unfortunate manner possible: she is laid off from work and then run down by an SUV. Waking up in the morgue fails to improve her mood, and when she discovers she can't kill herself, she gets downright belligerent. Being proclaimed \"Queen of the Vampires\" by the obnoxious Eric Sinclair, who places himself first in line to be her consort, proves to be the last straw.\nThe first four volumes have been reprinted as\nBooks 5-7 and Dead and Loving It have been reprinted as\nShort stories have also appeared in:\nIn an alternate reality, the series follows the royal Baranov family as they begin to look for love and marriage while ruling over Alaska (which was not purchased by the United States and became its own country). The series was limited to three books due to the end of the author's contract with Brava books.\nFred has known since she was a small child that she is part Mermaid. It is only when the High Prince of the merfolk and a marine biologist fight for her heart does Fred's life get even more complicated.\nAll Three Books in One:\nThe Jennifer Scales series, about a young weredragon, is written by MaryJanice Davidson and <a href=\"Anthony%20Alongi\">Anthony Alongi</a>, her husband. These novels are currently being re-published as fantasy novels rather than young adult.","31 (film)\n31 is a 2016 American <a href=\"horror%20film\">horror film</a> written and directed by <a href=\"Rob%20Zombie\">Rob Zombie</a>, and starring an <a href=\"ensemble%20cast\">ensemble cast</a> featuring <a href=\"Sheri%20Moon%20Zombie\">Sheri Moon Zombie</a>, <a href=\"Jeff%20Daniel%20Phillips\">Jeff Daniel Phillips</a>, <a href=\"Lawrence%20Hilton-Jacobs\">Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs</a>, <a href=\"Meg%20Foster\">Meg Foster</a>, <a href=\"Richard%20Brake\">Richard Brake</a>, <a href=\"Malcolm%20McDowell\">Malcolm McDowell</a>, <a href=\"E.G.%20Daily\">E.G. Daily</a>, <a href=\"Judy%20Geeson\">Judy Geeson</a>, and <a href=\"Jane%20Carr\">Jane Carr</a>.\nA <a href=\"period%20piece\">period piece</a> set in 1976, the film is about five <a href=\"carnies\">carnies</a> who are kidnapped by a gang of clowns called \"The Heads\" and forced to play a survival game called \"31\", where they're chased by the clowns through a maze of rooms over 12 hours, the penalty for capture being torture and murder, while bets are placed on their progress.\nThe film was <a href=\"Crowdfunding\">crowdfunded</a> online twice at fanbacked.com. At a <a href=\"test%20screening\">test screening</a>, Zombie compared \"31\" to his 2005 film \"<a href=\"The%20Devil%27s%20Rejects\">The Devil's Rejects</a>\".\nDuring Halloween 1976, a group of carnival workers, Charly, Venus, Panda, Levon, and Roscoe, are attacked and taken to a strange, large building where three elderly people wearing aristocratic clothes, powdered wigs and make up, Sister Dragon, Sister Serpent, and their leader Father Napoleon-Horatio-Silas Murder, tell them that they are going to play the game \"31\" and that it will last for the next 12 hours. The group is placed in a series of maze-like set of rooms, where they must defend themselves against the \"Heads\", several murderous clowns who intend to torture and murder them, all the while the group are given odds for their survival and bets are placed on them.\nThe protagonists come across five \"Heads\", Sick-Head, Psycho-Head, Schizo-Head, Death-Head, and Sex-Head. The carnies eventually manage to kill their assailants, but not without sustaining their own casualties, with only Charly, Venus, and Roscoe left alive. The remaining three try to find a way out, but only manage to get one of their number—Venus—trapped inside a boiler room, where she is brutally murdered by the final Head, Doom-Head, who was brought in by the aristocrats to join the game. Doom-Head taunts Charly and Roscoe, telling them that the doors have been opened to the outside world.\nThe two manage to make it to one of the exits, however Roscoe urges Charly to go on without him, as the night's event has left him too severely wounded to progress. Roscoe is then stabbed to death by Doom-Head. Charly, who made it outside but found herself in the middle of nowhere, makes her way into an abandoned house where she is ambushed by Doom-Head. He almost overtakes her, however Doom-Head is stopped by the aristocrats, who tell him that time has run out and Charly must go free. This doesn't satisfy Doom-Head and the film ends with Charly walking down an isolated road while a van is driving behind her. The driver, revealed to be Doom-Head, gets out and walks towards Charly as the two prepare for one last confrontation as the film ends, leaving their fates unknown.\nPlans to create \"31\" were first announced in May 2014 via a <a href=\"teaser%20poster\">teaser poster</a> that showed the words \"a Rob Zombie film\", a bloody clown face, and the number \"31\". Fans and media outlets speculated that the film would be a third film in the \"<a href=\"House%20of%201000%20Corpses\">House of 1000 Corpses</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Devil%27s%20Rejects\">The Devil's Rejects</a>\" universe and would follow <a href=\"Sid%20Haig\">Sid Haig</a>'s character <a href=\"Captain%20Spaulding%20%28Rob%20Zombie%29\">Captain Spaulding</a>, that it could be a film centering upon serial killer <a href=\"John%20Wayne%20Gacy\">John Wayne Gacy</a>, or that it would be a third film in Zombie's rebooted \"<a href=\"Halloween%20%28franchise%29%23Future\">Halloween</a>\" film series. Zombie commented on the speculation, stating that it would not follow Captain Spaulding and would be an original story and was not based on any previous work. He also noted that \"31\" referred to October 31, Halloween. In July, Zombie announced the plot of \"31\", which follows a group of five people that are forced to participate in a gruesome game called \"31\". Zombie also stated that he would use crowdfunding to cover part of the movie's costs, because \"as the years go on, the game changes all the time, and a movie that you could get made years ago, you cannot get made anymore, because the business changes, things change.\" He added that crowdfunding would allow him to make a movie that might not have been otherwise funded traditionally and that \"if you wanna do stuff outside the system, you've gotta function outside the system\". Zombie later held a second Fanbacked.com campaign in February 2015 to raise additional funds for the film, stating that it was due to multiple requests from fans that wanted to contribute funding.\nZombie came up with the idea for \"31\" after reading a statistic that stated that Halloween is the \"Number One day of the year when people go missing for some reason\" and thought that it would make a good premise for a movie. He also received inspiration for the film as he was walking around his frightfest Great American Nightmare and watched the employees work while dressed like chainsaw-carrying clowns. Zombie has stated that he wanted to have a \"very nasty, gritty, guerilla-style approach to the filmmaking\" for \"31\", as it \"fits the story and the vibe of the movie\". Zombie began scouting locations in the summer of 2014 and initial filming was slated to begin in February 2015, but did not commence until that March. Filming for \"31\" wrapped in April 2015.\n\"31\" premiered at the <a href=\"2016%20Sundance%20Film%20Festival\">2016 Sundance Film Festival</a> on January 23, 2016. In March 2016, Saban Films announced that they had acquired distribution rights for \"31\" and that they would be giving it a <a href=\"Limited%20release\">limited theatrical release</a> on September 16, 2016.\nOn September 1, <a href=\"Fathom%20Events\">Fathom Events</a> hosted a special premiere of \"31\" in cinemas across the United States. The event included world premieres of the “Gore Whore” <a href=\"music%20video\">music video</a>, a one-on-one Q&A with Zombie, and a behind-the-scenes look.\n\"31\" was submitted to the <a href=\"Motion%20Picture%20Association%20of%20America\">Motion Picture Association of America</a> twice and both times received an <a href=\"Motion%20Picture%20Association%20of%20America%20film%20rating%20system%23X%20replaced%20by%20NC-17\">NC-17 rating</a>. The description as given by the MPAA notes \"sadistic graphic violence, bizarre sexuality/nudity, pervasive disturbing images and some strong language.\" On January 5, 2016, the film was finally granted an \"R\" rating for \"strong bloody horror violence, pervasive language, sexual content and drug use\". Zombie later told a fan on <a href=\"Facebook\">Facebook</a> that the “<a href=\"Director%27s%20cut\">Zombie Cut</a>” would eventually be released on <a href=\"DVD\">DVD</a> and would include the uncut version.To this date there has not been any uncut version released to the public.\nThe film holds an approval rating of 50% on <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> based on 31 reviews and has an average rating of 5.3 out of 10. The site's consensus reads, \"\"31\" delivers all the high-energy gore Rob Zombie fans have come to expect, but a lack of fresh ideas and likable characters mean only the already converted need apply.\" On <a href=\"Metacritic\">Metacritic</a>, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 35 out of 100 based on 13 reviews, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews.\"\nMuch of the film's negativity centered around claims that the film felt forced and unoriginal, with \"<a href=\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\">Variety</a>\" writing that the \"energetic exercise in forced badassery will be too silly and self-conscious to feel genuinely edgy, despite all the blood spilt and familiar taboos violated.\"\nThe film received praise from <a href=\"Bloody%20Disgusting\">Bloody Disgusting</a> which claimed \"31 is Rob Zombie’s The Running Man and it works.\" Trent Wilkie of \"<a href=\"Fangoria\">Fangoria</a>\" gave the film a mixed review saying \"It is violent and campy, with the requisite sex, blood, profanity and gore. But ultimately, it feels rushed and leaves one with the sense of an unfinished idea.\" However, Jerry Smith, also writing for \"Fangoria\" put it on his years \"Top Ten\" list saying \"31 is a mean as hell, take no prisoners exploitation film filled to the absolute brim with mean as all hell clowns, carnies and by far one of the best horror performances of the year.\"\n<a href=\"Shock%20Till%20You%20Drop\">Shock Till You Drop</a> gave the film approval with a caveat saying \"Rob Zombie’s 31 succeeds as a throwback to the days of quickie exploitation movies. That’s exactly what it is trying to be, and what it is. So, if you want caviar, keep looking. But if you are in the mood for a candy-colored bacon cheeseburger of a flick with extra grease and BBQ sauce, 31 is for you.\" In a similar vein, <a href=\"Film%20School%20Rejects\">Film School Rejects</a> commented that \"\"31\" is Zombie's mildly entertaining take on a stale and simple setup. You already know if it's for you.\"\n\"31\" was exclusively released on \"<a href=\"Shudder%20%28streaming%20service%29\">Shudder</a>\" two weeks before being released on <a href=\"DVD\">DVD</a>. The film was released on DVD and <a href=\"Blu-ray\">Blu-ray</a> on December 20, 2016. The home release contained a behind-the-scenes documentary (two-hour version on DVD/Blu, four-hour version on VOD) directed by Josh Hasty.","Cary Fukunaga\nCary Joji Fukunaga (born July 10, 1977) is an American film director, writer, and cinematographer. He is known for writing and directing the 2009 film \"<a href=\"Sin%20Nombre%20%282009%20film%29\">Sin Nombre</a>\", the 2011 film \"<a href=\"Jane%20Eyre%20%282011%20film%29\">Jane Eyre</a>\" and for directing and executive producing the <a href=\"True%20Detective%20%28season%201%29\">first season</a> of the <a href=\"HBO\">HBO</a> series \"<a href=\"True%20Detective\">True Detective</a>\", for which he won the <a href=\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Directing%20for%20a%20Drama%20Series\">Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series</a>. He received acclaim for the 2015 war drama \"<a href=\"Beasts%20of%20No%20Nation%20%28film%29\">Beasts of No Nation</a>\", in which he was writer, director, producer, and cinematographer.\nFukunaga was born in <a href=\"Alameda%2C%20California\">Alameda, California</a>. His father, Anthony Shuzo Fukunaga, was a third-generation <a href=\"Japanese-American\">Japanese-American</a>, born in a <a href=\"Internment%20of%20Japanese%20Americans\">Japanese internment camp</a> during World War II. His mother, Gretchen May (Grufman), is <a href=\"Swedish-American\">Swedish-American</a>, and worked as a dental hygienist, and later as a college history instructor and university assistant professor of history, from whom Cary got his original interest in history. His parents divorced and remarried, his father to an Argentine woman, and his mother to a Mexican-American.\nFukunaga said that his uncles and aunts are all elementary school teachers or scientists. His family moved around a lot within the <a href=\"San%20Francisco%20Bay%20Area\">San Francisco Bay Area</a>, moving to <a href=\"Berkeley%2C%20California\">Berkeley</a>, <a href=\"Albany%2C%20California\">Albany</a>, <a href=\"Vallejo%2C%20California\">Vallejo</a>, <a href=\"Benicia%2C%20California\">Benicia</a>, <a href=\"Sebastopol%2C%20California\">Sebastopol</a> and back to Oakland.\nFukunaga originally wanted to be a pro snowboarder, but switched to filmmaking in his mid-twenties. He got his start as a camera intern and later applied to film school. He graduated from the <a href=\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Santa%20Cruz\">University of California, Santa Cruz</a> with a <a href=\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\">Bachelor of Arts</a> in history in 1999, and attended <a href=\"Institut%20d%27%C3%A9tudes%20politiques%20de%20Grenoble\">Institut d'études politiques (IEP) de Grenoble</a>. He enrolled in <a href=\"New%20York%20University\">New York University</a>'s <a href=\"Tisch%20School%20of%20the%20Arts\">Tisch School of the Arts</a> Graduate Film Program.\nFukunaga wrote and directed the short film \"Victoria para Chino\" (2004) while at NYU, which screened at the <a href=\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\">Sundance Film Festival</a> and received a <a href=\"Student%20Academy%20Award\">Student Academy Award</a> in 2005. The film won an Audience Award for Best Narrative Student Short film at the 2004 <a href=\"Austin%20Film%20Festival\">Austin Film Festival</a>, a \"Best Student Film\" award at the 2006 <a href=\"Ashland%20Independent%20Film%20Festival\">Ashland Independent Film Festival</a>, a \"BAFTA/LA Award for Excellence – Honorable Mention\" award at the 2005 <a href=\"Aspen%20Shortsfest\">Aspen Shortsfest</a>, Best Student Film at the 2005 <a href=\"BendFilm%20Festival\">BendFilm Festival</a>, Best Short Film and an Audience Award for Best Short Film at the 2005 <a href=\"Gen%20Art\">Gen Art</a> Film Festival, Best Short film at the 2005 Milan International Film Festival, and the Jury Prize for Best Student Short at the 2004 <a href=\"Woodstock%20Film%20Festival\">Woodstock Film Festival</a>.\nHe wrote and directed the short films \"Kofi\" (2008) (shot in black and white) and more recently, \"Sleepwalking in the Rift\" (2012). Fukunaga wrote and directed a segment in the omnibus film project \"Chinatown Film Project\" (2009).\nFukunaga made his feature film debut with \"<a href=\"Sin%20Nombre%20%282009%20film%29\">Sin Nombre</a>\", which he wrote and directed. It received positive reviews. The film received a number of awards, including the Directing award at the 2009 <a href=\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\">Sundance Film Festival</a> and a \"New Director's Award\" for Fukunaga at the 2009 <a href=\"Edinburgh%20International%20Film%20Festival\">Edinburgh International Film Festival</a>. I need 2009, the film won \"Best Foreign Language Film\" awards from the <a href=\"Austin%20Film%20Critics%20Association\">Austin Film Critics Association</a>, the <a href=\"Dallas-Fort%20Worth%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\">Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards</a>, the <a href=\"Florida%20Film%20Critics%20Circle%20Awards\">Florida Film Critics Circle Awards</a>, the <a href=\"San%20Diego%20Film%20Critics%20Society%20Awards\">San Diego Film Critics Society Awards</a> (2nd place for Best Foreign Language Film), and the <a href=\"Washington%20DC%20Area%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\">Washington DC Area Film Critics Association Awards</a>. The film's cinematographer, Adriano Goldman, won the Cinematography award at the 2009 <a href=\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\">Sundance Film Festival</a>, and at the 2009 <a href=\"Stockholm%20Film%20Festival\">Stockholm Film Festival</a>, the film won a Best Actor award (for <a href=\"Edgar%20Flores\">Edgar Flores</a>), as well as a Best Directorial Debut and FIPRESCI Prize for Fukunaga. Fukunaga won a 2010 <a href=\"Premios%20ACE\">Premios ACE</a> award for \"Cinema – Best First Work.\" The film was nominated for Best Feature, Best Director and Best Cinematography from the 2010 <a href=\"Independent%20Spirit%20Awards\">Independent Spirit Awards</a>, and was nominated by the 2009 <a href=\"British%20Independent%20Film%20Awards\">British Independent Film Awards</a> (Best Foreign Film), the 2010 <a href=\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\">Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards</a> (Best Foreign Language Film), the 2009 <a href=\"Chicago%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\">Chicago Film Critics Association Awards</a> (Most Promising Filmmaker; Best Foreign Language Film), the 2010 <a href=\"Image%20Awards\">Image Awards</a> (Outstanding Foreign Motion Picture), the Bronze Horse at the 2009 <a href=\"Stockholm%20Film%20Festival\">Stockholm Film Festival</a> and the 2009 <a href=\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\">Sundance Film Festival</a> Grand Jury Prize.\nIn 2010, Fukunaga directed a new film adaptation of \"<a href=\"Jane%20Eyre%20%282011%20film%29\">Jane Eyre</a>\" starring <a href=\"Mia%20Wasikowska\">Mia Wasikowska</a>, <a href=\"Michael%20Fassbender\">Michael Fassbender</a>, <a href=\"Jamie%20Bell\">Jamie Bell</a> and <a href=\"Judi%20Dench\">Judi Dench</a>. The film was released in 2011 and was nominated for an <a href=\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Costume%20Design\">Academy Award for Best Achievement in Costume Design</a> for Costume Designer Michael O'Connor and a 2012 <a href=\"Goya%20Award\">Goya Award</a> for Best European Film. The film was nominated for a 2012 <a href=\"BAFTA%20Award\">BAFTA Award</a> (Best Costume Design), a 2012 <a href=\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association\">Broadcast Film Critics Association</a> Award (Best Costume Design), the 2012 <a href=\"Costume%20Designers%20Guild%20Awards\">Costume Designers Guild Awards</a> (Excellence in Period Film), the 2012 <a href=\"Evening%20Standard%20British%20Film%20Awards\">Evening Standard British Film Awards</a> (Best Technical Achievement), the 2011 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards (Best Costume Design), the 2011 <a href=\"Satellite%20Awards\">Satellite Awards</a> (Best Costume Design). The 2012 <a href=\"Australian%20Film%20Institute\">Australian Film Institute</a> awards as well as the 2011 <a href=\"British%20Independent%20Film%20Awards\">British Independent Film Awards</a> nominated <a href=\"Mia%20Wasikowska\">Mia Wasikowska</a> for a \"Best Actress\" award. The film's screenplay and screenwriter Moira Buffini (as well as author <a href=\"Charlotte%20Bronte\">Charlotte Bronte</a>) were nominated for a 2012 <a href=\"USC%20Scripter%20Award\">USC Scripter Award</a>.\nFukunaga directed, wrote and filmed \"<a href=\"Beasts%20of%20No%20Nation%20%28film%29\">Beasts of No Nation</a>\", based on the novel <a href=\"Beasts%20of%20No%20Nation\">of the same name</a> by <a href=\"Uzodinma%20Iweala\">Uzodinma Iweala</a>, in which <a href=\"Idris%20Elba\">Idris Elba</a> stars as Commandant, a lead character. The movie was picked up by <a href=\"Netflix\">Netflix</a> for a reported $12 million as part of an effort to expand into original films. On November 25, 2015, Fukunaga was nominated for the <a href=\"Independent%20Spirit%20Award%20for%20Best%20Director\">Independent Spirit Award for Best Director</a> and <a href=\"Independent%20Spirit%20Award%20for%20Best%20Cinematography\">Best Cinematography</a> for his work on \"Beasts of No Nation\", and the film received a <a href=\"Independent%20Spirit%20Award%20for%20Best%20Feature\">nomination for Best Feature</a>.\nFukunaga directed all eight episodes of the first season of the 2014 HBO TV series \"<a href=\"True%20Detective\">True Detective</a>\", which was written and created by novelist, fiction writer and screenwriter <a href=\"Nic%20Pizzolatto\">Nic Pizzolatto</a>. The series stars <a href=\"Matthew%20McConaughey\">Matthew McConaughey</a>, <a href=\"Woody%20Harrelson\">Woody Harrelson</a> and <a href=\"Michelle%20Monaghan\">Michelle Monaghan</a>. Fukunaga served as an Executive Producer on the show. The series received critical praise and was nominated for five <a href=\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Awards\">Primetime Emmy Awards</a>, including <a href=\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Drama%20Series\">Outstanding Drama Series</a> and <a href=\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Directing%20for%20a%20Drama%20Series\">Outstanding Directing</a> for Fukunaga, who won. For the second season of \"True Detective,\" Fukunaga did not return as director, but continued to serve as executive producer.\nFukunaga has written most of the films he has directed. The short films that he has written the screenplays for include \"Kofi\" (2003) and \"Victoria para chino\" (2004). He wrote the screenplay to his feature film, \"<a href=\"Sin%20Nombre%20%282009%20film%29\">Sin Nombre</a>\" (2009), as well as his segment for the omnibus film, \"Chinatown Film Project\" (2009).\nFukunaga has produced or served as executive producer on most of the projects he has directed. He was the executive producer for his short films \"Kofi\" (2003) and \"Victoria para chino\" (2004). He was an executive producer on Andrew Okpeaha MacLean's feature film thriller, \"<a href=\"On%20the%20Ice\">On the Ice</a>\", which won \"Best Debut Film\" and the \"Crystal Bear\" (Best Feature Film for the Generation 14+) at the 2011 <a href=\"Berlin%20Film%20Festival\">Berlin Film Festival</a>, among other awards.\nFukunaga served as an executive producer for the HBO series he directed, \"<a href=\"True%20Detective\">True Detective</a>\".\nWarner Bros. chose Fukunaga to develop, direct, and write its <a href=\"It%20%282017%20film%29\">adaptations</a> of <a href=\"Stephen%20King\">Stephen King</a>'s \"<a href=\"It%20%28novel%29\">It</a>\" (2017), the first of which was initially due to start shooting in summer 2015. Fukunaga was set to direct the first film and was expected to co-write the second. Three weeks before production was slated to begin, Fukunaga left the project.\nFukunaga served as a cinematographer on a number of short film projects, including \"Handmade\" (2013) (a documentary short directed by Rob Meyer), \"Sikumi\" (2008) (also known as \"Sikumi (On the Ice)\" about an Inuit hunter on the frozen Arctic Ocean, directed by Andrew Okpeaha MacLean), \"Team Queen\" (2007) (a short film directed by Leah Meyerhoff), the feature documentary \"Death of Two Sons\" (2006) (directed by Micah Schaffer), the short films \"Clear Water\" (2005) (directed by Natalie Mooallem), \"White\" (2005) (directed by Sebastian Mantilla), \"Kinnaq Nigaqtuqtuaq\" (2005) (directed by Andrew Okpeaha MacLean), \"Two Men\" (2005) (directed by Ian Olds) and \"Mating Call\" (2004) (directed by Patricio Serna).\nHe served as a camera operator on the short \"Glory at Sea\" (2008) (directed by <a href=\"Beasts%20of%20the%20Southern%20Wild\">Beasts of the Southern Wild</a> director <a href=\"Benh%20Zeitlin\">Benh Zeitlin</a>), as a gaffer on the short film \"Just Make Believe\" (2008) (directed by Jadrien Steele), as an additional cinematographer on the TV documentary \"Small Steps: Creating the High School for Contemporary Arts\" (2007), assistant camera on the short film \"Dock\" (2004) (directed by Nina Martinek), additional photography for the documentary \"Lockdown, USA\" (about the \"War on Drugs\" campaign and directed by Rebecca Chaiklin and Michael Skolnik), additional camera for \"Autumn's Eyes\" (2006) (directed by Paola Mendoza and Gabriel Noble), a grip on the feature film \"<a href=\"Mango%20Kiss\">Mango Kiss</a>\" (2004) (directed by Sascha Rice), and as an additional film loader on the feature film \"<a href=\"Black%20Cadillac%20%28film%29\">Black Cadillac</a>\" (2003) (directed by John Murlowski and starring <a href=\"Randy%20Quaid\">Randy Quaid</a>).\nIn April 2015, <a href=\"Deadline.com\">Deadline.com</a> reported that Fukunaga was pairing again with <a href=\"Anonymous%20Content\">Anonymous Content</a> Productions to direct the TV series <a href=\"The%20Alienist%20%28TV%20series%29\">\"The Alienist\"</a> , based upon the best selling <a href=\"The%20Alienist\">novel of the same name</a> by author <a href=\"Caleb%20Carr\">Caleb Carr</a>. The series is to be aired on <a href=\"TNT%20%28TV%20channel%29\">TNT</a>. In September 2016, <a href=\"Jakob%20Verbruggen\">Jakob Verbruggen</a> replaced Fukunaga as director due to scheduling conflicts, although he will retain \"created by\" credit and will remain an executive producer.\nFukunaga's latest directorial effort is the <a href=\"dark%20comedy\">dark comedy</a> series \"<a href=\"Maniac%20%28TV%20series%29\">Maniac</a>\" for <a href=\"Netflix\">Netflix</a>. Principal photography will begin on 15 August 2017 and will wrap up by the end of November. It is expected to premiere in 2018.\nIn February 2017, it was reported Fukunaga was in talks to direct \"Shockwave\", a drama about the lead-up to the <a href=\"Atomic%20bombings%20of%20Hiroshima%20and%20Nagasaki\">dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima</a>.\nFukunaga lives in New York City. Fukunaga has lived in France, Japan, and Mexico City. He is fluent in French and Spanish. He counts screenwriter <a href=\"Naomi%20Foner%20Gyllenhaal\">Naomi Foner</a> as a mentor. In February 2017 Fukunaga released a short promotional video he directed for the 2017 Broadway revival of <a href=\"Stephen%20Sondheim\">Stephen Sondheim</a>'s \"<a href=\"Sunday%20in%20the%20Park%20with%20George\">Sunday in the Park with George</a>\", starring Foner's son <a href=\"Jake%20Gyllenhaal\">Jake Gyllenhaal</a> in the lead role.\nHe has received several grants, including a USA <a href=\"Rockefeller%20Foundation\">Rockefeller Foundation</a> Fellowship, the <a href=\"John%20H.%20Johnson\">John H. Johnson</a> Film Award / <a href=\"Princess%20Grace%20Foundation\">Princess Grace Foundation</a> Fellowship, and a <a href=\"Katrin%20Cartlidge\">Katrin Cartlidge</a> Foundation <a href=\"bursary\">bursary</a>.\n","Mark Dery\nMark Dery (born December 24, 1959) is an American author, lecturer and <a href=\"cultural%20critic\">cultural critic</a>. He writes about \"media, the visual landscape, fringe trends, and unpopular culture.\" From 2001 to 2009, he taught <a href=\"media%20criticism\">media criticism</a>, <a href=\"literary%20journalism\">literary journalism</a>, and <a href=\"the%20essay\">the essay</a> in the Department of Journalism at <a href=\"New%20York%20University\">New York University</a>. In January 2000, he was appointed Chancellor's Distinguished Fellow at the <a href=\"University%20of%20California\">University of California</a>, Irvine. In summer 2009, he was awarded a scholar-in-residence position at the American Academy in Rome, Italy.\nIn 2010, \"Publisher's Weekly\" reported that he was writing a biography of the artist \"Edward Gorey\" for Little, Brown.\nDery was born in <a href=\"Boston\">Boston</a>, <a href=\"Massachusetts\">Massachusetts</a>. He earned a <a href=\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\">B.A.</a> from <a href=\"Occidental%20College\">Occidental College</a> in 1982.\nHe has written for \"<a href=\"The%20New%20York%20Times%20Magazine\">The New York Times Magazine</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Atlantic%20Monthly\">The Atlantic Monthly</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Washington%20Post\">The Washington Post</a>\", \"<a href=\"Lingua%20Franca%20%28magazine%29\">Lingua Franca</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Village%20Voice\">The Village Voice</a>\", \"<a href=\"Rolling%20Stone\">Rolling Stone</a>\", \"<a href=\"Spin%20%28magazine%29\">Spin</a>\", \"<a href=\"Wired%20%28magazine%29\">Wired</a>\", \"<a href=\"Salon.com\">Salon.com</a>\", \"<a href=\"Suck.com\">Suck.com</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Cabinet%20magazine\">Cabinet</a>\", among other publications. He has been a featured guestblogger on the pop-tech website \"<a href=\"Boing%20Boing\">Boing Boing</a>.\" Much of his work has dealt with <a href=\"cyberculture\">cyberculture</a> and the cultural effects of the Digital Age.\nDery’s books include \"The Pyrotechnic Insanitarium: American Culture on the Brink\" and \"Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century,\" which has been translated into eight languages. He edited the anthology \"Flame Wars: The Discourse of Cyberculture\" and wrote the monograph \"Culture Jamming: Hacking, Slashing, and Sniping in the Empire of Signs.\" His essay collection \"I Must Not Think Bad Thoughts: Drive-By Essays on American Dread, American Dreams\" was published in Brazil, in Portuguese, in 2011 and in the United States, by the University of Minnesota Press, in 2012.\nAn early writer on <a href=\"technoculture\">technoculture</a>, Dery helped inaugurate <a href=\"cyberculture%20studies\">cyberstudies</a> as a field of serious inquiry with the anthology \"\"Flame Wars: The Discourse of Cyberculture\"\" (1994), which he edited. \"Flame Wars\" kick-started the academic interest in <a href=\"cyberfeminism\">cyberfeminism</a> and <a href=\"Afrofuturism\">Afrofuturism</a>, a term Dery coined in his 1993 essay \"Black to the Future\" (included in \"Flame Wars\") and a key theoretical concept driving the now-established study of black technoculture. In it, he interviews three African-American thinkers—<a href=\"science%20fiction\">science fiction</a> writer <a href=\"Samuel%20R.%20Delany\">Samuel R. Delany</a>, writer and musician <a href=\"Greg%20Tate\">Greg Tate</a>, and <a href=\"cultural%20critic\">cultural critic</a> <a href=\"Tricia%20Rose\">Tricia Rose</a>—about different critical dimensions of <a href=\"Afrofuturism\">Afrofuturism</a> in an attempt to define the aesthetic. The essay is in part based on <a href=\"Henry%20Louis%20Gates\">Henry Louis Gates</a>'s assertion that \"[t]he Afro-American tradition has been figurative from its beginnings. How could it have survived otherwise?\"\nDery's essay \"Deconstructing Psycho Killer Clowns\" is his <a href=\"close%20reading\">close reading</a> of the Evil Clown Meme.","Javier Botet\nJavier Botet López (born 31 July 1977) is a Spanish <a href=\"actor\">actor</a>, <a href=\"film%20director\">film director</a> and <a href=\"illustrator\">illustrator</a>.\nBotet was born in <a href=\"Ciudad%20Real\">Ciudad Real</a>, the son of Agustín Andrés Botet Rodríguez and María del Carmen Servilia López Nieto. At five years old, Botet was diagnosed with <a href=\"Marfan%20syndrome\">Marfan syndrome</a>. The <a href=\"Hypermobility%20%28joints%29\">hyperlaxity</a> of certain body tissues brought about by Botet's condition has given him extremely long and fine fingers along with a tall, thin build, standing at 6.6 ft tall and weighing 123 lbs .\nBotet's unique physical traits coupled with an interest in the performing arts led to his first film role in 2005, in <a href=\"Brian%20Yuzna\">Brian Yuzna</a>'s \"Beneath Still Waters\". A breakthrough performance was made two years later as <a href=\"Tristana%20Medeiros\">Tristana Medeiros</a> in <a href=\"Jaume%20Balaguer%C3%B3\">Jaume Balagueró</a> and <a href=\"Paco%20Plaza\">Paco Plaza's</a> 2007 film \"<a href=\"REC%20%28film%29\">REC</a>\". Botet has additionally appeared in television and theater roles, including in 2010 as the <a href=\"Frankenstein%27s%20monster\">Frankenstein's monster</a> in Teatros del Canal's stage adaptation of \"<a href=\"Frankenstein\">Frankenstein</a>\". The actor currently lives in <a href=\"Madrid\">Madrid</a>.","Three Billy Goats Gruff\n\"Three Billy Goats Gruff\" (<a href=\"Norwegian%20language\">Norwegian</a>: De tre bukkene Bruse ) is a <a href=\"Norway\">Norwegian</a> <a href=\"fairy%20tale\">fairy tale</a>. The fairy tale was collected by <a href=\"Peter%20Christen%20Asbj%C3%B8rnsen\">Peter Christen Asbjørnsen</a> and <a href=\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Moe\">Jørgen Moe</a> in their \"<a href=\"Norwegian%20Folktales\">Norske Folkeeventyr</a>\", first published between 1841 and 1844. It has an \"eat-me-when-I'm-fatter\" plot (<a href=\"Aarne-Thompson%20classification%20system\">Aarne-Thompson type 122E</a>).\nThe story introduces three male <a href=\"goat\">goat</a>s, sometimes identified as a youngster, father and grandfather, but more often described as brothers. In other adaptations, there is a baby or child goat, mama goat and papa goat. In any case, there is almost no grass left for them to eat near where they live, so they must cross a river to get to \"<a href=\"s%C3%A6ter\">sæter</a>\" (a meadow) or hillside on the other side of a stream in order to eat and fatten themselves up. To do so, however, they must first cross a <a href=\"bridge\">bridge</a>, under which lives a fearsome and hideous <a href=\"troll\">troll</a>, who is so territorial that he eats anyone who tries to cross the bridge.\nThe smallest billy goat is the first to cross and is stopped abruptly by the troll who threatens to \"gobble him up!\" However, the little goat convinces the troll to wait for his big brother to come across, because he is larger and would make for a more gratifying feast. The greedy troll agrees and lets the smallest goat cross.\nThe medium-sized goat passes next. He is more cautious than his brother, but is also stopped by the troll and given the same threat. The second billy goat is allowed to cross as well after he tells the troll to wait for the biggest billy goat because he is the largest of the three.\nThe third billy goat then gets on the bridge and is stopped by the hungry troll. The troll threatens to devour him, however, the third billy goat challenges him and knocks the troll off the bridge with his horns. The troll falls into the stream and is carried away by the current. From then on the bridge is safe, and all three goats are able to go to the rich fields around the summer farm in the hills, and they all live <a href=\"happy%20ending\">happily ever after</a>.\nThe troll character is dirty and smelly and everybody is frightened of him, and I think that heightens the pathos of the ending, because it’s a witch hunt, without any evidence.\n"],"string":"[\n \"Demon's Delight\\nDemon's Delight is an anthology novel containing four short stories written by authors MaryJanice Davidson, Emma Holly, Vickie Taylor, and Catherine Spangler.\\nChris Mere is the descendant of a long line of witches that were cursed in the times of the Salem Witch Trials. The curse causes each generation to pick one descendant and it is his job to kill the witch hunter who comes to destroy the de Mere family. Rhea Goodman is the witch hunter that is destined to kill the next descendant of the de Mere line. Rather than killing Rhea, Chris approaches her days after she discovers her destiny to try to stop the cycle of violence before they become the next dead descendants of their family lines. \\\"Witch Way\\\" is written by MaryJanice Davidson.\\nWritten by Catherine Spangler.\\nWritten by Emma Holly.\\nWritten by Vickie Taylor\\n\",\n \"It (character)\\nIt, also known as Pennywise the Dancing Clown or Bob Gray, is the title character of Stephen King's 1986 horror novel \\\"It\\\". The character is a creature that preys upon the local children of Derry, Maine, roughly every twenty-seven years, using a variety of powers that include the ability to shapeshift, manipulate, and go unnoticed by adults.\\nKing stated in a 2013 interview that he came up with the idea for Pennywise after asking himself what scared children \\\"more than anything else in the world\\\", which he felt was clowns. King has also acknowledged on his website that he originally wanted the title character of It to be a troll like the one in the children's tale \\\"Three Billy Goats Gruff\\\", but who inhabited the local sewer system rather than just the area beneath one bridge. The character has been described as one of the scariest clowns in popular culture.\\nThe character was portrayed by Tim Curry in the 1990 television adaptation and by Bill Skarsgård in the 2017 film adaptation.\\nIn the novel, It is an eternal entity. After arriving on Earth, It would sleep for approximately 27 to 30 years at a time, then awaken to wreak chaos and feed (primarily on children's fear). It is able to take many more forms than the film adaptations depict, including werewolves, bats, leeches, and sharks. It could embody any of a child's worst fears.\\nIt apparently originated in a void containing and surrounding the Universe, a place referred to in the novel as the \\\"Macroverse\\\" (a concept similar to the later established \\\"Todash Darkness\\\" of the \\\"Dark Tower\\\" novels). At several points in the novel, It claims its true name is \\\"Robert Gray\\\", and is christened \\\"It\\\" by the group of children who later confront it. Throughout the book, It is generally referred to as male; however, late in the book, the children come to believe It may be female (due to It's manifestation as a large female spider). In addition, upon seeing its true form Audra Denbrough says \\\"Oh dear Jesus, It is female.\\\" Despite this, the true form of It is never truly known. The final physical form It takes is that of an enormous spider, but this is the closest the human mind can understand. It's actual form is not precisely what the children actually see. Instead, the natural form of It exists in an inter-dimensional realm referred to by It as the \\\"deadlights\\\". Bill Denbrough comes dangerously close to seeing the deadlights, but successfully defeats It before this happens. The deadlights are never seen, and their true form outside the physical realm is never revealed, only described as writhing, destroying orange lights. Coming face to face with the deadlights drives any living being instantly insane (a common Lovecraftian device). The only known person to face the deadlights and survive is Bill's wife Audra Phillips, although she is rendered catatonic by the experience.\\nIt's natural enemy is the \\\"Turtle\\\", another ancient dweller of King's \\\"Macroverse\\\" who, eons ago, created our universe and possibly others. The Turtle shows up again in King's series \\\"The Dark Tower\\\". The book suggests that It, along with the Turtle, are themselves creations of a separate, omnipotent creator referred to as \\\"The Other\\\". The Turtle and It are eternal enemies (creation versus consumption). It may, in fact be either a \\\"twinner\\\" of, or the actual one of the six greater demon elementals mentioned by Mia in \\\"\\\", as the Spider is not one of the Beam Guardians. It arrived in our world during prehistoric times in a massive, cataclysmic event similar to an asteroid impact, in the place that would, in time, become Derry, Maine.\\nThroughout the novel \\\"It\\\", some events are described through It's point of view, through which It describes itself as the \\\"superior\\\" being, with the Turtle as someone \\\"close to his superiority\\\" and humans as mere \\\"toys\\\". It explains it prefers to kill and devour children, not by nature, but rather because children's fears are easier to interpret in a physical form and thus children are easier to fill with terror. It says this is akin to \\\"marinating the meat.\\\" It is continually surprised by the children's victories over It, and near the end, It begins to question if It is not as superior as It had once thought. However, It never feels that the individual children are strong enough to defeat It, only through \\\"the Other\\\" working through them as a group.\\nIn the novel, It begins terrorizing a group of children in Derry, Maine, taking the form of a demonic clown called Pennywise. It intends to devour all of them one by one, but the children finally stand up to it and drive it back into its hiding place. It reappears 27 years later to confront the now-grown children, who face It in a final battle that results in It revealing It's true form: a giant, monstrous spider. In the novel's climax, the group finally confronts their fears and destroy It.\\nIn the 1990 miniseries, Pennywise is portrayed by English actor Tim Curry, whose performance was praised by critics.\\nIn the 2017 film adaptation, Pennywise is portrayed by Swedish actor Bill Skarsgård. Will Poulter was originally cast as Pennywise, with Curry describing the role as a \\\"wonderful part\\\" and wishing Poulter the best of luck. Poulter later dropped out of the production due to scheduling conflicts, as well as original director Cary Fukunaga leaving the project. On June 3, 2016, it was announced the role had been recast with Skarsgård. Spanish actor Javier Botet was cast as the Leper. Two original guises are made for the film: the Headless Boy, a burnt victim of the Kitchener Ironworks incident (played by Carter Musselman), and the Amedeo Modigliani-based painting Judith (played by Tatum Lee).\\nSeveral media outlets such as \\\"The Guardian\\\" have spoken of the character, ranking it as one of the scariest clowns in film or pop culture. \\\"The Atlantic\\\" said of the character; \\\"the scariest thing about Pennywise, though, is how he preys on children's deepest fears, manifesting the monsters they're most petrified by (something J. K. Rowling would later emulate with boggarts).\\\" British scholar Mikita Brottman has also said of Pennywise; \\\"one of the most frightening of evil clowns to appear on the small screen\\\" and that it \\\"reflects every social and familial horror known to contemporary America\\\". Critics such as Mark Dery have drawn connections between the character of Pennywise and serial killer John Wayne Gacy, who would dress up at community children's parties as \\\"Pogo the Clown\\\"; Dery has stated that the character \\\"[embodied] our primal fears in a sociopathic Ronald McDonald who oozes honeyed guile\\\". On his website, however, King makes no mention of Gacy in discussing his inspiration.\\nThe American punk rock band Pennywise took its name from the character.\\nThe character has also been cited as a possible inspiration for two separate incidents of people dressing up as creepy clowns in Northampton, England and Staten Island, New York. In 2016, several reports of random appearances by \\\"evil clowns\\\" were reported by the media, including seven people in Alabama charged with \\\"clown-related activity\\\". Several newspaper reports cited the character of Pennywise as an influence for the outbreak, which led to King commenting that people should lower hysteria caused by the sightings and not take his work seriously.\\nThe first reported sighting of people dressed as evil clowns was in Greenville, South Carolina, where a small boy spoke to his mother of a pair of clowns that had attempted to lure him away. After such an incident, a number of clowns have since been spotted in various American states including Florida, New York, Wisconsin and Kentucky, and subsequently in other Western countries, from August 2016. By October 2016, in the wake of hundreds of \\\"clown sightings\\\" across the United States and Canada, the phenomenon had spread from North America to Europe, Australasia and Latin America.\\nSome explanations for the 2016 clown sightings phenomenon hypothesize that at least some of the sightings are part of a viral marketing campaign, possibly for the Rob Zombie film \\\"31\\\" (2016). Greenville police chief Ken Miller claimed to reporters that investigators are unsure as to whether the sightings have any connection with Zombie's \\\"31\\\", whether it was one or more people looking for \\\"kicks\\\", or something more sinister.\\nA spokesperson for New Line Cinema (distributor of the 2017 film adaptation) released a statement claiming that \\\"New Line is absolutely not involved in the rash of clown sightings.\\\"\",\n \"Bill Skarsgård\\nBill Istvan Günther Skarsgård (born 9 August 1990) is a Swedish actor and model, known for his roles in \\\"Simple Simon\\\", \\\"Hemlock Grove\\\", \\\"Atomic Blonde\\\" and Pennywise the Dancing Clown in the 2017 film \\\"It\\\".\\nSkarsgård was born on 9 August 1990 in Vällingby, Sweden, as the son of actor Stellan Skarsgård and his first wife, My Sonja Marie Agnes. Bill has seven siblings: Alexander, Gustaf, Sam, Valter, Ossian, Kolbjörn, and Eija. Three of these, Alexander, Gustaf, and Valter, are actors. Ossian and Kolbjörn are half-brothers from a later marriage between Stellan Skarsgård and Megan Everett.\\nIn 2011, Skarsgård was nominated for a Guldbagge Award for his leading role as Simon in \\\"Simple Simon\\\".\\nAt the age of 21, Bill Skarsgård won the European Film Academy's Shooting Stars Award in 2012.\\nIn April 2014, Skarsgård featured on the cover of \\\"Hero\\\" – a bi-annual men's fashion and culture magazine, shot by Hedi Slimane. In the issue, he is interviewed by his father.\\nSkarsgård played Matthew in the science fiction thriller \\\"\\\" (2016), his first major American film.\\nSkarsgård played horror villain Pennywise in the 2017 film \\\"It\\\". His role was met with praise from fans and critics alike.\\nIn July 2017, it was announced that Skarsgård had been cast as a series regular in \\\"Castle Rock\\\" as a young man with an unusual legal problem.\",\n \"Alan Moore's Magic Words\\nAlan Moore's Magic Words (ISBN ) is a graphic novel containing some of comic creator Alan Moore's songs, poems and writings turned into comics or with added art. All the adaptations are made by writer Art Brooks. The art was created by various European artists: Fred Torres, Ailantd, Sergio Bleda, Juan Jose Ryp, etc. It was printed by Avatar Press in both hardback and softback in 2002. Reprints the original GN published in Europe as Magical Mystery Moore Vol. 1.\\n\\n\",\n \"Vandread Extra Stage\\nVandread Extra Stage is a light novel containing a collection of five short stories about several important characters from the anime Vandread. The book is set in the same story as the anime, however some of the stories are set before and after the series.\\nThis is the first and longest story in the book. Taking place in a period before the series begin, the story mainly focus on the relationship between Jura and Barnette, starting from the time when Barnette joined the pirates. They later got engaged with men of Taraak.\\nThis story takes place after the episode \\\"Mission\\\". Parfet was trying to fix a shuttle, but then a bug from the main system of Mission infected the systems of the Nirvana. With most of the main crew (i.e. Magno, BC, Meia etc.) on the Mission and Parfet outside of the Nirvana in the shuttle all by herself, the 3 bridge operators Amarone Slangeba, Bervedale Coco and Celtic Midori must try to fix the system, and Parfet must contact Nirvana before the Emergency Life Support System goes off.\\nA short story set during the fight between the Mejere Pirates and the Reaping Machine in the Second Stage. It describes what happened after Gascogne had crashed her Delivery Ship into the Reaping Machine and after she went back to Nirvana following the last battle.\\nThis is a post-Vandread story about Ezra's daughter Kalua, that also prominently features Misty. After Hibiki and the others departed to Tarak, Pyoro somehow sneaked back to the Pirates Base because of \\\"his\\\" desire to see \\\"Pyoro-2\\\", much to the distress of Rebecca, Kalua's Ouma. Meanwhile, Misty was stressed too, because she felt she didn't belong with the pirates since she's not from Mejere and Meia was trying to help by suggesting Misty to join the Event-planning crew, who are planning a welcome party for when Hibiki would return with the men from Taraak. At the same time, Ezra, Rebecca and Pyoro find out Kalua is missing...but Misty manages to find Kalua and because of how pleased both Ezra and Rebecca are, they have Misty be Kalua's godmother.\\nFinally arriving on Tarak, BC and the other officials in Tarak were starting to plan for what to do during their trip. At the same time, they have encountered another problem about Hibiki. Since Hibiki is Grandpa and Grandma's child, the officials didn't know whether they should treat Hibiki as a diplomat or as the prince of their planet. In order to find out the answer, they wanted Hibiki to meet Grandpa and Grandma. Hibiki himself was also confused by the treatment he received from the officials and in great stress. The story closes when Hibiki and Dita get married and have a baby.\",\n \"The Pendulum\\nThe Pendulum is a 12-issue miniseries of comic books based upon the Dark Carnival universe, a mythology detailed in the music of the Insane Clown Posse. Distributed by Chaos! Comics, the series was published from January 2000 until December 2001. A graphic novel containing all 12 issues was released on August 20, 2002 along with an album featuring most of the Pendulum singles. It is the group's 5th compilation album, and their 17th overall release.\\nIn 1999, Chaos! Comics signed on to publish a 12-part comic book series about Insane Clown Posse. After choosing Jumpsteady as the writer for the series, the group decided to release new singles with each issue. However, due to other responsibilities, the duo was unable to record new material for several issues. Each 32-page issue of the comic was polybagged with a CD single in a cardboard sleeve; the reverse of all 12 sleeves could be combined to form a poster.\\nThe first issue was released with a variant cover featuring art from \\\"The Amazing Jeckel Brothers\\\", advertised as 1 in every 4 issues. On August 20, 2002, a graphic novel of all 12 issues entitled \\\"\\\"The Pendulum Tome\\\"\\\" was released. A prologue, special Halloween comic issue, and full-length album was released with the novel. The album featured all of the singles released with the comic book issues, with the exception of the three singles from \\\"The Pendulum #7\\\" which was replaced with a spoken word intro.\\nThe miniseries details Insane Clown Posse's attempts to stop a demon named Killnor from destroying a priest named Father Jesus, who possesses miraculous healing powers. Killnor summons the undead duo Twiztid, a crazed police SWAT team, and a host of demonic minions to stop the clowns. Insane Clown Posse call upon the assistance of the Joker's Cards to overcome the minions. An all-out showdown takes place at the demon's earthly headquarters with the fate of humanity hanging in the balance of the Pendulum.\\nSeveral songs were also featured on several other albums. The songs \\\"The Amazing Maze\\\" and \\\"$50 Bucks\\\" appeared on the 2000 compilation album \\\"Psychopathics from Outer Space\\\". \\\"Run!\\\", \\\"Superstar\\\", \\\"Confessions\\\", and \\\"Nuttin' But A Bitch Thang\\\" were later featured on \\\"Forgotten Freshness Volume 3\\\". The song \\\"Toxic Love\\\" was also the 2000 Hallowicked single. An alternate, cleaner version of \\\"The Greatest Show\\\" was used as the entrance music for the professional wrestling stable Oddities in the World Wrestling Federation. The song was featured on the album \\\"WWF The Music, Vol. 3\\\".\\nThe song \\\"I Don't Care\\\" was originally slated for Dark Lotus' debut album \\\"Tales from the Lotus Pod\\\", but instead appeared on Twiztid's \\\"Cryptic Collection Vol. 2\\\". The song was later used in Juggalo Championship Wrestling's highlights video on \\\"JCW, Volume 2\\\". The song \\\"Ain't Nuttin' But a Bitch Thang,\\\" originally released on Insane Clown Posse's website, is a diss track directed toward rapper Eminem. The songs \\\"What Rydas Do Fo Money,\\\" \\\"Who Wanna Flex?,\\\" \\\"I Don't Wanna Die\\\" were originally intended for solo albums by each member of the group Psychopathic Rydas, but the idea was scrapped. Those 3 songs were the only songs on The Pendulum #7 \\\"The Rydas EP\\\" cd.\\n\",\n \"The Temple of My Familiar\\nThe Temple of My Familiar is a 1989 novel by Alice Walker. It is an ambitious and multi-narrative novel containing the interleaved stories of Arveyda, a musician in search of his past; Carlotta, his Latin American wife who lives in exile from hers; Suwelo, a black professor of American History who realizes that his generation of men have failed women; Fanny, his ex-wife about to meet her father for the first time; and Lissie, a vibrant creature with a thousand pasts.\\n\",\n \"Skattejakten (novel)\\nSkattejakten (in English \\\"The Treasure Hunt\\\"; this novel has been translated into English) is a Norwegian novel containing clues to a real-world treasure hunt. It is written by the author Margit Sandemo. The novel is only 124 pages long, and is possibly the shortest book the author has written. Skattejakten has not been reprinted after it was first published in 1999.\\nBelow is an English translation of the Norwegian cover text:\\nThe book was written as a set of riddles that would lead the treasure hunters to the treasure hidden by Bladkompaniet AS, the publisher of the novel. Competitors searched for the treasure, which had been hidden somewhere in Norway. In the \\\"treasure\\\", a telephone number was hidden, which the lucky winner called to claim the prize. The treasure was found 11 October 1999. Margit Sandemo said in a TV-interview that even she hadn't known where the treasure had been hidden.\\n\",\n \"Horror icon\\nA horror icon is a person or fictional character that is considered to be significant to one or more genres of horror such as film, literature, or video games. Examples of people considered to be horror icons include directors Stephen King, Kiyoshi Kurosawa, Roger Corman, and Wes Craven, and actors Vincent Price, Barbara Steele, Lon Chaney and Lon Chaney, Jr., Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi, Robert Englund, Tony Todd, Tim Curry, Brad Dourif, and Christopher Lee. Fictional horror icon characters include such as Dracula, Gill-man, Frankenstein's monster, Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Jason Voorhees, Chucky, Candyman, Leatherface, Pennywise the Dancing Clown, Pinhead, and The Mummy.\\nExamples of early horror icons began with the Werewolf or Lycanthrope introduced in the 1500s, the Frankenstein monster as introduced by Mary Shelley in 1818, and Dracula as inspired by Vlad the Impaler and introduced into literature in 1897 by Bram Stoker.\\nOne of the earliest horror icons in film date back to 1913 with \\\"The Werewolf\\\", which is one of the earliest werewolf films. In the 1920s, Dracula and Frankenstein's monster had movies released. Their presence in literary history led to them becoming among the most famous horror film icons. These films have had numerous sequels and remakes made, each one varying in success.\\nIn the 1940s, sequels to Dracula and Frankenstein's monster were released, and when \\\"The Wolf Man\\\" (1941) was released a new horror icon had rose to prominence, the werewolf. In the 1950s, \\\"The Creature from the Black Lagoon\\\" led to the Gill-man becoming an icon. Another well known horror icon is Norman Bates from the \\\"Psycho\\\" franchise.\\nMany modern horror icons originate from the 1970s. Leatherface from \\\"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\\\" went on to become a horror icon. The Phantom from \\\"The Town That Dreaded Sundown\\\" became an influential on some antagonist in many other horror films with the sack mask he wears. The same type of mask was used on Jason Voorhees in \\\"Friday the 13th Part 2\\\", and on one of the killers in \\\"The Strangers\\\". In 1978, the influential horror film \\\"Halloween\\\" introduced the iconic Michael Myers.\\nOne of the earliest 1980s horror icon is Jason Voorhees from \\\"Friday the 13th\\\" franchise. Jason is featured in all of the films, as the killer or the motivation for the killings. Freddy Krueger from the hugely influential \\\"A Nightmare on Elm Street\\\" franchise instantly became an icon. Pinhead from Hellraiser and Tarman, a zombie from \\\"The Return of the Living Dead\\\" went on to become icons due to their unique designs. Chucky from \\\"Child's Play\\\" went on to become an icon. Some of the more notable horror icons from the 1990s, include Hannibal Lecter, Pennywise the Dancing Clown, and Ghostface.\",\n \"Pseudo-Ambrose\\nPseudo-Ambrose is the name given by Erasmus to refer to the author of a volume containing the first complete Latin commentary on the Pauline epistles. Alexander Souter has established that the same author wrote the \\\"Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testament\\\", which had long been attributed to Saint Augustine. Other works ascribed to the same author, less definitely, ore the \\\"Lex Dei sive Mosaicarum et Romanorum legum collatio,\\\" \\\"De bello judaico\\\", and the fragmentary \\\"Contra Arianos\\\" sometimes ascribed to the pseudo-Hilary and the \\\"sermo 246\\\" of pseudo-Augustine. They mention Simon Magus.\\nInternal evidence from the documents has been taken to suggest that the author was active in Rome during the period of Pope Damasus, and, almost certainly, a member of the clergy.\\n\",\n \"Emma Holly\\nEmma Holly (born 1961, <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a>) is American author who specializes in writing <a href=\\\"erotic%20romance\\\">erotic romance</a> novels, often with a focus on <a href=\\\"BDSM\\\">BDSM</a>. She has written over twenty books and was a finalist for the <a href=\\\"Romance%20Writers%20of%20America\\\">Romance Writers of America</a> 2004 RITA award for Best Paranormal Romance.\\nEmma Holly was born in <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a> and raised in <a href=\\\"Baltimore\\\">Baltimore</a>, where she lived with her older sister Laurie.\\nLeading back to her pre-adolescent fantasy, to be the fiancée of <a href=\\\"Batman\\\">Batman</a>, Holly always wanted to be a writer. After 10 years of writing, she sold her first book in 1998.\\nHolly specializes in writing <a href=\\\"erotica\\\">erotica</a>-<a href=\\\"romance%20novel\\\">romance</a> and often with a focus on <a href=\\\"BDSM\\\">BDSM</a>. Another common element of Holly's erotic style is a <a href=\\\"Bisexuality\\\">bisexual</a> male <a href=\\\"protagonist\\\">protagonist</a> . She has written over twenty books and was a finalist for the <a href=\\\"Romance%20Writers%20of%20America\\\">Romance Writers of America</a> 2004 RITA award for Best Paranormal Romance.\",\n \"Salem witch trials\\nThe Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of <a href=\\\"witchcraft\\\">witchcraft</a> in <a href=\\\"Province%20of%20Massachusetts%20Bay\\\">colonial Massachusetts</a> between February 1692 and May 1693. The trials resulted in the <a href=\\\"execution\\\">execution</a>s of twenty people, fourteen of them women, and all but one by <a href=\\\"hanging\\\">hanging</a>. Five others (including two infant children) died in prison.\\nTwelve other women had previously been executed in Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 17th century. Despite being generally known as the <a href=\\\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Salem</a> <a href=\\\"Witch%20trials%20in%20the%20early%20modern%20period\\\">Witch Trials</a>, the preliminary hearings in 1692 were conducted in several towns: Salem Village (now <a href=\\\"Danvers%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Danvers</a>), <a href=\\\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Salem Town</a>, <a href=\\\"Ipswich%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Ipswich</a>, and <a href=\\\"Andover%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Andover</a>. The most infamous trials were conducted by the Court of <a href=\\\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\\\">Oyer and Terminer</a> in 1692 in Salem Town.\\nThe episode is one of <a href=\\\"Colonial%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States\\\">Colonial America</a>'s most notorious cases of <a href=\\\"mass%20hysteria\\\">mass hysteria</a>. It has been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolationism, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due process. It was not unique, but a Colonial American example of the much broader phenomenon of <a href=\\\"witch%20trials%20in%20the%20early%20modern%20period\\\">witch trials in the early modern period</a>, which took place also in Europe. Many historians consider the lasting effects of the trials to have been highly influential in subsequent United States history. According to historian <a href=\\\"George%20Lincoln%20Burr\\\">George Lincoln Burr</a>, \\\"the Salem witchcraft was the rock on which the theocracy shattered.\\\"\\nAt the 300th anniversary events in 1992 to commemorate the victims of the trials, a park was dedicated in Salem and a memorial in Danvers. In November 2001, the Massachusetts legislature passed an act exonerating all of those convicted and listing them by name, including some persons left out of earlier actions. In January 2016, the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Virginia\\\">University of Virginia</a> announced its Gallows Hill Project team had determined the execution site in Salem, where the nineteen \\\"witches\\\" had been hanged. The city owns the site and is planning a memorial to the victims.\\nWhilst the witch trials had begun to fade out across much of Europe by the mid-17th century, they continued on the fringes of Europe and in the American Colonies.\\nThe events in 1692/1693 in Salem became a brief outburst of a sortlike hysteria in the New World, while the practice was already waning in most of Europe.\\nIn \\\"Against Modern Sadducism\\\" (1668) , <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Glanvill\\\">Joseph Glanvill</a> claimed that he could prove the existence of witches and ghosts of the supernatural realm. Glanvill wrote about the \\\"denial of the bodily resurrection, and the [supernatural] spirits.\\\"\\nIn his treatise, Glanvill claimed that ingenious men should believe in witches and apparitions; if they doubted the reality of spirits, they not only denied demons, but also the almighty God. Glanvill wanted to prove that the supernatural could not be denied; those who did deny apparitions were considered <a href=\\\"heresy\\\">heretics</a> for it also disproved their beliefs in angels. Works by men such as Glanvill and <a href=\\\"Cotton%20Mather\\\">Cotton Mather</a> tried to prove that \\\"demons were alive.\\\"\\nThe earliest recorded witchcraft execution was that of <a href=\\\"Alse%20Young\\\">Alse Young</a> in 1647 in Hartford, Connecticut. Historian Clarence F. Jewett included a list of other people executed in New England in \\\"The Memorial History of Boston: Including Suffolk County, Massachusetts 1630–1880\\\" (Ticknor and Company, 1881).\\nNew England had been settled by religious refugees seeking to build a pure, Bible-based society. They lived closely with the sense of the supernatural. The original 1629 <a href=\\\"Royal%20Charter\\\">Royal Charter</a> of the <a href=\\\"Massachusetts%20Bay%20Colony\\\">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> was vacated in 1684, after which <a href=\\\"James%20II%20of%20England\\\">King James II</a> installed Sir <a href=\\\"Edmund%20Andros\\\">Edmund Andros</a> as the <a href=\\\"Governor\\\">Governor</a> of the <a href=\\\"Dominion%20of%20New%20England\\\">Dominion of New England</a>. Andros was <a href=\\\"1689%20Boston%20revolt\\\">ousted in 1689</a> after the \\\"<a href=\\\"Glorious%20Revolution\\\">Glorious Revolution</a>\\\" in England replaced the Catholic <a href=\\\"James%20II%20of%20England\\\">James II</a> with the Protestant co-rulers <a href=\\\"William%20III%20of%20England\\\">William</a> and <a href=\\\"Mary%20II%20of%20England\\\">Mary</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Simon%20Bradstreet\\\">Simon Bradstreet</a> and <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Danforth\\\">Thomas Danforth</a>, the colony's last leaders under the old charter, resumed their posts as governor and deputy governor, but lacked constitutional authority to rule, because the old charter had been vacated. At the same time tensions erupted between English colonists settling in \\\"the Eastward\\\" (the present-day coast of <a href=\\\"Maine\\\">Maine</a>) and French-supported <a href=\\\"Wabanaki%20Confederacy\\\">Wabanaki Indians</a> of that territory in what came to be known as <a href=\\\"King%20William%27s%20War\\\">King William's War</a>. This was thirteen years after the devastating <a href=\\\"King%20Philip%27s%20War\\\">King Philip's War</a> with the <a href=\\\"Wampanoag%20people\\\">Wampanoag</a> and other indigenous tribes in southern and western New England. In October 1690, Sir <a href=\\\"William%20Phips\\\">William Phips</a> led an unsuccessful <a href=\\\"Battle%20of%20Quebec%20%281690%29\\\">attack on French-held Quebec</a>. Between 1689 and 1692, Native Americans continued to attack many English settlements along the Maine coast, leading to the abandonment of some of the settlements, and resulting in a flood of refugees into areas like <a href=\\\"Essex%20County%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Essex County</a>.\\nA new charter for the enlarged <a href=\\\"Province%20of%20Massachusetts%20Bay\\\">Province of Massachusetts Bay</a> was given final approval in England on October 16, 1691. News of the appointment of Phips as the new governor reached Boston in late January, and a copy of the new charter reached Boston on February 8, 1692. Phips arrived in Boston on May 14 and was sworn in as governor two days later, along with Lieutenant Governor <a href=\\\"William%20Stoughton%20%28Massachusetts%29\\\">William Stoughton</a>. One of the first orders of business for the new governor and council on May 27, 1692, was the formal nomination of county <a href=\\\"justices%20of%20the%20peace\\\">justices of the peace</a>, <a href=\\\"sheriff\\\">sheriff</a>s, and the commission of a Special Court of Oyer and Terminer to handle the large numbers of people who were \\\"thronging\\\" the jails.\\n<a href=\\\"Paul%20Boyer%20%28historian%29\\\">Paul Boyer</a> and <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Nissenbaum\\\">Stephen Nissenbaum</a> have postulated that without a valid charter, the colony had no legitimate form of government to try capital cases until Phips arrived with the new charter. This has been disputed by David Konig. He points out that between charters, according to the \\\"Records of the Court of Assistants,\\\" the colony tried and condemned a group of fourteen pirates on January 27, 1690, for acts of piracy and murder committed in August and October 1689.\\nSalem Village (present-day <a href=\\\"Danvers%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Danvers, Massachusetts</a>) was known for its fractious population, who had many internal disputes, and for disputes between the village and Salem Town (present-day <a href=\\\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Salem</a>). Arguments about property lines, grazing rights, and church privileges were rife, and neighbors considered the population as \\\"quarrelsome\\\". In 1672, the villagers had voted to hire a minister of their own, apart from Salem Town. The first two ministers, James Bayley (1673–79) and <a href=\\\"George%20Burroughs\\\">George Burroughs</a> (1680–83), stayed only a few years each, departing after the congregation failed to pay their full rate. (Burroughs would subsequently be arrested at the height of the witchcraft hysteria, and was hanged as a witch in August 1692.)\\nDespite the ministers' rights being upheld by the General Court and the parish being admonished, each of the two ministers still chose to leave. The third minister, <a href=\\\"Deodat%20Lawson\\\">Deodat Lawson</a> (1684–88), stayed for a short time, leaving after the church in Salem refused to ordain him—and therefore not over issues with the congregation. The parish disagreed about Salem Village's choice of <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Parris\\\">Samuel Parris</a> as its first ordained minister. On June 18, 1689, the villagers agreed to hire Parris for £66 annually, \\\"one third part in money and the other two third parts in provisions,\\\" and use of the parsonage.\\nOn October 10, 1689, however, they raised his benefits, voting to grant him the deed to the parsonage and two acres (0.8 hectares) of land. This conflicted with a 1681 Village resolution which stated that \\\"it shall not be lawful for the inhabitants of this village to convey the houses or lands or any other concerns belonging to the Ministry to any particular persons or person: not for any cause by vote or other ways\\\".\\nThough the prior ministers' fates and the level of contention in Salem Village were valid reasons for caution in accepting the position, Rev Parris increased the village's divisions by delaying his acceptance. He did not seem able to settle his new parishioners' disputes: by deliberately seeking out \\\"iniquitous behavior\\\" in his congregation and making church members in good standing suffer public penance for small infractions, he contributed significantly to the tension within the village. Its bickering increased, unabated. Historian <a href=\\\"Marion%20L.%20Starkey\\\">Marion Starkey</a> suggests that, in this atmosphere, serious conflict may have been inevitable.\\nPrior to the constitutional turmoil of the 1680s, Massachusetts government had been dominated by conservative <a href=\\\"Puritan\\\">Puritan</a> secular leaders. Influenced by <a href=\\\"Calvinism\\\">Calvinism</a>, Puritans had opposed many of the traditions of the Anglo-Catholic (Anglican) <a href=\\\"Church%20of%20England\\\">Church of England</a>, including use of the <a href=\\\"Book%20of%20Common%20Prayer\\\">Book of Common Prayer</a>, the use of priestly vestments (cap and gown) during services, the use of the Holy Cross during <a href=\\\"baptism\\\">baptism</a>, and kneeling during the sacrament, all of which they believed constituted <a href=\\\"popery\\\">popery</a>. King <a href=\\\"Charles%20I%20of%20England\\\">Charles I</a> was hostile to this viewpoint, and Anglican church officials tried to repress these dissenting views during the 1620s and 1630s. Some Puritans and other religious minorities had sought refuge in the Netherlands, but ultimately many made a <a href=\\\"Great%20Migration%20%28Puritan%29\\\">major migration</a> to colonial North America to establish their own society.\\nThese immigrants, who were mostly constituted of families, established several of the earliest colonies in New England, of which the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the largest and most economically important. They intended to build a society based on their religious beliefs. Colonial leaders were elected by the <a href=\\\"Freeman%20%28Colonial%29\\\">freemen</a> of the colony, those individuals who had had their religious experiences formally examined and had been admitted to one of the colony's Puritan congregations. The colonial leadership were prominent members of their congregations, and regularly consulted with the local ministers on issues facing the colony.\\nIn the early 1640s, England erupted in <a href=\\\"English%20Civil%20War\\\">civil war</a>. The Puritan-dominated <a href=\\\"Roundhead\\\">Parliamentarians</a> emerged victorious, and the Crown was supplanted by <a href=\\\"the%20Protectorate\\\">the Protectorate</a> of <a href=\\\"Oliver%20Cromwell\\\">Oliver Cromwell</a> in 1653. Its failure led to <a href=\\\"English%20Restoration\\\">restoration</a> of the old order under <a href=\\\"Charles%20II%20of%20England\\\">Charles II</a>. Emigration to New England slowed significantly in these years. In Massachusetts, a successful merchant class began to develop that was less religiously motivated than the colony's early settlers.\\nPrior to 1692, there had been rumors of witchcraft in villages neighboring Salem Village and other towns. <a href=\\\"Cotton%20Mather\\\">Cotton Mather</a>, a minister of <a href=\\\"Boston\\\">Boston</a>'s North Church (not to be confused with the later Anglican <a href=\\\"Old%20North%20Church\\\">North Church</a> associated with <a href=\\\"Paul%20Revere\\\">Paul Revere</a>), was a prolific publisher of pamphlets, including some that expressed his belief in <a href=\\\"witchcraft\\\">witchcraft</a>. In his book \\\"Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions\\\" (1689), Mather describes his \\\"oracular observations\\\" and how \\\"stupendous witchcraft\\\" had affected the children of Boston mason John Goodwin.\\nMather illustrates how the Goodwins' eldest child had been tempted by the devil and stolen linen from the washerwoman <a href=\\\"Ann%20Glover\\\">Goody Glover</a>. Glover was characterized as a disagreeable old woman and described by her husband as a witch; this may have been why she was accused of casting spells on the Goodwin children. After the event, four out of six Goodwin children began to have strange fits, or what some people referred to as \\\"the disease of astonishment.\\\" The manifestations attributed to the disease quickly became associated with witchcraft. Symptoms included neck and back pains, tongues being drawn from their throats, and loud random outcries; other symptoms included having no control over their bodies such as becoming limber, flapping their arms like birds, or trying to harm others as well as themselves. These symptoms would fuel the craze of 1692.\\nIn Salem Village, in February 1692, <a href=\\\"Betty%20Parris\\\">Betty Parris</a>, age 9, and her cousin <a href=\\\"Abigail%20Williams%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">Abigail Williams</a>, age 11, the daughter and niece, respectively, of Reverend Samuel Parris, began to have fits described as \\\"beyond the power of <a href=\\\"epilepsy\\\">Epileptic Fits</a> or natural disease to effect\\\" by <a href=\\\"John%20Hale%20%28Beverly%20minister%29\\\">John Hale</a>, the minister of the nearby town of <a href=\\\"Beverly%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Beverly</a>. The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and <a href=\\\"contorted\\\">contorted</a> themselves into peculiar positions, according to the eyewitness account of Rev. <a href=\\\"Deodat%20Lawson\\\">Deodat Lawson</a>, a former minister in Salem Village.\\nThe girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins. A doctor, historically assumed to be William Griggs, could find no physical evidence of any ailment. Other young women in the village began to exhibit similar behaviors. When Lawson preached as a guest in the Salem Village meetinghouse, he was interrupted several times by outbursts of the afflicted.\\nThe first three people accused and arrested for allegedly afflicting Betty Parris, Abigail Williams, 12-year-old <a href=\\\"Ann%20Putnam%2C%20Jr.\\\">Ann Putnam, Jr.</a>, and <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Hubbard%20%28Salem%29\\\">Elizabeth Hubbard</a>, were <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Good\\\">Sarah Good</a>, <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Osborne\\\">Sarah Osborne</a>, and <a href=\\\"Tituba\\\">Tituba</a>. Some historians believe that the accusation by Ann Putnam Jr. suggests that a family feud may have been a major cause of the witch trials. At the time, a vicious rivalry was underway between the Putnam and Porter families, one which deeply polarized the people of Salem. Citizens would often have heated debates, which escalated into full-fledged fighting, based solely on their opinion of the feud.\\nGood was a homeless beggar, known to seek food and shelter from neighbors. She was accused of witchcraft because of her appalling reputation. At her trial, she was accused of rejecting Puritan ideals of self-control and discipline when she chose to torment and \\\"scorn [children] instead of leading them towards the path of salvation\\\".\\nSarah Osborne rarely attended church meetings. She was accused of witchcraft because the Puritans believed that Osborne had her own self-interests in mind following her remarriage to an <a href=\\\"indentured%20servant\\\">indentured servant</a>. The citizens of the town disapproved of her trying to control her son's inheritance from her previous marriage.\\nTituba, an Indian slave, likely became a target because of her ethnic differences from most of the other villagers. She was accused of attracting girls like <a href=\\\"Abigail%20Williams%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">Abigail Williams</a> and <a href=\\\"Betty%20Parris\\\">Betty Parris</a> with stories of enchantment from \\\"<a href=\\\"Malleus%20Maleficarum\\\">Malleus Maleficarum</a>.\\\" These tales about sexual encounters with demons, swaying the minds of men, and fortune-telling were said to stimulate the imaginations of girls and made Tituba an obvious target of accusations.\\nEach of these women was a kind of outcast and exhibited many of the character traits typical of the \\\"usual suspects\\\" for witchcraft accusations; they were left to defend themselves. Brought before the local magistrates on the complaint of witchcraft, they were interrogated for several days, starting on March 1, 1692, then sent to jail.\\nIn March, others were accused of witchcraft: <a href=\\\"Martha%20Corey\\\">Martha Corey</a>, child <a href=\\\"Dorothy%20Good\\\">Dorothy Good</a>, and <a href=\\\"Rebecca%20Nurse\\\">Rebecca Nurse</a> in Salem Village, and <a href=\\\"Rachel%20Clinton\\\">Rachel Clinton</a> in nearby <a href=\\\"Ipswich%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Ipswich</a>. Martha Corey had expressed <a href=\\\"skepticism\\\">skepticism</a> about the credibility of the girls' accusations and thus drawn attention. The charges against her and Rebecca Nurse deeply troubled the community because Martha Corey was a full covenanted member of the Church in Salem Village, as was Rebecca Nurse in the Church in Salem Town. If such upstanding people could be witches, the townspeople thought, then anybody could be a witch, and church membership was no protection from accusation. Dorothy Good, the daughter of <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Good\\\">Sarah Good</a>, was only four years old, but not exempted from questioning by the magistrates; her answers were construed as a confession that implicated her mother. In Ipswich, Rachel Clinton was arrested for witchcraft at the end of March on independent charges unrelated to the afflictions of the girls in Salem Village.\\nWhen <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Cloyce\\\">Sarah Cloyce</a> (Nurse's sister) and <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Proctor\\\">Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor</a> (wife of John Proctor) were arrested in April, they were brought before <a href=\\\"John%20Hathorne\\\">John Hathorne</a> and Jonathan Corwin at a meeting in Salem Town. The men were not only local magistrates, but members of the Governor's Council. Present for the examination were Deputy Governor Thomas Danforth, and Assistants Samuel Sewall, Samuel Appleton, James Russell and Isaac Addington. Objections by Elizabeth's husband, <a href=\\\"John%20Proctor%20%28convicted%20witch%29\\\">John Proctor</a>, during the proceedings resulted in his arrest that day.\\nWithin a week, <a href=\\\"Giles%20Corey\\\">Giles Corey</a> (Martha's husband, and a covenanted church member in Salem Town), <a href=\\\"Abigail%20Hobbs\\\">Abigail Hobbs</a>, <a href=\\\"Bridget%20Bishop\\\">Bridget Bishop</a>, <a href=\\\"Mary%20Warren\\\">Mary Warren</a> (a servant in the Proctor household and sometime accuser), and <a href=\\\"Deliverance%20Hobbs\\\">Deliverance Hobbs</a> (stepmother of Abigail Hobbs) were arrested and examined. Abigail Hobbs, Mary Warren, and Deliverance Hobbs all confessed and began naming additional people as accomplices. More arrests followed: <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Wildes\\\">Sarah Wildes</a>, William Hobbs (husband of Deliverance and father of Abigail), Nehemiah Abbott Jr., <a href=\\\"Mary%20Eastey\\\">Mary Eastey</a> (sister of Cloyce and Nurse), Edward Bishop, Jr. and his wife Sarah Bishop, and Mary English.\\nOn April 30, the Rev. <a href=\\\"George%20Burroughs\\\">George Burroughs</a>, Lydia Dustin, <a href=\\\"Susannah%20Martin\\\">Susannah Martin</a>, Dorcas Hoar, Sarah Morey and Philip English (Mary's husband) were arrested. Nehemiah Abbott Jr. was released because the accusers agreed he was not the person whose specter had afflicted them. Mary Eastey was released for a few days after her initial arrest because the accusers failed to confirm that it was she who had afflicted them; she had been arrested again when the accusers reconsidered. In May, accusations continued to pour in, but some of those suspects began to evade apprehension. Multiple warrants were issued before John Willard and Elizabeth Colson were apprehended; George Jacobs Jr. and Daniel Andrews were not caught. Until this point, all the proceedings were investigative, but on May 27, 1692, William Phips ordered the establishment of a Special Court of Oyer and Terminer for Suffolk, Essex and Middlesex counties to prosecute the cases of those in jail. Warrants were issued for more people. Sarah Osborne, one of the first three persons accused, died in jail on May 10, 1692.\\nWarrants were issued for 36 more people, with examinations continuing to take place in Salem Village: <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Dustin\\\">Sarah Dustin</a> (daughter of Lydia Dustin), Ann Sears, Bethiah Carter Sr. and her daughter Bethiah Carter Jr., <a href=\\\"George%20Jacobs%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a> and his granddaughter Margaret Jacobs, <a href=\\\"John%20Willard\\\">John Willard</a>, <a href=\\\"Alice%20Parker%20%28Salem%29\\\">Alice Parker</a>, <a href=\\\"Ann%20Pudeator\\\">Ann Pudeator</a>, Abigail Soames, George Jacobs, Jr. (son of George Jacobs, Sr. and father of Margaret Jacobs), Daniel Andrew, Rebecca Jacobs (wife of George Jacobs, Jr. and sister of Daniel Andrew), Sarah Buckley and her daughter Mary Witheridge.\\nAlso included were Elizabeth Colson, Elizabeth Hart, Thomas Farrar, Sr., <a href=\\\"Roger%20Toothaker\\\">Roger Toothaker</a>, Sarah Proctor (daughter of John and Elizabeth Proctor), Sarah Bassett (sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor), Susannah Roots, Mary DeRich (another sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor), Sarah Pease, Elizabeth Cary, <a href=\\\"Martha%20Carrier\\\">Martha Carrier</a>, Elizabeth Fosdick, <a href=\\\"Wilmot%20Redd\\\">Wilmot Redd</a>, Sarah Rice, <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Howe\\\">Elizabeth Howe</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Alden%20%28Capt.%29\\\">Capt. John Alden</a> (son of <a href=\\\"John%20Alden%20%28Pilgrim%29\\\">John Alden</a> and <a href=\\\"Priscilla%20Mullins\\\">Priscilla Mullins</a>), William Proctor (son of John and Elizabeth Proctor), John Flood, Mary Toothaker (wife of Roger Toothaker and sister of Martha Carrier) and her daughter Margaret Toothaker, and Arthur Abbott. When the Court of <a href=\\\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\\\">Oyer and Terminer</a> convened at the end of May, the total number of people in custody was 62.\\nCotton Mather wrote to one of the judges, <a href=\\\"John%20Richards%20%28colonial%20judge%29\\\">John Richards</a>, a member of his congregation, on May 31, 1692, expressing his support of the prosecutions, but cautioning him,\\n\\\"do not lay more stress on pure <a href=\\\"spectral%20evidence\\\">spectral evidence</a> than it will bear ... It is very certain that the Devils have sometimes represented the Shapes of persons not only innocent, but also very virtuous. Though I believe that the just God then ordinarily provides a way for the speedy vindication of the persons thus abused.\\\"\\nThe Court of <a href=\\\"Oyer%20and%20terminer\\\">Oyer and Terminer</a> convened in Salem Town on June 2, 1692, with William Stoughton, the new Lieutenant Governor, as Chief Magistrate, Thomas Newton as the Crown's Attorney prosecuting the cases, and Stephen Sewall as clerk. Bridget Bishop's case was the first brought to the grand jury, who endorsed all the indictments against her. Bishop was described as not living a Puritan lifestyle, for she wore black clothing and odd costumes, which was against the Puritan code. When she was examined before her trial, Bishop was asked about her coat, which had been awkwardly “cut or torn in two ways”.\\nThis, along with her \\\"immoral\\\" lifestyle, affirmed that she was a witch. She went to trial the same day and was convicted. On June 3, the grand jury endorsed indictments against Rebecca Nurse and John Willard, but they did not go to trial immediately, for reasons which are unclear. Bishop was executed by hanging on June 10, 1692.\\nImmediately following this execution, the court adjourned for 20 days (until June 30) while it sought advice from New England's most influential ministers \\\"upon the state of things as they then stood.\\\" Their collective response came back dated June 15 and composed by Cotton Mather:\\n<a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hutchinson%20%28governor%29\\\">Hutchinson</a> sums the letter, \\\"The two first and the last sections of this advice took away the force of all the others, and the prosecutions went on with more vigor than before.\\\" (Reprinting the letter years later in \\\"Magnalia\\\", Cotton Mather left out these \\\"two first and the last\\\" sections.) Major <a href=\\\"Nathaniel%20Saltonstall\\\">Nathaniel Saltonstall</a> Esq. resigned from the court on or about June 16, presumably dissatisfied with the letter and that it had not outright barred the admission of <a href=\\\"spectral%20evidence\\\">spectral evidence</a>. According to Upham, Saltonstall deserves the credit for \\\"being the only public man of his day who had the sense or courage to condemn the proceedings, at the start.\\\" (chapt. VII) More people were accused, arrested and examined, but now in Salem Town, by former local magistrates John Hathorne, Jonathan Corwin, and Bartholomew Gedney, who had become judges of the Court of Oyer and Terminer. Suspect Roger Toothaker died in prison on June 16, 1692.\\nFrom June 30 through early July, grand juries endorsed indictments against Sarah Good, Elizabeth Howe, Susannah Martin, Elizabeth Proctor, John Proctor, Martha Carrier, Sarah Wildes and Dorcas Hoar. Sarah Good, Elizabeth Howe, Susannah Martin and Sarah Wildes, along with Rebecca Nurse, went to trial at this time, where they were found guilty. All five women were executed by hanging on July 19, 1692. In mid-July, the constable in Andover invited the afflicted girls from Salem Village to visit with his wife to try to determine who was causing her afflictions. Ann Foster, her daughter Mary Lacey Sr., and granddaughter Mary Lacey Jr. all confessed to being witches. Anthony Checkley was appointed by Governor Phips to replace Thomas Newton as the Crown's Attorney when Newton took an appointment in New Hampshire.\\nIn August, grand juries indicted <a href=\\\"George%20Burroughs\\\">George Burroughs</a>, <a href=\\\"Mary%20Eastey\\\">Mary Eastey</a>, <a href=\\\"Martha%20Corey\\\">Martha Corey</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20Jacobs%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a>. Trial juries convicted Martha Carrier, George Jacobs, Sr., George Burroughs, John Willard, Elizabeth Proctor, and John Proctor. Elizabeth Proctor was given a temporary stay of execution because she was pregnant. On August 19, 1692, Martha Carrier, George Jacobs Sr., George Burroughs, John Willard, and John Proctor were executed.\\nMr. Burroughs was carried in a Cart with others, through the streets of Salem, to Execution. When he was upon the Ladder, he made a speech for the clearing of his Innocency, with such Solemn and Serious Expressions as were to the Admiration of all present; his Prayer (which he concluded by repeating the Lord's Prayer) [as witches were not supposed to be able to recite] was so well worded, and uttered with such composedness as such fervency of spirit, as was very Affecting, and drew Tears from many, so that if seemed to some that the spectators would hinder the execution. The accusers said the black Man [Devil] stood and dictated to him. As soon as he was turned off [hanged], Mr. Cotton Mather, being mounted upon a Horse, addressed himself to the People, partly to declare that he [Mr. Burroughs] was no ordained Minister, partly to possess the People of his guilt, saying that the devil often had been transformed into the Angel of Light. And this did somewhat appease the People, and the Executions went on; when he [Mr. Burroughs] was cut down, he was dragged by a Halter to a Hole, or Grave, between the Rocks, about two feet deep; his Shirt and Breeches being pulled off, and an old pair of Trousers of one Executed put on his lower parts: he was so put in, together with Willard and Carrier, that one of his Hands, and his Chin, and a Foot of one of them, was left uncovered.\\nIn September, grand juries indicted eighteen more people. The grand jury failed to indict William Proctor, who was re-arrested on new charges. On September 19, 1692, <a href=\\\"Giles%20Corey\\\">Giles Corey</a> refused to plead at arraignment, and was killed by \\\"<a href=\\\"peine%20forte%20et%20dure\\\">peine forte et dure</a>\\\", a form of torture in which the subject is pressed beneath an increasingly heavy load of stones, in an attempt to make him enter a plea. Four pleaded guilty and eleven others were tried and found guilty.\\nOn September 20, <a href=\\\"Cotton%20Mather\\\">Cotton Mather</a> wrote to Stephen Sewall, the clerk of the court: \\\"That I may be the more capable to assist in lifting up a standard against the infernal enemy\\\", requesting \\\"a narrative of the evidence given in at the trials of half a dozen, or if you please, a dozen, of the principal witches that have been condemned.\\\" On September 22, 1692, eight more persons were executed, \\\"After Execution Mr. Noyes turning him to the Bodies, said, what a sad thing it is to see Eight Firebrands of Hell hanging there.\\\"\\nOne of the convicted, <a href=\\\"Dorcas%20Hoar\\\">Dorcas Hoar</a>, was given a temporary reprieve, with the support of several ministers, to make a confession of being a witch. <a href=\\\"Mary%20Bradbury\\\">Mary Bradbury</a> (aged 77) escaped. Abigail Faulkner Sr. was pregnant and given a temporary reprieve (some reports from that era say that Abigail's reprieve later became a stay of charges).\\nMather quickly completed his account of the trials, \\\"Wonders of the Invisible World\\\" and it was given to Phips when he returned from the fighting in Maine in early October. Burr says both the Phip's letter and Mather's manuscript \\\"must have gone to London by the same ship\\\" in mid-October.\\nI hereby declare that as soon as I came from fighting ... and understood what danger some of their innocent subjects might be exposed to, if the evidence of the afflicted persons only did prevaile either to the committing or trying any of them, I did before any application was made unto me about it put a stop to the proceedings of the Court and they are now stopt till their Majesties pleasure be known.\\nOn October 29, Judge Sewall wrote, \\\"the Court of Oyer and Terminer count themselves thereby dismissed ... asked whether the Court of Oyer and Terminer should sit, expressing some fear of Inconvenience by its fall, [the] Governour said it must fall\\\". Perhaps by coincidence, Governor Phips' own wife, Lady Mary Phips, was among those who had been \\\"called out upon\\\" around this time. After Phips' order, there were no more executions.\\nIn January 1693, the new Superior Court of Judicature, Court of Assize and General Gaol Delivery convened in Salem, Essex County, again headed by William Stoughton, as Chief Justice, with Anthony Checkley continuing as the Attorney General, and Jonathan Elatson as Clerk of the Court. The first five cases tried in January 1693 were of the five people who had been indicted but not tried in September: Sarah Buckley, Margaret Jacobs, Rebecca Jacobs, Mary Whittredge (or Witheridge) and Job Tookey. All were found not guilty. Grand juries were held for many of those remaining in jail. Charges were dismissed against many, but sixteen more people were indicted and tried, three of whom were found guilty: Elizabeth Johnson Jr., Sarah Wardwell, and Mary Post.\\nWhen Stoughton wrote the warrants for the execution of these three and others remaining from the previous court, Governor Phips issued pardons, sparing their lives. In late January/early February, the Court sat again in Charlestown, Middlesex County, and held grand juries and tried five people: Sarah Cole (of Lynn), Lydia Dustin & Sarah Dustin, Mary Taylor and Mary Toothaker. All were found not guilty, but not released until they paid their jail fees. Lydia Dustin died in jail on March 10, 1693.\\nAt the end of April, the Court convened in Boston, Suffolk County, and cleared <a href=\\\"John%20Alden%20%28Capt.%29\\\">Capt. John Alden</a> by proclamation. It heard charges against a servant girl, Mary Watkins, for falsely accusing her mistress of witchcraft. In May, the Court convened in Ipswich, Essex County, and held a variety of grand juries. They dismissed charges against all but five people. Susannah Post, Eunice Frye, Mary Bridges Jr., Mary Barker and William Barker Jr. were all found not guilty at trial, finally putting an end to the series of trials and executions.\\nAfter someone concluded that a loss, illness or death had been caused by witchcraft, the accuser entered a complaint against the alleged witch with the local magistrates. If the complaint was deemed credible, the magistrates had the person arrested and brought in for a public examination, essentially an interrogation, where the magistrates pressed the accused to confess.\\nIf the magistrates at this local level were satisfied that the complaint was well-founded, the prisoner was handed over to be dealt with by a superior court. In 1692, the magistrates opted to wait for the arrival of the new charter and governor, who would establish a Court of <a href=\\\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\\\">Oyer and Terminer</a> to handle these cases. The next step, at the superior court level, was to summon witnesses before a grand jury.\\nA person could be indicted on charges of afflicting with witchcraft, or for making an unlawful covenant with the Devil. Once indicted, the defendant went to trial, sometimes on the same day, as in the case of the first person indicted and tried on June 2, <a href=\\\"Bridget%20Bishop\\\">Bridget Bishop</a>, who was executed eight days later, on June 10, 1692.\\nThere were four execution dates, with one person executed on June 10, 1692, five executed on July 19, 1692 (<a href=\\\"Sarah%20Good\\\">Sarah Good</a>, <a href=\\\"Rebecca%20Nurse\\\">Rebecca Nurse</a>, <a href=\\\"Susannah%20Martin\\\">Susannah Martin</a>, Elizabeth Howe and <a href=\\\"Sarah%20Wildes\\\">Sarah Wildes</a>), another five executed on August 19, 1692 (<a href=\\\"Martha%20Carrier\\\">Martha Carrier</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Willard\\\">John Willard</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Burroughs\\\">George Burroughs</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Jacobs%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a> and <a href=\\\"John%20Proctor%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">John Proctor</a>), and eight on September 22, 1692 (<a href=\\\"Mary%20Eastey\\\">Mary Eastey</a>, <a href=\\\"Martha%20Corey\\\">Martha Corey</a>, <a href=\\\"Ann%20Pudeator\\\">Ann Pudeator</a>, <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Wardwell\\\">Samuel Wardwell</a>, <a href=\\\"Mary%20Parker%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">Mary Parker</a>, <a href=\\\"Alice%20Parker%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">Alice Parker</a>, <a href=\\\"Wilmot%20Redd\\\">Wilmot Redd</a> and <a href=\\\"Margaret%20Scott%20%28Salem%20witch%20trials%29\\\">Margaret Scott</a>).\\nSeveral others, including <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Proctor\\\">Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor</a> and Abigail Faulkner, were convicted but given temporary reprieves because they were pregnant. Five other women were convicted in 1692, but the death sentence was never carried out: <a href=\\\"Mary%20Bradbury\\\">Mary Bradbury</a> (in absentia), <a href=\\\"Ann%20Foster\\\">Ann Foster</a> (who later died in prison), Mary Lacey Sr. (Foster's daughter), <a href=\\\"Dorcas%20Hoar\\\">Dorcas Hoar</a> and <a href=\\\"Abigail%20Hobbs\\\">Abigail Hobbs</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Giles%20Corey\\\">Giles Corey</a>, an 81-year-old farmer from the southeast end of Salem (called Salem Farms), refused to enter a plea when he came to trial in September. The judges applied an archaic form of punishment called \\\"peine forte et dure,\\\" in which stones were piled on his chest until he could no longer breathe. After two days of \\\"peine fort et dure,\\\" Corey died without entering a plea. His refusal to plead is usually explained as a way of preventing his estate from being confiscated by the Crown, but, according to historian Chadwick Hansen, much of Corey's property had already been seized, and he had made a will in prison: \\\"His death was a protest ... against the methods of the court\\\". A contemporary critic of the trials, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Calef\\\">Robert Calef</a>, wrote, \\\"Giles Corey pleaded not Guilty to his Indictment, but would not put himself upon Tryal by the Jury (they having cleared none upon Tryal) and knowing there would be the same Witnesses against him, rather chose to undergo what Death they would put him to.\\\"\\nAs convicted witches, <a href=\\\"Rebecca%20Nurse\\\">Rebecca Nurse</a> and <a href=\\\"Martha%20Corey\\\">Martha Corey</a> had been excommunicated from their churches and denied proper burials. As soon as the bodies of the accused were cut down from the trees, they were thrown into a shallow grave and the crowd dispersed. Oral history claims that the families of the dead reclaimed their bodies after dark and buried them in unmarked graves on family property. The record books of the time do not note the deaths of any of those executed.\\n\\nMuch, but not all, of the evidence used against the accused, was \\\"<a href=\\\"spectral%20evidence\\\">spectral evidence</a>,\\\" or the testimony of the afflicted who claimed to see the apparition or the shape of the person who was allegedly afflicting them. The theological dispute that ensued about the use of this evidence was based on whether a person had to give permission to the Devil for his/her shape to be used to afflict. Opponents claimed that the Devil was able to use anyone's shape to afflict people, but the Court contended that the Devil could not use a person's shape without that person's permission; therefore, when the afflicted claimed to see the apparition of a specific person, that was accepted as evidence that the accused had been complicit with the Devil.\\nCotton Mather's \\\"The Wonders of the Invisible World\\\" was written with the purpose to show how careful the court was in managing the trials. Unfortunately the work did not get released until after the trials had already ended. In his book, Mather explained how he felt spectral evidence was presumptive and that it alone was not enough to warrant a conviction. Robert Calef, a strong critic of Cotton Mather, stated in his own book titled \\\"More Wonders of the Invisible World\\\" that by confessing an accused would not be brought to trial, such in the cases of Tituba and Dorcas Good.\\n<a href=\\\"Increase%20Mather\\\">Increase Mather</a> and other ministers sent a letter to the Court, \\\"The Return of Several Ministers Consulted\\\", urging the magistrates not to convict on spectral evidence alone. (The court later ruled that spectral evidence was inadmissible, which caused a dramatic reduction in the rate of convictions and may have hastened the end of the trials.) A copy of this letter was printed in <a href=\\\"Increase%20Mather\\\">Increase Mather</a>'s \\\"Cases of Conscience\\\", published in 1693. The publication <a href=\\\"Bury%20St.%20Edmunds%20witch%20trial\\\">\\\"A Tryal of Witches\\\"</a>, related to <a href=\\\"Bury%20St.%20Edmunds%20witch%20trial%23The%201662%20trial\\\">the 1662 Bury St Edmunds witch trial</a>, was used by the magistrates at Salem when looking for a precedent in allowing spectral evidence. Since the jurist <a href=\\\"Matthew%20Hale%20%28jurist%29\\\">Sir Matthew Hale</a> had permitted this evidence, supported by the eminent philosopher, physician and author <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Browne\\\">Thomas Browne</a>, to be used in the <a href=\\\"Bury%20St.%20Edmunds%20witch%20trial%23The%201662%20trial\\\">Bury St Edmunds witch trial</a> and the accusations against two <a href=\\\"Lowestoft\\\">Lowestoft</a> women, the colonial magistrates also accepted its validity and their trials proceeded.\\nSometime in February 1692, likely after the afflictions began but before specific names were mentioned, a neighbor of Rev. Parris, Mary Sibly (or Sibley; aunt of <a href=\\\"Mary%20Walcott\\\">Mary Walcott</a>), instructed John Indian, one of the minister's slaves, to make a \\\"witch cake.\\\" She intended to use traditional English white magic to discover the identity of the witch who was afflicting the girls. The cake, made from rye meal and urine from the afflicted girls, was fed to a dog. According to English folk understanding of how witches accomplished affliction when the dog ate the cake, the witch herself would be hurt. Invisible particles she had sent to afflict the girls were believed to remain in the girls' urine, and a woman's cries of pain when the dog ate the cake would identify her as the witch. This superstition was based on the Cartesian \\\"Doctrine of Effluvia\\\", which posited that witches afflicted others by the use of \\\"venomous and malignant particles, that were ejected from the eye\\\", according to the October 8, 1692 letter of <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Brattle\\\">Thomas Brattle</a>, a contemporary critic of the trials.\\nAccording to the \\\"Records of the Salem-Village Church\\\", Parris spoke with Sibly (or Sibley) privately on March 25, 1692, about her \\\"grand error\\\" and accepted her \\\"sorrowful confession.\\\" During his Sunday sermon on March 27 he addressed his congregation on the subject of the \\\"calamities\\\" that had begun in his own household, but stated \\\"it never brake forth to any considerable light, until diabolical means were used, by the making of a cake by my Indian man, who had his direction from this our sister, Mary Sibly.\\\" He admonished all the congregation against the use of any kind of magic, even white magic, because it was essentially, \\\"going to the Devil for help against the Devil.\\\" Mary Sibly (or Sibley) publicly acknowledged the \\\"error\\\" of her actions before the congregation, who voted by a show of hands that they were satisfied with her admission.\\nOther instances appear in the records of the episode that demonstrated a continued belief by members of the community in this effluvia as legitimate evidence. Two statements against <a href=\\\"Elizabeth%20Howe\\\">Elizabeth Howe</a> included accounts of people suggesting that an ear be cut off and burned from two different animals which Howe was thought to have afflicted, to prove she was the one who had bewitched them to death.\\nTraditionally, the allegedly afflicted girls are said to have been entertained by Parris' slave, <a href=\\\"Tituba\\\">Tituba</a>. (She supposedly taught them about <a href=\\\"Louisiana%20Voodoo\\\">voodoo</a> in the parsonage kitchen in early 1692, although there is no contemporary evidence to support this.) A variety of secondary sources, starting with <a href=\\\"Charles%20Wentworth%20Upham\\\">Charles W. Upham</a> in the 19th century, typically relate that a circle of the girls, with Tituba's help, tried their hands at fortune telling. They used the white of an egg and a mirror to create a primitive crystal ball to divine the professions of their future spouses and scared one another when one supposedly saw the shape of a coffin instead. The story is drawn from <a href=\\\"John%20Hale%20%28Beverly%20minister%29\\\">John Hale</a>'s book about the trials, but in his account, only one of the girls, not a group of them, had confessed to him afterward that she had once tried this. Hale did not mention Tituba as having any part of it, nor identify when the incident took place. But the record of Tituba's pre-trial examination holds her giving an energetic confession, speaking before the court of \\\"creatures who inhabit the invisible world,\\\" and \\\"the dark rituals which bind them together in service of Satan\\\", implicating both Good and Osborne while asserting that \\\"many other people in the colony were engaged in the devil's conspiracy against the Bay.\\\"\\nTituba's race has often been described in later accounts as of Carib-Indian or African descent, but contemporary sources describe her only as an \\\"Indian\\\". Research by Elaine Breslaw has suggested that Tituba may have been captured in what is now <a href=\\\"Venezuela\\\">Venezuela</a> and brought to <a href=\\\"Barbados\\\">Barbados</a>, and so may have been an <a href=\\\"Arawak%20peoples\\\">Arawak Indian</a>. Other slightly later descriptions of her, by Gov. <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Hutchinson%20%28governor%29\\\">Thomas Hutchinson</a> writing his history of the <a href=\\\"Massachusetts%20Bay%20Colony\\\">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> in the 18th century, describe her as a \\\"Spanish Indian.\\\" In that day, that typically meant a Native American from the Carolinas/<a href=\\\"Georgia%20%28U.S.%20state%29\\\">Georgia</a>/<a href=\\\"Florida\\\">Florida</a>.\\nThe most infamous application of the belief in effluvia was the \\\"touch test\\\" used in Andover during preliminary examinations in September 1692. Parris had explicitly warned his congregation against such exams. If the accused witch touched the victim while the victim was having a fit, and the fit stopped, observers believed that meant the accused was the person who had afflicted the victim. As several of those accused later recounted,\\n\\\"we were blindfolded, and our hands were laid upon the afflicted persons, they being in their fits and falling into their fits at our coming into their presence, as they said. Some led us and laid our hands upon them, and then they said they were well and that we were guilty of afflicting them; whereupon we were all seized, as prisoners, by a warrant from the justice of the peace and forthwith carried to Salem.\\\"The Rev. John Hale explained how this supposedly worked: \\\"the Witch by the cast of her eye sends forth a Malefick Venome into the Bewitched to cast him into a fit, and therefore the touch of the hand doth by sympathy cause that venome to return into the Body of the Witch again\\\".\\nOther evidence included the confessions of the accused; testimony by a confessed witch who identified others as witches; the discovery of \\\"poppits\\\" (\\\"poppets\\\"), books of palmistry and horoscopes, or pots of ointments in the possession or home of the accused; and observation of what were called \\\"witch's teats\\\" on the body of the accused. A witch's teat was said to be a mole or blemish somewhere on the body that was insensitive to touch; discovery of such insensitive areas was considered \\\"de facto\\\" evidence of witchcraft.\\nVarious accounts and opinions about the proceedings began to be published in 1692. <a href=\\\"Deodat%20Lawson\\\">Deodat Lawson</a>, a former minister in Salem Village, visited Salem Village in March and April 1692. Later that year, he published in Boston an account of what he saw and heard, entitled, \\\"A Brief and True Narrative of Some Remarkable Passages Relating to Sundry Persons Afflicted by Witchcraft, at Salem Village: Which happened from the Nineteenth of March, to the Fifth of April, 1692.\\\"\\nRev. William Milbourne, a Baptist minister in Boston, publicly petitioned the General Assembly in early June 1692, challenging the use of spectral evidence by the Court. Milbourne had to post £200 bond (equal to £, or about $42,000 USD today) or be arrested for \\\"contriving, writing and publishing the said scandalous Papers\\\".\\nOn June 15, 1692, twelve local ministers — including <a href=\\\"Increase%20Mather\\\">Increase Mather</a> and <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Willard\\\">Samuel Willard</a> — submitted \\\"The Return of several Ministers\\\" to the Governor and Council in Boston, cautioning the authorities not to rely entirely on the use of spectral evidence:Presumptions whereupon persons may be Committed, and much more, Convictions whereupon persons may be Condemned as Guilty of Witchcrafts, ought certainly to be more considerable, than barely the Accused Persons being Represented by a Spectre unto the Afflicted.\\nSometime in 1692, minister of the <a href=\\\"Old%20South%20Meeting%20House\\\">Third Church in Boston</a>, <a href=\\\"Samuel%20Willard\\\">Samuel Willard</a> anonymously published a short tract in Philadelphia entitled, \\\"Some Miscellany Observations On our present Debates respecting Witchcrafts, in a Dialogue Between S. & B.\\\" The authors were listed as \\\"P.E. and J. A.\\\" (Philip English and John Alden), but the work is generally attributed to Willard. In it, two characters, S (Salem) and B (Boston), discuss the way the proceedings were being conducted, with \\\"B\\\" urging caution about the use of testimony from the afflicted and the confessors, stating, \\\"whatever comes from them is to be suspected; and it is dangerous using or crediting them too far\\\".\\nSometime in September 1692, at the request of Governor Phips, Cotton Mather wrote \\\"Wonders of the Invisible World: Being an Account of the Tryals of Several Witches, Lately Executed in New-England\\\", as a defense of the trials, to \\\"help very much flatten that fury which we now so much turn upon one another\\\". It was published in Boston and London in 1692, although dated 1693, with an introductory letter of endorsement by William Stoughton, the Chief Magistrate. The book included accounts of five trials, with much of the material copied directly from the court records, which were supplied to Mather by Stephen Sewall, his friend and Clerk of the Court.\\nMather's father, <a href=\\\"Increase%20Mather\\\">Increase Mather</a>, published \\\"Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits\\\", dated October 3, 1692, after the last trials by the Court of <a href=\\\"Oyer%20and%20Terminer\\\">Oyer and Terminer</a>. (The title page mistakenly lists the publication year as \\\"1693\\\".) In it, Increase Mather repeated his caution about the reliance on spectral evidence, stating \\\"<a href=\\\"Blackstone%27s%20formulation\\\">It were better that Ten Suspected Witches should escape, than that one Innocent Person should be Condemned</a>\\\". Second and third editions of this book were published in Boston and London in 1693. The third edition also included Lawson's \\\"Narrative\\\" and the anonymous \\\"A Further Account of the Tryals of the New-England Witches, sent in a Letter from thence, to a Gentleman in London.\\\"\\nAlthough the last trial was held in May 1693, public response to the events continued. In the decades following the trials, survivors and family members (and their supporters) sought to establish the innocence of the individuals who were convicted and to gain compensation. In the following centuries, the descendants of those unjustly accused and condemned have sought to honor their memories. Events in Salem and Danvers in 1992 were used to commemorate the trials. In November 2001, years after the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the trials, the Massachusetts legislature passed an act exonerating all who had been convicted and naming each of the innocent. The trials have figured in American culture and been explored in numerous works of art, literature and film.\\nThe first indication that public calls for justice were not over occurred in 1695 when <a href=\\\"Thomas%20Maule%20%28Quaker%29\\\">Thomas Maule</a>, a noted Quaker, publicly criticized the handling of the trials by the Puritan leaders in Chapter 29 of his book \\\"Truth Held Forth and Maintained\\\", expanding on <a href=\\\"Increase%20Mather\\\">Increase Mather</a> by stating, \\\"it were better that one hundred Witches should live, than that one person be put to death for a witch, which is not a Witch\\\". For publishing this book, Maule was imprisoned twelve months before he was tried and found not guilty.\\nOn December 17, 1696, the General Court ruled that there would be a fast day on January 14, 1697, \\\"referring to the late Tragedy, raised among us by Satan and his Instruments.\\\" On that day, Samuel Sewall asked Rev. Samuel Willard to read aloud his apology to the congregation of Boston's South Church, \\\"to take the Blame & Shame\\\" of the \\\"late Commission of Oyer & Terminer at Salem\\\". Thomas Fiske and eleven other trial jurors also asked forgiveness.\\nFrom 1693–97, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Calef\\\">Robert Calef</a>, a \\\"weaver\\\" and a cloth merchant in Boston, collected correspondence, court records and petitions, and other accounts of the trials, and placed them, for contrast, alongside portions of Cotton Mather's \\\"Wonders of the Invisible World\\\", under the title \\\"More Wonders of the Invisible World\\\",\\nCalef could not get it published in Boston and he had to take it to London, where it was published in 1700. Scholars of the trials — Hutchinson, Upham, Burr, and even Poole — have relied on Calef's compilation of documents. John Hale, a minister in Beverly who was present at many of the proceedings, had completed his book, \\\"A Modest Enquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft\\\" in 1697, which was not published until 1702, after his death, and perhaps in response to Calef's book. Expressing regret over the actions taken, Hale admitted, \\\"Such was the darkness of that day, the tortures and lamentations of the afflicted, and the power of former presidents, that we walked in the clouds, and could not see our way.\\\"\\nVarious petitions were filed between 1700 and 1703 with the Massachusetts government, demanding that the convictions be formally reversed. Those tried and found guilty were considered dead in the eyes of the law, and with convictions still on the books, those not executed were vulnerable to further accusations. The General Court initially reversed the attainder only for those who had filed petitions, only three people who had been convicted but not executed: Abigail Faulkner Sr., Elizabeth Proctor and Sarah Wardwell. In 1703, another petition was filed, requesting a more equitable settlement for those wrongly accused, but it was not until 1709, when the General Court received a further request, that it took action on this proposal. In May 1709, twenty-two people who had been convicted of witchcraft, or whose relatives had been convicted of witchcraft, presented the government with a petition in which they demanded both a reversal of attainder and compensation for financial losses.\\nRepentance was evident within the Salem Village church. Rev. Joseph Green and the members of the church voted on February 14, 1703, after nearly two months of consideration, to reverse the excommunication of Martha Corey. On August 25, 1706, when <a href=\\\"Ann%20Putnam\\\">Ann Putnam Jr.</a>, one of the most active accusers, joined the Salem Village church, she publicly asked forgiveness. She claimed that she had not acted out of malice, but had been deluded by <a href=\\\"Satan\\\">Satan</a> into denouncing innocent people, mentioning <a href=\\\"Rebecca%20Nurse\\\">Rebecca Nurse</a>, in particular, and was accepted for full membership.\\nOn October 17, 1711, the General Court passed a bill reversing the judgment against the twenty-two people listed in the 1709 petition (there were seven additional people who had been convicted but had not signed the petition, but there was no reversal of attainder for them). Two months later, on December 17, 1711, Governor <a href=\\\"Joseph%20Dudley\\\">Joseph Dudley</a> authorized monetary compensation to the twenty-two people in the 1709 petition. The amount of £578 12s was authorized to be divided among the survivors and relatives of those accused, and most of the accounts were settled within a year, but Phillip English's extensive claims were not settled until 1718. Finally, on March 6, 1712, <a href=\\\"Nicholas%20Noyes\\\">Rev. Nicholas Noyes</a> and members of the Salem church reversed Noyes' earlier excommunications of Rebecca Nurse and Giles Corey.\\nRebecca Nurse's descendants erected an obelisk-shaped granite memorial in her memory in 1885 on the grounds of the <a href=\\\"Rebecca%20Nurse%20Homestead\\\">Nurse Homestead</a> in Danvers, with an inscription from <a href=\\\"John%20Greenleaf%20Whittier\\\">John Greenleaf Whittier</a>. In 1892, an additional monument was erected in honor of forty neighbors who signed a petition in support of Nurse.\\nNot all the condemned had been exonerated in the early 18th century. In 1957, descendants of the six people who had been wrongly convicted and executed but who had not been included in the bill for a reversal of <a href=\\\"attainder\\\">attainder</a> in 1711, or added to it in 1712, demanded that the General Court formally clear the names of their ancestral family members. An act was passed pronouncing the innocence of those accused, although it listed only <a href=\\\"Ann%20Pudeator\\\">Ann Pudeator</a> by name. The others were listed only as \\\"certain other persons\\\", phrasing which failed specifically to name <a href=\\\"Bridget%20Bishop\\\">Bridget Bishop</a>, <a href=\\\"Susannah%20Martin\\\">Susannah Martin</a>, <a href=\\\"Alice%20Parker%20%28Salem%29\\\">Alice Parker</a>, <a href=\\\"Wilmot%20Redd\\\">Wilmot Redd</a> and Margaret Scott.\\nThe 300th anniversary of the trials was marked in 1992 in <a href=\\\"Salem%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Salem</a> and <a href=\\\"Danvers%2C%20Massachusetts\\\">Danvers</a> by a variety of events. A memorial park was dedicated in Salem which included stone slab benches inserted in the stone wall of the park for each of those executed in 1692. Speakers at the ceremony in August included playwright <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Miller\\\">Arthur Miller</a> and Nobel Laureate <a href=\\\"Elie%20Wiesel\\\">Elie Wiesel</a>. Danvers erected its own new memorial, and reinterred bones unearthed in the 1950s, assumed to be those of <a href=\\\"George%20Jacobs%2C%20Sr.\\\">George Jacobs, Sr.</a>, in a new resting place at the Rebecca Nurse Homestead.\\nIn 1992, The Danvers Tercentennial Committee also persuaded the Massachusetts House of Representatives to issue a resolution honoring those who had died. After extensive efforts by Paula Keene, a Salem schoolteacher, state representatives <a href=\\\"J.%20Michael%20Ruane\\\">J. Michael Ruane</a> and <a href=\\\"Paul%20Tirone\\\">Paul Tirone</a>, along with others, issued a bill whereby the names of all those not previously listed were to be added to this resolution. When it was finally signed on October 31, 2001, by <a href=\\\"Governor%20of%20Massachusetts\\\">Governor</a> <a href=\\\"Jane%20Swift\\\">Jane Swift</a>, more than 300 years later, all were finally proclaimed innocent.\\nIn January 2016, the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Virginia\\\">University of Virginia</a> announced its project team had determined the execution site on Gallows Hill in Salem, where nineteen \\\"witches\\\" had been hanged in public. Members of the Gallows Hill Project had worked with the city of Salem using old maps and documentation, as well as sophisticated <a href=\\\"GIS\\\">GIS</a> and <a href=\\\"ground-penetrating%20radar\\\">ground-penetrating radar</a> technology, to survey the area of what became known as Proctor's Ledge. The city owns the property and plans to install a memorial there to the innocent victims. A documentary, \\\"Gallows Hill – Nineteen,\\\" is in production about these events.\\nThe story of the witchcraft accusations, trials and executions has captured the imagination of writers and artists in the centuries since the event took place. Many interpretations have taken liberties with the facts of the historical episode in the name of literary and/or artistic license. As the trials took place at the intersection between a gradually disappearing medieval past and an emerging enlightenment, and dealt with torture and confession, some interpretations draw attention to the boundaries between the medieval and the post-medieval as cultural constructions.\\nThe cause of the symptoms of those who claimed affliction continues to be a subject of interest. Various medical and psychological explanations for the observed symptoms have been explored by researchers, including psychological <a href=\\\"hysteria\\\">hysteria</a> in response to Indian attacks, convulsive <a href=\\\"ergotism\\\">ergotism</a> caused by eating <a href=\\\"rye%20bread\\\">rye bread</a> made from grain infected by the fungus \\\"<a href=\\\"Claviceps%20purpurea\\\">Claviceps purpurea</a>\\\" (a natural substance from which <a href=\\\"LSD\\\">LSD</a> is derived), an epidemic of bird-borne <a href=\\\"encephalitis%20lethargica\\\">encephalitis lethargica</a>, and <a href=\\\"sleep%20paralysis\\\">sleep paralysis</a> to explain the nocturnal attacks alleged by some of the accusers. Some modern historians are less inclined to focus on biological explanations, preferring instead to explore motivations such as jealousy, spite, and a <a href=\\\"attention%20seeking\\\">need for attention</a> to explain the behavior.\\n\\n\",\n \"MaryJanice Davidson\\nMaryJanice Davidson (born August 1969) is an American author who writes mostly <a href=\\\"paranormal%20romance\\\">paranormal romance</a>, but also <a href=\\\"young%20adult%20literature\\\">young adult literature</a> and <a href=\\\"non-fiction\\\">non-fiction</a>.\\nShe is the creator of the popular \\\"<a href=\\\"Undead%20%28series%29\\\">Undead</a>\\\" series. She is both a \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20York%20Times\\\">New York Times</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"USA%20Today\\\">USA Today</a>\\\" bestseller.\\nShe won a 2004 \\\"<a href=\\\"Romantic%20Times\\\">Romantic Times</a>\\\" Reviewers’ Choice Award\\nand was nominated for the same award in 2005. Davidson lives in Minnesota with her husband and two children. She grew up on military bases and moved often, as she was the child of a <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Air%20Force\\\">United States Air Force</a> soldier. Pamela Clare of \\\"<a href=\\\"USA%20Today\\\">USA Today</a>\\\" wrote, \\\"It's Davidson's humor, combined with her innate storytelling ability and skill with dialogue, that has lifted her from small presses to the big best-seller lists.\\\"\\nElizabeth \\\"Betsy\\\" Taylor turns thirty in the most unfortunate manner possible: she is laid off from work and then run down by an SUV. Waking up in the morgue fails to improve her mood, and when she discovers she can't kill herself, she gets downright belligerent. Being proclaimed \\\"Queen of the Vampires\\\" by the obnoxious Eric Sinclair, who places himself first in line to be her consort, proves to be the last straw.\\nThe first four volumes have been reprinted as\\nBooks 5-7 and Dead and Loving It have been reprinted as\\nShort stories have also appeared in:\\nIn an alternate reality, the series follows the royal Baranov family as they begin to look for love and marriage while ruling over Alaska (which was not purchased by the United States and became its own country). The series was limited to three books due to the end of the author's contract with Brava books.\\nFred has known since she was a small child that she is part Mermaid. It is only when the High Prince of the merfolk and a marine biologist fight for her heart does Fred's life get even more complicated.\\nAll Three Books in One:\\nThe Jennifer Scales series, about a young weredragon, is written by MaryJanice Davidson and <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Alongi\\\">Anthony Alongi</a>, her husband. These novels are currently being re-published as fantasy novels rather than young adult.\",\n \"31 (film)\\n31 is a 2016 American <a href=\\\"horror%20film\\\">horror film</a> written and directed by <a href=\\\"Rob%20Zombie\\\">Rob Zombie</a>, and starring an <a href=\\\"ensemble%20cast\\\">ensemble cast</a> featuring <a href=\\\"Sheri%20Moon%20Zombie\\\">Sheri Moon Zombie</a>, <a href=\\\"Jeff%20Daniel%20Phillips\\\">Jeff Daniel Phillips</a>, <a href=\\\"Lawrence%20Hilton-Jacobs\\\">Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs</a>, <a href=\\\"Meg%20Foster\\\">Meg Foster</a>, <a href=\\\"Richard%20Brake\\\">Richard Brake</a>, <a href=\\\"Malcolm%20McDowell\\\">Malcolm McDowell</a>, <a href=\\\"E.G.%20Daily\\\">E.G. Daily</a>, <a href=\\\"Judy%20Geeson\\\">Judy Geeson</a>, and <a href=\\\"Jane%20Carr\\\">Jane Carr</a>.\\nA <a href=\\\"period%20piece\\\">period piece</a> set in 1976, the film is about five <a href=\\\"carnies\\\">carnies</a> who are kidnapped by a gang of clowns called \\\"The Heads\\\" and forced to play a survival game called \\\"31\\\", where they're chased by the clowns through a maze of rooms over 12 hours, the penalty for capture being torture and murder, while bets are placed on their progress.\\nThe film was <a href=\\\"Crowdfunding\\\">crowdfunded</a> online twice at fanbacked.com. At a <a href=\\\"test%20screening\\\">test screening</a>, Zombie compared \\\"31\\\" to his 2005 film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Devil%27s%20Rejects\\\">The Devil's Rejects</a>\\\".\\nDuring Halloween 1976, a group of carnival workers, Charly, Venus, Panda, Levon, and Roscoe, are attacked and taken to a strange, large building where three elderly people wearing aristocratic clothes, powdered wigs and make up, Sister Dragon, Sister Serpent, and their leader Father Napoleon-Horatio-Silas Murder, tell them that they are going to play the game \\\"31\\\" and that it will last for the next 12 hours. The group is placed in a series of maze-like set of rooms, where they must defend themselves against the \\\"Heads\\\", several murderous clowns who intend to torture and murder them, all the while the group are given odds for their survival and bets are placed on them.\\nThe protagonists come across five \\\"Heads\\\", Sick-Head, Psycho-Head, Schizo-Head, Death-Head, and Sex-Head. The carnies eventually manage to kill their assailants, but not without sustaining their own casualties, with only Charly, Venus, and Roscoe left alive. The remaining three try to find a way out, but only manage to get one of their number—Venus—trapped inside a boiler room, where she is brutally murdered by the final Head, Doom-Head, who was brought in by the aristocrats to join the game. Doom-Head taunts Charly and Roscoe, telling them that the doors have been opened to the outside world.\\nThe two manage to make it to one of the exits, however Roscoe urges Charly to go on without him, as the night's event has left him too severely wounded to progress. Roscoe is then stabbed to death by Doom-Head. Charly, who made it outside but found herself in the middle of nowhere, makes her way into an abandoned house where she is ambushed by Doom-Head. He almost overtakes her, however Doom-Head is stopped by the aristocrats, who tell him that time has run out and Charly must go free. This doesn't satisfy Doom-Head and the film ends with Charly walking down an isolated road while a van is driving behind her. The driver, revealed to be Doom-Head, gets out and walks towards Charly as the two prepare for one last confrontation as the film ends, leaving their fates unknown.\\nPlans to create \\\"31\\\" were first announced in May 2014 via a <a href=\\\"teaser%20poster\\\">teaser poster</a> that showed the words \\\"a Rob Zombie film\\\", a bloody clown face, and the number \\\"31\\\". Fans and media outlets speculated that the film would be a third film in the \\\"<a href=\\\"House%20of%201000%20Corpses\\\">House of 1000 Corpses</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Devil%27s%20Rejects\\\">The Devil's Rejects</a>\\\" universe and would follow <a href=\\\"Sid%20Haig\\\">Sid Haig</a>'s character <a href=\\\"Captain%20Spaulding%20%28Rob%20Zombie%29\\\">Captain Spaulding</a>, that it could be a film centering upon serial killer <a href=\\\"John%20Wayne%20Gacy\\\">John Wayne Gacy</a>, or that it would be a third film in Zombie's rebooted \\\"<a href=\\\"Halloween%20%28franchise%29%23Future\\\">Halloween</a>\\\" film series. Zombie commented on the speculation, stating that it would not follow Captain Spaulding and would be an original story and was not based on any previous work. He also noted that \\\"31\\\" referred to October 31, Halloween. In July, Zombie announced the plot of \\\"31\\\", which follows a group of five people that are forced to participate in a gruesome game called \\\"31\\\". Zombie also stated that he would use crowdfunding to cover part of the movie's costs, because \\\"as the years go on, the game changes all the time, and a movie that you could get made years ago, you cannot get made anymore, because the business changes, things change.\\\" He added that crowdfunding would allow him to make a movie that might not have been otherwise funded traditionally and that \\\"if you wanna do stuff outside the system, you've gotta function outside the system\\\". Zombie later held a second Fanbacked.com campaign in February 2015 to raise additional funds for the film, stating that it was due to multiple requests from fans that wanted to contribute funding.\\nZombie came up with the idea for \\\"31\\\" after reading a statistic that stated that Halloween is the \\\"Number One day of the year when people go missing for some reason\\\" and thought that it would make a good premise for a movie. He also received inspiration for the film as he was walking around his frightfest Great American Nightmare and watched the employees work while dressed like chainsaw-carrying clowns. Zombie has stated that he wanted to have a \\\"very nasty, gritty, guerilla-style approach to the filmmaking\\\" for \\\"31\\\", as it \\\"fits the story and the vibe of the movie\\\". Zombie began scouting locations in the summer of 2014 and initial filming was slated to begin in February 2015, but did not commence until that March. Filming for \\\"31\\\" wrapped in April 2015.\\n\\\"31\\\" premiered at the <a href=\\\"2016%20Sundance%20Film%20Festival\\\">2016 Sundance Film Festival</a> on January 23, 2016. In March 2016, Saban Films announced that they had acquired distribution rights for \\\"31\\\" and that they would be giving it a <a href=\\\"Limited%20release\\\">limited theatrical release</a> on September 16, 2016.\\nOn September 1, <a href=\\\"Fathom%20Events\\\">Fathom Events</a> hosted a special premiere of \\\"31\\\" in cinemas across the United States. The event included world premieres of the “Gore Whore” <a href=\\\"music%20video\\\">music video</a>, a one-on-one Q&A with Zombie, and a behind-the-scenes look.\\n\\\"31\\\" was submitted to the <a href=\\\"Motion%20Picture%20Association%20of%20America\\\">Motion Picture Association of America</a> twice and both times received an <a href=\\\"Motion%20Picture%20Association%20of%20America%20film%20rating%20system%23X%20replaced%20by%20NC-17\\\">NC-17 rating</a>. The description as given by the MPAA notes \\\"sadistic graphic violence, bizarre sexuality/nudity, pervasive disturbing images and some strong language.\\\" On January 5, 2016, the film was finally granted an \\\"R\\\" rating for \\\"strong bloody horror violence, pervasive language, sexual content and drug use\\\". Zombie later told a fan on <a href=\\\"Facebook\\\">Facebook</a> that the “<a href=\\\"Director%27s%20cut\\\">Zombie Cut</a>” would eventually be released on <a href=\\\"DVD\\\">DVD</a> and would include the uncut version.To this date there has not been any uncut version released to the public.\\nThe film holds an approval rating of 50% on <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> based on 31 reviews and has an average rating of 5.3 out of 10. The site's consensus reads, \\\"\\\"31\\\" delivers all the high-energy gore Rob Zombie fans have come to expect, but a lack of fresh ideas and likable characters mean only the already converted need apply.\\\" On <a href=\\\"Metacritic\\\">Metacritic</a>, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 35 out of 100 based on 13 reviews, indicating \\\"generally unfavorable reviews.\\\"\\nMuch of the film's negativity centered around claims that the film felt forced and unoriginal, with \\\"<a href=\\\"Variety%20%28magazine%29\\\">Variety</a>\\\" writing that the \\\"energetic exercise in forced badassery will be too silly and self-conscious to feel genuinely edgy, despite all the blood spilt and familiar taboos violated.\\\"\\nThe film received praise from <a href=\\\"Bloody%20Disgusting\\\">Bloody Disgusting</a> which claimed \\\"31 is Rob Zombie’s The Running Man and it works.\\\" Trent Wilkie of \\\"<a href=\\\"Fangoria\\\">Fangoria</a>\\\" gave the film a mixed review saying \\\"It is violent and campy, with the requisite sex, blood, profanity and gore. But ultimately, it feels rushed and leaves one with the sense of an unfinished idea.\\\" However, Jerry Smith, also writing for \\\"Fangoria\\\" put it on his years \\\"Top Ten\\\" list saying \\\"31 is a mean as hell, take no prisoners exploitation film filled to the absolute brim with mean as all hell clowns, carnies and by far one of the best horror performances of the year.\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Shock%20Till%20You%20Drop\\\">Shock Till You Drop</a> gave the film approval with a caveat saying \\\"Rob Zombie’s 31 succeeds as a throwback to the days of quickie exploitation movies. That’s exactly what it is trying to be, and what it is. So, if you want caviar, keep looking. But if you are in the mood for a candy-colored bacon cheeseburger of a flick with extra grease and BBQ sauce, 31 is for you.\\\" In a similar vein, <a href=\\\"Film%20School%20Rejects\\\">Film School Rejects</a> commented that \\\"\\\"31\\\" is Zombie's mildly entertaining take on a stale and simple setup. You already know if it's for you.\\\"\\n\\\"31\\\" was exclusively released on \\\"<a href=\\\"Shudder%20%28streaming%20service%29\\\">Shudder</a>\\\" two weeks before being released on <a href=\\\"DVD\\\">DVD</a>. The film was released on DVD and <a href=\\\"Blu-ray\\\">Blu-ray</a> on December 20, 2016. The home release contained a behind-the-scenes documentary (two-hour version on DVD/Blu, four-hour version on VOD) directed by Josh Hasty.\",\n \"Cary Fukunaga\\nCary Joji Fukunaga (born July 10, 1977) is an American film director, writer, and cinematographer. He is known for writing and directing the 2009 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Sin%20Nombre%20%282009%20film%29\\\">Sin Nombre</a>\\\", the 2011 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Jane%20Eyre%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Jane Eyre</a>\\\" and for directing and executive producing the <a href=\\\"True%20Detective%20%28season%201%29\\\">first season</a> of the <a href=\\\"HBO\\\">HBO</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"True%20Detective\\\">True Detective</a>\\\", for which he won the <a href=\\\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Directing%20for%20a%20Drama%20Series\\\">Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series</a>. He received acclaim for the 2015 war drama \\\"<a href=\\\"Beasts%20of%20No%20Nation%20%28film%29\\\">Beasts of No Nation</a>\\\", in which he was writer, director, producer, and cinematographer.\\nFukunaga was born in <a href=\\\"Alameda%2C%20California\\\">Alameda, California</a>. His father, Anthony Shuzo Fukunaga, was a third-generation <a href=\\\"Japanese-American\\\">Japanese-American</a>, born in a <a href=\\\"Internment%20of%20Japanese%20Americans\\\">Japanese internment camp</a> during World War II. His mother, Gretchen May (Grufman), is <a href=\\\"Swedish-American\\\">Swedish-American</a>, and worked as a dental hygienist, and later as a college history instructor and university assistant professor of history, from whom Cary got his original interest in history. His parents divorced and remarried, his father to an Argentine woman, and his mother to a Mexican-American.\\nFukunaga said that his uncles and aunts are all elementary school teachers or scientists. His family moved around a lot within the <a href=\\\"San%20Francisco%20Bay%20Area\\\">San Francisco Bay Area</a>, moving to <a href=\\\"Berkeley%2C%20California\\\">Berkeley</a>, <a href=\\\"Albany%2C%20California\\\">Albany</a>, <a href=\\\"Vallejo%2C%20California\\\">Vallejo</a>, <a href=\\\"Benicia%2C%20California\\\">Benicia</a>, <a href=\\\"Sebastopol%2C%20California\\\">Sebastopol</a> and back to Oakland.\\nFukunaga originally wanted to be a pro snowboarder, but switched to filmmaking in his mid-twenties. He got his start as a camera intern and later applied to film school. He graduated from the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California%2C%20Santa%20Cruz\\\">University of California, Santa Cruz</a> with a <a href=\\\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\\\">Bachelor of Arts</a> in history in 1999, and attended <a href=\\\"Institut%20d%27%C3%A9tudes%20politiques%20de%20Grenoble\\\">Institut d'études politiques (IEP) de Grenoble</a>. He enrolled in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20University\\\">New York University</a>'s <a href=\\\"Tisch%20School%20of%20the%20Arts\\\">Tisch School of the Arts</a> Graduate Film Program.\\nFukunaga wrote and directed the short film \\\"Victoria para Chino\\\" (2004) while at NYU, which screened at the <a href=\\\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\\\">Sundance Film Festival</a> and received a <a href=\\\"Student%20Academy%20Award\\\">Student Academy Award</a> in 2005. The film won an Audience Award for Best Narrative Student Short film at the 2004 <a href=\\\"Austin%20Film%20Festival\\\">Austin Film Festival</a>, a \\\"Best Student Film\\\" award at the 2006 <a href=\\\"Ashland%20Independent%20Film%20Festival\\\">Ashland Independent Film Festival</a>, a \\\"BAFTA/LA Award for Excellence – Honorable Mention\\\" award at the 2005 <a href=\\\"Aspen%20Shortsfest\\\">Aspen Shortsfest</a>, Best Student Film at the 2005 <a href=\\\"BendFilm%20Festival\\\">BendFilm Festival</a>, Best Short Film and an Audience Award for Best Short Film at the 2005 <a href=\\\"Gen%20Art\\\">Gen Art</a> Film Festival, Best Short film at the 2005 Milan International Film Festival, and the Jury Prize for Best Student Short at the 2004 <a href=\\\"Woodstock%20Film%20Festival\\\">Woodstock Film Festival</a>.\\nHe wrote and directed the short films \\\"Kofi\\\" (2008) (shot in black and white) and more recently, \\\"Sleepwalking in the Rift\\\" (2012). Fukunaga wrote and directed a segment in the omnibus film project \\\"Chinatown Film Project\\\" (2009).\\nFukunaga made his feature film debut with \\\"<a href=\\\"Sin%20Nombre%20%282009%20film%29\\\">Sin Nombre</a>\\\", which he wrote and directed. It received positive reviews. The film received a number of awards, including the Directing award at the 2009 <a href=\\\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\\\">Sundance Film Festival</a> and a \\\"New Director's Award\\\" for Fukunaga at the 2009 <a href=\\\"Edinburgh%20International%20Film%20Festival\\\">Edinburgh International Film Festival</a>. I need 2009, the film won \\\"Best Foreign Language Film\\\" awards from the <a href=\\\"Austin%20Film%20Critics%20Association\\\">Austin Film Critics Association</a>, the <a href=\\\"Dallas-Fort%20Worth%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\\\">Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards</a>, the <a href=\\\"Florida%20Film%20Critics%20Circle%20Awards\\\">Florida Film Critics Circle Awards</a>, the <a href=\\\"San%20Diego%20Film%20Critics%20Society%20Awards\\\">San Diego Film Critics Society Awards</a> (2nd place for Best Foreign Language Film), and the <a href=\\\"Washington%20DC%20Area%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\\\">Washington DC Area Film Critics Association Awards</a>. The film's cinematographer, Adriano Goldman, won the Cinematography award at the 2009 <a href=\\\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\\\">Sundance Film Festival</a>, and at the 2009 <a href=\\\"Stockholm%20Film%20Festival\\\">Stockholm Film Festival</a>, the film won a Best Actor award (for <a href=\\\"Edgar%20Flores\\\">Edgar Flores</a>), as well as a Best Directorial Debut and FIPRESCI Prize for Fukunaga. Fukunaga won a 2010 <a href=\\\"Premios%20ACE\\\">Premios ACE</a> award for \\\"Cinema – Best First Work.\\\" The film was nominated for Best Feature, Best Director and Best Cinematography from the 2010 <a href=\\\"Independent%20Spirit%20Awards\\\">Independent Spirit Awards</a>, and was nominated by the 2009 <a href=\\\"British%20Independent%20Film%20Awards\\\">British Independent Film Awards</a> (Best Foreign Film), the 2010 <a href=\\\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\\\">Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards</a> (Best Foreign Language Film), the 2009 <a href=\\\"Chicago%20Film%20Critics%20Association%20Awards\\\">Chicago Film Critics Association Awards</a> (Most Promising Filmmaker; Best Foreign Language Film), the 2010 <a href=\\\"Image%20Awards\\\">Image Awards</a> (Outstanding Foreign Motion Picture), the Bronze Horse at the 2009 <a href=\\\"Stockholm%20Film%20Festival\\\">Stockholm Film Festival</a> and the 2009 <a href=\\\"Sundance%20Film%20Festival\\\">Sundance Film Festival</a> Grand Jury Prize.\\nIn 2010, Fukunaga directed a new film adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"Jane%20Eyre%20%282011%20film%29\\\">Jane Eyre</a>\\\" starring <a href=\\\"Mia%20Wasikowska\\\">Mia Wasikowska</a>, <a href=\\\"Michael%20Fassbender\\\">Michael Fassbender</a>, <a href=\\\"Jamie%20Bell\\\">Jamie Bell</a> and <a href=\\\"Judi%20Dench\\\">Judi Dench</a>. The film was released in 2011 and was nominated for an <a href=\\\"Academy%20Award%20for%20Costume%20Design\\\">Academy Award for Best Achievement in Costume Design</a> for Costume Designer Michael O'Connor and a 2012 <a href=\\\"Goya%20Award\\\">Goya Award</a> for Best European Film. The film was nominated for a 2012 <a href=\\\"BAFTA%20Award\\\">BAFTA Award</a> (Best Costume Design), a 2012 <a href=\\\"Broadcast%20Film%20Critics%20Association\\\">Broadcast Film Critics Association</a> Award (Best Costume Design), the 2012 <a href=\\\"Costume%20Designers%20Guild%20Awards\\\">Costume Designers Guild Awards</a> (Excellence in Period Film), the 2012 <a href=\\\"Evening%20Standard%20British%20Film%20Awards\\\">Evening Standard British Film Awards</a> (Best Technical Achievement), the 2011 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards (Best Costume Design), the 2011 <a href=\\\"Satellite%20Awards\\\">Satellite Awards</a> (Best Costume Design). The 2012 <a href=\\\"Australian%20Film%20Institute\\\">Australian Film Institute</a> awards as well as the 2011 <a href=\\\"British%20Independent%20Film%20Awards\\\">British Independent Film Awards</a> nominated <a href=\\\"Mia%20Wasikowska\\\">Mia Wasikowska</a> for a \\\"Best Actress\\\" award. The film's screenplay and screenwriter Moira Buffini (as well as author <a href=\\\"Charlotte%20Bronte\\\">Charlotte Bronte</a>) were nominated for a 2012 <a href=\\\"USC%20Scripter%20Award\\\">USC Scripter Award</a>.\\nFukunaga directed, wrote and filmed \\\"<a href=\\\"Beasts%20of%20No%20Nation%20%28film%29\\\">Beasts of No Nation</a>\\\", based on the novel <a href=\\\"Beasts%20of%20No%20Nation\\\">of the same name</a> by <a href=\\\"Uzodinma%20Iweala\\\">Uzodinma Iweala</a>, in which <a href=\\\"Idris%20Elba\\\">Idris Elba</a> stars as Commandant, a lead character. The movie was picked up by <a href=\\\"Netflix\\\">Netflix</a> for a reported $12 million as part of an effort to expand into original films. On November 25, 2015, Fukunaga was nominated for the <a href=\\\"Independent%20Spirit%20Award%20for%20Best%20Director\\\">Independent Spirit Award for Best Director</a> and <a href=\\\"Independent%20Spirit%20Award%20for%20Best%20Cinematography\\\">Best Cinematography</a> for his work on \\\"Beasts of No Nation\\\", and the film received a <a href=\\\"Independent%20Spirit%20Award%20for%20Best%20Feature\\\">nomination for Best Feature</a>.\\nFukunaga directed all eight episodes of the first season of the 2014 HBO TV series \\\"<a href=\\\"True%20Detective\\\">True Detective</a>\\\", which was written and created by novelist, fiction writer and screenwriter <a href=\\\"Nic%20Pizzolatto\\\">Nic Pizzolatto</a>. The series stars <a href=\\\"Matthew%20McConaughey\\\">Matthew McConaughey</a>, <a href=\\\"Woody%20Harrelson\\\">Woody Harrelson</a> and <a href=\\\"Michelle%20Monaghan\\\">Michelle Monaghan</a>. Fukunaga served as an Executive Producer on the show. The series received critical praise and was nominated for five <a href=\\\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Awards\\\">Primetime Emmy Awards</a>, including <a href=\\\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Drama%20Series\\\">Outstanding Drama Series</a> and <a href=\\\"Primetime%20Emmy%20Award%20for%20Outstanding%20Directing%20for%20a%20Drama%20Series\\\">Outstanding Directing</a> for Fukunaga, who won. For the second season of \\\"True Detective,\\\" Fukunaga did not return as director, but continued to serve as executive producer.\\nFukunaga has written most of the films he has directed. The short films that he has written the screenplays for include \\\"Kofi\\\" (2003) and \\\"Victoria para chino\\\" (2004). He wrote the screenplay to his feature film, \\\"<a href=\\\"Sin%20Nombre%20%282009%20film%29\\\">Sin Nombre</a>\\\" (2009), as well as his segment for the omnibus film, \\\"Chinatown Film Project\\\" (2009).\\nFukunaga has produced or served as executive producer on most of the projects he has directed. He was the executive producer for his short films \\\"Kofi\\\" (2003) and \\\"Victoria para chino\\\" (2004). He was an executive producer on Andrew Okpeaha MacLean's feature film thriller, \\\"<a href=\\\"On%20the%20Ice\\\">On the Ice</a>\\\", which won \\\"Best Debut Film\\\" and the \\\"Crystal Bear\\\" (Best Feature Film for the Generation 14+) at the 2011 <a href=\\\"Berlin%20Film%20Festival\\\">Berlin Film Festival</a>, among other awards.\\nFukunaga served as an executive producer for the HBO series he directed, \\\"<a href=\\\"True%20Detective\\\">True Detective</a>\\\".\\nWarner Bros. chose Fukunaga to develop, direct, and write its <a href=\\\"It%20%282017%20film%29\\\">adaptations</a> of <a href=\\\"Stephen%20King\\\">Stephen King</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"It%20%28novel%29\\\">It</a>\\\" (2017), the first of which was initially due to start shooting in summer 2015. Fukunaga was set to direct the first film and was expected to co-write the second. Three weeks before production was slated to begin, Fukunaga left the project.\\nFukunaga served as a cinematographer on a number of short film projects, including \\\"Handmade\\\" (2013) (a documentary short directed by Rob Meyer), \\\"Sikumi\\\" (2008) (also known as \\\"Sikumi (On the Ice)\\\" about an Inuit hunter on the frozen Arctic Ocean, directed by Andrew Okpeaha MacLean), \\\"Team Queen\\\" (2007) (a short film directed by Leah Meyerhoff), the feature documentary \\\"Death of Two Sons\\\" (2006) (directed by Micah Schaffer), the short films \\\"Clear Water\\\" (2005) (directed by Natalie Mooallem), \\\"White\\\" (2005) (directed by Sebastian Mantilla), \\\"Kinnaq Nigaqtuqtuaq\\\" (2005) (directed by Andrew Okpeaha MacLean), \\\"Two Men\\\" (2005) (directed by Ian Olds) and \\\"Mating Call\\\" (2004) (directed by Patricio Serna).\\nHe served as a camera operator on the short \\\"Glory at Sea\\\" (2008) (directed by <a href=\\\"Beasts%20of%20the%20Southern%20Wild\\\">Beasts of the Southern Wild</a> director <a href=\\\"Benh%20Zeitlin\\\">Benh Zeitlin</a>), as a gaffer on the short film \\\"Just Make Believe\\\" (2008) (directed by Jadrien Steele), as an additional cinematographer on the TV documentary \\\"Small Steps: Creating the High School for Contemporary Arts\\\" (2007), assistant camera on the short film \\\"Dock\\\" (2004) (directed by Nina Martinek), additional photography for the documentary \\\"Lockdown, USA\\\" (about the \\\"War on Drugs\\\" campaign and directed by Rebecca Chaiklin and Michael Skolnik), additional camera for \\\"Autumn's Eyes\\\" (2006) (directed by Paola Mendoza and Gabriel Noble), a grip on the feature film \\\"<a href=\\\"Mango%20Kiss\\\">Mango Kiss</a>\\\" (2004) (directed by Sascha Rice), and as an additional film loader on the feature film \\\"<a href=\\\"Black%20Cadillac%20%28film%29\\\">Black Cadillac</a>\\\" (2003) (directed by John Murlowski and starring <a href=\\\"Randy%20Quaid\\\">Randy Quaid</a>).\\nIn April 2015, <a href=\\\"Deadline.com\\\">Deadline.com</a> reported that Fukunaga was pairing again with <a href=\\\"Anonymous%20Content\\\">Anonymous Content</a> Productions to direct the TV series <a href=\\\"The%20Alienist%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">\\\"The Alienist\\\"</a> , based upon the best selling <a href=\\\"The%20Alienist\\\">novel of the same name</a> by author <a href=\\\"Caleb%20Carr\\\">Caleb Carr</a>. The series is to be aired on <a href=\\\"TNT%20%28TV%20channel%29\\\">TNT</a>. In September 2016, <a href=\\\"Jakob%20Verbruggen\\\">Jakob Verbruggen</a> replaced Fukunaga as director due to scheduling conflicts, although he will retain \\\"created by\\\" credit and will remain an executive producer.\\nFukunaga's latest directorial effort is the <a href=\\\"dark%20comedy\\\">dark comedy</a> series \\\"<a href=\\\"Maniac%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">Maniac</a>\\\" for <a href=\\\"Netflix\\\">Netflix</a>. Principal photography will begin on 15 August 2017 and will wrap up by the end of November. It is expected to premiere in 2018.\\nIn February 2017, it was reported Fukunaga was in talks to direct \\\"Shockwave\\\", a drama about the lead-up to the <a href=\\\"Atomic%20bombings%20of%20Hiroshima%20and%20Nagasaki\\\">dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima</a>.\\nFukunaga lives in New York City. Fukunaga has lived in France, Japan, and Mexico City. He is fluent in French and Spanish. He counts screenwriter <a href=\\\"Naomi%20Foner%20Gyllenhaal\\\">Naomi Foner</a> as a mentor. In February 2017 Fukunaga released a short promotional video he directed for the 2017 Broadway revival of <a href=\\\"Stephen%20Sondheim\\\">Stephen Sondheim</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Sunday%20in%20the%20Park%20with%20George\\\">Sunday in the Park with George</a>\\\", starring Foner's son <a href=\\\"Jake%20Gyllenhaal\\\">Jake Gyllenhaal</a> in the lead role.\\nHe has received several grants, including a USA <a href=\\\"Rockefeller%20Foundation\\\">Rockefeller Foundation</a> Fellowship, the <a href=\\\"John%20H.%20Johnson\\\">John H. Johnson</a> Film Award / <a href=\\\"Princess%20Grace%20Foundation\\\">Princess Grace Foundation</a> Fellowship, and a <a href=\\\"Katrin%20Cartlidge\\\">Katrin Cartlidge</a> Foundation <a href=\\\"bursary\\\">bursary</a>.\\n\",\n \"Mark Dery\\nMark Dery (born December 24, 1959) is an American author, lecturer and <a href=\\\"cultural%20critic\\\">cultural critic</a>. He writes about \\\"media, the visual landscape, fringe trends, and unpopular culture.\\\" From 2001 to 2009, he taught <a href=\\\"media%20criticism\\\">media criticism</a>, <a href=\\\"literary%20journalism\\\">literary journalism</a>, and <a href=\\\"the%20essay\\\">the essay</a> in the Department of Journalism at <a href=\\\"New%20York%20University\\\">New York University</a>. In January 2000, he was appointed Chancellor's Distinguished Fellow at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20California\\\">University of California</a>, Irvine. In summer 2009, he was awarded a scholar-in-residence position at the American Academy in Rome, Italy.\\nIn 2010, \\\"Publisher's Weekly\\\" reported that he was writing a biography of the artist \\\"Edward Gorey\\\" for Little, Brown.\\nDery was born in <a href=\\\"Boston\\\">Boston</a>, <a href=\\\"Massachusetts\\\">Massachusetts</a>. He earned a <a href=\\\"Bachelor%20of%20Arts\\\">B.A.</a> from <a href=\\\"Occidental%20College\\\">Occidental College</a> in 1982.\\nHe has written for \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20New%20York%20Times%20Magazine\\\">The New York Times Magazine</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Atlantic%20Monthly\\\">The Atlantic Monthly</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Washington%20Post\\\">The Washington Post</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Lingua%20Franca%20%28magazine%29\\\">Lingua Franca</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Village%20Voice\\\">The Village Voice</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone\\\">Rolling Stone</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Spin%20%28magazine%29\\\">Spin</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Wired%20%28magazine%29\\\">Wired</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Salon.com\\\">Salon.com</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Suck.com\\\">Suck.com</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Cabinet%20magazine\\\">Cabinet</a>\\\", among other publications. He has been a featured guestblogger on the pop-tech website \\\"<a href=\\\"Boing%20Boing\\\">Boing Boing</a>.\\\" Much of his work has dealt with <a href=\\\"cyberculture\\\">cyberculture</a> and the cultural effects of the Digital Age.\\nDery’s books include \\\"The Pyrotechnic Insanitarium: American Culture on the Brink\\\" and \\\"Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century,\\\" which has been translated into eight languages. He edited the anthology \\\"Flame Wars: The Discourse of Cyberculture\\\" and wrote the monograph \\\"Culture Jamming: Hacking, Slashing, and Sniping in the Empire of Signs.\\\" His essay collection \\\"I Must Not Think Bad Thoughts: Drive-By Essays on American Dread, American Dreams\\\" was published in Brazil, in Portuguese, in 2011 and in the United States, by the University of Minnesota Press, in 2012.\\nAn early writer on <a href=\\\"technoculture\\\">technoculture</a>, Dery helped inaugurate <a href=\\\"cyberculture%20studies\\\">cyberstudies</a> as a field of serious inquiry with the anthology \\\"\\\"Flame Wars: The Discourse of Cyberculture\\\"\\\" (1994), which he edited. \\\"Flame Wars\\\" kick-started the academic interest in <a href=\\\"cyberfeminism\\\">cyberfeminism</a> and <a href=\\\"Afrofuturism\\\">Afrofuturism</a>, a term Dery coined in his 1993 essay \\\"Black to the Future\\\" (included in \\\"Flame Wars\\\") and a key theoretical concept driving the now-established study of black technoculture. In it, he interviews three African-American thinkers—<a href=\\\"science%20fiction\\\">science fiction</a> writer <a href=\\\"Samuel%20R.%20Delany\\\">Samuel R. Delany</a>, writer and musician <a href=\\\"Greg%20Tate\\\">Greg Tate</a>, and <a href=\\\"cultural%20critic\\\">cultural critic</a> <a href=\\\"Tricia%20Rose\\\">Tricia Rose</a>—about different critical dimensions of <a href=\\\"Afrofuturism\\\">Afrofuturism</a> in an attempt to define the aesthetic. The essay is in part based on <a href=\\\"Henry%20Louis%20Gates\\\">Henry Louis Gates</a>'s assertion that \\\"[t]he Afro-American tradition has been figurative from its beginnings. How could it have survived otherwise?\\\"\\nDery's essay \\\"Deconstructing Psycho Killer Clowns\\\" is his <a href=\\\"close%20reading\\\">close reading</a> of the Evil Clown Meme.\",\n \"Javier Botet\\nJavier Botet López (born 31 July 1977) is a Spanish <a href=\\\"actor\\\">actor</a>, <a href=\\\"film%20director\\\">film director</a> and <a href=\\\"illustrator\\\">illustrator</a>.\\nBotet was born in <a href=\\\"Ciudad%20Real\\\">Ciudad Real</a>, the son of Agustín Andrés Botet Rodríguez and María del Carmen Servilia López Nieto. At five years old, Botet was diagnosed with <a href=\\\"Marfan%20syndrome\\\">Marfan syndrome</a>. The <a href=\\\"Hypermobility%20%28joints%29\\\">hyperlaxity</a> of certain body tissues brought about by Botet's condition has given him extremely long and fine fingers along with a tall, thin build, standing at 6.6 ft tall and weighing 123 lbs .\\nBotet's unique physical traits coupled with an interest in the performing arts led to his first film role in 2005, in <a href=\\\"Brian%20Yuzna\\\">Brian Yuzna</a>'s \\\"Beneath Still Waters\\\". A breakthrough performance was made two years later as <a href=\\\"Tristana%20Medeiros\\\">Tristana Medeiros</a> in <a href=\\\"Jaume%20Balaguer%C3%B3\\\">Jaume Balagueró</a> and <a href=\\\"Paco%20Plaza\\\">Paco Plaza's</a> 2007 film \\\"<a href=\\\"REC%20%28film%29\\\">REC</a>\\\". Botet has additionally appeared in television and theater roles, including in 2010 as the <a href=\\\"Frankenstein%27s%20monster\\\">Frankenstein's monster</a> in Teatros del Canal's stage adaptation of \\\"<a href=\\\"Frankenstein\\\">Frankenstein</a>\\\". The actor currently lives in <a href=\\\"Madrid\\\">Madrid</a>.\",\n \"Three Billy Goats Gruff\\n\\\"Three Billy Goats Gruff\\\" (<a href=\\\"Norwegian%20language\\\">Norwegian</a>: De tre bukkene Bruse ) is a <a href=\\\"Norway\\\">Norwegian</a> <a href=\\\"fairy%20tale\\\">fairy tale</a>. The fairy tale was collected by <a href=\\\"Peter%20Christen%20Asbj%C3%B8rnsen\\\">Peter Christen Asbjørnsen</a> and <a href=\\\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Moe\\\">Jørgen Moe</a> in their \\\"<a href=\\\"Norwegian%20Folktales\\\">Norske Folkeeventyr</a>\\\", first published between 1841 and 1844. It has an \\\"eat-me-when-I'm-fatter\\\" plot (<a href=\\\"Aarne-Thompson%20classification%20system\\\">Aarne-Thompson type 122E</a>).\\nThe story introduces three male <a href=\\\"goat\\\">goat</a>s, sometimes identified as a youngster, father and grandfather, but more often described as brothers. In other adaptations, there is a baby or child goat, mama goat and papa goat. In any case, there is almost no grass left for them to eat near where they live, so they must cross a river to get to \\\"<a href=\\\"s%C3%A6ter\\\">sæter</a>\\\" (a meadow) or hillside on the other side of a stream in order to eat and fatten themselves up. To do so, however, they must first cross a <a href=\\\"bridge\\\">bridge</a>, under which lives a fearsome and hideous <a href=\\\"troll\\\">troll</a>, who is so territorial that he eats anyone who tries to cross the bridge.\\nThe smallest billy goat is the first to cross and is stopped abruptly by the troll who threatens to \\\"gobble him up!\\\" However, the little goat convinces the troll to wait for his big brother to come across, because he is larger and would make for a more gratifying feast. The greedy troll agrees and lets the smallest goat cross.\\nThe medium-sized goat passes next. He is more cautious than his brother, but is also stopped by the troll and given the same threat. The second billy goat is allowed to cross as well after he tells the troll to wait for the biggest billy goat because he is the largest of the three.\\nThe third billy goat then gets on the bridge and is stopped by the hungry troll. The troll threatens to devour him, however, the third billy goat challenges him and knocks the troll off the bridge with his horns. The troll falls into the stream and is carried away by the current. From then on the bridge is safe, and all three goats are able to go to the rich fields around the summer farm in the hills, and they all live <a href=\\\"happy%20ending\\\">happily ever after</a>.\\nThe troll character is dirty and smelly and everybody is frightened of him, and I think that heightens the pathos of the ending, because it’s a witch hunt, without any evidence.\\n\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["It, also known as Pennywise the Dancing Clown or Bob Gray, is the title character of Stephen King's 1986 horror novel \"It\". The character is a creature that preys upon the local children of Derry, Maine, roughly every twenty-seven years, using a variety of powers that include the ability to shapeshift, manipulate, and go unnoticed by adults.","A horror icon is a person or fictional character that is considered to be significant to one or more genres of horror such as film, literature, or video games. Examples of people considered to be horror icons include directors Stephen King, Kiyoshi Kurosawa, Roger Corman, and Wes Craven, and actors Vincent Price, Barbara Steele, Lon Chaney and Lon Chaney, Jr., Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi, Robert Englund, Tony Todd, Tim Curry, Brad Dourif, and Christopher Lee. Fictional horror icon characters include such as Dracula, Gill-man, Frankenstein's monster, Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Jason Voorhees, Chucky, Candyman, Leatherface, Pennywise the Dancing Clown, Pinhead, and The Mummy."],"string":"[\n \"It, also known as Pennywise the Dancing Clown or Bob Gray, is the title character of Stephen King's 1986 horror novel \\\"It\\\". The character is a creature that preys upon the local children of Derry, Maine, roughly every twenty-seven years, using a variety of powers that include the ability to shapeshift, manipulate, and go unnoticed by adults.\",\n \"A horror icon is a person or fictional character that is considered to be significant to one or more genres of horror such as film, literature, or video games. Examples of people considered to be horror icons include directors Stephen King, Kiyoshi Kurosawa, Roger Corman, and Wes Craven, and actors Vincent Price, Barbara Steele, Lon Chaney and Lon Chaney, Jr., Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi, Robert Englund, Tony Todd, Tim Curry, Brad Dourif, and Christopher Lee. Fictional horror icon characters include such as Dracula, Gill-man, Frankenstein's monster, Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Jason Voorhees, Chucky, Candyman, Leatherface, Pennywise the Dancing Clown, Pinhead, and The Mummy.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":84,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who choreographed the step, also used in the Grapevine dance, that is a dance set to the song 'Electric Boogie\"?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Richard L. \"Ric\" Silver"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Electric Boogie\n\"Electric Boogie\" (also known as the \"Electric Slide\") is a dance song performed by Marcia Griffiths. It is strongly associated with the \"Electric Slide\" line dance. \"Electric Boogie\" was released in 1982 and reached number 51 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 1990. It was written and originally recorded in 1976 with Bunny Wailer.\nGriffiths' version was actually a hit in 1983 when it was first released, but reached its highest Billboard chart position of 51 in The Hot 100 in 1990, and has since become a celebratory staple. The song is very popular in North America at weddings, bar and bat mitzvahs, and other special occasions.\n","Electric boogaloo (dance)\nElectric boogaloo (sometimes mistakenly referred to as electric boogie) is a funk style of hip hop dance closely related to popping. It became the signature style of the dance group started in the 1970s, the Electric Boogaloos. Along with electric boogaloo they also popularized popping and many of its related styles.\nIt is characterized as a fluid leg-oriented style danced to funk music, utilizing rolls of the hips, knees, legs, and head, which was later combined with popping.","West Street Mob\nWest Street Mob were a boogie and electro music trio, active between 1981 and 1984, best known for their 1983 song \"Break Dance — Electric Boogie.\" The band comprised Joey Robinson, Jr., Warren Moore and singer Sabrina Gillison.\nIn 1981 West Street Mob recorded their eponymous album, which peaked at #57 on the \"Billboard\" Black Albums chart. The single \"Let's Dance\" peaked at #18 on the Black Singles chart and #22 on the Dance chart.\nIn 1983 the group released its second album, \"Break Dance – Electric Boogie\". The title track contains a sample of Incredible Bongo Band's 1973 recording of \"Apache,\" written by Jerry Lordan.\nWest Street Mob also recorded two singles that were not included on either of their two albums, \"Ooh Baby\" and \"Sing a Simple Song.\"\nThe group is very well known for \"Break Dance – Electric Boogie\" being featured in the first of Judson Laipply's \"Evolution of Dance\" videos.\nJoseph \"Joey\" Robinson Jr., son of Sugar Hill Records founder Sylvia Robinson, died of cancer on July 11, 2015, in Tenafly, New Jersey, at the age of 53.","Mansi Aggarwal\nMansi Aggarwal is an Indian choreographer who has choreographed dances in Bollywood movies. She is best known for choreographing the song, 'Bharat Mata ki Jai, from the movie Shanghai that starred actor Emraan Hashmi - the song gained a lot of popularity and became a 'hit' in India. She has worked with notable actors such as Sushant Singh Rajput in the award-winning movie, Kai Po Che, and with Abhay Deol in the movie Dev D. The song 'Suno Na Sangemarmar' that she choreographed was nominated for Stardust and Filmfare awards.\nMansi was born and raised in Delhi where she also took training in Indian classical dance, Kathak. Her Kathak training started when she was only 7 years old and she later became a Visharad (graduate) in the dance form. She studied Economics at Hansraj College in Delhi University and after finishing her graduation she opened her dance institute in Delhi—Mansi Dance Creations\nHer career in Bollywood movies started when she was first spotted by the famous film director, Anurag Kashyap, during a dance performance in Delhi. Anurag offered her to choreograph the critically acclaimed film, Gulaal. However, the movie got delayed and Mansi shifted her focus to academics until Anurag came to her for the second time with the proposal of choreographing Abhay Deol-starrer, Dev D\nMansi has choreographed the following Bollywood movies:","Suzie Q (dance move)\nSuzie Q (or Suzy Q) is the name of a dance step in the Big Apple, Lindy Hop, and other dances. In line dances this step is also known as Heel Twist (actually refers to step 2) or Grind Walk. The step is also used in jazz dance, and in Salsa shines.\nThe step originated from a novelty dance of the 1930s with the same name addressed in the 1936 song \"Doin' the Suzie-Q\" by Lil Hardin Armstrong.\nAn obituary published in \"The Salt Lake Tribune\" on September 21, 2008 for Susie Jane Dwyer (maiden name Quealy) (4/24/1915 - 9/17/2008) of San Francisco makes the claim that \"The popular song hit of the era, 'Doin' the Susie Q' was written in her honor.\"\nThe feet perform alternating cross steps and side steps with swivel action, as follows.\nStep 1 may also be accompanied with a light swivel of the left toe.\nOne may continue in one of the ways:\nThe hands are clasped together and pumped up and down or side to side in time to the music.\nThe arm movements may vary. Hand movement may vary.\nIn Lindy Hop, Suzy Qs can be performed by couples, either facing each other in open position, or side by side.","Grapevine (dance move)\nThe Grapevine is a dance figure in partner dancing that shares a common appearance, with some variation, in ballroom, club, and folk dances. It includes side steps and steps across the support foot. The step is used, for example, in the Foxtrot, Polka, Electric Slide and Hustle as well as in Freestyle aerobics.\nTroy Kinney (1914) described it as part of the One-Step, calling it \"an alternation of second and fourth positions of the feet; one foot travelling sideways\non a straight line, the other foot going from anterior to posterior fourth position, and vice versa. The step travels to the woman's right (the man's left), without\nturning.\nThe man's steps are the converse of the woman's, he starting with his left foot. The step is executed in closed position of the couple, and is usually performed several times in succession. The arrival of the feet in fourth position is usually punctuated with a slight dip.\"\nThe most basic repeating sequence of steps may be;\nThe sequence may start from any of the four steps and may break wherever it is convenient to move into another dance figure or in the opposite direction. The whole sequence is in the same direction.\nIn some dances (e.g., Polka, Hustle, Electric Slide) it is an eight count figure, often split into two, mirroring each other and called \"Grapevine to the right\" and \"Grapevine to the left\".","Spiral dance\nThe spiral dance, also called the grapevine dance and the weaver’s dance, is a tradition group dance practiced in Neopaganism in the United States, especially in feminist Wicca and the associated \"Reclaiming\" movement.\nIt is designed to emphasize \"community and rebirth\", and is also used \"to raise power in a ritual\".\nThe spiral dance is a central ritual dance to Reclaiming Witches. The first spiral dance was performed in Berkeley, CA, and was performed in a ritual intended to meld art, music, and politics as well as to celebrate the publication of \"The Spiral Dance\" by Starhawk. It turned into a yearly ritual, although a large portion of the politics were removed for later versions of the ritual and it currently exists as a Samhain celebration to honor the dead and celebrate rebirth.\nThe spiral dance usually involves a drumming group and a chant or song in addition to the dancers. All members present hold hands and follow a leader in a counter-clockwise motion using a grapevine step. As the leader comes near closing the circle, he or she whips around and begins moving clockwise while facing the rest of the dancers. By continuing this formation, every dancer in the line will eventually be face to face with every other dancer.\nIn some close-knit circles, where people are comfortable with the idea, a kiss is given to each person at the moment they pass each other in the dance. In some cases kissing may be discouraged upon during large or public rituals, due to disruptions of the rhythm of the dance.\nThe 1990s adventure game \"\" depicts Maid Marian as a forest priestess whose duties include, among other things, a one-person spiral dance.","Electric Slide\nThe Electric (better known as The Electric Slide) is a four wall line dance set to Marcia Griffiths and Bunny Wailer's song \"Electric Boogie\". Choreographer Richard L. \"Ric\" Silver created the dance in 1976 from a demo of the Bunny Walters recording.\nThere are several variations of the dance. The original choreography has 22 steps, but variants include the Freeze [16 step], Cowboy Motion [24 step], Cowboy Boogie [24 step], and the Electric Slide 2 [18 step]. Ric Silver the creator of the electric slide dance is a accomplished pianist and Broadway performer. He played Jaques Von Schmidt in East Side Zombies and is starring in Silent Times playing The Waiter. Both Films were directed by Christopher Annino Ric grew up in Stonington and graduated from Connecticut College and National Theater Institute. He is also an alum of Mitchell College in New London Ct.\nThe 18 step variation went viral in 1989 and for ten years was listed by \"Linedancer Magazine\" as the number one dance in the world.\nIn 2007, Ric Silver filed DMCA-based take-down notices to YouTube users who posted videos of people performing the 18-step dance variation.\nThe Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) filed suit against Silver, asking the court to protect the free speech rights of a videographer who captured a few steps of the dance in a documentary video posted to the Internet.\nOn May 22, 2007, the EFF came to an agreement to settle the lawsuit: the settlement states that Mr. Silver will license the Electric Slide under a Creative Commons license and to also post the new license on any of his current or future websites that mention the Electric Slide. EFF agreed to see that all users of The Electric Slide and its variations reference Mr. Silver's name as choreographer.","Diljott\nDiljott is an actress working in films. She is recognized for her talent, dedication and passion for Cinema. She also loves singing and dancing. A beauty with brains, she has also been excellent in academics throughout. Having worked in hit Punjabi films and songs, she enjoys a huge fan base. Having given power packed performances in Punjabi cinema, her film 'Teshan' released in 2016 and film 'Yaar Annmulle 2' released in January 2017. Her single track song 'Tere Rang' as a singer recently released in February 2017 and is garnering huge response all over the world. She is a part of Hollywood film '5 Weddings' which shall release worldwide in 2017. Her another upcoming Punjabi film 'Punjabi By Nature', directed by Gurbir Grewal shall also release in 2017. Recently her new film titled 'Nanak' has been announced, produced by Raj Kundra and Shilpa Shetty,which shall release on 23 March 2018. Her next song 'Akh Mataka' is set to release on 10 July 2017. She is also passionate about serving the humanity and contributes continuously towards betterment of the society.\nCinema has always attracted Diljott since childhood. She is a natural actress and believes that acting and singing are her inborn traits and strengths and believes that learning is an ongoing process and one can always hone up one’s skills. A trained Kathak, Western and a folk dancer, Diljott enjoys pursuing her career in the creative field and her performances are earning accolades worldwide. She also attended Anupam Kher’s Actor Prepares, Mumbai. After being clicked by ace photographer, Dabboo Ratanani, she featured in advertisements for Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited, various clothing brands and on cover pages of various national magazines.\nBeing a Punjabi, her love for Punjabis, Punjabi language and Punjabi culture attracted her to do Punjabi films. Though she is fluent in English, Hindi and Punjabi and would love to do Hindi and English films as well but Punjabi films are always her first love.She featured in a hit Punjabi song ‘Patiala Peg’ opposite Punjabi superstar Diljit Dosanjh, which became a superhit track worldwide and Diljott’s performance got noticed and appreciated. She also did a film as a lead ‘Idiot Boys’ in 2014, which got critical acclaim. She also featured in a Punjabi folk song ‘Sohni- The Real Punjaban’ and her Punjabi avatar in this got a thumbs up. Diljott’s three upcoming films as a lead actress are ‘Teshan’ (Released on 23 September 2016), ‘Punjabi By Nature’ and ‘Yaar Annmulle 2’(Released on 6 January 2017). Her films Teshan and 'Yaar Annmulle 2' got huge public response and have been loved by people far and wide. Film 'Punjabi By Nature' shall release in 2017. Her Hollywood film '5 Weddings' shall release in May 2017. Her single track song as a singer 'Tere Rang' released on 9 February 2017. This song has also been selected as a playback song for the Hollywood film '5 Weddings'. Recently her new film titled 'Nanak' has been announced, produced by Raj Kundra and Shilpa Shetty which shall release on 23 March 2018. Her next single track song 'Akh Mataka' sung by her releases on 10 July 2017. She is a star performer on stage as well. Besides being an artist, she is a philanthropist and a social worker also and is working with an NGO and contributes her bit towards the betterment of the society.\nDiljott was born to a reputed Punjabi family. At a very young age, she has achieved quite a lot. With both parents doctors and an elder brother, she has full support of her family while she pursues a career in the cinematic field. Her family believes her to be their lucky charm. Besides being an artist, she is very intelligent and highly educated. A star student, she has excelled in academics right from school to college to university. Diljott has done her Masters in Human Rights and Duties from Panjab University, Chandigarh and stood first in the University for which she was honored with a University Gold medal. She was also decorated as a University Gold medalist also for her Graduation, Bachelor of Arts (Majors in Psychology and Journalism), Panjab University, Chandigarh. She has also done a Project Cycle Management Course from NGO Management School, Geneva, Switzerland.Besides this, she has done her schooling from Delhi Public School, Chandigarh and has been a topper throughout. She has also done a Certificate Course in Computer and Information Technology, approved by Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Govt of India. She has always remained an all rounder and excelled in extra curricular activities and held various leadership roles also. She also remained very active in sports and believes in remaining physically fit and healthy. Diljott believes in continuous hard work and living each moment to the fullest.\nA firm believer of serving the society and making this world a better place to live for everyone, Diljott loves to be of service to humanity and spreading happiness. In fact her passion for doing social work derived her to pursue her master's degree course in Human Rights. For the two years while she was pursuing her degree, she also did a lot of research and field work and prepared a thesis on differently abled and the elderly in the society. Her paper titled \"Human Rights Concerns of the Differently Abled: A Brief Study\" was selected and published in the International Journal of Humanities and Social Studies ('The IJHSS' Journal, Volume IV, Issue II, February 2016). She visits old age homes, orphanages, slums on several different occasions and share moments of joy with them. Her another research paper titled ‘The Study of the Elderly Lives: Their Concerns and Suggestions’ got published in the International Journal of Research in Social Sciences (ISSN: 2249-2496, Volume 7, Issue 9, September 2017). She is also working with NGO Arrive Safe, an Indian NGO working on road safety since 2015 and looking after the awareness and social affairs work of the organization. In the past, she has also been involved in the activities of United Nations Association, India and had the opportunity to visit United Nations headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland in 2014. Diljott is noble and a philanthropist to the heart and will continue striving hard to spread happiness in her own way.","Bunny Wailer\nNeville O'Riley Livingston <a href=\"Order%20of%20Jamaica\">O.J.</a> (born 10 April 1947), better known as Bunny Wailer, and also as Bunny Livingston and affectionately as Jah B, is a Jamaican <a href=\"singer\">singer</a> <a href=\"songwriter\">songwriter</a> and <a href=\"percussionist\">percussionist</a> and was an original member of <a href=\"reggae\">reggae</a> group <a href=\"Bob%20Marley%20and%20the%20Wailers\">The Wailers</a> along with <a href=\"Bob%20Marley\">Bob Marley</a> and <a href=\"Peter%20Tosh\">Peter Tosh</a>. A three-time <a href=\"Grammy%20award\">Grammy award</a> winner, he is considered one of the longtime standard-bearers of reggae music.\nThe young Neville Livingston spent his earliest years in the village of <a href=\"Nine%20Mile%2C%20Jamaica\">Nine Mile</a> in <a href=\"St.%20Ann%20Parish\">St. Ann Parish</a>. It was there that he first met Bob Marley, and the two toddlers befriended each other quickly. The boys both came from single-parent families; Livingston was brought up by his father, Marley by his mother. Later, Bunny's father Thaddeus \"Toddy\" Livingston lived with <a href=\"Bob%20Marley\">Bob Marley</a>'s mother <a href=\"Cedella%20Booker\">Cedella Booker</a> and had a daughter with her named Pearl Livingston. <a href=\"Peter%20Tosh\">Peter Tosh</a> had a son, <a href=\"Andrew%20Tosh\">Andrew Tosh</a>, with another of Bunny's sisters, Shirley, making Andrew his nephew.\nBunny had originally gone to audition for <a href=\"Leslie%20Kong\">Leslie Kong</a> at Beverley's Records in 1962, around the same time Bob Marley was cutting \"Judge Not\". Bunny had intended to sing his first composition, \"Pass It On\", which at the time was more ska-oriented. However, Bunny was late getting out of school, missed his audition, and was told he wasn't needed. A few months later, in 1963; he formed \"The Wailing Wailers\" with his step-brother Bob Marley and friend Peter Tosh, and the short-lived members Junior Braithwaite and Beverley Kelso. As he was by some way the least forceful of the group, he tended to sing lead vocals less often than Marley and Tosh in the early years, but when Bob Marley left Jamaica in 1966 for Delaware, replacing Bunny with <a href=\"Constantine%20%26quot%3BVision%26quot%3B%20Walker\">Constantine \"Vision\" Walker</a>, he began to record and sing lead vocals on some of his own compositions, such as \"Who Feels It Knows It\", \"I Stand Predominant\" and \"Sunday Morning\". His music was very influenced by gospel and the soul of <a href=\"Curtis%20Mayfield\">Curtis Mayfield</a>. In 1967, he recorded \"This Train\", based on a gospel standard, for the first time, at Studio One.\nHe was arrested on charges of possession of <a href=\"cannabis%20%28drug%29\">cannabis</a> in June 1967 and served a 14-month prison sentence.\nAs the Wailers regularly changed producers in the late-1960s he continued to be underused as a writer and lead vocalist, though was a key part of the group's distinctive harmonies. He sang lead on \"Dreamland\" (a cover of El Tempos' My Dream Island, which soon became Bunny's signature song), \"Riding High\", \"Brainwashing\" and on one verse of the Wailers' Impressions-like \"Keep On Moving\", both produced by <a href=\"Lee%20%26quot%3BScratch%26quot%3B%20Perry\">Lee \"Scratch\" Perry</a>. In 1971, he recorded the original version of \"Pass It On\" which was released on dubplate and wasn't widely known until it appeared on JAD's \"Original Cuts\" compilation many years later - this version of the song features different lyrics and music in the verses to the later versions of \"Pass It On\" - Bunny would later reuse these in \"Innocent Blood\". By 1973, each of the three founding Wailers operated their own label, Marley with <a href=\"Tuff%20Gong\">Tuff Gong</a>, Tosh with H.I.M. Intel Diplo, and Bunny Wailer with Solomonic. He sang lead vocals on \"Reincarnated Souls\", the B-side of the Wailers first Island single of the new era, and on two tracks on the Wailers last trio LP, \"\"Burnin\"'\", \"Pass it On\" (which had been cut as a sound-system only dub plate five years earlier) and \"Hallelujah Time\". By now he was recording singles in his own right, cutting \"Searching For Love\", \"Life Line\", \"Bide Up\", \"Arab Oil Weapon\" and \"Pass It On\" (a new recording of the Wailers song) for his own label.\nBunny Wailer toured with the Wailers in England and the United States, but soon became reluctant to leave Jamaica. He and Tosh became more marginalised in the group as the Wailers became an international success, and attention was increasingly focused on Marley. Bunny subsequently left the Wailers in 1973 to pursue a solo career after refusing to tour when <a href=\"Chris%20Blackwell\">Chris Blackwell</a> wanted the Wailers to tour freak clubs in the United States, stating that it was against his <a href=\"Rastafari\">Rastafari</a> principles. Before leaving the Wailers, Bunny became more focused on his spiritual faith. He identified with the <a href=\"Rastafari%20movement\">Rastafari movement</a>, as did the other Wailers. He has also written much of his own material as well as re-recording a number of cuts from the Wailers catalogue. Bunny Wailer has recorded primarily in the <a href=\"roots%20rock%20reggae\">roots</a> style, in keeping with his often political and spiritual messages. He and Tosh would frequently sing each other's background vocals in the start of their solo careers. The album \"<a href=\"Blackheart%20Man\">Blackheart Man</a>\" is a good example of his roots reggae style.\nAfter leaving the Wailers, He experimented with disco on his album \"Hook Line & Sinker \"while \"Sings the Wailers\" successfully reworks many of The Wailers songs with the backing of top Jamaican musicians, <a href=\"Sly%20and%20Robbie\">Sly and Robbie</a>. He has also had success recording in the typically apolitical, more <a href=\"pop%20music\">pop</a>, <a href=\"dancehall\">dancehall</a> style. He has outlived his contemporaries in a culture where death by violence is commonplace.\nHowever, he also had a dancehall/Rockers edge that was best exemplified by the album \"Bunny Wailer Sings the Wailers\" in which he re-interprets some of the Wailers material as a solo Roots singer backed by a solid Sly & Robbie based Roots reggae grouping. The album produced by Bunny Wailer, was recorded at <a href=\"Harry%20J%20Studio\">Harry J Studio</a>. Some of these tracks are re-worked classic Wailers tracks (e.g. \"Dreamland\" — a cover of El Tempos' \"My Dream Island\" with slightly reworked lyrics that became Bunny's signature song. This was first recorded in 1966 by <a href=\"Clement%20Coxsone%20Dodd\">Clement Coxsone Dodd</a>, and later in 1970 with <a href=\"Lee%20%26quot%3BScratch%26quot%3B%20Perry\">Lee \"Scratch\" Perry</a>, then, released as a 7\" in 1971 with a U-Roy version on the B -Side). Another classic is \"Dancing Shoes\", first recorded in the mid-1960s as a driving ska/soul classic with Bunny Wailer as lead vocal.\nBunny Wailer has won the <a href=\"Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Reggae%20Album\">Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album</a> in <a href=\"1991%20in%20music\">1991</a> for the album \"Time Will Tell: A Tribute to Bob Marley\", <a href=\"1995%20in%20music\">1995</a> for \"Crucial! Roots Classics\", and <a href=\"1997%20in%20music\">1997</a> for \"Hall of Fame: A Tribute to Bob Marley 's 50th Anniversary (RAS)\". He was also featured on the album <a href=\"True%20Love%20%28Toots%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Maytals%20album%29\">\"True Love\"</a> by <a href=\"Toots%20and%20the%20Maytals\">Toots and the Maytals</a>, which won the <a href=\"Grammy%20Award\">Grammy Award</a> in 2004 for Best Reggae Album, and showcased many notable musicians including <a href=\"Willie%20Nelson\">Willie Nelson</a>, <a href=\"Eric%20Clapton\">Eric Clapton</a>, <a href=\"Jeff%20Beck\">Jeff Beck</a>, <a href=\"Trey%20Anastasio\">Trey Anastasio</a>, <a href=\"Gwen%20Stefani\">Gwen Stefani</a> / <a href=\"No%20Doubt\">No Doubt</a>, <a href=\"Ben%20Harper\">Ben Harper</a>, <a href=\"Bonnie%20Raitt\">Bonnie Raitt</a>, <a href=\"Manu%20Chao\">Manu Chao</a>, <a href=\"The%20Roots\">The Roots</a>, <a href=\"Ryan%20Adams\">Ryan Adams</a>, <a href=\"Keith%20Richards\">Keith Richards</a>, <a href=\"Toots%20Hibbert\">Toots Hibbert</a>, <a href=\"Paul%20Douglas%20%28musician%29\">Paul Douglas</a>, Jackie Jackson, <a href=\"Ken%20Boothe\">Ken Boothe</a>, and <a href=\"The%20Skatalites\">The Skatalites</a>.\nToday, Bunny resides in Kingston and on a farm located in the interior of Jamaica (Saint Thomas), according to Bob Marley's official website. Bunny Wailer and <a href=\"Beverley%20Kelso\">Beverley Kelso</a> are the only surviving members of the original Wailers.\nIn August 2012 it was announced that Bunny Wailer would receive Jamaica's fifth highest honour, the <a href=\"Order%20of%20Jamaica\">Order of Jamaica</a>.\nIn 2016, he played a month-long 'Blackheart Man' tour to celebrated the 40th anniversary of his 1976 album.\n","Popping\nPopping is a <a href=\"street%20dance\">street dance</a> and one of the original <a href=\"funk\">funk</a> styles that came from <a href=\"Fresno%2C%20California\">Fresno</a>, <a href=\"California\">California</a> during the late 1960s–1970s. The dance is based on the technique of quickly contracting and relaxing muscles to cause a jerk in the dancer's body, referred to as a \"pop\" or a \"hit\". This is done continuously to the rhythm of a song in combination with various movements and poses.\nClosely related illusory dance styles and techniques are often integrated into popping to create a more varied performance. These dance styles include the <a href=\"robot%20%28dance%29\">robot</a>, waving and tutting. However, popping is distinct from <a href=\"breaking%20%28dancing%29\">breaking</a> and <a href=\"locking%20%28dance%29\">locking</a>, with which it is often confused. A popping dancer is commonly referred to as a \"popper\".\nAs one of the earliest funk styles, popping is closely related to <a href=\"hip%20hop%20dance\">hip hop dancing</a>. It is often performed in <a href=\"Street%20dance%23Battles\">battles</a>, where participants try to outperform each other in front of a crowd, giving room for improvisation and freestyle moves that are seldom seen in shows and performances, such as interaction with other dancers and spectators. Popping and related styles such as waving and tutting have also been incorporated into the <a href=\"electronica\">electronica</a> dance scene to some extent, influencing new styles such as <a href=\"liquid%20and%20digits\">liquid and digits</a> and <a href=\"turfing\">turfing</a>.\nAs stated earlier, \"popping\" has become an umbrella term for a group of closely related styles and techniques that have often been combined or danced together with popping, some of which are seldom seen outside of popping contexts.\nPopping is centered around the technique of \"popping\", which means to quickly contract and relax muscles to create a jerking effect (a \"pop\" or \"hit\") in the body. Popping can be concentrated to specific body parts, creating variants such as arm pops, leg pops, chest pops and neck pops.\nHaving its roots in the late 1970s funk era, popping is commonly danced to <a href=\"funk\">funk</a> and <a href=\"disco\">disco</a> music. Popular artists include <a href=\"Zapp%20%28band%29\">Zapp</a>, <a href=\"Dayton%20%28band%29\">Dayton</a>, <a href=\"Dazz%20Band\">Dazz Band</a> and <a href=\"Cameo%20%28band%29\">Cameo</a>. During the 1980s, many poppers also utilized <a href=\"electro%20music\">electro music</a>, with artists such as <a href=\"Kraftwerk\">Kraftwerk</a>, <a href=\"Yellow%20Magic%20Orchestra\">Yellow Magic Orchestra</a>, <a href=\"Egyptian%20Lover\">Egyptian Lover</a> and <a href=\"World%20Class%20Wrecking%20Crew\">World Class Wrecking Crew</a>. More mainstream <a href=\"hip%20hop%20music\">hip hop music</a> was also employed by poppers during the 1980s, including <a href=\"Afrika%20Bambaataa\">Afrika Bambaataa</a>, <a href=\"Kurtis%20Blow\">Kurtis Blow</a>, <a href=\"Whodini\">Whodini</a> and <a href=\"Run%20DMC\">Run DMC</a>. Today, it is common to see popping danced to more current music genres such as modern hip hop (often <a href=\"experimental%20hip%20hop\">abstract</a>/<a href=\"instrumental%20hip%20hop\">instrumental hip hop</a>) and various forms of <a href=\"electronic%20dance%20music\">electronic dance music</a> such as <a href=\"dubstep\">dubstep</a>.\nSongs that are generally favored have a straight and steady <a href=\"beat%20%28music%29\">beat</a> at around 90-120 <a href=\"beats%20per%20minute\">beats per minute</a>, a 4/4 <a href=\"time%20signature\">time signature</a> and a strong emphasis on the <a href=\"beat%20%28music%29\">back beat</a>, normally by a <a href=\"snare%20drum\">snare drum</a> or a <a href=\"drum%20machine\">drum machine</a>. The pops performed by the popper normally occur on every beat or on the distinct back beats. The popper can also choose to follow the music more freely such as by timing the pops to the <a href=\"rhythm\">rhythm</a> of a <a href=\"melody\">melody</a> or other rhythmic elements.\nThere are a number of dance styles that are commonly mixed with popping to enhance the dancer's performance and create a more varied show, many of which are seldom seen outside of popping contexts. They can be seen as separate styles related to popping or as a part of popping when using it as an umbrella term.\n","Jerry Lordan\nJerry Lordan (30 April 1934 – 24 July 1995) was an <a href=\"English%20people\">English</a> <a href=\"songwriter\">songwriter</a>, <a href=\"composer\">composer</a> and <a href=\"singing\">singer</a>.\nBorn as Jeremiah Patrick Lordan in <a href=\"Paddington\">Paddington</a>, Lordan taught himself to play <a href=\"piano\">piano</a> and <a href=\"guitar\">guitar</a> as a child. He attended <a href=\"Finchley%20Catholic%20High%20School\">Finchley Catholic High School</a> and went into <a href=\"National%20Service\">National Service</a> in the <a href=\"Royal%20Air%20Force\">Royal Air Force</a> as a <a href=\"radar\">radar</a> operator. On leaving the RAF, he held a number of jobs including <a href=\"stand-up%20comedian\">stand-up comedian</a>, singer and in <a href=\"advertisement\">advertising</a>.\nHe began song-writing, and in 1958, with the help of contacts made in the advertising business a <a href=\"demo%20%28music%29\">demo</a> of one of his songs was heard by a <a href=\"record%20producer\">record producer</a>. The song, \"A House, A Car and a Wedding Ring\" was <a href=\"sound%20recording%20and%20reproduction\">recorded</a> by <a href=\"Michael%20Preston\">Mike Preston</a> on <a href=\"Decca%20Records\">Decca Records</a>. It did not sell well, but the song was successfully <a href=\"cover%20version\">covered</a> by the <a href=\"United%20States\">American</a> <a href=\"rockabilly\">rockabilly</a> <a href=\"celebrity\">star</a>, <a href=\"Dale%20Hawkins\">Dale Hawkins</a>, on the <a href=\"Checker%20Records\">Checker</a> <a href=\"record%20label\">label</a>. A later song, \"I've Waited So Long\" was recorded by the young <a href=\"Anthony%20Newley\">Anthony Newley</a> on Decca and got to number 3 in the <a href=\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\">UK Singles Chart</a> in May 1959. He was signed as a singer to <a href=\"Parlophone\">Parlophone</a> and had three <a href=\"record%20chart\">charting</a> <a href=\"single%20%28music%29\">singles</a> in 1960, the most successful being \"Who Could Be Bluer?\", produced by <a href=\"George%20Martin\">George Martin</a>.\nHe found real fame as a composer with the <a href=\"instrumental\">instrumental</a>, \"<a href=\"Apache%20%28instrumental%29\">Apache</a>\". It was originally recorded by <a href=\"Bert%20Weedon\">Bert Weedon</a>, but Lordan did not like the version. Weedon's label, <a href=\"Top%20Rank\">Top Rank</a>, did not release it immediately. On <a href=\"concert%20tour\">tour</a> with <a href=\"The%20Shadows\">The Shadows</a>, Lordan demonstrated the tune to <a href=\"bass%20guitar\">bass</a> player <a href=\"Jet%20Harris\">Jet Harris</a>, reportedly picking out the tune on a <a href=\"ukulele\">ukulele</a> as confirmed by the Shadows on BBC Radio 2 documentary, \"Out of the Shadows\". When the rest of the <a href=\"band%20%28music%29\">band</a> heard it, they agreed to record it. It was released in July 1960 and hit <a href=\"chart-topper\">number one</a> in August, staying at the top for five weeks. The Shadows' version was voted Top Record of 1960 in the \"<a href=\"NME\">New Musical Express</a>\" Readers' Poll. The tune was also recorded by the <a href=\"Denmark\">Danish</a> <a href=\"guitarist\">guitarist</a> <a href=\"Jorgen%20Ingmann\">Jorgen Ingmann</a>, who took it to number two in the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a> in 1961.\nLordan gave up singing for full-time writing. He wrote the Shadows' <a href=\"United%20Kingdom\">UK</a> number one hit \"<a href=\"Wonderful%20Land\">Wonderful Land</a>\" (1962) and their hits \"Atlantis\" (which reached number two in 1963) and \"Mary Anne\" (a rare <a href=\"human%20voice\">vocal</a> single from the group). He achieved a further number one, \"<a href=\"Diamonds%20%28instrumental%29\">Diamonds</a>\" for the ex-Shadows' <a href=\"Jet%20Harris\">Jet Harris</a> and <a href=\"Tony%20Meehan\">Tony Meehan</a> in 1963. Harris and Meehan also recorded his song \"<a href=\"Scarlett%20O%27Hara%20%28instrumental%29\">Scarlett O'Hara</a>\" taking it to number two in the same chart. He wrote other hits for <a href=\"Cliff%20Richard\">Cliff Richard</a> (\"<a href=\"A%20Girl%20Like%20You%20%28Jerry%20Lordan%20song%29\">A Girl Like You</a>\"), <a href=\"Shane%20Fenton\">Shane Fenton</a> and <a href=\"Louise%20Cordet\">Louise Cordet</a> (\"I'm Just a Baby\").\nBy the end of the 1960s the success was largely over and personal difficulties dogged Lordan through the 1970s. He became involved with the <a href=\"Cornwall\">Cornish</a> band <a href=\"The%20Onyx\">The Onyx</a> who under his guidance changed their name to Vineyard and released two singles on Decca and Deram in 1974. Later he made a brief foray in <a href=\"actor\">acting</a>, appearing in the 1977 <a href=\"sex%20comedy\">sex comedy</a>, \"<a href=\"Come%20Play%20with%20Me%20%281977%20film%29\">Come Play With Me</a>\". The <a href=\"film\">film</a> was <a href=\"film%20director\">directed</a> by his neighbour, <a href=\"Harrison%20Marks\">George Harrison Marks</a>. In the 1980s Lordan <a href=\"marriage\">remarried</a> and started to write again, although his songs were never published.\nLordan's first marriage was to Petrina Forsyth in 1963 (who co-wrote <a href=\"the%20Shadows\">the Shadows</a> hit \"A Place in the Sun\" with her husband, and \"Love, Truth and Emily Stone\" with <a href=\"Hank%20Marvin\">Hank Marvin</a> for <a href=\"Cliff%20Richard\">Cliff Richard</a> on his album \"<a href=\"Tracks%20%27n%20Grooves\">Tracks 'n Grooves</a>\"). His second marriage was to Claudine Albus/Hammerschmidt in 1980.\nLordan died in July 1995 in Shrewsbury Hospital, <a href=\"Shropshire\">Shropshire</a>, from <a href=\"acute%20renal%20failure\">acute renal failure</a>, aged 61. A <a href=\"funeral\">memorial service</a> was held for him at <a href=\"St%20Martin-in-the-Fields\">St Martin-in-the-Fields</a> on 25 October 1995.","Tenafly, New Jersey\nTenafly is a <a href=\"Borough%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">borough</a> in <a href=\"Bergen%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Bergen County</a>, <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a>, United States. As of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 census</a>, the borough's population was 14,488, reflecting an increase of 682 (+4.9%) from the 13,806 counted in the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 Census</a>, which had in turn increased by 480 (+3.6%) from the 13,326 counted in the <a href=\"1990%20United%20States%20Census\">1990 Census</a>. Tenafly is a <a href=\"New%20York%20metropolitan%20area\">suburb of New York City</a>.\nThe first <a href=\"European%20settlement%20of%20North%20America\">European settlers</a> in Tenafly were <a href=\"Dutch%20people\">Dutch</a> immigrants, who began to populate the area during the late 17th century. The name \"Tenafly\" itself is derived from the early-modern <a href=\"Dutch%20language\">Dutch</a> phrase \"<a href=\"Vlaie\">Tiene Vly</a>\" or \"Ten Swamps\" which was given by Dutch settlers in 1688. Other derivations cite a Dutch language connection to its location on a meadow.\nTenafly was incorporated as a borough on January 24, 1894, by an act of the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\">New Jersey Legislature</a> from portions of the now-defunct <a href=\"Palisades%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Palisades Township</a>, based on the results of a referendum held the previous day. The borough was the first formed during the \"<a href=\"Boroughitis\">Boroughitis</a>\" phenomenon then sweeping through Bergen County, in which 26 boroughs were formed in the county in 1894 alone. Portions of Palisades Township were acquired based on legislation approved on April 8, 1897.\n\"<a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Monthly\">New Jersey Monthly</a>\" magazine ranked Tenafly as the 7th best place to live in New Jersey in its 2013 rankings of the \"Best Places To Live\" in New Jersey.\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the borough had a total area of 5.184 square miles (13.428 km), including 4.601 square miles (11.917 km) of land and 0.583 square miles (1.510 km) of water (11.25%).\nThe borough borders <a href=\"Alpine%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Alpine</a>, <a href=\"Bergenfield%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Bergenfield</a>, <a href=\"Cresskill%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Cresskill</a>, <a href=\"Englewood%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Englewood</a> and <a href=\"Englewood%20Cliffs%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Englewood Cliffs</a>, and <a href=\"The%20Bronx\">The Bronx</a> in New York City, across the <a href=\"Hudson%20River\">Hudson River</a>.\nTenafly's street plan and overall development were largely determined by its hills and valleys. The eastern part of the borough is referred to as the \"East Hill\" for its higher elevation in relation to the rest of the borough. There, the terrain rises dramatically to the east of the downtown area, terminating at the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Palisades\">New Jersey Palisades</a>, overlooking the Hudson River. Nearby is the <a href=\"Tenafly%20Nature%20Center\">Tenafly Nature Center</a>, located at 313 Hudson Avenue.\nAs of the <a href=\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were people, households, and families residing in the borough. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 3148.6 /sqmi . There were housing units at an average density of 1082.3 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the borough was % () <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, % () <a href=\"Black%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Black or African American</a>, % () <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, % () <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, % () <a href=\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, % () from <a href=\"Race%20and%20ethnicity%20in%20the%20United%20States%20Census%23Race\">other races</a>, and % () from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic or Latino</a> of any race were % () of the population.\n<a href=\"Korean%20American\">Korean American</a>s accounted for 15.4% of the population in 2010.\nThere were households out of which 49.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.7% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% were non-families. 15.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.02 and the average family size was 3.36.\nIn the borough, the population was spread out with 31.2% under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 20.2% from 25 to 44, 30.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.8 years. For every 100 females there were 93.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 87.6 males.\nThe Census Bureau's 2006–2010 <a href=\"American%20Community%20Survey\">American Community Survey</a> showed that (in 2010 <a href=\"inflation%20adjustment\">inflation-adjusted</a> dollars) <a href=\"median%20household%20income\">median household income</a> was $125,865 (with a margin of error of +/- $23,612) and the median family income was $140,100 (+/- $26,372). Males had a median income of $102,645 (+/- $7,373) versus $60,871 (+/- $9,308) for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the borough was $60,557 (+/- $5,176). About 1.8% of families and 2.9% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 2.2% of those age 65 or over.\nAs of the <a href=\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\">2000 United States Census</a> there were 13,806 people, 4,774 households, and 3,866 families residing in the borough. The population density was 2,993.4 people per square mile (1,156.3/km). There were 4,897 housing units at an average density of 1,061.8 per square mile (410.1/km). The racial makeup of the borough was 76.79% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a>, 0.96% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.09% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 19.08% <a href=\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Asian</a>, 0.02% <a href=\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.40% from <a href=\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\">other races</a>, and 1.67% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 4.65% of the population. 11.1% of residents reported that they were of <a href=\"Irish%20American\">Irish</a>, 8.7% <a href=\"Russian%20American\">Russian</a>, 8.6% <a href=\"Italian%20American\">Italian</a>, 7.9% American, 7.8% <a href=\"German%20American\">German</a> and 6.2% <a href=\"Polish%20American\">Polish</a> ancestry according to Census 2000. Among residents, 64.0% spoke English at home, while 8.7% spoke Korean, 5.0% Spanish, 4.5% <a href=\"Standard%20Chinese\">Chinese</a> or <a href=\"standard%20mandarin\">Mandarin</a> and 3.1% <a href=\"Hebrew\">Hebrew</a>.\nThere were 4,774 households out of which 43.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.6% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.0% were non-families. 16.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.21.\nIn the borough the age distribution of the population shows 28.3% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 26.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 92.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males.\n2007 estimates state that the median income for a household in the borough was $109,887, and the median income for a family was $124,656. Males had a median income of $92,678 versus $61,990 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the borough was $62,230. About 2.3% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 4.7% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.\nTenafly is governed under a <a href=\"Special%20Charter%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">special charter</a> granted by the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\">New Jersey Legislature</a>. This charter retains most aspects of the <a href=\"Borough%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Borough</a> form of government, with the addition of initiative, referendum, and recall features. The governing body consists of a Mayor and a Borough Council comprising six council members, with all positions elected <a href=\"at-large\">at-large</a> on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. A Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office, and is eligible for re-election. The Borough Council consists of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. As the legislative body, the Borough Council adopts ordinances and resolutions, decides on appropriations, approves appointments made by the Mayor, determines policy, and establishes the functions of the various departments of the local government. Each Council member is chairperson of one of six standing committees. The Mayor presides over Council meetings, but only votes in case of a tie, and can cast a veto which can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the Council.\ns of 2017 , the <a href=\"Mayor\">Mayor</a> of Tenafly is <a href=\"Independent%20politician\">Independent</a> Peter Rustin, whose term of office ends December 31, 2019. Members of the Tenafly Borough Council are Council President Mark Zinna (<a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">D</a>, 2017), Anthony Barzelatto (D, 2018), Maxim F. Basch (D, 2019), Shama Haider (D, 2018), Daniel Park (D, 2019) and Paul Stefanowicz (D, 2017).\nTenafly is located in the 9th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 37th state legislative district. Prior to the 2010 Census, Tenafly had been part of the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20%20%20%27s%205%20%20%20%20congressional%20district\"></a> , a change made by the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Redistricting%20Commission\">New Jersey Redistricting Commission</a> that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections.\n<a href=\"New%20Jersey%27s%209th%20congressional%20district\">New Jersey's Ninth Congressional District</a> is represented by <a href=\"Bill%20Pascrell\">Bill Pascrell</a> (<a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">D</a>, <a href=\"Paterson%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Paterson</a>). New Jersey is represented in the <a href=\"United%20States%20Senate\">United States Senate</a> by Democrats <a href=\"Cory%20Booker\">Cory Booker</a> (<a href=\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Newark</a>, term ends 2021) and <a href=\"Bob%20Menendez\">Bob Menendez</a> (<a href=\"Paramus%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Paramus</a>, 2019).\nFor the 2016–2017 session (<a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Senate%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\">Senate</a>, <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\">General Assembly</a>), the <a href=\"37th%20Legislative%20District%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">37th Legislative District</a> of the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\">New Jersey Legislature</a> is represented in the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Senate\">State Senate</a> by <a href=\"Loretta%20Weinberg\">Loretta Weinberg</a> (<a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">D</a>, <a href=\"Teaneck%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Teaneck</a>) and in the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly\">General Assembly</a> by <a href=\"Valerie%20Huttle\">Valerie Huttle</a> (D, <a href=\"Englewood%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Englewood</a>) and <a href=\"Gordon%20M.%20Johnson\">Gordon M. Johnson</a> (D, Englewood). The <a href=\"Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\">Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\"Chris%20Christie\">Chris Christie</a> (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>, <a href=\"Mendham%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Mendham Township</a>). The <a href=\"Lieutenant%20Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\">Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\"Kim%20Guadagno\">Kim Guadagno</a> (R, <a href=\"Monmouth%20Beach%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Monmouth Beach</a>).\n<a href=\"Bergen%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Bergen County</a> is governed by a directly elected <a href=\"County%20executive\">County Executive</a>, with legislative functions performed by a seven-member <a href=\"Board%20of%20Chosen%20Freeholders\">Board of Chosen Freeholders</a>. s of 2015 , the County Executive is <a href=\"James%20J.%20Tedesco%20III\">James J. Tedesco III</a> (<a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">D</a>, <a href=\"Paramus%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Paramus</a>; term ends December 31, 2018). The seven freeholders are elected <a href=\"at-large\">at-large</a> in partisan elections on a staggered basis, with two or three seats coming up for election each year, with a Chairman, Vice Chairman and Chairman Pro Tempore selected from among its members at a reorganization meeting held each January. Bergen County's Freeholders are\nFreeholder Chairwoman <a href=\"Joan%20Voss\">Joan Voss</a> (D, 2017; <a href=\"Fort%20Lee%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Fort Lee</a>),\nVice Chairman Steve Tanelli (D, 2015; <a href=\"North%20Arlington%2C%20New%20Jersey\">North Arlington</a>)\nChairman Pro Tempore John A. Felice (<a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">R</a>, 2016; <a href=\"River%20Edge%2C%20New%20Jersey\">River Edge</a>),\n<a href=\"David%20L.%20Ganz\">David L. Ganz</a> (D, 2017; <a href=\"Fair%20Lawn%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Fair Lawn</a>),\nMaura R. DeNicola (R, 2016; <a href=\"Franklin%20Lakes%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Franklin Lakes</a>)\nThomas J. Sullivan Jr., (D, <a href=\"Montvale%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Montvale</a>, 2015; serving the unexpired term of office that had been occupied by James Tedesco before he was sworn in as County Executive) and\n<a href=\"Tracy%20Silna%20Zur\">Tracy Silna Zur</a> (D, 2015; Franklin Lakes). Countywide constitutional officials are\nCounty Clerk John S. Hogan (D, <a href=\"Northvale%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Northvale</a>),\nSheriff Michael Saudino (R) and\nSurrogate Michael R. Dressler (D, <a href=\"Cresskill%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Cresskill</a>).\nAs of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 8,709 registered voters in Tenafly, of which 3,082 (35.4% vs. 31.7% countywide) were registered as <a href=\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Democrats</a>, 1,445 (16.6% vs. 21.1%) were registered as <a href=\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\">Republicans</a> and 4,181 (48.0% vs. 47.1%) were registered as <a href=\"Unaffiliated%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">Unaffiliated</a>. There was one voter registered to another party. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 60.1% (vs. 57.1% in Bergen County) were registered to vote, including 87.3% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 73.7% countywide).\nIn the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202012\">2012 presidential election</a>, Democrat <a href=\"Barack%20Obama\">Barack Obama</a> received 3,694 votes (58.8% vs. 54.8% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\"Mitt%20Romney\">Mitt Romney</a> with 2,489 votes (39.6% vs. 43.5%) and other candidates with 62 votes (1.0% vs. 0.9%), among the 6,281 ballots cast by the borough's 9,322 registered voters, for a turnout of 67.4% (vs. 70.4% in Bergen County). In the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202008\">2008 presidential election</a>, Democrat Barack Obama received 4,285 votes (63.3% vs. 53.9% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\"John%20McCain\">John McCain</a> with 2,376 votes (35.1% vs. 44.5%) and other candidates with 54 votes (0.8% vs. 0.8%), among the 6,773 ballots cast by the borough's 9,002 registered voters, for a turnout of 75.2% (vs. 76.8% in Bergen County). In the <a href=\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202004\">2004 presidential election</a>, Democrat <a href=\"John%20Kerry\">John Kerry</a> received 4,195 votes (61.3% vs. 51.7% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a> with 2,569 votes (37.5% vs. 47.2%) and other candidates with 53 votes (0.8% vs. 0.7%), among the 6,848 ballots cast by the borough's 8,871 registered voters, for a turnout of 77.2% (vs. 76.9% in the whole county).\nIn the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202013\">2013 gubernatorial election</a>, Republican <a href=\"Chris%20Christie\">Chris Christie</a> received 57.3% of the vote (2,046 cast), ahead of Democrat <a href=\"Barbara%20Buono\">Barbara Buono</a> with 42.2% (1,505 votes), and other candidates with 0.5% (18 votes), among the 3,667 ballots cast by the borough's 8,800 registered voters (98 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 41.7%. In the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202009\">2009 gubernatorial election</a>, Democrat <a href=\"Jon%20Corzine\">Jon Corzine</a> received 2,454 ballots cast (55.8% vs. 48.0% countywide), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 1,701 votes (38.7% vs. 45.8%), Independent <a href=\"Chris%20Daggett\">Chris Daggett</a> with 189 votes (4.3% vs. 4.7%) and other candidates with 17 votes (0.4% vs. 0.5%), among the 4,401 ballots cast by the borough's 8,782 registered voters, yielding a 50.1% turnout (vs. 50.0% in the county).\nThe <a href=\"Tenafly%20Public%20Schools\">Tenafly Public Schools</a> serve students from <a href=\"pre-kindergarten\">pre-kindergarten</a> through <a href=\"twelfth%20grade\">twelfth grade</a>. As of the 2011-12 school year, the district's six schools had an enrollment of 3,605 students and 282.2 classroom teachers (on an <a href=\"full-time%20equivalent\">FTE</a> basis), for a <a href=\"student%E2%80%93teacher%20ratio\">student–teacher ratio</a> of 12.77:1. Schools in the district (with 2011-12 enrollment data from the <a href=\"National%20Center%20for%20Education%20Statistics\">National Center for Education Statistics</a>) are four elementary schools —\nMalcolm S. Mackay Elementary School (387 students; in grades K-5),\nRalph S. Maugham Elementary School (384; K-5),\nJ. Spencer Smith Elementary School (365; K-5) and\nWalter Stillman Elementary School (394; PreK-5) —\nTenafly Middle School (844) for grades 6-8 and\n<a href=\"Tenafly%20High%20School\">Tenafly High School</a> (1,231) for grades 9-12. Students from <a href=\"Alpine%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Alpine</a> attend Tenafly High School as part of a <a href=\"sending/receiving%20relationship\">sending/receiving relationship</a>.\nThe <a href=\"United%20States%20Department%20of%20Education\">United States Department of Education</a> awarded Tenafly High School the <a href=\"National%20Blue%20Ribbon%20Schools%20Program\">National Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence</a> at a special assembly to the Tenafly High School community on September 20, 2005. Tenafly was the only high school in New Jersey and one of 38 public high schools in the U.S. to receive the 2005 Blue Ribbon School Award.\nThe school was the third-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 328 schools statewide in \"<a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Monthly\">New Jersey Monthly</a>\" magazine's September 2012 cover story on the state's \"Top Public High Schools\", after also being ranked third in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. Schooldigger.com ranked the school as tied for 26th out of 376 public high schools statewide in its 2010 rankings (unchanged from the 2009 rank) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the language arts literacy and mathematics components of the <a href=\"High%20School%20Proficiency%20Assessment\">High School Proficiency Assessment</a> (HSPA).\nPublic school students from the borough, and all of Bergen County, are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the <a href=\"Bergen%20County%20Technical%20Schools\">Bergen County Technical Schools</a>, which include the <a href=\"Bergen%20County%20Academies\">Bergen County Academies</a> in <a href=\"Hackensack%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Hackensack</a>, and the <a href=\"Bergen%20County%20Technical%20High%20School%2C%20Teterboro%20Campus\">Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro</a> or <a href=\"Bergen%20County%20Technical%20High%20School%2C%20Paramus%20Campus\">Paramus</a>. The district offers programs on a shared-time or full-time basis, with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student's home school district.\nAcademy of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, which operates under the supervision of the <a href=\"Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Newark\">Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark</a>, was recognized in 2012 by the <a href=\"National%20Blue%20Ribbon%20Schools%20Program\">National Blue Ribbon Schools Program</a> of the <a href=\"United%20States%20Department%20of%20Education\">United States Department of Education</a>, one of 15 private and public schools in the state to be honored that year.\ns of 2010 , the borough had a total of 64.55 mi of roadways, of which 54.71 mi were maintained by the municipality, 6.85 mi by Bergen County, 1.50 mi by the <a href=\"New%20Jersey%20Department%20of%20Transportation\">New Jersey Department of Transportation</a> and 1.49 mi by the <a href=\"Palisades%20Interstate%20Park%20Commission\">Palisades Interstate Park Commission</a>.\n<a href=\"County%20Route%20501%20%28New%20Jersey%29\">County Route 501</a>, <a href=\"U.S.%20Route%209W\">U.S. Route 9W</a> and the <a href=\"Palisades%20Interstate%20Parkway\">Palisades Interstate Parkway</a> all pass through Tenafly.\nThe Palisades Interstate Parkway runs above the Hudson River from <a href=\"Englewood%20Cliffs%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Englewood Cliffs</a> north towards <a href=\"Alpine%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Alpine</a>. There are no exits on the parkway in Tenafly; the nearest interchanges are Exit 1 in Englewood Cliffs to the south, and Exit 2 in Alpine in the north.\nU.S. Route 9W adjoins and runs parallel to the Palisades Interstate Parkway.\nLocal and express bus service to and from New York City is available via <a href=\"NJ%20Transit\">NJ Transit</a> bus route <a href=\"166%20%28New%20Jersey%20bus%29\">166</a> to and from the <a href=\"Port%20Authority%20Bus%20Terminal\">Port Authority Bus Terminal</a> in <a href=\"Midtown%20Manhattan\">Midtown Manhattan</a>.\n<a href=\"Rockland%20Coaches\">Rockland Coaches</a> provides service to the Port Authority Bus Terminal on Route 14ET from <a href=\"Montvale%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Montvale</a>, the 9/9A/9T/9TA from <a href=\"Stony%20Point%2C%20New%20York\">Stony Point, New York</a> and the 20/20T routes from <a href=\"West%20Nyack%2C%20New%20York\">West Nyack, New York</a>.\nSaddle River Tours / Ameribus provides rush hour service to the <a href=\"George%20Washington%20Bridge%20Bus%20Station\">George Washington Bridge Bus Station</a> on the 20/84 route.\nFrom the mid 1850s until September 1966, Tenafly was served by rail along the <a href=\"Northern%20Branch\">Northern Branch</a>, originally to <a href=\"Pavonia%20Terminal\">Pavonia Terminal</a>, and later to <a href=\"Hoboken%20Terminal\">Hoboken Terminal</a>. <a href=\"CSX%20Transportation\">CSX</a> now provides freight service along the line. The former <a href=\"Tenafly%20%28Erie%20Railroad%20station%29\">Tenafly Station</a>, currently a restaurant, was added to the <a href=\"National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places\">National Register of Historic Places</a> in 1979; it is one of four surviving stations on the Northern Branch.\nThe <a href=\"Northern%20Branch%20Corridor%20Project\">Northern Branch Corridor Project</a>, a proposal by New Jersey Transit to extend the <a href=\"Hudson%20Bergen%20Light%20Rail\">Hudson Bergen Light Rail</a> for nine stops and 11 mi northward from its current terminus in <a href=\"North%20Bergen%2C%20New%20Jersey\">North Bergen</a> to two stations in Tenafly, the last of which would be a new terminus near the <a href=\"Cresskill%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Cresskill</a> town line, met with mixed reactions. Many residents and officials believed that the negative impact on the borough in terms of traffic and noise outweighed the benefits. In November 2010, voters rejected the plan to re-establish rail service to the town by a nearly 2-1 ratio in a non-binding referendum, with all of the borough council candidates opposing the restoration of commuter train service. There is continued resistance to New Jersey Transit's preferred alternative as described in the plan's December 2011 announcement. Despite local opposition, officials in Bergen County asked the <a href=\"North%20Jersey%20Transportation%20Planning%20Authority\">North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority</a> to support the proposal. In 2013, New Jersey Transit announced that the line would end in Englewood, after Tenafly officials estimated that as much in $8 million in commercial property valuation would be lost and residents raised strong objections.\nHistoric locations in Tenafly include:\nPeople who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Tenafly include:","Boogie (genre)\nBoogie (sometimes called <a href=\"post-disco\">post-disco</a>) is a <a href=\"rhythm%20and%20blues\">rhythm and blues</a> <a href=\"music%20genre\">genre</a> of <a href=\"electronic%20music\">electronic</a> <a href=\"electronic%20dance%20music\">dance music</a> with close ties to the <a href=\"post-disco\">post-disco</a> style, that first emerged in the United States during the late 1970s to mid-1980s. The sound of boogie defined by bridging acoustic and electronic musical instruments with emphasis on vocals and miscellaneous <a href=\"Sound%20effect\">effects</a> later evolved into <a href=\"Electro%20%28music%29\">electro</a> and <a href=\"house%20music\">house music</a>.\nBoogie, following the example of post-disco, lacks the <a href=\"Four-on-the-floor%20%28dance%29\">four-on-the-floor</a> beat (however there are examples of exceptions where some tracks will include the four-on-the-floor beat), which is a \"traditional\" rhythm of <a href=\"disco\">disco</a> music, has a strong accent on the <a href=\"Beat%20%28music%29\">second and fourth beats</a> and generally is located in the 110 to 116 <a href=\"tempo\">beats-per-minute</a> range. Aside from applying certain technological and promotional aspects of <a href=\"new%20wave%20music\">new wave music</a> and having been fairly exposed to its subgenre synthpop, boogie is, however, <a href=\"rhythm%20and%20blues\">R&B</a>-rooted and predominantly draws from <a href=\"funk\">funk</a> music. Other influences from a completely different music landscape include <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a>. Typical boogie track can be characterized by mid-tempo rhythm, prominent use of <a href=\"Slapping%20%28music%29\">slap bass</a> (<a href=\"bass%20guitar\">electric</a>—in the early 1980s—and/or <a href=\"synthesizer\">synthetic</a>—mid-1980s onwards), loud <a href=\"clapping\">clapping</a> sound, melodic chords and, obviously, <a href=\"synthesizer\">synthesizer</a>s.\nThe term, coined by British DJs <a href=\"Norman%20Jay\">Norman Jay</a> and Dez Parkes, is nowadays used on <a href=\"eBay\">eBay</a> to refer a specific form of early-1980s dance music of <a href=\"African%20American\">African-American</a> origin.\nThe first documented use of the word boogie is dated back to 1929. Boogie, as defined by <a href=\"Merriam-Webster%20Dictionary\">Merriam-Webster Dictionary</a>, is an occasion for dancing to the strongly rhythmic rock music that encourage people to <a href=\"dance\">dance</a>. Earliest association of the word boogie was with <a href=\"blues\">blues</a> and later <a href=\"rock%20and%20roll\">rock and roll</a> and <a href=\"rockabilly\">rockabilly</a> genres.\nIn the 1970s, the term was revitalized for <a href=\"disco\">disco</a> and later <a href=\"post-disco\">post-disco</a> subcultures. The term \"boogie\" was used in <a href=\"London\">London</a> to describe a form of <a href=\"African-American\">African-American</a> <a href=\"dance%20music\">dance</a>/<a href=\"funk\">funk</a> music from the 1980s. The name boogie tended to be used as, although essentially used to describe disco records, the word disco had gained bad connotations by the early 1980s.\nOriginally the word <a href=\"wiktionary%3Aboogie\">boogie</a> could be found in 1970s <a href=\"funk\">funk</a> and <a href=\"disco\">disco</a> records, most notably \"<a href=\"Boogie%20Oogie%20Oogie\">Boogie Oogie Oogie</a>\" by <a href=\"A%20Taste%20of%20Honey%20%28band%29\">A Taste of Honey</a> and \"<a href=\"Boogie%20Wonderland\">Boogie Wonderland</a>\" by <a href=\"Earth%2C%20Wind%20%26amp%3B%20Fire\">Earth Wind and Fire</a>, but 1980s tracks like \"<a href=\"Give%20Me%20the%20Night%20%28George%20Benson%20song%29\">Give Me the Night</a>\" (<a href=\"George%20Benson\">George Benson</a>, 1980), \"Boogie's Gonna Get Ya\" (<a href=\"Rafael%20Cameron\">Rafael Cameron</a>, 1981), \"<a href=\"I%27m%20in%20Love%20%28Evelyn%20King%20song%29\">I'm in Love</a>\" (<a href=\"Evelyn%20King%20%28singer%29\">Evelyn \"Champagne\" King</a>, 1981), \"<a href=\"You%27re%20the%20One%20for%20Me%20%28D.%20Train%20song%29\">You're the One for Me</a>\" (<a href=\"D%20Train%20%28music%20group%29\">D. Train</a>, 1981), \"Don't Make Me Wait\" (<a href=\"Peech%20Boys\">Peech Boys</a>, 1982) or \"Break Dancin' – Electric Boogie\" (<a href=\"West%20Street%20Mob\">West Street Mob</a>, 1984) helped define the musical style of boogie.\nThroughout the 1980s, various <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>-based boogie groups began experimenting with the <a href=\"Dub%20music\">dub</a>-infused bass which anticipated the sounds of house. One of these groups was Peech Boys, followed by D. Train, <a href=\"Vicky%20D\">Vicky D</a>, and <a href=\"Sharon%20Redd\">Sharon Redd</a>. While some record producers, such as <a href=\"Fran%C3%A7ois%20Kevorkian\">François Kevorkian</a> and <a href=\"Larry%20Levan\">Larry Levan</a>, were polishing and extending the limits of urban-oriented boogie, others like <a href=\"Arthur%20Baker%20%28musician%29\">Arthur Baker</a> and <a href=\"John%20Benitez\">John \"Jellybean\" Benitez</a> drew their influences from European and Japanese <a href=\"synthpop\">technopop</a> music. The latter approach paved the way for electro, and subsequently, <a href=\"freestyle%20music\">freestyle music</a>.\nBoogie had a popular following within London's <a href=\"underground%20scene\">underground scene</a>, often based around nightclubs and club DJs due to a lack of mainstream radio support. Boogie records were mostly imported from the <a href=\"United%20States\">United States</a> and were sometimes regarded as \"electro-funk\" or \"disco-funk\".\nAmong electro-boogie (later shortened to electro) pioneers include <a href=\"Zapp%20%28band%29\">Zapp</a>, D. Train, <a href=\"Sinnamon\">Sinnamon</a> and other post-disco/boogie musicians; especially those influenced by <a href=\"New%20wave%20music\">new wave</a> and <a href=\"synthpop\">synthpop</a> acts like <a href=\"Human%20League\">Human League</a> or <a href=\"Gary%20Numan\">Gary Numan</a>, combined with the R&B sound of <a href=\"Herbie%20Hancock\">Herbie Hancock</a> and <a href=\"George%20Clinton%20%28musician%29\">George Clinton</a>. As the electronic progression continued, acoustic instruments such as <a href=\"bass%20guitar\">bass guitar</a> were replaced by <a href=\"Japan\">Japan</a>ese-made <a href=\"synthesizer\">synthesizer</a>s and most notably by iconic drum machines like <a href=\"Roland%20TR-808\">Roland TR-808</a>. Early uses of this <a href=\"drum%20machine\">drum machine</a> include several <a href=\"Yellow%20Magic%20Orchestra\">Yellow Magic Orchestra</a> tracks in 1980–1981, the 1982 track \"<a href=\"Planet%20Rock%20%28song%29\">Planet Rock</a>\" by <a href=\"Afrikaa%20Bambaataa\">Afrikaa Bambaataa</a>, and the 1982 song \"<a href=\"Sexual%20Healing\">Sexual Healing</a>\" by <a href=\"Marvin%20Gaye\">Marvin Gaye</a>.\nAbout electro origins, <a href=\"Greg%20Wilson%20%28DJ%29\">Greg Wilson</a> argues:\nMuch later in the 2000s (decade) and early 2010s, <a href=\"indietronica\">indietronica</a> groups and artists such as <a href=\"James%20Pants\">James Pants</a>, <a href=\"Juice%20Aleem\">Juice Aleem</a>, <a href=\"Sa-Ra%20Creative%20Partners\">Sa-Ra Creative Partners</a> are being influenced by the sounds of boogie and 1980s electronic music in general.\n<a href=\"Chromeo\">Chromeo</a>, a <a href=\"Canada\">Canadian</a> duo, published a boogie-oriented album called \"<a href=\"She%27s%20in%20Control\">She's in Control</a>\" in 2004. <a href=\"D%C3%A2m-Funk\">Dâm-Funk</a> is another boogie-influenced artist hailing from <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a>. He published an album called \"<a href=\"Toeachizown\">Toeachizown</a>\" in 2009.\nAmerican and British boogie and/or at some point boogie-influenced artists include:\nInternational artists include:\nContemporary artists influenced by boogie include:\n","Incredible Bongo Band\nThe Incredible Bongo Band, also known as Michael Viner's Incredible Bongo Band, was a project started in 1972 by <a href=\"Michael%20Viner\">Michael Viner</a>, a record artist manager and executive at <a href=\"MGM%20Records\">MGM Records</a>. Viner was called on to supplement the soundtrack to the B-film \"<a href=\"The%20Thing%20With%20Two%20Heads\">The Thing With Two Heads</a>\". The band's output consisted of upbeat, funky, <a href=\"instrumental\">instrumental</a> music. Many tracks were covers of popular songs of the day characterized by the prominence of <a href=\"bongo%20drum\">bongo drum</a>s, <a href=\"conga%20drum\">conga drum</a>s, rock drums and <a href=\"Brass%20instrument\">brass</a>.\nThe band released two albums, 1973's \"Bongo Rock\" and 1974's \"Return of the Incredible Bongo Band\". The instrumental \"<a href=\"Bongo%20Rock\">Bongo Rock</a>\", co-written by <a href=\"Art%20Laboe\">Art Laboe</a> and <a href=\"Preston%20Epps\">Preston Epps</a> and released by Epps as a Top 40 hit in 1959, was covered by the Incredible Bongo Band (shown as \"Bongo Rock '73\" on the album), and became a minor US hit for them in 1973, and a substantial hit in Canada (#20).\n<a href=\"Michael%20Viner\">Michael Viner</a> would make use of <a href=\"MGM\">MGM</a> recording facilities in down-time, recruiting whichever studio musicians were on-hand. This apparently included many well-known blow-ins, all uncredited. Important contributions were made by <a href=\"Jim%20Gordon%20%28musician%29\">Jim Gordon</a> on drums and <a href=\"King%20Errisson\">King Errisson</a> on bongos. <a href=\"Ringo%20Starr\">Ringo Starr</a> is rumored to have played on some tracks, specifically \"Kiburi.\". The \"down-time\" sessions carried on for some time, until upper management finally quelled the vanity project.\nOther musicians involved in the sessions, per \"Sample This\", the movie include:\nMusicians mentioned elsewhere include:\nThis was never an actual band. Once the product had been finally released, a fake band was assembled and photographed. Those photos were seen on some album artwork, and in publicity.\nThe first Incredible Bongo Band album included a cover of \"<a href=\"Apache%20%28instrumental%29\">Apache</a>\", an instrumental tune written by <a href=\"Jerry%20Lordan\">Jerry Lordan</a> and originally made popular in the UK by <a href=\"The%20Shadows\">The Shadows</a>, and in North America by <a href=\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann\">Jørgen Ingmann</a>. They recorded the song at <a href=\"Can-Base%20Studios\">Can-Base Studios</a> in Vancouver to take advantage of <a href=\"Canadian%20content\">Canadian content</a> laws, which had helped promote their previous hit, \"<a href=\"Bongo%20Rock\">Bongo Rock</a>.\" The group's version of \"Apache\" (produced by <a href=\"Perry%20Botkin%20Jr.\">Perry Botkin Jr.</a>) was not a hit upon release, and languished in relative obscurity until the late 1970s, when it was adopted by early <a href=\"Hip%20hop%20music\">hip-hop</a> artists, including pioneering deejay <a href=\"Kool%20Herc\">Kool Herc</a>, for the uncommonly long percussion <a href=\"break%20%28music%29\">break</a> in the middle of the song. Subsequently, many of the Incredible Bongo Band's other releases were sampled by hip-hop producers, and the \"Apache\" break also remains a staple of many producers in <a href=\"drum%20and%20bass\">drum and bass</a>. The song received popular attention again in 2001 when it was featured in an ad for an <a href=\"Acura\">Acura</a> SUV. In 2008, music critic <a href=\"Will%20Hermes\">Will Hermes</a> did an article on \"Apache\" and the Incredible Bongo Band for the \"<a href=\"New%20York%20Times\">New York Times</a>\".\nAs well, the band's cover of \"Let There Be Drums,\" which was made famous by <a href=\"Sandy%20Nelson\">Sandy Nelson</a> and also performed by <a href=\"the%20Ventures\">the Ventures</a>, was used as the theme song for the long-running television show \"<a href=\"Atlantic%20Grand%20Prix%20Wrestling\">Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling</a>\" during the 1980s. It made #66 in Canada in December 1973.\n\"Last Bongo in Belgium\" has been sampled in the songs \"<a href=\"Looking%20Down%20the%20Barrel%20of%20a%20Gun\">Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun</a>\" performed by the <a href=\"Beastie%20Boys\">Beastie Boys</a>, \"<a href=\"Angel%20%28Massive%20Attack%20song%29\">Angel</a>\" performed by <a href=\"Massive%20Attack\">Massive Attack</a> and \"<a href=\"Song%20of%20Life%20%28Leftfield%20song%29\">Song of Life</a>\" performed by <a href=\"Leftfield\">Leftfield</a>.\n\"Let There Be Drums\" was used in <a href=\"Ken%20Burns\">Ken Burns</a>' \"Baseball: The 10th Inning\", the follow-up to Burns' '94 PBS documentary.\n\"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\" was used as the main loop in the song <a href=\"Hip%20Hop%20Is%20Dead%20%28song%29\">Hip Hop Is Dead</a> performed by <a href=\"Nas\">Nas</a>.\nThe 2013 documentary \"Sample This\", directed by Dan Forrer and narrated by <a href=\"Gene%20Simmons\">Gene Simmons</a>, recounts the story of the Incredible Bongo Band and its recording of \"Apache\".\n\"Bongolia\" was used in <a href=\"Edgar%20Wright\">Edgar Wright</a>'s 2017 film \"<a href=\"Baby%20Driver\">Baby Driver</a>\".\nA group formed by musician <a href=\"Shawn%20Lee%20%28musician%29\">Shawn Lee</a> with the parallel name \"Shawn Lee's Incredible Tabla Band\" released a cover album with <a href=\"Ubiquity%20Records\">Ubiquity Records</a> in 2011; \"Tabla Rock\", based on the album \"Bongo Rock\". Lee took on the entire Bongo Band debut album, and also two tracks from their second album. Lee's album covers the music on <a href=\"tabla\">tabla</a> instead of bongo, presenting it in an Indian-funk style.\nReleased 1973.\n\"Bongo Rock\" was also featured in Robert Dimery's book \"<a href=\"1001%20Albums%20You%20Must%20Hear%20Before%20You%20Die\">1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die</a>\".\nReleased 1974.\nA1. \"Apache\"\nA2. \"Let There Be Drums\"\nA3. \"Bongolia\"\nA4. \"Wipe Out\"\nB1. \"Dueling Bongos\"\nB2. \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\"\nB3. \"Raunchy '73\"\nC1. \"Last Bongo in Belgium\"\nC2. \"Bongo Rock '73\"\nC3. \"Hang Down Your Head Tom Dooley, Your Tie's Caught in Your Zipper\"\nC4. \"Sharp Nine\"\nD1. \"Kiburi\"\nD2. \"Sing, Sing, Sing\"\nD3. \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\"\nD4. \"Ohkey Dokey\"\nD5. \"When the Bed Breaks Down, I'll Meet You in the Spring\"","Sylvia Robinson\nSylvia Robinson (née Vanderpool; March 6, 1935 – September 29, 2011) was an American singer, musician, record producer, and record label <a href=\"Senior%20management\">executive</a>. Robinson was best known for her work as founder/CEO of the <a href=\"hip%20hop%20music\">hip hop</a> label <a href=\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\">Sugar Hill Records</a>. Robinson is credited as the driving force behind two landmark singles in the genre; \"<a href=\"Rapper%27s%20Delight\">Rapper's Delight</a>\" (1979) by the <a href=\"Sugarhill%20Gang\">Sugarhill Gang</a>, and \"<a href=\"The%20Message%20%28Grandmaster%20Flash%20and%20the%20Furious%20Five%20song%29\">The Message</a>\" (1982) by <a href=\"Grandmaster%20Flash%20and%20the%20Furious%20Five\">Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five</a>; which caused her to be dubbed the \"Mother of Hip-Hop\". Robinson received a Pioneer Award for her career in singing and being the founder of Sugarhill Records at the 11th Annual Rhythm and Blues Awards Gala in 2000. Robinson died of <a href=\"congestive%20heart%20failure\">congestive heart failure</a> on September 29, 2011 at age 76.\nRobinson was born as Sylvia Vanderpool (aka Vanterpool) in 1935 in New York City. Robinson attended <a href=\"Washington%20Irving%20High%20School%20%28New%20York%20City%29\">Washington Irving High School</a> until the age of 14, and began recording music in 1950 for <a href=\"Columbia%20Records\">Columbia Records</a> under the billing, Little Sylvia.\nIn 1954, she began teaming up with <a href=\"Kentucky\">Kentucky</a> guitarist <a href=\"Mickey%20Baker\">Mickey Baker</a>, who then taught her how to play guitar. In 1956, the duo now known as <a href=\"Mickey%20%26amp%3B%20Sylvia\">Mickey & Sylvia</a>, recorded the <a href=\"Bo%20Diddley\">Bo Diddley</a> and <a href=\"Jody%20Williams%20%28blues%20musician%29\">Jody Williams</a>-penned rock single, \"<a href=\"Love%20Is%20Strange\">Love Is Strange</a>,\" which topped the R&B charts and reached number eleven on the \"<a href=\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\">Billboard</a>\" pop charts in early 1957. After several more releases including the modestly successful \"There Oughta Be a Law\", Mickey & Sylvia split up in 1959 with Sylvia later marrying Joe Robinson that same year. Sylvia restarted her solo career shortly after her initial split from Baker, first under the name Sylvia Robbins. In 1961, the duo reunited and recorded more songs together for various labels. They are most noted during this period for singing background on <a href=\"Ike%20%26amp%3B%20Tina%20Turner\">Ike & Tina Turner</a>'s hit single, \"<a href=\"It%27s%20Gonna%20Work%20Out%20Fine\">It's Gonna Work Out Fine</a>\". In 1964, frustrated with the music business, Baker moved to Paris.\nIn 1966, the Robinsons moved to <a href=\"New%20Jersey\">New Jersey</a> where they formed a soul music label, <a href=\"All%20Platinum%20Records\">All Platinum Records</a>, the following year, with artist Lezli Valentine, formerly of the Jaynettes, bringing the label its first hit with \"I Won't Do Anything\". In 1968, the duo signed a Washington, D.C. act named <a href=\"Ray%2C%20Goodman%20%26amp%3B%20Brown\">The Moments</a>, who immediately found success with \"Not on the Outside\". Within a couple of years and with a new lineup, the group scored their biggest hit with \"<a href=\"Love%20on%20a%20Two-Way%20Street\">Love on a Two-Way Street</a>\", which Sylvia co-wrote and produced with Bert Keyes and (uncredited) lyrics by Lezli Valentine. Other hits on the label and its subsidiaries, including Stang and Vibration, included <a href=\"Shirley%20%26amp%3B%20Company\">Shirley & Company</a>'s \"<a href=\"Shame%2C%20Shame%2C%20Shame%20%28Shirley%20%26amp%3B%20Company%20song%29\">Shame, Shame, Shame</a>\", the Moments' \"Sexy Mama\" and \"Look at Me I'm in Love\" and the Whatnauts/Moments collaboration, \"Girls\". Robinson co-wrote and produced many of the tracks, although later she was supported by members of The Moments, Al Goodman and Harry Ray, as well as locally based producers, George Kerr and Nate Edmonds.\nIn 1972, Robinson sent a demo of a song she had written called \"<a href=\"Pillow%20Talk%20%28Sylvia%20song%29\">Pillow Talk</a>\" to <a href=\"Al%20Green\">Al Green</a>. When Green passed on it due to his religious beliefs, Robinson decided to record it herself, returning to her own musical career. Billed simply as Sylvia, the record became a major hit, reaching number-one on the R&B chart and crossing over to reach <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">Billboard Hot 100</a> (#3), while also reaching #14 in the UK at the beginning of 1973. She was awarded a <a href=\"music%20recording%20sales%20certification\">gold disc</a> by the <a href=\"R.I.A.A.\">R.I.A.A.</a> in May 1973. Robinson recorded four solo albums on the Vibration subsidiary and had other R&B hits including \"Sweet Stuff\" and \"Pussy Cat\". \"Pillow Talk\" has been called an early example of <a href=\"prototype\">prototypical</a> <a href=\"disco\">disco music</a> and went on to sell two million copies. The vocals are replete with moaning and heavy breathing, predating <a href=\"Donna%20Summer\">Donna Summer</a>'s orgasmic moans on \"<a href=\"Love%20to%20Love%20You%20Baby%20%28song%29\">Love to Love You Baby</a>\".\nIn the 1970s, the Robinsons founded <a href=\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\">Sugar Hill Records</a>. The company was named after the culturally rich <a href=\"Sugar%20Hill%2C%20Manhattan\">Sugar Hill</a> area of Harlem, an affluent African American neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City, known as a hub for artists and performers in the early and mid-1900s. The song \"Rapper's Delight\", performed by The Sugar Hill Gang, brought rap into the public music arena and revolutionized the music industry by introducing the technique of re-using existing compositions, a practice that became known as \"<a href=\"Sampling%20%28music%29\">sampling</a>\". Later acts signed to <a href=\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\">Sugar Hill Records</a> included all-female rap/funk group <a href=\"The%20Sequence\">The Sequence</a>, featuring a teenage <a href=\"Angie%20Stone\">Angie Stone</a> (recording as \"Angie B\"), who had a million-selling hit in early 1980 with \"Funk U Up\". Sugar Hill folded in 1985, due to changes in the music industry, the competition of other hip-hop labels, such as <a href=\"Profile%20Records\">Profile</a> and <a href=\"Def%20Jam%20Records\">Def Jam</a> and also financial pressures. Robinson, who had by now divorced Joe Robinson, continued her efforts as a music executive, forming Bon Ami Records in 1987. The label was noted for signing the act The New Style, who later left and found success as <a href=\"Naughty%20by%20Nature\">Naughty by Nature</a>.\nRobinson died on the morning of September 29, 2011, aged 76, at Meadowlands Hospital in <a href=\"Secaucus%2C%20New%20Jersey\">Secaucus, New Jersey</a> from congestive heart failure. On August 19, 2014, <a href=\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\">The Hollywood Reporter</a> reported that producer <a href=\"Paula%20Wagner\">Paula Wagner</a> had acquired the rights to the life story of Sylvia Robinson, the influential rap pioneer and producer known as the \"Mother of Hip-Hop.\" Wagner acquired the rights from Robinson's son, Joey Robinson (now deceased), who was scheduled to executive produce and serve as a consultant on the project along with rapper <a href=\"Grandmaster%20Melle%20Mel\">Grandmaster Melle Mel</a>. Music executive <a href=\"Robert%20Kraft%20%28composer%29\">Robert Kraft</a> will co-produce the film along with <a href=\"Stephanie%20Allain\">Stephanie Allain</a>. The film will cover Sylvia Robinson's four-decade career in the music business, her turbulent love life and the mark she made on popular culture at a defining moment in the evolution of hip-hop.\nIn a statement, Wagner says Robinson's life story has all the elements of a great film, \"It is not only the story of female empowerment at a time when the world of music was male-dominated, but it's also a story of the origin of hip-hop and how this woman's determination, immense talent and savvy business sense fostered an entire musical movement.\" Joey Robinson said of his mother and father, Sugar Hill Records co-founders, and of the upcoming film, \"This movie is going to show how my parents were able to remain independent, keep control of their publishing and master recordings and how they later dealt with the major record labels and mob associates. Sugar Hill paved the way for a new genre of music that the industry had no knowledge of back in 1979. You will see the struggles of what Sugar Hill went through to keep hip-hop music alive when the industry wanted to bury it.\" On October 21, 2015, <a href=\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\">The Hollywood Reporter</a> announced that <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.\">Warner Bros.</a> had picked up the untitled Sylvia Robinson story, and that Malcolm Spellman and Carlito Rodriguez – the writers on the hit <a href=\"Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company\">Fox</a> TV show, \"<a href=\"Empire%20%282015%20TV%20series%29\">Empire</a>\" – had been tapped to tell the story of Sylvia Robinson and <a href=\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\">Sugar Hill Records</a>.\n","Apache (instrumental)\n\"Apache\" is a much-recorded <a href=\"instrumental\">instrumental</a> written by English composer <a href=\"Jerry%20Lordan\">Jerry Lordan</a>. The original version was by Bert Weedon, but Lordan did not like the version. The British rock group <a href=\"The%20Shadows\">The Shadows</a> recorded \"Apache\" in June 1960 and released it the next month. It topped the <a href=\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\">UK Singles Chart</a> for five weeks.\nIn 1961, Danish jazz guitarist <a href=\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann\">Jørgen Ingmann</a>'s cover of \"Apache\" went to #2 in the US and #2 in Canada. A 1973 version by the <a href=\"Incredible%20Bongo%20Band\">Incredible Bongo Band</a> has been called \"<a href=\"Hip%20hop%20music\">hip-hop</a>’s national anthem\". Although this version was not a hit on release, its long percussion break has been sampled countless times on hip hop and dance tracks since the 1980s.\nIn March 2005, <a href=\"Q%20magazine\">\"Q\" magazine</a> placed \"Apache\" by The Shadows at No. 96 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks.\nEnglish songwriter and composer <a href=\"Jerry%20Lordan\">Jerry Lordan</a> came up with the tune. The title \"Apache\" reflects the source of Lordan's inspiration: the 1954 American western film \"<a href=\"Apache%20%28film%29\">Apache</a>\".\nThe original recording was by British guitarist <a href=\"Bert%20Weedon\">Bert Weedon</a> in early 1960. It remained unreleased for several months. In mid-1960 the Shadows were on tour with Lordan as a supporting act. The band discovered \"Apache\" when Lordan played it on a ukulele. Lordan figured the tune would fit the Shadows; the band agreed.\nThe recording was done at the <a href=\"EMI\">EMI</a> <a href=\"Abbey%20Road%20Studio\">Abbey Road Studio</a> in <a href=\"London\">London</a>. Singer-guitarist <a href=\"Joe%20Brown%20%28singer%29\">Joe Brown</a> had bought an Italian-built guitar <a href=\"echo%20chamber\">echo chamber</a> that he did not like and gave it to <a href=\"Hank%20Marvin\">Hank Marvin</a>, who developed a distinctive sound using it and the <a href=\"tremolo%20arm\">tremolo arm</a> of his <a href=\"Fender%20Stratocaster\">Fender Stratocaster</a>. <a href=\"Bruce%20Welch\">Bruce Welch</a> borrowed an acoustic Gibson J200 guitar from <a href=\"Cliff%20Richard\">Cliff Richard</a>, the heavy melodic bass was by <a href=\"Jet%20Harris\">Jet Harris</a>, percussion was by <a href=\"Tony%20Meehan\">Tony Meehan</a> and <a href=\"Cliff%20Richard\">Cliff Richard</a>, who played a Chinese drum at the beginning and end to provide an atmosphere of stereotypically Native American music.\n<a href=\"Record%20producer\">Record producer</a> <a href=\"Norrie%20Paramor\">Norrie Paramor</a> preferred the flip side, an instrumental of the army song \"The Quartermaster's Stores,\" now called \"The Quatermasster's Stores\" after the TV series \"<a href=\"Quatermass\">Quatermass</a>\". Paramor changed his mind after his daughter preferred \"Apache.\" It has been cited by a generation of guitarists as inspirational and is considered one of the most influential British rock 45s of the pre-<a href=\"Beatles\">Beatles</a> era. The Shadows said –\nWhat's the most distinctive sound of our group ? We often wondered what it is ourselves. Really, it is the sound we had when we recorded \"Apache\" – that kind of Hawaiian sounding lead guitar ... plus the beat.\nAfter the Shadows version began its rise up the UK charts, Weedon's original climbed to No. 24 in the UK. However, neither the Shadows nor Weedon had any impact on North America. Then, in late 1960, <a href=\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann\">Jørgen Ingmann</a> produced his own 'twangy' multi-tracked cover version that was released in the United States in November 1960. In 1961, this cover version, credited to \"Jørgen Ingmann and His Guitar\", made No. 2 on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a> and No. 9 on the <a href=\"Hot%20R%26amp%3BB/Hip-Hop%20Songs\">US R&B chart</a>. The track reached No. 1 on Canada's <a href=\"CHUM%20Chart\">CHUM Chart</a>.\nIn 1970, English <a href=\"progressive%20rock\">progressive rock</a> group <a href=\"The%20Edgar%20Broughton%20Band\">The Edgar Broughton Band</a> released a single \"Apache Drop Out,\" which combined \"Apache\" with a version of <a href=\"Captain%20Beefheart\">Captain Beefheart</a>'s \"<a href=\"Safe%20As%20Milk\">Drop Out Boogie</a>.\" The highly unorthodox single reached No. 33 on the <a href=\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\">UK Singles Chart</a>.\nA 1973 version by <a href=\"Michael%20Viner\">Michael Viner</a> and a funk group called \"The <a href=\"Incredible%20Bongo%20Band\">Incredible Bongo Band</a>\" added a <a href=\"bongo%20drum\">bongo drum</a> introduction and included more percussion. The drum break was played by legendary drummer <a href=\"Jim%20Gordon%20%28musician%29\">Jim Gordon</a>. Though this version was not a hit on its initial release, became heavily sampled in early <a href=\"hip%20hop%20music\">hip hop music</a>, including by <a href=\"Afrika%20Bambaataa\">Afrika Bambaataa</a>, who cited its influence. It has been sampled by hip hop performers such as <a href=\"The%20Sugarhill%20Gang\">The Sugarhill Gang</a>, <a href=\"L.L.%20Cool%20J\">L.L. Cool J</a>, <a href=\"The%20Roots\">The Roots</a> and <a href=\"Nas\">Nas</a>, <a href=\"techno\">techno</a> performers <a href=\"Future%20Sound%20of%20London\">Future Sound of London</a> and <a href=\"Moby\">Moby</a>, and <a href=\"drum%20and%20bass\">drum and bass</a> acts <a href=\"J.%20Majik\">J. Majik</a> and <a href=\"Goldie\">Goldie</a>.\nThe 2013 documentary \"Sample This,\" directed by Dan Forrer and narrated by <a href=\"Gene%20Simmons\">Gene Simmons</a>, recounts the story of The Incredible Bongo Band and its recording of \"Apache.\"\nIn 1981, the rap group known as <a href=\"The%20Sugarhill%20Gang\">The Sugarhill Gang</a> covered the <a href=\"Incredible%20Bongo%20Band\">Incredible Bongo Band</a>'s version of the song on its second album \"<a href=\"8th%20Wonder%20%28album%29\">8th Wonder</a>.\" In 1982, this version peaked at No. 53 on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a>, No. 51 on the <a href=\"Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs\">US Dance chart</a>, and No. 13 on the <a href=\"Hot%20R%26amp%3BB/Hip-Hop%20Songs\">US R&B chart</a>. In 1995, this version gained additional popularity after being featured in \"Viva Lost Wages,\" a sixth-season episode of the <a href=\"NBC\">NBC</a> sitcom \"<a href=\"The%20Fresh%20Prince%20of%20Bel-Air\">The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air</a>,\" as well as in \"Whoops, There It Is,\" a subsequent <a href=\"clip%20show\">clip show</a> from the series. Using the distinctive beat and bongo drums as well as Indian <a href=\"Battle%20cry\">war cries</a>, the Sugarhill Gang added rap lyrics with references, including:\nIn 1996, <a href=\"Sir%20Mix-A-Lot\">Sir Mix-A-Lot</a> played off the lyrics to <a href=\"The%20Sugarhill%20Gang\">The Sugarhill Gang</a>'s version of \"Apache\" in his hit version of \"Jump on It,\" released on the album \"<a href=\"Return%20of%20the%20Bumpasaurus\">Return of the Bumpasaurus</a>.\" The lyrics contained the names of <a href=\"List%20of%20United%20States%20cities%20by%20population\">cities of the United States</a>.\nIn 2005, <a href=\"Switch%20%28house%20DJ%29\">Switch</a> extensively sampled the covered version by Michael Viner's Incredible Bongo Band for his track \"<a href=\"A%20Bit%20Patchy\">A Bit Patchy</a>\" (wordplay on \"Apache\"). The track has since been used to advertise <a href=\"William%20Hill%20%28bookmaker%29\">William Hill</a> Online on TV, and has been remixed by artists such as <a href=\"Eric%20Prydz\">Eric Prydz</a> and <a href=\"Sinden%20%28DJ%29\">Sinden</a>.\nFrom this point, the song became a staple of instrumental combos on both sides of the Atlantic. Among many recordings, Spanish rock band <a href=\"Los%20Pekenikes\">Los Pekenikes</a> covered \"Apache\" in 1961, <a href=\"The%20Ventures\">The Ventures</a> in 1962 (on the album \"<a href=\"The%20Ventures%20Play%20Telstar%20and%20the%20Lonely%20Bull\">The Ventures Play Telstar and the Lonely Bull</a>\") and <a href=\"Davie%20Allan%20and%20The%20Arrows\">Davie Allan and The Arrows</a> in 1965. <a href=\"Sonny%20James\">Sonny James</a> recorded a <a href=\"vocal%20music\">vocal music</a> version in 1961. It was produced in Nashville by <a href=\"Chet%20Atkins\">Chet Atkins</a> and was review-rated as a \"Spotlight Winner.\" <a href=\"George%20Harrison\">George Harrison</a> said <a href=\"The%20Beatles\">The Beatles</a> used to play \"Apache\" as well as other Shadows' hits (\"FBI\", \"The Frightened City\") during their shows in Hamburg.\nThe <a href=\"Minnesota%20Lynx\">Minnesota Lynx</a> of the <a href=\"WNBA\">WNBA</a> adopted \"Apache\" as the unofficial team anthem in 2007. Following victories, the team would dance to the song at center court. For the first home game of the team's first <a href=\"2011%20WNBA%20Finals\">WNBA Finals</a> appearance, the team brought in the Sugarhill Gang to perform the song at halftime.\n","Sugar Hill Records\nSugar Hill Records is an American <a href=\"bluegrass%20music\">bluegrass</a> and <a href=\"Americana%20%28music%29\">Americana</a> record label.\nIt was founded in <a href=\"Durham%2C%20North%20Carolina\">Durham, North Carolina</a> in 1978 by Barry Poss and <a href=\"David%20Freeman%20%28music%20historian%29\">David Freeman</a>, the owner of <a href=\"County%20Records\">County Records</a> and <a href=\"Rebel%20Records\">Rebel Records</a>. Poss acquired full control of Sugar Hill in 1980 and owned the label until 1998, when he sold it to the <a href=\"Welk%20Music%20Group\">Welk Music Group</a>, owner of <a href=\"Vanguard%20Records\">Vanguard Records</a>. Poss stayed on as president, and in 2002 was promoted to chairman. Sugar Hill remained in Durham until 2007, when Poss moved the label to <a href=\"Nashville%2C%20Tennessee\">Nashville, Tennessee</a>.\nAmong the many notable artists who have released albums on the label are <a href=\"Nickel%20Creek\">Nickel Creek</a>, <a href=\"Doc%20Watson\">Doc Watson</a>, <a href=\"Townes%20Van%20Zandt\">Townes Van Zandt</a>, <a href=\"Ricky%20Skaggs\">Ricky Skaggs</a>, <a href=\"Guy%20Clark\">Guy Clark</a>, <a href=\"Robert%20Earl%20Keen\">Robert Earl Keen</a>, <a href=\"Sam%20Bush\">Sam Bush</a> and <a href=\"Dolly%20Parton\">Dolly Parton</a>. One of Parton's albums for Sugar Hill, \"<a href=\"Halos%20%26amp%3B%20Horns\">Halos & Horns</a>\" (2002), included a song called \"Sugar Hill\", which she wrote as a tribute to the label. In 2008, Welk Music Group appointed <a href=\"EMI\">EMI</a> as distributor of its labels including Sugar Hill.\nIn 2006, Sugar Hill executive Barry Poss won a Lifetime Achievement Award from the <a href=\"Americana%20Music%20Association\">Americana Music Association</a>.\nThe label was acquired by <a href=\"Concord%20Music%20Group\">Concord Bicycle Music</a> in April 2015.","Judson Laipply\nJudson Laipply ( ; born March 22, 1976) is an <a href=\"United%20States\">American</a> <a href=\"motivational%20speaker\">motivational speaker</a> and dancer from <a href=\"Bucyrus%2C%20Ohio\">Bucyrus, Ohio</a>. He served as the state president of The Ohio Association of Student Councils from 1993 to 1994. He is best known for his performance in the Evolution of Dance <a href=\"viral%20video\">viral video</a> clip. He has worked as a public speaker since 2000.\nIn 2001, Laipply originally performed \"The Evolution of Dance\", at which time it consisted of 12 popular dance songs of the late 20th century. Five years later, he uploaded a video of the six-minute performance to <a href=\"YouTube\">YouTube</a>. The clip received 70 million views in under 8 months. At that time, it was rated on YouTube as:\nIt has since been <a href=\"List%20of%20most%20viewed%20YouTube%20videos\">surpassed by other videos</a>.\nThe Evolution of Dance 2 video was released in January 2009.\nThis was announced by Judson on June 16, 2010. He stated that it was in its early stages and that it was too early to give any details. In a YouTube comment he claimed he was trying to incorporate much older music and possibly include a second dancer. It was uploaded in April 2016, to accommodate the 10th anniversary of Evolution of Dance.\nIn December 2007, Judson appeared in an advert on the <a href=\"BBC\">BBC</a> for the 'dance season' during the Christmas Holidays. \"Evolution of Dance\" was #1 on the show \"<a href=\"Rude%20Tube\">Rude Tube</a>\" hosted by <a href=\"Alex%20Zane\">Alex Zane</a> and Laipply was interviewed on the show. Judson was also featured in the music video for <a href=\"Weezer\">Weezer</a>'s song \"<a href=\"Pork%20and%20Beans%20%28song%29\">Pork and Beans</a>\" along with several other Internet celebrities.\nIn February 2010 the video was used as a question reference on the game show \"<a href=\"Jeopardy%21\">Jeopardy!</a>\" in the 2010 college championships. In \"<a href=\"The%20Delivery%20%28The%20Office%29\">The Delivery</a>\" episode of \"<a href=\"The%20Office%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\">The Office</a>\", <a href=\"Andy%20Bernard\">Andy Bernard</a> does the dance sans music as a pregnancy distraction for <a href=\"Pam%20Halpert\">Pam</a>. In 2011, Judson also appeared on <a href=\"Tosh.0\">Tosh.0</a>, hosted by Daniel Tosh.\nHe did another video, called \"The Evolution of the Touchdown Dance\", which included memorable NFL touchdown dances, like \"The Ickey Shuffle\", <a href=\"Joe%20Horn\">Joe Horn</a>'s cell phone celebration, and famous celebrations from <a href=\"Terrell%20Owens\">Terrell Owens</a> and <a href=\"Chad%20Ochocinco\">Chad Ochocinco</a>.\nIn December 2015, he appeared in YouTube's annual <a href=\"YouTube%20Rewind\">YouTube Rewind</a>.","Suno Na Sangemarmar\n\"Suno Na Sangemarmar\" is a romantic <a href=\"Music%20of%20Bollywood\">Hindi song</a> from the <a href=\"List%20of%20Bollywood%20films%20of%202014\">2014 Bollywood</a> film, \"<a href=\"Youngistaan\">Youngistaan</a>\". Composed by <a href=\"Jeet%20Ganguly\">Jeet Ganguly</a>, the song is sung by <a href=\"Arijit%20Singh\">Arijit Singh</a>, with lyrics penned by <a href=\"Kausar%20Munir\">Kausar Munir</a>. The music video of the track features actors <a href=\"Jackky%20Bhagnani\">Jackky Bhagnani</a> and <a href=\"Neha%20Sharma\">Neha Sharma</a>.\nThe song is composed by <a href=\"Jeet%20Ganguly\">Jeet Ganguly</a> and sung by <a href=\"Arijit%20Singh\">Arijit Singh</a>. This is their second collaboration in a film after \"<a href=\"Aashiqui%202\">Aashiqui 2</a>\" (2013), where Singh rendered four songs titled \"<a href=\"Chahun%20Main%20Ya%20Naa\">Chahun Main Ya Naa</a>\", \"<a href=\"Hum%20Mar%20Jayenge\">Hum Mar Jayenge</a>\", \"<a href=\"Milne%20Hai%20Mujhse%20Aayi\">Milne Hai Mujhse Aayi</a>\" and \"Aasan Nahi Yahan\". The music video of the song which features <a href=\"Jackky%20Bhagnani\">Jackky Bhagnani</a> and <a href=\"Neha%20Sharma\">Neha Sharma</a> is shot around the <a href=\"Taj%20Mahal\">Taj Mahal</a> which is located in <a href=\"Agra\">Agra</a>. It also explores the view of the monumental parks in <a href=\"Lucknow\">Lucknow</a>. The song is choreographed by Feroz Khan.\nThe song is the <a href=\"Hindi\">Hindi</a> version of the <a href=\"Bengali%20language\">Bengali</a> song \"Ki Kore Toke Bolbo\" from \"<a href=\"Rangbaaz%20%282013%20film%29\">Rangbaaz</a>\" (2013), which is composed by Ganguly and rendered by Singh. The tune of the song has a classic touch within it, where both the <a href=\"Bridge%20%28music%29\">interludes</a> have flute played in 90's style. The lyrics of the song is penned by <a href=\"Kausar%20Munir\">Kausar Munir</a>. Regarding the use of \"sangemarmar\" in the lyrics of the song, Munir stated: \"There was a huge discussion about the word 'sangemarmar' in the song, but it fell beautifully into the film and became a hit\".\nThe music video of the song was released officially on 6 February 2014, through the YouTube channel of <a href=\"Multi%20Screen%20Media\">Multi Screen Media</a>, and was released, labelled as the \"Valentine song of the year\". It was later released on other distributing label partners on 13 February 2014. The full song was released on 24 February 2014, along with other tracks from the album. The song was the first track released from the film.\nThe song was ranked at the ninth position in the \"<a href=\"Bollywood\">Bollywood</a> music report January–June <a href=\"List%20of%20Bollywood%20films%20of%202014\">2014</a>\" published by \"<a href=\"The%20Times%20of%20India\">The Times of India</a>\". It was placed at the fourth position in the Music category of \"Top search trends for 2014\" which was revealed by <a href=\"Microsoft\">Microsoft</a>'s search engine <a href=\"Bing%20%28search%20engine%29\">Bing</a>. The song was ranked at the third position in the list of \"Top 10 critically best songs\" published by \"The Times of India\".\nOn 21 March 2014, the song had a direct entry at position 16 in \"<a href=\"The%20Times%20of%20India\">The Times of India</a>\" <a href=\"Radio%20Mirchi\">Mirchi Top 20 Chart</a>, moved up to position 11 on 28 March 2014, and was placed at position 6 on 4 April 2014, labelled as the highest gainer of the week. On 11 April 2014, the song jumped to the position 2 again as the highest gainer of the week, before falling to position 3 on 18 April 2014.\nThe song received mostly positive reaction from the <a href=\"Music%20journalism\">music critics</a>.\n<a href=\"Bollywood%20Hungama\">Bollywood Hungama</a>'s Rajiv Vijayakar felt, the lyrics by <a href=\"Kausar%20Munir\">Kausar Munir</a> is \"relevant and meaningful\" when adapted to the situation in film, and described the song as \"soulful, placid and mellifluous\". Nishevitha Vijayanand from Movie Talkies who praised the vocals by <a href=\"Arijit%20Singh\">Arijit Singh</a> and the lyrics by Munir, stated: \"this one surely has the potential to become a chart-buster if the film manages to win over its target audience\". Glamsham's Rafat stated, Singh is the right choice for the track and he felt that the USP of the song is Munir lyrics with parallels drawn to <a href=\"Taj%20Mahal\">Taj Mahal</a>.\nPriya Adivarekar from \"<a href=\"The%20Indian%20Express\">The Indian Express</a>\" commented: \"The theme of romance and backdrop of the Taj Mahal adds an extra charm, while the overall music arrangement is easy on the ears\". Joginder Tuteja from <a href=\"Rediff.com\">Rediff.com</a> thought the sound of the flute and overall arrangement resembles that of \"Zara Zara\" from \"<a href=\"Rehnaa%20Hai%20Terre%20Dil%20Mein\">Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein</a>\" (2001), and further stated, the track takes \"sometimes to grow\" on the listeners. Sheetal Tiwari from Bollywood Spice commented: \"Lyrics are effective if not entirely eloquent, however, the parallels drawn with the Taj Mahal are endearing\"."],"string":"[\n \"Electric Boogie\\n\\\"Electric Boogie\\\" (also known as the \\\"Electric Slide\\\") is a dance song performed by Marcia Griffiths. It is strongly associated with the \\\"Electric Slide\\\" line dance. \\\"Electric Boogie\\\" was released in 1982 and reached number 51 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 1990. It was written and originally recorded in 1976 with Bunny Wailer.\\nGriffiths' version was actually a hit in 1983 when it was first released, but reached its highest Billboard chart position of 51 in The Hot 100 in 1990, and has since become a celebratory staple. The song is very popular in North America at weddings, bar and bat mitzvahs, and other special occasions.\\n\",\n \"Electric boogaloo (dance)\\nElectric boogaloo (sometimes mistakenly referred to as electric boogie) is a funk style of hip hop dance closely related to popping. It became the signature style of the dance group started in the 1970s, the Electric Boogaloos. Along with electric boogaloo they also popularized popping and many of its related styles.\\nIt is characterized as a fluid leg-oriented style danced to funk music, utilizing rolls of the hips, knees, legs, and head, which was later combined with popping.\",\n \"West Street Mob\\nWest Street Mob were a boogie and electro music trio, active between 1981 and 1984, best known for their 1983 song \\\"Break Dance — Electric Boogie.\\\" The band comprised Joey Robinson, Jr., Warren Moore and singer Sabrina Gillison.\\nIn 1981 West Street Mob recorded their eponymous album, which peaked at #57 on the \\\"Billboard\\\" Black Albums chart. The single \\\"Let's Dance\\\" peaked at #18 on the Black Singles chart and #22 on the Dance chart.\\nIn 1983 the group released its second album, \\\"Break Dance – Electric Boogie\\\". The title track contains a sample of Incredible Bongo Band's 1973 recording of \\\"Apache,\\\" written by Jerry Lordan.\\nWest Street Mob also recorded two singles that were not included on either of their two albums, \\\"Ooh Baby\\\" and \\\"Sing a Simple Song.\\\"\\nThe group is very well known for \\\"Break Dance – Electric Boogie\\\" being featured in the first of Judson Laipply's \\\"Evolution of Dance\\\" videos.\\nJoseph \\\"Joey\\\" Robinson Jr., son of Sugar Hill Records founder Sylvia Robinson, died of cancer on July 11, 2015, in Tenafly, New Jersey, at the age of 53.\",\n \"Mansi Aggarwal\\nMansi Aggarwal is an Indian choreographer who has choreographed dances in Bollywood movies. She is best known for choreographing the song, 'Bharat Mata ki Jai, from the movie Shanghai that starred actor Emraan Hashmi - the song gained a lot of popularity and became a 'hit' in India. She has worked with notable actors such as Sushant Singh Rajput in the award-winning movie, Kai Po Che, and with Abhay Deol in the movie Dev D. The song 'Suno Na Sangemarmar' that she choreographed was nominated for Stardust and Filmfare awards.\\nMansi was born and raised in Delhi where she also took training in Indian classical dance, Kathak. Her Kathak training started when she was only 7 years old and she later became a Visharad (graduate) in the dance form. She studied Economics at Hansraj College in Delhi University and after finishing her graduation she opened her dance institute in Delhi—Mansi Dance Creations\\nHer career in Bollywood movies started when she was first spotted by the famous film director, Anurag Kashyap, during a dance performance in Delhi. Anurag offered her to choreograph the critically acclaimed film, Gulaal. However, the movie got delayed and Mansi shifted her focus to academics until Anurag came to her for the second time with the proposal of choreographing Abhay Deol-starrer, Dev D\\nMansi has choreographed the following Bollywood movies:\",\n \"Suzie Q (dance move)\\nSuzie Q (or Suzy Q) is the name of a dance step in the Big Apple, Lindy Hop, and other dances. In line dances this step is also known as Heel Twist (actually refers to step 2) or Grind Walk. The step is also used in jazz dance, and in Salsa shines.\\nThe step originated from a novelty dance of the 1930s with the same name addressed in the 1936 song \\\"Doin' the Suzie-Q\\\" by Lil Hardin Armstrong.\\nAn obituary published in \\\"The Salt Lake Tribune\\\" on September 21, 2008 for Susie Jane Dwyer (maiden name Quealy) (4/24/1915 - 9/17/2008) of San Francisco makes the claim that \\\"The popular song hit of the era, 'Doin' the Susie Q' was written in her honor.\\\"\\nThe feet perform alternating cross steps and side steps with swivel action, as follows.\\nStep 1 may also be accompanied with a light swivel of the left toe.\\nOne may continue in one of the ways:\\nThe hands are clasped together and pumped up and down or side to side in time to the music.\\nThe arm movements may vary. Hand movement may vary.\\nIn Lindy Hop, Suzy Qs can be performed by couples, either facing each other in open position, or side by side.\",\n \"Grapevine (dance move)\\nThe Grapevine is a dance figure in partner dancing that shares a common appearance, with some variation, in ballroom, club, and folk dances. It includes side steps and steps across the support foot. The step is used, for example, in the Foxtrot, Polka, Electric Slide and Hustle as well as in Freestyle aerobics.\\nTroy Kinney (1914) described it as part of the One-Step, calling it \\\"an alternation of second and fourth positions of the feet; one foot travelling sideways\\non a straight line, the other foot going from anterior to posterior fourth position, and vice versa. The step travels to the woman's right (the man's left), without\\nturning.\\nThe man's steps are the converse of the woman's, he starting with his left foot. The step is executed in closed position of the couple, and is usually performed several times in succession. The arrival of the feet in fourth position is usually punctuated with a slight dip.\\\"\\nThe most basic repeating sequence of steps may be;\\nThe sequence may start from any of the four steps and may break wherever it is convenient to move into another dance figure or in the opposite direction. The whole sequence is in the same direction.\\nIn some dances (e.g., Polka, Hustle, Electric Slide) it is an eight count figure, often split into two, mirroring each other and called \\\"Grapevine to the right\\\" and \\\"Grapevine to the left\\\".\",\n \"Spiral dance\\nThe spiral dance, also called the grapevine dance and the weaver’s dance, is a tradition group dance practiced in Neopaganism in the United States, especially in feminist Wicca and the associated \\\"Reclaiming\\\" movement.\\nIt is designed to emphasize \\\"community and rebirth\\\", and is also used \\\"to raise power in a ritual\\\".\\nThe spiral dance is a central ritual dance to Reclaiming Witches. The first spiral dance was performed in Berkeley, CA, and was performed in a ritual intended to meld art, music, and politics as well as to celebrate the publication of \\\"The Spiral Dance\\\" by Starhawk. It turned into a yearly ritual, although a large portion of the politics were removed for later versions of the ritual and it currently exists as a Samhain celebration to honor the dead and celebrate rebirth.\\nThe spiral dance usually involves a drumming group and a chant or song in addition to the dancers. All members present hold hands and follow a leader in a counter-clockwise motion using a grapevine step. As the leader comes near closing the circle, he or she whips around and begins moving clockwise while facing the rest of the dancers. By continuing this formation, every dancer in the line will eventually be face to face with every other dancer.\\nIn some close-knit circles, where people are comfortable with the idea, a kiss is given to each person at the moment they pass each other in the dance. In some cases kissing may be discouraged upon during large or public rituals, due to disruptions of the rhythm of the dance.\\nThe 1990s adventure game \\\"\\\" depicts Maid Marian as a forest priestess whose duties include, among other things, a one-person spiral dance.\",\n \"Electric Slide\\nThe Electric (better known as The Electric Slide) is a four wall line dance set to Marcia Griffiths and Bunny Wailer's song \\\"Electric Boogie\\\". Choreographer Richard L. \\\"Ric\\\" Silver created the dance in 1976 from a demo of the Bunny Walters recording.\\nThere are several variations of the dance. The original choreography has 22 steps, but variants include the Freeze [16 step], Cowboy Motion [24 step], Cowboy Boogie [24 step], and the Electric Slide 2 [18 step]. Ric Silver the creator of the electric slide dance is a accomplished pianist and Broadway performer. He played Jaques Von Schmidt in East Side Zombies and is starring in Silent Times playing The Waiter. Both Films were directed by Christopher Annino Ric grew up in Stonington and graduated from Connecticut College and National Theater Institute. He is also an alum of Mitchell College in New London Ct.\\nThe 18 step variation went viral in 1989 and for ten years was listed by \\\"Linedancer Magazine\\\" as the number one dance in the world.\\nIn 2007, Ric Silver filed DMCA-based take-down notices to YouTube users who posted videos of people performing the 18-step dance variation.\\nThe Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) filed suit against Silver, asking the court to protect the free speech rights of a videographer who captured a few steps of the dance in a documentary video posted to the Internet.\\nOn May 22, 2007, the EFF came to an agreement to settle the lawsuit: the settlement states that Mr. Silver will license the Electric Slide under a Creative Commons license and to also post the new license on any of his current or future websites that mention the Electric Slide. EFF agreed to see that all users of The Electric Slide and its variations reference Mr. Silver's name as choreographer.\",\n \"Diljott\\nDiljott is an actress working in films. She is recognized for her talent, dedication and passion for Cinema. She also loves singing and dancing. A beauty with brains, she has also been excellent in academics throughout. Having worked in hit Punjabi films and songs, she enjoys a huge fan base. Having given power packed performances in Punjabi cinema, her film 'Teshan' released in 2016 and film 'Yaar Annmulle 2' released in January 2017. Her single track song 'Tere Rang' as a singer recently released in February 2017 and is garnering huge response all over the world. She is a part of Hollywood film '5 Weddings' which shall release worldwide in 2017. Her another upcoming Punjabi film 'Punjabi By Nature', directed by Gurbir Grewal shall also release in 2017. Recently her new film titled 'Nanak' has been announced, produced by Raj Kundra and Shilpa Shetty,which shall release on 23 March 2018. Her next song 'Akh Mataka' is set to release on 10 July 2017. She is also passionate about serving the humanity and contributes continuously towards betterment of the society.\\nCinema has always attracted Diljott since childhood. She is a natural actress and believes that acting and singing are her inborn traits and strengths and believes that learning is an ongoing process and one can always hone up one’s skills. A trained Kathak, Western and a folk dancer, Diljott enjoys pursuing her career in the creative field and her performances are earning accolades worldwide. She also attended Anupam Kher’s Actor Prepares, Mumbai. After being clicked by ace photographer, Dabboo Ratanani, she featured in advertisements for Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited, various clothing brands and on cover pages of various national magazines.\\nBeing a Punjabi, her love for Punjabis, Punjabi language and Punjabi culture attracted her to do Punjabi films. Though she is fluent in English, Hindi and Punjabi and would love to do Hindi and English films as well but Punjabi films are always her first love.She featured in a hit Punjabi song ‘Patiala Peg’ opposite Punjabi superstar Diljit Dosanjh, which became a superhit track worldwide and Diljott’s performance got noticed and appreciated. She also did a film as a lead ‘Idiot Boys’ in 2014, which got critical acclaim. She also featured in a Punjabi folk song ‘Sohni- The Real Punjaban’ and her Punjabi avatar in this got a thumbs up. Diljott’s three upcoming films as a lead actress are ‘Teshan’ (Released on 23 September 2016), ‘Punjabi By Nature’ and ‘Yaar Annmulle 2’(Released on 6 January 2017). Her films Teshan and 'Yaar Annmulle 2' got huge public response and have been loved by people far and wide. Film 'Punjabi By Nature' shall release in 2017. Her Hollywood film '5 Weddings' shall release in May 2017. Her single track song as a singer 'Tere Rang' released on 9 February 2017. This song has also been selected as a playback song for the Hollywood film '5 Weddings'. Recently her new film titled 'Nanak' has been announced, produced by Raj Kundra and Shilpa Shetty which shall release on 23 March 2018. Her next single track song 'Akh Mataka' sung by her releases on 10 July 2017. She is a star performer on stage as well. Besides being an artist, she is a philanthropist and a social worker also and is working with an NGO and contributes her bit towards the betterment of the society.\\nDiljott was born to a reputed Punjabi family. At a very young age, she has achieved quite a lot. With both parents doctors and an elder brother, she has full support of her family while she pursues a career in the cinematic field. Her family believes her to be their lucky charm. Besides being an artist, she is very intelligent and highly educated. A star student, she has excelled in academics right from school to college to university. Diljott has done her Masters in Human Rights and Duties from Panjab University, Chandigarh and stood first in the University for which she was honored with a University Gold medal. She was also decorated as a University Gold medalist also for her Graduation, Bachelor of Arts (Majors in Psychology and Journalism), Panjab University, Chandigarh. She has also done a Project Cycle Management Course from NGO Management School, Geneva, Switzerland.Besides this, she has done her schooling from Delhi Public School, Chandigarh and has been a topper throughout. She has also done a Certificate Course in Computer and Information Technology, approved by Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Govt of India. She has always remained an all rounder and excelled in extra curricular activities and held various leadership roles also. She also remained very active in sports and believes in remaining physically fit and healthy. Diljott believes in continuous hard work and living each moment to the fullest.\\nA firm believer of serving the society and making this world a better place to live for everyone, Diljott loves to be of service to humanity and spreading happiness. In fact her passion for doing social work derived her to pursue her master's degree course in Human Rights. For the two years while she was pursuing her degree, she also did a lot of research and field work and prepared a thesis on differently abled and the elderly in the society. Her paper titled \\\"Human Rights Concerns of the Differently Abled: A Brief Study\\\" was selected and published in the International Journal of Humanities and Social Studies ('The IJHSS' Journal, Volume IV, Issue II, February 2016). She visits old age homes, orphanages, slums on several different occasions and share moments of joy with them. Her another research paper titled ‘The Study of the Elderly Lives: Their Concerns and Suggestions’ got published in the International Journal of Research in Social Sciences (ISSN: 2249-2496, Volume 7, Issue 9, September 2017). She is also working with NGO Arrive Safe, an Indian NGO working on road safety since 2015 and looking after the awareness and social affairs work of the organization. In the past, she has also been involved in the activities of United Nations Association, India and had the opportunity to visit United Nations headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland in 2014. Diljott is noble and a philanthropist to the heart and will continue striving hard to spread happiness in her own way.\",\n \"Bunny Wailer\\nNeville O'Riley Livingston <a href=\\\"Order%20of%20Jamaica\\\">O.J.</a> (born 10 April 1947), better known as Bunny Wailer, and also as Bunny Livingston and affectionately as Jah B, is a Jamaican <a href=\\\"singer\\\">singer</a> <a href=\\\"songwriter\\\">songwriter</a> and <a href=\\\"percussionist\\\">percussionist</a> and was an original member of <a href=\\\"reggae\\\">reggae</a> group <a href=\\\"Bob%20Marley%20and%20the%20Wailers\\\">The Wailers</a> along with <a href=\\\"Bob%20Marley\\\">Bob Marley</a> and <a href=\\\"Peter%20Tosh\\\">Peter Tosh</a>. A three-time <a href=\\\"Grammy%20award\\\">Grammy award</a> winner, he is considered one of the longtime standard-bearers of reggae music.\\nThe young Neville Livingston spent his earliest years in the village of <a href=\\\"Nine%20Mile%2C%20Jamaica\\\">Nine Mile</a> in <a href=\\\"St.%20Ann%20Parish\\\">St. Ann Parish</a>. It was there that he first met Bob Marley, and the two toddlers befriended each other quickly. The boys both came from single-parent families; Livingston was brought up by his father, Marley by his mother. Later, Bunny's father Thaddeus \\\"Toddy\\\" Livingston lived with <a href=\\\"Bob%20Marley\\\">Bob Marley</a>'s mother <a href=\\\"Cedella%20Booker\\\">Cedella Booker</a> and had a daughter with her named Pearl Livingston. <a href=\\\"Peter%20Tosh\\\">Peter Tosh</a> had a son, <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Tosh\\\">Andrew Tosh</a>, with another of Bunny's sisters, Shirley, making Andrew his nephew.\\nBunny had originally gone to audition for <a href=\\\"Leslie%20Kong\\\">Leslie Kong</a> at Beverley's Records in 1962, around the same time Bob Marley was cutting \\\"Judge Not\\\". Bunny had intended to sing his first composition, \\\"Pass It On\\\", which at the time was more ska-oriented. However, Bunny was late getting out of school, missed his audition, and was told he wasn't needed. A few months later, in 1963; he formed \\\"The Wailing Wailers\\\" with his step-brother Bob Marley and friend Peter Tosh, and the short-lived members Junior Braithwaite and Beverley Kelso. As he was by some way the least forceful of the group, he tended to sing lead vocals less often than Marley and Tosh in the early years, but when Bob Marley left Jamaica in 1966 for Delaware, replacing Bunny with <a href=\\\"Constantine%20%26quot%3BVision%26quot%3B%20Walker\\\">Constantine \\\"Vision\\\" Walker</a>, he began to record and sing lead vocals on some of his own compositions, such as \\\"Who Feels It Knows It\\\", \\\"I Stand Predominant\\\" and \\\"Sunday Morning\\\". His music was very influenced by gospel and the soul of <a href=\\\"Curtis%20Mayfield\\\">Curtis Mayfield</a>. In 1967, he recorded \\\"This Train\\\", based on a gospel standard, for the first time, at Studio One.\\nHe was arrested on charges of possession of <a href=\\\"cannabis%20%28drug%29\\\">cannabis</a> in June 1967 and served a 14-month prison sentence.\\nAs the Wailers regularly changed producers in the late-1960s he continued to be underused as a writer and lead vocalist, though was a key part of the group's distinctive harmonies. He sang lead on \\\"Dreamland\\\" (a cover of El Tempos' My Dream Island, which soon became Bunny's signature song), \\\"Riding High\\\", \\\"Brainwashing\\\" and on one verse of the Wailers' Impressions-like \\\"Keep On Moving\\\", both produced by <a href=\\\"Lee%20%26quot%3BScratch%26quot%3B%20Perry\\\">Lee \\\"Scratch\\\" Perry</a>. In 1971, he recorded the original version of \\\"Pass It On\\\" which was released on dubplate and wasn't widely known until it appeared on JAD's \\\"Original Cuts\\\" compilation many years later - this version of the song features different lyrics and music in the verses to the later versions of \\\"Pass It On\\\" - Bunny would later reuse these in \\\"Innocent Blood\\\". By 1973, each of the three founding Wailers operated their own label, Marley with <a href=\\\"Tuff%20Gong\\\">Tuff Gong</a>, Tosh with H.I.M. Intel Diplo, and Bunny Wailer with Solomonic. He sang lead vocals on \\\"Reincarnated Souls\\\", the B-side of the Wailers first Island single of the new era, and on two tracks on the Wailers last trio LP, \\\"\\\"Burnin\\\"'\\\", \\\"Pass it On\\\" (which had been cut as a sound-system only dub plate five years earlier) and \\\"Hallelujah Time\\\". By now he was recording singles in his own right, cutting \\\"Searching For Love\\\", \\\"Life Line\\\", \\\"Bide Up\\\", \\\"Arab Oil Weapon\\\" and \\\"Pass It On\\\" (a new recording of the Wailers song) for his own label.\\nBunny Wailer toured with the Wailers in England and the United States, but soon became reluctant to leave Jamaica. He and Tosh became more marginalised in the group as the Wailers became an international success, and attention was increasingly focused on Marley. Bunny subsequently left the Wailers in 1973 to pursue a solo career after refusing to tour when <a href=\\\"Chris%20Blackwell\\\">Chris Blackwell</a> wanted the Wailers to tour freak clubs in the United States, stating that it was against his <a href=\\\"Rastafari\\\">Rastafari</a> principles. Before leaving the Wailers, Bunny became more focused on his spiritual faith. He identified with the <a href=\\\"Rastafari%20movement\\\">Rastafari movement</a>, as did the other Wailers. He has also written much of his own material as well as re-recording a number of cuts from the Wailers catalogue. Bunny Wailer has recorded primarily in the <a href=\\\"roots%20rock%20reggae\\\">roots</a> style, in keeping with his often political and spiritual messages. He and Tosh would frequently sing each other's background vocals in the start of their solo careers. The album \\\"<a href=\\\"Blackheart%20Man\\\">Blackheart Man</a>\\\" is a good example of his roots reggae style.\\nAfter leaving the Wailers, He experimented with disco on his album \\\"Hook Line & Sinker \\\"while \\\"Sings the Wailers\\\" successfully reworks many of The Wailers songs with the backing of top Jamaican musicians, <a href=\\\"Sly%20and%20Robbie\\\">Sly and Robbie</a>. He has also had success recording in the typically apolitical, more <a href=\\\"pop%20music\\\">pop</a>, <a href=\\\"dancehall\\\">dancehall</a> style. He has outlived his contemporaries in a culture where death by violence is commonplace.\\nHowever, he also had a dancehall/Rockers edge that was best exemplified by the album \\\"Bunny Wailer Sings the Wailers\\\" in which he re-interprets some of the Wailers material as a solo Roots singer backed by a solid Sly & Robbie based Roots reggae grouping. The album produced by Bunny Wailer, was recorded at <a href=\\\"Harry%20J%20Studio\\\">Harry J Studio</a>. Some of these tracks are re-worked classic Wailers tracks (e.g. \\\"Dreamland\\\" — a cover of El Tempos' \\\"My Dream Island\\\" with slightly reworked lyrics that became Bunny's signature song. This was first recorded in 1966 by <a href=\\\"Clement%20Coxsone%20Dodd\\\">Clement Coxsone Dodd</a>, and later in 1970 with <a href=\\\"Lee%20%26quot%3BScratch%26quot%3B%20Perry\\\">Lee \\\"Scratch\\\" Perry</a>, then, released as a 7\\\" in 1971 with a U-Roy version on the B -Side). Another classic is \\\"Dancing Shoes\\\", first recorded in the mid-1960s as a driving ska/soul classic with Bunny Wailer as lead vocal.\\nBunny Wailer has won the <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Reggae%20Album\\\">Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album</a> in <a href=\\\"1991%20in%20music\\\">1991</a> for the album \\\"Time Will Tell: A Tribute to Bob Marley\\\", <a href=\\\"1995%20in%20music\\\">1995</a> for \\\"Crucial! Roots Classics\\\", and <a href=\\\"1997%20in%20music\\\">1997</a> for \\\"Hall of Fame: A Tribute to Bob Marley 's 50th Anniversary (RAS)\\\". He was also featured on the album <a href=\\\"True%20Love%20%28Toots%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Maytals%20album%29\\\">\\\"True Love\\\"</a> by <a href=\\\"Toots%20and%20the%20Maytals\\\">Toots and the Maytals</a>, which won the <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award\\\">Grammy Award</a> in 2004 for Best Reggae Album, and showcased many notable musicians including <a href=\\\"Willie%20Nelson\\\">Willie Nelson</a>, <a href=\\\"Eric%20Clapton\\\">Eric Clapton</a>, <a href=\\\"Jeff%20Beck\\\">Jeff Beck</a>, <a href=\\\"Trey%20Anastasio\\\">Trey Anastasio</a>, <a href=\\\"Gwen%20Stefani\\\">Gwen Stefani</a> / <a href=\\\"No%20Doubt\\\">No Doubt</a>, <a href=\\\"Ben%20Harper\\\">Ben Harper</a>, <a href=\\\"Bonnie%20Raitt\\\">Bonnie Raitt</a>, <a href=\\\"Manu%20Chao\\\">Manu Chao</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Roots\\\">The Roots</a>, <a href=\\\"Ryan%20Adams\\\">Ryan Adams</a>, <a href=\\\"Keith%20Richards\\\">Keith Richards</a>, <a href=\\\"Toots%20Hibbert\\\">Toots Hibbert</a>, <a href=\\\"Paul%20Douglas%20%28musician%29\\\">Paul Douglas</a>, Jackie Jackson, <a href=\\\"Ken%20Boothe\\\">Ken Boothe</a>, and <a href=\\\"The%20Skatalites\\\">The Skatalites</a>.\\nToday, Bunny resides in Kingston and on a farm located in the interior of Jamaica (Saint Thomas), according to Bob Marley's official website. Bunny Wailer and <a href=\\\"Beverley%20Kelso\\\">Beverley Kelso</a> are the only surviving members of the original Wailers.\\nIn August 2012 it was announced that Bunny Wailer would receive Jamaica's fifth highest honour, the <a href=\\\"Order%20of%20Jamaica\\\">Order of Jamaica</a>.\\nIn 2016, he played a month-long 'Blackheart Man' tour to celebrated the 40th anniversary of his 1976 album.\\n\",\n \"Popping\\nPopping is a <a href=\\\"street%20dance\\\">street dance</a> and one of the original <a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a> styles that came from <a href=\\\"Fresno%2C%20California\\\">Fresno</a>, <a href=\\\"California\\\">California</a> during the late 1960s–1970s. The dance is based on the technique of quickly contracting and relaxing muscles to cause a jerk in the dancer's body, referred to as a \\\"pop\\\" or a \\\"hit\\\". This is done continuously to the rhythm of a song in combination with various movements and poses.\\nClosely related illusory dance styles and techniques are often integrated into popping to create a more varied performance. These dance styles include the <a href=\\\"robot%20%28dance%29\\\">robot</a>, waving and tutting. However, popping is distinct from <a href=\\\"breaking%20%28dancing%29\\\">breaking</a> and <a href=\\\"locking%20%28dance%29\\\">locking</a>, with which it is often confused. A popping dancer is commonly referred to as a \\\"popper\\\".\\nAs one of the earliest funk styles, popping is closely related to <a href=\\\"hip%20hop%20dance\\\">hip hop dancing</a>. It is often performed in <a href=\\\"Street%20dance%23Battles\\\">battles</a>, where participants try to outperform each other in front of a crowd, giving room for improvisation and freestyle moves that are seldom seen in shows and performances, such as interaction with other dancers and spectators. Popping and related styles such as waving and tutting have also been incorporated into the <a href=\\\"electronica\\\">electronica</a> dance scene to some extent, influencing new styles such as <a href=\\\"liquid%20and%20digits\\\">liquid and digits</a> and <a href=\\\"turfing\\\">turfing</a>.\\nAs stated earlier, \\\"popping\\\" has become an umbrella term for a group of closely related styles and techniques that have often been combined or danced together with popping, some of which are seldom seen outside of popping contexts.\\nPopping is centered around the technique of \\\"popping\\\", which means to quickly contract and relax muscles to create a jerking effect (a \\\"pop\\\" or \\\"hit\\\") in the body. Popping can be concentrated to specific body parts, creating variants such as arm pops, leg pops, chest pops and neck pops.\\nHaving its roots in the late 1970s funk era, popping is commonly danced to <a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a> and <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco</a> music. Popular artists include <a href=\\\"Zapp%20%28band%29\\\">Zapp</a>, <a href=\\\"Dayton%20%28band%29\\\">Dayton</a>, <a href=\\\"Dazz%20Band\\\">Dazz Band</a> and <a href=\\\"Cameo%20%28band%29\\\">Cameo</a>. During the 1980s, many poppers also utilized <a href=\\\"electro%20music\\\">electro music</a>, with artists such as <a href=\\\"Kraftwerk\\\">Kraftwerk</a>, <a href=\\\"Yellow%20Magic%20Orchestra\\\">Yellow Magic Orchestra</a>, <a href=\\\"Egyptian%20Lover\\\">Egyptian Lover</a> and <a href=\\\"World%20Class%20Wrecking%20Crew\\\">World Class Wrecking Crew</a>. More mainstream <a href=\\\"hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip hop music</a> was also employed by poppers during the 1980s, including <a href=\\\"Afrika%20Bambaataa\\\">Afrika Bambaataa</a>, <a href=\\\"Kurtis%20Blow\\\">Kurtis Blow</a>, <a href=\\\"Whodini\\\">Whodini</a> and <a href=\\\"Run%20DMC\\\">Run DMC</a>. Today, it is common to see popping danced to more current music genres such as modern hip hop (often <a href=\\\"experimental%20hip%20hop\\\">abstract</a>/<a href=\\\"instrumental%20hip%20hop\\\">instrumental hip hop</a>) and various forms of <a href=\\\"electronic%20dance%20music\\\">electronic dance music</a> such as <a href=\\\"dubstep\\\">dubstep</a>.\\nSongs that are generally favored have a straight and steady <a href=\\\"beat%20%28music%29\\\">beat</a> at around 90-120 <a href=\\\"beats%20per%20minute\\\">beats per minute</a>, a 4/4 <a href=\\\"time%20signature\\\">time signature</a> and a strong emphasis on the <a href=\\\"beat%20%28music%29\\\">back beat</a>, normally by a <a href=\\\"snare%20drum\\\">snare drum</a> or a <a href=\\\"drum%20machine\\\">drum machine</a>. The pops performed by the popper normally occur on every beat or on the distinct back beats. The popper can also choose to follow the music more freely such as by timing the pops to the <a href=\\\"rhythm\\\">rhythm</a> of a <a href=\\\"melody\\\">melody</a> or other rhythmic elements.\\nThere are a number of dance styles that are commonly mixed with popping to enhance the dancer's performance and create a more varied show, many of which are seldom seen outside of popping contexts. They can be seen as separate styles related to popping or as a part of popping when using it as an umbrella term.\\n\",\n \"Jerry Lordan\\nJerry Lordan (30 April 1934 – 24 July 1995) was an <a href=\\\"English%20people\\\">English</a> <a href=\\\"songwriter\\\">songwriter</a>, <a href=\\\"composer\\\">composer</a> and <a href=\\\"singing\\\">singer</a>.\\nBorn as Jeremiah Patrick Lordan in <a href=\\\"Paddington\\\">Paddington</a>, Lordan taught himself to play <a href=\\\"piano\\\">piano</a> and <a href=\\\"guitar\\\">guitar</a> as a child. He attended <a href=\\\"Finchley%20Catholic%20High%20School\\\">Finchley Catholic High School</a> and went into <a href=\\\"National%20Service\\\">National Service</a> in the <a href=\\\"Royal%20Air%20Force\\\">Royal Air Force</a> as a <a href=\\\"radar\\\">radar</a> operator. On leaving the RAF, he held a number of jobs including <a href=\\\"stand-up%20comedian\\\">stand-up comedian</a>, singer and in <a href=\\\"advertisement\\\">advertising</a>.\\nHe began song-writing, and in 1958, with the help of contacts made in the advertising business a <a href=\\\"demo%20%28music%29\\\">demo</a> of one of his songs was heard by a <a href=\\\"record%20producer\\\">record producer</a>. The song, \\\"A House, A Car and a Wedding Ring\\\" was <a href=\\\"sound%20recording%20and%20reproduction\\\">recorded</a> by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Preston\\\">Mike Preston</a> on <a href=\\\"Decca%20Records\\\">Decca Records</a>. It did not sell well, but the song was successfully <a href=\\\"cover%20version\\\">covered</a> by the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">American</a> <a href=\\\"rockabilly\\\">rockabilly</a> <a href=\\\"celebrity\\\">star</a>, <a href=\\\"Dale%20Hawkins\\\">Dale Hawkins</a>, on the <a href=\\\"Checker%20Records\\\">Checker</a> <a href=\\\"record%20label\\\">label</a>. A later song, \\\"I've Waited So Long\\\" was recorded by the young <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Newley\\\">Anthony Newley</a> on Decca and got to number 3 in the <a href=\\\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\\\">UK Singles Chart</a> in May 1959. He was signed as a singer to <a href=\\\"Parlophone\\\">Parlophone</a> and had three <a href=\\\"record%20chart\\\">charting</a> <a href=\\\"single%20%28music%29\\\">singles</a> in 1960, the most successful being \\\"Who Could Be Bluer?\\\", produced by <a href=\\\"George%20Martin\\\">George Martin</a>.\\nHe found real fame as a composer with the <a href=\\\"instrumental\\\">instrumental</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Apache%20%28instrumental%29\\\">Apache</a>\\\". It was originally recorded by <a href=\\\"Bert%20Weedon\\\">Bert Weedon</a>, but Lordan did not like the version. Weedon's label, <a href=\\\"Top%20Rank\\\">Top Rank</a>, did not release it immediately. On <a href=\\\"concert%20tour\\\">tour</a> with <a href=\\\"The%20Shadows\\\">The Shadows</a>, Lordan demonstrated the tune to <a href=\\\"bass%20guitar\\\">bass</a> player <a href=\\\"Jet%20Harris\\\">Jet Harris</a>, reportedly picking out the tune on a <a href=\\\"ukulele\\\">ukulele</a> as confirmed by the Shadows on BBC Radio 2 documentary, \\\"Out of the Shadows\\\". When the rest of the <a href=\\\"band%20%28music%29\\\">band</a> heard it, they agreed to record it. It was released in July 1960 and hit <a href=\\\"chart-topper\\\">number one</a> in August, staying at the top for five weeks. The Shadows' version was voted Top Record of 1960 in the \\\"<a href=\\\"NME\\\">New Musical Express</a>\\\" Readers' Poll. The tune was also recorded by the <a href=\\\"Denmark\\\">Danish</a> <a href=\\\"guitarist\\\">guitarist</a> <a href=\\\"Jorgen%20Ingmann\\\">Jorgen Ingmann</a>, who took it to number two in the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a> in 1961.\\nLordan gave up singing for full-time writing. He wrote the Shadows' <a href=\\\"United%20Kingdom\\\">UK</a> number one hit \\\"<a href=\\\"Wonderful%20Land\\\">Wonderful Land</a>\\\" (1962) and their hits \\\"Atlantis\\\" (which reached number two in 1963) and \\\"Mary Anne\\\" (a rare <a href=\\\"human%20voice\\\">vocal</a> single from the group). He achieved a further number one, \\\"<a href=\\\"Diamonds%20%28instrumental%29\\\">Diamonds</a>\\\" for the ex-Shadows' <a href=\\\"Jet%20Harris\\\">Jet Harris</a> and <a href=\\\"Tony%20Meehan\\\">Tony Meehan</a> in 1963. Harris and Meehan also recorded his song \\\"<a href=\\\"Scarlett%20O%27Hara%20%28instrumental%29\\\">Scarlett O'Hara</a>\\\" taking it to number two in the same chart. He wrote other hits for <a href=\\\"Cliff%20Richard\\\">Cliff Richard</a> (\\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Girl%20Like%20You%20%28Jerry%20Lordan%20song%29\\\">A Girl Like You</a>\\\"), <a href=\\\"Shane%20Fenton\\\">Shane Fenton</a> and <a href=\\\"Louise%20Cordet\\\">Louise Cordet</a> (\\\"I'm Just a Baby\\\").\\nBy the end of the 1960s the success was largely over and personal difficulties dogged Lordan through the 1970s. He became involved with the <a href=\\\"Cornwall\\\">Cornish</a> band <a href=\\\"The%20Onyx\\\">The Onyx</a> who under his guidance changed their name to Vineyard and released two singles on Decca and Deram in 1974. Later he made a brief foray in <a href=\\\"actor\\\">acting</a>, appearing in the 1977 <a href=\\\"sex%20comedy\\\">sex comedy</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Come%20Play%20with%20Me%20%281977%20film%29\\\">Come Play With Me</a>\\\". The <a href=\\\"film\\\">film</a> was <a href=\\\"film%20director\\\">directed</a> by his neighbour, <a href=\\\"Harrison%20Marks\\\">George Harrison Marks</a>. In the 1980s Lordan <a href=\\\"marriage\\\">remarried</a> and started to write again, although his songs were never published.\\nLordan's first marriage was to Petrina Forsyth in 1963 (who co-wrote <a href=\\\"the%20Shadows\\\">the Shadows</a> hit \\\"A Place in the Sun\\\" with her husband, and \\\"Love, Truth and Emily Stone\\\" with <a href=\\\"Hank%20Marvin\\\">Hank Marvin</a> for <a href=\\\"Cliff%20Richard\\\">Cliff Richard</a> on his album \\\"<a href=\\\"Tracks%20%27n%20Grooves\\\">Tracks 'n Grooves</a>\\\"). His second marriage was to Claudine Albus/Hammerschmidt in 1980.\\nLordan died in July 1995 in Shrewsbury Hospital, <a href=\\\"Shropshire\\\">Shropshire</a>, from <a href=\\\"acute%20renal%20failure\\\">acute renal failure</a>, aged 61. A <a href=\\\"funeral\\\">memorial service</a> was held for him at <a href=\\\"St%20Martin-in-the-Fields\\\">St Martin-in-the-Fields</a> on 25 October 1995.\",\n \"Tenafly, New Jersey\\nTenafly is a <a href=\\\"Borough%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">borough</a> in <a href=\\\"Bergen%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Bergen County</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a>, United States. As of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 census</a>, the borough's population was 14,488, reflecting an increase of 682 (+4.9%) from the 13,806 counted in the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 Census</a>, which had in turn increased by 480 (+3.6%) from the 13,326 counted in the <a href=\\\"1990%20United%20States%20Census\\\">1990 Census</a>. Tenafly is a <a href=\\\"New%20York%20metropolitan%20area\\\">suburb of New York City</a>.\\nThe first <a href=\\\"European%20settlement%20of%20North%20America\\\">European settlers</a> in Tenafly were <a href=\\\"Dutch%20people\\\">Dutch</a> immigrants, who began to populate the area during the late 17th century. The name \\\"Tenafly\\\" itself is derived from the early-modern <a href=\\\"Dutch%20language\\\">Dutch</a> phrase \\\"<a href=\\\"Vlaie\\\">Tiene Vly</a>\\\" or \\\"Ten Swamps\\\" which was given by Dutch settlers in 1688. Other derivations cite a Dutch language connection to its location on a meadow.\\nTenafly was incorporated as a borough on January 24, 1894, by an act of the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\\\">New Jersey Legislature</a> from portions of the now-defunct <a href=\\\"Palisades%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Palisades Township</a>, based on the results of a referendum held the previous day. The borough was the first formed during the \\\"<a href=\\\"Boroughitis\\\">Boroughitis</a>\\\" phenomenon then sweeping through Bergen County, in which 26 boroughs were formed in the county in 1894 alone. Portions of Palisades Township were acquired based on legislation approved on April 8, 1897.\\n\\\"<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Monthly\\\">New Jersey Monthly</a>\\\" magazine ranked Tenafly as the 7th best place to live in New Jersey in its 2013 rankings of the \\\"Best Places To Live\\\" in New Jersey.\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the borough had a total area of 5.184 square miles (13.428 km), including 4.601 square miles (11.917 km) of land and 0.583 square miles (1.510 km) of water (11.25%).\\nThe borough borders <a href=\\\"Alpine%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Alpine</a>, <a href=\\\"Bergenfield%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Bergenfield</a>, <a href=\\\"Cresskill%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Cresskill</a>, <a href=\\\"Englewood%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Englewood</a> and <a href=\\\"Englewood%20Cliffs%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Englewood Cliffs</a>, and <a href=\\\"The%20Bronx\\\">The Bronx</a> in New York City, across the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20River\\\">Hudson River</a>.\\nTenafly's street plan and overall development were largely determined by its hills and valleys. The eastern part of the borough is referred to as the \\\"East Hill\\\" for its higher elevation in relation to the rest of the borough. There, the terrain rises dramatically to the east of the downtown area, terminating at the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Palisades\\\">New Jersey Palisades</a>, overlooking the Hudson River. Nearby is the <a href=\\\"Tenafly%20Nature%20Center\\\">Tenafly Nature Center</a>, located at 313 Hudson Avenue.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2010%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2010 United States Census</a>, there were people, households, and families residing in the borough. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 3148.6 /sqmi . There were housing units at an average density of 1082.3 /sqmi . The racial makeup of the borough was % () <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Black%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Black or African American</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, % () <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, % () from <a href=\\\"Race%20and%20ethnicity%20in%20the%20United%20States%20Census%23Race\\\">other races</a>, and % () from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic or Latino</a> of any race were % () of the population.\\n<a href=\\\"Korean%20American\\\">Korean American</a>s accounted for 15.4% of the population in 2010.\\nThere were households out of which 49.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.7% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% were non-families. 15.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.02 and the average family size was 3.36.\\nIn the borough, the population was spread out with 31.2% under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 20.2% from 25 to 44, 30.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.8 years. For every 100 females there were 93.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 87.6 males.\\nThe Census Bureau's 2006–2010 <a href=\\\"American%20Community%20Survey\\\">American Community Survey</a> showed that (in 2010 <a href=\\\"inflation%20adjustment\\\">inflation-adjusted</a> dollars) <a href=\\\"median%20household%20income\\\">median household income</a> was $125,865 (with a margin of error of +/- $23,612) and the median family income was $140,100 (+/- $26,372). Males had a median income of $102,645 (+/- $7,373) versus $60,871 (+/- $9,308) for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the borough was $60,557 (+/- $5,176). About 1.8% of families and 2.9% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 2.2% of those age 65 or over.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"2000%20United%20States%20Census\\\">2000 United States Census</a> there were 13,806 people, 4,774 households, and 3,866 families residing in the borough. The population density was 2,993.4 people per square mile (1,156.3/km). There were 4,897 housing units at an average density of 1,061.8 per square mile (410.1/km). The racial makeup of the borough was 76.79% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a>, 0.96% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.09% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 19.08% <a href=\\\"Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Asian</a>, 0.02% <a href=\\\"Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.40% from <a href=\\\"Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29\\\">other races</a>, and 1.67% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 4.65% of the population. 11.1% of residents reported that they were of <a href=\\\"Irish%20American\\\">Irish</a>, 8.7% <a href=\\\"Russian%20American\\\">Russian</a>, 8.6% <a href=\\\"Italian%20American\\\">Italian</a>, 7.9% American, 7.8% <a href=\\\"German%20American\\\">German</a> and 6.2% <a href=\\\"Polish%20American\\\">Polish</a> ancestry according to Census 2000. Among residents, 64.0% spoke English at home, while 8.7% spoke Korean, 5.0% Spanish, 4.5% <a href=\\\"Standard%20Chinese\\\">Chinese</a> or <a href=\\\"standard%20mandarin\\\">Mandarin</a> and 3.1% <a href=\\\"Hebrew\\\">Hebrew</a>.\\nThere were 4,774 households out of which 43.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.6% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.0% were non-families. 16.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.21.\\nIn the borough the age distribution of the population shows 28.3% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 26.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 92.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males.\\n2007 estimates state that the median income for a household in the borough was $109,887, and the median income for a family was $124,656. Males had a median income of $92,678 versus $61,990 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the borough was $62,230. About 2.3% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 4.7% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.\\nTenafly is governed under a <a href=\\\"Special%20Charter%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">special charter</a> granted by the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\\\">New Jersey Legislature</a>. This charter retains most aspects of the <a href=\\\"Borough%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Borough</a> form of government, with the addition of initiative, referendum, and recall features. The governing body consists of a Mayor and a Borough Council comprising six council members, with all positions elected <a href=\\\"at-large\\\">at-large</a> on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. A Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office, and is eligible for re-election. The Borough Council consists of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. As the legislative body, the Borough Council adopts ordinances and resolutions, decides on appropriations, approves appointments made by the Mayor, determines policy, and establishes the functions of the various departments of the local government. Each Council member is chairperson of one of six standing committees. The Mayor presides over Council meetings, but only votes in case of a tie, and can cast a veto which can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the Council.\\ns of 2017 , the <a href=\\\"Mayor\\\">Mayor</a> of Tenafly is <a href=\\\"Independent%20politician\\\">Independent</a> Peter Rustin, whose term of office ends December 31, 2019. Members of the Tenafly Borough Council are Council President Mark Zinna (<a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">D</a>, 2017), Anthony Barzelatto (D, 2018), Maxim F. Basch (D, 2019), Shama Haider (D, 2018), Daniel Park (D, 2019) and Paul Stefanowicz (D, 2017).\\nTenafly is located in the 9th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 37th state legislative district. Prior to the 2010 Census, Tenafly had been part of the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20%20%20%27s%205%20%20%20%20congressional%20district\\\"></a> , a change made by the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Redistricting%20Commission\\\">New Jersey Redistricting Commission</a> that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections.\\n<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%27s%209th%20congressional%20district\\\">New Jersey's Ninth Congressional District</a> is represented by <a href=\\\"Bill%20Pascrell\\\">Bill Pascrell</a> (<a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">D</a>, <a href=\\\"Paterson%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Paterson</a>). New Jersey is represented in the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Senate\\\">United States Senate</a> by Democrats <a href=\\\"Cory%20Booker\\\">Cory Booker</a> (<a href=\\\"Newark%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Newark</a>, term ends 2021) and <a href=\\\"Bob%20Menendez\\\">Bob Menendez</a> (<a href=\\\"Paramus%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Paramus</a>, 2019).\\nFor the 2016–2017 session (<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Senate%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\\\">Senate</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly%2C%202016%E2%80%9317%20term\\\">General Assembly</a>), the <a href=\\\"37th%20Legislative%20District%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">37th Legislative District</a> of the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Legislature\\\">New Jersey Legislature</a> is represented in the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Senate\\\">State Senate</a> by <a href=\\\"Loretta%20Weinberg\\\">Loretta Weinberg</a> (<a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">D</a>, <a href=\\\"Teaneck%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Teaneck</a>) and in the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20General%20Assembly\\\">General Assembly</a> by <a href=\\\"Valerie%20Huttle\\\">Valerie Huttle</a> (D, <a href=\\\"Englewood%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Englewood</a>) and <a href=\\\"Gordon%20M.%20Johnson\\\">Gordon M. Johnson</a> (D, Englewood). The <a href=\\\"Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\\\">Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\\\"Chris%20Christie\\\">Chris Christie</a> (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>, <a href=\\\"Mendham%20Township%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Mendham Township</a>). The <a href=\\\"Lieutenant%20Governor%20of%20New%20Jersey\\\">Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey</a> is <a href=\\\"Kim%20Guadagno\\\">Kim Guadagno</a> (R, <a href=\\\"Monmouth%20Beach%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Monmouth Beach</a>).\\n<a href=\\\"Bergen%20County%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Bergen County</a> is governed by a directly elected <a href=\\\"County%20executive\\\">County Executive</a>, with legislative functions performed by a seven-member <a href=\\\"Board%20of%20Chosen%20Freeholders\\\">Board of Chosen Freeholders</a>. s of 2015 , the County Executive is <a href=\\\"James%20J.%20Tedesco%20III\\\">James J. Tedesco III</a> (<a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">D</a>, <a href=\\\"Paramus%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Paramus</a>; term ends December 31, 2018). The seven freeholders are elected <a href=\\\"at-large\\\">at-large</a> in partisan elections on a staggered basis, with two or three seats coming up for election each year, with a Chairman, Vice Chairman and Chairman Pro Tempore selected from among its members at a reorganization meeting held each January. Bergen County's Freeholders are\\nFreeholder Chairwoman <a href=\\\"Joan%20Voss\\\">Joan Voss</a> (D, 2017; <a href=\\\"Fort%20Lee%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Fort Lee</a>),\\nVice Chairman Steve Tanelli (D, 2015; <a href=\\\"North%20Arlington%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">North Arlington</a>)\\nChairman Pro Tempore John A. Felice (<a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">R</a>, 2016; <a href=\\\"River%20Edge%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">River Edge</a>),\\n<a href=\\\"David%20L.%20Ganz\\\">David L. Ganz</a> (D, 2017; <a href=\\\"Fair%20Lawn%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Fair Lawn</a>),\\nMaura R. DeNicola (R, 2016; <a href=\\\"Franklin%20Lakes%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Franklin Lakes</a>)\\nThomas J. Sullivan Jr., (D, <a href=\\\"Montvale%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Montvale</a>, 2015; serving the unexpired term of office that had been occupied by James Tedesco before he was sworn in as County Executive) and\\n<a href=\\\"Tracy%20Silna%20Zur\\\">Tracy Silna Zur</a> (D, 2015; Franklin Lakes). Countywide constitutional officials are\\nCounty Clerk John S. Hogan (D, <a href=\\\"Northvale%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Northvale</a>),\\nSheriff Michael Saudino (R) and\\nSurrogate Michael R. Dressler (D, <a href=\\\"Cresskill%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Cresskill</a>).\\nAs of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 8,709 registered voters in Tenafly, of which 3,082 (35.4% vs. 31.7% countywide) were registered as <a href=\\\"Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Democrats</a>, 1,445 (16.6% vs. 21.1%) were registered as <a href=\\\"Republican%20Party%20%28United%20States%29\\\">Republicans</a> and 4,181 (48.0% vs. 47.1%) were registered as <a href=\\\"Unaffiliated%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">Unaffiliated</a>. There was one voter registered to another party. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 60.1% (vs. 57.1% in Bergen County) were registered to vote, including 87.3% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 73.7% countywide).\\nIn the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202012\\\">2012 presidential election</a>, Democrat <a href=\\\"Barack%20Obama\\\">Barack Obama</a> received 3,694 votes (58.8% vs. 54.8% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\\\"Mitt%20Romney\\\">Mitt Romney</a> with 2,489 votes (39.6% vs. 43.5%) and other candidates with 62 votes (1.0% vs. 0.9%), among the 6,281 ballots cast by the borough's 9,322 registered voters, for a turnout of 67.4% (vs. 70.4% in Bergen County). In the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202008\\\">2008 presidential election</a>, Democrat Barack Obama received 4,285 votes (63.3% vs. 53.9% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\\\"John%20McCain\\\">John McCain</a> with 2,376 votes (35.1% vs. 44.5%) and other candidates with 54 votes (0.8% vs. 0.8%), among the 6,773 ballots cast by the borough's 9,002 registered voters, for a turnout of 75.2% (vs. 76.8% in Bergen County). In the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20presidential%20election%20in%20New%20Jersey%2C%202004\\\">2004 presidential election</a>, Democrat <a href=\\\"John%20Kerry\\\">John Kerry</a> received 4,195 votes (61.3% vs. 51.7% countywide), ahead of Republican <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a> with 2,569 votes (37.5% vs. 47.2%) and other candidates with 53 votes (0.8% vs. 0.7%), among the 6,848 ballots cast by the borough's 8,871 registered voters, for a turnout of 77.2% (vs. 76.9% in the whole county).\\nIn the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202013\\\">2013 gubernatorial election</a>, Republican <a href=\\\"Chris%20Christie\\\">Chris Christie</a> received 57.3% of the vote (2,046 cast), ahead of Democrat <a href=\\\"Barbara%20Buono\\\">Barbara Buono</a> with 42.2% (1,505 votes), and other candidates with 0.5% (18 votes), among the 3,667 ballots cast by the borough's 8,800 registered voters (98 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 41.7%. In the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20gubernatorial%20election%2C%202009\\\">2009 gubernatorial election</a>, Democrat <a href=\\\"Jon%20Corzine\\\">Jon Corzine</a> received 2,454 ballots cast (55.8% vs. 48.0% countywide), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 1,701 votes (38.7% vs. 45.8%), Independent <a href=\\\"Chris%20Daggett\\\">Chris Daggett</a> with 189 votes (4.3% vs. 4.7%) and other candidates with 17 votes (0.4% vs. 0.5%), among the 4,401 ballots cast by the borough's 8,782 registered voters, yielding a 50.1% turnout (vs. 50.0% in the county).\\nThe <a href=\\\"Tenafly%20Public%20Schools\\\">Tenafly Public Schools</a> serve students from <a href=\\\"pre-kindergarten\\\">pre-kindergarten</a> through <a href=\\\"twelfth%20grade\\\">twelfth grade</a>. As of the 2011-12 school year, the district's six schools had an enrollment of 3,605 students and 282.2 classroom teachers (on an <a href=\\\"full-time%20equivalent\\\">FTE</a> basis), for a <a href=\\\"student%E2%80%93teacher%20ratio\\\">student–teacher ratio</a> of 12.77:1. Schools in the district (with 2011-12 enrollment data from the <a href=\\\"National%20Center%20for%20Education%20Statistics\\\">National Center for Education Statistics</a>) are four elementary schools —\\nMalcolm S. Mackay Elementary School (387 students; in grades K-5),\\nRalph S. Maugham Elementary School (384; K-5),\\nJ. Spencer Smith Elementary School (365; K-5) and\\nWalter Stillman Elementary School (394; PreK-5) —\\nTenafly Middle School (844) for grades 6-8 and\\n<a href=\\\"Tenafly%20High%20School\\\">Tenafly High School</a> (1,231) for grades 9-12. Students from <a href=\\\"Alpine%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Alpine</a> attend Tenafly High School as part of a <a href=\\\"sending/receiving%20relationship\\\">sending/receiving relationship</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Department%20of%20Education\\\">United States Department of Education</a> awarded Tenafly High School the <a href=\\\"National%20Blue%20Ribbon%20Schools%20Program\\\">National Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence</a> at a special assembly to the Tenafly High School community on September 20, 2005. Tenafly was the only high school in New Jersey and one of 38 public high schools in the U.S. to receive the 2005 Blue Ribbon School Award.\\nThe school was the third-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 328 schools statewide in \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Monthly\\\">New Jersey Monthly</a>\\\" magazine's September 2012 cover story on the state's \\\"Top Public High Schools\\\", after also being ranked third in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. Schooldigger.com ranked the school as tied for 26th out of 376 public high schools statewide in its 2010 rankings (unchanged from the 2009 rank) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the language arts literacy and mathematics components of the <a href=\\\"High%20School%20Proficiency%20Assessment\\\">High School Proficiency Assessment</a> (HSPA).\\nPublic school students from the borough, and all of Bergen County, are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the <a href=\\\"Bergen%20County%20Technical%20Schools\\\">Bergen County Technical Schools</a>, which include the <a href=\\\"Bergen%20County%20Academies\\\">Bergen County Academies</a> in <a href=\\\"Hackensack%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Hackensack</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Bergen%20County%20Technical%20High%20School%2C%20Teterboro%20Campus\\\">Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro</a> or <a href=\\\"Bergen%20County%20Technical%20High%20School%2C%20Paramus%20Campus\\\">Paramus</a>. The district offers programs on a shared-time or full-time basis, with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student's home school district.\\nAcademy of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, which operates under the supervision of the <a href=\\\"Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Newark\\\">Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark</a>, was recognized in 2012 by the <a href=\\\"National%20Blue%20Ribbon%20Schools%20Program\\\">National Blue Ribbon Schools Program</a> of the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Department%20of%20Education\\\">United States Department of Education</a>, one of 15 private and public schools in the state to be honored that year.\\ns of 2010 , the borough had a total of 64.55 mi of roadways, of which 54.71 mi were maintained by the municipality, 6.85 mi by Bergen County, 1.50 mi by the <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey%20Department%20of%20Transportation\\\">New Jersey Department of Transportation</a> and 1.49 mi by the <a href=\\\"Palisades%20Interstate%20Park%20Commission\\\">Palisades Interstate Park Commission</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"County%20Route%20501%20%28New%20Jersey%29\\\">County Route 501</a>, <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Route%209W\\\">U.S. Route 9W</a> and the <a href=\\\"Palisades%20Interstate%20Parkway\\\">Palisades Interstate Parkway</a> all pass through Tenafly.\\nThe Palisades Interstate Parkway runs above the Hudson River from <a href=\\\"Englewood%20Cliffs%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Englewood Cliffs</a> north towards <a href=\\\"Alpine%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Alpine</a>. There are no exits on the parkway in Tenafly; the nearest interchanges are Exit 1 in Englewood Cliffs to the south, and Exit 2 in Alpine in the north.\\nU.S. Route 9W adjoins and runs parallel to the Palisades Interstate Parkway.\\nLocal and express bus service to and from New York City is available via <a href=\\\"NJ%20Transit\\\">NJ Transit</a> bus route <a href=\\\"166%20%28New%20Jersey%20bus%29\\\">166</a> to and from the <a href=\\\"Port%20Authority%20Bus%20Terminal\\\">Port Authority Bus Terminal</a> in <a href=\\\"Midtown%20Manhattan\\\">Midtown Manhattan</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Rockland%20Coaches\\\">Rockland Coaches</a> provides service to the Port Authority Bus Terminal on Route 14ET from <a href=\\\"Montvale%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Montvale</a>, the 9/9A/9T/9TA from <a href=\\\"Stony%20Point%2C%20New%20York\\\">Stony Point, New York</a> and the 20/20T routes from <a href=\\\"West%20Nyack%2C%20New%20York\\\">West Nyack, New York</a>.\\nSaddle River Tours / Ameribus provides rush hour service to the <a href=\\\"George%20Washington%20Bridge%20Bus%20Station\\\">George Washington Bridge Bus Station</a> on the 20/84 route.\\nFrom the mid 1850s until September 1966, Tenafly was served by rail along the <a href=\\\"Northern%20Branch\\\">Northern Branch</a>, originally to <a href=\\\"Pavonia%20Terminal\\\">Pavonia Terminal</a>, and later to <a href=\\\"Hoboken%20Terminal\\\">Hoboken Terminal</a>. <a href=\\\"CSX%20Transportation\\\">CSX</a> now provides freight service along the line. The former <a href=\\\"Tenafly%20%28Erie%20Railroad%20station%29\\\">Tenafly Station</a>, currently a restaurant, was added to the <a href=\\\"National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places\\\">National Register of Historic Places</a> in 1979; it is one of four surviving stations on the Northern Branch.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Northern%20Branch%20Corridor%20Project\\\">Northern Branch Corridor Project</a>, a proposal by New Jersey Transit to extend the <a href=\\\"Hudson%20Bergen%20Light%20Rail\\\">Hudson Bergen Light Rail</a> for nine stops and 11 mi northward from its current terminus in <a href=\\\"North%20Bergen%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">North Bergen</a> to two stations in Tenafly, the last of which would be a new terminus near the <a href=\\\"Cresskill%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Cresskill</a> town line, met with mixed reactions. Many residents and officials believed that the negative impact on the borough in terms of traffic and noise outweighed the benefits. In November 2010, voters rejected the plan to re-establish rail service to the town by a nearly 2-1 ratio in a non-binding referendum, with all of the borough council candidates opposing the restoration of commuter train service. There is continued resistance to New Jersey Transit's preferred alternative as described in the plan's December 2011 announcement. Despite local opposition, officials in Bergen County asked the <a href=\\\"North%20Jersey%20Transportation%20Planning%20Authority\\\">North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority</a> to support the proposal. In 2013, New Jersey Transit announced that the line would end in Englewood, after Tenafly officials estimated that as much in $8 million in commercial property valuation would be lost and residents raised strong objections.\\nHistoric locations in Tenafly include:\\nPeople who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Tenafly include:\",\n \"Boogie (genre)\\nBoogie (sometimes called <a href=\\\"post-disco\\\">post-disco</a>) is a <a href=\\\"rhythm%20and%20blues\\\">rhythm and blues</a> <a href=\\\"music%20genre\\\">genre</a> of <a href=\\\"electronic%20music\\\">electronic</a> <a href=\\\"electronic%20dance%20music\\\">dance music</a> with close ties to the <a href=\\\"post-disco\\\">post-disco</a> style, that first emerged in the United States during the late 1970s to mid-1980s. The sound of boogie defined by bridging acoustic and electronic musical instruments with emphasis on vocals and miscellaneous <a href=\\\"Sound%20effect\\\">effects</a> later evolved into <a href=\\\"Electro%20%28music%29\\\">electro</a> and <a href=\\\"house%20music\\\">house music</a>.\\nBoogie, following the example of post-disco, lacks the <a href=\\\"Four-on-the-floor%20%28dance%29\\\">four-on-the-floor</a> beat (however there are examples of exceptions where some tracks will include the four-on-the-floor beat), which is a \\\"traditional\\\" rhythm of <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco</a> music, has a strong accent on the <a href=\\\"Beat%20%28music%29\\\">second and fourth beats</a> and generally is located in the 110 to 116 <a href=\\\"tempo\\\">beats-per-minute</a> range. Aside from applying certain technological and promotional aspects of <a href=\\\"new%20wave%20music\\\">new wave music</a> and having been fairly exposed to its subgenre synthpop, boogie is, however, <a href=\\\"rhythm%20and%20blues\\\">R&B</a>-rooted and predominantly draws from <a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a> music. Other influences from a completely different music landscape include <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a>. Typical boogie track can be characterized by mid-tempo rhythm, prominent use of <a href=\\\"Slapping%20%28music%29\\\">slap bass</a> (<a href=\\\"bass%20guitar\\\">electric</a>—in the early 1980s—and/or <a href=\\\"synthesizer\\\">synthetic</a>—mid-1980s onwards), loud <a href=\\\"clapping\\\">clapping</a> sound, melodic chords and, obviously, <a href=\\\"synthesizer\\\">synthesizer</a>s.\\nThe term, coined by British DJs <a href=\\\"Norman%20Jay\\\">Norman Jay</a> and Dez Parkes, is nowadays used on <a href=\\\"eBay\\\">eBay</a> to refer a specific form of early-1980s dance music of <a href=\\\"African%20American\\\">African-American</a> origin.\\nThe first documented use of the word boogie is dated back to 1929. Boogie, as defined by <a href=\\\"Merriam-Webster%20Dictionary\\\">Merriam-Webster Dictionary</a>, is an occasion for dancing to the strongly rhythmic rock music that encourage people to <a href=\\\"dance\\\">dance</a>. Earliest association of the word boogie was with <a href=\\\"blues\\\">blues</a> and later <a href=\\\"rock%20and%20roll\\\">rock and roll</a> and <a href=\\\"rockabilly\\\">rockabilly</a> genres.\\nIn the 1970s, the term was revitalized for <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco</a> and later <a href=\\\"post-disco\\\">post-disco</a> subcultures. The term \\\"boogie\\\" was used in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a> to describe a form of <a href=\\\"African-American\\\">African-American</a> <a href=\\\"dance%20music\\\">dance</a>/<a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a> music from the 1980s. The name boogie tended to be used as, although essentially used to describe disco records, the word disco had gained bad connotations by the early 1980s.\\nOriginally the word <a href=\\\"wiktionary%3Aboogie\\\">boogie</a> could be found in 1970s <a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a> and <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco</a> records, most notably \\\"<a href=\\\"Boogie%20Oogie%20Oogie\\\">Boogie Oogie Oogie</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"A%20Taste%20of%20Honey%20%28band%29\\\">A Taste of Honey</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"Boogie%20Wonderland\\\">Boogie Wonderland</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Earth%2C%20Wind%20%26amp%3B%20Fire\\\">Earth Wind and Fire</a>, but 1980s tracks like \\\"<a href=\\\"Give%20Me%20the%20Night%20%28George%20Benson%20song%29\\\">Give Me the Night</a>\\\" (<a href=\\\"George%20Benson\\\">George Benson</a>, 1980), \\\"Boogie's Gonna Get Ya\\\" (<a href=\\\"Rafael%20Cameron\\\">Rafael Cameron</a>, 1981), \\\"<a href=\\\"I%27m%20in%20Love%20%28Evelyn%20King%20song%29\\\">I'm in Love</a>\\\" (<a href=\\\"Evelyn%20King%20%28singer%29\\\">Evelyn \\\"Champagne\\\" King</a>, 1981), \\\"<a href=\\\"You%27re%20the%20One%20for%20Me%20%28D.%20Train%20song%29\\\">You're the One for Me</a>\\\" (<a href=\\\"D%20Train%20%28music%20group%29\\\">D. Train</a>, 1981), \\\"Don't Make Me Wait\\\" (<a href=\\\"Peech%20Boys\\\">Peech Boys</a>, 1982) or \\\"Break Dancin' – Electric Boogie\\\" (<a href=\\\"West%20Street%20Mob\\\">West Street Mob</a>, 1984) helped define the musical style of boogie.\\nThroughout the 1980s, various <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>-based boogie groups began experimenting with the <a href=\\\"Dub%20music\\\">dub</a>-infused bass which anticipated the sounds of house. One of these groups was Peech Boys, followed by D. Train, <a href=\\\"Vicky%20D\\\">Vicky D</a>, and <a href=\\\"Sharon%20Redd\\\">Sharon Redd</a>. While some record producers, such as <a href=\\\"Fran%C3%A7ois%20Kevorkian\\\">François Kevorkian</a> and <a href=\\\"Larry%20Levan\\\">Larry Levan</a>, were polishing and extending the limits of urban-oriented boogie, others like <a href=\\\"Arthur%20Baker%20%28musician%29\\\">Arthur Baker</a> and <a href=\\\"John%20Benitez\\\">John \\\"Jellybean\\\" Benitez</a> drew their influences from European and Japanese <a href=\\\"synthpop\\\">technopop</a> music. The latter approach paved the way for electro, and subsequently, <a href=\\\"freestyle%20music\\\">freestyle music</a>.\\nBoogie had a popular following within London's <a href=\\\"underground%20scene\\\">underground scene</a>, often based around nightclubs and club DJs due to a lack of mainstream radio support. Boogie records were mostly imported from the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">United States</a> and were sometimes regarded as \\\"electro-funk\\\" or \\\"disco-funk\\\".\\nAmong electro-boogie (later shortened to electro) pioneers include <a href=\\\"Zapp%20%28band%29\\\">Zapp</a>, D. Train, <a href=\\\"Sinnamon\\\">Sinnamon</a> and other post-disco/boogie musicians; especially those influenced by <a href=\\\"New%20wave%20music\\\">new wave</a> and <a href=\\\"synthpop\\\">synthpop</a> acts like <a href=\\\"Human%20League\\\">Human League</a> or <a href=\\\"Gary%20Numan\\\">Gary Numan</a>, combined with the R&B sound of <a href=\\\"Herbie%20Hancock\\\">Herbie Hancock</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20Clinton%20%28musician%29\\\">George Clinton</a>. As the electronic progression continued, acoustic instruments such as <a href=\\\"bass%20guitar\\\">bass guitar</a> were replaced by <a href=\\\"Japan\\\">Japan</a>ese-made <a href=\\\"synthesizer\\\">synthesizer</a>s and most notably by iconic drum machines like <a href=\\\"Roland%20TR-808\\\">Roland TR-808</a>. Early uses of this <a href=\\\"drum%20machine\\\">drum machine</a> include several <a href=\\\"Yellow%20Magic%20Orchestra\\\">Yellow Magic Orchestra</a> tracks in 1980–1981, the 1982 track \\\"<a href=\\\"Planet%20Rock%20%28song%29\\\">Planet Rock</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Afrikaa%20Bambaataa\\\">Afrikaa Bambaataa</a>, and the 1982 song \\\"<a href=\\\"Sexual%20Healing\\\">Sexual Healing</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Marvin%20Gaye\\\">Marvin Gaye</a>.\\nAbout electro origins, <a href=\\\"Greg%20Wilson%20%28DJ%29\\\">Greg Wilson</a> argues:\\nMuch later in the 2000s (decade) and early 2010s, <a href=\\\"indietronica\\\">indietronica</a> groups and artists such as <a href=\\\"James%20Pants\\\">James Pants</a>, <a href=\\\"Juice%20Aleem\\\">Juice Aleem</a>, <a href=\\\"Sa-Ra%20Creative%20Partners\\\">Sa-Ra Creative Partners</a> are being influenced by the sounds of boogie and 1980s electronic music in general.\\n<a href=\\\"Chromeo\\\">Chromeo</a>, a <a href=\\\"Canada\\\">Canadian</a> duo, published a boogie-oriented album called \\\"<a href=\\\"She%27s%20in%20Control\\\">She's in Control</a>\\\" in 2004. <a href=\\\"D%C3%A2m-Funk\\\">Dâm-Funk</a> is another boogie-influenced artist hailing from <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a>. He published an album called \\\"<a href=\\\"Toeachizown\\\">Toeachizown</a>\\\" in 2009.\\nAmerican and British boogie and/or at some point boogie-influenced artists include:\\nInternational artists include:\\nContemporary artists influenced by boogie include:\\n\",\n \"Incredible Bongo Band\\nThe Incredible Bongo Band, also known as Michael Viner's Incredible Bongo Band, was a project started in 1972 by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Viner\\\">Michael Viner</a>, a record artist manager and executive at <a href=\\\"MGM%20Records\\\">MGM Records</a>. Viner was called on to supplement the soundtrack to the B-film \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Thing%20With%20Two%20Heads\\\">The Thing With Two Heads</a>\\\". The band's output consisted of upbeat, funky, <a href=\\\"instrumental\\\">instrumental</a> music. Many tracks were covers of popular songs of the day characterized by the prominence of <a href=\\\"bongo%20drum\\\">bongo drum</a>s, <a href=\\\"conga%20drum\\\">conga drum</a>s, rock drums and <a href=\\\"Brass%20instrument\\\">brass</a>.\\nThe band released two albums, 1973's \\\"Bongo Rock\\\" and 1974's \\\"Return of the Incredible Bongo Band\\\". The instrumental \\\"<a href=\\\"Bongo%20Rock\\\">Bongo Rock</a>\\\", co-written by <a href=\\\"Art%20Laboe\\\">Art Laboe</a> and <a href=\\\"Preston%20Epps\\\">Preston Epps</a> and released by Epps as a Top 40 hit in 1959, was covered by the Incredible Bongo Band (shown as \\\"Bongo Rock '73\\\" on the album), and became a minor US hit for them in 1973, and a substantial hit in Canada (#20).\\n<a href=\\\"Michael%20Viner\\\">Michael Viner</a> would make use of <a href=\\\"MGM\\\">MGM</a> recording facilities in down-time, recruiting whichever studio musicians were on-hand. This apparently included many well-known blow-ins, all uncredited. Important contributions were made by <a href=\\\"Jim%20Gordon%20%28musician%29\\\">Jim Gordon</a> on drums and <a href=\\\"King%20Errisson\\\">King Errisson</a> on bongos. <a href=\\\"Ringo%20Starr\\\">Ringo Starr</a> is rumored to have played on some tracks, specifically \\\"Kiburi.\\\". The \\\"down-time\\\" sessions carried on for some time, until upper management finally quelled the vanity project.\\nOther musicians involved in the sessions, per \\\"Sample This\\\", the movie include:\\nMusicians mentioned elsewhere include:\\nThis was never an actual band. Once the product had been finally released, a fake band was assembled and photographed. Those photos were seen on some album artwork, and in publicity.\\nThe first Incredible Bongo Band album included a cover of \\\"<a href=\\\"Apache%20%28instrumental%29\\\">Apache</a>\\\", an instrumental tune written by <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Lordan\\\">Jerry Lordan</a> and originally made popular in the UK by <a href=\\\"The%20Shadows\\\">The Shadows</a>, and in North America by <a href=\\\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann\\\">Jørgen Ingmann</a>. They recorded the song at <a href=\\\"Can-Base%20Studios\\\">Can-Base Studios</a> in Vancouver to take advantage of <a href=\\\"Canadian%20content\\\">Canadian content</a> laws, which had helped promote their previous hit, \\\"<a href=\\\"Bongo%20Rock\\\">Bongo Rock</a>.\\\" The group's version of \\\"Apache\\\" (produced by <a href=\\\"Perry%20Botkin%20Jr.\\\">Perry Botkin Jr.</a>) was not a hit upon release, and languished in relative obscurity until the late 1970s, when it was adopted by early <a href=\\\"Hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip-hop</a> artists, including pioneering deejay <a href=\\\"Kool%20Herc\\\">Kool Herc</a>, for the uncommonly long percussion <a href=\\\"break%20%28music%29\\\">break</a> in the middle of the song. Subsequently, many of the Incredible Bongo Band's other releases were sampled by hip-hop producers, and the \\\"Apache\\\" break also remains a staple of many producers in <a href=\\\"drum%20and%20bass\\\">drum and bass</a>. The song received popular attention again in 2001 when it was featured in an ad for an <a href=\\\"Acura\\\">Acura</a> SUV. In 2008, music critic <a href=\\\"Will%20Hermes\\\">Will Hermes</a> did an article on \\\"Apache\\\" and the Incredible Bongo Band for the \\\"<a href=\\\"New%20York%20Times\\\">New York Times</a>\\\".\\nAs well, the band's cover of \\\"Let There Be Drums,\\\" which was made famous by <a href=\\\"Sandy%20Nelson\\\">Sandy Nelson</a> and also performed by <a href=\\\"the%20Ventures\\\">the Ventures</a>, was used as the theme song for the long-running television show \\\"<a href=\\\"Atlantic%20Grand%20Prix%20Wrestling\\\">Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling</a>\\\" during the 1980s. It made #66 in Canada in December 1973.\\n\\\"Last Bongo in Belgium\\\" has been sampled in the songs \\\"<a href=\\\"Looking%20Down%20the%20Barrel%20of%20a%20Gun\\\">Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun</a>\\\" performed by the <a href=\\\"Beastie%20Boys\\\">Beastie Boys</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Angel%20%28Massive%20Attack%20song%29\\\">Angel</a>\\\" performed by <a href=\\\"Massive%20Attack\\\">Massive Attack</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"Song%20of%20Life%20%28Leftfield%20song%29\\\">Song of Life</a>\\\" performed by <a href=\\\"Leftfield\\\">Leftfield</a>.\\n\\\"Let There Be Drums\\\" was used in <a href=\\\"Ken%20Burns\\\">Ken Burns</a>' \\\"Baseball: The 10th Inning\\\", the follow-up to Burns' '94 PBS documentary.\\n\\\"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\\\" was used as the main loop in the song <a href=\\\"Hip%20Hop%20Is%20Dead%20%28song%29\\\">Hip Hop Is Dead</a> performed by <a href=\\\"Nas\\\">Nas</a>.\\nThe 2013 documentary \\\"Sample This\\\", directed by Dan Forrer and narrated by <a href=\\\"Gene%20Simmons\\\">Gene Simmons</a>, recounts the story of the Incredible Bongo Band and its recording of \\\"Apache\\\".\\n\\\"Bongolia\\\" was used in <a href=\\\"Edgar%20Wright\\\">Edgar Wright</a>'s 2017 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Baby%20Driver\\\">Baby Driver</a>\\\".\\nA group formed by musician <a href=\\\"Shawn%20Lee%20%28musician%29\\\">Shawn Lee</a> with the parallel name \\\"Shawn Lee's Incredible Tabla Band\\\" released a cover album with <a href=\\\"Ubiquity%20Records\\\">Ubiquity Records</a> in 2011; \\\"Tabla Rock\\\", based on the album \\\"Bongo Rock\\\". Lee took on the entire Bongo Band debut album, and also two tracks from their second album. Lee's album covers the music on <a href=\\\"tabla\\\">tabla</a> instead of bongo, presenting it in an Indian-funk style.\\nReleased 1973.\\n\\\"Bongo Rock\\\" was also featured in Robert Dimery's book \\\"<a href=\\\"1001%20Albums%20You%20Must%20Hear%20Before%20You%20Die\\\">1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die</a>\\\".\\nReleased 1974.\\nA1. \\\"Apache\\\"\\nA2. \\\"Let There Be Drums\\\"\\nA3. \\\"Bongolia\\\"\\nA4. \\\"Wipe Out\\\"\\nB1. \\\"Dueling Bongos\\\"\\nB2. \\\"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\\\"\\nB3. \\\"Raunchy '73\\\"\\nC1. \\\"Last Bongo in Belgium\\\"\\nC2. \\\"Bongo Rock '73\\\"\\nC3. \\\"Hang Down Your Head Tom Dooley, Your Tie's Caught in Your Zipper\\\"\\nC4. \\\"Sharp Nine\\\"\\nD1. \\\"Kiburi\\\"\\nD2. \\\"Sing, Sing, Sing\\\"\\nD3. \\\"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\\\"\\nD4. \\\"Ohkey Dokey\\\"\\nD5. \\\"When the Bed Breaks Down, I'll Meet You in the Spring\\\"\",\n \"Sylvia Robinson\\nSylvia Robinson (née Vanderpool; March 6, 1935 – September 29, 2011) was an American singer, musician, record producer, and record label <a href=\\\"Senior%20management\\\">executive</a>. Robinson was best known for her work as founder/CEO of the <a href=\\\"hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip hop</a> label <a href=\\\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\\\">Sugar Hill Records</a>. Robinson is credited as the driving force behind two landmark singles in the genre; \\\"<a href=\\\"Rapper%27s%20Delight\\\">Rapper's Delight</a>\\\" (1979) by the <a href=\\\"Sugarhill%20Gang\\\">Sugarhill Gang</a>, and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Message%20%28Grandmaster%20Flash%20and%20the%20Furious%20Five%20song%29\\\">The Message</a>\\\" (1982) by <a href=\\\"Grandmaster%20Flash%20and%20the%20Furious%20Five\\\">Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five</a>; which caused her to be dubbed the \\\"Mother of Hip-Hop\\\". Robinson received a Pioneer Award for her career in singing and being the founder of Sugarhill Records at the 11th Annual Rhythm and Blues Awards Gala in 2000. Robinson died of <a href=\\\"congestive%20heart%20failure\\\">congestive heart failure</a> on September 29, 2011 at age 76.\\nRobinson was born as Sylvia Vanderpool (aka Vanterpool) in 1935 in New York City. Robinson attended <a href=\\\"Washington%20Irving%20High%20School%20%28New%20York%20City%29\\\">Washington Irving High School</a> until the age of 14, and began recording music in 1950 for <a href=\\\"Columbia%20Records\\\">Columbia Records</a> under the billing, Little Sylvia.\\nIn 1954, she began teaming up with <a href=\\\"Kentucky\\\">Kentucky</a> guitarist <a href=\\\"Mickey%20Baker\\\">Mickey Baker</a>, who then taught her how to play guitar. In 1956, the duo now known as <a href=\\\"Mickey%20%26amp%3B%20Sylvia\\\">Mickey & Sylvia</a>, recorded the <a href=\\\"Bo%20Diddley\\\">Bo Diddley</a> and <a href=\\\"Jody%20Williams%20%28blues%20musician%29\\\">Jody Williams</a>-penned rock single, \\\"<a href=\\\"Love%20Is%20Strange\\\">Love Is Strange</a>,\\\" which topped the R&B charts and reached number eleven on the \\\"<a href=\\\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\\\">Billboard</a>\\\" pop charts in early 1957. After several more releases including the modestly successful \\\"There Oughta Be a Law\\\", Mickey & Sylvia split up in 1959 with Sylvia later marrying Joe Robinson that same year. Sylvia restarted her solo career shortly after her initial split from Baker, first under the name Sylvia Robbins. In 1961, the duo reunited and recorded more songs together for various labels. They are most noted during this period for singing background on <a href=\\\"Ike%20%26amp%3B%20Tina%20Turner\\\">Ike & Tina Turner</a>'s hit single, \\\"<a href=\\\"It%27s%20Gonna%20Work%20Out%20Fine\\\">It's Gonna Work Out Fine</a>\\\". In 1964, frustrated with the music business, Baker moved to Paris.\\nIn 1966, the Robinsons moved to <a href=\\\"New%20Jersey\\\">New Jersey</a> where they formed a soul music label, <a href=\\\"All%20Platinum%20Records\\\">All Platinum Records</a>, the following year, with artist Lezli Valentine, formerly of the Jaynettes, bringing the label its first hit with \\\"I Won't Do Anything\\\". In 1968, the duo signed a Washington, D.C. act named <a href=\\\"Ray%2C%20Goodman%20%26amp%3B%20Brown\\\">The Moments</a>, who immediately found success with \\\"Not on the Outside\\\". Within a couple of years and with a new lineup, the group scored their biggest hit with \\\"<a href=\\\"Love%20on%20a%20Two-Way%20Street\\\">Love on a Two-Way Street</a>\\\", which Sylvia co-wrote and produced with Bert Keyes and (uncredited) lyrics by Lezli Valentine. Other hits on the label and its subsidiaries, including Stang and Vibration, included <a href=\\\"Shirley%20%26amp%3B%20Company\\\">Shirley & Company</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Shame%2C%20Shame%2C%20Shame%20%28Shirley%20%26amp%3B%20Company%20song%29\\\">Shame, Shame, Shame</a>\\\", the Moments' \\\"Sexy Mama\\\" and \\\"Look at Me I'm in Love\\\" and the Whatnauts/Moments collaboration, \\\"Girls\\\". Robinson co-wrote and produced many of the tracks, although later she was supported by members of The Moments, Al Goodman and Harry Ray, as well as locally based producers, George Kerr and Nate Edmonds.\\nIn 1972, Robinson sent a demo of a song she had written called \\\"<a href=\\\"Pillow%20Talk%20%28Sylvia%20song%29\\\">Pillow Talk</a>\\\" to <a href=\\\"Al%20Green\\\">Al Green</a>. When Green passed on it due to his religious beliefs, Robinson decided to record it herself, returning to her own musical career. Billed simply as Sylvia, the record became a major hit, reaching number-one on the R&B chart and crossing over to reach <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">Billboard Hot 100</a> (#3), while also reaching #14 in the UK at the beginning of 1973. She was awarded a <a href=\\\"music%20recording%20sales%20certification\\\">gold disc</a> by the <a href=\\\"R.I.A.A.\\\">R.I.A.A.</a> in May 1973. Robinson recorded four solo albums on the Vibration subsidiary and had other R&B hits including \\\"Sweet Stuff\\\" and \\\"Pussy Cat\\\". \\\"Pillow Talk\\\" has been called an early example of <a href=\\\"prototype\\\">prototypical</a> <a href=\\\"disco\\\">disco music</a> and went on to sell two million copies. The vocals are replete with moaning and heavy breathing, predating <a href=\\\"Donna%20Summer\\\">Donna Summer</a>'s orgasmic moans on \\\"<a href=\\\"Love%20to%20Love%20You%20Baby%20%28song%29\\\">Love to Love You Baby</a>\\\".\\nIn the 1970s, the Robinsons founded <a href=\\\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\\\">Sugar Hill Records</a>. The company was named after the culturally rich <a href=\\\"Sugar%20Hill%2C%20Manhattan\\\">Sugar Hill</a> area of Harlem, an affluent African American neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City, known as a hub for artists and performers in the early and mid-1900s. The song \\\"Rapper's Delight\\\", performed by The Sugar Hill Gang, brought rap into the public music arena and revolutionized the music industry by introducing the technique of re-using existing compositions, a practice that became known as \\\"<a href=\\\"Sampling%20%28music%29\\\">sampling</a>\\\". Later acts signed to <a href=\\\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\\\">Sugar Hill Records</a> included all-female rap/funk group <a href=\\\"The%20Sequence\\\">The Sequence</a>, featuring a teenage <a href=\\\"Angie%20Stone\\\">Angie Stone</a> (recording as \\\"Angie B\\\"), who had a million-selling hit in early 1980 with \\\"Funk U Up\\\". Sugar Hill folded in 1985, due to changes in the music industry, the competition of other hip-hop labels, such as <a href=\\\"Profile%20Records\\\">Profile</a> and <a href=\\\"Def%20Jam%20Records\\\">Def Jam</a> and also financial pressures. Robinson, who had by now divorced Joe Robinson, continued her efforts as a music executive, forming Bon Ami Records in 1987. The label was noted for signing the act The New Style, who later left and found success as <a href=\\\"Naughty%20by%20Nature\\\">Naughty by Nature</a>.\\nRobinson died on the morning of September 29, 2011, aged 76, at Meadowlands Hospital in <a href=\\\"Secaucus%2C%20New%20Jersey\\\">Secaucus, New Jersey</a> from congestive heart failure. On August 19, 2014, <a href=\\\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\\\">The Hollywood Reporter</a> reported that producer <a href=\\\"Paula%20Wagner\\\">Paula Wagner</a> had acquired the rights to the life story of Sylvia Robinson, the influential rap pioneer and producer known as the \\\"Mother of Hip-Hop.\\\" Wagner acquired the rights from Robinson's son, Joey Robinson (now deceased), who was scheduled to executive produce and serve as a consultant on the project along with rapper <a href=\\\"Grandmaster%20Melle%20Mel\\\">Grandmaster Melle Mel</a>. Music executive <a href=\\\"Robert%20Kraft%20%28composer%29\\\">Robert Kraft</a> will co-produce the film along with <a href=\\\"Stephanie%20Allain\\\">Stephanie Allain</a>. The film will cover Sylvia Robinson's four-decade career in the music business, her turbulent love life and the mark she made on popular culture at a defining moment in the evolution of hip-hop.\\nIn a statement, Wagner says Robinson's life story has all the elements of a great film, \\\"It is not only the story of female empowerment at a time when the world of music was male-dominated, but it's also a story of the origin of hip-hop and how this woman's determination, immense talent and savvy business sense fostered an entire musical movement.\\\" Joey Robinson said of his mother and father, Sugar Hill Records co-founders, and of the upcoming film, \\\"This movie is going to show how my parents were able to remain independent, keep control of their publishing and master recordings and how they later dealt with the major record labels and mob associates. Sugar Hill paved the way for a new genre of music that the industry had no knowledge of back in 1979. You will see the struggles of what Sugar Hill went through to keep hip-hop music alive when the industry wanted to bury it.\\\" On October 21, 2015, <a href=\\\"The%20Hollywood%20Reporter\\\">The Hollywood Reporter</a> announced that <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.\\\">Warner Bros.</a> had picked up the untitled Sylvia Robinson story, and that Malcolm Spellman and Carlito Rodriguez – the writers on the hit <a href=\\\"Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company\\\">Fox</a> TV show, \\\"<a href=\\\"Empire%20%282015%20TV%20series%29\\\">Empire</a>\\\" – had been tapped to tell the story of Sylvia Robinson and <a href=\\\"Sugar%20Hill%20Records%20%28hip%20hop%20label%29\\\">Sugar Hill Records</a>.\\n\",\n \"Apache (instrumental)\\n\\\"Apache\\\" is a much-recorded <a href=\\\"instrumental\\\">instrumental</a> written by English composer <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Lordan\\\">Jerry Lordan</a>. The original version was by Bert Weedon, but Lordan did not like the version. The British rock group <a href=\\\"The%20Shadows\\\">The Shadows</a> recorded \\\"Apache\\\" in June 1960 and released it the next month. It topped the <a href=\\\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\\\">UK Singles Chart</a> for five weeks.\\nIn 1961, Danish jazz guitarist <a href=\\\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann\\\">Jørgen Ingmann</a>'s cover of \\\"Apache\\\" went to #2 in the US and #2 in Canada. A 1973 version by the <a href=\\\"Incredible%20Bongo%20Band\\\">Incredible Bongo Band</a> has been called \\\"<a href=\\\"Hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip-hop</a>’s national anthem\\\". Although this version was not a hit on release, its long percussion break has been sampled countless times on hip hop and dance tracks since the 1980s.\\nIn March 2005, <a href=\\\"Q%20magazine\\\">\\\"Q\\\" magazine</a> placed \\\"Apache\\\" by The Shadows at No. 96 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks.\\nEnglish songwriter and composer <a href=\\\"Jerry%20Lordan\\\">Jerry Lordan</a> came up with the tune. The title \\\"Apache\\\" reflects the source of Lordan's inspiration: the 1954 American western film \\\"<a href=\\\"Apache%20%28film%29\\\">Apache</a>\\\".\\nThe original recording was by British guitarist <a href=\\\"Bert%20Weedon\\\">Bert Weedon</a> in early 1960. It remained unreleased for several months. In mid-1960 the Shadows were on tour with Lordan as a supporting act. The band discovered \\\"Apache\\\" when Lordan played it on a ukulele. Lordan figured the tune would fit the Shadows; the band agreed.\\nThe recording was done at the <a href=\\\"EMI\\\">EMI</a> <a href=\\\"Abbey%20Road%20Studio\\\">Abbey Road Studio</a> in <a href=\\\"London\\\">London</a>. Singer-guitarist <a href=\\\"Joe%20Brown%20%28singer%29\\\">Joe Brown</a> had bought an Italian-built guitar <a href=\\\"echo%20chamber\\\">echo chamber</a> that he did not like and gave it to <a href=\\\"Hank%20Marvin\\\">Hank Marvin</a>, who developed a distinctive sound using it and the <a href=\\\"tremolo%20arm\\\">tremolo arm</a> of his <a href=\\\"Fender%20Stratocaster\\\">Fender Stratocaster</a>. <a href=\\\"Bruce%20Welch\\\">Bruce Welch</a> borrowed an acoustic Gibson J200 guitar from <a href=\\\"Cliff%20Richard\\\">Cliff Richard</a>, the heavy melodic bass was by <a href=\\\"Jet%20Harris\\\">Jet Harris</a>, percussion was by <a href=\\\"Tony%20Meehan\\\">Tony Meehan</a> and <a href=\\\"Cliff%20Richard\\\">Cliff Richard</a>, who played a Chinese drum at the beginning and end to provide an atmosphere of stereotypically Native American music.\\n<a href=\\\"Record%20producer\\\">Record producer</a> <a href=\\\"Norrie%20Paramor\\\">Norrie Paramor</a> preferred the flip side, an instrumental of the army song \\\"The Quartermaster's Stores,\\\" now called \\\"The Quatermasster's Stores\\\" after the TV series \\\"<a href=\\\"Quatermass\\\">Quatermass</a>\\\". Paramor changed his mind after his daughter preferred \\\"Apache.\\\" It has been cited by a generation of guitarists as inspirational and is considered one of the most influential British rock 45s of the pre-<a href=\\\"Beatles\\\">Beatles</a> era. The Shadows said –\\nWhat's the most distinctive sound of our group ? We often wondered what it is ourselves. Really, it is the sound we had when we recorded \\\"Apache\\\" – that kind of Hawaiian sounding lead guitar ... plus the beat.\\nAfter the Shadows version began its rise up the UK charts, Weedon's original climbed to No. 24 in the UK. However, neither the Shadows nor Weedon had any impact on North America. Then, in late 1960, <a href=\\\"J%C3%B8rgen%20Ingmann\\\">Jørgen Ingmann</a> produced his own 'twangy' multi-tracked cover version that was released in the United States in November 1960. In 1961, this cover version, credited to \\\"Jørgen Ingmann and His Guitar\\\", made No. 2 on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a> and No. 9 on the <a href=\\\"Hot%20R%26amp%3BB/Hip-Hop%20Songs\\\">US R&B chart</a>. The track reached No. 1 on Canada's <a href=\\\"CHUM%20Chart\\\">CHUM Chart</a>.\\nIn 1970, English <a href=\\\"progressive%20rock\\\">progressive rock</a> group <a href=\\\"The%20Edgar%20Broughton%20Band\\\">The Edgar Broughton Band</a> released a single \\\"Apache Drop Out,\\\" which combined \\\"Apache\\\" with a version of <a href=\\\"Captain%20Beefheart\\\">Captain Beefheart</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Safe%20As%20Milk\\\">Drop Out Boogie</a>.\\\" The highly unorthodox single reached No. 33 on the <a href=\\\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\\\">UK Singles Chart</a>.\\nA 1973 version by <a href=\\\"Michael%20Viner\\\">Michael Viner</a> and a funk group called \\\"The <a href=\\\"Incredible%20Bongo%20Band\\\">Incredible Bongo Band</a>\\\" added a <a href=\\\"bongo%20drum\\\">bongo drum</a> introduction and included more percussion. The drum break was played by legendary drummer <a href=\\\"Jim%20Gordon%20%28musician%29\\\">Jim Gordon</a>. Though this version was not a hit on its initial release, became heavily sampled in early <a href=\\\"hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip hop music</a>, including by <a href=\\\"Afrika%20Bambaataa\\\">Afrika Bambaataa</a>, who cited its influence. It has been sampled by hip hop performers such as <a href=\\\"The%20Sugarhill%20Gang\\\">The Sugarhill Gang</a>, <a href=\\\"L.L.%20Cool%20J\\\">L.L. Cool J</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Roots\\\">The Roots</a> and <a href=\\\"Nas\\\">Nas</a>, <a href=\\\"techno\\\">techno</a> performers <a href=\\\"Future%20Sound%20of%20London\\\">Future Sound of London</a> and <a href=\\\"Moby\\\">Moby</a>, and <a href=\\\"drum%20and%20bass\\\">drum and bass</a> acts <a href=\\\"J.%20Majik\\\">J. Majik</a> and <a href=\\\"Goldie\\\">Goldie</a>.\\nThe 2013 documentary \\\"Sample This,\\\" directed by Dan Forrer and narrated by <a href=\\\"Gene%20Simmons\\\">Gene Simmons</a>, recounts the story of The Incredible Bongo Band and its recording of \\\"Apache.\\\"\\nIn 1981, the rap group known as <a href=\\\"The%20Sugarhill%20Gang\\\">The Sugarhill Gang</a> covered the <a href=\\\"Incredible%20Bongo%20Band\\\">Incredible Bongo Band</a>'s version of the song on its second album \\\"<a href=\\\"8th%20Wonder%20%28album%29\\\">8th Wonder</a>.\\\" In 1982, this version peaked at No. 53 on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a>, No. 51 on the <a href=\\\"Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs\\\">US Dance chart</a>, and No. 13 on the <a href=\\\"Hot%20R%26amp%3BB/Hip-Hop%20Songs\\\">US R&B chart</a>. In 1995, this version gained additional popularity after being featured in \\\"Viva Lost Wages,\\\" a sixth-season episode of the <a href=\\\"NBC\\\">NBC</a> sitcom \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Fresh%20Prince%20of%20Bel-Air\\\">The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air</a>,\\\" as well as in \\\"Whoops, There It Is,\\\" a subsequent <a href=\\\"clip%20show\\\">clip show</a> from the series. Using the distinctive beat and bongo drums as well as Indian <a href=\\\"Battle%20cry\\\">war cries</a>, the Sugarhill Gang added rap lyrics with references, including:\\nIn 1996, <a href=\\\"Sir%20Mix-A-Lot\\\">Sir Mix-A-Lot</a> played off the lyrics to <a href=\\\"The%20Sugarhill%20Gang\\\">The Sugarhill Gang</a>'s version of \\\"Apache\\\" in his hit version of \\\"Jump on It,\\\" released on the album \\\"<a href=\\\"Return%20of%20the%20Bumpasaurus\\\">Return of the Bumpasaurus</a>.\\\" The lyrics contained the names of <a href=\\\"List%20of%20United%20States%20cities%20by%20population\\\">cities of the United States</a>.\\nIn 2005, <a href=\\\"Switch%20%28house%20DJ%29\\\">Switch</a> extensively sampled the covered version by Michael Viner's Incredible Bongo Band for his track \\\"<a href=\\\"A%20Bit%20Patchy\\\">A Bit Patchy</a>\\\" (wordplay on \\\"Apache\\\"). The track has since been used to advertise <a href=\\\"William%20Hill%20%28bookmaker%29\\\">William Hill</a> Online on TV, and has been remixed by artists such as <a href=\\\"Eric%20Prydz\\\">Eric Prydz</a> and <a href=\\\"Sinden%20%28DJ%29\\\">Sinden</a>.\\nFrom this point, the song became a staple of instrumental combos on both sides of the Atlantic. Among many recordings, Spanish rock band <a href=\\\"Los%20Pekenikes\\\">Los Pekenikes</a> covered \\\"Apache\\\" in 1961, <a href=\\\"The%20Ventures\\\">The Ventures</a> in 1962 (on the album \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ventures%20Play%20Telstar%20and%20the%20Lonely%20Bull\\\">The Ventures Play Telstar and the Lonely Bull</a>\\\") and <a href=\\\"Davie%20Allan%20and%20The%20Arrows\\\">Davie Allan and The Arrows</a> in 1965. <a href=\\\"Sonny%20James\\\">Sonny James</a> recorded a <a href=\\\"vocal%20music\\\">vocal music</a> version in 1961. It was produced in Nashville by <a href=\\\"Chet%20Atkins\\\">Chet Atkins</a> and was review-rated as a \\\"Spotlight Winner.\\\" <a href=\\\"George%20Harrison\\\">George Harrison</a> said <a href=\\\"The%20Beatles\\\">The Beatles</a> used to play \\\"Apache\\\" as well as other Shadows' hits (\\\"FBI\\\", \\\"The Frightened City\\\") during their shows in Hamburg.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Minnesota%20Lynx\\\">Minnesota Lynx</a> of the <a href=\\\"WNBA\\\">WNBA</a> adopted \\\"Apache\\\" as the unofficial team anthem in 2007. Following victories, the team would dance to the song at center court. For the first home game of the team's first <a href=\\\"2011%20WNBA%20Finals\\\">WNBA Finals</a> appearance, the team brought in the Sugarhill Gang to perform the song at halftime.\\n\",\n \"Sugar Hill Records\\nSugar Hill Records is an American <a href=\\\"bluegrass%20music\\\">bluegrass</a> and <a href=\\\"Americana%20%28music%29\\\">Americana</a> record label.\\nIt was founded in <a href=\\\"Durham%2C%20North%20Carolina\\\">Durham, North Carolina</a> in 1978 by Barry Poss and <a href=\\\"David%20Freeman%20%28music%20historian%29\\\">David Freeman</a>, the owner of <a href=\\\"County%20Records\\\">County Records</a> and <a href=\\\"Rebel%20Records\\\">Rebel Records</a>. Poss acquired full control of Sugar Hill in 1980 and owned the label until 1998, when he sold it to the <a href=\\\"Welk%20Music%20Group\\\">Welk Music Group</a>, owner of <a href=\\\"Vanguard%20Records\\\">Vanguard Records</a>. Poss stayed on as president, and in 2002 was promoted to chairman. Sugar Hill remained in Durham until 2007, when Poss moved the label to <a href=\\\"Nashville%2C%20Tennessee\\\">Nashville, Tennessee</a>.\\nAmong the many notable artists who have released albums on the label are <a href=\\\"Nickel%20Creek\\\">Nickel Creek</a>, <a href=\\\"Doc%20Watson\\\">Doc Watson</a>, <a href=\\\"Townes%20Van%20Zandt\\\">Townes Van Zandt</a>, <a href=\\\"Ricky%20Skaggs\\\">Ricky Skaggs</a>, <a href=\\\"Guy%20Clark\\\">Guy Clark</a>, <a href=\\\"Robert%20Earl%20Keen\\\">Robert Earl Keen</a>, <a href=\\\"Sam%20Bush\\\">Sam Bush</a> and <a href=\\\"Dolly%20Parton\\\">Dolly Parton</a>. One of Parton's albums for Sugar Hill, \\\"<a href=\\\"Halos%20%26amp%3B%20Horns\\\">Halos & Horns</a>\\\" (2002), included a song called \\\"Sugar Hill\\\", which she wrote as a tribute to the label. In 2008, Welk Music Group appointed <a href=\\\"EMI\\\">EMI</a> as distributor of its labels including Sugar Hill.\\nIn 2006, Sugar Hill executive Barry Poss won a Lifetime Achievement Award from the <a href=\\\"Americana%20Music%20Association\\\">Americana Music Association</a>.\\nThe label was acquired by <a href=\\\"Concord%20Music%20Group\\\">Concord Bicycle Music</a> in April 2015.\",\n \"Judson Laipply\\nJudson Laipply ( ; born March 22, 1976) is an <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">American</a> <a href=\\\"motivational%20speaker\\\">motivational speaker</a> and dancer from <a href=\\\"Bucyrus%2C%20Ohio\\\">Bucyrus, Ohio</a>. He served as the state president of The Ohio Association of Student Councils from 1993 to 1994. He is best known for his performance in the Evolution of Dance <a href=\\\"viral%20video\\\">viral video</a> clip. He has worked as a public speaker since 2000.\\nIn 2001, Laipply originally performed \\\"The Evolution of Dance\\\", at which time it consisted of 12 popular dance songs of the late 20th century. Five years later, he uploaded a video of the six-minute performance to <a href=\\\"YouTube\\\">YouTube</a>. The clip received 70 million views in under 8 months. At that time, it was rated on YouTube as:\\nIt has since been <a href=\\\"List%20of%20most%20viewed%20YouTube%20videos\\\">surpassed by other videos</a>.\\nThe Evolution of Dance 2 video was released in January 2009.\\nThis was announced by Judson on June 16, 2010. He stated that it was in its early stages and that it was too early to give any details. In a YouTube comment he claimed he was trying to incorporate much older music and possibly include a second dancer. It was uploaded in April 2016, to accommodate the 10th anniversary of Evolution of Dance.\\nIn December 2007, Judson appeared in an advert on the <a href=\\\"BBC\\\">BBC</a> for the 'dance season' during the Christmas Holidays. \\\"Evolution of Dance\\\" was #1 on the show \\\"<a href=\\\"Rude%20Tube\\\">Rude Tube</a>\\\" hosted by <a href=\\\"Alex%20Zane\\\">Alex Zane</a> and Laipply was interviewed on the show. Judson was also featured in the music video for <a href=\\\"Weezer\\\">Weezer</a>'s song \\\"<a href=\\\"Pork%20and%20Beans%20%28song%29\\\">Pork and Beans</a>\\\" along with several other Internet celebrities.\\nIn February 2010 the video was used as a question reference on the game show \\\"<a href=\\\"Jeopardy%21\\\">Jeopardy!</a>\\\" in the 2010 college championships. In \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Delivery%20%28The%20Office%29\\\">The Delivery</a>\\\" episode of \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Office%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29\\\">The Office</a>\\\", <a href=\\\"Andy%20Bernard\\\">Andy Bernard</a> does the dance sans music as a pregnancy distraction for <a href=\\\"Pam%20Halpert\\\">Pam</a>. In 2011, Judson also appeared on <a href=\\\"Tosh.0\\\">Tosh.0</a>, hosted by Daniel Tosh.\\nHe did another video, called \\\"The Evolution of the Touchdown Dance\\\", which included memorable NFL touchdown dances, like \\\"The Ickey Shuffle\\\", <a href=\\\"Joe%20Horn\\\">Joe Horn</a>'s cell phone celebration, and famous celebrations from <a href=\\\"Terrell%20Owens\\\">Terrell Owens</a> and <a href=\\\"Chad%20Ochocinco\\\">Chad Ochocinco</a>.\\nIn December 2015, he appeared in YouTube's annual <a href=\\\"YouTube%20Rewind\\\">YouTube Rewind</a>.\",\n \"Suno Na Sangemarmar\\n\\\"Suno Na Sangemarmar\\\" is a romantic <a href=\\\"Music%20of%20Bollywood\\\">Hindi song</a> from the <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Bollywood%20films%20of%202014\\\">2014 Bollywood</a> film, \\\"<a href=\\\"Youngistaan\\\">Youngistaan</a>\\\". Composed by <a href=\\\"Jeet%20Ganguly\\\">Jeet Ganguly</a>, the song is sung by <a href=\\\"Arijit%20Singh\\\">Arijit Singh</a>, with lyrics penned by <a href=\\\"Kausar%20Munir\\\">Kausar Munir</a>. The music video of the track features actors <a href=\\\"Jackky%20Bhagnani\\\">Jackky Bhagnani</a> and <a href=\\\"Neha%20Sharma\\\">Neha Sharma</a>.\\nThe song is composed by <a href=\\\"Jeet%20Ganguly\\\">Jeet Ganguly</a> and sung by <a href=\\\"Arijit%20Singh\\\">Arijit Singh</a>. This is their second collaboration in a film after \\\"<a href=\\\"Aashiqui%202\\\">Aashiqui 2</a>\\\" (2013), where Singh rendered four songs titled \\\"<a href=\\\"Chahun%20Main%20Ya%20Naa\\\">Chahun Main Ya Naa</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Hum%20Mar%20Jayenge\\\">Hum Mar Jayenge</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Milne%20Hai%20Mujhse%20Aayi\\\">Milne Hai Mujhse Aayi</a>\\\" and \\\"Aasan Nahi Yahan\\\". The music video of the song which features <a href=\\\"Jackky%20Bhagnani\\\">Jackky Bhagnani</a> and <a href=\\\"Neha%20Sharma\\\">Neha Sharma</a> is shot around the <a href=\\\"Taj%20Mahal\\\">Taj Mahal</a> which is located in <a href=\\\"Agra\\\">Agra</a>. It also explores the view of the monumental parks in <a href=\\\"Lucknow\\\">Lucknow</a>. The song is choreographed by Feroz Khan.\\nThe song is the <a href=\\\"Hindi\\\">Hindi</a> version of the <a href=\\\"Bengali%20language\\\">Bengali</a> song \\\"Ki Kore Toke Bolbo\\\" from \\\"<a href=\\\"Rangbaaz%20%282013%20film%29\\\">Rangbaaz</a>\\\" (2013), which is composed by Ganguly and rendered by Singh. The tune of the song has a classic touch within it, where both the <a href=\\\"Bridge%20%28music%29\\\">interludes</a> have flute played in 90's style. The lyrics of the song is penned by <a href=\\\"Kausar%20Munir\\\">Kausar Munir</a>. Regarding the use of \\\"sangemarmar\\\" in the lyrics of the song, Munir stated: \\\"There was a huge discussion about the word 'sangemarmar' in the song, but it fell beautifully into the film and became a hit\\\".\\nThe music video of the song was released officially on 6 February 2014, through the YouTube channel of <a href=\\\"Multi%20Screen%20Media\\\">Multi Screen Media</a>, and was released, labelled as the \\\"Valentine song of the year\\\". It was later released on other distributing label partners on 13 February 2014. The full song was released on 24 February 2014, along with other tracks from the album. The song was the first track released from the film.\\nThe song was ranked at the ninth position in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Bollywood\\\">Bollywood</a> music report January–June <a href=\\\"List%20of%20Bollywood%20films%20of%202014\\\">2014</a>\\\" published by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Times%20of%20India\\\">The Times of India</a>\\\". It was placed at the fourth position in the Music category of \\\"Top search trends for 2014\\\" which was revealed by <a href=\\\"Microsoft\\\">Microsoft</a>'s search engine <a href=\\\"Bing%20%28search%20engine%29\\\">Bing</a>. The song was ranked at the third position in the list of \\\"Top 10 critically best songs\\\" published by \\\"The Times of India\\\".\\nOn 21 March 2014, the song had a direct entry at position 16 in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Times%20of%20India\\\">The Times of India</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Radio%20Mirchi\\\">Mirchi Top 20 Chart</a>, moved up to position 11 on 28 March 2014, and was placed at position 6 on 4 April 2014, labelled as the highest gainer of the week. On 11 April 2014, the song jumped to the position 2 again as the highest gainer of the week, before falling to position 3 on 18 April 2014.\\nThe song received mostly positive reaction from the <a href=\\\"Music%20journalism\\\">music critics</a>.\\n<a href=\\\"Bollywood%20Hungama\\\">Bollywood Hungama</a>'s Rajiv Vijayakar felt, the lyrics by <a href=\\\"Kausar%20Munir\\\">Kausar Munir</a> is \\\"relevant and meaningful\\\" when adapted to the situation in film, and described the song as \\\"soulful, placid and mellifluous\\\". Nishevitha Vijayanand from Movie Talkies who praised the vocals by <a href=\\\"Arijit%20Singh\\\">Arijit Singh</a> and the lyrics by Munir, stated: \\\"this one surely has the potential to become a chart-buster if the film manages to win over its target audience\\\". Glamsham's Rafat stated, Singh is the right choice for the track and he felt that the USP of the song is Munir lyrics with parallels drawn to <a href=\\\"Taj%20Mahal\\\">Taj Mahal</a>.\\nPriya Adivarekar from \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Indian%20Express\\\">The Indian Express</a>\\\" commented: \\\"The theme of romance and backdrop of the Taj Mahal adds an extra charm, while the overall music arrangement is easy on the ears\\\". Joginder Tuteja from <a href=\\\"Rediff.com\\\">Rediff.com</a> thought the sound of the flute and overall arrangement resembles that of \\\"Zara Zara\\\" from \\\"<a href=\\\"Rehnaa%20Hai%20Terre%20Dil%20Mein\\\">Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein</a>\\\" (2001), and further stated, the track takes \\\"sometimes to grow\\\" on the listeners. Sheetal Tiwari from Bollywood Spice commented: \\\"Lyrics are effective if not entirely eloquent, however, the parallels drawn with the Taj Mahal are endearing\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Grapevine is a dance figure in partner dancing that shares a common appearance, with some variation, in ballroom, club, and folk dances. It includes side steps and steps across the support foot. The step is used, for example, in the Foxtrot, Polka, Electric Slide and Hustle as well as in Freestyle aerobics.","The Electric (better known as The Electric Slide) is a four wall line dance set to Marcia Griffiths and Bunny Wailer's song \"Electric Boogie\". Choreographer Richard L. \"Ric\" Silver created the dance in 1976 from a demo of the Bunny Walters recording."],"string":"[\n \"The Grapevine is a dance figure in partner dancing that shares a common appearance, with some variation, in ballroom, club, and folk dances. It includes side steps and steps across the support foot. The step is used, for example, in the Foxtrot, Polka, Electric Slide and Hustle as well as in Freestyle aerobics.\",\n \"The Electric (better known as The Electric Slide) is a four wall line dance set to Marcia Griffiths and Bunny Wailer's song \\\"Electric Boogie\\\". Choreographer Richard L. \\\"Ric\\\" Silver created the dance in 1976 from a demo of the Bunny Walters recording.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":85,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Ripe is the sixth album by a musician who began his career at the age of what?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"14"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Stephen Hurd\nStephen Arthur Hurd (born January 25, 1968) is an American gospel musician. He started his music career, in 2000, with the release of, \"Minister Stephen A. Hurd & Corporate Worship, Vol. 1\", that was released by Hurd the Word Music. His second album, \"In the Overflow, Vol. 2\", was released by Integrity Music in 2001. The third release, \"A Call to Worship\", was released by Integrity Records alongside Epic Records and Sony Urban in 2004. This would be his first album to breakthrough on the \"Billboard\" magazine Gospel Albums chart. He released his fourth album, \"My Destiny\", with Integrity Music alongside Columbia Records in 2006, and this charted on the aforementioned chart. The fifth album, \"Times of Refreshing\", released in 2008 with Integrity Music, again this charted on the aforementioned chart. His sixth album released in 2012 by HYW Music, \"O That Men Would Worship\", and this charted on the aforementioned chart.\nHurd was born on January 25, 1968, as Stephen Arthur Hurd, in Washington, D.C., where he was reared in the church. After graduating from The Duke Ellington School of the Arts, he attended Howard University. He became an ordained minister in 1988, at which point he started leading worship services at local churches.\nHe began Corporate Worship in 1999, and they released a few albums under that moniker. His solo music career started in 2000, with the release of \"Minister Stephen A. Hurd & Corporate Worship, Vol. 1\" by Hurd the Word Music, yet this failed to chart. His subsequent album, \"In the Overflow, Vol. 2\", was released by Integrity Music in 2001, and this did not chart. The next album, \"A Call to Worship\", was released by Integrity Music alongside Epic Records and Sony Urban on June 8, 2004, and this was his first release to breakthrough on the \"Billboard\" magazine Gospel Albums chart, at No. 15. He released, \"My Destiny\", with Integrity Music in association with Columbia Records on October 3, 2006, and this peaked at No. 11 on the Gospel Albums chart. The following album, \"Times of Refreshing\", was released on October 14, 2008 by Integrity Music, and this would chart at No. 8 on the Gospel Albums chart. His latest release, \"O That Men Would Worship\", was released by HYW Music in 2012, and the album would again place at No. 8 on the aforementioned chart.","Troy Sneed\nTroy Lenard Sneed, Jr. (born December 14, 1967) is an American gospel musician. He started his music career, in 1999, with the release of \"Call Jesus\" by Malaco Records. His second album, \"Bless That Wonderful Name\", was released by Savoy Records in 2001. The third album, \"A State of Worship\", was released by his own label imprint Emtro Gospel Records in 2005, which the rest would be released by that label. This was his breakthrough album on the \"Billboard\" magazine Gospel Albums chart. His fourth release, \"In His Presence\", was released in 2006, and it charted on the aforementioned chart. The fifth album from him, \"In Due Season\", was released in 2009, yet this failed to chart. He released the sixth album in 2011, \"My Heart Says Yes\", and this charted on the aforementioned chart. His seventh album, \"All Is Well\", released in 2012, and it too chart on the aforementioned chart.\nSneed was born on December 14, 1967, in Perry, Florida as Troy Lenard Sneed, Jr., and he was a football player, while in college at Florida A&M University. He had an injury on the field that put an end to his playing days. He would join the choir at the university, and after graduating he was a teacher at Beach Elementary School in Jacksonville, Florida. Milton Bingham, with Savoy Records, asked him to come lead the Georgia Mass Choir, in Atlanta, Georgia, as an assistant music minister.\nHis music career began in 1999, with the release of \"Call Jesus\" on March 23, 1999 by Malaco Records, but this album would not chart. His subsequent album, \"Bless That Wonderful Name\", was released by Savoy Records in 2001, yet this did not chart. The third album was released by his own record label imprint Emtro Gospel on February 22, 2005, \"A State of Worship\", and it was his breakthrough release on \"Billboard\" magazine Gospel Albums chart at No. 22. He released, \"In His Presence\", on October 10, 2006 by his label, which this charted at No. 44 on the aforementioned chart. His fifth album, \"In Due Season\", was released by his record label on August 25, 2009, however it was not successfully charted. The subsequent album, \"My Heart Says Yes\", released on May 10, 2011 by Emtro Gospel, and this one would peak at No. 5 on the Gospel Albums chart. He released his seventh album on August 7, 2012, \"All Is Well\", and this charted at No. 9 on the aforementioned chart.\nSneed married Emily Frances Ianson on July 2, 1993, and together they reside in Jacksonville, Florida with their children. CEO Emtro Music Group\nReleased: Oct 23rd 2015","Ben Lee\nBenjamin Michael \"Ben\" Lee (born 11 September 1978) is an Australian musician and actor. Lee began his career as a musician at the age of 14 with the Sydney band Noise Addict, but focused on his solo career when the band broke up in 1995. He appeared as the protagonist in the Australian film \"The Rage in Placid Lake\" (2003). He has released eleven solo studio albums.\nLee's musical career began in 1993 with the band Noise Addict, who were signed to Steve Pavlovic's independent label Fellaheen Records, on the strength of a self-produced and distributed four-track demo recorded in Lee's bedroom. Pavlovic's connections brought the band to the attention of Sonic Youth's Thurston Moore and Beastie Boys' Mike D, both of whom released the band's material in the US. The group put out several releases on the Beasties' Grand Royal Records.\nThese including the acoustic \"Young and Jaded\" EP in 1994, which contained Lee's Evan Dando tribute, \"I Wish I Was Him\". In 1995, Grand Royal released the band's only full-length album, the Brad Wood-produced \"Meet the Real You\". Noise Addict made a music video for the song \"16\", toured with Sebadoh, but then broke up. Lee was also briefly a member of the alternative act Gerling. In 2009 Lee recorded a new Noise Addict album, \"It Was Never about the Audience\", with a new lineup; Lou Barlow and Lara Meyerratken.\nLee's solo career started at the age of 16, while he was still in Noise Addict. He began recording his first solo album, \"Grandpaw Would\", in both Sydney and Chicago with producer Brad Wood. This was followed by the 1997 album, \"Something to Remember Me By\", also produced by Wood. An alternate version of his song \"Burn to Shine\", produced by T-Bone Burnett, played over the end credits of the film \"Best Men\". Lee was then featured on the \"There's Something About Mary\" soundtrack, with the song \"How to Survive a Broken Heart\". 1998's \"Breathing Tornados\", released on Pavlovic's new label Modular, marked a new direction for Lee as he introduced synthesisers and increased instrumentation into his sound.\nThe album was a success in Australia, earning Lee ARIA Award nominations for Best Male Artist and Album of the Year. The album's first single, \"Cigarettes Will Kill You\", was also nominated for Single of the Year and finished second in that year's Triple J Hottest 100. In 2001, Lee contributed a track (\"Sweet Is the Night\") to a Jeff Lynne tribute album \"Lynne Me Your Ears\".\nLee's fourth album, \"hey you. yes you.\", was released in 2002. The first single from the album, \"Something Borrowed, Something Blue\", reached number 67 on the ARIA Charts and number 22 on the 2002's Triple J Hottest 100. The second single, \"Running with Scissors\", peaked at number 82 on the ARIA charts. In 2003, he also contributed several songs to the Evan Dando solo album \"Baby I'm Bored\".\nIn late 2004, Lee left Steve Pavlovic's Modular Recordings and started his own record label, Ten Fingers. The first release on the label was the single, \"Gamble Everything for Love\", followed by the album, \"Awake Is the New Sleep\" in February 2005, which went double platinum in Australia. A defining release in his career, the album showcased a much brighter, positive side of Lee's personality, in contrast to his previous darker musings. \"Awake Is the New Sleep\" received several nominations for the 2005 Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) awards, and Lee won Best Male Artist, Best Independent Release, and Single of the Year for \"Catch My Disease\", which Lee wrote with Mcgowan Southworth. \"Catch My Disease\" also went to No. 2 on the 2005 Triple J Hottest 100.\nIn addition, the song was featured on the soundtracks to the 2005 films \"Just Friends\" and \"\", as well as the soundtracks to the television series, \"Grey's Anatomy\", \"Hidden Palms\" and \"Scrubs\". In 2006 it was used in a television commercial for Dell Computers. On 26 March 2006, Lee performed \"We're All in This Together\" from \"Awake Is the New Sleep\" at the closing ceremony of the 2006 Commonwealth Games. The single for \"We're All in This Together\" was released on 8 April 2006. The CD includes cover versions of the song by Pony Up, Holidays on Ice and Gelbison. \"We're All in This Together\" is being used in commercials for Kohl's (2008), Coca-Cola (Remixed Australian Summer Series Ads in 2007), the South Australian Government (2006), the Salvation Army Red Shield Appeal (2007) and Telus Mobility's \"My Faves\" (2007).\nLee released his sixth album, \"Ripe\", on 18 September 2007 with Benji Madden and Mandy Moore making appearances. Mandy Moore sung a light-hearted, '50s style duet with Lee called \"Birds and Bees\". \"Mandy was very sweet and did her best Olivia Newton-John for me. I'm really psyched about this recording,\" Lee says. Madden helped out with some backing vocals, along with US band Rooney and Sara Watkins from the band Nickel Creek. \"American Television\" from the album was used in a VH1 advertisement for \"Flavor of Love 3\" and the song \"Ripe\" appeared in an episode of \"One Tree Hill\" (Season 5, episode 2).\nIn 2007, Lee performed a cover of Crosby, Stills & Nash's \"Our House\" for Landmarks on The DL.\nIn February 2009, Lee released his seventh studio album, \"The Rebirth of Venus\", which received mixed reviews. It featured guest performances from the likes of Missy Higgins and Patience Hodgson, and peaked at No.21 on the ARIA Charts.\nLee's eighth studio album, \"Deeper into Dream\", was released on 11 October 2011. It was Lee's first attempt at a concept album, basing the entire 12 tracks around the dream state. Despite not charting, it was received fairly favourably by critics.\nIn April 2013, Lee released his ninth and arguably his most experimental studio album entitled \"\", with collaboration from Jessica Chapnik. The album is based upon his personal experience with the psychoactive South American drug known as Ayahuasca. Lee featured as the mentor for Joel Madden's team on the 2013 season of \"The Voice Australia\".\nIn June 2015, Lee released his 10th solo album, \"Love Is the Great Rebellion\", his first on a major label, Warner Bros. Records. According to Geoff Wood at ABC, Lee invented the term \"Electroyoga\" to describe a new form of music dedicated to the practice of yoga. Lee has since followed up this release with an acoustically-oriented album, entitled \"Freedom, Love and Recuperation of the Human Mind\", in 2016; as well as a children's album, called \"Ben Lee Sings Songs About Islam for the Whole Family\", in 2017.\nLee was born in Sydney and was raised in a Jewish household, but did not consider himself religious as a child. Lee was educated at Moriah College, an independent, Modern Orthodox Jewish, co-educational, day school, located in Sydney's eastern suburbs.\nLee dated Claire Danes for several years but their relationship ended in 2003, and he later married actress Ione Skye on 28 December 2008, in a Hindu wedding ceremony in India. They have one child.\nIn 2008 Lee was nominated as PETA's World's Sexiest Vegetarian. However, according to one source, Lee admitted he eats fish, indicating a pescatarian diet.\nNotes:\nThe album \"Awake Is the New Sleep\" and a selection of other tracks are a feature of the iTunes Music Store Essentials with many singles featuring as a part of the AppleCare Technical Support music on hold.\n","Ripe (album)\nRipe is the sixth album by Australian musician Ben Lee, released on 18 September 2007. The first single from the album was \"Love Me Like the World Is Ending\".\nProduced by John Alagia, the album features guest appearances from Mandy Moore, Benji Madden, Benmont Tench, Rachael Yamagata, Rooney, Sara Watkins and Charlotte Martin.\nIt entered the ARIA Albums Chart at No. 11 on 24 September.\n<div>\n","Day Breaks\nDay Breaks is the sixth solo studio album by American singer-songwriter Norah Jones, released on October 7, 2016, through Blue Note Records. The album features nine original songs and three covers. Jones returned to a piano-driven sound as heard on releases early in her career. It peaked at number two on the US \"Billboard\" 200, becoming her sixth album to reach the top ten. \"Day Breaks\" received positive reviews from music critics, with many praising the album's production and Jones' vocals with many comparing it favorably to her debut album \"Come Away with Me\". Jones promoted the album with television performances and interviews. To further promote the album, Jones embarked on Daybreaks World Tour.\n\"Day Breaks\" was released on October 7, 2016, through Blue Note Records. At the time of its release it was made available on CD, vinyl and as a digital download. A limited edition orange vinyl was also released.\nEight songs on the album are composed or co-written by Jones; composing on piano, she intended the album as a return to the sound of her 2002 debut, \"Come Away with Me\". The album was co-produced by Jones and Eli Wolf and features drummer Brian Blade, organist Lonnie Smith and saxophonist Wayne Shorter. Jones explains the songs were composed by drawing on jazz music influences and were recorded live without any overdubbing.\nThere are three cover songs on \"Day Breaks\": \"Peace\", by Horace Silver (first recorded by Jones in 2001), \"Fleurette Africaine (African Flower)\", by Duke Ellington and \"Don't Be Denied\", originally by Neil Young, whose lyrics were recast in the third person by Jones. The album also includes \"Sleeping Wild\" written by Sarah Oda, who co-wrote three other tracks on the album and co-produced.\nThe album was released on October 7, 2016 and the first single was the title song, \"Day Breaks\". Subsequent singles included the songs \"Flipside\" and \"Tragedy\".\nJones performed songs from \"Day Breaks\" on \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\" and \"The Today Show\". She discussed the album on PBS's \"Tavis Smiley\" show on October 14, 2016. She also appeared on \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" and performed her cover of Horace Silver's \"Peace\" from the album. To further promote the album, Jones embarked on Daybreaks World Tour.\n\"Day Breaks\" received an average score of 77/100 from 10 reviews on Metacritic, indicating \"generally favorable reviews.\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic rated the album four out of five stars and wrote that \"Jones' originals feel as elegant as time-honored standards, and all her covers feel fresh. The former speak to her craft, the latter to her gifts as a stylist, and the two combine to turn \"Day Breaks\" into a satisfying testament to her ever-evolving musicianship.\" Glenn Gamboa of \"Newsday\" rated the album an \"A\", calling it Jones' \"latest masterpiece.\" Rating the album an \"A-\", \"Entertainment Weekly\"'s Jim Farber writes of Jones: \"Not since her entrancing debut has she sounded this engaged.\"\n\"Day Breaks\" debuted at number two on the US \"Billboard\" 200 (behind Green Day's \"Revolution Radio\"), moving 47,000 equivalent album units; it sold 44,000 copies in its first week, with the remainder of its unit total reflecting the album's streaming activity and track sales. It was a considerable drop from her previous efforts, \"Little Broken Hearts\" (2013) and \"The Fall\" (2009), which opened to sales of 110,000 and 180,000 units, respectively. The album debuted at number one on the US Jazz Albums chart, making it Jones' second album to reach number one.\n\nCredits adapted from AllMusic.","Whole New You\nWhole New You is American singer-songwriter and musician Shawn Colvin's sixth album, and also her sixth studio album, released in 2001. It was her first new release in over four years. While \"A Few Small Repairs\" is, \"her divorce album,\" \"Whole New You\" is about family, commitment, and acceptance. The album retains the sixties folk-pop feel provided by collaborator John Leventhal. According to AMG, \"The most interesting song is the most complex one,\" \"Another Plane Went Down\".\nAll songs are written by Shawn Colvin and John Leventhal unless noted.\nProduction notes:\n","Kim Hyun-sik\nKim Hyun-sik (January 7 1958 – November 1, 1990) was a musician in South Korea, active during the 1980s. He debuted in 1980, releasing his first album, \"Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter\", along with his band of the same name. He died at the age of 32 from cirrhosis. He is considered one of the most popular and notable musicians of the 1980s in Korea, well-known for his unique, husky, emotional vocal style. Kim released five albums while alive, with his sixth album—\"Kim Hyun-sik VI\", popularly known by the title of its lead single \"My Love By My Side\"—being released posthumously. Kim broke out of the hospital to finish the vocal recordings for his last album, showing his dedication to his profession. He won the Disc Daesang (Album of the Year) award at the 1991 Golden Disc Awards, the Korean approximation of the Grammy Awards, for his posthumous sixth album, \"Kim Hyun-sik VI\". Kim was also honored by having two episodes of the popular singing competition show \"Immortal Songs 2\" dedicated to his music.","Holy South: Kingdom Crunk\nHoly South: Kingdom Crunk is the sixth album by Memphis Christian rapper Mr. Del. Alongside Del, artists from his Holy South label roster appear all throughout the album. Like the covers for Church Age and Da Takeover, A Parental Advisory-like logo that says \"Spiritual Advisory Gospel Content\" can be seen [And like Church Age, this label has caused some websites that sell this album to mistakenly label it as having explicit lyrics].","A Posteriori\nA Posteriori is the sixth studio album by German musical project Enigma. It is Enigma's sixth album. In December 2006, the album was nominated in the Best New Age Album category in the 2007 Grammy Awards.\nWhile the previous album, \"Voyageur\", contained minimal amounts of the project's signature sounds, \"A posteriori\" only contains the signature \"Enigma horn\" (a foghorn) during the opening minute of the album, and even then it is a fleeting glimpse. Coupled with the album's subject matter of the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies, \"A posteriori\" is, compared to earlier releases, stark and foreboding.\nNews about the album's title and track list were first made public on 18 July 2006 through \"Crocodile-Music.de\" news page and \"EnigmaMusic.com\"' s forums, while the album cover was made public ten days later. The first track from the album to be made public was \"Hello and Welcome,\" released as a stand-alone single in 2006. Enigma's management subsequently stated that a new version would be included on the album, while the lead single off the album proper would be \"Goodbye Milky Way\".\n\"A posteriori\" became first Enigma album to be recorded using Cretu's new 5.1 fully computerized mobile music studio \"Alchemist\". \"Alchemist\" represents a machine of comparably small size with main keyboard and a number of hardware MIDI controllers with some \"special\" expansions and central computer with LCD screen. It was designed for Michael Cretu privately and according to him helped a lot producing music, transferring ideas into sound.\n\"A posteriori\", a Latin phrase translated as \"after the fact\", refers to empirical knowledge, the epistemological concept of deriving knowledge from past experience.\n\"Eppur si muove\", alternately spelled \"E pur si muove!\", is an Italian phrase translated to \"And yet it moves\", attributed to Galileo Galilei after he was sentenced by the Roman Inquisition to recant his belief in heliocentrism.\nThom Jurek of AllMusic gave the album a mixed review saying \"if you like the Enigma sound, this will be up your alley, full of the things you may seek out in a recording, but there is little new here.\"\nAll songs written, arranged, and produced by Michael Cretu.\nAll songs published by 1-2-3 Music / Crocodile Music.\nApart from the album, some additional remixes were released exclusively through the iTunes Store. They are:\nThe Private Lounge Remix album version of \"A posteriori\" was released via iTunes Store on 18 March 2007 in Germany and on 26 March in the rest of Europe.","Sony Urban Music\nSony Urban Music was a division of <a href=\"Sony%20BMG\">Sony BMG</a>, active from <a href=\"2004%20in%20music\">2004</a> to <a href=\"2006%20in%20music\">2006</a>, The division handled <a href=\"contemporary%20R%26amp%3BB\">R&B</a>, <a href=\"soul%20music\">soul</a>, and <a href=\"hip%20hop%20music\">hip hop</a> releases by artists nominally signed to Sony's <a href=\"Columbia%20Records\">Columbia</a> and <a href=\"Epic%20Records\">Epic</a> labels. During its existence, Sony Urban managed releases by artists such as <a href=\"Bow%20Wow%20%28rapper%29\">Bow Wow</a>, <a href=\"John%20Legend\">John Legend</a>, <a href=\"Omarion\">Omarion</a>, <a href=\"Bossman%20%28artist%29\">Bossman</a>, <a href=\"DMX%20%28rapper%29\">DMX</a>, <a href=\"Beyonc%C3%A9\">Beyoncé</a>, <a href=\"Amerie\">Amerie</a>, <a href=\"Keshia%20Chante\">Keshia Chante</a> and <a href=\"contemporary%20Christian%20music\">contemporary Christian music</a> duo <a href=\"Anointed\">Anointed</a>.\nIn March 2004, the division's general manager became <a href=\"Lisa%20Ellis%20%28executive%20producer%29\">Lisa Ellis</a>.\nIn November 2006, it was announced that Sony Urban Music would be dismantled. All of the artists handled by Sony Urban were returned to either Columbia or Epic, with a handful of exceptions. R&B singer Omarion switched from Epic to Columbia, where he recorded a duets album with rapper Bow Wow. New signees <a href=\"Sa-Ra\">Sa-Ra</a>, signed to Columbia through <a href=\"Kanye%20West\">Kanye West</a>'s <a href=\"G.O.O.D.%20Music\">G.O.O.D. Music</a> imprint, negotiated their release during the restructuring.\n","Duke Ellington School of the Arts\nThe Duke Ellington School of the Arts, (established 1974), is a <a href=\"high%20school\">high school</a> located at 35th Street and R Street, <a href=\"Northwest%2C%20Washington%2C%20D.C.\">Northwest, Washington, D.C.</a>, and dedicated to arts education. One of the high schools of the <a href=\"District%20of%20Columbia%20Public%20Schools\">District of Columbia Public School system</a>, it is named for the <a href=\"United%20States\">American</a> <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a> <a href=\"bandleader\">bandleader</a> and <a href=\"composer\">composer</a> <a href=\"Duke%20Ellington\">Edward Kennedy \"Duke\" Ellington</a> (1899–1974), himself a native of <a href=\"Washington%2C%20D.C.\">Washington, D.C.</a> The building formerly housed Western High School. The building is listed on the <a href=\"National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places\">National Register of Historic Places</a>.\nGraduates of the school are prepared to pursue an artistic and theatric occupation. In addition to completing the traditional public school curriculum, students must audition for and complete studies in one of the following artistic areas: <a href=\"dance\">dance</a>, <a href=\"literary\">literary</a> <a href=\"Media%20%28arts%29\">media</a> and <a href=\"communications\">communications</a> (L.M.C.), <a href=\"museum%20studies\">museum studies</a>, <a href=\"instrumental%20music\">instrumental music</a>, <a href=\"vocal%20music\">vocal music</a>, <a href=\"theater\">theater</a>, technical design and production (T.D.P.), and <a href=\"visual%20arts\">visual arts</a> (V.A.).\nThe school developed from the collaborative efforts of Peggy Cooper Cafritz, a long-time member of the <a href=\"District%20of%20Columbia%20Public%20Schools\">D.C. School Board</a> and Mike Malone, a veteran of <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a>, <a href=\"off-Broadway\">off-Broadway</a>, <a href=\"contemporary%20dancer\">contemporary dancer</a>, <a href=\"Theatre%20director\">director</a>, and master <a href=\"choreographer\">choreographer</a>, who were co-founders of <a href=\"Workshops%20for%20Careers%20in%20the%20Arts\">Workshops for Careers in the Arts</a> in 1968. In 1974 this workshop program developed into the Duke Ellington School of the Arts at Western High School, an <a href=\"accredited\">accredited</a> four-year <a href=\"public%20high%20school\">public high school</a> program combining <a href=\"arts\">arts</a> and <a href=\"academics\">academics</a>. It is currently operated as a joint partnership between <a href=\"D.C.%20Public%20Schools\">D.C. Public Schools</a>, the <a href=\"Kennedy%20Center\">Kennedy Center</a>, and <a href=\"George%20Washington%20University\">George Washington University</a>.\nEllington currently serves approximately 500 students in grades 9-12. Most students commute in from outside of <a href=\"List%20of%20neighborhoods%20of%20the%20District%20of%20Columbia%20by%20ward%23Ward%202\">Ward 2</a>, where the school is situated. The academic faculty is fully credentialed and includes seven <a href=\"Fulbright%20scholars\">Fulbright scholars</a>, various <a href=\"PhD\">PhD</a>s, and DCPS's only national board certified teacher (NBCT) in young adulthood English/<a href=\"language%20arts\">language arts</a>.\nRanked as one of <a href=\"District%20of%20Columbia%20Public%20Schools\">D.C. Public Schools'</a> top high schools, Ellington's <a href=\"curriculum\">curriculum</a> requires students earn 34% more credits than those at other D.C. public high schools. Students must maintain a minimum grade point average in both academics and the arts to be permitted to perform and, ultimately, to stay enrolled at Ellington. The school has a 99% on-time graduation rate.\nEllington's mission is to emphasize the arts as much as academics. It offers training in eight disciplines: Dance, Literary Media and Communications, Museum Studies, Instrumental or Vocal Music, Theater, Technical Design and Production, and Visual Arts.\nIn support of their arts program, the school offers master classes taught by accomplished artists such as <a href=\"Wynton%20Marsalis\">Wynton Marsalis</a>, <a href=\"Billy%20Taylor\">Billy Taylor</a>, <a href=\"Lynn%20Whitfield\">Lynn Whitfield</a>, and <a href=\"Lionel%20Hampton\">Lionel Hampton</a>.\nThe school is recognized for, among other things, its award-winning Duke Ellington Show Choir. Established in 1986, the Choir performs all types of music including <a href=\"Broadway%20theatre\">Broadway</a>, Gospel, Spirituals, <a href=\"Opera\">Opera</a>, <a href=\"Jazz\">Jazz</a>, and <a href=\"R%26amp%3BB\">R&B</a>. The creator, Samuel L. E. Bonds, studied with <a href=\"Todd%20Duncan\">Todd Duncan</a>. Students in the Choir are required to continue performing academically, maintaining a minimum grade point average of 3.0. As well as performing as part of an ensemble, they are also allowed to focus on solo work. It performs a holiday show of \"<a href=\"Amahl%20and%20the%20Night%20Visitors\">Amahl and the Night Visitors</a>\" yearly.\nThe Show Choir has traveled to Europe, Asia, and throughout the United States and territories. It has performed at the <a href=\"White%20House\">White House</a> for Presidents Barack Obama <a href=\"Bill%20Clinton\">Bill Clinton</a> and <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a> and in both Mayor <a href=\"Adrian%20Fenty\">Adrian Fenty</a> and President <a href=\"Barack%20Obama\">Barack Obama</a>'s inauguration. The Show Choir has shared the stage with Earth Wind and Fire <a href=\"Clay%20Aiken\">Clay Aiken</a>, <a href=\"Patti%20LaBelle\">Patti LaBelle</a>, <a href=\"Jasmine%20Guy\">Jasmine Guy</a>, <a href=\"Patti%20Austin\">Patti Austin</a>, <a href=\"Beyonc%C3%A9%20Knowles\">Beyoncé Knowles</a>, <a href=\"Boyz%20II%20Men\">Boyz II Men</a>, and <a href=\"Denyce%20Graves\">Denyce Graves</a>. The Choir has performed at <a href=\"Carnegie%20Hall\">Carnegie Hall</a>, the <a href=\"Kennedy%20Center\">Kennedy Center</a> and sang <a href=\"The%20Star%20Spangled%20Banner\">The Star Spangled Banner</a> for the opening of the <a href=\"Washington%20Nationals\">Washington Nationals</a> first baseball game.\nOver 95% of Ellington graduates are accepted into universities and conservatories each year. Ellington alum have studied at <a href=\"Washington%20Adventist%20University\">Washington Adventist University</a>, <a href=\"Howard%20University\">Howard University</a>, <a href=\"Yale%20University\">Yale University</a>, <a href=\"New%20York%20University\">New York University</a>, <a href=\"Harvard%20University\">Harvard University</a>, <a href=\"Manhattan%20School%20of%20Music\">Manhattan School of Music</a>, <a href=\"The%20Juilliard%20School\">The Juilliard School</a>, <a href=\"Parsons%20School%20of%20Design\">Parsons School of Design</a>, <a href=\"Spelman%20College\">Spelman College</a>, <a href=\"Morehouse%20College\">Morehouse College</a>, <a href=\"Pratt%20Institute\">Pratt Institute</a>, <a href=\"Berklee%20College%20of%20Music\">Berklee College of Music</a>, <a href=\"Oberlin%20College\">The Oberlin Conservatory</a>, <a href=\"American%20Musical%20and%20Dramatic%20Academy\">American Musical and Dramatic Academy</a> and among other institutions.\nIn order to be admitted into Ellington, students must complete an admissions application and audition before a panel. Upon passing the audition students take an academic assessment test, and complete a family interview.\nIn January 2010, \"<a href=\"The%20Washington%20Post\">The Washington Post</a>\" reported that the <a href=\"Government%20of%20D.C.\">D.C. government</a> was studying a plan to relocate the school to a new site near <a href=\"Union%20Station%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\">Union Station</a>. <a href=\"Jack%20Evans%20%28D.C.%20Council%29\">Jack Evans</a>, the D.C. Council member for the school's host ward, advocates the plan as a way to move the school to a more \"central\" location relative to its student body, as well to allow the current Ellington site to revert to a standard neighborhood school. Opposition from students, parents, alumni, and others has been strong, including <a href=\"online%20petitions\">online petitions</a> and a <a href=\"Facebook\">Facebook</a> group with over <a href=\"http%3A//www.facebook.com/group.php%3Fgid%3D254907323239\">1,700 members</a>. Shortly after \"The Washington Post\" report, D.C. Schools Chancellor <a href=\"Michelle%20Rhee\">Michelle Rhee</a> announced that the school will not be moved in the near future.\n","Perry, Florida\nPerry is a city in <a href=\"Taylor%20County%2C%20Florida\">Taylor County</a>, <a href=\"Florida\">Florida</a>, United States. As of 2010, the population recorded by the <a href=\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\">U.S. Census Bureau</a> is 7,017.\nIt is the <a href=\"county%20seat\">county seat</a> of Taylor County. The city was named for <a href=\"Madison%20S.%20Perry\">Madison Starke Perry</a>, fourth <a href=\"Governors%20of%20Florida\">Governor of the State of Florida</a> and a <a href=\"Confederate%20States%20Army\">Confederate</a> <a href=\"Colonel%20%28United%20States%29\">colonel</a> during the American Civil War.\nPerry is located at .\nAccording to the <a href=\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 9.3 sqmi , all land.\nPerry is approximately 50 mi southeast of <a href=\"Tallahassee%2C%20Florida\">Tallahassee</a>.\nThe <a href=\"Perry%20Race%20Riot\">Perry Race Riot</a> occurred in Perry on 14 and 15 December 1922, during which whites burned Charles Wright at the stake and attacked the black community of Perry after the murder of a white schoolteacher. On the day following Wright's lynching two more black men were shot and hanged; whites then burned the town's black school, <a href=\"Masonic%20lodge\">Masonic lodge</a>, church, amusement hall, and several families' homes.\nAs of the <a href=\"census\">census</a> of 2010, there were 7,017 people, 2,661 households, and 1,828 families residing in the city. The <a href=\"population%20density\">population density</a> was 748.0 people per square mile (284.6/km²). There were 3,073 housing units at an average density of 330.9 per square mile (127.7/km²) The racial makeup of the city was 55.0% <a href=\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">White</a> 40.1% <a href=\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">African American</a>, 0.5% <a href=\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Native American</a>, 1.4% <a href=\"Asia\">Asia</a>n and 2.1% from two or more races. <a href=\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\">Latino</a> of any race were 2.2% of the population.\nThere were 2,661 households out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.4% were <a href=\"Marriage\">married couples</a> living together, 23.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.3% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.02.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 28.4% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 87.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.3 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $25,986, and the median income for a family was $29,602. Males had a median income of $26,595 versus $19,041 for females. The <a href=\"per%20capita%20income\">per capita income</a> for the city was $13,845. About 23.0% of families and 28.0% of the population were below the <a href=\"poverty%20line\">poverty line</a>, including 39.0% of those under age 18 and 26.7% of those age 65 or over.\nStudents are served by the <a href=\"Taylor%20County%20School%20System\">Taylor County School System</a>. For the 2007 - 2008 school year the Florida Department of Education gave the District a \"B\" grade, with each of its four schools earning a \"B\" as well.\nTaylor County High School's Bulldogs were the 1997-1998 Class 3A State Champions. In 2010 the Bulldogs completed an undefeated football season going 10-0, claiming the district championship.\n<a href=\"Perry-Foley%20Airport\">Perry-Foley Airport</a> is a public-use <a href=\"airport\">airport</a> located 3 mi south of the <a href=\"central%20business%20district\">central business district</a>.\nThe Perry Police Department (PPD) is a 24-person agency with four fully trained Patrol K-9 teams. Each handler and K-9 partner were exposed to at least 500 hours of training, and some instances, as many as 800 hours to be certified.","Malaco Records\nMalaco Records is an American <a href=\"independent%20record%20label\">independent record label</a> based in <a href=\"Jackson%2C%20Mississippi\">Jackson, Mississippi</a> that has been the home of various major <a href=\"blues%20music\">blues</a> and <a href=\"gospel%20music\">gospel</a> acts, such as <a href=\"Johnnie%20Taylor\">Johnnie Taylor</a>, <a href=\"Bobby%20Bland\">Bobby Bland</a>, <a href=\"Z.%20Z.%20Hill\">Z. Z. Hill</a>, <a href=\"Denise%20LaSalle\">Denise LaSalle</a>, <a href=\"Benny%20Latimore\">Benny Latimore</a>, <a href=\"Dorothy%20Moore\">Dorothy Moore</a>, <a href=\"Little%20Milton\">Little Milton</a>, <a href=\"Shirley%20Brown\">Shirley Brown</a>, <a href=\"Marvin%20Sease\">Marvin Sease</a>, and the <a href=\"Mississippi%20Mass%20Choir\">Mississippi Mass Choir</a>. It has received an historic marker issued by the Mississippi Blues Commission to commemorate its important place on the <a href=\"Mississippi%20Blues%20Trail\">Mississippi Blues Trail</a>.\nA <a href=\"Mid-April%202011%20tornado%20outbreak\">tornado</a> on April 15, 2011, destroyed much of the company's main building and studio at 3023 West Northside Drive in Jackson, Mississippi, which have since been re-built.\nMalaco ( ) Inc. was founded in 1962 by Tommy Couch and Mitchell Malouf, initially as a booking agency. In 1967, the company opened a <a href=\"recording%20studio\">recording studio</a> in a building that remains the home of Malaco. Experimenting with local songwriters and artists, the company began producing master recordings. Malaco needed to license their early recordings with established labels for national distribution. Between 1968 and 1970, <a href=\"Capitol%20Records\">Capitol Records</a> released six singles and a <a href=\"Grammy%20Award\">Grammy Award</a>-nominated album by <a href=\"Mississippi%20Fred%20McDowell\">Mississippi Fred McDowell</a>. Revenue from record releases was minimal, however, and Malaco survived doing jingles, booking bands, promoting concerts, and renting the studio for custom projects.\nIn May 1970, a bespectacled producer-arranger changed the struggling company's fortune. <a href=\"Wardell%20Quezergue\">Wardell Quezergue</a> made his mark with <a href=\"New%20Orleans\">New Orleans</a> stalwarts <a href=\"Fats%20Domino\">Fats Domino</a> and <a href=\"Professor%20Longhair\">Professor Longhair</a>, among others. Quezergue offered to supply Malaco with artists in return for studio time and session musicians. Quezergue brought five artists to Jackson in a borrowed school bus for a marathon session that yielded two hits – <a href=\"King%20Floyd\">King Floyd</a>'s \"Groove Me\" and <a href=\"Jean%20Knight\">Jean Knight</a>'s \"Mr. Big Stuff.\" But the tracks met rejection when submitted to <a href=\"Stax%20Records\">Stax</a> and <a href=\"Atlantic%20Records\">Atlantic Records</a> for distribution. Frustrated, Malaco released the King Floyd tracks on its own Chimneyville label. When \"Groove Me\" started radio play and sales, Atlantic picked the record up for distribution after all, giving Malaco a label deal for future Chimneyville product. \"Groove Me\" entered the national charts in October, going to No. 1 on the <a href=\"United%20States\">US</a> \"<a href=\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\">Billboard</a>\" <a href=\"Hot%20R%26amp%3BB/Hip-Hop%20Songs\">R&B</a> <a href=\"record%20chart\">chart</a> and No. 6 on the <a href=\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\">\"Billboard\" Hot 100</a>. In 1971, Chimneyville scored again with King Floyd's \"Baby Let Me Kiss You\" (No.5 R&B and No. 29 Pop). Meanwhile, Stax decided to take a chance on \"Mr. Big Stuff\", selling over two million copies on the way to No. 1 on the R&B chart and No. 2 pop.\nMalaco's studio and <a href=\"session%20musician\">session musician</a>s were now in demand. Drummer <a href=\"James%20Stroud\">James Stroud</a>, Bass Verne Robbins and Guitarist Jerry Puckett were the neuclius of the Malaco Rhythm Section. Atlantic sent the <a href=\"Pointer%20Sisters\">Pointer Sisters</a> among others for the Malaco touch; Stax sent <a href=\"Rufus%20Thomas\">Rufus Thomas</a> and others. And, in January 1973, <a href=\"Paul%20Simon\">Paul Simon</a> recorded material for his \"<a href=\"There%20Goes%20Rhymin%27%20Simon\">There Goes Rhymin' Simon</a>\" album. Later that year, Malaco released its first gospel record, \"Gospel Train\" by the Golden Nuggets on Atlantic's Cotillion label. Also in 1973, King Floyd's \"Woman Don't Go Astray\" made No. 5 R&B.\nWhen Dorothy Moore recorded \"<a href=\"Misty%20Blue\">Misty Blue</a>\" in 1973, Malaco got stacks of rejection slips trying to shop the master to other labels. Two years later, Malaco was just about broke and desperate for something to sell. With just enough cash to press and mail out the record, \"Misty Blue\" was released on the Malaco label just before <a href=\"Thanksgiving\">Thanksgiving</a>.\nDorothy Moore's \"Misty Blue\" earned gold records around the world, peaking at No. 2 R&B and No. 3 pop in the USA, and No. 5 in the <a href=\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\">UK Singles Chart</a> in 1976. This was followed by thirteen chart records. Moore got four Grammy nominations in her career . And funk bands such as Freedom, Natural High, Power, and Sho-Nuff released funky albums also.\nAnother Malaco gamble in late 1970s was targeting the gospel market again with The Jackson Southernaires. The gamble paid off, and other premium gospel artists signed on, including the <a href=\"Soul%20Stirrers\">Soul Stirrers</a>, <a href=\"The%20Sensational%20Nightingales\">The Sensational Nightingales</a>, The Williams Brothers, The Truthettes, and The Angelic Gospel Singers, to name a few. The Southernaires's Frank Williams became Malaco's Director of Gospel Operations, producing virtually every Malaco gospel release until his untimely death in 1993. By 1977, songwriters, artists, and producers from the defunct Stax Records were knocking on Malaco's doors, including <a href=\"Eddie%20Floyd\">Eddie Floyd</a>, <a href=\"Frederick%20Knight%20%28singer%29\">Frederick Knight</a>, The Fiestas, and <a href=\"David%20Porter%20%28musician%29\">David Porter</a>.\nBy this time, Malaco had stopped trying to compete with mainstream labels. However, Malaco could make a tidy profit selling 25,000– 50,000 units. Starting with <a href=\"Z.%20Z.%20Hill\">Z. Z. Hill</a>, Malaco became the center for old-time blues and soul artist. Z. Z. released the single \"Cheating in the Next Room\" reached R&B No. 19 in 1982. Hill's album, \"Down Home Blues\", sold over 500,000 copies. Hill became a blues superstar before he suddenly died in 1984. Hearing <a href=\"Johnnie%20Taylor\">Johnnie Taylor</a> sing at the funeral service, Tommy Couch invited Taylor to become Malaco's new flagship artist.\n<a href=\"Denise%20LaSalle\">Denise LaSalle</a> charted fourteen times in the 1970s. After 29 chart entries for other labels, blues guitarist <a href=\"Little%20Milton\">Little Milton</a> signed with Malaco in 1984. Little Milton's first Malaco single \"The Blues is Alright\" re-established his presence as a major blues artist and solidified Malaco's reputation as the contemporary southern blues company.\nIn 1985, the principals at Malaco, Tommy Couch, Wolf Stephenson and Stewart Madison bought the famed <a href=\"Muscle%20Shoals%20Sound%20Studios\">Muscle Shoals Sound Studios</a> which by that time was located at 1000 Alabama Avenue in Sheffield, Alabama. In 2005, The owners decided to sell this studio because they were having difficulty keeping the studio booked. The building was bought by a film and television production company.\nIn 1985, Malaco signed <a href=\"Bobby%20Blue%20Bland\">Bobby Blue Bland</a>. He had notched up 62 \"Billboard\" R&B chart records in 25 years, though few of them made an impression on pop radio. In 1999, the label signed top Chicago-based soul and blues singer, Tyrone Davis to the label, about 30 years after his first major hit \"Can I Change My Mind\", an R&B No. 1.\nOn April 15, 2011, the company's Jackson studio and offices were hit by a tornado that caused major damage and destruction. Thousands of master tapes from recording sessions survived intact in a separate concrete vault. The company decided to re-build the damaged offices and recording studio on the same site and the new buildings were opened in the fall of 2012. This storm came six years after <a href=\"Hurricane%20Katrina\">Hurricane Katrina</a> also hit the area, causing some damage to the Malaco premises.\nClearly the dominant contemporary southern blues label, Malaco purchased the gospel division of Savoy Records in 1986. Now, Malaco was also the preeminent black gospel company in North America. The Savoy acquisition brought a vast catalog of classic recordings dating back decades, including albums by <a href=\"Shirley%20Caesar\">Shirley Caesar</a>, Rev. <a href=\"James%20Cleveland\">James Cleveland</a>, <a href=\"Albertina%20Walker\">Albertina Walker</a>, <a href=\"The%20Caravans\">The Caravans</a>, and <a href=\"Inez%20Andrews\">Inez Andrews</a>. In further expansion moves that year, Malaco entered the world of <a href=\"telemarketing\">telemarketing</a>. Malaco's gospel labels under Jerry Mannery and Savoy Records under Milton Biggham earned multiple honors, including Billboard designations as Top Gospel Label and Top Gospel Distributor, while the artists received numerous awards (Grammy, Stellar, Soul Train, and Gospel Music Workshop), as well as Billboard Top Gospel Artist of the Year designations. The company also dominated Billboard Gospel charts, achieving No. 1 rankings by Keith Pringle, <a href=\"Walter%20Hawkins\">Walter Hawkins</a>, Rev. James Moore, The <a href=\"Mississippi%20Mass%20Choir\">Mississippi Mass Choir</a>, and Dorothy Norwood.\nMalaco's market focus widened dramatically in 1995. Songwriter/producer Rich Cason cut \"Good Love\" with Johnnie Taylor. The \"Good Love\" album soared to No. 1 on Billboard's blues charts and No. 15 R&B, becoming one of the biggest records in Malaco's history.\nIn 1997, Malaco found itself without a distribution deal and formed Malaco Music Group, which consists of Malaco Records and its subsidiaries. The company continued its steady, prudent expansion, purchasing half of the Memphis-based distributor <a href=\"Select-O-Hits\">Select-O-Hits</a> and also making inroads into the <a href=\"urban%20contemporary\">urban contemporary</a>, <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a>, and contemporary <a href=\"Christian\">Christian</a> markets.\nMalaco Records has been designated as a marker on the <a href=\"Mississippi%20Blues%20Trail\">Mississippi Blues Trail</a>.","The Voice (Australian TV series)\nThe Voice is an Australian <a href=\"reality%20television\">reality</a> <a href=\"talent%20show\">talent show</a>, based on the original <a href=\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\">Dutch version</a> of the program created by <a href=\"John%20de%20Mol%2C%20Jr.\">John de Mol</a> and is part of a wider <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28TV%20series%29\">international franchise</a>. The show is hosted by <a href=\"Sonia%20Kruger\">Sonia Kruger</a>, who debuted as host during the fifth season, following the departure of <a href=\"Darren%20McMullen\">Darren McMullen</a>.\nThe show is part of the television franchise <a href=\"The%20Voice%20%28TV%20series%29\">\"The Voice\"</a> and is structured as three phases: blind auditions, battle rounds and live performance shows. The winner receives a recording contract with <a href=\"Universal%20Music\">Universal Music</a>.\nFour judges/coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, choose teams of contestants through a blind audition process. Each judge has the length of the auditioner's performance (about one minute) to decide if he or she wants that singer on his or her team; if two or more judges want the same singer (as happens frequently), the singer has the final choice of coach.\nEach team of singers is mentored and developed by its coach. In the second stage, called the Battle Round, coaches pit two of their acts to battle against each other in a duet arrangement, after which the coach chooses which act will advance into the next knockout phase, the Super Battle round. Once the coach has made a choice, the other coaches have an opportunity to use one of only two \"saves\" each to take the other act through to Super Battle round.\nIn this round, each of the remaining 32 acts performs a solo on stage to compete with three others for a place in the Live Round. The coach can choose only one from each of these performances to progress to the final eight and the Live Round.\nIn the final phase, the remaining contestants (Final 8) competed against each other. The audience and coaches had equal say in deciding who moved on to the final 4 phase. With one team member remaining for each coach, the (final 4) contestants competed in the finale with the outcome decided by public vote.\nIn May 2011, \"<a href=\"The%20Daily%20Telegraph%20%28Australia%29\">The Daily Telegraph</a>\" reported that the <a href=\"Nine%20Network\">Nine Network</a> would broadcast \"The Voice\" in late 2011. However, two months later, it was reported that the show would instead air in early 2012, and that the Nine Network were in talks with signing at least one international artist (especially an American) to lead its panel of coaches on the show, which were rumoured to be <a href=\"Christina%20Aguilera\">Christina Aguilera</a>, <a href=\"George%20Michael\">George Michael</a>, <a href=\"Usher%20%28entertainer%29\">Usher</a>, <a href=\"Pink%20%28singer%29\">Pink</a> and <a href=\"Gwen%20Stefani\">Gwen Stefani</a>. In September 2011, the \"<a href=\"Herald%20Sun\">Herald Sun</a>\" reported that the Nine Network were planning to sign \"<a href=\"Australia%27s%20Got%20Talent\">Australia's Got Talent</a>\" judge <a href=\"Dannii%20Minogue\">Dannii Minogue</a> as one of the coaches. <a href=\"Anthony%20Callea\">Anthony Callea</a>, <a href=\"Vanessa%20Amorosi\">Vanessa Amorosi</a> and former <a href=\"Pussycat%20Dolls\">Pussycat Dolls</a> member <a href=\"Ashley%20Roberts\">Ashley Roberts</a> all publicly expressed interest in coaching roles, however <a href=\"Keith%20Urban\">Keith Urban</a>, <a href=\"Delta%20Goodrem\">Delta Goodrem</a>, <a href=\"Seal%20%28musician%29\">Seal</a> and <a href=\"Joel%20Madden\">Joel Madden</a> were ultimately confirmed as the four coaches for the first season. On signing the four coaches, Michael Healy, the Nine Network's Director of Television, said: \"To secure such world-class coaches has been a coup for this show and the network. The mix of talent and unique format will, we truly believe, be a captivating experience for our viewers.\"\n<a href=\"Darren%20McMullen\">Darren McMullen</a> was announced as the host of the program in January 2012. Additionally, <a href=\"Ricki-Lee%20Coulter\">Ricki-Lee Coulter</a> (with Seal), <a href=\"Darren%20Hayes\">Darren Hayes</a>, (Goodrem), <a href=\"Megan%20Washington\">Megan Washington</a> (Urban) and <a href=\"Benji%20Madden\">Benji Madden</a> (with brother Joel) were signed to pair up with the coaches as mentors for their contestants during the \"Battle Round\". On 10 May 2012, Faustina Agolley was announced as the show's social media correspondent during the live shows.\nFilming for the blind auditions stage of the competition began on 19 February 2012 at <a href=\"Fox%20Studios%20Australia\">Fox Studios</a> in <a href=\"Sydney\">Sydney</a>, with 121 artists featured in this phase of the selection process. The first day of filming resulted in hundreds of audience members being turned away from the studio due to overbooking of the event by an external booking agent. Filming for the battle rounds started in late March. In response to the immediate ratings success of the blind auditions, the Nine Network renewed the series for a second season on 27 April 2012.\nWith Urban accepting an offer to join the \"<a href=\"American%20Idol\">American Idol</a>\" judging panel it was announced in September 2012 that he would not be returning as a coach for the second season. Following an extensive search process by producers, and constant media speculation on who would replace Urban, <a href=\"Ricky%20Martin\">Ricky Martin</a> was officially announced as the new coach in November 2012. In response to joining the series, Martin paid tribute to Urban saying he was \"humbled to be sitting in his chair\". Healy stated that Martin would bring \"huge experience\" and be the \"perfect addition\" to the coaching panel, with Goodrem, Madden and Seal all publicly expressing excitement at the news via their <a href=\"Twitter\">Twitter</a> accounts.\nThe success of the first season led to the Nine Network increasing its programming run for the second season, with an extra ten hours of content to be broadcast and the season running for approximately three months instead of two. For 2014 Goodrem left the panel to join \"The Voice Kids Australia\", and Seal left to continue on his music career. Goodrem and Seal were in turn replaced by \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20UK\">The Voice UK</a>\" coaches <a href=\"Kylie%20Minogue\">Kylie Minogue</a> and <a href=\"will.i.am\">will.i.am</a>. On 13 January 2015, it was announced that Goodrem would return to the panel, and new judges Jessie J and Benji Madden would join the series, replacing former judges Minogue and will.i.am. On 22 February 2015, it was announced that <a href=\"Sonia%20Kruger\">Sonia Kruger</a> would be joining the fourth season as a co-host with McMullen. In 2015, Darren McMullen announced he was leaving The Voice, with Sonia Kruger to be a solo host in 2016.\nOn June 19, 2016, it was announced that pop duo <a href=\"The%20Veronicas\">The Veronicas</a> will briefly replace The Madden Brothers as coaches for the first live show on Sunday June 26 while the brothers are in the US on tour due to band commitments. The brothers are to due back on screen for the rest of the live shows. During an interview with <a href=\"News%20Corp%20Australia\">NewsLitmited</a>, the sisters stated \" It's a very brutal industry to be in. We are very honest, very upfront and very real about the advise we give. We're not going to be sugar coating anything. There's not going to be anything contrived about our time on the show.\" Jessie J ruled out returning to the show for the 2017 show and stated \"I've loved doing the show, I've done four seasons: two in the U.K., two in Sydney, but I just need to make another album.\"\nOn 8 November 2016, it was announced that Goodrem would return for her fifth season as a coach, whilst original judge Seal, who departed the series following the second season, would return. On 8 December 2016, it was announced that <a href=\"Boy%20George\">Boy George</a> would become the third coach for the series' sixth season. On 24 December 2016, it was announced that <a href=\"Kelly%20Rowland\">Kelly Rowland</a> would become the fourth and final coach for the series' sixth season.\n Winner<br>\n Runner-up<br>\n Third place<br>\n Fourth place\nColour key\nKarise Eden was crowned the first winner of \"The Voice Australia\". Darren Percival was runner-up, followed by <a href=\"Rachael%20Leahcar\">Rachael Leahcar</a> in third place and <a href=\"Sarah%20De%20Bono\">Sarah De Bono</a> in fourth place. Season 1 saw 80% of artists enter the music charts, culminating in 9 out of the top 10 in finale week. Eden made history with eight singles in the charts and both a number number-one single and album.\nEach coach was allowed to advance six top to the live shows:\nThe second season of \"The Voice Australia\" crowned Harrison Craig the winner, under Seal's tutelage. <a href=\"Keith%20Urban\">Keith Urban</a> did not return as a coach after it was officially announced he would become a judge on \"<a href=\"American%20Idol\">American Idol</a>\". The <a href=\"Nine%20Network\">Nine Network</a> confirmed on 29 November 2012 that Latin pop star <a href=\"Ricky%20Martin\">Ricky Martin</a> would replace Urban as the new coach. Luke Kennedy placed second under the new coach, with Celia Pavey third and Danny Ross fourth.\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\nOn 26 November 2013, it was announced that <a href=\"Seal%20%28musician%29\">Seal</a> and <a href=\"Delta%20Goodrem\">Delta Goodrem</a> would not be returning as coaches for the third season. The same day, it was announced that \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20UK\">The Voice UK</a>\" coaches <a href=\"will.i.am\">will.i.am</a> and <a href=\"Kylie%20Minogue\">Kylie Minogue</a> would join <a href=\"Joel%20Madden\">Joel Madden</a> and <a href=\"Ricky%20Martin\">Ricky Martin</a>. Taping for the third season began on 14 January 2014, with the Battle rounds commencing in March. Blind auditions began airing on 4 May 2014. Anja Nissen was announced the winner with Jackson Thomas in second place, Johnny Rollins in third, and Frank Lakoudis and ZK in fourth.\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\nIn January 2015, it was confirmed that Goodrem would return to her judges chair, and would be joined by new additions\n<a href=\"Jessie%20J\">Jessie J</a> and <a href=\"Benji%20Madden\">Benji Madden</a>. On 22 February 2015, <a href=\"Sonia%20Kruger\">Sonia Kruger</a> was announced as the new co-host. Ellie Drennan was announced the winner with <a href=\"Joe%20Moore%20%28musician%29\">Joe Moore</a> in second place, Nathan Hawes in third, and Liam Maihi in fourth.\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\nIn July 2015, it was confirmed that \"The Voice\" would return in 2016. Jessie J, Goodrem and The Madden Brothers were announced as returning coaches ; Martin will be replaced by <a href=\"Ronan%20Keating\">Ronan Keating</a>. On 28 December 2015, McMullen announced he would not be returning as host of \"The Voice\". The season began airing on 1 May 2016. Alfie Arcuri was announced the winner with Adam Ladell in second place, Tash Lockhart in third, and Ellen Reed in fourth.\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\nIn November 2016, it was confirmed that Goodrem would be returning as a coach on the show for her fifth season, and that she would be joined by former coach, Seal, returning after a three-season absence. The following month, former \"<a href=\"The%20Voice%20UK\">The Voice UK</a>\" coach, Boy George, was announced as the third coach. In December 2016, it was confirmed that former \"<a href=\"The%20X%20Factor\">The X Factor</a>\" judge and singer, <a href=\"Kelly%20Rowland\">Kelly Rowland</a>, would be the fourth and final coach. The season began airing on 24 April 2017. Judah Kelly was announced the winner with Hoseah Partsch in second place, Fasika Ayallew in third, and Lucy Sugerman in fourth.\nEach coach was allowed to advance a top three to the live shows.\nThe Nine Network announced plans for a junior version of \"The Voice\" which would feature contestants aged between the ages of eight and fourteen in August 2013. On 26 November 2013 it was announced that <a href=\"Delta%20Goodrem\">Delta Goodrem</a> would move from the adult version to \"The Voice Kids\" along with <a href=\"Joel%20Madden\">Joel Madden</a> who would stay on both versions. <a href=\"Darren%20McMullen\">Darren McMullen</a> would also host \"The Voice Kids\". On 1 February 2014, it was announced that along with Delta and Joel, <a href=\"Mel%20B\">Mel B</a> and Benji Madden, brother of Joel, would also be joining the judging panel. The blind auditions commenced airing on 22 June 2014. The children's version had the same format as the original show.\nTen-year-old <a href=\"Alexa%20Curtis\">Alexa Curtis</a> of Team Delta was declared the winner of \"The Voice Kids\", winning a music education scholarship worth $50,000 and a recording contract with <a href=\"Universal%20Music\">Universal Music</a>. Team Madden's <a href=\"Bella%20Yoseski\">Bella Yoseski</a> and Team Mel's Maddison Brooke were runners-up.\nBoth of \"The Voice Australia\" winners, <a href=\"Karise%20Eden\">Karise Eden</a> and <a href=\"Harrison%20Craig\">Harrison Craig</a>'s, albums have debuted at number one on the <a href=\"ARIA%20Charts\">ARIA albums chart</a>. Besides both winners, Darren Percival, <a href=\"Rachael%20Leahcar\">Rachael Leahcar</a>, <a href=\"Sarah%20De%20Bono\">Sarah De Bono</a>, Prinnie Stevens, <a href=\"Emma%20Birdsall\">Emma Birdsall</a>, Adam Martin and Lakyn of season 1, and <a href=\"Luke%20Kennedy\">Luke Kennedy</a>, <a href=\"Emma%20Pask\">Emma Pask</a>, <a href=\"Vera%20Blue\">Celia Pavey</a>, Danny Ross, Ms. Murphy and Caterina Torres of season 2 have all signed record contracts with <a href=\"Universal%20Music%20Australia\">Universal Music Australia</a>.\n\n","Cigarettes Will Kill You\n\"Cigarettes Will Kill You\" is a single by Australian singer-songwriter <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a>, from his 1998 album \"<a href=\"Breathing%20Tornados\">Breathing Tornados</a>\". Produced by <a href=\"Ed%20Buller\">Ed Buller</a>, the song became a breakout success for Lee. It was voted #2 on the 1998 <a href=\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%201998\">Triple J Hottest 100</a> and also reached #46 on the Australian singles chart.\nDuring his 24 April 2006 concert at <a href=\"Irving%20Plaza\">Irving Plaza</a> in <a href=\"New%20York%20City\">New York City</a>, Lee described how he came up with the title for the track, recalling that he'd been listening to <a href=\"the%20Verve\">the Verve</a>'s \"<a href=\"The%20Drugs%20Don%27t%20Work\">The Drugs Don't Work</a>\" and was so impressed with its title that he decided to name his own song with a similarly catchy title.\nThe title of \"Cigarettes Will Kill You\" as well as many of the lyrics refer to cigarette smoking as a metaphor for continuing to go back to a bad relationship even though one knows it will end terribly and cause pain. Lee recounted how one often badly needs short-term comfort to get through an otherwise sad, frustrating life even though everyone knows that smoking can cause health problems. The single's cover even resembles a pack of cigarettes.\nThe song was featured in the 2002 Australian comedy \"<a href=\"Crackerjack%20%282002%20film%29\">Crackerjack</a>\". It has also been referenced in <a href=\"the%20Axis%20of%20Awesome\">the Axis of Awesome</a>'s song medley \"<a href=\"Axis_of_Awesome%23.22Four_Chords.22\">Four Chord Song</a>\", a reference to the fact that the <a href=\"chord%20progression\">chord progression</a> in \"Cigarettes Will Kill You\" is similar to that of <a href=\"Journey%20%28band%29\">Journey</a>'s \"<a href=\"Don%27t%20Stop%20Believin%27\">Don't Stop Believin'</a>\" and <a href=\"Toto%20%28band%29\">Toto</a>'s \"<a href=\"Africa%20%28Toto%20song%29\">Africa</a>\".\n\"All songs written by Ben Lee unless otherwise stated\"","Breathing Tornados\nBreathing Tornados is the third album by <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a>n musician <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a>, released in 1998, which reached No. 13 on the <a href=\"ARIA%20Charts\">ARIA Albums Chart</a>.\n","Triple J Hottest 100, 2002\nThe 2002 <a href=\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100\">Triple J Hottest 100</a>, announced on 26 January 2003, was the tenth such countdown of the most popular songs of the year, according to listeners of the <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a>n radio station <a href=\"Triple%20J\">Triple J</a>. As in previous years, a CD featuring 39 (not necessarily the top 39) songs was released. For the first time, a DVD, containing film clips of songs from the Hottest 100 was also released. This was also the last time that <a href=\"televoting\">phone voting</a> was allowed; in <a href=\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202003\">the 2003 poll</a>, only internet voting was permitted. <a href=\"Short%20message%20service\">SMS</a> voting was removed for <a href=\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202003\">the 2003 poll</a> but was reinstated in <a href=\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202005\">the 2004 event</a>\nWhen the announcers got to the number one track, they announced that rapper <a href=\"Nelly\">Nelly</a>'s song <a href=\"Hot%20in%20Herre\">Hot in Herre</a> was top, and began playing it. Part way through the song, they declared that it had been a joke, broke the CD on air, and began playing <a href=\"Queens%20of%20the%20Stone%20Age\">Queens of the Stone Age</a>'s \"No One Knows\".\nThe band <a href=\"Salmon%20Hater\">Salmon Hater</a> came in at number 26 with their song \"6.66\" after Triple J morning show hosts <a href=\"Adam%20Spencer\">Adam Spencer</a> and <a href=\"Wil%20Anderson\">Wil Anderson</a> made an effort to rig the event, telling listeners to vote for the otherwise unlikely candidate.\nNote: Australian artists\nAustralian artists (marked with a green background ) made up 50 of the 100 tracks.\nTen Entries\nFive entries\nFour entries\nThree entries\nTwo entries\nBold indicates winner of the Hottest 100.\nThe double CD titled \"triple j - Hottest 100: Vol 10 Various Artists\" was released 2003-03-03. It is a compilation of 39 of the top 100 songs.\n","Hey You. Yes You.\nhey you. yes you. is the fourth album by <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a>n musician <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a>, released in 2002. The single, \"Something Borrowed, Something Blue\", was voted #22 in the <a href=\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202002\">Triple J Hottest 100, 2002</a>.\n\"No Room to Bleed\" samples the opening piano chord of the song \"<a href=\"I%27ve%20Never%20Been%20to%20Me\">I've Never Been to Me</a>\" by <a href=\"Charlene%20Marilynn%20D%27Angelo\">Charlene</a>.\n","The Rebirth of Venus\nThe Rebirth of Venus is the seventh <a href=\"studio%20album\">studio album</a> by Australian <a href=\"indie%20pop\">indie pop</a> musician <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a>, released on 10 February 2009 by <a href=\"New%20West%20Records\">New West Records</a>.\nA portion of the proceedings attained from the record are to be donated to <a href=\"FINCA%20International\">FINCA International</a>'s <a href=\"village%20banking\">village banking</a> program. A press release said FINCA \"offers financial services, not charity, to the world's lowest-income women entrepreneurs. This creates jobs, builds assets and generally improves the standard of living in these destitute communities.\"\nCritical response to the album has been largely negative, with particular mention of the song 'I'm a Woman, Too' (which Andrew P Street of \"Time Out Sydney\" described as reaching \"a conclusion so baffling that it defies any criticism that isn't expressed via a crowbar to the jaw\").\nThe album features <a href=\"Missy%20Higgins\">Missy Higgins</a>, Nic Johns, <a href=\"Cary%20Brothers\">Cary Brothers</a>, <a href=\"Patience%20Hodgson\">Patience Hodgson</a>, <a href=\"John%20Alagia\">John Alagia</a> (\"Ripe\" producer) and <a href=\"Lara%20Meyerratken\">Lara Meyerratken</a>.","Love Is the Great Rebellion\nLove Is the Great Rebellion is the tenth studio album by <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a>n <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards\">ARIA</a> award-winning singer <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a>. The recording was released in Australia in May 2015 and the rest of the world in June 2015. The album was distributed by <a href=\"Warner%20Music%20Group\">Warner Music</a> and is Lee's first release with Warner. \"Love Is the Great Rebellion\" marks a return to the pop sound of Ben Lee's previous work such as \"<a href=\"Awake%20Is%20the%20New%20Sleep\">Awake Is the New Sleep</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Ripe%20%28album%29\">Ripe</a>\" and is a change of direction from his previous release \"\".\nIn an interview with \"<a href=\"The%20Guardian%20Australia\">The Guardian</a>\" to promote \"Love Is the Great Rebellion\" Lee discussed this move from his more recent work.\n\"I thought it was going to be a natural progression from the \"Ayahuasca\" album,\" he said. \"I thought it was going to be something very obtuse and abstract and meditative but suddenly these pop songs started coming out. [...] And as I started exploring, I realised I still feel some degree of unfinished business with what the pop song can do, creatively. I don't feel entirely tapped out of the medium.\"\n\"Love Is the Great Rebellion\" received generally positive reviews. Lee Zimmerman of <a href=\"PopMatters\">PopMatters</a> praised the album's cohesiveness, stating \"...it holds together remarkably well as a unified, complete concept, a series of songs conveying like a zen-like mantra and philosophical thoughts on life, love, God and related subjects of similar consequence.\" Danelle Cloutier of \"<a href=\"Exclaim%21\">Exclaim!</a>\" recommended the album and also commended Lee's ability to explore deeper philosophical themes through pop music. Dan F. Stapleton of \"<a href=\"Rolling%20Stone%20Australia\">Rolling Stone Australia</a>\" described listening to the album as pleasant but lamented that it lacked \"grit\". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of <a href=\"AllMusic\">AllMusic</a> gave the record a more mediocre review, stating that it is \"...the kind of album that can double as motivation or pleasing background music for the office.\"\nThe album was written by Ben Lee and produced by <a href=\"Brad%20Wood\">Brad Wood</a>. <a href=\"Sally%20Seltmann\">Sally Seltmann</a> and <a href=\"Jessica%20Chapnik%20Kahn\">Jessica Chapnik Kahn</a> also contributed as composers.","Noise Addict\nNoise Addict (sometimes styled as Noiseaddict) were an Australian <a href=\"alternative%20rock\">alternative rock</a> band formed in 1993 by founding mainstay <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a> on lead vocals and guitar. He was joined in 1995 by <a href=\"Macromantics\">Romy Hoffman</a> on guitar before the group disbanded early in 1996. They had issued a studio album, \"Meet the Real You\", on Fellaheen Records/<a href=\"Shock%20Records\">Shock Records</a> in late 1995. Lee undertook a solo career. He briefly reconvened Noise Addict in 2009 with new members, <a href=\"Lou%20Barlow\">Lou Barlow</a> and <a href=\"Lara%20Meyerratken\">Lara Meyerratken</a>, to issue a second album, \"It Was Never About the Audience\" (1 September 2009), before returning to his solo pursuits.\nNoise Addict were formed in <a href=\"Bondi%20Beach\">Bondi Beach</a> in early 1993, with the original line-up of <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a> on lead vocals and guitar, Doron Kalinko on bass guitar and Josh Zoldan on drums. All were school mates at <a href=\"Moriah%20College\">Moriah College</a> in Sydney's eastern suburbs. Other early band mates include Daniel Mapp on bass guitar and Joel Wasserman on drums. Lee was later joined by Daniel Kohn on guitar and Saul Smith on drums.\nThe band recorded a four-track demo in Lee's bedroom, their average age was fourteen, and sent copies to various record labels. Their first gig was at a library book sale in 1993. Attending that gig was <a href=\"Steve%20Pavlovic\">Steve Pavlovic</a> of Fellaheen Records, who signed them and sent their tape to <a href=\"Thurston%20Moore\">Thurston Moore</a> of <a href=\"Sonic%20Youth\">Sonic Youth</a>. The United States group were then touring Australia and Noise Addict's second gig on 6 February 1993 at Selina's Nightclub, backing Sonic Youth. Moore signed them to his <a href=\"Ecstatic%20Peace\">Ecstatic Peace</a> record label, and the \"DEF\" <a href=\"extended%20play\">extended play</a> was released in early 1993 – recorded by the line-up of Lee, Kalinko and Zoldan.\nAccording to Australian musicologist, <a href=\"Ian%20McFarlane\">Ian McFarlane</a>, \"some parallels to be drawn with another teenage band\", <a href=\"silverchair\">silverchair</a>, \"although Lee preferred to see Noise Addict as infinitely more 'punk rock'.\" Their single, \"I Wish I Was Him\" (October 1993), was \"a wry semi-acoustic ode to Lemonheads'\" leader, <a href=\"Evan%20Dando\">Evan Dando</a>. It attracted the attention of <a href=\"Mike%20D\">Mike D</a> from the <a href=\"Beastie%20Boys\">Beastie Boys</a>, who arranged for the band to sign with their label, <a href=\"Grand%20Royal\">Grand Royal</a>. They supported two more US bands, <a href=\"Pavement%20%28band%29\">Pavement</a> and <a href=\"Fugazi\">Fugazi</a>, and then played a run of all-ages gigs.\nNoise Addict released their second EP, \"The Taste in My Eyes\" (April 1994); The line-up was Lee, Kalinko, Kohn and Wasserman. McFarlane felt the EP \"displayed plenty of low-fi charm and youthful exuberance among the stylised Jonathan Richmanesque songs.\" They followed with another EP on Fellaheen, \"Noise Addict vs. Silverchair\". They issued, \"Young and Jaded\", in 1994 on Grand Royal Records, which had \"six acoustic songs again recorded [in] Ben Lee's bedroom.\" Due to school commitments touring by the band was limited.\nAfter the success of \"Young and Jaded\", Lee released his solo debut, \"<a href=\"Grandpaw%20Would\">Grandpaw Would</a>\" (June 1995). Kalinko was replaced by <a href=\"Macromantics\">Romy Hoffman</a> on bass guitar. In late 1995 Noise Addict released their only full-length album, \"Meet the Real You\", which was produced by <a href=\"Brad%20Wood\">Brad Wood</a> (<a href=\"Sebadoh\">Sebadoh</a>, <a href=\"Liz%20Phair\">Liz Phair</a>).\nThey briefly toured with Sebadoh. In November 1995 the band contributed a track, \"Mouthwash\", to the <a href=\"AIDS\">AIDS</a> benefit album, \"<a href=\"Red%20Hot%20%2B%20Bothered\">Red Hot + Bothered</a>\", for the <a href=\"Red%20Hot%20Organization\">Red Hot Organization</a>. They performed the last gig in early 1996 in Bondi. McFarlane noticed that \"In true punk rock style, as soon as the album came out, Lee broke up the band.\" Ben Lee continued as a solo artist, he released several albums. Daniel Mapp played with <a href=\"Waikiki%20%28band%29\">Waikiki</a>. Romy Hoffman performed hip-hop as MC Macromantics.\nOn 1 September 2009 a new incarnation of Noise Addict, with Lee joined by <a href=\"Lou%20Barlow\">Lou Barlow</a> (of Dinosaur Jr) and <a href=\"Lara%20Meyerratken\">Lara Meyerratken</a> (aka El May), released their second album, \"It Was Never About the Audience\" on Lee's own label, Ten Fingers Records. \"After the Show\"' s reviewer described it as \"lo-fi album is a great antidote to slick, overproduced records that value Protools over talent.\"","Missy Higgins\nMelissa \"Missy\" Morrison Higgins (born 19 August 1983) is an Australian singer-songwriter, musician and actress. Her Australian number-one albums are \"<a href=\"The%20Sound%20of%20White\">The Sound of White</a>\" (2004), \"<a href=\"On%20a%20Clear%20Night\">On a Clear Night</a>\" (2007) and \"<a href=\"The%20Ol%27%20Razzle%20Dazzle\">The Ol' Razzle Dazzle</a>\" (2012), and her most popular singles are \"<a href=\"Scar%20%28song%29\">Scar</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Special%20Two\">The Special Two</a>\", \"<a href=\"Steer%20%28Missy%20Higgins%20song%29\">Steer</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Where%20I%20Stood\">Where I Stood</a>\". Higgins was nominated for five <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards\">ARIA Music Awards</a> in <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202004\">2004</a> and won 'Best Pop Release' for \"Scar\". In <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202005\">2005</a>, she was nominated for seven more awards and won five. Higgins won her seventh ARIA in <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202007\">2007</a>. Her third album, \"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle\", was released in Australia in June 2012 (July 2012 in the US). As of August 2014, Higgins' first three studio albums had sold over one million units.\nHiggins' fourth studio album, \"OZ\", was released in September 2014 and consists of cover versions of Australian composers, as well as a book of related essays.\nAlongside her music career, Higgins pursues interests in animal rights and the environment, endeavouring to make her tours <a href=\"carbon%20neutrality\">carbon neutral</a>. In 2010 she made her acting debut in the feature film \"<a href=\"Bran%20Nue%20Dae%20%28film%29\">Bran Nue Dae</a>\" and also performed on its soundtrack.\nHiggins was born in <a href=\"Melbourne%2C%20Victoria\">Melbourne, Victoria</a>, to Christopher Higgins, an English-Australian <a href=\"general%20practitioner\">general practitioner</a>, and Margaret (<a href=\"name%20at%20birth\">née</a> Morrison), an Australian <a href=\"childcare\">childcare</a> centre operator. Her sister, Nicola, is seven years older, and brother, David, is six years older. She learned to play classical piano from age six, following in the footsteps of Christopher and David, but realised she wanted to be a singer at about 12 when she appeared in an <a href=\"Armadale%2C%20Victoria\">Armadale</a> Primary School production of <a href=\"Andrew%20Lloyd%20Webber\">Andrew Lloyd Webber</a>'s musical \"<a href=\"Joseph%20and%20the%20Amazing%20Technicolor%20Dreamcoat\">Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat</a>\". Bored with practice, she gave up playing piano at that time. Hoping for more freedom, she urged her parents to send her to <a href=\"Geelong%20Grammar%20School\">Geelong Grammar School</a>, an <a href=\"independent%20school\">independent</a> boarding school attended by her siblings. At Geelong she took up the piano again, this time playing <a href=\"jazz\">jazz</a> including performing with her brother David's group on weekends. She was introverted and found that piano practice helped her cope with living at boarding school.\nAt 15, she wrote \"All for Believing\" for a school music assignment and completed it just hours before the deadline. The assignment earned an A and she performed her song in front of classmates. She approached a Melbourne record company and was told that they wanted more than one song. She wrote more songs and worked with the <a href=\"Kool%20Skools\">Kool Skools</a> project, which enables students to record music. In 2001, her sister Nicola entered \"All for Believing\" on Higgins' behalf into <a href=\"Unearthed%20%28talent%20contest%29\">Unearthed</a>, radio station <a href=\"Triple%20J\">Triple J</a>'s competition for unsigned artists. The song won the competition and was added to the station's play list.\nTwo record companies showed an interest in Higgins—<a href=\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\">Sony</a> and . She signed with Eleven, partly because they agreed that she would not be \"made into a pop star\" and partly because they were happy for her to take time off for a <a href=\"backpacking%20%28travel%29\">backpacking</a> holiday. Higgins' <a href=\"talent%20manager\">manager</a> is Eleven's John Watson, who also manages rock band <a href=\"Silverchair\">Silverchair</a>. Watson later disclosed that \"Missy's the only time in my career I knew after 90 seconds I really wanted to sign her.\" The backpacking trip had been planned with a friend for years and the pair spent most of 2002 in Europe; while Higgins was travelling, \"All for Believing\" started to receive airplay on Los Angeles radio station <a href=\"KCRW\">KCRW</a>. Such radio exposure attracted the attention of American record labels and, by year's end, an international recording deal with <a href=\"Warner%20Bros.%20Records\">Warner Bros.</a> had been negotiated\nHiggins was the support act on a 2003 Australian tour by folk rock band <a href=\"The%20Waifs\">The Waifs</a> and rock band <a href=\"George%20%28band%29\">george</a>. She travelled to the US to work with <a href=\"John%20Porter%20%28musician%29\">John Porter</a>, who <a href=\"record%20producer\">produced</a> her first <a href=\"extended%20play\">EP</a>, \"<a href=\"The%20Missy%20Higgins%20EP\">The Missy Higgins EP</a>\", which was released in November and entered the <a href=\"Australian%20Recording%20Industry%20Association\">Australian Recording Industry Association</a> (ARIA) <a href=\"ARIA%20Charts\">Singles Chart</a> Top 50 in August 2004.\nShe toured Australia, supporting <a href=\"Pete%20Murray\">Pete Murray</a> and <a href=\"John%20Butler%20Trio\">John Butler Trio</a>. Her four-track single \"Scar'\" was released in July 2004 and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Charts. Her first album, \"The Sound of White\", was released in September, and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart. Also produced by Porter, it sold over 500,000 copies. She was nominated in five categories at the <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202004\">ARIA Music Awards of 2004</a> for \"Scar\": Best Female Artist', 'Single of the Year', 'Best Pop Release', 'Breakthrough Artist – Single' and 'Best Video' (directed by Squareyed Films). At the awards ceremony on 17 October she received the award for Best Pop Release, beating <a href=\"Delta%20Goodrem\">Delta Goodrem</a>, <a href=\"The%20Dissociatives\">The Dissociatives</a>, <a href=\"Kylie%20Minogue\">Kylie Minogue</a> and Pete Murray. This was followed by her first national headline tour. Her second single \"<a href=\"Ten%20Days\">Ten Days</a>\" was co-written with Jay Clifford (guitarist in US band <a href=\"Jump%2C%20Little%20Children\">Jump, Little Children</a>) and was inspired by Higgins' 2002 break-up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe. Released in November, it peaked at No. 12.\nOn 29 January 2005 Higgins performed with other local musicians including <a href=\"Nick%20Cave\">Nick Cave</a> and <a href=\"Powderfinger\">Powderfinger</a> at the <a href=\"WaveAid\">WaveAid</a> fundraising concert in the <a href=\"Sydney%20Cricket%20Ground\">Sydney Cricket Ground</a>. The concert raised A$2.3 million for four charities supporting the victims of the <a href=\"2004%20Indian%20Ocean%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami\">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>. In March Higgins performed at the <a href=\"MTV%20Australia%20Awards\">MTV Australia Awards</a> and won the prize for 'Breakthrough Artist of the Year'. The following month she released her third single, \"The Special Two\", which was a radio hit and reached No. 2. \"The Special Two\" was released on an EP which included her <a href=\"cover%20version\">cover</a> of the <a href=\"Skyhooks%20%28band%29\">Skyhooks</a> song, \"You Just Like Me Cos I'm Good In Bed\", recorded for <a href=\"Triple%20J\">Triple J</a>'s 30th anniversary. The song had been the first track played on Triple J when it launched (as Double J) in 1975. In May, Higgins won the 'Song of the Year' and 'Breakthrough' awards for \"Scar\" from the <a href=\"Australasian%20Performing%20Right%20Association\">Australasian Performing Right Association</a> (APRA). She continued touring in mid-2005 and released her fourth single, \"The Sound of White\", in August. In September she played a sold out performance at the Vanguard in Sydney with the proceeds going to charity. She was nominated for seven more <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202004\">ARIAs</a> and in October won 'Album of the Year', 'Best Pop Release', 'Breakthrough Artist – Album' and 'Highest Selling Album' (all for \"The Sound of White\") and 'Best Female Artist' (for \"Scar\"). She teamed up with fellow ARIA award-winning singer <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a> in late 2005 for a national tour.\nDuring 2006, Higgins lived in <a href=\"Broome%2C%20Western%20Australia\">Broome, Western Australia</a> for six months, away from the entertainment industry. The relaxed lifestyle helped her focus on writing new material. The landscape made a big impression, \"It was the first place I'd ever felt honestly connected with my country, with the physical land of my country\" and inspired her to write \"Going North\". She then toured the United States and South Africa, writing more material on the road. In September she based herself in Los Angeles to record her second album, \"On a Clear Night\", with producer <a href=\"Mitchell%20Froom\">Mitchell Froom</a>. \"Steer\" was released as an EP, followed a fortnight later by its album on 28 April 2007, both debuted at No. 1 on their respective charts.\nIn February, Higgins had contributed a <a href=\"tribute%20album\">tribute song</a> to the album, \"<a href=\"Cannot%20Buy%20My%20Soul\">Cannot Buy My Soul</a>\", for noted <a href=\"Indigenous%20Australians\">indigenous</a> singer, <a href=\"Kev%20Carmody\">Kev Carmody</a>, singing \"Droving Woman\" with musician <a href=\"Paul%20Kelly%20%28musician%29\">Paul Kelly</a> and group <a href=\"Augie%20March\">Augie March</a>. On 7 July, she participated in the <a href=\"Live%20Earth%20concert%2C%20Sydney\">Live Earth concert</a> in Sydney, performing her own set before joining Carmody, Kelly and vocalist <a href=\"John%20Butler%20%28musician%29\">John Butler</a> on stage for the song \"<a href=\"From%20Little%20Things%20Big%20Things%20Grow\">From Little Things Big Things Grow</a>\". Emily Dunn in \"<a href=\"The%20Sydney%20Morning%20Herald\">The Sydney Morning Herald</a>\" wrote \"[the song] could have been the event's anthem\". <a href=\"Rolling%20Stone%20Australia\">\"Rolling Stone\"</a>'s Dan Lander pointed out a highlight, when the \"whole crowd sung along – all eleven verses.\"\nHiggins returned to Los Angeles to focus on the US market—she spent September and October touring—where she was still relatively unknown. On 26 October, backed by the <a href=\"Sydney%20Youth%20Orchestra\">Sydney Youth Orchestra</a>, she headlined the annual Legs 11 concert, a <a href=\"breast%20cancer\">breast cancer</a> benefit held in <a href=\"The%20Domain%2C%20Sydney\">The Domain</a>, <a href=\"Royal%20Botanic%20Gardens%2C%20Sydney\">Royal Botanic Gardens</a>, Sydney. Two days later Higgins performed at the <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202007\">2007</a> ARIAs where she was nominated for 'Best Pop Release', 'Highest Selling Album' and 'Highest Selling Single' (for \"Steer\") and won 'Best Female Artist' (for \"On a Clear Night\")—her seventh ARIA Music Award. On 31 October, she was a guest at television music channel <a href=\"MAX%20%28Australian%20TV%20channel%29\">MAX</a>'s inaugural Concert for the Cure, a private concert for people affected by breast cancer. She sang headline act Powderfinger's \"<a href=\"Sunsets%20%28song%29\">Sunsets</a>\" with front man <a href=\"Bernard%20Fanning\">Bernard Fanning</a> and joined in with the encore of \"<a href=\"These%20Days%20%28Powderfinger%20song%29\">These Days</a>\". She spent November and December on her For One Night Only Tour, taking in Cairns, Sydney and Perth. <a href=\"You%20Am%20I\">You Am I</a> lead singer, <a href=\"Tim%20Rogers%20%28musician%29\">Tim Rogers</a>, joined her on some shows.\n\"On a Clear Night\", was released in the US on 26 February 2008, supported by a tour in March. Her ten-month stay in Los Angeles during 2008 promoted her songs for films and television shows. Her first US single \"<a href=\"Where%20I%20Stood\">Where I Stood</a>\" was featured in US series including \"<a href=\"Grey%27s%20Anatomy\">Grey's Anatomy</a>\", \"<a href=\"One%20Tree%20Hill%20%28TV%20series%29\">One Tree Hill</a>\" and \"<a href=\"So%20You%20Think%20You%20Can%20Dance%20%28United%20States%29\">So You Think You Can Dance</a>\". During 2008, Higgins supported the <a href=\"Indigo%20Girls\">Indigo Girls</a> and then <a href=\"Ben%20Folds\">Ben Folds</a> on their respective US tours. February and March 2009 saw her co-headlining a US tour with Canadian <a href=\"Justin%20Nozuka\">Justin Nozuka</a>. On 31 March she released an EP, \"More Than This\" in Australia that features cover versions of \"<a href=\"More%20Than%20This%20%28Roxy%20Music%20song%29\">More Than This</a>\" by <a href=\"Roxy%20Music\">Roxy Music</a>, \"<a href=\"In%20Love%20Again%21\">(I'm) In Love Again</a>\" by <a href=\"Peggy%20Lee\">Peggy Lee</a>, \"<a href=\"Breakdown%20%28Tom%20Petty%20and%20the%20Heartbreakers%20song%29\">Breakdown</a>\" by <a href=\"Tom%20Petty\">Tom Petty</a> and \"<a href=\"Moses%20%28Patty%20Griffin%20song%29\">Moses</a>\" by <a href=\"Patty%20Griffin\">Patty Griffin</a>. \"Moses\" had been included on Triple J's 2005 compilation album \"\" and \"More Than This\" was recorded as part of \"<a href=\"Covered%2C%20A%20Revolution%20in%20Sound\">Covered, A Revolution in Sound</a>\", a Warner Bros. tribute album also released in March 2009.\nHiggins started writing music for her third album in 2009. After about seven years of touring and recording she took a break from the music industry to pursue other interests. In 2010 she enrolled in a course in indigenous studies at the <a href=\"University%20of%20Melbourne\">University of Melbourne</a>. Her acting debut was as Annie in 2010 film \"<a href=\"Bran%20Nue%20Dae%20%28film%29\">Bran Nue Dae</a>\" directed by <a href=\"Rachel%20Perkins\">Rachel Perkins</a>. The film is an adaptation of the 1990 musical, \"<a href=\"Bran%20Nue%20Dae\">Bran Nue Dae</a>\", \"Australia's first <a href=\"Indigenous%20Australians\">Aboriginal</a> musical\". Although Higgins would consider future acting projects she has no plans to actively pursue it as a career.\nIn July and August 2010, Higgins played several dates of <a href=\"Sarah%20McLachlan\">Sarah McLachlan</a>'s <a href=\"Lilith%20Fair\">Lilith Fair</a> tour in the US. At Lilith Fair, she met Australian musician <a href=\"Butterfly%20Boucher\">Butterfly Boucher</a> and they decided to work together. In 2011, Higgins travelled to where Boucher was living in <a href=\"Nashville%2C%20Tennessee\">Nashville</a> to record her third album, which is co-produced by Boucher and <a href=\"Brad%20Jones%20%28musician%29\">Brad Jones</a>. Titled \"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle\", the album was released on 1 June 2012. Its first single, \"<a href=\"Unashamed%20Desire\">Unashamed Desire</a>\", co-written with Boucher, was released on 23 April. In November 2011, at the <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202011\">ARIA Music Awards</a>, Higgins performed a duet of \"Warwu\"with <a href=\"Geoffrey%20Gurrumul%20Yunupingu\">Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu</a>, from his \"<a href=\"Rrakala\">Rrakala</a>\" album.\n\"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle\" album debuted at #1 on the ARIA Albums Chart the week of 12 June 2012. It is now Higgins' 3rd straight number one album. Higgins now ties Delta Goodrem, Olivia Newton-John and Kylie Minogue for the 2nd most Australian number one albums by an Australian female artist. Only Kasey Chambers has done better at 4 number one ARIA albums.\nIn September 2014, Higgins released her fourth studio album, \"Oz\", which features cover versions of Australian composers, including The Angels, Slim Dusty, Something For Kate, Warumpi Band, Paul Kelly and <a href=\"The%20Drones%20%28Australian%20band%29\">The Drones</a>. The album is also accompanied by a book of related essays, in which Higgins uses each of the recordings to reflect upon subjects such as music and love. Higgins collaborated with <a href=\"Dan%20Sultan\">Dan Sultan</a> for the recording of the Slim Dusty song \"The Biggest Disappointment\".\nHiggins explained in an October 2014 interview that she experienced a significant bout of writer's block following the completion of her second album and someone suggested an album of cover versions at the time, but she only revisited the idea during the conception of \"Oz\". Higgins further explained:\nI responded to all these songs on an emotional level, when I first heard them. I wanted songs I felt I could tell with my own voice, and interpret them authentically ... But it was important to maintain the emotional integrity and the heart of the song. It was a high priority to keep true to the songs.\nThe album was co-produced by Jherek Bischoff, who previously worked with <a href=\"David%20Byrne\">David Byrne</a>, formerly of <a href=\"Talking%20Heads\">Talking Heads</a>, and <a href=\"Amanda%20Palmer\">Amanda Palmer</a>.\n\"Oz\" debuted at number 3 on the ARIA Albums chart and remained in the top five positions until 18 October 2014.\nThe national Australian tour in support of \"Oz\" commenced on 20 September 2014 in <a href=\"Cairns\">Cairns</a>, Queensland, and ended in Melbourne in October 2014. Higgins was accompanied by Bischoff, and Australian artist Dustin Tebbutt appeared as a special guest.\nOn 19 February 2016, Higgins released a new single titled, \"<a href=\"Oh%20Canada%20%28song%29\">Oh Canada</a>\".\nIn May 2017, Higgins released \"<a href=\"Torchlight%20%28song%29\">Torchlight</a>\".\nHiggins grew up in the 1980s and 1990s listening to artists that her older siblings liked—Nicola played <a href=\"Mariah%20Carey\">Mariah Carey</a> and <a href=\"Whitney%20Houston\">Whitney Houston</a>, while David favoured <a href=\"Queen%20%28band%29\">Queen</a> and <a href=\"Kiss%20%28band%29\">Kiss</a>. Departing for boarding school at age 13, she was exposed to <a href=\"alternative%20rock\">alternative</a> artists like <a href=\"Nirvana%20%28band%29\">Nirvana</a> and <a href=\"Hole_%28band%29\">Hole</a> and started teaching herself guitar and writing her own music. She also began singing with David's jazz group on weekends. As an adult she prefers <a href=\"Nina%20Simone\">Nina Simone</a> and <a href=\"Ray%20Charles\">Ray Charles</a> to \"poppy dance music\". She has cited <a href=\"Patty%20Griffin\">Patty Griffin</a>, <a href=\"Ron%20Sexsmith\">Ron Sexsmith</a>, <a href=\"Rufus%20Wainwright\">Rufus Wainwright</a>, Paul Kelly and <a href=\"Sarah%20McLachlan\">Sarah McLachlan</a> as influences. Material from her third album is influenced by <a href=\"ambient%20music\">ambient music</a> from <a href=\"Low%20%28band%29\">Low</a>, <a href=\"Jon%20Hopkins\">Jon Hopkins</a>, Icelandic band <a href=\"Sigur%20R%C3%B3s\">Sigur Rós</a> and <a href=\"Estonia\">Estonia</a>n classical composer <a href=\"Arvo%20P%C3%A4rt\">Arvo Pärt</a>.\nHiggins' song writing grew out of a desire to express her emotions when she was at school and her lyrics describe her feelings about her own life and relationships. The piano was the first instrument she learned to play, and she continues to use it as well as <a href=\"digital%20piano\">digital piano</a>s including a <a href=\"Roland%20Corporation\">Roland</a> RD-300SX, RD-700 and KR-15. She also uses guitars extensively in her music particularly when touring, due to their portable nature and favours the Australian brand, <a href=\"Maton\">Maton</a>. On occasion she plays <a href=\"keytar\">keytar</a>, <a href=\"xylophone\">xylophone</a> and <a href=\"melodica\">melodica</a> during performances.\nOn 7 September 2012, Higgins recorded a <a href=\"cover%20version\">cover version</a> of <a href=\"Gotye\">Gotye</a>'s \"Heart's A Mess\" for the \"Like a Version\" segment, explaining <a href=\"Broadcasting\">on-air</a> that the song is her favourite Gotye composition. Higgins had travelled with Gotye previously and referred to him as \"an incredible singer\" in the interview prior to the rendition.\nAs a vegetarian, Higgins promoted the health benefits of not eating meat in a 2005 advertising campaign by <a href=\"People%20for%20the%20Ethical%20Treatment%20of%20Animals\">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a> (PETA); and has supported their anti-<a href=\"Fur%20clothing\">fur</a> stance. She is interested in environmental issues and is involved with the <a href=\"Sierra%20Club\">Sierra Club</a>, a <a href=\"grassroots\">grassroots</a> organisation based in California. She has protested against the proposed industrialisation of the <a href=\"Kimberley%20%28Western%20Australia%29\">Kimberley</a> region of Western Australia and donated the royalties from her 2009 EP \"More Than This\". Since early 2007, Higgins has tried to make her tours <a href=\"carbon%20neutrality\">carbon neutral</a>, she purchases green energy to power venues, uses <a href=\"Hybrid%20electric%20vehicle\">hybrid cars</a> where possible and purchases <a href=\"carbon%20offset\">carbon offset</a>s.\nOn 5 October 2012, Higgins performed alongside The John Butler Trio and <a href=\"Clare%20Bowditch\">Clare Bowditch</a> at the \"Save the Kimberley\" concert held at <a href=\"Federation%20Square\">Federation Square</a> in Melbourne, Australia. In relation to the Kimberley region and campaign, Higgins stated:\nApparently scientists are still discovering hundreds of new plant and animal species there every year, which goes to show that there is still so much we don't know about the region. I just fell in love with it; it gets under your skin. Woodside Petroleum are planning to build one of the world's biggest LNG (liquified natural gas) processing plants on the Kimberley coast, just north of Broome. They would be drilling for the gas out at sea and bringing it onshore at this plant, which would just be devastating for the region. The question everyone is asking is, why not process it offshore or pipe it to one of the mining towns down south that already have the infrastructure in place? Why ruin the Kimberley if there's an alternative?\nHiggins performed at another concert in support of the Kimberley cause on 24 February 2013, with John Butler also appearing again, with the event held at The Esplanade in Fremantle, Western Australia. Jarrah Records, the record label that John Butler co-founded with The Waifs and Phil Stevens, worked in partnership with The Wilderness Society to stage the free event that also featured the band Ball Park Music and Dr Bob Brown, former leader of the Australian Greens Party. A march to protest the proposed gas refinery construction at James Price Point accompanied the free concert and campaign supporters were photographed with banners and placards.\nAs of 2012, Higgins is one of numerous publicly known advocates for the 'Oscar's Law' campaign. The campaign, launched in 2010, protests the existence of \"puppy factories\" in Australia, whereby animals are factory farmed. One of the campaign's slogans is \"Break the Puppy Trade—Don't buy puppies from pet shops\" and the list of notable advocates includes Paul Dempsey (musician), Kate Ceberano (singer) and Mick Molloy (comedian).\nIn response to the proposed dumping of around 3 e6m3 of dredged seabed onto the Great Barrier Reef, a legal fighting team was formed by <a href=\"World%20Wide%20Fund%20for%20Nature\">World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)</a>-Australia and the <a href=\"Australian%20Marine%20Conservation%20Society\">Australian Marine Conservation Society</a> (AMCS) in late 2013/early 2014. The legal team received further support in April 2014, following the release of the \"Sounds For The Reef\" musical fundraising project. Produced by Straightup, the digital album features Higgins, in addition to artists such as <a href=\"The%20Herd%20%28Australian%20band%29\">The Herd</a>, <a href=\"Sietta\">Sietta</a>, <a href=\"John%20Butler%20%28musician%29\">John Butler</a>, <a href=\"The%20Cat%20Empire\">The Cat Empire</a>, <a href=\"Fat%20Freddys%20Drop\">Fat Freddys Drop</a>, The Bamboos (featuring Kylie Auldist) and Resin Dogs. Released on 7 April, the album's 21 songs were sold on the <a href=\"Bandcamp\">Bandcamp</a> website.\nHiggins has been a patron of multiple mental health charities since 2003. She described her younger self as \"a bit of a depressed child\" and \"introverted\", and that she had \"experienced various degrees of depression\". Prescribed <a href=\"antidepressant\">antidepressant</a> medication while in high school, she learned to channel low moods into song writing, calling music her \"emotional outlet\". In a 2006 interview she said that her songs were \"coming from more of a happier place\". While recording her second album she discovered a passion for rock climbing, as a \"meditative pursuit\" and that, \"It's the first thing I've had—other than music—that I'm passionate about.\"\nFrom 2004 to 2007, Higgins' sexual orientation was the subject of media speculation based partly on interpretations of her lyrics and her interviews. In an October 2007 interview with Australian lesbian magazine \"Cherrie\", she was asked if she fell under the <a href=\"Nickname\">moniker</a> of \"not-so-straight\" girls. She replied \"Um, yeah, definitely. ... I think sexuality is a fluid thing and it's becoming increasingly more acceptable to admit that you're that way.\" In November her <a href=\"Myspace\">Myspace</a> page reported, \"I've been in relationships with both men and women so I guess I fall most easily under the category 'Bisexual'\". She went on to say that she wanted future interviews to focus on her music rather than her sexuality. In a March 2008 interview with <a href=\"AfterEllen.com\">AfterEllen.com</a>, Higgins said that her song \"Secret\" was written about an ex-girlfriend who was not comfortable, at first, about going public with their relationship; \"I was so head over heels in love with her I kind of wanted to shout it out to the world, so it was just a song about keeping something under the covers ... keeping it away locked in a little room.\"\nIn 2013, Higgins began a relationship with Broome playwright and comedian Dan Lee. In December 2013, Lee announced the couple's engagement on his Facebook page. While he remained tight-lipped on the details, Lee said the proposal was low-key: \"It was very simple ... Just a thing between us.\" On 2 August 2014, Higgins announced on her Facebook page that she and her fiance were expecting a baby, due in January 2015. She said, \"A new chapter is about to begin, and with it a crazy and wonderful journey, no doubt.\" In October 2014, Higgins announced via Instagram that she is expecting a boy. When asked about her impending parenthood in an October 2014 interview, Higgins replied:\nI like being home, having my routines, looking after my garden and playing with my dog, but I also love playing. I love being able to do both ... I don't know what will happen after this. I've got no plans at the moment. I'm going to see how this motherhood thing turns out.\nHiggins gave birth to her son, Samuel Arrow Lee, on 5 January 2015.\nThe <a href=\"APRA%20Awards%20%28Australia%29\">APRA Awards</a> are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA). Higgins has won two awards from six nominations.\nThe <a href=\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards\">ARIA Music Awards</a> are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Higgins has won nine awards from twenty-three nominations.\nShe has won an MTV Australia Video Music Award.\n","Lara Meyerratken\nLara Meyerratken is an Australian <a href=\"multi-instrumentalist\">multi-instrumentalist</a> musician and composer who currently resides in <a href=\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\">Los Angeles, California</a>. Meyerratken is most commonly associated with her longtime collaborator <a href=\"Ben%20Lee\">Ben Lee</a>.\nMeyerratken is a notable session musician and songwriter. Artists she has performed or recorded with included <a href=\"Luscious%20Jackson\">Luscious Jackson</a>, <a href=\"Crooked%20Fingers\">Crooked Fingers</a>, <a href=\"Luna%20%281990s%20American%20band%29\">Luna</a>, <a href=\"Via%20Tania\">Via Tania</a>, <a href=\"Sneeze\">Sneeze</a>, <a href=\"Clem%20Snide\">Clem Snide</a> and <a href=\"Nada%20Surf\">Nada Surf</a>.\nIn addition to her work as a performer and side artist, Meyerratken has composed a number of pieces for commercials, films and television. She was the Musical Director for the Cannes \"Best Original Music\" Lion Award winner for Match.com in 2010, and her original music has appeared in commercials for <a href=\"Kellogg%27s\">Kellogg's</a> and the Japanese skincare line <a href=\"Oranine\">Oranine</a>.\nHer song \"Hero\" was included in the soundtrack of the 2005 movie <a href=\"The%20Baxter\">The Baxter</a> and her song \"The Things You Lost\" makes an appearance in the 2011 film, \"<a href=\"Our%20Idiot%20Brother\">Our Idiot Brother</a>\". In 2005 Meyerratken was the winner of the ARIA Cover Art award. Most recently, Meyerratken composed the music for the <a href=\"http%3A//www.imdb.com/name/nm2130645/\">Frédéric Planchon</a>-directed Curious George spot for <a href=\"Google\">Google</a>.\nMeyerratken performs her own music under the name <a href=\"El%20May\">El May</a>. Her self-titled debut album was self-released in 2010, some songs of which appeared in television shows like \"<a href=\"Pretty%20Little%20Liars\">Pretty Little Liars</a>\" and \"<a href=\"The%20Lying%20Game\">The Lying Game</a>\". She released a cover of Small Black's \"Pleasant Experience.\"\n","There's Something About Mary\nThere's Something About Mary is a 1998 American <a href=\"romantic%20comedy%20film\">romantic comedy film</a> directed by <a href=\"Bobby%20Farrelly\">Bobby</a> and <a href=\"Peter%20Farrelly\">Peter Farrelly</a>. It stars <a href=\"Cameron%20Diaz\">Cameron Diaz</a> as the title character with <a href=\"Ben%20Stiller\">Ben Stiller</a>, <a href=\"Lee%20Evans%20%28comedian%29\">Lee Evans</a>, <a href=\"Chris%20Elliott\">Chris Elliott</a>, and <a href=\"Matt%20Dillon\">Matt Dillon</a> all playing men who are in love with Mary and vying for her affections.\nThe film was placed 27th in the <a href=\"American%20Film%20Institute\">American Film Institute</a>'s \"<a href=\"AFI%27s%20100%20Years...100%20Laughs\">100 Years, 100 Laughs: America's Funniest Movies</a>\", a list of the 100 funniest movies of the 20th century. In 2000, readers of \"<a href=\"Total%20Film\">Total Film</a>\" magazine voted it the fourth-greatest comedy film of all time. Diaz won a <a href=\"New%20York%20Film%20Critics%20Circle%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\">New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress</a>, an <a href=\"MTV%20Movie%20Award%20for%20Best%20Performance\">MTV Movie Award for Best Performance</a>, an <a href=\"American%20Comedy%20Awards\">American Comedy Award for Best Actress</a>, a <a href=\"Blockbuster%20Entertainment%20Award\">Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Best Actress</a>. She also received a <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Award\">Golden Globe</a> nomination for <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress%20%E2%80%93%20Motion%20Picture%20Musical%20or%20Comedy\">her performance</a>. It was also nominated for a <a href=\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20Motion%20Picture%20-%20Musical%20or%20Comedy\">Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy</a>. It won 4 out of 8 <a href=\"MTV%20Movie%20Awards\">MTV Movie Awards</a>, including <a href=\"MTV%20Movie%20Award%20for%20Best%20Movie\">Best Movie</a>.\nIn 1985, 16-year-old high school student Ted Stroehmann (<a href=\"Ben%20Stiller\">Ben Stiller</a>) is about to go on a prom date with his dream girl Mary Jensen (<a href=\"Cameron%20Diaz\">Cameron Diaz</a>) when he gets his penis stuck in a zipper. He is hospitalized when it bleeds after being unzipped, which cancels their date. Ted subsequently loses contact with Mary.\nThirteen years later, in 1998, 29-year-old Ted is still in love with Mary. On the advice of his best friend Dom Woganowski (<a href=\"Chris%20Elliott\">Chris Elliott</a>), he hires a <a href=\"private%20detective\">private detective</a> named Pat Healy (<a href=\"Matt%20Dillon\">Matt Dillon</a>) to track her down. Pat discovers that she is an <a href=\"orthopedic%20surgeon\">orthopedic surgeon</a> living in <a href=\"Miami\">Miami</a> with her friend, Magda, and instantly falls in love with Mary as well. He lies to Ted about her, saying she is overweight with four children and confined to a wheelchair, to discourage him from having any contact with her. Pat resorts to lying, cheating, stalking, and drugging Magda's dog to win Mary over, but is exposed by Mary's architect friend, Tucker (<a href=\"Lee%20Evans%20%28comedian%29\">Lee Evans</a>), who is heavily reliant on crutches and speaks with an English accent. Pat later feels guilty about lying to Mary and reveals his true self to her. Enraged after overhearing Tucker subsequently slander him as a murderer, Pat tails Tucker and discovers him to be a fraud himself: he is an able-bodied, entirely American pizza delivery boy named Norm Phipps who is also in love with Mary. For years, Norm has been driving away potential rivals through slander, including one oft-mentioned suitor referred to only as \"Brett.\"\nMeanwhile, Ted decides he still wants to reconnect with Mary and, assisted by Dom, drives down to Florida and discovers the truth about her. Ted seems to have won Mary's love, until an anonymous letter exposes his connection with Pat, and she breaks contact with him. Ted confronts Pat and Norm, and Mary is accosted by Dom, who is revealed to be her ex-boyfriend \"Woogie\" that she has a restraining order against. When Mary is finally together with all of her deceitful suitors, Ted realizes that the only one who did not resort to lying and manipulation to win Mary was Brett, who he learns is <a href=\"National%20Football%20League\">NFL</a> <a href=\"quarterback\">quarterback</a> <a href=\"Brett%20Favre\">Brett Favre</a>. After reuniting Brett and Mary, Ted leaves tearfully until Mary catches up to Ted, saying that \"I'd be happiest with you\".\nThe film concludes with the two engaging in a kiss while a guitarist (<a href=\"Jonathan%20Richman\">Jonathan Richman</a>), who has periodically narrated the story in song throughout the film, is accidentally shot by Magda's boyfriend, who was trying to shoot Ted so he could win over Mary.\n<a href=\"Brett%20Favre\">Brett Favre</a> plays himself in a cameo that was originally written-for and offered to NFL quarterback <a href=\"Steve%20Young\">Steve Young</a>, but he turned the role down due to the film's coarse nature and was replaced with Favre.\n<a href=\"Bill%20Murray\">Bill Murray</a> was considered for the role of Pat Healy, but the Farrelly brothers thought he was too old for the part.\nThe movie was filmed in Miami, Florida. The makeup effects and animatronic animal effects were the handiwork of Makeup Effects Designer <a href=\"Tony%20Gardner%20%28designer%29\">Tony Gardner</a> and <a href=\"Alterian%2C%20Inc.\">Alterian, Inc.</a>\nThis <a href=\"sleeper%20hit\">sleeper hit</a> was the highest-grossing comedy of 1998 in North America as well as the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year. It also catapulted Diaz and Stiller into the . The film made $369 million worldwide, including $176 million in the U.S. alone.\nThe film received positive reviews from critics. <a href=\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> gives it a score of 83% based on 83 reviews, and an average rating of 7/10, with the consensus: \"\"There's Something About Mary\" proves that unrelentingly, unabashedly puerile humor doesn't necessarily come at the expense of a film's heart.\" <a href=\"Metacritic\">Metacritic</a> gives the film a score of 69 out of 100 based on reviews from 29 critics.\n<a href=\"Roger%20Ebert\">Roger Ebert</a> gave it three out of four stars, stating \"What a blessed relief is laughter. It flies in the face of manners, values, political correctness and decorum. It exposes us for what we are, the only animal with a sense of humor.\"\n<a href=\"Gene%20Siskel\">Gene Siskel</a> ranked the film No.9 on his 10 Best films of 1998 (the final \"best of\" list he did before passing away).\nThe film is recognized by <a href=\"American%20Film%20Institute\">American Film Institute</a> in these lists:\n\n","AppleCare\nAppleCare is <a href=\"Apple%20Inc.\">Apple</a>'s brand name for extended <a href=\"warranty\">warranty</a> and <a href=\"technical%20support\">technical support</a> plans for their devices. Apple hardware normally has a one-year limited warranty and includes 90 days of technical support by telephone. Customers can obtain extended warranty coverage and technical support, which extends the length and expands the scope of coverage, by buying an AppleCare plan. The AppleCare Protection Plan is available for many Apple products including <a href=\"Macintosh\">Mac</a> computers and displays, <a href=\"iPhone\">iPhone</a>s and <a href=\"iPad\">iPad</a>s, <a href=\"Apple%20Watch\">Apple Watch</a>es, and <a href=\"Apple%20TV\">Apple TV</a>. AppleCare plans include Apple software associated with the covered hardware. Customers can also buy additional support and training through AppleCare.\nEvery <a href=\"Apple%20TV\">Apple TV</a>, <a href=\"Apple%20Watch\">Apple Watch</a>, <a href=\"iPad\">iPad</a>, <a href=\"iPhone\">iPhone</a>, <a href=\"iPod\">iPod</a>, and <a href=\"Macintosh\">Mac</a> and <a href=\"Apple%20displays\">display</a> comes with complimentary telephone technical support and a limited warranty from Apple. The AppleCare Protection Plan and AppleCare+ extends the service coverage and provides one-stop service and support from Apple experts.\nThe AppleCare Protection Plan is sold by Apple and its authorized resellers. It is available as an add-on purchase with every major piece of Apple hardware, including smaller devices and accessories, as long as the original Apple hardware warranty is active. However, in territories where the product is branded 'AppleCare+,' the plan must be purchased within 60 days of any iPhone or iPad model purchase.\nFor all hardware devices, following the included 90-day telephone/Internet support and one-year hardware warranty, buying the AppleCare Protection Plan for a MacBook computer or a separate AppleCare Protection Plan for Apple displays extends both support and hardware to three years. Additionally, buying AppleCare+ for iPods and other iOS devices can extend both support and hardware to two years. Extended coverage under the Protection Plan is available for the Apple Watch for either two or three years, depending on the particular model of the device. The AppleCare Protection Plan extends the complimentary 90-day coverage to three years from the original device purchase date for <a href=\"Apple%20displays\">Mac or Apple display</a>s and two years from the given device's purchase date for <a href=\"IPad\">iPads,</a> <a href=\"iPhone\">iPhone</a>s, <a href=\"IPod\">iPods,</a> or <a href=\"Apple%20TV\">Apple TV</a> devices.\nUsers who purchase an AppleCare Protection Plan with any Mac computer are also automatically entitled to receive coverage for some other related Apple accessories. Along with coverage for the MacBook, any additional Apple display purchased at the same time as a Macbook device and/or any Apple <a href=\"AirPort\">AirPort</a> device (e.g. <a href=\"AirPort%20Express\">AirPort Express Base Station</a>, <a href=\"AirPort%20Extreme\">AirPort Extreme Base Station</a>, or <a href=\"Time%20Capsule%20%28Apple%29\">Time Capsule</a>) is covered. (Note: Although the AirPort device or Time Capsule must be purchased up to two years \"before\" the MacBook purchase or \"during the term\" of the AppleCare Protection Plan coverage).\nToday, there are several third-party warranty providers and traditional insurance providers that will also cover Apple products. Some may include accident, loss, and theft coverage as well as hardware failure warranties. Some major retailers that sell Apple products sell their own extended service plans as well.\nIn some countries or territories where there are no local Apple offices, such as parts of Latin America, the \"AppleCare Extended Service\" product is available in place of the AppleCare product. This offers the same hardware warranty without phone/Internet support.\nIn some parts of European countries apart of the <a href=\"European%20Union\">European Union (EU)</a>, local regulations gives consumers a minimum of two years warranty on hardware defects that existed at time of purchase, which overlaps the benefits of AppleCare. This effectively means that, in certain countries in the <a href=\"European%20Union\">EU</a>, an AppleCare Protection Plan still extends phone/Internet support from 90 days on all devices. In most countries the <a href=\"Legal%20burden%20of%20proof\">onus</a> under the EU law is on the \"merchant\" to establish that a hardware defect did not exist at time of purchase for the first six months after purchase. After the six-month-period this is <a href=\"Reverse%20onus\">reversed</a>, meaning that the \"customer\" needs to establish that a hardware defect did exist when they received the product. Unlike the statutory guarantee AppleCare also covers defects that appeared after purchase, if the device was handled correctly.\nIn reality, this means that the EU legislation gives customers a 6-month guarantee, because it is typically impossible for a customer to prove a defect existed at the time of purchase.\nAppleCare also includes an express replacement service for iPad and iPhone. AppleCare+ insures against accidental damage, unlike the statutory warranty. For Mac computers with or without any additional included covered Mac accessories, (or separately purchased Apple monitors with their own purchased Apple Protection Plan) this still extends cover to a third year from the statutory two years.\nIn Italy, Apple has been accused of failing to inform customers about their rights."],"string":"[\n \"Stephen Hurd\\nStephen Arthur Hurd (born January 25, 1968) is an American gospel musician. He started his music career, in 2000, with the release of, \\\"Minister Stephen A. Hurd & Corporate Worship, Vol. 1\\\", that was released by Hurd the Word Music. His second album, \\\"In the Overflow, Vol. 2\\\", was released by Integrity Music in 2001. The third release, \\\"A Call to Worship\\\", was released by Integrity Records alongside Epic Records and Sony Urban in 2004. This would be his first album to breakthrough on the \\\"Billboard\\\" magazine Gospel Albums chart. He released his fourth album, \\\"My Destiny\\\", with Integrity Music alongside Columbia Records in 2006, and this charted on the aforementioned chart. The fifth album, \\\"Times of Refreshing\\\", released in 2008 with Integrity Music, again this charted on the aforementioned chart. His sixth album released in 2012 by HYW Music, \\\"O That Men Would Worship\\\", and this charted on the aforementioned chart.\\nHurd was born on January 25, 1968, as Stephen Arthur Hurd, in Washington, D.C., where he was reared in the church. After graduating from The Duke Ellington School of the Arts, he attended Howard University. He became an ordained minister in 1988, at which point he started leading worship services at local churches.\\nHe began Corporate Worship in 1999, and they released a few albums under that moniker. His solo music career started in 2000, with the release of \\\"Minister Stephen A. Hurd & Corporate Worship, Vol. 1\\\" by Hurd the Word Music, yet this failed to chart. His subsequent album, \\\"In the Overflow, Vol. 2\\\", was released by Integrity Music in 2001, and this did not chart. The next album, \\\"A Call to Worship\\\", was released by Integrity Music alongside Epic Records and Sony Urban on June 8, 2004, and this was his first release to breakthrough on the \\\"Billboard\\\" magazine Gospel Albums chart, at No. 15. He released, \\\"My Destiny\\\", with Integrity Music in association with Columbia Records on October 3, 2006, and this peaked at No. 11 on the Gospel Albums chart. The following album, \\\"Times of Refreshing\\\", was released on October 14, 2008 by Integrity Music, and this would chart at No. 8 on the Gospel Albums chart. His latest release, \\\"O That Men Would Worship\\\", was released by HYW Music in 2012, and the album would again place at No. 8 on the aforementioned chart.\",\n \"Troy Sneed\\nTroy Lenard Sneed, Jr. (born December 14, 1967) is an American gospel musician. He started his music career, in 1999, with the release of \\\"Call Jesus\\\" by Malaco Records. His second album, \\\"Bless That Wonderful Name\\\", was released by Savoy Records in 2001. The third album, \\\"A State of Worship\\\", was released by his own label imprint Emtro Gospel Records in 2005, which the rest would be released by that label. This was his breakthrough album on the \\\"Billboard\\\" magazine Gospel Albums chart. His fourth release, \\\"In His Presence\\\", was released in 2006, and it charted on the aforementioned chart. The fifth album from him, \\\"In Due Season\\\", was released in 2009, yet this failed to chart. He released the sixth album in 2011, \\\"My Heart Says Yes\\\", and this charted on the aforementioned chart. His seventh album, \\\"All Is Well\\\", released in 2012, and it too chart on the aforementioned chart.\\nSneed was born on December 14, 1967, in Perry, Florida as Troy Lenard Sneed, Jr., and he was a football player, while in college at Florida A&M University. He had an injury on the field that put an end to his playing days. He would join the choir at the university, and after graduating he was a teacher at Beach Elementary School in Jacksonville, Florida. Milton Bingham, with Savoy Records, asked him to come lead the Georgia Mass Choir, in Atlanta, Georgia, as an assistant music minister.\\nHis music career began in 1999, with the release of \\\"Call Jesus\\\" on March 23, 1999 by Malaco Records, but this album would not chart. His subsequent album, \\\"Bless That Wonderful Name\\\", was released by Savoy Records in 2001, yet this did not chart. The third album was released by his own record label imprint Emtro Gospel on February 22, 2005, \\\"A State of Worship\\\", and it was his breakthrough release on \\\"Billboard\\\" magazine Gospel Albums chart at No. 22. He released, \\\"In His Presence\\\", on October 10, 2006 by his label, which this charted at No. 44 on the aforementioned chart. His fifth album, \\\"In Due Season\\\", was released by his record label on August 25, 2009, however it was not successfully charted. The subsequent album, \\\"My Heart Says Yes\\\", released on May 10, 2011 by Emtro Gospel, and this one would peak at No. 5 on the Gospel Albums chart. He released his seventh album on August 7, 2012, \\\"All Is Well\\\", and this charted at No. 9 on the aforementioned chart.\\nSneed married Emily Frances Ianson on July 2, 1993, and together they reside in Jacksonville, Florida with their children. CEO Emtro Music Group\\nReleased: Oct 23rd 2015\",\n \"Ben Lee\\nBenjamin Michael \\\"Ben\\\" Lee (born 11 September 1978) is an Australian musician and actor. Lee began his career as a musician at the age of 14 with the Sydney band Noise Addict, but focused on his solo career when the band broke up in 1995. He appeared as the protagonist in the Australian film \\\"The Rage in Placid Lake\\\" (2003). He has released eleven solo studio albums.\\nLee's musical career began in 1993 with the band Noise Addict, who were signed to Steve Pavlovic's independent label Fellaheen Records, on the strength of a self-produced and distributed four-track demo recorded in Lee's bedroom. Pavlovic's connections brought the band to the attention of Sonic Youth's Thurston Moore and Beastie Boys' Mike D, both of whom released the band's material in the US. The group put out several releases on the Beasties' Grand Royal Records.\\nThese including the acoustic \\\"Young and Jaded\\\" EP in 1994, which contained Lee's Evan Dando tribute, \\\"I Wish I Was Him\\\". In 1995, Grand Royal released the band's only full-length album, the Brad Wood-produced \\\"Meet the Real You\\\". Noise Addict made a music video for the song \\\"16\\\", toured with Sebadoh, but then broke up. Lee was also briefly a member of the alternative act Gerling. In 2009 Lee recorded a new Noise Addict album, \\\"It Was Never about the Audience\\\", with a new lineup; Lou Barlow and Lara Meyerratken.\\nLee's solo career started at the age of 16, while he was still in Noise Addict. He began recording his first solo album, \\\"Grandpaw Would\\\", in both Sydney and Chicago with producer Brad Wood. This was followed by the 1997 album, \\\"Something to Remember Me By\\\", also produced by Wood. An alternate version of his song \\\"Burn to Shine\\\", produced by T-Bone Burnett, played over the end credits of the film \\\"Best Men\\\". Lee was then featured on the \\\"There's Something About Mary\\\" soundtrack, with the song \\\"How to Survive a Broken Heart\\\". 1998's \\\"Breathing Tornados\\\", released on Pavlovic's new label Modular, marked a new direction for Lee as he introduced synthesisers and increased instrumentation into his sound.\\nThe album was a success in Australia, earning Lee ARIA Award nominations for Best Male Artist and Album of the Year. The album's first single, \\\"Cigarettes Will Kill You\\\", was also nominated for Single of the Year and finished second in that year's Triple J Hottest 100. In 2001, Lee contributed a track (\\\"Sweet Is the Night\\\") to a Jeff Lynne tribute album \\\"Lynne Me Your Ears\\\".\\nLee's fourth album, \\\"hey you. yes you.\\\", was released in 2002. The first single from the album, \\\"Something Borrowed, Something Blue\\\", reached number 67 on the ARIA Charts and number 22 on the 2002's Triple J Hottest 100. The second single, \\\"Running with Scissors\\\", peaked at number 82 on the ARIA charts. In 2003, he also contributed several songs to the Evan Dando solo album \\\"Baby I'm Bored\\\".\\nIn late 2004, Lee left Steve Pavlovic's Modular Recordings and started his own record label, Ten Fingers. The first release on the label was the single, \\\"Gamble Everything for Love\\\", followed by the album, \\\"Awake Is the New Sleep\\\" in February 2005, which went double platinum in Australia. A defining release in his career, the album showcased a much brighter, positive side of Lee's personality, in contrast to his previous darker musings. \\\"Awake Is the New Sleep\\\" received several nominations for the 2005 Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) awards, and Lee won Best Male Artist, Best Independent Release, and Single of the Year for \\\"Catch My Disease\\\", which Lee wrote with Mcgowan Southworth. \\\"Catch My Disease\\\" also went to No. 2 on the 2005 Triple J Hottest 100.\\nIn addition, the song was featured on the soundtracks to the 2005 films \\\"Just Friends\\\" and \\\"\\\", as well as the soundtracks to the television series, \\\"Grey's Anatomy\\\", \\\"Hidden Palms\\\" and \\\"Scrubs\\\". In 2006 it was used in a television commercial for Dell Computers. On 26 March 2006, Lee performed \\\"We're All in This Together\\\" from \\\"Awake Is the New Sleep\\\" at the closing ceremony of the 2006 Commonwealth Games. The single for \\\"We're All in This Together\\\" was released on 8 April 2006. The CD includes cover versions of the song by Pony Up, Holidays on Ice and Gelbison. \\\"We're All in This Together\\\" is being used in commercials for Kohl's (2008), Coca-Cola (Remixed Australian Summer Series Ads in 2007), the South Australian Government (2006), the Salvation Army Red Shield Appeal (2007) and Telus Mobility's \\\"My Faves\\\" (2007).\\nLee released his sixth album, \\\"Ripe\\\", on 18 September 2007 with Benji Madden and Mandy Moore making appearances. Mandy Moore sung a light-hearted, '50s style duet with Lee called \\\"Birds and Bees\\\". \\\"Mandy was very sweet and did her best Olivia Newton-John for me. I'm really psyched about this recording,\\\" Lee says. Madden helped out with some backing vocals, along with US band Rooney and Sara Watkins from the band Nickel Creek. \\\"American Television\\\" from the album was used in a VH1 advertisement for \\\"Flavor of Love 3\\\" and the song \\\"Ripe\\\" appeared in an episode of \\\"One Tree Hill\\\" (Season 5, episode 2).\\nIn 2007, Lee performed a cover of Crosby, Stills & Nash's \\\"Our House\\\" for Landmarks on The DL.\\nIn February 2009, Lee released his seventh studio album, \\\"The Rebirth of Venus\\\", which received mixed reviews. It featured guest performances from the likes of Missy Higgins and Patience Hodgson, and peaked at No.21 on the ARIA Charts.\\nLee's eighth studio album, \\\"Deeper into Dream\\\", was released on 11 October 2011. It was Lee's first attempt at a concept album, basing the entire 12 tracks around the dream state. Despite not charting, it was received fairly favourably by critics.\\nIn April 2013, Lee released his ninth and arguably his most experimental studio album entitled \\\"\\\", with collaboration from Jessica Chapnik. The album is based upon his personal experience with the psychoactive South American drug known as Ayahuasca. Lee featured as the mentor for Joel Madden's team on the 2013 season of \\\"The Voice Australia\\\".\\nIn June 2015, Lee released his 10th solo album, \\\"Love Is the Great Rebellion\\\", his first on a major label, Warner Bros. Records. According to Geoff Wood at ABC, Lee invented the term \\\"Electroyoga\\\" to describe a new form of music dedicated to the practice of yoga. Lee has since followed up this release with an acoustically-oriented album, entitled \\\"Freedom, Love and Recuperation of the Human Mind\\\", in 2016; as well as a children's album, called \\\"Ben Lee Sings Songs About Islam for the Whole Family\\\", in 2017.\\nLee was born in Sydney and was raised in a Jewish household, but did not consider himself religious as a child. Lee was educated at Moriah College, an independent, Modern Orthodox Jewish, co-educational, day school, located in Sydney's eastern suburbs.\\nLee dated Claire Danes for several years but their relationship ended in 2003, and he later married actress Ione Skye on 28 December 2008, in a Hindu wedding ceremony in India. They have one child.\\nIn 2008 Lee was nominated as PETA's World's Sexiest Vegetarian. However, according to one source, Lee admitted he eats fish, indicating a pescatarian diet.\\nNotes:\\nThe album \\\"Awake Is the New Sleep\\\" and a selection of other tracks are a feature of the iTunes Music Store Essentials with many singles featuring as a part of the AppleCare Technical Support music on hold.\\n\",\n \"Ripe (album)\\nRipe is the sixth album by Australian musician Ben Lee, released on 18 September 2007. The first single from the album was \\\"Love Me Like the World Is Ending\\\".\\nProduced by John Alagia, the album features guest appearances from Mandy Moore, Benji Madden, Benmont Tench, Rachael Yamagata, Rooney, Sara Watkins and Charlotte Martin.\\nIt entered the ARIA Albums Chart at No. 11 on 24 September.\\n<div>\\n\",\n \"Day Breaks\\nDay Breaks is the sixth solo studio album by American singer-songwriter Norah Jones, released on October 7, 2016, through Blue Note Records. The album features nine original songs and three covers. Jones returned to a piano-driven sound as heard on releases early in her career. It peaked at number two on the US \\\"Billboard\\\" 200, becoming her sixth album to reach the top ten. \\\"Day Breaks\\\" received positive reviews from music critics, with many praising the album's production and Jones' vocals with many comparing it favorably to her debut album \\\"Come Away with Me\\\". Jones promoted the album with television performances and interviews. To further promote the album, Jones embarked on Daybreaks World Tour.\\n\\\"Day Breaks\\\" was released on October 7, 2016, through Blue Note Records. At the time of its release it was made available on CD, vinyl and as a digital download. A limited edition orange vinyl was also released.\\nEight songs on the album are composed or co-written by Jones; composing on piano, she intended the album as a return to the sound of her 2002 debut, \\\"Come Away with Me\\\". The album was co-produced by Jones and Eli Wolf and features drummer Brian Blade, organist Lonnie Smith and saxophonist Wayne Shorter. Jones explains the songs were composed by drawing on jazz music influences and were recorded live without any overdubbing.\\nThere are three cover songs on \\\"Day Breaks\\\": \\\"Peace\\\", by Horace Silver (first recorded by Jones in 2001), \\\"Fleurette Africaine (African Flower)\\\", by Duke Ellington and \\\"Don't Be Denied\\\", originally by Neil Young, whose lyrics were recast in the third person by Jones. The album also includes \\\"Sleeping Wild\\\" written by Sarah Oda, who co-wrote three other tracks on the album and co-produced.\\nThe album was released on October 7, 2016 and the first single was the title song, \\\"Day Breaks\\\". Subsequent singles included the songs \\\"Flipside\\\" and \\\"Tragedy\\\".\\nJones performed songs from \\\"Day Breaks\\\" on \\\"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\\\" and \\\"The Today Show\\\". She discussed the album on PBS's \\\"Tavis Smiley\\\" show on October 14, 2016. She also appeared on \\\"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\\\" and performed her cover of Horace Silver's \\\"Peace\\\" from the album. To further promote the album, Jones embarked on Daybreaks World Tour.\\n\\\"Day Breaks\\\" received an average score of 77/100 from 10 reviews on Metacritic, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews.\\\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic rated the album four out of five stars and wrote that \\\"Jones' originals feel as elegant as time-honored standards, and all her covers feel fresh. The former speak to her craft, the latter to her gifts as a stylist, and the two combine to turn \\\"Day Breaks\\\" into a satisfying testament to her ever-evolving musicianship.\\\" Glenn Gamboa of \\\"Newsday\\\" rated the album an \\\"A\\\", calling it Jones' \\\"latest masterpiece.\\\" Rating the album an \\\"A-\\\", \\\"Entertainment Weekly\\\"'s Jim Farber writes of Jones: \\\"Not since her entrancing debut has she sounded this engaged.\\\"\\n\\\"Day Breaks\\\" debuted at number two on the US \\\"Billboard\\\" 200 (behind Green Day's \\\"Revolution Radio\\\"), moving 47,000 equivalent album units; it sold 44,000 copies in its first week, with the remainder of its unit total reflecting the album's streaming activity and track sales. It was a considerable drop from her previous efforts, \\\"Little Broken Hearts\\\" (2013) and \\\"The Fall\\\" (2009), which opened to sales of 110,000 and 180,000 units, respectively. The album debuted at number one on the US Jazz Albums chart, making it Jones' second album to reach number one.\\n\\nCredits adapted from AllMusic.\",\n \"Whole New You\\nWhole New You is American singer-songwriter and musician Shawn Colvin's sixth album, and also her sixth studio album, released in 2001. It was her first new release in over four years. While \\\"A Few Small Repairs\\\" is, \\\"her divorce album,\\\" \\\"Whole New You\\\" is about family, commitment, and acceptance. The album retains the sixties folk-pop feel provided by collaborator John Leventhal. According to AMG, \\\"The most interesting song is the most complex one,\\\" \\\"Another Plane Went Down\\\".\\nAll songs are written by Shawn Colvin and John Leventhal unless noted.\\nProduction notes:\\n\",\n \"Kim Hyun-sik\\nKim Hyun-sik (January 7 1958 – November 1, 1990) was a musician in South Korea, active during the 1980s. He debuted in 1980, releasing his first album, \\\"Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter\\\", along with his band of the same name. He died at the age of 32 from cirrhosis. He is considered one of the most popular and notable musicians of the 1980s in Korea, well-known for his unique, husky, emotional vocal style. Kim released five albums while alive, with his sixth album—\\\"Kim Hyun-sik VI\\\", popularly known by the title of its lead single \\\"My Love By My Side\\\"—being released posthumously. Kim broke out of the hospital to finish the vocal recordings for his last album, showing his dedication to his profession. He won the Disc Daesang (Album of the Year) award at the 1991 Golden Disc Awards, the Korean approximation of the Grammy Awards, for his posthumous sixth album, \\\"Kim Hyun-sik VI\\\". Kim was also honored by having two episodes of the popular singing competition show \\\"Immortal Songs 2\\\" dedicated to his music.\",\n \"Holy South: Kingdom Crunk\\nHoly South: Kingdom Crunk is the sixth album by Memphis Christian rapper Mr. Del. Alongside Del, artists from his Holy South label roster appear all throughout the album. Like the covers for Church Age and Da Takeover, A Parental Advisory-like logo that says \\\"Spiritual Advisory Gospel Content\\\" can be seen [And like Church Age, this label has caused some websites that sell this album to mistakenly label it as having explicit lyrics].\",\n \"A Posteriori\\nA Posteriori is the sixth studio album by German musical project Enigma. It is Enigma's sixth album. In December 2006, the album was nominated in the Best New Age Album category in the 2007 Grammy Awards.\\nWhile the previous album, \\\"Voyageur\\\", contained minimal amounts of the project's signature sounds, \\\"A posteriori\\\" only contains the signature \\\"Enigma horn\\\" (a foghorn) during the opening minute of the album, and even then it is a fleeting glimpse. Coupled with the album's subject matter of the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies, \\\"A posteriori\\\" is, compared to earlier releases, stark and foreboding.\\nNews about the album's title and track list were first made public on 18 July 2006 through \\\"Crocodile-Music.de\\\" news page and \\\"EnigmaMusic.com\\\"' s forums, while the album cover was made public ten days later. The first track from the album to be made public was \\\"Hello and Welcome,\\\" released as a stand-alone single in 2006. Enigma's management subsequently stated that a new version would be included on the album, while the lead single off the album proper would be \\\"Goodbye Milky Way\\\".\\n\\\"A posteriori\\\" became first Enigma album to be recorded using Cretu's new 5.1 fully computerized mobile music studio \\\"Alchemist\\\". \\\"Alchemist\\\" represents a machine of comparably small size with main keyboard and a number of hardware MIDI controllers with some \\\"special\\\" expansions and central computer with LCD screen. It was designed for Michael Cretu privately and according to him helped a lot producing music, transferring ideas into sound.\\n\\\"A posteriori\\\", a Latin phrase translated as \\\"after the fact\\\", refers to empirical knowledge, the epistemological concept of deriving knowledge from past experience.\\n\\\"Eppur si muove\\\", alternately spelled \\\"E pur si muove!\\\", is an Italian phrase translated to \\\"And yet it moves\\\", attributed to Galileo Galilei after he was sentenced by the Roman Inquisition to recant his belief in heliocentrism.\\nThom Jurek of AllMusic gave the album a mixed review saying \\\"if you like the Enigma sound, this will be up your alley, full of the things you may seek out in a recording, but there is little new here.\\\"\\nAll songs written, arranged, and produced by Michael Cretu.\\nAll songs published by 1-2-3 Music / Crocodile Music.\\nApart from the album, some additional remixes were released exclusively through the iTunes Store. They are:\\nThe Private Lounge Remix album version of \\\"A posteriori\\\" was released via iTunes Store on 18 March 2007 in Germany and on 26 March in the rest of Europe.\",\n \"Sony Urban Music\\nSony Urban Music was a division of <a href=\\\"Sony%20BMG\\\">Sony BMG</a>, active from <a href=\\\"2004%20in%20music\\\">2004</a> to <a href=\\\"2006%20in%20music\\\">2006</a>, The division handled <a href=\\\"contemporary%20R%26amp%3BB\\\">R&B</a>, <a href=\\\"soul%20music\\\">soul</a>, and <a href=\\\"hip%20hop%20music\\\">hip hop</a> releases by artists nominally signed to Sony's <a href=\\\"Columbia%20Records\\\">Columbia</a> and <a href=\\\"Epic%20Records\\\">Epic</a> labels. During its existence, Sony Urban managed releases by artists such as <a href=\\\"Bow%20Wow%20%28rapper%29\\\">Bow Wow</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Legend\\\">John Legend</a>, <a href=\\\"Omarion\\\">Omarion</a>, <a href=\\\"Bossman%20%28artist%29\\\">Bossman</a>, <a href=\\\"DMX%20%28rapper%29\\\">DMX</a>, <a href=\\\"Beyonc%C3%A9\\\">Beyoncé</a>, <a href=\\\"Amerie\\\">Amerie</a>, <a href=\\\"Keshia%20Chante\\\">Keshia Chante</a> and <a href=\\\"contemporary%20Christian%20music\\\">contemporary Christian music</a> duo <a href=\\\"Anointed\\\">Anointed</a>.\\nIn March 2004, the division's general manager became <a href=\\\"Lisa%20Ellis%20%28executive%20producer%29\\\">Lisa Ellis</a>.\\nIn November 2006, it was announced that Sony Urban Music would be dismantled. All of the artists handled by Sony Urban were returned to either Columbia or Epic, with a handful of exceptions. R&B singer Omarion switched from Epic to Columbia, where he recorded a duets album with rapper Bow Wow. New signees <a href=\\\"Sa-Ra\\\">Sa-Ra</a>, signed to Columbia through <a href=\\\"Kanye%20West\\\">Kanye West</a>'s <a href=\\\"G.O.O.D.%20Music\\\">G.O.O.D. Music</a> imprint, negotiated their release during the restructuring.\\n\",\n \"Duke Ellington School of the Arts\\nThe Duke Ellington School of the Arts, (established 1974), is a <a href=\\\"high%20school\\\">high school</a> located at 35th Street and R Street, <a href=\\\"Northwest%2C%20Washington%2C%20D.C.\\\">Northwest, Washington, D.C.</a>, and dedicated to arts education. One of the high schools of the <a href=\\\"District%20of%20Columbia%20Public%20Schools\\\">District of Columbia Public School system</a>, it is named for the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">American</a> <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a> <a href=\\\"bandleader\\\">bandleader</a> and <a href=\\\"composer\\\">composer</a> <a href=\\\"Duke%20Ellington\\\">Edward Kennedy \\\"Duke\\\" Ellington</a> (1899–1974), himself a native of <a href=\\\"Washington%2C%20D.C.\\\">Washington, D.C.</a> The building formerly housed Western High School. The building is listed on the <a href=\\\"National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places\\\">National Register of Historic Places</a>.\\nGraduates of the school are prepared to pursue an artistic and theatric occupation. In addition to completing the traditional public school curriculum, students must audition for and complete studies in one of the following artistic areas: <a href=\\\"dance\\\">dance</a>, <a href=\\\"literary\\\">literary</a> <a href=\\\"Media%20%28arts%29\\\">media</a> and <a href=\\\"communications\\\">communications</a> (L.M.C.), <a href=\\\"museum%20studies\\\">museum studies</a>, <a href=\\\"instrumental%20music\\\">instrumental music</a>, <a href=\\\"vocal%20music\\\">vocal music</a>, <a href=\\\"theater\\\">theater</a>, technical design and production (T.D.P.), and <a href=\\\"visual%20arts\\\">visual arts</a> (V.A.).\\nThe school developed from the collaborative efforts of Peggy Cooper Cafritz, a long-time member of the <a href=\\\"District%20of%20Columbia%20Public%20Schools\\\">D.C. School Board</a> and Mike Malone, a veteran of <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a>, <a href=\\\"off-Broadway\\\">off-Broadway</a>, <a href=\\\"contemporary%20dancer\\\">contemporary dancer</a>, <a href=\\\"Theatre%20director\\\">director</a>, and master <a href=\\\"choreographer\\\">choreographer</a>, who were co-founders of <a href=\\\"Workshops%20for%20Careers%20in%20the%20Arts\\\">Workshops for Careers in the Arts</a> in 1968. In 1974 this workshop program developed into the Duke Ellington School of the Arts at Western High School, an <a href=\\\"accredited\\\">accredited</a> four-year <a href=\\\"public%20high%20school\\\">public high school</a> program combining <a href=\\\"arts\\\">arts</a> and <a href=\\\"academics\\\">academics</a>. It is currently operated as a joint partnership between <a href=\\\"D.C.%20Public%20Schools\\\">D.C. Public Schools</a>, the <a href=\\\"Kennedy%20Center\\\">Kennedy Center</a>, and <a href=\\\"George%20Washington%20University\\\">George Washington University</a>.\\nEllington currently serves approximately 500 students in grades 9-12. Most students commute in from outside of <a href=\\\"List%20of%20neighborhoods%20of%20the%20District%20of%20Columbia%20by%20ward%23Ward%202\\\">Ward 2</a>, where the school is situated. The academic faculty is fully credentialed and includes seven <a href=\\\"Fulbright%20scholars\\\">Fulbright scholars</a>, various <a href=\\\"PhD\\\">PhD</a>s, and DCPS's only national board certified teacher (NBCT) in young adulthood English/<a href=\\\"language%20arts\\\">language arts</a>.\\nRanked as one of <a href=\\\"District%20of%20Columbia%20Public%20Schools\\\">D.C. Public Schools'</a> top high schools, Ellington's <a href=\\\"curriculum\\\">curriculum</a> requires students earn 34% more credits than those at other D.C. public high schools. Students must maintain a minimum grade point average in both academics and the arts to be permitted to perform and, ultimately, to stay enrolled at Ellington. The school has a 99% on-time graduation rate.\\nEllington's mission is to emphasize the arts as much as academics. It offers training in eight disciplines: Dance, Literary Media and Communications, Museum Studies, Instrumental or Vocal Music, Theater, Technical Design and Production, and Visual Arts.\\nIn support of their arts program, the school offers master classes taught by accomplished artists such as <a href=\\\"Wynton%20Marsalis\\\">Wynton Marsalis</a>, <a href=\\\"Billy%20Taylor\\\">Billy Taylor</a>, <a href=\\\"Lynn%20Whitfield\\\">Lynn Whitfield</a>, and <a href=\\\"Lionel%20Hampton\\\">Lionel Hampton</a>.\\nThe school is recognized for, among other things, its award-winning Duke Ellington Show Choir. Established in 1986, the Choir performs all types of music including <a href=\\\"Broadway%20theatre\\\">Broadway</a>, Gospel, Spirituals, <a href=\\\"Opera\\\">Opera</a>, <a href=\\\"Jazz\\\">Jazz</a>, and <a href=\\\"R%26amp%3BB\\\">R&B</a>. The creator, Samuel L. E. Bonds, studied with <a href=\\\"Todd%20Duncan\\\">Todd Duncan</a>. Students in the Choir are required to continue performing academically, maintaining a minimum grade point average of 3.0. As well as performing as part of an ensemble, they are also allowed to focus on solo work. It performs a holiday show of \\\"<a href=\\\"Amahl%20and%20the%20Night%20Visitors\\\">Amahl and the Night Visitors</a>\\\" yearly.\\nThe Show Choir has traveled to Europe, Asia, and throughout the United States and territories. It has performed at the <a href=\\\"White%20House\\\">White House</a> for Presidents Barack Obama <a href=\\\"Bill%20Clinton\\\">Bill Clinton</a> and <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a> and in both Mayor <a href=\\\"Adrian%20Fenty\\\">Adrian Fenty</a> and President <a href=\\\"Barack%20Obama\\\">Barack Obama</a>'s inauguration. The Show Choir has shared the stage with Earth Wind and Fire <a href=\\\"Clay%20Aiken\\\">Clay Aiken</a>, <a href=\\\"Patti%20LaBelle\\\">Patti LaBelle</a>, <a href=\\\"Jasmine%20Guy\\\">Jasmine Guy</a>, <a href=\\\"Patti%20Austin\\\">Patti Austin</a>, <a href=\\\"Beyonc%C3%A9%20Knowles\\\">Beyoncé Knowles</a>, <a href=\\\"Boyz%20II%20Men\\\">Boyz II Men</a>, and <a href=\\\"Denyce%20Graves\\\">Denyce Graves</a>. The Choir has performed at <a href=\\\"Carnegie%20Hall\\\">Carnegie Hall</a>, the <a href=\\\"Kennedy%20Center\\\">Kennedy Center</a> and sang <a href=\\\"The%20Star%20Spangled%20Banner\\\">The Star Spangled Banner</a> for the opening of the <a href=\\\"Washington%20Nationals\\\">Washington Nationals</a> first baseball game.\\nOver 95% of Ellington graduates are accepted into universities and conservatories each year. Ellington alum have studied at <a href=\\\"Washington%20Adventist%20University\\\">Washington Adventist University</a>, <a href=\\\"Howard%20University\\\">Howard University</a>, <a href=\\\"Yale%20University\\\">Yale University</a>, <a href=\\\"New%20York%20University\\\">New York University</a>, <a href=\\\"Harvard%20University\\\">Harvard University</a>, <a href=\\\"Manhattan%20School%20of%20Music\\\">Manhattan School of Music</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Juilliard%20School\\\">The Juilliard School</a>, <a href=\\\"Parsons%20School%20of%20Design\\\">Parsons School of Design</a>, <a href=\\\"Spelman%20College\\\">Spelman College</a>, <a href=\\\"Morehouse%20College\\\">Morehouse College</a>, <a href=\\\"Pratt%20Institute\\\">Pratt Institute</a>, <a href=\\\"Berklee%20College%20of%20Music\\\">Berklee College of Music</a>, <a href=\\\"Oberlin%20College\\\">The Oberlin Conservatory</a>, <a href=\\\"American%20Musical%20and%20Dramatic%20Academy\\\">American Musical and Dramatic Academy</a> and among other institutions.\\nIn order to be admitted into Ellington, students must complete an admissions application and audition before a panel. Upon passing the audition students take an academic assessment test, and complete a family interview.\\nIn January 2010, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Washington%20Post\\\">The Washington Post</a>\\\" reported that the <a href=\\\"Government%20of%20D.C.\\\">D.C. government</a> was studying a plan to relocate the school to a new site near <a href=\\\"Union%20Station%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29\\\">Union Station</a>. <a href=\\\"Jack%20Evans%20%28D.C.%20Council%29\\\">Jack Evans</a>, the D.C. Council member for the school's host ward, advocates the plan as a way to move the school to a more \\\"central\\\" location relative to its student body, as well to allow the current Ellington site to revert to a standard neighborhood school. Opposition from students, parents, alumni, and others has been strong, including <a href=\\\"online%20petitions\\\">online petitions</a> and a <a href=\\\"Facebook\\\">Facebook</a> group with over <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.facebook.com/group.php%3Fgid%3D254907323239\\\">1,700 members</a>. Shortly after \\\"The Washington Post\\\" report, D.C. Schools Chancellor <a href=\\\"Michelle%20Rhee\\\">Michelle Rhee</a> announced that the school will not be moved in the near future.\\n\",\n \"Perry, Florida\\nPerry is a city in <a href=\\\"Taylor%20County%2C%20Florida\\\">Taylor County</a>, <a href=\\\"Florida\\\">Florida</a>, United States. As of 2010, the population recorded by the <a href=\\\"U.S.%20Census%20Bureau\\\">U.S. Census Bureau</a> is 7,017.\\nIt is the <a href=\\\"county%20seat\\\">county seat</a> of Taylor County. The city was named for <a href=\\\"Madison%20S.%20Perry\\\">Madison Starke Perry</a>, fourth <a href=\\\"Governors%20of%20Florida\\\">Governor of the State of Florida</a> and a <a href=\\\"Confederate%20States%20Army\\\">Confederate</a> <a href=\\\"Colonel%20%28United%20States%29\\\">colonel</a> during the American Civil War.\\nPerry is located at .\\nAccording to the <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Census%20Bureau\\\">United States Census Bureau</a>, the city has a total area of 9.3 sqmi , all land.\\nPerry is approximately 50 mi southeast of <a href=\\\"Tallahassee%2C%20Florida\\\">Tallahassee</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"Perry%20Race%20Riot\\\">Perry Race Riot</a> occurred in Perry on 14 and 15 December 1922, during which whites burned Charles Wright at the stake and attacked the black community of Perry after the murder of a white schoolteacher. On the day following Wright's lynching two more black men were shot and hanged; whites then burned the town's black school, <a href=\\\"Masonic%20lodge\\\">Masonic lodge</a>, church, amusement hall, and several families' homes.\\nAs of the <a href=\\\"census\\\">census</a> of 2010, there were 7,017 people, 2,661 households, and 1,828 families residing in the city. The <a href=\\\"population%20density\\\">population density</a> was 748.0 people per square mile (284.6/km²). There were 3,073 housing units at an average density of 330.9 per square mile (127.7/km²) The racial makeup of the city was 55.0% <a href=\\\"White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">White</a> 40.1% <a href=\\\"African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">African American</a>, 0.5% <a href=\\\"Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Native American</a>, 1.4% <a href=\\\"Asia\\\">Asia</a>n and 2.1% from two or more races. <a href=\\\"Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Hispanic</a> or <a href=\\\"Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29\\\">Latino</a> of any race were 2.2% of the population.\\nThere were 2,661 households out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.4% were <a href=\\\"Marriage\\\">married couples</a> living together, 23.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.3% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.02.\\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 28.4% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 87.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.3 males.\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $25,986, and the median income for a family was $29,602. Males had a median income of $26,595 versus $19,041 for females. The <a href=\\\"per%20capita%20income\\\">per capita income</a> for the city was $13,845. About 23.0% of families and 28.0% of the population were below the <a href=\\\"poverty%20line\\\">poverty line</a>, including 39.0% of those under age 18 and 26.7% of those age 65 or over.\\nStudents are served by the <a href=\\\"Taylor%20County%20School%20System\\\">Taylor County School System</a>. For the 2007 - 2008 school year the Florida Department of Education gave the District a \\\"B\\\" grade, with each of its four schools earning a \\\"B\\\" as well.\\nTaylor County High School's Bulldogs were the 1997-1998 Class 3A State Champions. In 2010 the Bulldogs completed an undefeated football season going 10-0, claiming the district championship.\\n<a href=\\\"Perry-Foley%20Airport\\\">Perry-Foley Airport</a> is a public-use <a href=\\\"airport\\\">airport</a> located 3 mi south of the <a href=\\\"central%20business%20district\\\">central business district</a>.\\nThe Perry Police Department (PPD) is a 24-person agency with four fully trained Patrol K-9 teams. Each handler and K-9 partner were exposed to at least 500 hours of training, and some instances, as many as 800 hours to be certified.\",\n \"Malaco Records\\nMalaco Records is an American <a href=\\\"independent%20record%20label\\\">independent record label</a> based in <a href=\\\"Jackson%2C%20Mississippi\\\">Jackson, Mississippi</a> that has been the home of various major <a href=\\\"blues%20music\\\">blues</a> and <a href=\\\"gospel%20music\\\">gospel</a> acts, such as <a href=\\\"Johnnie%20Taylor\\\">Johnnie Taylor</a>, <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Bland\\\">Bobby Bland</a>, <a href=\\\"Z.%20Z.%20Hill\\\">Z. Z. Hill</a>, <a href=\\\"Denise%20LaSalle\\\">Denise LaSalle</a>, <a href=\\\"Benny%20Latimore\\\">Benny Latimore</a>, <a href=\\\"Dorothy%20Moore\\\">Dorothy Moore</a>, <a href=\\\"Little%20Milton\\\">Little Milton</a>, <a href=\\\"Shirley%20Brown\\\">Shirley Brown</a>, <a href=\\\"Marvin%20Sease\\\">Marvin Sease</a>, and the <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20Mass%20Choir\\\">Mississippi Mass Choir</a>. It has received an historic marker issued by the Mississippi Blues Commission to commemorate its important place on the <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20Blues%20Trail\\\">Mississippi Blues Trail</a>.\\nA <a href=\\\"Mid-April%202011%20tornado%20outbreak\\\">tornado</a> on April 15, 2011, destroyed much of the company's main building and studio at 3023 West Northside Drive in Jackson, Mississippi, which have since been re-built.\\nMalaco ( ) Inc. was founded in 1962 by Tommy Couch and Mitchell Malouf, initially as a booking agency. In 1967, the company opened a <a href=\\\"recording%20studio\\\">recording studio</a> in a building that remains the home of Malaco. Experimenting with local songwriters and artists, the company began producing master recordings. Malaco needed to license their early recordings with established labels for national distribution. Between 1968 and 1970, <a href=\\\"Capitol%20Records\\\">Capitol Records</a> released six singles and a <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Award\\\">Grammy Award</a>-nominated album by <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20Fred%20McDowell\\\">Mississippi Fred McDowell</a>. Revenue from record releases was minimal, however, and Malaco survived doing jingles, booking bands, promoting concerts, and renting the studio for custom projects.\\nIn May 1970, a bespectacled producer-arranger changed the struggling company's fortune. <a href=\\\"Wardell%20Quezergue\\\">Wardell Quezergue</a> made his mark with <a href=\\\"New%20Orleans\\\">New Orleans</a> stalwarts <a href=\\\"Fats%20Domino\\\">Fats Domino</a> and <a href=\\\"Professor%20Longhair\\\">Professor Longhair</a>, among others. Quezergue offered to supply Malaco with artists in return for studio time and session musicians. Quezergue brought five artists to Jackson in a borrowed school bus for a marathon session that yielded two hits – <a href=\\\"King%20Floyd\\\">King Floyd</a>'s \\\"Groove Me\\\" and <a href=\\\"Jean%20Knight\\\">Jean Knight</a>'s \\\"Mr. Big Stuff.\\\" But the tracks met rejection when submitted to <a href=\\\"Stax%20Records\\\">Stax</a> and <a href=\\\"Atlantic%20Records\\\">Atlantic Records</a> for distribution. Frustrated, Malaco released the King Floyd tracks on its own Chimneyville label. When \\\"Groove Me\\\" started radio play and sales, Atlantic picked the record up for distribution after all, giving Malaco a label deal for future Chimneyville product. \\\"Groove Me\\\" entered the national charts in October, going to No. 1 on the <a href=\\\"United%20States\\\">US</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Billboard%20%28magazine%29\\\">Billboard</a>\\\" <a href=\\\"Hot%20R%26amp%3BB/Hip-Hop%20Songs\\\">R&B</a> <a href=\\\"record%20chart\\\">chart</a> and No. 6 on the <a href=\\\"Billboard%20Hot%20100\\\">\\\"Billboard\\\" Hot 100</a>. In 1971, Chimneyville scored again with King Floyd's \\\"Baby Let Me Kiss You\\\" (No.5 R&B and No. 29 Pop). Meanwhile, Stax decided to take a chance on \\\"Mr. Big Stuff\\\", selling over two million copies on the way to No. 1 on the R&B chart and No. 2 pop.\\nMalaco's studio and <a href=\\\"session%20musician\\\">session musician</a>s were now in demand. Drummer <a href=\\\"James%20Stroud\\\">James Stroud</a>, Bass Verne Robbins and Guitarist Jerry Puckett were the neuclius of the Malaco Rhythm Section. Atlantic sent the <a href=\\\"Pointer%20Sisters\\\">Pointer Sisters</a> among others for the Malaco touch; Stax sent <a href=\\\"Rufus%20Thomas\\\">Rufus Thomas</a> and others. And, in January 1973, <a href=\\\"Paul%20Simon\\\">Paul Simon</a> recorded material for his \\\"<a href=\\\"There%20Goes%20Rhymin%27%20Simon\\\">There Goes Rhymin' Simon</a>\\\" album. Later that year, Malaco released its first gospel record, \\\"Gospel Train\\\" by the Golden Nuggets on Atlantic's Cotillion label. Also in 1973, King Floyd's \\\"Woman Don't Go Astray\\\" made No. 5 R&B.\\nWhen Dorothy Moore recorded \\\"<a href=\\\"Misty%20Blue\\\">Misty Blue</a>\\\" in 1973, Malaco got stacks of rejection slips trying to shop the master to other labels. Two years later, Malaco was just about broke and desperate for something to sell. With just enough cash to press and mail out the record, \\\"Misty Blue\\\" was released on the Malaco label just before <a href=\\\"Thanksgiving\\\">Thanksgiving</a>.\\nDorothy Moore's \\\"Misty Blue\\\" earned gold records around the world, peaking at No. 2 R&B and No. 3 pop in the USA, and No. 5 in the <a href=\\\"UK%20Singles%20Chart\\\">UK Singles Chart</a> in 1976. This was followed by thirteen chart records. Moore got four Grammy nominations in her career . And funk bands such as Freedom, Natural High, Power, and Sho-Nuff released funky albums also.\\nAnother Malaco gamble in late 1970s was targeting the gospel market again with The Jackson Southernaires. The gamble paid off, and other premium gospel artists signed on, including the <a href=\\\"Soul%20Stirrers\\\">Soul Stirrers</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Sensational%20Nightingales\\\">The Sensational Nightingales</a>, The Williams Brothers, The Truthettes, and The Angelic Gospel Singers, to name a few. The Southernaires's Frank Williams became Malaco's Director of Gospel Operations, producing virtually every Malaco gospel release until his untimely death in 1993. By 1977, songwriters, artists, and producers from the defunct Stax Records were knocking on Malaco's doors, including <a href=\\\"Eddie%20Floyd\\\">Eddie Floyd</a>, <a href=\\\"Frederick%20Knight%20%28singer%29\\\">Frederick Knight</a>, The Fiestas, and <a href=\\\"David%20Porter%20%28musician%29\\\">David Porter</a>.\\nBy this time, Malaco had stopped trying to compete with mainstream labels. However, Malaco could make a tidy profit selling 25,000– 50,000 units. Starting with <a href=\\\"Z.%20Z.%20Hill\\\">Z. Z. Hill</a>, Malaco became the center for old-time blues and soul artist. Z. Z. released the single \\\"Cheating in the Next Room\\\" reached R&B No. 19 in 1982. Hill's album, \\\"Down Home Blues\\\", sold over 500,000 copies. Hill became a blues superstar before he suddenly died in 1984. Hearing <a href=\\\"Johnnie%20Taylor\\\">Johnnie Taylor</a> sing at the funeral service, Tommy Couch invited Taylor to become Malaco's new flagship artist.\\n<a href=\\\"Denise%20LaSalle\\\">Denise LaSalle</a> charted fourteen times in the 1970s. After 29 chart entries for other labels, blues guitarist <a href=\\\"Little%20Milton\\\">Little Milton</a> signed with Malaco in 1984. Little Milton's first Malaco single \\\"The Blues is Alright\\\" re-established his presence as a major blues artist and solidified Malaco's reputation as the contemporary southern blues company.\\nIn 1985, the principals at Malaco, Tommy Couch, Wolf Stephenson and Stewart Madison bought the famed <a href=\\\"Muscle%20Shoals%20Sound%20Studios\\\">Muscle Shoals Sound Studios</a> which by that time was located at 1000 Alabama Avenue in Sheffield, Alabama. In 2005, The owners decided to sell this studio because they were having difficulty keeping the studio booked. The building was bought by a film and television production company.\\nIn 1985, Malaco signed <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Blue%20Bland\\\">Bobby Blue Bland</a>. He had notched up 62 \\\"Billboard\\\" R&B chart records in 25 years, though few of them made an impression on pop radio. In 1999, the label signed top Chicago-based soul and blues singer, Tyrone Davis to the label, about 30 years after his first major hit \\\"Can I Change My Mind\\\", an R&B No. 1.\\nOn April 15, 2011, the company's Jackson studio and offices were hit by a tornado that caused major damage and destruction. Thousands of master tapes from recording sessions survived intact in a separate concrete vault. The company decided to re-build the damaged offices and recording studio on the same site and the new buildings were opened in the fall of 2012. This storm came six years after <a href=\\\"Hurricane%20Katrina\\\">Hurricane Katrina</a> also hit the area, causing some damage to the Malaco premises.\\nClearly the dominant contemporary southern blues label, Malaco purchased the gospel division of Savoy Records in 1986. Now, Malaco was also the preeminent black gospel company in North America. The Savoy acquisition brought a vast catalog of classic recordings dating back decades, including albums by <a href=\\\"Shirley%20Caesar\\\">Shirley Caesar</a>, Rev. <a href=\\\"James%20Cleveland\\\">James Cleveland</a>, <a href=\\\"Albertina%20Walker\\\">Albertina Walker</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Caravans\\\">The Caravans</a>, and <a href=\\\"Inez%20Andrews\\\">Inez Andrews</a>. In further expansion moves that year, Malaco entered the world of <a href=\\\"telemarketing\\\">telemarketing</a>. Malaco's gospel labels under Jerry Mannery and Savoy Records under Milton Biggham earned multiple honors, including Billboard designations as Top Gospel Label and Top Gospel Distributor, while the artists received numerous awards (Grammy, Stellar, Soul Train, and Gospel Music Workshop), as well as Billboard Top Gospel Artist of the Year designations. The company also dominated Billboard Gospel charts, achieving No. 1 rankings by Keith Pringle, <a href=\\\"Walter%20Hawkins\\\">Walter Hawkins</a>, Rev. James Moore, The <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20Mass%20Choir\\\">Mississippi Mass Choir</a>, and Dorothy Norwood.\\nMalaco's market focus widened dramatically in 1995. Songwriter/producer Rich Cason cut \\\"Good Love\\\" with Johnnie Taylor. The \\\"Good Love\\\" album soared to No. 1 on Billboard's blues charts and No. 15 R&B, becoming one of the biggest records in Malaco's history.\\nIn 1997, Malaco found itself without a distribution deal and formed Malaco Music Group, which consists of Malaco Records and its subsidiaries. The company continued its steady, prudent expansion, purchasing half of the Memphis-based distributor <a href=\\\"Select-O-Hits\\\">Select-O-Hits</a> and also making inroads into the <a href=\\\"urban%20contemporary\\\">urban contemporary</a>, <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a>, and contemporary <a href=\\\"Christian\\\">Christian</a> markets.\\nMalaco Records has been designated as a marker on the <a href=\\\"Mississippi%20Blues%20Trail\\\">Mississippi Blues Trail</a>.\",\n \"The Voice (Australian TV series)\\nThe Voice is an Australian <a href=\\\"reality%20television\\\">reality</a> <a href=\\\"talent%20show\\\">talent show</a>, based on the original <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20of%20Holland\\\">Dutch version</a> of the program created by <a href=\\\"John%20de%20Mol%2C%20Jr.\\\">John de Mol</a> and is part of a wider <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">international franchise</a>. The show is hosted by <a href=\\\"Sonia%20Kruger\\\">Sonia Kruger</a>, who debuted as host during the fifth season, following the departure of <a href=\\\"Darren%20McMullen\\\">Darren McMullen</a>.\\nThe show is part of the television franchise <a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">\\\"The Voice\\\"</a> and is structured as three phases: blind auditions, battle rounds and live performance shows. The winner receives a recording contract with <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music\\\">Universal Music</a>.\\nFour judges/coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, choose teams of contestants through a blind audition process. Each judge has the length of the auditioner's performance (about one minute) to decide if he or she wants that singer on his or her team; if two or more judges want the same singer (as happens frequently), the singer has the final choice of coach.\\nEach team of singers is mentored and developed by its coach. In the second stage, called the Battle Round, coaches pit two of their acts to battle against each other in a duet arrangement, after which the coach chooses which act will advance into the next knockout phase, the Super Battle round. Once the coach has made a choice, the other coaches have an opportunity to use one of only two \\\"saves\\\" each to take the other act through to Super Battle round.\\nIn this round, each of the remaining 32 acts performs a solo on stage to compete with three others for a place in the Live Round. The coach can choose only one from each of these performances to progress to the final eight and the Live Round.\\nIn the final phase, the remaining contestants (Final 8) competed against each other. The audience and coaches had equal say in deciding who moved on to the final 4 phase. With one team member remaining for each coach, the (final 4) contestants competed in the finale with the outcome decided by public vote.\\nIn May 2011, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Daily%20Telegraph%20%28Australia%29\\\">The Daily Telegraph</a>\\\" reported that the <a href=\\\"Nine%20Network\\\">Nine Network</a> would broadcast \\\"The Voice\\\" in late 2011. However, two months later, it was reported that the show would instead air in early 2012, and that the Nine Network were in talks with signing at least one international artist (especially an American) to lead its panel of coaches on the show, which were rumoured to be <a href=\\\"Christina%20Aguilera\\\">Christina Aguilera</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Michael\\\">George Michael</a>, <a href=\\\"Usher%20%28entertainer%29\\\">Usher</a>, <a href=\\\"Pink%20%28singer%29\\\">Pink</a> and <a href=\\\"Gwen%20Stefani\\\">Gwen Stefani</a>. In September 2011, the \\\"<a href=\\\"Herald%20Sun\\\">Herald Sun</a>\\\" reported that the Nine Network were planning to sign \\\"<a href=\\\"Australia%27s%20Got%20Talent\\\">Australia's Got Talent</a>\\\" judge <a href=\\\"Dannii%20Minogue\\\">Dannii Minogue</a> as one of the coaches. <a href=\\\"Anthony%20Callea\\\">Anthony Callea</a>, <a href=\\\"Vanessa%20Amorosi\\\">Vanessa Amorosi</a> and former <a href=\\\"Pussycat%20Dolls\\\">Pussycat Dolls</a> member <a href=\\\"Ashley%20Roberts\\\">Ashley Roberts</a> all publicly expressed interest in coaching roles, however <a href=\\\"Keith%20Urban\\\">Keith Urban</a>, <a href=\\\"Delta%20Goodrem\\\">Delta Goodrem</a>, <a href=\\\"Seal%20%28musician%29\\\">Seal</a> and <a href=\\\"Joel%20Madden\\\">Joel Madden</a> were ultimately confirmed as the four coaches for the first season. On signing the four coaches, Michael Healy, the Nine Network's Director of Television, said: \\\"To secure such world-class coaches has been a coup for this show and the network. The mix of talent and unique format will, we truly believe, be a captivating experience for our viewers.\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Darren%20McMullen\\\">Darren McMullen</a> was announced as the host of the program in January 2012. Additionally, <a href=\\\"Ricki-Lee%20Coulter\\\">Ricki-Lee Coulter</a> (with Seal), <a href=\\\"Darren%20Hayes\\\">Darren Hayes</a>, (Goodrem), <a href=\\\"Megan%20Washington\\\">Megan Washington</a> (Urban) and <a href=\\\"Benji%20Madden\\\">Benji Madden</a> (with brother Joel) were signed to pair up with the coaches as mentors for their contestants during the \\\"Battle Round\\\". On 10 May 2012, Faustina Agolley was announced as the show's social media correspondent during the live shows.\\nFilming for the blind auditions stage of the competition began on 19 February 2012 at <a href=\\\"Fox%20Studios%20Australia\\\">Fox Studios</a> in <a href=\\\"Sydney\\\">Sydney</a>, with 121 artists featured in this phase of the selection process. The first day of filming resulted in hundreds of audience members being turned away from the studio due to overbooking of the event by an external booking agent. Filming for the battle rounds started in late March. In response to the immediate ratings success of the blind auditions, the Nine Network renewed the series for a second season on 27 April 2012.\\nWith Urban accepting an offer to join the \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Idol\\\">American Idol</a>\\\" judging panel it was announced in September 2012 that he would not be returning as a coach for the second season. Following an extensive search process by producers, and constant media speculation on who would replace Urban, <a href=\\\"Ricky%20Martin\\\">Ricky Martin</a> was officially announced as the new coach in November 2012. In response to joining the series, Martin paid tribute to Urban saying he was \\\"humbled to be sitting in his chair\\\". Healy stated that Martin would bring \\\"huge experience\\\" and be the \\\"perfect addition\\\" to the coaching panel, with Goodrem, Madden and Seal all publicly expressing excitement at the news via their <a href=\\\"Twitter\\\">Twitter</a> accounts.\\nThe success of the first season led to the Nine Network increasing its programming run for the second season, with an extra ten hours of content to be broadcast and the season running for approximately three months instead of two. For 2014 Goodrem left the panel to join \\\"The Voice Kids Australia\\\", and Seal left to continue on his music career. Goodrem and Seal were in turn replaced by \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20UK\\\">The Voice UK</a>\\\" coaches <a href=\\\"Kylie%20Minogue\\\">Kylie Minogue</a> and <a href=\\\"will.i.am\\\">will.i.am</a>. On 13 January 2015, it was announced that Goodrem would return to the panel, and new judges Jessie J and Benji Madden would join the series, replacing former judges Minogue and will.i.am. On 22 February 2015, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Sonia%20Kruger\\\">Sonia Kruger</a> would be joining the fourth season as a co-host with McMullen. In 2015, Darren McMullen announced he was leaving The Voice, with Sonia Kruger to be a solo host in 2016.\\nOn June 19, 2016, it was announced that pop duo <a href=\\\"The%20Veronicas\\\">The Veronicas</a> will briefly replace The Madden Brothers as coaches for the first live show on Sunday June 26 while the brothers are in the US on tour due to band commitments. The brothers are to due back on screen for the rest of the live shows. During an interview with <a href=\\\"News%20Corp%20Australia\\\">NewsLitmited</a>, the sisters stated \\\" It's a very brutal industry to be in. We are very honest, very upfront and very real about the advise we give. We're not going to be sugar coating anything. There's not going to be anything contrived about our time on the show.\\\" Jessie J ruled out returning to the show for the 2017 show and stated \\\"I've loved doing the show, I've done four seasons: two in the U.K., two in Sydney, but I just need to make another album.\\\"\\nOn 8 November 2016, it was announced that Goodrem would return for her fifth season as a coach, whilst original judge Seal, who departed the series following the second season, would return. On 8 December 2016, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Boy%20George\\\">Boy George</a> would become the third coach for the series' sixth season. On 24 December 2016, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Kelly%20Rowland\\\">Kelly Rowland</a> would become the fourth and final coach for the series' sixth season.\\n Winner<br>\\n Runner-up<br>\\n Third place<br>\\n Fourth place\\nColour key\\nKarise Eden was crowned the first winner of \\\"The Voice Australia\\\". Darren Percival was runner-up, followed by <a href=\\\"Rachael%20Leahcar\\\">Rachael Leahcar</a> in third place and <a href=\\\"Sarah%20De%20Bono\\\">Sarah De Bono</a> in fourth place. Season 1 saw 80% of artists enter the music charts, culminating in 9 out of the top 10 in finale week. Eden made history with eight singles in the charts and both a number number-one single and album.\\nEach coach was allowed to advance six top to the live shows:\\nThe second season of \\\"The Voice Australia\\\" crowned Harrison Craig the winner, under Seal's tutelage. <a href=\\\"Keith%20Urban\\\">Keith Urban</a> did not return as a coach after it was officially announced he would become a judge on \\\"<a href=\\\"American%20Idol\\\">American Idol</a>\\\". The <a href=\\\"Nine%20Network\\\">Nine Network</a> confirmed on 29 November 2012 that Latin pop star <a href=\\\"Ricky%20Martin\\\">Ricky Martin</a> would replace Urban as the new coach. Luke Kennedy placed second under the new coach, with Celia Pavey third and Danny Ross fourth.\\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\\nOn 26 November 2013, it was announced that <a href=\\\"Seal%20%28musician%29\\\">Seal</a> and <a href=\\\"Delta%20Goodrem\\\">Delta Goodrem</a> would not be returning as coaches for the third season. The same day, it was announced that \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20UK\\\">The Voice UK</a>\\\" coaches <a href=\\\"will.i.am\\\">will.i.am</a> and <a href=\\\"Kylie%20Minogue\\\">Kylie Minogue</a> would join <a href=\\\"Joel%20Madden\\\">Joel Madden</a> and <a href=\\\"Ricky%20Martin\\\">Ricky Martin</a>. Taping for the third season began on 14 January 2014, with the Battle rounds commencing in March. Blind auditions began airing on 4 May 2014. Anja Nissen was announced the winner with Jackson Thomas in second place, Johnny Rollins in third, and Frank Lakoudis and ZK in fourth.\\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\\nIn January 2015, it was confirmed that Goodrem would return to her judges chair, and would be joined by new additions\\n<a href=\\\"Jessie%20J\\\">Jessie J</a> and <a href=\\\"Benji%20Madden\\\">Benji Madden</a>. On 22 February 2015, <a href=\\\"Sonia%20Kruger\\\">Sonia Kruger</a> was announced as the new co-host. Ellie Drennan was announced the winner with <a href=\\\"Joe%20Moore%20%28musician%29\\\">Joe Moore</a> in second place, Nathan Hawes in third, and Liam Maihi in fourth.\\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\\nIn July 2015, it was confirmed that \\\"The Voice\\\" would return in 2016. Jessie J, Goodrem and The Madden Brothers were announced as returning coaches ; Martin will be replaced by <a href=\\\"Ronan%20Keating\\\">Ronan Keating</a>. On 28 December 2015, McMullen announced he would not be returning as host of \\\"The Voice\\\". The season began airing on 1 May 2016. Alfie Arcuri was announced the winner with Adam Ladell in second place, Tash Lockhart in third, and Ellen Reed in fourth.\\nEach coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:\\nIn November 2016, it was confirmed that Goodrem would be returning as a coach on the show for her fifth season, and that she would be joined by former coach, Seal, returning after a three-season absence. The following month, former \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Voice%20UK\\\">The Voice UK</a>\\\" coach, Boy George, was announced as the third coach. In December 2016, it was confirmed that former \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20X%20Factor\\\">The X Factor</a>\\\" judge and singer, <a href=\\\"Kelly%20Rowland\\\">Kelly Rowland</a>, would be the fourth and final coach. The season began airing on 24 April 2017. Judah Kelly was announced the winner with Hoseah Partsch in second place, Fasika Ayallew in third, and Lucy Sugerman in fourth.\\nEach coach was allowed to advance a top three to the live shows.\\nThe Nine Network announced plans for a junior version of \\\"The Voice\\\" which would feature contestants aged between the ages of eight and fourteen in August 2013. On 26 November 2013 it was announced that <a href=\\\"Delta%20Goodrem\\\">Delta Goodrem</a> would move from the adult version to \\\"The Voice Kids\\\" along with <a href=\\\"Joel%20Madden\\\">Joel Madden</a> who would stay on both versions. <a href=\\\"Darren%20McMullen\\\">Darren McMullen</a> would also host \\\"The Voice Kids\\\". On 1 February 2014, it was announced that along with Delta and Joel, <a href=\\\"Mel%20B\\\">Mel B</a> and Benji Madden, brother of Joel, would also be joining the judging panel. The blind auditions commenced airing on 22 June 2014. The children's version had the same format as the original show.\\nTen-year-old <a href=\\\"Alexa%20Curtis\\\">Alexa Curtis</a> of Team Delta was declared the winner of \\\"The Voice Kids\\\", winning a music education scholarship worth $50,000 and a recording contract with <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music\\\">Universal Music</a>. Team Madden's <a href=\\\"Bella%20Yoseski\\\">Bella Yoseski</a> and Team Mel's Maddison Brooke were runners-up.\\nBoth of \\\"The Voice Australia\\\" winners, <a href=\\\"Karise%20Eden\\\">Karise Eden</a> and <a href=\\\"Harrison%20Craig\\\">Harrison Craig</a>'s, albums have debuted at number one on the <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Charts\\\">ARIA albums chart</a>. Besides both winners, Darren Percival, <a href=\\\"Rachael%20Leahcar\\\">Rachael Leahcar</a>, <a href=\\\"Sarah%20De%20Bono\\\">Sarah De Bono</a>, Prinnie Stevens, <a href=\\\"Emma%20Birdsall\\\">Emma Birdsall</a>, Adam Martin and Lakyn of season 1, and <a href=\\\"Luke%20Kennedy\\\">Luke Kennedy</a>, <a href=\\\"Emma%20Pask\\\">Emma Pask</a>, <a href=\\\"Vera%20Blue\\\">Celia Pavey</a>, Danny Ross, Ms. Murphy and Caterina Torres of season 2 have all signed record contracts with <a href=\\\"Universal%20Music%20Australia\\\">Universal Music Australia</a>.\\n\\n\",\n \"Cigarettes Will Kill You\\n\\\"Cigarettes Will Kill You\\\" is a single by Australian singer-songwriter <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a>, from his 1998 album \\\"<a href=\\\"Breathing%20Tornados\\\">Breathing Tornados</a>\\\". Produced by <a href=\\\"Ed%20Buller\\\">Ed Buller</a>, the song became a breakout success for Lee. It was voted #2 on the 1998 <a href=\\\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%201998\\\">Triple J Hottest 100</a> and also reached #46 on the Australian singles chart.\\nDuring his 24 April 2006 concert at <a href=\\\"Irving%20Plaza\\\">Irving Plaza</a> in <a href=\\\"New%20York%20City\\\">New York City</a>, Lee described how he came up with the title for the track, recalling that he'd been listening to <a href=\\\"the%20Verve\\\">the Verve</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Drugs%20Don%27t%20Work\\\">The Drugs Don't Work</a>\\\" and was so impressed with its title that he decided to name his own song with a similarly catchy title.\\nThe title of \\\"Cigarettes Will Kill You\\\" as well as many of the lyrics refer to cigarette smoking as a metaphor for continuing to go back to a bad relationship even though one knows it will end terribly and cause pain. Lee recounted how one often badly needs short-term comfort to get through an otherwise sad, frustrating life even though everyone knows that smoking can cause health problems. The single's cover even resembles a pack of cigarettes.\\nThe song was featured in the 2002 Australian comedy \\\"<a href=\\\"Crackerjack%20%282002%20film%29\\\">Crackerjack</a>\\\". It has also been referenced in <a href=\\\"the%20Axis%20of%20Awesome\\\">the Axis of Awesome</a>'s song medley \\\"<a href=\\\"Axis_of_Awesome%23.22Four_Chords.22\\\">Four Chord Song</a>\\\", a reference to the fact that the <a href=\\\"chord%20progression\\\">chord progression</a> in \\\"Cigarettes Will Kill You\\\" is similar to that of <a href=\\\"Journey%20%28band%29\\\">Journey</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Don%27t%20Stop%20Believin%27\\\">Don't Stop Believin'</a>\\\" and <a href=\\\"Toto%20%28band%29\\\">Toto</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Africa%20%28Toto%20song%29\\\">Africa</a>\\\".\\n\\\"All songs written by Ben Lee unless otherwise stated\\\"\",\n \"Breathing Tornados\\nBreathing Tornados is the third album by <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a>n musician <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a>, released in 1998, which reached No. 13 on the <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Charts\\\">ARIA Albums Chart</a>.\\n\",\n \"Triple J Hottest 100, 2002\\nThe 2002 <a href=\\\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100\\\">Triple J Hottest 100</a>, announced on 26 January 2003, was the tenth such countdown of the most popular songs of the year, according to listeners of the <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a>n radio station <a href=\\\"Triple%20J\\\">Triple J</a>. As in previous years, a CD featuring 39 (not necessarily the top 39) songs was released. For the first time, a DVD, containing film clips of songs from the Hottest 100 was also released. This was also the last time that <a href=\\\"televoting\\\">phone voting</a> was allowed; in <a href=\\\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202003\\\">the 2003 poll</a>, only internet voting was permitted. <a href=\\\"Short%20message%20service\\\">SMS</a> voting was removed for <a href=\\\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202003\\\">the 2003 poll</a> but was reinstated in <a href=\\\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202005\\\">the 2004 event</a>\\nWhen the announcers got to the number one track, they announced that rapper <a href=\\\"Nelly\\\">Nelly</a>'s song <a href=\\\"Hot%20in%20Herre\\\">Hot in Herre</a> was top, and began playing it. Part way through the song, they declared that it had been a joke, broke the CD on air, and began playing <a href=\\\"Queens%20of%20the%20Stone%20Age\\\">Queens of the Stone Age</a>'s \\\"No One Knows\\\".\\nThe band <a href=\\\"Salmon%20Hater\\\">Salmon Hater</a> came in at number 26 with their song \\\"6.66\\\" after Triple J morning show hosts <a href=\\\"Adam%20Spencer\\\">Adam Spencer</a> and <a href=\\\"Wil%20Anderson\\\">Wil Anderson</a> made an effort to rig the event, telling listeners to vote for the otherwise unlikely candidate.\\nNote: Australian artists\\nAustralian artists (marked with a green background ) made up 50 of the 100 tracks.\\nTen Entries\\nFive entries\\nFour entries\\nThree entries\\nTwo entries\\nBold indicates winner of the Hottest 100.\\nThe double CD titled \\\"triple j - Hottest 100: Vol 10 Various Artists\\\" was released 2003-03-03. It is a compilation of 39 of the top 100 songs.\\n\",\n \"Hey You. Yes You.\\nhey you. yes you. is the fourth album by <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a>n musician <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a>, released in 2002. The single, \\\"Something Borrowed, Something Blue\\\", was voted #22 in the <a href=\\\"Triple%20J%20Hottest%20100%2C%202002\\\">Triple J Hottest 100, 2002</a>.\\n\\\"No Room to Bleed\\\" samples the opening piano chord of the song \\\"<a href=\\\"I%27ve%20Never%20Been%20to%20Me\\\">I've Never Been to Me</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Charlene%20Marilynn%20D%27Angelo\\\">Charlene</a>.\\n\",\n \"The Rebirth of Venus\\nThe Rebirth of Venus is the seventh <a href=\\\"studio%20album\\\">studio album</a> by Australian <a href=\\\"indie%20pop\\\">indie pop</a> musician <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a>, released on 10 February 2009 by <a href=\\\"New%20West%20Records\\\">New West Records</a>.\\nA portion of the proceedings attained from the record are to be donated to <a href=\\\"FINCA%20International\\\">FINCA International</a>'s <a href=\\\"village%20banking\\\">village banking</a> program. A press release said FINCA \\\"offers financial services, not charity, to the world's lowest-income women entrepreneurs. This creates jobs, builds assets and generally improves the standard of living in these destitute communities.\\\"\\nCritical response to the album has been largely negative, with particular mention of the song 'I'm a Woman, Too' (which Andrew P Street of \\\"Time Out Sydney\\\" described as reaching \\\"a conclusion so baffling that it defies any criticism that isn't expressed via a crowbar to the jaw\\\").\\nThe album features <a href=\\\"Missy%20Higgins\\\">Missy Higgins</a>, Nic Johns, <a href=\\\"Cary%20Brothers\\\">Cary Brothers</a>, <a href=\\\"Patience%20Hodgson\\\">Patience Hodgson</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Alagia\\\">John Alagia</a> (\\\"Ripe\\\" producer) and <a href=\\\"Lara%20Meyerratken\\\">Lara Meyerratken</a>.\",\n \"Love Is the Great Rebellion\\nLove Is the Great Rebellion is the tenth studio album by <a href=\\\"Australia\\\">Australia</a>n <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards\\\">ARIA</a> award-winning singer <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a>. The recording was released in Australia in May 2015 and the rest of the world in June 2015. The album was distributed by <a href=\\\"Warner%20Music%20Group\\\">Warner Music</a> and is Lee's first release with Warner. \\\"Love Is the Great Rebellion\\\" marks a return to the pop sound of Ben Lee's previous work such as \\\"<a href=\\\"Awake%20Is%20the%20New%20Sleep\\\">Awake Is the New Sleep</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Ripe%20%28album%29\\\">Ripe</a>\\\" and is a change of direction from his previous release \\\"\\\".\\nIn an interview with \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Guardian%20Australia\\\">The Guardian</a>\\\" to promote \\\"Love Is the Great Rebellion\\\" Lee discussed this move from his more recent work.\\n\\\"I thought it was going to be a natural progression from the \\\"Ayahuasca\\\" album,\\\" he said. \\\"I thought it was going to be something very obtuse and abstract and meditative but suddenly these pop songs started coming out. [...] And as I started exploring, I realised I still feel some degree of unfinished business with what the pop song can do, creatively. I don't feel entirely tapped out of the medium.\\\"\\n\\\"Love Is the Great Rebellion\\\" received generally positive reviews. Lee Zimmerman of <a href=\\\"PopMatters\\\">PopMatters</a> praised the album's cohesiveness, stating \\\"...it holds together remarkably well as a unified, complete concept, a series of songs conveying like a zen-like mantra and philosophical thoughts on life, love, God and related subjects of similar consequence.\\\" Danelle Cloutier of \\\"<a href=\\\"Exclaim%21\\\">Exclaim!</a>\\\" recommended the album and also commended Lee's ability to explore deeper philosophical themes through pop music. Dan F. Stapleton of \\\"<a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone%20Australia\\\">Rolling Stone Australia</a>\\\" described listening to the album as pleasant but lamented that it lacked \\\"grit\\\". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of <a href=\\\"AllMusic\\\">AllMusic</a> gave the record a more mediocre review, stating that it is \\\"...the kind of album that can double as motivation or pleasing background music for the office.\\\"\\nThe album was written by Ben Lee and produced by <a href=\\\"Brad%20Wood\\\">Brad Wood</a>. <a href=\\\"Sally%20Seltmann\\\">Sally Seltmann</a> and <a href=\\\"Jessica%20Chapnik%20Kahn\\\">Jessica Chapnik Kahn</a> also contributed as composers.\",\n \"Noise Addict\\nNoise Addict (sometimes styled as Noiseaddict) were an Australian <a href=\\\"alternative%20rock\\\">alternative rock</a> band formed in 1993 by founding mainstay <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a> on lead vocals and guitar. He was joined in 1995 by <a href=\\\"Macromantics\\\">Romy Hoffman</a> on guitar before the group disbanded early in 1996. They had issued a studio album, \\\"Meet the Real You\\\", on Fellaheen Records/<a href=\\\"Shock%20Records\\\">Shock Records</a> in late 1995. Lee undertook a solo career. He briefly reconvened Noise Addict in 2009 with new members, <a href=\\\"Lou%20Barlow\\\">Lou Barlow</a> and <a href=\\\"Lara%20Meyerratken\\\">Lara Meyerratken</a>, to issue a second album, \\\"It Was Never About the Audience\\\" (1 September 2009), before returning to his solo pursuits.\\nNoise Addict were formed in <a href=\\\"Bondi%20Beach\\\">Bondi Beach</a> in early 1993, with the original line-up of <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a> on lead vocals and guitar, Doron Kalinko on bass guitar and Josh Zoldan on drums. All were school mates at <a href=\\\"Moriah%20College\\\">Moriah College</a> in Sydney's eastern suburbs. Other early band mates include Daniel Mapp on bass guitar and Joel Wasserman on drums. Lee was later joined by Daniel Kohn on guitar and Saul Smith on drums.\\nThe band recorded a four-track demo in Lee's bedroom, their average age was fourteen, and sent copies to various record labels. Their first gig was at a library book sale in 1993. Attending that gig was <a href=\\\"Steve%20Pavlovic\\\">Steve Pavlovic</a> of Fellaheen Records, who signed them and sent their tape to <a href=\\\"Thurston%20Moore\\\">Thurston Moore</a> of <a href=\\\"Sonic%20Youth\\\">Sonic Youth</a>. The United States group were then touring Australia and Noise Addict's second gig on 6 February 1993 at Selina's Nightclub, backing Sonic Youth. Moore signed them to his <a href=\\\"Ecstatic%20Peace\\\">Ecstatic Peace</a> record label, and the \\\"DEF\\\" <a href=\\\"extended%20play\\\">extended play</a> was released in early 1993 – recorded by the line-up of Lee, Kalinko and Zoldan.\\nAccording to Australian musicologist, <a href=\\\"Ian%20McFarlane\\\">Ian McFarlane</a>, \\\"some parallels to be drawn with another teenage band\\\", <a href=\\\"silverchair\\\">silverchair</a>, \\\"although Lee preferred to see Noise Addict as infinitely more 'punk rock'.\\\" Their single, \\\"I Wish I Was Him\\\" (October 1993), was \\\"a wry semi-acoustic ode to Lemonheads'\\\" leader, <a href=\\\"Evan%20Dando\\\">Evan Dando</a>. It attracted the attention of <a href=\\\"Mike%20D\\\">Mike D</a> from the <a href=\\\"Beastie%20Boys\\\">Beastie Boys</a>, who arranged for the band to sign with their label, <a href=\\\"Grand%20Royal\\\">Grand Royal</a>. They supported two more US bands, <a href=\\\"Pavement%20%28band%29\\\">Pavement</a> and <a href=\\\"Fugazi\\\">Fugazi</a>, and then played a run of all-ages gigs.\\nNoise Addict released their second EP, \\\"The Taste in My Eyes\\\" (April 1994); The line-up was Lee, Kalinko, Kohn and Wasserman. McFarlane felt the EP \\\"displayed plenty of low-fi charm and youthful exuberance among the stylised Jonathan Richmanesque songs.\\\" They followed with another EP on Fellaheen, \\\"Noise Addict vs. Silverchair\\\". They issued, \\\"Young and Jaded\\\", in 1994 on Grand Royal Records, which had \\\"six acoustic songs again recorded [in] Ben Lee's bedroom.\\\" Due to school commitments touring by the band was limited.\\nAfter the success of \\\"Young and Jaded\\\", Lee released his solo debut, \\\"<a href=\\\"Grandpaw%20Would\\\">Grandpaw Would</a>\\\" (June 1995). Kalinko was replaced by <a href=\\\"Macromantics\\\">Romy Hoffman</a> on bass guitar. In late 1995 Noise Addict released their only full-length album, \\\"Meet the Real You\\\", which was produced by <a href=\\\"Brad%20Wood\\\">Brad Wood</a> (<a href=\\\"Sebadoh\\\">Sebadoh</a>, <a href=\\\"Liz%20Phair\\\">Liz Phair</a>).\\nThey briefly toured with Sebadoh. In November 1995 the band contributed a track, \\\"Mouthwash\\\", to the <a href=\\\"AIDS\\\">AIDS</a> benefit album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Red%20Hot%20%2B%20Bothered\\\">Red Hot + Bothered</a>\\\", for the <a href=\\\"Red%20Hot%20Organization\\\">Red Hot Organization</a>. They performed the last gig in early 1996 in Bondi. McFarlane noticed that \\\"In true punk rock style, as soon as the album came out, Lee broke up the band.\\\" Ben Lee continued as a solo artist, he released several albums. Daniel Mapp played with <a href=\\\"Waikiki%20%28band%29\\\">Waikiki</a>. Romy Hoffman performed hip-hop as MC Macromantics.\\nOn 1 September 2009 a new incarnation of Noise Addict, with Lee joined by <a href=\\\"Lou%20Barlow\\\">Lou Barlow</a> (of Dinosaur Jr) and <a href=\\\"Lara%20Meyerratken\\\">Lara Meyerratken</a> (aka El May), released their second album, \\\"It Was Never About the Audience\\\" on Lee's own label, Ten Fingers Records. \\\"After the Show\\\"' s reviewer described it as \\\"lo-fi album is a great antidote to slick, overproduced records that value Protools over talent.\\\"\",\n \"Missy Higgins\\nMelissa \\\"Missy\\\" Morrison Higgins (born 19 August 1983) is an Australian singer-songwriter, musician and actress. Her Australian number-one albums are \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Sound%20of%20White\\\">The Sound of White</a>\\\" (2004), \\\"<a href=\\\"On%20a%20Clear%20Night\\\">On a Clear Night</a>\\\" (2007) and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Ol%27%20Razzle%20Dazzle\\\">The Ol' Razzle Dazzle</a>\\\" (2012), and her most popular singles are \\\"<a href=\\\"Scar%20%28song%29\\\">Scar</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Special%20Two\\\">The Special Two</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Steer%20%28Missy%20Higgins%20song%29\\\">Steer</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Where%20I%20Stood\\\">Where I Stood</a>\\\". Higgins was nominated for five <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards\\\">ARIA Music Awards</a> in <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202004\\\">2004</a> and won 'Best Pop Release' for \\\"Scar\\\". In <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202005\\\">2005</a>, she was nominated for seven more awards and won five. Higgins won her seventh ARIA in <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202007\\\">2007</a>. Her third album, \\\"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle\\\", was released in Australia in June 2012 (July 2012 in the US). As of August 2014, Higgins' first three studio albums had sold over one million units.\\nHiggins' fourth studio album, \\\"OZ\\\", was released in September 2014 and consists of cover versions of Australian composers, as well as a book of related essays.\\nAlongside her music career, Higgins pursues interests in animal rights and the environment, endeavouring to make her tours <a href=\\\"carbon%20neutrality\\\">carbon neutral</a>. In 2010 she made her acting debut in the feature film \\\"<a href=\\\"Bran%20Nue%20Dae%20%28film%29\\\">Bran Nue Dae</a>\\\" and also performed on its soundtrack.\\nHiggins was born in <a href=\\\"Melbourne%2C%20Victoria\\\">Melbourne, Victoria</a>, to Christopher Higgins, an English-Australian <a href=\\\"general%20practitioner\\\">general practitioner</a>, and Margaret (<a href=\\\"name%20at%20birth\\\">née</a> Morrison), an Australian <a href=\\\"childcare\\\">childcare</a> centre operator. Her sister, Nicola, is seven years older, and brother, David, is six years older. She learned to play classical piano from age six, following in the footsteps of Christopher and David, but realised she wanted to be a singer at about 12 when she appeared in an <a href=\\\"Armadale%2C%20Victoria\\\">Armadale</a> Primary School production of <a href=\\\"Andrew%20Lloyd%20Webber\\\">Andrew Lloyd Webber</a>'s musical \\\"<a href=\\\"Joseph%20and%20the%20Amazing%20Technicolor%20Dreamcoat\\\">Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat</a>\\\". Bored with practice, she gave up playing piano at that time. Hoping for more freedom, she urged her parents to send her to <a href=\\\"Geelong%20Grammar%20School\\\">Geelong Grammar School</a>, an <a href=\\\"independent%20school\\\">independent</a> boarding school attended by her siblings. At Geelong she took up the piano again, this time playing <a href=\\\"jazz\\\">jazz</a> including performing with her brother David's group on weekends. She was introverted and found that piano practice helped her cope with living at boarding school.\\nAt 15, she wrote \\\"All for Believing\\\" for a school music assignment and completed it just hours before the deadline. The assignment earned an A and she performed her song in front of classmates. She approached a Melbourne record company and was told that they wanted more than one song. She wrote more songs and worked with the <a href=\\\"Kool%20Skools\\\">Kool Skools</a> project, which enables students to record music. In 2001, her sister Nicola entered \\\"All for Believing\\\" on Higgins' behalf into <a href=\\\"Unearthed%20%28talent%20contest%29\\\">Unearthed</a>, radio station <a href=\\\"Triple%20J\\\">Triple J</a>'s competition for unsigned artists. The song won the competition and was added to the station's play list.\\nTwo record companies showed an interest in Higgins—<a href=\\\"Sony%20Music%20Entertainment\\\">Sony</a> and . She signed with Eleven, partly because they agreed that she would not be \\\"made into a pop star\\\" and partly because they were happy for her to take time off for a <a href=\\\"backpacking%20%28travel%29\\\">backpacking</a> holiday. Higgins' <a href=\\\"talent%20manager\\\">manager</a> is Eleven's John Watson, who also manages rock band <a href=\\\"Silverchair\\\">Silverchair</a>. Watson later disclosed that \\\"Missy's the only time in my career I knew after 90 seconds I really wanted to sign her.\\\" The backpacking trip had been planned with a friend for years and the pair spent most of 2002 in Europe; while Higgins was travelling, \\\"All for Believing\\\" started to receive airplay on Los Angeles radio station <a href=\\\"KCRW\\\">KCRW</a>. Such radio exposure attracted the attention of American record labels and, by year's end, an international recording deal with <a href=\\\"Warner%20Bros.%20Records\\\">Warner Bros.</a> had been negotiated\\nHiggins was the support act on a 2003 Australian tour by folk rock band <a href=\\\"The%20Waifs\\\">The Waifs</a> and rock band <a href=\\\"George%20%28band%29\\\">george</a>. She travelled to the US to work with <a href=\\\"John%20Porter%20%28musician%29\\\">John Porter</a>, who <a href=\\\"record%20producer\\\">produced</a> her first <a href=\\\"extended%20play\\\">EP</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Missy%20Higgins%20EP\\\">The Missy Higgins EP</a>\\\", which was released in November and entered the <a href=\\\"Australian%20Recording%20Industry%20Association\\\">Australian Recording Industry Association</a> (ARIA) <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Charts\\\">Singles Chart</a> Top 50 in August 2004.\\nShe toured Australia, supporting <a href=\\\"Pete%20Murray\\\">Pete Murray</a> and <a href=\\\"John%20Butler%20Trio\\\">John Butler Trio</a>. Her four-track single \\\"Scar'\\\" was released in July 2004 and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Charts. Her first album, \\\"The Sound of White\\\", was released in September, and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart. Also produced by Porter, it sold over 500,000 copies. She was nominated in five categories at the <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202004\\\">ARIA Music Awards of 2004</a> for \\\"Scar\\\": Best Female Artist', 'Single of the Year', 'Best Pop Release', 'Breakthrough Artist – Single' and 'Best Video' (directed by Squareyed Films). At the awards ceremony on 17 October she received the award for Best Pop Release, beating <a href=\\\"Delta%20Goodrem\\\">Delta Goodrem</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Dissociatives\\\">The Dissociatives</a>, <a href=\\\"Kylie%20Minogue\\\">Kylie Minogue</a> and Pete Murray. This was followed by her first national headline tour. Her second single \\\"<a href=\\\"Ten%20Days\\\">Ten Days</a>\\\" was co-written with Jay Clifford (guitarist in US band <a href=\\\"Jump%2C%20Little%20Children\\\">Jump, Little Children</a>) and was inspired by Higgins' 2002 break-up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe. Released in November, it peaked at No. 12.\\nOn 29 January 2005 Higgins performed with other local musicians including <a href=\\\"Nick%20Cave\\\">Nick Cave</a> and <a href=\\\"Powderfinger\\\">Powderfinger</a> at the <a href=\\\"WaveAid\\\">WaveAid</a> fundraising concert in the <a href=\\\"Sydney%20Cricket%20Ground\\\">Sydney Cricket Ground</a>. The concert raised A$2.3 million for four charities supporting the victims of the <a href=\\\"2004%20Indian%20Ocean%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami\\\">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>. In March Higgins performed at the <a href=\\\"MTV%20Australia%20Awards\\\">MTV Australia Awards</a> and won the prize for 'Breakthrough Artist of the Year'. The following month she released her third single, \\\"The Special Two\\\", which was a radio hit and reached No. 2. \\\"The Special Two\\\" was released on an EP which included her <a href=\\\"cover%20version\\\">cover</a> of the <a href=\\\"Skyhooks%20%28band%29\\\">Skyhooks</a> song, \\\"You Just Like Me Cos I'm Good In Bed\\\", recorded for <a href=\\\"Triple%20J\\\">Triple J</a>'s 30th anniversary. The song had been the first track played on Triple J when it launched (as Double J) in 1975. In May, Higgins won the 'Song of the Year' and 'Breakthrough' awards for \\\"Scar\\\" from the <a href=\\\"Australasian%20Performing%20Right%20Association\\\">Australasian Performing Right Association</a> (APRA). She continued touring in mid-2005 and released her fourth single, \\\"The Sound of White\\\", in August. In September she played a sold out performance at the Vanguard in Sydney with the proceeds going to charity. She was nominated for seven more <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202004\\\">ARIAs</a> and in October won 'Album of the Year', 'Best Pop Release', 'Breakthrough Artist – Album' and 'Highest Selling Album' (all for \\\"The Sound of White\\\") and 'Best Female Artist' (for \\\"Scar\\\"). She teamed up with fellow ARIA award-winning singer <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a> in late 2005 for a national tour.\\nDuring 2006, Higgins lived in <a href=\\\"Broome%2C%20Western%20Australia\\\">Broome, Western Australia</a> for six months, away from the entertainment industry. The relaxed lifestyle helped her focus on writing new material. The landscape made a big impression, \\\"It was the first place I'd ever felt honestly connected with my country, with the physical land of my country\\\" and inspired her to write \\\"Going North\\\". She then toured the United States and South Africa, writing more material on the road. In September she based herself in Los Angeles to record her second album, \\\"On a Clear Night\\\", with producer <a href=\\\"Mitchell%20Froom\\\">Mitchell Froom</a>. \\\"Steer\\\" was released as an EP, followed a fortnight later by its album on 28 April 2007, both debuted at No. 1 on their respective charts.\\nIn February, Higgins had contributed a <a href=\\\"tribute%20album\\\">tribute song</a> to the album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Cannot%20Buy%20My%20Soul\\\">Cannot Buy My Soul</a>\\\", for noted <a href=\\\"Indigenous%20Australians\\\">indigenous</a> singer, <a href=\\\"Kev%20Carmody\\\">Kev Carmody</a>, singing \\\"Droving Woman\\\" with musician <a href=\\\"Paul%20Kelly%20%28musician%29\\\">Paul Kelly</a> and group <a href=\\\"Augie%20March\\\">Augie March</a>. On 7 July, she participated in the <a href=\\\"Live%20Earth%20concert%2C%20Sydney\\\">Live Earth concert</a> in Sydney, performing her own set before joining Carmody, Kelly and vocalist <a href=\\\"John%20Butler%20%28musician%29\\\">John Butler</a> on stage for the song \\\"<a href=\\\"From%20Little%20Things%20Big%20Things%20Grow\\\">From Little Things Big Things Grow</a>\\\". Emily Dunn in \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Sydney%20Morning%20Herald\\\">The Sydney Morning Herald</a>\\\" wrote \\\"[the song] could have been the event's anthem\\\". <a href=\\\"Rolling%20Stone%20Australia\\\">\\\"Rolling Stone\\\"</a>'s Dan Lander pointed out a highlight, when the \\\"whole crowd sung along – all eleven verses.\\\"\\nHiggins returned to Los Angeles to focus on the US market—she spent September and October touring—where she was still relatively unknown. On 26 October, backed by the <a href=\\\"Sydney%20Youth%20Orchestra\\\">Sydney Youth Orchestra</a>, she headlined the annual Legs 11 concert, a <a href=\\\"breast%20cancer\\\">breast cancer</a> benefit held in <a href=\\\"The%20Domain%2C%20Sydney\\\">The Domain</a>, <a href=\\\"Royal%20Botanic%20Gardens%2C%20Sydney\\\">Royal Botanic Gardens</a>, Sydney. Two days later Higgins performed at the <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202007\\\">2007</a> ARIAs where she was nominated for 'Best Pop Release', 'Highest Selling Album' and 'Highest Selling Single' (for \\\"Steer\\\") and won 'Best Female Artist' (for \\\"On a Clear Night\\\")—her seventh ARIA Music Award. On 31 October, she was a guest at television music channel <a href=\\\"MAX%20%28Australian%20TV%20channel%29\\\">MAX</a>'s inaugural Concert for the Cure, a private concert for people affected by breast cancer. She sang headline act Powderfinger's \\\"<a href=\\\"Sunsets%20%28song%29\\\">Sunsets</a>\\\" with front man <a href=\\\"Bernard%20Fanning\\\">Bernard Fanning</a> and joined in with the encore of \\\"<a href=\\\"These%20Days%20%28Powderfinger%20song%29\\\">These Days</a>\\\". She spent November and December on her For One Night Only Tour, taking in Cairns, Sydney and Perth. <a href=\\\"You%20Am%20I\\\">You Am I</a> lead singer, <a href=\\\"Tim%20Rogers%20%28musician%29\\\">Tim Rogers</a>, joined her on some shows.\\n\\\"On a Clear Night\\\", was released in the US on 26 February 2008, supported by a tour in March. Her ten-month stay in Los Angeles during 2008 promoted her songs for films and television shows. Her first US single \\\"<a href=\\\"Where%20I%20Stood\\\">Where I Stood</a>\\\" was featured in US series including \\\"<a href=\\\"Grey%27s%20Anatomy\\\">Grey's Anatomy</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"One%20Tree%20Hill%20%28TV%20series%29\\\">One Tree Hill</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"So%20You%20Think%20You%20Can%20Dance%20%28United%20States%29\\\">So You Think You Can Dance</a>\\\". During 2008, Higgins supported the <a href=\\\"Indigo%20Girls\\\">Indigo Girls</a> and then <a href=\\\"Ben%20Folds\\\">Ben Folds</a> on their respective US tours. February and March 2009 saw her co-headlining a US tour with Canadian <a href=\\\"Justin%20Nozuka\\\">Justin Nozuka</a>. On 31 March she released an EP, \\\"More Than This\\\" in Australia that features cover versions of \\\"<a href=\\\"More%20Than%20This%20%28Roxy%20Music%20song%29\\\">More Than This</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Roxy%20Music\\\">Roxy Music</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"In%20Love%20Again%21\\\">(I'm) In Love Again</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Peggy%20Lee\\\">Peggy Lee</a>, \\\"<a href=\\\"Breakdown%20%28Tom%20Petty%20and%20the%20Heartbreakers%20song%29\\\">Breakdown</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Tom%20Petty\\\">Tom Petty</a> and \\\"<a href=\\\"Moses%20%28Patty%20Griffin%20song%29\\\">Moses</a>\\\" by <a href=\\\"Patty%20Griffin\\\">Patty Griffin</a>. \\\"Moses\\\" had been included on Triple J's 2005 compilation album \\\"\\\" and \\\"More Than This\\\" was recorded as part of \\\"<a href=\\\"Covered%2C%20A%20Revolution%20in%20Sound\\\">Covered, A Revolution in Sound</a>\\\", a Warner Bros. tribute album also released in March 2009.\\nHiggins started writing music for her third album in 2009. After about seven years of touring and recording she took a break from the music industry to pursue other interests. In 2010 she enrolled in a course in indigenous studies at the <a href=\\\"University%20of%20Melbourne\\\">University of Melbourne</a>. Her acting debut was as Annie in 2010 film \\\"<a href=\\\"Bran%20Nue%20Dae%20%28film%29\\\">Bran Nue Dae</a>\\\" directed by <a href=\\\"Rachel%20Perkins\\\">Rachel Perkins</a>. The film is an adaptation of the 1990 musical, \\\"<a href=\\\"Bran%20Nue%20Dae\\\">Bran Nue Dae</a>\\\", \\\"Australia's first <a href=\\\"Indigenous%20Australians\\\">Aboriginal</a> musical\\\". Although Higgins would consider future acting projects she has no plans to actively pursue it as a career.\\nIn July and August 2010, Higgins played several dates of <a href=\\\"Sarah%20McLachlan\\\">Sarah McLachlan</a>'s <a href=\\\"Lilith%20Fair\\\">Lilith Fair</a> tour in the US. At Lilith Fair, she met Australian musician <a href=\\\"Butterfly%20Boucher\\\">Butterfly Boucher</a> and they decided to work together. In 2011, Higgins travelled to where Boucher was living in <a href=\\\"Nashville%2C%20Tennessee\\\">Nashville</a> to record her third album, which is co-produced by Boucher and <a href=\\\"Brad%20Jones%20%28musician%29\\\">Brad Jones</a>. Titled \\\"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle\\\", the album was released on 1 June 2012. Its first single, \\\"<a href=\\\"Unashamed%20Desire\\\">Unashamed Desire</a>\\\", co-written with Boucher, was released on 23 April. In November 2011, at the <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards%20of%202011\\\">ARIA Music Awards</a>, Higgins performed a duet of \\\"Warwu\\\"with <a href=\\\"Geoffrey%20Gurrumul%20Yunupingu\\\">Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu</a>, from his \\\"<a href=\\\"Rrakala\\\">Rrakala</a>\\\" album.\\n\\\"The Ol' Razzle Dazzle\\\" album debuted at #1 on the ARIA Albums Chart the week of 12 June 2012. It is now Higgins' 3rd straight number one album. Higgins now ties Delta Goodrem, Olivia Newton-John and Kylie Minogue for the 2nd most Australian number one albums by an Australian female artist. Only Kasey Chambers has done better at 4 number one ARIA albums.\\nIn September 2014, Higgins released her fourth studio album, \\\"Oz\\\", which features cover versions of Australian composers, including The Angels, Slim Dusty, Something For Kate, Warumpi Band, Paul Kelly and <a href=\\\"The%20Drones%20%28Australian%20band%29\\\">The Drones</a>. The album is also accompanied by a book of related essays, in which Higgins uses each of the recordings to reflect upon subjects such as music and love. Higgins collaborated with <a href=\\\"Dan%20Sultan\\\">Dan Sultan</a> for the recording of the Slim Dusty song \\\"The Biggest Disappointment\\\".\\nHiggins explained in an October 2014 interview that she experienced a significant bout of writer's block following the completion of her second album and someone suggested an album of cover versions at the time, but she only revisited the idea during the conception of \\\"Oz\\\". Higgins further explained:\\nI responded to all these songs on an emotional level, when I first heard them. I wanted songs I felt I could tell with my own voice, and interpret them authentically ... But it was important to maintain the emotional integrity and the heart of the song. It was a high priority to keep true to the songs.\\nThe album was co-produced by Jherek Bischoff, who previously worked with <a href=\\\"David%20Byrne\\\">David Byrne</a>, formerly of <a href=\\\"Talking%20Heads\\\">Talking Heads</a>, and <a href=\\\"Amanda%20Palmer\\\">Amanda Palmer</a>.\\n\\\"Oz\\\" debuted at number 3 on the ARIA Albums chart and remained in the top five positions until 18 October 2014.\\nThe national Australian tour in support of \\\"Oz\\\" commenced on 20 September 2014 in <a href=\\\"Cairns\\\">Cairns</a>, Queensland, and ended in Melbourne in October 2014. Higgins was accompanied by Bischoff, and Australian artist Dustin Tebbutt appeared as a special guest.\\nOn 19 February 2016, Higgins released a new single titled, \\\"<a href=\\\"Oh%20Canada%20%28song%29\\\">Oh Canada</a>\\\".\\nIn May 2017, Higgins released \\\"<a href=\\\"Torchlight%20%28song%29\\\">Torchlight</a>\\\".\\nHiggins grew up in the 1980s and 1990s listening to artists that her older siblings liked—Nicola played <a href=\\\"Mariah%20Carey\\\">Mariah Carey</a> and <a href=\\\"Whitney%20Houston\\\">Whitney Houston</a>, while David favoured <a href=\\\"Queen%20%28band%29\\\">Queen</a> and <a href=\\\"Kiss%20%28band%29\\\">Kiss</a>. Departing for boarding school at age 13, she was exposed to <a href=\\\"alternative%20rock\\\">alternative</a> artists like <a href=\\\"Nirvana%20%28band%29\\\">Nirvana</a> and <a href=\\\"Hole_%28band%29\\\">Hole</a> and started teaching herself guitar and writing her own music. She also began singing with David's jazz group on weekends. As an adult she prefers <a href=\\\"Nina%20Simone\\\">Nina Simone</a> and <a href=\\\"Ray%20Charles\\\">Ray Charles</a> to \\\"poppy dance music\\\". She has cited <a href=\\\"Patty%20Griffin\\\">Patty Griffin</a>, <a href=\\\"Ron%20Sexsmith\\\">Ron Sexsmith</a>, <a href=\\\"Rufus%20Wainwright\\\">Rufus Wainwright</a>, Paul Kelly and <a href=\\\"Sarah%20McLachlan\\\">Sarah McLachlan</a> as influences. Material from her third album is influenced by <a href=\\\"ambient%20music\\\">ambient music</a> from <a href=\\\"Low%20%28band%29\\\">Low</a>, <a href=\\\"Jon%20Hopkins\\\">Jon Hopkins</a>, Icelandic band <a href=\\\"Sigur%20R%C3%B3s\\\">Sigur Rós</a> and <a href=\\\"Estonia\\\">Estonia</a>n classical composer <a href=\\\"Arvo%20P%C3%A4rt\\\">Arvo Pärt</a>.\\nHiggins' song writing grew out of a desire to express her emotions when she was at school and her lyrics describe her feelings about her own life and relationships. The piano was the first instrument she learned to play, and she continues to use it as well as <a href=\\\"digital%20piano\\\">digital piano</a>s including a <a href=\\\"Roland%20Corporation\\\">Roland</a> RD-300SX, RD-700 and KR-15. She also uses guitars extensively in her music particularly when touring, due to their portable nature and favours the Australian brand, <a href=\\\"Maton\\\">Maton</a>. On occasion she plays <a href=\\\"keytar\\\">keytar</a>, <a href=\\\"xylophone\\\">xylophone</a> and <a href=\\\"melodica\\\">melodica</a> during performances.\\nOn 7 September 2012, Higgins recorded a <a href=\\\"cover%20version\\\">cover version</a> of <a href=\\\"Gotye\\\">Gotye</a>'s \\\"Heart's A Mess\\\" for the \\\"Like a Version\\\" segment, explaining <a href=\\\"Broadcasting\\\">on-air</a> that the song is her favourite Gotye composition. Higgins had travelled with Gotye previously and referred to him as \\\"an incredible singer\\\" in the interview prior to the rendition.\\nAs a vegetarian, Higgins promoted the health benefits of not eating meat in a 2005 advertising campaign by <a href=\\\"People%20for%20the%20Ethical%20Treatment%20of%20Animals\\\">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a> (PETA); and has supported their anti-<a href=\\\"Fur%20clothing\\\">fur</a> stance. She is interested in environmental issues and is involved with the <a href=\\\"Sierra%20Club\\\">Sierra Club</a>, a <a href=\\\"grassroots\\\">grassroots</a> organisation based in California. She has protested against the proposed industrialisation of the <a href=\\\"Kimberley%20%28Western%20Australia%29\\\">Kimberley</a> region of Western Australia and donated the royalties from her 2009 EP \\\"More Than This\\\". Since early 2007, Higgins has tried to make her tours <a href=\\\"carbon%20neutrality\\\">carbon neutral</a>, she purchases green energy to power venues, uses <a href=\\\"Hybrid%20electric%20vehicle\\\">hybrid cars</a> where possible and purchases <a href=\\\"carbon%20offset\\\">carbon offset</a>s.\\nOn 5 October 2012, Higgins performed alongside The John Butler Trio and <a href=\\\"Clare%20Bowditch\\\">Clare Bowditch</a> at the \\\"Save the Kimberley\\\" concert held at <a href=\\\"Federation%20Square\\\">Federation Square</a> in Melbourne, Australia. In relation to the Kimberley region and campaign, Higgins stated:\\nApparently scientists are still discovering hundreds of new plant and animal species there every year, which goes to show that there is still so much we don't know about the region. I just fell in love with it; it gets under your skin. Woodside Petroleum are planning to build one of the world's biggest LNG (liquified natural gas) processing plants on the Kimberley coast, just north of Broome. They would be drilling for the gas out at sea and bringing it onshore at this plant, which would just be devastating for the region. The question everyone is asking is, why not process it offshore or pipe it to one of the mining towns down south that already have the infrastructure in place? Why ruin the Kimberley if there's an alternative?\\nHiggins performed at another concert in support of the Kimberley cause on 24 February 2013, with John Butler also appearing again, with the event held at The Esplanade in Fremantle, Western Australia. Jarrah Records, the record label that John Butler co-founded with The Waifs and Phil Stevens, worked in partnership with The Wilderness Society to stage the free event that also featured the band Ball Park Music and Dr Bob Brown, former leader of the Australian Greens Party. A march to protest the proposed gas refinery construction at James Price Point accompanied the free concert and campaign supporters were photographed with banners and placards.\\nAs of 2012, Higgins is one of numerous publicly known advocates for the 'Oscar's Law' campaign. The campaign, launched in 2010, protests the existence of \\\"puppy factories\\\" in Australia, whereby animals are factory farmed. One of the campaign's slogans is \\\"Break the Puppy Trade—Don't buy puppies from pet shops\\\" and the list of notable advocates includes Paul Dempsey (musician), Kate Ceberano (singer) and Mick Molloy (comedian).\\nIn response to the proposed dumping of around 3 e6m3 of dredged seabed onto the Great Barrier Reef, a legal fighting team was formed by <a href=\\\"World%20Wide%20Fund%20for%20Nature\\\">World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)</a>-Australia and the <a href=\\\"Australian%20Marine%20Conservation%20Society\\\">Australian Marine Conservation Society</a> (AMCS) in late 2013/early 2014. The legal team received further support in April 2014, following the release of the \\\"Sounds For The Reef\\\" musical fundraising project. Produced by Straightup, the digital album features Higgins, in addition to artists such as <a href=\\\"The%20Herd%20%28Australian%20band%29\\\">The Herd</a>, <a href=\\\"Sietta\\\">Sietta</a>, <a href=\\\"John%20Butler%20%28musician%29\\\">John Butler</a>, <a href=\\\"The%20Cat%20Empire\\\">The Cat Empire</a>, <a href=\\\"Fat%20Freddys%20Drop\\\">Fat Freddys Drop</a>, The Bamboos (featuring Kylie Auldist) and Resin Dogs. Released on 7 April, the album's 21 songs were sold on the <a href=\\\"Bandcamp\\\">Bandcamp</a> website.\\nHiggins has been a patron of multiple mental health charities since 2003. She described her younger self as \\\"a bit of a depressed child\\\" and \\\"introverted\\\", and that she had \\\"experienced various degrees of depression\\\". Prescribed <a href=\\\"antidepressant\\\">antidepressant</a> medication while in high school, she learned to channel low moods into song writing, calling music her \\\"emotional outlet\\\". In a 2006 interview she said that her songs were \\\"coming from more of a happier place\\\". While recording her second album she discovered a passion for rock climbing, as a \\\"meditative pursuit\\\" and that, \\\"It's the first thing I've had—other than music—that I'm passionate about.\\\"\\nFrom 2004 to 2007, Higgins' sexual orientation was the subject of media speculation based partly on interpretations of her lyrics and her interviews. In an October 2007 interview with Australian lesbian magazine \\\"Cherrie\\\", she was asked if she fell under the <a href=\\\"Nickname\\\">moniker</a> of \\\"not-so-straight\\\" girls. She replied \\\"Um, yeah, definitely. ... I think sexuality is a fluid thing and it's becoming increasingly more acceptable to admit that you're that way.\\\" In November her <a href=\\\"Myspace\\\">Myspace</a> page reported, \\\"I've been in relationships with both men and women so I guess I fall most easily under the category 'Bisexual'\\\". She went on to say that she wanted future interviews to focus on her music rather than her sexuality. In a March 2008 interview with <a href=\\\"AfterEllen.com\\\">AfterEllen.com</a>, Higgins said that her song \\\"Secret\\\" was written about an ex-girlfriend who was not comfortable, at first, about going public with their relationship; \\\"I was so head over heels in love with her I kind of wanted to shout it out to the world, so it was just a song about keeping something under the covers ... keeping it away locked in a little room.\\\"\\nIn 2013, Higgins began a relationship with Broome playwright and comedian Dan Lee. In December 2013, Lee announced the couple's engagement on his Facebook page. While he remained tight-lipped on the details, Lee said the proposal was low-key: \\\"It was very simple ... Just a thing between us.\\\" On 2 August 2014, Higgins announced on her Facebook page that she and her fiance were expecting a baby, due in January 2015. She said, \\\"A new chapter is about to begin, and with it a crazy and wonderful journey, no doubt.\\\" In October 2014, Higgins announced via Instagram that she is expecting a boy. When asked about her impending parenthood in an October 2014 interview, Higgins replied:\\nI like being home, having my routines, looking after my garden and playing with my dog, but I also love playing. I love being able to do both ... I don't know what will happen after this. I've got no plans at the moment. I'm going to see how this motherhood thing turns out.\\nHiggins gave birth to her son, Samuel Arrow Lee, on 5 January 2015.\\nThe <a href=\\\"APRA%20Awards%20%28Australia%29\\\">APRA Awards</a> are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA). Higgins has won two awards from six nominations.\\nThe <a href=\\\"ARIA%20Music%20Awards\\\">ARIA Music Awards</a> are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Higgins has won nine awards from twenty-three nominations.\\nShe has won an MTV Australia Video Music Award.\\n\",\n \"Lara Meyerratken\\nLara Meyerratken is an Australian <a href=\\\"multi-instrumentalist\\\">multi-instrumentalist</a> musician and composer who currently resides in <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles%2C%20California\\\">Los Angeles, California</a>. Meyerratken is most commonly associated with her longtime collaborator <a href=\\\"Ben%20Lee\\\">Ben Lee</a>.\\nMeyerratken is a notable session musician and songwriter. Artists she has performed or recorded with included <a href=\\\"Luscious%20Jackson\\\">Luscious Jackson</a>, <a href=\\\"Crooked%20Fingers\\\">Crooked Fingers</a>, <a href=\\\"Luna%20%281990s%20American%20band%29\\\">Luna</a>, <a href=\\\"Via%20Tania\\\">Via Tania</a>, <a href=\\\"Sneeze\\\">Sneeze</a>, <a href=\\\"Clem%20Snide\\\">Clem Snide</a> and <a href=\\\"Nada%20Surf\\\">Nada Surf</a>.\\nIn addition to her work as a performer and side artist, Meyerratken has composed a number of pieces for commercials, films and television. She was the Musical Director for the Cannes \\\"Best Original Music\\\" Lion Award winner for Match.com in 2010, and her original music has appeared in commercials for <a href=\\\"Kellogg%27s\\\">Kellogg's</a> and the Japanese skincare line <a href=\\\"Oranine\\\">Oranine</a>.\\nHer song \\\"Hero\\\" was included in the soundtrack of the 2005 movie <a href=\\\"The%20Baxter\\\">The Baxter</a> and her song \\\"The Things You Lost\\\" makes an appearance in the 2011 film, \\\"<a href=\\\"Our%20Idiot%20Brother\\\">Our Idiot Brother</a>\\\". In 2005 Meyerratken was the winner of the ARIA Cover Art award. Most recently, Meyerratken composed the music for the <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.imdb.com/name/nm2130645/\\\">Frédéric Planchon</a>-directed Curious George spot for <a href=\\\"Google\\\">Google</a>.\\nMeyerratken performs her own music under the name <a href=\\\"El%20May\\\">El May</a>. Her self-titled debut album was self-released in 2010, some songs of which appeared in television shows like \\\"<a href=\\\"Pretty%20Little%20Liars\\\">Pretty Little Liars</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Lying%20Game\\\">The Lying Game</a>\\\". She released a cover of Small Black's \\\"Pleasant Experience.\\\"\\n\",\n \"There's Something About Mary\\nThere's Something About Mary is a 1998 American <a href=\\\"romantic%20comedy%20film\\\">romantic comedy film</a> directed by <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Farrelly\\\">Bobby</a> and <a href=\\\"Peter%20Farrelly\\\">Peter Farrelly</a>. It stars <a href=\\\"Cameron%20Diaz\\\">Cameron Diaz</a> as the title character with <a href=\\\"Ben%20Stiller\\\">Ben Stiller</a>, <a href=\\\"Lee%20Evans%20%28comedian%29\\\">Lee Evans</a>, <a href=\\\"Chris%20Elliott\\\">Chris Elliott</a>, and <a href=\\\"Matt%20Dillon\\\">Matt Dillon</a> all playing men who are in love with Mary and vying for her affections.\\nThe film was placed 27th in the <a href=\\\"American%20Film%20Institute\\\">American Film Institute</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"AFI%27s%20100%20Years...100%20Laughs\\\">100 Years, 100 Laughs: America's Funniest Movies</a>\\\", a list of the 100 funniest movies of the 20th century. In 2000, readers of \\\"<a href=\\\"Total%20Film\\\">Total Film</a>\\\" magazine voted it the fourth-greatest comedy film of all time. Diaz won a <a href=\\\"New%20York%20Film%20Critics%20Circle%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress\\\">New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress</a>, an <a href=\\\"MTV%20Movie%20Award%20for%20Best%20Performance\\\">MTV Movie Award for Best Performance</a>, an <a href=\\\"American%20Comedy%20Awards\\\">American Comedy Award for Best Actress</a>, a <a href=\\\"Blockbuster%20Entertainment%20Award\\\">Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Best Actress</a>. She also received a <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Award\\\">Golden Globe</a> nomination for <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20Actress%20%E2%80%93%20Motion%20Picture%20Musical%20or%20Comedy\\\">her performance</a>. It was also nominated for a <a href=\\\"Golden%20Globe%20Award%20for%20Best%20Motion%20Picture%20-%20Musical%20or%20Comedy\\\">Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy</a>. It won 4 out of 8 <a href=\\\"MTV%20Movie%20Awards\\\">MTV Movie Awards</a>, including <a href=\\\"MTV%20Movie%20Award%20for%20Best%20Movie\\\">Best Movie</a>.\\nIn 1985, 16-year-old high school student Ted Stroehmann (<a href=\\\"Ben%20Stiller\\\">Ben Stiller</a>) is about to go on a prom date with his dream girl Mary Jensen (<a href=\\\"Cameron%20Diaz\\\">Cameron Diaz</a>) when he gets his penis stuck in a zipper. He is hospitalized when it bleeds after being unzipped, which cancels their date. Ted subsequently loses contact with Mary.\\nThirteen years later, in 1998, 29-year-old Ted is still in love with Mary. On the advice of his best friend Dom Woganowski (<a href=\\\"Chris%20Elliott\\\">Chris Elliott</a>), he hires a <a href=\\\"private%20detective\\\">private detective</a> named Pat Healy (<a href=\\\"Matt%20Dillon\\\">Matt Dillon</a>) to track her down. Pat discovers that she is an <a href=\\\"orthopedic%20surgeon\\\">orthopedic surgeon</a> living in <a href=\\\"Miami\\\">Miami</a> with her friend, Magda, and instantly falls in love with Mary as well. He lies to Ted about her, saying she is overweight with four children and confined to a wheelchair, to discourage him from having any contact with her. Pat resorts to lying, cheating, stalking, and drugging Magda's dog to win Mary over, but is exposed by Mary's architect friend, Tucker (<a href=\\\"Lee%20Evans%20%28comedian%29\\\">Lee Evans</a>), who is heavily reliant on crutches and speaks with an English accent. Pat later feels guilty about lying to Mary and reveals his true self to her. Enraged after overhearing Tucker subsequently slander him as a murderer, Pat tails Tucker and discovers him to be a fraud himself: he is an able-bodied, entirely American pizza delivery boy named Norm Phipps who is also in love with Mary. For years, Norm has been driving away potential rivals through slander, including one oft-mentioned suitor referred to only as \\\"Brett.\\\"\\nMeanwhile, Ted decides he still wants to reconnect with Mary and, assisted by Dom, drives down to Florida and discovers the truth about her. Ted seems to have won Mary's love, until an anonymous letter exposes his connection with Pat, and she breaks contact with him. Ted confronts Pat and Norm, and Mary is accosted by Dom, who is revealed to be her ex-boyfriend \\\"Woogie\\\" that she has a restraining order against. When Mary is finally together with all of her deceitful suitors, Ted realizes that the only one who did not resort to lying and manipulation to win Mary was Brett, who he learns is <a href=\\\"National%20Football%20League\\\">NFL</a> <a href=\\\"quarterback\\\">quarterback</a> <a href=\\\"Brett%20Favre\\\">Brett Favre</a>. After reuniting Brett and Mary, Ted leaves tearfully until Mary catches up to Ted, saying that \\\"I'd be happiest with you\\\".\\nThe film concludes with the two engaging in a kiss while a guitarist (<a href=\\\"Jonathan%20Richman\\\">Jonathan Richman</a>), who has periodically narrated the story in song throughout the film, is accidentally shot by Magda's boyfriend, who was trying to shoot Ted so he could win over Mary.\\n<a href=\\\"Brett%20Favre\\\">Brett Favre</a> plays himself in a cameo that was originally written-for and offered to NFL quarterback <a href=\\\"Steve%20Young\\\">Steve Young</a>, but he turned the role down due to the film's coarse nature and was replaced with Favre.\\n<a href=\\\"Bill%20Murray\\\">Bill Murray</a> was considered for the role of Pat Healy, but the Farrelly brothers thought he was too old for the part.\\nThe movie was filmed in Miami, Florida. The makeup effects and animatronic animal effects were the handiwork of Makeup Effects Designer <a href=\\\"Tony%20Gardner%20%28designer%29\\\">Tony Gardner</a> and <a href=\\\"Alterian%2C%20Inc.\\\">Alterian, Inc.</a>\\nThis <a href=\\\"sleeper%20hit\\\">sleeper hit</a> was the highest-grossing comedy of 1998 in North America as well as the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year. It also catapulted Diaz and Stiller into the . The film made $369 million worldwide, including $176 million in the U.S. alone.\\nThe film received positive reviews from critics. <a href=\\\"Rotten%20Tomatoes\\\">Rotten Tomatoes</a> gives it a score of 83% based on 83 reviews, and an average rating of 7/10, with the consensus: \\\"\\\"There's Something About Mary\\\" proves that unrelentingly, unabashedly puerile humor doesn't necessarily come at the expense of a film's heart.\\\" <a href=\\\"Metacritic\\\">Metacritic</a> gives the film a score of 69 out of 100 based on reviews from 29 critics.\\n<a href=\\\"Roger%20Ebert\\\">Roger Ebert</a> gave it three out of four stars, stating \\\"What a blessed relief is laughter. It flies in the face of manners, values, political correctness and decorum. It exposes us for what we are, the only animal with a sense of humor.\\\"\\n<a href=\\\"Gene%20Siskel\\\">Gene Siskel</a> ranked the film No.9 on his 10 Best films of 1998 (the final \\\"best of\\\" list he did before passing away).\\nThe film is recognized by <a href=\\\"American%20Film%20Institute\\\">American Film Institute</a> in these lists:\\n\\n\",\n \"AppleCare\\nAppleCare is <a href=\\\"Apple%20Inc.\\\">Apple</a>'s brand name for extended <a href=\\\"warranty\\\">warranty</a> and <a href=\\\"technical%20support\\\">technical support</a> plans for their devices. Apple hardware normally has a one-year limited warranty and includes 90 days of technical support by telephone. Customers can obtain extended warranty coverage and technical support, which extends the length and expands the scope of coverage, by buying an AppleCare plan. The AppleCare Protection Plan is available for many Apple products including <a href=\\\"Macintosh\\\">Mac</a> computers and displays, <a href=\\\"iPhone\\\">iPhone</a>s and <a href=\\\"iPad\\\">iPad</a>s, <a href=\\\"Apple%20Watch\\\">Apple Watch</a>es, and <a href=\\\"Apple%20TV\\\">Apple TV</a>. AppleCare plans include Apple software associated with the covered hardware. Customers can also buy additional support and training through AppleCare.\\nEvery <a href=\\\"Apple%20TV\\\">Apple TV</a>, <a href=\\\"Apple%20Watch\\\">Apple Watch</a>, <a href=\\\"iPad\\\">iPad</a>, <a href=\\\"iPhone\\\">iPhone</a>, <a href=\\\"iPod\\\">iPod</a>, and <a href=\\\"Macintosh\\\">Mac</a> and <a href=\\\"Apple%20displays\\\">display</a> comes with complimentary telephone technical support and a limited warranty from Apple. The AppleCare Protection Plan and AppleCare+ extends the service coverage and provides one-stop service and support from Apple experts.\\nThe AppleCare Protection Plan is sold by Apple and its authorized resellers. It is available as an add-on purchase with every major piece of Apple hardware, including smaller devices and accessories, as long as the original Apple hardware warranty is active. However, in territories where the product is branded 'AppleCare+,' the plan must be purchased within 60 days of any iPhone or iPad model purchase.\\nFor all hardware devices, following the included 90-day telephone/Internet support and one-year hardware warranty, buying the AppleCare Protection Plan for a MacBook computer or a separate AppleCare Protection Plan for Apple displays extends both support and hardware to three years. Additionally, buying AppleCare+ for iPods and other iOS devices can extend both support and hardware to two years. Extended coverage under the Protection Plan is available for the Apple Watch for either two or three years, depending on the particular model of the device. The AppleCare Protection Plan extends the complimentary 90-day coverage to three years from the original device purchase date for <a href=\\\"Apple%20displays\\\">Mac or Apple display</a>s and two years from the given device's purchase date for <a href=\\\"IPad\\\">iPads,</a> <a href=\\\"iPhone\\\">iPhone</a>s, <a href=\\\"IPod\\\">iPods,</a> or <a href=\\\"Apple%20TV\\\">Apple TV</a> devices.\\nUsers who purchase an AppleCare Protection Plan with any Mac computer are also automatically entitled to receive coverage for some other related Apple accessories. Along with coverage for the MacBook, any additional Apple display purchased at the same time as a Macbook device and/or any Apple <a href=\\\"AirPort\\\">AirPort</a> device (e.g. <a href=\\\"AirPort%20Express\\\">AirPort Express Base Station</a>, <a href=\\\"AirPort%20Extreme\\\">AirPort Extreme Base Station</a>, or <a href=\\\"Time%20Capsule%20%28Apple%29\\\">Time Capsule</a>) is covered. (Note: Although the AirPort device or Time Capsule must be purchased up to two years \\\"before\\\" the MacBook purchase or \\\"during the term\\\" of the AppleCare Protection Plan coverage).\\nToday, there are several third-party warranty providers and traditional insurance providers that will also cover Apple products. Some may include accident, loss, and theft coverage as well as hardware failure warranties. Some major retailers that sell Apple products sell their own extended service plans as well.\\nIn some countries or territories where there are no local Apple offices, such as parts of Latin America, the \\\"AppleCare Extended Service\\\" product is available in place of the AppleCare product. This offers the same hardware warranty without phone/Internet support.\\nIn some parts of European countries apart of the <a href=\\\"European%20Union\\\">European Union (EU)</a>, local regulations gives consumers a minimum of two years warranty on hardware defects that existed at time of purchase, which overlaps the benefits of AppleCare. This effectively means that, in certain countries in the <a href=\\\"European%20Union\\\">EU</a>, an AppleCare Protection Plan still extends phone/Internet support from 90 days on all devices. In most countries the <a href=\\\"Legal%20burden%20of%20proof\\\">onus</a> under the EU law is on the \\\"merchant\\\" to establish that a hardware defect did not exist at time of purchase for the first six months after purchase. After the six-month-period this is <a href=\\\"Reverse%20onus\\\">reversed</a>, meaning that the \\\"customer\\\" needs to establish that a hardware defect did exist when they received the product. Unlike the statutory guarantee AppleCare also covers defects that appeared after purchase, if the device was handled correctly.\\nIn reality, this means that the EU legislation gives customers a 6-month guarantee, because it is typically impossible for a customer to prove a defect existed at the time of purchase.\\nAppleCare also includes an express replacement service for iPad and iPhone. AppleCare+ insures against accidental damage, unlike the statutory warranty. For Mac computers with or without any additional included covered Mac accessories, (or separately purchased Apple monitors with their own purchased Apple Protection Plan) this still extends cover to a third year from the statutory two years.\\nIn Italy, Apple has been accused of failing to inform customers about their rights.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Benjamin Michael \"Ben\" Lee (born 11 September 1978) is an Australian musician and actor. Lee began his career as a musician at the age of 14 with the Sydney band Noise Addict, but focused on his solo career when the band broke up in 1995. He appeared as the protagonist in the Australian film \"The Rage in Placid Lake\" (2003). He has released eleven solo studio albums.","Ripe is the sixth album by Australian musician Ben Lee, released on 18 September 2007. The first single from the album was \"Love Me Like the World Is Ending\"."],"string":"[\n \"Benjamin Michael \\\"Ben\\\" Lee (born 11 September 1978) is an Australian musician and actor. Lee began his career as a musician at the age of 14 with the Sydney band Noise Addict, but focused on his solo career when the band broke up in 1995. He appeared as the protagonist in the Australian film \\\"The Rage in Placid Lake\\\" (2003). He has released eleven solo studio albums.\",\n \"Ripe is the sixth album by Australian musician Ben Lee, released on 18 September 2007. The first single from the album was \\\"Love Me Like the World Is Ending\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":86,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which park in Manhattan can be seen from the San Remo, the 27-floor apartment building opened in 1930?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Central Park"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["San Remo Golden Strings\nThe San Remo Golden Strings were a studio group from Detroit, Michigan. A number of its members also played in the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, while others were members of the Motown backing band, The Funk Brothers. Their albums were released on Ric-Tic, Motown and Gordy labels. They scored two hits in the U.S. in 1965: \"Hungry for Love\" (U.S. Pop #27, U.S. AC #3) and \"I'm Satisfied\" (U.S. Pop #89). In 1971, they had some success, as the \"San Remo Strings\" with \"Festival Time\", which reached #39 in the UK Singles Chart and was popular on the UK's Northern soul music scene.","1937 San Remo Grand Prix\nThe first San Remo Grand Prix was a non-championship event, held on July 25, 1937, for 1500 cc Voiturette class Grand Prix cars and ran counter clockwise on a 1.862 km (1.157 m.) street circuit in the town of San Remo, known as the San Remo Circuit (Circuito di San Remo, official name: Circuita Stracittadino di San Remo)\nThe race was run in three 25 lap heats, the 2 best of each heat qualifying for the 30 lap (55.860 km.) final, which was won in 34'39\" min. by Achille Varzi driving a Maserati 4CM, averaging 96.7 km/h.","1909 Milan–San Remo\nThe third running of the Milan–San Remo cycling classic was held on 4 April 1909. The race was won by Luigi Ganna, the first Italian to win Milan–San Remo. 104 riders started the race; 57 finished.\nThe success of foreign riders in the two previous editions had made the race gain popularity. For the first time, more than a hundred starters signed up. 104 riders, of which 20 Belgians and French, were at the start in Milan just before six in the morning. It was a cold day and rain had made the unpaved pre-war roads very muddy.\nLuigi Ganna had broken away on the Passo del Turchino, before half-race, and was subsequently joined and dropped by Emile Georget and Giovanni Cuniolo. In Savona, Georget took a wrong way – he said a clerk signalled him in the wrong direction – and was passed by Ganna who powered on solo to San Remo. At the finish, Ganna, a former bricklayer, was welcomed by an enthousiastic crowd and became the first Italian winner of Milan–San Remo. Georget finished second at 3 minutes, Cuniolo third at 18 minutes. For the first time, the speed average exceeded 30 km/h.","Poggio di San Remo\nThe Poggio di San Remo is a hill in the Italian region Liguria, near San Remo. It is mainly known from cycling, as it is the final climb in the classic Milan–San Remo. The climb is 4 kilometers long with an average gradient of 3.7%. It is often the site of decisive attacks to the win.","1927 Milan–San Remo\nThe 1927 Milan–San Remo was the 20th edition of the Milan–San Remo. The winner was Pietro Chesi (Italy).\n","San Remo 1930 chess tournament\nSan Remo 1930 was the first international chess tournament held in the famous San Remo casino. Sixteen chess masters from Europe and the Americas, including the World Champion, played a round robin tournament from 16 January to 4 February 1930. The games were played in the casino during the day, and in the evening the playing hall was used for dancing.\nAlexander Alekhine dominated the field with a score of 14/15, 3½ points ahead of second place Aron Nimzowitsch, and winning the grand prize of 10,000 lire.\nThe final standings and crosstable:","2013 Milan–San Remo\nThe 2013 Milan–San Remo was the 104th running of the Milan–San Remo single-day cycling race. It was held on 17 March over a shortened distance of 246 km , and was the fourth race of the 2013 UCI World Tour season. For the first time in 31 years, Milan–San Remo was held on a Sunday, after race organisers requested to change and move into line with several of the other Classic races.\nHeavy snowfall and bad weather forced organisers to shorten the race from 298 km to 246 km eliminating two key climbs – the Passo del Turchino and Le Manie – and arranging a bus transfer, for the race to begin a second time. A few riders elected not to take the restart, including 's Tom Boonen, who protested against the decision to let all riders rejoin the main group, despite several riders having lost contact before the race was neutralised.\nAfter Boonen's team-mate Sylvain Chavanel and Team Sky rider Ian Stannard had led a reduced peloton over the summit of the final climb, the Poggio di San Remo, a group of six formed on the descent from the Poggio, including pre-race favourites Peter Sagan ( ) and 2008 winner Fabian Cancellara of . The sextet remained together until the finish, where Gerald Ciolek prevailed in the sprint for , ahead of Sagan and Cancellara.\nAs Milan–San Remo was a UCI World Tour event, all UCI ProTeams were invited automatically and obligated to send a squad. Originally, eighteen ProTeams were invited to the race, with seven other squads given wildcard places, and as such, would have formed the event's 25-team peloton. Originally admitted to the event as a wildcard, Team Katusha subsequently regained their ProTour status after an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport. Each of the 25 teams entered eight riders to the race, making up a starting peloton of 200 riders. Among the peloton was the first black South African rider in the race's history, 's Songezo Jim.\nThe 25 teams that competed in the race were:\n","San Remo Grand Prix\nThe Gran Premio Automobilistico di San Remo, commonly known as the San Remo Grand Prix, was a Grand Prix / Formula One and motorcycle race held in the north-western coastal town of San Remo (Italy) from 1937 to 1972. The first Grand Prix was held in 1937 on a street circuit in the town of San Remo, known as the San Remo Circuit (Circuito di San Remo, official name: Circuita Stracittadino di San Remo) and from 1947 to 1972 on the Ospedaletti street circuit.\nThe motorsport history of San Remo includes the Ralley San Remo dating back to 1929.","The San Remo\nThe San Remo (145 Central Park West) is a luxury, 27-floor, co-operative apartment building in Manhattan located between West 74th Street and West 75th Street, three blocks north of The Dakota. Opened in 1930, the San Remo is described by Glen Justice of the \"New York Times\" as \"a dazzling two-tower building with captivating views of Central Park.\" As a housing cooperative, its board has a reputation for \"lenient admissions standards\" compared to the conservative, old-money boards on the other side of the park.\nWhen the San Remo was originally designed, it had a wide range of relatively luxurious apartment configurations. The apartments were accessed from opulent twin lobbies which contained terrazzo floors, marble walls and custom light fixtures of bronze and frosted glass. The building has two addresses, 145 and 146 Central Park West, because the building was designed so that each half of the structure is served by separate lobbies, eliminating the need for long hallways across the main floor. There are still some doctor's offices on the first floor, but several of the professional/commercial spaces have recently been sold to tenants who reside in the building for use as office space.\nThe average apartment contained eight rooms spread over approximately 3000 sqft . Ten and eleven foot ceilings were the norm. As originally designed, the lower 14 floors were typically divided into seven apartments – two on each of the side street wings of the building and three laid out along the front of the building facing Central Park West. There are numerous setbacks built into the far ends of each wing of the building, allowing for terraces for several of the units. The original layout of the Park-facing units was unusual; most full-block buildings on the avenue divided the park frontage into four units, not three. This allowed the San Remo's apartments to have very generous frontage along the park in addition to typically spacious interior layouts.\nThe largest units on these lower levels are the \"C-line\" units, which occupy the southeast corner of each floor. The C-line apartments contain 620 sqft living rooms, 300 sqft libraries and 500 sqft dining rooms all facing the park. C-line apartments typically had four bedrooms arranged along the 74th Street (south) side of the building. These units are approximately 4500 sqft in total.\nAbove the 14th floor, the building began a series of setbacks, which allowed for terraces for the various units from floors 14 through 17. These units were typically larger floor space, with larger rooms, than the units on the lower floors. The building has twin terrazzo and marble lobbies and terracotta embellishments.\nAt the 18th floor, the building splits into the San Remo's iconic 10-floor towers, which were inspired by the drum of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates and culminating in Renaissance-style Corinthian temples crowned by 22-foot-high copper lanterns. The twin tower design was innovative when first developed, and inspired a number of imitators over the years (including The Majestic, The Century, The Eldorado and—most recently—the Time Warner Center).\nIn the north tower of the building there is one apartment per floor of approximately 2500 sqft . These are typically two-bedroom units, with all of the public rooms facing the park.\nThe floors of the south tower are slightly larger, and these apartments as originally designed were all duplexed units. In total, these two-story units were approximately 5800 sqft , rivaling the apartments in the best buildings of Fifth and Park Avenues (e.g., 834 Fifth Avenue), which typically range from 5000 to .\nThe San Remo's south tower units have their public rooms on the lower level. The public rooms include 800 sqft (36' x 22') living rooms, 290 sqft (14' x 20.5') libraries, and 400 sqft (17' x 24') dining rooms. There are also a breakfast room, kitchen, and several servants’ rooms on this level. A semi-circular staircase leads past windows facing the park to the second level. Upstairs are four bedrooms, including a master suite with a bedroom of 360 sqft , and a large dressing room and bathroom, for a total of over 500 sqft , and additional servants' rooms. A separate back staircase connects the rear portion of the apartments, linking the servants' areas.\nPast and present residents of the building include such famous personalities as Barry Manilow, Fred Ebb, Stephen Sondheim, Cesar Pelli, Diana Balmori, Tiger Woods, Steven Spielberg, Donna Karan, Tony Randall, Demi Moore, Glenn Close, Dustin Hoffman, Steve Martin, Bruce Willis, Eddie Cantor, Robert Stigwood, Jennifer Rush, Marshall Brickman, Jackie Leo, Don Hewitt, Dodi Fayed, Andrew Tobias, Aaron Spelling, Diane Keaton and Hedy Lamarr. Rita Hayworth spent her last years there, in a unit beside that of her daughter, Princess Yasmin Aga Khan. Steve Jobs bought and renovated a penthouse apartment but never lived in it, ultimately selling it to Bono. In 2007, same-floor residents Bono and Billy Squier went to court over the very sensitive subject of a fireplace. In 1985, Madonna applied to buy an apartment in the building but was infamously rejected by the residents board. On December 23, 2013, philanthropist Robert Wilson committed suicide by jumping from his 16th floor apartment in the South Tower.\nThe building's architect, Emery Roth, took advantage of new zoning regulations to build the first of New York's twin towered apartment blocks. Each of San Remo's ten-story towers is topped with an English Baroque mansion in the manner of John Vanbrugh and capped with an homage to the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. The Athenian monument was known to Roth from the reproduction that had featured in the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 1893. Roth also designed The Beresford and other landmark apartment houses and office blocks in New York. Construction began in 1929, weeks before the market crash initiated the Great Depression. The San Remo's construction process took approximately two years. In 1940 both buildings were sold, for $25,000 over the existing mortgages.\nDuring the Great Depression, many of the larger units in the building were subdivided to make them easier to rent. All but one of the south tower two story apartments were divided into single floor units. Many of the larger C-line and E-line (northeast corner) units were also divided into smaller units. As a result, the total number of apartments in the building was expanded by approximately 20 units.\nThe San Remo is now one of the most desirable and expensive apartment buildings in Manhattan. It converted to a co-op in the 1970s, meaning that tenants in the apartments are actually shareholders in the corporation that owns the building. Owning shares entitles one to reside in a particular unit. Purchasing apartments (shares) in the building is a significant investment.\nRecent asking prices have ranged from a minimum of $3 million to a high of $75 million. The most desirable apartments (large units with Park views or tower floors) are typically valued at $2,500–$3,500 per square foot. The San Remo has consistently achieved the highest sale prices per unit on Central Park West, and is the top co-op building in terms of price per square foot on the Upper West Side, attaining prices of almost $5,400 per square foot for its penthouse units.\nMany purchasers over the years have combined their units. Steven Spielberg combined two Park-facing units on the 16th floor into a 6000 sqft unit with terraces. A unit was reportedly sold to professional golfer Tiger Woods for $28 million in April 2008. Dustin Hoffman recently sold his unit.\nThe 27th floor (top floor) of the north tower has been combined into a portion of the former mechanical space above it, creating a unique two-story unit. In total, the apartment has 3500 sqft of interior space and 1300 sqft of terraces. This unit was purchased by Bono from Steve Jobs for $15 million.\nDemi Moore owns the last remaining south tower two-story unit, at the very top of this tower. Moore and then-husband Bruce Willis purchased the apartment in 1987 from Robert Stigwood. This unit was combined into a portion of the tower's mechanical and storage space above it (similar to the top floor unit in the north tower), creating a three story unit with over 7000 sqft of interior space, multiple terraces and 360-degree views from all floors. As of May 2015, Moore was trying to sell the unit with an asking price of $75 million. Demi Moore is reported to have finally sold her south tower Penthouse Apartment for $45 Million in May 2017, a $30 million reduction from the original asking price.","Ric-Tic Records\nRic-Tic Records was a <a href=\"record%20label\">record label</a> set up in the 1960s in <a href=\"Detroit\">Detroit</a>, <a href=\"Michigan\">Michigan</a>, United States by <a href=\"Joanne%20Bratton\">Joanne Bratton</a> and <a href=\"Ed%20Wingate\">Ed Wingate</a>. Twinned with the <a href=\"Golden%20World%20Records\">Golden World</a> label Ric-Tic featured many <a href=\"soul%20music\">soul music</a> artists and was seen as an early competitor for fellow Detroit label <a href=\"Motown%20Records\">Motown</a>. Motown's owner, <a href=\"Berry%20Gordy\">Berry Gordy</a> was unhappy with the success of Ric-Tic and in 1968 paid $1 million for the signature of many of the label's artists.\nThe label was named for the recently deceased son of label executive Bratton and her then husband <a href=\"Johnny%20Bratton\">Johnny Bratton</a>, the boxer. The boy, named Derek, was known to his family as Ricky, Ric, or Ric-Tic. He died in 1962, aged 11.\nMany early recordings on the Ric-Tic label by artists such as <a href=\"Freddie%20Gorman\">Freddie Gorman</a>, <a href=\"Edwin%20Starr\">Edwin Starr</a>, and <a href=\"J.%20J.%20Barnes\">J. J. Barnes</a> were re-released in the 1970s by Motown to coincide with the popularity of the <a href=\"Northern%20soul\">Northern soul</a> music scene in the UK. The group <a href=\"The%20Fantastic%20Four%20%28band%29\">The Fantastic Four</a> were also signed to the Ric-Tic, and became the label's best-selling act, outselling Edwin Starr in the United States. Much like Starr, they continued to record under Motown when Ric-Tic was absorbed by the record company. The Detroit Emeralds (having just moved to Detroit and added the word \"Detroit\" to their group name) recorded briefly for Ric-Tic, achieving their first R&B Chart (#22) success with \"Show Time\", released in 1967. They then joined <a href=\"Westbound%20Records\">Westbound Records</a> in 1970 (which The Fantastic Four would also do later on).","The Funk Brothers\nThe Funk Brothers were a group of <a href=\"Detroit\">Detroit</a>-based <a href=\"session%20musician\">session musician</a>s who performed the backing to most <a href=\"Motown\">Motown</a> recordings from 1959 until the company moved to <a href=\"Los%20Angeles\">Los Angeles</a> in 1972.\nThey are considered one of the most successful groups of studio musicians in music history. The Funk Brothers played on Motown hits such as \"<a href=\"My%20Girl%20%28The%20Temptations%20song%29\">My Girl</a>\", \"<a href=\"I%20Heard%20It%20Through%20the%20Grapevine\">I Heard It Through the Grapevine</a>\", \"<a href=\"Baby%20Love\">Baby Love</a>\", \"<a href=\"Signed%2C%20Sealed%2C%20Delivered%20I%27m%20Yours\">Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours</a>\", \"<a href=\"Papa%20Was%20a%20Rollin%27%20Stone\">Papa Was a Rollin' Stone</a>\", \"<a href=\"The%20Tears%20of%20a%20Clown\">The Tears of a Clown</a>\", \"<a href=\"Ain%27t%20No%20Mountain%20High%20Enough\">Ain't No Mountain High Enough</a>\", and \"<a href=\"Heat%20Wave%20%28Martha%20and%20the%20Vandellas%20song%29\">Heat Wave</a>\".\nThere have been many articles written that identify members of the Funk Brothers, some of which claim that virtually every musician who ever played on a Motown track was a \"Funk Brother\". There are 13 Funk Brothers identified in the film \"Standing in the Shadows of Motown\". The same 13 members were identified by both NARAS for the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and were recognized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The role of the Funk Brothers is described in Paul Justman's 2002 <a href=\"documentary%20film\">documentary film</a> \"<a href=\"Standing%20in%20the%20Shadows%20of%20Motown\">Standing in the Shadows of Motown</a>\", based on <a href=\"Allan%20Slutsky\">Allan Slutsky</a>'s book of the same name. The opening titles claim that the Funk Brothers have \"played on more number-one hits than <a href=\"the%20Beatles\">the Beatles</a>, <a href=\"Elvis%20Presley\">Elvis Presley</a>, <a href=\"the%20Rolling%20Stones\">the Rolling Stones</a> and <a href=\"the%20Beach%20Boys\">the Beach Boys</a> combined.\"\nEarly members included bandleader <a href=\"Joe%20Hunter%20%28musician%29\">Joe Hunter</a> and <a href=\"Earl%20Van%20Dyke\">Earl Van Dyke</a> (<a href=\"piano\">piano</a> and <a href=\"Hammond%20organ\">organ</a>); Clarence Isabell (<a href=\"double%20bass\">double bass</a>); <a href=\"James%20Jamerson\">James Jamerson</a> (<a href=\"bass%20guitar\">bass guitar</a> and <a href=\"double%20bass\">double bass</a>); <a href=\"Benny%20Benjamin\">Benny \"Papa Zita\" Benjamin</a> and <a href=\"Richard%20%26quot%3BPistol%26quot%3B%20Allen\">Richard \"Pistol\" Allen</a> (<a href=\"Drum%20kit\">drums</a>); <a href=\"Paul%20Riser\">Paul Riser</a> (<a href=\"trombone\">trombone</a>); <a href=\"Robert%20White%20%28guitarist%29\">Robert White</a>, <a href=\"Eddie%20Willis\">Eddie Willis</a>, and <a href=\"Joe%20Messina\">Joe Messina</a> (<a href=\"guitar\">guitar</a>); <a href=\"Jack%20Ashford\">Jack Ashford</a> (<a href=\"tambourine\">tambourine</a>, <a href=\"Percussion%20instrument\">percussion</a>, <a href=\"vibraphone\">vibraphone</a>, <a href=\"marimba\">marimba</a>); <a href=\"Jack%20Brokensha\">Jack Brokensha</a> (<a href=\"vibraphone\">vibraphone</a>, <a href=\"marimba\">marimba</a>); and <a href=\"Eddie%20%26quot%3BBongo%26quot%3B%20Brown\">Eddie \"Bongo\" Brown</a> (<a href=\"percussion%20instrument\">percussion</a>). Hunter left in 1964, replaced on keyboards by <a href=\"Johnny%20Griffith%20%28musician%29\">Johnny Griffith</a> and as bandleader by Van Dyke. <a href=\"Uriel%20Jones\">Uriel Jones</a> joined the band as a third drummer. Late-era bassist <a href=\"Bob%20Babbitt\">Bob Babbitt</a> and guitarist <a href=\"Dennis%20Coffey\">Dennis Coffey</a> both joined the ensemble in 1967.\nWhile most of Motown's backing musicians were African American, and many originally from Detroit, the Funk Brothers included white players as well, such as Messina (who was the featured guitarist on <a href=\"Soupy%20Sales\">Soupy Sales</a>'s nighttime jazz TV show in the 1950s), Brokensha (originally from Australia), Coffey, and Pittsburgh-born Babbitt.\nUnlike their <a href=\"Stax%20Records\">Stax Records</a> backing-band contemporaries <a href=\"Booker%20T.%20and%20the%20M.G.%27s\">Booker T. and the M.G.'s</a> in <a href=\"Memphis%2C%20Tennessee\">Memphis</a>, until the release of the \"<a href=\"Standing%20in%20the%20Shadows%20of%20Motown%20%28film%29\">Standing in the Shadows of Motown</a>\" documentary, the members of the Funk Brothers were not widely known. Studio musicians were not credited by Motown until <a href=\"Marvin%20Gaye\">Marvin Gaye</a>'s \"<a href=\"What%27s%20Going%20On%20%28Marvin%20Gaye%20album%29\">What's Going On</a>\" in 1971, although Motown released a handful of singles and LPs by Earl Van Dyke. The Funk Brothers shared billing with Van Dyke on some recordings, although they were billed as \"Earl Van Dyke & the <a href=\"Soul%20music\">Soul</a> Brothers\", since Motown CEO <a href=\"Berry%20Gordy%2C%20Jr.\">Berry Gordy, Jr.</a> disliked the word \"<a href=\"funk\">funk</a>\".\nAlternatively, the name \"Funk Brothers\" could have been given to the band <a href=\"ex%20post%20facto\">ex post facto</a>; the term \"funky\" as an adjective came to be associated with uptempo and <a href=\"backbeat\">backbeat</a>, Southern-styled soul music in the second half of the 1960s; the term \"funk\" as a noun is typically associated with uptempo soul music from the 1970s onwards. In the \"Standing in the Shadows of Motown\" documentary, Joe Hunter states that the name \"The Funk Brothers\" came from Benny Benjamin. Hunter states that Benjamin was leaving the studio (known as the \"Snake Pit\", due to all the cable runs out of the ceiling) after session work, paused on the stairs, turned and said to his fellow musicians, \"You all are the Funk Brothers.\" The band was then informally named.\nThe Funk Brothers often moonlighted for other labels, recording in Detroit and elsewhere, in bids to augment their Motown salaries. It became a worst-kept secret that <a href=\"Jackie%20Wilson\">Jackie Wilson</a>'s 1967 hit \"<a href=\"%28Your%20Love%20Keeps%20Lifting%20Me%29%20Higher%20and%20Higher\">(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher</a>\" did not have a Motown influence quite by accident—the Funk Brothers migrated to do the Wilson session, in an interesting reference to Motown's early history: Berry Gordy, Jr got his first music break by getting Wilson to record some of his songs (most famously \"<a href=\"Reet%20Petite\">Reet Petite</a>\") in the 1950s. Various Funk Brothers also appeared on such non-Motown hits as \"Cool Jerk\" (<a href=\"the%20Capitols\">the Capitols</a>), \"Agent Double-O Soul\" (<a href=\"Edwin%20Starr\">Edwin Starr</a>, before that singer joined Motown itself), \"(I Just Wanna) Testify\" by <a href=\"the%20Parliaments\">the Parliaments</a>, \"Band Of Gold\"\n(<a href=\"Freda%20Payne\">Freda Payne</a>), \"Give Me Just A Little More Time\" (<a href=\"Chairmen%20of%20the%20Board%20%28band%29\">Chairmen of the Board</a>), and blues giant <a href=\"John%20Lee%20Hooker\">John Lee Hooker</a>'s \"<a href=\"Boom%20Boom%20%28John%20Lee%20Hooker%20song%29\">Boom Boom</a>\". After he found out about the Edwin Starr session, Gordy fined members of the Funk Brothers band for moonlighting for another label; <a href=\"Eddie%20Wingate\">Eddie Wingate</a>, owner of the <a href=\"Golden%20World\">Golden World</a> label, which released Starr's \"Agent Double-O Soul\", subsequently attended that year's Motown staff Christmas party and personally gave each of the fined session players double the amount of the fine in cash, on the spot. Gordy eventually bought out Wingate's label and his entire artist roster.\nMotown historians have noted that the Funk Brothers—some of whom had begun their careers as jazzmen and missed that kind of informality—itched to be able to record on their own, but Gordy limited them formally to cutting sides under the name Earl Van Dyke and the Soul Brothers—and mostly limited them to recording new versions (with the familiar arrangements, however) of the Motown repertoire, with Van Dyke, the featured musician, playing electric organ. Some of the Funk Brothers' recordings in that vein—\"Soul Stomp,\" \"Six by Six\"—became favourites among Northern soul and \"beach music\" fans.\nDuring the mid- to late-1960s, one-fifth of Motown records began utilizing session musicians based in Los Angeles, usually <a href=\"cover%20version\">covers</a> and tributes of mainstream pop songs and showtunes. By 1970, an increasing number of Motown sessions were in Los Angeles instead of Detroit, notably all <a href=\"the%20Jackson%205\">the Jackson 5</a>'s hit recordings. Nevertheless, Motown producers such as <a href=\"Norman%20Whitfield\">Norman Whitfield</a>, <a href=\"Frank%20Wilson%20%28musician%29\">Frank Wilson</a>, <a href=\"Marvin%20Gaye\">Marvin Gaye</a>, and <a href=\"Smokey%20Robinson\">Smokey Robinson</a> steadfastly continued to record in Detroit.\nThe Funk Brothers were dismissed in 1972, when <a href=\"Berry%20Gordy\">Berry Gordy</a> moved the entire Motown label to Los Angeles—a development some of the musicians discovered only from a notice on the studio door. A few members, including Jamerson, followed to the West Coast, but found the environment uncomfortable. For many of the L.A. recordings, members of <a href=\"the%20Wrecking%20Crew%20%28music%29\">the Wrecking Crew</a>—the prominent group of session musicians that included drummer <a href=\"Earl%20Palmer\">Earl Palmer</a>, bassist <a href=\"Carol%20Kaye\">Carol Kaye</a>, guitarist <a href=\"Tommy%20Tedesco\">Tommy Tedesco</a>, and keyboardist <a href=\"Larry%20Knechtel\">Larry Knechtel</a>—joined the team at Motown.\nIn February 2004, surviving members of the Funk Brothers were presented the <a href=\"Grammy%20Legend%20Award\">Grammy Legend Award</a> at the <a href=\"46th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards\">46th Annual Grammy Awards</a> at the <a href=\"Staples%20Center\">Staples Center</a> in L.A. In March 2006, some remaining Funk Brothers were invited to perform on Philadelphia writer-producer-singer Phil Hurtt's recording session at Studio A, Dearborn Heights, Detroit, where they contributed their performances to \"The Soulful Tale of Two Cities\" project. The double-album sleeve notes read: \"Motown's legendary Funk Brothers and members of Philadelphia's world renowned <a href=\"MFSB\">MFSB</a> take you 'back in the day' with an album filled with classic Philly and Motown hits.\" <a href=\"Bob%20Babbitt\">Bob Babbitt</a>, <a href=\"Joe%20Hunter%20%28musician%29\">Joe Hunter</a>, Uriel Jones, and Eddie Willis performed alongside other notable Detroit session musicians, like Ray Monette, Robert Jones, <a href=\"Spider%20Webb%20%28jazz%20drummer%29\">Spider Webb</a>, and Treaty Womack. The musicians played on the Philly hits, giving their unique Detroit interpretations of the songs under the leadership of Phil Hurtt, <a href=\"Bobby%20Eli\">Bobby Eli</a>, Clay McMurray and Lamont Dozier. Many other ex-Motown and Detroit artists performed vocals on the session, including <a href=\"the%20Velvelettes\">the Velvelettes</a>, <a href=\"Carolyn%20Crawford\">Carolyn Crawford</a>, <a href=\"Lamont%20Dozier\">Lamont Dozier</a>, <a href=\"Bobby%20Taylor%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Vancouvers\">Bobby Taylor</a>, <a href=\"Kim%20Weston\">Kim Weston</a>, <a href=\"Freda%20Payne\">Freda Payne</a>, and <a href=\"George%20Clinton%20%28musician%29\">George Clinton</a>.\nIn 2008 <a href=\"Uriel%20Jones\">Uriel Jones</a>, Ray Monette, <a href=\"Dennis%20Coffey\">Dennis Coffey</a>, Robert Jones and <a href=\"Bob%20Babbitt\">Bob Babbitt</a> accompanied other notable Detroit session musicians, including Larry Fratangelo, Dennis Sheridan, Edward Gooch, John Trudell, saxophonist <a href=\"George%20Benson%20%28saxophonist%29\">George Benson</a>, Mark Burger, David Jennings, Spider Webb, and Rob Pipho, on the Carl Dixon Bandtraxs project, which featured a <a href=\"Dennis%20Coffey\">Dennis Coffey</a>–Carl Dixon production of four new songs. Vocal performances by Spyder Turner, Pree and Gayle Butts provided lead and backing for the session. The session was arranged by ex-Motown arranger <a href=\"David%20Van%20De%20Pitte\">David J. Van De Pitte</a>. The session was also at Studio A, Dearborn Heights, Detroit, and was the dream of a 19-year-old Dixon, back in 1974, to pay homage to musicians, particularly the Funk Brothers, producers and those who influenced him with their music. It took Dixon almost 33 years to find the musicians and meet some of them on the web site soulfuldetroit.com. It was via this web site that he and <a href=\"Dennis%20Coffey\">Dennis Coffey</a> hooked up and then eventually collaborated to make the session work.\nIn 2008 surviving members recorded \"Live in Orlando\", an album and video.\nIn 2010, surviving members of the Funk Brothers accompanied <a href=\"Phil%20Collins\">Phil Collins</a> on his Motown covers album, \"<a href=\"Going%20Back%20%28album%29\">Going Back</a>\", and appear in the live \"Going Back\" concert DVD.\nThe band used innovative techniques. For example, most Motown records feature two drummers, playing together or overdubbing one another—<a href=\"Marvin%20Gaye\">Marvin Gaye</a>'s \"<a href=\"I%20Heard%20It%20Through%20the%20Grapevine\">I Heard It Through the Grapevine</a>\" used three drummers. A number of songs utilized instrumentation and percussion unusual in soul music. <a href=\"The%20Temptations\">The Temptations</a>' \"<a href=\"It%27s%20Growing\">It's Growing</a>\" features Earl Van Dyke playing a <a href=\"toy%20piano\">toy piano</a> for the song's introduction, <a href=\"snow%20chain\">snow chain</a>s are used as percussion on <a href=\"Martha%20and%20the%20Vandellas\">Martha and the Vandellas</a>' \"<a href=\"Nowhere%20to%20Run%20%28song%29\">Nowhere to Run</a>\", and a custom <a href=\"oscillator\">oscillator</a> was built to create the synthesizer sounds used to accent several <a href=\"Holland-Dozier-Holland\">Holland-Dozier-Holland</a> compositions and productions, such as <a href=\"Diana%20Ross%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Supremes\">Diana Ross & the Supremes</a>' \"<a href=\"The%20Happening%20%28song%29\">The Happening</a>\" and \"<a href=\"Reflections%20%28Supremes%20song%29\">Reflections</a>.\" A tire iron was used in the Martha & the Vandellas song \"<a href=\"Dancing%20in%20the%20Street\">Dancing in the Street</a>\".\n<a href=\"James%20Jamerson\">James Jamerson</a>, who began his career playing upright bass, adopted the <a href=\"Fender%20Precision%20Bass\">Fender Precision Bass</a>, an electric instrument, in 1962, and played both acoustic and electric bass on some Motown recordings. Like such producers as <a href=\"Brian%20Wilson\">Brian Wilson</a>, <a href=\"George%20Martin\">George Martin</a>, and <a href=\"Phil%20Spector\">Phil Spector</a>, it wasn't uncommon for Motown composers or the Funk Brothers musicians to seek unique instrument combinations for certain lines; doubling piano, bass, and vibraphone (such as on some of the <a href=\"Four%20Tops\">Four Tops</a>'s hits) was practically a Motown trademark, too.\nThe Funk Brothers have received three <a href=\"Grammy\">Grammy</a> awards:\nBassist James Jamerson was inducted into the <a href=\"Rock%20and%20Roll%20Hall%20of%20Fame\">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a> in 2000, and drummer Benny Benjamin in 2003. In 2003, surviving members were invited to the <a href=\"White%20House\">White House</a> to meet President <a href=\"George%20W.%20Bush\">George W. Bush</a>, <a href=\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20State\">Secretary of State</a> <a href=\"Colin%20Powell\">Colin Powell</a>, and <a href=\"United%20States%20National%20Security%20Advisor\">National Security Advisor</a> <a href=\"Condoleezza%20Rice\">Condoleezza Rice</a>, in an event tied to <a href=\"Black%20History%20Month\">Black History Month</a>.\nIn 2007, the Funk Brothers were inducted into the <a href=\"Musicians%20Hall%20of%20Fame%20and%20Museum\">Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum</a> in <a href=\"Nashville\">Nashville</a>.\nOn March 21, 2013, the Funk Brothers were honored with a star on the <a href=\"Hollywood%20Walk%20of%20Fame\">Hollywood Walk of Fame</a>.\nAs discussed above, the name \"The Funk Brothers\" was a loosely applied designation. The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences recognizes 13 musicians as official \"Funk Brothers\", but the name is often casually used as a catch-all designation to cover \"any\" musician who played on a Motown record. In fact, the \"Funk Brothers\" name wasn't used until Benny Benjamin referred to his fellow musicians by that name while leaving a studio session in the 1960s.\nThe following list covers the musicians most frequently used on Motown recordings from 1959 through 1972; it is not an exhaustive list of every musician ever used. The 13 Funk Brothers recognized as official band members by NARAS are marked with an asterisk.\n\"Membership lists based upon research by Allan Slutsky, with some minor corrections.\"\nLos Angeles was an alternate recording center for Motown artists beginning in the mid-1960s, utilizing a different set of musicians. Hit tracks recorded in L.A. include the Miracles' \"More Love\", many of <a href=\"Brenda%20Holloway\">Brenda Holloway</a>'s songs, and all the early hits of <a href=\"the%20Jackson%205\">the Jackson 5</a>.\nMany of the Los Angeles players were members of <a href=\"The%20Wrecking%20Crew%20%28music%29\">the Wrecking Crew</a>, a loose-knit group of studio musicians.","Milan–San Remo\nMilan–San Remo (in <a href=\"italian%20language\">Italian</a> \"Milano-Sanremo\"), also called \"\"The Spring classic\"\" or \"\"La Classicissima\"\", is an annual <a href=\"cycling\">cycling</a> race between <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a> and <a href=\"Sanremo\">Sanremo</a>, in <a href=\"Northwest%20Italy\">Northwest Italy</a>. With a distance of 298 km (~185.2 miles) it is the longest professional one-day race in modern cycling. It is the first major <a href=\"Classic%20cycle%20races\">classic</a> race of the season, usually held on the third Saturday of March. The first edition was held in <a href=\"1907%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">1907</a>.\nToday it is one of the five \"<a href=\"Classic%20cycle%20races\">Monuments</a>\" of cycling. It was the opening race of the <a href=\"UCI%20Road%20World%20Cup\">UCI Road World Cup</a> series until the series was replaced by the <a href=\"UCI%20ProTour\">UCI ProTour</a> in 2005 and the <a href=\"UCI%20World%20Tour\">World Tour</a> in 2011. Milan–San Remo and the other four Monuments are now the one-day races in which most World Tour points are awarded (100 pts for the winner).\nThe most successful rider with seven victories is Belgian <a href=\"Eddy%20Merckx\">Eddy Merckx</a>. Italian <a href=\"Costante%20Girardengo\">Costante Girardengo</a> achieved 11 podium finishes in the <a href=\"interwar%20period\">interwar period</a>, winning the race six times. In recent times, German <a href=\"Erik%20Zabel\">Erik Zabel</a> and Spaniard <a href=\"%C3%93scar%20Freire\">Óscar Freire</a> have recorded four and three wins respectively.\nMilan–San Remo is considered a \"<a href=\"cycling%20sprinter\">sprinters</a> classic\" because of its mainly flat course, whereas the other Italian Monument race, the <a href=\"Giro%20di%20Lombardia\">Giro di Lombardia</a>, held in autumn, is considered a \"<a href=\"climbing%20specialist\">climbers</a> classic\".\nFrom 1999 to 2005, a women's race, the <a href=\"Primavera%20Rosa\">Primavera Rosa</a>, was organized alongside the men's but at a shorter distance.\nThe idea of a bike race between <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a> and <a href=\"Sanremo\">Sanremo</a> originated from the \"Unione Sportiva Sanremese\". A first amateur race was held on 2 and 3 April 1906 over two stages (Milan-<a href=\"Acqui%20Terme\">Acqui Terme</a> and Acqui Terme-Sanremo); albeit with little success. Milanese journalist <a href=\"Tullo%20Morgagni\">Tullo Morgagni</a>, who had launched the <a href=\"Giro%20di%20Lombardia\">Tour of Lombardy</a> in 1905, put forth the idea of organizing a professional cycling race in a single day over the course. He proposed the project to <a href=\"Eugenio%20Costamagna\">Eugenio Costamagna</a>, the director of the popular sports newspaper <a href=\"Gazzetta%20dello%20Sport\">Gazzetta dello Sport</a>, who took on the organization.\nOn 14 April <a href=\"1907%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\">1907</a> the first official edition of Milan–San Remo was held: 60 riders registered, but only 33 took the start at 5 a.m. at the Conca Fallata inn of Milan. The inaugural edition was raced under extremely cold circumstances and won by Frenchman <a href=\"Lucien%20Petit-Breton\">Lucien Petit-Breton</a>, who completed the 286 kilometers (177 miles) with an average speed of 26.206 km/h (16.5 mph). Only 14 riders finished.\nThe race was a commercial success and attracted some of the best riders of European cycling, prompting the Gazzetta dello Sport to organize a <a href=\"1908%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">second edition</a> in 1908, won by Belgium's <a href=\"Cyrille%20Van%20Hauwaert\">Cyrille Van Hauwaert</a>. The first Italian winner of Milan–San Remo was <a href=\"Luigi%20Ganna\">Luigi Ganna</a> who won in <a href=\"1909%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">1909</a> by an hour over Frenchman <a href=\"Emile%20Georget\">Emile Georget</a>.\nIn <a href=\"1910%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">1910</a> the \"Primavera\" gained eternal fame and a place in cycling legend because of the extreme weather conditions. Riders needed to take refuge in the houses along the roads because a severe <a href=\"blizzard\">snowstorm</a> scourged the peloton. Just 4 out of 63 riders made it to the finish. Frenchman <a href=\"Eug%C3%A8ne%20Christophe\">Eugène Christophe</a> won, even though he thought he had taken a wrong road and did not realize he was the first to reach Sanremo. Christophe finished the race in 12 hours and 24 minutes, making it the slowest edition ever. <a href=\"Giovanni%20Cocchi\">Giovanni Cocchi</a> finished second at 1h 17 minutes from the winner.\nAfter the pioneering days of the race, began the era of <a href=\"Costante%20Girardengo\">Costante Girardengo</a>, who connected his name indelibly to the classic. From 1917 to 1928 Girardengo had a record 11 podium finishes, six times as winner. Subsequent years were marked by the rivalry between <a href=\"Learco%20Guerra\">Learco Guerra</a> and <a href=\"Alfredo%20Binda\">Alfredo Binda</a>, whose <a href=\"list%20of%20sports%20rivalries\">emulation</a> caused them to lose several certain victories. A similar rivalry was the one in the 1940s with the mythical years of <a href=\"Fausto%20Coppi\">Fausto Coppi</a> and <a href=\"Gino%20Bartali\">Gino Bartali</a>, whose duels were the subject of intense coverage and resulted in epic races.\nMilan–San Remo was at the peak of its popularity and the Italian press started to coin the untranslatable term \"La Classicissima\", the greatest of all classics. From 1935 to 1953 the race was run every year on <a href=\"19%20March\">19 March</a>, the feast of <a href=\"patron%20saint\">patron</a> <a href=\"Saint%20Joseph\">Saint Joseph</a>, hence the press in predominantly <a href=\"catholicism\">Catholic</a> Italy gave it its other nickname, \"la Gara di San Giuseppe \"(\"Saint Joseph's Race\"). In 1949 the race finished for the first time on the iconic <a href=\"Via%20Roma\">Via Roma</a>, a busy shopping street in the heart of Sanremo.\nAs from the 1950s the race was mainly won by <a href=\"Belgium\">Belgian</a> and <a href=\"Spain\">Spanish</a> sprinters, and after 1953, Italian riders could not seal a victory for 17 years. In 1960 race director <a href=\"Vincenzo%20Torriani\">Vincenzo Torriani</a> added the climb of the <a href=\"Poggio%20di%20Sanremo\">Poggio</a>, just before the arrival in Sanremo. The intent was to make the race finale harder, but the decision did not have the aspired effect and the streak of non-Italian victories continued.\nIn 1966 began the legendary era of <a href=\"Eddy%20Merckx\">Eddy Merckx</a>, who achieved a historic and unsurpassed record of seven victories. Seven wins is also the record number of victories by a rider in a single <a href=\"Classic%20cycle%20races\">classic</a> to date. After the \"Cannibal\"'s streak no rider could dominate Milan–San Remo again until 1997, when German <a href=\"Erik%20Zabel\">Erik Zabel</a> began a series of 4 victories and 2 second places.\nIn 1990 <a href=\"Gianni%20Bugno\">Gianni Bugno</a> set a race record of 6h 25 m 06 seconds to win by 4 seconds over <a href=\"Rolf%20G%C3%B6lz\">Rolf Gölz</a>. This was an average of 45.8kmh (28.45 mph). Other memorable editions in the 1990s were the one in 1992, when <a href=\"Sean%20Kelly%20%28cyclist%29\">Seán Kelly</a> caught up with <a href=\"Moreno%20Argentin\">Moreno Argentin</a> in the descent of the Poggio and beat the Italian in the sprint; as well as the <a href=\"1999%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\">1999</a> edition, when <a href=\"Andrei%20Tchmil\">Andrei Tchmil</a> launched his decisive attack under the one-kilometer banner and narrowly stayed ahead of the peloton, with Zabel winning the sprint for second place.\nIn <a href=\"2004%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\">2004</a> Zabel could have won a fifth time, but lost to <a href=\"%C3%93scar%20Freire\">Óscar Freire</a> only because he lifted his arms to celebrate and stopped pedalling too early. Freire would go on to secure a total of three \"Primavera\" wins in later years. In <a href=\"2008%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\">2008</a> the finish was moved to a different location for the first time in 59 years, due to road works on the Via Roma. Swiss <a href=\"Fabian%20Cancellara\">Fabian Cancellara</a> was the first winner on the Lungomare Italo Calvino, with an ultimate solo attack in the streets of San Remo.\nIn <a href=\"2009%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\">2009</a> the 100th edition of Milan–San Remo was held, won by British sprinter <a href=\"Mark%20Cavendish\">Mark Cavendish</a> on his first attempt. Cavendish beat Australian <a href=\"Heinrich%20Haussler\">Heinrich Haussler</a> in a 'millimeter sprint'.\nThe race of <a href=\"2013%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">2013</a> was an epic contest. Heavy snowfall and below-zero temperatures forced organizers to shorten the race from 298 kilometres (185.2 miles) to 246 kilometres (152.9 miles) eliminating two key climbs – the <a href=\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\">Passo del Turchino</a> and Le Manie – and arranging a bus transfer, for the race to begin a second time. The race was won by German <a href=\"Gerald%20Ciolek\">Gerald Ciolek</a> who outsprinted <a href=\"Peter%20Sagan\">Peter Sagan</a> and Fabian Cancellara.\nIn <a href=\"2015%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\">2015</a>, after seven years on the seaside, race director <a href=\"Mauro%20Vegni\">Mauro Vegni</a> decided to move the finish back to the Via Roma, stating the change would be for 2015 and beyond. German <a href=\"John%20Degenkolb\">John Degenkolb</a> won the race ahead of previous winner <a href=\"Alexander%20Kristoff\">Alexander Kristoff</a>.\nThe <a href=\"2016%20Milan-San%20Remo\">2016 Milan-San Remo</a> was won by <a href=\"FDJ%20%28cycling%20team%29\">FDJ</a> sprinter <a href=\"Arnaud%20D%C3%A9mare\">Arnaud Démare</a> in a mass sprint. One day after the race, both <a href=\"Matteo%20Tosatto\">Matteo Tosatto</a> ( ) and <a href=\"Eros%20Capecchi\">Eros Capecchi</a> (<a href=\"Astana%20Pro%20Team\">Astana</a> ) accused Démare of having used the tow of his teamcar to rejoin the pack after his crash before the Cipressa climb. Démare rebuffed these allegations, saying that the race commissioners were right behind him and would have disqualified him, had he done something illegal. On 8 May 2016, it became public that the Italian Cycling Federation was making inquiries into the accusations about Démare, with Tosatto saying that he had given written testimony to officials about the incident.\n<a href=\"Team%20Sky\">Team Sky</a> 's <a href=\"Micha%C5%82%20Kwiatkowski\">Michał Kwiatkowski</a> won the <a href=\"2017%20Milan-San%20Remo\">2017 Milan-San Remo</a> in a three-up sprint finish ahead of world champion <a href=\"Peter%20Sagan\">Peter Sagan</a> (<a href=\"Bora%E2%80%93Hansgrohe\">Bora–Hansgrohe</a> ) and <a href=\"Quick-Step%20Floors\">Quick-Step Floors</a> rider <a href=\"Julian%20Alaphilippe\">Julian Alaphilippe</a> after the trio broke clear on the race's final climb – the <a href=\"Poggio%20di%20San%20Remo\">Poggio di San Remo</a> – .\nUpon its inception, Milan–San Remo was conceived as a straightforward line from <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a>, the industrial heart of <a href=\"Northern%20Italy\">Northern Italy</a>, to <a href=\"Sanremo\">San Remo</a>, the fashionable seaside resort on the <a href=\"Italian%20Riviera\">Italian Riviera</a> with its trademark <a href=\"Belle%20Epoque\">Belle Epoque</a> villas. The race starts on the <a href=\"Piazza%20del%20Duomo%2C%20Milan\">Piazza del Duomo</a> in the heart of Milan and immediately heads to the southwest, over the plains of <a href=\"Lombardy\">Lombardy</a> and <a href=\"Piedmont\">Piedmont</a>, along the cities of <a href=\"Pavia\">Pavia</a>, <a href=\"Voghera\">Voghera</a>, <a href=\"Tortona\">Tortona</a>, <a href=\"Novi%20Ligure\">Novi Ligure</a> and <a href=\"Ovada\">Ovada</a>. As the race enters <a href=\"Liguria\">Liguria</a>, the peloton addresses the <a href=\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\">Passo del Turchino</a>, the first climb of the day, after 140 km.\nAfter the descent of the Turchino the race reaches the <a href=\"Ligurian%20Sea\">Ligurian Sea</a> in <a href=\"Voltri\">Voltri</a> at halfway point. From here the course follows the <a href=\"Strada%20statale%201%20Via%20Aurelia\">Aurelia highway</a> to the west, with its spectacular and typical scenery along the Ligurian Coast. The race crosses the towns of <a href=\"Arenzano\">Arenzano</a>, <a href=\"Varazze\">Varazze</a>, <a href=\"Savona\">Savona</a>, <a href=\"Finale%20Ligure\">Finale Ligure</a>, <a href=\"Pietra%20Ligure\">Pietra Ligure</a> and <a href=\"Loano\">Loano</a>, followed by the seaside resorts along the Riviera dei Fiori (<a href=\"Alassio\">Alassio</a>, <a href=\"Andora\">Andora</a>, <a href=\"Diano%20Marina\">Diano Marina</a> and <a href=\"Imperia\">Imperia</a>). Between Alassio and Imperia, three short hills along the coast are included: the Capo Mele, Capo Cervo and Capo Berta. In <a href=\"San%20Lorenzo%20al%20Mare\">San Lorenzo al Mare</a> the course turns inwards to the <a href=\"Cipressa\">Cipressa</a>, the next climb, with its top at 22 km from the finish. After the towns of <a href=\"Santo%20Stefano%20al%20Mare\">Santo Stefano al Mare</a> and <a href=\"Arma%20di%20Taggia\">Arma di Taggia</a> comes the last and most famous climb, the <a href=\"Poggio%20di%20Sanremo\">Poggio di Sanremo</a>, in fact a suburb of San Remo, built upon a hill along the sea.\nFrom the top of the Poggio, 7 km from the finish, the course heads down via a fast and curvy descent towards the center of San Remo where the race traditionally finishes on the Via Roma, the city's illustrious shopping street.\nBeing the longest professional one-day race, Milan–San Remo is an unusual test of endurance early in the season. It is often won not by the fastest sprinter, but by the strongest and best prepared rider with a strong sprint finish. The Cipressa and Poggio have foiled many sprinters who could not stay with the front group.\nIn the early years the only significant difficulty was the <a href=\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\">Passo del Turchino</a>, which was often a pivotal site of the race – but when cycling became more professional, the climb was not demanding enough and too far from the finish to be decisive. In 1960 the <a href=\"Poggio%20di%20Sanremo\">Poggio</a>, a 4 km climb just a few kilometres before the finish, was introduced. In 1982 the <a href=\"Cipressa\">Cipressa</a>, near <a href=\"Imperia%20%28city%29\">Imperia</a> was added. The other hills are the Capo Mele, Capo Cervo and Capo Berta. From 2008 to 2014 the organizers added the climb of <a href=\"Le%20Manie\">Le Manie</a> as well, between the Turchino and the \"Capi\". The Turchino and Le Manie are longer climbs, meant to cause a first selection in the peloton, while the Capi, Cipressa and Poggio are rather short, inviting attackers to distance the peloton.\nIn recent years there has rarely been a big selection in the latter stages of the race. Many sprinters are able to keep up with the main peloton on the climbs, and therefore the race most often ends in a group <a href=\"cycling%20sprinter\">sprint</a>. Nonetheless, the location of the Poggio close to the finish has often meant that riders' position on top of the Poggio is crucial in order to win the race.\nDespite its flat course and long finishing straight, sprinters' teams have been foiled from time to time by a determined attack on the last hills. Good examples include <a href=\"Laurent%20Jalabert\">Laurent Jalabert</a> and <a href=\"Maurizio%20Fondriest\">Maurizio Fondriest</a> escaping in <a href=\"1995%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">1995</a> and staying ahead to the finish. In <a href=\"2003%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">2003</a>, <a href=\"Paolo%20Bettini\">Paolo Bettini</a> attacked with <a href=\"Luca%20Paolini\">Luca Paolini</a> and <a href=\"Mirko%20Celestino\">Mirko Celestino</a> to stay ahead. In <a href=\"2012%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">2012</a> <a href=\"Vincenzo%20Nibali\">Vincenzo Nibali</a> and <a href=\"Fabian%20Cancellara\">Fabian Cancellara</a> attacked on the Poggio, followed by Australian <a href=\"Simon%20Gerrans\">Simon Gerrans</a> who outsprinted them at the finish.\nMilan–San Remo has had little significant course changes since its first edition, and organizers have made it a matter of honour to stay true to the original intent.\nThe last change to the course was the inclusion of Le Manie, in 2008. In September 2013, organiser <a href=\"RCS%20Sport\">RCS Sport</a> announced the race would include the <a href=\"Pompeiana\">Pompeiana</a> climb between the Cipressa and Poggio. To keep the race at a reasonable distance, it would exclude Le Manie. The Pompeiana, named after the village the road passes, climbs five kilometres with a 13% maximum gradient, and would therefore be the most difficult climb in the race finale.\nThe proposed route was reversed just weeks before the race in March 2014, when the Pompeiana had been damaged by recent landslides, making it too dangerous for a cycling race to pass. Hence the race was re-routed and made more traditional and sprinter-friendly. This led to a number of sprinters, who had earlier ruled themselves out due to the addition of the extra climb, including <a href=\"Mark%20Cavendish\">Mark Cavendish</a>, declaring their interest in riding again.\nIn 2015, the climb of Le Manie was cut from the race, and neither was the Pompeiana included in the trajectory. With this pre-2008 route, race organizers stated they want to respect the race's traditional course.\n\"Riders in italics are still active\"\nFrom 1999 to 2005 seven editions of Milan–San Remo for women were held. The race was organized on the same day and finished in Sanremo shortly before the men, but covered a shorter distance. The start was not in <a href=\"Milan\">Milan</a>, but in <a href=\"Varazze\">Varazze</a>, hence it was named <a href=\"Primavera%20Rosa\">Primavera Rosa</a>. It was part of the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup. The 2006 edition was initially planned but cancelled before the event. Russian <a href=\"Zoulfia%20Zabirova\">Zoulfia Zabirova</a> was the only rider to win twice.\nThe Granfondo Milano-Sanremo is an annual <a href=\"Bicycle%20touring\">bicycle tour</a> event for recreational cyclists over the same course as the professional race from Milan to San Remo. It is one of the oldest \"Granfondos\" in Italy, founded in 1971 by the \"Unione Cicloturistica Sanremo\" and popular among cyclotourists from all over the world. It is held every Spring, in recent years in late April.\nThe race features in the 1980 Italian <a href=\"comedy\">comedy</a> film <a href=\"Fantozzi%20contro%20tutti\">Fantozzi contro tutti</a>.\n","Giovanni Cuniolo\nGiovanni Cuniolo (25 June 1884 – 25 December 1955) was an <a href=\"Italy\">Italian</a> professional <a href=\"road%20racing%20cyclist\">road racing cyclist</a> who was born in <a href=\"Tortona\">Tortona</a>, <a href=\"Italy\">Italy</a>. He won the second ever stage in <a href=\"Giro%20d%27Italia\">Giro d'Italia</a> history in <a href=\"1909%20Giro%20d%27Italia\">1909</a>.","Passo del Turchino\nThe Passo del Turchino is a <a href=\"mountain%20pass\">mountain pass</a> located between the cities of <a href=\"Masone\">Masone</a> and <a href=\"Mele\">Mele</a> in the <a href=\"Italy\">Italian</a> region <a href=\"Liguria\">Liguria</a>. It is known for its annual appearance in the <a href=\"classic%20cycle%20races\">classic</a> one-day cycling race <a href=\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">Milan–San Remo</a>, and occasionally in other races.\nWhile in the early days of Milan–San Remo the Turchino contributed to deciding the winner of the race, it is now not considered selective enough to break up a racing <a href=\"peloton\">peloton</a>.\nOn 19 May 1944, fifty-nine civilians were murdered by Germans in a mass execution nearby.\nThe episode is known as (Turchino massacre). This massacre was perpetrated as a retaliation following an attack from the Italian resistance when 5 German soldiers died.\nThe climb can be accessed by three roads, with the approach from <a href=\"Mele\">Mele</a> the most common. Though the climb from this road features some gradients topping 10%, these stretches are very brief and the average gradient is only 4%. The total distance of the climb from this road is 546 metres.\nStarting from <a href=\"Voltri\">Voltri</a>, the climb's average gradient is slightly higher at 4.5%, but there are no sections higher than 7%. The 526 metres in this climb are thus realized with a more steady gradient.\nThe easiest road up the Turchino starts in <a href=\"Ovada\">Ovada</a>, and only has sections of higher than 4% at the very end of the climb. The average gradient starting from Ovada is only 1.5%, and the climb takes just 373 metres.\nThe Passo del Turchino has been used in <a href=\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">Milan–San Remo</a> every year it has been held except 2001 and 2002. Originally, the climb was quite selective, as for 14 out of the first 39 editions of the race, the man to the top of the Turchino first was the winner of the race. In 1910, there was so much snow on the Turchino that only four of the 63 riders who began the race finished it, and those who finished had to dismount and push their bikes through heavy snowdrifts at the top of the pass in order to get beyond it.\nIn recent years, the climb has not proven selective. The race almost inevitably ends with a mass sprint or a breakaway, formed after crossing the Turchino, comprising riders that would have otherwise been in the sprint.\nThe Passo del Turchino has also been used in the <a href=\"Giro%20d%27Italia\">Giro d'Italia</a>, most recently in 2009, when <a href=\"Stefano%20Garzelli\">Stefano Garzelli</a> led the peloton over its summit.\n","Classic cycle races\nThe classic cycle races are the most prestigious one-day professional cycling <a href=\"road%20bicycle%20racing\">road races</a> in the <a href=\"List%20of%20road%20bicycle%20racing%20events\">international calendar</a>. All of these events run in western <a href=\"Europe\">Europe</a>, have been fixtures on the professional calendar for decades and the oldest ones date back to the 19th century. They are normally held at roughly the same time each year. The five most revered races are often described as the 'Monuments'.\nFor the 2005 to 2007 seasons, the Classics formed part of the <a href=\"UCI%20ProTour\">UCI ProTour</a> run by the <a href=\"Union%20Cycliste%20Internationale\">Union Cycliste Internationale</a>. This event series also included various stage races including the <a href=\"Tour%20de%20France\">Tour de France</a>, <a href=\"Giro%20d%27Italia\">Giro d'Italia</a>, <a href=\"Vuelta%20a%20Espa%C3%B1a\">Vuelta a España</a>, <a href=\"Paris%E2%80%93Nice\">Paris–Nice</a> and the <a href=\"Crit%C3%A9rium%20du%20Dauphin%C3%A9\">Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré</a>, and various non-Classic one-day events. The ProTour replaced the <a href=\"UCI%20Road%20World%20Cup\">UCI Road World Cup</a> series which contained only one-day races. Many of the Classics, and all the Grand Tours, were not part of the ProTour for the 2008 season because of disputes between the <a href=\"Union%20Cycliste%20Internationale\">UCI</a> and the <a href=\"Amaury%20Sport%20Organisation\">ASO</a>, which organizes the <a href=\"Tour%20de%20France\">Tour de France</a> and several other major races.\nAlthough cycling fans and sports media eagerly use the term \"classic\", there is no clear consensus about what constitutes a classic cycling race. <a href=\"Union%20Cycliste%20Internationale\">UCI</a>, the international governing body of cycling, has no mention at all of the term in its rulings. This poses problems to define the characteristics of these races and makes it impossible to make precise lists. Several criteria are used to denote the importance of a cycling race: date of creation, historical importance and tradition, commercial importance, location, level of difficulty, level of competition field, etc. However, many of these paradigms tend to shift over time and are often opinions of a personal nature. One of the few objective criteria is the official categorization of races as classified by the UCI, although this is not a defining feature either, as many fans dispute the presence of some of the highest-categorized races and some older races are not included in the <a href=\"UCI%20World%20Tour\">UCI World Tour</a>.\nBecause of the growing <a href=\"ambiguity\">ambiguity</a> and <a href=\"inflation\">inflation</a> of the term \"classic\", the much younger term \"monument\" was introduced in the 21st century to denote the five most revered of the classic cycling races.\nGiven the lack of a clear definition of classic races, these are professional races \"mostly\" regarded as classics. It includes some of the one-day events of the <a href=\"UCI%20World%20Tour\">UCI World Tour</a> and additional races of historical importance.\nTogether, Milan–San Remo, the <a href=\"Cobbled%20classics\">Cobbled classics</a> and the <a href=\"Ardennes%20classics\">Ardennes classics</a> make up the \"Spring Classics\", all held in March and April.\nThe summer classics are held from July to September.\nThe autumn classics are held from September to November.\nSeason openers are usually not regarded as highly as other classics, but receive a lot of attention because of their position early in the season, typically in February.\nSome Classics have disappeared, often because of financial problems. These include:\nThe five Monuments are generally considered to be the oldest, hardest and most prestigious one-day events in cycling. They each have a long history and specific individual characteristics. They are currently the one-day races in which most points can be earned in the <a href=\"UCI%20World%20Tour\">UCI World Tour</a> (100 pts for the winner).\nBoth Belgian 'monuments' – The Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège – also have women's events. A women's version of Milan–San Remo, named <a href=\"Primavera%20Rosa\">Primavera Rosa</a>, was initiated in 1999, but cancelled after 2005.\nOnly three riders have won all five Monument races during their careers: <a href=\"Rik%20Van%20Looy\">Rik Van Looy</a>, <a href=\"Eddy%20Merckx\">Eddy Merckx</a> and <a href=\"Roger%20De%20Vlaeminck\">Roger De Vlaeminck</a>, all three <a href=\"Belgium\">Belgians</a>, and only <a href=\"Eddy%20Merckx\">Eddy Merckx</a> won each of them more than once. Five riders won four of the Monuments. With victories in all the other Monuments, <a href=\"Sean%20Kelly%20%28cyclist%29\">Sean Kelly</a> almost joined the top group, finishing second in the Tour of Flanders on three occasions (1984, 1986 and 1987). Dutch rider <a href=\"Hennie%20Kuiper\">Hennie Kuiper</a> won each Monument, except Liège–Bastogne–Liège in which he finished second in 1980. Frenchman <a href=\"Louison%20Bobet\">Louison Bobet</a>, also won all but Liège–Bastogne–Liège. Belgian rider <a href=\"Fred%20De%20Bruyne\">Fred De Bruyne</a> also came close, finishing second in the Giro di Lombardia in 1955 and winning the other four races during his career. <a href=\"Germain%20Derycke\">Germain Derycke</a> also won four races, all except the Giro di Lombardia. Twenty riders have won at least five Monuments in their career.\nRiders in blue are still active. Number of wins in gold indicates the current record holder(s).\nOnly <a href=\"Eddy%20Merckx\">Eddy Merckx</a> has been able to win three 'Monuments' in a single year - and he did it four times:\n","Luigi Ganna\nLuigi Ganna (1 December 1883 – 2 October 1957) was an <a href=\"Italy\">Italian</a> professional <a href=\"road%20racing%20cyclist\">road racing cyclist</a>. He was the overall winner of the first <a href=\"Giro%20d%27Italia\">Giro d'Italia</a>, held in <a href=\"1909%20Giro%20d%27Italia\">1909</a>, as well as the first Italian winner of the classic <a href=\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">Milan–San Remo</a> earlier that year. Further highlights in his career were his fifth place in the <a href=\"1908%20Tour%20de%20France\">1908 Tour de France</a> and several podium places in Italian <a href=\"classic%20cycle%20races\">classic races</a>. In 1908 he set a new <a href=\"world%20hour%20record\">Italian hour record</a>, which he held for six years.\nHe was born in <a href=\"Induno%20Olona\">Induno Olona</a>, near <a href=\"Varese\">Varese</a>, in <a href=\"Lombardy\">Lombardy</a>. Before becoming a professional cyclist, he worked as a bricklayer, commuting up to 100 km to work by bike.\n","Pietro Chesi\nPietro Chesi (24 November 1902 in <a href=\"Gambassi%20Terme\">Gambassi Terme</a> - 15 August 1944 in <a href=\"Florence\">Florence</a>) was an Italian cyclist.\nHe was a professional from 1925 to 1934 and won <a href=\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\">Milan–San Remo</a> in 1927 with an attack on the <a href=\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\">Passo del Turchino</a>. He left the favorite to win, <a href=\"Alfred%20Binda\">Alfred Binda</a> 9 minutes behind.\nHe died when he was shot by anti-fascist partisans.\n","Aron Nimzowitsch\nAron Nimzowitsch (<a href=\"Latvian%20language\">Latvian</a>: \"Ārons Ņimcovičs\" , <a href=\"Russian%20language\">Russian</a>: Аро́н Иса́евич Нимцо́вич , \"Aron Isayevich Nimtsovich\"; born Aron Niemzowitsch; 7 November 1886 – 16 March 1935) was a <a href=\"Russia\">Russia</a>n-born, <a href=\"Denmark\">Danish</a> leading chess master and a very influential chess writer. He was the foremost figure amongst the \"<a href=\"hypermodernism%20%28chess%29\">hypermoderns</a>\".\nBorn in part of the <a href=\"Russian%20Empire\">Russian Empire</a>, the Jewish German-speaking Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy family, where he learned <a href=\"chess\">chess</a> from his father, who was a merchant. In 1904, he travelled to Berlin to study <a href=\"philosophy\">philosophy</a>, but set aside his studies soon and began a career as a professional chess player that same year. He won his first international tournament at Munich 1906. Then, he tied for first with <a href=\"Alexander%20Alekhine\">Alexander Alekhine</a> at Saint Petersburg 1913/14 (the eighth <a href=\"Russian%20Chess%20Championship\">All-Russian Masters' Tournament</a>).\nDuring the 1917 <a href=\"Russian%20Revolution%20%281917%29\">Russian Revolution</a>, Nimzowitsch was in the <a href=\"Baltic%20region\">Baltic</a> war zone. He escaped being drafted into one of the armies by feigning madness, insisting that a fly was on his head. He then escaped to Berlin, and gave his first name as Arnold, possibly to avoid anti-Semitic persecution.\nNimzowitsch eventually moved to <a href=\"Copenhagen\">Copenhagen</a> in 1922, which coincided with his rise to the world chess elite, where he lived for the rest of his life in one small rented room. In Copenhagen, he twice won the <a href=\"Nordic%20Chess%20Championship\">Nordic Chess Championship</a>, in 1924 and 1934. He obtained Danish citizenship and lived in Denmark until his death in 1935.\nThe height of Nimzowitsch's career was the late 1920s and early 1930s. <a href=\"Chessmetrics\">Chessmetrics</a> places him as the third best player in the world from 1927 to 1931, behind <a href=\"Alexander%20Alekhine\">Alexander Alekhine</a> and <a href=\"Jos%C3%A9%20Capablanca\">José Capablanca</a>. His most notable successes were first-place finishes at <a href=\"Copenhagen\">Copenhagen</a> 1923, <a href=\"Marienbad\">Marienbad</a> 1925, <a href=\"Dresden\">Dresden</a> 1926, <a href=\"Hanover\">Hanover</a> 1926, the <a href=\"Carlsbad%201929%20chess%20tournament\">Carlsbad 1929 chess tournament</a>, and second place behind Alekhine at the <a href=\"San%20Remo%201930%20chess%20tournament\">San Remo 1930 chess tournament</a>. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play, though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine, but the match consisted of only two games and took place in 1914, thirteen years before Alekhine became world champion.\nNimzowitsch never beat Capablanca, but fared better against Alekhine. He even beat Alekhine with the <a href=\"White%20and%20Black%20in%20chess\">black pieces</a>, in their short 1914 match at <a href=\"Saint%20Petersburg\">St. Petersburg</a>. One of Nimzowitsch's most famous games is his celebrated <a href=\"Immortal%20Zugzwang%20Game\">immortal zugzwang game</a> against <a href=\"Friedrich%20S%C3%A4misch\">Sämisch</a> at <a href=\"Copenhagen\">Copenhagen</a> 1923. Another game on this theme is his win over Paul Johner at <a href=\"Dresden\">Dresden</a> 1926. When in form, Nimzowitsch was very dangerous with the black pieces, scoring many fine wins over top players.\nNimzowitsch is considered one of the most important players and writers in chess history. His works influenced numerous other players, including <a href=\"Savielly%20Tartakower\">Savielly Tartakower</a>, <a href=\"Milan%20Vidmar\">Milan Vidmar</a>, <a href=\"Richard%20R%C3%A9ti\">Richard Réti</a>, <a href=\"Akiba%20Rubinstein\">Akiba Rubinstein</a>, <a href=\"Bent%20Larsen\">Bent Larsen</a> and <a href=\"Tigran%20Petrosian\">Tigran Petrosian</a>, and his influence is still felt today.\nHe wrote three books on chess strategy: \"<a href=\"Mein%20System\">Mein System</a> (My System)\", 1925, \"Die Praxis meines Systems (The Practice of My System)\", 1929, commonly known as \"Chess Praxis\", and \"Die Blockade\" (\"The Blockade\"), 1925, though much in the latter book is generally held to be a rehash of material already presented in \"Mein System\". \"Mein System\" is considered to be one of the most influential chess books of all time. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas, while his second most influential work, \"Chess Praxis\", elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games accompanied by his idiosyncratic, hyperbolic commentary which is often as entertaining as instructive.\nNimzowitsch's <a href=\"chess%20theory\">chess theories</a>, when first propounded, flew in the face of widely held orthodoxies enunciated by the dominant theorist of the era, <a href=\"Siegbert%20Tarrasch\">Siegbert Tarrasch</a>, and his disciples. Tarrasch's rigid generalizations drew on the earlier work of <a href=\"Wilhelm%20Steinitz\">Wilhelm Steinitz</a>, and were upheld by Tarrasch's sharp tongue when dismissing the opinions of doubters. While the greatest players of the time, among them <a href=\"Alexander%20Alekhine\">Alekhine</a>, <a href=\"Emanuel%20Lasker\">Emanuel Lasker</a> and <a href=\"Jos%C3%A9%20Ra%C3%BAl%20Capablanca\">Capablanca</a>, clearly did not allow their play to be hobbled by blind adherence to general concepts that the center had to be controlled by <a href=\"Pawn%20%28chess%29\">pawns</a>, that development had to happen in support of this control, that rooks always belong on open files, that wing openings were unsound—core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy as popularly understood—beginners were taught to think of these generalizations as unalterable principles.\nNimzowitsch supplemented many of the earlier simplistic assumptions about chess strategy by enunciating in his turn a further number of general concepts of defensive play aimed at achieving one's own goals by preventing realization of the opponent's plans. Notable in his \"system\" were concepts such as <a href=\"Glossary%20of%20chess%23Overprotection\">overprotection</a> of pieces and pawns under attack, control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockading of opposing pieces (notably the <a href=\"passed%20pawns\">passed pawns</a>) and <a href=\"prophylaxis%20%28chess%29\">prophylaxis</a>. He was also a leading exponent of the <a href=\"fianchetto\">fianchetto</a> development of <a href=\"bishop%20%28chess%29\">bishops</a>. Perhaps most importantly, he formulated the terminology still in use for various complex chess strategies. Others had used these ideas in practice, but he was the first to present them systematically as a lexicon of themes accompanied by extensive taxonomical observations.\n<a href=\"Grandmaster%20%28chess%29\">Grandmaster</a> (GM) <a href=\"Raymond%20Keene\">Raymond Keene</a> writes that Nimzowitsch \"was one of the world's leading grandmasters for a period extending over a quarter of a century, and for some of that time he was the obvious challenger for the world championship. ... [He was also] a great and profound chess thinker second only to Steinitz, and his works – \"Die Blockade\", \"My System\" and \"Chess Praxis\" – established his reputation as one of the father figures of modern chess.\" GM <a href=\"Robert%20Byrne%20%28chess%20player%29\">Robert Byrne</a> called him \"perhaps the most brilliant theoretician and teacher in the history of the game.\" GM <a href=\"Jan%20Hein%20Donner\">Jan Hein Donner</a> called Nimzowitsch \"a man who was too much of an artist to be able to prove he was right and who was regarded as something of a madman in his time. He would be understood only long after his death.\"\nMany chess openings and variations are named after Nimzowitsch, the most famous being the <a href=\"Nimzo-Indian%20Defence\">Nimzo-Indian Defence</a> (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played <a href=\"Nimzowitsch%20Defence\">Nimzowitsch Defence</a> (1.e4 Nc6). Nimzowitsch biographer GM Raymond Keene and others have referred to 1.Nf3 followed by 2.b3 as the <a href=\"Larsen%27s%20Opening\">Nimzowitsch–Larsen Attack</a>. Keene wrote a book about the opening with that title. These openings all exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces instead of pawns. He was also vital in the development of two important systems in the <a href=\"French%20Defence\">French Defence</a>, the (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.e5). He also pioneered two provocative variations of the <a href=\"Sicilian%20Defence\">Sicilian Defence</a>: the , 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6, which invites 3.e5 Nd5 (similar to <a href=\"Alekhine%27s%20Defence\">Alekhine's Defence</a>) and 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 d5?! (the latter regarded as dubious today). International Master <a href=\"John%20L.%20Watson\">John L. Watson</a> has dubbed the line 1.c4 Nf6 2.Nc3 e6 3.Nf3 Bb4 the \"Nimzo-English\", employing this designation in Chapter 11 of his recent book \"Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 3\".\nThere are many entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitsch—some less savory than others. An article by Hans Kmoch and Fred Reinfeld entitled \"Unconventional Surrender\" on page 55 of the February 1950 Chess Review tells of the \"... example of Nimzowitsch, who ... once missed first prize in a tournament in Berlin by losing to Sämisch, and when it became clear he was going to lose the game, Nimzowitsch stood up on the table and shouted, 'Gegen diesen Idioten muss ich verlieren!' ('That I should lose to this idiot!')\".\nNimzowitsch was annoyed by his opponents' smoking. A popular, but probably apocryphal, story is that once when an opponent laid an unlit cigar on the table, he complained to the tournament arbiters, \"He is threatening to smoke, and as an old player you must know that the threat is stronger than the execution.\"\nNimzowitsch had lengthy and somewhat bitter dogmatic conflicts with Tarrasch over whose ideas constituted 'proper' chess.\nNimzowitsch's vanity and faith in his ideas of overprotection provoked <a href=\"Hans%20Kmoch\">Hans Kmoch</a> to write a parody about him in February 1928 in the \"<a href=\"Wiener%20Schachzeitung\">Wiener Schachzeitung</a>\". This consisted of a <a href=\"http%3A//www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame%3Fgid%3D1334664%26amp%3Bkpage%3D1\">mock game</a> against the fictional player \"Systemsson\", supposedly played and annotated by Nimzowitsch himself. The annotations gleefully exaggerate the idea of overprotection, as well as asserting the true genius of the wondrous idea. Kmoch was in fact a great admirer of Nimzowitsch, and the subject of the parody himself was amused at the effort.\nKmoch also wrote an article about his nine years with Nimzowitsch:\nNimzowitsch's colleague <a href=\"Savielly%20Tartakower\">Tartakower</a> observed of him, \"He pretends to be crazy in order to drive us all crazy.\"\nAlthough he had long suffered from heart trouble, his early death was unexpected; taken ill suddenly at the end of 1934, he lay bedridden for three months before dying of <a href=\"pneumonia\">pneumonia</a>. He is buried in <a href=\"Bispebjerg\">Bispebjerg</a> Cemetery in Copenhagen."],"string":"[\n \"San Remo Golden Strings\\nThe San Remo Golden Strings were a studio group from Detroit, Michigan. A number of its members also played in the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, while others were members of the Motown backing band, The Funk Brothers. Their albums were released on Ric-Tic, Motown and Gordy labels. They scored two hits in the U.S. in 1965: \\\"Hungry for Love\\\" (U.S. Pop #27, U.S. AC #3) and \\\"I'm Satisfied\\\" (U.S. Pop #89). In 1971, they had some success, as the \\\"San Remo Strings\\\" with \\\"Festival Time\\\", which reached #39 in the UK Singles Chart and was popular on the UK's Northern soul music scene.\",\n \"1937 San Remo Grand Prix\\nThe first San Remo Grand Prix was a non-championship event, held on July 25, 1937, for 1500 cc Voiturette class Grand Prix cars and ran counter clockwise on a 1.862 km (1.157 m.) street circuit in the town of San Remo, known as the San Remo Circuit (Circuito di San Remo, official name: Circuita Stracittadino di San Remo)\\nThe race was run in three 25 lap heats, the 2 best of each heat qualifying for the 30 lap (55.860 km.) final, which was won in 34'39\\\" min. by Achille Varzi driving a Maserati 4CM, averaging 96.7 km/h.\",\n \"1909 Milan–San Remo\\nThe third running of the Milan–San Remo cycling classic was held on 4 April 1909. The race was won by Luigi Ganna, the first Italian to win Milan–San Remo. 104 riders started the race; 57 finished.\\nThe success of foreign riders in the two previous editions had made the race gain popularity. For the first time, more than a hundred starters signed up. 104 riders, of which 20 Belgians and French, were at the start in Milan just before six in the morning. It was a cold day and rain had made the unpaved pre-war roads very muddy.\\nLuigi Ganna had broken away on the Passo del Turchino, before half-race, and was subsequently joined and dropped by Emile Georget and Giovanni Cuniolo. In Savona, Georget took a wrong way – he said a clerk signalled him in the wrong direction – and was passed by Ganna who powered on solo to San Remo. At the finish, Ganna, a former bricklayer, was welcomed by an enthousiastic crowd and became the first Italian winner of Milan–San Remo. Georget finished second at 3 minutes, Cuniolo third at 18 minutes. For the first time, the speed average exceeded 30 km/h.\",\n \"Poggio di San Remo\\nThe Poggio di San Remo is a hill in the Italian region Liguria, near San Remo. It is mainly known from cycling, as it is the final climb in the classic Milan–San Remo. The climb is 4 kilometers long with an average gradient of 3.7%. It is often the site of decisive attacks to the win.\",\n \"1927 Milan–San Remo\\nThe 1927 Milan–San Remo was the 20th edition of the Milan–San Remo. The winner was Pietro Chesi (Italy).\\n\",\n \"San Remo 1930 chess tournament\\nSan Remo 1930 was the first international chess tournament held in the famous San Remo casino. Sixteen chess masters from Europe and the Americas, including the World Champion, played a round robin tournament from 16 January to 4 February 1930. The games were played in the casino during the day, and in the evening the playing hall was used for dancing.\\nAlexander Alekhine dominated the field with a score of 14/15, 3½ points ahead of second place Aron Nimzowitsch, and winning the grand prize of 10,000 lire.\\nThe final standings and crosstable:\",\n \"2013 Milan–San Remo\\nThe 2013 Milan–San Remo was the 104th running of the Milan–San Remo single-day cycling race. It was held on 17 March over a shortened distance of 246 km , and was the fourth race of the 2013 UCI World Tour season. For the first time in 31 years, Milan–San Remo was held on a Sunday, after race organisers requested to change and move into line with several of the other Classic races.\\nHeavy snowfall and bad weather forced organisers to shorten the race from 298 km to 246 km eliminating two key climbs – the Passo del Turchino and Le Manie – and arranging a bus transfer, for the race to begin a second time. A few riders elected not to take the restart, including 's Tom Boonen, who protested against the decision to let all riders rejoin the main group, despite several riders having lost contact before the race was neutralised.\\nAfter Boonen's team-mate Sylvain Chavanel and Team Sky rider Ian Stannard had led a reduced peloton over the summit of the final climb, the Poggio di San Remo, a group of six formed on the descent from the Poggio, including pre-race favourites Peter Sagan ( ) and 2008 winner Fabian Cancellara of . The sextet remained together until the finish, where Gerald Ciolek prevailed in the sprint for , ahead of Sagan and Cancellara.\\nAs Milan–San Remo was a UCI World Tour event, all UCI ProTeams were invited automatically and obligated to send a squad. Originally, eighteen ProTeams were invited to the race, with seven other squads given wildcard places, and as such, would have formed the event's 25-team peloton. Originally admitted to the event as a wildcard, Team Katusha subsequently regained their ProTour status after an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport. Each of the 25 teams entered eight riders to the race, making up a starting peloton of 200 riders. Among the peloton was the first black South African rider in the race's history, 's Songezo Jim.\\nThe 25 teams that competed in the race were:\\n\",\n \"San Remo Grand Prix\\nThe Gran Premio Automobilistico di San Remo, commonly known as the San Remo Grand Prix, was a Grand Prix / Formula One and motorcycle race held in the north-western coastal town of San Remo (Italy) from 1937 to 1972. The first Grand Prix was held in 1937 on a street circuit in the town of San Remo, known as the San Remo Circuit (Circuito di San Remo, official name: Circuita Stracittadino di San Remo) and from 1947 to 1972 on the Ospedaletti street circuit.\\nThe motorsport history of San Remo includes the Ralley San Remo dating back to 1929.\",\n \"The San Remo\\nThe San Remo (145 Central Park West) is a luxury, 27-floor, co-operative apartment building in Manhattan located between West 74th Street and West 75th Street, three blocks north of The Dakota. Opened in 1930, the San Remo is described by Glen Justice of the \\\"New York Times\\\" as \\\"a dazzling two-tower building with captivating views of Central Park.\\\" As a housing cooperative, its board has a reputation for \\\"lenient admissions standards\\\" compared to the conservative, old-money boards on the other side of the park.\\nWhen the San Remo was originally designed, it had a wide range of relatively luxurious apartment configurations. The apartments were accessed from opulent twin lobbies which contained terrazzo floors, marble walls and custom light fixtures of bronze and frosted glass. The building has two addresses, 145 and 146 Central Park West, because the building was designed so that each half of the structure is served by separate lobbies, eliminating the need for long hallways across the main floor. There are still some doctor's offices on the first floor, but several of the professional/commercial spaces have recently been sold to tenants who reside in the building for use as office space.\\nThe average apartment contained eight rooms spread over approximately 3000 sqft . Ten and eleven foot ceilings were the norm. As originally designed, the lower 14 floors were typically divided into seven apartments – two on each of the side street wings of the building and three laid out along the front of the building facing Central Park West. There are numerous setbacks built into the far ends of each wing of the building, allowing for terraces for several of the units. The original layout of the Park-facing units was unusual; most full-block buildings on the avenue divided the park frontage into four units, not three. This allowed the San Remo's apartments to have very generous frontage along the park in addition to typically spacious interior layouts.\\nThe largest units on these lower levels are the \\\"C-line\\\" units, which occupy the southeast corner of each floor. The C-line apartments contain 620 sqft living rooms, 300 sqft libraries and 500 sqft dining rooms all facing the park. C-line apartments typically had four bedrooms arranged along the 74th Street (south) side of the building. These units are approximately 4500 sqft in total.\\nAbove the 14th floor, the building began a series of setbacks, which allowed for terraces for the various units from floors 14 through 17. These units were typically larger floor space, with larger rooms, than the units on the lower floors. The building has twin terrazzo and marble lobbies and terracotta embellishments.\\nAt the 18th floor, the building splits into the San Remo's iconic 10-floor towers, which were inspired by the drum of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates and culminating in Renaissance-style Corinthian temples crowned by 22-foot-high copper lanterns. The twin tower design was innovative when first developed, and inspired a number of imitators over the years (including The Majestic, The Century, The Eldorado and—most recently—the Time Warner Center).\\nIn the north tower of the building there is one apartment per floor of approximately 2500 sqft . These are typically two-bedroom units, with all of the public rooms facing the park.\\nThe floors of the south tower are slightly larger, and these apartments as originally designed were all duplexed units. In total, these two-story units were approximately 5800 sqft , rivaling the apartments in the best buildings of Fifth and Park Avenues (e.g., 834 Fifth Avenue), which typically range from 5000 to .\\nThe San Remo's south tower units have their public rooms on the lower level. The public rooms include 800 sqft (36' x 22') living rooms, 290 sqft (14' x 20.5') libraries, and 400 sqft (17' x 24') dining rooms. There are also a breakfast room, kitchen, and several servants’ rooms on this level. A semi-circular staircase leads past windows facing the park to the second level. Upstairs are four bedrooms, including a master suite with a bedroom of 360 sqft , and a large dressing room and bathroom, for a total of over 500 sqft , and additional servants' rooms. A separate back staircase connects the rear portion of the apartments, linking the servants' areas.\\nPast and present residents of the building include such famous personalities as Barry Manilow, Fred Ebb, Stephen Sondheim, Cesar Pelli, Diana Balmori, Tiger Woods, Steven Spielberg, Donna Karan, Tony Randall, Demi Moore, Glenn Close, Dustin Hoffman, Steve Martin, Bruce Willis, Eddie Cantor, Robert Stigwood, Jennifer Rush, Marshall Brickman, Jackie Leo, Don Hewitt, Dodi Fayed, Andrew Tobias, Aaron Spelling, Diane Keaton and Hedy Lamarr. Rita Hayworth spent her last years there, in a unit beside that of her daughter, Princess Yasmin Aga Khan. Steve Jobs bought and renovated a penthouse apartment but never lived in it, ultimately selling it to Bono. In 2007, same-floor residents Bono and Billy Squier went to court over the very sensitive subject of a fireplace. In 1985, Madonna applied to buy an apartment in the building but was infamously rejected by the residents board. On December 23, 2013, philanthropist Robert Wilson committed suicide by jumping from his 16th floor apartment in the South Tower.\\nThe building's architect, Emery Roth, took advantage of new zoning regulations to build the first of New York's twin towered apartment blocks. Each of San Remo's ten-story towers is topped with an English Baroque mansion in the manner of John Vanbrugh and capped with an homage to the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. The Athenian monument was known to Roth from the reproduction that had featured in the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 1893. Roth also designed The Beresford and other landmark apartment houses and office blocks in New York. Construction began in 1929, weeks before the market crash initiated the Great Depression. The San Remo's construction process took approximately two years. In 1940 both buildings were sold, for $25,000 over the existing mortgages.\\nDuring the Great Depression, many of the larger units in the building were subdivided to make them easier to rent. All but one of the south tower two story apartments were divided into single floor units. Many of the larger C-line and E-line (northeast corner) units were also divided into smaller units. As a result, the total number of apartments in the building was expanded by approximately 20 units.\\nThe San Remo is now one of the most desirable and expensive apartment buildings in Manhattan. It converted to a co-op in the 1970s, meaning that tenants in the apartments are actually shareholders in the corporation that owns the building. Owning shares entitles one to reside in a particular unit. Purchasing apartments (shares) in the building is a significant investment.\\nRecent asking prices have ranged from a minimum of $3 million to a high of $75 million. The most desirable apartments (large units with Park views or tower floors) are typically valued at $2,500–$3,500 per square foot. The San Remo has consistently achieved the highest sale prices per unit on Central Park West, and is the top co-op building in terms of price per square foot on the Upper West Side, attaining prices of almost $5,400 per square foot for its penthouse units.\\nMany purchasers over the years have combined their units. Steven Spielberg combined two Park-facing units on the 16th floor into a 6000 sqft unit with terraces. A unit was reportedly sold to professional golfer Tiger Woods for $28 million in April 2008. Dustin Hoffman recently sold his unit.\\nThe 27th floor (top floor) of the north tower has been combined into a portion of the former mechanical space above it, creating a unique two-story unit. In total, the apartment has 3500 sqft of interior space and 1300 sqft of terraces. This unit was purchased by Bono from Steve Jobs for $15 million.\\nDemi Moore owns the last remaining south tower two-story unit, at the very top of this tower. Moore and then-husband Bruce Willis purchased the apartment in 1987 from Robert Stigwood. This unit was combined into a portion of the tower's mechanical and storage space above it (similar to the top floor unit in the north tower), creating a three story unit with over 7000 sqft of interior space, multiple terraces and 360-degree views from all floors. As of May 2015, Moore was trying to sell the unit with an asking price of $75 million. Demi Moore is reported to have finally sold her south tower Penthouse Apartment for $45 Million in May 2017, a $30 million reduction from the original asking price.\",\n \"Ric-Tic Records\\nRic-Tic Records was a <a href=\\\"record%20label\\\">record label</a> set up in the 1960s in <a href=\\\"Detroit\\\">Detroit</a>, <a href=\\\"Michigan\\\">Michigan</a>, United States by <a href=\\\"Joanne%20Bratton\\\">Joanne Bratton</a> and <a href=\\\"Ed%20Wingate\\\">Ed Wingate</a>. Twinned with the <a href=\\\"Golden%20World%20Records\\\">Golden World</a> label Ric-Tic featured many <a href=\\\"soul%20music\\\">soul music</a> artists and was seen as an early competitor for fellow Detroit label <a href=\\\"Motown%20Records\\\">Motown</a>. Motown's owner, <a href=\\\"Berry%20Gordy\\\">Berry Gordy</a> was unhappy with the success of Ric-Tic and in 1968 paid $1 million for the signature of many of the label's artists.\\nThe label was named for the recently deceased son of label executive Bratton and her then husband <a href=\\\"Johnny%20Bratton\\\">Johnny Bratton</a>, the boxer. The boy, named Derek, was known to his family as Ricky, Ric, or Ric-Tic. He died in 1962, aged 11.\\nMany early recordings on the Ric-Tic label by artists such as <a href=\\\"Freddie%20Gorman\\\">Freddie Gorman</a>, <a href=\\\"Edwin%20Starr\\\">Edwin Starr</a>, and <a href=\\\"J.%20J.%20Barnes\\\">J. J. Barnes</a> were re-released in the 1970s by Motown to coincide with the popularity of the <a href=\\\"Northern%20soul\\\">Northern soul</a> music scene in the UK. The group <a href=\\\"The%20Fantastic%20Four%20%28band%29\\\">The Fantastic Four</a> were also signed to the Ric-Tic, and became the label's best-selling act, outselling Edwin Starr in the United States. Much like Starr, they continued to record under Motown when Ric-Tic was absorbed by the record company. The Detroit Emeralds (having just moved to Detroit and added the word \\\"Detroit\\\" to their group name) recorded briefly for Ric-Tic, achieving their first R&B Chart (#22) success with \\\"Show Time\\\", released in 1967. They then joined <a href=\\\"Westbound%20Records\\\">Westbound Records</a> in 1970 (which The Fantastic Four would also do later on).\",\n \"The Funk Brothers\\nThe Funk Brothers were a group of <a href=\\\"Detroit\\\">Detroit</a>-based <a href=\\\"session%20musician\\\">session musician</a>s who performed the backing to most <a href=\\\"Motown\\\">Motown</a> recordings from 1959 until the company moved to <a href=\\\"Los%20Angeles\\\">Los Angeles</a> in 1972.\\nThey are considered one of the most successful groups of studio musicians in music history. The Funk Brothers played on Motown hits such as \\\"<a href=\\\"My%20Girl%20%28The%20Temptations%20song%29\\\">My Girl</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Heard%20It%20Through%20the%20Grapevine\\\">I Heard It Through the Grapevine</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Baby%20Love\\\">Baby Love</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Signed%2C%20Sealed%2C%20Delivered%20I%27m%20Yours\\\">Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Papa%20Was%20a%20Rollin%27%20Stone\\\">Papa Was a Rollin' Stone</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Tears%20of%20a%20Clown\\\">The Tears of a Clown</a>\\\", \\\"<a href=\\\"Ain%27t%20No%20Mountain%20High%20Enough\\\">Ain't No Mountain High Enough</a>\\\", and \\\"<a href=\\\"Heat%20Wave%20%28Martha%20and%20the%20Vandellas%20song%29\\\">Heat Wave</a>\\\".\\nThere have been many articles written that identify members of the Funk Brothers, some of which claim that virtually every musician who ever played on a Motown track was a \\\"Funk Brother\\\". There are 13 Funk Brothers identified in the film \\\"Standing in the Shadows of Motown\\\". The same 13 members were identified by both NARAS for the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and were recognized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The role of the Funk Brothers is described in Paul Justman's 2002 <a href=\\\"documentary%20film\\\">documentary film</a> \\\"<a href=\\\"Standing%20in%20the%20Shadows%20of%20Motown\\\">Standing in the Shadows of Motown</a>\\\", based on <a href=\\\"Allan%20Slutsky\\\">Allan Slutsky</a>'s book of the same name. The opening titles claim that the Funk Brothers have \\\"played on more number-one hits than <a href=\\\"the%20Beatles\\\">the Beatles</a>, <a href=\\\"Elvis%20Presley\\\">Elvis Presley</a>, <a href=\\\"the%20Rolling%20Stones\\\">the Rolling Stones</a> and <a href=\\\"the%20Beach%20Boys\\\">the Beach Boys</a> combined.\\\"\\nEarly members included bandleader <a href=\\\"Joe%20Hunter%20%28musician%29\\\">Joe Hunter</a> and <a href=\\\"Earl%20Van%20Dyke\\\">Earl Van Dyke</a> (<a href=\\\"piano\\\">piano</a> and <a href=\\\"Hammond%20organ\\\">organ</a>); Clarence Isabell (<a href=\\\"double%20bass\\\">double bass</a>); <a href=\\\"James%20Jamerson\\\">James Jamerson</a> (<a href=\\\"bass%20guitar\\\">bass guitar</a> and <a href=\\\"double%20bass\\\">double bass</a>); <a href=\\\"Benny%20Benjamin\\\">Benny \\\"Papa Zita\\\" Benjamin</a> and <a href=\\\"Richard%20%26quot%3BPistol%26quot%3B%20Allen\\\">Richard \\\"Pistol\\\" Allen</a> (<a href=\\\"Drum%20kit\\\">drums</a>); <a href=\\\"Paul%20Riser\\\">Paul Riser</a> (<a href=\\\"trombone\\\">trombone</a>); <a href=\\\"Robert%20White%20%28guitarist%29\\\">Robert White</a>, <a href=\\\"Eddie%20Willis\\\">Eddie Willis</a>, and <a href=\\\"Joe%20Messina\\\">Joe Messina</a> (<a href=\\\"guitar\\\">guitar</a>); <a href=\\\"Jack%20Ashford\\\">Jack Ashford</a> (<a href=\\\"tambourine\\\">tambourine</a>, <a href=\\\"Percussion%20instrument\\\">percussion</a>, <a href=\\\"vibraphone\\\">vibraphone</a>, <a href=\\\"marimba\\\">marimba</a>); <a href=\\\"Jack%20Brokensha\\\">Jack Brokensha</a> (<a href=\\\"vibraphone\\\">vibraphone</a>, <a href=\\\"marimba\\\">marimba</a>); and <a href=\\\"Eddie%20%26quot%3BBongo%26quot%3B%20Brown\\\">Eddie \\\"Bongo\\\" Brown</a> (<a href=\\\"percussion%20instrument\\\">percussion</a>). Hunter left in 1964, replaced on keyboards by <a href=\\\"Johnny%20Griffith%20%28musician%29\\\">Johnny Griffith</a> and as bandleader by Van Dyke. <a href=\\\"Uriel%20Jones\\\">Uriel Jones</a> joined the band as a third drummer. Late-era bassist <a href=\\\"Bob%20Babbitt\\\">Bob Babbitt</a> and guitarist <a href=\\\"Dennis%20Coffey\\\">Dennis Coffey</a> both joined the ensemble in 1967.\\nWhile most of Motown's backing musicians were African American, and many originally from Detroit, the Funk Brothers included white players as well, such as Messina (who was the featured guitarist on <a href=\\\"Soupy%20Sales\\\">Soupy Sales</a>'s nighttime jazz TV show in the 1950s), Brokensha (originally from Australia), Coffey, and Pittsburgh-born Babbitt.\\nUnlike their <a href=\\\"Stax%20Records\\\">Stax Records</a> backing-band contemporaries <a href=\\\"Booker%20T.%20and%20the%20M.G.%27s\\\">Booker T. and the M.G.'s</a> in <a href=\\\"Memphis%2C%20Tennessee\\\">Memphis</a>, until the release of the \\\"<a href=\\\"Standing%20in%20the%20Shadows%20of%20Motown%20%28film%29\\\">Standing in the Shadows of Motown</a>\\\" documentary, the members of the Funk Brothers were not widely known. Studio musicians were not credited by Motown until <a href=\\\"Marvin%20Gaye\\\">Marvin Gaye</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"What%27s%20Going%20On%20%28Marvin%20Gaye%20album%29\\\">What's Going On</a>\\\" in 1971, although Motown released a handful of singles and LPs by Earl Van Dyke. The Funk Brothers shared billing with Van Dyke on some recordings, although they were billed as \\\"Earl Van Dyke & the <a href=\\\"Soul%20music\\\">Soul</a> Brothers\\\", since Motown CEO <a href=\\\"Berry%20Gordy%2C%20Jr.\\\">Berry Gordy, Jr.</a> disliked the word \\\"<a href=\\\"funk\\\">funk</a>\\\".\\nAlternatively, the name \\\"Funk Brothers\\\" could have been given to the band <a href=\\\"ex%20post%20facto\\\">ex post facto</a>; the term \\\"funky\\\" as an adjective came to be associated with uptempo and <a href=\\\"backbeat\\\">backbeat</a>, Southern-styled soul music in the second half of the 1960s; the term \\\"funk\\\" as a noun is typically associated with uptempo soul music from the 1970s onwards. In the \\\"Standing in the Shadows of Motown\\\" documentary, Joe Hunter states that the name \\\"The Funk Brothers\\\" came from Benny Benjamin. Hunter states that Benjamin was leaving the studio (known as the \\\"Snake Pit\\\", due to all the cable runs out of the ceiling) after session work, paused on the stairs, turned and said to his fellow musicians, \\\"You all are the Funk Brothers.\\\" The band was then informally named.\\nThe Funk Brothers often moonlighted for other labels, recording in Detroit and elsewhere, in bids to augment their Motown salaries. It became a worst-kept secret that <a href=\\\"Jackie%20Wilson\\\">Jackie Wilson</a>'s 1967 hit \\\"<a href=\\\"%28Your%20Love%20Keeps%20Lifting%20Me%29%20Higher%20and%20Higher\\\">(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher</a>\\\" did not have a Motown influence quite by accident—the Funk Brothers migrated to do the Wilson session, in an interesting reference to Motown's early history: Berry Gordy, Jr got his first music break by getting Wilson to record some of his songs (most famously \\\"<a href=\\\"Reet%20Petite\\\">Reet Petite</a>\\\") in the 1950s. Various Funk Brothers also appeared on such non-Motown hits as \\\"Cool Jerk\\\" (<a href=\\\"the%20Capitols\\\">the Capitols</a>), \\\"Agent Double-O Soul\\\" (<a href=\\\"Edwin%20Starr\\\">Edwin Starr</a>, before that singer joined Motown itself), \\\"(I Just Wanna) Testify\\\" by <a href=\\\"the%20Parliaments\\\">the Parliaments</a>, \\\"Band Of Gold\\\"\\n(<a href=\\\"Freda%20Payne\\\">Freda Payne</a>), \\\"Give Me Just A Little More Time\\\" (<a href=\\\"Chairmen%20of%20the%20Board%20%28band%29\\\">Chairmen of the Board</a>), and blues giant <a href=\\\"John%20Lee%20Hooker\\\">John Lee Hooker</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"Boom%20Boom%20%28John%20Lee%20Hooker%20song%29\\\">Boom Boom</a>\\\". After he found out about the Edwin Starr session, Gordy fined members of the Funk Brothers band for moonlighting for another label; <a href=\\\"Eddie%20Wingate\\\">Eddie Wingate</a>, owner of the <a href=\\\"Golden%20World\\\">Golden World</a> label, which released Starr's \\\"Agent Double-O Soul\\\", subsequently attended that year's Motown staff Christmas party and personally gave each of the fined session players double the amount of the fine in cash, on the spot. Gordy eventually bought out Wingate's label and his entire artist roster.\\nMotown historians have noted that the Funk Brothers—some of whom had begun their careers as jazzmen and missed that kind of informality—itched to be able to record on their own, but Gordy limited them formally to cutting sides under the name Earl Van Dyke and the Soul Brothers—and mostly limited them to recording new versions (with the familiar arrangements, however) of the Motown repertoire, with Van Dyke, the featured musician, playing electric organ. Some of the Funk Brothers' recordings in that vein—\\\"Soul Stomp,\\\" \\\"Six by Six\\\"—became favourites among Northern soul and \\\"beach music\\\" fans.\\nDuring the mid- to late-1960s, one-fifth of Motown records began utilizing session musicians based in Los Angeles, usually <a href=\\\"cover%20version\\\">covers</a> and tributes of mainstream pop songs and showtunes. By 1970, an increasing number of Motown sessions were in Los Angeles instead of Detroit, notably all <a href=\\\"the%20Jackson%205\\\">the Jackson 5</a>'s hit recordings. Nevertheless, Motown producers such as <a href=\\\"Norman%20Whitfield\\\">Norman Whitfield</a>, <a href=\\\"Frank%20Wilson%20%28musician%29\\\">Frank Wilson</a>, <a href=\\\"Marvin%20Gaye\\\">Marvin Gaye</a>, and <a href=\\\"Smokey%20Robinson\\\">Smokey Robinson</a> steadfastly continued to record in Detroit.\\nThe Funk Brothers were dismissed in 1972, when <a href=\\\"Berry%20Gordy\\\">Berry Gordy</a> moved the entire Motown label to Los Angeles—a development some of the musicians discovered only from a notice on the studio door. A few members, including Jamerson, followed to the West Coast, but found the environment uncomfortable. For many of the L.A. recordings, members of <a href=\\\"the%20Wrecking%20Crew%20%28music%29\\\">the Wrecking Crew</a>—the prominent group of session musicians that included drummer <a href=\\\"Earl%20Palmer\\\">Earl Palmer</a>, bassist <a href=\\\"Carol%20Kaye\\\">Carol Kaye</a>, guitarist <a href=\\\"Tommy%20Tedesco\\\">Tommy Tedesco</a>, and keyboardist <a href=\\\"Larry%20Knechtel\\\">Larry Knechtel</a>—joined the team at Motown.\\nIn February 2004, surviving members of the Funk Brothers were presented the <a href=\\\"Grammy%20Legend%20Award\\\">Grammy Legend Award</a> at the <a href=\\\"46th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards\\\">46th Annual Grammy Awards</a> at the <a href=\\\"Staples%20Center\\\">Staples Center</a> in L.A. In March 2006, some remaining Funk Brothers were invited to perform on Philadelphia writer-producer-singer Phil Hurtt's recording session at Studio A, Dearborn Heights, Detroit, where they contributed their performances to \\\"The Soulful Tale of Two Cities\\\" project. The double-album sleeve notes read: \\\"Motown's legendary Funk Brothers and members of Philadelphia's world renowned <a href=\\\"MFSB\\\">MFSB</a> take you 'back in the day' with an album filled with classic Philly and Motown hits.\\\" <a href=\\\"Bob%20Babbitt\\\">Bob Babbitt</a>, <a href=\\\"Joe%20Hunter%20%28musician%29\\\">Joe Hunter</a>, Uriel Jones, and Eddie Willis performed alongside other notable Detroit session musicians, like Ray Monette, Robert Jones, <a href=\\\"Spider%20Webb%20%28jazz%20drummer%29\\\">Spider Webb</a>, and Treaty Womack. The musicians played on the Philly hits, giving their unique Detroit interpretations of the songs under the leadership of Phil Hurtt, <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Eli\\\">Bobby Eli</a>, Clay McMurray and Lamont Dozier. Many other ex-Motown and Detroit artists performed vocals on the session, including <a href=\\\"the%20Velvelettes\\\">the Velvelettes</a>, <a href=\\\"Carolyn%20Crawford\\\">Carolyn Crawford</a>, <a href=\\\"Lamont%20Dozier\\\">Lamont Dozier</a>, <a href=\\\"Bobby%20Taylor%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Vancouvers\\\">Bobby Taylor</a>, <a href=\\\"Kim%20Weston\\\">Kim Weston</a>, <a href=\\\"Freda%20Payne\\\">Freda Payne</a>, and <a href=\\\"George%20Clinton%20%28musician%29\\\">George Clinton</a>.\\nIn 2008 <a href=\\\"Uriel%20Jones\\\">Uriel Jones</a>, Ray Monette, <a href=\\\"Dennis%20Coffey\\\">Dennis Coffey</a>, Robert Jones and <a href=\\\"Bob%20Babbitt\\\">Bob Babbitt</a> accompanied other notable Detroit session musicians, including Larry Fratangelo, Dennis Sheridan, Edward Gooch, John Trudell, saxophonist <a href=\\\"George%20Benson%20%28saxophonist%29\\\">George Benson</a>, Mark Burger, David Jennings, Spider Webb, and Rob Pipho, on the Carl Dixon Bandtraxs project, which featured a <a href=\\\"Dennis%20Coffey\\\">Dennis Coffey</a>–Carl Dixon production of four new songs. Vocal performances by Spyder Turner, Pree and Gayle Butts provided lead and backing for the session. The session was arranged by ex-Motown arranger <a href=\\\"David%20Van%20De%20Pitte\\\">David J. Van De Pitte</a>. The session was also at Studio A, Dearborn Heights, Detroit, and was the dream of a 19-year-old Dixon, back in 1974, to pay homage to musicians, particularly the Funk Brothers, producers and those who influenced him with their music. It took Dixon almost 33 years to find the musicians and meet some of them on the web site soulfuldetroit.com. It was via this web site that he and <a href=\\\"Dennis%20Coffey\\\">Dennis Coffey</a> hooked up and then eventually collaborated to make the session work.\\nIn 2008 surviving members recorded \\\"Live in Orlando\\\", an album and video.\\nIn 2010, surviving members of the Funk Brothers accompanied <a href=\\\"Phil%20Collins\\\">Phil Collins</a> on his Motown covers album, \\\"<a href=\\\"Going%20Back%20%28album%29\\\">Going Back</a>\\\", and appear in the live \\\"Going Back\\\" concert DVD.\\nThe band used innovative techniques. For example, most Motown records feature two drummers, playing together or overdubbing one another—<a href=\\\"Marvin%20Gaye\\\">Marvin Gaye</a>'s \\\"<a href=\\\"I%20Heard%20It%20Through%20the%20Grapevine\\\">I Heard It Through the Grapevine</a>\\\" used three drummers. A number of songs utilized instrumentation and percussion unusual in soul music. <a href=\\\"The%20Temptations\\\">The Temptations</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"It%27s%20Growing\\\">It's Growing</a>\\\" features Earl Van Dyke playing a <a href=\\\"toy%20piano\\\">toy piano</a> for the song's introduction, <a href=\\\"snow%20chain\\\">snow chain</a>s are used as percussion on <a href=\\\"Martha%20and%20the%20Vandellas\\\">Martha and the Vandellas</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"Nowhere%20to%20Run%20%28song%29\\\">Nowhere to Run</a>\\\", and a custom <a href=\\\"oscillator\\\">oscillator</a> was built to create the synthesizer sounds used to accent several <a href=\\\"Holland-Dozier-Holland\\\">Holland-Dozier-Holland</a> compositions and productions, such as <a href=\\\"Diana%20Ross%20%26amp%3B%20the%20Supremes\\\">Diana Ross & the Supremes</a>' \\\"<a href=\\\"The%20Happening%20%28song%29\\\">The Happening</a>\\\" and \\\"<a href=\\\"Reflections%20%28Supremes%20song%29\\\">Reflections</a>.\\\" A tire iron was used in the Martha & the Vandellas song \\\"<a href=\\\"Dancing%20in%20the%20Street\\\">Dancing in the Street</a>\\\".\\n<a href=\\\"James%20Jamerson\\\">James Jamerson</a>, who began his career playing upright bass, adopted the <a href=\\\"Fender%20Precision%20Bass\\\">Fender Precision Bass</a>, an electric instrument, in 1962, and played both acoustic and electric bass on some Motown recordings. Like such producers as <a href=\\\"Brian%20Wilson\\\">Brian Wilson</a>, <a href=\\\"George%20Martin\\\">George Martin</a>, and <a href=\\\"Phil%20Spector\\\">Phil Spector</a>, it wasn't uncommon for Motown composers or the Funk Brothers musicians to seek unique instrument combinations for certain lines; doubling piano, bass, and vibraphone (such as on some of the <a href=\\\"Four%20Tops\\\">Four Tops</a>'s hits) was practically a Motown trademark, too.\\nThe Funk Brothers have received three <a href=\\\"Grammy\\\">Grammy</a> awards:\\nBassist James Jamerson was inducted into the <a href=\\\"Rock%20and%20Roll%20Hall%20of%20Fame\\\">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a> in 2000, and drummer Benny Benjamin in 2003. In 2003, surviving members were invited to the <a href=\\\"White%20House\\\">White House</a> to meet President <a href=\\\"George%20W.%20Bush\\\">George W. Bush</a>, <a href=\\\"United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20State\\\">Secretary of State</a> <a href=\\\"Colin%20Powell\\\">Colin Powell</a>, and <a href=\\\"United%20States%20National%20Security%20Advisor\\\">National Security Advisor</a> <a href=\\\"Condoleezza%20Rice\\\">Condoleezza Rice</a>, in an event tied to <a href=\\\"Black%20History%20Month\\\">Black History Month</a>.\\nIn 2007, the Funk Brothers were inducted into the <a href=\\\"Musicians%20Hall%20of%20Fame%20and%20Museum\\\">Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum</a> in <a href=\\\"Nashville\\\">Nashville</a>.\\nOn March 21, 2013, the Funk Brothers were honored with a star on the <a href=\\\"Hollywood%20Walk%20of%20Fame\\\">Hollywood Walk of Fame</a>.\\nAs discussed above, the name \\\"The Funk Brothers\\\" was a loosely applied designation. The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences recognizes 13 musicians as official \\\"Funk Brothers\\\", but the name is often casually used as a catch-all designation to cover \\\"any\\\" musician who played on a Motown record. In fact, the \\\"Funk Brothers\\\" name wasn't used until Benny Benjamin referred to his fellow musicians by that name while leaving a studio session in the 1960s.\\nThe following list covers the musicians most frequently used on Motown recordings from 1959 through 1972; it is not an exhaustive list of every musician ever used. The 13 Funk Brothers recognized as official band members by NARAS are marked with an asterisk.\\n\\\"Membership lists based upon research by Allan Slutsky, with some minor corrections.\\\"\\nLos Angeles was an alternate recording center for Motown artists beginning in the mid-1960s, utilizing a different set of musicians. Hit tracks recorded in L.A. include the Miracles' \\\"More Love\\\", many of <a href=\\\"Brenda%20Holloway\\\">Brenda Holloway</a>'s songs, and all the early hits of <a href=\\\"the%20Jackson%205\\\">the Jackson 5</a>.\\nMany of the Los Angeles players were members of <a href=\\\"The%20Wrecking%20Crew%20%28music%29\\\">the Wrecking Crew</a>, a loose-knit group of studio musicians.\",\n \"Milan–San Remo\\nMilan–San Remo (in <a href=\\\"italian%20language\\\">Italian</a> \\\"Milano-Sanremo\\\"), also called \\\"\\\"The Spring classic\\\"\\\" or \\\"\\\"La Classicissima\\\"\\\", is an annual <a href=\\\"cycling\\\">cycling</a> race between <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a> and <a href=\\\"Sanremo\\\">Sanremo</a>, in <a href=\\\"Northwest%20Italy\\\">Northwest Italy</a>. With a distance of 298 km (~185.2 miles) it is the longest professional one-day race in modern cycling. It is the first major <a href=\\\"Classic%20cycle%20races\\\">classic</a> race of the season, usually held on the third Saturday of March. The first edition was held in <a href=\\\"1907%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">1907</a>.\\nToday it is one of the five \\\"<a href=\\\"Classic%20cycle%20races\\\">Monuments</a>\\\" of cycling. It was the opening race of the <a href=\\\"UCI%20Road%20World%20Cup\\\">UCI Road World Cup</a> series until the series was replaced by the <a href=\\\"UCI%20ProTour\\\">UCI ProTour</a> in 2005 and the <a href=\\\"UCI%20World%20Tour\\\">World Tour</a> in 2011. Milan–San Remo and the other four Monuments are now the one-day races in which most World Tour points are awarded (100 pts for the winner).\\nThe most successful rider with seven victories is Belgian <a href=\\\"Eddy%20Merckx\\\">Eddy Merckx</a>. Italian <a href=\\\"Costante%20Girardengo\\\">Costante Girardengo</a> achieved 11 podium finishes in the <a href=\\\"interwar%20period\\\">interwar period</a>, winning the race six times. In recent times, German <a href=\\\"Erik%20Zabel\\\">Erik Zabel</a> and Spaniard <a href=\\\"%C3%93scar%20Freire\\\">Óscar Freire</a> have recorded four and three wins respectively.\\nMilan–San Remo is considered a \\\"<a href=\\\"cycling%20sprinter\\\">sprinters</a> classic\\\" because of its mainly flat course, whereas the other Italian Monument race, the <a href=\\\"Giro%20di%20Lombardia\\\">Giro di Lombardia</a>, held in autumn, is considered a \\\"<a href=\\\"climbing%20specialist\\\">climbers</a> classic\\\".\\nFrom 1999 to 2005, a women's race, the <a href=\\\"Primavera%20Rosa\\\">Primavera Rosa</a>, was organized alongside the men's but at a shorter distance.\\nThe idea of a bike race between <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a> and <a href=\\\"Sanremo\\\">Sanremo</a> originated from the \\\"Unione Sportiva Sanremese\\\". A first amateur race was held on 2 and 3 April 1906 over two stages (Milan-<a href=\\\"Acqui%20Terme\\\">Acqui Terme</a> and Acqui Terme-Sanremo); albeit with little success. Milanese journalist <a href=\\\"Tullo%20Morgagni\\\">Tullo Morgagni</a>, who had launched the <a href=\\\"Giro%20di%20Lombardia\\\">Tour of Lombardy</a> in 1905, put forth the idea of organizing a professional cycling race in a single day over the course. He proposed the project to <a href=\\\"Eugenio%20Costamagna\\\">Eugenio Costamagna</a>, the director of the popular sports newspaper <a href=\\\"Gazzetta%20dello%20Sport\\\">Gazzetta dello Sport</a>, who took on the organization.\\nOn 14 April <a href=\\\"1907%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\\\">1907</a> the first official edition of Milan–San Remo was held: 60 riders registered, but only 33 took the start at 5 a.m. at the Conca Fallata inn of Milan. The inaugural edition was raced under extremely cold circumstances and won by Frenchman <a href=\\\"Lucien%20Petit-Breton\\\">Lucien Petit-Breton</a>, who completed the 286 kilometers (177 miles) with an average speed of 26.206 km/h (16.5 mph). Only 14 riders finished.\\nThe race was a commercial success and attracted some of the best riders of European cycling, prompting the Gazzetta dello Sport to organize a <a href=\\\"1908%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">second edition</a> in 1908, won by Belgium's <a href=\\\"Cyrille%20Van%20Hauwaert\\\">Cyrille Van Hauwaert</a>. The first Italian winner of Milan–San Remo was <a href=\\\"Luigi%20Ganna\\\">Luigi Ganna</a> who won in <a href=\\\"1909%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">1909</a> by an hour over Frenchman <a href=\\\"Emile%20Georget\\\">Emile Georget</a>.\\nIn <a href=\\\"1910%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">1910</a> the \\\"Primavera\\\" gained eternal fame and a place in cycling legend because of the extreme weather conditions. Riders needed to take refuge in the houses along the roads because a severe <a href=\\\"blizzard\\\">snowstorm</a> scourged the peloton. Just 4 out of 63 riders made it to the finish. Frenchman <a href=\\\"Eug%C3%A8ne%20Christophe\\\">Eugène Christophe</a> won, even though he thought he had taken a wrong road and did not realize he was the first to reach Sanremo. Christophe finished the race in 12 hours and 24 minutes, making it the slowest edition ever. <a href=\\\"Giovanni%20Cocchi\\\">Giovanni Cocchi</a> finished second at 1h 17 minutes from the winner.\\nAfter the pioneering days of the race, began the era of <a href=\\\"Costante%20Girardengo\\\">Costante Girardengo</a>, who connected his name indelibly to the classic. From 1917 to 1928 Girardengo had a record 11 podium finishes, six times as winner. Subsequent years were marked by the rivalry between <a href=\\\"Learco%20Guerra\\\">Learco Guerra</a> and <a href=\\\"Alfredo%20Binda\\\">Alfredo Binda</a>, whose <a href=\\\"list%20of%20sports%20rivalries\\\">emulation</a> caused them to lose several certain victories. A similar rivalry was the one in the 1940s with the mythical years of <a href=\\\"Fausto%20Coppi\\\">Fausto Coppi</a> and <a href=\\\"Gino%20Bartali\\\">Gino Bartali</a>, whose duels were the subject of intense coverage and resulted in epic races.\\nMilan–San Remo was at the peak of its popularity and the Italian press started to coin the untranslatable term \\\"La Classicissima\\\", the greatest of all classics. From 1935 to 1953 the race was run every year on <a href=\\\"19%20March\\\">19 March</a>, the feast of <a href=\\\"patron%20saint\\\">patron</a> <a href=\\\"Saint%20Joseph\\\">Saint Joseph</a>, hence the press in predominantly <a href=\\\"catholicism\\\">Catholic</a> Italy gave it its other nickname, \\\"la Gara di San Giuseppe \\\"(\\\"Saint Joseph's Race\\\"). In 1949 the race finished for the first time on the iconic <a href=\\\"Via%20Roma\\\">Via Roma</a>, a busy shopping street in the heart of Sanremo.\\nAs from the 1950s the race was mainly won by <a href=\\\"Belgium\\\">Belgian</a> and <a href=\\\"Spain\\\">Spanish</a> sprinters, and after 1953, Italian riders could not seal a victory for 17 years. In 1960 race director <a href=\\\"Vincenzo%20Torriani\\\">Vincenzo Torriani</a> added the climb of the <a href=\\\"Poggio%20di%20Sanremo\\\">Poggio</a>, just before the arrival in Sanremo. The intent was to make the race finale harder, but the decision did not have the aspired effect and the streak of non-Italian victories continued.\\nIn 1966 began the legendary era of <a href=\\\"Eddy%20Merckx\\\">Eddy Merckx</a>, who achieved a historic and unsurpassed record of seven victories. Seven wins is also the record number of victories by a rider in a single <a href=\\\"Classic%20cycle%20races\\\">classic</a> to date. After the \\\"Cannibal\\\"'s streak no rider could dominate Milan–San Remo again until 1997, when German <a href=\\\"Erik%20Zabel\\\">Erik Zabel</a> began a series of 4 victories and 2 second places.\\nIn 1990 <a href=\\\"Gianni%20Bugno\\\">Gianni Bugno</a> set a race record of 6h 25 m 06 seconds to win by 4 seconds over <a href=\\\"Rolf%20G%C3%B6lz\\\">Rolf Gölz</a>. This was an average of 45.8kmh (28.45 mph). Other memorable editions in the 1990s were the one in 1992, when <a href=\\\"Sean%20Kelly%20%28cyclist%29\\\">Seán Kelly</a> caught up with <a href=\\\"Moreno%20Argentin\\\">Moreno Argentin</a> in the descent of the Poggio and beat the Italian in the sprint; as well as the <a href=\\\"1999%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\\\">1999</a> edition, when <a href=\\\"Andrei%20Tchmil\\\">Andrei Tchmil</a> launched his decisive attack under the one-kilometer banner and narrowly stayed ahead of the peloton, with Zabel winning the sprint for second place.\\nIn <a href=\\\"2004%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\\\">2004</a> Zabel could have won a fifth time, but lost to <a href=\\\"%C3%93scar%20Freire\\\">Óscar Freire</a> only because he lifted his arms to celebrate and stopped pedalling too early. Freire would go on to secure a total of three \\\"Primavera\\\" wins in later years. In <a href=\\\"2008%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\\\">2008</a> the finish was moved to a different location for the first time in 59 years, due to road works on the Via Roma. Swiss <a href=\\\"Fabian%20Cancellara\\\">Fabian Cancellara</a> was the first winner on the Lungomare Italo Calvino, with an ultimate solo attack in the streets of San Remo.\\nIn <a href=\\\"2009%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\\\">2009</a> the 100th edition of Milan–San Remo was held, won by British sprinter <a href=\\\"Mark%20Cavendish\\\">Mark Cavendish</a> on his first attempt. Cavendish beat Australian <a href=\\\"Heinrich%20Haussler\\\">Heinrich Haussler</a> in a 'millimeter sprint'.\\nThe race of <a href=\\\"2013%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">2013</a> was an epic contest. Heavy snowfall and below-zero temperatures forced organizers to shorten the race from 298 kilometres (185.2 miles) to 246 kilometres (152.9 miles) eliminating two key climbs – the <a href=\\\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\\\">Passo del Turchino</a> and Le Manie – and arranging a bus transfer, for the race to begin a second time. The race was won by German <a href=\\\"Gerald%20Ciolek\\\">Gerald Ciolek</a> who outsprinted <a href=\\\"Peter%20Sagan\\\">Peter Sagan</a> and Fabian Cancellara.\\nIn <a href=\\\"2015%20Milan%20-%20San%20Remo\\\">2015</a>, after seven years on the seaside, race director <a href=\\\"Mauro%20Vegni\\\">Mauro Vegni</a> decided to move the finish back to the Via Roma, stating the change would be for 2015 and beyond. German <a href=\\\"John%20Degenkolb\\\">John Degenkolb</a> won the race ahead of previous winner <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Kristoff\\\">Alexander Kristoff</a>.\\nThe <a href=\\\"2016%20Milan-San%20Remo\\\">2016 Milan-San Remo</a> was won by <a href=\\\"FDJ%20%28cycling%20team%29\\\">FDJ</a> sprinter <a href=\\\"Arnaud%20D%C3%A9mare\\\">Arnaud Démare</a> in a mass sprint. One day after the race, both <a href=\\\"Matteo%20Tosatto\\\">Matteo Tosatto</a> ( ) and <a href=\\\"Eros%20Capecchi\\\">Eros Capecchi</a> (<a href=\\\"Astana%20Pro%20Team\\\">Astana</a> ) accused Démare of having used the tow of his teamcar to rejoin the pack after his crash before the Cipressa climb. Démare rebuffed these allegations, saying that the race commissioners were right behind him and would have disqualified him, had he done something illegal. On 8 May 2016, it became public that the Italian Cycling Federation was making inquiries into the accusations about Démare, with Tosatto saying that he had given written testimony to officials about the incident.\\n<a href=\\\"Team%20Sky\\\">Team Sky</a> 's <a href=\\\"Micha%C5%82%20Kwiatkowski\\\">Michał Kwiatkowski</a> won the <a href=\\\"2017%20Milan-San%20Remo\\\">2017 Milan-San Remo</a> in a three-up sprint finish ahead of world champion <a href=\\\"Peter%20Sagan\\\">Peter Sagan</a> (<a href=\\\"Bora%E2%80%93Hansgrohe\\\">Bora–Hansgrohe</a> ) and <a href=\\\"Quick-Step%20Floors\\\">Quick-Step Floors</a> rider <a href=\\\"Julian%20Alaphilippe\\\">Julian Alaphilippe</a> after the trio broke clear on the race's final climb – the <a href=\\\"Poggio%20di%20San%20Remo\\\">Poggio di San Remo</a> – .\\nUpon its inception, Milan–San Remo was conceived as a straightforward line from <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a>, the industrial heart of <a href=\\\"Northern%20Italy\\\">Northern Italy</a>, to <a href=\\\"Sanremo\\\">San Remo</a>, the fashionable seaside resort on the <a href=\\\"Italian%20Riviera\\\">Italian Riviera</a> with its trademark <a href=\\\"Belle%20Epoque\\\">Belle Epoque</a> villas. The race starts on the <a href=\\\"Piazza%20del%20Duomo%2C%20Milan\\\">Piazza del Duomo</a> in the heart of Milan and immediately heads to the southwest, over the plains of <a href=\\\"Lombardy\\\">Lombardy</a> and <a href=\\\"Piedmont\\\">Piedmont</a>, along the cities of <a href=\\\"Pavia\\\">Pavia</a>, <a href=\\\"Voghera\\\">Voghera</a>, <a href=\\\"Tortona\\\">Tortona</a>, <a href=\\\"Novi%20Ligure\\\">Novi Ligure</a> and <a href=\\\"Ovada\\\">Ovada</a>. As the race enters <a href=\\\"Liguria\\\">Liguria</a>, the peloton addresses the <a href=\\\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\\\">Passo del Turchino</a>, the first climb of the day, after 140 km.\\nAfter the descent of the Turchino the race reaches the <a href=\\\"Ligurian%20Sea\\\">Ligurian Sea</a> in <a href=\\\"Voltri\\\">Voltri</a> at halfway point. From here the course follows the <a href=\\\"Strada%20statale%201%20Via%20Aurelia\\\">Aurelia highway</a> to the west, with its spectacular and typical scenery along the Ligurian Coast. The race crosses the towns of <a href=\\\"Arenzano\\\">Arenzano</a>, <a href=\\\"Varazze\\\">Varazze</a>, <a href=\\\"Savona\\\">Savona</a>, <a href=\\\"Finale%20Ligure\\\">Finale Ligure</a>, <a href=\\\"Pietra%20Ligure\\\">Pietra Ligure</a> and <a href=\\\"Loano\\\">Loano</a>, followed by the seaside resorts along the Riviera dei Fiori (<a href=\\\"Alassio\\\">Alassio</a>, <a href=\\\"Andora\\\">Andora</a>, <a href=\\\"Diano%20Marina\\\">Diano Marina</a> and <a href=\\\"Imperia\\\">Imperia</a>). Between Alassio and Imperia, three short hills along the coast are included: the Capo Mele, Capo Cervo and Capo Berta. In <a href=\\\"San%20Lorenzo%20al%20Mare\\\">San Lorenzo al Mare</a> the course turns inwards to the <a href=\\\"Cipressa\\\">Cipressa</a>, the next climb, with its top at 22 km from the finish. After the towns of <a href=\\\"Santo%20Stefano%20al%20Mare\\\">Santo Stefano al Mare</a> and <a href=\\\"Arma%20di%20Taggia\\\">Arma di Taggia</a> comes the last and most famous climb, the <a href=\\\"Poggio%20di%20Sanremo\\\">Poggio di Sanremo</a>, in fact a suburb of San Remo, built upon a hill along the sea.\\nFrom the top of the Poggio, 7 km from the finish, the course heads down via a fast and curvy descent towards the center of San Remo where the race traditionally finishes on the Via Roma, the city's illustrious shopping street.\\nBeing the longest professional one-day race, Milan–San Remo is an unusual test of endurance early in the season. It is often won not by the fastest sprinter, but by the strongest and best prepared rider with a strong sprint finish. The Cipressa and Poggio have foiled many sprinters who could not stay with the front group.\\nIn the early years the only significant difficulty was the <a href=\\\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\\\">Passo del Turchino</a>, which was often a pivotal site of the race – but when cycling became more professional, the climb was not demanding enough and too far from the finish to be decisive. In 1960 the <a href=\\\"Poggio%20di%20Sanremo\\\">Poggio</a>, a 4 km climb just a few kilometres before the finish, was introduced. In 1982 the <a href=\\\"Cipressa\\\">Cipressa</a>, near <a href=\\\"Imperia%20%28city%29\\\">Imperia</a> was added. The other hills are the Capo Mele, Capo Cervo and Capo Berta. From 2008 to 2014 the organizers added the climb of <a href=\\\"Le%20Manie\\\">Le Manie</a> as well, between the Turchino and the \\\"Capi\\\". The Turchino and Le Manie are longer climbs, meant to cause a first selection in the peloton, while the Capi, Cipressa and Poggio are rather short, inviting attackers to distance the peloton.\\nIn recent years there has rarely been a big selection in the latter stages of the race. Many sprinters are able to keep up with the main peloton on the climbs, and therefore the race most often ends in a group <a href=\\\"cycling%20sprinter\\\">sprint</a>. Nonetheless, the location of the Poggio close to the finish has often meant that riders' position on top of the Poggio is crucial in order to win the race.\\nDespite its flat course and long finishing straight, sprinters' teams have been foiled from time to time by a determined attack on the last hills. Good examples include <a href=\\\"Laurent%20Jalabert\\\">Laurent Jalabert</a> and <a href=\\\"Maurizio%20Fondriest\\\">Maurizio Fondriest</a> escaping in <a href=\\\"1995%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">1995</a> and staying ahead to the finish. In <a href=\\\"2003%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">2003</a>, <a href=\\\"Paolo%20Bettini\\\">Paolo Bettini</a> attacked with <a href=\\\"Luca%20Paolini\\\">Luca Paolini</a> and <a href=\\\"Mirko%20Celestino\\\">Mirko Celestino</a> to stay ahead. In <a href=\\\"2012%20Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">2012</a> <a href=\\\"Vincenzo%20Nibali\\\">Vincenzo Nibali</a> and <a href=\\\"Fabian%20Cancellara\\\">Fabian Cancellara</a> attacked on the Poggio, followed by Australian <a href=\\\"Simon%20Gerrans\\\">Simon Gerrans</a> who outsprinted them at the finish.\\nMilan–San Remo has had little significant course changes since its first edition, and organizers have made it a matter of honour to stay true to the original intent.\\nThe last change to the course was the inclusion of Le Manie, in 2008. In September 2013, organiser <a href=\\\"RCS%20Sport\\\">RCS Sport</a> announced the race would include the <a href=\\\"Pompeiana\\\">Pompeiana</a> climb between the Cipressa and Poggio. To keep the race at a reasonable distance, it would exclude Le Manie. The Pompeiana, named after the village the road passes, climbs five kilometres with a 13% maximum gradient, and would therefore be the most difficult climb in the race finale.\\nThe proposed route was reversed just weeks before the race in March 2014, when the Pompeiana had been damaged by recent landslides, making it too dangerous for a cycling race to pass. Hence the race was re-routed and made more traditional and sprinter-friendly. This led to a number of sprinters, who had earlier ruled themselves out due to the addition of the extra climb, including <a href=\\\"Mark%20Cavendish\\\">Mark Cavendish</a>, declaring their interest in riding again.\\nIn 2015, the climb of Le Manie was cut from the race, and neither was the Pompeiana included in the trajectory. With this pre-2008 route, race organizers stated they want to respect the race's traditional course.\\n\\\"Riders in italics are still active\\\"\\nFrom 1999 to 2005 seven editions of Milan–San Remo for women were held. The race was organized on the same day and finished in Sanremo shortly before the men, but covered a shorter distance. The start was not in <a href=\\\"Milan\\\">Milan</a>, but in <a href=\\\"Varazze\\\">Varazze</a>, hence it was named <a href=\\\"Primavera%20Rosa\\\">Primavera Rosa</a>. It was part of the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup. The 2006 edition was initially planned but cancelled before the event. Russian <a href=\\\"Zoulfia%20Zabirova\\\">Zoulfia Zabirova</a> was the only rider to win twice.\\nThe Granfondo Milano-Sanremo is an annual <a href=\\\"Bicycle%20touring\\\">bicycle tour</a> event for recreational cyclists over the same course as the professional race from Milan to San Remo. It is one of the oldest \\\"Granfondos\\\" in Italy, founded in 1971 by the \\\"Unione Cicloturistica Sanremo\\\" and popular among cyclotourists from all over the world. It is held every Spring, in recent years in late April.\\nThe race features in the 1980 Italian <a href=\\\"comedy\\\">comedy</a> film <a href=\\\"Fantozzi%20contro%20tutti\\\">Fantozzi contro tutti</a>.\\n\",\n \"Giovanni Cuniolo\\nGiovanni Cuniolo (25 June 1884 – 25 December 1955) was an <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italian</a> professional <a href=\\\"road%20racing%20cyclist\\\">road racing cyclist</a> who was born in <a href=\\\"Tortona\\\">Tortona</a>, <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italy</a>. He won the second ever stage in <a href=\\\"Giro%20d%27Italia\\\">Giro d'Italia</a> history in <a href=\\\"1909%20Giro%20d%27Italia\\\">1909</a>.\",\n \"Passo del Turchino\\nThe Passo del Turchino is a <a href=\\\"mountain%20pass\\\">mountain pass</a> located between the cities of <a href=\\\"Masone\\\">Masone</a> and <a href=\\\"Mele\\\">Mele</a> in the <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italian</a> region <a href=\\\"Liguria\\\">Liguria</a>. It is known for its annual appearance in the <a href=\\\"classic%20cycle%20races\\\">classic</a> one-day cycling race <a href=\\\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">Milan–San Remo</a>, and occasionally in other races.\\nWhile in the early days of Milan–San Remo the Turchino contributed to deciding the winner of the race, it is now not considered selective enough to break up a racing <a href=\\\"peloton\\\">peloton</a>.\\nOn 19 May 1944, fifty-nine civilians were murdered by Germans in a mass execution nearby.\\nThe episode is known as (Turchino massacre). This massacre was perpetrated as a retaliation following an attack from the Italian resistance when 5 German soldiers died.\\nThe climb can be accessed by three roads, with the approach from <a href=\\\"Mele\\\">Mele</a> the most common. Though the climb from this road features some gradients topping 10%, these stretches are very brief and the average gradient is only 4%. The total distance of the climb from this road is 546 metres.\\nStarting from <a href=\\\"Voltri\\\">Voltri</a>, the climb's average gradient is slightly higher at 4.5%, but there are no sections higher than 7%. The 526 metres in this climb are thus realized with a more steady gradient.\\nThe easiest road up the Turchino starts in <a href=\\\"Ovada\\\">Ovada</a>, and only has sections of higher than 4% at the very end of the climb. The average gradient starting from Ovada is only 1.5%, and the climb takes just 373 metres.\\nThe Passo del Turchino has been used in <a href=\\\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">Milan–San Remo</a> every year it has been held except 2001 and 2002. Originally, the climb was quite selective, as for 14 out of the first 39 editions of the race, the man to the top of the Turchino first was the winner of the race. In 1910, there was so much snow on the Turchino that only four of the 63 riders who began the race finished it, and those who finished had to dismount and push their bikes through heavy snowdrifts at the top of the pass in order to get beyond it.\\nIn recent years, the climb has not proven selective. The race almost inevitably ends with a mass sprint or a breakaway, formed after crossing the Turchino, comprising riders that would have otherwise been in the sprint.\\nThe Passo del Turchino has also been used in the <a href=\\\"Giro%20d%27Italia\\\">Giro d'Italia</a>, most recently in 2009, when <a href=\\\"Stefano%20Garzelli\\\">Stefano Garzelli</a> led the peloton over its summit.\\n\",\n \"Classic cycle races\\nThe classic cycle races are the most prestigious one-day professional cycling <a href=\\\"road%20bicycle%20racing\\\">road races</a> in the <a href=\\\"List%20of%20road%20bicycle%20racing%20events\\\">international calendar</a>. All of these events run in western <a href=\\\"Europe\\\">Europe</a>, have been fixtures on the professional calendar for decades and the oldest ones date back to the 19th century. They are normally held at roughly the same time each year. The five most revered races are often described as the 'Monuments'.\\nFor the 2005 to 2007 seasons, the Classics formed part of the <a href=\\\"UCI%20ProTour\\\">UCI ProTour</a> run by the <a href=\\\"Union%20Cycliste%20Internationale\\\">Union Cycliste Internationale</a>. This event series also included various stage races including the <a href=\\\"Tour%20de%20France\\\">Tour de France</a>, <a href=\\\"Giro%20d%27Italia\\\">Giro d'Italia</a>, <a href=\\\"Vuelta%20a%20Espa%C3%B1a\\\">Vuelta a España</a>, <a href=\\\"Paris%E2%80%93Nice\\\">Paris–Nice</a> and the <a href=\\\"Crit%C3%A9rium%20du%20Dauphin%C3%A9\\\">Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré</a>, and various non-Classic one-day events. The ProTour replaced the <a href=\\\"UCI%20Road%20World%20Cup\\\">UCI Road World Cup</a> series which contained only one-day races. Many of the Classics, and all the Grand Tours, were not part of the ProTour for the 2008 season because of disputes between the <a href=\\\"Union%20Cycliste%20Internationale\\\">UCI</a> and the <a href=\\\"Amaury%20Sport%20Organisation\\\">ASO</a>, which organizes the <a href=\\\"Tour%20de%20France\\\">Tour de France</a> and several other major races.\\nAlthough cycling fans and sports media eagerly use the term \\\"classic\\\", there is no clear consensus about what constitutes a classic cycling race. <a href=\\\"Union%20Cycliste%20Internationale\\\">UCI</a>, the international governing body of cycling, has no mention at all of the term in its rulings. This poses problems to define the characteristics of these races and makes it impossible to make precise lists. Several criteria are used to denote the importance of a cycling race: date of creation, historical importance and tradition, commercial importance, location, level of difficulty, level of competition field, etc. However, many of these paradigms tend to shift over time and are often opinions of a personal nature. One of the few objective criteria is the official categorization of races as classified by the UCI, although this is not a defining feature either, as many fans dispute the presence of some of the highest-categorized races and some older races are not included in the <a href=\\\"UCI%20World%20Tour\\\">UCI World Tour</a>.\\nBecause of the growing <a href=\\\"ambiguity\\\">ambiguity</a> and <a href=\\\"inflation\\\">inflation</a> of the term \\\"classic\\\", the much younger term \\\"monument\\\" was introduced in the 21st century to denote the five most revered of the classic cycling races.\\nGiven the lack of a clear definition of classic races, these are professional races \\\"mostly\\\" regarded as classics. It includes some of the one-day events of the <a href=\\\"UCI%20World%20Tour\\\">UCI World Tour</a> and additional races of historical importance.\\nTogether, Milan–San Remo, the <a href=\\\"Cobbled%20classics\\\">Cobbled classics</a> and the <a href=\\\"Ardennes%20classics\\\">Ardennes classics</a> make up the \\\"Spring Classics\\\", all held in March and April.\\nThe summer classics are held from July to September.\\nThe autumn classics are held from September to November.\\nSeason openers are usually not regarded as highly as other classics, but receive a lot of attention because of their position early in the season, typically in February.\\nSome Classics have disappeared, often because of financial problems. These include:\\nThe five Monuments are generally considered to be the oldest, hardest and most prestigious one-day events in cycling. They each have a long history and specific individual characteristics. They are currently the one-day races in which most points can be earned in the <a href=\\\"UCI%20World%20Tour\\\">UCI World Tour</a> (100 pts for the winner).\\nBoth Belgian 'monuments' – The Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège – also have women's events. A women's version of Milan–San Remo, named <a href=\\\"Primavera%20Rosa\\\">Primavera Rosa</a>, was initiated in 1999, but cancelled after 2005.\\nOnly three riders have won all five Monument races during their careers: <a href=\\\"Rik%20Van%20Looy\\\">Rik Van Looy</a>, <a href=\\\"Eddy%20Merckx\\\">Eddy Merckx</a> and <a href=\\\"Roger%20De%20Vlaeminck\\\">Roger De Vlaeminck</a>, all three <a href=\\\"Belgium\\\">Belgians</a>, and only <a href=\\\"Eddy%20Merckx\\\">Eddy Merckx</a> won each of them more than once. Five riders won four of the Monuments. With victories in all the other Monuments, <a href=\\\"Sean%20Kelly%20%28cyclist%29\\\">Sean Kelly</a> almost joined the top group, finishing second in the Tour of Flanders on three occasions (1984, 1986 and 1987). Dutch rider <a href=\\\"Hennie%20Kuiper\\\">Hennie Kuiper</a> won each Monument, except Liège–Bastogne–Liège in which he finished second in 1980. Frenchman <a href=\\\"Louison%20Bobet\\\">Louison Bobet</a>, also won all but Liège–Bastogne–Liège. Belgian rider <a href=\\\"Fred%20De%20Bruyne\\\">Fred De Bruyne</a> also came close, finishing second in the Giro di Lombardia in 1955 and winning the other four races during his career. <a href=\\\"Germain%20Derycke\\\">Germain Derycke</a> also won four races, all except the Giro di Lombardia. Twenty riders have won at least five Monuments in their career.\\nRiders in blue are still active. Number of wins in gold indicates the current record holder(s).\\nOnly <a href=\\\"Eddy%20Merckx\\\">Eddy Merckx</a> has been able to win three 'Monuments' in a single year - and he did it four times:\\n\",\n \"Luigi Ganna\\nLuigi Ganna (1 December 1883 – 2 October 1957) was an <a href=\\\"Italy\\\">Italian</a> professional <a href=\\\"road%20racing%20cyclist\\\">road racing cyclist</a>. He was the overall winner of the first <a href=\\\"Giro%20d%27Italia\\\">Giro d'Italia</a>, held in <a href=\\\"1909%20Giro%20d%27Italia\\\">1909</a>, as well as the first Italian winner of the classic <a href=\\\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">Milan–San Remo</a> earlier that year. Further highlights in his career were his fifth place in the <a href=\\\"1908%20Tour%20de%20France\\\">1908 Tour de France</a> and several podium places in Italian <a href=\\\"classic%20cycle%20races\\\">classic races</a>. In 1908 he set a new <a href=\\\"world%20hour%20record\\\">Italian hour record</a>, which he held for six years.\\nHe was born in <a href=\\\"Induno%20Olona\\\">Induno Olona</a>, near <a href=\\\"Varese\\\">Varese</a>, in <a href=\\\"Lombardy\\\">Lombardy</a>. Before becoming a professional cyclist, he worked as a bricklayer, commuting up to 100 km to work by bike.\\n\",\n \"Pietro Chesi\\nPietro Chesi (24 November 1902 in <a href=\\\"Gambassi%20Terme\\\">Gambassi Terme</a> - 15 August 1944 in <a href=\\\"Florence\\\">Florence</a>) was an Italian cyclist.\\nHe was a professional from 1925 to 1934 and won <a href=\\\"Milan%E2%80%93San%20Remo\\\">Milan–San Remo</a> in 1927 with an attack on the <a href=\\\"Passo%20del%20Turchino\\\">Passo del Turchino</a>. He left the favorite to win, <a href=\\\"Alfred%20Binda\\\">Alfred Binda</a> 9 minutes behind.\\nHe died when he was shot by anti-fascist partisans.\\n\",\n \"Aron Nimzowitsch\\nAron Nimzowitsch (<a href=\\\"Latvian%20language\\\">Latvian</a>: \\\"Ārons Ņimcovičs\\\" , <a href=\\\"Russian%20language\\\">Russian</a>: Аро́н Иса́евич Нимцо́вич , \\\"Aron Isayevich Nimtsovich\\\"; born Aron Niemzowitsch; 7 November 1886 – 16 March 1935) was a <a href=\\\"Russia\\\">Russia</a>n-born, <a href=\\\"Denmark\\\">Danish</a> leading chess master and a very influential chess writer. He was the foremost figure amongst the \\\"<a href=\\\"hypermodernism%20%28chess%29\\\">hypermoderns</a>\\\".\\nBorn in part of the <a href=\\\"Russian%20Empire\\\">Russian Empire</a>, the Jewish German-speaking Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy family, where he learned <a href=\\\"chess\\\">chess</a> from his father, who was a merchant. In 1904, he travelled to Berlin to study <a href=\\\"philosophy\\\">philosophy</a>, but set aside his studies soon and began a career as a professional chess player that same year. He won his first international tournament at Munich 1906. Then, he tied for first with <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Alekhine\\\">Alexander Alekhine</a> at Saint Petersburg 1913/14 (the eighth <a href=\\\"Russian%20Chess%20Championship\\\">All-Russian Masters' Tournament</a>).\\nDuring the 1917 <a href=\\\"Russian%20Revolution%20%281917%29\\\">Russian Revolution</a>, Nimzowitsch was in the <a href=\\\"Baltic%20region\\\">Baltic</a> war zone. He escaped being drafted into one of the armies by feigning madness, insisting that a fly was on his head. He then escaped to Berlin, and gave his first name as Arnold, possibly to avoid anti-Semitic persecution.\\nNimzowitsch eventually moved to <a href=\\\"Copenhagen\\\">Copenhagen</a> in 1922, which coincided with his rise to the world chess elite, where he lived for the rest of his life in one small rented room. In Copenhagen, he twice won the <a href=\\\"Nordic%20Chess%20Championship\\\">Nordic Chess Championship</a>, in 1924 and 1934. He obtained Danish citizenship and lived in Denmark until his death in 1935.\\nThe height of Nimzowitsch's career was the late 1920s and early 1930s. <a href=\\\"Chessmetrics\\\">Chessmetrics</a> places him as the third best player in the world from 1927 to 1931, behind <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Alekhine\\\">Alexander Alekhine</a> and <a href=\\\"Jos%C3%A9%20Capablanca\\\">José Capablanca</a>. His most notable successes were first-place finishes at <a href=\\\"Copenhagen\\\">Copenhagen</a> 1923, <a href=\\\"Marienbad\\\">Marienbad</a> 1925, <a href=\\\"Dresden\\\">Dresden</a> 1926, <a href=\\\"Hanover\\\">Hanover</a> 1926, the <a href=\\\"Carlsbad%201929%20chess%20tournament\\\">Carlsbad 1929 chess tournament</a>, and second place behind Alekhine at the <a href=\\\"San%20Remo%201930%20chess%20tournament\\\">San Remo 1930 chess tournament</a>. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play, though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine, but the match consisted of only two games and took place in 1914, thirteen years before Alekhine became world champion.\\nNimzowitsch never beat Capablanca, but fared better against Alekhine. He even beat Alekhine with the <a href=\\\"White%20and%20Black%20in%20chess\\\">black pieces</a>, in their short 1914 match at <a href=\\\"Saint%20Petersburg\\\">St. Petersburg</a>. One of Nimzowitsch's most famous games is his celebrated <a href=\\\"Immortal%20Zugzwang%20Game\\\">immortal zugzwang game</a> against <a href=\\\"Friedrich%20S%C3%A4misch\\\">Sämisch</a> at <a href=\\\"Copenhagen\\\">Copenhagen</a> 1923. Another game on this theme is his win over Paul Johner at <a href=\\\"Dresden\\\">Dresden</a> 1926. When in form, Nimzowitsch was very dangerous with the black pieces, scoring many fine wins over top players.\\nNimzowitsch is considered one of the most important players and writers in chess history. His works influenced numerous other players, including <a href=\\\"Savielly%20Tartakower\\\">Savielly Tartakower</a>, <a href=\\\"Milan%20Vidmar\\\">Milan Vidmar</a>, <a href=\\\"Richard%20R%C3%A9ti\\\">Richard Réti</a>, <a href=\\\"Akiba%20Rubinstein\\\">Akiba Rubinstein</a>, <a href=\\\"Bent%20Larsen\\\">Bent Larsen</a> and <a href=\\\"Tigran%20Petrosian\\\">Tigran Petrosian</a>, and his influence is still felt today.\\nHe wrote three books on chess strategy: \\\"<a href=\\\"Mein%20System\\\">Mein System</a> (My System)\\\", 1925, \\\"Die Praxis meines Systems (The Practice of My System)\\\", 1929, commonly known as \\\"Chess Praxis\\\", and \\\"Die Blockade\\\" (\\\"The Blockade\\\"), 1925, though much in the latter book is generally held to be a rehash of material already presented in \\\"Mein System\\\". \\\"Mein System\\\" is considered to be one of the most influential chess books of all time. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas, while his second most influential work, \\\"Chess Praxis\\\", elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games accompanied by his idiosyncratic, hyperbolic commentary which is often as entertaining as instructive.\\nNimzowitsch's <a href=\\\"chess%20theory\\\">chess theories</a>, when first propounded, flew in the face of widely held orthodoxies enunciated by the dominant theorist of the era, <a href=\\\"Siegbert%20Tarrasch\\\">Siegbert Tarrasch</a>, and his disciples. Tarrasch's rigid generalizations drew on the earlier work of <a href=\\\"Wilhelm%20Steinitz\\\">Wilhelm Steinitz</a>, and were upheld by Tarrasch's sharp tongue when dismissing the opinions of doubters. While the greatest players of the time, among them <a href=\\\"Alexander%20Alekhine\\\">Alekhine</a>, <a href=\\\"Emanuel%20Lasker\\\">Emanuel Lasker</a> and <a href=\\\"Jos%C3%A9%20Ra%C3%BAl%20Capablanca\\\">Capablanca</a>, clearly did not allow their play to be hobbled by blind adherence to general concepts that the center had to be controlled by <a href=\\\"Pawn%20%28chess%29\\\">pawns</a>, that development had to happen in support of this control, that rooks always belong on open files, that wing openings were unsound—core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy as popularly understood—beginners were taught to think of these generalizations as unalterable principles.\\nNimzowitsch supplemented many of the earlier simplistic assumptions about chess strategy by enunciating in his turn a further number of general concepts of defensive play aimed at achieving one's own goals by preventing realization of the opponent's plans. Notable in his \\\"system\\\" were concepts such as <a href=\\\"Glossary%20of%20chess%23Overprotection\\\">overprotection</a> of pieces and pawns under attack, control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockading of opposing pieces (notably the <a href=\\\"passed%20pawns\\\">passed pawns</a>) and <a href=\\\"prophylaxis%20%28chess%29\\\">prophylaxis</a>. He was also a leading exponent of the <a href=\\\"fianchetto\\\">fianchetto</a> development of <a href=\\\"bishop%20%28chess%29\\\">bishops</a>. Perhaps most importantly, he formulated the terminology still in use for various complex chess strategies. Others had used these ideas in practice, but he was the first to present them systematically as a lexicon of themes accompanied by extensive taxonomical observations.\\n<a href=\\\"Grandmaster%20%28chess%29\\\">Grandmaster</a> (GM) <a href=\\\"Raymond%20Keene\\\">Raymond Keene</a> writes that Nimzowitsch \\\"was one of the world's leading grandmasters for a period extending over a quarter of a century, and for some of that time he was the obvious challenger for the world championship. ... [He was also] a great and profound chess thinker second only to Steinitz, and his works – \\\"Die Blockade\\\", \\\"My System\\\" and \\\"Chess Praxis\\\" – established his reputation as one of the father figures of modern chess.\\\" GM <a href=\\\"Robert%20Byrne%20%28chess%20player%29\\\">Robert Byrne</a> called him \\\"perhaps the most brilliant theoretician and teacher in the history of the game.\\\" GM <a href=\\\"Jan%20Hein%20Donner\\\">Jan Hein Donner</a> called Nimzowitsch \\\"a man who was too much of an artist to be able to prove he was right and who was regarded as something of a madman in his time. He would be understood only long after his death.\\\"\\nMany chess openings and variations are named after Nimzowitsch, the most famous being the <a href=\\\"Nimzo-Indian%20Defence\\\">Nimzo-Indian Defence</a> (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played <a href=\\\"Nimzowitsch%20Defence\\\">Nimzowitsch Defence</a> (1.e4 Nc6). Nimzowitsch biographer GM Raymond Keene and others have referred to 1.Nf3 followed by 2.b3 as the <a href=\\\"Larsen%27s%20Opening\\\">Nimzowitsch–Larsen Attack</a>. Keene wrote a book about the opening with that title. These openings all exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces instead of pawns. He was also vital in the development of two important systems in the <a href=\\\"French%20Defence\\\">French Defence</a>, the (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.e5). He also pioneered two provocative variations of the <a href=\\\"Sicilian%20Defence\\\">Sicilian Defence</a>: the , 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6, which invites 3.e5 Nd5 (similar to <a href=\\\"Alekhine%27s%20Defence\\\">Alekhine's Defence</a>) and 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 d5?! (the latter regarded as dubious today). International Master <a href=\\\"John%20L.%20Watson\\\">John L. Watson</a> has dubbed the line 1.c4 Nf6 2.Nc3 e6 3.Nf3 Bb4 the \\\"Nimzo-English\\\", employing this designation in Chapter 11 of his recent book \\\"Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 3\\\".\\nThere are many entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitsch—some less savory than others. An article by Hans Kmoch and Fred Reinfeld entitled \\\"Unconventional Surrender\\\" on page 55 of the February 1950 Chess Review tells of the \\\"... example of Nimzowitsch, who ... once missed first prize in a tournament in Berlin by losing to Sämisch, and when it became clear he was going to lose the game, Nimzowitsch stood up on the table and shouted, 'Gegen diesen Idioten muss ich verlieren!' ('That I should lose to this idiot!')\\\".\\nNimzowitsch was annoyed by his opponents' smoking. A popular, but probably apocryphal, story is that once when an opponent laid an unlit cigar on the table, he complained to the tournament arbiters, \\\"He is threatening to smoke, and as an old player you must know that the threat is stronger than the execution.\\\"\\nNimzowitsch had lengthy and somewhat bitter dogmatic conflicts with Tarrasch over whose ideas constituted 'proper' chess.\\nNimzowitsch's vanity and faith in his ideas of overprotection provoked <a href=\\\"Hans%20Kmoch\\\">Hans Kmoch</a> to write a parody about him in February 1928 in the \\\"<a href=\\\"Wiener%20Schachzeitung\\\">Wiener Schachzeitung</a>\\\". This consisted of a <a href=\\\"http%3A//www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame%3Fgid%3D1334664%26amp%3Bkpage%3D1\\\">mock game</a> against the fictional player \\\"Systemsson\\\", supposedly played and annotated by Nimzowitsch himself. The annotations gleefully exaggerate the idea of overprotection, as well as asserting the true genius of the wondrous idea. Kmoch was in fact a great admirer of Nimzowitsch, and the subject of the parody himself was amused at the effort.\\nKmoch also wrote an article about his nine years with Nimzowitsch:\\nNimzowitsch's colleague <a href=\\\"Savielly%20Tartakower\\\">Tartakower</a> observed of him, \\\"He pretends to be crazy in order to drive us all crazy.\\\"\\nAlthough he had long suffered from heart trouble, his early death was unexpected; taken ill suddenly at the end of 1934, he lay bedridden for three months before dying of <a href=\\\"pneumonia\\\">pneumonia</a>. He is buried in <a href=\\\"Bispebjerg\\\">Bispebjerg</a> Cemetery in Copenhagen.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_full":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of articles.\n\n\n<articles>\n\n\nBased on the above articles, answer the question below.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n"},"metadata":{"kind":"list like","value":["Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited urban park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013, and one of the most filmed locations in the world.","The San Remo (145 Central Park West) is a luxury, 27-floor, co-operative apartment building in Manhattan located between West 74th Street and West 75th Street, three blocks north of The Dakota. Opened in 1930, the San Remo is described by Glen Justice of the \"New York Times\" as \"a dazzling two-tower building with captivating views of Central Park.\" As a housing cooperative, its board has a reputation for \"lenient admissions standards\" compared to the conservative, old-money boards on the other side of the park."],"string":"[\n \"Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited urban park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013, and one of the most filmed locations in the world.\",\n \"The San Remo (145 Central Park West) is a luxury, 27-floor, co-operative apartment building in Manhattan located between West 74th Street and West 75th Street, three blocks north of The Dakota. Opened in 1930, the San Remo is described by Glen Justice of the \\\"New York Times\\\" as \\\"a dazzling two-tower building with captivating views of Central Park.\\\" As a housing cooperative, its board has a reputation for \\\"lenient admissions standards\\\" compared to the conservative, old-money boards on the other side of the park.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"instruction_proxy":{"kind":"string","value":"You are given a collection of snippets from articles.\n\n\n<snippets>\n\n\nBased on the above content, answer the question below.\n\nPlease reason step by step, and put your final answer without any formatting within \\boxed{}.\n\nQuestion:\n\n<question>\n"}}},{"rowIdx":87,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Guaytán is a significant archaeological site from the Pre-Columbian era, representing the period before which settlers arrived in Central and South America?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"European"},"articles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Chan Chan\nChan Chan, the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America, is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region 5 km west of Trujillo, Peru.\nChan Chan is located in the mouth of the Moche Valley and was the capital of the historical empire of the Chimor from 900 to 1470, when they were defeated and incorporated into the Inca Empire. Chimor, a conquest state, developed from the Chimú culture which established itself along the Peruvian coast around 1400 AD. In the Chimú tongue, Quingnam, Chan Chan means \"Sun Sun;\" it was named for its sunny climate which is cooled year round by a southerly breeze.\nChan Chan is in a particularly arid section of the coastal desert of northern Peru. Due to the lack of rain in this area, the major source of water for Chan Chan is in the form of rivers carrying surface runoff from the Andes. This runoff allows for control of land and water through irrigation systems.\nThe city of Chan Chan spanned 20 km² and had a dense urban center of 6 km² which contained extravagant \"ciudadelas\". \"Ciudadelas\" were large architectural masterpieces which housed plazas, storerooms, and burial platforms for the royals. The splendor of these \"ciudadelas\" suggests their association with the royal class. Housing for the lower classes of Chan Chan's hierarchical society are known as small, irregular agglutinated rooms (SIARs). Because the lower classes were often artisans whose role in the empire was to produce crafts, many of these SIARs were used as workshops.\nThe coordinates chosen at right for the location of Chan Chan were determined using \"Figure 1: Archaeological Zone of Chan Chan\" from Michael West's article, \"Community Settlement Patterns at Chan Chan, Peru\". In this figure, it can be seen that Verlarde, Laberinto, and Bandelier form the northern border of Chan Chan while Uhle, Chaiguac, Tschudi, and Rivero form its southern flanks. The location chosen for the coordinates is in the center of these cities and so represents a central location for the ruins of Chan Chan amidst this archaeological zone.\nThe name is probabilly derived from the Quingnam \"Jiang\" or \"Chang\" which means Sun, from which Chan-Chan would be literally: Sun-Sun. It is hypothesized that its true meaning would be: Great sun, resplendent Sun, splendid sun or refulgent sun (since a typical feature of the Quingnam language is that the reduplication of a word acquires a new meaning). Another theory says that the name would derive from the term: Shian or Sian. The \"Shi\" voice translates as Moon and \"An\" as house, meaning House of the Moon, making known that the Moon was the main deity.\nChan Chan is believed to have been constructed around 850 AD by the Chimú. It was the Chimor empire capital city with an estimated population of 40,000-60,000 people.\nAfter the Inca conquered the Chimú around 1470 AD, Chan Chan fell into decline. In 1535 AD, Francisco Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Trujillo which pushed Chan Chan further into the shadows. While no longer a teeming capital city, Chan Chan was still well known for its great riches and was consequently looted by the Spaniards. An indication of the great Chimú wealth is seen in a sixteenth century list of items looted from a burial tomb in Chan Chan; a treasure equivalent to 80,000 pesos of gold was recovered (nearly $5,000,000 US dollars in gold).\nIn 1969, Michael Moseley and Carol J. Mackey began excavations of Chan Chan; today these excavations continue under the Peruvian Instituto Nacional de Cultura.\nIn 1998, The \"Master Plan for Conservation and Management of the Chan Chan Archeological Complex\" was drawn up by the Freedom National Culture Institute of Peru with contributions from the World Heritage Foundation - WHR, ICCROM, and GCI. The plan was approved by the Peruvian Government.\nOn 28 November 1986, UNESCO designated Chan Chan as a World Heritage Site.\nThe archaeological site covers an area of approximately 20 square kilometers, being considered the largest adobe city on the Americas and the second on the world.\nThe walled compounds (palaces) that make up the metropolis are the following:\nThe walled complex \"Nik An\" is the greatest in illustration of the importance of water, particularly of the sea, and of the cult that surrounded it in the Chimu culture. The high reliefs of the walls represent fish, directed towards the north and the south (what can be interpreted as representation of the two currents that mark the Peruvian coast: that of Humboldt, cold, that comes from the south and the one of El Niño, hot, that comes from the north), waves, rombito (fishing nets), as well as pelicans and anzumitos (mixture of sea lion and otter).\nThis coastal society was governed by the powerful Chimucapac and was united by the force of a social control originated in the necessity of a strict management of the water, as well as by the external threats. The \"Nik An\" complex had a single entrance and high walls up to twelve meters for a better defense, and was wider at its bases (five meters) than at its summits (one meter), in anticipation of possible earthquakes on the seismic coast.\nThe city has ten walled \"ciudadelas\" which housed ceremonial rooms, burial chambers, temples, reservoirs and residences for the Chimú kings. In addition to the \"ciudadelas\", other compounds present in Chan Chan include courts, or \"audencias\", small, irregular agglutinated rooms (SIARs) and mounds called \"huacas\". Evidence for the significance of these structures is seen in many funerary ceramics recovered from Chan Chan. Many images seemingly depict structures very similar to \"audencias\" which indicates the cultural importance of architecture to the Chimú people of Chan Chan. Additionally, it should be noted that the construction of these massive architectural feats indicates that there was a large labor force available at Chan Chan. This further supports evidence for a hierarchical structure of society in Chan Chan as it was likely that the construction of this architecture was done by the working class.\nChan Chan is triangular, surrounded by 50 – walls. There are no enclosures opening north because the north-facing walls have the greatest sun exposure, serving to block wind and absorb sunlight where fog is frequent. The tallest walls shelter against south-westerly winds from the coast. The walls are adobe brick covered with a smooth surface into which intricate designs are carved. The two styles of carving design include a realistic representation of subjects such as birds, fish, and small mammals, as well as a more graphic, stylized representation of the same subjects. The carvings at Chan Chan depict crabs, turtles, and nets for catching sea creatures (such as Spondylus. Chan Chan, unlike most coastal ruins in Peru, is very close to the Pacific Ocean.\nOriginally the city relied on wells that were around 15 meters deep. To increase the farmland surrounding the city, a vast network of canals diverting water from the Moche river were created. Once these canals were in place, the city had the potential to grow exponentially. Many canals to the north were destroyed by a catastrophic flood around 1100 CE, which was the key motivation for the Chimú to refocus their economy to one rooted in foreign resources rather than in subsistence farming.\nThe ancient structures of Chan Chan are threatened by erosion due to changes in weather patterns — heavy rains, flooding, and strong winds. In particular, the city is severely threatened by storms from El Niño, which cause heavy rains and flooding on the Peruvian coast.\n","Cueva Fell\nCueva Fell is a natural cave and archaeological site in southern Patagonia. Cueva Fell is in proximity to the Pali Aike Crater, another significant archaeological site. Cueva Fell combined with the nearby Pali Aike site have been submitted to UNESCO as a possible World Heritage Site.\nFell's Cave was discovered by Junius Bird. It came to his attention because arrow points and flakes were found on the surface. The cave was originally called the Río Chico shelter, but was later renamed by Bird to Fell's Cave in honor of the Fell family who owned the Estancia Brazo Norte, the North Arm Station, where the cave is located. Excavation of the site began in 1936.\nFell's Cave is located in the Río Chico canyon, Chile, near the Straits of Magellan and the Argentine border. This area is known as the \"Southern Patagonian Basalt Plateaus\". Situated on the southeast side of what was once a river bank, it is more accurately described as a rock shelter. It was formed by river water wearing away at the sandstone bank, leaving behind a canopy of lava conglomerate and thus creating a shelter 28 ft deep and 38 ft wide. The erosion formed a smooth floor of hard clay. Remnants of sandstone still clinging to the conglomerate roof eventually fell to the floor, forming an archaeologically sterile layer that separated later human occupation periods.\nJunius Bird labelled the occupational sediment layers of the site from top to bottom, the top layer directly under the surface is I and the oldest, lowest layer is V.\nThe surface material of the site is composed of dirt, rocks, and hard-packed sheep manure. The surface layer ranges from 18 to in thickness.\nThe youngest stratigraphic layer of Fell’s Cave is a dark earth layer, reaching approximately 10 in in thickness. This component dates from around 700 years BP to the present. According to conventional radiocarbon dating, the layer dates to 1265 CE +-90.\nThe division between Layer I and Layer II is relatively indistinguishable as the sediments are of similar dark earth, and also reach about 10 in or more in thickness. This layer dates to around 6,500 years BP.\nThis layer dates to around 8,500 to 6,500 years BP. The earth consistency between Layers II and III marking a notable distinction between the two. Layer III is approximately 12 to thick and consists of compacted dark earth.\nThe thickness of this layer varies from 13 to and consists of firmly packed dark earth. This layer dates from c. 10,000 to 8,500 years BP.\nAfter the earliest layer, Layer V, had accumulated, sandstone slabs fell from the roof of the cave and sealed it off. This layer is 15 to thick.\nA refuse soft clay soil varying in thickness from 3 to composes the oldest occupation level at the site. The site dates from 11,000 +-170 years BP to 10,080 +-160 years BP according to conventional radiocarbon dating.\nBird named the periods from earliest to latest, thus Period I is the oldest and is associated with Layer V, while Period V is the latest and is associated with Layer I.\nThis period (layer I) is typified by a tool assemblage containing small arrow points and various bone tools, as well as such cultural materials as combs and beads. Based on the style of the arrow points, it is likely that this period is associated with the Ona Indians. The faunal assemblage of this period is dominated by guanaco bone fragments.\nPeriod IV is characterized by the presence of stone tools such as stemmed or legged stone points, knives, and small thumb-nail scrapers as well as a bone tool assemblage. Large bolas, various beads and other ornaments are also present. This Period can also be distinguished by the building of structures including extended burials and rock cairns. Again, the faunal assemblage is dominated by guanaco.\nPresent in this layer are bone awls, stone scrapers, and triangular stone points with rounded bases. Also, bolas of notably smaller size than the subsequent later period, period IV. It has been suggested that these small stone bolas may have been used in procurement of birds. Guanaco and fox bone fragments dominate the faunal assemblage.\nThis layers consists mainly of bone points and awls, and stone scrapers. Junius Bird notes in Travels and Archaeology in South Chile that this layer contained significantly more sediment in relation to artifact distribution.\nThe oldest cultural occupation at this site belongs to the Fell’s Tradition. Thus, Fell’s Cave is the type site for the Fell’s Tradition. This tradition is characterized most notably by fishtail points as well as various stone scrapers, choppers, stone discs and bone tools. Several hearths were also excavated from this level which produced three radiocarbon dates between c.11,000 and 10,000 years BP.\nIn the Late Pleistocene, prior to 12,500 years BP, the area surrounding Cueva Fell was dominated by high winds, year-round freezing temperatures, and annual precipitation under 300 mm. This heathland environment was replaced by a treeless, xeric, herbaceous steppe environment through 11,000 years BP, as the freezing temperatures and winds began to abate. This is the climate and terrain that most closely predated the first human inhabitants in the area.\nThe earliest human occupation dates suggested by the finds in Layer V—c. 11,000 to 10,000 years BP correspond to a period of stadial cooling. In what has been described as a possible South American equivalent to the Younger Dryas, the Patagonian region experienced a period of low temperatures and high precipitation as well as advancing glaciers. This was followed in 10,000 to 9,000 years BP by a warming trend. These two thousand years in question marked a fitful end to the last ice age, one marked by high environmental variability. While this produced significant changes in some taxa, humans, at this time, were already becoming adept at adjusting to new environments and appear not to have been deleteriously affected by the changeable and unpredictable climate.\nAs the Holocene warming trend persisted, so the environment of southern Patagonia continued to change. The archaeology of Fell’s Cave provides evidence for the regular occurrence of summer droughts in the area—droughts that, combined with increasing summer storm activity, may have led to wildfires. The decrease in water availability combined with the evident (through pollen analysis) dramatic change in grazing flora species, are proposed as contributing factors to the evident faunal extinction.\nThe period of 9,000 to 6,000 years BP saw less remarkable shifts in climate, with a general trend away from xeric taxa and, it is then presumed, an increase in precipitation. There is insufficient radiocarbon control at the site to determine local climate conditions post-6,000 years BP, however regional ecology suggests a slight shift towards more aridity.\nToday Cueva Fell joins most of southern Argentina in what is known as the Fuego-Patagonia steppe environment. The area receives less than 400 mm annual precipitation (typical for the Patagonia region but much drier than neighbouring coastal or mountain terrains) and is dominated by bunch grasses from the genera \"Festuca\" and \"Stipa\", along with a variety of herbaceous vegetation.\nCueva Fell is notable for the range of now-extinct faunal finds excavated from within it. Notable among these are the giant sloth and the horse. The horse was to become extinct and absent in the Americas through most of the Holocene until it was imported by Europeans. In fact the evidence of the ancient horse Cueva Fell was the first proof that horses occupied the Americas before being reintroduced from the Old World. The stratified remains of both human and animals provides evidence that human occupation of the area actually preceded the extinction of both the native horse (\"Parahipparium saldasi\") and the ground sloth. This same evidence suggested that ancient horse was hunted and eaten. However humans weren’t the sole predators in the area. Bone remains of the horse, llama and ground sloth all display puncture marks, most likely made by the Patagonia panther.\nThe Early Holocene taxa change—the extinction of mostly herbivorous animals in South America—was initially attributed to human over-hunting, as were the megafaunal extinctions in North America. Analysis of pollen extracted from Cueva Fell suggested a substantial reduction in grassland in southern Patagonia in the period just preceding these extinctions, and was an early piece of evidence in the mounting argument against hunting as the primary cause of species collapse. Large quantities of guanaco (lama) were also found in the older depositional layers. Where other large grazing fauna died out in the early Holocene, guanaco appear to have survived as a result of their less specialized plant diet, adapting to the change in vegetation that accompanied the warming Holocene. Guanaco population sizes initially dipped along with other grazing species, but eventually recovered.\nAnalysis of canine remains found in all five human occupation levels of the cave initially suggested they were those of domestic dog (Canis familiaris). This would have been remarkable as the earliest evidence for the domestic dog in the Americas. However subsequent analyses suggest the skull and teeth remains to have been from two wild species: Pseudalopex griseus (South American gray fox) and Canis avus (a small fox or wolf-life canine, particular to South America in the late Pleistocene period). Other faunal bone remains include hawks and falcons.\nThe first excavation of Fell’s cave in 1936 yielded 511 artefacts. These included hafted implements, knives, scrapers, bolas, a couple of circular rubbing stones, and bone tools.\nPerhaps the most significant find in the 1936 excavation was the fishtail projectile point. All of the fishtail points were associated with large mammals including: extinct horses, giant ground sloths, and guanacos. Fifteen fishtail projectile points were recovered from Layer V which is the oldest layer that dates back to 11,000 +-170 and 10,080 +-160 years BP. These fishtail point have been radiocarbon dated to be ca. 11,000 years old.\nDiscoidal stones, referred in the chart as circular rubbing stones, were also found. Bird notes in a 1970 journal article that “stone artefacts shaped by pecking and grinding are so generally absent among Paleo-Indian finds that exceptions are noteworthy”. There were two stones found in Cueva Fell; both of them were clearly associated with animal remains. Both were made from lava. The larger stone has a diameter of about 12.3 cm and weighs about 1.12 kg while the smaller stone is about 8.4 cm in diameter and weighs about 0.5 kg . There was also a substantial amount of scrapers found throughout all the Cueva Fell layers. The bone tools found, according to Bird, were made from sloth bone because there bone used showed no evidence of marrow cavities.\nIn 1969 there was a second dig organized at Cueva Fell but it was focused in a slightly different location of the cave. During this excavation 415 artifacts were found; various points, knives, scrapers, cores, bolas, and bone tools.\nThe colonization of the Americas may be one of the most contentious archaeological debates today. The issue involves a large body of research and numerous theories as to how and when this event began. For decades, the \"Clovis-first model\" trumped all other theories for the Settlement of the Americas. This theory basically holds that the Clovis culture constituted the earliest peoples to arrive in and inhabit North America. Entering the Americas from Asia via the Bering Land Bridge and migrating south through the ice free corridor, the Clovis people populated southern North America. This population spread through Central America and finally South America.\nAt the time the theory was proposed no archaeological evidence had been discovered in the Americas which pre-dated 11,050 to 10,800 years BP, or the onset of the Clovis culture. However, in the last few decades a multitude of sites were found, which at first challenged this theory and now demand a new model to explain the peopling of the Americas. Based on the current understanding of archaeological evidence, it is now widely accepted that a pre-Clovis culture colonized the Americas via a Pacific coastal route sometime between 14,000 and 12,000 years BP.\nSome of the evidence supporting the coastal theory comes from the southern-most portions of South America. Many researchers now agree that occupation of Tierra del Fuego, between 11,000 and 10,500 years ago, simply does not provide enough time for mid-continental migration. A similar argument is made about Monte Verde, which may be the best known and most widely accepted of these sites and which pre-dates Clovis by approximately 1,000 years.\nAlthough site discovery and excavation were not recent, Cueva Fell is representative of occupation of southern South America. The earliest occupation at Cueva Fell, between 11,000 +-170 and 10,080 +-160 years BP, does not pre-date but is coeval with Clovis. Other Late Pleistocene sites in Argentina, such as Cerro Tres Tetas, Cueva Casa del Minero and Piedra Museo are also contemporaneous with Clovis and the early occupation at Fell’s Cave.\nThe common tendency to compare South American and North American prehistory is increasingly becoming outmoded, most notably in regards to early technological adaptations. It has been long believed that the early fluted points of South America represented a diffusion of the fluted North American Clovis points. South American fluted points include the fishtail point represented at Cueva Fell and many other regions, the El Jobo point (Venezuela), and the Paijan point (Peru and Ecuador), all of which dating to Clovis times.\nThe fluted stone tool variants of South America represent regional adaptations to the procurement of Pleistocene megafauna that contrasts with the continent-wide use of Clovis points in North America. Such regional technological adaptations seem to reflect the initial dispersal of small paleoindian groups throughout the vast continent. The fishtail points of Cueva Fell thus represent crucial evidence in the distinction between tool technologies in the southern and northern continents of the Americas.\nFinally, Cueva Fell deserves recognition for representing possibly the earliest occupation of Fuego-Patagonia approximately 11,000 BP. This southern region of South America is symbolic of \"the end of the line\" for the initial colonization of the New World.\nThe early inhabitants of Fuego-Patagonia signify sparse populations spread out over large territories and chances of site discovery in this region are low. Compounding the low likelihood of site discovery in this region is the deeply buried contexts associated with such early occupation and the subsequent increase of various perturbation processes threatening the archaeological integrity. Many of these sites, Cueva Fell included, are rock shelters which have been used as dens by carnivorous fauna over thousands of years, which not only disturb archaeological deposits but add difficulty to recognizing archaeological sites. Low population density combined with these other factors make Junius Bird’s discovery of Cueva Fell in 1936 truly remarkable in and of itself.","Town Creek Indian Mound\nTown Creek Indian Mound (31 MG 2) is a prehistoric Native American archaeological site located near present-day Mount Gilead, Montgomery County, North Carolina, in the United States. The site, whose main features are a platform mound with a surrounding village and wooden defensive palisade, was built by the Pee Dee, a South Appalachian Mississippian culture people (a regional variation of the Mississippian culture) that developed in the region as early as 980 CE. They thrived in the Pee Dee River region of North and South Carolina during the Pre-Columbian era. The Town Creek site was an important ceremonial site occupied from about 1150—1400 CE. It was abandonded for unknown reasons. It is the only ceremonial mound and village center of that culture located within North Carolina.\nThe Pee Dee were part of a larger complex society known for building earthwork mounds for spiritual and political purposes. They participated in a widespread network of trading that stretched from Georgia through South Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and as well as the mountain and Piedmont regions of North Carolina. The Town Creek site is not large by Mississippian standards. The earthwork mound was built over the remains of a rectangular-shaped earth lodge. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark on October 15, 1966 as reference number 66000594.\nThe site is the only national historic landmark in North Carolina that commemorates American Indian culture. It is owned by the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources and is operated by the Division of State Historic Sites. Today the Pee Dee people are based in South Carolina, where the state has recognized four bands and one group.\nThe Pee Dee people built their mound on a low bluff at the confluence of Town Creek and the Little River. The Town Creek site was a major center of Pee Dee habitation, religion and trade. Discussions regarding trade among the local clans were held at Town Creek. Many of the highest-ranking members of the tribe lived, died, and were buried at Town Creek; the elite served both political and religious roles. The site in Montgomery County was the location of important religious ceremonies and tribal feasts.\nThe clans in the surrounding area would gather at Town Creek for periodic gatherings known as \"busks\". During a busk, the temple, homes, and grounds of the village were cleaned and repaired as needed. Debts and grievances were resolved. Ritual purification ceremonies took place at Town Creek Indian Mound. The ceremonies included fasting, bathing, the ingestion of cathartic medicine, and ritual scratching of the skin with the teeth of the garfish. The busk gathering concluded with a celebration known as a \"poskito\", in which the neighboring tribes feasted on new corn. The clans would return to their villages with embers from the sacred fire to stoke their hearths. Scholars believe that the sharing of the fire symbolized unity among the Pee Dee.\nArchaeologic excavation began at Town Creek in 1927 on an amateur basis before professional archaeologists took over in 1937 as a Works Progress Administration (WPA)-funded project during the Great Depression. The scholarly excavations continued regularly until 1987. In the years prior to 1927, local residents had known the site to be a place to collect Indian arrowheads and other relics. With little knowledge of archaeological practices, they likely caused some permanent damage to the site. The amateur group used a scraper pulled by a mule to uncover artifacts, including animal and human bones, and shards of pottery. Today excavations continue on a limited basis.\nDuring the 1930s the land was owned by L. D. Frutchey. He allowed exploratory work to begin in 1937 by a team from the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, funded by the Works Progress Administration of the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration. Frutchey donated the mound and about an acre of surrounding land to the state of North Carolina, and it was called Frutchey State Park for several years. The name was changed to Town Creek in the 1940s, and it has been administered by the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Town Creek was the first state historic site to be developed for interpretation for visitors.\nThe Pee Dee left no written record, meaning that archaeology was vital in uncovering their history. Dr. Joffre Coe of the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill was the lead archaeologist at Town Creek beginning in 1937. Dr. Coe and his team uncovered various artifacts and burial vaults, and also found the remains of the defensive palisade that once surrounded Town Creek Indian Mound. Evidence suggests this palisade was rebuilt at least five times.\nFurther excavations revealed that the mound, which had not been destroyed over the years despite widespread farming in the area, was the site of three separate structures. The earliest structure was a rectangular earth lodge that had collapsed with age. The second structure was built over the fallen lodge; it was a temple. After the temple burned, the Pee Dee built another ceremonial structure on the same spot. This building had an eastward-facing ramp that provided access to the surrounding plaza.\nThe flat, graded plaza in front of the mound served as the site for ceremonies and other public meetings. The archaeologists discovered the remains of several support buildings in the vicinity of the plaza, including a burial and mortuary house. It is believed that the burial house was significant for a specific clan. The mound, burial, mortuary houses and many family homes were surrounded by a protective palisade. The remains of two gates and guard towers have been discovered on the north and south ends of the palisade, with archaeological evidence pointing to the successive construction and destruction of at least five protective walls. This is a pattern seen at other Mississippian sites, such as Cahokia, a major center located in present-day southwestern Illinois near Saint Louis, Missouri.\nA total of 563 burials have been found at Town Creek Indian Mound; they are believed to be Pee Dee people. Many of the burial sites appear to have been fairly simple and common, with the bodies casually placed in the graves. Some were found buried with their bodies fully extended, while others may have been re-buried in a bundle of bones. The remains of young children and infants have been found tightly wrapped in deerskins and placed within large pottery vessels archeologists have called burial urns.\nDr. Coe served as the lead archaeologist for Town Creek Indian Mound for more than 50 years. His extensive work at Town Creek has led to development of deep knowledge about the past of Town Creek. Traditionally, historic excavations had taken place over a much shorter period of time, with the artifacts being removed to a distant research facility. Dr. Coe maintained his center of operations at Town Creek for over 50 years, allowing him to establish a consistent plan of research and study.\nThe state has developed several facilities at Town Creek Indian Mound that are open to the public. It built a reconstructed ceremonial center, restoring the platform mound and reconstructing a temple on it, a minor temple, and the mortuary.\nThe visitor center houses interpretive exhibits, a gift shop, and audiovisual programs. The visitor center, minor temple, and mortuary are handicapped accessible. Several trails and outdoor monuments are located on the property. Fourteen picnic tables are located on the grounds.\nGroup tours are available with advance scheduling. Groups are led through some hands-on activities. Various special events held throughout the year focus on the lifestyle of the Pee Dee. Self-guided tours of the rebuilt structures and mound occur during normal operational hours, and admission to Town Creek Indian Mound is free.\n\n","Guaytán\nGuaytán is an archaeological site of the Maya civilization in the municipality of San Agustín Acasaguastlán, in the department of El Progreso, in Guatemala. It is the most important pre-Columbian archaeological site of the middle drainage of the Motagua River.\nThe site is located south of San Agustín Acasaguastlán, and to the north of the Motagua River, built on both banks of the Lato River. The site was inhabited from the Late Preclassic Period (c. 250 BC – 250 AD) to the Late Classic Period (c. 300 – 900 AD). The city controlled an important source of jadeite.\nThe site is distributed in a number of groups on both sides of the Lato River, but hasn't been completely mapped. The principal groups include the Acropolis, El Castillo, Carrillo, La Escuela, and La Estela.\nGuaytán features an unusual Late to Terminal Classic ballcourt with an attached temple. Fragments of Classic period codices have been recovered from tombs at the site.\nGuaytán features a number of large cists and extensive crypts containing multiple burials. Most were found under the remains of large structures that formed closed plazas. The crypts were built with large slabs of stone to form chambers that measured approximately 2 m high. The largest slabs were set to form vaulted roofs to the chambers. A tomb under Structure 24 features small niches that contained vessels left as funerary offerings. Some of the crypts contained an antechamber used for additional burials.\nTomb 3 has a chamber that measures 1.7 m wide by 2.4 m long, accessed by a 1.3 m long passage with a width of 0.9 m and a height of 1.25 m .\nDuring the Late Preclassic, Guaytán was densely populated, although buildings were generally of perishable materials. At the time, the site had contacts with the Guatemalan Highlands and with the Pacific coastal lowlands. Guaytán was one of two sites (the other being La Vega de Cobán, in Zacapa) that controlled most of the trade passing along the Motagua River. In the Early Classic, the city underwent a population explosion and there was contact with the great metropolis of Teotihuacan, in the distant Valley of Mexico. By the Late Classic, contacts extended to the Petén lowlands, the Yucatán Peninsula, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.\nThe site was first reported in 1926 by archaeologist Gustavo Espinoza, although no serious investigations were undertaken until 1943. Projects to partially map the site were undertaken in 2001 and 2013.","Larson Site\nThe Larson Site is a prehistoric archaeological site in Fulton County, Illinois, near the city of Lewistown. The site was the location of a Mississippian town and was occupied during the 13th and 14th centuries. The town was one of seven major town sites in the central Illinois River valley and served as a social and economic center for surrounding villages and farms. The artifacts uncovered at the site have been well-preserved and include both organic remains and intact homes, providing significant archaeological evidence regarding the Mississippian way of life.\nThe site was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 21, 1978.\n","Ellerbusch Site\nThe Ellerbusch Site (12-W-56) is a small but significant archaeological site in the southwestern part of the U.S. state of Indiana. Unlike many sites created by people of the same culture, it occupies an upland site near a major river floodplain. Its existence appears to have been the result of the coincidence of periods of peace and growth in the related Angel Site, which led some townspeople to leave their homes for new villages that were more convenient for resource gathering. Researched partly because of its small size, Ellerbusch has produced information that greatly increases present awareness of other small sites and of its culture's overall patterns of settlement in the region. Because of its archaeological value, the site was declared a historic site in the late twentieth century.\nThe immediate vicinity is known to be archaeologically rich; although a cursory survey in 1954 failed to find Ellerbusch and revealed nothing in any other part of section 33 of Ohio Township, it revealed four substantial sites in adjacent sections, including a village on the riverbank about 0.5 mi to the southwest of where Ellerbusch was later discovered.\nThe first excavations at the site were undertaken by the Ellerbusch family, who owned the property, working with their neighbors George and Francis Martin of the Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology at Indiana University in Bloomington. The Martins arranged for the aid of an IU graduate student in the early excavations, and with his help they revealed the site of one house, part of another, and a pit with decorated potsherds in the summer of 1957; this initial excavation was published in the following year. Comparatively little was done in 1958 and 1959, and no further work was performed except for a very limited excavation in 1962.\nIn June 1973, IU doctoral student Thomas J. Green began to study the possibility of renewing work at the now-overgrown Ellerbusch Site, funded by the Black Laboratory, which wanted to excavate a small site extensively in order to understand smaller sites' economic activities, the organization of their communities, and the times of year when they were occupied. Moreover, the excavation of a small site was deemed necessary for a broader awareness of typical Mississippian settlement patterns, because scholars' concentration on large sites meant that nothing more than hypotheses could be offered to understand relationships between such centers and the small outlying sites surrounding them. Besides the work done by the owners, Green's reasons for choosing Ellerbusch included its upland location beside a lake, its proximity to Angel, the fact that virtually everything collected from the site was owned by the property owners (thus permitting a unified collection of artifacts, in contrast to the dispersion of artifacts among many collections that is typical of such sites), and the evidence from previous work that the houses had not been rebuilt numerous times as they had at Angel.\nThe initial excavations by the Ellerbusches and Martins revealed 129 sherds — 41 clay-tempered sandy pieces, 61 cord-marked, 18 plain, and 9 small decorated pieces that could not easily be classified — 23 stone tools, most of which were knives, and occasional pieces of mica and cannel coal. Based on the pottery that they found, Frances Martin proposed that the site originated primarily during the Middle Woodland period in an occupation influenced by Hopewellian peoples, and she saw certain elements of the pottery as linking the site to the Swift Creek culture that was based in Georgia.\nGreen's excavation demonstrated that all artifacts not found on the surface were located in the plow zone or in features such as pits. However, excavations through 1977 yielded 3,466 sherds of pottery, including 582 from the Woodland period, and 2,884 shards that were attributable to the Angel Phase; over 98% of them are shell-tempered without decoration. This is comparable to the pottery found at Angel, where less than one percent of the many thousands of pieces of pottery bore ornamental ceramic elements. Conversely, while many of the decorated remnant of Angel sherds bear either a red film or negative painting, the same is true of just six pieces of Ellerbusch pottery. Most sherds found at the site were small; of the 151 pieces of shell-tempered pottery, only 19 were large enough for the excavation team to determine the shape of the pottery from which the sherds came. As a result, the number of pottery objects originally present at the site could not be estimated reliably; most comparable sites yield larger sherds with fewer fractures, although as a high proportion of Ellerbusch sherds were found in or above the plow zone, their small size is comparable to sherds found in the upper levels at Angel, which typically had been broken into smaller pieces by repeated plowing.\nVirtually all of the non-pottery artifacts recovered at Ellerbusch through 1977 were stone tools or pieces thereof; Green reports that 3,907 stone artifacts (out of a total of 7,379 ) were found at the site. Unfortunately, more than five out of every six were recovered by surface collection instead of excavation, demonstrating the substantial amount of damage done by plowing and natural erosion. More than 3,800 of the stone artifacts were chipped stone (either cores or smaller pieces), and three of every four chips were lithic flakes without any sign of modification after creation. Another 124 pieces were projectile points of a wide range of forms, as well as 164 items that appear to be fragments of other points. Other forms of identifiable chipped-stone tools recovered at Ellerbusch include knives, drills, scrapers, one shredder (a tool similar to a scraper, but used for tearing instead of scraping), and numerous flakes with signs of having once been parts of hoes. Ground stone artifacts were observed of types such as pestles, nutting stones, and hammerstones, as well as miscellaneous objects such as pieces of two Woodland gorgets, a single copper bead, and a small pipe of a form frequently found at Angel and similar Mississippian sites.\nAmong the portions of the site excavated in 1973 was the house that the Ellerbusches had revealed. The superimposition of certain features demonstrated that two houses had occupied the site, with one seemingly having been built immediately after the other's destruction; both were approximately the same size (22 by by 19 ft ) and were oriented in the same direction. Both houses appear to have relied on the structural support of vertical posts and supports located in wall trenches; only one pit (which appears to have been a hearth) was found in a house at the site. Another house site excavated in 1973 had been the site of three or four different houses in turn; besides its own postholes, the second house site is associated with ten nearby pits and a pile of stone chips of a type of chert comparable to what is commonly found in Harrison County to the east. Rather than being identical in form, the houses were either of two or three different types, and because no useful distinction between house types appears to have existed, it seems that the different types of houses were constructed at different times. Partial remains of other structures, including two other houses, remained at the site, but plowing had greatly reduced the amount of area with surviving features from these structures. All of the houses were generally rectangular in shape, with the sides being built first and the corners either being filled in later without support posts or left open as doorways; none of the sides of any of the houses showed openings that were likely to have been doorways. The presence of houses is the primary basis for Green's argument that Ellerbusch was a farming hamlet instead of a processing center for hunters: stone tools found at the site could have been used for animal processing, but the construction of houses at a site just a few miles away from Angel would have represented wasted effort for wide-roaming hunters but a worthwhile investment of time for sedentary farmers.\nA group of small pits was found at the site; while they could have been used for storage, these pits' small size likely precludes any purpose for them aside from refuse holes. Unusually for a Mississippian site, the houses appear to have been built simply on the surface of the ground; Ellerbusch shows no evidence of the common Mississippian practice of building houses on a specially prepared floor below the surface of the ground. The usefulness of the site for research purposes was hindered by a combination of two factors: because the site sits atop a hill, erosion from rainwater and modern plowing had destroyed most of its context by mixing artifacts from different periods, and because the soil was strongly acidic, one bone was the only significant survivor of all animal materials that had once been located at the site.\nEllerbusch's location near the Ohio River is typical of Angel Phase communities, which commonly occupied terraces above the floodplain of the Ohio or of other rivers. The inhabitants appear to have favored floodplains partly because of their productivity: uplands are more susceptible to erosion and tend to dry out more rapidly, and without the use of crop rotation or modern fertilizers, upland fields would be depleted in just a few growing seasons. Moreover, people of the Angel Phase typically used wood as fuel, and residents of a floodplain can find wood more easily than upland peoples by utilizing driftwood. Furthermore, riverside villagers have easier access to water for drinking and washing, and they could supplement their diet by fishing and hunting animals that came to drink at the river, rather than depending solely on the chase. While the Angel Site was the premier settlement of the region, hamlets such as Ellerbusch were established for the sake of efficiency: had everyone lived at Angel, the time spent each day walking to distant fields would have been excessive, but by establishing villages amidst the fields, the people were able to use their time far more efficiently. Moreover, the upland area immediately surrounding the site was suitable for short-term cultivation, as Alford loess soil is easily cultivated and can be as fertile as floodplains. It seems that warfare was the only restraint on the further spread of Ellerbusch-type sites to a greater distance — because they were frequently in conflict with other peoples, the Angel Phase population needed to be able to take refuge at the stockaded Angel Site instead of remaining at defenseless small villages. Consequently, Ellerbusch and related sites were more intensively occupied during what appear to have been periods of peace. While excavations at Ellerbusch could not be used to provide a conclusive interpretation of certain features at Angel, they permitted a better understanding of yet smaller sites.\nTwo radiocarbon dates were realized for the site, placing the Mississippian occupation at points between AD 200-320 and 990-1110. While Green stated that the first was plainly an error, the second he saw as disputable: it seemed somewhat early but was comparable to other early Mississippian sites in the region. Later authors, including Green himself, have seen the third-century result as evidence for a Woodland period occupation of the site, rather than as an erroneous reading.\nGreen calls Ellerbusch a hamlet, a classification that he assigns to Angel sites with:\nHaving defined Ellerbusch as a hamlet, he determined its population and used the resulting figure as his basis for estimating the population of other hamlets. Previous studies proposed that households at the culture's sites averaged five members, and evidence at Ellerbusch suggests that only two or three of its four houses were used at any given time. Because such a figure yields ten or fifteen residents in the site's ½-acre area, slightly larger populations have been proposed for hamlets with twice the area. Likewise, a hamlet's lack of extensive occupation (resulting in little cultural material on the surface) was defined from the small influence that its residents exercised on the surrounding terrain. Out of sixty-eight Angel Phase sites that were known in 1977, Green classified six as hamlets.\nIn early 1991, the Ellerbusch Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of its significance as an important archaeological site. It is one of three Warrick County archaeological sites on the Register, along with a small part of the Angel Site and the entirety of the Yankeetown Site, located along the Ohio River to the southeast.","Jumeirah Archaeological Site\nThe Jumeirah Archaeological Site dates back to the Abbasid period, between the 9th and 11th century A.D, today owned and managed by Dubai Culture & Arts Authority. It was first excavated in 1969 with different ancient items including architectural and decorative findings, ranging from a mosque, caravanserai, and residential houses to glazed pottery jars and plate ware, bronze coins, glass and stone artifacts.This affluent suburb to the south of Dubai city is the location of an important archaeological site dating to the early Islamic period. Large houses built of beach rock (farush) covered with lime plaster have been excavated at Jumeirah by a team from the Dubai Museum. Based on a study of the pottery found at the site, Jumeirah seems to date to the first two or three centuries of the Islamic era. Thus, it is in part contemporary with the sequence at Kush in northern Ras al-Khaimah, and with Jazirat al-Hulaylah. Jumeirah is, however, the only complete settlement with well-preserved architecture yet excavated from this important period. A selection of the finds from Jumeirah can be seen in the Dubai Museum.This is one of the most significant archaeological sites in the UAE, but there’s so little left to see that it’s really only of interest to folks with more than a passing interest in the remote past. With origins in the 6th century AD, the settlement was once a caravan stop on a route linking Iraq and Oman and is interesting in that it spans the pre-Islamic and Islamic eras. Pottery, tools, coins and other items unearthed here are displayed at Dubai Museum and the Heritage Village .The ancient trade route between Iraq and Northern Oman, Jumeirah was a station for camels and horses along with these routes. Rich population are found at the suburban region south of Dubai. Old archaeological remains from 7th to 15th century A.D. where found during the mining in 1968. These remains where found out to be the existence of houses, stores and souks. Among these houses one was found to be the Palace of one ruler of that period in this region. The modern Islamic civilizations during this period are Kush in northern Ras Al-Khaimah, and Jazirat al-Hulaylah.\nMetal armoury, domestic equipment in stone, remains of dwellings, beach rock farush and lime plaster all these materials are used to build the houses, other things are hunting tools, coins, pottery and other household remains. All these were sent to Dubai Museum and Heritage and Diving Village, Shindagha so that tourists can have a look at these ancient and historic things.\nJumeirah Archaeological site reflects a picture of existence of Islamic era. Apart from gaining information about the culture and civilization of Dubai this site also amuses many of the researchers, archaeologists and international tourists which make this site a point of entertainment.\nThis Jumeirah Archaeological site is generally not opened for public due to protect these important reserves of archaeological knowledge. Dubai museum will grant on special request to visit the site if you are a tourists or even if you are an archaeology student.\nHISTORY\nIn the 6th century AD this was a caravan station along a trade route linking Iraq to northern Oman. Today, Jumeirah Archaeological Site is the largest and most important archaeological site in the United Arab Emirates, attracting a large number of visitors each year.\nJumeirah Archaeological Site is not just a touristic attraction. Archaeologists, researchers and historians from all over the world come here to study the digs and the artifacts from the 7th to 15th centuries AD discovered on site. Tourists must obtain a special permit from Dubai Museum to visit the digs.This site is one of the top Archaeological Sites for archaeologists, researchers and historians from across the world.\nRead more: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/united-arab-emirates/dubai/sights/historic/jumeirah-archaeological-site#ixzz3jkNzbypP","Ashworth Archaeological Site\nThe Ashworth Archaeological Site is a significant archaeological site in the extreme southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Indiana. Located near the confluence of the Ohio and Wabash Rivers, it lies near several similar archaeological sites. It was first examined by archaeologists in the middle of the twentieth century and found to be the site of a relatively recent Native American village, and it has been designated a historic site because of its archaeological value.\nThe Ashworth Archaeological Site is located in the southern portion of Section 1, Township 8S, Range 14W, in the northeastern portion of Point Township, the southwesternmost township in Posey County, the southwesternmost county in Indiana. Another archaeological site, designated 12PO11, is located farther south in the same section; both sites are approximately 1 mi north of the northern end of Hovey Lake and an equal distance west of a bend of the Ohio River. It lies in a field on the eastern side of State Road 69 atop a bluff overlooking a slough.\nDue to its location at the southern extremity of the state, Posey County experiences fewer frost days than most of the rest of Indiana. This favorable weather, combined with its place as the first portion of Indiana to be reached by one ascending the Ohio River, caused the land within the boundaries of the modern county to have one of Indiana's heaviest concentrations of Pre-Columbian populations. An archaeological field survey published in 1949 found evidence of fifteen different prehistoric villages in Point Township, which has yielded artifacts as old as a Folsom point, and as recent as the Mississippian period.\nIn 1945, the state legislature voted a substantial appropriation to the Indiana Historical Bureau. As the Corps of Engineers was considering the construction of a massive levee along Posey County's Ohio River shoreline for flood control purposes, Indiana archaeologists feared the destruction of many riverside sites, and the Historical Bureau accordingly funded an extensive field survey that investigated the county from April to December of the following year. Follow-up surveys continued into 1947, and the results were published in 1949.\nIn early 1947, the surveyors visited northeastern Point Township and obtained permission to investigate a field that had a reputation of producing a wide range of archaeological material. Because the owner had just disked the field in preparation for planting corn, many artifacts had recently been brought to the surface and were readily apparent to the surveyors, such as lithic flakes, bits of human bone, and sherds of pottery. By intensively examining the surface of the field, the surveyors collected forty-three pottery sherds (including thirty-six that were shell-tempered), a projectile point, seven scrapers, four other stone tools, and a phalanx bone originating from a bovine species, either \"Bos taurus\" or \"Bison bison\".\nHaving found this significant collection of artifacts, the surveyors sought and obtained the owner's permission to excavate any human burials they discovered. Having found a cluster of three skeletons during one day's research, they covered them as evening approached, planning to remove them and to continue their excavations on the following day. The three bodies were those of a child and two adults (one male and one female); they were found because the adult male's tibia and fibula had been unearthed when the owner had disked his field. They had been buried in a rectangular shallow grave dug into a slope; the bodies' heads pointed at a bearing of approximately 305°. Upon their return, the archaeologists learned that their excavations were completed: overnight, the owner's religious beliefs had led him to conclude that no more excavations should be permitted, so as soon as the surveyors had finished sketching the skeletons, they followed the owner's instructions by reburying them.\nBased on the evidence it uncovered, the 1940s survey concluded that Ashworth was the site of a prehistoric village. The artifacts found during this survey are useful for identifying the people who lived at Ashworth: shell-tempered pottery is a hallmark of the Mississippian culture, and the inhabitants are now believed to have been members of the Caborn-Welborn culture, a Mississippian subgroup. Very similar results were found at the nearby site 12PO11, the other former village site in Section 1; as a result of the sites' similar artifacts and the extremely small distance between them, 12PO11 was thought perhaps to be an outlying portion of Ashworth.\nIn 1985, approximately 50 acre of the Ashworth Archaeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of its archaeological value. It is one of five Posey County archaeological sites on the Register and one of three in Point Township, along with an archaeological district near Hovey Lake and the major Murphy Site very close to the mouth of the Wabash.\n","Yondó\nYondó is a town and municipality in Antioquia Department, Colombia. The first settlers arrived around 10,000 BC; archaeological site. The town was founded in 1941 for lodge the, at that time, discovered Casabe oilfield's workers. The town became a municipality in 1979. It is a Magdalena river port, across a river from Barrancabermeja, where Colombia's oldest and largest oil refinery is located.\nYondó was an oilfield's worker camp built by the Royal Dutch Shell oil company in 1945 in order to house some 2,000 workers and employees. It was built in the usual manner for camps in remote locations: with large comfortable cabins, plenty of potable water, electricity, sewage system, schools, small hospital, radio and telephone communications, etc. These were (and would be today) considered \"luxuries\" and attracted -as many enclave developments in remote areas do- a large number of settlers in the periphery of the oil production facilities. The oil company had acquired rights for a 40 year exploitation of the oil fields, until 1985 but resigned in 1981 under pressure from FARC guerrillas and settlers. The production facilities and camp installations were turned in to the government. This latter were destined to house bona fide and opportunist settlers and thus the new town was \"founded\".\nYondó has sister city relations with:\n","Chimor\nChimor (also Kingdom of Chimor) was the political grouping of the <a href=\"Chim%C3%BA%20culture\">Chimú culture</a> that ruled the northern coast of Peru beginning around 850 and ending around 1470. Chimor was the largest kingdom in the <a href=\"cultural%20periods%20of%20Peru\">Late Intermediate period</a>, encompassing 1000 km of coastline. The greatest surviving ruin of this civilization is the city of <a href=\"Chan%20Chan\">Chan Chan</a> located 4 km northwest of the modern <a href=\"Trujillo%2C%20Peru\">Trujillo, Peru</a>.\nThe Chimú grew out of the remnants of the <a href=\"Moche%20culture\">Moche culture</a>. The first valleys seem to have joined forces willingly, but the <a href=\"Sican%20culture\">Sican culture</a> was acquired through conquest. They also were significantly influenced by the pre-Incan <a href=\"Cajamarca%20culture\">Cajamarca</a> and <a href=\"Wari%20culture\">Wari culture</a>s. According to legend, its capital of Chan Chan was founded by <a href=\"Taycanamo\">Taycanamo</a>, who arrived in the area by sea.\nChimor was the last kingdom that had any chance of stopping the <a href=\"Inca%20Empire\">Inca Empire</a>. But the Inca conquest began in the 1470s by <a href=\"Topa%20Inca%20Yupanqui\">Topa Inca Yupanqui</a>, defeating the emperor and descendant of Tacaynamo, Minchancaman, and was nearly complete when <a href=\"Huayna%20Capac\">Huayna Capac</a> assumed the throne in 1493.\n<a href=\"Chim%C3%BA%20culture%23Ceramics\">Chimú ceramics</a> are usually stained black. It is also known for its exquisite and intricate <a href=\"metalworking\">metalworking</a>, one of the most advanced of the <a href=\"pre-Columbian%20era\">pre-Columbian era</a>.","Quingnam language\nThe Quingnam language is a <a href=\"pre-Columbian\">pre-Columbian</a> language that was spoken by ethnic Chimú, who lived in the former territories of the Mochicas: an area north of the <a href=\"Chicama%20Chao%20River\">Chicama Chao River</a> Valley. At the height of Chimú conquests, the language was spoken extensively from the <a href=\"Jequetepeque%20River\">Jequetepeque River</a> in the north, to the <a href=\"Carabayllo%20River\">Carabayllo</a> (near present-day <a href=\"Lima\">Lima</a>) in the south.\nFishermen along the Chimú coast spoke a language called \"Lengua Pescadora\" (fisherman language) by Spanish missionaries, and disambiguated as Yunga Pescadora by linguists; this may be the same as Quingnam. A letter found during excavations at Magdalena de Cao Viejo in the <a href=\"El%20Brujo\">El Brujo Archaeological Complex</a> includes a list of decimal numerals which may be Quingnam or Pescadora, but they are not <a href=\"Mochica%20language\">Mochica</a>.\nThe Quingnam language became extinct shortly after the arrival of the <a href=\"conquistador\">conquistador</a>s. The core Chimú city, <a href=\"Chan%20Chan\">Chan Chan</a>, was in the vicinity of the new Spanish city of Trujillo and became overwhelmed by it, with people needing to pick up the language of the conquerors for trade and survival.","Surface runoff\nSurface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of <a href=\"water\">water</a> that occurs when excess <a href=\"stormwater\">stormwater</a>, <a href=\"meltwater\">meltwater</a>, or other sources flows over the <a href=\"Earth%23Surface\">Earth's surface</a>. This might occur because <a href=\"soil\">soil</a> is <a href=\"Surface%20runoff%23Saturation%20excess%20overland%20flow\">saturated</a> to full capacity, because rain arrives <a href=\"Surface%20runoff%23Infiltration%20excess%20overland%20flow\">more quickly than soil can absorb</a> it, or because <a href=\"wikt%3Aimpervious%23Adjective\">impervious</a> areas (<a href=\"roof\">roof</a>s and <a href=\"Road%20surface\">pavement</a>) send their runoff to surrounding soil that cannot absorb all of it. Surface runoff is a major component of the <a href=\"water%20cycle\">water cycle</a>. It is the primary agent in <a href=\"Soil%20erosion%23Rainfall%20and%20runoff\">soil erosion by water</a>.\nRunoff that occurs on the ground surface before reaching a <a href=\"Channel%20%28geography%29\">channel</a> is also called a <a href=\"Nonpoint%20source%20pollution\">nonpoint source</a>. If a nonpoint source contains man-made contaminants, or natural forms of pollution (such as rotting leaves) the runoff is called <a href=\"nonpoint%20source%20pollution\">nonpoint source pollution</a>. A land area which produces runoff that drains to a common point is called a <a href=\"drainage%20basin\">drainage basin</a>. When runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up <a href=\"Soil%20contamination\">soil contaminants</a> including <a href=\"petroleum\">petroleum</a>, <a href=\"pesticide\">pesticide</a>s, or <a href=\"fertilizer\">fertilizer</a>s that become <a href=\"discharge%20%28hydrology%29\">discharge</a> or nonpoint source pollution.\nIn addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface <a href=\"Urban%20runoff\">runoff in urban areas</a> is a primary cause of <a href=\"Flood%23Urban%20flooding\">urban flooding</a> which can result in property damage, damp and mold in <a href=\"basements\">basements</a>, and street flooding.\nSurface runoff can be generated either by rainfall, snowfall or by the melting of snow, or glaciers.\n<a href=\"Snowmelt\">Snow</a> and <a href=\"glacier\">glacier</a> melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically <a href=\"snowmelt\">snowmelt</a> will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. In high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason.\nIn areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. However, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. On the extremely ancient soils of <a href=\"Australia\">Australia</a> and <a href=\"Southern%20Africa\">Southern Africa</a>, <a href=\"proteoid%20root\">proteoid root</a>s with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much rainwater as to prevent runoff even when substantial amounts of rain fall. In these regions, even on less infertile <a href=\"Vertisol\">cracking clay soils</a>, high amounts of rainfall and potential evaporation are needed to generate any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable (usually ephemeral) streams.\nThis occurs when the rate of <a href=\"rainfall\">rainfall</a> on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can <a href=\"infiltration%20%28hydrology%29\">infiltrate</a> the ground, and any depression storage has already been filled. This is called flooding excess overland flow, Hortonian overland flow (after <a href=\"Robert%20E.%20Horton\">Robert E. Horton</a>), or unsaturated overland flow. This more commonly occurs in <a href=\"arid\">arid</a> and <a href=\"semi-arid\">semi-arid</a> regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the <a href=\"soil\">soil</a> <a href=\"infiltration%20capacity\">infiltration capacity</a> is reduced because of surface sealing, or in paved areas. This occurs largely in city areas where pavements prevent water from flooding.\nWhen the <a href=\"soil\">soil</a> is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface runoff. The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. This runoff is called saturation excess overland flow or saturated overland flow.\nSoil retains a degree of moisture after a <a href=\"rainfall\">rainfall</a>. This residual water moisture affects the soil's <a href=\"infiltration%20capacity\">infiltration capacity</a>. During the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. The higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated. Once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs.\nAfter water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate (flow out of the soil) closer to a channel. This is called subsurface return flow or <a href=\"throughflow\">throughflow</a>.\nAs it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may <a href=\"evapotranspiration\">evapotranspire</a>; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may <a href=\"infiltration%20%28hydrology%29\">infiltrate</a> as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a <a href=\"surface%20water\">receiving water</a> body such as a <a href=\"river\">river</a>, <a href=\"lake\">lake</a>, <a href=\"estuary\">estuary</a> or <a href=\"ocean\">ocean</a>.\n<a href=\"Urbanization\">Urbanization</a> increases surface runoff by creating more <a href=\"impervious%20surface\">impervious surface</a>s such as <a href=\"pavement%20%28roads%29\">pavement</a> and buildings that do not allow <a href=\"percolation\">percolation</a> of the water down through the soil to the <a href=\"aquifer\">aquifer</a>. It is instead forced directly into streams or <a href=\"storm%20drain\">storm water runoff drains</a>, where <a href=\"erosion\">erosion</a> and <a href=\"siltation\">siltation</a> can be major problems, even when flooding is not. Increased runoff reduces <a href=\"groundwater\">groundwater</a> recharge, thus lowering the <a href=\"water%20table\">water table</a> and making <a href=\"drought\">drought</a>s worse, especially for farmers and others who depend on the <a href=\"water%20well\">water well</a>s.\nWhen anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to create <a href=\"water%20pollution\">water pollution</a>. This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems.\nA 2008 report by the <a href=\"United%20States%20National%20Research%20Council\">United States National Research Council</a> identified urban stormwater as a leading source of <a href=\"water%20quality\">water quality</a> problems in the U.S.\nAs humans continue to alter the climate through the addition of <a href=\"greenhouse%20gases\">greenhouse gases</a> to the atmosphere, precipitation patterns are expected to change as the atmospheric capacity for water vapor increases. This will have direct consequences on runoff amounts.\nSurface runoff can cause <a href=\"erosion\">erosion</a> of the Earth's surface; <a href=\"sediment\">eroded material</a> may be <a href=\"deposition%20%28geology%29\">deposited</a> a considerable distance away. There are four main types of <a href=\"Erosion%23Rainfall%20and%20runoff\">soil erosion by water</a>: splash erosion, sheet erosion, <a href=\"rill\">rill</a> erosion and <a href=\"gully\">gully</a> erosion. Splash erosion is the result of mechanical collision of raindrops with the soil surface: soil particles which are dislodged by the impact then move with the surface runoff. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of <a href=\"sediment\">sediment</a> by runoff without a well defined channel. Soil surface roughness causes may cause runoff to become concentrated into narrower flow paths: as these incise, the small but well-defined channels which are formed are known as <a href=\"rill\">rill</a>s. These channels can be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as several meters. If runoff continue to incise and enlarge rills, they may eventually grow to become <a href=\"gully\">gullies</a>. Gully erosion can transport large amounts of eroded material in a small time period.\nReduced crop productivity usually results from erosion, and these effects are studied in the field of <a href=\"soil%20conservation\">soil conservation</a>. The soil particles carried in runoff vary in size from about .001 millimeter to 1.0 millimeter in diameter. Larger particles <a href=\"precipitate\">settle</a> over short transport distances, whereas small particles can be carried over long distances suspended in the <a href=\"water%20column\">water column</a>. Erosion of silty soils that contain smaller particles generates <a href=\"turbidity\">turbidity</a> and diminishes light transmission, which disrupts <a href=\"aquatic%20ecosystem\">aquatic ecosystem</a>s.\nEntire sections of countries have been rendered unproductive by erosion. On the high central <a href=\"plateau\">plateau</a> of <a href=\"Madagascar\">Madagascar</a>, approximately ten percent of that country's land area, virtually the entire landscape is devoid of <a href=\"vegetation\">vegetation</a>, with erosive gully furrows typically in excess of 50 meters deep and one kilometer wide. <a href=\"Shifting%20cultivation\">Shifting cultivation</a> is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the <a href=\"slash%20and%20burn\">slash and burn</a> method in some regions of the world. Erosion causes loss of the fertile top soil and reduces its fertility and quality of the agricultural produce.\nModern industrial <a href=\"farming\">farming</a> is another major cause of erosion. In some areas in the American <a href=\"corn%20belt\">corn belt</a>, more than 50 percent of the original <a href=\"topsoil\">topsoil</a> has been carried away within the last 100 years.\nThe principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water, <a href=\"groundwater\">groundwater</a> and <a href=\"soil\">soil</a> through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately these consequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are <a href=\"petroleum\">petroleum</a> substances, <a href=\"herbicide\">herbicide</a>s and <a href=\"fertilizer\">fertilizer</a>s. Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance <a href=\"phytotoxicity\">phytotoxicity</a>. In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to <a href=\"water%20pollution\">water pollution</a>, since the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. When surface waters are used as <a href=\"drinking%20water\">potable water</a> supplies, they can be compromised regarding <a href=\"risk%20assessment\">health risks</a> and drinking water <a href=\"aesthetics\">aesthetics</a> (that is, odor, color and <a href=\"turbidity\">turbidity</a> effects). Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic <a href=\"species\">species</a> that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as <a href=\"fish%20kill\">fish kill</a>s, or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, <a href=\"Egg%20%28biology%29\">egg</a> and <a href=\"larva\">larva</a>e viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity. Some researches show surface runoff of pesticides, such as <a href=\"DDT\">DDT</a>, can alter the gender of fish species genetically, which transforms male into female fish.\nSurface runoff occurring within forests can supply lakes with high loads of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus leading to <a href=\"eutrophication\">eutrophication</a>. Runoff waters within <a href=\"Temperate%20coniferous%20forest\">coniferous forests</a> are also enriched with <a href=\"humic%20acid\">humic acid</a>s and can lead to <a href=\"Humus\">humification</a> of water bodies Additionally, high standing and young islands in the tropics and subtropics can undergo high soil erosion rates and also contribute large material fluxes to the coastal ocean. Such land derived runoff of sediment nutrients, carbon, and contaminants can have large impacts on global biogeochemical cycles and marine and coastal ecosystems.\nIn the case of groundwater, the main issue is contamination of drinking water, if the <a href=\"aquifer\">aquifer</a> is abstracted for human use. Regarding <a href=\"soil%20contamination\">soil contamination</a>, runoff waters can have two important pathways of concern. Firstly, runoff water can extract soil contaminants and carry them in the form of water pollution to even more sensitive aquatic habitats. Secondly, runoff can deposit contaminants on pristine soils, creating health or ecological consequences.\nThe other context of agricultural issues involves the transport of agricultural chemicals (nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, herbicides etc.) via surface runoff. This result occurs when chemical use is excessive or poorly timed with respect to high precipitation. The resulting contaminated runoff represents not only a waste of agricultural chemicals, but also an environmental threat to downstream ecosystems.\n<a href=\"Flood\">Flood</a>ing occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of runoff flowing downstream. The frequency with which this occurs is described by a <a href=\"return%20period\">return period</a>. Flooding is a natural process, which maintains ecosystem composition and processes, but it can also be altered by <a href=\"land%20use\">land use</a> changes such as river engineering. Floods can be both beneficial to societies or cause damage. Agriculture along the <a href=\"Nile\">Nile<